The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe VIII: America 9780860542254, 9781407332482

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The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe

VIII. America edited by

Peter Davey

BAR International Series 175

1983

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phi l. D.R. Walker. M.A.·

B.A.R. -S175, _1983: 'The Arc haeology of the Clay Tobac c o Pipe. VIII: America'

©

The Individual Authors, 1983

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542254 paperback ISBN 9781407332482 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542254 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS P age N ineteenth-Century C lay T obacco-Pipes in C anada l ain C . W alker

T obacco-Pipes

f rom F ort W alsh,

M ounted P olice P ost, C .F.

S askatchewan, a

1

N orth-West

1 875-1883

R ichie

89

T he T obacco-Related A rtifact A ssemblage f rom t he M artinez A dobe, M ichael A .

P inole,

P feiffer

C lay T obacco S moking P ipes L .T.

C alifornia 185

f rom t he C aleb P usey H ouse

A lexander

195

M ore L ight o n t he T heory o f D ating C lay P ipes b y M easuring S tem H ole D iameters L .T.

A n A frican P ipe W est

A lexander

235

f rom a S lave C emetery i n B arbados, I ndies

J erome S .

H andler

2 45

S ources o f P ort R oyal P ipes A drian O swald

C lay P ipes

f rom N orth-East

2 55

B razil

U lysses P ernambucano d e M ello

2 59

E ditorial

T he U .S.A .

f irst T his

A merican

v olume w as

s econd e ffort

a nd n orthern C anada.

r anges

r estricted t o

a s

p ipes

f rom

f ar a field a s n orth'east

G iven t his w ide g eographical

t he

B razil

s pread a nd a

s pan

o f t ime f rom t he e arly s eventeenth c entury t o t he l ate n ineteenth, c onnection b etween t he p apers m ay a ppear t o b e r ather t enuous. f act a n umber o f a ddition

t o

a ssemblages l esson o f

t hemes

r ecur.

T he n ineteenth c entury d ominates.

a s ynthesis o f e vidence f rom

t he

S tates a re

t he

e normous

f rom C anada a n umber

a lso

t o E uropean w orkers w ho h ave

p roduction c entres a nd t ypes

s how

a ny I n

i ncluded.

s till

o f p ipes

i mportance o f

t o

T hese

s ort

o ut

f or m ost

o f s erve

a s

t he b are

a nd

a

b ones

i ndustries.

t he G lasgow o utput

I n

u seful

T hey

m ust

s urely

p rovide a s timulus t o a m ore s erious s tudy o f t his p eriod i n B ritain. A s econd, r elated, t heme i s t he i nterpretation o f p ipe a ssemblages f rom t he e xcavation o f h istorically w ell-dated s ites. t ion o f g roups d emonstrate t ively

f rom t he M artinez A dobe,

t he e xtreme c omplexity o f t his

r ecent

s ites.

A t hird t heme

s pecific s tudy b y A lexander, a nd

t he

b ore

p resenta-

s ubject,

d ating.

e ven o n c ompara-

I n a ddition t o

b ore d ates a re r ecorded b y m ost

B razilian p aper a llows

d ating

i s

T he

S an J uan I sland a nd F ort W alsh

t he c omparison o f D utch a nd

s ystems w ith t he h istorical e vidence

f or

t wo

t he

a uthors A merican d ifferent

s eventeenth c entury s ites. D ue a

t o a n umber o f u nresolved d ifficulties t his v olume h as

v ery l ong

s incere

t o g et

a pologies

W alker whose w ould a lso b y

t ime

R on

T he e ditor w ishes

t he a uthors,

e specially

t exts w ere r eady o n t he d eadline

l ike

W hate

t o

a cknowledge,

o f P arks

n umber t o a ppear W ith

t o

t ogether.

i n

v olume

C anada,

i ts p resent e ight

t he

w ith t hanks, a nd

M essrs.

r equested

t aken

t o e xpress i n

h is

H andler

a nd

1 978.

H e

t he g enerous h elp g iven

I an W alker,

w hich

a llowed

t his

f orm. A rchaeology o f t he

C lay T obacco P ipe

s eries i s d rawing t o a n e nd. F ive m ore v olumes a re e nvisaged. T hese w ill d eal w ith Australaisia a nd W est A frica, E urope, S cotland, I reland a nd E ngland.

I n a ddition a n i ndex

f ormidable

a ffair

a ssess t he

s tate

m ay b e

t hat

a n ew

i n

i tself.

J .

D avey

L iverpool O ctober 4 th,

1 983

a nd

o f knowledge a nd t he n eeds o f t he i nternational p ublication m ight

r eaders a nd p ipe r esearchers.

P .

i s p lanned,

i s

l ikely t o b e a

O n c ompletion i t m ay w ell b e s ubject f ind

t o

r e-

a fresh .

t ime

I t

s upport a mongst

L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS P age W alker F ig.

1 .

V arious m arks u sed b y v arious Ford p ipe- ' m aking b usinesses

F ig.

2 .

V arious

b owl

6 5

i n L ondon.

f orms p roduced b y

p ipemaking b usinesses

t he Ford

6 7

i n L ondon.

P late

I

S tem f ragments.

6 9

P late

I I

S tem f ragments.

7 1

I II,

P lates

I V

P late V

S tem f ragment;

c omplete p ipe.

7 3

A lmost-complete

e xample o f M cDougall's

o f

7 5

G lasgow 's W oodstock P ipe. P late V I

I llustration

f rom u ndated c atalogue o f

A merican C lay P ipe Works s howing

t hree

p roduced b y P late V II

s tyles

t hat

75

o f W oodstock p ipe

f irm.

M edium W oodstock b rier p ipe, 2 11

t he

o f N ew Y ork C ity

m odel

n umber

7 5

p roduced b y B righam P ipes L td o f

T oronto. P late V III

S tem f ragment B urns's

P late

I X

a nd

b owl of M cDougall's

S tem f ragments.

P late X

P late X I

7 9

a .-e.:

s tem f ragments.

f .,

t wo p lain m outh p iece

g .:

7 7

C utty P ipe.

81 f ragments.

A m odern p roduct

o f V an d er W ant's

f actory a t G ouda

i n T he N etherlands.

P late X II

A m odern T D p ipe.

P late X III

S tem f ragments

P late X IV

O riginal

P late X V

T hree a mber m outhpieces.

Z enith

83

8 3

a nd

f orm o f

b owls.

T D p ipe

8 5 a nd m ark.

8 7 8 7

R itchie

F ig.

1 .

P lan o f

F ort W alsh,

s tructures,

s howing e xcavated h istoric

m odern R oyal

B uildings a nd c hanges

i n

C anadian M ounted P olice l ayout.

9 2

P age F ig.

2 .

W hite

c lay w hole

D ixon

o f M ontreal

i mpressed F ig.

3 .

o n

4 .

5 .

b ack.

W hite

c lay w hole

b owl

a nd

t ured

b y D ixon o f M ontreal

W hite

c lay

W hite

e lement

6 .

c lay

A rtist's

7 .

A rtist's

8 .

W hite

a round

9 .

W hite

1 17

m anufac-

1 17

r aised

a nd

1 18

D ixon a nd

1 19

s ides.

s ides. D ixon T D p ipe

f rom

1 20

r ecovered. r econstruction o f

D ixon R ibbed p ipe

c lay D ixon T D p ipe b owl

c lay b owl

1 20

r ecovered. a nd

w ith a r aised X o n t he p eg-type F ig.

b y

t he b owl.

s tem f ragment w ith p artial

b ased o n f ragments F ig.

m ade

w ith a g eometric

r econstruction o f

f ragments F ig.

s tem f ragment

s tem f ragment w ith D ixon's

o n o pposite

M ontreal m ark o n t he F ig.

s tem f ragment

b owl

M ontreal F ig.

a nd

w ith a T D d ecorative m otif

t he

r ibbing d esign F ig.

b owl

f ragment

a nd

s tem f ragment

1 20

s pur.

s tem f ragment m anu-

121

f actured b y D ixon o f M ontreal w ith a g eometric d esign e lement. F ig.

1 0.

W hite

c lay w hole b owl

t ured b y L .

F iolet

a nd

s tem f ragment m anufac-

( three v iews

c lose-up v iew d isplaying t he

t o

s cale a nd

122

a

i mpressed m aker's

m ark). F ig.

1. 1

C urved o r b ent w hite c lay m outhpiece a ttributed

F ig.

1 2.

R econstruction o f

L .

b ased o n f ragments F ig.

1 3.

W hite b ase.

1 4.

F ig.

1 5.

W hite c lay t his

1 23

s tem p ipe,

s tem f ragment w ith a b eaver o n

t he p ipe w ould

( possibly L .

s uggest 1 24

s tem f ragment.

s tem f ragment m arked M cDougall P ronounced

t eethmarks

1 24

t he

F iolet).

D umgril m aker's m ark o n a w hite c lay

o n 1 6.

c urved

a nd

T he h igh q uality o f

G lasgow. F ig.

F iolet

r epresentation o f

a F rench a scription F ig.

1 23

a nd

F iolet.

r ecovered.

c lay c omplete b owl

a n aturalistic

s tem f ragment

t o L .

a nd

1 25 1 26

a re a lso a pparent

a rtifact.

White c lay

s tem f ragment

o f

p ossible M cDougall

1 27

m anufacture. F ig.

F ig.

1 7.

1 8.

White c lay m aker) a nd

s tem f ragment m arked " Burton" ut .. . T his d enotes .. S C

o f

b eing a p ossible

p ipe

a s

I ncomplete w hite a n

i mpressed,

e ffigy.

" Burns

c lay p ipe-bowl

( possible t he s tyle

1 28

C utty".

f ragment

d epicting

n aturalistic H ussar/military

t ype

1 29

P age F ig.

1 9.

F ig.

2 0.

B owl

f ragment

R ibbed,

s alt-glazed,

m anufactured F ig.

2 2.

b elieved

r ecovered a t

t ype

2 4.

T hree v iews o f

F ig.

2 5.

R ed c lay m outhpiece

F ig.

2 7.

2 8.

f rom r ed

s tem

1 32

f ragments

c lay u ndecorated m outhpiece. i llustrating

a pparent

t he

o n t he

t horn-type

t he m ould o f

s eam f acing t he

a w hite c lay

1 33 1 34

s tem. t he b ase.

C omplete w hite c lay b owl w ith f ern-leaf m otif

T hree v iews

1 31

t he b owl .

a G reen R iver F orge p ipe

R ed c lay b owl w ith w ood-knot d esign a t

e xtending u p F ig.

f ragments

r epresented b y t he

a r ed

d ecorative m otif 2 6.

1 30

F ort W alsh.

F ig.

F ig.

f ragment

1 30

r ibbing.

A rtist's c onception o f t o t he

s hanked b owl

r ibbed b order a round

f aint v ertical

s imilar

D utch m anufacture.

c lay.

I ncomplete b rown c lay b owl r im a nd

2 3.

s ocket

f rom r ed

p ipes w ith a r aised

F ig.

t o b e o f

1 35 1 36

s moker.

s hank-ended p ipe

1 37

f ragment w ith u se/

1 38

f ragment. F ig.

2 9.

W hite c lay

s hank-ended p ipe

w ear a pparent t he F ig.

F ig.

3 0.

3 1.

i n t he

f orm o f

a brasion a round

s tem.

B owl

f ragment

p ipe

o f

W hite

a nd

s tem f ragment

o f

a w hite c lay

1 39

aW oodstock s tyle.

c lay b owl

f ragment w ith p ortions

o f

1 40

a T D

a nd " windmill" d ecorative d esign e lement. F ig.

3 2.

W hite c lay b owl d esign e lement

f ragment w ith a g eometric o f

F ig.

3 3.

P lain m outhpiece

F ig.

3 4.

B ent

F ig.

3 5.

b riar p ipe

M ark o f

I llustrated 3 6.

F ig.

F ig.

3 7.

3 8.

3 9.

1 42

e xploded v iew.

1 43

t he

i n F ig.

3 4. t he

1 45

( assembled v iew).

E xploded v iew o f p ipe

i llustrated

i ng

o f a ttachment

t he m ilitary

t ype

i n F ig.

3 6.

i llustrating t he m ilitary-style.

s ocket

t enon a ssembled.

O ctagonal

p anel-style b riar b owl

s how-

146

e mployed.

R adiograph a nd

1 44

c omposite b riar p ipe.

C omposite b riar p ipe w ith f ragments o f l eather c ase

F ig.

f rom a w hite c lay p ipe.

t he N ovelty R ubber C ompany f ound o n t he

m outhpiece o f

F ig.

1 41

r aised d ots.

f ragment

( side v iew).

1 47

1 48

P age F ig.

4 0.

O ctagonal b riar p anel—style b ack v iews).

F ig.

4 1.

F ragmentary w ooden p ipe

b owl

b owl

o f

s tyle.

f ragment

( top

a nd

a p ossible A pple

1 49

1 50

'

F ig.

4 2.

P ossible

s tem f ragment

f rom A pple

s tyle

F ig.

4 3.

S hank

f ragment w ith 4 10—gauge

F ig.

4 4.

B riar

s hank f ragments w ith

F ig.

4 5.

C omplete w hite—metal

F ig.

4 6.

M eershaum b owl

F ig.

4 7.

A mber m outhpieces,

s tyle

o ne.

1 56

F ig.

4 8.

A mber m outhpieces,

s tyle

t wo.

1 57

F ig.

4 9.

A mber m outhpieces,

s tyle

t hree.

1 58

F ig.

5 0.

T hreaded b one

a n a mber m outhpiece.

1 59

F ig.

5 1.

s hotgun

b owl. f errel.

1 52

s addle—style m outhpiece.

1 53

s park c ap

s hell

f rom a b riar p ipe.

f ragment.

t enons

a nd

1 51

1 54 1 55

I vory " saddle"—style m outhpiece

f rom a m ulti—

1 60

c omponent p ipe.

P feiffer

( Bellevue

F ig.

C lay

1 .

F arm)

t obacco p ipes

f rom B ellevue

F arm, W ashington

1 66

f rom B ellevue

F arm, W ashington

1 71

f rom B ellevue

F arm, W ashington

1 75

f rom B ellevue

F arm,

W ashington

1 78

P inole,

1 91

( a — g ) F ig.

2 .

C lay

t obacco p ipes

( h — 1 ) F ig.

3 .

C lay

t obacco p ipes

( m — 0 F ig.

4 .

C lay

t obacco p ipes

( u — d d)

P feiffer

F ig.

1 .

( Martinez Adobe)

C lay

t obacco p ipe

C alifornia.

f rom M artinez

A dobe,

P age A lexander

( Caleb

P usey H ouse)

F ig.

I

" TD m arked" p ipes

T ypes

F ig.

I I

" TD m arked"

T ypes V I

F ig.

I II

T ippet

F ig.

I V

D utch P ipes

F ig.

V

F luted P ipes

( I

F ig.

V I

F luted

( VII

F ig.

V II

D ecorated S tems

( A — F )

20 2

F ig.

V III

D ecorated S tems

( A — J )

22 2

F ig.

I X

M iscellaneous

F ig.

X

H arrington B ar—Graph

p ipes

a nd E vans

I — V

p ipes c .

2 00

— I X 1 690 — c .

2 02 1 725

( A — K )

( A — D )

P ipes

2 10

— V I)

2 14

— X II)

P ipes

2 07

2 16

( A — F )

26 2 29 2

A lexander (Stem h ole d iameter) F ig.

1

A .

T he

e ffect

o f

r ouletting o n b ore d iameters

B .

T he

e ffect

o f

r ouletting o n b ore d iameters

C .

S tem b ore m easurements

D .

L evick r e—tap

a t

b owl

a nd a way

2 41

f rom b owl

g auge

H andler

F ig.

1 .

A n A frican P ipe

f rom , B arbados

2 47

F ig.

2 .

A n A frican P ipe

f rom B arbados

2 48

U lysses

F ig.

1 .

P ernambucano d e M ello

B ar g raph P ontal

F ig.

2 .

L ong

s howing

t he d ates

o f

p ipes b owls from

2 76

d e S uape u sing t he E gberts m ethod.

s ection a nd

f rom P ontal

t op

d e S uape.

v iew o f

s tamped D utch p ipe

277

P age F ig.

3 .

S implified b owls,

F ig.

4 .

G raph

t ypological series

t o

s how t he

p ipe b owls, F ig.

5 .

6 .

B ar g raph

F ig.

7 .

P lan

s howing

8 .

2 78

o f

F ort

H istogram o f

( After E gberts

t he d ates

o f

279

1 964).

p ipe bowls

f rom

2 80

t he E gberts m ethod. S anta C atarina d o C abedelo.

s tem—bore

S uape c ompared w ith F ig.

D utch c lay p ipe

i ncreased c apacity o f D utch

1 590 — 1 700

C abedelo u sing F ig.

o f

1 620 — 1 660.

D utch m akers' h eel

r esults

2 82

f rom C abedelo a nd

2 83

t he H arrington v alues. s tamps:

s imple a nd c rowned

2 84

s imple

2 85

i nitials. F ig.

9 .

D utch m akers'

h eel stamps:

f loral

a nd

c rowned m arks. F ig.10.

A bove:

H istogram t o c ompare

a nd m oulded B elow:

s tems

t he n umber o f

s tamped

f rom C abedelo a nd S uape.

A c omparison o f p ipe d ating m ethods a nd

d ocumentary e vidence

f or

t he

t wo

s ites.

t he

286

N ineteenth-Century

C lay

l ain

C .

T obacco-Pipes

i n

C anada*

Walker

ABSTRACT

One o f t he most u seful a rtefacts f or d ating excavated h istorical s ites i n North A merica i s t he c lay t obacco-pipe. By t he 1 9th c entury t hese p ipes w ere b eing mass p roduced b y many manufacturers i n E ngland, S cotland, F rance, a nd Germany, a nd i n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury t here was a lso a C anadian i ndustry. A lthough t his mass p roduction makes i t e xtremely difficult, a nd f requently i mpossible, t o attribute b owl f orms o r s tyles o f d ecoration t o specific makers a nd s ometimes e ven t o c ountries, makers o ften p laced t heir n ame a nd p lace o f work on t heir products -m ost c ommonly o n t he s tem and good dating e vidence c an b e obtained w hen the manufacturing dates o f t he f irms c oncerned can b e f ound f rom documentary s ources. This paper describes, i llustrates, a nd d ates t he most i mportant i dentifiable 1 9th-century p ipe material f ound i n C anada.

ABREGE

L a p ipe ä t abac e n t erre c onstitue u n d es artefacts l es p lus u tiles pour l a d atation d es s ites h istoriques e n Amgrique du N ord. D e 's l e X IXe s iècle, c es p ipes g taient f abriquges e n grandes quantitgs e n A ngleterre, e n E cosse, e n France, e t e n A llemagne; au c ours d e l a d euxi6-me moitig du s iècle, i l y a vait g galement u ne i ndustrie c anadienne. B ien qu'en r aison d e cette p roduction e n s grie i i s oit d ifficile e t

*This paper originally appeared u nder t he s ame t itle e xcept t hat " tobacco-pipes" was u nhyphenated -i n Ontario Archaeology n o 1 6 ( 1971) 1 9-35. U nfortunately, i t was p ublished w ith a disastrous s et o f p rinter's errors -n o proofs w ere s ent t o t he a uthor -a nd t hree pages of corrections a nd o ne o f u pdated i nformation were subsequently p ublished i n A rch Notes, t he n ewsletter o f t he Ontario A rchaeological S ociety ( publishers o f Ontario Archaeology), n o 7 2-3 ( March 1 972) 8 -11. This present v ersion of t he p aper h as b een c ompletely r evised and u pdated. 1

s ouvent i mpossible d e p reciser, d 'apr s l es f ormes d e f ourneau e t l e t ype d e d ecoration, l es f abricants e t p arfois m emo l e p ays d 'origine, l es f abricants i ndiquaient s ouvent l eur n om e t l ieu d e t ravail s ur l eurs p roduits - n otamment s ur l e t uyau. I l e st a lors p ossible d 'obtenir de b onnes p reuves pour l a d atation l orsque l es sources d e documentation p ermettent d e t rouver l es d ates d e f abrication d es e ntreprises e n question. C ette f tude d e 'crit, i llustre, e t assigne u ne date a ux p lus i mportants f ragments i dentifiables d e p ipes d u X IXe t rouv es a u C anada.

E xcavation of h istorical s ites i n C anada h as i ncreased r apidly i n r ecent y ears, a nd t o a n e xtent t he number o f p ublished r eports r eflects t his ( see A nnotated Bibliography). U nfortunately, e xcavation i n t his relatively n ew f ield h as t ended t o o utstrip d etailed artefact r esearch, w ith t he r esult t hat s ome a rtefact c lasses a re s till r elatively u nstudied, f orcing t he excavator t o r ely f or c ultural a nd c hronological evidence o n a l imited r ange o f material. Nineteenth-century c lay t obacco-pipes a re o ne c ategory of a rtefact which c an y ield u seful i nformation relatively r eadily, a nd t his a rticle i s d esigned t o g ive a r esume of what data i s a t present a vailable o n t he most c ommonly-found i dentifiable 1 9th-century c lay p ipes found i n C anada. The c lay t obacco-pipe i s o ne o f t he most commonly-found a rtefacts o n c olonial a nd post-colonial settlements i n C anada, f or i t was b oth f ragile a nd cheap. I t i s s ometimes f orgotten t hat t he b rier p ipe and c igarette d id n ot a ppear u ntil t he 1 850s - i ndeed, the l atter d id n ot b ecome t he most p opular means o f t aking t obacco i n Great B ritain a nd t he U nited S tates until i mmediately a fter t he e nd o f t he F irst World War. The manufacture o f c onventional c lay p ipes - which are made f rom b all-clay, a nd n ot, a s i s s till s ometimes asserted i n North A merican a rchaeological p ublications, of k aolin -p robably c ommenced i n E ngland t wo o r t hree years b efore 1 590. T he e arliest e xamples a ppear t o h ave imitated, a t a much smaller s cale, Amerindian p ipes s een by c olonists i n t he s hort-lived V irginia s ettlements i n the mid-1580s. On 1 7th- a nd 1 8th-century s ites, c lay p ipes generally o ffer t he most a ccurate d ating o f a ny artefacts, e specially i n t he 1 7th c entury w hen most o f t he t ypological d evelopment o f c lay p ipes o ccurs. Statistical means o f dating p ipes b y t heir s tem b ore diameters h ave a lso p roved generally e ffective f or material c overing t he p eriod f rom t he e arly 1 7th c entury to t he l ate 1 8th c entury. By t he 1 9th c entury,

2

mass-manufacturing t echniques a nd t he w idespread n ature of t he c lay p ipe i ndustry make t he i dentification o f i ndividual t ypes v ery much more d ifficult, a nd s tem-bore dating c an n o l onger b e applied, b ut c lay p ipes c an still offer a good i ndication o f t he a ge o f a s ite i f t hey b ear t he maker's n ame a nd p lace o f work o r s ome other h elpful mark. T he marking of a p ipe w ith t he maker' s n ame a nd p lace o f work mould i mparted -m ost commonly a long t he s tem -m ay h ave b een s tarted i n England b y L iverpool makers e arly i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 8th c entury. I t b ecame c ommon by t he e arly 1 9th century a nd c ontinued t o b e u sed i nto t his c entury. I n 1 891 t he United S tates p assed t he M cKinley T ariff A ct, which made i t mandatory f or a ll i mported goods t o b e marked w ith t heir c ountry of o rigin: t he a ddition o f t his i nformation, o r i ts r eplacement o f t he t own o f manufacture ( Glasgow-made p ipes, f or e xample, h itherto marked w ith t he n ame o f t he c ity, n ow a ppeared w ith t he word SCOTLAND i nstead), i s t herefore a u seful t erminus post quem, t hough a f ew makers p robably i ncluded t he country o f origin prior t o t hat date. A lmost a ll t he pipes s een by t his writer i n North America, h owever, d o not h ave t heir c ountry o f origin marked, which s uggests, as does other e vidence, t hat t he c lay p ipe t rade t o Canada a nd t he United S tates was probably l argely o ver by 1 891.

Because of i ts s heer s ize, L ondon was a lways t he l argest E nglish c lay-pipe manufacturing c entre, but f or much of t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c enturies B ristol was t he s econd-largest c entre a nd p erhaps t he c entre w ith t he greatest s pecialization i n t he i ndustry, e specially i n t he e xport t rade. F rom c a.1650 t o c a.1775 B ristol specialized i n e xporting c lay p ipes t o t he B ritish colonies i n North America a nd t he West I ndies, a nd a lthough t he B ristol p ipe i ndustry a ppears t o h ave diminished a fter c a.1740, i t c ontinued t o b e r elatively prosperous u ntil t he S tamp A ct t roubles o f 1 765 and t he American R evolution i n 1 775 cut off t he c olonial markets on which i t h ad r elied. At t he s ame t ime, t he B ristol i ndustry was p robably l osing t rade t o t he L iverpool p ipe i ndustry, which a s n oted b elow ( p. 6 ) , appears t o mushroom f rom t he 1 750s a nd t he products o f w hich b egin t o appear on North American s ites f rom c a.1760 onwards. D uring t he p eriod c a.1780-ca.1810 t he B ristol i ndustry a lmost d ied, but f rom t he b eginning o f t he 1 9th c entury i t r evived, r eaching a p eak i n mid-century b efore collapsing i n t he 1 860s. P ort-book e ntries i ndicate t hat t he t raditional North American p ipe t rade r evived i n t he e arly 1 9th c entury s o t hat t he North American continent once more b ecame t he most i mportant o versea market f or t he p ipe i ndustry. Curiously, t his i s n ot r eflected i n t he North American a rchaeological r ecord, but l ittle marked material i s known among t he 1 9th-century p ipes e xcavated i n B ristol e ither, a nd i t appears t hat B ristol p ipemakers, who i n t he s econd h alf

3

of t he 1 7th c entury a nd f irst h alf o f t he 1 8th h ad s o frequently marked t heir p roducts w ith t heir n ame, were not d oing s o i n t he 1 9th c entury. This r esurgence o f the B ristol North American p ipe t rade s eems t o h ave ended i n t he l ate 1 840s, f or a n 1 850 a ccount o f B ristol slums described a w idowed p ipemaker a nd n oted t hat t he Canadian a nd American markets h ad " dwindled t o l ittle better t han n othing" w ithin t he p receding t hree o r f our years. S o f ar, t he o nly k nown 1 9th-century B ristol p ipes i dentified i n North America a re p roducts o f t he f irm o f Ring ( P1 I ,a-c). The R ings were a p ipemaking a nd pottery f amily a nd a lso c oal merchants, w hich l ast occupation s eems l atterly t o h ave b een t heir major i nterest; t hey a lso dealt i n c lay i n t he 1 840s. The family i s f irst l isted making p ipes i n 1 803 and continued t o make p ipes u ntil 1 883 when t he b usiness w as probably t aken over by H awley a nd S on ( later H awley a nd Company, t hen H awley B rothers), who c ontinued t o manufacture p ipes u ntil 1 901. ( A b ranch of t he R ing family c ontinued i n t he wholesale a nd r etail pottery side u ntil 1 860, but a fter 1 813 t he pottery p roduction business p assed i nto other h ands a nd c ontinued i n Bristol u nder various n ame c hanges u ntil 1 969, w hen i t moved t o C ornwall, where i t went b ankrupt i n 1 971.) T he Rings were p erhaps t he most i mportant B ristol p ipemaking f irm i n t he 1 9th c entury, a nd t he f amily was probably the o nly one of t hose i nvolved i n p ipemaking i n B ristol in t he 1 9th c entury t o p rosper s ufficiently t o b e a ble to l ive outside t he c ity l imits, a t H engrove H ouse i n the t hen c ountryside t o t he s outh, but t he f amily's prosperity may h ave b een due more t o i ts i nvolvement i n the c oal t rade t han i n i ts p ipemaking. Between 1 816 and 1 849, R ing's a dvertised a s a n "Ohio t obacco-pipe manufacturer": what p recisely a n O hio pipe l ooked l ike i s not c ertain, a s whole e xamples h ave yet t o b e f ound a nd v irtually n o i llustrated p ipe catalogues h ave s urvived, b ut f rom a rchaeological f inds it i s e vident t here were s everal v arieties e ven among Ring p roducts. On t he most c ommonly-recovered R ing fragments, t he s tems b ear t he words R ING BRISTOL r aised on one s ide a nd OHIO on t he other a nd h ave s piral ridging t owards t he b owl ( P1 I ,a). One v ariant h as t he wording with c apital i nitial l etters f ollowed by lower-case l etters a nd " Ohio" s pelt " Oiho", b ut s piral ridging i n o ne f orm or a nother s eems a c onsistent feature. O ne variety o f r idged s tem was f airly certainly a ssociated w ith a p lain s purred b owl, w ith i n one c ase t he l etters T a nd D ( cf p p 3 6 -39 b elow) vertically o n t he l eft a nd r ight s ides o f t he s pur; however, other b owls, s purred but w ith f luted a nd r ibbed decoration, a re a lso known a ttached t o f ragmentary spiral-decorated s tems f rom t he s ame s ites t hat p roduced RING BRISTOL/OHIO-marked s tem f ragments. ( The h eel o r spur i s t he protrusion b eneath t he b owl. " Spur" i s 4

u sually r eserved f or t he p ointed k ind, a nd " heel" f or t he b lunt-ended; on e arly p ipes, h eels were l arge e nough f or t he p ipe t o b alance o n t hem w hen r esting u pright o n a f lat s urface, b ut by t he e nd o f t he 1 7th c entury t hey had b ecome s mall a nd s keumorphic, a nd i t i s s ometimes difficult t o d ecide which t erm t o u se.) R ing s tem f ragments o f a v ery s imilar a ppearance b ut w ith r idging running p arallel t o t he l ine o f t he s tem a nd t he words "Ring" a nd " Bristol" r aised o n opposite s ides o f t he stem a re a lso known ( P1 I ,b-c). 1 ( Ohio p ipes may h ave been quite popular, f or t he G lasgow p ipemaking f irm o f John Waldie a nd C ompany, r ecorded f rom 1 870 t o 1 929, was noted p roducing t his t ype a s l ate a s 1 900. At t hat d ate t hese p ipes c ost 9 d a g ross, a t t he h igh e nd o f t he price mode f or G lasgow p ipes o f 8 d-9d a g ross.) F rom 1 849 t o 1 879 R ing's c ontinued t o l ist t hemselves a s manufacturers o f p ipes f or e xport; a s ign o f t he changing t imes o ccurred i n 1 880 when t hey a lso advertised t hemselves a s c igar merchants. T hat R ing's specialized i n p ipes f or e xport i s f urther i ndicated by t he r eminiscences o f a t hen 8 9-year-old r elative o f t he R ing f amily, who i n 1 855, f our years b efore h is d eath, r ecalled t hat R ichard F rank R ing ( fl 1 813-48; still alive i n 1 855) h ad made p ipes " largely f or e xport, chiefly f or t he A merican market". Ring's products h ave b een r ecorded f rom s ites i n Quebec p rovince a nd Ontario, a nd i n t he U nited States i n New York s tate a nd Wyoming, w ith possible f inds a lso noted f rom New B runswick a nd f rom Massachusetts, Michigan, a nd C alifornia. There i s a p articular concentration o f c ertain a nd possible R ing p ipes f rom t he Niagara p eninsula a rea o f O ntario. A ll c ontexts, where known, date t o t he e arly t o middle 1 9th c entury, which a grees w ith t he e vidence n oted a bove f or t he period during w hich R ing's a dvertised t heir O hio p ipes and with t he general p eriod of B ristol's t rade i n p ipes t o North America. The products o f o ne B ristol maker working i n t he l ast quarter o f t he 1 8th a nd a t t he b eginning o f t he 1 9th c entury a re known f rom a Quebec p rovince s ite a nd a lso f rom a s ite i n n orthern N ew Y ork s tate, o n t he

1S tem f ragments w ith t his s ame f orm of decoration occur a t a H udson' s B ay C ompany post i n Washington state, i n t he U nited S tates, w ith t he i nscriptions A .OP.S. SPARNAAY on one s ide a nd I N GOUDA H OLLAND on t he other, i ndicating i t would b e u nwise t o a ttribute automatically s tem f ragments with t his f orm o f decoration but w ith . the maker's n ame a nd p lace o f work missing t o R ing. ( A n umber o f p ipemakers by t he n ame of Spaarnaij, variously s pelt, were a ctive i n Gouda b etween t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 8th c entury a nd t he s econd h alf of t he 1 9th; products o f one w ith t he f irst-name i nitial A . h ave o ccurred o ccasionally o n C anadian s ites [ see

p . 2 9

b elow].)

5

Ontario b order. These a re p ipes o f A nna Viner, who h ad t aken over h er d eceased h usband's b usiness b y 1 775 a nd i s r ecorded making p ipes u ntil 1 805. T hese p ipes h ave the n ame VINER ( in c apitals w ith t he V a l arger s ize t han t he other l etters) s urrounded b y a r ouletted c ircle impressed on t he bowl f acing t he s moker a nd a h eart outline o r t he l etters A a nd V mould i mparted s ideways and r aised on e ither s ide o f t he h eel. Anna V iner w as t he widow of George Viner ( fl 1 747-ca.1775), w hose p ipes have b een r ecovered f rom a mid-18th-century c ontext a t a s ite i n Nova S cotia a nd a lso f rom a s ite i n u pper N ew York s tate. ( Anna Viner appears t o h ave c ome f rom a relatively p rosperous G loucestershire f amily -o n h er marriage s he b rought w ith h er Wickstreet H ouse, n ear P ainswick, a nd on h er h usband's d eath i t r everted t o h er and p assed on h er d eath i n 1 810 t o t heir s on, t he l ast of t hat b ranch of t he f amily. T he V iner s ide of t he f amily may a lso h ave b een r elatively w ell o ff, a s t hey were i n t he Gloucestershire c loth t rade. S uch s ocial respectability i s r are among p ipemakers, t hough i t must be a dmitted t he only r eason w e k now s o much a bout t he Viners i s t hat a descendant of a c ollateral l ine h as t raced h is f amily b ack f or s everal h undred y ears; none of t he o rthodox s ources f or i nformation o n p ipemakers apprentice a nd burgess r olls, t rade d irectories -h int at t he Viner f amily's p rosperity). L iverpool, a nother E nglish port w ith a major North American t rade, h ad a p ipe i ndustry w hich a ppears t o mushroom f rom t he 1 750s, and t his i s r eflected i n t he appearance of L iverpool-made p ipes d atable e ither f rom t heir a rchaeological c ontexts o r f rom t he k nown dates o f t heir makers t o b etween c a.1760 and c a.1800 i n Newfoundland, Nova S cotia, P rince E dward I sland, N ew Brunswick, a nd -s urprisingly -B ritish C olumbia, a s well a s i n t he U nited States i n Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, a nd North C arolina. S tems marked with t he n ames of L iverpool makers o f t he f irst h alf a nd middle of t he 1 9th c entury a ppear t o b e l ess c ommon, a nd t he L iverpool i ndustry a ppears t o h ave d eclined i n t he 1 830s, but 1 9th-century marked s tems d o o ccur o n s ites i n Newfoundland, P rince E dward I sland, Q uebec p rovince, and Ontario, a s well a s i n C alifornia. One L iverpool-marked s tem of u nknown d ate h as a lso b een recorded f rom Jamaica. As n oted e arlier, L iverpool makers may h ave s tarted t he t radition, c ommon i n t he 1 9th c entury, o f mould i mparting t heir n ame a nd p lace o f work o n t he s tems o f t heir p roducts. L iverpool makers, h owever, u sed a distinctive version of t his f orm o f marking w hich s eems confined to L iverpool, t hat of h aving t he maker's n ame and p lace of work i n one i nscription o n t he s ame s ide of t he s tem -t he 1 9th-century f orm of t his marking, a nd one t o which 1 9th-century L iverpool makers conformed, was t o h ave t he maker's n ame O n

6

t hemselves t he l eft s ide

of t he s tem ( as t he p ipe i s h eld i n t he s moker's mouth) and t he p lace o f work o n t he r ight s ide. T he e arlier form of marking a lso a ppears t o h ave c haracteristically had t he l ettering r aised f rom a d epressed b ackground. An e xample of t he e arly L iverpool f orm i s t he R I MORGAN L IVERPOOL-marked s tem f ragment f rom Quebec province i llustrated i n P late I ,i. There w ere a n umber of Morgans making p ipes i n L iverpool i n t he l ast t hird of t he 1 8th a nd f irst h alf o f t he 1 9th c enturies, a nd t hey w ere p robably a ll r elated. A R alph M organ i s n oted working i n 1 788 and a R ichard M organ i s r ecorded i n business f rom 1 790 t o 1 845; presumably o ne o f t hem made t he f ragment i llustrated. T he p roducts o f a t l east o ne other L iverpool Morgan -W illiam -h ave a lso b een f ound on s ites i n N ew B runswick, Q uebec p rovince, a nd p robably Newfoundland, a s well a s i n Virginia. These e xamples, marked W •MORGAN•LIVERPOOL ( P1 a nd p robably 1 ), c an be attributed t o one o r b oth William Morgans, f ather a nd son: t he f ormer i s r ecorded i n business f rom 1 767 t o 1 796 and t he l atter i s n oted i n 1 803. The c ontext o f t he Virginia f ind i ndicates t hat a t l east i n t his c ase it was a product of t he e lder William. Another L iverpool-marked s tem f rom Quebec p rovince, i llustrated i n P late I ,m a nd marked BRAITHWAITE L IVERPOOL, must b e a product of John B raithwaite, who i s r ecorded working from 1 816 t o 1 864 ( a f irm of B raithwaite a nd R obinson i s also n oted i n 1 818). The s tem f ragment f rom Prince Edward I sland marked J JONES on t he l eft s ide a nd LIVERPOOL on t he r ight ( P1 I ,n) was p roduced by o ne o f t hree makers whose d ates s pan t he f irst h alf a nd middle of t he 1 9th c entury -J ohn Jones, w ho i s r ecorded working f rom 1 802 t o 1 851; John G eorge Jones, w ho was probably John's s on a nd i s n oted i n 1 855; and Jane Jones, p robably John G eorge's w idow, w ho i s n oted i n 1 857 ( also i n 1 857, a f irm of Jones a nd H arris, apparently an o ffshot o f t he Jones business, a ppears a nd i s l isted u ntil 1 897). Stems marked JONES ( no i nitial) on t he l eft s ide a nd L IVERPOOL on t he r ight c ame f rom a California s ite well dated t o 1 846-52. P late I ,d-h and F igures 1 and 2 i llustrate p ipe fragments a nd marks p articularly -p robably e xclusively -a ssociated i n North A merica w ith H udson's Bay C ompany t rade. A n umber o f F ords made p ipes i n various l ocations i n L ondon, mainly i n E ast L ondon, l ast century a nd a t l east one o f t hem, o n documentary evidence a nd t he evidence of marked p ipes f ound o n Hudson's B ay C ompany s ites, h ad a major e xport t rade t o North America. The l ongest-lived a nd most i mportant o f t hese f irms was t hat s uccessively k nown a s John F ord, Jesse a nd Thomas F ord, F ord a nd C ompany, a nd Thomas Ford, which i s r ecorded i n L ondon t rade d irectories f rom 1823 t o 1909, t hough a t rade-card i n t he possession o f a great-granddaughter o f John F ord gives 1 810 a s t he date when t he business was e stablished. Jesse a nd Thomas took o ver i n 1 836; f rom 1 876 t o 1 879 t he ' f irm a ppears a s Ford a nd Company, a nd f rom 1 880 until i ts c losing i t i s 7

l isted a s T homas F ord, p erhaps r epresenting a t hird generation. Various s tem a nd b owl markings a re s hown i n t he i llustrations; t he i nitials I a nd F a lso o ccur s ideways o n t he l eft a nd r ight s ides o f t he s pur o n s ome bowls. T rade d irectories l ist t his f irm a s p ipe exporters f rom 1 856 t o 1 877, a nd a gain f rom 1 880 u ntil 1 909, b ut H udson's B ay C ompany r ecords l ist t his f irm a s t he c ompany's p ipe s uppliers f rom 1 831 u ntil a t l east 1 870 ( research b y s taff o f t he R esearch D ivision o f t he National H istoric P arks a nd S ites B ranch i n O ttawa o n Hudson's B ay C ompany r ecords f or t he c ompany's s uppliers of t rade goods h as n ot s o f ar g one b eyond 1 870). F ord products h ave a lso b een f ound a s f ar a field a s G hana, Ascension I sland, a nd Australia, r einforcing t he impression t hat t he f irm h ad a major e xport t rade i n i ts heyday. A b ranch of t he s ame b usiness, a lso c alled John Ford a nd a pparently r un by t he f irst F ord, i s a lso l isted i n P entonville i n L ondon f rom 1 826 t o 1 865, a nd i s r ecorded a s e xporting f rom 1 857 t o 1 865. The mark i llustrated i n F igure 1 ,d b elongs t o t his f irm, b ut i t has s o f ar n ot b een r ecorded a broad. The b usiness w as continued by a s on-in-law o f John F ord, E benezer Church s r, u ntil h is death i n 1 886 a nd t hen b y C hurch's widow, S arah, u ntil 1 893. At l east u nder t he C hurches, t his business was a lso k nown a s t he P entonville T obacco P ipe Works, t he P entonville P ipe Works, a nd, a s a n 1 879 price-list r ather a ffectedly p uts i t, " Ye P entonville Workes". A s on o f E benezer C hurch, E benezer j r, s ubsequently s et u p business n earby a nd was r ecorded working f rom 1 903 to 1 913. T he most c ommon C hurch m ark appears t o h ave b een t he n ame C HURCH i mpressed on t he bowl f acing t he smoker, s ometimes w ithin a s imple d otted rectangle, s ometimes w ithin a dotted r ectangle with rounded e nds a nd a l oop a t e ither e nd. The l etters E .C. within a dotted c ircle i mpressed o n t he b owl f acing t he smoker i s a nother k nown C hurch mark, while C HURCH or E .CHURCH and K ING'S CROSS or LONDON occur mould i mparted on t he l eft a nd r ight s ides r espectively o f t he s tem. Two marks a lso i ndicate C hurch was p rotecting s ome o f his products: one s uch mark h as t he words C HURCH a nd LONDON s eparated by a s imple l inear motif a nd w ithin a n oval, t he words f ollowing t he c urve o f t he o val a t i ts top a nd b ottom, a nd t he a dditional words TRADE a bove t he oval a nd MARK below, a ll i mpress5d o n t he b owl f acing t he smoker; another h as C HURCH/R-/N 2 1 30... ( the f inal part of t he l ast l ine i s b roken off), t he t op a nd b ottom l ines b eing s lightly c urved t o give t he mark a n oval shape, a gain i mpressed o n t he b owl f acing t he smoker. I n f act, E benezer C hurch s r s uccessfully t ook t o c ourt another I 4o ndon p ipemaker i n 1 877 f or f raudulently copying o ne of h is d esigns, which h e h ad r egistered t he previous year ( the c ase was r eported i n T he T imes, t he unlucky c ulprit b eing f ined £ 5 with £ 2 4 s c osts, w ith t he a lternative o f t wo months i n j ail, w hich l atter w as

8

a pparently t he option t aken, a s t he a ccount c oncluded with t he observation t hat t he d efendant w as " locked u p"; Church, w ho f rom h is a dvertising was o bviously a b orn businessman, s ubsequently c ited t his c ourt c ase i n o ne of h is a dvertisements). C hurch a dvertised " Pipes f or E xportation", b ut n o C hurch p ipes h ave s o f ar b een r ecorded a broad. John F ord w as e vidently a man o f s ome p osition i n t he London p ipemaking t rade, f or a l ist o f o fficers o f t he L ondon p ipemakers' guild i n 1 821 notes h im a s o ne o f t he guild's A ssistants. U nder t he guild's t hird charter, t hat o f 1 663, a n A ssistant w as e lected f or l ife. G uild Wardens were e lected f rom t he A ssistants; Wardens a nd Assistants e lected t he guild M aster; t he Wardens, A ssistants, a nd t he M aster e lected t he C lerk. Masters a nd Wardens w hen t heir t erms o f o ffice were u p became A ssistants f or l ife. I n 1 821 t here were 1 9 Assistants. B eing a n A ssistant t herefore gave o ne considerable power u nder t he o ligarchic method by w hich t he guild was governed, t hough by 1 821 t he guild's powers were f ast b eing e roded. The FORD/MILE E ND/LONDON mark i llustrated i n F igure 1 ,g, must r efer t o t he S tepney b ranch of t he F ord family: t his b ranch h ad o ne p remises -t he o riginal one -i n White H orse S treet ( now R oad) i n S tepney, w here t he F ord business operated t hroughout i ts l ong l ife, a nd another, where t he f irm operated f rom 1 841 t o 1 905, a t Wentworth P lace, n ow p art o f t he M ile E nd R oad, i n t he area known a s M ile E nd O ld Town. ( A variant of t his mark w ith " Mile E nd" a ppearing a s a s ingle word MILEEND -i s a lso known.) The F ORD/RATCLIFF mark ( Fig 1 ,f) most probably b elongs t o t he White H orse S treet f actory, t his p remises b eing o n t he n orthern e dge o f Ratcliff a nd t he s outhern e dge o f S tepney, a s i t i s recorded f rom a H udson's B ay C ompany post ( in t he U nited States), t hough i t may p ossibly b e t he mark o f t he Thomas William Ford r ecorded a t " Cannon S treet, R atcliff Highway" i n E ast L ondon f rom 1 836 t o 1 852 or of h is successor, S .W. F ord, who i s r ecorded a t t he s ame address f or t he s ingle year 1 853. ( The description " Cannon S treet, R atcliff H ighway" was u sed t o distinguish t his C annon S treet f rom t he more f amous Cannon S treet i n t he C ity o f L ondon. R atcliff H ighway, now c alled The H ighway, i s t he main r oad f rom t he C ity to R atcliff, a nd t his C annon S treet i s n ow t he southernmost p art o f t he c uriously-named C annon S treet Road; T homas William a nd S .W. F ord t hus d id n ot work i n Ratcliff, t hough t hey might h ave u sed t he n ame o n t heir mark. Another John F ord p ipemaker i s r ecorded i n E ast London, i n t he 1 830s; t he c onnections, i f a ny, b etween these F ords a nd t he S tepney at present u nknown.)

Ford

a nd

The s tem f ragments s hown i n of S tepney p roduct w ith t he 9

P entonville

P late

I ,e-h

f amilies

i nscriptions

a re

o f

a re

a

F ORD • STEPNEY and BURNS•CUTTY•PIPE mould i mparted i n raised l etters. A B urns's C utty P ipe, v ariously s pelt and misspelt, was o ne o f many t housands o f p ipe s tyles produced l ast c entury, a lmost n one o f w hich c an n ow b e i dentified a s t o b owl f orm o r o ther d istinguishing f eature b ecause o f t he n early t otal l ack o f i llustrated catalogues of c lay p ipe t ypes s urviving. I n t his c ase, however, t hough n o b owls h ave b een i dentified f or F ord's Burns's C utty P ipes, a M cDougall's B urns's C utty P ipe bowl i s known ( P1 VIII), a s i s o ne p roduced b y a n unknown maker ( p. 1 7 b elow), a nd t he F ord b owl must h ave been s imilar. F urther, t his t ype o f p ipe s hould h ave a short s tem, a s t hat i s what t he t erm " cutty" i ndicates. The Burns's Cutty P ipe was e vidently a popular p ipe, f or a 1 900 price-list of S cottish c lay p ipes i ndicates t he t ype b c, i ng produced b y f ive G lasgow makers a s w ell a s i n E dinburgh a nd Aberdeen, a t which t ime i t w as p riced a t t he l ower e nd of t he price mode f or S cottish p ipes. Earlier -c a.1875 -M cDougall's B urns's C utty P ipe h ad been appreciably c heaper t han t hat f irm's p rice mode a t t hat t ime ( see p . 1 7 b elow). F ragments o f M cDougall's Burns's C utty P ipes, i ncluding t he b owl n oted a bove, a re r ecorded f rom s ites i n N ewfoundland a nd Ontario ( see p . 1 7 b elow) ( for other e xamples o f n amed p ipe t ypes s ee pp 1 4 -18 b elow). A n amed F ord product w hich c an b e i dentified f rom archaeological f inds i s t he " Prince A lbert" p ipe i llustrated i n F igure 2 ,f. As t he e xamples b ear t he maker' n ame J & T/FORD, — t hey p resumably d ate t o b etween 1 836 and 1 875, t he p eriod when t he b usiness i s l isted a s Jesse a nd Thomas F ord i n t he t rade d irectories, a nd a f urther n arrowing of t he probable dates f or manufacture can b e obtained f rom a n a rchaeological c ontext, a Hudson's B ay C ompany p ost ( in t he United States) d atable to 1 835-60. The p ipe i s presumably n amed a fter Q ueen Victoria's h usband, P rince A lbert, w ho married h er i n 1 840 and d ied i n 1 861. O n t he b asis o f t he H udson's B ay Company post dates a bove, t he p ipe c annot h ave commemorated A lbert's d eath: i t may t herefore h ave commemorated h is marriage. At t he p ost, t hese p ipes occurred o n t he s ite o f t he c hief f actor's h ouse a nd a t t he S ale S hop, which c atered t o E uropeans, b ut n ot a t t he I ndian T rade S tore, s uggesting t hat t he p ipes were a r elatively e xpensive p roduct. T he 1 900 S cottish price-list n oted a bove h as a n umber o f " Albert" p ipes and varieties ( e.g. L arge A lbert, N ew T horn A lbert), b ut none s pecifically c alled a P rince A lbert. Early i n t he s econd h alf of t he 1 9th c entury, t he English c lay t obacco-pipe i ndustry c ollapsed i n t he f ace of c hanging smoking h abits. At t he e nd of t he 1 960s only o ne E nglish f irm, John Pollock a nd C ompany o f Manchester, s urvived. H owever, w ith t he 1 970s c ame a modest r evival i n t he u se o f c lay p ipes, a nd t wo s mall businesses, one i n Boston a nd t he o ther a t B ramber i n Sussex, opened u p, while t he S outhorn f amily o f B roseley

1 0

i n S hropshire, w hose p ipes w ere p erhaps t he premier-quality B ritish p roducts l ast c entury a nd w hich had c ontinued t o p roduce p ipes o ccasionally a s l ate a s ca.1962, r estarted b usiness. I n 1 967 P ollock's w ere producing c a.250,000 pipes a y ear a nd c ould h ardly k eep up w ith d emand; i n 1 972 t he f irm h ad i ncreased production t o 3 50,000-500,000 a nd w as s till n ot k eeping up w ith d emand. E xport t rade -t o B elgium, Sweden, Canada, t he United S tates, a nd Australia -c ould probably h ave t aken Pollock's e ntire p roduction, a nd Mr Gordon Pollock, t he t hird g eneration o f t he f amily i n t he business, h as made t wo s ales t ours t o North America i n r ecent years. ( The s tipulation t hat c lay p ipes b e used i n l ocal a nd n ational p ipe-smoking c ompetitions i n Britain f ollowing t he f ormation i n 1 970 of t he P ipe C lub of Great B ritain h as n o doubt h elped i ncrease t he h ome market.)

I n c ontrast t o t he E nglish p ipe i ndustry, t hat i n S cotland i s a lmost e ntirely a 1 9th-century p henomenon, with Glasgow a nd E dinburgh b eing t he c hief p roduction centres. T he e arlier h istory o f t obacco c onsumption i n S cotland i s a t present obscure, but e vidence i ndicates t hat s nuffing was t he s tandard method i n t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c enturies. G lasgow was by f ar t he most i mportant British, a nd p erhaps world, c entre f or e xporting c lay pipes l ast c entury, a nd G lasgow p ipes h ave b een f ound a s far away a s Ghana, J amaica, E aster I sland, a nd Australia. I n 1 810 only t hree Glasgow makers a re recorded, a n umber which r eaches double f igures o nly i n the l ater 1 850s, a nd t he h eyday of t he i ndustry was t he later 1 870s a nd e arlier 1 880s, when t here w ere 1 6 t o 1 7 businesses r ecorded, well a fter t he i ndustry h ad l argely died i n E ngland; but a fter t hat i t d eclined, t he n umber having f allen t o t en by 1 905. However, o ne o f McDougall's employees when t he f irm c losed r ecalled t hat when s he j oined t he c ompany i n 1 914, M cDougall's s till employed 5 0 men a nd 1 00 women. D uring t he s econd h alf of l ast c entury, t he f irm p robably employed 2 50-300 workers, a ccording t o M r M .F. R odger, one o f t he f irm's directors when i t c losed a nd t he t hird generation o f t he f amily which h ad gone i nto p artnership w ith t he McDougall f amily i n 1 871 and h ad s ubsequently b ought t hem out. S igns of t he d ecline o f t he G lasgow i ndustry are a lso evident i n t he d irectory e ntries: White's n oted i n 1 872 t hat t hey were a lso t obacconists a nd f ancy-goods merchants a nd i n 1 879 t hat t hey i mported b rier p ipes, and A . C oghill's were n oted a s c igar merchants a nd importers of F rench a nd meerschaum p ipes f rom 1 873, German p ipes b eing a dded t o t he l ist i n 1 880. The Glasgow i ndustry s urvived u ntil 1 967 when M cDougall's, by t hen employing only t hree workers, c losed, h aving outlasted t heir great r ivals, White's, b y a dozen years.

1 1

When Glasgow's e xport t rade s tarted i s n ot y et clear, but i t was c ertainly b efore 1 850, f or " Scottish clays" were b eing s hipped t o Montreal i n 1 842, a nd a large n umber o f M cDougall p ipes h ave b een r ecovered f rom a C alifornia s ite s ecurely d ated t o 1 846-52. As McDougall's were f ounded o nly i n 1 846, t his l atter evidence i ndicates t hat M cDougall's were a ble t o make a n immediate i mpact o n t he e xport market. As n oted a bove ( P. 4 .), a n 1 850 B ristol a ccount r ecorded t hat t he Bristol p ipe i ndustry h ad l ost t he C anadian a nd American markets t hree o r f our years previously; t his may w ell have b een c aused by a n e xpanding G lasgow e xport t rade. The S cottish p ipes s ent t o M ontreal i n 1 842 may i n f act be t he b eginning of G lasgow's p ipe t rade w ith N orth America, f or t hat r eference i s t o a s hipment t o R obert Anderson, a G lasgow p ottery s alesman w ho h ad emigrated to Montreal i n 1 840 and w ho was t o make s uch a s uccess of s elling i mported pottery a nd p ipes, p articularly Glasgow-made wares, t hat h e was a ble t o r etire i n 1 854, dying 4 2 years l ater a millionaire. Glasgow p ipes a re by f ar t he most c ommonly-found clay p ipes on 1 9th-century C anadian a nd American s ites, but t he e xport business a ppears t o h ave b een i n t he hands of only a f ew f irms: a lmost a ll G lasgow-made p ipes found i n North America were p roduced by t he f irms o f William White ( 1805-1955) ( P1 I I,a-c); A lexander C oghill ( 1826-1904) ( P1 I I,d-e), one o f f & ii Coghill f irms making c lay p ipes i n G lasgow l ast c entury; William Murray ( 1830-61) a nd i ts s uccessor, T homas D avidson j r, which c ontinued u ntil 1 910 ( P1 I I,f72 and X III,a-b); and Duncan M cDougall ( 1846-1967) ( P1 II, h -k). Of The-s e, White's a nd M cDougall's were by f ar t he most i mportant on t he evidence of a rchaeologically-recovered material. Only a bout a dozen Glasgow-made p ipes produced by makers other t han t he f ive n oted a bove h ave b een r ecorded abroad; among t hese a re a D . C oghill s tem f rom Quebec province a nd a G . C oghill s tem f rom Ontario. D avid ( 1859-98) a nd George ( 1853-72) Coghill were t wo o f t he other C oghill f irms manufacturing p ipes i n G lasgow l ast century; t hey were possibly b rothers o f A lexander Coghill j r. Curiously, White's d id n ot a dvertise themselves i n t he Glasgow d irectories a s o versea suppliers u ntil 1 884 ( "for f oreign, c olonial, a nd h ome t rades") a nd M cDougall's n ot u ntil 1 891 ( "for e xport a nd home t rades"), p erhaps b ecause by t his t ime markets were contracting and i ncreased a dvertising was f elt necessary. I n t he London d irectories i n t he 1 880s White's c alled t hemselves t he " largest manufacturer i n t he world" a nd i n t he 1 890s i n t he s ame d irectories McDougall's a dvertised t hemselves a s t he " largest e xport manufacturer i n t he world". Both M cDougall's a nd White's h ad L ondon offices, t he f ormer f rom 1 878, t he latter f rom 1 884, t hough D avidson's h ad s tarted one before e ither, opening t heirs i n 1 869. Murray's ( in addition t o J . a nd T . F ord of S tepney n oted a bove) supplied t he H udson's B ay C ompany w ith p ipes i n 1 858.

1 2

I n t heir l ast y ears, M cDougall's were s till Canada, t he United States, a nd West A frica.

e xporting

t o

William White i s s aid t o h ave t aken o ver t he pipemaking b ranch o f t he 1 8th-century C orporation o f Tobacco-Spinners of G lasgow; M urray's h ad b een associated f rom 1 826 with t he C aledonian P ottery, w hich started business i n 1 801 as t he G lasgow P ottery ( the diary- a nd r ailway-timetable p ublishing f irm o f M urray belonged t o a b ranch of t his f amily). Thomas Davidson j r may h ave b een Murray's manager; D uncan McDougall c ertainly was manager of M urray's p rior t o s etting u p i n b usiness o n h is own. T he M cDougall f irm, at l east t hroughout t he 1 9th c entury, was a lso known a s the Glasgow P ipe Manufactory, a nd t hroughout t heir existence Murray's-Davidson's were a lso c alled t he Caledonian P ipe Works. I t h as b een s tated t hat White's took over D avidson's when t he l atter c losed, b ut t his has not b een c onfirmed; i t h as a lso b een s uggested t hat McDougall' s t ook over White's when t hat f irm c losed, but t his i s i ncorrect. White's a re l isted a s William White a nd S on f rom 1 846 t o 1 864 and f rom 1 897 to 1 926 -t hereafter a s William White a nd S on ( Glasgow) Ltd -a nd a s William , White a nd S ons b etween 1 865 and 1 896. A s tem f ragment f rom a n Ontario s ite marked WHITE & S [ON] ( or S [ONS]) on one s ide and [ GLASGI OW S COT[LAND ] o n t he other c an t herefore presumably b e dated t o n ot e arlier t han 1 846 ( and i f t he S COTLAND was a dded i n c ompliance w ith t he McKinley Tariff A ct, t o not e arlier t han 1 891), but t his i s t he only White-marked s tem k nown s o f ar t o h ave " and Son" or " and S ons" a dded a fter t he maker's n ame. S ome McDougall p ipes a re a lso known t o h ave h ad GLASGOW. S COTLAND ( with dot) o n one s ide, b ut t his combination of c ity a nd c ountry of work i s r are, a nd whether t his was a v ariation i n c ompliance w ith t he McKinley T ariff A ct, a nd t hus datable t o 1 891 and l ater, or a variant e arlier marking, i s u ncertain. C ertainly, the vast majority of G lasgow c lay p ipes r ecovered f rom s ites i n North America do not b ear t he word " Scotland" either a lone o r w ith t he n ame o f t heir c ity o f origin. While i t i s t rue t hat r elatively f ew s ites i n part o r i n whole a s l ate a s post-1891 have yet b een e xcavated, i t i s probable t hat t his r arity o f S cotland-marked p ipes i s further evidence t hat G lasgow's c lay p ipe i ndustry w as i n decline b efore 1 891. M cDougall p ipes a re a lso k nown to o ccur o ccasionally w ith t he maker's n ame b ut apparently w ithout t he p lace o f work.

l eft

TD p ipes ( see b elow, s ide ' of t he s tem a nd

pp 3 6 -39 ) marked DMD on t he SCOTLAND on t he r ight r ecorded

from Ontario a re M cDougall products -a c atalogue o f that f irm's p roducts i ndicates t hat t he motif D .M-D i nside a h orizontal l ozenge was a t rade mark o f t he f irm ( the s ame c atalogue a lso i llustrates a p ipe marked DMcD on t he l eft s ide of i ts s tem). The mark r ead a s

1 3

DMG ( with S COTLAND on t he stem f ragment f rom Quebec McDougall mark.

opposite p rovince

s ide) r ecorded o n a i s probably t his s ame

Two i nteresting s tem markings, u nique s o f ar, o ne f rom a s ite i n Q uebec province a nd t he other f rom a n Ontario s ite, i nclude t he n ames o f " agents" -p resumably suppliers -a s well a s t he n ames o f G lasgow makers. T he Quebec e xample ( Pis I II,a a nd IV,a) i s r epresented b y two s tem f ragments, t he more c omplete fragment reading M9 ,DOUGALL*G[LASGOW] on t he l eft s ide a nd -TRAND.AGENT o n t he other; t he Ontario e xample o ccurs on a r are w hole pipe ( possibly a Burns's C utty P ipe -s ee b elow) a nd reads W . W IITE GLASGOW on t he l eft s ide a nd BUSH & C - A GENT on t he other ( Pls I II,b a nd IV,b). I t i s t empting t o s uggest t he a gents s o a dvertised were suppliers i n C anadian c entres a nd n amed t o f acilitate reordering; however, r esearch o n t his a spect of t he p ipe trade h as n ot yet b een done. ( A W illiam Bush a nd Company o f H igh H olborn, L ondon, a re r ecorded a s pipemakers f rom 1 859 t o 1 862. Whether t his f irm a lso acted a s a gents f or other p ipemakers i s a t p resent unknown; t he p ipe u nder d iscussion u nfortunately c ame from a n 1 835-ca.1855 context, s o t hat i t i s n ot possible to date i t c onclusively t o outside t he L ondon B ush's known dates.) There may c onceivably h ave b een a n a gent i n N iagara-on-the-Lake, O ntario, f or t he B ush-marked pipe c ame f rom Fort G eorge a t N iagara-on-the-Lake a nd t here i s a lso a c oncentration of R ing of B ristol p ipes ( p. 5 a bovt: f rom t he N iagara p eninsula a nd p ipes o f t his maker i n North America a re otherwise v ery s cattered. ( As i s n oted b elow -p . 27 - t he n ame o f a Quebec C ity f irm of a gents which was o ffering f or s ale i n 1 863 5 ,000 boxes o f p ipes manufactured by W. and D . B ell of Quebec C ity appears o n one s ide o f a stem f ragment f rom a s ite i n Q uebec p rovince w ith t he a gent's p lace of work on t he other s ide, b ut apparently without a maker's n ame. As a lso n oted b elow -p . 2 7 , an a lmost-whole p ipe f rom Ontario h as t he n ame a nd p lace of work on i ts s tem o f a T oronto f irm of wholesale grocers a nd l umber manufacturers i n b usiness ca.1885-1915; while s tems f rom s ites i n West Africa b ear the n ame a nd p lace o f work o f a L iverpool African merchant, c ommission a gent, s hip-chandler, a nd s hip's stores d ealer whose b usiness operated a s l ate a s 1 891-1933. A gain, t he p ipemaker's n ame does n ot a ppear on a ny o f t hese e xamples, a nd n either o n t hem n or o n t he Quebec e xample does t he word " agent" a ppear. I t i s possible t he p ipes were produced w ith t hese f irms' n ames on t hem t o b e u sed a s a dvertisements f or t he f irms; t his was c ertainly done l ast c entury w ith p ipes which w ere more u sually marked by a r ubber s tamp t o a dvertise a business, o r a p roduct, or e stablishments s uch a s a public h ouse o r an h otel.) McDougali's a re a lso k nown t o h ave produced p ipes with t heir n ame ( sometimes t ogether w ith t heir p lace o f

1 4

work) o n t he l eft s ide o f t he s tem a nd t he n ame o f t he pipe t ype on t he other s ide, s imilar t o R ing o f Bristol's n aming t heir Ohio p ipe n oted a bove. O ne s uch McDougall t ype was t heir Woodstock p ipe; a s tem f ragment marked WOODSTOCK P IPE i s s hown i n P late I I,k, a nd a r are a lmost-complete e xample of t his t ype f rom t he s ame Newfoundland s ite i s s hown i n P late V . A l ess c omplete specimen f rom t he s ame s ite h as t he wording o n the s tem impressed but e nclosed by a r aised r ectangle w ith l arge pointed l oops a t t he e nds, a nd while t hese t wo p ipes may date t o different p eriods, i t i s quite possible t hey a re contemporary, a nd t hat among M cDougall's n o doubt many moulds i n u se a t t he s ame t ime t o p roduce t heir most popular t ypes, t he f orm o f t he i nscription v aried -t he clay wore down t hese i nscriptions f aster t han i t d id t he rest of t he mould, s o t hat t he wording would b e r eset possibly a n umber of t imes during t he l ife of t he mould. Wording on t he s tem a ppears f requently t o h ave b een imparted by t hin s lips o f ef ibossed metal s oldered on t he mould -t he e dges of t he metal s lips a re often v isible on t he p ipe-stem. I n f act, on b oth t he s tem f ragment shown i n P late I I,k and t he a lmost-complete p ipe i n P late V t he words WOODSTOCK P IPE a re i n s anserif l etters while t he M VDOUGALL on t he opposite s ide i s i n s erif letters, s uggesting t he wording on one s ide o f t he mould had b een r eset s eparately f rom t hat o n t he other s ide. ( The omission i n modern t imes by McDougall's o f t he maker's n ame a nd p lace o f work was i n f act b ecause o f this wear; only M cDougall's p ipes d estined f or e xport t o countries -s uch a s t he U nited States -w here t he l aw demanded t he c ountry o f o rigin b e marked c ontinued t o carry t he c ountry of origin mould i mparted, while Pollock's u se a r ubber s tamp w ith i ndelible i nk t o mark most, t hough n ot a ll, of t heir e xport models.) I n t he case of t he f irst t wo Woodstock e xamples n oted a bove, t he opposite s ide o f t he s tem r eads s imply M 9DOUGALL ( with t he mould n umber 5 0 -s ee b elow -p receding t he maker's n ame), b ut a t l east t wo other M cDougall p ipe types a re i dentified by n ame i n t his manner a nd t hey both h ave MVDOUGALL GLASGOW on one s ide of t he s tem and t heir n ames, r espectively VOLUNTEER a nd BURNS CUTTY P IPE, on t he opposite s ide. The f ormer t ype i s known only f rom s tem f ragments, b ut t he l atter's b owl shape i s known f rom a n e xample which s urvives w ith enough s tem a ttached t o s how t he i nscription ( see below). The 1 900 price-list of l eading S cottish p ipe manufacturers' products i ndicates t hat M cDougall's were still producing t heir Woodstock p ipe a t t hat t ime, w ith Waldie's a nd White's a lso producing t his t ype, White's i n a ddition h aving a S mall Woodstock, w hile D avidson's were producing n o Woodstock, a n O ld Rouses Point, N ew f irm of Bannerman 1 876 a ccount ( see

f ewer t han t hree v arieties - a Woodstock, a nd a New Woodstock. The York s tate, b ranch o f t he Montreal was n oted p roducing Woodstocks i n a n b elow, p . 2 5 ) , a nd t hey must c ertainly

1 5

h ave b een p roduced by t he p arent f irm. P late VI s hows t hree Woodstock v arieties -H eavy, S mall, a nd L arge from a c atalogue of a n ow-defunct N ew Y ork C ity c lay pipe f irm. An 1 883 Boston, Massachusetts, p ublication noted t hat " The Woodstock c lay p ipe i s a great f avorite, especially i n t he r ural d istricts [ presumably o f N ew England]", a nd t his popularity may w ell h ave b een widespread. M cDougall's Woodstock ( P1 V ) was p riced a t 2 s4d a gross w holesale i ncluding b ox i n t he f irm's " Irish P rice L ist" -i.e. t he c ost o f t heir p ipes shipped t o I reland c a.1875 -a nd 8 4d a gross wholesale i n t he 1 900 price-list. Both p rices l ie i n t he middle of t he mode of p ipe prices f or t hese d ates. White's Small Woodstock w as p riced i n 1 900 at 8 d a gross, a t t he low e nd of t he price mode f or t hat d ate; a ll t he G lasgow f irms' other Woodstocks a nd v ariants c ost 8 4d a gross. ( Clay p ipes were i nvariably s hipped a broad F OB, s o t hat the customer h ad t o a bsorb f reight c harges, i mport duties or i n t he c ase of t he United S tates e xcise t axes, and b reakage c osts. Mr R odger n oted t hat f reight a nd duties or t axes b rought t he l anded c ost of M cDougall's pipes s o c a.50 per c ent a bove t he G lasgow p rice. Breakage, despite c areful p acking, c ould b e v ery h eavy, and by t he t ime t his c ost h ad b een a dded, t he p rice o f a Glasgow p ipe i n Montreal would h ave b een a t l east t wo and a h alf t imes i ts G lasgow p rice. T here may, h owever, have b een a s pecial a rrangement f or B ritish p ipes shipped t o I reland; i f s o, M cDougall's I rish p rices would h ave b een s omewhat h igher t han t hose f or t he s ame types i n Glasgow a t t hat date, b ecause of t he b ox n oted i n t he price a nd of i ncluded f reight c harges, b ut e ven so, t he r emarkable d ifference b etween t hese p rices a nd those of c a.25 years l ater s hows h ow dramatically t he Glasgow p ipe i ndustry h ad d eclined f rom t he t ime i t was at i ts z enith. I n 1 900, t he most c ommon prices p er gross were f rom 8 d t o 9 d wholesale; i n t he c a.1875 price-list t he most c ommon p rices, b ox i ncluded, were f rom 2 s2d t o 2 s8d a gross w holesale, more t han t hrice those of 1 900.) The 1 900 price-list does n ot n ote M cDougall's producing a Volunteer, but i t does n ote t he f irm producing a R ifle Volunteer -t heir n umber 3 3 -a t ype also produced by D avidson's a nd Waldie's; and t he McDougall p rice-list of c a.1875 does c all n umber 3 3 s imply a Volunteer ( in 1 900, i t was r ecorded t hat White's were producing a Volunteer). The wholesale price p er gross of M cDougall's ( Rifle) Volunteer ca.1875, b ox i ncluded, was 2 s4d, a nd i n 1 900, 8 d. Volunteer a nd R ifle Volunteer p ipes p roduced i n 1 900 by t he other Glasgow makers a lso c ost 8 d p er gross. T he ca.1875 price i s within t he mode f or t hat p rice-list; t he 1 900 price i s a t t he l ower e nd o f t he mode f or t hat date. ( "Rifle" h ere i ndicates a s tylistic v ariation o f t he b asic p ipe t ype, akin t o other p refixes s uch a s Acorn B alm, P lain F ield B alm, o r T own B alm; or L ily Crop, Melbourne C rop, N . B asket C rop, o r N .L. B asket 1 6

C rop, t o quote o nly a v ery f ew o f t he n ames g iven i n t he 1 900 price-list. H owever, e lsewhere, a s a gain w ith many of t hese t erms, " rifle" i s a lso u sed a s a t ype n ame, with i ts own v ariations i ndicated by p refixes. C ertain names, s uch a s D ublin, C ork, L imerick, a nd D erry, r efer to bowl s hapes a nd c an c ause c onfusion w hen t hey a ppear marked on t he p ipe b owl -t hey a re n ot t he n ame o f t he place o f manufacture. U nfortunately, t he meaning o f many o f t hese t erms i s n ow l ost, p robably f or e ver, unless whole p ipes a re f ound w ith e ither t heir n ame o r mould n umber o n t hem, or i llustrated c atalogues s urvive. Occasionally t he n ames s urvive i n t he modern b rier-pipe i ndustry -W oodstock i s one s uch n ame [ P1 VII].) The c a.1875 M cDougall's I rish p rice-list g ives t he wholesale c ost o f t he f irm's B urns's C utty ( P1 VIII) a s l slld a gross, w hich i s appreciably b elow t he p rice mode of t hat l ist; i n 1 900 t he p ipe was p riced a t 8 d a g ross, which p uts i t a t t he l ower e nd of t he p rice mode a t t hat date. I n a ddition t o M cDougall's, i n 1 900 White's, Davidson' s, a nd t wo other G lasgow f irms, C hristie's ( see below) a nd Waldie's, were producing B urns's C utties, a nd t he t ype was a lso b eing p roduced i n E dinburgh a nd Aberdeen: i n a ll c ases t he t ype c ost 8 d a gross. As noted a bove ( p. 9 10), F ord o f S tepney a lso p roduced a Burns's Cutty P ipe ( P1 I ,e-h). Apart f rom t he whole bowl f rom a s ite i n N ewfoundland i llustrated i n P late VII, s tem f ragments of M cDougall's B urns's C utty P ipes are r ecorded f rom a s ite i n O ntario. An a lmost-whole pipe f rom a M anitoba s ite h as a b owl o f a lmost t he s ame s ize a nd s hape a s t hat i llustrated i n P late VIII a nd t he words BURNS CUTTY P IPE raised o n b oth s ides o f t he s tem. The s ize a nd s hape,of t he b owl of t he White o f G lasgow pipe w ith BUSH & C r AGENT on t he opposite s ide of t he stem t o t he n ame a nd p lace o f work o f t he maker ( Pls II,b a nd IV,b) d iscussed a bove i s a lso a lmost i dentical I to t hese Burns's C utty P ipe b owls, a nd t his p ipe may i n f act b e a B urns's C utty. An i nventory of goods o n h and i n t he E dmonton D istrict of t he H udson's B ay C ompany i n 1 May 1 878 i ncluded at t he E lbow R iver Post a t t he s ite of present-day C algary, A lberta, a long w ith e ight " Pipes, briar r oot # 2", one gross " Baltic y achter c lay" p ipes. Baltic a nd Yachting were t wo p ipes p roduced i n a n umber of varieties b y G lasgow makers ( and p ossibly by many others) l ast c entury; White's produced a B altic Y achting and M cDougall's a S mall B altic Yachting. S tem f ragments marked BALTIC o n one s ide but w ith n othing on t he other have b een r ecorded f rom s ites i n O ntario, Manitoba, a nd Saskatchewan; e xamples w ith t he word i n l ower c ase w ith an c apital i nitial l etter a re a lso k nown f rom t he s ite i n Manitoba. Some t ypes h ad a l ong l ife, f or e xample t he TD pipe ( discussed b elow, pp36 -39) a nd " Hunter's p ipes" Hunters. H unter's p ipes appear i n t he r ecords o f t he 1 7

o r

Montreal f ur t raders b etween 1 760 a nd 1 821, a nd t hese records i ndicate t he p ipe c ame i n d ifferent b owl s izes, for r eferences emphasize t hat H unter's p ipes w ith s mall bowls -" smaler t han you h ave s end m e" a s o ne r eference has i t -w ere wanted. T he t ype was e vidently p opular i n Canada f or over a h undred years, f or t he H udson's B ay Company h ad Hunter's p ipes i n s tock i n 1 871. V arious t ypes o f H unters were r ecorded a s b eing p roduced b y Bristol, L ondon, a nd G lasgow makers t hroughout t he 1 9th century. U nfortunately, what a H unter l ooked l ike i s unknown. ( In t his c ase, a modern b rier p ipe model w ith t his n ame, t he H unter model o f t he E nglish F alcon p ipe a p ipe w ith a n a luminium s tem a nd h umidor -h as n o connection w ith t he c lay p ipe of t hat n ame: H unter h ere refers t o a s uperior quality of b rier u sed.) Mould n umbers o ccur on t he s tems of G lasgow p ipes, usually a head of t he maker's n ame ( Pis I I,a,c a nd V ), occasionally a fter t he p lace-name. By 1 900, White's mould n umbering h ad r eached 6 06 and M cDougall's 4 10. Davidson's h ad r eached 3 88, t hough a bove 3 65 t here w ere several b lank n umbers; on t he other h and, D avidson's a lso u sed s ome a lready-issued n umbers w ith 4 or i a fter them, r epeated a f ew n umbers, h ad s everal p ipes w ith n o mould numbers, a nd a lso h ad , a number 4 32. Of t he examples i llustrated h ere, t hat i n P late I I,a i s White's number 6 8, c alled a B ent H arp i n t he 1 900 price-list, a name o f obvious e nough meaning ( the t erm " bent" i s s till used i n t he b rier p ipe i ndustry t o i ndicate c urved stems). The s tem f ragment i llustrated i n Plate unfortunately w ithout i ts b owl, i s f rom White's n umber 7 3, s omewhat obscurely l isted i n t he 1 900 price-list a s " Plain a nd C arved Cutties", a description w hich may refer t o a s et of v arieties, particularly a s t he n umber here i s preceded by a l etter -J -w hich may d esignate a sub-type ( other e xamples of l etters p receding mould numbers, s ometimes d ifferent l etters w ith t he s ame number, a re k nown). As noted e arlier, when r eferring t o Ford of S tepney's Burns's C utty P ipe, t he t erm " cutty" denotes a s hort-stemmed p ipe; " carved" must r efer t o decoration o n t he b owl, t hough o f w hat f orm t his was i s at present u nknown. At 7 ? 4 -d a gross i n 1 900, White's number 7 3 was of t he c heapest c lass, w hile n umber 6 8, l isted a t 81 d a gross, was within t he p rice mode f or Glasgow c lay p ipes a t t hat date. Many t ypes may h ave b een d esigned f or v arious market p references -M cDougall's i n t heir l ast years still u sed b etween 3 0 and 4 0 moulds t o p roduce t he t ypes of p ipe preferred i n v arious a reas o f S cotland a nd i n I reland, a nd a s e arly a s t he l ate 1 7th a nd e arly 1 8th centuries " Bristol.was producing a h eel-less p ipe which appears t o h ave b een a lmost e xclusively s old t o t he North American c olonies. C ertainly, d ifferent oversea markets preferred d ifferent t ypes o f p ipe -a t t he beginning of t he 1 9th c entury t he West African t rade needed p ipes with l arge b owls, t he opposite t o what t he

1 8

M ontreal t raders n oted a bove w anted, a nd a 1 799 B ristol a dvertisement l isted v arious t ypes o f p ipe ( though n ot by n ame) " suitable f or t he I rish a nd S panish markets", f or " the d ifferent West-India markets", a nd " the different A merican markets". 2 E ven a t t he z enith o f t he G lasgow i ndustry, t he workers employed b y t he v arious f irms p robably . earned wages b elow p overty l evel, b ut t he p ipe-manufacturing business w as a pparently p rosperous e nough f or t he business owners, William White, D uncan M cDougall, a nd A lexander C oghill s r a ll l iving e ither i n f ashionable areas o f G lasgow o r i n r esidential a reas d own t he C lyde. S ome o ther G lasgow p ipe b usiness owners c ertainly l ived at s ome d istance f rom t heir works, b ut t he majority o f G lasgow p ipemaking b usinesses must h ave b een e ssentially f amily c oncerns w ith t he owners l iving o n t he p remises. Moreover, t he most p rosperous b usiness owners may w ell have b een i nvolved i n o ther e nterprises w hich may h ave b een t he major s ource o f t heir p rosperity -A lexander Coghill s r, f or e xample, a lso h ad a s ilversmithing business. The E dinburgh p ipe i ndustry, l ike t hat o f G lasgow, commenced i n t he e arly 1 9th c entury a nd r eached i ts z enith c a.1880, b ut u nlike t he l atter, d eclined r apidly, t here b eing o nly o ne maker f rom 1 919 on. ( This l ast f irm, William C hristie, c losed i n 1 962, t hough i t h ad c eased t o make p ipes a fter c a.1942 and i n i ts l ast y ears made b locks o f p ipeclay f or w hitening doc •rsteps; t he f irm, f ounded i n 1 894, w as a b ranch o f t he G lasgow Christie's w hich made p ipes f rom 1 857 t o 1 950. I n 1 904, t he E dinburgh C hristie's w ere n oted p roducing 1 00,000 p ipes a w eek; t he s ame s ource a lso d escribed t hem a s t he l argest f irm o f t heir k ind i n B ritain, b ut t he production f igure c ited s uggests c a.60 moulders a nd t rimmers a nd t hus p erhaps c a.70 employees a ll t old, which w hile i t i ndicates a r elatively l arge b usiness i s s lightly u nder h alf t he s taff M cDougall's o f G lasgow were s aid t o h ave i n 1 914 [ above], a nd i t i s p robable t hat White's o f G lasgow employed a s many s taff a s d id McDougall' S .) E dinburgh p ipemakers a ppear t o h ave h ad v ery l ittle participation i n t he e xport t rade, b ut t he p roducts o f

2T he p rices o f B ristol p ipes f or " the d ifferent A merican markets" were l s, 1 s2d, 1 s3d, a nd 1 s4d a gross, a nd w ere manufacturers' p rices t o t he merchant or s hipper. A s chooner-load o f t rade goods w hich a rrived a t F ort St Joseph i n n orthern O ntario i n 1 799 i ncluded 2 ,000 p ipes, v alued a t 1 s3d a gross; t his p rice w as p resumably wholesale t o t he C anadian r etailer a nd t hus would h ave i ncluded f reight c harges a nd a ny duties ( cf a bove), s o t hat t hese p ipes would h ave b een c heaper a t s ource t hen t he B ristol p ipes.

1 9

o ne E dinburgh f irm, T homas White a nd C ompany ( P1 1 ' 4-3), r ecorded i n business f rom 1 823 to 1 876, h ave been f ound i n small q uantities o n s everal e astern Canadian s ites, i n N ewfoundland, N ew B runswick, Q uebec province, and Ontario, a s well a s i n t he U nited S tates i n Maine a nd -t housands o f m iles a way f rom a ny o f t he other f inds -W ashington s tate. T he C anadian distribution h ints a t t rade u p t he S t L awrence a nd Ottawa r ivers i nto n orthern O ntario, w ith p ossible t rade t hrough t he Great L akes a s w ell, a nd t he r arity o f Thomas White products s uggests o ne a gent o r one t rading company w ith a s hort-lived s upply o f t his p articular maker's p ipes. 3 One s tem mark a ppearing o n T homas White p ipes comprised t he c ontractions T .W.&C9 a nd EDINe i nstead o f f ull i nscriptions ( P1 I I,o,n), a nd a t ype o f c lay p ipe manufactured l ast c entury c ertainly b y a n umber o f S cottish makers a nd i n a v ariety o f s tyles w as k nown a s a TW. I n 1 900, t he f our major G lasgow f irms a t t hat date were producing among t hem 1 7 v arieties o f TW Christie's made one s tyle, Waldie's t wo, M cDougall's t hree, White' s f our, a nd D avidson's s even. I n a ddition, t he 1 900 price-list providing t he a bove i nformation a lso noted one variety b eing p roduced i n E dinburgh a nd t wo i n Aberdeen. From t he l ow mould varieties, particularly

n umbers o f s ome o f t hese i n t he M cDougall, C hristie,

a nd

3A part f rom t he Glasgow a nd E dinburgh White f irms ( not related, s o f ar a s i s k nown) which e xported p ipes t o Canada, t here was a S aint John, N ew B runswick, f irm o f Joseph White a nd S ons, e stablished i n t he e arly 1 860s and c ontinuing u ntil t he l ate 1 880s, which p roduced pottery a nd p ipes. Whether p ipes w ere manufactured t hroughout t his period i s u nknown, b ut t hey were certainly b eing produced a nd e xhibited - a nd w inning h igh praise -i n 1 880 and 1 881. A grandson o f Joseph White, James W . F oley, was i n b usiness i n S aint John with a S amuel Poole f rom c a.1880 making pottery a nd pipes, a nd t here i s a r eference t o t his f irm p roducing high-quality p ipes i n 1 883. Near t he e nd o f t he century, P oole and F oley s eparated a nd e stablished i ndependent pottery businesses; P oole was r ecorded i n 1 903 producing p ipes. Joseph White a nd h is s ons h ad emigrated f rom Bristol, where t he f amily a lso manufactured pottery a nd p ipes; a W illiam White, probably a r elative, was r ecorded i n B ristol a s a pipemaker a nd a n e xporter o f p ipes a t t he b eginning o f t he 1 850s -. No products of e ither o f t hese White businesses ( or of t he f irm of P oole a nd F oley, o r o f Foley a nd Poole i ndependently) a re known, b ut White-marked p ipes s hould b e e xamined c arefully b efore attributing t hem t o e ither t he G lasgow o r t he E dinburgh

White

f irms.

2 0

D avidson l istings ( e.g. n umbers 1 0, p robably 2 , a nd 4 , r espectively), a nd t he p robability t hat mould n umbering was a t a ny r ate b roadly c hronological, i t s eems c ertain t hat a t l east s ome o f t hese TW p ipes were i n p roduction with a t l east t hese t hree f irms w ell b efore T homas White and C ompany c losed i n 1 876 a nd p erhaps a s e arly a s t he 1 830s. ( McDougall's were f ounded i n 1 846 a nd C hristie's i n 1 857; T homas D avidson j r t ook o ver M urray's i n 1 862, but i f t he mould n umbering w as o riginally M urray's numbering a nd w as c hronological, mould n umber 4 c ould date f rom 1 830, when M urray's s tarted p ipemaking.) The ca.1875 M cDougall I rish p rice-list n otes n umber 1 0 s imply a s a TW ( in 1 900 i t w as c alled a TW C utty) b ut gives n umber 7 1, l isted i n 1 900 a s a N ew T W, a s a D ublin Cutty, s uggesting t hat t he c a.1875 number 7 1 h ad subsequently b een r eplaced b y t he N ew TW. P ipemakers appear t o h ave b een q uite u nscrupulous plagiarizers o f e ach other's p roducts ( cf s ection b elow describing P eter D orni p ipes, p p33 -34), a nd t he 1 900 price-list r ecords a n umber o f style n ames f or p ipes which u se o r a llude t o n ames o r p roducts o f o ther pip akers a nd i n a t l east o ne i nstance u se t he n ame o f an a rea o f L ondon -M ile E nd - where s everal major pipemakers ( e.g. t he F ord f amily n oted a bove, p . 9 ) were working o r h ad worked. H owever, i t w as possible t o l egally p rotect a p ipe d esign o r a maker's mark, a nd a s noted a bove ( pp 8 -9 ) , E benezer C hurch s r s uccessfully t ook t o c ourt a nother p ipemaker w ho h ad c opied o ne o f h is p ipes. With t he e xception o f o ne of White o f G lasgow's e xamples, which c ost 8 =-d a gross, a ll v arieties o f TW pipes a ppearing i n t he 1 900 price-list c ost e ither 8 d o r 8 *d a gross, p rices which p ut t hem a t t he c heaper e nd o f t he price mode a t t hat t ime f or b oth G lasgow a nd S cottish p ipes of 8 d-9d a g ross. T he c a.1875 McDougall' s I rish p rice-list g ives t he c ost o f t heir s ingle TW s tyle p roduced a t t hat t ime a s 1 s6d a g ross, box i ncluded, a ppreciably b elow t he p rice mode a t t hat t ime, 2 s2d-2s8d a gross, a nd i ndeed a mong t he c heapest pipes o f a ll o n t hat l ist; t here b eing o nly t wo o ther pipe t ypes l isted a t t his p rice a nd o nly o ne l isted l ower, a t 1 s5d a gross. So f ar, o nly one TW p ipe h as b een r ecorded i n Canada, a r are c omplete p ipe i n t he possession o f a collector i n t he H amilton a rea o f O ntario w ith 1 52 DAVIDSON mould i mparted i n i mpressed n umbers a nd l etters on t he l eft s ide of t he s tem a nd GLASGOW o n t he r ight w ith TW on t he otherwise p lain, h eeled, b owl f acing t he s moker.in l etters f ormed of mould-imparted depressed dots. T he 1 900 price-list i dentifies D avidson's n umber 1 52 a s a L ong TW c osting 8 id a gross.

2 1 .

I n t he s econd h alf of l ast c entury, c lay p ipes were made i n C anada, p articularly i n M ontreal w here f or a short t ime t here was a l arge n umber o f makers. P ipe f ragments b earing v arious makers' n ames o n o ne s ide o f t he s tem a nd MONTREAL on t he opposite s ide h ave b een recovered f rom s ites i n N ew B runswick, Q uebec p rovince, Ontario, Manitoba, S askatchewan, a nd A lberta; and i n t he United S tates t hey h ave b een r ecorded f rom Maine, N ew Hampshire, N ew Y ork s tate, O hio, M ichigan, I llinois, Minnesota, a nd a s f ar away a s Wyoming. D espite i ts obvious t heoretical a dvantages o ver t he G lasgow p ipe i ndustry when i t c ame t o competing i n t he North A merican market, h owever, t he Montreal i ndustry h ardly e ver appears a s a dominant s ource o f p ipes o n a rchaeological s ites outside t he Montreal a rea. Only i ncomplete r esearch o n Montreal p ipemakers i s at present a vailable, but t he e arliest known maker, William H enderson, was f irst r ecorded i n 1 847. T he i ndustry t hen e xpanded v ery r apidly, a n e xpansion apparently a ssociated w ith t he i nflux of I rish f ollowing t he Great F amine i n I reland i n t he l ater 1 840s, u ntil t he 1 870s, when i t b egan t o d ecline a s r apidly a s i t h ad r isen, t he l ast maker appearing f or t he l ast t ime i n 1907. As t he Montreal i ndustry b egan t o d ecline, a number o f t he makers migrated t o D etroit, w here t hey worked u ntil t he b eginning of t his c entury. Among t hese makers were t he O ' Dwyer .s a nd t he H amlyns, a nd p ipes marked ODWYER BROS/DETROIT, ODWYER BROS w ithout t he place of work, a nd ODWYER & HAMLYN/DETROIT h ave b een r ecorded f rom M ichigan, t hough n ot s o f ar f rom C anada ( for u npublished i nformation o n t he D etroit c lay p ipe i ndustry I am grateful t o E .M. G reen o f t he M ichigan Archaeological S ociety; Mr Green w as a ble t o l ocate a n octogenarian daughter o f one o f t he t hree O 'Dwyer brothers). To j udge by f requency of f inds, s tems marked HENDERSON or H ENDERSON'S ( P1 I X,a-d) r epresent by f ar t he most i mportant Montreal maker 6 r. makers. F our bowls, f rom a Quebec p rovince s ite, a re k nown w ith HENDERSON* i nside a r ough c ircle s tamped on t he b owl facing t he smoker; t he n ame s tarts u pside-down a t t he bottom of t he c ircle a nd f ollows t he c ircumference. There was more t han o ne maker o f t his n ame i n Montreal, but t hey a ll appear t o f all w ithin t he p eriod 1 847 t o 1876. One of t hese b usinesses -t hat of t he William Henderson r eferred t o a bove a s t he e arliest-known Montreal p ipemaker, f irst a ppearing i n t he t rade directories i n 1 847 -c ontinued u ntil 1 876. T he 1 873 and 1 874 directory e ntries r efer t o William Henderson-jr, s uggesting t he s econd generation of t he family h ad appeared. ( A William H enderson appears a s a pipemaker i n D etroit f or t he s ingle y ear 1 878 i n association w ith t he Spooners, a nother f ormer Montreal pipemaking f amily; H enderson may h ave s old out i n Montreal

i n

1 876

and

moved

2 2

t o

D etroit.)

The business o f James H enderson, a lso r ecorded a s James M . H enderson a nd a s H enderson a nd S on ( James M . H enderson s r a nd James M . j r), f irst a ppeared i n t he d irectories i n 1 849, t hough a n 1 856 a ccount o f t he c ompany s ays i t was e stablished i n 1 851. T he s ame account r ecorded t he f irm a s employing 1 00 hands a nd producing a nnually 1 5,000 boxes o f p ipes w ith a capability of e xtending p roduction t o 2 5,000 boxes, a nd i t c alled t he f irm's p roducts " Henderson's T obacco P ipes", u sing i nverted commas a s t hough t he p hrase was a trade n ame; i t i s possible t hat t hose p roducts marked HENDERSON'S ( as opposed t o H ENDERSON) may b elong t o t his business, which l ike t hat o f William H enderson c ontinued until 1 876. ( Unfortunately, h ow many p ipes c onstituted a boxful i s u nknown, i f i ndeed t he t erm i ndicated a n e xact n umber: i n t he 1 7th a nd e arly 1 8th c enturies quantities of p ipes appear u sually t o h ave b een l isted by t he gross, but by t he l ate 1 8th c entury a nd i nto t he 1 9th t he b oxful s eems t o h ave b een t he s tandard quantity. However, g iven t he n umber o f employees Henderson's were r ecorded h aving a nd k nowing t he a verage daily production r ate f or c lay p ipes, H enderson's a nnual production c an b e e stimated a t a l ittle over e ight million p ipes, which when d ivided by 1 5,000 boxes would suggest t hat H enderson's boxes h eld a n a verage of c a.540 pipes, or c a.3 1 gross, e ach.) One of t he H enderson f irms -i n t he c atalogue entries a dash f rustratingly t akes t he p lace of t he i nitial, s uggesting t he f irm a dvertised i tself o nly under t he s urname -e xhibited a c ase o f a ssorted p ipes at t he Great E xhibition i n L ondon a nd was a ccorded a n honourable mention f or i ts " case of w ell-made clay-pipes". At a provincial e xhibition i n Q uebec i n 1 853, " fire c lay, c himney t ops, f ilter b ricks, t iles, drain t iles a nd smoking p ipes f rom Mr. H enderson" were noted, but whether t his r efers t o William H enderson o r to James H enderson i s n ot i ndicated ( William Henderson i s s aid t o h ave u sed c lay f ound i n t he i mmediate vicinity f or h is p ipes; t his s eems u nlikely, b ut h e may have u sed l ocal c lay f or s ome of t he e arthenware products n oted i n 1 853 i f h e was t he H enderson r eferred t o). The H enderson a nd S on p ipemaking business must h ave been prosperous i n i ts h eyday, f or f rom 1 866 one o f t he James H endersons was l iving i n a v illa i n t he t hen countryside a nd s ome d istance f rom h is f actory; e arlier he h ad l ived a djacent t o h is f actory. F rom 1 868 a f irm of H enderson a nd Lovelace ( James M . H enderson a nd E .M. L ovelace) appeared a s c oal a nd c ommission merchants and i mporters o f t ire-bricks a nd E nglish p ipeclay, suggesting t he H enderson f amily was e xpanding i ts business a nd d iversifying i ts i nterests. T he f irm l ast appeared i n t he d irectories i n 1 903, a nd went b ankrupt i n t hat year. .

As well a s b eing t he most f requently-found Montreal pipes, t hose marked H ENDERSON or H ENDERSON'S a lso h ave t he most w idespread d istribution: t hey h ave b een recovered f rom s ites i n Q uebec p rovince, O ntario, a nd Manitoba; and i n t he U nited S tates f rom s ites i n M aine, Ohio, Michigan, I llinois, M innesota, a nd Wyoming. 4 I n 1 876, H enderson a nd S on were s ucceeded by W .H. D ixon a nd C ompany, who marked t heir p ipes D IXON'S and a s tem f ragment of o ne of whose p roducts appears i n P late IX, . This b usiness c ontinued u ntil 1 894. D ixon' s, who a lso c alled t hemselves t he C anada P ipe Works, won p rizes a t e xhibitions i n t he 1 870s, a nd i n Lovell' s Montreal d irectory f or 1 881-82 t hey a dvertised themselves a s " Manufacturer a nd D ealer i n E nglish P ipe Clay, T .D. a nd F ancy P ipes". ( In t he s ame a dvertisement they c laimed t o h ave b een e stablished i n 1 847; t his presumably a lludes t o t he origins o f t he H enderson a nd Son c ompany t hey h ad t aken over, t hough a s n oted a bove t he d irectories f irst l ist James H enderson i n 1 849 while another s ource s ays t hat business w as e stablished i n 1 851.) D ixon's were s till a dvertising E nglish p ipeclay and TD and f ancy p ipes i n L ovell's 1 888-89 d irectory. D ixon products h ave b een r ecorded f rom New B runswick, Quebec province, O ntario, Manitoba, a nd S askatchewan. The s econd-largest Montreal p ipemaking business, i n t erms of marked p roducts f ound, was t hat of B annerman. Again, t here was more t han one maker o f t his n ame, b ut t he f irst, R obert B annerman, a ppeared i n 1 858 and h is business, which b ecame B annerman B rothers i n 1 888 ( Alexander, R obert, a nd Thomas; Mrs R obert a ppears i n 1 894) a nd f rom 1 904 was l isted a s A lexander B annerman, continued u ntil 1 907, t he l ast s urviving Montreal pipemaking concern. R obert B annerman was a lso a grocer, while B annerman B rothers were a lso t obacco a nd r ope manufacturers. S tems a re k nown marked BANNERMAN a nd R .BANNERMAN ( P1 IX,e-f) a nd h ave b een f ound on s ites i n New Brunswick, Q uebec province, O ntario, Manitoba, a nd Alberta; and i n t he United States i n M aine, I llinois, and New H ampshire. A p articularly i nteresting a spect of t he B annerman f irm only r ecently d iscovered i s i ts U nited S tates branch e stablished by R obert B annerman i n 1 875 at R ouses Point, i n New Y ork s tate i mmediately o ver t he Quebec border 3 3 miles s outh o f Montreal, t o p roduce p ipes which c ould b e s old i n t he U nited States w ithout p ayment

4A H ENDERSON'S-marked p ipe of b uff-firing c lay i s i n t he museum of t he t obacco f irm of W .D. & H .O. Wills a t Bristol, but whether i t was a ctually f ound i n B ritain i s unknown. A buff-coloured H enderson s tem f ragment i s known f rom a n O ntario s ite.

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o f duty. T he f actory, n amed t he E agle T obacco P ipe Manufactory, n o doubt t o s ound p atriotic a nd h ide t he Canadian n ationality o f t he p arent c ompany, w as s old b y Robert B annerman a nd h is w ife R ose ( presumably t he Mrs R obert B annerman n oted a bove) i n 1 884, t hough i t i s unclear h ow l ong p ipes w ere a ctually b eing p roduced i n t he f actory. Among t he p ipes n oted i n a n ewspaper account o f 1 876 a s b eing p roduced w ere TDs ( see p p 1 6 - 1 9 below) a nd Woodstocks ( see pp 1 5 -16 a bove). As n oted a bove, B annerman's M ontreal-made p ipes were marked MONTREAL on t he r ight s ide o f t he s tem, naturally e nough: what i s n ot y et k nown i s w hat, i f anything, appeared on t he r ight s ide o f t he s tem o f Bannerman's R ouses P oint p roducts. I t i s l ikely t hat t he B annerman n ame would h ave a ppeared o n t he l eft s ide, but obviously Montreal would n ot h ave a ppeared on t he r ight, a nd i t i s possible t hat i n f act n o p lace-name appeared on t he R ouses P oint p ipes, i n which c ase a Connecticut-found B annerman s tem f ragment may b e p art o f a R ouses Point p roduct a s i t b ears t he n ame B ANNE[RMAN] on t he l eft s ide b ut n othing o n t he r ight -a ccording t o t he 1 876 newspaper a ccount, most o f t he R ouses P oint pipes were s hipped " down e ast", i .e. t o New E ngland. As t he n ames on t he s tems o f p ipes appear f requently t o have b een i mparted by t hin s lips o f embossed metal soldered on t o t he mould ( p. 1 5 a bove), i t would h ave been a s imple matter t o r emove t he M ontreal p lace-name from moulds u sed a t R ouses P oint. U nfortunately, however, one c annot b e e ntirely c ertain o f t his attribution of t he C onnecticut f ragment, b ecause t here are two, possibly t hree, 1 9th-century G lasgow p ipemakers called B annerman -C . B annerman, f l 1 842; J ohn Bannerman, f l 1 856-60; and C arrick B annerman, f l 1 862-65 -a nd t here a re t wo s tem f ragments marked BANNERMAN and GLASGOW k nown f rom North America, o ne f rom South C arolina a nd o ne f rom New Mexico. A Bannerman-marked s tem w ith n o p lace of work o n i t c ould t herefore c onceivably b e a G lasgow p roduct ( there a re n o known c onnections b etween a ny o f t he G lasgow B annermans and t hose i n M ontreal). At R ouses Point, t he c lay u sed was E nglish p ipeclay f rom D evon, a nd u ndoubtedly t his would h ave b een t he clay u sed at t he Bannerman Montreal f actory a lso -i t was s pecifically n oted i n d escribing t he R ouses P oint business t hat t he n ecessary c lay c ould n ot b e f ound i n t he United S tates. T he 1 876 n ewspaper a ccount i ndicated t he c lay was s hipped v ia Montreal, t he c ost i n M ontreal being c a.$9 a t on a nd w ith f reight a nd duties a dded, n o l ess t han c a.$16 a t on a t R ouses P oint. T he E nglish pipeclay t he Montreal f irms of D ixon, a nd H enderson a nd Lovelace, i mported ( above) would p robably a lso h ave c ome from D evon. I nitially, t he R ouses P oint f actory was reported a s employing " About t wenty h ands" a nd p roducing 1 2,000-15,000 pipes a day, t hough t hese p roduction f igures s eem much t oo h igh f or t hat n umber o f p eople;

2 5

t he f ollowing year, 1 876, " About f orty h ands" ( much nearer t he f igure o ne would e xpect t o p roduce 1 2,000-15,000 pipes a d ay) were s aid t o b e employed a nd there were h opes, p robably n ever r ealized, t hat t he proprietor would " greatly e nlarge t he e stablishment a t no d istant day". As t he R ouses P oint f actory was o nly a branch o f t he B annerman f irm, t he M ontreal f actory must have employed appreciably more t han t he 4 0 h ands employed a t R ouses P oint, t hough p robably n ot a s many a s t he 1 00 employees H enderon a nd S on were r ecorded h aving i n 1 856 ( above). Of t he many other Montreal p ipemakers r ecorded i n t he t rade d irectories during t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 9th century, only a f ew a re k nown f rom marked p roducts. Stems b earing t he n ame DOHERTY h ave b een r ecorded f rom two s ites i n t he Ottawa Valley, one i n Q uebec p rovince and t he . other i n Ontario; a s tem f ragment w ith p art o f t he n ame MURPHY ( no i nitial s urviving) i s k nown f rom a n Ontario s ite a nd t wo f ragments f rom a s ite i n Manitoba one w ith b owl a ttached -a nd one f rom a n A lberta s ite have M .MURPHY on t hem; while a s tem marked D .FORD c ame f rom a s ite i n Minnesota i n t he U nited States. The Murphy a nd F ord e xamples a re a ll o f b uff-firing c lay. The f irm of N eil Doherty was f ounded i n 1 850, a nd i n 1 856 t he s ame s ource quoted e arlier describing Henderson a nd S on's business r ecorded t hat D oherty employed 2 0 to 2 5 workers a nd manufactured yearly " from 4 500 to 5 000 boxes, w hich a re a ll c onsumed i n t he Canadas [ i.e. C anada West a nd C anada E ast, n ow t he southern p arts of t he p rovinces of O ntario a nd Quebec respectively]". D oherty's a re l ast r ecorded i n 1 857. Three Murphys a re r ecorded i n Montreal, a ll f or s ingle years o nly -R ichard i n 1 864, T homas i n 1 871, a nd Matthew a lso i n 1 871. D avid F ord appears i n t he Montreal d irectories f or t he y ears 1 857 t o 1 873, working with a D ennis Murney f or t he f irst y ear. A lthough o nly t he one F ord f ind h as b een r ecorded s o f ar, F ord-marked fragments s hould b e e xamined c arefully t o e nsure t hat Ford of Montreal products a re n ot a ttributed t o t he London F ords. The p ipemaking quartier o f Montreal was a distinctly working-class a rea, a nd t he p art w hich survives t oday i s s till working c lass -p ipemakers consistently appear t o h ave c oncentrated i n s lum a reas, both i n B ritain a nd e lsewhere. The a rea l ay a t t he riverside -e ast -e nd o f what w as t hen c alled C olborne Avenue ( since 1 886 de L orimier A venue) i n a n i ndustrial suburb which was springing u p a bout t he t ime t he pipemaking i ndustry was s tarting t here a nd which a lso i ncluded t he t hen n ew Montreal Gaol b uilt i n t he 1 830s. Unfortunately, much of t he p ipemaking a rea was c leared for t he western approach t o t he Jacques C artier B ridge, built 1 926-30, a nd s treet-name a nd numbering c hanges since t he s econd h alf o f l ast c entury c reate a dditional

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d ifficulties o f i dentification, b ut a f ew o f t he pipemaking p remises s till a ppear t o b e s tanding, t hough no e xamination o f t hese p roperties h as y et b een c arried out. C lay p ipe f ragments c an b e f ound o n c leared l ots i n t he a rea. I n Q uebec C ity, t he f irm o f W illiam a nd D avid B ell ( P1 I X,h-k), S cottish b rothers w hose f amily c ame f rom K irkcaldy, F ife, manufactured v arieties o f p ottery a s well a s b ricks, drain-pipes a nd t obacco-pipes, during t he l ast h alf o f l ast c entury. T he f irm a ppears t o h ave b een f ounded i n t he e arlier 1 840s -c ertainly by 1 846 and t o h ave c ontinued u ntil a fter 1 932, b ut i t i s u nlikely t hat t hey manufactured t obacco-pipes f or more t han p art o f t hat t ime. They a ppear t o h ave s tarted making t obacco-pipes o nly i n l ate 1 862 or e arly 1 863 a nd were s till making t hem i n 1 881; t he u se o f t he word "pipe" i n t he c ompany's n ew n ame -B ell P ipe & Pottery Company -s ubsequent t o t he d eath o f t he l ast B ell i n 1 930 and t he s elling o f t he p roperty i n 1 932 s eems more l ikely t o r efer t o drain-pipes. An 1 873 a ccount o f t he Bells' p ipemaking b usiness n otes t he f irm u sed E nglish clay a nd employed 1 5 men whose d aily wages t otaled $ 12. I n 1 874 one o f t he i mporters f rom w hom t he B ells b ought t heir p ipeclay was R obert B orland, c oal merchant, o f Quebec C ity. A B ell p ipe mould was i n t he museum o f t he Coll ge de S te-Anne-de-la-Pocati re a t Ste-Anne-de-la-Pocati re i n Q uebec p rovince i n 1 967. I n 1 863, t he f irm of M essrs L ane, G ibb a nd C ompany o f Quebec C ity, a cting a s a gents, a dvertised 5 ,000 b oxes o f t obacco-pipes made by t he B ells " in a ssorted p atterns"; a s tem f ragment f rom a s ite i n Quebec p rovince w ith LANE G IBB mould i mparted on o ne s ide a nd QUEBEC o n t he other, i ndicating t his f irm a lso h ad i ts own n ame p ut o n pipes. T his may h ave b een b ecause t he f irm c ontinued t o act a s a gents f or p ipes ( presumably t he B ells'), t hough only t he L ane, G ibb c ompany's n ame a ppears t o h ave b een put o n t he s tem, or e lse b ecause t he f irm w anted t o a dvertise i tself by c ustomized p ipes. B ell p ipes h ave been r ecorded f rom s ites i n Q uebec p rovince a nd O ntario, and i n t he United S tates f rom a s ite i n M aine. An a lmost-whole p ipe i n t he p ossession o f a collector i n t he H amilton a rea o f O ntario w ith t he i nscription DAVIDSON & HAY mould i mparted i n i mpressed l etters on t he l eft s ide o f t he s tem a nd TORONTO on t he r ight a nd t he l etters TD f acing t he s moker o n a n otherwise p lain b owl w ith a v estigial h eel i s t he product, not o f a T oronto p ipemaking f irm o f t hat n ame, but of a n u nknown maker who p roduced t he p ipe e ither a s an a dvertisement f or t he f irm n amed, a w holesale g rocery and l umbei- manufacturing company w hich was i n b usiness under t he p articular v ersion o f t he n ame s hown f rom ca.1885 to 1 915, or a s t he f irm's b rand w hich i t marketed a s p art of i ts grocery a ctivities. No T oronto clay p ipe manufacturers a re k nown, b ut s o f ar n o research h as b een done on t his s ubject. A lthough o nly

2 7

t his one D avidson a nd H ay-marked p ipe h as b een r ecorded, i t i s worth l ooking c arefully a t D avidson-marked s tem f ragments b efore a ttributing t hem t o D avidson o f Glasgow.

P ipe manufacture i n T he N etherlands was i ntroduced by i mmigrant E nglishmen a t t he b eginning o f t he'17th century. T he i ndustry i mmediately c oncentrated i n Gouda, where t wo f irms, Van d er Want ( the Z enith Factory) a nd Goedewaagen, s till p roduce p ipes ( see below). B efore t he e nd of t he 1 7th c entury, D utch p ipes were r egarded a s s uperior i n manufacture t o E nglish pipes, a s uperiority which i s s till a pparent t oday. Dutch p ipes a re f ound on 1 7th-century C ontact s ites i n t he NE U nited S tates, n o doubt a s a s r esult o f D utch t rade f rom New Amsterdam ( New Y ork) a nd F ort O range ( Albany), a nd f rom t he Swedish c olony o f N ew Sweden modern D elaware a nd s outhern N ew J ersey -w here D utch pipes a re known t o h ave b een s hipped; and e xcavations o f 1 7th- a nd 1 8th-century F rench s ites i n C anada a nd t he United S tates i ndicate t hat t he F rench -w hose p ipe i ndustry b efore t he 1 9th c entury ( see pp 3 0 -35 b elow) was a r elatively minor o ne -i mported D utch p ipes, a lthough a t l east i n t he 1 8th c entury t hey a lso i mported English p ipes. T he i mportation of D utch p ipes i nto England h ad a lways b een s everely l imited o r p rohibited, and outside t he a rea of F rench s ettlement a nd t rade i n North America i n t he 1 8th c entury, D utch p ipes a re rare: t he only t ime t hey appear a t W illiamsburg i n Virginia, f or e xample, i s during t he American R evolution ( 1775-83) when t he war h ad s hut o ff E nglish t rade a nd France, The N etherlands, a nd other E uropean c ountries were s upporting t he r evolting c olonies. F rench f aience also appeared a t Williamsburg a t t his t ime. The e xcellence of D utch p ipes w as, i ronically, o ne cause of t he e ventual downfall of t he D utch i ndustry, for t he Gouda i ndustry was p rimarily g eared t o a n e xport market which e xtended a ll over E urope a s well a s t o North America a nd West Africa, a nd f rom t he 1 740s onwards h igh t ariffs a nd outright prohibitions on importing p ipes i nto Sweden, D enmark, Norway, P russia, and B rabant i n o rder t o protect l ocal p roducers r uined t he Gouda i ndustry. T he P russian p rohibition -i t eventually e xtended t o s topping D utch p ipes f rom even being s hipped t hrough Prussia -a ppears t o h ave s truck t he Gouda i ndustry p articularly h ard, f or i t c ame a t a t ime when t he German Westerwald p ipe i ndustry ( see p .35 below) was e xpanding; t he i nferior p roducts o f t his i ndustry n ot only u ndersold D utch p ipes but a lso plagiarized D utch Makers' marks. The N apoleonic occupation of T he N etherlands a ppears t o h ave precipitated t he f inal collapse of p ipemaking a s a m ajor i ndustry.

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However, s ome 1 9th-century D utch p ipe material d oes occur on various North American s ites, t he most commonly-occuring makers b eing members o f t he P rince f amily, r ecorded i n Gouda f rom 1 773 t o 1 898. T he particular s tem f ragment i llustrated h ere ( P1 X ,a) h as J&G.PRINCE on one s ide a nd I N GOUDA o n t he other, a nd i s of i nterest b ecause t he h eavy r ibbed d ecoration o n i t i s exactly p aralleled o n p roducts o f a t l east o ne Other Gouda maker a nd a t l east t hree G erman makers ( see p . 35 below) known t o o ccur e ither i n C anada o r t he U nited States a nd i s i n f act a p lagiarization o f t he s tyle o f marking u sed by a n obscurely-known but e vidently v ery popular n orth F rench maker o f t he s econd h alf o f l ast century, P eter Dorni, w hose p roducts h ave a lso b een found i n North America a nd a re n oted b elow ( p.32 -33). 5 T he other Gouda maker k nown t o h ave u sed t his s tyle of marking i s a n A . S paarnaij, o ne o f a number of Gouda p ipemakers o f t hat n ame ( variously spelt) r ecorded b etween t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 8th a nd second h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury. T he i nscription o n known Spaarnaij s tem f ragments a ppears a s A SPARNAAY and I NGOUDA, a nd t he s tems a re p robably f rom p roducts o f t he A . S paarnaij r ecorded working i n Gouda i n 1 850. S imilar stem f ragments marked PETER D ORNI a nd I N GOUDA i ndicate even c loser p lagiarization o f D orni's p roducts, p ossibly by P rince or S paarnaij, possibly by a t hird, u nknown, Gouda maker. From i ts b eginning, t he Gouda i ndustry u sed l etters or numbers, often s urmounted w ith a c rown, o r s ymbols, as makers' marks. T hese marks c ould b e b ought o r s old, traded or willed, over h undreds o f years -o ne o n a b owl recovered f rom a d efinitely-datable 1 758 context i n Nova Scotia i s among t he marks b eing u sed by t he p resent-day Gouda f irm of Goedewaagen -a nd o ne mark u sed by P rince and known f rom North American s ites i s t he M ilkmaid, a detailed depiction w ithin a s mall c ircle of a g irl carrying a yolk a nd milk-pails. These marks were

5T wo s tem f ragments h ave b een r ecorded f rom a s outhern Ontario s ite with R .H.PRINCE i n r aised l etters o n o ne s ide a nd CANADA 1 86- o n t he other. No Gouda P rince pipemaker w ith t hese i nitials i s k nown, a nd where t hese pipes were made i s a lso u nknown; t hey might b e C anadian, but do not a ppear t o h ave b een p roducts o f a Montreal maker ( as n oted e arlier -p . 27 -i t i s u nknown w hether t here was a T oronto c lay p ipe i ndustry). The i ncomplete i nscription o n t he opposite s ide of t he s tem f rom t he maker's n ame may well h ave b een a r eference t o C anadian Confederation, which t ook p lace i n 1 867. I t must b e noted, however, t hat D utch p ipemakers c ould e asily h ave produced a p ipe f or t he C anadian market c elebrating Confederation, s o t he p ossibility does r emain t hat t hese fragments a re from D utch p roducts o f a h itherto-unknown member of t he P rince f amily.

2 9

n ormally p laced o n t he b ase o f t he h eel o r i n t he absence of a h eel, o n t he b ase o f t he b owl. Occasionally t hey o ccur o n t he b owl f acing t he s moker. Sometimes a lso t he c oat o f a rms o f t he c ity o f G ouda, a s hield w ith t wo v ertical r ows o f t hree s tars s eparated by a v ertical b ar, o ccurs o n G ouda p ipes, u sually o n t he s ide of t he h eel. High-quality l ong-stemmed D utch p ipes p roduced b y t he t wo s urviving Gouda p ipemaking f irms, V an d er Want ( the Z enith f actory) a nd Goedewaagen, h ave b een obtainable i n C anada a nd t he U nited S tates i n r ecent years, b oth o n h istorical r estorations a nd i n t obacconists' s tores; P late X I s hows a Van d er Want e xample.

Nineteenth-century F rench p ipes o ccur w idely, t hough n ever profusely, i n N orth America. I n t he 1 9th c entury, F rench a nd B elgian makers s pecialized i n h ighly-ornate moulded p ipes, s ome o f t hem o f s uperb craftsmanship, w ith t he b owls f requently h ighlighted b y coloured g lazes, b ut t he p ipes f ound i n North America appear t o h ave b een p lainer a nd n o doubt much c heaper varieties. The most f amous F rench p ipemaking f irms w ere t hose of F iolet ( the f irst F iolet was working a t t he e nd of t he 1 7th c entury; t he f irm c losed down during t he F irst World War, t hen opened a gain i n 1 919 but c losed permanently s hortly a fterwards, p robably i n 1 921) ( P1 X ,e) a nd D umgril ( 1844 or 1 845-ca.1885 or c a.1895) a lso known a s D umgril-Leurs, a nd by 1 877 D umgril a nd Bouveur -b oth o f S aint-Omer; and Gambier ( 1780-1926) o f G ivet. G ambier p ipes a ppear i nevitably t o b e marked " Paris". I n t he n omenclature o f G ambier p ipes, t he t erm P aris r eferred t o p ipes made o f t erre commune, w hich i n t he pottery i ndustry i ndicates a p lastic c lay, b ut whether o r n ot " ä P aris" o n a p ipe, w hich c ertainly i mplies manufacture a t P aris, i n f act r efers t o p ipes made f rom t his t ype o f c lay i s u ncertain. T he G ambier f irm d id n ot manufacture p ipes i n P aris, t hough t hey d id have offices a nd a n i mportant s tore t here w hich c losed i n 1 908 when t he f irm w as r eorganized, a nd t he p hrase " ä P aris" may h ave b een a s nobisme -c a.1890 t he L yons ( Lyon) f irm of Noöl F rd .res ( 1808-ca.1920) b ecame p art o f t he G ambier concern a nd Noöl p ipes f or t he h ome market were marked " Noöl Lyon" w hile e xport p roducts w ere marked " Noöl P aris". There a re s ome d iscrepancies a mong p roduction f igures r ecorded f or t he F iolet b usiness, t hough t his may b e b ecause t he f igures r elate t o v arious dates, b ut at t he Great E xhibition of 1 851 i n L ondon, a t w hich t he f irm was awarded a n h onourable mention, i t was s tated t hat F iolet produced more t han 2 00,000 gross o f p ipes over 2 8.8 million -a year i n 1 ,200 s hapes, p lain o r ornamented, out o f a lmost 8 ,000 t ons o f 're, t under L ouis-Maximilien F iolet p g he

3 0

c lay. t hird

I n 1 819, g eneration

o f t he f amily, t he f irm e mployed 4 00 t o 5 00 workers; before L ouis-Maximilien p b-r e's d eath i n 1 834 t he f irm employed o ver 7 00 workers. At t he t ime o f t he G reat E xhibition, w hich w ould h ave b een a bout t he t ime t he f irm w as a t t he h eight o f i ts p rosperity, t he f irm w as employing 8 50 workers. A n i dea o f t he p rosperity o f t he f irm c an b e h ad f rom t he p hilanthropic w orks o f L ouis-Maximilien p O 're: a part f rom opening a ' Caisse d e prgvoyance a t t he f actory w hich g ave i nterest-free l oans t o h is workers, h e h elped f ound t he S ocigtg philharmonique a nd b uild t he p resent S alle d e C oncerts i n S aint-Omer. The D umgril f irm a lso won a n h onourable m ention a t t he G reat E xhibition. A t t hat t ime t he f irm e mployed 4 50 workers a nd w as p roducing 1 00,000 g ross o f p ipes annually, f igures w hich i ndicate t he D umgril c oncern w as approximately h alf t he s ize o f t hat o f F iolet. Two years l ater, i n 1 853, i t w as r ecorded t hat t wo f irms i n S aint-Omer -p resumably F iolet a nd D umgril -p roduced b etween t hem 4 5 million p ipes f rom 1 1,000 t ons o f c lay, which w hen c ompared t o t he 1 851 f igures f or t he F iolet f irm a gain i ndicates D umgril w ere p roducing approximately h alf a s many p ipes a s w ere F iolet. I n a ddition t o p atented c lay p ipes, D umgril a lso d isplayed p ipeclay s tatuettes a nd " Samples o f v arious a rticles i n clay" a t t he G reat E xhibition. At t he t ime o f t he G reat E xhibition, t he c ost o f D umgril p ipes ( presumably r etail i n B ritain) r anged f rom i d a d ozen t o 3 d e ach. The E nglish j udges a t t he E xhibition, d espite awarding h onourable mentions t o b oth f irms, c learly d id not c are f or t he a rtistic q ualities o f e ither f irm's products. C ommenting o n t he F iolet p ipes, w hich w ere " mostly i n t he f orm o f h eads", t hey f elt t hese w ere " not r emarkable f or a ny o f t hat e xcellent t aste u sually d isplayed by t he F rench", a nd t hey w ere a pparently particularly p ut o ff b y t he f act t hat t he e yes o n b owls r epresenting p rominent p ersonages w ere p icked o ut " with t wo d abs o f b lack", w hich i n t heir v iew made t hese b owls l ook l ike t he i ntentiopally g rotesque b owls. D umgril's products, c haracterized b y t he j udges a s " such a s a re u sed b y t he working c lasses, a nd more p articularly b y t he p easantry", w ere f elt t o b e " more r emarkable f or t heir c heapness a nd v ery e xcellent m anufacture, t hen f or any b eauty o f d esign". The h ighest-quality F rench c lay p ipes a re considered t o b e t hose p roduced b y G ambier, t hough t his f irm d id n ot a ppear a t t he G reat E xhibition. D uring part o f t he 1 9th c entury, t he G ambier f irm w as p artly owned by a m ember o f t he F iolet p ipemaking f amily, but t he t wo b usinesses n ever a ppear t o h ave b een c onnected. I n 1 868, w hen t he f irm's p roduction w as p robably declining, G ambier s till e mployed more t han 6 00 workers, and r esearch o n t he 1 894 and 1 905 G ambier c atalogues i ndicates t hat a s l ate a s t he e nd o f t he 1 9th c entury

3 1 .

t he f irm was producing w ell o ver 1 ,000 t ypes a nd sub-types of p ipe a nd w as s till a dding n ew t ypes b etween 1 894 and 1 905. The f irm p robably p roduced n early 2 ,000 types a nd s ub-types a ll t old during i ts l ifetime. Gambier were e specially f amous f or t heir b owls i n t he f orm of outstandingly-moulded h eads, e ither p ortraits o r caricatures, t he most f amous o f w hich, t he J acob p ipe, was w idely p lagiarized ( Gambier Jacobs h ad JE S i JIS L E VRAI JACOB o n a r ibbon o n t he f igure's t urban; imitations h ad v ariations o f t his s logan o r s ome o ther wording). No e xamples h ave s o f ar b een r ecorded f rom North America, h owever. The n ame G ambier b ecame practically a s ynonym f or a c lay p ipe i n F rance i n t he 19th c entury, a nd t he f irm's r eputation f or p ipe b owls i n t he f orm of h eads was s uch t hat t he n ame G ambier a lso passed i nto t he F rench l anguage i n t he p hrase t gte d e Gambier, w hich t he 1 922 L arousse d efined a s " se d it d ' une i p rsonne ä f igure grotesque". Products o f F iolet, D umgril, G ambier, a nd No l h ave all b een r ecorded i n C anada, a nd s o h ave p roducts o f a f ifth F rench f irm, t hat o f G isclon, w hich a ppears t o have manufactured p ipes a t more t han o ne c entre l ast century. T he G isclon b usiness a t Montereau-faut-Yonne was f ounded a t a n u nknown date a nd c ontinued by a son-in-law, one D utel, w ho h ad t aken o ver t he f irm by 1 859 and l ater worked i n a ssociation w ith a G . B oucher. The f actory was d estroyed by f ire i n 1 895, b ut t he business was r e-established by t he f irm of V ictor B elle of E röme, which was i n b usiness u ntil 1930. G isclon pipes with L ille marked a s t he p lace o f manufacture a re known, a nd one s uch f ragment h as b een f ound on a n Ontario s ite. As noted b elow, " paris" a ppears a s p art of t he mark on a G isclon s tem f ragment f rom a s ite i n Manitoba, but i t i s u ncertain w hether t he word r efers t o the c ity or, a s was t he c ase w ith G ambier p roducts ( see above), t o a t ype o f c lay u sed; G isclon may h ave a t s ome t ime t aken o ver an otherwise u nknown P aris p ipemaking f irm of Auriol, on t he evidence o f a marked p ipe s een by this writer i n a B elgian museum. T entative dates o f ca.1820-ca.1880 have b een s uggested f or t he L ille Gisclon business; no dates a re k nown f or t he p ossible Paris business. Another F rench maker whose p roducts h ave b een f ound i n North America i s P eter D orni, mentioned e arlier. Almost n othing i s k nown a bout D orni, b ut h e i s b elieved to h ave worked i n n orth F rance -w here t he F rench c lay pipe i ndustry was c oncentrated -c a.1850-ca.1880. D orni produced p ipes w ith h eavily-ribbed s tem d ecoration a nd PETER r aised w ithin a r ectangle on t he l eft s ide o f t he stem a nd DORNI s imilarly o n t he other s ide ( cf P 1 X ,a, a Prince of Gouda p lagiarization of a D orni s tem). Where bowls o ccur a ttached t o t hese s tems, t hey a re high-quality, s troke-burnished, t ypically .D utch-north French s ymmetrically-shaped b owls s et o n t he s tem a t a n angle away f rom t he smoker a nd p lain s ave f or a l ine o f

3 2

f ine watch-wheel-like d enticulation r ound t he b owl r im, a marking w hich when l ater t han t he b eginning o f t he 1 8th c entury i s c haracteristically D utch, t hough a coarser, mould-imparted, i mitation b elow t he r im d oes occur on s ome 1 9th-century B ritish b owl f orms, particularly t he I rish-name t ypes s uch a s D ublin ( cf p . 1 7 above). As n oted e arlier, D orni's p roducts w ere e vidently popular, f or h is s tyle o f s tem marking w as p lagiarized by a t l east t wo D utch a nd a t l east t hree G erman pipemaking f irms l ast c entury, a s well a s b y a n at-present u nidentified maker w hose c opies a re k nown from a s tem f ragment w ith t he f ragmentary wording BRE.on t he l eft s ide a nd EYE on t he r ight f rom a s ite i n upper New Y ork s tate. A p robable e xample o f t his mark occurs a t a n Ontario s ite, t hough only t he l ettering BRon t he l eft s ide a nd E. on t he r ight s urvives. As late a s 1 900, D avidson's a nd M cDougall's i n G lasgow were producing b etween t hem f ive " Dornie" ( sic) models t hree P eter Dornies, a S mall D ornie, a nd a F luted Dornie -a lthough what t hese l ooked l ike i s u nknown, e xcept t hat presumably a P eter D ornie p ipe w as o f medium s ize a nd d id n ot h ave a f luted b owl. The p rices o f t hese f ive models i n 1 900 ranged f rom 8 d t o 9 d a gross; as n oted e arlier, t he most c ommon p rices f or G lasgow pipes i n 1 900 were f rom 8 d t o 9 d a gross, which s uggests Dornie p ipes were c onsidered o rdinary p roducts a t t hat t ime. T he f irst M cDougall P eter D ornie p ipe was b eing produced b efore c a.1875, f or i t a ppears i n M cDougall's I rish price-list of t hat date, a nd a s t he l ist o f products appears t o b e at l east b roadly c hronological, with number 1 68 having b een r eached by c a.1875, n umber 1 39, t he P eter D ornie p ipe, c ould d ate t o t he l ater 1 860s, which i ndirectly s upports t he dates g iven a bove for P eter Dorni t he p ipemaker. D avidson's p roduced one P eter Dornie p ipe, t heir n umber 2 9: i f t heir n umbering was originally t hat of Murray's business, w hich D avidson took over i n 1 862, a nd i f t heir n umbering w as a lso basically c hronological, t hen t he t ype would h ave b een i n production i n G lasgow much e arlier t han t he 1 860s, presumably f rom t he 1 830s, as Murray's s tarted pipemaking i n 1 830 ( Murray's a nd D avidson's were a lso known t hroughout t heir e xistence a s t he C aledonian P ipe Works, D avidson may h ave b een Murray's m anager p rior t o t aking over t he f irm, a nd i n t he 1 885 L ondon d irectory Davidson's c laimed t o h ave b een i n b usiness f or " over half a c entury", a ll of which s uggests D avidson's t aking over of t he Murray f irm was only a c hange o f n ame). However, f or G lasgow-made P eter D ornie p ipes t o h ave starte0 appearing i n t he 1 830s, t he o riginal P eter D orni products would h ave t o h ave b een p roduced a t l east 2 0 years e arlier t han t he c onventional c a.1850 date g iven for t heir appearance. The M cDougall price-list o f ca.1875 i ndicates t he f irst M cDougall P eter D ornie p ipe ( spelt t here D orni) c ost 2 s4d a gross ( including b ox),

3 3

which a gain products a t

was w ithin t hat t ime.

t he

p rice

mode

f or

M cDougall

Fiolet, D umgril, G ambier, N oöl, a nd G isclon s tem f ragments f ound i n North America c arry v ery s imilar styles o f marking i n a c haracteristic C lassical f orm o f l ettering s harply i mpressed o n t he t op o f t he s tem n ear t he b owl. T his f orm of mark a nd l ettering a ppears t o have b een s tandard among F rench a nd B elgian p ipemakers last c entury; and i n T he N etherlands, G ouda makers a re also known t o h ave u sed i t, t hough s o f ar n o B elgian pipes or D utch p ipes w ith t his f orm o f marking h ave b een recorded i n North America. F iolet p ipes a re k nown marked " L. F iolet/S Omer/FRANCE" ( P1 X ,e) a nd " L. F iolet/ ä Omer/Depose"; D umgril p roducts have b een r ecorded marked " Dumgril/S Omer", " Dumgril/Leurs/S ' 5 Omer/Depose * " ( the f irm's f ull name, a t l east a t one point, w as D umgril, L eurs F ils, & C ie -T he D umgrils, t heir S ons, a nd C o.), a nd " E. D umgril/E. Bouveur/ä S Omer", w hich l ast must date t o l ate i n t he f irm's h istory; while G ambier u sed " Gambier/ä P aris/M * M/Depose". The mark " Creme/GAMBIER" i nside a dotted r ectangle o n t he b owl f acing t he s moker h as a lso b een r ecorded f rom a s ite i n Washington s tate, but n ot s o f ar f rom Canada - t he t erm creme r eferred t o p ipes made f rom a y ellow-tinged c lay. Other Gambier marks, t hough n ot k nown f rom North ‚ America, a re t he l etters JG w ithin a c ircle of dots impressed on t he b ase of t he b owl, a nd t he n ame " Gambier" i n s cript. The s tem mark " Noöl/Paris/FRANCE" i n t he s ame s tyle as t he F iolet, D umgril, a nd Gambier s tem marks h as b een recorded i n t he U nited S tates but n ot s o f ar f rom Canada; however, t he mark NOEL/ALYON r aised f rom a depressed r ectangular b ackground a nd quite d ifferent from t he a bove s tyle h as b een r ecorded f rom a s ite i n Ontario a nd a lso one i n M innesota. The G isclon business a t L ille marked t heir p ipes i n the t ypical i mpressed C lassical f orm of l ettering " Gisclon/Lille/D * P" or, i n t he c ase of t he O ntario stem f ragment n oted a bove, " Gisclon/ äL ille/Depose". The only other G isclon p roduct s o f ar r ecorded i n Canada -f rom a s ite i n Manitoba -i s e xtremely i nteresting, f or i ts mark -" ngo/Culot/Gisclon/paris" indicates t hat i n t his c ase t he p ipe w as of s uperior quality. T he t erm c ulot -s hort f or c ulottante ( culotter, t o s eason a p ipe) -i ndicates t he p ipe h ad been s oaked i n a preparation o f a lcohol, dried, varnished, a nd wrapped, a ll i n t he d ark -w hen t he p ipe was e xposed t o t he , l ight i t b ecame b rown. Whether p aris refers t o t he p lace of manufacture o r was u sed, a s i n the Gambier f irm's p ipe n omenclature, t o i ndicate a t ype of c lay i s not known; as i ndicated a bove, t here i s evidence t o s uggest t hat G isclon may h ave t aken over a Paris p ipemaking f irm a t s ome point. Ng( ) i s s hort f or

3 4

n 6og ne, a t erm u sed t o i ndicate a n ew s tyle o f p ipe, t hough i n f act t he t erm w as o ften a pplied s imply t o variations o f o ld s tyles. The a ddition o f t he word FRANCE t o s ome o f t he F rench makers' marks p robably f ollowed t he M cKinley T ariff A ct o f 1 891 i n t he U nited States r eferred t o a t t he b eginning o f t his p aper.

German t obacco-pipes a re generally t hought o f a s having e laborately-decorated porcelain o r meerschaum bowls a nd wooden s tems, but c lay p ipes o f t he English-Dutch t radition h ave b een made i n t he Westerwald, N E of Koblenz, f rom t he m iddle o f t he 1 7th century, a s well a s e lsewhere i n G ermany. Very l ittle i s k nown a bout t he h istory o f p ipemaking i n t he Westerwald, a lthough t he a rea w as f amous f or i ts stoneware f rom t he e nd o f t he 1 6th c entury; but during t he l ast c entury a nd i nto t his, c heap p ipes, o ften w ith painted or g lazed decoration, w ere p roduced i n great quantity, a nd p ipes a re s till b eing p roduced t here a nd can b e bought i n North America w ith G ERMANY marked o n t he s tem ( e.g. P 1 XII). The Westerwald makers were notorious p lagiarizers o f other f irms' s tyles a nd e ven n ames: f or e xample, a t rade c atalogue p robably datable t o c a.1900 shows one p ipe w ith DAVIDSON ( spelt w ith a r eversed N ) on i ts s tem, c learly a p irating of t he n ame of t he Glasgow f irm of t his n ame n oted a bove ( not, of course, t hat G lasgow f irms c ould c omplain, a s t hey were plagiarizing v arious B ritish a nd f oreign makers' n ames t hat o f P eter D orni, f or e xample -f or t heir p ipe types). No German-made c lay p ipes h ave s o f ar b een r eported f rom C anada, b ut s ome h ave b een n oted i n t he U nited States, a nd one a rea where t hey appear t o b e r elatively common i s N ew Y ork s tate a nd New J ersey. The f irm whose name appears most often on G erman p ipes f ound i n N orth America i s t hat of Müllenbach a nd Thewald o f Höhr -n ow Höhr-Grenzhausen -i n t he Westerwald. This business was established i n 1 830 and s till e xists, t hough i t h as n ot manufactured p ipes s ince 1 930. Various markings a re known t o h ave b een u sed b y this f irm: a h eavily-ribbed stem f ragment e xactly duplicating t he P eter D orni s tems noted e arlier i s r ecorded f rom u pper New Y ork s tate marked MÜLLENBA[CH] a nd [ TH]EWALD.HÖHR, w hile other p ipe f ragments marked M & T f ollowed by a mould n umber o r M & T H G [ERM NY] a re a lso k nown. Another D orni i mitation i s r epresented by a s tem f ragment marked P ETER and DORNI G ERMANY f rom New J ersey, a nd y et a nother German Dorni c opy, f rom u pper N ew Y ork s tate, i s marked I .G. PRENCE a nd I N GOTHA, p resumably t he p roduct o f a Gotha maker p lagiarizing P rince of Gouda's p irated copies of P eter Dorni's products. P ipes h ave a l2o b een r ecorded marked GERMANY, b ut w ith n o maker's n ame ( cf P 1 X II). A gain, t he appearance o f t he n ame .o f t he c ountry of origin probably i ndicates a post-1891 product; certainly, t he appearance of t he n ame of t he c ountry i n

3 5

E nglish i ndicates p roduction English-speaking market.

p rimarily

f or

a n

As i ndicated a t t he b eginning o f t his p aper, i nnumerable p ipe t ypes a nd s hapes w ere mass p roduced i n many c ountries l ast c entury ( e.g. P 1 X III,b-m). B y t he t ime White's o f G lasgow c losed i n 1 955 a fter a t l east 1 50 years of p ipemaking, t hey h ad a ccumulated 2 ,000 moulds, a nd a L ondon f irm o f t he l ate 1 9th a nd e arly 2 0th c enturies c laimed t o h ave 1 ,000 available. I n 1 900, when t he G lasgow i ndustry w as i n d ecline, t he price-list o f t hat year r eferred t o a bove s hows McDougall's a nd D avidson's s till p roducing j ust o ver 4 00 types a nd White's j ust o ver 6 00, a lthough o f c ourse many of t he t ypes were c ommon among t he f irms. However, a s noted a bove ( p. 48 ) , e ven i n t heir l ast years McDougall's were p roducing b etween 3 0 and 4 0 types t o cater f or r egional preferences w ithin t he B ritish I sles, and White's t oo c ontinued t o p roduce d ifferent t ypes o f pipe t o s uit r egional a nd n ational p references. Bowls with v arious f orms of f luting, r eeding, o r ribbing ( e.g. P 1 I ,b-d,g,m) were appearing f rom t he l ate 1 8th c entury onwards, — a d — p ipes w ith masonic s ymbols ( e.g. P 1 XIII,e-f) were a lso v ery popular i n t he 1 9th century. Many of t he d esigns o n 1 9th-century p ipes were meant t o appeal t o p atriotic or other l oyalties: thistles, h arps, s hamrocks, t he R oyal Antediluvian O rder of Buffaloes ( RA0B) s ymbol; other p ipes c arried advertisements b earing t he n ame a nd a ddress o f s ome business e stablishment or t he n ame of a p roduct, t hough none o f t his l atter c lass h ave s o f ar b een r eported f rom Canada. T he u se o f r ubber-stamped i nk marks, e ither carrying a dvertisements or s imply giving t he c ountry o f origin of t he p ipe, i s a lso k nown. P olitical a nd o ther topical e vents a re a lso c hronicled: T rafalgar, t he 1 851 Great E xhibition, S evastopol -t he l ist i s e ndless. When s uch a depiction c an b e i dentified a nd dated, i t supplies a u seful p iece o f dating e vidence -m ore specifically, a t erminus post q uem f or t he date o f manufacture of t he p ipe. N ational emblems s uch a s t he harp on t he p ipe i llustrated i n P late I X,b a nd t he h arp and s hamrock on t hat i llustrated i n P late — I I,a t herefore do n ot i ndicate t he p ipe's p lace of origin, which i n t he case of t he t wo p ipes h ere a re i n f act G lasgow a nd Montreal r espectively; H enderson's, who manufactured t he latter e xample, made a v ery s imilar p ipe w ith s hamrocks and a h arp o n one s ide of t he b owl a nd a t histle o n t he other. ' S lain b owls, h owever, were p robably e ven more common, e specially a s t he c entury p rogressed. T he most popular c lay p ipe o f a ll l ast c entury was p robably t hat depicted i n P late X III,h,1 a nd k nown a s a TD p ipe f rom t hese l ett rs mould i mparted on t he b owl f acing t he smoker. T he original p ipes w ith a TD mark f irst a ppear

3 6

c a.1755, o n a rchaeological e vidence ( P1 X IV), a nd w ere apparently o f s uch q uality a s t o b ecome i mmediately popular a broad, t hough c uriously t hey h ave y et t o b e r ecorded i n E ngland d espite h aving b een most p robably made by a L ondoner, T homas D ormer ( fl 1 748-70, d ates which p robably i nclude t hose o f a s on). M any v ariants i mmediately a ppeared, e ven o utside B ritain, s uggesting p lagiarization -a N orwegian p ipemaker w orking i n t he 1 750s a nd 1 760s p roduced a d irect c opy o f t he o riginal TD mark on a n E nglish-shaped b owl b ut w ith h is own i nitials, I B, s ubstituted f or t he l etters T D. T he original s tyle c ontinued t o b e p roduced a t l east u p t o t he t ime of t he A merican R evolution, 1 775-83, o n t he evidence of material f rom R evolutionary War s ites, a nd among h igh-quality c opies w ere p ipes w ith t he s ame b owl s hape a nd d ecorative mark b ut w ith t he l etters WM, F S, or WG f acing t he s moker i nstead o f T D. O f t hese c opies, t hose w ith t he l etters WG a re p ossibly s lightly l ater t han t he o thers -t heir e arliest o ccurrence a ppears t o b e o n A merican R evolutionary War s ites -b ut t hey a re perhaps t he most c ommon, a nd i n d erived f orms c ertainly t he l ongest l asting. T hey a lso a ppear t o b e more c losely r elated t o t he o riginal TD-marked p ipes, f or while t hey o ccur w ith t he l etters W a nd G on e ither s ide of t he h eel t hey a lso o ccur w ith t he l etters T a nd D o n e ither s ide o f t he h eel a s d o t he TD-marked p ipes. ( Varieties i n f orm o f t he l etters T a nd D o n t he s ides of t he h eel a nd t he u se o f s ymbols, e ither i n a ddition t o t he l etters o r i n p lace o f t hem, o ccur w ith t he earliest f orm o f TD-marked p ipes, a nd o n a rchaeological evidence s ome a t l east a re v irtually a s e arly a s TD-marked p ipes w ith h eels h aving a s imple T a nd D ; whether t hese r epresent i mmediate c opies made b y o ther makers o r a re m erely variant markings o f t he o riginal manufacturer i s u nknown.) Both t he T D a nd WG versions c ontinued w ith steadily-degenerating d ecorative motifs t o c a.1830, o n present a rchaeological e vidence, a nd l ate v ersions w ith t he l etters TD f acing t he s moker w ithin a crudely-executed d esign a nd W a nd G on e ither s ide o f t he h eel a re a lso k nown. P late X III,k, a nd p robably i , s how s tylistically l ate v ersions o f t his d ecorative — t radition, w ith t he d elicacy o f t he mark a nd s urrounding c ircle a nd t he q uality o f t he b owl e ntirely l ost. P late a nd m s how a berrant v ersions, p robably o f t he e arly 1 9th c entury, w here o nly t he p lagiarized l etters s how t he u ltimate o rigin o f t he s tyle. H owever, c a.1840 -t hough t here i s s till a d earth o f s tratigraphically-excavated a nd c arefully-dated s ites whose a rtefact m aterial would a dd p recision t o t he dating -t he b owl s hape i llustrated i n P late X III,h a nd I was c oming t o b e t he TD bowl s hape, a nd t his f orm r emained i n p roduction a t l east u ntil M cDougall's c losed i n 1 967. I n t he 1 900 S cottish p rice-list, M cDougall's mould n umber 1 - is f or a TD p ipe, a nd a s t he mould n umbering appears t o b e a t l east b roadly c hronological

3 7

a nd a s M cDougall's were f ounded i n 1 846, t his would s uggest t he TD bowl s hape s hown i n P late X III,h a nd I had a lready a ppeared b y t hat d ate. F urther, D avidson's mould n umber 1 i n t he s ame l ist i s a lso f or a TD p ipe: T homas D avidson j r t ook o ver M urray's p ipemaking business i n 1 862, b ut i f t he mould n umbering r eflects Murray's c hronological d evelopment o f p ipe t ypes, t hen t his mould n umber 1 could date f rom 1 830, w hen Murray's started p roducing p ipes. As a t ype, t he TD p ipe a ppears t o h ave b een particularly p opular a mong G lasgow m akers -a n 1 883 Boston, M assachusetts, p ublication i n f act s tated t hat " T.D. p ipes c ome f rom S cotland" -b ut TD p ipes w ere a lso b eing p roduced i n C anada, a s e videnced by D ixon o f Montreal's d irectory a dvertisements o f t he 1 880s n oted earlier ( p. 2 4 ) a nd a D ixon TD p ipe f rom a n O ntario s ite; B annerman TD p ipes f rom s ites i n O ntario a nd Manitoba; and H enderson's TD p ipes f rom Ontario a nd Quebec s ites, i ncluding t he b owl s hown i n P late I X,d, t hough i ts b owl i s n ot a n a ccurate T D bowl s hape ( the Henderson p ipe w ith h arp a nd s hamrock d ecoration o n i ts bowl f rom t he s ame s ite i llustrated i n P late I X,b closely r esembles a TD p ipe i n b owl s hape, e xcept t hat t rue TD p ipes do not s eem t o h ave h ad d ecorated b owls). The B annerman TD p ipe h as what i s p resumably i ts t ype number -a pparently 5 -o n t he s tem p receding t he n ame of t he f irm: t his i s t he o nly e xample s o f ar k nown o f a Montreal f irm u sing n umbering i n t he manner o f t he Glasgow makers ( p. 1 8 a bove). B annerman's b ranch a t Rouses P oint, N ew Y ork s tate, a lso p roduced TD p ipes ( p. 2 5 a bove). D umgril of S aint.-der ( see p . 3 0 a bive) produced TD p ipes c arrying a c lose c opy of t he o riginal 1 8th-century mark, t hough t he r ather d elicately-shaped bowls, while of v aguely 1 8th-century s hape, a re n ot t he s ame a s e ither t he o riginal f orm o r t he l ater, 1 9th-century, f orm; none o f t hese D umgril p roducts a re known f rom North America, h owever. I n 1 900, White's, M cDougall's, D avidson's, a nd Waldie's w ere p roducing a mong t hem 4 2 varieties o f T D pipe, M cDougall's making 2 2 of t hem. More t han h alf o f t he v arieties produced w ere priced a t 8 A -d a gross i n 1 900, a nd most of t he r emainder a t 9 d a gross, s o t hat t hey f all w ithin t he price mode f or G lasgow c lay p ipes at t his t ime o f 8 d-9d; only a 1 6-in. TD cost a s h igh a s 1 s1d. T he M cDougall I rish price-list o f c a.1875 has only t he f irm's f irst f ive TD varieties, s uggesting t hat at l east i n t he c ase of M cDougall's ( who, h owever, appear t o h ave s pecialized i n TDs a t l east s o f ar a s varieties w ent) t he popularity o f TD p ipes i ncreased during t he l ast quarter of t he 1 9th c entury. T he prices ca.1875 t end t o b e b elow t he p rice mode a t t hat t ime o f 2 s2d-2s8d, which c ould mean e ither t hat TD p ipes b ecame a s lightly h igher-quality p ipe l ater i n t he c entury o r, probably more l ikely, t hat t heir i ncreasing p opularity

3 8

i n t he l ast q uarter o f t he c entury made i t w orthwhile raising t he p rices s lightly ( only r elatively, o f course -1 900 prices f or TD p ipes w ere b etween t wo a nd t hree t imes l ower t han t hose i n M cDougall's c a.1875 l ist). A ccording t o t he 1 883 B oston p ublication, T D p ipes were s old w holesale a t e ach a nd r etail a t e ach a t t hat t ime, p resumably i n t he N ew E ngland a rea.

l e le

l e 2e

TD p ipes p roduced i n r ecent y ears i n G ermany a nd Japan h ave b een a vailable i n North America. T he f ormer ( P1 X II), made i n t he Westerwald, t hough p oorly produced, approximate i n b owl s hape t he f orm i llustrated i n P late X III,h a nd 1 , a nd h ave G ERMANY mould i mparted and r aised on t he l eft s ide o f t he s tem. T he l ess s aid about t he Japanese e xamples p robably t he b etter, b ut t heir b owl s hape b ears n o r elation t o a ny k nown TD bowl f orm. The p ipes a re made o f a v ery white, chalky-looking c lay which a ppears t o h ave b een v ery w et; t hey a re probably s lip c ast. The word JAPAN i s mould i mparted a nd r aised o n t he s tem. Both t he G erman a nd t he Japanese t ypes h ave t he l etters TD on t he b owl f acing t he s moker.

Because c lay p ipes w ere v ery much l ighter t han brier p ipes a nd d id n ot n eed t o b e c lenched i n t he t eeth, t hey h ad v ery s imple mouthpieces w ith a s lightly rounded-off e nd ( P1 X ,b,d,f-2). G lazing o r s ome s imilar f inish was s ometimes a dded t o t he mouthpiece t o p revent t he s moker's l ips a dhering t o t he p orous c lay ( Pls X ,f-1 a nd X III,a-b); t he c olour u sed d epended l argely o n t he t radition o f the f irm making t he p ipes, b ut s uch f inishes b ecome c ommon o nly i n t he 1 9th c entury a nd a re very r are p rior t o t hat. At l east s ome G lasgow m akers were u sing a c lear y ellow-brown g laze l ast c entury ( e.g. t he Murray's p ipes i llustrated i n P late X III,a-b), while R ing's o f B ristol were u sing a c lear g reen g laze. T hese c olours s hould n ot b e c onsidered e xclusive t o t hese makers, h owever. S ome c lay p ipes d o have mouthpieces i mitating b rier p ipes, i n w hich c ase t he p ipe c an p robably b e c onsidered l ate i n d ate a s t he brier p ipe d id not a ppear u ntil c a.1856. H owever, mouthpieces s imilar t o t hese ( e.g. P ls I I,c a nd X ,c) a re apparently o riginally a E uropean, a nd s pecifically French, t rait, a nd may b e e arlier ( as t he e xample i n P late I I,c s hows, t his E uropean f eature w as a dopted b y British pipemakers l ast c entury, i n t his c ase White's o f G lasgow). The vulcanite mouthpiece a s f ound o n modern b rier pipes was not i nvented u ntil 1 878, which o ffers u seful dating evidence f or v ery l ate a rchaeological d eposits where b rier p ipe p arts h ave b een r ecovered -t rading posts i n t he C anadian a nd American West, f or e xample. Earlier briers t ook a mber s tems i f t hey w ere t he more

3 9

e xpensive t ypes, a nd horn, b one, o r wooden s tems i f o f cheaper k inds. The s teamboat B ertrand, which s ank i n t he M issouri i n Nebraska i n 1 865 and w hich h as b een e xcavated, i ncluded i n i ts c argo b rier p ipes of a b owl shape c losely a pproximating t he modern L arge F ull B ent brier, which h as a B illiard ( also k nown a s a n E gg) b owl shape; i n t his c ase t he s tems were o f wood. The Bertrand was bound f or F ort B enton i n Montana f rom St L ouis with c argoes f or F ort B enton a nd v arious destinations b eyond i n t he goldfields of Montana; F ort Benton was a major s ource of s upplies f or t he C anadian West prior t o t he completion of t he C anadian P acific Railway f rom e astern C anada i n 1 885 ( the b rier p ipes o n t he B ertrand, h owever, were d estined f or Virginia C ity i n SW Montana). S everal amber s tems ( P1 XV) h ave b een excavated f rom a s ite i n S askatchewan datable t o 1 875-83, a nd probably went w ith b rier b owls; such s tems could equally well h ave gone with meerschaum b owls, b ut meerschaum p ipes a re a n e xtreme r arity on e xcavated sites s o f ar.

Lastly, t hough t hey b elong t o a n e ntirely d ifferent tradition f rom t he l ong-stemmed, a lmost i nvariably white, ball-clay p ipes, t here a re t he s tub-stemmed earthenware pipes. As t heir n ame i ndicates, t hese a re of a c oarser, u sually r ed-firing, e arthenware c lay a nd have a s hort s ocket which t akes a r eed or s imilar s tem. These p ipes i n North America a re a d istinctively U nited States product, with C entral, a nd u ltimately E astern, European origins; but i t will b e u seful t o n ote b riefly here t hose points which p ertain i n p articular t o Canadian f inds. Although t hese p ipes a re d istinctively American, t hey h ave b een r ecorded only r arely f rom Canadian s ites, and where t hey do occur t hey v irtually i nvariably c an b e convincingly attributed t o American e conomic i nfluence. Finds f rom s ites i n Manitoba, S askatchewan, A lberta, a nd British C olumbia o ccur on I ndian, M f tis, a nd Euro-Canadian s ites where t here i s d efinite evidence, i ncluding documentary r eferences, t hat a major proportion of t rade c ame f rom or t hrough t he United States b efore t he C anadian Pacific R ailway f rom e astern Canada was completed i n 1 885. F or s outhern A lberta a nd Saskatchewan i n particular, F ort B enton i n Montana w as t he i mmediate s ource of goods, a s n oted previously. I n Quebec province and Ontario t hese p ipes have b een f ound on s ites a long t he Great L akes a nd S t L awrence border with t he United States i n areas t hrough which voyagers of b oth countries would have passed. The discovery o f f ragments -of t hese p ipes on western C anadian s ites c an t herefore be t aken a s very good evidence f or e conomic contacts with t he United States e specially p rior t o ca.1885, while i n e astern C anada t heir appearance suggests more general c ontact w ith t he n eighbouring

4 0

r epublic t o t he s outh t hrough t ravellers a long St L awrence-Great L akes r oute which f orms much eastern Canadian-American b order.

t he o f t he

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am e xtremely g rateful t o various c orrespondents who over t he years s upplied me w ith much v aluable a nd often unpublished i nformation which h as h elped make t his article ( and i ts p redecessor) possible: G .R. B radford, T .A. Conway, D .H. C rundwell, E .M. Green, T . K enyon, O lga Klimko, C .S. L indsay, B .M. Mitchell, J .H. McCashion, R .M. McDonald, Dr D .S. R obertson, Loreen Robinson, a nd J .B. Sudbury; and I s hould particularly l ike t o t hank my former colleagues A lison MacLean a nd E lizabeth Wylie, who helped me w ith most of t he e arly r esearch o n p ipes i n t he collections of what i s now t he R esearch D ivision of t he National H istoric Parks a nd S ites B ranch, P arks Canada, I ndian a nd Northern Affairs Canada, i n Ottawa. I s hould a lso l ike t o t hank M . Moussette of t he Quebec Regional Office, P arks Canada, S te-Foy, Q uebec province, for f inding a nd making a vailable f or p hotography a pipe-stem f ragment n ow i n t hat o ffice's c ollections; and T . Rees, Supervisor of Archives, C ity of Toronto Archives, Toronto, f or i nformation on t he Toronto f irm of Davidson a nd Hay. T he p ipes i n Plates I -V, V III-X, and XIII-XV are a ll f rom Canadian national h istoric parks or s ites, a nd with t he e xception of P late XIV, which was s upplied by t he F ortress of Louisbourg National H istoric Park, a ll photographs were pri ited by i R . Chan of t he photographic u nit, Research D ivision, National H istoric Parks a nd S ites B ranch, O ttawa. The f igures were drawn by S . Epps o f t he R esearch D ivision's draughting u nit f rom originals s upplied by D . R. Atkinson ( Fig 1 , a-e a nd h ), M .-G. L efrancq ( Fig 2 ,e), a nd L . A. Rogs — ( Figs - 1 ,f-1 and 2 , a-d a nd f ). The camera-ready c opy of t he t ext a nd c aptions was p repared by Sylvia Bowerman a nd t he i llustrations b y D . Rochon, both of t he D ivision's. Research Publications Section.

ANNOTATED

B IBLIOGRAPHY

The f ollowing b ibliography does n ot c laim t o l ist every a rticle published w hich i ncludes a r eference t o 1 9th-century c lay t obacco-pipes f rom Canadian s ites o r to 1 9th-century Canadian p ipemakers, b ut i t i s hoped that no references o f i mportance have b een o verlooked. The annotations consist of t he b riefest r esume of t he pipes described, mentioned, o r i llustrated, o r of t he information given i n t he source i f i t i s a n h istorical rather t han a n a rchaeological a ccount; there i s no attempt a t c ritical evaluation.

4 1

U npublished r eports k nown t o t he w riter h ave n ot b een i ncluded, b ut p apers i n t wo m anuscript s eries designed t o make r esearch i nformation a vailable r apidly pending i ts a ppearance i n p ublished r eport f orm, t he Manuscript R eport s eries o f t he N ational H istoric P arks and S ites B ranch o f P arks C anada, D epartment o f I ndian and Northern A ffairs C anada ( and t he v ariously-named predecessors o f t hat D epartment a nd i ts p arts) a nd t he D ata B ox s eries o f t he H istorical P lanning a nd R esearch Branch o f t he O ntario M inistry o f C ulture a nd R ecreation, h ave b een u sed. T he f ormer i s a vailable t o t he p ublic f or c onsultation a t t he P ublic A rchives i n Ottawa a nd a t e ach o f t he p rovincial a nd t erritorial archives; t he l atter i s a vailable f or c onsultation a t t he o ffice o f t he H istorical P lanning a nd R esearch Branch i n T oronto a nd a t f ive M inistry R egional Archaeology o ffices i n t he p rovince: K enora ( Northwestern Ontario), T hunder B ay ( North C entral Ontario), S ault S te M arie ( Northeastern O ntario), L ondon ( Southwestern Ontario), a nd O ttawa ( Eastern O ntario) ( a s ixth R egion, S outh C entral O ntario, h as i ts o ffice a t t he T oronto o ffice o f t he H istorical P lanning a nd R esearch B ranch). The g eneral policy f or l isting a rticles i n t his b ibliography h as b een t o i nclude a ll r eferences w hich mention c lay p ipes, e ven i f i t i s o nly a m ention o f t wo u nmarked s tems f rom a s ite ( e.g. C onway 1 977): i n t his way, f uture r esearchers w ill b e a ware o f e arlier discoveries a nd m ay b e a ble t o p ut t ogether f inds f rom a s ite o r a rea s eparated b y many y ears a nd s ee s ignificance i n t he a pparently u nhelpful material l isted earlier. A p ossible e xample o f t his i s Wright's r ecording o f p ipe f ragments f rom a p rehistoric s ite a t Michipicoten, n orthern O ntario ( Wright 1 969), w hich while n ot y et u sable, may b ecome s ignificant w hen t he f ragments a re c ompared t o t hose r ecovered f rom e xcavations of h istorical o ccupation a t M ichipicoten ( Forma 1 971), o r t o material r ecovered f rom other northern O ntario h istorical s ites. As n oted a bove, n o a ttempt h as b een made t o critically e valuate t he s ources l isted. H owever, i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he q uality a nd a ccuracy o f t he i nformation i n t hese s ources v ary g reatly, a nd many o f t he a ccounts make a ssertions w hich a re n ow k nown -a nd which i n s ome c ases s hould h ave b een k nown t o t heir authors a t t he t ime o f w riting -t o b e e rroneous. An e xtreme c ase i s G all's a ccount o f t he p ipes f rom F ort P ic i n n orthern O ntario ( Gall 1 967). H ere, B annerman o f Montreal i s g iven t he d ates 1 797-1830, t he s ource c ited f or t his i nformation b eing a n i mportant a rticle o n English c lay p ipes w hich makes n o r eference t o B annerman or a ny o ther Montreal maker a nd d oes n ot e ven i nclude t he p age n umber q uoted. F urther, a fter s aying ( correctly) t hat t here w ere s everal H enderson p ipemakers

4 2

i n Montreal, G all went o n t o s ay t hat t here w ere " a number of makers" u sing t he marks M cDOUGALL a nd GLASGOW, so t hat a s pecific p eriod of manufacture c ould n ot b e suggested f or p ipes s o marked. H arris's e rroneous date ( 1976: 2 05) f or t he s tart of t he D ixon of Montreal f irm citing t he 1 971 version of t he p resent p aper, o n t he other hand, i s b ased on a s imple misreading of t he sentence giving D ixon's dates; but i t i s s ad t hat a s r ecently a s 1 977, one writer was a ttributing I /F s pur marks t o t he F iolet f irm of S aint-Omer ( Losey e t a l 1 977b: 1 81) a lthough i t h as b een i n p rint f or y ears t hat t his was a mark o f t he F ord f irm of E ast L ondon. Two a dditional publications a re e ssential f or providing t he b ackground t o a s tudy o f c lay tobacco-pipes. One i s A . O swald's C lay P ipes f or t he Archaeologist ( British Archaeological R eports 1 4, 1 975), available at £ 3.80 post f ree f rom B ritish A rchaeological Reports, 1 22 B anbury R oad, O xford OX2 7 BP, E ngland; t he other i s t his writer's C lay Tobacco-Pipes, w ith Particular Reference t o t he B ristol I ndustry ( History and Archaeology n o 1 1, f our v olumes, 1 977), published b y t he National H istoric Parks a nd S ites B ranch, P arks Canada, D epartment o f I ndian a nd Northern A ffairs, Ottawa, a nd a vailable a t $ 25.00 ( $30.00 outside C anada), f rom Printing a nd Publishing, S upply a nd S ervices Canada, Ottawa, C anada, K lA 0 S9. The f irst p rovides a general s urvey o f B ritish pipemaking a nd l ists of s ome 7 ,200 B ritish p ipemakers, while t he l atter, i n a ddition t o c overing e xhaustively L he Bristol i ndustry a nd i ts t rade, s urveys p ipema g i n, among other c entres, L iverpool, G lasgow, Montreal, and East London, a nd among other c ountries, The Netherlands, G ermany, a nd F rance, a nd t heir t rade. Most of t he f inds a nd data n oted b aldly i n t he p resent p aper are discussed i n numbing detail i n t he H istory a nd Archaeology volumes: where t he present a rticle d iffers f rom t he H istory and Archaeology a ccount, i t i s e ither because n ew e vidence h as b ecome a vailable; or b ecause the writer, on r ereading h is original s ources, h as decided h e misread o r misunderstood t hat d ata; or s imply because h e h as c hanged h is mind a bout t he i nterpretation of s ome e vidence. I t i s h oped, h owever, t hat t he present paper i s a s a ccurate a s current k nowledge allows.

Anonymous 1 856

Montreal i n 1 856: A Sketch Prepared f or t he Opening of t he Grand Trunk Railway of Canada ., by a Sub-Committee o f t he Celebration Committee. L ovell, Montreal. ( Slightly d ifferent p arts, b ut both i ncluding t he r eferences t o t he t wo pipemaking f irms, a re r eprinted i n T he Canadian Merchants' Magazine and Commercial

4 3

R eview vol 1 no 2 [ May 1 857] 1 09-51 and n o [ June 1 857] 2 15-22 and i n R evue d 'histoire de l ' Amgrique f ran aise v ol VI no 1 [ June 1962] 1 23-39.) Notes

on Montreal p ipemaking Henderson a nd S on.

Anonymous 1 870

f irms

o f

D oherty

3

a nd

" Fabrique d e p ipes e t o uvrages e n t erre d e MM. D . e t W . B ell", Annuaire manufacturier de Qugbec...pour 1 873, p p71-72. Huot, Quebec C ity.

Brief

a ccount of p ipe manufacture a t t he W . a nd D . B ell f actory, n otes on n umber o f employees a nd t heir earnings; passing mention o f a much smaller, u nidentified, Q uebec City p ipe manufacturer a t S t-Sauveur, n otes o n number of employees a nd t heir e arnings.

Anonymous 1970

Clay p ipe

Barbeau, 1941

Mention

" Site of F ort C algary", G lenbow vol 3 no ( September 1 970) 3 -4. G lenbow-Alberta I nstitute, C algary. f ragments

b rier

p ipe.

M . " Potiers c anadiens", Mgmoires et comptes rendus de l a Socigtg royale du C anada section I , vol XXXV ( 3rd s er.) ( May 1 941) 1 3-21. Ottawa. of W .

Barbeau, 1942

a nd

5

a nd

D .

B ell

of

Q uebec

C ity.

M . Mai£res artisans d e Zodiaque, Montreal.

chez-nous.

E ditions

du

Mention of a Quebec C ity p ipemaker c alled Hobson ( name sometimes appears a s O lson) who worked f or c a.40 years o n t he r ue Marie de l 'Incarnation.

Barka, 1965

N .F. H istoric S ites Archaeology a t P ortland Point, New B runswick, C anada -1 631-c.1850. P h.D. t hesis, H arvard University, C ambridge, Massachusetts.

Nineteenth- a nd l ate-18th-century W . White, G lasgow;

4 4

p ipes:

Murray, G lasgow; McDougall, G lasgow -e xamples marked GLASGOW, S COTLAND, and WOODSTOCK [ PIPE]; T . White, E dinburgh; D ixon, Montreal; TD bowls, i ncluding e xamples w ith T /D s pur mark; TD bowl w ith W/G s pur mark; WG bowl; W/G s pur mark; M/G s pur mark; C/M s pur mark; i llustrations.

Barka, 1 978

N .F. " The Archaeology o f F ort L ennox, I le-aux-Noix, Q uebec, 1 964 S eason", H istory and Archaeology n o 2 0 ( 1978) 3 -197. National H istoric P arks and S ites B ranch, P arks C anada, D epartment of I ndian a nd Northern Affairs, O ttawa.

R . B annerman, Montreal; Henderson o r H enderson's, Montreal; Bell, Q uebec; A . C oghill, G lasgow; Murray, G lasgow; W. White, G lasgow; TD bowls, i ncluding e xamples w ith T /D and W/G s pur marks, one TD bowl w ith H enderson o f Montreal s tem marking; WG bowls, o ne w ith WIG spur mark; [ MI] LO/STRAND i mpressed o n b owl f acing s moker; VINER ( first l etter l arger t han t he r est) i mpressed o n bowl f acing smoker, A /V spur mark; M/G s pur marks, s ome w ith f igure 9 b elow t he M ; S/E s pur mark; decorated a nd p lain b owls; i llustration w ith 2 3 bowls a nd s tem f ragments.

Barka, 1976

N .F.

a nd Anne Archaeology and t he F ur Trade: The Excavation of Sturgeon Fort, S askatchewan ( History a nd Archaeology n o 7 ). National Historic P arks a nd S ites B ranch, P arks Canada, D epartment o f I ndian a nd Northern Affairs, O ttawa.

WG bowl f ragment ( illustrated); plain b owl f ragments ( illustrated); plain s tem f ragments ( illustrated).

Christensen, D eanna M . 1 973 " Rediscovering

Fort P elly",

4 5

T he

Beaver

outfit 3 04 Winnipeg. C lay

p ipe

C loutier, 1 974

f ragments,

no

1 ( Summer

c omplete

1 973)

5 4-59.

meerschaum e ffigy

b owl.

J .-P. " Quebec C eramics/La c gramique q u becoise", Canadian Antiques Collector v ol 9 n o 3 ( May-June 1 974) 6 8-73. T oronto.

Mention of H enderson, B annerman, D oherty, D avid F ord, and Murphy ( all o f Montreal), a nd B ell ( of Q uebec City) pipes f ound on North American s ites; i llustration of t wo decorated b owls f rom s ite o f Bell f actory.

Collard, 1 967

E lizabeth Nineteenth-Century Pottery a nd P orcelain i n Canada. M cGill University P ress, Montreal.

D etails of B annerman, C anada P ipe Works ( Dixon), a nd Henderson f irms of Montreal, B ell of Q uebec C ity, and Joseph White a nd S ons a nd P oole a nd F oley o f Saint John; r eferences t o p ipes i mported f rom Scotland.

Conway, 1975a

T .A. " Archaeological F ield Work a t t he Schoonertown Naval E stablishment o n L ake Huron", C anadian Archaeological Association - Collected P apers [ presented by Historical S ites B ranch, D ivision o f P arks, Ontario M inistry o f Natural R esources, staff] March 1 975 ( Research R eport 6 , Historical S ites B ranch, D ivision o f P arks, Ontario M inistry of N atural R esources) pp8-16. Toronto.

TD bowls; T/D spur marks; W/G spur marks; plain b owls.

Conway, 1975b

T .A. " An A rchaeological Survey o f t he Northeastern S hore of L ake S uperior", Canadian Archaeological A ssociation Collected P apers [ presented by H istorical Sites B ranch, D ivision o f P arks, O ntario Ministry of N atural R esources, s taff] March 1975 ( Research R eport 6 , H istorical S ites Branch, D ivision o f P arks, O ntario M inistry of N atural R esources) pp17-28. Toronto. 4 6

H enderson,

Montreal;

D ixon, Montreal; McDougall, G lasgow.

Conway,

T .A.

1 977

Two

A L ate 1 9th C entury M idden f rom t he La Cloche F ur Post S ite ( Data B ox R esearch Manuscript S eries n o 3 09, H istorical P lanning a nd R esearch Branch, Ontario Ministry of Culture a nd R ecreation). Toronto. plain

Dawson, 1 969

s tems.

K .C.A. Archaeological I nvestigations at t he S ite of t he Longlac H istoric Trading Post, Thunder Bay D istrict, Ontario ( Ontario Archaeology no 1 2, 1 969).

McDougall, G lasgow -m ost w ith GLASGOW possibly only GLASGOW; W. White, G lasgow -o ne with S COTLAND, GLASGOW; Davidson, G lasgow; Henderson, Montreal; ASPARNAA[ WINGOUDA; TD bowls; I/F spur marks; decorated a nd p lain bowls; i llustrations.

Dawson, 1 970

S COTLAND, r est

s ome

w ith

K .C.A. " Preliminary Archaeological I nvestigation of Fort William i n Northwestern Ontario", Historical Archaeology 1 970 vol IV pp34-50. Bethlehem, P ennsylvania.

Henderson, Montreal; two bowl f ragments; stem f ragments.

D empsey, 1 973

H .A. " A H istory of R ocky Mountain House", Canadian H istoric S ites: Occasional Papers i n Archaeology and H istory no 6 ( 1973) 7 -53. National H istoric S ites S ervice, National and H istoric Parks Branch, D epartment of I ndian Affairs Ottawa.

" Baltic yachter" E lbow R iver

c lay Post

and

Northern

p ipes and b rier i nventory.

4 7

D evelopment,

p ipes

i n

1 878

E lliott, 1 972

J . " Tobacco P ipes among t he H ivernant H ide Hunters: A . D. 1 860-1882", T he Western Canadian Journal o f Anthropology v ol I II no 1 ( 1972) 1 46-56. E dmonton, A lberta.

Stub-stemmed

E lliott, 1 973

p ipe

f ragments

( illustrated).

J . " Tradition a nd F act: A rchaeological E xamination o f t he C ypress H ills M assacre", second p aper i n M anuscript R eport n o 9 2. P arks C anada, D epartment o f I ndian a nd Northern A ffairs, O ttawa.

Stub-stemmed p ipe f ragment ( illustrated); documentary r eferences t o b oxes o f P anhatten ( sic) pipes, t o r ed s tone I ndian p ipes, t o " wood" p ipes, and t o b undles of r eed s tems i n A . F arwell's accounts w ith T .C. P ower a t F ort B enton, Montana, during t he p eriod 1 869-74.

Emerson, 1977

J .N.; D evereux, H elen; and Ashworth, M .J. A Study of F ort St. Joseph ( History a nd Archaeology n o 1 4). N ational H istoric P arks and S ites B ranch, P arks C anada, D epartment of I ndian a nd Northern Affairs, O ttawa.

Documentary r eference t o 2 ,000 p ipes p riced a t 1 s3d p er gross a rriving by s chooner a t F ort S t Joseph i n 1 799.

F ladmark, 1973

K . R. " The R ichardson R anch S ite: A 1 9th C entury Haida H ouse", pp53-95 i n R .M. G etty a nd K .R. F ladmark ( eds) H istorical Archaeology i n Northwestern North America. Archaeological A ssociation, U niversity o f Calgary, C algary.

TD bowl w ith a T a nd t he f igure spur mark; " grooved" b owl f ragment; I/F s pur mark; plain b owl and bowl f ragments; plain s tem f ragments; i llustrations.

Folan, 1973

W .J.

2 or

a r etrograde

S a s

a nd I ngram, G .C. " Gateway t o Upper C anada: The F ort a t C oteau du L ac", Archaeology v ol 2 6 no 3 ( July 1 973) 1 88-97. N ew Y ork.

4 8

I llustration of a n a lmost-whole pipe w ith a t histle o n t he

Forbis,

H enderson l eft s ide

Montreal t he b owl.

R .G.

1 977

C luny: An Ancient F ortified Village i n Alberta ( Occasional P apers n o 4 , D epartment of A rchaeology, U niversity o f C algary). Calgary.

Stub-stemmed

Forma, 1 972

p ipe

b owls.

G . M ichipicoten Archaeology 1 972. P arks Recreation B ranch, Ontario D epartment Lands a nd F orests, T oronto.

Henderson, Montreal; D ixon, Montreal; Bannerman, Montreal; McDougall, G lasgow; Murray, G lasgow; W. White, G lasgow; G . Coghill, G lasgow; L . F iolet/S Omer/FRANCE; ASPAR[NAAY ] /[IN ] GOUDA; BR / E'; TD bowls; T/D spur mark; W/G spur mark; I/F s pur marks; decorated and p lain b owls; plain s tem f ragments a nd mouthpieces; glazed mouthpieces; porcelain s tem f ragments; vulcanite mouthpiece f itted w ith metal stem; i llustrations.

Fox, 1977

o f o f

b and

t o

a nd o f

c lay

p ipe

W . A. Archaeological I nvestigation o f t he North West Company Great Hall C ellar, Fort William 1 976 ( Data B ox R esearch Manuscript S eries n o 3 48, H istorical P lanning a nd R esearch Branch, O ntario M inistry o f C ulture a nd Recreation). Toronto.

P lain

s tem

f ragments

( illustrated).

Gall, 1 967

P atricia L . " The E xcavation o f F ort P ic, O ntario", Ontario Archaeology publication n o 1 0 ( June 1 967) 3 5-63.

4 9

M cDougall, G lasgow; Henderson, Montreal; Bannerman, Montreal; I/F s pur mark; plain b owl; decorated s tem f ragments i llustrations.

Grange, 1 971

R . T.

R . T.

p lain

s tem

f ragments;

jr E xcavations at C astle H ill ( Manuscript Report n o 4 6, s even v ols). National Historic S ites S ervice, N ational and Historic P arks Branch, D epartment of I ndian Affairs a nd Northern D evelopment, Ottawa.

Nineteenth- a nd l ate-18th [ J] AMES EATON L IVERPOOL; TD spur marks; i llustrations.

Grange, 1977

a nd

c entury

p ipes:

jr Early Fortifiction D itches at I le-aux-Noix, Quebec ( History a nd Archaeology no 1 8, t wo vols). National H istoric Parks and S ites Branch, P arks C anada, D epartment of I ndian and Northern Affairs, Ottawa.

A . Coghill, G lasgow; McDougall, G lasgow -b oth e xamples marked McDOUGALL/r 3LASGOW. S COTLAND; Henderson, Montreal; Bell, Q uebec; two b owls with H ENDERSON* i mpressed i n a c ircle f acing t he s moker; TD bowls, i ncluding e xamples w ith T /D spur mark a nd one with W/G spur mark; GG bowl; decorated bowls; effigy bowls; plain b owls; decorated s tem f ragments; plain s tem f ragments; brown- o r greenish-glazed mouthpieces; European-style mouthpieces; 1 9 i llustrations showing 5 2 bowls a nd s tem f ragments.

Grange, 1 978

R .T.

jr E xcavation of t he Porter's Cottage, C ivilian Barracks/Straw Shed, Northern Mounds and Rampart at Fort Lennox National Historic Park, 1966 ( History and A rchaeology no 1 9). National H istoric P arks a nd S ites Branch, Parks C anada, D epartment o f I ndian a nd Northern

Affairs, 5 0

Ottawa.

H enderson, Montreal; Davidson, G lasgow; two

bowls with H ENDERSONI*1 i mpressed t he smoker; TD bowls; T/D s pur mark; W/G spur mark; G/W s pur mark; W/W s pur marks; decorated b owls; plain b owls; plain s tem f ragments a nd mouthpieces; brownish-yellow-glazed mouthpieces.

Hamalainen, 1 977a

Decorated

i n

a c ircle

f acing

P. Cambridge Bypass Corridor - Archaeological Survey 1 976 ( Data B ox R esearch M anuscript Series n o 3 34, H istorical P lanning a nd Research B ranch, O ntario M inistry of C ulture and R ecreation). Toronto.

bowl

f ragment.

Hamalainen, 1 977b

P . H ighway 6 Corridor - Archaeological Survey 1 976 ( Data B ox R esearch Manuscript S eries no 3 35, H istorical P lanning a nd R esearch Branch, Ontario M inistry o f C ulture a nd Recreation). Toronto. Henderson, Montreal ( il]nstrated); plain b owl f ragment; plain s tem f ragment.

Harris, 1976

D .A. " Report o n t he 1 972 Archaeological E xcavations o f t he market S hoal Tower, K ingston, O ntario", C anadian H istoric S ites: Occasional Papers i n Archaeology and H istory no 1 5 ( 1976) 1 71-223. National H istoric Parks and S ites B ranch, P arks C anada, D epartment of I ndian a nd Northern A ffairs, Ottawa.

Murray, G lasgow; D ixon, Montreal; bowl w ith i llegible mark ( illustrated); green- o r yellow-glazed mouthpieces ( illustrated); European-style mouthpiece ( illustrated).

Hurley, 1 970

W .M.

a nd Kenyon, I .T. Algonquin P ark Archaeology 1 970 ( Department of Anthropology U niversity of T oronto Research R eport n o 3 ). Toronto.

5 1

? , Montreal ( same Murray, G lasgow.

Jelks, 1 973

f ind

r ecorded

i n Noble

1 968);

E .B. Archaeological E xplorations at S ignal H ill, Newfoundland, 1 965-1966 ( Canadian H istoric Sites: O ccasional P apers i n A rchaeology a nd History n o 7 ). National H istoric S ites Service, N ational a nd H istoric P arks B ranch, Department of I ndian A ffairs a nd Northern Development, O ttawa.

McDougall, G lasgow -s ome M VDOUGALL G LASGOW/VOLUNTEER, some M VDOUGALL/WOODSTOCK P IPE; Murray, G lasgow; W . White, G lasgow; MORGAN/LIVERPOOL; J&G.PR[INCE] /[IN J GOUDA ( red c lay); TD bowls; Decorated b owls, i ncluding one w ith T EMPERANCE V . R.T. MATHEW r ound r im, CORK ( bowl t ype) f acing the s moker, a nd a n i llegible i nscription o n a scroll a t t he b ase of t he s cene d epicted o n t he bowl; one w ith R EPEAL below a n i llegible d esign; and o ne w ith DOGON...LLESCO over a b ust o n one s ide and UNION on t he other s ide; effigy bowls; otherwise p lain b owl w ith oval s tamp f acing t he smoker reading J .H. S -on t op a nd HALIFAX N .S. a t t he bottom; plai t i b owls; plain s tem f ragments; glazed mouthpieces; two i llustrations s howing 2 3 bowls a nd s tem f ragments.

Jury, 1959

E lsie

M cL. a nd Jury, W . The E stablishments at P enetanguishene: Bastion of t he North, 1 814-1856 ( Bulletin no 1 2, Museum of I ndian A rchaeology, The University of Western Ontario). L ondon, Ontario.

Photograph of d ecorated b owls a nd o f s tem f ragments, some of t he l atter marked b ut marking n ot l egible; no description i n c aption o r t ext.

Kain, 1903

S .W. " Trade P ipes", Acadiensis v ol I II n o 4 ' ( 1903) . 225-58 and a ddenda v ol IV no 1 ( 1904) 8 6. S aint John, New B runswick.

Nineteenth- a nd l ate-18th-century p ipes: plain n early-whole p ipe; decorated b owls;

5 2

W/G spur mark; i llustrations; r eference t o manufacture o f p ipes Saint John, N ew B runswick.

K enyon, 1 970

a t

P oole's

pottery,

T . " Clay P ipes, G len A im nS awmill S ite", A rch Notes ( monthly n ewsletter o f t he O ntario Archaeological S ociety) n o 7 0-4 ( April 1 970) 7th-8th pages.

Henderson, Montreal; Bannerman, Montreal; Bell, Q uebec; McDougall, G lasgow -t wo M VDOUGALL G LASGOW/BURNS CUTTY P IPE, r est M VDOUGALL/GLASGOW; Murray, G lasgow; W. White, G lasgow; A . C oghill, G lasgow; T . MILOsS[TRAND?]; NOEL/ALYON; R .H.PRINCE/CANADA 1 86-, TD bowls; decorated bowls; effigy bowls; plain b owls; plain s tem f ragments ( two r ed c lay); yellow-orange-glazed mouthpieces; European-style mouthpieces; i llustrations.

Kenyon, 1 971

T . " Clay P ipes, Anthony's M ills a nd Hunter AfGv-1, 1 825-50", Arch Notes ( monthly newsletter of t he O ntario A rchaeological Society) n o 7 1-2 ( February 1 971) 4 th-5th pages.

R ing, B ristol; TD bowls; decorated b owls; effigy b owl; plain b owl; decorated a nd p lain glazed mouthpieces; i llustrations.

K idd, 1 977

s tem

f ragments;

K .E. " Fouilles au p arc C artier-Brebeuf, Q uebec", History and Archaeology no 1 0 ( 1977) 1 37-205. National H istoric P arks a nd S ites Branch, P arks C anada, D epartment o f I ndian and Northern Affairs, Ottawa.

5 3

D ecorated bowl, s tem f ragments.

K idd, 1 971

marked

b owls

( illustration);

R .S. F ort George a nd t he Alberta ( Provincial publication n o 2 ).

Early F ur Trade i n Museum a nd A rchives E dmonton, A lberta.

TD bowls w ith T /D s pur mark; TD bowl with W/G spur mark; possible WG bowl; plain b owls; plain s tem f ragments; i llustrations.

Lafreni e .re, 1 971

M . a nd G agnon, F . A l a dgcouverte du passé: f ouilles ä l a place Royale ( Collection c ivilisation d u Qugbec n o 7 ). Minist d d -re es A ffaires culturelles du Q u bec, Q uebec C ity.

Nineteenth-century p ipes: Henderson, Montreal; Bell, Q uebec; Murray, G lasgow; F iolet, S aint-Omer; i llustrations.

Lambert, 1 967

D etails

H elen H . " Bell Pottery", C anadian Antiques Collector vol 2 no 4 ( April 1 967) 9 -10. Willowdale, Ontario. of

Lambart, 1 970

f irm of W .

a nd

D .

B ell.

H elen H . The R ivers of t he Potters ( National M useums of C anada, N ational Museum o f Man, Publications i n H istory n o 2 ). Ottawa.

Details of f irm of W . a nd D . B ell, i llustration decorated-bowl p ipe produced by t he f irm.

Losey, 1 973

T .C.

Two p lain

o f

a

( ed) An I nterdisciplinary I nvestigation of Fort Enterprise, Northwest Territories, 1 970 Occasional P ublication n o 9 , The B oreal I nstitute f or Northern S tudies, T he University o f A lberta). E dmonton, A lberta.

b owl

f ragments.

5 4

L osey, 1 977a

T .C.

e t a l Archaeological I nvestigations: F ort Victoria, 1 974 ( Occasional P aper n o 2 , Historic S ites S ervice, A lberta C ulture). E dmonton, A lberta.

Bannerman, Montreal; W . Murphy, Montreal ( hexagonal s tem f ragment, buff-firing c lay); decorated bowl f ragments ( one w ith moulded d ecoration highlighted i n c olour); I /F s pur marks; European-style mouthpieces; stub-stemmed p ipe b owl f ragments; i llustrations.

Losey, 1 977b

T .C.

e t a l Archaeological I nvestigations: F ort Victoria, 1 975 ( Occasional P aper n o 3 , Historic S ites S ervice, A lberta C ulture). E dmonton, A lberta.

Bannerman, Montreal; decorated b owl f ragment; plain b owl f ragments; I/F s pur marks; plain s tem f ragments; stub-stemmed p ipe b owl f ragment; i llustrations.

B .M. " Archaeology of t he P etawawa R iver: T he Second S ite a t M ontgomery L ake". The Michigan Archaeologist v ol 1 5 no 1-2 ( March-June 1 969) 1 -53.

Mitchell, 1 969

Murray, G lasgow; TD bowls.

Mitchell, Cawthorn, 1 970

B .M., C roft, D .A., B utler, P .J., a nd R .J. " The P etawawa S mall S ites R eport", O ntario Archaeology publication n o 1 5 ( 1970) 2 0-53.

McDougall,

MacLean, 1 971

G lasgow.

A lison ' C lay P ipes f rom F ort Beausejour ( Manuscript Report n o 3 6, N ational H istoric S ites Service, N ational a nd H istoric P arks B ranch, D epartment of I ndian A ffairs a nd Northern D evelopment). Ottawa.

5 5

N ineteenth- a nd l ate 1 8th-century p ipes: JAMES'EATON•LIVE[RPOOL]; T .HAYES L IV[ERPOOL]; N IM[MO U[GL MSGOW -e ffigy p ipe, b uff-firing c lay; Bannerman, Montreal -R.BANNERMAN; MCAVOY'S LD-; TD bowls, i ncluding e xamples w ith T /D s pur marks a nd W/G spur marks; decorated bowls; decorated s tems; pale-green-glazed s tems; i llustrations.

Newlands, 1 978

D .L. C lay Tobacco P ipes f rom F ort York ( Royal Ontario M useum Archaeological N ewsletter 1 55 [ n.s.], April 1 978). Toronto.

n o

Murray, G lasgow; Henderson, Montreal; Bannerman, Montreal -o ne R .BANNERMAN i llustrated; Bell, Q ueb2c; TD bowls; decorated bowls; effigy b owls; plain b owls ( one of r ed c lay); t hree i llustrations s howing 1 4 bowls a nd s tem f ragments.

Newton, 1 977

' 3 .M.

a nd E ngelbert, P . Thunder B ay Urban Survey 1 976 ( Data B ox Research M anuscript S eries n o 3 47, Historical P lanning a nd R esearch B ranch, Ontario M inistry of C ulture a nd R ecreation). Toronto.

Henderson, Montreal; Bannerman, Montreal; TD bowl; plain b owls; plain s tem f ragments.

Nicks, 1 969

G ertrude C . The Archaeology o f Two H udson's B ay Posts: Buckingham House ( 1792-1800) E dmonton H ouse I II ( 1810-1813). M .A. t hesis, U niversity o f A lberta, E dmonton, A lberta.

TD bowl f ragments; WM bowl f ragment; T/D spur marks; W/M s pur mark; plain s tem f ragments; 5 6

C ompany a nd

mouthpiece w ith i llustrations.

Nicks, 1 970

" red-brown

p igment";

G ertrude C . " Toward a T rait L ist f or t he North Saskatchewan R iver i n t he L ate E ighteenth and E arly N ineteenth C enturies", T he Western Canadian Journal o f Anthropology v ol 1 no 2 ( July 1 970) 3 5-53. E dmonton, A lberta.

TD böwl marks -w here a ssociated w ith s purs, t he mark i s T/D e xcept i n o ne i nstance w here i t W/G; WM b owl mark; i llustrations.

Noble, 1 968

? ,

W .C. " ' Vision P its', C airns a nd P etroglyphs a t Rock L ake, A lgonquin P rovincial P ark, Ontario", Ontario Archaeology publication no 1 1 ( June 1 968) 4 7-64.

Montreal 1 970).

Noble, 1 973

s pur i s

( same

f ind

r ecorded

i n

H urley

a nd

Kenyon

W .C. " The E xcavation a nd H istorical I dentification of R ocky Mountain House", C7nadian H istoric S ites: Occasional Pap r s i n Archaeology a nd H istory n o 6 ( 1973) 5-163. National H istoric S ites S ervice, 5 National a nd H istoric P arks B ranch, D epartment of I ndian A ffairs a nd Northern Development, Ottawa.

TD bowls w ith T /D s pur mark; plain b owl w ith T/D s pur mark; plain b owls; plain s tem f ragments; one mouthpiece f ragment w ith " a r ed p aint o r e namel coating"; one p lain b owl h as " mottled b lue t ransfer p aint" o n i ts l ower portion a nd t he a djoining s tem, a nd t wo s tem f ragments ( which do n ot j oin) h ave t he s ame " mottled d eep b lue t ransfer p ainted p attern" a s t he bowl; one i llustration s howing f ive b owls a nd bowl f ragments.

P erry, 1 971

B .D.

a nd C lark, W .D. " Fort Providence, N .W.T.: A P reliminary Report of E xcavations C arried Out July 1 969", T he Musk-Ox publication n o 8 ( 1971) frontispiece and pp1-13. I nstitute f or

5 7

Northern S tudies, U niversity o f Saskatchewan, S askatoon, S askatchewan. TD bowls; decorated bowl f ragment; stem f ragments; i llustrations.

Pollock, 1 977a

J .W. a nd MacLeod, D . H istoric Archaeology at F ort S evern, Ontario ( Data B ox R esearch Manuscript S eries n o 2 71, Historical P lanning a nd R esearch B ranch, Ontario M inistry o f C ulture a nd R ecreation). Toronto.

TD bowls with T/D W/M s pur mark; I/F s pur marks; stem f ragments; i llustrations.

Pollock, 1 977b

s pur mark;

J . W. a nd MacLeod, D . Historic Archaeological F eatures n ear Severn, Ontario ( Data B ox R esearch Manuscript S eries n o 2 36, H istorical P lanning a nd R esearch B ranch, O ntario Ministry of C ulture a nd R ecreation). Toronto.

P lain

s tem

Reid, 1 975

C .S.

F ort

n agments.

" The E rmatinger O ld S tone H ouse: A C rossroad i n C anadian H istory", C anadian Archaeological Association - Collected Papers [ presented by H istorical S ites Branch, D ivision o f P arks, O ntario M inistry of N atural R esources, s taff] March 1 975 ( Research R eport 6 , H istorical S ites B ranch, Division o f P arks, Ontario M inistry o f Natural R esources) pp99-110. Toronto.

( More detailed s tudies Murray, G lasgow; W . White, G lasgow; T . White, E dinburgh; Henderson, Montreal; Bannerman, Montreal; Gambier ä ' Paris; • P eter Dorni; TD bowls; decorated bowls; effigy bowls;

appear

5 8

i n

R eid

1 977a

a nd

1 977c.)

s tub-stemmed two p ages of

Reid, 1 977a

b owls; drawings

a nd

p hotographs.

C .S. Mansion i n t he Wilderness: The Archaeology of t he E rmatinger House ( Research R eport 1 0, Historical P lanning a nd R esearch B ranch, Ontario M inistry o f C ulture a nd Recreation). Toronto.

( Detailed descriptions, c omparisons w ith p ipe material f rom s even other 1 9th-century C anadian s ites; s ee also R eid 1 977c.) Murray, G lasgow; W . White, G lasgow -i ncludes t wo e xamples w ith t he mould number 7 3 preceding t he maker's n ame; T . White, E dinburgh; [ SCOJ TLAND 3 85; Henderson, Montreal; Bannerman, Montreal; " [G] ambier a P aris M .N."; P eter Dorni; TD bowls; decorated bowls; effigy b owls; plain b owls; T/D spur mark; W/G spur mark; decorated s tem f ragments; plain s tem f ragments a nd mouthpieces; glazed mouthpieces; European-style mouthpiece; stub-stemmed b owls; two pages of d rawings a nd p hotographs.

Reid, C .S. 1 977b

D ixon,

Reid, 1 977c

Environment, Man, a nd Maymaygwayshi: The D imensions of P ast Human c ultural Impact i n t he L ake of t he Woods Area. P art I - 1 976 ( Data B ox R esearch Manuscript S eries n o 3 11, Historical P lanning a nd R esearch B ranch, Ontario M inistry of Culture a nd R ecreation). Toronto.

Montreal.

C .S. " Clay P ipes i n t he Upper Great L akes: T he Ermatinger Assemblage", Northeast H istorical Archaeology vol 5 no 1-2 ( Spring 1 976) 1 -11. California, P ennsylvania.

Essentially i dentical l ist of s ites i n

t o R eid 1 977a; s lightly C omparisons s ection.

5 9

d ifferent

R ichie, 1 978

C .F. " Nineteenth-Century C lay T obacco-Pipes f rom t he H igh A rctic", C anadian Journal of Archaeology n o 2 ( 1978) 1 23-27. Ottawa.

P ascall, D eptford ( decorated s tems); JJ sun motif/ABDN ( J. J ackson, Aberdeen?); Milkmaid-marked b owl ( Prince o f Gouda); TD bowl; MM b owl w ith M/M s pur mark; T/P spur mark ( decorated b owl, p robably T . -D eptford -s ee a bove); G/M s pur mark; J/A s pur mark; */* s pur mark; decorated a nd p lain b owls; stem f ragments; i llustrations.

Samson, [ 1969]

G .

P ascall

o f

a nd M ichaud, G . F ouilles a rchgologiques, F ort I ngall ( 1839-1862), l ac Tgmiscouata - Cabano, Qugbec. S ocigtg d 'archgologie d e Rivid 're-du-Loup, Q uebec p rovince.

McDougall, G lasgow -a mbiguous i ndication t hat t he e xample i s marked S cotland; Henderson, Montreal -a mbiguous i ndication t hat t he example i s marked H enderson a nd S on; three bowls, one of which i s decorated and may h ave taken a s eparate s tem; i llustrations.

Simard, 1 970

R . L e s ite de Mgtabetchouan, l ac S aint-Jean: rapport prgliminaire. S ocigtg d 'archgologie du S aguenay, C hicoutimi, Q uebec province.

Henderson, Montreal; Bell, Q uebec; TD bowls.

Skinner, 1 972

M . " The S eafort B urial S ite ( FcPr100), R ocky Mountain H ouse ( 1835-1861): L ife a nd D eath i n t he F ur T rade", T he Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology v ol I II no 1 ( 1972) 1 26-45. E dmonton, A lberta.

D ental evidence i ndividual smoker.

f rom a White male s keleton t hat t he h ad b een a n i nveterate c lay p ipe

6 0

S udbury, 1 978

B .

Theoret, 1 976

M .A. " Fort S aint-Jean P roject", T he I nternational Journal of Nautical Archaeology a nd Underwater E xploration v ol 5 no 4 ( November 1 976) 3 48-53.

" A P reliminary R eport o n t he R . B annerman Eagle Tobacco P ipe M anufactory, R ouses Point, N ew Y ork", S PAAC Speaks ( publication of A llegheny C hapter No 1 , S ociety f or P ennsylvania A rchaeology) v ol X III no 1 ( November 1 978) 3 -22. B utler, P ennsylvania.

H enderson, Montreal; TD bowl w ith [ W?] /G spur mark.

Walker, 1 966

Early

[ Montreal 1 966, 6 .

r esume of i ndustry.

Walker, 1967

Early

I .C. p ipemakers], Montreal.

e vidence

on

T he Gazette

Montreal

p ipemaking

I .C. [ Quebec C ity p ipemakers], Q uebec Chronicle-Telegraph 3 April 1 967, City.

r esume of evidence on Q uebec C ity i ndustry ( note -1 851 r eference t o and D avid B ell s hould r ead 1 861).

Walker, 1 970

5 O ctober

4 .

Q uebec

p ipemaking a ges of William

I .C. [ The p ipe makers], pp100-5 i n C .C. K ennedy The Upper Ottawa Valley. R enfrew County Council, P embroke, O ntario.

Ring, B ristol; Milo, L ondon; McDougall, G lasgow; A . C oghill, G lasgow; Murray, G lasgow; W . White, G lasgow; T . White, E dinburgh; Henderson, Montreal; Bannerman; Montreal -R.BANNERMAN; Bell, Q uebec; PRINCE/IN GOUDA; TD bowls; decorated bowls; effigy b owl;

6 1

g lazed mouthpiece; s ix i llustrations s howing Walker, 1 971a

I .C.

Earlier

v ersion

Walk r, 1 971b

I .C.

2 4

bowls

a nd

s tem

f ragments.

" Nineteenth-Century C lay T obacco P ipes i n Canada", O ntario Archaeology publication n o 1 6 ( 1971) 1 9-35. of

p resent

p aper

( see

p .

1

n .).

C lay Tobacco-Pipes f rom Nootka ( Manuscript Report n o 5 9, N ational H istoric S ites Service, N ational H istoric P arks a nd S ites Branch, D epartment o f I ndian A ffairs a nd Northern D evelopment). Ottawa.

( Site more c orrectly c alled Yuquot.) McDougall, G lasgow -o ne o f t he e xamples marked 4 0 M cDOUG[ALL] /GLASGOW, w ith t he n ame o f t he m aker i n s anserif a nd t hat o f t he p lace of manufacture i n serif: t he writer u naccountably i dentified t his number a s a F luted B en N evis; i t i s i n f act a Thistle B en Nevis ( the price quoted i s c orrect, however); decorated bowl f ragment; plain b owl f ragments; f igure 8 horizontally on e ither s ide o f s pur, mould number 7 8 on a djacent p art of s tem; brier p ipe-style mouthpiece; stub-stemmed p ipe bowl f ragment; i llustrations.

Walker, 1 970

L lyn

de S . " Observations on C lay P ipe P ieces f rom t he Tailrace B ay S ite", pp282-88 and 2 68-69 i n W.J. Mayer-Oakes Archeological [ sic] Investigations i n t he Grand Rapids, Manitoba, R eservoir, 1 961-1962 ( Occasional Paper n o 3 , D epartment o f Anthropology, University o f M anitoba). Winnipeg.

Bowl

w ith FORD/STEPNEY i mpressed i n smoker; TD bowls, one w ith W/G s pur mark; decorated bowl f ragments; TD/ spur marks; W/G spur mark; I/F s pur mark; plain mouthpiece; glazed mouthpiece; European-style mouthpieces; stub-stemmed p ipe f ragments; i llustrations.

6 2

a n

o val

f acing

t he

Wright, 1 969

J .W. " The M ichipicoten S ite", National Museums of Canada Bulletin 2 24, Anthropological S eries no 8 2, Contributions t o Anthropology V I: Archaeology and P hysical Anthropology ( 1969) 1-85. Ottawa.

P lain b owl f ragments; stem f ragment; i llustrations.

Wright, 1973

One

J .V. " The D ougall S ite", Ontario Archaeology publication n o 1 7 ( 1972) 3 -23.

r elatively whole

Wylie, 1 966

p ipe,

f ragments

of

a nother.

E lizabeth A . " Report on t he E xcavation i n t he B lockhouse at F ort Wellington, P rescott, O ntario", pp181-253 i n M anuscript Report n o 1 30. Parks C anada, D epartment o f I ndian a nd Northern Affairs, Ottawa.

Henderson, Montreal; Bannerman, Montreal -R .BANNERMAN; decorated bowl f ragment; brown- o r yellow-glazed mouthpieces. Wylie, 1 971

w lizabeth A . " Clay P ipes f rom F ort Wellington", Appendix B ( pp77-81) i n S .G. B aker F ort Wellington Archaeology 1 968 ( Manuscript Report n o 2 2, National H istoric S ites Service, N ational a nd H istoric P arks B ranch, Department of I ndian Affairs a nd Northern Development). Ottawa.

Henderson, Montreal; Dixon, Montreal; Bannerman, Montreal; Coghill, G lasgow; Murray, G lasgow; Davidson, G lasgow; TD bowls; WIG spur mark; A/C s pur mark; red c lay p ipe f ragment; decorated bowls; plain bowls; decorated s tems.

6 3

Z acharchuk, 1 969

J .

N immo,

W . a nd R ick, J .H. " The Mallorytown Wreck", Archaeology 1 969 v ol I II P ennsylvania.

H istorical p7-11. B ethlehem, p

G lasgow.

F igure

1

Various marks u sed by various F ord p ipemaking businesses i n L ondon. A ll marks a re i mpressed on t he b owl f acing t he smoker. With t he e xception of f a nd 1 , which a re f rom F ort Vancouver, Washington s tate, a ll e xamples a re f rom various f inds i n L ondon. S cale 1 :1.

6 4

_Z

6 5

F igure

2

Various bowl f orms produced by t he F ord p ipemaking businesses i n L ondon. A ll d ecoration and l ettering i s mould i mparted, w ith t he e xception of t he mark f acing t he smoker on f , which i s i mpressed. Bowl e i s f rom Ascension I sland i n t he S outh Atlantic; t he remainder are from Fort Vancouver, Washington s tate. S cale 1 :1.

6 7

Plate a :

Stem

f ragment

I

mould-imparted

OHIO

( RING

BRISTOL on

reverse) i n serif l ettering; from t he f ort at Coteau du L ac, Q uebec province. b and c : Stem f ragments mould-imparted "Ring" a nd "Bristol" ( obverse and r everse of s ame mark) i n serif l ettering; both f rom t he f ort at Coteau du Lac. d :

Bowl f ragment with FORD/STEPNEY impressed i n s erif lettering on s ide f acing t he smoker; from Lower -F ort Garry, Manitoba.

e and

f :

Stem

f ragments

mould-imparted

l- a nd BURNS-el

-UTTY- PIP- (full i nscription BURNS•CUTTY•PIPE) in serif l ettering; both f rom Lower Fort Garry. 2

a nd

h : Stem shown on

f ragments showing t he two preceding

opposite s ide f ragments and

t o

t hat

mould-imparted FORD • -a nd -RD • STEPNEY ( full inscription FORD • STEPNEY) i n s erif l ettering; both f rom Lower Fort Garry. These stems appear t o have been generally otherwise plain, but l ines of leaf decoration running a long t he stem are known. i :

Stem f ragment mould-imparted R .MORGAN L IVERPOOL serif l ettering; from La vieille maison des j6suites, Quebec province.

1:

Stem f ragment mould-imparted W •MORG- (full inscription W •MORGAN•LIVERPOOL) i n serif from Fort Meductic, New Brunswick.

k :

1 :

i n

l ettering;

Stem f ragment mould-imparted W •MORGAN• LIVERPOOL serif l ettering; from La vieille maison des j6suites. em fragment mould-imparted -RGAN•LIVERPinscription probably W-MORGAN•LIVERPOOL) i n lettering; from Signal Hill, Newfoundland.

i n

serif

m:

Stem f ragment mould-imparted BRATHWAITE L IVERPOOL i n serif l ettering; from t he f ort at Coteau du L ac.

n :

Stem f ragment mould-imparted J JONES ( LIVERPOOL on the r everse) i n serif l ettering; from t he R oma site,

Prince

E dward

6 8

I sland.

6 9

P late

I I

a :

S tem f ragment a nd b owl decorated w ith h arp a nd shamrocks, s tem mould-imparted 6 8 W .WHITE ( GLASGOW on r everse) i n s anserif l ettering. S ixty-eight i s the mould n umber, which i dentifies t his p ipe a s a Bent H arp. From S ignal H ill, N ewfoundland. b : S tem f ragment mould-imparted W .WHITE ( GLASGOW o n reverse) i n s erif l ettering; f rom t he f ort a t Coteau du L ac, Q uebec p rovince. c : S tem f ragment with E uropean-style mouthpiece -m ould-imparted J 7 3 W .WHITE ( GLASGOW o n r everse) i n sanserif l ettering. J 7 3 i s t he mould n umber, which i dentifies t his p ipe r ather obscurely a s " Plain a nd C arved Cutties". F rom t he R oma s ite, Prince E dward I sland. d a nd e : S tem f ragments both mould-imparted A .COGHILL ( GLASGOW on r everse) i n s erif l etters; t he f irst from S ignal H ill, t he s econd f rom t he f ort a t Coteau du L ac. f : S tem f ragment mould-imparted MURRAY ( GLASGOW on reverse) i n s anserif l etters; f rom t he f ort a t Coteau du L ac. 2 : Stem fragment mould-imparted DAVIDSON ( GLASGOW on reverse) i n s anserif l etters; f rom t he f ort a t Coteau du L ac. h a nd i : Stem f ragments mould-imparted GLASGOW a nd M7DOUGALL ( obverse and r everse o f s ame mark) i n serif l ettering; both f rom S ignal H ill. 1 : S tem f ragment mould-imparted K DOUGA[ALL] ( GLASGOW on r everse) i n s anserif l ettering; f rom t he R oma site. k : S tem f ragment mould-imparted WOODSTOCK P IPE i n sanserif l ettering ( M9DOUGALL on r everse i n s erif lettering); f rom S ignal H ill. 1 : S tem f ragment mould-imparted EDINBURGH ( THO.WHITE&CO on r everse) i n s erif l ettering; f rom S ignal H ill. m : S tem f ragment mould-imparted T. WHITE&C9 (EDINBURGH on reverse) i n s erif l ettering; from t he f ort at Coteau du L ac. n a nd o : Stem f ragments mould-imparted EDINe a nd T .W.&C9 ( averse a nd r everse of s ame mark) i n s erif lettering; both f rom t he f ort a t C oteau du L ac. E and 2 : Stem f ragments mould-imparted EDA 1NBURGH a nd THO WHITE&C9 ( obverse serif l ettering; both Ontario.

7 0

a nd r everse o f f rom F ort Wel1

s ame mark) 4cton,

i n

e

k

P lates a :

b :

I II

and

IV

S tem f ragment f rom Les f orges du St-Maurice, Q uebec province, bearing t he f ragmentary i nscriptions 1 \ 11DOUGAL- (P1 I II) a nd -ND. AGENT ( P1 IV) mould imparted i n s erif l ettering. A l arger s tem fragment f rom t he s ame s ite gives t he f uller readings MVDOUGALL*G[LASGOW] and -TRAND.AGENT. C omplete pipe f rom t he Fort George Military R eserve, Ontario, bearing t he änscriptions W . WHITE GLASGOW ( P1 I II) and BUSH & C- A GENT ( P1 IV) mould imparted on t he s tem i n s erif l ettering. This p ipe has a European-style mouthpiece, a nd may b e a Burns's Cutty P ipe ( cf P 1 VIII).

7 2

IN

CM . N .

7 3

P late V Almost-complete e xample of M cDougall's o f G lasgow's Woodstock P ipe. The s ide s hown h ere b ears t he i nscription WOODSTOCK P IPE mould i mparted on t he stem i n s anserif l ettering; t he opposite s ide h as t he n ame M ?DOUGALL moulded i n s erif l ettering, preceded by t he mould n umber 5 0. F rom S ignal H ill, Newfoundland.

P late VI I llustration f rom u ndated c atalogue o f t he American C lay P ipe Works of N ew Y ork C ity s howing t hree s tyles o f Woodstock p ipe produced by t hat f irm: a H eavy Woodstock ( centre), a S mall Woodstock ( second f rom bottom), a nd a L arge Woodstock ( bottom).

P late VII Medium Woodstock b rier p ipe, model n umber by B righam P ipes L td of T oronto.

7 4

2 11

produced

C M. IN .

7 5

P late V III Stem

f ragment and b owl of M cDougall's B urns's C utty P ipe. T he s ide s hown h ere b ears t he i nscription -NS CUTTY P IPE mould i mparted on t he s tem i n sanserif ettering; t he opposite s ide h as t he wording M -DOUGALL GLA-, a lso mould i mparted i n sanserif l ettering. F rom S ignal H ill, Newfoundland.

7 6

CM . IN .

7 7

P late a :

b :

c :

d :

e :

f :

2 :

h :

i :

1 :

k :

I X

S tem f ragment mould-imparted HENDERSON ( MONTREAL on reverse) i n sanserif l ettering; from Lower F ort Garry, Manitoba. S tem f ragment and bowl decorated w ith crowned h arp and s hamrocks, s tem mould-imparted HENDERSON ( MONTREAL on r everse) i n s anserif l ettering; f rom the f ort at Coteau du L ac, Q uebec province. S tem f ragment mould-imparted HENDERSON'S ( MONTREAL on reverse) i n serif l ettering; from t he f ort a t -C oteau du L ac. S tem f ragment and p lain TD-marked bowl ( letter D visible on bowl), stem mould-imparted MONTREAL ( HENDERSON'S on reverse) i n s erif l ettering; f rom the f ort at Coteau du L ac. S tem f ragment mould-imparted BANNERMAN ( MONTREAL on reverse) i n sanserif l ettering; from Lower F ort Garry. S tem f ragment mould-imparted R .BANNERMAN ( MONTREAL on reverse) i n sanserif l ettering; from t he f ort at Coteau du L ac. S tem f ragment mould-imparted D IXON'S ( MONTREAL on n sanserif l ettering; from t he f ort at reverse) i Coteau du L ac. S tem f ragment and h eavily-reeded and -fluted bowl, stem mould-imparted W&D.BEL[L] ( QUEBEC on r everse) in sanserif l ettering; from La v ieille maison des jgsuites, Quebec province. S tem f ragment mould-imparted W&D B ELL ( QUEBEC on reverse) i n sanserif l ettering; from Lower Fort Garry. S tem f ragment mould-imparted W&D.BE[LL] ( [Q] UEBEC on reverse) i n sanserif l ettering; from La v ieille maison des j gsuites. Stem f ragment mould-imparted QUEBEC ( W&D.BELL on reverse) i n sanserif l ettering; from t he f ort at Coteau

du

L ac.

N UL

P late a :

b

c :

e :

f

X

S tem f ragment w ith mould-imparted d ecoration a nd J&G.PRINCE ( IN GOUDA on r everse) mould i mparted i n serif l ettering; from t he f ort a t C oteau du L ac, Quebec province. a nd d : Two p lain mouthpiece f ragments, t ypical of c lay pipes f rom t he 1 7th c entury o nwards; f irst f rom Castle H ill, Newfoundland, a nd s econd f rom t he Rama s ite, P rince E dward I sland. Mouthpiece f ragment, s howing t ypical E uropean-style bit; f rom L a v ieille maison d es j gsuites, Q uebec province. S tem f ragment w ith mould-imparted d ecoration a n' . " L. F iolet/S Omer/FRANCE" i mpressed i n s erif l ettering; f rom L a v ieille maison d es j gsuites. a nd 1 : Two p lain mouthpiece f ragments w ith yellow-brown g laze; f irst f rom t he f ort a t C oteau du L ac and t he s econd f rom F ort Wellington, Ontario.

8 0

t i a

a

CM . 1N .

8 1

P late

X I

A modern product of Van der Want's Z enith f actory a t Gouda i n T he N etherlands. The p aper b and r ound t he stem a t t he p ipe's point o f b alance c arries t he maker's n ame a nd p lace o f work; i t r eplaces t he same i nformation f ormerly i mpressed o n t he s tem i n a f orm which appears t o h ave b een s tandard among Dutch, Belgian, a nd F rench p ipe manufacturers l ast century ( cf P 1 X ,e). The mouthpiece h as a b rown glaze.

P late

X II

A modern TD pipe ( letter T visible o n b owl) Germany, probably i n t he Westerwald.

made

i n

P late XIII a :

S tem f ragment mould-imparted GLASGOW ( MURRAY on reverse) i n s erif l ettering. Yellow-brown-glazed mouthpiece. From t he F ort George Military R eserve, Ontario. b : Complete pipe with decorated bowl and MURRAY ( GLASGOW on r everse) mould i mparted on s tem i n s erif lettering. Yellow-brown-glazed mouthpiece. F rom the F ort George Military R eserve. c-i: Various decorated bowls, e and f showing t he t wo -s ides of a Masonic b owl. c : F rom t he F ort George Military R eserve. 3 : From the fort at Coteau du Lac, Quebec province. e : From Fort Wellington, Ontario. 7 : From the fort at Coteau du Lac. 2 : From the Fort George Military Reserve. h-m: Various TD bowls, h and 1 r epresenting t he t ypical post-ca.1840 TD bowl s hape which h as continued to t he present ( cf P1 XII). h : F rom Fort Tgmiscamingue, Q uebec province. 7 1 : F rom t he f ort at Coteau du L ac. F rom t he F ort George Military R eserve. k : F rom t he fort at Coteau du L ac. T : From Signal Hill, Newfoundland. m : F rom t he Fort George Military R eserve.

1 16. 1 1 1r_

_ 1 7 .31 1 1 1. 11 1 1 .

8 5

P late

X IV

Original f orm of TD p ipe a nd mark, w ith t he mark impressed on t he b owl f acing t he s moker. This f orm of TD p ipe f irst a ppeared c a.1755 and c ontinued until a t l east c a.1780. F rom t he F ortress o f Louisbourg, Nova S cotia.

P late XV Three

amber mouthpieces s howing t he t ypical b rier p ipe bit s ometimes i mitated o n l ate c lay p ipes. F rom Fort Walsh, S askatchewan, o ccupied 1 875-83.

CM . 1

. 1 1

.

Mi i

IN .

8 7

T OBACCO-PIPES F ROM F ORT WALSH,

S ASKATCHEWAN,

A N ORTH-WEST M OUNTED P OLICE P OST,

C .

F .

1 875-1883

R ichie

A bstract I ntroduction P ipe T ypes a nd Makers T he C lay P ipes D ixon P ipes L .

F iolet P ipes

D umgril S tem M cDougall S tem B urton S tem H ussar E ffigy B owl P ossible D utch B owls P ossible American P ipes O ther C lay P ipes Wooden P ipes a nd C omponents M eerschaum B owl a nd Amber Mouthpieces I vory M outhpiece D istribution,

B owl-Stem R atios,

G eneral D istribution B owl-Stem R atios U se-Wear E vidence D iscussion a nd C onclusions R eferences C ited

a nd U se-Wear Evidence.

A bstract

A nalysis o f t he t obacco-pipes r ecovered f rom t he s ite o f t he N orth-West M ounted P olice P ost, F ort Walsh , S askatchewan , o ccupied 1 875-1883, w as u ndertaken t o s upply i nformation i n s upport o f f uture e xcavations a nd f or s ite i nterpretation . P ipe t ypes, makers a nd c ountries o f o rigin , t he p roblem o f t he r ecovery o f wooden v ersus c lay p ipes, a nd p ipematerial d istribution a re d iscussed . C onclusions a re d rawn a bout t he mobility o f t he p ipe-smoking p opulation a t F ort Walsh a nd a p ossible p attern o f p rogressive c onstruction and c lean-up s tages t hrough i nterpretation o f p ipe-material d istribution .

N OTE - T he P ublishers w ith t he o ther

r egret

t hat F ig.

i llustrations.

9 0

2 1

i s

s uggested

i n t his p aper w as n ot

r eceived

I ntroduction

I n 1 875 a N orth-West M ounted P olice p ost w as b uilt a t t he j unction o f S pring a nd B attle C reeks i n t he C ypress H ills o f S askatchewan . N amed a fter i ts f ounder , p olice s uperintendent J ames M . W alsh , F ort Walsh w as e stablished t o s uppress a n i llegal l iquor t raffic a nd b ring o rder t o t he a rea . C ommercially, t he C ypress H ills a rea w as l inked t o F ort B enton i n Montana, 3 00 miles t o t he s outh, where t he American c ompanies o f I .C.Baker a nd T .C. P owers d ominated t he t rading b usiness. T hese c ompanies c onducted t heir b usiness i n s uch a n u nregulated a nd h ighly c ompetitive w ay t hat t he e stablishment o f t he p olice p ost w as, i n p art, t o c ontrol t heir a ctivities. A fter i ts f ounding i n 1 875, t he f ort was s lowly e xpanded u p t o 1 877, f ollowing which major r enovations were c arried o ut, e nding i n 1 880 ( Fig . 1 ). T he p opulation o f t he F ort i ncreased a s t he F ort was e xpanded, s lowly u p t o 1 877 a nd b etween t hen a nd 1 880.

j umping t o m ore t han a h undred p ersons

When t he C anadian P acific R ailway was c ompleted t o t he a rea o f R egina i n 1 883, t he N orth-West Mounted P olice m oved t heir h eadquarters f rom F ort Walsh t o R egina , a nd F ort Walsh was d ismanted ( Scisenti a nd M urray 1 976:1-3). A f our-year p roject was u ndertaken t o e xcavate F ort Walsh i n 1 972 b y t he A rchaeological R esearch S ection o f P arks C anada . E xcavation was c ompleted d uring t he s ummer o f 1 977. A s p art o f t he p roject, t he a nalysis o f t he t obacco-pipes f rom t he s ite was u ndertaken t o p rovide i nformation f or s ite i nterpretation, a nd t o s upply d ata o n t obaccop ipes t o s upport f uture excavations. T his a nalysis i ncludes t he d escription

o f

s ite-specific

p ipe

t ypes,

c ountries o f o rigin , a nd a d iscussion p ipe m aterial o n t he s ite.

o f

i dentification t he

o f

m akers

d istribution o f

a nd

t obacco-

The t erminology u sed f or t he p ipe d escriptions i n t his p aper i s f rom A C ataloguing Manual a nd T erminology f or Smoking P ipes ( Richie 1 977).

9 1

. . . t r • I c •J

:

•

c x 3 -

u-

0

c : ›

CV

C • 1 f

r . d

tl

r 4 0

r c 7 1 1

9 2

F igure

1 :

modern

R oyal

P lan

( Plan d rawn 1 976:8-9).

o f

F ort

C anadian

W alsh

Mounted

b y D . F ord

f rom

s howing P olice

e xcavated

b uildings

t he o riginal b y D .

h istoric

a nd

s tructures,

c hanges

O lynyk;

i n

l ayout

f rom Murray

M odern S tructures

A

B lacksmith S hop

I

B C

S tables M aternity B arn

J

A rchaeology L ab S torage

K

C oncrete F oundation

D

P rivy

L

S taff R esidence

E

W oodshed

M

A dministration B uilding

F

esidence C ommissioner's R

N

P ropane T ank

G

P ublic T oilets

O

N CO Museum

H

S torage

P

G arage

Q

P rivy

H istorical S tructures

1

1 880 N CO P rivy

2 0

1 875 B arracks

2

1 880 P owder M agazine

2 1

1 875 D ivison S tores

2 2 2 3

3

1 875 N orthwest P rivy

4 5

1 875 N orth S tables 1 877 A uxiliary S tructure

2 4

1 875 O fficers' S tores 1 880 B arracks 1 880 C ommissioner's P rivy

6

1 877 H arness S hop

2 5

outheast B astion 1 880 S

7 8

1 875 O at S tores 1 875 E nlisted M en's L atrine

2 6 2 7

1 880 L ibrary/Recreation H all 1 875 O fficers' Q uarters

9

1 875 S aw P it

1 0 1 1

1 880 E nlisted M en's L atrine 1 875 S outhwest P rivy

2 8 2 9

uardhouse 1 877 G 1 877 Q uartermaster S tores

3 0

1 879 W ell

3 1

1 3

1 875 S outh S tables

3 2

addlery 1 877 S hoemaker's S hop 1 877 S

1 4

1 877 A uxiliary S tructures

3 3

1 880 N CO Extension

1 5

1 877 C ookhouse

3 4

1 880 O fficers'

1 6 1 7

1 875 B arrack/Mess H all 1 877 V eterinary O ffice

3 5

1 880 O rderly Extension

1 2 1 880 S tables

1 8 1 877 Washrooms 1 9 1 877 B aths

9 3

P rivy

3 6

1 881 H ospital

3 7

orthwest B astion 1 880 N

3 8

1 875 B astion

P ipe T ypes a nd M akers O ut

o f

4 40 p ipes

a nd p ipe

f ragments

r ecovered

f rom

t he F ort W alsh s ite

f rom a ll o ccupation p eriods, 4 09 were c lay p ipes, t he b alance b eing e ither o f wood o r, i n o ne c ase, meerschaum. O ut o f t his i nventory o f p ipe material, s ite-specific t ypes h ave b een d erived b ased o n o verall c onfiguration, maker 's marks, and e lements o f d ecorative d esign . I n s ome

i nstances,

whole

f ragmentary e vidence, s ingle b e

f ragment

p ipe

while

t ypes

h ave

b een

r econstructed

i n o ther i nstances

w ith a small n umber o f a ttributes .

c omponents o f o ne a nd

t he s ame t ype

f rom

t he

t hey a re b ased o n o nly a T hese

i n s ome c ases;

l atter

h owever ,

c ould

b ecause

o f t he l ack o f evidence t o c ombine t hem i nto a s ingle t ype, t hey h ave b een l eft

a s

s eparate t ypes.

T he C lay P ipes D ixon P ipes D ixon P ipes a re

r epresented b y o ne s tem a nd two b owl t ypes,

with a

p ossibility o f two f urther t ypes b eing i ncluded o n a b asis o f o verall c onfiguration . T he s tem t ype h as b een f ound t o b e c ommon t o t he two d efinite D ixon b owl t ypes t hrough c omparison o f

s tem f ragments and

b owls with o verlapping a ttributes s uch a s maker's marks. N o s uch o verlap was f ound b etween s tem f ragments a nd t he two q uestionable D ixon b owl

t ypes. One o f t he two i dentified D ixon b owl t ypes i s a TD b owl o f white

c lay ( 7N33R3-5,

F ig.2).

T his h as a p eg-style

s pur and

a t all,

t hin

b owl w ith t he p lane o f t he b owl mass a t n early a r ight a ngle t o t hat o f t he s tem. T he p lane o f t he b owl l ip r uns s lightly u pwards a nd away f rom t he p lane o f t he s tem f rom t he f ront t o t he b ack o f t he b owl, w ith t he b owl mouth b eing n early r ound . O n t he c entre o f t he b owl b ack i s a mould-imparted, impressed T on t he l eft s ide a nd D o n t he r ight s ide. T he D ixon maker 's marks o n t he t hose

o n t he

s hank p ortion o f t he

c haracteristic D ixon s tem

t ype w hich

s tem a re s imilar t o i s d escribed

f urther

o n b elow. An a nalysis o f t he material o f manufacture was r equested f or t he D ixon TD b owl f rom t he C onservation D ivision o f P arks C anada, which f ound

t hrough

mullite

( Cons.

m ineral 1 000

t hat

d iffraction

D iv.

f orms

L ab .

i n

C entigrade,

°

t emperature a t T he

o ther

( 7N13B1-2, t he

X-ray

l east

f ired

which

a nalysis

t hat

7 6-1730-B).

c lays

a t

s uggests

i n e xcess o f

t he

Mullite

a t emperature t hat

t he

b owl i s

b etween

b owl

was

c ontained

a s ynthetic 8 00

°

f ired

a nd a t

a

entigrade. 8 00 ° C

i dentified D ixon b owl

F ig.3).

T D b owl

No.

t ype

i s

a r ibbed,

white

c lay

b owl

T his a lso h as a p eg-style s pur a nd i s s imilar t o

d escribed

a bove

i n

t erms

o f

o verall

c onfiguration ,

e xcept

t hat t he p lane o f t his b owl's mass i s more n early a t r ight a ngles t o t he p lane

o f t he s tem .

b elow t he b ody .

A s

r im,

T he

b owl

i s

e ncircled

extending d ownwards

w ith t he T D b owl,

t he

maker 's

f or h alf

v ertical

t he

marks o n t he

t o t hose o n t he c haracteristic D ixon s tem.

9 4

b y

r ibbing

j ust

l ength o f t he b owl s hank

a re s imilar

The c haracteristic D ixon ( 7N56B1-1, F ig . 4 a nd 7 N31K6-2 ,

s tem i s r epresented b y two F ig .5), a nd i s o f white c lay ,

t hick

l ittle

a nd

r ound,

t apering

v ery

f rom

t he

s hank t o

t he

e xamples s traight, b ite .

T he

b ite i s s traight-cut a nd made b y a c ircular t wist o f t he c utting t ool, l eaving a s piral c utting-mark . O ften , t he e xcess s tem a ppears t o h ave b een b roken o ff h alf way

t hrough

t he

c entre o r s ide o n t he s tem b ite.

c utting

p rocess,

l eaving a j agged

On t he l eft s ide o f t he s hank i s t he

mould-imparted, i mpressed n ame D IXON 'S, a nd o n t he r ight s ide t he word MONTREAL . T he n ames a re o ften w ithin a n i mpressed r ectangle p roceeded a nd f ollowed b y t hree d ots. t hese d ots

marks,

t he l etters

b eing s meared i nto

T here a re

b eing

l ines

s ome

a pparent

v ariations

t hin o r t hick i n s ome c ases,

i n o ther c ases .

i n

a nd t he

T hese v ariations a re

t he

r esults o f r emoving t he p ipes t oo q uickly f rom t he mould o r o f u sing worn mould . B y c pmbining t he Dixon b owl t ypes with t he D ixon c haracteristic s tem t ype, t wo a nd F ig.7). O ne o f t o

t he

s traight-stemmed

p ipe

t ypes

c an b e

r econstructed

( Fig .6

t wo p ossible D ixon b owl t ypes i s s imilar i n a ll r espects

t he D ixon T D b owl,

i ncluding

t he

impressed ,

mould-imparted

l etters

T D on t he b owl b ack, except t hat t here i s ar aised X o n t he r ight s ide o f

t he

p eg-style

s pur

( 7N33R3-5,

F ig.8).

N o examples

o f

t his

b owl

s tyle h ave b een f ound w ith a m aker's m ark o n t hem. O ne p ipe

b owl

t ype

a nd

t hree

b owl

f ragments

with a g eometric

c onfiguration t o t he D ixon T D b owl t hat

r ecovered

t hat

c lay

d escribed a bove,

r epresent

a

b owl s imilar i n

a nd

i t

i s

p ossible

t hese p ipe f ragments r epresent a f urther D ixon t ype ( 7N43E2-4,

F ig.9).

T he u pper p ortion o f t he b owl d esign c onsists o f a s eries o f

r aised

o vals

a ll

which e ncircle

t he

d esign c onsists

o f

o f

were

d esign o n a white

o f t he

s ize,

within

i n l ines

with s everal

c ircles

f rom

t he

s eries

t hat

b owl

a lternate

j ust

s everal

b owl

b elow

s eries

b ottom

o f d rawn-out,

w ith t he

o f

t owards

t hin ,

r im .

r aised t he

v ertical

T he d ots,

t op .

l ower o f

l ines, p ortion

i ncreasing

T hese

a lternate

o bovate s hapes with r aised l ines

r unning a cross t hem . A ll o f t hese d esign e lements r un f rom t he u pwards o nto t he b owl b ase . A ll e lements o f t he b owl d esign a re

s hank mould

I mparted. The f irm o f W .

H .

D ixon a nd C ompany was making c lay p ipes a t 1 14

C olborne A venue i n Montreal i n 1 882 a ccording t o a n a dvertisement i n L ovell's M ontreal D irectory ( 1881-1882 : 1 1) which a lso a sserts t he f irm was e stablished i n 1 847. t o m ake

p ipes u ntil

O n a b asis a t otal r ecovered Walsh

o f

I . C . Walker s tates t hat t he f irm c ontinued ( Walker

o f maker 's marks,

1 37

D ixon,

f or a ll

s ite;

1 894

i s

2 5).

s tem a nd

b ite

o r p robable D ixon,

p eriods

t his

1 971:

a nd

f rom

f rom a t otal

D ixon o r p robable D ixon p ipes,

a ll

s tyles,

p ipes

o ccupation

a nd

a nd

p eriods

o f 4 39 p ipes a nd p ipe

t herefore,

b owl

t ypes,

f ragments o f

were

t he

F ort

f ragments.

make u p a pproximately 3 1%

o f

a ll p ipe material r ecovered, t he majority o f i t c oming f rom t he 1 880 o ccupation p eriod ( Tables 1 -3) . O f c ourse, m any m ore o f t he r ecovered p ipe

f ragments

c ould b e

f rom D ixon p ipes .

9 5

L .

F iolet P ipes

T he

make

L .

F iolet

i s

r epresented

p ossible t ype b ased o n a s imilarity t he d efinite F iolet t ype.

b y i n

o ne

p ipe

o verall

t ype,

b owl

a nd

a nother

c onfiguration

t o

T he d efinite F iolet t ype i s d erived f rom a c omparison o f b owl a nd s tem t ypes with o verlapping a ttributes a s w ith t he D ixon t ypes. T he b owl t ype p lane o f

i s o f white c lay, a nd i s p lain,

t he b owl mass a t a r ight

s hank-bowl p arallel i s

j uncture

t o

n early

A round

t hat

( 7N35F1-1,

o f

r ound,

t he

F ig .10) .

s tem a t

t all a nd r ounded, w ith t he

a ngle

t he

t o

s hank-bowl

b ecoming s lightly more

t he s hank t op f rom l eft

i mpressed m aker's m ark

" L.

t hat

o f

T he p lane o f

t he

j uncture

a nd

o val t owards

t o r ight,

f acing

s tem a t

t he b owl

t he

t he

l ip r uns t he

s hank

t he b ite e nd.

smoker,

i s

t he

F iolet/ äS t O mer/Daposa."

T he s tem c urves a nd t apers gradually f rom t he s hank t o t he b ite, b ecoming

m ore o val a t

t he b ite e nd .

T he

b ite i s mould-made a nd l ipped,

t he b ite end o f t he s tem h aving a r aised l ine a round i t t o d efine t he mouthpiece p ortion o f t he s tem i n imitation o f a wooden p ipe with a h ard i s

r ubber

t he

v ulcanite

s ame

a s

mouthpiece

d escribed

f or

( 7N35F1-1,

t he

F ig .11) .

b owl a bove .

T he

T he

maker 's

mark

r econstructed F iolet

p ipe t ype I s c learly a n imitation o f a p opular w ood p ipe s tyle c alled a B ent

( Fig.12).

T he

p ossible F iolet

p ipe t ype

r epresented b y a s ingle b owl w hich i n

o verall c onfiguration i s i dentical a bove,

e xcept

t hat

i t

h as

on i ts base ( 7N23G3-1, v ery h igh, b etween

F ig.13).

t he

F iolet

p ipe

b owl

r epresentation

d escribed o f

a b eaver

T he quality o f t his p ipe's f inish i s

with a ll t he d etails o f t he b eaver, i ncluding t he webbing

i ts

t oes,

b eing

p olished

i n

e ven

f ashion .

U nfortunately ,

n ot e nough o f T he

t o

a mould-imparted

f irm

c learly

s trokes

o f

L .

t he l ast h alf o f

was

T he

l ip

i ntact

making

b owl

h as

b een

i n t ypical D utch

e xamples

s hank w as

F iolet

t he

t he

n o o ther

t he b owl's

b etween 1 765 and 1 921,

d efined .

f rom

o f

t his

t ype

c arefully

a nd F rench

w ere

f ound

a nd

t o p rovide a m aker's m ark. p ipes

i n

S aint-Omer,

F rance

and r eached t he h eight o f i ts p roductivity i n

1 9th

c entury

( Jean-Lao

1 971:

3 0,

Walker

1 971:

3 0,34). E ight p eriods

F iolet

o f

t he

f ragments . a ll

p ipe

f ragments

F ort

F iolet

Walsh

p ipes,

t he p ipe m aterial

were

s ite

t herefore,

r ecovered

out

r ecovered o f

f rom a ll o ccupation

a t otal

o f

4 39

m ake u p a pproximately

p ipes

a nd

o nly 1 .7% o f

( Table 4 ).

D umaril S tem T he maker Dumaril i s r epresented b y a s ingle s tem f ragment f rom t he 1 877

Q uartermaster 's

s tem

f ragment

a round Omer, 1 971:

t he

t op

w ith

S tores t he

s tructure .

maker 's

( 7N31A1-7,

T his

mark D umeri

F ig .14) .

D umaril

i s

a s traight,

w as

making

p ipes

F rance b etween c a 1 844 and c a 1 895 ( Jean-Leo 1 971: 3 0).

9 6

white

c lay

1 / Leurs/St Omer i mpressed i n

3 0,

S aintWalker

M cDougall S tems McDougall o f G lasgow, S cotland, i s r epresented b y o ne s tem f ragment w ith m aker 's m arks o n i t ( 7N43E2-9, F ig .15) a nd o ne s tem f ragment w ith t he b order d esign o f a McDougall mark o n i t ( 7N101R1-1, F ig .16) . T he w hite c lay f ragment w ith t he c omplete m aker 's m arks o n i t h as M cDOUGALL m ould-impressed o n t he l eft s ide a nd G LASG ( OW) o n t he r ight s ide, t he l atter b arely d iscernable . T he b order d esign o n t he o ther w hite c lay s tem

f ragment i s o ne k nown t o h ave b een u sed b y M cDougall f rom t he m any

e xamples o f i t i n a ssociation with t hat maker's n ame f ound o n a w ide r ange o f 1 9th c entury s ites . McDougall o f G lasgow w as,

p erhaps,

t he l argest p ipe m aking f irm i n

t he w orld i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury . T his f irm m ade p ipes f rom 1 846 u ntil 1 967 ( Walker a nd W alker 1 969: 1 32 ; Walker 1 971: 2 5-27) . M cDougall a ppears t o h ave e xported A merica i n t he 1 860s a nd 1 870s.

l arge

q uantities

o f

p ipes

t o N orth

T he M cDougall s tem w ith t he m aker 's m arks o n i t w as r ecovered f rom t he 1 877 E nlisted M en 's B arracks, S addlery a nd A rmoury s tructure ; t he s tem w ith t he M cDougall-style b order d esign o n i t w as r ecovered i n t he b ack-dirt f rom t he 1 880 S tables.

B urton S tem O ne

w hite

c lay

s tem

f ragment

w as

r ecovered

f rom

t he n orth-west c orner

o f t he 1 875 P alisade Wall a nd h ad t he maker 's n ame B URTON o r . -BURTON o n t he l eft s ide a nd ( BURN) S C UT ( TY) o n t he r ight s ide ( 7N57B2-2 , F ig . 1 7). The f ull maker 's n ame i s a c ase f or s peculation, o ther n ame i s u ndoubtedly B URNS C UTTY, a p opular s tyle n ame f or 1 9th c entury p ipes . T his s tyle n ame d oes n ot c orrelate t o k nown b owl s tyle, b ut t he t erm C utty a lways r eferred t o a s hort

b ut t he B ritish a ny o ne s temmed

p ipe. H ussar E ffigy B owl A n

e ffigy

b owl

t ype ,

o f

B ritish o r C anadian o rigin ,

i s

r epresented b y

t wo white c lay b owl f ragments r ecovered f rom t he 1 880 E nlisted Men 's B arracks. T he more c omplete e xample ( 7N20B2-14, F ig .18) i s a white c lay b owl with t he b ase missing . T he e ffigy i s t hat o f aH ussar, h is m ilitary c ap f orming t he r im a nd m outh o f t he b owl . T he f inish i s p oor a nd, a t f irst i nspection, t he e ffigy l ooks l ike t hat o f a n o riental s ultan ;

a m ore c areful i nspection w ill r eveal p art o f a m ilitaey c hin-

s trip , i ndicating t hat t he h eadpiece i s a s hako w ith a m ilitary b adge a t t he f ront . A nother e xample o f t his s ame p ipe b owl t ype c omes f rom F ort C oteau-du-Lac , Q ugbec ( 9G1B33-6, n ot i llustrated), a nd i s c omplete t o t he s hank-bowl j uncture r evealing t he c omplete c hin-strap a nd a h igh, m ilitary c ollar. P ossible D utch B owls O ne w hite c lay b owl f ragment

f rom t he 1 880 E nlisted M en 's B arracks,

a nd

o ne f rom t he P owder M agazine o f t he s ame p eriod, h ave r ouletting a round t heir r ims a nd p arallel p olishing m arks r unning d own t he b owl f rom t he

9 7

l ip

t owards

t he

b ase

( 7N13T2-1

and 7 N31J4-4

r espectively,

F ig.19).

B oth f ragments a re most l ikely f rom Dutch p ipes, b ut c ould h ave b een manufactured

i n

p roduced p ipes

s imilar ,

1 19,

f or D utch,

B elgium

o r

t he

n orth

o f

F rance .

A ll

t hese

c haracteristic a ttributes ( see Walker

B elgium a nd

n orthern F rench

m anufacturing

a reas

1 977:

8 0-

t echniques).

P ossible American P ipes S everal

r ed

c lay,

t hree d ifferent i n

t he United

r ibbed

t ypes

o f

S tates

b owl

f ragments

w ere

s ocket-shanked p ipes

i n

t he

1 9th

r ecovered o f

c entury.

t hat

a s tyle

r epresent

c ommonly

O ne b owl f ragment

m ade i s

o f

r eddish-brown, s alt-glazed c lay and i s v ertically r ibbed ( 7N63F1 -1, F ig. 2 0).

T his

k itchen .

Two

more

f ragment

r ecovered

f rom

t he

was

r ibbed, 1 875

r ecovered f rom u nglazed,

E nlisted

Men 's

B oth a re p ossibly f rom t he s ame p ipe, t he o ther 7 N26C2-1,

t he 1 877 C ommissioner's

c lay

b owl

B arracks,

f ragments

M ess

H all

were

s tructure .

o ne b eing a b owl . elm f ragment

a f ragment f rom a s ocket b ottom l eft, F ig. 2 1) .

u nglazed, d ark b rown c lay 3 3, r ight, F ig.22) were

r ed

s tyle s hank X 7N26C1-1, F inally, two f aintly

a nd

t op a nd r ibbed,

b owl f ragments ( 7N20C2-31, l eft a nd 7 N20C2r ecovered f rom t he 1 880 Enlisted Men 's

B arracks. A ll

t hese

p ipes

a re

p robably

f rom O hio .

T he f irst

t wo t ypes c ould

h ave c ome f rom o ne o f s everal p ipemaking f irms p roducing s ocket-shanked p ipes

i n O hio

b etween

1 850 a nd 1 880 ( Blair 1 965:

2 6-27,

3 0,

M urphy a nd

Reich 1 973: 9 4-96) . T he l ast t ype i s p robably f rom t he P eterson P ottery a t Point P leasant, O hio . T he P eterson Pottery was making s ocket-shanked p ipes f rom 1 848 t o 1 880 ( Thomas a nd B urnett 1 971: 1 -31) . A modern e xample o f t his t ype o f p ipe i s s till made i n t he United S tates b y ( Fig. 2 3).

t he G reen R iver F orge C ompany o f

B elleview,

Washington

s tate

O ther C lay P ipes F ive

f ragments

o f

r ed

c lay p ipes w ere

r ecovered

f rom

t he 1 877 a nd 1 880

o ccupation-periods o f t he s ite f or which n o i dentification c ould b e m ade a s t o m aker o r c ountry o f m anufacture . O ne b owl-and-stem f ragment was r ecovered f rom t he 1 880 N on-Commissioned O fficers ' P rivy , o ne b owl f ragment

was

r ecovered f rom t he 1 880 O fficers' Privy,

a nd o ne s tem

f ragment e ach c ame f rom t he 1 877 Q uartermaster 's S tores s tructure a nd t he E nlisted Men 's B arracks-Saddlery s tructure . O f t hese p ipe f ragments,

o nly

t he

e nough a ttributes T he

p lain ,

O fficers '

r ed

P rivy

c omplete

b owl

a nd

t o b e c onsidered a s

i s

c lay

s tem

t wo

f ragment

a m outhpiece

o f

t he

s tem

f ragments

h ave

t ypes.

w ith

f rom

t he

1 880

a l ipped b ite

N on-Commissioned

w hich

i s

f lattened

i n i mitation o f t he h ard r ubber m outhpiece o f a wooden p ipe ( 7N33R3-7, F ig . 2 4). Except f or t he r ed c lay material o f manufacture, t his mouthpiece r ecovered a t Another s tructure

i s

n ot

t he

d ifferent

s ite

f rom

r ed c lay s tem f ragment i s also a mouthpiece

i mitation o f

a h ard

t horns n ear t he

s imilar,

white

c lay

mouthpieces

( see b elow). f rom t he 1 877 Q uartermaster 's S tores

f lattened a nd

r ubber m outhpiece,

b owl e nd

( 7N37C1-10,

9 8

b ut

l ipped

w ith r aised ,

F ig. 2 5).

a t

t he

b ite

i n

m ould-imparted

F inally,

t here i s t he c omplete r ed c lay b owl r ecovered f rom t he

1 880 Non-Commissioned O fficers ' P rivy ( 7N33R4-2, F ig .26) . T his b owl w as u nlike a ny o ther b owl r ecovered i n t erms o f o verall c onfiguration . T he p lane o f t he b owl 's mass l eans f orward a way f rom t he p lane o f t he s tem

a t

t he

s hank-bowl

j uncture,

a nd

t he

p lane

o f

t he

b owl

l ip

i s

t ilted u pward a nd a way f rom t he p lane o f t he s tem g iving t he b owl m outh a f orward t ilt. T he b owl i s s hort a nd r ound a nd h as t wo r aised b ase d ecorations i n t he f orm o f wood k nots o n e ither s ide o f t he m ould-seam j ust f orward o f t he s hank-bowl j uncture . T hese a re n ot s purs, b ut b owl d ecorations t hat m ay h ave s erved t he p urpose o f a p ipe s tand. An

a nalysis

o f

t he

material

o f

manufacture

o f

t his

b owl

w as

c onducted b y t he C onservation D ivision o f P arks C anada ( Con . D iv . L ab . N o . 7 6-1730-A). I t was d etermined b y X -ray d iffaction t hat t he b owl entigrade . B y u se o f c ontained n o mullite a nd was f ired b elow 1 000 ° C M ossbauer s pectroscopy, t he p resence o f f erric o xide ( Fe20 3 ) p articles were f ound o utside t he c lay l attice; t his h as g iven t he p ipe, o riginally o f w hite c lay, i ts r ed c olour. O ne e xample o f a p lain , white c lay b owl w ith a f loral d esign o n t he b owl b ack w as r ecovered f rom t he 1 875 E nlisted M en 's B arracks ( 7N7K4-3, F ig. 2 7) . T he p lane o f t his b owl 's mass i s a t a r ight a ngle t o t he p lane o f t he s tem a t t he s hank-bowl j uncture a nd t he l ip p lane i s p arallel t o t hat o f t he s tem. T he b owl i s d evoid o f d esign e lements e xcept f or a s eries o f a wl-shaped l eaves r unning e venly-pinnate a long b oth s ides o f t he b ack mould-seam i n a manner s uggestive o f a f ern l eaf . T he b owl a lso h as a p eg-style s pur . T he b owl 's c onfiguration i s u nique o n c areful c omparison w ith i s, t herefore, a s eparate t ype.

o ther

s ite-specific

b owl

t ypes

a nd

Two s hank-ended p ipe f ragments w ere r ecovered t hat r epresent a t ype t hat, a s f ar a s t his writer k nows, h as n ot b een r eported a s o ccurring e lsewhere . One e xample i s f rom t he 1 877 Enlisted Men 's B arracksS addlery s tructure ( 7N30C1-4, F ig.28) a nd t he o ther i s f rom t he 1 880 S tables ( 7N34F3-76, F ig . 2 9). T hese p ipes were d esigned t o h ave a s tem , f itted t o t heir s hanks which c onstitute t he manufactured e nd o f ort o f s tem was f itted o n t hese s hanks i s t he s tem . T hat s ome - s s uggested b y

t he

w ear marks

o n

t he e xample

f rom

t he

1 880

S tables .

A s

y et, n o maker o r c ountry o f m anufacture h as b een i dentified f or t his p ipe t ype. O ne

b owl

b ase a nd

s hank

f ragment

o f

w hite

c lay w as

r ecovered f rom

t he 1 880 Enlisted Men 's B arracks which i s p robably a n imitation o f a wooden p ipe s tyle c alled a Woodstock ( 7N20B2-15, F ig.30) . T his p ipe s tyle i s c haracterized b y a smooth b ase a nd a t all, f orward-leaning b owl l ike t he o pen e nd o f a h unting h orn . N o m aker 's m arks w ere f ound o n t his e xample, a nd d efinite i nformation o n t he b owl c onfiguration i s l acking, t hough t he b owl b ase s trongly s uggests t hat i t i s o f t he woodstock s tyle . T his s tyle was a p opular o ne f or l ate 1 9th c entury c lay p ipes. Two small b owl f ragments were f ound t hat may.represent s eparate b owl t ypes . O ne i s a white c lay f ragment f rom t he l eft s ide o f a b owl b ack

a nd

h as

s uggestive

o f

a n

i mpressed

t he

s ail

o f

T o n

i t

a nd

a windmill

9 9

a d esign ( 7N19M1-1,

o f

r aised

F ig .31).

l ines T his

f ragment, p robably f rom E nlisted M en's B arracks. T he

o ther

b owl

g roove a cross F ig .32 ) .

i t,

T his

a T D

f ragment

b owl,

i s

o f

was

w hite

c lay a nd

within which a re a r ow

b owl

f ragment

w as

r ecovered

r ecovered

o f

h as

t he

1 880

a m ould-imparted

r aised

f rom

f rom

d ots

( 7N15R1-3,

t he 1 880 C ommissioner 's

P rivy. F inally, p ipe

t he l ast c lay p ipe t ype t o b e c onsidered i s a white c lay

mouthpiece

l ipped r ed c lay m anufacture

with a l ipped b ite t hat

i s

i dentical

m outhpiece a lready d escribed e xcept

( 7N66A1-3,

F ig .33) .

T he

i llustrated

t o

t he

p lain,

f or t he m aterial o f

e xample

was

r ecovered

f rom t he 1 877 C ommissioner 's P rivy, b ut a t otal o f s even o thers were r ecovered, E nlisted

o ne

f rom t he

Men 's

Men's B arracks, Men's

1 875 E nlisted Men 's

B arracks,

B arracks.

B aths

s tructure,

S addlery s tructure, This

t ype

o f

B arracks,

t hree

a nd two

mouthpiece,

i n

t he

i nfluence

s econd

h alf

o f

t he

1 9th

1 877

1 877

E nlisted

t he 1 880 Enlisted t he h ard

was c ommon t o many c lay

c entury

o f wooden p ipes o n c lay p ipe

f rom

t he

a n imitation o f

r ubber mouth-piece s tyles o f wooden p ipes, p ipes

o ne f rom t he

f rom

a nd

s hows

t he

i ncreasing

d esigns.

W ooden P ipes a nd C omponents Only s even wooden p ipes a nd p ipe f ragments were r ecovered f rom a ll o ccupation p eriods o f t he F ort Walsh s ite o ut o f a t otal o f 4 39 p ipes a nd

p ipe

f ragments;

f ive

o f

t hese

a re

f ragmentary

a nd

t wo

a re

a lmost

e ntirely i ntact. One o f

t he

c omplete p ipes

was

o f b riar a nd h ard r ubber,

a nd was

r ecovered f rom t he 1 880 Non-Commissioned O fficers' P rivy ( 7N33R3-1, ipe s tyle F ig .31). This p ipe i s a n e lmple o f a t raditional W GC 1 “ p c alled a B ent which c onsists o f a s hort, r ounded, b road b owl with a r ound m outh a nd c urved s tem . T he d egree o f c urvature o f t he s tem was t raditionally r eferred t o b y a r ange o f t erms f rom F ull-Bent, f or a s tem

t hat

c urved u pward c lose t o t he b owl b ack ,

a s tem t hat c urved o nly s lightly u pward . h as

a H alf-Bent

s tem .

T he h ard

a S addle,

which r efers

where i t

f its

r ubber

t o a Q uarter-Bent,

mouthpiece

t o t he f lattening

f or

T he p ipe i n question, t hen, o f

i nto t he s hank o f t he p ipe .

t he

i s

o f a s tyle c alled

mouthpiece

j ust

b ehind

T o g ive t he p ipe i ts f ull

n ame, i t i s a h alf-bent w ith a s addle mouthpiece . T he m outhpiece h as a t hreaded t enon where i t f its i nto t he s hank p ortion o f t he s tem, a nd t he s hank a t t his p oint o nce h ad a n ickel-plated b rass s hank f errule a round i t

o f

i n a b adly

which o nly a f ew f ragments were r ecovered .

A lso r ecovered

f ragmented s tate was t he n ickel-plated b rass

s park c ap .

T he

d etermination o f t he m aterial o f m anufacture o f t he m etal c omponents o f t he

p ipe

( EDX),

was

a nd was

b y Energy D ispersive X -Ray c arried o ut

b y

F lourescence

S pectroscopy

t he C onservation D ivision o f P arks C anada

( Cons . D iv . N o .76-1129-002) . T he s park c ap was f ixed b owl b y t wo p ins, o ne o n t he l eft a nd r ight s ides o f

o n t he t op o f t he t he b owl l ip, w as

h inged

a nd was

t o a llow

t he

b owl

t o

b e

f illed

with

t obacco,

h eld

s hut

b y a m etal c lip. O n t he b ottom o f s tands C ompany

f or

Novelty

m anufactured

t he h ard r ubber m outhpiece Rubber

C ompany

r ubber p roducts,

1 00

( Fig .

3 5) .

i s

s tamped N RCo, T he

Novelty

e specially b uttons

w hich Rubber

o f w hich f ive

e xamples w ere f ound a t F ort W alsh , a nd w as a ctive a t N ew B runswick , N ew J ersey, f rom 1 855 t o 1 870 ( Luscomb 1 968 : / 40). T he o ther c omplete p ipe was o f h ardwood, p ossibly p earwood, a nd h ard r ubber,

a nd was r ecovered i n i ts f ragmented c ase f rom t he 1 875

E nlisted Men 's L atrine ( 7N60E9-1, F ig .36) . T he p ipe c onsists o f a wooden b owl a nd s hank ; a s ilver-plated b rass s hank f errule, t enon j acket, a nd s pring c lip ; a nd a h ard r ubber m outhpiece ( Fig . 3 7) . T he f ragmented w ooden c ase i n w hich t he p ipe was f ound ( Fig . 3 8 ) h as a r ed f elt l ining , b lack l eather c overing w ith f old l ines o n i t, b rass h inges a nd a s nap-lock o f b rass . T he s hank f errule i s d esigned t o f it i nto g rooves o n t he s hank , w ith t he s pring c lip i nside b etween t he f errule e nd a nd t he s hank e nd . When t he m oluthpiece w ith i ts m etal j acket i s i nserted i nto t he f errule, t he s pring c lip i s f orced o ver t he e nd o f t he j acket h olding t he mouthpiece T raditionally t his t ype o f s hank a nd

within t he e nd o f t he f errule . t apered m outhpiece a rrangement i s

c alled a M ilitary S tem p resumably b ecause i t was e asier f or a s oldier i n t he f ield t o r epair a t apering t enon t han a t hreaded o ne . T he b owl i s t all a nd r ound w ith t hin w alls a nd i s n ot s tylistically a b ent, b ut r ather

i s

a s tyle

b ased o n t he

b owl

s hape c alled a B illiard .

A lthough

t he m ore c ommon t ype o f b illiard p ipe h ad a s traight s tem, t his w as b y n o m eans a r ule f or t he s tyle , a nd t his p ipe i s p roperly c alled a h alfb ent b illiard w ith a m ilitary m outhpiece . A nalysis f or t he m aterial o f m anufacture o f t he m etal c omponents o f t he p ipe w as b y E DX ( Cons . D iv . L ab . N o . 7 6-3398-001) . F inally, c areful i nspection o f t he b owl's o utside s urface s hows t hat i t w as o riginally c oated w ith a b lack f iller p aint, o f

a c ommon p ractice u sed t o d isguise t he f act t hat a p ipe was n ot

b riar

o r w as o f i nferior q uality .

O f t he f ive f ragmentary w ooden p ipes r ecovered ,

t wo a re t he r emains

o f b owls a nd t hree a re s hank f ragments, with o ne o f t he s hank a nd o ne o f t he b owl f ragments p ossibly b eing f rom t he s ame p ipe. A n early c omplete b riar b owl was r ecovered f rom t he 1 880 E nlisted Men 's B arracks, f rom a n a rea within t hat s tructure t hat may c ontain i ntrusive , m odern c ultural m aterials ( 7N20A1-1, F ig .39) . B ecause t he p anel s tyle o f b riar b owl h as b een p opular f rom t he l ate 1 9th c entury u p

t o

t he

a rtifact

p resent a lone

i f

d ay, i t

i t i s

i s

n ot

p ossible

i ntrusive

o r

t o

n ot;

d etermine

t he

p ipe

f rom

c an

o nly

t he b e

c onsidered a s a p ossible p ipe t ype f rom t he F ort Walsh p ipe a ssemblage . T he p lane o f t he b owl 's mass i s a t a r ight a ngle t o t he p lane o f t he s tem, with t he p lane o f t he l ip b eing p arallel t o t hat o f t he s tem. T he b owl i s f lattened, o r " panelled", o n e ight c ondition t he s tyle's n ame i s d erived ( Fig.40).

s ides,

f rom

which

T he o ther f ragmentary w ooden b ow i s s o d istorted a nd b roken t hat i t i s d ifficult t o d etermine with a ny c ertainty i f i t r epresents a t ype s eparate f rom t he o ther wooden p ipes ( 7N56D3-15, F ig .41). T here i s o nly

a s light

p ossibility

i t

may

t raditionally c alled a n A pple, d iscernable. T hree

T his b owl w as

b e

a d istinct

b riar

b owl

s tyle

b ased o n t he f ew a ttributes t hat a re

r ecovered f rom t he 1 881 H ospital.

w ooden s hank f ragments

w ere

r ecovered

f rom

t he

s ite ,

t wo o f

t hem s ufficiently d ifferent i n c onfiguration t o m ark t hem a s b eing f rom p ipe t ypes d ifferent f rom t hose a lready d escribed a bove . T he t hird

1 01

s hank f ragment

i s

p ossibly

d escribed above.

f rom t he p ossible a pple-style b owl j ust

T his i s a p ortion o f a wood s tem f rom t he s ame 1 881

Hospital, a nd i n measurement i s s imilar t o p roportion t o t he s hank p ortion o f t he A pple-style b owl ( 7N56D2-4, F ig.42). O f t he r emaining s hank f ragments, o ne w as r ecovered f rom t he 1 880 E nlisted Men 's B arracks a nd h as a n i mprovised s hank f errule m ade f rom a 4 10-gauge

s hotgun

s hell

r ecovered f rom t he a nd

h ard

i ron ,

r ubber

u sed

s leeve

w ith

t o m end

i s

i n

a n

i mprovised

a p oor

s tate

b y

t his

T he

s leeve, o f

o ther

i s

writer .

T he

p ossibly

r ubber

o f

b ut

f ragment, o f

w ood

n ickel-plated

( 7N60F7-2 ,

p reservation

p reservation ,

h ard

s hank

a c omposite

F ig .44) .

i t

w hat p articular o bject i t was m ade . m anufacture o f t he m etal s leeve w as

when i t was i n a b etter s tate o f t ime

F ig .43) .

t he mouthpiece t o t he s hank

s uch

d etermined f rom t he m aterial o f

( 7N20C2-35,

1 875 E nlisted Men 's L atrine,

c ould

T he

n ot

b e

I dentification o f d one i n t he f ield

was n ot

mouthpiece

i s

s een a t

o f

t he

t hat

s addle

s tyle. A long was

w ith

r ecovered

t he

wooden

a b riar

n ickel-plated

b rass,

c ap

b ent

f rom

t he

c omparison

o f

s imilarities

f rom

s park

p robably

b riar

t he

p ipes

p ipe

t he

1 880 E nlisted

( 7N13C2-1,

i llustrates

p ipe

i ntact

c ap

must

c ap

i n t he a ttributes

h ave

with o f t he

t he

w hat b een

M en 's

F ig .45) . t he

o ther ,

l ike,

f ragmentary

B arracks

T his

c ap ,

o f

f ragmentary

b ecause o ne

a c lose

s hows

m any

t wo.

M eerschaum B owl a nd Amber M outhpieces The o nly example o f a meerschaum p ipe t o b e r ecovered f rom t he F ort Walsh s ite c ame f rom t he 1 880 E nlisted M en 's B arracks ( 7N31J3-7, F ig . 4 6) . Not enough o f t his b owl i s i ntact t o b e a ble t o d etermine i ts s tyle . H owever, b ased o n t he b owl b ase a nd b ody, i t i s p robably a n imitation

o f

t he

B illiard

s tyle .

More

m eerschaum

p ipes

may h ave

b een

i n u se a t F ort Walsh t han i s s uggested b y t he o ne r ecovered e xample, b ut o thers material .

may n ot I f we

h ave s urvived b ecause o f t he f ragile n ature o f t he c onsider t he n umber o f amber mouthpieces a lso

r ecovered f rom t he s ite, t his p ossibility i s more c ertain, a lso

t rue

b ut i t i s

t hat a mber m outhpieces were u sed w ith b riar a nd o ther w ooden

p ipes a s w ell. O f t he 2 2 amber mouthpiece f ragments r ecovered, t hem ( 15 i n a ll)

c ame

f rom

t he

1 877

t he majority o f

o ccupation p eriod

o f

t he s ite,

while o nly t hree c ame f rom t he 1 875 p eriod, a nd f our f rom t he 1 880 p eriod. O ut o f t he 2 2 examples f rom a ll o ccupation p eriods, t hree b asic

s tyles

I diosyncratic

a re

d erived

d ifferences

f rom i n

a g eneral s imilarity i n c onfiguration . a ttributes,

including

s ize,

were

d isregarded, b ecause o f t he f act t hat amber/mouthpieces w ere h and m ade ( Billings 1875: 1 60-61) and only a v ery general l evel of s tandardization was a chieved b etween e xamples o f t he s ame s tyle-type . T he t hree b asic s tyles were r epresented i n t he amber m aterial

f rom a ll

o ccupation p eriods. T he

f irst

s tyle g roup ( 7N43E1-2,

c haracterized b y b eing t owards

e ither

t he

f ull

b owl

o r

a nd

r ounded

7 N20C2-34, i n

t he b ite e nd o f

7 N7N2-2,

F ig .47) i s

c ross-section w ith n o t he m outhpiece .

t aper

T he s econd

s tyle g roup ( 7N8D5-2, 7 N9Y1-1, 7 N25B2-1, F ig.48) i s c haracterized b y

1 02

b eing o val i n c ross-section a nd t apering t owards t he b ite e nd o f t he s tem . T he F ig .49) i s t apers

l ast s tyle g roup ( 7N63E1-1, 7 N60G5-1, 7 N43C3-5, 7 N34F3-89, a lso c haracterized b y b eing o val i n c ross-section, b ut

t owards

A lso,

t he b owl e nd o f

t he s tem .

t o b e c onsidered w ith t he amber m outhpieces,

b one t enons, ( 7N34H3-1,

7 N60G5-1, F ig .50).

i vory

t he

was

a re t wo t hreaded

o ne o f which was f ound a ttached t o an amber mouthpiece u sual

T he u se o f a t hreaded t enon o f b one o r

method

o f

a ttaching

a n

amber

mouthpiece

t o

a

meerschaum o r b riar p ipe . A ll t he amber mouthpieces r ecovered t hat h ave t heir b owl e nd i ntact, o r p artially i ntact, were f ound t o b e t hreaded

f or t he i nsertion o f

t enons.

I vory M outhpiece O ne

i vory

b ite

( 7N60H6-2 ,

was

F ig .51) .

r ecovered T his

i s

f rom

p robably

t he a n

1 880 Enlisted i mitation

o f

Men 's Latrine

t he

s addle

s tyle

h ard r ubber mouthpiece . O riginally, i t h ad a t enon which c ould h ave e ither t han t hreaded o r smooth , t he l atter b eing t o b e p ushed i nto t he mortise

i n

e xpansion .

t he T he

p ipe

was m ade b y v isual m ade f rom i vory.

D istribution,

s hank

a nd

d etermination

o f

i nspection ,

k ept

t here

material

o f

which s hows

b y

f riction

m anufacture

t he mouthpiece

a nd

h eat

t his

c ase

t o h ave

b een

i n

B owl-Stem R atios a nd U se-Wear E vidence

G eneral D istribution F our h undred a nd f orty p ipes a nd p ipe f ragments were r ecovered f rom t he F ort Walsh s ite f rom s ix o ccupation p eriods. Out o f t hese, 4 09 were c lay p ipes,

t he r emaining 3 1 p ipes c onsist o f s even wooden p ipes a nd

c omponents, o ne meerschaum b owl, o ne i vory mouthpiece, a nd 2 2 amber mouthpieces and mouthpiece f ragments. T he t hree minor o ccupation p eriods y ielded o nly a small amount o f p ipe material while 4 6 p ipe f ragments t he

w ere

r ecovered

1 877 p eriod,

a nd

f rom

t he

1 875

2 84 p ipe f ragments

p eriod,

9 8 p ipe

f rom t he

f ragments

1 880 p eriod

f rom

( Table 5 ).

B owl-Stem R atios I n

c alculating

b owl-stem r atios,

u sed o nly f or c lay p ipe m aterial,

a ny

p ortion o f a b owl i ncluding t he s hank-bowl j uncture i s c ounted a s a " bowl", r egardless o f h ow much s tem i s s till i ntact, b ecause t he f unctional, s moking p ortion o f t he p ipe i s r epresented . A ny p ortion o f a s tem n ot

i ncluding t he s hank-bowl j uncture i s c ounted a s a " stem"

( see t he c onclusions f or a d iscussion on t he u se o f t his t echnique i n a nalysis). T he t he

r atios

m ajor

f or e ach

f or b owls

t o s tems was c alculated s eparately f or e ach o f

o ccupation p eriods

o f

a nd

f or a ll

p eriods

t ogether .

T he

r atios

t he t hree major o ccupation p eriods a re a pproximately o ne t o

1 03

o ne,

while

b owls

t o

t he r atio f or a ll o ccupation p eriods t aken t ogether,

2 09 s tems,

i s a lso a pproximately o ne

t o o ne

2 00

( Table 5 ).

U se-Wear E vidence Also t hought t o b e r elevant t o t he c alculation o f p ipe u sage a t F ort Walsh was e vidence o f wear o n p ipes i n t he f orm o f t eeth-marks o n t he s tem

and

smoking

s tains

o n

t he

b owl.

When

c onsidering

u se-wear

e vidence, an a ttempt was made t o c alculate t he t otal amount o f p ipes r epresented b y t he e vidence f rom t he t otal n umber o f f ragments with wear

marks.

A c ritique

o f

o t he q uestion o f r elates - t i n t he c onclusions.

O ut 1 29 o f

o f

t he 4 40

t hem ( 29%)

p ipes

t he

u se

o f

t his

p ipe u sage a t F ort

a nd

f ragments

s howed s igns o f

t ype

o f

W alsh ,

evidence

f rom a ll p eriods

t eeth-marks

a s

i t

w ill b e p resented

and

o f F ort Walsh ,

smoking.

O ut

o f

t hese 129 examples,

4 7 were s tems with t eethmarks a nd 8 2 were b owls

w ith smoking s tains .

S ince s ome o f t he s tems may well b e f rom t he s ame

p ipes a s

s ome o f

c alculated

b y

With t his s hows t he

t he b owls,

a ccepting

a djustment,

s igns

o f

l argest

t he

a nd a djusted h igher

o f

f igure

t he

f or u sed p ipes h as b een

t otals

f or

s tems

a nd

b owls .

o nly 1 9% o f a ll t he p ipe m aterial f rom F ort W alsh

smoking

u sage .

amounts

O f

( adjusted

t his

p ercentage,

f igures)

b y

t he

d istribution

o ccupation

p eriod

o f a nd

s tructure a re: 1 875, o nly 1 4 examples f rom t he e ntire o ccupation p eriod, 1 877, o nly 1 5 e xamples f rom t he e ntire o ccupation p eriod ; a nd 1 880, 5 2 e xamples f rom t he E nlisted M en 's B arracks a nd 6 6 e xamples f rom t he e ntire o ccupation p eriod ( Tables 6 a nd 7 ).

D iscussion a nd C onclusions

F ort

Walsh

w as

e ssentially

a m ilitary

e stablishment,

o rganized a t

t he

t roop l evel i n c avalry t erms, a lthough a s h eadquarters f or t he N orthWest Mounted Police i t h ad t he v estiges o f a d ivisional s taff a nd f acilities

f or

d ivision

s tores

a nd

q uartermaster

s tores .

T he

C ypress

H ills a rea, where F ort Walsh w as l ocated , w as f or a l ong t ime d ominated c ommercially f rom t he United S tates, e specially b y t he Montana-based t rading f irms o f I .B . B aker and T .C. Powers, s ituated i n F ort B enton, 2 00 m iles B ased s ite,

t o t he s outh o n

t he

c ertain

a ssemblage .

( Sciscenti a nd M urray 1 976:

k nown

h istorical

p atterns

P ipe

t ypes

were

a nd

t o

m akers

a nd b e

1 ).

s ocial n ature

o f

expected

t he

s hould

i n

r eflect

t he

t he F ort

Walsh

t obacco-pipe

e xisting

s ources

o f s upply o f F ort Walsh, b ut b e i nfluenced t o s ome d egree b y t he f act t hat

t he

n aturally s hould

p ost

r eflect

h as

l imited

A nd

f inally,

1 9th

r epresented

s upplied

f rom

S tates .

t he m ilitary n ature o f

mobility

c entury

a C anadian p olitical p resence i n a n a rea

t he U nited

c hoice

a nd o f

smoking

m eerschaum p ipes

must

t he

l ive

o n

t he

t obacco-pipe

t rends,

s uch

o ver c lay o nes.

1 04

U sage

p atterns

t he p opulation ,

a s

s ite

i n

m aterial

t hat

o n t he i s,

o ne

well-defined s hould

a p reference

f or

s ite t hat

a reas .

r eflect wooden

l ate a nd

Out o f a n i nventory o f 4 40 p ipes a nd p ipe f ragments,

a t otal o f

1 36, o r c a . 3 2 p er c ent, were f rom D ixon o f Montreal . N ext i n o rder o f amount r ecovered w ere t he L . F iolet, a nd p robable F iolet, p ipes . O nly e ight examples o f t hese French p ipes were f ound f rom a ll o ccupation p eriods

o f

t he

s ite .

T he t hree B ritish p ipe f ragments,

f rom M cDougall

a nd B urton , t he p robable D utch p ipe f ragments, t he D umeril f ragment, a nd t he p robable F rench b eaver e ffigy b owl c onstitute l ess t han t wo p er c ent o f a ll p ipe material r ecovered . r ed c lay, s ocket-shanked p ipe N ovelty R ubber C ompany o f N ew t he

h ard

r ubber

m outhpiece .

F inally,

t here a re t he r ibbed,

f ragments a nd t he w ooden p ipe w ith t he B runswick , N ew J ersey , maker 's m ark o n

A ll

o f

t hese

p ipes

t he U nited S tates ; h owever , t hey t oo c ome a ll p ipe m aterial r ecovered .

w ere

t o l ess

m ade

i n

t han t wo p er c ent

p robably

o f

Most s ixty-five p er c ent o f t he r ecovered p ipe material r emains u nidentified a s t o maker a nd c ountry o f manufacture b ecause i t l acks t he

d iagnostic

h owever , o f

t he

1 883. p ipes

c haracteristics

n ecessary t o d erive t his i nformation ;

t he i dentified m aterial s eems s ufficient t o r eflect

t obacco-pipe

s upply

s ituation a t

F ort

Walsh

t he n ature

i n t he p eriod 1 875-

The l arge number o f D ixon p ipes a nd smaller n umber o f French a nd p robable American p ipes c ertainly r eflect t he k nown s ources

o f s upply:

F ort B enton i n Montana,

F ort Walsh was o ccupied, t he S tates was p robably i n Ohio,

a nd Montreal.

A t

t he t ime t hat

l argest c lay p ipe i ndustry i n t he United while t he c losest c onvenient s ource o f

Canadian a nd European p ipes was Montreal . The s everal B ritish a nd D utch p ipe f ragments merely r eflect c ontemporary c lay p ipe p references a nd

a vailable

world 's

p roducts

l argest

a t

t hat

t ime,

p roducer a nd D utch

McDougall

p ipes

b eing

b eing

o f

t he

p ossibly

h ighest

t he

quality .

The f act t hat t he North-West Mounted Police was a g overnment a gency c ertainly i n p art, r eflect w ith

a rgues

t hat

t hey

would

" buy

C anadian",

t he l arge n umber o f Dixon p ipes . c ontemporary

t he

f act

t hat

a s e ffigies a nd When

p references

t he F rench

b riar

i n

which

F rench-speaking

i ndustry

would

e xplain ,

T he F rench p ipes p erhaps

s pecialized

Montreal,

c oupled

i n f ancy p ipes

s uch

i mitations .

considering

recovered

p ipe

material

and

c ontemporary

p reference i n p ipe-smoking i n t he l ate 1 9th c entury, we c onfront t he p roblem o f why

s o m any c lay p ipes w ere

r ecovered while o nly s even wood

p ipes a nd o ne meerschaum p ipe were r ecovered . p ipe,

u sually

p opularity, H istorical

o f

and

b riar,

t he

had

l argely

B y t he

r eplaced

meerschaum p ipe was a lso

d ocuments

o f

N orth-West

o f

M ounted P olice

f ive d ozen a t a t ime , i n u se

which m eans

a t

F ort

Walsh

The answer i s

t hat

meerschaum

d ecompose,

while

c lay

t han

p ipes

t he wooden

c lay

g reat

p ipe

i n

p opularity.

p urchases

m any wooden p ipes w ere a cquired ( Canadian G overnment b een

1 870s

t he

1 879),

s how a s

t hat

many a s

t hat f ar more wooden p ipes must h ave

t he

r ecovered

p ipes

a re

e vidence

would

i ndicate .

d isintegrate a nd wooden p ipes

l ess

a ffected

b y

t he

e nvironment.

P robably t here has b een n early t otal r ecovery o f t he c lay p ipes u sed a nd

d iscarded

a t

F ort

While a lmost n one o f

Walsh

a t

l east

f rom

t he

l ast

o ccupation

t he wooden p ipes h ave s urvived .

p eriod .

T he f act t hat t he

b est-preserved wooden p ipes were t hose r ecovered f rom a l atrine and privy,

while

p reservation , l earned

i s

t he

o ther

would s eem

t hat

when

t o

examples s upport

c onsidering

t he

1 05

are

t his

in

a v ery

c onclusion .

t obacco-pipe

p oor T he

s tate

l esson

a ssemblage

o f

t o

o f b e

l ate-

1 9th-century N orth American s ites, c onsideration r epresented When Walsh, 1 1

c an

b e

c ame

p er

t he

s een

t he

i nventory

o verall ( Table

d istribution o f

5 )

t hat

6 5

p er

t ake

may

i nto

n ot

b e

p ipe m aterial a t F ort

c ent

f rom t he 1 880 o ccupation p eriod,

c ent

c ame

f rom

T his i s

1 9th-century

S an J uan

t he r esearcher s hould

p roportion o f

i n t he r ecovered m aterial.

r espectively. o ther

a l arge

c onsidering

i t

f ragments and

t hat

I sland,

t he

1 877

a nd

a p attern t his

m ilitary

s ite,

Washington

a ll

1 875

p ipes

a nd

2 3 p er c ent

o ccupation

p eriods

writer h as s een b efore o n o ne

American

s tate .

o f

w hile o nly

C amp

A lthough

( 45SJ300) ,

f urther

1 859-1874,

s tudy

o f

s imilar

s ites i s r equired b efore d efinite c onclusions c an b e r eached, t his t ype o f d istribution t hrough t ime o f r ecovered p ipe material s eems t o b e r elated

t o

f rontier

m ilitary

two

f actors p osts

a t

F ort

o ften

Walsh .

w ent

One

t hrough

f actor

s everal

i s

t hat

s tages

o f

small

b uilding

and expansion d uring t he p eriod o f t heir o ccupation with much o f t he material s tage . o r

f rom p revious s tages b eing

I t

c lean ,

a nd

t his

was,

a nd

s till

t he g rounds c ertainly

o f

i s,

c leaned u p a t t he b uilding o f a n ew

c ommon m ilitary

m ilitary

would h ave

p ractice

e stablishments

o ccurred

a fter

a t

a ny

t o

" police

r egular

major

u p",

i ntervals,

a lterations

t o

t he p ost . Material t hat s urvived f rom e arlier p eriods w ould b e t hat i n s tructures l eft u naltered o r a dded t o . When s uch a p ost i s a bandoned, h owever ,

t he

m aterial

f rom

t he

l ast

o ccupation

p eriod

w ould,

a s

m any

c ases s how, r emain u ntouched . A f urther f actor t hat h as p robably d etermined t he d istribution o f F ort Walsh p ipe m aterial t hrough t ime i s t hat t he n umber o f p ersonnel a t t he p ost s lowly i ncreased f rom 1 875 t o 1 877,

a nd

t hen e xpanded much more r apidly t hereafter u ntil t he p ost w as

a bandoned i n 1 883 L ast

o f a ll,

( Sciscenti a nd Murray t he e vidence

f rom

1 976:

2 ).

s tem-bowl r atios

a nd u se-wear m arks

will b e c onsidered . T he o bject o f t he enumeration o f s tem t o b owl r atios i s t o p roduce s ome i dea o f t he amount o f p ipe u sage t hat h as o ccurred o n t he s ite a nd s omething o f t he n ature o f t hat u sage .

The

r easoning i s t hat s ince p ipe b owls a re i ndispensable t o t he s moking o f a p ipe, t hey w ill b e more c ommon where p ipe s moking i s f requent a nd o f l ong

d uration .

T he

n umber

o f

p ipe

s tems

i s

n ot

n ecessarily

d ependent

upon p ipe smoking, b ut upon s uch f actors a s b reakage i n s hipment, breakage d uring t ransportation t o and f rom t he smoking a rea, a nd purposeful

b reakage

t o a lter a l ong-stemmed p ipe

i nto a s ize more

s uitable f or u se . B owls, t herefore, c an i ndicate t he amount o f s moking d one o n a s ite , w hile s tems o ften i ndicate o nly t he b reakage o f p ipes t hat

may

b e

i n u se s omewhere e lse .

O n a military s ite,

t herefore,

c haracterized b y a r elatively f ixed p opulation o f l imited mobility v isä-vis where i t c arries o ut i ts l eisure a ctivities, o ne s hould e xpect many more c owls t o b e f ound i n r elation t o t he n umber o f s tems t han f rom a s ite where t he p opulation i s m ore t ransient . S tems a re u sed a s a c onvenient i ndex b ecause t hey d emonstrate t hat p ipes w ere p resent o n t he

s ite,

t hough

p erhaps

g enerally more numerous s ite . b owls t he

I n c alculating a nd

j ust

f unctional The

t he

b eing

t he r atio ,

s hank-bowl

s tem

smoked,

a nd

r egardless o f

b ecause

t he p ipe

l ength

for

i s i s

t hey

c onsidered

i ncluding w hole a b owl

b ecause

r epresented.

clay

p ipes,

s uggested

a nd d ocumentary e vidence ( Jackson a nd P rice 1 974 :

1 06

a re

t he n ature o f t he

a ny p ortion o f a b owl, j uncture,

s moking p ortion o f

theoretical

a rchaeological

n ot

t han b owls

by

8 3-85;

R ichie

1 978),

s hould n ot

b e

more

t han 1 6

i nches .

B ased

o n c urrent

a nalysis b y t he a uthor, t he a verage s tem f ragment f rom 1 9th c entury a ppears t o b e a pproximately o ne i nch l ong, while t he a verage n umber o f f ragments p roduced b y b owls, t he b owl t han i ts s ize a nd t heoretical

r atio o f

i ndication o f g reat

d eal

f our

d etermined m ore wall t hickness,

s tem

f ragments

i ntense p ipe s moking .

s horter

i n o rder

r atio c an b e much l ess.

t o

t o

b y t he c onfiguration o f i s f our . T his g ives a

e very

S ince e xport

c ut

d own

b owl

f ragment

p ipes

o n b reakage ,

a s

a n

w ere p robably a

t he

s tem-to-bowl

( The l engths o f B ristol c lay p ipes made f or

export was s et b y l aw i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 1 8th c entury a t 1 3 i n . and 8 1 /2 in . ( Jackson a nd P rice 1 974: 8 4-85) . H owever, a ny r atio o f more t han f ive s tem f ragments t o e very b owl f ragment, g iven t hat t he s ample i s l arge e nough, s hould b e i ndicative o f i ncreasingly l ess s moking o f A t

Fort

p eriods o f

s tem

Walsh

and

c onsidered e ach

t he p ipes o n t he s ite i n question.

a ll

t he

t he

t he

p ipe

r atio

o f

material

b owl-stem

r atio

b owls i s

t o

e ach

b owl

s tems o ne

f or

t o

a ll

o ne,

i ndex f or t he whole s ite .

m ajor o ccupation p eriods

f ragments

t o

n early t he

r atio

f ragment .

T he

i s

n ever

e vidence

o ccupation

which

c an

b e

F urther , more

s eems

f or

t han

t o

t wo

s uggest

t hat t he p ipe smoking p opulation o f F ort Walsh was l imited i n mobility and d id much o f i ts smoking within t he f ort b oundaries, which a grees with t he k nown f acts o f p opulation mobility o n s mall t his

f rontier p osts

o f

t ype. N ot

t ypes

e nough and

i s

k nown a bout

smoking

s tatements a bout

u se-wear

p opulations

t o

f requency o n s ites o f d iffering

b e

a ble

t he e vidence f rom F ort Walsh .

t o

make

any

U nfortunately,

d efinite t here i s

t he p roblem o f t he p ermanence o f c ertain u se-wear marks s uch a s smoking s tains.

I n o ne c ase b rought t o t he a ttention o f t his a uthor,

j oining

p ipe-bowl f ragments f rom i nside and o utside a s tructure o n o ne f urt rade s ite ( Nottingham H ouse , L ake A thabaska) s howed s moking s tains h ad b een partly r emoved f ro l - t he halves o f t he b owls f rom o utside t he s tructure ( Karklins: p ersonal c ommunication 1 977) . T herefore, s ince t he u se-wear evidence c onsidered f or Fort Walsh i s p redominantly o f smoking s tains, r ecovered ( Tables i s

n ot

l ess t han o ne t hird o f t he t otal p ipe material 5 , 6 a nd 7 ) t hat s hows u se-wear marks o f t his n ature

s ignificant

e vidence a gainst

t he

e vidence

o f

i ntense s moking o n

t he s ite b ased o n t he b owl-stem r atio. I t

must

b e

c oncluded,

o n

t he

b asis

o f

t he c onflict b etween t he

b owl-stem r atio and u se-wear e vidence, t hat t he i tensity o f smoking a ctivity

o n

a s ite

c annot

b e

r elated

t ime.

1 07

t o

t he u se-wear

e vidence a t

t his

R EFERENCES C ITED B illings, 1 875

B lair,

R I ts H istory,

C ommerce

ublishing C ompany, ..American P

C .

1 965

E .

T obacco:

Varieties,

C ulture,

M anufacture,

a nd

H artford.

D ean

T he P otters a nd p otteries o f S ummit C ounty 1 821-1915 T he S ummit C ounty H istorical S ociety,

C anada.

A kron.

P arliament

1 879

" Return t o o rder: 1 876-78;

e xpenditure

i n S essional P apers, F airholt, 1 859

F .

J ackson,

R .G.

1 974

1 879,

N o.188,

B aker a nd C o.",

Q ueen's P rinter,

O ttawa.

W .

T obacco: H all,

f or N orth-West M ounted P olice,

a nd o f a ll amounts p aid t o I .G.

I ts H istory a nd A ssociations:

..

C hapman a nd

L ondon. a nd R .H.

P rice

B ristol C lay P ipes,

A S tudy o f Makers a nd T heir M arks.

R esearch M onograph N o.l.

B ristol C ity M useum,

B ristol.

J ean-Leo 1 971

L es p ipes e n t erre f ranc aises d u 1 7me s iècle ä n os L e G renier d u C ollectionneur,

j ours.

B russels.

J . L ovell a nd S on, M ontreal 1 882 L ovell's M ontreal D irectory 1 881-1882. L uscomb, S ally C . 1 967 T he C ollector's Encyclopedia o f B uttons. B onanza B ooks,

N ew Y ork.

M urphy, J ames L . a nd K urt R eich 1 973 " Mold M arks o n M ogadore,

O hio,

R eed S tem T obacco P ipes."

Q uarterly B ulletin, A rchaeological S ociety o f V irginia N o.28, p p.94-96. Murray, 1 976

J effrey S . " Progress R eport F ort Walsh,

o n t he A rchaeological I nvestigations a t

S askatchewan,

1 976".

R esearch B ulletin N o.37,

N ational H istoric P arks a nd S ites B ranch, R ichie, 1 977

P arks C anada.

C .F. " A C ataloguing M anual a nd T ypology f or S moking-Pipes." T ypeprint

f or I nternal U se,

I ndian a nd N orthern A ffairs,

1 08

P arks C anada, O ttawa.

D epartment

o f

O ttawa.

1 978

" Nineteenth-Century C lay T obacco-Pipes C anadian J ournal o f A rchaeology N o.2 ,

S ciscenti, 1 976

J ames V .

a nd J effrey S .

f orm t he H igh A rctic". p p.123-137.

M urray

" Archaeological I nvestigations a t F ort W alsh, 1 973-75".

R esearch B ulletin N o.28,

P arks a nd S ites B ranch, a nd R ichard M .

S askatchewan,

N ational H istoric

P arks C anada,

O ttawa.

T homas,

B .B.Jr.

1 971

" A S tudy o f C lay S moking P ipes P roduced a t a N ineteenth-

B urnett

C entury K iln a t P oint P leasant, ' Historic S ite A rchaeology P apers

O hio".

W alker,

l ain C .

1 971

N ineteenth-Century C lay T obacco P ipes O ntario A rchaeology N o.16,

1 977

C lay T obacco-Pipes, I ndustry,

T he C onference o n

1 971 N o.6,

p p.1-31.

i n C anada.

p p.19-35.

w ith P articular R eference

t o t he B ristol

H istory a nd A rchaeology 1 1A,B,C a nd D ,

H istoric P arks a nd S ites, a nd L l.

d e S .

P arks C anada,

W alker,

L ain C .

1 969

" McDougall's C lay P ipe F actory,

N ational

O ttawa.

Walker

I ndustrial A rchaeology N o.6,

1 09

G lasgow".

p p.132-36,

1 39-41,

1 45-46.

1

L . 0

. — I

N

N

N

, 1

i n r I

i — I

0

N

, 1

N

0

c Z ) r I

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Fragment

Distribution:

Geometric

0

i — I

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

N

c p

, 1

0

r 1

0

r I

I A

o z i E 1

-

• ( 1 )

Z

0 •. 1

4 I u ] r c l -

>r i l

C d 0 U t 11 Z X 0 C D r i l 7 1 U ) • H , . C DH H 4 4 1 ) g i r d W C D P , — I P 1 W F 1

U ) g i U ) I ) ( . 1 M I l 0 • E 1 Z r1 4

U ) -

0

-

U )

.

Z rd

( 1 ) -) 4

( 1 ) >

, 1>

, 1 • H g l

wa 4

10

g l

W

0

a )Z Z

0

rd

i -

0

U ] 1 ) - Li /

c n r d 0 X P U P U ) w ( C S , 1 •H . I , — I g i 1 T i

E n U

0 c u r d

W W WE )

« I g i

U P • H g i 1 4 4 r ö

1 7 3

4 1

i

1 4a lw r c i

W W .

e

4 f 2 4 g i

I 0 (1

o a zo

StructureF ,

U ) -

All

w H

C d x

Structure

Dixon

Pipe

H H

H

N

0 0

H

0

0

H

H

H

H

N

H

H

C

N

C

0

0

S tructure

r n

c n G )

r n rZ i

( 1 ) U P r i c o g i , 1 g i i -ic i

0 0 0 Q ) P r d P P ( I ) g 4 u ) u2 H g i . 1 ›I ,-1n z i ,1 •r : c lg i c o r i l I l i r i l H r i l c r ) H ( ) u ) N - re j r -- -H N

N

e

h

rn

. -I

c o W o i

i — I

0 0

> h

0 -H C : )

( I ) t )-) r d

0 0

C ) r d g 4 u ) g i

r c i a )

r 2 1 : 1 X r d u ) E

- (1 )

0

H

, -
1 > H 7 5 g i

Structure

a )a •

I 0 • -

( f ) 7 5 , W U

4 f r i w g i

-H

1

•, ic n r . ir r i

O Z

( I ) g i E n a . )

. 1 U C • ri

C O C O

E

4 4

0

1 -

4

, . C . ) 0

r i l

P : 1

C l )

a -

C O CO

a )

r I Z

C D r d

3 W

0

> 1

W

r d

, I

Q

a1 a

C O

N

( I

t Y )

c o c t i - IZ .

a )

Q

r d

1 ) -

cr ) C

CO

O D H

1 12

a

C O

c o , . 1

H H

0 .

4

r d

W

0 r d

C O , 1

c o r d , 1 1 : 4

0

H

r d

c a

4 ) • H

H H

C O 0

r n r u 4

C l ) C D H

0

Structures

Pipe

0

C D C O

c o

H

a ,

All

Fragment

Q Q

Z H M

H OO

H

H

c o

c o

Table

4 .

Fiolet Pipe

All

Enlisted Men's Barracks, Division Stores

0

1

o

1

North

1

0

0

1

Test Excavation North of Enl isted Men' s Latrine

1

0

o

1

All

Structures

2

1

0

3

Enlisted Men' s Barracks, Shoemakers, Armoury

1

0

0

I

Enlisted Men' s Barracks, Washrooms

0

0

1

1

All

1

0

1

2

1

0

1

2

0

0

1

0

1

3

1 875

S tables

Structures

Powder Magazine South Wall All

Stem F ragm.

Years

Beaver Bowls

Structure

1 880

Distribution:

Fiolet Bowls

P eriod

1 877

Fragment

Total

Palisade

Structures

1 2

1 13

Table

5 .

Period

White Clay Ratios

Bowls

P ipe Material

S tems

Bowl-Stem Ratio

Distribution

% of Total Possible Pipes

1 875

1 8

2 8

1 -1.5

1 1%

1 877

3 2

6 6

1 -2

2 6%

1 878

1

1

1 -1

0 .5%

1 879

0

1

-

0 .5%

1 880 1 881 All Periods

155 2 2 00

1 30 6 2 09

1 -0.8 1 -3 1 -1.1

1 14

and

65% 2 % 1 00%

S tem-Bowl

Table

6 .

Use-Wear

Evidence:

1 875,

1 877

Smoking S tains

Teethmarks

Enlisted Men' s Latrine

5

0

5

Enlisted Men's Privy

1

0

1

Hall

0

2

2

Enlisted Men's Barracks

5

2

5

Officers' Quarters

0

1

1

All

Structures

1 1

5

1 4

Enlisted Men's Barracks, Saddlery

1

6

6

Enlisted Men's Barracks, Shoeshop, Armoury

2

4

4

Enlisted Men' s Barracks, Baths

0

1

1

Enlisted Men's Barracks, Washrooms

0

1

1

Quartermaster Stores

0

1

1

Commissioner' s Kitchen

0

1

1

Gardhouse

1

0

1

All

4

1 4

1 5

P eriod

S tructure

1 875

Total Possible Pipes

Enlisted Men's Barracks, Mess

1 877

Structures

1 15

Table

7 .

Use-Wear

Evidence:

Total

f or All

Years

Teethmarks

0

2

2

3

0

3

Enlisted Men's Barracks

5 2

1 9

5 2

Powder Magazine

8

3

8

Stables

1

1

1

Library

2

0

2

South Wall

0

1

1

6 6

2 6

6 9

Hospital

1

2

2

All

Structures

1

2

2

All

Structures

8 2

4 7

1 00

Structure

1 880

Enlisted Men's Latrine Non-Commissioned 'Officers' Privy

All

All Years

1 881,

Smoking S tains

Period

1 881

1 880,

Total Possible P ipes

Palisade

Structures

1 16

F ig.2

W hite c lay w hole b owl a nd s tem f ragment m ade b y D ixon o f M ontreal w ith a T D d ecorative m otif ( Drawing:

F ig.3

i mpressed o n t he b owl b ack.

K . G illies)

W hite c lay w hole b owl a nd

s tem f ragment

m anufactured b y

D ixon o f M ontreal w ith a g eometric r aised r ibbing d esign e lement

a round

( Drawing:

t he b owl.

K . G illies)

1 17

u tr eal o n 4

1 18

0 0

f )s

u ^ )

1 19 a da N egative

F ig.6

A rtist's

r econstruction of D ixon T D p ipe

f rom f ragments

r ecovered. ( Drawing:

K . G illies)

) 1 Z I

ME ME-

D ITe C m

F ig.7

A rtist's

r econstruction of D ixon R ibbed p ipe b ased o n

f ragments r ecovered. ( Drawing:

F ig.8

K . G illies)

nd stem f ragment w ith a W hite c lay D ixon T D p ipe b owl a r aised X o n t he p eg-type ( Drawing: K .

s pur.

G illies)

1 20

F ig.9

W hite c lay b owl

f ragment

a nd s tem f ragment m anufactured by

D ixon o f M ontreal w ith a g eometric d esign e lement. ( Photo: R . C han ,

P arks C anada N egative Number RA-4025B) 1 21

F ig.10

W hite c lay w hole b owl a nd L .

F iolet

( three v iews

d isplaying

t he i mpressed

( Photo:

C han,

R .

s tem f ragment m anufactured

b y

t o s cale a nd a c lose-up v iew m akers m ark).

P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-4018B)

1 22

. Fig.11

C urved o r b ent w hite c lay s tem f ragment a ttributed t o L . F iolet. ( Drawing:

F ig.12

K . G illies)

R econstruction o f L . f ragments

a nd m outhpiece

F iolet

r ecovered.

( Drawing: K . G illies)

1 23

c urved s tem p ipe,

b ased o n

1 1 1 1 1

F ig.13

1 1 1 1 1"u-

W hite c lay c omplete b owl

a nd

s tem f ragment w ith a n aturalistic

r epresentation o f a b eaver o n t he b ase. t he p ipe w ould ( Photo:

R .

CI M N . .

T he h igh q uality o f

s uggest a F rench a scription ( possibly L .Fiolet).

C han,

P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-40003)

1 24

CM . N

F ig.14

Dumeril m aker's m ark o n a w hite c lay s tem f ragment. ( Photo:

R . C han ,

P arks Canada Negative N umber R A-4015B)

1 25

CO 0

4 -

CL 4

•

g r t

1 26

CM. IN.

Fig�16

White clay stem fragment of possible McDougall Manufacture. (Photo: R. Chan, Parks Canada Negative Number RA-4021B)

127

CM. IN.

Fig.17

White clay stem fragment marked "Burton" (possible maker) and · •.. s Cut •••• This denotes the style of pipe as being a· possible "Burns Cutty". ··. (Photo: R. Chan, Parks Canada Negative Number RA-4020B) 128

1 1 1 1 16 .. .1 1 1 1 1«

m a i dEM

F ig.18

CM IN

CM . I N .

I ncomplete w hite c lay p ipe-bowl f ragment d epicting a n i mpressed, n aturalistic H ussar/military t ype e ffigy. ( Photo:

R . C han ,

P arks C anada N egative N u m bers R A-4026B,

1 29

R A-4027B)

F ig.19

B owl f ragment b elieved t o b e o f D utch m anufacture. ( Photo: R . t han ,

F ig.20

P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-4031B)

R ibbed, s alt-glazed, f rom r ed c lay. ( Photo:

R . t han ,

s ocket s hanked b owl f ragment m anufactured

P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-4034B)

1 30

F ig.22

I ncomplete b rown c lay b owl f ragments f rom r ed s tem p ipes w ith a r aised r ibbed b order a round t he b owl r im a nd f aint v ertical r ibbing. ( Photo: R . C han , P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-4033 1 3)

1 31

�1�.23

Artist's conception of a Green River Forge pipe similar to the type represented by the fragment� recovered at Fort Walsh. (Drawing: K. Gillies, Parks Canada) 132

—

F ig.24

T 1

1

T hree v iews o f a r ed c lay u ndecorated m outhpiece. ( Photo: R . C han,

P arks C anada Negative N umber R A-4000B)

1 33

CM

CM N

. 25

R ed c lay m outhpiece i llustrating t he t horn-type d ecorative m otif a pparent ( Photo:

o n t he s tem.

R . C han,

P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-4001B)

1 34

F ig. 2 6

R ed c lay b owl w ith w ood-knot ( Photo: R . C han ,

d esign a t

t he b ase.

P arks Canada N egative Number RA-4042B) 1 35

m otif e xtending u p

c s 0

s 4

P a )

Q)

4 . )

o f t )

ri e i „ , 4 -) I C 4 :1 t e . r 4

ç j f : 14

• r t c u

0

t 4 5 . Q .

•• 0

0

5 a ) , z o

1 36

( 2 4

I N

F ig.28

T hree v iews o f ( Photo:

a w hite c lay

R . C han,

s hank-ended

p ipe f ragment.

P arks Canada Negative Number RA-40228)

1 37

1 1 1 1 1 16 m ilr l i

F ig.29

N

W hite c lay s hank-ended p ipe f ragment w ith u se/wear a pparent i n t he f orm o f a brasion a round t he s tem . ( Photo: R . C han , P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-4023B) 1 38

1 1 1 1L am i l le i

F ig.30

1101 1 11 1 1 11

CM

IN .

B owl f ragment a nd s tem f ragment o f aw hite c lay p ipe o f a W oodstock s tyle. ( Photo: R . C han ,

P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-4019B)

1 39

CM� LN.

Fig. 31

Whi_te clay bowl fragment with portions of a TD and "windmi,11" decorative design element. · ..

(Photo: R. Chan , Parks Canada Negative Number RA-4012B) 140

CM.

Fig.32

White clay bowl fragment with a geometric design element of raised dots.

(Photo: R. Chan, Parks Canada Negative Number RA-4010B) 141

CM . IN .

F ig.33

P lain , a outhpiece ( Photo: R . C han,

f rom a w hite c lay p ipe. P arks Canada N egative Number R A-4017B)

1 42

1 43

CI M N

F ig.35

M ark o f t he N ovelty R ubber C ompany f ound o n t he m outhpiece of t he c omposite b riar p ipe. I llustrated i n F ig.34. ( Photo: R . C han ,

P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-3072B) 1 44

F ig.36

C omposite b riar p ipe w ith f ragments o f t he l eather c ase ( assembled v iew). ( Photo: R . C han , P arks C anada N egativeN umber R A-3090B)

1 45

Fig.37

Exploded view of pipe illustrated in Fig.36 showing the military type of attachment employed.

(Photo: R. Chan, Parks Canada Negative Number RA-3089B) 146

F ig.38

R adiograph i llustrating t he m ilitary-style s ocket a ssembled. ( Radiograph: P arks C anada C onservation D ivision)

1 47

a ud

t enon

I N

F ig.39

O ctagonal p anel-style ( Photo:

R . C han,

b riar

b owl

f ragment

( side v iew).

P arks Canada Negative Number R A-3990B)

1 4> 3

CM I N

F ig.40

O ctagonal b riar p anel-style b owl f ragment ( Photo: R . C han ,

( top E l .b ack v iews).

P arks C anada N egative N umbers R A-3993B,

1 49

3 992B)

CM . I N .

F ig.41

F ragmentary w ooden p ipe ( Photo:

R . C han,

b owl o f

a p ossible A pple

s tyle.

P arks Canada N egative Number RA-3077B)

F ig.42

P ossible s tem ( Photo:

f ragment

R . C han,

f rom A pple

s tyle b owl.

P arks Canada Negative Number RA-3073B)

15 2

( Photo:

R . Ch

-

1 53

F ig.45

C omplete w hite-metal s park c ap f rom a b riar p ipe. ( Photo: R . C han ,

P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-4013 1 3)

1 54

F ig.46

M eershaum b owl ( Photo:

f ragment.

R . C han,

P arks C anada N egative N umber R A .-3081B) 1 55

CM , N

F ig.47

A mber m outhpieces, ( Photo:

R . C han,

s tyle o ne.

P arks C anada Negative Number R A-3085B)

1 56

1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6

F ig.48

A mber m outhpieces, ( Photo:

R . Chan,

s tyle

1 1 1 1 1M" C I Z

t wo.

P arks Canada N egative Number R A-3086B)

1 57

O R M O MM IL I mm i n i MM I l lm"

F ig.49

A mber m outhpieces,

CM

s tyle t hree.

( Photo: R . C han , P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-3088B)

1 58

F ig.50

T hreaded b one t enons a nd a n a mber m outhpiece. ( Photo: R . C han , P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-30878)

1 59

F ig.51

I vory " saddle"-style m outhpiece f rom a m ulti-component p ipe. ( Photo: R . C han , P arks C anada N egative N umber R A-4037B)

1 60

C LAY T OBACCO P IPES F ROM H UDSON'S B AY C OMPANY'S B ELLEVUE S AN J UAN I SLAND,

M ichael A .

B ellevue

Farm

was

F ARM,

W ASHINGTON ( 45-SJ-295)

P feiffer

e stablished

by

t he

N ovember 1 853, n ear t he s outheastern e nd o f ( Thompson 1 972:1678; F erguson 1 975:176).

Hudson 's

B ay

C ompany

i n

S an J uan I sland, W ashington I t b egan a s a s heep f arm,

l ater g rowing p roduce, t o s upply H udson 's B ay C ompany 's F ort V ictoria o n V ancouver I sland. T he f arm was a bandoned b y t he l ate 1 860s o r e arly 1 870s. The s ite was e xcavated b y t he University o f I daho A rchaeological F ield

S chool

University a rtifact a nd

i n

o f

1 973,

I daho

s ummary

d irected

b y

Laboratory

o f

h as b een p ublished

Dr.

R oderick

S prague

Anthropology . b y L inda

A t

F erguson

o f

t he

p resent,

( Sprague)

a n

( 1975)

a c omplete d escription o f t he c eramics b y L inda F erguson S prague i s

p resented i n h er 1 980 Master 's t hesis f rom t he U niversity o f I daho . A f inal r eport o f e xcavations f or B ellevue F arm a nd o ther S an J uan I sland s ites i s i n p reparation, d irected b y D r. R oderick S prague. T he

t obacco

p ipe a ssemblage

f rom B ellevue F arm

i s u nusually v aried

f or a s ite t hat was o ccupied f or l ess t han 20 y ears a nd u sually by 1 0 men o r l ess. A s i s u sual f or H udson 's B ay C ompany s ites i n t he P acific N orthwest, t he l argest n umber o f p ipes i dentifiable a s t o manufacturer a re f rom

t he F ord

f irm o f L ondon .

A t

l east

two p ipes a re o f F rench

manufacture: t he Keeled B owl, t entatively b y Gambier o f Paris and a s tem marked b y t he L ouis F iolet f irm o f S t. Omer . T hree more f ragments can b e i dentified a s o f Dutch manufacture: S pur

S tamped,

and

t entatively,

t he

Dutch C rowned 5 6,

R ouleted

S tem.

T he

two

Dutch s hank

p ortions o f " Coffeehouse" s tyle p ipes a re most p robably German . more

p ipes

a re

Knobbly f rom

i dentifiable A merican manufacture :

t he Taber p ottery,

Pamplin Plain Washington

o f

f rom V irginia.

P ipe,

and

American manufacture t he U nited

S tates .

TD

s ince

Two

i n

East A lton, The

C ircle

N ew Hampshire,

Small E ffigy, o f

S tars

t he T erra

a re

Two C otta

and

t he

P resident P ierce, a ll

o f

s uspected

t hey a re e xceedingly r are f rom s ites o utside

G lasgow ,

S cotland

White, a re r epresented b y s tem markings.

f irms,

McDougal a nd

W illiam

The majority o f o ther p ipe

c ategories, b ased on d ecorative motifs and manufacturing marks, a re p robably E nglish . W ith

t he

t obacco

p ipes

c oming

f rom

f ive E uropean c ountries a nd

t he

United S tates, i t i s o bvious t hat t he Hudson 's B ay C ompany employees had a ccess t o a wide v ariety o f i mported p roducts. t o

s everal

f actors,

p robably a ll o perating

t rade l aws would h ave p layed B ellevue

F arm's

c lose

s ome p art,

p roximity

t o

F ort

This c ould b e due

i n c onjunction .

R estrictive

b ut more i mportant would b e V ictoria

and

t he

American

p opulation o f S an Juan T own . A nd f inally , H udson 's B ay C ompany a ppears t o h ave c onsistently i ncreased t he variety o f i ts i nventories i n t he P acific N orthwest

a fter

i t

h ad m erged 1 61

w ith t he N orth W est C ompany.

The i nformation f rom a s tudy o f t he B ellevue F arm p ipe s tem b ore d iameter ( Table 1 ) s hows b ore d iameter o f 4 /64 i n . w ith

2 6 .9%

t hose

o f

H ouse,

( 200)

o f

t he

s ample .

S pokane H ouse

4 /64

C olvile

i n .

s howed

t hat 6 9.5% o f t he 7 42 s tem f ragments h ad a T he n ext m ost c ommon d iameter w as 5 /64 i n .

a nd

T hese

F ort

d iameters

F ort

a re

v ery

s imilar

( Pfeiffer 1 980a :7).

were 6 3.5% a nd 5 /64

i n.

were

A t

t o

S pokane

3 4.6% .

F ort

t he 4 /64 in. t o b e 6 2.7% a nd 5 /64 i n. t o b e 2 5.2%.

p ercentages a re b ased o n 1 07 s tems f rom

p ercentages

C olvile

f rom S pokane H ouse a nd 3 81

T he

s tems

C olvile .

A l ook a t t he b it t ypes ( Table 2 ) s hows t hat t he b eveled b it w as t he most c ommon ( 27) f ollowed b y t he f lat b it ( 23) and r ounded f lat ( 7).

T his

i s

( Pfeiffer)

t he

1 980a :

s ame T able

i n p ercentages w ould

o rdering

o f

3 )

t erminated

which

b e d ue

b it

t ypes i n

f ound

a t

1 871 .

t o C olvile's e arlier

F ort

T he

C olvile

d ifferences

f ounding d ate -1826.

n . a nd Well o ver h alf o f t he b ore d iameters ( Table 3 ) were 4 /6 4 i t he s ame i s t rue f or b oth F ort C olvile a nd S pokane H ouse ( Pfeiffer 1 980a:Table 4 ). The numbers and p ercentages o f t he r ounded f lat a nd b eveled

c ategories

b ut

C olvile 's

i n.

w hereas

i s

a lmost

i dentical

f lat b its a re a lmost

t he 4 /64

i n.

g roup

i s

a nd

C olvile,

e venly d ivided b etween 4 /64

f or

B ellevue

F arm

a nd 5 /64

t he m ost n umerous a t

B ellevue F arm.

A lthough t obacco p ipe s tem b ore d ating i s generally unreliable a fter 1 780, t he s tatistics f rom t hese t hree c onsiderable o f

s tem

s imilarities

b ore

p atterns,

d iameter

e ven

o n

a nd

d ata

s ome

b egin

a r egional

d iscrepancies .

t o

a ccumulate

l evel,

may

When

f rom

d evelop

chronological o r o ther meaningful

i nterpretations.

n umber o f

s tem

f actory-produced

c lay p ipe

c onsidered s ites s how

l arge

a mounts

a dditional

s ites,

which

a llow

may

E ven t he

b its h as b ecome

a n

t otal

i mportant

s tatistic. T he number o f t obacco p ipe s tem b its f rom e ach s ite ( Bellevue F arm, S pokane H ouse, a nd F ort C olvile) e xceeds t he t otal n umber o f d iagnostic b owl a nd t he

u naltered

f actory-produced

s tem f ragments . b it

t he m inimum n umber o f c lay p ipes

t he

l eading

i n u se a t

T his a utomatically makes c andidate

t o

d etermine

t he s ite.

T obacco P ipes b y Operation O peration 1 was a s eries o f e xploratory e xcavations i n a nd a round a 1 2 x 1 7 f t. s tructure o n t he n orthern e nd o f t he c ompound. Only f ive u nmarked

s tem

f ragments,

Operation 2 was s tructure

i n

s tem b ore d iameter 4 /64 i n.,

t he

t he c enter o f

t est

e xcavation

t he e ast

s ide o f

i n a nd

w ere r ecovered.

a round

t he c ompound.

a 2 5 T he

x 2 8ft. 1 03 s tem

f ragments i ncluded 7 b its, 2 marked s tem f ragments ( McDougal/Glasgow and N o. 7 9 W . White/Glasgow -F ig. 4 bb), a nd 2 I F s purs, o ne e ach o f t he p eg a nd s pike s tyles . e ffigy p ipe ( Fig. 1 d) a nd

T he 1 3 b owl f ragments i nclude t he f ace o f a a f ragment o f t he F ord S tepney L ondon A rms

c ategory. O peration 3 c entered a round a 2 0 x 2 0 f t. s tructure, p ossibly a k itchen i n t he s outheast c orner o f t he c ompound. T he t obacco p ipe s tem fragments

c ount

jumps

t o

192.

1 62

This

i ncludes

2 marked

s tems

TABLE 1 S tem Bore D iameters*

Operation

3 /64

4/64

1

-

2

1

6 8

5/64

5

6/64

-

I ndeterminate

Total

-

-

5

3 3

-

1

1 03

3

7

1 32

5 0

2

1

4

1

2 4

1 2

1

-

38

5

6

5 4

1 5

1

-

76

7 & 1 2

1

2 4

9

3

1 91

7 4

-

1 2

1 1

1 0 S urf.

& B .D.

Total

-

5

6

1 9

-

5 16

2 00

1 92

-

1

3 1

-

-

2 68

-

-

23

-

-

6

4

3

7 42

* Includes a ll marked a nd unmarked s tems a nd h eels with s purs not a ttached t o d iagnostic bowls,

a nd a ll

bits.

TABLE 2 B it Types

Operation

R ounded

R ounded/Flat

1

-

-

2

-

-

3

F lat

B eveled

L ipped

-

-

-

2 -

F lattened

-

Total

0

3

4

-

-

7

4

5

-

-

1 1 3

4

-

2

1

-

-

5

-

1

1

1

-

-

3

7 & 1 2

-

2

2

-

-

3

9

1

2

9

1 4

1

-

1

2

-

1

-

1 0 Surf.

& B .D.

Total

-

-

1

7

2 3

-

1

-

2 7

1

2 8

-

3

-

1

1

6 0

TABLE 3 B its a nd S tem Bore D iameters

3 /64

4/64

5/64

6/64

Total

R ounded

-

-

1

-

1

R ounded/Flat

-

5

1

1

7

-

Flat

3

1 4

6

B eveled

6

1 7

4

-

Lipped

-

1

-

-

Flattened

1

-

Total

1 0

3 6

1 3

1 63

23 27 1

-

1

1

6 0

(McDougal/Glasgow), s tyle).

This

i ncluding

a F ort

3o),

the

and

u ndecorated b all

c lay

1 1 b its,

o peration S tepney

Dutch

b owl

p ipes

B ee

y ielded

( Fig.

Cro wned

( Fig. a re

a nd 3 I F s purs ( 2 p eg

a lso

3 q)

3 m),

5 6

a nd

b y

O peration 4 c onsisted s outhern e nd

a nd

2 marked

a ddition

t o

o f

t he

3n).

S hield

C ockled

( Fig.

Operation 5 was

i s

b owl

P lain

o n

( Fig.

a c omplete

f ragments . ( Fig.

l b)

o f

T he 3 8

x 2 5

f t .

f ragments

R ouletted

f ragments,

B owl ( Fig.

a 1 7

s tem

N on-

a nd

t he

s tructure

S tem

-Fig .

t here a re t he

o n

i nclude 3 b its 4 v) .

I n

t ype p ieces f or

2 j) Uniformed F igure ( Fig.

3 r),

3 0.

t he e xcavation i n a nd a round a l arge,

f oundation c entered

b owls

l c).

e xcavations

b owl

1 s pike

decorated

There

P amplin

s tems ( McDougal/Glasgow a nd f our u nmarked

t hree c ategories: a nd D ouble

o f

c ompound.

s tyle a nd

o f

S tepney L ondon A rms

u ndecorated

t he

s hank o f a C offeehouse P orcelain ( Fig.

t he

F ord

( Fig.

s even

r epresented

a number

t he

west

s ide o f

t he c ompound.

2 1 x 4 0 f t.

The

7 6

s tem

f ragments i nclude t he Number 2 S pur ( Fig. l g), f our McDougal/Glasgow s tems ( Fig.

4 dd),

a W .

White/Glasgow

s tem

( Fig.

4cc),

and

t he L ouis

F iolet s tem ( Fig. 4w). There a re only t hree b owl f ragments, one F ort S tepney London a rms, one with e ither a n untrimmed mold s eal o r k eel d ecoration,

a nd

o ne u ndecorated.

Operations 7 and 1 2 are c onsidered

t ogether s ince Operation 7 i s

t he 1 973 e xcavation of the well i n t he c enter o f Operation

1 2

i s

t he

1 975

T he

well

e xcavation

and

2 I F

s purs -o ne

t hree b owl

r e- a nd

y ielded

N on-ball

p orcelain C offeehouse

s tem

f t.

s tructure a t

f ragments

i nclude

a B urns

C utty s tem,

F loral

S tem

t here

a re

( Fig.

1 1

f ragments,

p eg

a nd

c ompound

which

s pike

S tepney

o f

i ncludes

s tyles.

I nsect

while

O peration 7 . 4 b its

One

motif ;

o f

t he b y

t he

o thers

t he b rown

s hank. t he

e xploratory e xcavations

t he n ortheast

f our I F

A long

d iagnostic b owls

c orner o f

s purs ( two

a McDougal/Glasgow 4 y).

t he

e xcavation

c lay p ipes a re o nly r epresented

p ipe

O peration 9 c onsists o f x 2 3

s tem t he

f ragments d isplays a F ord

a re u ndecorated.

2 1

2 1

e ach o f

c ontinued

t he

e ach o f

s tem,

p eg

a nd

N umber 1 056

with s even u nmarked

a nd

i n a nd

f ragments .

T he

a round

c ompound. s pike s tem,

b owl

t hree

a

T he 2 68 s tyle), a nd

t he

f ragments,

c omplete

b all-

c lay b owls, i nclude t he Keeled B owl ( Fig. 2 h), Wide C ockled ( Fig. 2 j), and Dutch S pur S tamped F ig. 3 s). There a re f ive i ncomplete b owls: F ord

S tepney

B ee,

F ord

S tepney L ondon A rms,

W ide

C ockeled,

I F ( peg

s tyle s pur) b y F ord o f S tepney, a nd T .D. I n C ircle o f S tars ( Fig. i f), President l ierce p ipe f ragment ( Fig. l e). S urface f ragments bowls

c ollection

( Fig.

a nd

i ncluding o ne f lat

i nclude

a F ord

t he

T erra C otta Knobby

l a).

a nd

t he

t he b ack d irt b it.

S tepney

r epresentative o f b oth ( Fig.

2 ) ,

The

p ipe

y ielded

s tem

s urface

L ondon

B all

Washington P resident

A rms

and Leaf

s ix u nmarked

c ollection d iagnostic f ragment

a nd

c ategory ( Fig.

2k)

t he a nd

s ole t he

Type D escriptions A .

T erra

C otta

Knobby

( Fig.

l a).

1 64

T his

t ype

i s

r epresented

b y

a

s ingle,

n early

c omplete b owl ( no c atalog

n umber),

w ith most

o f t he

s hank i ntact. A ccording t o Watkins ( 1968:Fig. 8 5b) t his p ipe was made a t t he J ohn T aber p ottery i n E ast A lton, N ew H ampshire . T his p ottery k iln was f ounded y ears.

I t

Wolfsboro

i n 1 864 and

s ubsequently f or

a n

moved

u nknown

t o

l ength

l asted a pproximately e ight t he

o f

M ink

t ime.

B rook This

l ocation

t ype

h as

i n

been

r eported f rom t he C happell s ite i n western N ebraska ( Carlson a nd J enson 1 973:Plate 1 7B-2; P feiffer 1 980d:Fig. l a), t he h istoric c omponent o f aN ez P erce h ousepit i n E daho (Toups 1 969:132, P late 1 4u), F ort Vancouver, Washington ( Caywood 1 955:59-61; R oss 1 976:816), F ort H oskins, Oregon ( Kevin E rickson 1 980:personal c ommunication), a nd t he D eSoto t ownsite, N ebraska ( Pfeiffer 1 981:67 , F ig. 2 e). T his p ipe d isplays a d ark b rown g laze on b oth tan p aste. D ecoration and e xterior o ver a n o rang - / o f r ows o f h igh r elief r aised r ound d ots 3 -4 mm i n

i nterior c onsists

d iameter s paced

u nevenly a round

4 mm w ide r aised

r elief b and

p eg s tyle s pur i s 5 mm l ong. t he b owl d epth i s 3 3 mm.

t he

e ntire

e ncircles

T he

s urface

o f

t he b owl r im.

t he

b owl .

T he

t apering

A

The t otal b owl h eight i s 3 6 mm

and

t otal b owl d iameter i s 2 4 mm a nd

t he

i nterior b owl d iameter i s 1 9 mm .

B .

P amplin P lain ( Fig. l b). This c ategory i s r epresented by a s ingle u nglazed e xample c onsisting o f t he l ower h alf o f t he b owl a nd t he entire

s hank

( No.

307)

made

f rom

an

orange/tan

p aste.

I dentification o f t his undecorated p ipe i s made o n t he b asis o f p ipes o f known P amplin manufacture r ecovered f rom t he S teamboat B ertrand ( Pfeiffer 1 980c:11).

This p ipe t ype i s a lso known f rom

A sh H ollow T rading P ost, N ebraska ( Pfeiffer 1 980d:3, F ig. l i); De S oto

C .

t ownsite,

N ebraska ( Pfeiffer 1 981:2,

8 ,

F ig.

2 f),

and

Union, N orth D akota d iameter i s 8 .5 mm a nd

( Pfeiffer 1 980b:6). The i nterior t he e xterior s hank d iameter i s 2 0 mm.

P resident

( Fig.

by two c overed 9 31)

P ierce

P ipe

f ragments made i n a s lip a nd

c onsists o f

t he

i d,

c onsists

s tars/asterisks

w ith

T his

t hen a c lear g laze. c enter o f

h alf

p ipe,

a n

t hree

l eft

t he

l eft

s ide

o f

t he

o f

t he

r epresented

l eaf

c lusters,

s hank a re

s hank i s e ncircled

T he f irst e xample ( No.

o f

a lternating

t he b owl

and

a s

l ine

o f

c omplete

s even

t an .

p ointed

which e xtends a round

t he

p art o f t he c ollar.

On

t he c apital l etters " FR .

P IERCE" a nd

m h igh . The l etters a re 2 m

o n t he r ight s ide i s " PRESIDENT." e nd

i s

s lip o n w hich i s a l ight

f ront end o f t he s hank j ust below and t he

c ategory

f rom an o ff-white/tan t erra c otta p aste,

s hank o f a P resident P ierce D ecoration

2 1).

F ort s hank

The

w ith a r aised b and 6 mm w ide w hich i s

s eparated b y t he r est o f t he s hank b y a n i ndentation .

The t op o f

t he b owl d isplays a n u ndecorated 2 mm w ide b and e ncircling

t he r im.

On t he u pper s ides and r ear a re a s eries o f wavy l ines i n various d egrees

o f r elief r epresenting h air .

s how b eneath t he h air . e yebrows.

mm .

The

d iameter

T he

t otal b owl h eight

s hank i s

b ore

diameter

A rizona

e ar

i s 3 8 mm a nd i s

1 1

mm

and

t he b owl d epth i s 3 6 t he

e xternal

s hank

1 8 .5 mm .

An i dentical p ipe, f rom

O nly t he l obe o n t he l eft

The f acial p ortion i s 2 2 mm f rom c hin t o

( Painter

e xcept

f or s lip c olor, h as b een r ecovered

1 968 :161) .

1 65

Another

s tyle

o f

F ranklin

P ierce

a

e ) 4 ‘)

Bellevue Farm,

Fig.

Washington 4 5-SJ-295

1

1 66

F ig.

a ,

1

C lay t obacco p ipes f rom Bellevue F arm, Washington ( a — g )

T erra C otta K nobby, m anufactured

b y

t he J ohn T aber P ottery o f E ast

A lton, N ew H ampshire, w as c ommon t o a rchaeological s ites i n t he W estern U nited S tates d ating f rom t he l ate 1 860s t o e arly 1 870s;

b ,

P amplin P lain, m anufactured i n P amplin,

- i ndustry

p rior t o

V irginia b y t he " home"

t he 1 879 f actory;

c ,

s hank f ragment o f C offeehouse P orcelain p ipe;

d ,

f ragment

o f P resident P ipe,

y ellow s lip o ver t an p aste t hen

ith a c lear g laze; - finished w

e ,

r im f ragment

—

w ith a c lear g laze;

o f W ashington P resident P ipe,

f ,

s mall E ffigy p ipe,

g ,

N umber

2s pur,

o range

t erra c otta p aste

d ark t an t erra c otta p aste;

w hite b all c lay,

s pur;

1 67

n o m arks o n t he r ight

s ide o f t he

p ipe

i s k nown

f rom

F ort

S anders,

W yoming,

1 866-82

( Wilson 1 971:Fig.

3 6A) . W ilson b elieves t his s eries t o h ave b een manufactured b y A . C oghil o f G lasgow , S cotland. S ince P ierce w as e lected P resident i n 1 852, t his p ipe s hould d ate t o h is c ampaign o r p eriod i n o ffice . The s econd f ragment ( No. 2 37) c onsists o f only t he f acial p ortion o f t he f ront o n t he b owl t o a h eight o f 2 2 mm f rom c hin t o t he b ridge o f t he n ose. t hat

t he

s lip

i s

T his f ragment d iffers f rom

b right

y ellow .

d ifferent p roportions. l ines

o n

e ither

n arrower a nd l ikely t hat D .

s ide

c overed P ipes"

o f

t he

mouth .

t he c hin i s b roader a nd

t his

( No.

( Fig.

9 26)

l e).

made

w ith a c lear g laze. known

t he o ther i n

f eatures

a lso

p ossess

a re

v ertically

l ess p rominent.

T he

e yes

I t i s v ery

f ace r epresents a d ifferent P resident.

f ragment

P resident 's

f acial

T he n ose i s l onger w ith p rominent c heek

W ashington P resident P ipe b owl/rim

T he

f rom

T his t ype

f rom

U nlike

a rchaeological

e lection

o r

a n

a ssist

i s b ased

o range

t he

t erra

o n a s ingle c otta

p aste

majority o f " President

s ites

made

t o

c elebrate

i n a c andidate 's c ampaign,

a

t his p ipe

i s s trictly c ommemorative i n n ature . Archaeologically r ecovered e xamples a re k nown f rom F ort P ierre I I, N orth D akota ( Smith 1 960 :Plate c olor; which

2 7g)

b uff

i n

c olor ;

and D e S oto t ownsite, was

o range

D ecoration

o n

e ncircling

t he

t erra

c otta

B ellevue

t he r im,

A rizona

( Painter

1 968 :161)

g reen

N ebraska ( Pfeiffer 1 981:8, s imilar

F arm

t o

t he

p resent

s pecimen c onsists

u pon which a re a s eries

o f

F ig.

i n 2 j)

e xample.

o f a 1 2 mm a djacent

b and

r aised

t riangles ( 7 mm l ong a nd 7 mm a cross t erminating 4 mm b elow t he r im .

T he r emainder o f

v aried E .

r aised

r elief

t his

C offeehouse P orcelains. f ragments f irst

o f

f ragment i s c overed

r epresenting

This group i s r epresented b y two

e astern E uropean

s hank ( Fig.

l c)

( No.

w ith wavy l ines

s hank

p orcelain " coffeehouse" p ipes .

3 29),

i n

h air.

white

i n

c olor,

i s

2 9

T he

mm

l ong

b ehind a 5 mm s pur w hich e xpands o r f lares a t i ts e nd. S hank b ore d iameter i s 9 mm. The s mall p ortion r etained o f t he l eft s ide o f t he b owl i s u ndecorated. T he s econd f ragment ( No. 1 2) h as b een c overed i n a brown s lip b efore g lazing. The f ragment i s a t l east 2 2 mm l ong with a s hank b ore d iameter o f 6 mm. B oth s pecimens e xhibit f aint s crew-like t hreads o n, a t l east t heir l ast 4 mm. T hese

p ipes

h ave

a lso

B arracks ( Chance a nd was most c ommon t o Holland,

t he

1 963:424-5;

Low

b een r ecovered

C ountries,

R apaport

a nd

e astern

1 979 :36-48) .

B esides

p ipes h ad t hree o ther major p arts: t he

mouthpiece.

T he

f rom Kanaka V illage/Vancouver

C hance 1 976 :4). T his s tyle o f p orcelain p ipe t he G erman/Austrian a rea b ut e xtended i nto

b owl

w as

Europe t he

( Fresco-Corbu

s hanked

t he r eservoir,

b owl,

t hese

t he s tem,

i nvariably p orcelain b ut o ther

s ections a re a ll known t o h ave b een made

a nd

t hree

f rom a wide v ariety o f

materials. F .

S mall E ffigy ( Fig. i f). T his c ategory i s b ased o n a s ingle u nglazed t an t erra c otta p ipe b owl ( No. 9 20) c onsisting o f t he l ower

p ortion

o f

t he

b owl

a nd

a c omplete

s hank .

D ecoration

c onsists o f p aired r aised l ines 3 mm i n l ength f orming a b and 3 mm w ide w hich p robably c ircled t he e ntire h ead. B elow t his b and, o n e ither

s ide,

i s

a s eries

o f

a t 1 68

l east

f our

h igh-relief

l ines,

averaging 1 .5 mm w ide, which r epresents h air. 1 3 mm h igh f rom c hin t o b owl

a bove

h as

T he f ace i s a mere

t he b ridge o f t he n ose .

b een b roken o ff .

T he

t op o f

T he

t he

p ortion o f t he

s hank e xtends 7 mm

f rom t he b ack o f t he b owl. I t i s t erminated b y a h igh r elief ( approximately 2 mm) b and, 7 .5 mm w ide, which e ncircles t he e nd. T he i nterior s hank d iameter i s 9 mm a nd t he e xterior s hank d iameter i s

1 8 mm .

a nd

A lthough t his

g raceful

l ines

p ipe i s p oorly molded,

p resent

a p leasant

t hat t he s ize i ndicates a l ady 's p ipe. i s h ighly u nusual G .

K eeled

f or

B owl ( Fig.

c omplete b owl

I t

i s

p ossible

T his s tyle o f e ffigy p ipe

t he P acific N orthwest .

T he o rigin

i s

u nknown .

2 h).

T his c ategory i s r epresented b y a s ingle

1 926)

which

( No .

r etains

3 0

On t he b asis o f a n i dentical-appearing ( O 'Connell 1 981:6), G ambier o f P aris .

i ts d iminutive s ize

a ppearance .

mm

o f

p ipe

u ndecorated

s hank .

i n a r ecent a rticle

t he manufacturer i s t entatively i dentified a s T hese p ipes h ave a lso b een r ecovered f rom F ort

Vancouver, Washington ( Caywood 1 955:61; R oss 1 976:815); F ort S anders, Wyoming ( Wilson 1 971:Fig. 2 8c); R ome, N ew Y ork ( Hanson 1 971:96);

and

O ld

S acramento,

C alifornia

( Humphrey

1 969:28).

Though t he p ipe f rom F ort S anders a ppears c omplete, t here i s n o mention o f a G ambier marking. T he t otal b owl h eight i s 4 0 mm a nd t he b owl d epth i s 3 4 mm .

T he e xterior b owl w idth i s 2 3 mm

i nterior b owl w idth i s 2 1 mm . H .

W ide

C ockled.

r etaining

( Fig.

1 3

f ragment

mm

2 1).

o f

T his c ategory i s b ased

t he

s tem

T he

decoration

( No.112).

c ockles o r r ibs a ttaining e ntire s purless b owl. 1 0 mm b ehlad

f rom

C alifornia

( Elling

G isclon/M.E./a h eight i s

2 7

and

t he

5 /64

a maximum A marked

1 980 :Plate

b adge .

T he

T hat t he

e xample s tem.

w idth

T he

i s 2 1

t he

b owl 's

f ront

w ith b owl w idth

s tem

b ore

a p oliceman 's

a re

t o a rise o ut o f a p air o f multi-veined o n

t he

s tem.

B oth

s tyle

a nd

t he b owl d epth 3 0 mm .

t he

i nterior

5 /64

c overed

s hield.

b y T he

5 60)

b owl

width

T his

t ype

i s

T he 1 9.5

l eaves

which

q uality o f The

t he

t otal b owl

t otal b owl w idth i s mm.

The

s tem

b ore

i n .

a nd L eaf ( Fig. s hank .

T he

f rom u nderneath t he

i s 3 5 mm a nd

and

b een

t otal

t otal b owl

s ides

and

( No .

h as

S acramento,

i s marked

r esembling a nd

h eight

f ragment

t ype

The decoration i s dominated b y a

t op f ront o f t he b owl,

2 4

B all

t he

s cale o n t he f ront o f t he b owl i s o verlapped b y s maller s cales which a scend t o t he r im. T he b owl

t ogether

i s

h eel

r elief

c overing

T he

mm.

s uggest F rench manufacture.

d iameter

a nd

i n Old

molded decorations mm

b owl

r aised

T his c ategory i s b ased o n a s ingle e ntire

r emainder o f

i tself a ppears

J .

o f

t his

S ite

t he b owl d epth i s 3 0 mm.

s cales o r p lates w hich r adiate o ut

t erminate

c onsists

i n .

o n t he

s ingle l arge i ncreasingly

o n a c omplete b owl a small

e xample o f

i nto

i nterior b owl

S hield B owl ( Fig. 2 j). s hield

and

w idth o f 6 mm

1 3 .1:d).

impressed

b owl w ithout a c atalog number . l arge

9 20)

Golden Eagle H otel

P aris

i s 3 4 mm a nd mm

d iameter i s I .

t he

( No.

t he

i n .

T hese c ockles b egin a t a p oint on t he s tem

t he b owl.

r ecovered

a nd

T he s tem b ore d iameter i s 5 /64

2 k).

c onsisting o f

i s r epresented

b y a s ingle

t he e ntire b ack o f t he

b owl,

p ipe h eel,

T he d ecoration c onsists o f a b all 6 mm i n d iameter

p lacd o n t he l ower r ear o f t he b owl f rom 1 69

which a r aised

r elief

t ail

F ig.

2

C lay t obacco p ipes f rom Bellevue F arm , Washington ( h -1)

h ,

K eeled B owl,

i ,

W ide C ockled,

j , S hield B owl,

p robably m ade

m ade

b y G isclon o f P aris;

s tyle a nd q uality o f m olded d ecoration s uggest

-

F rench m anufacture;

k ,

B all a nd L eaf,

1 ,

l eft

a nd

b y G ambier o f P aris;

n o m aker's m arks;

r ight v iews

o f F ranklin P ierce

" President P ipe,"

l ight

s lip o ver a n o ff-white t erra c otta p aste t hen c overed i n a c lear g laze;

1 70

t an

• ' .• . . .

. • •

. •

•

•. • . '

•

Bellevue

F ig.

Farm,

Washington

2

1 71

4 5-SJ-295

extends p resent,

t o a n u nknown p oint i n p lace o f t he s pur,

e xtends

u pwards

b owl

a t

i s

o n

t he

f ront

a n a pproximately

on t he s tem. Another 5 mm b all i s f rom which a 9 mm w ide s errated l eaf

o f t he b owl t o a n u nknown p oint. ngle t o t he s tem . T he b owl 1 40 ° a

i s r ounded a nd t he w hole a ppears h and p olished. 3 4.5 m m a nd t he s tem b ore d iameter i s 4 /64 i n. K .

D utch

C rowned

b owl/heel

5 6

( Fig.

f ragment

p ortions o f t he b owl a t

t he h eel.

b owl,

S ituated

1 0

c ategory

c onsisting

mm

t hick ,

a bove

i s o f

T he b owl d epth i s

b ased t he

o n a s ingle

r ear

and

l eft

u nmarked

s pike s tyle s pur

s tem

t he

t he

o n

r ear o f

t he

i s ac artouche, 5 mm i n d iameter, d isplaying a s mall c rown

u sed

A ccording

o n G ouda manufactured

b ore d iameter i s 4 /64

i n .

t o Duco ( 1976:22) t he c rowned 5 6

p ipes

f rom

T he r emaining

d isplay t he e ffects o f h and L .

T his

3 16)

w ith a s hort,

o ver t he numbers 5 6 . w as

3 n).

( No.

T he r im

1 732

t o

1 881.

p ortions o f

T he

s tem

t he b owl

wall

p olishing.

P ipes manufactured b y F ord o f London. ( Fig. 3m,o,p). John F ord i s l isted a s a s upplier o f p ipes t o t he H udson 's B ay C ompany f rom 1 830 t o 1 836;

J esse a nd T homas F ord

t he Hudson 's

a re l isted

a s s uppliers o f p ipes

B ay C ompany f rom 1 836 t o 1 875 ( Lafleche 1 979).

t hree e xamples o f F ord p ipes

t o T he

f rom B ellevue F arm a re a lso k nown f rom

F ort Vancouver ( Caywood 1 955:61; R oss 1 976:807-809; C hance a nd C hance 1 976 :169-170 ; P feiffer 1 977:2-5) a nd F ort C olvile ( Chance a nd

C hance

Arms. f ish o f

1 977:99-100 ;

s cale

t he

a .

P feiffer 1 980a)

e xcept

A ll F ord p ipes f rom t hese s ites t ype

b urr

o n

t he

i nterior

f or

t he F ord L ondon

p ossess a c haracteristic

b ottom

o ne-third

t o

o ne-half

b owl.

F ord

b y f ive

S tepney L ondon A rms .

i ndividual

D ecoration c onsists o f cartouche

1 4

mm

in

approximately i n F ORD and s hield

A s mall

c rest.

diameter,

t he c enter o f

c ross

T he

i s

3 o).

T his g roup

( Nos. 9 20,

5 15,

i s

r epresented

3 03, 204,

and

B .D.).

t he makers mark i n t he f orm o f a c ircled

S TEPNEY a re p laced

o r

( Fig.

f ragments

s hield

p resent

p laced

a bove i s

i n

1 0

mm

f rom

the

t he b ack o f t he b owl. and

b elow,

q uartered

t he

u pper

r espectively,

b y l ines a t l eft

r im,

The words t he

r ight a ngles .

q uarter.

The

s tem

d isplays n o decoration f or t he f irst 6 0 mm. T he l ong, 8 mm s pike s tyle s pur d isplays a n Io n the l eft s ide a nd F o n t he r ight. The I i s a s ytlized J . T he b owl d epth i s 3 7 mm. T he t otal b owl w idth i s 2 0 mm a nd t he i nterior b owl width i s 1 8.5 mm. The s tem b ore d iameter B .D.)

i s

4 /64

i n .

T he

b . F ord S tepney B ee ( Fig. i ndividuals ( Nos . 3 01, 3 06, maker 's mark i n t he a nd

f orm

S TEPNEY a bove and

c artouche, r im,

l arger v ersion o f

i s 1 5 m m i n d iameter a nd

i n

3 03,

3 m). T his t ype i s r epresented b y t hree a nd 2 38) . T he d ecoration c onsists o f a

o f a c ircled

b elow,

c artouche w ith t he w ords F ORD

r espectively, a s tylized

a n o val a pproximately 1 1 x 1 6 mm,

i s c entered

t he c artouche ( No.

t he l etters a re 3 m m h igh.

t he back o f t he b owl.

p laced

b ee.

The

8 mm b elow t he

The l ong,

8 mm

s pike

s tyle s pur d isplays a n I on t he l eft a nd a n F on t he r ight. T he b owl d epth i s 3 7 mm and t he s tem b ore d iameter i s 4 /64 i n . This maker 's

mark

i s

a lso

k nown

t o

e xist

1 971:24).

1 72

w ithin a d ouble c ircle ( Walker

c .

F ord S tepney I nsect ( Fig. 3 p).

b y a s ingle

b owl

f ragment

t he maker 's mark p laced b owl.

The

c urved

r espectively, r epresented The

( No .

w ords

b y a c ircle i s

3 4

T he d ecoration c onsists

o f

s lightly a bove c enter o n t he r ear o f t he F ORD

s urrounding

b owl depth

T his c ategory i s r epresented

1 2 .9 .f) .

w ith

mm

a nd

S TEPNEY

a s tylized t hree

a nd

t he

l egs s tem

a bove

a nd

i nsect.

T he

p rojecting

f rom

b elow,

i nsect

b ore d iameter

e ach

i s

s ide .

i s 5 /64 i n.

T his d esign i s a lso known t o e xist i n two o ther c onfigurations: s urrounded b y a d otted c ircle a nd s urrounded b y a d ashed c ircle. T he 1 975 e xcavation a t K anaka V illage/Fort V ancouver B arracks, b y D avid C hance, i ncluded many e xamples o f b oth t he c ircled m otif a nd t his p lain s tyle. The c ircled variety were a lmost e ntirely c ontained i n s trata b elow t hat c ontaining t he p lain v ariety ( Pfeiffer 1 977 :4) . S ince o nly t he p lain v ariety w as r ecovered f rom B ellevue F arm, t he p lacing o f t he c ircled v arieties i n a n e arlier r elative

t ime

p eriod

i s c onfirmed.

d . F ord P lain B owl ( Fig. 4 x). T his c ategory i s b ased o n a s ingle b owl/heel f ragment ( No. 3 63). A lthough t he e ntire b ack o f t he b owl t o t he r im i s p resent, t here i s n o maker 's mark. T he s hort, 4 mm, p eg s tyle I F s pur i ndicates manufacture b y t he F ord f irm

a s

d oes

t he b owl's d iameter

t he

c haracteristic

i nterior.

i s

4 /64

b urring

o f

t he

The b owl depth i s 3 4 mm

i n .

T here

a re

s ix

s tem/heel

l ower and

o ne-third

t he

f ragments

o f

s tem b ore ( Nos.

9 31,

1 2 .4 .F , 2 13, 2 13, 3 10, a nd 3 36) which a lso d isplay t he p eg s tyle I F n ., a nd s o a re i ncluded s pur a nd h ave a s tem b ore d iameter o f 4 /6 4 i i n M .

t his

c ategory .

P lain B owl ( 3q). b owl

w ithout

s pur

h as

This

t ype

i s r epresented

b y a s ingle c omplete

a ny f orm o f d ecoration ( no c atalog

b een b roken o ff,

t his

s pecimen may b e

e xample o f an undecorated F ord b owl with p eg b owl h eight i s 3 6 mm a nd d iameter i s 4 /64 i n . t he o riginal N .

Uniformed

" cake"

F igure

f ragment ( No.

n umber) . t he

S ince

t he

s ingle c omplete

t ype I F s pur.

t he b owl depth i s 3 3 mm.

The

T he s tem b ore

The b owl h as b een h eavily s moked

w ith s ome o f

r emaining. ( Fig.

3 r).

This c ategory i s b ased

4 27) f rom t he s ide o f a p ipe b owl.

c onsists o f a r aised

on a s ingle

The decoration

r elief mustachioed male w earing a t all,

n arrow

h at with a p eak o n e ach s ide and a nother p eak i n t he middle. The f igure i s wearing a l ong s leeved s hirt o r c oat a nd l ong t rousers. I ts l eft a rm r aised l ines i ndicate O .

i s a cross t he f ront o f t he b ody a t w aist l evel . T hree b elow t he f igure a nd f our s horter l ines t o t he r ight

t he g round.

D utch S pur S tampled.

T his

t ype

i s r epresented b y a s ingle b owl

( No. 9 07) which h as t he s tem broken o ff immediately b ehind t he s pur. T he b owl d isplays a f ine b and o f r ouletting 2 mm b elow t he r im

a nd a ppears

t o b e

p olished.

T he b owl

i s

a t

a n o btuse

a ngle

t o

he p oorly i mpressed maker 's mark o n t he s tem, a pproximately 1 50 °. T t he b ottom o f t he s pur h as b een v ariously i nterpreted a s a 1 , 2 , 4 , o r 7 .

T he p eg

s tyle

s pur i s l ong,

5 .5 mm,

T he maximum b owl w idth i s 2 3 .5 mm a nd 1 7

mm.

T he b owl d epth i s 3 7.5 mm.

i n.

1 73

a nd v ery c ylindrical.

t he i nterior b owl d iameter i s

T he

s tem

b ore d iameter

i s 5 /64

F ig.

3

C lay t obacco p ipes f rom Bellevue F arm, Washington ( m — t )

m , F ord S tephney B ee, F ord C ompany p ipes, f rom L ondon E ngland, a re t he - m ost c ommon p ipes i n a ny H udson's B ay C ompany s ite i n t he P acific N orthwest;

n ,

D utch C rowned 5 6,

—

c lay p ipes

o ,

F ord S tepney L ondon A rms,

—

s tyle s pur w ith t he I F m arking;

F ort

t his m ark h as

b een u sed

o n G ouda m anufactured

f rom 1 732 t o 1 881;

S tepney I nsect,

a c omplete

s pecimen w ould h ave a s pike

a c omplete e xample w ould h ave a s pike

s tyle

s pur w ith t he I F m arking:

q ,

P lain B owl;

r ,

U niformed F igure,

s ,

D utch S pur S tamped,

- c ould b e

t he p erson r epresented m ay b e a g olfer;

t he m aker's m ark o n t he b ottom o f t he s pur

i nterpreted a s a 1 ,

2 ,

4 ,

o r Z ;

t , D ouble C ockled, p ipes w ith s imilar d ecoration a nd b owl s hape h ave - b een r ecovered f rom a k iln w aster d ump i n H ull, E ngland;

1 74

0

n

r f l

q

r

P

S

t

Bellevue

F ig.

Farm,

3

1 75

Washington 4 5-SJ-295

D oubled C ockled. T his t ype i s b ased o n t he e ntire r ear t hird o f a w ell-smoked p ipe b owl ( No . 4 22). T he d ecoration c onsists o f r aised r elief

c ockles

o r

r ibs

b eginning

a t

s ome u nknown p oint o n t he

s tem

o r s hank . The s tem h as b een b roken o ff i mmediately b ehind t he b owl. T hese n arrow c ockles a re s paced 1 .5-2 mm a part a nd c over t he b ottom

t hird

o f

t hese b y a 2 -3 t he

c ockles

d ifferent 7 mm,

t he b owl mm

a re

t o 2 2-23 mm

1 -1.5

c ockling

mm

e ffect

w ide

a nd

p eg s tyle s pur i s u nmarked.

Q .

( Watkins

t he r im .

s paced

t erminates 7 mm

s tem b ore d iameter i s 5 /64 i n . b owl s hape h ave b een r ecovered E ngland

f rom

S eparated

e mpty s pace i s a nother b and o f c ockling,

1 979 :98,

F ig.

2 -3

f rom

mm

apart.

t he r im.

T his

T he l ong,

The b owl d epth i s 3 6 mm.

The

P ipes w ith s imilar d ecoration a nd f rom a k iln waster dump i n Hull, 5 -28).

Number 2 s pur ( Fig. l g). T his c ategory i s r epresented b y a s ingle b owl/heel

f ragment

( No.547)

which

r etains

1 1

mm

o f

u nmarked

The only decoration i s t he number 2 o n t he l eft s ide o f l ong, p eg s tyle s pur. T he s tem b ore d iameter i s 3 /64 i n . R .

f rom

i n w hich

T .D.

i n

C ircle

b owl/heel a nd

o f

f ragment

f irst 9 mm

o f

S tars ( No.

( Fig.4u).

9 12)

Type

c onsisting

u ndecorated

s tem .

i s

o f

T he

b ased

t he

s tem.

t he 6 mm

o n

a

s ingle

l ower 2 /3 o f a b owl

b owl

d ecoration

c onsists

o f t he 5 mm t all c apital l etters TD, p laced 8 mm a part, on e ither s ide o f t he r ear mold

s eam,

s tars

T he

o r

a sterisks.

c onsisting

o f

o f t he mold The

s tem

d istinct

u nevenly

s eam.

e nclosed

f ront

s paced

b ore d iameter T he

i s

t he c ircle o f s tars.

o f

b owl

t hree

l eaves

o n

i n .

This

d ecorations

motif

a re

t he

t he

r im

b ut

Michilimackinac t he

d oes

The

r ear mold

a dd

f ourth

a f rond

the

( Peterson

1 963:6)

s eam b etween t he

remainder

c rosshatching. i n t he S .

e xists

s tem

i n

T D

f ive

w ithin

the

t he

has

t he b owl r im.

h ave h ad

f ront mold

been

t he

s tars

s eam ( Reid

r eported

f rom

which a dds a nother f rond a long

l etters

T D.

The

f inal

c ategory

t he band o f s tars a round

bo wl

i s

covered

by

t he r im

decorative

T he T D w ithin a c ircle o f s tars i s a c ommon p attern

w estern U nited

R ouletted

of

a long

category

c onsists o f t he b asic motif a nd while

s ide

A more decorated t ype c onsists o f t ht b asic

The c ategory under d iscussion may o r may n ot 1 977:60).

a f rond e ach

l etters

design w ith t he a ddition o f a r ing o f s tars a round r ound

s ix p ointed

d isplays

3 .5 mm, p eg s tyle s pur i s u nmarked.

5 /64

b asic

b y a c ircle o f t he

g roups

T he s hort,

s tyles .

o f

S tem.

f ragment

S tates

T his

f rom

s ites d ating a fter

c ategory i s

r etaining

r epresented

t he 1 830s.

b y a s ingle

s traight

t he l ast 9 mm o f d ecoration t oward

t he b it

end.

T he decoration c onsists o f c onsecutive b ands o f r ouletting ngle t o t he a xis . A fter t he r ouletting a round t he s tem, a t a 9 0° a a re

t he 2 .5-3

s eparated missing. mirror.

mm

t all

b y a 5 mm T he The

c apital

N a nd

s tem

l etters I NSULAR .

wide s pace S a re

T he I a nd

t he R a re

where a dditional l etters may b e

r eversed

b ore d iameter

i s

a s

i f

6 /64

t hey

i n .

were

I t

i s

s een

i n

a

p robably o f

Dutch manufacture .(Fig 4 v ). T .

L ouis s ingle

F iolet s tem

s tem ( Fig. f ragment a nd

4w).

( NO:

T his c ategory i s r epresented 5 46).

manufacturers

n ame

t o t he a xis:

L . F iolet/St. Omer.

T he

c ity i mpressed

1 76

o nly

i nto

decoration

t he

L ouis F iolet

s tem

i s

b y a t he

ngle a t a 9 0° a

t ook o ver c ontrol

o f

h is

1 892

f ather 's

The

e xterior

O ther F iolet U .

F loral a long

s tem

T he

d iameter

o perated s tem

measured

s tem markings may b e

a t

f ound

T he d ecoration c onsists

f rom

s ide

t he

t he s ame

l eaves

s tem

b ased

i s

5 /64

i s

1 0 mm.

a s ingle

a l ong

s tem

c enter

A nother l eaf

s tystem

t he

c enter

b egins

o n

l eaf

t hree o ther l eaves

p oint o n e ither s ide o f t he c entral i n

i n i n .

( 1971:34).

o n

o f

which d isplays

h ave d eep g rooves

l eaves .

i s

h is d eath

" Fiolet"

Walker

4 y). o f

t ype

u ntil

d iameter

t he

i n

9 23) .

b ottom

T his

i t

b ore

( Fig.

a rising

a s

t he

i f t o

l eaf.

r epresent

t op o f

t he

s tem

but i s v ery b adly worn . p aint. Munsell c olor

T he l eaves r etain p ortions o f dark green was n ot d eterminable due t o t he great

v ariation o f

r emaining

n ot

c overed

h ue

i n

w ith

r elief d ots . V .

1 834 a nd

( No.

t he

c urled

i n

1 962 :1445).

s tem

f ragment

T he

f actory

( Fresco-Corbu

t he

t he

T he

f loral

s tem b ore d iameter

Number 1 056 ( Fig. 4 z). f ragment

( No.

p aint.

d ecoration

9 20),

A ll

p ortions o f t he

d isplay

v ery

s mall

s tem

r aised

i s 5 /64 i n .

This t ype i s r epresented b y a s ingle s tem

-4 0

mm

i n l ength .

T he 3 mm

t all n umber 1 056 i s

c entered i n a5 .5 x12 mm r ectangle o n t he r ight s ide o f t he s tem. T ooth w ear h as b een s o

h eavy a t

t he b it t hat t he s tem h as b een w orn

f rom 8 mm t o 5 mm i n diameter. f irst

one-third

o f

t he

s tem

Type numbers were u sually o n t he n earest

t he

b owl;

s ince

t here

e vidence o f a h inge f racture o f t he c eramic a t t he b it, was

p robably

b it . W .

T he

l onger

a nd

t he

t ype

B urns C utty P ipe ( Fig. 4 aa). s tem f ragments ( Nos. 9 13, " BURNS

C UTTY P IPES"

a re

b eginning 9 mm b ehind i n .

v ery

T his

s lender;

t ype

h as

b een

I n 2 mm t all l etters,

i mpressed

i nto

e ither

w ithout a s pur.

e xterior

r eported

t he

t he

s ide o r

words

t he

s tem

/64 B oth s tem b ore d iameters a re 4

t he b owl .

t he

t o

i n .

T his c ategory i s r epresented b y two

3 16).

T he p ipe w as manufactured

a re

n umber n ot n early s o c lose

s tem b ore d iameter i s 5 /64

i s

t he s tem

d iameter

f rom L ower

B oth s tem

measuring

F ort

o nly

G arry ,

f ragments 5 -5.5

mm.

C anada ( Walker

1 971:21). A c omplete c ollection o f d isplays

i dentical

s till s lender, a f lat b it. d iminutive; X .

W illiam

p ipe

marked

" BURNS

t he L aboratory o f s tem

b ore

C UTTY,"

d iameter

t he s tem i s 7 mm

i n

A nthropology , a nd

t he

l ettering

i n d iameter,

8 5 mm

4 bb,

c) . c

T his

t ype

s tem. l ine

t all)

I daho, T hough w ith

T he b owl i s i s 3 3 mm.

i s b ased o n t wo s tem

f ragments o f v ery d ifferent diameters ( Nos. 2 22, 5 76). f ragment d isplays t he n umber 7 9 ( 3 mm

o f

s ize .

i n l ength,

T he u ndecorated b owl a lso h as n o s pur. t otal w idth i s 2 1 mm a nd t he t otal h eight

W hite S tems ( Fig.

C omparative

U niversity

The f irst

o n t he l eft s ide o n t he

The l eft s ide o f t he 9 i s f lattened while only a delicate s eparates

t he

u pper

c ircle

o f

t he 9 f rom

t he c urved

l ower

p ortion .

On a l ess c learly molded e xample, t he 9 would appear t o

b e a n 8 .

S even mm

p ast

t his a re t he l etters " W WH-".

T he r ight

s ide o f t he s tem r etains t he l etters " -COW". The s econd e xample displays t he l etters " -HITE" on t he l eft a nd " GLAS-" o n t he r ight. T he f irst e xample measures 1 0 .5 mm e xterior d iameter a t t he H , b ut t he s econd e xample 's d iameter a t t hat s pot i s o nly 8 .5 mm. B oth s tem b ore d iameters a re 5 /64 i n .

1 77

T he W illiam White f irm o f G lasgow

•••

LAR

II i 1U2

e

, u -r Y " P i k4

h y R N s

t i o • sj

a b b

o u G A Le

I TC

1A4 D

GL A, 4

C C

d d

B ellevue Farm,

Washington 4 5-SJ-295

F ig. 4

1 78

F i. 4

C lay t obacco p ipes f rom B ellevue F arm , W ashington ( u - d d)

u , r ear, r ight, a nd f ront v iews o f T D i n a C ircle o f S tars, o ne o f tyles i ncorporating t he T D m otif w ith a c ircle o f s tars o r - m any s a sterisks, c ommon t o s ites i n t he W estern U nited S tates w ith p ost1 830 o ccupations;

v ,

R ouletted S tem, d ecoration s uggests D utch m anufacture;

w , L ouis F iolet s tem, m anufactured b y t he F iolet C ompany o f S t. ay b elong t o o ne o f t he p ipes i n j o r k ; - F rance, m

O mer,

x , P eg s tyle I F s pur, t he I i s a s tylized j , m ade b y t he F ord C ompany ondon, i t p robably h ad a p lain, u ndecorated b owl a s i n q ; - of L

y ,

F loral s tem,

l eaf p ortions o f

t he d ecorations r etain s ome d ark

g reen p aint,

p ossibly o f F rench m anufacture;

z , N umber 1 056, t he n umber i s p robably t he m anufacturer's m old n umber, - u sually l ocated n ear t he b owl, n ote t he v ery h eavy t ooth w ear;

a a,Burns C utty P ipe;

b b,thick s tem s tyle o f W .White C o.

o f G lasgow, M old N o.

c c,thin s tem s tyle o f W . W hite C o.

o f G lasgow;

; dd,small l ettering ( upper) a nd l arge l ettering M cDougal/Glasgow p ipe s tems.

1 79

( lower)

7 0;

s tyles o f

o perated Y .

f rom

1 805 u ntil

M cDougal/Glasgow

S tems .

1 955

( Walker

1 971:25) .

T his

c ategory

i s

r epresented

b y

t en

s tem

f ragments e ach o f which s how o ne o f t hree v ariations i n e xterior d iameter, i n t he c enter o f t he l ettering, and d isplay o ne o f two d ifferent M cDougal f irm

l ettering

motifs.

i n 1 846 when h e l eft

f inally

f olded

i n

1 967

T he

f irm

was

Murray o f G lasgow ( Walker

f ounded p ipe

1 969 :132-133 ;

b y

D uncan

f actory .

T he

1 977:11a,340) .

A lthough M cDougal i s n ot l isted a s a s upplier o f p ipes t o H udson 's B ay C ompany ( Lafleche 1 979), t hey a re f ound a t e very H udson 's B ay C ompany

s ite

i n

t he

P acific

N orthwest

w ith a p ost-1846

o ccupation

p eriod. a . T he most numerous s ubtype i s r epresented b y s even f ragments ( Nos. 4 21, 3 6, 2 37, 5 27, 5 76, 5 27, 5 13), a ll o f which h ave a n e xternal d iameter o f 8 t o 8 .5 mm a t t he c enter o f t he l ettering. S tems d isplay p ortions o f i mpressed l ettering, 2 mm t all, f orming t he

words

s tem. b .

T he

T his

McDOUGAL on

t he

l eft

a nd

G LASGOW on t he r ight o f

s tem b ore d iameters a re 5 /64

t ype

i s r epresented

b y t wo

t he

i n .

s tem

f ragments ( Nos .

1 012,

3 09)

w ith t he s ame t ype o f l ettering a nd s tem b ore d iameter a s s ubtype a ( Fig. 4 dd l ower). T his i s a more d elicate s tem t ype w hich measure 7 .3 mm a t c .

t he

T his t ype

c enter o f i s b ased

t he

l ettering.

o n a s ingle

s tem

l etters " /..DOUGALL G LA/" o n t he l eft

f ragment ( No. s ide ( Fig. 4 dd

9 20) w ith t he u pper).

The

i ndistinct l ettering o n t he r ight i s u ndecipherable . T he l etters a re only 1 .5 mm t all and t he s tem b ore d iameter i s 4 /64 i n . The e xterior d iameter

i n t he c enter o f t he l ettering

1 80

i s 6 .5 mm.

R EFERENCES C ITED

C arlson, 1 973

G ayle F .

a nd R ichard E .

A rchaeological

S alvage

J ensen

a nd

S urvey

i n N ebraska .

N ebraska S tate H istorical S ociety P ublications i n Anthropology, N o .5 . C aywood, 1 955

L ouis F inal

R . R eport,

F ort V ancouver E xcavations .

N ational

P ark

C hance,

D avid H .

a nd J ennifer V .

1 976

K anaka V illage F ort V ancouver B arracks R eports i n H ighway A rchaeology, N o .3 . O ffice o f S eattle.

1 977

K ettle

S ervice,

Public

F alls :

R egion 4 ,

S an F rancisco .

C hance

Archaeology,

1 976

-1974.

University

o f

Washington,

S alvage A rchaeology i n L ake R oosevelt .

University o f I daho Anthropological R esearch Manuscript S eries, D uco,

N o .

3 9 .

M oscow .

D on

1 976

G ouda P ipemakers ' Marks . T ranslation

b y

L .

T .

Amsterdam:

p rivately p ublished .

A lexander .

E lling,

M ichael

1 980

C lay T obacco P ipes f rom t he G olden E agle H otel, S acramento , C alifornia . P aper p resented a t t he S ociety f or C alifornia A rchaeology meetings, R edding .

F erguson, 1 975

L inda L .

H udson 's B ay C ompany B ellevue F arm A rtifact S ummary 1 973 S eason , S an J uan I sland, Washington . I n " Miscellaneous S an

J uan I sland R eports

1 971-1973"

p p .

University o f I daho Anthropological R esearch Manuscript S eries, N o . M oscow . F resco-Corbu,

R oger

1 962

F aces on F rench C lay P ipes. C ovntry L ife, J une 1 4, p p. 1 445-1446.

1 963

T he

A rt

o f t he G erman P orcelain P ipe .

C ountry L ife, . H anson,

L ee H .,

1 971

P ipes

H umphrey, 1 969

F ebruary

2 8 ,

p p .

4 24-425 .

J r.

f rom R ome,

N ew Y ork .

H istorical A rchaeology 9 2-99 .

R ichard V .

C lay P ipes

f rom O ld S acramento.

H istorical A rchaeology,

3 :12-33.

1 81

L afleche, 1 979

A ndre

Hudson 's B ay C ompany S uppliers, P art 3 : A l ist o f B ritish S uppliers o f Goods and S ervices t o t he Hudson 's B ay C ompany, 1 820-75 .

M anuscript

O 'Connell, A nnette 1 981 E uropean M ade P ainter, 1 968

o n f ile,

C lay P ipes .

P arks C anada,

O ttawa ,

O ld B ottle Magazine,

1 4(4) :4-8 .

F loyd " President P ipes" T he C hesopian,

F rom A rizona.

6 (6):160-161.

P eterson, 1 963

C lay P ipes: A F ootnote t o Mackinac's M ackinac H istory L eaflet, N o.l. M ackinac I sland S tate P ark C ommission.

P feiffer, 1 977

H istory.

M ichael A .

C lay T obacco P ipes f rom K anaka V illage/Fort V ancouver B arracks1 975 .

Manuscript

o n

U niversity o f I dah, 1 980a

f ile,

Laboratory

o f

Anthropology,

M oscow .

C lay T obacco P ipes f rom S pokane H ouse a nd F ort C olvile . P aper p resented a t 3 3rd A nnual N orthwest A nthropological C onference, 2 9 March 1 980, B ellingham .

1 980b

C lay

T obacco

H istoric

1 980c

C enter,

The

Pipes

Tobacco

V alley, C lay

o n f ile,

T obacco

P ipes

C lay T obacco P ipes 1 6).

F ort

Dakota .

U nion

T rading

Manuscript

N ational P ark S ervice, from

the

S teamboat

on

Post

N ational

f ile,

Midwest

L incoln . Bertrand

- 1 865.

B ertrand C onservation L aboratory,

M issouri

I owa .

M anuscript o n f ile, 1 981

f rom

North

A rcheological

Manuscript

1 980d

P ipes

S ite,

f rom

F ive A rchaeological

S ites

i n N ebraska .

N ebraska S tate H istorical S ociety, f rom

L incoln .

t he D eSoto N ebraska T ownsite ( 25-WN-

Manuscript on f ile, N ebraska S tate H istorical S ociety,

L incoln. R apaport, B enjamin 1 979 A C omplete

Guide t o C ollecting Antique P ipes .

P ennsylvania : R eid, 1 977

C .

S .

P addy

M ansion H ouse . C ulture

R oss, 1 976

E xton ,

S chiffer P ublishing C ompany .

i n

t he

W ilderness :

R esearch R eport, a nd

T he

N o .10 .

A rchaeology

O ttawa :

o f

O ntario

t he

E rmatinger

M inistry o f

R ecreation .

L ester A . F ort V ancouver:

1 829-1860,

1 82

A H istorical

Archaeological

I nvestigation o f t he G oods Imported a nd Manufactured b y t he Hudson 's B ay C ompany . Manuscript, F ort V ancouver N ational H istoric S ite, V ancouver, W ashington . S mith, 1 960

G . H ubert F ort P ierre

I I

( 39-ST-217).

A H istoric T rading P ost i n t he

O ahe D am A rea , S outh D akota . B ureau o f American E thnology, B ulletin 1 76, R iver B asin S urvey P aper 1 8 . W ashington . S prague, L inda F erguson 1 970 San J uan C eramics. M oscow.

Master 's

t hesis,

U niversity

T hompson, E rwin N . 1 972 S an Juan I sland H istoric R esource S tudy . C enter , N ational P ark S ervice, D enver . T oups, 1 969

o f

D enver

I daho,

S ervice

P olly T he E arly P rehistory o f t he C learwater V alley, N orth C entral I daho .

D octoral d issertation ,

T ulane U niversity .

W alker,

l ain C .

1 971

N ineteenth-Century C lay T obacco P ipes O ntario A rchaeology, 1 6:19-35.

1 977

C lay T obacco P ipes with P articular R eference t o t he B ristol 1 I ndustry . P arks C anada H istory and Archaeology, N o . 1. O ttawa.

W alker,

l ain C .

1 969

M cDougals C lay P ipe F actory, G lasgow. I ndustrial A rchaeology. 6 (2):132-146.

a nd L .

L .

i n C anada .

D eS. W alker

W atkins, G areth 1 979 Hull P ipes -A T ypology. T he A rchaeology o f t he C lay T obacco P ipe I . B ritain : t he M idlands a nd E astern E ngland . E dited b y P eter D avey . B AR B ritish S eries, 6 3 :85-122 . W atkins, L ura W oodside 1 968 Early N ew England

P otters

a nd

Their Wares .

N ew Y ork : A nchor

B ooks. W ilson, 1 971

R ex L . C lay T obacco P ipes f rom F ort L aramie N ational H istoric S ite a nd R elated Locations . D ivision o f A rcheology a nd A nthropology, N ational P ark S ervice,

W ashington .

1 83

T HE T OBACCO-RELATED A RTIFACT A SSEMBLAGE F ROM T HE M ARTINEZ A DOBE,

M ichael A .

P INOLE,

C ALIFORNIA

P feiffer

D on I gnacio Martinez was b orn i n Mexico i n 1 774 a nd a rrived i n A lto C alifornia i n 1 799 t o b egin s ervice a s a s oldier . M exico d eclared h er i ndependence

f rom

S pain

i n

1 821,

a nd

i n

1 822

Martinez

b ecame

t he

c ommandante o f t he P residio o f S an F rancisco. I n 1 823, h e a pplied f or l and grant n earby, i n what was l ater t o b e known a s C ontra C osta c ounty .

R etiring

f rom

military

s ervice

i n

1 831,

Martinez

t urned

h is

a ttention t o p olitics, s erving a s t he t hird a lcalde, o r mayor, o f S an F rancisco, t hen k nown a s Y erba B uena . H e r eceived a p rovisional t itle t o E l Rancho P inole i n 1 823, but b ecause o f t he l oss o f t he grant p apers, u pon

t he

f inal

c onfirmation d id

r eapplication,

h e

was

n ot

c ome u ntil 1 842.

i ssued

4 s quare

A t

l eagues

t hat

o f

t ime,

l and,

o r

a pproximately 1 7,786 a cres. D evelopment s ent

wa s

o ut

b egan

o n

t he

w ith 7 00 h ead

p alizada d welling

p roperty

o f

t o h ouse

f oll

I t

s urmised

i s

l arge

ing

M artinez ' t hat

f amily t hat

t he

1 828 ,

a nd

when M artinez '

i nstructions

t o

f oreman

c onstruct

a

t he v aqueros.

The f amily a s a whole d id 18 37 ;

i n

c attle,

n ot move

r etirement

t o Rancho P inole u ntil a bout

t hey h ad

Martinez A dobe

Martinez b rought

was

t o

i t.

b een

b uilt

l iving

i n 1 836

i n t o

S an J ose h ouse

B y t his t ime h is

i ncluded, b esides h is wife, n ine daughters and two s ons.

t he

f amily

A ll but t he

two e ldest married daughters moved t o t he R ancho. V icente was t he f irst s on t o b e married, i n 1 837. B y t he e nd o f t hat s ame y ear a n a dobe h ouse h ad b een c onstructed n earby f or h im. a dobe was built f or t he o ther s on, J ose, and ( Vincent T hese D uring

1 977). t hree a dobes

were l ocated

only a f ew hundred y ards a part.

t he mid-nineteenth c entury t hey were

members, 1 890 j ust

T he n ext y ear a nother h is b ride t o o ccupy

b ut b y t he

1 870's

t hey h ad

t he main h ouse r emained

p assed

o ccupied

b y v arious

f amily

o ut o f f amily ownership .

i n u se a s a h ome;

o ne

o f

B y

t he o thers

was a r uin a nd t he t hird h ad b een c onverted i nto a b arn . T he M artinez A dobe w as b adly d amaged during t he 1 906 e arthquake, a nd o nly t he l arge main

r oom

w as h abitable .

gradually b ecame

T he h ouse

r uinous.

The

c eased

r emains

t o b e o ccupied

were

bulldozed

i n 1 909, i n

a nd

t he mid-

1 950's. E xcavations

a t

t he

s ite

b egan

i n

1 975.

T his

a ll-volunteer

e ffort

w as s ponsored b y t he P inole H istorical S ociety a nd l asted u ntil e arly 1 979. B y t his t ime t he c itizens o f P inole h ad voted t o a cquire t he a rea

f or a p ark,

s o

t he

s andstone c obble

1 85

f oundations w ere b ackfilled.

T he s mall a ssemblage o f t obacco-related a rtifacts f rom t he M artinez A dobe s ite c onsists mostly o f c lay p ipe f ragments . T he e xceptions t o t his a re a t in t obacco t ag,

a y ellow c elluloid

p ipe b it,

a nd a s mall

a mount o f o rganic matter, p ossibly t obacco, i n a n o rnate t in c ontainer. The t obacco t ag a nd s everal o f t he c lay p ipes c an b e i dentified a s t o m anufacturer. T he

s ingle

1 6

mm

d iameter,

c ircular

t obacco

t ag

r ecovered

i s

e mbossed a long t he u pper c ircumference w ith " LORILLARD" while t he l ower p ortion h as b een c orroded away . T he t obacco t ag w as a d ecorative b it o f t in c lamped o nto p lug a n

i dentification a nd

1 973:28).

The

d ifficult

s ince

t obacco b y two o r more p rongs . a dvertising

i dentification t he

f irst

t ags

o f

d evice t he

f rom

t ags

I t

w as u sed

1 870-1937

t hemselves

w ere merely p rinted

a s

( Williams

c an

o n p aper

b e

made

t hen g lued

t o t he t in ( Umberger and Umberger 1 971:26) and d o n ot s urvive well i n t he ground. The i nvention o f t he t obacco t ag i s c redited t o t he L orillard

C ompany o f N ew Y ork a nd J ersey

was " Tin T ag" ( Heiman 1 960:136). t obacco

t ags

c an b e

f ound

C ity .

T heir

f irst

b rand

n ame

T he b est c urrent s hort s ynopsis on

i n S udbury ( 1978:3-7).

Another e xample o f t obacco u se, n ot d irectly c onnected t o c lay p ipes, i s a 3 6 mm l ong, y ellow c elluloid b it. C elluloid was f irst p repared

i n

devised a fter .

1 869

T his

b it

c lay t obacco i nterior t hat

( Bersch

f or b riar

p ipes

c ould

p ipes,

1 904 :263).

P ipe

which became

h ave b een u sed

i n descending

i s devoid

b its

p opular

o n b riar,

o f t hreading,

o rder

o f

o f

many materials

i n t he

meerschaum,

t oo

s mall

In a ddition t o

f or m ost

t his

s ubstance S tock,

I nquiries R esearch

o n

i s

s till

t here

t he 6 mm

c onical

i s a s mall amount o f dried

A s mall h ave

C ouncil

W ashington D .C .;

o n

s ample h as b een mailed of

Texas,

b een

mailed

T obacco

a nd

San t o

t he

R esearch ,

t o

Antonio. T obacco

N ew

Y ork ;

t he P hilip M orris R esearch

R ichmond.

The

most

s imilar

e xcavations a t O ld B ased

t he

o r t he

R esearch i nto t he i dentity o f

University

p rocedure

L ondon ;

t he T obacco I nstitute, C enter,

i n p rogress .

d etermination

C ouncil,

S ince

and

c igars.

t hese a rtifacts

E thnobotanist,

c orncob,

t here i s a lso a s light p ossibility

o rganic matter which may b e t obacco. Janet

w ere

1 860s

p robability.

t his may h ave b een u sed a s a c igarette h older a s

i nterior i s

l ate

c lay

S acramento,

o n material a nd

p ipe

a ssemblage

i s

t hat

C alifornia ( Humphrey 1 969 ;

b owl/stem d ecoration ,

f rom

s everal

E lling

1 980).

t here a re a t l east n ine a nd

p ossibly t en d ifferent p ipe t ypes r epresented. F our o f t hese c an b e i dentified a s t o manufacturer a nd f our more c an t entatively b e a ssigned a c ountry o f o rigin . P ottery, G lasgow ;

E ast

A lton ,

a nd L .

D efinite manufacturers i nclude t he J ohn Taber N ew H ampshire ;

F iolet o f

S t.

O mer,

M cDougall

o f G lasgow ;

M urray o f

F rance.

Three o f t he c lay p ipe c ategories a re o f t erra c otta. T he K nobby o r Imitation C orn C ob s tyle ( Fig. 1 B) was made a t t he J ohn Taber P ottery, N ew H ampshire . T he o ther t wo t ypes, G lazed A nthropomorphic ( Fig.

1 A)

and

Probable

P amplin P lain

( Fig.

1 C),

A merican manufacture, d ating a fter t he l ate 1 840s. R ush o f 1 849 and t he r esulting i nflux o f Americans t he

p resence o f

t hese

p ipes.

1 86

a re

very

l ikely

o f

T he C alifornia G old l eads o ne t o e xpect

T he

p ipes made

c ountries. ( Figs.

f rom w hite b all c lay r epresent

B esides t he marked

1 D,

G )

a nd

a F rench

t wo a nd

p ossibly f our

f ragments o f two G lasgow p ipemakers

f irm

( Fig.

1 E),

two

o ther

p ipes

p ossess

d ecorative motifs which a llow a t entative a ssignation o f c ountry o f o rigin. T he R ouletted S tem c ategory d isplays a t ype of l ine a nd i nterlocking 1 F).

wedge d ecoration

s ites w ith a p ost 1 850s o r C anadian s ites. T he 1 3 o riginal c olonies,

f our

t hat

i s

m ost

c ommon

t o D utch

p ipes

( Fig.

T he T D with S tars c ategory ( Fig. 1 H) i s v ery c ommon o n American

In a ddition t o n on-diagnostic

o ccupation y et v irtually u nknown f rom B ritish 1 3 s tars s urrounding t he T D , r epresenting t he

a lso

i ndicate A merican o rigin.

t he marked white b all c lay f ragments, s herds ( General F inds N os . 4 , 6 , 6 0, a nd

o f w hich s how h eavy s taining f ragments .

A lthough t he

s ignificant

f or

f rom

u se,

a nd

s ample i s n ot

p ossible

s tem

t here a re 7 3), t hree

t hirteen u nmarked

l arge e nough

t o b e

b ore d iameter d ating

h eel-stem

s tatistically

p urposes,

t he

t hree

g roups o f s tem b ore d iameters a re o ne o f 6 /64 i nch, s even o f 5 /64 i nch, and f ive o f 4 /64 i nch . The l ast group i ncludes one l ipped b it a nd a 7 mm l ong f ragment h eavily r ounded a t b oth e nds, p ossibly f or u se a s a b ead.

T ype D escriptions A .

K nobby o r I mitation C orn C ob J ohn T aber P ottery , 1 968:Fig. 8 5). N ebraska 1 A),

Lenore

1 969 :132, 6 1;

P late

R oss

a nd

J ensen

S ite

1 4u),

o n

F ort

1 976:818),

f ragment

T his

1 973 :Plate t he

p ipe

w as

made

f rom 1 864-72

( General

F ort

a t

t he

( Watkins

N o .

w ith a s hiny b rown g laze o n b oth

P feiffer R iver,

1 980 :5, I daho

Washington ( Caywood

H oskins,

T his

F inds

1 7B ;

C learwater

V ancouver ,

a nd

1 980 :personal c ommunication). b owl

1 B).

N ew H ampshire

I t h as a lso b een r ecovered f rom t he C happel S ite,

( Carlson

t he

( Fig.

E ast A lton ,

O regan

( Kevin

t ype i s r epresented

5 9)

made

e xterior

f rom a nd

F ig.

( Toups 1 955 :59-

E rickson

b y a s ingle

o range/black

i nterior .

p aste

A s imilar

p ipe h as b een r ecovered f rom F ort B owie, A rkansas, with g laze on t he e xterior o nly ( Herskovitz o f

r aised dots 6 mm

1 978:118). c enter

A v ery c ategory

s mall

o n

i nterior a nd f or B .

D ots a re 3 mm

A long t he f ront o f

i n t he

a 1 2 mm s pace s eparates t he r ows o f d ots, c enter t o c enter.

A pproximate e xterior b owl d iameter i s

o range

The decoration c onsists

t o c enter.

B owl d epth i s a t l east 3 3 mm.

d iameter. b owl,

a part,

t he

c eramic b asis

e xterior,

f ragment

o f

1 i nch .

( G .F .

a p artial

t hickness, a nd

t erra c otta p aste

N o.64)

r aised s hape.

i s d ot, I t

i ncluded g laze

i n o n

t his b oth

i s made f rom a n

w ith metallic g old g laze b ut

i s

t oo

s mall

f urther m easurements.

G lazed Anthropomorphic ( Fig.

1 A).

T ype

i s b ased

o n 3 f ragments

( G .F . N os. 6 0, 6 4, and 6 9) a ll made f rom a dark g rey p aste c overed b y a c lear s hiny g laze o n b oth t he i nterior a nd e xterior. f eatures

a re

s tylized

a nd

p oorly

molded

w ith

a v isible

F acial

mold

s eam

t hrough t he c enter o f t he f ace . T he mouth i s a s imple o val 3 .5 mm h igh b y 1 3 mm w ide p laced 5 mm a bove a weak chin . The n ose i s a r aised l ip.

t riangle 7 mm

w ide b y 6 mm h igh p laced 6 mm a bove t he u pper

The r ight e ar i s a mere d ot 3 mm i n d iameter 1 2 mm

1 87

f rom t he

b ase o f t he n ose. d ots,

1 mm

a part

t he b owl.

A s eries o f two o r more 3 mm d iameter r aised e dge

A 2 .5 mm

t o

e dge,

e ncircles

t he n eck a t

t he

b ottom

w ide r aised b and e ncircles t he b owl r im

o f

w hile a

3 .5 mm

r aised b and encircles t he e nd o f t he s hank .

A lthough t he

p aste,

g laze,

t hat

a nd

d ot

d ecoration a re

v ery

s imilar

t o

p roduced

b y t he T aber P ottery, n o e xample o f t his t ype h as b een p ublished f or C .

t hat

m anufacturer .

P robable

P amplin

P lain

( Fig.

1 C).

T his

c ategory

i s

b ased

o n

a

2 s ingle u ndecorated b owl f ragment ( G .F . N o. 2) made f rom a n orange/grey p aste which h as b een c overed b y a n i ron s lip o n t he i nterior a nd d ark

e xterior

s plotching.

t o g ive a t erra

T he

b owl

r im

c otta o range

h as b een h and

T his t ype o f p ipe i s m ost c ommon t o t he P amplin , i ndustry b ut a reas

f rom

s imilar,

t he

decoration

mid-1800s

and

i dentification . D .

1 1).

T D ( Fig. b owl

( G.F .

e ither

i f n ot

small

i dentical

u ntil

t he

f ragment

G reat

w ith

a nd

s ome

r ounded.

V irginia a rea p ipe

p ipes

s ize

c olor

s moothed

w ere made i n many

D epression .

p revent

Lack

more

A pproximate e xterior b owl d iameter i s

o f

p ositive

1 1 /4

i nch.

T his c ategory i s r epresented b y a s ingle c omplete

N o.

s ide

7 3)

o f

b earing

t he

r ear

t he

mold

p laced 1 3 mm b elow t he r im.

e mbossed s eam.

c apital

T he 5 mm

T he 7 mm

l ong

l etters

t all

p eg

TD

l etters

s tyle

on a re

s pur h as a

T he 1 1 mm d iameter s tem h as a

c learly e mbossed 9 on b oth s ides.

b ore d iameter o f 4 /64 i nch . B owl h eight i s 4 2.5 mm ; b owl d epth i s 4 0 mm. T otal b owl w idth i s 2 6 mm ; i nterior b owl d iameter ( side t o s ide) i s 2 0.5 mm. s moking. s pur,

i s

t he G lasgow p ipemakers

S imilarly

t hickness

o f

s ized

and

a nd

s tem

b owl

McDougall o f G lasgow . f rom Hudson 's 1 981a: s pur E .

T D

f or p lacement o f makers n awe a nd

p laced

TD marks,

s ize

o f

and

A n a lmost i dentical TD h as b een r eported

B ay C ompany 's

F ort

C olvile,

Washington ( Pfeiffer

F ig. 4 d) o f definite McDougall manufacture but d ifferent

with

S tars

( Fig.

f ragment

Embossed l eft

o f

t he

t o

1 H).

T his

N o.

6 9-1)

( G.F .

d ecoration

a sterisks

c onsists

r ear

t he

mold

l eft

o f

t ype

o f T .

and

r epresented

t he

p ortions

s eam

t he

i s

f rom

l eft

o f

f our

T his

b y a s ingle

r ear

a c apital s ix

t ype

i dentical O ld

s pecimens

a re

S acramento,

k nown f rom R ome,

C alifornia

N ebraska C ompany 's

( Pfeiffer B ellevue

19 8 1b : 17 and

29).

1 980:6 F arm,

and

F ig.

1 3

s tar

s tars

o r

many v ariations s imilar o r

1 969:Fig.

3 2,

3 4-5),

K anaka V illage/Vancouver A sh Hollow T rading P ost,

l j),

S an Juan I sland,

The

a b owl.

l etter T t o

N ew Y ork ( Hanson 1 971:92-

( Humphrey

Mackinac, M ichigan ( Peterson 1 963:6), B arracks, W ashington ( Pfeiffer 1 977:14),

o f

p ointed

h as

b esides t he c entral TD s urrounded by t hirteen s tars; 3 ),

b owl,

a re c haracteristic o f p ipes made b y

markings.

small t he

f rom 1 5-22 mm b ehind t he

t he v ague o utline o f a r ectangular d epression s uch a s u sed

b y many o f c ity .

B owl r etains s tains o n t he i nterior f rom h eavy

On t he l eft s ide o f t he s tem,

a nd

t he

H udson 's

B ay

Washington ( Pfeiffer

t heme

i ndicates

American

m anufacture. F .

I mpressed

M cDougall/Glasgow

a s ingle s tem s ide

f ragment ( G .F .

w ithin a 3 mm

t all

( Fig. N o.

1 D). 8 1)

T his

c ategory

which b ears

r ectangular d epression .

1 88

i s

b ased

o n

l etters o n e ach

T he l eft b ears t he

l etters

"—.GALL"

a nd

t he

r ight

" GL.—".

T he

McDougall

f irm

o perated f rom 1 846 t o 1 967 ( Walker 1 969:132). A s t he l argest e xporters o f S cottish c lay p ipes, McDougall p ipes a re c ommon i n A merican s ites d ating may

G .

p ossibly

b e

f rom

p art

o f

t he mid-1850s t he

l arge

S tem b ore d iameter i s 4 /64

i nch.

Murray

1 G) .

G lasgow

S tem

( Fig.

T D

T his

t o

e arly

p ipe

1 900 .

( type

c ategory

i s

D )

b ased

T his i n

s tem

F ig.

1. 1

o n a s ingle

s tem f ragment ( G .F . N o. 9 ) . T he l eft s ide d isplays t he i mpressed 2 mm t all l etters "—.AY" within a n i mpressed r ectangle. T he r ight s ide l etters a re " .LAS.." but w ithout .

t he

s urrounding

r ectangle.

T he f irm o f W illiam Murray i n G lasgow m ade p ipes f rom 1 833 t o 1 861, t hough p ossibly a s e arly a s

1 826

( Omwake

1 965 :131).

I nterestingly ,

t he f ounder o f t he McDougall p ipe w orks, D uncan McDougall, was a manager a t Murray 's b efore h e l eft

i n 1 846

( Walker 1 971:25) . Two M urray s herds S acramento ( Humphrey 1 969:15-6). H .

F iolet

S tem

( Fig.

1 E).

This

t o

h ave

t ype

i s

s tart h is own c ompany

b een

r ecovered

b ased

o n

f rom

a s ingle

s tem

f ragment ( G .F . N o. 7 5) marked " L. F iolet" a bove " a S t. Omer". bore d iameter

i s 4 /64 i nch.

p ipe h as a lso b een r ecovered

N ot s urprisingly, f rom O ld

S tem

a F iolet marked

S acramento ( Humphrey 1 969 :16-

7 ). T he f irm was f ounded b y T homas F iolet u ntil 1 921 ( Jean-Leo 1 971:30). I .

OM

i n 1 765 and

o perated

R ouletted S tem ( Fig. 1 F). C ategory i s r epresented b y a s ingle f ragment ( G .F . N o . 9 1) b roken o ff i mmediately b ehind t he b owl .

s tem N ow

6 6 mm l ong, t he b reak a t t he b it e nd i ndicates t hat t he s tem was once l onger. Heavy t ooth wear shows that this p ipe had c onsiderable u se a fter t he s tem w as s hortened. S tem b ore d iamete i s 4 /64 i nch . I mpressed d ecoration c onsists o f 2 l ines o f n arrow, p aired,

6 mm l ong,

s tem . l ong s tem t he

i nterlocking

B etween t hese l ines a re r ectangles,

a lso

d ecoration

i s

s tyle

t riangles c ompletely e ncircling t wo p arallel l ines o f

e ncircling

most

c ommon

t he t o

h as b een w idely c opied.

a n e xample

f rom O ld

S acramento

s tem. p ipes

T his o f

S imilar

s mall ,

t he

1 .5

mm

s tyle o f r ouletted

D utch

s tem

manufacture

b ut

markings a ppear o n

( Humphrey 1 969:Fig.

4 7).

C onclusions The s imilarity o f decorative motifs a nd manufacturers f or t hese p ipes t he

a nd

s mall

c igar,

n ot

t hose s ize t he

f ound o f

t he

p ipe,

a t

O ld

w as

A dobe

A dobe

i s

s triking,

a ssemblage

t he more c ommon method

i n S panish c olonial a reas . t he

S acramento

Martinez

p eriod

when

was

f amily,

i t i s i nteresting t o

S ince s till

t he i n

a nd o f

s peculate a s

f act

t hat

b oth t he

t obacco c onsumption

Murray/Glasgow t he

c onsidering t he

p ipe d ates

p ossession o f t o w hether t he

t he

t o

t he

Martinez

p ipes b elonged

t o a f amily member, v isitor, o r h ired h elp. T he v ariety o f t ypes a nd t he b road r ange o f p ipe and t obacco t ag dates i ndicates t hat t obacco c onsumption

w as

a c ultural

c onstant

M artinez A dobe.

1 89

t hroughout

t he

o ccupation

o f

t he

F igure 1

A .

G lazed A nthropomorphic.

-

K ey

D ark g rey p aste w ith s hiny b rown g laze.

P robably A merican m ade.

B .

K nobby o r I mitation C orn C ob. N ew H ampshire:

C .

J ohn T aber P ottery,

E ast A lton,

1 864-72 .

O range/black p aste w ith b rown g laze.

P robable P amplin P lain .

O range g rey p aste w ith a n i ron s lip.

P robably A merican m ade.

D .

I mpressed M cDougall/Glasgow.

E .

F iolet S tem . 1 765-1921.

F .

R ouletted S tem.

G .

Murray/Glasgow S tem .

H .

T D w ith S tars.

I .

T D.

J .

Y ellow c elluloid b it.

L .

F iolet,

S cottish:

S t.-Omer,

1 864-1967.

P as-de-Calais,

P robably D utch m ade.

F rance:

A lso n ote h eavy t ooth w ear.

W illiam Murray C ompany:

1 833-61.

P robably American m ade.

P ossibly S cottish,

p erhaps b y M cDougall/Glasgow.

3 6 mm l ong w ith u nthreaded c onical

1 90

b ore.

A

rn let Z iMmer

•

F ig. 1

1 91

A cknowledgments I would l ike t o t hank P riscilla Wegars a nd t he P inole H istorical S ociety

f or

t he

o pportunity

o f

i llustrations a re b y K en K etterer.

1 92

s tudying

t his

a ssemblage.

The

R EFERENCES C ITED B ersch, 1 904

J oseph C ellulose,

C ellulose P roducts,

T ranslated

b y W illiam T .

H enry C arlson, 1 973

C arey B aird

G ayle F .,

a nd

a nd

P hiladelphia:

C o.

R ichard E .

A rchaeological

a nd Artificial Rubber.

B rannt.

J ensen

S alvage a nd

S urvey i n N ebraska.

S tate H istorical S ociety Publications C aywood, 1 955

L ewis R . F inal

R eport,

P ark S ervice, E lling, 1 980

N ebraska

i n Anthropology 5 .

F ort V ancouver E xcavations. R egion 4 O ffice,

M anuscript.

N ational

S an F rancisco.

M ichael C lay T obacco P ipes.

I n H istorical Archaeology a t

Golden E agle H otel S ite. P raetzellis,

P raetzellis,

M ary,

a nd M arley B rown ( editors).

S tudies

C enter,

H anson,

L ee H .,

J r.

1 971

P ipes F rom R ome,

S onoma S tate U niversity,

N ew Y ork.

H eiman,

R obert K .

1 960

T obacco a nd Americans.

t he

A drian

A nthropological C alifornia.

H istorical Archaeology 5 :92-99.

N ew Y ork,

H erskovitz, R obert M . 1 978 F ort B owie M aterial C ulture.

M cGraw-Hill

B ook C ompany.

Anthropological Papers o f

t he

University o f Arizona 3 1. Humphrey, 1 969

R ichard V .

C lay P ipes

f rom O ld

S acramento.

H istorical Archaeology

3 :12-33.

J ean-Leo 1 971 L es P ipes e n T erre F rancaises. O mwake,

H .

1 965

A nalysis o f

B ruxelles,

P rivately p ublished.

G eiger

M ero

S ite,

1 9th C entury W hite K aolin P ipe D oor C ounty,

W isconsin.

F ragments

f rom

W isconsin A rchaeologist

2 6(2). P eterson, 1 963

Eugene T .

C lay P ipes:

a f ootnote

t o M ackinac's h istory.

M ackinac H istory Leaflet C ommission,

1 .

Mackinac I sland

P feiffer, M ichael A . 1 977 T he C lay P ipes F rom Kanaka V illage/Vancouver 1 975.

S tate P ark

M ichigan.

M anuscript o n

University o f I daho,

f ile:

B arracks-

L aboratory o f A nthropology,

M oscow.

1 93

t he

P feiffer, 1 980

M ichael A .

C lay T obacco P ipes f rom F ive A rchaeological S ites i n N ebraska. M anuscript o n f ile: A rchaeology S ection, N ebraska

1 981a

S tate H istorical

C lay T obacco P ipes

S ociety,

L incoln.

f rom S pokane H ouse a nd

N orthwest Anthropological R esearch N otes 1 981b

C lay T obacco P ipes S an J uan I sland,

f rom H udson's

B ay C ompany's

W ashington ( 45 S J 2 95).

S an J uan I sland A rchaeological P roject, A nthropology, R oss,

F ort

U niversity o f I daho,

C olvile.

1 5(2):221-35.

F all.

B ellevue F arm,

M anuscript o n f ile: L aboratory o f

M oscow.

L ester A .

1 976

F ort V ancouver :

1 829-1860;

I nvestigation o f H udson 's

t he G oods

B ay C ompany.

a H istorical A rchaeological I mported

M anuscript.

V ancouver N ational H istoric S ite,

a nd M anufactured

b y t he

N ational P ark S ervice, V ancouver,

F ort

W ashington.

S udbury, B yron 1 978 C omments o n " Small M etal H orseshoe S haped D ecorations" R ecovered

f rom

t he F ort

S ill D ump

S ite

( 34 C M 9 ).

Oklahoma Archaeological S ociety N ewsletter 2 6(3):3-7. T oups,

P olly A

1 969

T he E arly P rehistory o f t he C learwater V alley, I daho.

U npublished

( 2 v ols., U mberger, 1 971

A rt,

t ext a nd

P h.D. d issertation,

V incent,

a nd J ewel Umberger

T he T obacco T ag... . An H istorical A ccident. M ay.

G eorge R . R esponses F amily.

t o P overty A mong T hree G enerations o f a C alifornio U npublished M .A.

U niversity S an F rancisco, W alker, 1 971

N orth C entral

T ulane U niversity

p hotographs).

W estern C ollector 9 (5):24-27.

1 977

M arch.

T hesis,

S an F rancisco S tate

C alifornia.

l ain C . N ineteenth-Century C lay T obacco P ipes i n C anada. Ontario Archaeology 1 6:19-35. a nd L L.

W alker,

l ain C .,

1 969

M cDougall's

D e.

S .

W alker

C lay P ipe F actory,

G lasgow.

I ndustrial Archaeology 6 (2):132-46. W atkins, Lura W oodside 1 968 E arly N ew England P otters a nd Their W ares. ( Reprint o f 1 950 H arvard U niversity P ress W illiams, M ajorie 1 973 T he T obacco T ag E ra.

A nchor B ooks. e dition).

T he Antiques J ournal 2 8(3):28-9.

1 94

M arch.

C LAY T OBACCO

S MOKING P IPES

L .

T .

F ROM T HE

C ALEB P USEY H OUSE

A lexander

I ntroduction The

C aleb

Pusey

House,

l ocated

a t

Upland,

D elaware

C ounty,

P ennsylvania, was b uilt o f s tone a nd b rick i n 1 683 a nd i s b elieved t o b e t he o ldest i ntact E nglish-built h ouse i n P ennsylvania. T he l ate D r . H erbert A lbrecht a nd k nown

a s

" The F riends o f

h ouse-employed k nown

t o

a rchitects

h ave

A lbrechts

b een

a ppealed

S ociety o f D elaware

t o

s tudy

v isited

t o

t he

t o

M rs . A lbrecht,

members o f a g roup

t he C aleb P usey H ouse" -d evoted b y

l ate

a nd

r estore

W illiam

D r .

t his

Penn.

A llen

E arly

S chiek

a ct a s p roject d irector

o f

i n

t o

s aving

h istoric i n

t he

t he

t he

b uilding

1 962,

t he

A rchaeological

e xcavation o f t he

s ite. Unfortunately,

b efore

D r.

S chiek

a nd

members

o f

S ociety s tarted e xcavating, t he a rchitects r emoved f loor

a nd

a ll

n eighborhood, O ther

h oles

f inds .

s urface a lso

w ere

T hus

a rtifacts.

" robbed"

" dug",

many

p arts

a rtifacts

s pecimens

T hey,

a s

o f a t rash r emoved

a nd

well a s p it

a nd

n o

a rchaeological

t he

D elaware

t he wooden f irst c hildren i n

o utside

o f

r ecords

l eft

f eatures

t he o f

were

t he

h ouse. t heir

l ost

o r

d estroyed. While e xcavating s tone

s tairway

t he

l eading

i nterior,

t o

a s mall

t he

S ociety members u ncovered

c ellar

which

h ad

b een

f illed

f rom

a a

t rash p it -t he u pper l evels f requently p roducing a rtifacts l ater t han t hose i n l ower l evels a nd o bjects w ith a d ate r ange o f o ver o ne h undred y ears

r ecovered

c ellar, t o

c .

i n

t he

a bove 3 ' " ( the

s ame

u pper

1 700 was r ecovered

1 868 .

c ontexts.

f ill)

a p ipe

o f

t he

c ellar

i ntentionally f illed

l eading

a nd

e xample, f ragment

i n

t o

e xamples c ould

t he

N o.119,

b e c ited

t he c onclusion t hat

" East

N o .109 d atable

i n a ssociation w ith a p ipe b owl,

Many s imilarly c ontrasting

l evels

F or s tem

c .

f rom

a ll

t he c ellar

was

t hat a g radual a ccumulation d id

n ot

o ccur.

These r evelations were d iscouraging s o Dr. S chiek e ngaged t he s ervices o f a p rofessional a rchaeologist who v isited t he s ite, s tudied t he

p roblem

a nd

c oncluded

t hat

t he

a rchaeological

t eam

c ould

h ope

f or

l ittle more t han r ecovering a rtifacts, n oting t he a reas f rom w hich t hey c ame, s tudying t hem a nd r eporting o n what was t o b e f ound. I t was a greed

s uch a p rocedure

During b owl

a nd

were

t o

f ragments t he

After

delivered

t his

t o

A lthough

were

l ate H .

e valuation . n otes .

b e

f ollowed.

t he e xcavation, o ver two t housand t hree h undred c lay p ipe

s tem

s ent

w ould

h e

h is

u ntimely

writer h ad

r ecovered.

T he

G eiger Omwake f or

o nly

t he

f or

d eath s ame

t he

f our

h undred

e xamination, e ntire

p urpose

a pproximately

1 95

f irst

t wenty

a long

f ifty

s tudy

c ollection

a nd was

w ith Omwake 's

p ercent

o f

t he

p ipe

material v aluable .

h is d etailed c omments a nd c onclusions p roved t o b e most T his r eport i s p artially a n a malgum o f h is s easoned j udgment

a nd my own e valuations b ut m ainly t he p roduct o f t hose i nstances where c onclusions o r d ates a re c redited

a s

m y o wn r esearch . I n s olely h is t hey a re

( Omwake-notes) .

While s tudying t he c ollection i t b ecame a pparent t hat t he p ipe s tems v aried c onsiderably i n t hickness a nd i n t he d iameter o f t he h oles i n t hem. S ometime p rior t o 1 954, A drian O swald o bserved t hat s tem h ole d iameters d ecreased s teadily f rom 1 620 t o c . 1 800 a nd h e s uggested t o J .C . H arrington , t hen a ssociated w ith t he U nited S tates N ational P ark S ervice, a method b y which a n a ssortment o f c lay p ipe s tems might b e d ated b ased o n t he s ize o f s tem h oles ( Oswald, 1 975, p .92). H arrington p roceeded

t o m easure 3 30 s tem

f ragments

u sing

t he

b lunt

e nds o f a s et o f o rdinary s teel d rills i n i ncrements o f o ne s ixtyf ourth o f a n i nch, r anging f rom 4 /64" t o 9 /64". T he p ipe s tem f ragments u sed i n h is s tudy c ame f rom c losely d ated c ontexts, l argely f rom t he J amestown c ollection ( 17th c entury ), C olonial W illiamsburg a nd F ort F rederic N ational M onument ( 18th c entury ). H is e fforts ( frequently r eferred t o a s t he H arrington t heory) r esulted i n a b ar-graph ( Fig.X) s howing f ive s uccessive t ime p eriods f rom 1 620 t o 1 800 a nd t he p ercent o f t he

t hree s izes o f s tems h e f ound

i n e ach o f t hese p eriods.

T here a re l imitations i n h is t heory w hich h e, h imself, mentioned i n h is o riginal a rticle ( Harrington, 1 954). F or i nstance, h e n oted t he s ample u sed was c omposed o f E nglish p ipe s tems a nd t hat many D utch s tem, during c omparable p eriods, would h ave s maller s tem h oles t han E nglish p ipes. When E nglish a nd Dutch s tems a re f ound i n t he s ame c ontext i t i s q uite d ifficult, i f n ot i mpossible, t o t ell o ne f rom t he o ther. H e f urther c autioned t hat h is method was n ot i ntended t o b e u sed f or a s ingle f ragment a nd, a s O swald a lso n oted, i t b roke d own t oward

t he

e nd

o f t he 1 8th c entury .

I n 1 961, D r. L ewis R . B inford, u sing H arrington 's b ar-graph f igures, d eveloped a s traight l ine r egression f ormula b ased o n t he h ypothesis

t hat

i f

s tem

h ole d iameters g ot

p rogressively s maller

t hey

would u ltimately d isappear b y t he y ear 1 931.85. Theoretically, b y u sing h is f ormula, o ne c an d etermine t he mean d ate o f a ny n umber o f s tems . H is e quation r eads : Y = 1 931 .85 -3 8 .26 X . ( This f ormula c ould b e e xpressed more s imply, a nd w ith n o l oss o f a ccuracy, a s Y =1932 3 8.3 X ( Oswald, Y i s

1 975,

t he d ate

t o

p .92.) b e d etermined,

1 931.85 t he d ate a t

w hich t he h ole

t heoretically b ecomes n on-existant, 3 8.26 r epresents t he decrease i n t he n umber o f y ears b etween e ach s ixty-fourth i nch a nd X t he m ean b ore d iameter o f t he s tems b eing d ated.

6 4"

A t abulation i s p repared s howing t he n umber o f f ragments i n e ach s ize . E ach s ize, i .e., 7 /64", i s multiplied b y e ach n umber o f

f ragments,

p roducing

" products" .

B oth a re

t hen a dded

a nd

t he

t otal

o f

p roducts d ivided b y t he t otal n umber o f f ragments, e xtending t he a nswer t o t hree d ecimal p laces, t he r esult b eing t he mean b ore d iameter o f t he c ollection b eing s tudied. T his i s t hen multiplied b y 3 8.26 a nd t he a nswer s ubtracted f rom 1 931.85 t o o btain t he t heoretical mean d ate o f

1 96

t he d eposit. S tems

f rom

p art o f

t he a rea w hich t he E ast

W ing

o f

t he C aleb P usey

H ouse o riginally o ccupied h ave b een s elected t o u se a s a n e xample o f h ow t he

B inford

f ormula

i s a pplied:

H ole d iameter

N o.

7 /64" 6 /64"

o f f ragments

X X

P roduct

5 5 6

= .

3 5 3 36

5 /64"

X

9 3

.

4 65

4 /64"

X

2 1

.

8 4

T otal:

1 75

9 20 1 931.85

9 20 d iv. 1 75 = 5 .257 5 .257 X 3 8.26 = 2 01.13

-2 01.13 1 730.72

-T he m ean d ate o f p ipe s tems

f rom p art o f

t he

E ast W ing. A s f ar a s t he e ntire C aleb P usey H ouse c ollection i s c oncerned, n o a ttempt w as made t o p repare e ither a H arrington b ar-graph o r a B inford s traight-line r egression f ormula . omissions.

T here

w ere

s everal r easons

f or

t hese

T he d ates o f o ccupation o f t he h ouse a re documented a nd

t herefore l ittle w ould b e g ained f rom r eciting s tatistics p urportedly s howing i nformation w hich w e a lready k now . W ith b oth E nglish a nd D utch s tems

p resent

i n

t he

s ame

c ontexts,

t he

Harrington

a nd

B inford

s tatistics would p robably b e u nreliable. F inally , d ata p ublished i n r ecent y ears s eem t o s how t he H arrington b ar-graph r ange o f a cceptable a ccuracy

t o

o f e rror

i ncreasing

b e

r estricted

t o

t he

p eriod

1 680-1760

w ith t he

r apidly a s o ne moves away f rom

p robability

t hat b racket

i n

e ither d irection ( Noel Hume, 1 970, p .300). This r estricted p eriod l eaves u s w ith h undreds o f p ipe f ragments which d ate a fter 1 760 , during t he l ate

n ineteenth

c entury

a nd

f or a pplication o f t he

p ossibly

t he

e arly

s tem b ore d iameter

t wentieth

c entury

-too

t heories.

I n s pite o f t hese n egative c omments, s everal B inford c alculations w ere made a nd i n t hose i nstances, t entative d eductions a re i ncluded i n t his

r eport

e xamples

( see

c ited

This

c onclusion ).

i n t he

r eporter

c ircumstances a nd d ates a nd

A lso,

has

t ried

i nterpretations w ill

a ppear

b ore d iameters

t o

make

t he

best

of

h opes t he f ollowing d escriptions, b e h elpful

T he o rder o f d iscussion w ill b e a uthor,

s tem

a re

n oted

f or

t ext.

t o b e m ost

u seful

p laced

unfortunate

i llustrations,

t o o thers. i n

f or r eference

c ategories

which ,

t o

t he

p urposes.

" TD"-MARKED P IPES I n

most

h istoric

a rchaeological

e xcavations

u biquitous TD p ipe i s u sually r ecovered. t he

C aleb P usey H ouse

" dig". 1 97

o f

a ny

e xtent

t he

S uch was t he e xperience a t

P erhaps, i s

t ime

t o

i nstead

r efer

t o

o f u sing t hem

t he c onfining

a s " TD-marked

a s eemingly e ndless v ariety o f s ize,

t erminology o f " TD p ipe"

p ipes" b ecause

s hape,

c olor a nd

t hey a re

i t

f ound

i n

s tyle o f m arking.

T he i dentification a nd dating o f t hese f ascinating p ipes i s f urther c omplicated i n t hat t hey h ave b een made i n E ngland, I reland, S cotland, F rance, Holland, G ermany, J apan a nd t he United S tates. I n f act, t hey a re s till e xported t o t he U .S. f rom Japan a nd G ermany a nd c an b e r eadily N o

i dentified o ne

k nows

b y t he f or

p oor q uality o f c lay a nd

s ure

w orkmanship.

t he o riginal maker o f t he T D-marked

p ipe b ut

we a re c ertain t hey h ave b een manufactured f or o ver 2 00 y ears. c lay o ne

p ipe

a uthorities

T homas

D ormer,

b elieve

t he

o nly

t he

o riginal T D-marked

p ipemaker

w ith

t hese

p ipe

w as

i nitials

S ome

made

b y

r ecorded

a s

a n e xporter a nd a well-to-do merchant o f L ondon . H e i s l isted a s working a t two l ocations, i .e., 1 748-1770 Hermitage a nd 1 768 B ones Y ard.

T hat h e a nd h is p rogeny e xported p ipes i s k nown i n t hat T homas

D ormer 1 756

a nd

S on

( Oswald O swald

p olicy

a re

s hown o n

t he

H udson 's

B ay

C ompany

r ecords

o f

1 754-

1 975).

( correspondence O ct .8,

with t he

1 976) writes

S un I nsurance

amount o f 1 100 pounds,

t hat T homas D ormer h ad March 2 2,

C ompany dated

1 770

i n

a

t he

a s izeable s um when y ou c onsider t he a verage

p olicy f or a p ipemaker a t t he t ime was 2 00 p ounds . T his w ould i ndicate t hat T homas D ormer, E sq. r eaped b ountiful r ewards f rom h is p ipe exporting

t rade

Apparently

t he

w ith

s hamelessly c opied, I t s e,

i s

t he American C olonies

q uality

l ikely

o f

h is

p ipes

was

p robably w hile h e w as

and s o

p erhaps

f ine

e lsewhere.

t hat

s till l iving

a nd

t hey

t hat more h as b een w ritten a bout T D-marked

t han any o ther;

y et i t i s

important

t hat

w ere

i n b usiness. p ipes,

we c ontinue

p er

t o r eport

t heir r ecoveries. H ardly a y ear p asses w ithout t he " discovery" o f a n ew t ype o f TD mark o r t he r ecording o f a nother a rea where o ne i s f ound. p attern t he

S uch o f

i nformation,

d istribution

a nd

g athered r eveal

o ver

t he

i nformation

y ears

w ill

a bout

t he

p rovide

c ommerce

a o f

t ime. F or i nstance,

c alling

Walker ( 1975) makes a c onvincing

t o o ur a ttention t hat

t he E nglish p orts

p oint o f t his by

which p articipated m ost

a ctively i n t he West A frican s lave t rade were a lso t he major p orts i nvolved i n t he N orth American c olonial t rade . " Pipes a re i ncluded i n t he i t

c argo s eems

o f a s laver

l oaded

unlikely t hat

N orth America

a nd

t hen

i n

C harleston ,

t hey would

S outh

C arolina

h ave b een European

r e-shipped

t o

Africa".

I n

i n 1 807 a nd

p ipes

h is

s ent

t o

a rticle T he

Potential U se o f European Clay Tobacco P ipes i n West African A rchaeological R esearch ( 1975) h e e ncourages a rchaeologists i n t he D ark C ontinent 5 67)

t o r eport

s uggests

t hat

t heir p ipe f inds a nd, p ipes

made

i n

r eferring

t he U nited

S tates

t o D onnan ( 1935, may a lso

a ppear

p . o n

n ineteenth-century W est A frican s ites. G radually s uch b its o f i nformation a re a nd

s ome d ay,

b y p iecing

t o s olve t he mystery o f whom, p ipemaker u sing

t he

f inding

t heir w ay i nto p rint

t ogether a ll a vailable d etails,

w e may b e a ble

i f n ot T homas D ormer, was t he o riginal

i nitials T D.

1 98

I n

s tudying

t he

P usey

H ouse

p ipe

c ollection

i t

w as

n ot

s urprising

t o f ind o ver a d ozen v ariations o f T D-marked p ipes . D ifferent s izes, s hapes, t ypes, t imes o f manufacture, c ountry o f o rigin a nd s tyle o f marking were n oted. t his

c hapter ;

o r s hape t o

N ine o f t hese a re i llustrated and d iscussed

t he o thers d o n ot

i nclude s ufficient d etail

p rovide a ny r eliable

i nformation o ther

t han

i n

c ompleteness

t hey a re o f t he

T D-marked g enre. T YPE

No.1

q uality

-F ig. c lay,

I -A Cat. No.2093: c arefully

T his

molded

a nd

p ipe

was

f inished

made

b y

a n

f rom

f ine

e xperienced

c raftsman . F ourteen s tars s urround t he l etters o n t he b ack o f t he b owl . Walker ( 1966) s tates s ome o f t his t ype f ound e lsewhere c arry 1 2 s tars

a nd

o thers

1 3

s tars/

T hirteen

s tars e ncircle

t he r im o f t he b owl

a nd a l eaf decoration ( oak?) runs t he l ength o f t he mold marks o n t he f ront o f where

t he b owl ( away f rom t he s moker) f rom

t he

b owl

j oins

t he

unmarked

t he r im t o t he s mall s pur

n arrow

s tem.

F orms

o f

l eaf

decoration s uch a s a re on t his p ipe a re c ommon f rom t he b eginning o f t he n ineteenth c entury. This

s tyle

d iscussed

i n

o f

p ipe

detail

o ccurs

by

R epetition o f t heir s tudies t heir

a rticles,

l isted

i n

Walker

i n

w ould

t he

many

l ocations

( 1966),

Omwake

a dd n othing

t o

b ibliography a re

which

( 1962)

h ave

and

b een

o thers.

t his p aper b ut r eading

h ighly

r ecommended.

A s

f ar a s dating a nd o rigin a re c oncerned, c aution i s s uggested b ecause t his and

t ype c ould

h ave b een made

a s

e arly a s

t he

l ate

e ighteenth c entury

a s l ate a s c lose t o t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth c entury .

F urther,

p ipes s o decorated c ould have been made e ither i n England, t here

i s n o k nown

U nited

s pecific d ocumentation k nown

t o

t his

a lthough

w riter,

o r

t he

S tates.

Three o f t his t ype a re i n t he Pusey H ouse c ollection a nd i n t his writer 's opinion c ame f rom England, p ossibly a s e arly a s t he f irst q uarter o f t he n ineteenth c entury t o c . T YPE N o .2 -F ig. I -B C at. N o.1275 : t he the

s ame mold bo wl)

a s

the

N o .1

( as

s tyle

A lthough

e videnced

of

1 850. t his

b y t he

letters,

p ipe

s light

t reatment

was

b ulge of

n ot

made

i n

o n t he b ack o f

the

s tars,

leaf

d ecoration , q uality o f t he c lay a nd f inishing a ll s uggest i t c ame f rom t he s ame k iln . There i s a n unmistakeable i ndication t hat a s pur was r emoved

d uring

t he

molds were u sed

f inishing

p rocess

s uggesting

t hat

f or b oth Type N o.1 and Type N o.2.

s omewhat

s imilar

I t h as b een s tated

many t imes t hat t he E nglish d eliberately made many p ipes w ithout h eels o r s purs i n o rder t o r educe b reakage i n s hipping . T herefore, i t c an b e a rgued

T ype N o.2

f rom c . T YPE t he

a nd

mold,

t hickness . b owl,

a n

i mport,

c ame

f rom E ngland

a nd

would

a lso

d ate

1 800-1850.

No.3

p orous

was

-F ig.

I-C

i nferior f aulty

& D Cat.

c lay,

f iring

A lthough

t he

i t p robably c arried

a n o btuse a ngle w ith p arallel w ith t he

t he

No.1427:

c racked, o r s tem

due

p erhaps was

A n egligently f inished p ipe o f t o

e ither

b oth .

i nsufficient

The

b roken o ff a t

walls i ts

n either a h eel n or s pur. missing

s tem

s tem.

1 99

a nd

t he

r im

a re

j uncture

c lay w ith

T he b owl w ould w ould

n ot

i n

o f uneven t he f orm

h ave b een

"TD MARKED" P IPES

A - TYPE I 1 800 1850

B -TYPE I L 1 8001850

TYPE I I 1 7801825

F -T YPE V ETYPE I V

1 8001850

1 750 -1 775

‘ i , F ig.

L7 P t

I

" TD m arked" p ipes

Types I -V

1 77/7

I t i s p inkish b ut u nder c lose o bservation o ne c an s ee t hat i t w as m ade o f w hite c lay . What c ausitive a gent i n t he s oll c hanged t he c olor i s n ot

p resently k nown.

T he p oint t o b e made h ere i s t hat a ttentive

e xamination r egarding c olor o f p ipes i s a ttempting f actor .

F or

p ertinent

r im

p articularly when o ne

t his

a spect

s ee

with

s tem

c entury English

a re

t he b owl

a nd

u sually d istinctive

p ipes,

o ther

f eatures

b efore t he D a nd a lso a fter t he D a t

T he

u se

u nique

o f

a nd

I I-C

a nd

n otes

t he a pparent l ack o f p arallelism o f

f eatures t his

e ighteenth o r e arly n ineteenth c entury p roduct . T ,

F ig .

i t.

A lthough t he a ngle o f o f

i ndicated

t o d etermine t he o rigin o f t he s pecimen b ased o n t his

f urther d iscussion o n

t o

i s

dots h as

i n

t his

f ashion

n ot b een r eported

a re,

o f

p ipe N ote

s eventeenth

p oint

t o

a l ate

t he d ot a fter

t he

t he b ase l ine o f t he l etters. i n

t his

p reviously .

writer 's

e xperience,

T he h eedless

t reatment o f

t he mold mark which a lso a ppears o n t he f ront o f t he b owl i s n ot c ompatable a nd d oes n ot marry w ell w ith T D-marked p ipes made i n E ngland e ven t hough t he b owl f orm a pproximates O swald's t ype 2 8 ( 1975 -F ig. 4 G). I t i s t entatively s uggested t he p ipe i s o f A merican manufacture a nd would d ate f rom c . 1 780 t o s ometime i n t he f irst q uarter o f t he n ineteenth c entury. T YPE N o .4 -F ig. I -E C at. N o .757: o btuse a ngle t o c lay, e videnced w ithout i ts

magnification .

o riginal

f orm

whether

N evertheless,

t he

t rimmed

o ff

T he

t he

r elatively

r econstruction d oes

t o d etermine

b e d etermined

s light o verhang

N ote

t he

s ize

r im

o f

t he o f

t he

t he h eel,

o f t he b owl,

t he

n ot

c .

o n

t he

b owl

w as

marked

f act

t he b ottom o f t he h eel,

1 750-1775 h eel

b een o ne,

s eems

a s

a ppearance o f g ritty c lay i t

b owl

r easonable .

o pposed

t o

t he

p rovide

l ength o f t he b owl .

t hat

o n e ither

w ith

T YPE N o.5 -F ig. I -F

t he mold

t he

t rimmer 's

( Notice

Cat.

t his

t he

p ipe .

N o.2362:

l ines o n t he

N either

w as

k nife .

b owl

t he mold

i s

r evealed

i t

n ot

This

i s

w ell-molded

" T"

another

a nd

t he molded

b owl

f it

i nto

a lthough

D orchester , r im

r elatively

a minimum

o f

n oted

which

" D"

h as

r elatively

t he

i t

( correspondence

t his

p ipe

i s

England small

o f

small

d evoted

t o

O swald

1 975

t hus p roviding a

p robably

p ost

c .1800 .

I t

f iling a minute i ndentation o n t he r im The c lay

i s o f

t he

t o

t his f rom

t o

b owl

t he

p ublished

i nferior

T ype N o.5 d oes

m ay b e a l ocal v ariety o f a n ineteenth f orm

( Watkins,

p arallel

w ith

l etters c arelessly f ashioned. a ny

t he h ad

h as a s mall w as made t o

f inishing

l ine was r emoved

t o h ave b een o riginally white.

p recisely

r eporter,

a nd

T he b ack o f t he b owl i s s traight a nd

T herefore,

y ellow i n c olor b ut

q uality a nd

t he

c arefully

l ine o n t he f oot o f t he s pur r emoved b y

A tkinson

t o t he d ate .

l ight

i t

E stimated d ate

r ather

e xecuted

o f

s pace o n t he h eel).

p .19) t hat p rior t o 1 800 t his mold c lue a s

a n

s tem.

s ide w ith T D,

t he mold mark w as

a lmost p erpendicular t o t he t hin s tem . L ike T ype N o.1, i t s pur a t t he j uncture o f t he b owl a nd s tem. L ittle a ttempt s tem .

t he

t he s mall s ize o f t he b owl,

p oorly

p ipe o f t he TD-marked " family".

t rim

c an

h aving b een a ltered. Unfortunately, b ecause o f i s n ot p ossible t o d etermine what l etter, i f t here

o riginally o ccupied

t he

a t

e nough

N either

p arallel

t hin s tem a ll p oint t o a n e arly t ype o f T D-marked o f

s mall

t he t hin s tem . T his s pecimen w as made o f a l ow g rade b y t he l eaching o f g rit w hich c an r eadily b e o bserved

1 967) . s tem

w ith

( a

t hin

2 01

c hronologies

S omewhat

s imilar

k nown p ipes

p ost

1 700

t rait),

walls

h ave

b een

w ith

s mall

r ecovered

t he

s pur, r " f r -'

D orchester ;

n one,

h owever,

r ecorded

a s

c arrying

t he

T D

mark .

A lthough

i t h as t ypical n ineteenth c entury s tyle l etters and t he b owl i s much s maller d ate c .

t han

t hose

u sually

a ssociated

w ith

t hat

p eriod

t he

p ipe

c ould

1 800-1850.

"TD MARKED" P IPES

B -TYPE V I I 1 7251775

C-TYPE 1 8501875

D-TYPE I X 1 750-1770

y J F ig. I I

1 LTA . ' 17 " TD marked" p ipes

Types VI -I X 2 02

N OTE:

T his p ipe w as w all

f ound

s eparating

p ossibly a c lue a dditional

b y

t he a rchitect b etween

t he

t he E ast R oom f rom t he W est R oom ; t o

t he d ate

( now u nknown)

o f

t he

r oom.

T YPE N o.6 -F ig. I I-A C at. N os.2,11,12,431 a nd 4 35 ( Reconstructed): T he s hape o f t his p ipe t ypologically f alls i n t he p eriod o f t he s econd a nd

t hird

q uarters o f t he e ighteenth c entury ( Noel H ume 1 962).

r ather l arge b owl w ith t he r im s ides o f t he p rominent h eel, Impressed

a nd

a ll

i n r elief,

w ithin a r ouletted

t o t he d iscontinuity a t

t he d ouble

a ppears

w ith t he m issing t here i s molded

s tamped

o n another

" T"

t he

u nder

o r c orded

t op o f

i t .

t he

l eft

s imilarly marked

Pusey

i s a

O n t he

s urmounting

h eart.

T his v ariance

I t

s tem .

a " crowned T D" .

o n t he b ack o f t he b owl a re t he l etters TD

f leur-de-lis d irected

p arallel

a

A ttention i s

l obe o f f rom

t he

h eart

t he n orm

a lso

N o.459.

The

p ipe -C at.

s ignificance o f t hese u nusual e scape t he w riter u nless t hey

c haracteristics ( not p reviously r ecorded) i ndicate c arelessness o n t he p art o f t he

w orkman w ho made t he d ie u sed

i n i mpressing

This p ipe i s a s omewhat d ichotomous o ne on

b oth

English

a nd

Dutch

p ipes

p olishing u sually a ttributed English a nd

t he m ark o n t he b owl. i n t hat

i ncluding

t he

t o D utch p roducts .

s imilarly marked

p ipes,

i ts

f eatures a ppear

f ine

f inishing

T he b asic b owl

without

a nd

f orm

i s

t he d iscontinuity a nd

d ouble s tamped " T" have been r ecovered i n Oxford and Aylesbury, E ngland. O swald ( correspondence) w rites : " The h eel mark o ccurs a t P ort R oyal ( Mayes Excavations 1 969-1970) d ated o n t he b ack o f t he b owl p ipes ( c . h ad

1 700)

p robably 1 680-1770 .

T he mark

c losely r esembles t he marks o n h eels o f e arlier

f rom A ylesbury a nd R eading

a lmost a s i f a f amily s ignet

b een u sed."

Walker ( corres.) writes: " There a re e arly T D bowl f orms ( i.e. c .1750-75) with t he variant o f marks s hown on y our t ypes N o.6 and N o.7". H e

a lso

mentioned

a v ariant

t he l etters WG i nstead I t i s s uggested L ondon, t hird

( Walker,

o f

t he

h eart-shaped

s urround

b ut

w ith

o f T D.

t he Type No.6 p ipe i s f rom England,

c orres.)

and

p robably

would date

s pecifically

i n

t he

s econd

o r

q uarter o f t he e ighteenth c entury.

T YPE N o .7 -F ig. I I-B Cat. No.1868: A small b owl f ragment a lso w ith t he TD and f leur-de-lis within a h eart was r ecovered. A lthough t he s ame b reak i n t he r ouletted h eart i s e vident, t he " T" i s n ot double s tamped

a nd

t he

f leur-de-lis d iffers

f rom T ype N o .6 .

I t

i s

t empting

p ostulate t hat more t han o ne d ie was u sed i n marking t he f ragment; s ame o ne u sed f or t he h eart o n N o.6 a nd a s eparate o ne f or t he " TD" f leur-de-lis. p ipemaker's

B oth

s hop a nd

t ype

N o.6

and

N o.7

p robably c ame

f rom

the

t o t he a nd

s ame

a re o f c omparable d ate.

T YPE N o .8 -F ig. I I-C C at. N os.350 a nd 2 046 ( Reconstructed): Although o nly a r elatively s mall p ortion o f t he o riginal b owl w as r ecovered, t he r econstructed p ipe

was

t ypical

o f

s ection p rovides enough

l arge. l ate

T he

s ize

n ineteenth

o f

t he

t o determine

b owl

c entury 2 03

a nd

T D-marked

t hat

s tyle o f t he p ipes .

t he

original

l etters a re

S imilarly

s haped

a nd

marked

T he

s tyle

m ay b e

p ipes o f

h ave

b een

l ettering

a c lue

t o

t he

f ound

s eems

f irst

t o

i n b e

C anada a nd t he

o ne

p ipemaker u sing

many

m ost t he

s tates

i n

f requently

t he U .S .

c opied

a nd

l etters T D a s h is m ark.

The i nterest i n t he Type N o.8 p ipe i s a mplified b y t he a chromatic d ifference o f t he two p ortions o f t he r econstructed f ragment. T he white p ortion c ame f rom t he debris i n t he c ellar, f irst 2 ', while t he d arker g rayish p ortion o f medium b rilliance w as r ecovered f rom t he E ast R oom. The d ifference i n t he s oil d ramatically c hanged t he p art w ith t he

" D"

a nd

a ssuming

s erves

a s

a nother

e xample

t he c olor o f a p ipe a s

o riginal

c olor o f

o f

r ecovered

t he

n eed

f rom

f or

c aution

i n

a n e xcavation i s

t he c lay u sed

i n i ts manufacture.

I I-D

-C ellar

E stimated

t he

d ate,

c .

1 850-1875. TYPE

No.9

R oom o f

-F ig.

f lood a nd B oth

C at.No.1

t he P usey H ouse f ire,

t his

w as b uilt

was f illed

p ipe

and

t he

b elow

3 '10":

N ote

i n 1 683 o ver a c ellar

t he E ast

which,

a fter

a

w ith r ubbish f rom t wo o r more t rash p its.

white

p ortion

o f

Type

N o.8

c ame

f rom

t his

d eposit.

t o

A lthough t he s tem.

D utch

t he r im o f t he b owl i s d efaced, i t w as p robably p arallel I t i s t he s ame s ize a nd s hape a s N o .6 a nd f inished i n t he

t radition .

T he

molded

T a nd

b ut d o n ot c arry a c rown o ver f acing t he r esembling

I mpressed

s ide o f

t he h eel

o n t he b ack o f

t he b owl,

s moker, a re t he l etters T FD s urmounting a d ecorative d evice a b ow r ibbon ( Omwake d escription ) . Walker ( 1966) d escribes

i t a s a" tilde-like motif". T he

D a ppear o n e ither

t hem .

l etters

a nd

motif

a re

O swald ( 1975) r efers t o i t a s a " wreath".

e nclosed

w ithin

a r ouletted

c ircle .

Wal

e r

( 1966) i llustrates a p ipe o f s imilar s ize a nd s hape b ut c arrying t he mark T ED , a lso w ithin a c ircle . I t w as r ecovered a t L ouisbourg f rom a n u ndated

a rea

a nd

h e

i nfers

i t

t o

b e

a nother

p lagiarized

v ersion o f t he

T D mark. T he motifs

p opularity o f w ithin

( correspondence) p osition b ut

r eminds

w ith t he

w ith a d ate o f c . C alver

" FS"

ones

t he

u s

c ircle

t hat

c annot

b e

t hree-letter

f igures 2 a nd

d escribes with

3 a bove

d enied.

marks

t he T D

O swald

i n

o ccur

a t

t he

s ame

P ort

R oyal

" TD"

s ame d enticulated

r ecoveries and

o thers

c ircle

f rom

B ritish

w ith

" WG".

s urrounding

t he

c amps

o f

Walker l etters

t he

( 1966)

" WM"

a nd

w ith a p ossible d ate o f 1 770s-80s. A p ipe o f

t he

s ame

well-known m otif a bove Warren

C ounty,

N orth

s ize a nd a nd

M ichilimackinac, B ased

o n

b elow

C arolina,

O thers h ave b een r ecovered

f or

f orm a nd mark c onsisting o f l etters a nd

1 750-70.

( 1950)

Revolution; r eported

t his b owl

a denticulated

s hape b ut c arrying t he l etters dated

w as

t he " TD" w ith t he

e xcavated

1 755-1775

a t

N orlina,

( Alexander

1 972).

f rom various s ites i ncluding K ipps P ost,

L ouisbourg,

t hese d ocumented

a nd W illiamsburg. f inds,

a d ate o f c .1750-1780

i s

s uggested

t he T ype N o.9 p ipe. F or a r ather c omprehensive t emporal a nd geographic d istribution

l ist o f T D-marked

p ipes, P oirier ( 1974) s hould b e c onsulted. 2 04

T o h is

l ist,

h owever,

s hould

P ROVENIENCE

b e a dded:

T EMPORAL

R EFERENCE

R EMARKS/

E STIMATES

A SSOCIATIONS

C olonial

1 775-post

A lexander

W illiamsburg

1 850

u npublished

S even s tyles

n otes M ilford,

D over,

F ort

D el

1 775-1800

D el

C raig

O mwake

C rowned T D o n h eel T D

( 1962)

i n r ouletted

E arly 1 9th

A lexander

T D o n b ack o f b owl-

c entury

c ollection

l etter A o r r etrograde l etter B (?) o n r ight s ide o f s pur

1 800-?

A lexander

T ypical 1 9th c entury

h eart

c ollection

N ew M exico 1 755-1775

N orlina

A lexander

T D i n c ircle o n b ack

( 1972)

o f b owl a nd T D o n

N orth C arolina

s ides o f h eel N ew C astle,

1 850-1875

D el

T D o n b ack o f b owl-

R .D.Scott c ollection

A merican f lag o n o ne s ide o f b owl, o f s tars a nd

s hield s tripes

s urmounted b y a c ross o n o ther s ide C hester,

1 750-post

P a

A lexander

N ine

1 850

T IPPET A ND E VANS'

P IPES

T owards

o f

t he

e nd

s tyles d iscussed

i n t his r eport

t he

s eventeenth

c entury,

B ristol,

England

was

p erhaps t he most important p ipe manufacturing and e xporting c ity i n England.

The

e xtent

o f

t heir

t rade

w ith

t he American C olonies

i s

e vident by t he l arge number and wide d istribution o f " Bristol e xport t ype" p ipes f ound i n t he U .S. B ristol p ipemakers s hipped l iterally t housands o f gross o f p ipes o verseas and t heir i ndustry t hrived a t l east u ntil 1 750. The most important B ristol p ipemaking f amily i n t his p eriod was t hat

o f

R obert

a ctivities

T ippet

h ave

( Walker

been

1 975) .

r eported

i n

A lthough

t he

c onsiderable

T ippets ' detail

p ipemaking

i n

England,

( Walker 1 971, and O swald 1 975) and Africa ( Walker 1 975) only a f ew mentions h ave a ppeared i n p rint i n t he U .S . T herefore, i t s eems t imely t o

f urnish

s ome

p roducts i n

b ackground

t his p aper,

i nto a more meaningful There

were

i nformation

t hus b ringing

r egarding

t his

f amily

a nd

i ts

t he P usey H ouse T ippet r ecoveries

p erspective .

t hree generations o f R obert T ippet

2 05

p ipemakers;

t h,

f irst r ecorded

a s working

i n 1 660 a nd

t he l ast d ocumented

r eference

a ppearing 1 722. R OBERT

T IPPET

( 1) was

working 1 660 a nd d ead b y 1 689 .

H is w ife J ane

( Joan ) a ppears o n t he a pprentice r olls o f 1 660, r eferred on t he F reedom R olls o f 1 689 and i s s hown working c . r ecords

s how

s he

f reedom i n 1 699 R OBERT T IPPET

had

a n

( Oswald

( 2)

-a

apprentice,

J ohn Quinton,

t o a s a w idow 1 687-99. T he

who

gained

h is

1 975).

s on ,

w orking

f rom

1 678

a nd

d ead

b y

1 720

( Walker

c orrespondence). R OBERT

T IPPET

( 3)

-a

grandson

i s

s hown

i n

t he

B ristol

r ecords

a s

w orking f rom 1 713 t o 1 722 -h is w ill was p roved 2 1 March 1 722 ( Oswald, q uoting J ackson a nd P rice). T he B ristol a pprentice r olls o f 1 720 s how t hat R obert T ippet ( 3) h ad

t aken R ob .

H emsley a s

h is a pprentice

( Oswald

1 975). A s

Walker

generations

n otes

o f

t ypologically, w idow,

( 1971)

R obert t he

" separating

T ippets

p roducts

o f

i s

t he

a lmost

R obert

( 1)

p roducts

o f

t he

i mpossible." a nd

h is

w ife,

l ater

might w ith s ome c onfidence b e r ecognized b y t he b owl

u sually i ncluded

e ither a f lat h eel o r a s pur,

i t

t hree

A lthough, f orm

h is

w hich

i s q uite p ossible

t hat R obert ( 2) a lso u sed h is p arents ' molds. Apparently, t he h eell ess a nd s purless t ypes, ( Fig. I II -A,B .J.K) o f T ippet manufacture a ppeared

c .

There

1 710 a nd w ere made s pecifically f or e xport. a re

n o

r eferences

t o

R obert

( 2)

o r

R obert

( 3)

a fter 1 722

a lthough t heir p roducts o ccur i n a rchaeological c ontexts i n B ristol a s l ate a s c . 1 770 ( Walker, c orrespondence). Walker ( correspondence) e xplains t he appearance o f t hese l ater p ipes by s uggesting " that i t must

h ave b een a l egal

c ontinuation ,

T ippet f amily business".

b y w hatever means,

o f

t he R obert

There i s a lso t he p ossibility t hat T ippet

p ipes a ppearing a fter 1 722 were p lagiarized c opies s uch a s t hose o f P eter D orni a nd d iscussed

t he o riginal owner o f

e lsewhere i n

t he

" TD" mark ,

b oth o f

which a re

t his r eport.

E ighteen p ipe b owls o r b owl f ragments, p roducts o f t he T ippet f amily were r ecovered f rom t he Pusey H ouse e xcavation . They vary i n s ize

a nd

marking.

o f t he b owl;

S ome a re

merely i mpressed

w ith t he " RT"

o n t he b ack

o thers c arry a c artouche o n t he r ight s ide o f t he b owl

( Figs. I II-A and I II-J) i n v arious a rrangements o f t he name a nd, f inally, one ( Fig. I II-A) has a c artouche o n t he s ide o f t he b owl and " RT"

o n t he b ack.

N one o f t he i ncised l ine -a t urn o f

t he

f ragments e xtending t o t he r im b ear r ouletting* o r a n d iagnostic t rait, u sed b y t he E nglish u ntil a round t he

s eventeenth c entury.

T his c ould

i ndicate

t hey w ere m ade b y

* FOOTNOTE: R ouletting -sometimes d escribed a s a " watch-wheel s urround" and " milling". I t i s t he decoration p laced a t o r n ear t he r im o f a p ipe b owl, h and-applied w ith a t oothed wheel o r d isk b efore f iring. A lternatively a d enticulated k nife w as u sed t o make t he i nden iaLicn z , ( Oswald

1 975,

p .19).

2 06

I

D -e

I

T I PPET & E VANS P I PES F ig. I II

T ippet a nd E vans p ipes

c . 1 6 9o—c . 17 25 c .1690 -c.1725

2 07

L 7 t :A .

( A -K)

iVUI7 6

e ither R obert ( 2), 1 700 and 1 722. c haracteristic

R obert ( 3) o r b oth a nd w ould d ate, p robably, All are o f f ine quality, a typical (Walker

1 975).

I t

i s

q uite

u nlikely

b etween T ippet

t hey

a re

p lagiarizations. T ypically s o-called " Bristol e xport" p ipes a re i llustrated ( Fig. I II -A,B,J,K). The only mark o n F ig. I II-K i s t he " RT" c arelessly i mpressed o n t he b ack o f t he b owl. I t i s t he l ongest T ippet b owl i n t he P usey c ollection ,

a pproximately 5 mm.

l onger

t han t he b owls marked

with a c artouche, t he l atter p ossibly r epresenting s lightly e arlier p roducts o f t his f amily. I II-A C at.

F ig.

N o.608 M old-imparted

T IPP E T

a nd

I II-J C at.

F ig.

" RT"

c artouche o n r ight

i mpressed

N o.1554 M old-imparted

T IP

s ide o f b owl

a fter m olding o n b ack o f b owl.

b owl w ithout

c artouche o n r ight

s ide o f

i nitials o n b ack o f b owl.

P ET I II-D C at.

F ig.

N o.563

B owl f ragment w ith " R" w ithin a c ircle ( presumably a " T" w as o n t he m issing p ortion) mold i mparted. " RT" i mpressed o n b ack o f b . I II-E C at. N o.478

F ig. B owl

f ragment

l eaving

o nly

w ith

t he

l eft

s ide o f a mold-imparted

c artouche m issing

P

I II-C C at. N o.1378

F ig.

B ears

a

p ortion

o f

a mold-imparted

i llustrated b y Walker ( Walker 1 971, s hows

p art o f a s hield

Apparently s ometimes

a nd

p ipemakers

c arried

t wo

c artouche

F ig. 2 3-A).

p arelleling

t hat

This b owl

f ragment

and

p roducts

" VANS" w ithin a c ircle. f ormed

marks,

o ne

p artnerships

f or

e ach

p artner .

t heir

S uch

w as

t he

c ase

o f R obert T ippet ( 2) and I saac Evans, t he l atter r ecorded a s w orking 1 696, gained h is f reedom 1 698,

Master o f t he B ristol C o. 1 710 a nd h is

w ill p roved 2 2 A pril, 1 713 ( Oswald, ( 1975) s hows E vans a s a ppearing o n t hat

h e,

t oo,

e xported

p artnership p roduct a nd

p ipes.

q uoting J ackson a nd P rice) . O swald t he a pprentice r olls 1 699-1701 a nd

P ipe

c ould d ate

I II-C

might

f rom 1 698-1713.

2 08

b e

a T ippet-Evans

T he o thers,

i mpressions made b y t he r oulette v ary i n s tyle i ncluding, a mong s hort c onsecutive d ashes, d ots, t riangles o r p atterns s uch a s

a ppear o n t he e dge o f a c oin. t he

r oulette

o r

" mushroom"

t o f orm t he p attern). e ncircle T he t rait

t he b owl,

i s

a ppearance

C are w as n ot a lways e xercised

( the

n ame

s ometimes

u sed

u nevenly a pplied

p ractice

i n

C eramic

i n u sing t ool

u sed

o f

r ouletting p rior

o r e ven o verlaps.

w as

c ommon a nd

t o c .1700 but

a r eliable

r emained

i nto t he n ineteenth c entury ( Oswald 1 975, p .19). t he

t he

F requently t he d ecoration d oes n ot c ompletely

f or English p ipes

E nglish

f or

t he mid C ircle"

1 9th

v ol.7,

c entury p t.3,

p ipes

T he English r evived

( Oswald

1 970

d iagnostic

o n Dutch

" Transactions

. 226).

L ater

o f

t he

r ouletting

w as

mold-imparted b ut s uch p ipes a re e asy t o d ifferentiate f rom

t hose

which

w ere h and-impressed. N ote t he d iscrepancy r egarding t he d ates o f E vans' a pprenticeship, i .e., a ccording t o J ackson a nd P rice h e g ained

h is

f reedom 1 698.

O swald

s hows h im

a ppearing o n t he a pprentice r olls 1 699. w ell a s m ust

s ome o f

a wait

Another E vans

b owl

o f

f ragment,

A lthough t he b owl

C at.No.2090,

t he

s pecimen

n ot

i llustrated,

e xtends

i t i s o nly 1 4 mm .

f rom

F ig. 1 1-f ( Walker 1 975).

t he

w ide a cross a t

and c arries only a s mall p ortion o f a c artouche Walker's

a s

a lthough c lose,

f urther r esearch.

p roduct .

t he b ottom

t he T ippet d ates,

s till

T hese,

i s a lso a n

r im

a lmost

t o

t he w idest p art

which i s

s imilar

t o

B ecause t he f ragment i s s o s mall,

t here i s n o way t o d etermine whether i t

was p roduced b y t he T ippet-

Evans p artnership. N o r ouletting o r i mpressed l ine i s a t t he l ip o f t he b owl. Therefore, i t i s p erhaps p ost 1 700 . The s tyle o f mark s uggests p erhaps

t he

p ipe

h ad

a h eel

a nd

w as made

s hortly b efore

E vans '

d eath,

i mpressed

a fter

1 710-1713.

The

r emaining

molding.

f ragments

e xhibit

o nly

The l etters a re o f d ifferent

t he

s izes,

" RT" i .e.,

3 mm. h igh and 4

mm. h igh a nd a ppear t o h ave b een made w ith two t ools, o ne f or e ach l etter b ecause t hey a re n ot o n a n e ven l ine, n ot e venly s paced n or a pplied

a t

t he

s ame a ngle.

D UTCH P IPES Twenty f ragments w hich , w ith s ome a ssurance c an b e a ssumed t o h ave o riginated i n Holland a re i n t he Pusey H ouse c ollection . F our o f t he f ive d iscussed a re

s mall F ig.

a t ypical

f inishing

a re

( bowl) O B1,

o f

Dutch

o n t he b ack o f

i llustrated.

T he

r emaining

f ifteen

7' 5°-

a nd

r ouletting

t he

s tem

Mark

I I w ithin

t he b owl . a lmost

m arked

t he D utch m ark c an b e

s tem N o.1059

f rom s ame

A lthough t he s tem c arries t he name P ETER a c ircle

c ompletely

P ETER

e xplained

2 09

a nd

T he c lay i s o f g ood

o f a n ature r eadily i dentified

W ell-executed a nd

c hapter

( Reconstructed).

i mpressed

p aradox

t his

I V-A N o.1056

l ocation D ORNI,

i n

p ortions o f s tems.

D ORNI,

i n

r elief

q uality a nd

i s t he

w ith D utch c raftsmanship. e ncircles

a r enowned

t he

r im.

F rench

r d -p lagiarism ! b y o ne w o-

The

p ipemaker,

D UTCH P IPES

A

1 850-188 1

1 8501875

A . 0 115 174

F ig.

IV

Dutch P ipes

( A -D )

2 10

P eter D orni o f

t he

w as

f inest

America;

w orking

q uality

i n n orthern F rance

a nd

e arned

a good

i n 1 850 .

H is p ipes w ere

r eputation

s o much s o t hat t hey were c opied.

i n

Europe

a nd

Omwake ( notes) mentions

t hat G .E. Helbers o f H olland a dvised h im t hat two f irms i n G ouda were i mitating

t he D orni p ipes b y 1 880 -t he f irms o f G oedewaagen a nd Van

d er Want, b oth o f which e xported t heir p roducts t o America. D utch f irm, S parnaay a nd S ons, a lso o f G ouda, c opied p ipe, i ncluding b lack o nes ( Dl ico -correspondence). The I I mark o n t he b ack o f t he G oudewaagen f actory. I t was f irst

A t hird

t he P eter D orni

b owl i s a f amous mark o f t he r egistered i n 1 701 a nd u sed

i ntermittantly u ntil 1 881. I nasmuch a s o riginal P eter D orni p ipes d ate f rom c .1850 o n a nd t he was n ot u sed a fter 1 881, t he P usey p ipe s hould f all Dutch mark I I s omewhere b etween t hese F IG. I V-B,

N o.451

t wo d ates.

E ast

1 st

f t.

-N o.529-B-7

W est

t riangle

a t

h earth

a nd N o.2054-Fireplace E . R oom u nder h earth . T his s pecimen a lso c arries t he I I mark on t he b ack o f t he b owl which i s r ouletted n ear t he r im a nd

i s

F ig.

f inished I V-A

i n t he

more

G oedewaagen p roduct d uplicate

o f

p ipe f ound l ong

t his

impressed

h aving

mark

T he mark

a nd

t he

i s

p ipe

s maller

n o c onnection w ith t he D orni

a ppears

i n

A tkinson

a nd

as

f or Dutch marks a

" doetel",

c orrespondence)

t o

b e

u sed.

"kantoor

O swald

w ith a d ate

r ange

o f

or

a A

a D utch

a n u nusually t his

office

1 850-1920 .

c opies.

( 1972),

I n H olland,

p ijp"

t han

u ndoubtedly

i n England and dated 1 735-1870 which i s n ot

p eriod

kno wn

t ypical D utch manner .

c arefully

s hape

p ipe

T he b owl

f orm

i s

( Duco, o f

t his

r econstructed p ipe s uggests a date c . 1 850-1875. One f ragment was f ound a t t he d oorway b etween t he W est a nd E ast r ooms a nd t he o ther t wo p arts a t

t he d ouble h earth,

o ne

i n e ach o f t he

t wo

r ooms.

C onsidering t he p ipe f ound b y t he a rchitect i n t he w alls b etween t he two r ooms i s t hought t o date c . 1 800-1850 and t his o ne f rom t he s ame

a rea

t hat

t he

e stimated double

c onstructed

c .

F IG . I V-C D utch b owl

t o

h ave

h earth

b een

a nd

made

t he

c .

wall

1 850-1875

w e

s eparating

c an t he

h ypothesize r ooms

were

1 850. N o.1740-A

-N 4-E1

w ith a p ointed

L 5 :

s pur

A pproximately

c arrying

t he

o ne

A rms o f

h alf

t he

o f

a nother

C ity o f

G ouda

on t he l eft s ide. A lthough t he s hield o f G ouda b egins t o make i ts appearance a bout 1 700, t he s hape o f t he b owl d oes n ot f it a ny Dutch p ipe

f orm

( known

t o

t he

w riter)

o f

t he

1 8th

c entury .

T he

p oor q uality

o f t he c lay and r elatively i nferior f inishing s uggests a date i n t he s econd

h alf

o f

F IG. I V-D o f

t his

t he

1 9th c entury .

-N o.2152

b owl

was

e ncircling

t he

s tem

f inishing

a re

f ine.

G ouda,

H olland

i n

-N 4-El-L8 :

impressed

T he

w ere molded.

T he

T he " crowned

1 733.

I t

" crowned

a fter molding

5 1" t he

mark

o n

l eaves

q uality o f t he c lay,

5 1"

c hanged

but

mark

was

f irst

ownership s everal

t he

a nd

b ack l ines

molding

a nd

r egistered

i n

t imes a nd

a t

l east f our s tyles o f t he mark were u sed t hroughout i ts manufacture ( Helbers, 1 942). T he o ne most c losely r esembling t he P usey p ipe was t hat 1 881.

o f

t he l ast owner , E stimated d ate:

J an P rince & C o . 1 835-1881.

2 11

which w ent

o ut

o f

b usiness

i n

F LUTED P IPES Approximately 1 75 f luted b owls o r f ragments o f f luted b owls a nd s tems were r ecovered f rom t he P usey H ouse e xcavation . These were d etermined i n

t o b e o f

t welve

t ypes a nd u ndoubtedly t he most

p opular s tyle

t he c ollection. S ome

p ipe

a uthorities

appearance c . manufactured p ipes,

i n

1 2 mm.

1 966

b ut

f luted

mm.

f rom

w ith a r eed

p resumably a re

p ipes

s tated

t hey

h e d oes n ot mention w here .

h igh a nd 3 1

s hank ( to b e u sed 1 962 a nd

maintain

1 770 a nd Omwake ( notes)

f ront

f irst

made

t heir

were

s till

b eing

V ery s mall

o f b owl

t o

t he

f luted

end

o f

t he

s tem) were s old i n S ao P aulo, B razil i n

s till

a vailable

t here .

O ne

i n

t his

r eporter 's

c ollection i s o f white c lay, u nglazed, a nd molded w ith r udimentary f lutes, a g ift o f I .J . K appes who p urchased i t t here . A nother o ne f rom t he

s ame a rea a nd

c ollected

a lso b y K appes

i s o f r ed

b rown g lazed c lay,

3 1 mm. h igh and 4 8 mm. l ong.

I t i s t he s ame b asic s hape a s t he white

o ne

b ut

w ith

t he

c lay.

a pparently

A lthough

many

h and

made

f luted

b owls

b y n early a ll

e volved

p ost

p ipemakers i n

1 760

f or

f luting

h ave b een

( correspondence) w rites " one c an 't u sed

t he

o btained

r ecovered

s ay much a bout t he

D uMonceau

b y

i mpressing

i n E ngland,

t hem

f or

t he

O swald

t ype

w as

1 9th c entury a lthough i t must h ave

f igures

o ne

i n

h is

work

o f

1 770".

Walker ( correspondence) writes " Close d ating i s most d ifficult a s s ome o f t his t ype o f decoration c ould have b een p roduced by many makers c overing a c onsiderable o f t he 1 9th c entury".

i n

t ime

p eriod.

F luted

b owls

s eem

t o

b e

t ypical

A lthough t hey a re f ound a long t he U .S . e astern s eaboard, i nland a nd C anada, r elatively l ittle h as b een p ublished a bout t hem. E uropean

p ipe

l iterature d oes n ot d irect o ur a ttention t o

c omprehensive d egree . S tates

i s

What

s cattered

D ocumentary

e vidence

p recise d ating

i s

F ifty f luted

with o n

t o b e b owls,

h as

b een

f ew

a l arge

t reated

p ublished

t he

f luted

t ype

t o

a ny

b oth

a broad

a nd

i n

t he

descriptions

or

s cale

t his

e scapes

i llustrations. r eporter

s o

a

w ith c aution.

o r 2 9% w ere e xcavated

f rom

t he c ellar

f ill .

A n

a dditional t wenty-five s imilarly marked b owls c ame f rom N 4-El, N 4-E2, N 3-E1 and N 3-E2, t he a reas outside t he h ouse r eported t o b e a t rash p it. t he

I t

t herefore

s eems

s ame a rea r eported R ecalling

t hat

l ikely

t o b e

t he

t hat

t he

p ipes

i n

t he c ellar c ame

t he TD-marked

p ipe

t ype N o.8 a lso

c ame

c ellar, f irst 2 ' w ith a n e stimated d ate o f c . 1 850-1875 and f rom

t he

s everal

s ame

f luted

appear t hat w hich w as T YPE

a rea,

" below

s pecimens

3 '10"

w ith

a d ate

p ossibly d ating a s

t he d ebris deposited

u sed

f rom

t rash p it.

o f

c .

l ate a s

f rom

1 750-1780, 1 900,

t he

t ype N o.9 i t

a nd

would

i n t he c ellar c ame f rom a t rash p it

f or w ell o ver 1 00 y ears.

I ( Fig. V )

A medium-size b owl n early u pright

o n t he

s tem.

T he u pper h alf o f b owl i s p lain . " The h alfway f luting s eems c ommoner on N ew World e xamples t han h ere ( England), a lthough i t does o ccur". ( Oswald b road

-c orrespondence) .

a nd

n arrow f lutes

T he

l ower

h alf

i s

f lowing g ently a round

2 12

f luted t he

w ith

t op a nd

a lternatinc,

b ottom o f t he

p oint o f j uncture o f b owl a nd s tem. F lutes t erminate a t t he f irst o f f our p arallel r aised r idges which e ncircle t he s tem. The r im o f t he b owl i s n ot p arallel w ith t he s tem. S ome o f t he T ype I b owls ( there a re twenty i n t he c ollection) o ccur w ithout a s pur . Omwake ( notes) mentions

t hat

v ery s imilar

p ipes

b ut

w ith a m ore

p ronounced

s pur w ere

r ecovered a t t he J ohn D eere s ite 1 837-1847 a nd a duplicate c ame f rom t he R ussel F arm, L ewes, D elaware c . 1 850 t o p resent . A nother c ame f rom a long t he L ewes-Rehoboth C anal, S ussex C ounty , D elaware . H is s uggested d ate f or T ype I p ipes i s 1 825-1875. T YPE I I ( Fig. V ) F luting c overs o nly a l ittle more t han 1 /3 o f t his t hin b owl which i s s lightly b ulbous. A r ecognizable s pur s its b eneath t he b owl a t t he b owl-stem j uncture. R ear mold mark s hows " crimping" . T he b owl i s 1 /8th" s horter t han T ype I . T hin l ine f lutes f low onto t he s tem t erminating i n f our molded l ines e ncircling i t. R aised d ots a re molded b etween t he s econd a nd t hird l ines . T he r im o f t he b owl a lmost p arallels t he s tem. B road f lutes b ecome p rogressively n arrower a s t hey f low t oward t he b ase o f t he b owl a nd e xtend o nto t he s tem. The

t ype

I I

p ipe

i s

D utch

a s

a re

t ypes

II, I

V ,

a nd

V I,

q .v.

D iagnostic t raits o f Dutch p ipes i nclude s everal o r a ll o f t he f ollowing: 1 -T he b owl w all i s t hin ; 2 -t he c lay f ine ; 3 -the c lay i s o ften a s lightly c reamy c olor ; 4 -h and a pplied d elicate r ouletting a round t he r im o f t he b owl ; 5 -u ndecorated p ortion b urnished ( Walker c orrespondence) ; 6 - c ircular s triations s ometimes c an b e s een o n t he i nside o f t he b owl. N ote: T hese a re c aused b y t he t urning b y h and o f t he s topper ( used t o f orce e xcess c lay f rom t he mold); t he English a pparently r emoved t his e xcess m echanically w ith a n i n-and-out m ovement o f t he s topper, t hus c ausing v erticle s triations ( Walker , 1 971) ; 7 -O n s ome D utch e xamples, t he c ircular s triations a re n ot v isible b ut e vidence o f t he t urning s topper i s a pparent b y t he h orizontally e lliptic s hape o f t he v oids i n t he b owl i nterior wall c aused b y a n i nsufficient a mount o f c lay i n t he m old. T he P usey i llustrated e xample, t raits e xcept N o.4 a nd N o.7.

t ype

I, I

e xhibits

a ll

o f

t he

a bove

" Very s imilar i f n ot e xact d uplicates w ere f ound a t t he J ohn D eere s ite a nd a long C anary C reek , S ussex C ounty , D elaware w ith d ates r anging f rom

1 837

t o 1 847 .

A lso,

s imilar b owls

w ere e xcavated

f rom

a n I ndian

r efuse p it, Avon, N ew Y ork ( a S eneca r eservation which e xisted u ntil 1 820 w ith a f ew s tragglers r emaining t hereafter" ( Omwake, n otes). S uggested d ate c .

1 800-1850.

T YPE I II ( Fig. V ) f inished p ipe f ragment 1 /4"

t aller a nd

t he

T he b owl f orm o f t his c arefully molded a nd i s s omewhat s imilar t o t ype I I b ut t he b owl i s

s pur m ore p rominent w ith a w ell f ormed a nd t rimmed

f lat b ase. A lternating b road f lutes a pproximately h alfway d own f rom t he r im, s tem

j uncture a t

t he

f irst

o f

f our

r aised

and t hin l ines f low f rom t erminating b eyond t he b owlr idges

e ncircling

t he

s tem .

T here a re n o d ots b etween t he s econd a nd t hird r idges a s o n t ype I I. T he r im i s p arallel w ith t he s tem.

2 13

F LUTED P IPES

1 8251875

I 1 820

-1 850

1 1 1 800-1850

I v 1 8001850

1 8261850

F ig.

V

F luted P ipes

LTA ., 4 / 1251/7

( I -V I)

C ) 1 1

t ype

T his i s a nother D utch p ipe w ith a ll o f t he t raits m entioned I I s ubdivision o f t his c hapter e xcept N o .3 a nd N o .7 .

i n t he

T ype I II b owls a re d uplicated a t F ort M acKinac S uttler 's s tore ( Omwake -notes) . D ate: c .1820-50 b ut p ossibly a s l ate a s 1 900 ( Oswald -correspondence). T YPE

I V

( Fig. V )

L ower

p ortion o f a mutilated

s mall b owl w ith

a pproximately o ne-third o f t he b ottom p art f luted. F lutes a re n ot a s b road a s t ypes I , I I, a nd I II a nd w ithout n arrow l ines b etween t he f lutes . T he b owl p robably f ormed a n o btuse a ngle w ith t he missing s tem. P resence o f a s pur i ndeterminate. T he s mall s ize o f t he b owl s uggests i t might h ave b een c ontemporary w ith t ype I I . S imilar t ype o f b owl, a s urface f ind, w as f ound a t a f armhouse n ear F ort L igonier b uilt i n t he l ate 1 8th c entury a nd d estroyed 1 940 ( Omwake -notes). E stimated d ate:

c .1800-1850.

T YPE V ( Fig. V ) B asically t he s ame s hape a s t ype V I but t he b owl l onger a nd a t a s lightly l ess o btuse a ngle t han t ype I V . T here i s a h and a pplied i ncuse l ine a t t he r im ( as o pposed t o r ouletting). N o a lternating t hin l ines were molded b etween t he f lutes. T he s pur i s l arger t han a ll o thers i n t he f luted b owl c ollection . F ourteen f lutes f low o nto t he s tem a bove t he s pur, a re c loser t ogether a nd more p ronounced t han t he t welve o n t ype I V . M old marks w ere r emoved a bove t he f lutes i n f inishing . A lthough t he w alls a re s lightly t hicker t han t he t ype I I and t ype I II e xamples i llustrated, t his a lso i s aD utch p ipe and h as t he d iagnostic t raits s et o ut i n t he s ection o n t he t ype I I p ipe e xcept t he r ouletting i s r eplaced w ith t he i ncuse l ine mentioned a bove . A s imilar l ong b owl p ipe was r ecovered a t K ipp 's P ost, N .D . dated a t c . 1 826-1850. A lso, c omparable b owls w ere r ecovered f rom M ilitary a nd t rading p ost s ites i n t he M issouri R iver V alley d ateable c . 1 826 t o 1 850 b ut b ased o n O swald ( correspondence) i t c ould b e a s l ate a s 1 900. T YPE V I ( Fig. V ) S ame s ize b owl a s t ype V but w ith o nly twelve f lutes. The f lutes a t t he mold marks were p artially s moothed i n f inishing a nd o nly t he v estiges o f t he marks r emain i n t he a rea a bove t he f lutes w hich e xtend l ess t han h alfway u p t he b owl . T he r im o f t he b owl i s p arallel t o t he s tem, t he s pur i s s lightly s maller, t he f lutes n arrower a nd t he i nterstices b etween t hem b roader t han o n t he t ype V p ipe. R ouletting a ppears a t t he r im o f t his s pecimen which i s c arefully molded a nd f inished w ith t he e xception o f t he n oticeably s maller s pur. T his i s a lso o f D utch o rigin a nd p ossibly c ontemporary w ith t ype V a nd o f c omparable d ate . I t h as a ll o f t he D utch p ipe t raits mentioned p reviously. T YPE V II ( Fig. V I) A s lightly o btuse b owl, c arelessly molded a nd f inished . Twelve b road f lutes a lternate w ith r aised t hin l ines s ome o f which a re b arely d iscernible. F lutes a nd t hin l ines d o n ot c urve a round t he b ase o nto t he s tem b ut s top a head o f a s mall f lat b ased s pur which i s f orward o f t he b owl-stem j uncture. An a scending c onventionalized o ak l eaf p attern, p artially e rased during f inishing

2 15

F LUTED P I PES

V II I

1 7801825

I X 1 8501900

XII 2

9 1' 11 ,1 77

F ig.

V I

F luted P ipes

( VII -X II)

2 16

r uns

a long

b oth

t he

f ront a nd

b ack mold

a lmost p arallel t o t he s tem . o f t ypes I , I I a nd I II.

T his

E lsewhere i n t his r eport a ppear

u ntil c .

1 770 and

i t

t he

marks.

e xample

w as s tated

l eaf

T he

may

r im

h ave

o f

b een

t he b owl

i s

a f orerunner

t hat f luted p ipes d id n ot

p attern decoration o n mold

marks

f irst o ccur a bout t he b eginning o f t he 1 9th c entury. T hese c riteria b eing v alid, a c ase c an b e made f or d ating t ype V II p ipes c . 1 780-1825 . T YPE n arrow t he

V III

( Fig. V I)

f lutes .

T he

A l arge,

f lutes

s tart

r econstructed

a pproximately

f ront o f t he b owl a nd d escend

p arallel

f irst

t o

t he

s even t ypes

s tem.

i n d ating s ize

and

( notes)

The b owl

o ffers

t he

t ype V III p ipes: e xhibiting

i s

a t

s hipwreck o ff

t he

c oast

r im

f luting

f or

S t. a nd

b y

t he

M arks R iver, a bandoned

i n

T he w riter

s ame

F lorida,

f luting, a t

t he

b owls o f t he s ame s hape a nd

N ew B runswick ,

s ize

a nd

s hape

s ite o f M agnolia,

o ne

f rom

C anada,

s aid

i s

i nclined

T YPE I X ( Fig. V I)

i n

w as

Fort b owl

r ecovered

a t own b uilt

a t o

f rom

i n 1 829

1 844" . t o d ate

t his e xample c .

T here might

b e

s ome

t he d esign o n

t he

1 780-1825.

q uestion a s

s pecimen o f delicate o rnamentation a nd t hin c lassified a s a f luted t ype b ecause o f t he i ncorporated

and

c onsideration

h ave b een r eported,

o f D eer I sland,

angle

l ook.

i nformation

" Two s purred

o btuse

have sunk s ometime bet ween 1 780-1790 and another f rom P enetangheshine, O ntario, C anada c . 1 829-1856. A s purred c haracterized

a t

T he r im o f t he b owl i s

a s lightly

f ollowing

s imilar

t he

They a re t hinner t han

i llustrated.

a ppears t o b e o verbalanced w ith a f orward-leaning Omwake

b elow

t o 6 mm. a t t he b ack, f ading o ut a t

t he p oint where t he b owl f lows onto t he s tem. t hose o n t he

b owl h aving n ineteen

2 mm.

s ide o f

t he

t o

whether

t his

s ide wall s hould b e a dditional e lements

b owl.

I t

i s

i ncluded

a s

s uch b ecause i t d oes, i n f act c arry a c entral mold mark i n t he f orm o f a p ronounced f lute o n e ither s ide o f w hich a re f our a lternating f lutes, two d epressed delicate

and

r aised

two

r aised.

l ines i n

t he

The d epressed

i mpression t hat t he c enter h as b een s cooped f lute.

f lutes

s hape o f a l oop a t

t he

out -a

a re

t op,

f ormed g iving

s ort o f

b y t he

i nverse

T he l eft s ide, a nd p resumably t he r ight s ide o f t he b owl, h as

a n o rnamentation i n r elief which c onsists of a l eafed b ranch t erminating i n a f lower a nd a rching u pwards f rom t he b ase o f t he b owl. T oward t he l eft c enter o f t he b owl i s a f igure which a ppears t o b e a l ong-legged

s hore

( notes)

t he w riter k nows o f n o

T he

a nd

a pparent

mold-making h alf o f

b ird.

l arge

s uggests

T his

s ize

t ype o f d ecoration w as u nknown

o f

a l ate

t o O mwake

p reviously r eported d uplicate.

t he

b owl

d ate,

a nd

p erhaps

t he a dvanced s ometime

t echnology o f

d uring

t he

s econd

t he n ineteenth c entury.

T YPE X ( Fig. V I) A medium-sized p ipe o f i nferior c lay, t he b owl s lightly o btuse and t he r im a lmost p arallel w ith t he s tem. A very small,

c arelessly

t rimmed

s pur

s its

u nder

t he b owl-s:em

i unctur2.

F ourteen n arrow f lutes e xtend f rom 5 mm. t o 8 mm. b elow t he r im d own a nd

c urving

o nto

t he

s tem

a t

t hose o n t ypes V II a nd V III .

t he

p oint a bove

L eaves

2 17

w ere

t he

s pur,

o riginally o n

f ading

o ut

t he mold

l ike marks

b ut w ere a lmost o bliterated i n t he f inishing p rocess.

Avery n arrow

d epressed b and c ompletely s urrounds t he b owl a t t he r im a s i f i t h ad n ot

b een

t rimmed

O swald

c arefully.

( correspondence)

s imilar s ize a nd B oston, b owl,

E ngland

p resence

T YPE X I

i n o f

c areless m olding

s ixteen

s hape but

i llustrates

a c ontext l eaf

a f luted

w ithout a s pur,

marks

p ost a t

1 861.

t he

T he

mold

s ize

l ines,

s uggests a t entative d ate o f c .

( Fig. V I)

A l arger b owl

a nd

f lutes a re n arrow a nd e xtend

b owl

r ecovered

more

o f

s omewhat

f rom a k iln a t

a nd

s hape

i nferior

o f

t he

c lay

a nd

1 860-1900.

o btuse

t han

t ype

X .

f rom s lightly b elow t he r im

T he

t o t he

b owl-stem j uncture where t hey f ade out o ver a s mall u ntrimmed s pur. T he o void s hape, a s v iewed l ooking i nto t he b owl, d istinguishes t his f rom o f

a ll o ther P usey H ouse

t he A t

t ime

c lay a nd

f inishing

p resent,

r eference .

f luted

p ipes,

which a re

r ound.

T he

q uality

a re r elatively p oor.

l ittle c an b e o ffered H owever,

t he

i n

a ngle o f t he

i dentifying l ip o f

t his

t he b owl

t ype

i n a

i n r elation

t o t he s tem suggests i t might h ave b een manufactured a fter 1 820 a t which t ime t he a ngle o f t he b owl i n r elation t o t he s tem a pparently b ecame p opular a gain a fter a h iatus o f a lmost a hundred y ears during which

t ime

( Oswald,

t he

1 955,

r im

o f

p .249).

T YPE X II F ig. V I)

t he

b owl

a nd

l ine

T entative d ate c . A s mall

f ragment

o f

t he

s tem

w ere

p arallel

1 820-1870. o f

a f luted

b owl

w ith

u nusual

dotted l ines s urrounding t he f lutes. The s pecimen i s n ot c omplete e nough t o o ffer s ufficient d iagnostic t raits t o d ate i t. T his u nusual t reatment o f f luting i s i llustrated

w ith t he h ope t hat r eaders, who

h ave r ecovered

c omplete b owls w ith s imilar markings,

c ontexts,

w ill

s hed

s ome l ight o n i t.

X III

( not

i llustrated)

T YPE t he

s tem,

A s mall,

t erminating

u ntrimmed

s pur

i n

s its

t hree

r aised

u nder

t he

i ts f orm i s t ypical o f f luted p ipes, i t s tub-stemmed p roducts o f t he P amplin, p ipemakers

wmth

o nly f luted

i ts

g ritty ,

p ipe o f i ts

k ind

t an-gray k nown

t o

t hin l ines

k iln

N OTE:

i n a c ontext o f c .

T he

t ype

a n i ndication o f t he

I b owls

t he

p eriod 1 825-1875.

1 800

w hich

b owl-stem

t he

j uncture .

f low s tem.

A lthough

p arallels s ome o f t he u nglazed V irginia, a nd Mogodore, Ohio

c lay c haracteristics.

I t

i s

t he

t his r eporter.

( Oswald,

r epresent

p opularity o f

a ll o f

r idges e ncircling

A s imilarly s haped d imunuative b owl w as r ecovered E ngland

i n d ated

A p ortion o f a v ery s mall b owl a nd

s tem w ith n ine f lutes a nd n ine a lternating o nto

a nd f ound

t his

4 9%

f rom a G uildford,

c orrespondence).

o f a ll

s tyle a t

t he

f luted

s pecimens,

t he P usey H ouse d uring

A REAS F ROM W HICH T HE R EPRESENTATIVE T YPES W ERE R ECOVERED A ND R ESPECTIVE C ATALOG N UMBERS O F I LLUSTRATED E XAMPLES T YPE

C ATALOG N UMBER

A REA W HERE R ECOVERED

I I I

1 02 3 35

E ast C ellar a bove 3 ' W ell

I II

1 21

E ast

I V V

1 61 1 65,170,349

E ast C ellar a bove 3 ' 1 65 a nd 1 70 -E ast C ellar a bove 3 '

( reconstructed)

3 49 -C ellar,

V I

5 18

D-7 W est

V II

8 0

E ast

V III

1 07,124,361

1 07

-B -3,

( reconstructed)

3 ',

3 61

C ellar 3 '

C ellar a bove 3 '

B -3,

f irst

3 rd

l evel

1 24

-E ast

-C ellar,

C ellar

f irst

I X

3 02

X

1 055

5 '-7' OB 1

X I

1 276

N 3-E1

X II

7 64

D -6 E ast

X III

3 38

N o l ocation g iven

3 rd

2 '

a bove

2 '

l evel i st

f ir.

D ECORATED S TEMS Although b owls u sually o ffer more d iagnostic t raits, s tems a lso p lay a u seful p art. This i s p articularly t rue with decorated s tems which , w ith s ome f requency , c arry t he n ame o f t he maker, h is i nitials, t he

l ocation ( town o r

s ymbol

o r,

r arely,

c ountry ) a date.

where T his

t hey

w ere

c hapter

made,

s ome

w ill d iscuss

r anging i n date f rom c . 1 700 t o t he e arly 20th c entury . r egarding

e ach f rggment a re p receded

r eferring t o i ts i llustration . a ssigned V II a nd

t o

i t

F ig.

s tem

a rchaeological

A & B -N o.852 f ragments.

" A "

s tems,

The c omments

b y a f igure number a nd

l etter

This i s f ollowed by a c atalog number

V III a re 2 /1 e xcept

F ig. V II, s imilar

b y t he

i dentifying s uch

F ig.

and

i s

t eams .

T he

I llustrations o n F ig.

V IIIK w hich i s 1 /1.

No.1656:

e ncircled

T hese

w ith

f our

a re

two

s omewhat

c ontinuous

l ines

o f

dots, each within a c ircle, a nd two s ets o f p arallel r ouletting a lso e ncircling

t he

diamonds. c ertain t wo

s tem.

" B" i s

s imilarly o rnamented

B ristol

p ipemakers

s uch

W illiam E vanses ( 1660-1697)

b old

i n d esign ,

c opied

b ut

w ith d ots

w ithin

T he t ype o f decoration i s r eminiscent of t hat employed b y

f rom

t hus

t he

o ffering

B ristol

a s

L luellin

a lthough

t he

E vans

s uggestion

f orms.

T his

s trengthened b y Walker 's o bservation t hat

( 1661-1688)

a nd

t he

t he P usey e xamples a re n ot a s t hey a re D utch -possibly

a ssociative

r eference

t he D utch p roduced

p ipes

i s

w ith

s imilar e lements o f d ecoration b ut a rranged d ifferently ( Walker 1 971, F igs . 2 9 a nd 4 0 -t he f irst i n a c ontext o f c . 1 716-1749/50, t he s econd 1 720-1732.) S tems

B ore o f b oth s tems -6/64".

s imilar

t o

" A "

w ere

e xcavated

a t

t he

Angelica

K noll

s ite

o f

P lums P oint, C alvert C ounty, M aryland, t hought t o h ave b een s ettled b y ag roup o f V irginia S eparatists i n 1 649-1650 a nd k nown t o h ave r emaia d i n t he s tems

s ame f amily f rom a bout 1 700 t o 1 957 ( Omwake -n otes). w ith s imilar g eometric d esigns

w ere r ecovered a t

t he

S t .

O ther F rancis

X avier I V s ite a t C aughnawago, o pposite M ontreal, o ccupied f rom 1 6961 710 ( Omwake -n otes quoting Hury, 1 957). Twelve duplicates were

2 19

A

1 700 - 1 725

7 1

L f r O C2 h

4 k 4 h i l lu t iü c . 1 900

E c .1 846

D c .1 850

D ECORATED S TEMS F ig.

V II

Decorated S tems

( A — F )

20 2

1 . 7 rf i ,

e xcavated

f rom

v arious

l ocations

a t

t he

P usey H ouse.

" A "

a nd

" B"

w ere

p robably made by t he s ame f irm. S uggested date c . 1 700-1725 . d iameter o f a ll e ight s tems w ith t his d ecoration -6/64". S hortly a fter 1 850, S cotland,

t he English

p ipe

i ndustry declined

B ore

r apidly.

h owever, b ecame a n i mportant e xporter w ith G lasgow t he c enter

o f d istribution

t o

s ome o f

t he

f ar c orners o f

t he

w orld ( Walker,

1 971).

G lasgow s tem markings f requently s how t he f irm n ame o n one s ide a nd " Glasgow" o n t he o ther. S uch i s t he c ase o f a ll t he S cottish p ipes f rom

t he P usey H ouse. P erhaps

1 826-1904 , Thomas

t he

b est

W illiam

k nown k ilns o f G lasgow were A lexander C oghil,

White ,

D avidson,

J r.

1 805-1955 ,

( Successor

D uncan t o

M cDougall,

W illiam

1 946-1967,

Murray,

a nd

1 830-1861).

D avidson was s till i n p roduction a s l ate a s 1 910 ( Walker, 1 975). P roducts o f t he l ast t hree p ipemakers w ere f ound a t t he P usey H ouse. F ig. V II C N o .1585 :

A s tem

f ragment

f rom

t he

W illiam

White

k iln .

Impressed o n one s ide i s " A79" ( the f irm's c atalog n umber) a nd " W. WH---" . O n t he r everse s ide " ---SGOW" . P resumably t he e ntire l egend would r ead " A79 W .White" a nd o n t he r everse, " GLASGOW". T here i s n o b owl, h eel o r s pur t o a id i n d ating t his s pecimen b ut a 1 900 p rice l ist o f

S cottish-made

p resumably, F ig.

p ipes

VII

D ,E,F,

McDougall

p roducts,

F irm

i s

n ame a id

" D" :

T he

No.104-c,

a ll

t hree

p resent

t hem.

M cDougall

s pur.

McDougall

N o.50

c ontemporary . on

o n

t he

t ype 7 3

( Walker 1 977)

i n

No.113:

s tyle

These

a nd

s tems -a

s ize

o f

p ractice

( Oswald -c orrespondence)

N ames

molded

s o,

1 900.

on s tems

a re

t hree

l ettering.

f ollowed a nd

f irst

f rom

t herefore

made

t heir

1 800.

p rominent

numbers

No.1975,

i n dating

a ppearance c .

a WHITE

p ipe m ight a lso d ate c .

e ach d iffering

i mpressed

t he 1 7th c entury t o o f n o

i ncludes

t he A 79 c ataloged

The a nd

c atalog

1 900 i t

i s

H owever,

h is

p ipes

c onsiderably e arlier

n umber 3 2

p rice

l ist

i s

molded

mentioned

r easonable

t o

o n t he

a ssume N o.32 s tem

t he date McDougall s tarted

i s

u nknown

t han N o.50 .

t o

T he

t his " D"

s ide o f t he

p reviously

r eporter

s tem

i s

s hows w ould

p lacing a nd

a b e

c atalog

N o.32

may b e

n oticeably h eavier ( a

d iagnostic t rait) t han " E" a nd " F" a nd s hould b e o lder. T he c oarser quality and l arger s tem s upport a date e arlier t han " F" which c an b e d ated

t o 1 865-1868

l E" : s tem

( see b elow).

T here a re n o d iagnostic

t raits

1 850.

B ore 4 /64".

t o u se a s a guide

t o d ate

t his

o ther t han t he p oor q uality o f f inishing which s uggests i t may

h ave b een made a round c .

E stimated d ate c .

1 846.

" F" : f inished

B ore:

t he

t ime

M cDougall

s tarted

p roducing

p ipes,

i .e"

5 /64".

T his s purred s tem i s u ncharacteristically w ell-polished f or a M cDougall p roduct . T he t rimming o f t he mold ' Ines

care : Lally

e xecuted.

T he

f irm

n ame

a nd

" Glasgow"

o n

t he

s tem

a nd ; w ai, a re

smaller t han t he o ther two McDougall e xamples and s tamped with p racticed s kill. S imilar s pecimens were e xcavated f rom t he s ite o f F ort

C onnor,

1 865-1868

7 0 miles n orth o f

Uhrwake -notes).

C asper,

B ore:

4 /64".

21 2

Wyoming

and

c an b e d ated

t o

4: 4 1 D C

K

0 1 2 . , :

• 1 . e i le g.

1 86 1-1900

1 8751900 2

D ECORATED n o. V III

D ecorated S tems

S TEMS

( A -J )

2 22

1 . 77 A .

F ig. V III o f

t he

n ame

d ifference

A ,B,C a re

i n

-N o.328,

r epresented

s tyle

No.751, o n

No.1476:

T hree d istinct s tyles

t hese

D avidson

s tems.

i ndicates d ifferent

s tages o f

t he

Whether

f irm 's

t he

p roduction

o r r eflects t he desire f or change o r i mprovement i s c onjectural. " A "

a nd

" B"

t he

n ame

w as

i mpressed

b efore

f iring

w hereas

o n " C"

On

i t

w as

molded which, a s mentioned p reviously, i ndicates i t w ould d ate a fter c . 1 800 . I nasmuch a s D avidson d id n ot t ake o ver t he b usiness f rom M urray u ntil

a round

1 861,

a ll

t hree o f

t hese

p ipe

t ransfer o f t he b usiness.

P robably a ll

during t he s econd h alf 5 /64"; " C" -6/64".

t he

o f

F ig. V III D -N o .658 : s ide and " ---IL 1 8, c onclusion t hat " APRIL

1 8,

A s hort

s tem

o n

l egends r ead t he

p ost-date

s tems date

c entury.

B ores:

f ragment

1 875" on t he o ther

t he

1 875"

1 9th

f ragments

t hree

s ide.

t he

s omewhere

" A"

a nd

" B"

-

w ith " PROCLAIM" o n o ne

R easoning

l eads

t o

t he

" PROCLAIM L IBERTY" o n one s ide a nd

o ther.

The

f irst

a rmed

c onflict

o f

t he

R evolution t ook p lace a t Lexington,

Massachusetts on A pril 1 8 o r 1 9

( sources a re n ot i n a greement) 1 775.

P roclaim L iberty was a p opular

s logan a t

t he t ime a nd

a nd d istributed i n 1 875 b attle o f L exington. F ig. V III t he

o bverse

p opularly

i t i s s uggested

B ore:

5 /64".

E -N o.636: and

k nown

S tem

" PHILADA" a s

t he

t his s tem was made i n t he U .S .

t o c ommemorate t he 1 00th a nniversary o f t he

f ragment w ith

( sic)

K eystone

o n

t he

S tate

-K EYSTONE"

r everse.

b ecause

o f

i mpressed o n

P ennsylvania

i ts

c entral

i s

p osition

among t he o riginal 1 3 c olonies. " PHILADA" i s e ither t he r esult o f P s cribal e rror o r t he a bbreviated s pelling f or P hiladelphia a t t he t ime t he

p ipe

was

made,

p robably

t he

l atter

b ecause

t he

s ame

s pelling

a ppears o n a nother s tem ( No.441 -n ot i llustrated) b ut i mpressed w ith a d ifferent s tamp . The s econd s pecimen, h owever, h as " PHILADA" o n t he o bverse a nd " KE TONE" o n t he r everse. T he q ualiLy o f f inishing am . . s tamping

o n

t he

i llustrated

e xample

i s

s uperior

t o

t he

o ther

s tem

s uggesting i t i s o f s lightly l ater d ate. S o f ar, t his r eporter h as n ot b een a ble t o d etermine when K eystone w as a dopted a s t he n ickname f or P ennsylvania.

S uch a d ate

w ould

o bviously f urnish a c lue

t o

t he a ge o f

t hese two s tem f ragments . I n t he meantime, i t i s t entatively s uggested t hey b oth f all i nto t he p eriod 1800-1850 with N o.636 t he n ewer o f t he t wo .

O f

n arrower

i nterest i s s tem

b ore o f 5 /64"

t he

o bversation

w ith a b ore o f 4 /64"

t hat

t he

c ompared

i llustrated

e xample

i s

a

w ith a b roader s tem w ith a

o n t he o ther o ne.

N o .96 ( not i llustrated) : A r elatively t hin s tem f ragment e ncircled b y wide p anels ( 4 mm.) f ormed by r aised r idges. One p anel b ears t he l egend " BIRCHAM F OR P AIN".

T he o ther p anel c arries t he f igures o f a

r abbit, dog, b ird, a nd what appears t o b e a donkey. " I"

o f

" PAIN"

i s

b y t wo a dditional

t he

l etter

" D",

which d efies

B elow t he " A" a nd

i nterpretation,

f ollowed

i ndefinite c haracters.

T he c ustom o f p lacing a dvertising s logans on p ipe s tems s eems t o h ave b een p opular f or twenty t o t hirty y ears, s tarting a round 1 860. E xamples which may b e c ited i nclude " A P ublic O ffice i s A P ublic T rust", a s logan e mployed b y G rover C leveland during h is p residential c ampaigns o f 1 884, 1 888 a nd 1 892 a nd o ccuring o n a p ipe s tem e xcavated f rom t he s ite o f t he " Seven Mile H ouse", a t avern which e xisted u ntil 1 890

on

t he

r oad

f rom

A lbany

t o

2 23

S chnectedy,

N .Y .

Another

was

" Try

.Lorillard's Tobacco", which was featured on a pipe stem recovered from the site of Fort Fetterman near Douglas, Wyoming, dated 1863-1882 (Omwake - notes). Suggested dating - second half of the 19th century. Bore: 4/64" . Fig. VIII F - No.1015: A short stem fragment impressed with RICH TYLER under which is a hand or perhaps a gauntlet, all within a circle. R ichard Tyler is listed as a pipemaker at Bath, Somerset, England c. 1700 (Oswald 1975). Although he is not shown as an exporter, Bath is only approximately 10 miles from Bristol, an important pipe exporting city, so it requires little imagination to understand how it found its way to the U. S. sometime shortly after 1700. Bore: 5/64" . Fig. VIII G No.175: This stem fragment bears a portion of a mark: "S. Orne- Depose" on two lines. The complete mark probably read "L. Fiolet a St. Omer Depose" on three lines. The illustrated mark is one of several variations of this famous nineteenth century French pipemaker. Fiolet's products are found in many areas of North America and Africa (Walker 1975). The firm was in business from at least the middle of the eighteenth century to 1921 (Oswald 1975). Two variations of the mark are illust rated by Walker (1971 Plate 6). One Walker example shows a grave accent over "a" and accute accents over the letters "e" in Depose. These accents are missing on the Pusey stem. The other Walker example reads "L.· Fiolet St. Omer FRANC E" on three lines. The quality of workmanship and finish suggest that it would not be out of place in a late 19th century context (Omwake - notes) . No.221 (not i llustrated): A bit end of pipe stem coated with a brown glaze, probably varnish. Glazed or waxed bit ends were so treated to prevent the smoker's lips from sticking to the pipe. The fact that this is the only glazed stem, out of nearly two thousand excavated stems demonstrates the practice of coating the ends was not common. One wonders why this apparent eighteenth-century innovation (Noel Hume 1970 ) was not used earlier and more frequently. Date uncertain. Bore 4/64". No.1426 (not illustrated): Small fragment of stem and bowl with a heel on the bottom of which is molded a star over an animal (donkey?). The quality of finishing and style of mark are in the Dutch tradition of the 18th century . Bore: 6/64" . Fig. VIII H & J - No.169 , No.2126: Small fragments of two reed­ stem pipes. The term "reed-stem" derives from the form of the pipe which has a short shank formed to accommodate a hollow reed which acts as a stem. Once seen, its distinctive style is readily recognized. It is generally accepted that this form of pipe originated in the vicinity of Pamplin, Virginia as a home-industry product which was "well un derway by the l 740's", (Hamil ton Hamilton, 1972) a!.1.d continued until sometime around 1953. This form was easily manufactured, quite popular and copied by firms at Mogodore Ohio, Bethabara, North Carolina and Pamplin, Virginia. The oldest factory to produce pipes of this shape was possibly at Bethabara in 1775 followeq by factories at Mogodore and Pamplin. The literature is not clear which was second but we do know that the Pamplin Smoking Pipe and Manufacturing Company was established about 1878 and closed in 1951 or 1953 (Hamilton & Hamilton,

224

1 972). A ny d iscussion a ppertaining t o r eed-stem p ipes i nfluence G ottfried Aust h ad o n t he i ndustry. a pprenticeship s ailed

f or

a nd

w orked

America

a s

a j ourneyman p otter

S eptember,

1 754,

and

s hould c onsider t he A ust s erved h is

i n H errnhut,

a rrived

i n

G ermany,

t he

Moravian

s ettlement o f B ethlehem, P ennsylvania i n N ovember t he s ame y ear. H e l eft B ethlehem a fter only t en months and went t o B ethabara, N orth C arolina where,

b y D ecember 1 755,

" Br A ugst

( sic) d ug c lay a nd made

p ottery f or which t he p eople were e ager; h e a lso b egan t o make c lay p ipes . A ust p robably b rought a p ress ( from B ethlehem) f or making p ipes w ith h im" ( Bevins, 1 972). I f t he p ipe mold i llustrated b y B evins, which h e a ttributes t o " the e arly p eriod" i s s imilar t o t he " press" r eferred t o a bove, B ethlehem, P ennsylvania must b e c redited a s t he o riginal s ite f or manufactured ( as o pposed t o h ome-industry) r eed-stem p ipes. The question a rises a s t o whether Aust was f amiliar with t he he r amplin h ome-industry p ipes when h e w as i n B ethlehem. I f 30, was t p ress" B evins O r d id

h e

s ays

h e

f abricate

t ook t his

t o

B ethabara

s hape

a fter

T hese q uestions c annot b e r esolved l ight. M old c areful

marks

o n

f inishing

r elatively

e asy

v isible o n

t he

t he

t o

u ntil

h ome-industry

whereas

t hose

t he

d istinguish b etween

p roducts.

U nfortunately,

d etermine

with c ertainty

t o

t he

P amplin

s tyle?

B ethabara i n 1 775?

f urther r esearch i s b rought

p roducts

f rom

two P usey e xamples

s imilar

h e r eached

w ere

f actories t he

t wo.

p recluding

u sually

r emoved

b y

making

i t

w ere n ot, M old

marks

t heir b eing

t o

a re

q uite

h ome-industry

t here i s n ot enough o f e ither f ragment where

t hey

were

made

b ut

o n

t he

t o

p resent

e vidence i t appears t hey c ame f rom Pamplin a nd date s ometime i n t he l ast

q uarter o f F ig. V III

t he 1 9th c entury.

H i s o f r ed

c lay w ith a dark b rown glaze.

b owl f ormed a n a cute angle t o t he s hank . s uggestion

o f

a s alt-glazed

s et a t a n a cute a ngle H amilton, p rominent

1 972.

F ig. V III w ith

t he

An

s welling a t

p ipe

b ore e xtending

K

t o

t he

t reatment.

i ndication

No.766:

c ollection,

L ike

s hank s imilar

t he e nd o f

o f t he

missing

F ig. V III J i s gray t o

s everal

H ,

t he

P late

b owl

1 6-K i n

grooves

with a

p robably

w as

H amilton &

e xtends

o ver

a

s hank.

A lthough t his e nigmatic o bject was p laced i t

i s

n ot

i nto a " mouth" 1 0 mm .

a p ipe . w ide

A t

f irst g lance

s uggests

i ts

8 /64"

i t m ight b e a h older

f or a c heroot. Y et, i ts s hort l ength , 1 8 mm., a nd l ack o f a l ip b elies t his p ossibility . A d rawing o f i t w as s ent t o A . O swald, E sq . f ormerly K eeper o f t he C ity Museum a nd A rt G allery o f B irmingham, E ngland who a dvised i t t o b e a " bird w histle", a l ure o r a t oy a nd t hat h e h ad s een s imilar a rtifacts i n t he A t

h is

s uggestion ,

i nformation . and

Museum o f L ondon .

a l etter

w as

M iss R osemary Weinstein ,

S tuart D epartment -r eplied

w histles " bird

s ent

i n t heir c ollection .

whistle" d erives f rom

a nd

t o

t he Museum

S enior A ssistant e nclosed

O bserving

r equesting more K eeper -T udor

i llustrations o f b ird

t he d rawing

r evealed

t he

n ame

t he s hape o f t he o bject, i .e., a s tylized

b ird, t he b ody f orming t he main p art o f t he whistle and t he f ragment f rom t he P usey H ouse m erely t he t ail w hich a cts a s t he m outhpiece.

2 25

M ISCELLANEOUS P I PES

_

A

-

1 8501875

1 700 1725

1 6801720

c .1 720

L. T. F ig. I X

M iscellaneous P ipes

( A — F )

2 26

M iss W einstein a lso f orwarded a d rawing o f a mouthpiece f ragment which c losely p arallels t he P usey e xample but t he Museum o f L ondon s pecimen a s

i s

n oted

made

i n

mouthpiece a rtifact,

o f

t he

w as

p ipe

f ound

d ate

c lay

w hereas

a rchaeological i n

a 1 520

t he

P usey

t eam's

c ontext -m uch

f or w hich w e h ave n o

s upporting

whistles

t ake d ifferent

e xamples w ere r eally i ntended a s w e h ave n ot a s y et a scertained".

o f m eerschaum, T he

e arly

f or

L ondon

t he

P usey

e vidence. f ollowing

f orms but

l ures,

i s

n otes.

t oo

M iss W einstein c oncludes h er l etter w ith t he " Other b ird

o ne

f ield

i nformation :

whether a ny o f

a s o pposed

t o

t oys,

t hese

I 'm a fraid

M ISCELLANEOUS P IPES F ig . I X A -N o.519 : a nd

u ntrimmed

s purs

s pur .

A l arge,

A s n oted

w ith a t rimmer 's k nife

t hick-walled

e lsewhere, p rior

t o

mold

c .

b owl

w ith

a p ronounced

marks

w ere

r emoved

1 800 .

T herefore

would p ost-date t he t urn o f t he 1 9th c entury.

t his

f rom

s pecimen

The b asic s hape o f " A"

r esembles o ne o f t he s tyles o f A nna ( Anne) V iner o f B ristol, 1 775-1805 ( Walker 1 977). H owever, i t appears t oo bulky f or English p ipes a nd m ore

l ikely i s a p roduct o f I reland w ith a d ate o f c . F ig. I X B -N o.1632 :

A t ypical

" ER" w ithin a c ircle molded a nd a nd

t he

s ame

l etters

i mpressed

" Bristol

e xport"

1 850-1875. s haped

p ipe

with

r aised o n t he r ight s ide o f t he b owl

a fter molding

o n

t he

b ack o f

t he

b owl.

A n u nusually well-made p ipe, c arefully f inished a nd t rimmed. w ere

t hree

t his b owl

B ristol f orm

p ipemakers

s uggests:

w ith

t he

i nitials

E dward R andall I ,

" ER " d uring

1 668-89,

h is

T here

t he

p eriod

s on E dward

R andal I I, 1 699, b oth o f which e xported p ipes ( Oswald 1 975) a nd t hird an E d ward R eed ( Read) 1 706-1723, who i s n ot s hown a s a n e xporter. H ow

e r,

F ig.

2 0-C)

q uarter

t ypologically t he b owl a nd

o f

F ig.

t he

IX

r ecovered. myriad

i s

f orm

f rom

C No.660:

Only

e laborately

s tyles

w ith

t he

i s c loser

h is

e ighteenth c entury .

S uch

o f

p ossibly

B ore :

the

molded

a dvent

k iln .

o f

f orward

marked r esemblance i n t heir d istinctive n oted

t he

p ossibility t hat mold t o

P usey

v arieties

p ipe

i s

one

o f

p reviously r eported.

many

half

made

o f

t heir

s uit

E stimated d ate c .

F irst

t his

c haracter

c ustomers' o f

t his

b owl

a ppearance

1 9th c entury .

T here

t hat

makers delivered

o rder b ook w ith modifications

1 971,

date:

5 /64" .

b owls t he

t o R eed 's ( Wal, S uggested

i s

a

s uch a

O swald

" patterns

was i n

( 1975) f rom a n

r equirements".

The

l eaf

n ot

motif

a nd

1 850.

F ig. I X D No.610: T he distinguishing f eatures o f t his r elatively s mall p ipe a re t he o btuse a ngle o f t he b owl, t he f orward p rojection o f t he s pur a nd

t he u nusual b ase o f t he b owl which i s o n a l ine w ith t he

u nder s ide o f t he s tem, e xtending f ar l onger, b efore c urving u pward, t han a ny p ipes known

t o

t he s pur t rimmed and

t he o verall quality good.

t his

S outhern B ritain a nd m ight d ate F ig.

IX E No.768 :

f inished, a pproaches when

t he

writer. f rom c .

T he

wall

1 680-1720.

o f t he b owl i s t hin, I t

i s

B ore:

p ossibly f rom 6 /64".

This b owl was made o f f ine c lay and c arefully

a ll mold l ines h aving b een s moothed o ver. t hat o f t he " Macclesfield D andy" f ound " amongst

o ld

c astle

w as d emolished" a t

2 27

M acclesfield,

I ts s hape t he d ebris

C heshire,

E ngland

( Spence, 1 945). T he main d ifference b etween t hem i s t hat t he r im o f t he P usey s pecimen i s p arallel w ith t he s tem whereas t he o ne i llustrated by S pence i s not. T he S pence p ipe dates c . 1 850. A ttributing t he P usey p ipe t o M acclesfield w ould b e a cceptable i f i t were n ot f or t he f act t hat i t w as f ound i n a c ontext w ith a R obert T ippet f ragment ( No .1025) a nd t he R ichard T yler p ipe N o .1015 d iscussed e lsewhere i n t his r eport, b oth o f w hich f all i n t he p eriod 1 660-1720 . F urther, a lthough s lightly l arger, i ts s ilhouette c losely f ollows t hat o f a T ippet p ipe, p ossibly R obert T ippet I II ( Walker 1 977, 1 1C-p .1501) . S uggested d ate: c . 1 720. B ore: 5 /64". F ig. I X B ristol

f or

F No.1329: more

T his

g racefully s tyled

t han 4 0 y ears

s tarting

a bout

p ipe

w as

1 694 .

p opular

A t

l east

a t 1 2

B ristol p ipemakers f avored t his b asic s hape a nd a t t imes a s many a s f ive o r s ix w ere i n c ompetition w ith e ach o ther, p articularly i n t he p eriod 1 705 t o 1 725. C artouches s uch a s t he O IB molded a nd r aised o n t he r ight s ide o f t he b owl w ere e mployed b y B ristol p ipemakers s tarting a bout 1 675-1700 . O swald ( 1975) l ists a J ohn F rederick B ryant 1 747-1774 a s a B ristol p ipemaker b ut

t he

s hape o f

t he

P usey p ipe

s uggests a l ate

1 7th c entury o r e arly 1 8th c entury date. Walker ( correspondence) e xpressed t he o pinion t hat i f a s cribal e rror r eflects a m iddle i nitial 0 ( as s hown o n t he c artouche) t he p ipe might b e t hat o f J ohn B ryant 1 716-1749 ( Oswald's l ist, 1 975). T his p articular p ipe w as d iscussed b y t he a uthor ( 1976).

A t t he

t ime n o maker was named b ut a d ate o f c . 1 690-1730 was s uggested. B ased o n p resent e vidence i t a ppears t hat J ohn B ryant w as t he maker a nd t he d ate o f t he p ipe c . 1 716-1749. B ore: 5 /64". C ONCLUSIONS A valuable r ecord

o f t he e volution o f t he c lay p ipe f or o ver 2 00

y ears was l ost due t o a t ransfer o f material f rom a t rash p it a nd s urrounding a reas w hich w as p laced i n t he C aleb P usey H ouse a s a f ill. I n s pite o f t his, t he P usey p ipe r ecoveries d o p rovide i nformation o n a u seful v ariety o f s pecimens d ating f rom c . 1 680 t o c . 1 900 f rom E ngland, I reland, S cotland, H olland, F rance, G ermany a nd t he U .S. S tem b ores w ere measured o n t he 3 20 f ragments r ecovered f rom t he c ellar t o d etermine i f t he d istribution b y s ize w ould r eveal a ny d ating i nformation t o s upport t he a rchaeological t eam 's c onclusion t hat i t w as f illed f rom a t rash p it and n ot a gradual a ccumulation . T his was c onfirmed b y o bserving t hat s tems w ith b ore d iameters o f 4 /64", 5 /64", 6 /64" a nd 7 /64" were r ecovered f rom a ll l evels. B inford 's f ormula, which w as a pplied t o t he 3 20 r ecoveries f rom t he c ellar, p roduced a d ate o f 1 745,

p resumably t he m ean d ate o f t he

O ne h undred

a nd

s eventy-five s tems

f rom

t rash p it.

s ix s quares a djacent t o t he

t rash p it were t hen measured t o s ee i f they would p roduce a s ignificantly d ifferent p eriod. A B inford d ate o f 1 730 w as t he r esult; f ifteen y ears e arlier t han t hose f rom t he c ellar, a modest d ifference c onsidering o ver 2 00 y ears o f t rash h ad a ccumulated i n t he a rea .

28 2

7 7

1 750 1800 2 03

7 2

1 7 10 1750

1 58

7 2

1 680-17 10

1 68

1 2

1 650 1680 5 7I 1 8

2 51

1 620 1650

5 9 1 2 1 4

5

6

2 01 7

8

S TEM HOLE D IAMETERS

F ig. X

Harrington B ar . -Graph

2 29

9

6 4 THS OF AN I NCH

A ll

o f

t he

s quares,

b oth

t he

t rash p it ( N4-E1 and N 3-E1) a nd

t he

o ther s ix , w ere i n t he a rea w here t he E ast W ing o riginally s tood. T his l eads u s t o t he s peculation t hat t he t rash p it was much l arger t han o riginally

s uspected

a nd

may h ave

o ccupied

most

o f

t he

a rea

w here

t he

E ast W ing w as s ubsequently e rected. T he most s hallow l evel i n w hich p ipes w ere r ecovered w as 3 0" d eep . A t t his l evel a nd a t t he 5 4" d epth T ippet p ipes,

c . 1 700-1722,

t he E ast W ing w as b uilt A t

t he

s outhwest

were e xcavated l eading t o t he c onclusion

s ometime a fter 1 722.

c orner,

on

t he

o utside o f

t he h ouse,

a w alled

f eature was u ncovered approximately 8 ' x 1 0 ' x 7 4" d eep . O n t he f oundation p lan i t i s s hown a s t he W est W ing. O n t he a rchaeological g rid

i t

b een

i s d esignated a s O B

a c old

c ellar.

2 a nd

t he

I nasmuch

a s

b eneath ground l evel and a t t he n ot o riginally a t rash p it b ut with u seless matter. a nd

2 3

t he

s tems

p ipe

b owl

s uggested

e nclosed

f ront o f t he h ouse,

i t

b y

might

a s tone

h ave w all

i t o bviously was f illed

One hundred and s eventy-three ( 173) p ipe s tems

f ragments

t here appeared

w ere

was

f or s ome r eason w as a bandoned a nd

w ere e xcavated

f rom

t his a rea.

t o b e a n opportunity

f ormula t o s ee i f a meaningful p rimarily b ecause t here were f ragments

D irector

i t

c oncentrated

t o

apply

d ate c ould b e o btained. two d epths, 4 ' and 6 ',

a nd

i t

I n

s tudying

t he

B inford

T his w as d one, a t which s tem

s oon b ecame a pparent

t hat

t he 5 /64"

d iameter s tem h ole w as d ominant i n b oth l evels . A round t he 4 ' d epth 8 1 s tems ( 46%) p roduced a B inford d ate o f 1 744 and a t t he 6 ' l evel 9 2 s tems

( 53%)

d eposited

a t

a date

o f

1 738 .

t wo d ifferent

I t

t imes,

appears

p lausible

t he u pper l evel

t rash

was

s ix y ears l ater

t hat

t han

t he l ower o ne. T he l atest d ated p ipe f rom t he c ellar w as a T ype I f luted b owl, c . 1 825-1875, e xcavated a bove t he 3 ' l evel . I ts r ecovery p rovides u s w ith a t erminus p ost q uem o f c . 1 875 f or t he f illing o f t he c eliir, w ithin 2 5 y ears h ypothesized f or t he d ouble h earth a nd t he wall s eparating t he W est a nd E ast

r ooms.

I n H arrington 's p aper ( 1954) h e wrote, " Presumably t he s tem h ole w as o f c onstant d iameter t hroughout, c ase,

w ith o ne

major

l ong

f ragments.

T he

e xception,

a nd

t his

w as d etermined

u pon e xamining

e xception o ccurs

a t

a n umber

o f

t he mouth ( bit)

t o b e

t he

r elatively o f

t he

s tem, where t he h ole h ad b een e nlarged i n t he p rocess o f r emoving w ire w hich h ad b een i nserted i n t he c lay w hen t he p ipe w as m olded."

end

t he

S uch w as n ot t he c ase w ith f orty ( 40) Pusey s tems which p roduced t wo

s tem h ole d iameters a s 1 0 2 1 8 1

4 mm. 5 mm.

a t o ne . ,

6 mm. 7 mm.

i t

. ,

f ollows:

e nd -5 . -6

mm. m. m

-7 -8

mm. m. m

l e

"

a t o ther e nd I t

e t

e t

I I

T he d isparity b etween t he n umber o f

t l

t he

t wo l arge b ore d iameter ( 9)

w hich a re p ossibly o lder, w ith t he two s maller o nes ( 31) might r eflect t he c are w hich e arlier p ipemakers e xercised i n f orming t he s tem h oles. The

c ollection

t hirteen v arieties

o f

f luted

r anging

p ipes

i n d ate

i n

f rom

2 30

t he c .

Pusey

1 780

t o

c ollection o ffers c .

1 875,

p ossibly a s

l ate a s 1 900 . T o t his w riter 's k nowledge, n o r eport h as b een p ublished i llustrating a nd d escribing t his many d istinctive s tyles o f t he f luted p ipe g enre .

F inds o f a ny a dditional

i nformation

r egarding

t he

s tyles

p lagiarization

P eter D orni s peciments ( Fig. p ipe l iterature.

w ould

o f

b e w elcome .

maker 's

marks

S o

s uch

I V-A) which i s r arely mentioned

w ould a s

t he

i n U .S.

A lthough, r egrettably, t his p aper c ontains n o i nformation a bout o ther a rtifacts f ound i n a ssociation with t he subject e xamples t his r eporter h as a ttempted t o s ynthesize t he s tory o f t he c lay p ipes f rom t he modest h ome o f W illiam P enn 's miller, C aleb P usey, f rom a bout t he t ime

i t w as b uilt,

1 683,

A cknowledgments : England,

and

u ntil a round 1 900.

O ur

l ain C .

d eepest Walker,

t hroughout many y ears,

a ppreciation g oes C anada,

a nswering

f or

t heir

i nnumerable

t o

A drian

O swald,

t ireless e fforts

questions,

o ffering

s uggestions a nd a lways a dding a w ord o f e ncouragemenz l.

W ithout

t heir c ooperation t his

H owever,

p aper c ould

i f a ny e rrors h ave c rept

i n,

n ot h ave b een

w ritten .

* *L.T.

t hey a re m ine.

A lexander

B IBLIOGRAPHY A tkinson, 1 972

D .R. & A drian O swald

" A B rief G uide T obacco P ipes

f or

t he I dentification o f D utch C lay

F ound

i n E ngland",

P ost-Medieval A rchaeology,

L ondon,

V ol.6,

S ociety f or P ost-Medieval Archaeology, A lexander, 1 972

' TD'

C lay P ipe", N o.

B ulletin o f t he Archaeological 9 N ew S eries,

P utnam's

B inford, L ewis R . 1 962 " New M ethod F ragments", L etter,

S ons

o f C alculating D ates

f rom K aolin P ipe

V ol.

9 N o.l.

C ambridge,

M A

J ohn, J r. The M oravian P otters i n N orth C arolina, N orth C arolina P ress, C hapel H ill, N .C. W illiam L .

1 950

H istory Written W ith P ick a nd S hovel.

U niversity o f

& R eginald P elham B olton

H istorical S ociety, D uHamel D u M onceau,

S tem

S outheastern Archaeological C onference N ews-

C alver,

1 771

S pring 1 972

E dwin A tlee T he P ottery a nd P orcelain o f t he United S tates, N ew Y ork,

B ivens, 1 972

1 972

L .T.

" A U nique

S ociety o f D elaware, B arber, 1 893

E ngland,

T he Journal o f The

1 950

T he N ew Y ork

N ew Y ork

H enry-Louis

L 'Art d e F aire Les P ipes A Fumer Le Tabac, P aris

2 31

Telatour,

H amilton, H enry W . & J ean T yre H amilton 1 972 The M issouri A rchaeologist, V ol. C olumbia, H arrington, 1 954

3 4,

N os.

1 -2,

M issouri

J .C.

" Dating

S tem F ragments o f S eventeenth a nd E ighteenth

C entury C lay T obacco P ipes", Quarterly B ulletin o f t he Archaeological S ociety o f V irginia, V ol. 9 N o.1. H elbers, 1 942 J ackson, 1 974

G .C.

& D .A .

G oedewaagen

G oudsche P ijpen, R .G. & R .H.

G ouda,

T he N etherlands

P rice

B ristol C lay P ipes,

B ristol C ity M useum R esearch

M onograph N o.1 N oel H ume, I 1 970 A Guide t o Artifacts o f C olonial America, K nopf, O swald, 1 970

A drian " Transactions o f t he E nglish C eramic C ircle", p t.

1 975

3 ,

1 974

V ol.

7 ,

p age 2 26

C lay P ipes f or t he Archaeologist, R eports 1 4,

P oirier,

A lfred A .

N ew Y ork

O xford,

B ritish A rchaeological

E ngland

D avid A . " A D iscussion o f T wo D isturbed F rom S tamford,

C onnecticut,"

C lay P ipe F inds Q uarterly B ulletin

o f t he Archaeological S ociety o f V irginia, V ol. 2 9, N o.1 S chiek, 1 976

A llen G . " The C aleb P usey H ouse;

E xcavation,

S tructure a nd

C ontents," N ewark, D elaware, T ransactions o f t he D elaware Academy o f S cience, V ol. 5 , 1 974 a nd V ol. 1 975, S pence, 1 945

D elaware A cademy o f

6 ,

S cience 1 976

G eorge C ooper " Notes o n C lay T obacco P ipes a nd

C lay P ipe M akers

I n C heshire,"

f rom t he Transactions

B ristol,

R eprinted

o f t he Lancashire a nd C heshire Antiquarian S ociety, V ol. LVI-1941-1942-1945 S udbury, B yron 1 975 " A D escription a nd C omparison o f P amplin a nd M ogadore H exagonal

S temmed M illed

C hesterfield P ipes,"

Q uarterly B ulletin o f t he Archaeological S ociety o f V irginia, V ol.

3 0,

N o.1

2 32

W alker, 1 975

l ain C . " The P otential U se o f E uropean C lay T obacco P ipes I n W est

A frican A rchaeological R esearch,"

W est African J ournal o f Archaeology, W illiam C lowes & S ons, a nd 1 971

T he B ristol C lay T obacco-Pipe Industry,

5 ,

B eccles

C ity

B ristol

" Nineteenth-Century C lay T obacco P ipes I n C anada," Ontario A rchaeology,

1 971

V ol.

L ondon,

C olchester

M useum, 1 971

L imited,

N .

1 6

" An A rchaeological S tudy O f T he K ing's

B astian,

C lay P ipes

F rom

F ortress o f L ouisbourg,"

O ccasional P apers i n Archaeology a nd H istory, N o.2,

1 4 ational H istoric

a nd H istoric P arks A ffairs

S ites

B ranch,

S ervice,

N ational

D epartment o f I ndian

a nd N orthern D evelopment,

O ttawa,

C anada

M ORE L IGHT O N T HE T HEORY O F D ATING C LAY P IPES

B Y

M EASURING S TEM H OLE D IAMETERS

L .

S ometime d iameters J .

C .

p rior

t o

d ecreased

H arrington ,

T .

1 954,

A lexander

A drian O swald

s teadily

f rom

t hen a ssociated

1 620 w ith

t o

o bserved

c .

t hat

1 800 a nd

t he U nited

h e

S tates

s tem

h ole

s uggested N ational

t o

P ark

S ervice, a method b y which a n a ssortment o f c lay p ipe s tems might b e d ated b ased o n t he s ize o f s tem h oles ( Oswald 1 975:92). I n t he

S eptember 1 954 i ssue o f

t his j ournal, H arrington a uthored

a n

a rticle t itled " Dating S tem F ragments o f S eventeenth and E ighteenth C entury c hart

C lay T obacco P ipes."

o r

h istogram

t o

b y s tem

h ole d iameters,

b ecame

l onger

B inford

d evised

and

p ublished

o f

two

a ny

n umber

a rticles,

r eported

o f

many

s maller.

r egression

f ragments .

S ince

t he

a nd

s ites

t ime

s tems

p rofessional

s tem f ragments,

i s n ow o ver 2 0 y ears o ld

L ewis

t o p roduce a mean a nd

t hese

amateur,

h ave

f requently u sing t he t o d ate

a nd

s tems,

i t a ppears

r eferences

h owever, d id

i t

t o

B inford's

s hould b e n oted

d ecrease

w ith t he

s tatistical m ethods

t heory

c all

f or

t here i s n o d oubt

p assage o f

s ometimes d o

t ime a nd

d iscussion.

t hat

s tem

e rgo

t imely

t o r eview h is p aper a nd c omment on c ertain o f h is s tatements. s ome

R .

f ormula b ased

p ublication o f

f ormula o r b oth i n a n a ttempt

H arrington 's a rticle

s tems

S ubsequently,

l ine

H is f ormula was d esigned

s tem

a rcheologists,

B inford 's

t he u se o f a b ar-

p ipe

w ith t he p assage o f

a s traight

o n t housands o f c lay p ipe

b ar c hart, s ites.

o f d ating

t hat

h ole d iameters

a nd

h e d escribed

a method

s uggesting

o n t he Harrington p aper . d ate

I n i t,

p rovide

A lso, F irst,

h ole d iameters

i t must b e a cknowledged

t hat

p roduce u seful r esults.

F irst l et p aper. " The

u s c onsider t he f ollowing q uotation f rom t he H arrington f ew d efinable differences i n p ipe s tems f or which

devedlopment

s equences

l ength, a t

h ave

b een

must b e u sed w ith c aution ,

a ll:

T his

i s

f ollowed

w ith,

n oted,

s uch

e ven when i t " The

a s

i s

l ength o f

i ncrease

f easible

t he

s tem

i n

t o u se

s eems

s tem t hem

t o b ear

a v ery d efinite r elationship t o t he p eriod o f manufacture, and h as a lways b een r ecognized a s a more r eliable dating c riteria ( sic) t han a ny

o ther

p ublished

s tem i n

c haracteristic."

E ngland

maker 's marks a nd a nd

a bout

i nitials,

q uite a ccurate d ating F urther

applicable

on a s

h e

b oth o f

n ow

know

s tems,

which

t hat

much

i ncluding

h as

t he

p ermit d evelopment

b een

u se

o f

s equences

a s w ell.

writes,

a dating

We

decorated

" However,

device,

t he

s ince

s tem

whole

l ength

s tems,

o r

i s

s eldom

e ven

l ong

s ections, a re r arely f ound

i n a n e xcavation o r when making a s urface

c ollection:

a nd

a ppear l ength , B ut

T his

s tatement

t hat

t o b e c ontradictory and p er i t

s e,

i s

n ot

r eally

p revious

p aragraph

l eave one w ith t he f eeling

q uoted

i n

t he

t hat s tem

s ignificant.

i s n egatively s ignificant when s tem l ength i s r elated

b ore diameter,

a s s ome c laim.

t o

The unreliability o f dating p ipes by

2 35

s tem

l ength i s b orn o ut

b y N oel Hume ( 1970:304) q uoting f rom R andle

H olme ( c .1682) t hat t here w ere " Long s hanks, M idle ( sic) s hanks, S hort s hanks o r e nds." H e t hen s tates, " It would a ppear t hat i n t he l atter p art o f t he s eventeenth c entury t here were t hree s tem l engths,

l ong,

middle, a nd s hort, a r evelation which c asts d oubt o n t he v alidity o f t he t heory t hat t he s tem h ole wire b ecame p rogressively s maller a s s tems g rew l onger." T he c oncurrent E ngland O swald

p roduction o f p ipes o f d ifferent l engths made i n

i s n ot a matter o f c onjecture . T hrough t he c ourtesy o f A drian ( personal c ommunication, N ovember 3 , 1 975) t he f ollowing

i nformation o ffers B ristol,

E ngland,

p roof

t hat

a t l east

p ipes

o f d ifferent

l engths

b etween t he y ears o f 1 710 a nd

" A r ecently p ublished monograph ,

w ere

made

i n

1 750.

B ristol C lay P ipes,

s tates

t hat a n a greement o f p ipe l engths was s igned i n 1 710 b y f orty members o f t he B ristol C ompany . I t d ecreed t hat t he f ollowing

s izes

o nly

( among

o thers

n ot

c ited

h ere)

s hould

b e made: l ong p ipes o f 1 6 i nches, D utch p ipes o f 1 4 i nches, / i 2 nches. T his a greement w as s igned a nd V irginia p ipes o f 81 u ntil c .

1 750."

A lso o f i nterest B ook o f

1 799

F urther, a nd

O swald

s hort I f

i t b e p ipes

which

" short

( personal

s tem p ipes

p ipes

i s a n a dvertisement i n t he B ristol P ipemaker's

l ists

o f

p ipes

f or d ifferent

c ommunication )

i n t he

s tates

h e

A merican markets: h as

f ound

b oth l ong

s ame a rcheological c ontexts.

t hree b asic

l engths

w ere made

a t

t he

s ame

t ime,

c ould

t hat s maller d iameter p iercers w ere u sed o n t he l onger s temmed b ecause s uch t hinner p iercers w ere more f lexible a nd t herefore

would b end more r eadily when t he p ipes were p laced

i n a c urved-E_em

mold? N ext

l et

u s

c onsider

H arrington 's

s tatement:

h ole w as o f c onstant d iameter t hroughout,

" Presumably

t he

a nd t his was d etermined

s tem t o b e

t he c ase, with one major e xception, u pon e xamining a number o f r elatively l ong f ragments . T he e xception o ccurs a t t he mouth ( bit) e nd o f

t he

s tem,

where

t he

h ole

h ad

b een

r emoving t he w ire which h ad b een i nserted

e nlarged

i n

t he

p rocess

i n t he c lay when t he

p ipe

o f w as

molded : L ater i n t he a rticle h e t ouched o n t his a gain w hen h e w rote, " The f inished end o f t he s tem p resents a p roblem i n t hat t he h ole a t t he v ery e nd w as u sually e nlarged when t he w ire w as w ithdrawn f rom t he f reshly molded c lay: B ut h e d oes n ot t ell u s h ow f ar t his d istortion e xtends s tates.

f rom

d iameters) s maller a t A t

t he

e nd.

H owever,

t he

e xcavated

t he

o f a t

i t

w as

s even b it t he

C aleb

" usually e nlarged" end

f ragments

P usej H ouse,

1

a s

H arrington

( with

d ifferent

s ix

were a ctually

t he mouth p iece. B uck

s ite 2

E ight o f t hese ( 7 .55%) a t

P erhaps

out

1 06

b it

p roduced

e nd

s tem

f ragments

two b ore d iameters,

were

a ll o f

r ecovered.

t hem

s maller

mouthpiece .

S till a nother e xample o f t he b it e nd h ole b eing s maller was r eported b y K elso ( 1967) who r ecovered, a rcheologically, a c omplete E nglish p ipe.

H e

s tates:

" It

i s i nteresting

2 36

t o n ote

t hat

t he

s tem

h ole

d iameter v aried, g etting s omewhat s maller f rom b owl t o b it." T he p ipe w as a pparently b roken i nto f our p ieces making i t p ossible t o measure t he b ore d iameter a t t wo,

i .e.,

8 /64"

L et u s

a t

H owever,

a nd 6 /64" a t

h e e lected

t o g ive u s o nly

t he b it e nd.

r eflect a gain o n t he p resumptive matter o f c onstant

h ole d iameters . d ried,

s even p laces. t he b owl

t he

S ometimes a fter

p iercing

w ire

w as

p ipes

r emoved

w ere a nd

r emoved

f rom

a f inisher 's

s tem

t he mold

w ire

a nd

i nserted

t o

c heck t hat t he b ore r an t hrough t o t he b owl . T his was d one t o p revent bending o r b reaking during t rimming ( Oswald, p ersonal c ommunication, r eferring t o Walker 's t hen u npublished t hesis).

The i ntroduction o f

t his s econd w ire, n o matter h ow c arefully p robed, i n t he d iameter o f t he s tem h ole.

m ight c ause d eviation

T here

s eems

o nly

t wo

s imple

w ays

d iameters a re c onstant t hroughout. e nds o f a b roken f ragment,

b ut

o f d etermining

T he most

t his

w hether

o bvious i s

The o ther way i s t o o bserve t he i nside o f t he s tem.

author

d id

20

f ragments

e xposing t he i nside o f t he h oles. a reas I n

a pparently c aused

o thers,

r emoved. t he e nd

s mall

b y a n

b its

E ither c ould

o f

S ome s tems r evealed

were

t hus

s mall h ollow

a mount

o f

c lay

d eposited

a s

t he

c ause a f alse measurement

This t he

h alfway, i n

t he mold.

p iercer

was

i f t hey o ccur c lose t o

b eing m easured.

The

o ccurance

u nusual.

O f

H ouse, 4 9,

t he

o f

s tems

1 709

s tem

w ith

two

f ragments

o r 2 .8% were n ot o f t he

s hown by t he f ollowing t abulation. m entioned

o f

d iameters

e xcavated

a t

i s

t he

s ame b ore d iameter

n ot

a t

C aleb

a ll

Pusey

t hroughout a s

( Included a re t he s even b it ends

R ouletting

S maller D iameter

f ragments

L arger D iameter

1 9

4 /64"

2 1

5 /64"

6 /64"

8

6 /64"

7 /64"

1

7 /64"

8 /64"

T otal 4 9

s tem

b ore

p reviously).

N o.

one

l ongitudinally

i nsufficient

c lay

h ole

i s n ot a lways r eliable a s d iscussed

l ater.

b y grinding

s tem

t o measure b oth

( ranging

c an

f ragment

longitudinally

a ffect

i n l ength

s tem

( Figure

exposing

c onstriction o n t he

i nside at

5 /64"

f rom 2 0 t o 7 0 mm.)

h ole d iameters,

1 A)

f rom

t he

s tem

t he

B uck

h ole.

t he p oint o f

h ole r eadily a ccepted a n 8 /64" d rill b it.

a s

w as d emonstrated

s ite. The

I t

was

f ragment

r ouletting.

b y

s plit s ho wed

T he e ntire

s tem

H owever, a t e nd " X" a 9 /64"

b it c an b e i nserted u ntil i t r eaches p oint " Y" but c annot b e inserted a t end " Z",

t hus i ndicating t he p iercer was n ot i n t he s tem when t he

r ouletting was applied. f rom

t he

s ame

s ite

h ad

S trangely enough, one o ther r ouletted s tem

a d ouble

one end and i n t his c ase t he r ouletting w as a pplied a nd 7 /64"

r ouletted

mark e ncircling

t he

s tem

h ole d iameter was 8 /64" where a t t he o ther e nd ( Figure 1 B).

2 37

a t t he

H arrington a lso p ipe b owls

w ithin

s tates,

" Even

r elatively

t hough i t

l imited

i s n ot

p eriods,

p ossible

whole,

o r

t o d ate

n early

w hole,

b owls a re u sually r equired f or dating p urposes." T his a ppears t o b e ambiguous. B esides, O swald h ad p ublished h is " English C lay T obacco P ipes"

i n

A pril

1 951,

t hree

y ears

b efore

O swald i llustrates 2 0 b owls f orms y ear

s pan,

c ertainly

H arrington, d iscussion

i n

o n

h is

t he

H arrington 's o thers,

t he

c entury. mentioned

a s

l imited

n otes

t he

H arrington

p aper .

I n

i t,

w ith most dates w ithin a 3 0 or 4 0

a s H arrington 's

r ecommends

h istogram.

S trangely,

a rticle

" the

O swald's

a s

b est

s ubject: .

c hart

a ccuracy

c overs f alls

t he

p eriod

o ff

during

1 620 t o 1 800 ; t he

l atter

b ut, p art

a s n oted o f

t he

b y

1 8th

S o, what d o we d o w ith t hose made a fter 1 775? N othing i s a bout t hem, y et p ipes made l ong a fter t hat d ate a nd, i n f act,

a re s till i mported f rom E ngland, J apan a nd G ermany . H ow a re w e b y s tem h ole d iameters w hether t hey a re a nte o r p ost 1 775? Audrey

N oel Hume ( 1963:

Williamsburg H arrington

t o

a nd

e valuate B inford

2) 2

r eports

o n

t he

t he " limitations a nd

methods

o f

d ating

e fforts

o f

t o k now

C olonial

a pplications" o f t he

c lay

p ipes

b y

s tem

h ole

d iameters. S he s tates t hat, "—.between 9 00 and 1 000 f ragments a re n ecessary t o p rovide a c onsistently s table d ate." S he d ocuments s even s ites

where

t he

B inford

f ormula

p roduced

" good

r esults"

a nd

s ix

s ites

which p roduced " poor r esults." I t i s r emarkable t hat H arrington 's o riginal s tudy was b ased on only 3 30 s pecimens. O ther e xamples h e d escribes t o s upport h is t heory a re b ased o n 1 7 s tems " from t he J ames R iver s ite d ownstream f rom Jamestown" and a mere n ine f rom F ort N ecessity i n w estern P ennsylvania. Audrey

N oel

H ume

( personal

c ommunication,

F ebruary

2 3,

1 976)

c ommented o n h er f indings r egarding a r escue e xcavation i n W il—Lamsburg i nvolving i n

t he

1 839.

a p ortion o f a c ellar .

1 830s

a nd

d ocumentation

S cattered

t hroughout

T he

p ut

t he

c eramics

t he

r ecovered

t erminal d ate

f ill,

f rom

d ate

b etween

t opsoil

t he

f ill

1 830

a nd

t o a deposit o f

a shes i n t he c ellar f loor, were 7 14 s tem f ragments, w ith t he s ame I B marked b owls i n t he t opsoil a nd i n l ayers B and C . s tem

f ragments i s a s

A rea

B inford D ates

ER.2124

N o.

1 766

1 95

1 754 1 763

7 0 2 5

2 124C

1 768

4 24 T otal

i s o bvious t hat t he mean date,

1 763 i s 7 6 y ears e arlier The

o f F ragments

2 124A 2 124B

M ean D ate 1 763

I t

s ystem

s amples g ave

l oses

T abulation o f t he

f ollows:

s till

7 14

b ased o n B inford's f ormula,

t han t he documented more

c redibility

t he c losest d ate ( to

when

t he m ean d ate)

2 38

t erminal date o f y ou

o bserve

a nd 4 24 t he

o f

1 839.

t hat

p oorest.

2 5

N ext, D ue

t o

o n

l et u s c onsider t he i mportance o f t he p iercer a nd

t he a brasive n ature o f

t he

c lay,

b owls b ecame w orn u ntil

t he mold

maker 's marks a nd

t hey w ere

w ere r eplaced ( Walker 1 971 :

i ndistinct a nd

1 9,

P late

3 ,

i ts u se.

o ther d ecorations t hese

l eft).

p arts o f

I f c lay c ould

c ause s uch wear o n t he mold, t hink o f t he e ffect i t would h ave o n t he p iercer. E ven t hough d ipped i n o il b efore i nsertion t he p iercer, i t c an b e a rgued, would wear r ather r apidly, r esulting i n s maller s tem h oles,

p erhaps

d iameters s horter

1 /64"

m ight

t ime

W alker

h ave

i n a y ear o r b ecome

t han d isplayed

( personal

two.

s maller, o n

I n

d ue

t o

o ther w ear

words,

o n

t he

s tem

h ole

p iercer,

i n a

t he H arrington h istogram.

c ommunication )

o ffered

t he

f ollowing

i nformation

A good workman c o 21 2 / r egarding t he u se o f p iercers: " ould p roduce 2 t gross o f p ipes i n a day. H owever, t his r efers t o whole p ipes, i .e., f inished

o nes

p iercer)

-r olling

would

h ave

t o

molding.

b een

T he

greater."

n umber

A gross

a ctually

was

w ired

( with

t raditionally

d uring t he s eventeenth a nd e ighteenth c enturies s o a p ipemaker p roduce f rom 3 60 t o 450 p ipes a day. I n o ne y ear o f 3 00 a rbitrarily t o

e liminating

a minimum

p iercer.

o f

5 2

S undays

a nd

1 08,000 insertions

1 3

h olidays,

a nd

t his

c ould d ays,

w ould

a mount

1 08,000 withdrawals

A ssuming p iercers o f 1 2" l ength were u sed,

1 80

o f

t he

t he s tems were

p enetrated b y t he e nd o f t he p iercer a d istance o f 1 2" a nd w ithdrawn a nother 1 2" f or e ach p ipe. would h ave p assed u se o f 2 96),

t ime,

t he end o f t he

p iercer ( The

t he 1 2" l ength i n t his e xample was b ased on N oel Hume ( 1970:

who

a verage

s tates,

s tem

" By

l ength

C halkley ( 1955)

t he

w as

t hird

c onsiderable

q uarter o f

b etween

w rites,

o f t he p ipe-maker i s most a

I n a y ear 's

t hrough more t han 8 1 miles o f a brasive c lay.

" The

b rief."

variance

i n

1" 1

a nd

w orking I f

l ife

t his

p iercer

t he

s eventeenth c entury t he

1 2". ." ) .

i s

o f

t he

s o,

i ron-wire

t here must

d iameters

e ven

p iercer

h ave b een

i n

a

s ingle

p ipemaker 's s hop b ecause u ntil c . 1 750 s uch t ools were " homemade" o r made b y t he l ocal b lacksmith . T here a lso must h ave b een d ifferences i n s ize b et ween one maker 's p iercers and another 's. a nd

w orn

a nd

o thers

a rises h ow d id 1 750, a nd

n ew a nd

p resumably

t he p ipemakers,

l arger.

S ome h ad

F urther,

l iterally t housands o f t hem

t o b e o ld

t he

q uestion

f rom 1 600 t o

f rom d ozens o f t owns a nd c ities a ll o ver England, get t ogether

a gree o n u sing

t he s ame

s ize

p iercers a t a ny g iven p eriod

o f

t ime?

The e nds o f p iercing wires were s ometimes s lightly l arger i n d iameter t han t he r emainder o f t he wire and f lattened i nto a s patula s hape.

A s

t he

wire p enetrated

t he

s tem

i t c aused c lay t o b e f orced

ahead of t he e nd of t he p iercer; a nd, when withdrawn, t he wire l eft a small l ump o f e xtraneous c lay i n t he b ottom o f t he b owl. t his c aused t he s tem h ole t o b e l arger a t ( see F igure

t he b owl and

S ometimes

s ometimes n ot

1 C).

A s mentioned b efore, i t i s r easonable t o p ostulate t hat s everal d ifferent s ized p iercers were u sed i n t he s ame e stablishment. A s a c ase i n f amily,

p oint, known

England.

c onsider t he t hree generations o f t he R obert T ippet t o have b een working f rom 1 660 t o 1 720 i n B ristol,

We r ecovered

b owls,

s tems

a ttached,

8 /64".

T his

t ells u s

d ifferent

s tem

hole

f rom

t he Pusey H ouse e xcavation T ippet p ipe

w ith b ore d iameters t hat a t

l east one

d iameters

within

2 39

o f

5 /64",

6 /64",

7 /64"

a nd

f amily made p ipes w ith f our a p eriod

o f

6 0

y ears.

The

s pecimens d o n ot t ell u s w hether a ll f our s izes w ere u sed a t t he s ame t ime, a r emote p ossibility, o r whether t he h oles d id i ndeed b ecome s maller a s t he y ears w ent b y. While e xcavating t he B uck s ite, t he writer f ragments f rom a n a rea ( 2' x 1 ' x 6 " deep) b elow beneath s howed

f ive n o

N otice

t o

s ix

s igns

i nches

o f

t he r ange o f

5 /64"

6 /64"

3

3

i s

i nto

7 /64"

t he

o yster

t rash

p it

8 /64"

9 /64"

2

4

7 o f

s hells. b eing

s quares,

a lso

f ive s izes

s ealed

i n s uch a c onfined

b eneath

a n

O ne

r egression

s tem,

E vans g ained

measuring h is

f ormula a re o f n o u se 6 /64",

f reedom a t

was marked

B ristol,

b ut

l ayer

o f

O bviously, t he

i n s uch s ituations.

" LE":

E ngland,

a rea ;

undisturbed

oyster s hells, y ielded f our s izes o f b ore d iameters. b ar c hart a nd

T he a rea e xcavated.

S tem F ragments

t he o nly e xample o f

a h alf-dozen

u ndisturbed

s tem h ole d iameters:

N o.

T his

o f

i ntrusion

r ecovered 1 9 s tem t he p low z one and

a L luellin E vans

i n 1 661 a nd

h is

w ill

p ipe. w as

p roved i n 1 693. T herefore, h e worked a maximum o f 3 2 years ( Oswald, p ersonal c ommunication, r eferring t o Jackson and Price 1 975). H arrington s hows 9 /64" s tem h oles a s early a s 1 620 a nd 5 /64" h oles a s l ate a s 1 800, a s pan o f 1 80 y ears y et h ere a re 1 9 s tem f ragments, o f f ive d ifferent b ore d iameters, f ound i n t he s ame c ontext, o ne o f t hem, a nd

p resumably a ll, S upporting

y ielded

N orth

" Sgraffito

t he

D evon

n ext

t o

t he

dating

o f

f ound

w ere

b etween 1 661 a nd 1 693.

t hese

p ipe

s lipware

f ragments,

s herds.

t wo

t he

W atkins

a rchaeologically i n

F urther,

p ipes,

C harleston ,

s omewhere

s graffito

t ablewares

f rom b efore 1 700." J .

d ating

t his

o f

t he

E vans

f or a ll

c ountry must

s herds o f a W esterwald mug

o r j ug

T he

f act

s tem

w ith

t hat

t he

s graffito

s tems p rior

s ome

s tem

t o

a nd

W esterwald

t he b eginning

f ragments

p roduced

a t t heir e nds warrants f urther c omment. measuring c urved s tems, a s e ven t hose w ith r eadily

a ccept

r eading. u seful

a nd

T his i s

a measuring

t ool

p articularly t rue

t ime-saving

d ate

w hich R .

D epartment o f C eramics o f t he V ictoria a nd A lbert

o f t he

a rea

w rites,

r esting on one o f t he s graffito s herds,

i n L ondon, dated a s f alling i n t he p eriod c . 1 660-1680. d ate

s ame

( 1960)

f ar

s uggests

a

1 8th c entury.

d ifferent

measurements

C aution i s i ndicated i n t he s lightest c urve d o n ot

e nough

when u sing

d evice d eveloped

s herds

o f t he

Museum

T he p resence

t o

o btain

a n

a ccurate

t he " step-gauge",

b y E dward J .

a most

L enik ( see

F igure

1 D).

w e

When d ifferent measurements c an b e m ade o f t he s ame s tem f ragment a re c onfronted w ith t he q uestion which measurement s hould w e u se?

E ither one w ill d istort t he data. I f one i nsists o n u sing t he H arrington c hart, I s uggest i t w ould b e b etter t o o mit t hose f ragments measuring

d ifferent d iameters

i n

2 40

p reparing

t he

c hart,

b ut

p erhaps

A

ROULETTING

LENIK S TEP GUAGE 6 4th i nch i ncrements

F ig.

1

2 41

a dding

t he

i nformation a s a f ootnote.

T here

i s a lso

h ole d iameter

t he matter o f a ssuming

c an b e

u sed

i n dating

t hat a p redominance o f one

a s ite

a s

B inford

p ointed

out.

I nstead o f r evealing a t emporal p eriod, s tem h ole d iameter s tatistics m ight r eflect merely a c hange i n t he n umber o f p ipe s mokers l iving o n a s ite d uring

i ts o ccupancy.

The H arrington t heory i s b ased s tem

f ragments

r ecovered

i n

t his

o n English p ipes.

c ountry

c ould

a lso

H owever,

i nclude

p ipe

t hose

o f

D utch o rigin, a s H arrington n oted. T o t his c ould b e a dded t hat F rench, B elgium, C anadian , American a nd e ven American I ndian p ipe f ragments a re f ound o n o ur s hores, and a ny one o f t hese c ould n egatively a ffect t he r esults o btained i f u sed

i n p reparing a bar c hart o n a s traight l ine

r egression f ormula. A fter

t he

w riter

w ere s ubmitted " I a m

t o

a gainst

t he

t he a pplication o f c lay p ipes

c ompiled

s everal

t he

n otes

f or

t his

merely c onfuses

d ata

t he

a s

a pplied

i ssue.

monograph

T heir c omments

s tatistical a pproach i n d ealing

s tatistical

p oint t o t he s ystem,

b asic

p ipe a uthorities.

t o

I don 't

w ith c lay p ipes -

h umble t hink

o bjects

t here

t hough i t may h elp a rchaeologists n ot

w ith p ipes e stablish s ome dating

t hey

f ollow:

t oo

l ike

i s much f amiliar

i f t hey h ave a l ot o f s tems and n o

b owls. B ut h ow o ften d oes t his i nfrequently o f misleading w idth

h appen? And t he b ores a re n ot ( diameter) f or t heir a ge !" ( D.R .

A tkinson). I vor

N oel

o bservations

H ume

which

wrote,

" With

y ou s ubmitted

r egard

t o me,

t o

t he

s tem

I c an o nly

s ay

h ole

d iameter

t hat

I a m

mucn i n a greement w ith y ou... I must a dmit I am o ften worried e ver-increasing

t endency t o l et

s tatistics

s ubstitute

v ery

b y t .,

f or l ogic."

A drian O swald a nswered, " I a gree w ith y our s temhole r emarks. s uppose f inds

when t here i s

n othing

o f l arge n umbers o f

a re r are

i ndeed.

e lse b ar s tems

t hen

s tems b y t hemselves,

C ertainly I s ee

n o

p oint

i t

h as

i ts

u ses,

I b ut

w ith n o o ther a rtifacts

i n giving

d iameters

f or

i ndividual s tems." l ain

C .

Walker

r ight a s

f ar a s

r emember

t hat

r eplied,

" The

t hey g o -o ne t he

b ore-diameter d ating

s imply h as

f ormula d oes

n ot

t o

u se

t hem

p rove a d ating

a re

a ll

i ntelligently

f ormulae

a nd

f or

t he

d atable e vidence o f t he p ipes ( i.e., marks, b owl s hape) ( or d isprove)

t he

f ormula.

e nough ( though I d oubt y ou

s uggest

-b ut

w ear

i f

t he

s hould

A ll

t he

w ire o r

o bjections p iercer

c ertainly

w ear

o ccurred).

t he

t end t o p rove

y ou r aise

w ould

h ave

p ipes;

a s

a re

valid

q uickly a s

H owever,

p oint i s t hat with a good s ample one g ets a t rend i rrespective of, e ven

i ncluding

a pplied e nough u sefulness."

t he o n

a spect

y ou

C olonial

mention .

T he

American

s ites

2 42

method t o

h as p rove

t he o r

c ertainly b een i ts

general

C onclusions T here

a re

r efinement e vidence

f ew

o f

t o

i t

a rticles w hich d o

s upport

a rcheological t o measure

a nd

t he

H arrington a nd

e mbracing n ot

a lso

H arrington 's

c ontain a rcheological

t he d ates o btained

h istorical

s tems? B inford

b y measuring

e vidence

i s

T he

a nd

B inford 's

o r h istorical

p ipe

s tems .

r eadily a vailable,

I f

why b other

t he

u se o f t he

f ormulas l eave t he r eader w ith t he u ncomfortable s ometimes t hey d o n ot.

h ow d o w e k now w hen t hey d o a nd

writer o ffers

t he

T oo many a rticles c oncerning

c onclusion t hat s ometimes t hey work and q uestion i s;

c hart

t his n ew

l ight

o n

t he

p ipes a nd s ites b y s tem h ole d iameters. v ariance w ith t he o pinions a nd c omments

w hen

The

t hey d o n ot?

subject

o f d ating

c lay

S hould o ther i nformation a t

i n t his p aper b e k nown,

i t

w ill

in

C ounty,

b e w elcome. N otes 1C aleb

Pusey

P ennsylvania . D elaware u nder 2B uck

C ounty,

H ouse:

t he d irection o f

S ite:

A c olonial

Maryland,

E xcavated

B uilt

1 693

E xcavated b y members

on

o f

U pland,

t he

t he l ate A llen G .

t rash

a t ract

p it

granted

D elaware

A rchaeological

l ocated

S ociety o f

S chiek. i n

Quaker

b y t he L ords

N eck,

Kent

B altimore,

1 664.

b y t he a uthor.

A cknowledgments I w ish t o A drian

e xpress my t hanks

O swald,

f or

h is

t o:

e ncouragement,

f or

t he

s haring

o f h is v asL

k nowledge on t he subject o f c lay p ipes,

f or r ecommending

material

o riginal

a nd

f or

p reviewing

h e m ade v aluable s uggested I vor N oel Hume, g uide

t he

o f

t he

c ontributed C .

h is c omments

W alker,

My w ife, d reams.

who

f urnished

p aths .

w hich

t oo r ead

p art o f

i nformation w hich

t reatment o f t he s ubject.

l ikewise

whose

H e

a dditional

r eviewed

p arts

o f

l etters h ave b roadened my c lay p ipe E mily,

t o

who f or many y ears h as unselfishly f ound t ime t o

t o a m ore a ccurate

w hose a nimated

r eference

manuscript

c hanges.

w riter d own s everal a rcheological

t he manuscript a nd

L ain

p arts

i nspiriting

2 43

w ords

t he

manuscript

a nd

p erspective.

k eep me

f rom

h aving

p ipe

R EFERENCES C ITED B inford, L ewis R . 1 962 A N ew M ethod

o f

C alculating D ates

S tem

S outheastern A rchaeological C onference N ewsletter,

v ol 9 ,

1 ,

n o.

p p.

1 9-21.

C halkley, J ohn F . 1 955 A C ritique a nd R ebuttal o f

t he P aper " Dating

S tem F ragments

o f

S eventeenth a nd E ighteenth C entury C lay T obacco P ipes"

J .

C .

H arrington,

Q uarterly K elso,

f rom K aolin P ipe

F ragments.

A rcheological

B ulletin,

v ol.

9 ,

n o.

1 ,

p p.

1 0-14.

W illiam M .

1 967

M ore E xcavations a t L ightfoot: A nother L ate S eventeenth C entury D omestic R efuse P it i n J ames C ity C ounty, V irginia, 1 966-67. B ulletin,

A rcheological S ociety o f V irginia, v ol. 2 2, n o. 2 , p p. 5 5-72.

N oel H ume, A udrey 1 963 C lay T obacco P ipe D ating

i n

v ol. N oel H ume, 1 970

1 8,

n o.

1 975

p. p

t o A rtifacts o f C olonial A merica.

R .

G .,

A lfred A .

a nd R .

H .

K nopf.

P rice

B ristol C lay P ipes.

B ristol,

O swald,

A drian

1 951

E nglish C lay T obacco P ipes. v ol.

1 975

Q uarterly B ulletin,

2-25. 2

I vor

A G uide

N ew Y ork: J ackson,

2 ,

Q uarterly

t he L ight o f R ecent E xcavations.

A rcheological S ociety o f V irginia.

3 ,

n o.

C lay P ipes R eports,

1 0, f or

n o.

E ngland:

C ity M useum.

T he A rchaeological N ews L etter,

L ondon. t he A rchaeologist.

1 4,

B ritish A rchaeological

O xford.

W alker,

L ain C .

1 965

S ome T houghts o n t he H arrington a nd B inford S ystems f or S tatistically D ating C lay P ipes. A rcheological S ociety o f V irginia,

1 971

W atkins, 1 960

b y

S ociety o f V irginia,

Q uarterly B ulletin, v ol.20,

n o.2,

T he B ristol C lay T obacco-Pipe I ndustry, C ity M useum. C .

p. p

6 0-64.

B ristol,

E ngland:

M alcolm

N orth D evon P ottery a nd C entury. M useum,

S mithsonian B ulletin,

n o.

I ts E xport

I nstitution, 25, 2

p. p

2 44

t o A merica i n U nited

1 7-59,

S tates

t he

1 7th

N ational

W ashington.

An A fr ican P ipe f rom a S lave C emetery i n B arbados, West I nd ies J erome S .

H and ler

By t he e nd o f t he s eventeenth c entury, t he s ou th-eastern C ar ibbean i s land o f Barbados h ad b ecome E ng land 's r ichest c o lony i n t he New Wor ld. The w ea l th t ha t Barbados g enera ted d er ived f rom s ugar p roduct ion u nder a p lantat ion s ystem wh ich e mp loyed t ens o f t housands o f s laves o f A fr ican ' b irth o r d escent. A lthough J ama ica p re-empted B arbados 's p os it ion a mong Eng land 's C ar ibbean c o lon ies b y t he t h ird d ecade o f t he e ighteenth c entury, s laves c ont inued t o b e o f f undamenta l i mpor tance t o Barbad ian s oc iety a nd e conomy u nt i l 1 834, t he y ear s lavery l ega ly e nded i n t he Br it ish l Emp ire. A s w ith s laves t hroughout t he New Wor ld , B arbados 's s laves c rea ted a c u l tura l s ystem wh ich w as i nf luenced by t he t rad it ions o f t he ir A fr ican h ome lands a s w el a s by European t rad it ions a nd l p lantat ion-co lon ia l c ond i t ions s pec if ic t o t he N ew Wor ld e nv ironment. Th is c u l tura l s ystem i nc luded a v ar iety o f m ater ia l c omponents, among wh ich t obacco p ipes w ere p ar t icu lar ly s ign if icant. S laves v a lued a nd s moked t obacco. A lthough t hey s omet imes p roduced t he ir o wn o n s mal l and u n its t hey were a loca ted by l l p lantat ion o wners, most o f t he t obacco t hey c onsumed w as i mpor ted a nd d istr ibu ted b y p lantat ion o wners o r m anagers a s a t rea t a nd a s a r eward o r i ncent ive f or g ood b ehav ior. Tobacco was s moked a s c igars o r i n c lay p ipes. S laves a cqu ired p ipes i n s evera l ways: by p ick ing u p t hose whose s tems h ad broken a nd wh ich h ad b een d iscarded by t he ir f ormer European o wners; t hrough t hef t; a nd by purchase o r b ar ter o n t he i s land 's i nterna l market ing s ystem i n wh ich t he s laves w ere a c t ive p ar t ic ipants. I n a dd it ion, Europeanmanufac tured c lay p ipes w ere i mpor tant e lements i n t he p lantat ion g overnance s ystem. S laveowners o r p lantat ion m anagers p er iod ica ly l d istr ibu ted t hese p ipes t o t he ir s laves a s i ncent ives o r r ewards f or c onform ity t o d isc ip l inary a nd l abor n orms ( Hand ler a nd L ange 1 978: 1 33-135). C lay p ipes a lso p layed a r o le i n t he h eav i ly A fr ican i nf luenced p lantat ion s lave mor tuary c omp lex a nd were u sed , a long w ith o ther i t ems, a s g rave g oods i nterred w ith buria ls ( Hand ler a nd L ange 1 978: 1 99-201). Excavat ions i n a s lave c emetery a t a s ugar p lantat ion i n Barbados dur ing 1 972 a nd 1 973 y ie lded t wenty-two who le c lay p ipes i n a ssoc iat ion w i th e ighteen o f t he n inety-two bur ia ls; t hese p ipes c onst itute t he l argest s amp le o f who le p ipes y et e xcava ted f rom a rchaeo log ica l c ontexts i n a ny New Wor ld c o lon ia l s i te. P ipe-stem f ragments a nd b ow l f ragments were a lso f ound i n t he f i l l s urround ing t h ir ty-one o ther bur ia ls ( the e xcavat ions a nd t he ir r esu l ts a re d iscussed a t l ength i n Hand ler a nd L ange 1 978). A s ide f rom n a i ls, t acks a nd h and les a ssoc iated w ith c off ins, c lay p ipes were t he most f requent a r t ifacts a ssoc ia ted w ith bur ia ls. A l but l o ne o f t hese p ipes a nd p ipe f ragments were made o f wh ite k ao l in a nd h ad b een manufac tured i n Eng land f rom t he l a te s eventeenth t o t he e ar ly n ineteenth c entur ies; s im i lar p ipes r egu lar ly h ave b een f ound i n Nor th Amer ican s i tes d at ing f rom t he c o lon ia l p eriod

2 45

a nd o ccur a s w el l i n W est A fr ica ( see , f or e xamp le , C a lvocoress i 1 975) . One o f t he B arbados p ipes, h owever , was r emarkab ly d ifferent f rom t he o thers. I t i s t he o n ly o ne n o t made o f wh ite c lay, a nd i t s mode o f m anufac ture , f orm, a nd d ecorat ive f ea tures s uggest t ha t i t i s W est A fr ican. A s f ar a s I am a ware, t h is p ipe i s t he o n ly k nown e xamp le o f i t s k ind r ecovered f rom a ny a rchaeo log ica l s i te i n t he New Wor ld. ( F igs. 1 a nd 2 ) The p ipe w as a ssoc iated w i th a n u nd isturbed bur ia l t hat w as d ist inc t ive i n t erms o f t he number a nd v ar iety o f g rave g oods a ssoc iated w ith i t . The bur ia l w as t hat o f a n o ld m an, p robab ly o f A fr ican b ir th, who was i nterred i n t he l a te 1 600s o r e ar ly 1 700s a nd who may h ave b een a n Obeah m an, t ha t i s , am ed ic ine m an o r f o lk d oc tor. Obeah m en ( and w omen) were v ery c ommon o n W est I nd ian s ugar p lantat ions. They h e ld i mpor tant p os it ions i n t he s lave c ommun it ies b ecause, a mong o ther r easons, o f t he ir a deptness i n u s ing p lants a nd m ag ica l p rocedures f or c ura t ive a nd o ther s oc ial a lued purposes. The p rest ige o f t he d eceased w as ly v r ef lected i n t he bur ia l 's r e la t ive ly l arge n umber o f a ssoc ia ted g rave g oods wh ich d ramat ical ontrasts w ith t he t ota l a bsence o r v ery ly c l im ited quant ity o f g oods f ound w ith o ther bur ia ls; morever , m ost o f t he g rave g oods w ere u n ique e xamp les o f t he ir k ind i n t he c emetery. The bur ia l was i nterred w ith a n i ron kn ife , t hree d ifferent t ypes o f c opper a nd b rass b race lets o r a rm lets ( wh ich a re o f A fr ican s tyle o r manufac ture), a b rass o r b ronze f inger r ing, t wo s i lver a loy r ings, a n e labora te n eck lace ( composed o f l d og c an ines, European-manufac tured g lass b eads, f i sh v er tebrae, money c owry s he lls, a nd a l arge c arne l ian b ead manufactured i n C ambay , I nd ia) w ith o bv ious, bu t g enera l ized, A fr ican c harac ter ist ics ( Hand ler , L ange , a nd Orser , 1 979); t he u n ique c lay p ipe h ad b een p laced o n h is p e lv ic a rea. A l though broken p r ior t o e xcavat ion, t he p ipe i s c omp lete e xcept f or a s mal or t ion m iss ing f rom t he b ack o f t he b ow l. The l p bow l mou th i s n o t p erfec t ly c ircu lar , bu t i s a pprox imate ly 3 .2 c ent imeters a cross t he d iameter o f t he m ou th t o t he o uter e dges, a nd a pprox ima te ly 3 .4 c ent imeters f rom t he t op o f t he mouth t o t he p o int o f t he b ase where t he b ow l j o ins t he s tem ( see f igure). I nterna ly, t he b ow l i s f unne l-shaped a nd t apers f rom a n l a pprox ima te ly 2 .1-cent imeter d iameter a t t he mou th t o a pprox ima te ly 0 .8 c ent imeters a t t he b ase where i t j o ins t he b ore h o le o f t he s tem. The bore h o le i s a lso t apered , f rom 0 .9 c ent imeters a t t he o pen ing t o a n a pprox imate ly 0 .5 c ent imeter d iameter where i t e nters t he b ase o f t he b ow l. M easured e xternal he s hor t s tem i s a pprox imate ly 3 .8 c ent imeters l ong l y, t a nd 1 .9 c ent imeters w ide. The p ipe i s f ired t o a buff-co lor w ith a b rown p o l ished s l ip. The p aste i s s of t a nd i ron s ta in ing i s p resent i n t he c lay, wh ich i nc ludes quar tz s and i nc lus ions a nd s herd t emper. I t i s d iff icu l t t o e stab l ish i f t he p ipe was made i n a mo ld. There i s n o e v idence o f a s eam o n e ither t he s tem o r t he h ow l , a s a ppears i n t he mo ld-made European p ipes f ound i n t he c emetery. The a bsence o f t h is s eam, h owever , d oes n ot p rec lude t he p oss ibi l ity t hat t he p ipe was made i n a o ne-p iece mo ld a l though i t , o r v ar ious o f i ts

2 46

2 47

2 CM

F ig.

2

An African P ipe f rom Barbados

2 48

d ecora t ive f ea tures, l eather-hard c lay.

c ou ld

h ave b een c arved

f rom

a s o l id p iece o f

Around i t s o uter c ircumference, t he b ow l i s d ecora ted w ith n ine e qual ly s paced f lu tes. Because t hese f lu tes a re e roded i t i s d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine i f t hey w ere c arved o nto t he l ea ther-hard c lay p r ior t o f i r ing o r i f t hey w ere m anufactured i n a mo ld f rom w et c lay. I n e i ther c ase , t he o u ter c ircumference o f t he s tem h as t hree g roups o f i nc ised l i nes; e ach g roup, i n t urn, i s c ompr ised o f t hree l i nes. A r e l ief d o t i s s et i ns ide a n a nnu lar punctat ion o r i mpress ion b etween e ach g roup o f l i nes; t hree o f t hese d ots a re o n l ow a e ach s ide o n t he b o ttom o f t he s tem. F our s hal nd r ough ly c ircu lar punc tat ions a re o n t he b lunt h ee l o f t he s tem , but t hese punc tat ions a re n o t e qu id istant. Documentary e v idence s uggests t hat B arbad ian s laves s omet imes s moked s hor t-stemmed p ipes. G eorge P inckard, a B rit ish med ica l d octor who v is ited t he i s land i n 1 796 a nd o bserved l i fe among p lantat ion s laves, r eported: " Very o f ten t he p ipe i s s o s hor t... a s t o b e i n d anger o f burn ing t he n ose , (r e ven t he l i ps. I h ave f requent ly s een... [ the s laves ] smok ing w ith t he p ipe s o s hor t a s t o h o ld i t i n t he mouth b y p ress ing t he l i ps u pon t he l ower p ar t o f t he b ow l" ( 1806; 2 : 2 15). ( The " shor t" p ipes r epor ted by P inckard may h ave b een m ere ly European p ipes whose s tems h ad broken o ff , o r t hey may h ave b een d ist inct ive t ypes; a l a te e ighteenth c entury s ource f or J ama ica , f or e xamp le, ment ions t ha t s ome p lanters o n t ha t i s land s upp l ied t he ir s laves w ith, a mong o ther g oods, " shor t t obacco p ipes" [ quo ted i n Brathwa ite 1 971: 2 32 ] . ) A l though t he p ipe d iscussed i n t h is p aper may h ave b een s moked i n t he m anner d escr ibed by P inckard , i t i s more l i ke ly t ha t a d etachab le s tem o f s ome p er ishable mater ia l , s uch a s a h ol low r eed o r t ube ^ f . wood ( see , f or e xamp le , S haw 1 96n), was i nser ted i nto t he b ore h o le t o e n large t he t ota l s tem. The s mal br idge l b etween t he b ack o f t he b ow l a nd t he t op o f t he s tem o n t he Barbad ian p ipe ( see f igure) h as a n a pprox imate ly 0 .3-cent imeter h o le wh ich was p robab ly u sed t o t ie o r o therw ise s ecure t he d etachab le s tem t o t he r est o f t he p ipe. Th is u sage h as b een s uggested by O zanne 's o bservat ions o n a l arge c ol tion o f lec Ghana ian p ipes h e s tud ied ( 1964): I n most Ghana ian t obacco-p ipes, p rov is ion i s made f or t he s ecure a ttachment o f a v ery t ight ly d rawn s tr ing f ix ing t he t wo p ar ts t ogether. A s imp le c ol erm ina t ion t o t he s tem l ar t was a n e ar ly a nd v ery w idespread d ev ice f or s ecur ing t he c ord. I n Accra a nd S ha i t h is was qu ick ly g iven u p i n f avour o f a h ook b etween t he b ow l a nd t he s tem... i f t he s tring were d rawn f rom t he h ook t owards t he u nders ide o f t he v egetab le s tem , most o f t he s tra in wou ld f al o n t he c lay l s tem , t he h ook s erv ing o n ly t o k eep t he s tr ing i n p lace. The b ridge o r h ook " is a c ommon f ea ture" o f a rchaeo log ical ly r ecovered p ipes f rom h istor ic p eriod s i tes i n s ou thern Ghana , p ar t icu lar ly t he c oasta l a reas ( Ozanne 1 962: 5 2). Th is h ook d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een r epor ted f rom c entra l o r n or thern Ghana o r o ther a reas o f W est A fr ica where " two-p iece" p ipes h ave b een r ecovered a rchaeo log ica ly ( Ozanne 1 964: 3 7; S haw 1 960; S h inn ie l

2 49

a nd O zanne 1 962; Y ork 1 973; a nd P osnansky, p ersona l l 1 c ommun icat ion. C f. H il 976); moreover , t he h ook f eature d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een f ound i n European p ipes o r p ipes o f a bor ig ina l Amer ican manufacture ( see, f or e xamp le, S haw 1 960). The b r idge o r h ook o n t he Barbados p ipe i s o ne o f i t s d ist inct ive f eatures a nd p rov ides a s trong c lue, a s w il l b e d iscussed b e low, t o t he p ipe 's u lt imate p rovenance i n s outhern Ghana ( Go ld C oast). I n t ry ing t o e stab l ish t he s ty l ist ic p rovenance o r a ctua l o r ig in o f t he Barbados p ipe, t he p ipe o r i lustrat ions a nd pho tographs o f l i t were s hown t o a number o f New Wor ld s cho lars. S evera l c ou ld n ot s uggest a provenance o r w ere empha t ic t hat i t i s n ot o f European o r ig in. One a uthority v entured a Brazi l ian Amer ind ian o r ig in o n t he b as is o f d ecora t ive f eatures, s uch a s t he f lut ing, but t h is c ou ld n o t b e c onf irmed by a ny pub l ished s ource o r v erba l a uthor ity; a nother r eputable New Wor ld a rchaeo log ist , a ttest ing t o t he r ar ity o f t he p ipe, s uggested a l a te s ixteenth- o r s eventeenth-century S pan ish c o lon ia l manufacture, but t h is i dent if icat ion l i kew ise c ou ld n ot b e c orroborated. Fur thermore, a s earch o f t he Nor th Amer ican h istor ica l a rchaeo log ica l l i terature f a i led t o y ie ld s im i lar i tems. O ther a uthor it ies a nd publ ished e v idence , h owever , s trong ly s uggest t ha t t he p ipe i s o f West A fr ican, p ar t icu lar ly Ghana ian, o r ig in. Judging f rom a s earch o f t he West A fr ican e thnograph ic l i terature a nd v ar ious museum c ol ions I h ave e xam ined, t he l ect Barbados p ipe d oes n ot a ppear t o r esemb le modern o r r e la tive ly modern West A fr ican p ipes; a nd i t d oes n ot r esemble a rchaeo log ical ecovered p ipes wh ich h ave b een r epor ted f rom ly r v ar ious a reas o f West A fr ica s uch a s S ierra L eone, Ma l i , a nd Chad ( H il 1 976). However , a p robab le A fr ican p rovenance was l s uggested by F rank W il nd Merr ick P osnansky, s cho lars w ith lett a e xtens ive e xper ience i n West A fr ican a rchaeo logy, who e xam ined d raw ings a nd pho tographs o f t he p ipe. W il e l ieves t he p ipe i s lett b " essent ial A fr ican i n f orm" ( persona l c ommun icat ion) a nd ly P osnansky i ndependent ly c onc luded t ha t t he p ipe " cou ld qu ite e as i ly b e d ropped i nto a l a te s eventeenth c entury c ol ion f rom l ect Ghana a nd wou ld b e qu ite a t h ome" ( persona l c ommun icat ion). Corroborat ive a nd more d eta i led e v idence p rimar i ly d er ives f rom P au l O zanne 's r esearch o n Ghana ian p ipes. I n a n a r t ic le d ea l ing w ith t he e ar ly h istor ic p er iod a rchaeo logy a round Accra , O zanne d iscusses v ar ious t ypes o f c lay p ipes wh ich r epresented many d ifferent f orms. Most o f t hese p ipes were " col rom t he s urface o f o ld s ett lements, 3 r f ro r l ected f r oad-cutt ings a nd i ndustr ia l work ings" ( 1962: 5 1), A lthough t he i lustrations a ccompany ing O zanne 's a r t ic le o f ten l ack c lar ity a nd l i nd iv idua l p ipes a re n ot d escr ibed i n d eta i l , i n s tyl ist ic a nd o ther f eatures s ome o f t he p ipes a ppear t o b e v ery s im i lar t o t he p ipe d iscussed i n t h is p aper. Accord ing t o O zanne, t he Ghana ian p ipes were manufactured i n A fr ica ( that i s , t hey were n ot European), a nd d ated f rom t he l a tter h a lf o f t he s eventeenth c entury. I n a more d eta i led s tudy o f a Ghana ian c ol ion o f b etween 1 ,500 a nd l ect 2 ,000 p ipes, a l o f wh ich a re s hor t-stemmed o r " two-piece", O zanne l ( 1964) a lso p rov ides s uggest ive e v idence f or a Ghana ian o r ig in f or t he Barbados p ipe. The c ol ion t ha t h e s tud ied d isp layed " a l ect

20

b ew i lder ing v ar iety i n d es ign". O zanne c lass if ied t he c ol t ion i nto lec f ive t ypes, t wo o f wh ich h ave t he h ook b etween b ow l a nd s tem , a nd o ne o f wh ich ( Ozanne 's t ype 2 b) s eems most c lose ly t o f i t t he Barbados p ipe. Ghana ian t wo-p iece p ipes i nc lude s uch a w ide a rray o f s ty l ist ic a nd d ecora t ive f ea tures t ha t a l though many may h ave b een mo ld-made , o ne g ets t he i mpress ion t ha t d ecora t ive f eatures were i nd iv idua ly c raf ted a nd n o t mass p roduced. I n a ny c ase, t he l Barbados p ipe e ven a ppears d ist inct ive i n v ar ious o f i t s s pec if ic d ecora t ive d eta i ls when t hese a re c ompared t o o ther p ipes f rom s ou thern Ghana wh ich h ave b een i lustra ted i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l l i tera ture f rom t hat a rea ( Ozanne 1 962, 1 964; S haw 1 960). Nonethe less i n i t s f orm a nd s hape , s hor t-stem , g enera l d ecora t ive f ea tures, a nd e spec ial he p resence o f t he h ook , t he Barbados ly t p ipe c lose ly r esembles a number o f p ipes f rom s ou thern a nd c oasta l Ghana. I n h is monograph ic s tudy , O zanne ( 1964) h as d ated t hese p ipes f rom t he l a tter h a lf o f t he s eventeenth c entury, a l though h is d iscuss ion a nd t he o f ten c rude a ccompany ing i lustrat ions ( and l ack l o f s ome c ruc ia l i ions i n t he monograph c opy I was a b le t o lustrat c onsu l t) make i t d iff icu l t t o a ss ign a more s pec if ic p rovenance a nd p rec ise d ate t o t he Barbados p ipe. A lthough t he p ipe c ou ld h ave b een made i n Barbados f ol ing l ow West A fr ican t echn iques a nd s ty l ist ic f ea tures, a va i lab le e v idence makes i t h igh ly u n l ike ly t hat i t was manufactured o n t he i s land. B arbados c onta ins c lay d epos its f rom wh ich p o ttery h as b een manufactured f or a lmost t hree c entur ies ( Hand ler 1 963). However , t he c o lor a nd qua l it ies o f t he p ipe 's c lay, t he a bsence o f o ther a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or s im i lar p ipes i n t he c emetery a nd f rom e xcavat ions a nd s urface c ol ions i n o ther a reas o f t he i s land, l ect a nd t he f act t ha t a n a bundant a rray o f p r imary h istor ica l s ources d o n o t ment ion o r s uggest a ny k ind o f p ipe manufactur ing i n B arbados i nd i cr . te t hat t he p ipe was b rought f rom e lsewher9. A Ghana ian p rovenance wou ld b e c ons istent w ith wha t i s known a bout t he Eng l ish s lave t rade f rom t he Go ld C oast t o Barbados dur ing t he l a te s eventeenth a nd e ar ly e ighteenth c entur ies ( Hand ler a nd L ange 1 978: 2 0-28), a s wel s w ith t he l a a pparent West A fr ican s tyl ist ic o r ig in o f o ther a r t ifacts a ssoc ia ted w i th t he bur ia l , p ar t icu lar ly t he n eck lace a nd t he meta l b race lets a nd a rm lets -e ven t hough n one o f t hese a r t ifacts i s s uff ic ient ly d ist inc t ive t o p erm it i dent if ica t ion w ith a p ar t icu lar West A fr ican c u l tura l g roup o r as pec if ic c oasta l a rea. S ome o f t he m eta l a r t ifacts c ou ld h ave b een manufactured i n Barbados by s laves who a pp l ied A fr ican s ty l ist ic f eatures a nd emp loyed A fr ican manufactur ing t echn iques i n t he ir h ouses o r a t p lantat ion f orges ( Hand ler a nd L ange 1 978: 1 53-158), a l though i t i s more l ike ly t hat t hese a r t ifac ts a nd t he p ipe were t ranspor ted t o t he i s land v ia t he m idd le p assage f rom West A fr ica t o t he New Wor ld. Whether t he p ipe, i n p ar t icu lar , Was a ctual ranspor ted ly t by t he p erson w ith whom i t was u l t imate ly i nterred i s , o f c ourse , a q uest ion t hat n ever c an b e a nswered. The u se o f t he p ipe , l h owever , a s a g rave g ood r ef lects a c harac ter ist icaly West A fr ican l mor tuary p a ttern wh ich was a lso wel e v ident i n o ther bur ia ls e xcavated i n t he s lave c emetery. A lthough t hese bur ia ls were

2 51

a ssoc iated w ith European-manufactured wh i te c lay p ipes , t he p ipes were i ncorporated i n t he mor tuary c omp lex f ol l ow ing a n A fr ican p a ttern. The ir u se a s g rave g oods was o ne man ifestat ion o f a number o f A fr ican i nf luences o n t he mor tuary c omp lex t hat p lantat ion s laves d eve loped ( Hand ler a nd L ange 1 978: 2 08-215), a nd t he mor tuary c omp lex , i n t urn, p rov ides but a no ther e xamp le o f t he way i n wh ich A fr ican t rad i t ions i nf luenced Barbad ian s lave c u lture i n g enera l ( see , f or e xamp le, H and ler a nd F r isb ie 1 972).

2 52

R eferences Brathwa ite , Edward 1 971 The D eve lopment o f Creo le S oc iety i n J ama ica. Oxford: C larendon. C a lvocoress i , D av id 1 975 European Trade P ipes i n Ghana. West A fr ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy 5 : 1 95-200. H and ler , J erome S . 1 963 A H istor ica l S ketch o f P o ttery Manufacture i n B arbados. J ourna l o f t he Barbados Museum a nd H istor ica l S oc iety 3 0: 1 29-153. Hand ler , J erome S . a nd F r isb ie , Char lo tte J . 1 972 Aspects o f S lave L ife i n B arbados: Mus ic a nd i t s Cu l tura l C ontext. C ar ibbean S tud ies 1 1: 5 -46. Hand ler , J erome S . a nd L ange . F reder ick W . 1 978 P lanta t ion S lavery i n B arbados: An Archaeo log ica l a nd H istor ica l I nvest iga t ion. C ambr idge : H arvard Un ivers ity P ress. Hand ler , J erome S ., L ange , F reder ick W . a nd Orser , Char les 1 979 Carne l ian B eads i n Neck laces f rom a S lave C emetery i n Barbados. Ornament: A Quar ter ly o f J ewe lry & P ersona l Adornment 4 : 1 5-18. H il tthew l, Ma 1 976 Archaeo log ica l Smok ing P ipes f rom C entra l S ierra L eone. West A fr ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy 6 : 1 09-119. O zanne , P au l 1 962 No tes o n t he E ar ly H istor ic Archaeo logy o f Accra. Transac t ions o f t he H istor ica l S oc iety o f Ghana 6 : 5 1-70. ( ?) 1 964 Tobacco-P ipes o f Accra a nd S ha i . L egon: I nst itute o f A fr ican S tud ies, Un ivers ity o f Ghana. P inckard , G eorge 1 806 Notes o n t he West I nd ies. 3 v o ls. L ondon. S haw, Thurston 1 960 E ar ly Smok ing P ipes: I n A fr ica , Europe, a nd Amer ica. J ourna l o f t he Roya l Anthropo log ica l I nst i tu te 9 0: 2 72-304. S h inn ie , P .L. a nd O zanne , P au l 1 962 Excavat ions a t Y end i Dabar i. Transac t ions o f t he H istor ica l S oc iety o f Ghana 6 : 8 7-118. York , R .N. 1 973 Excava t ions a t New Bu ipe. West A fr ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy 3 : 1 -189.

2 53

Acknow ledgements I a m g ratefu l t o D av id Braun f or h is c omments o n e ar l ier d raf ts o f t h is p aper , t o R ober t L ayhe a nd Haree D eutchman f or r esearch a ss istance , a nd t o Merr ick P osnansky a nd F rank W il lett f or o ther a dv ice. Funds f or a rchaeo log ica l f i e ldwork w ere p rov ided by t he N at iona l S c ience F ounda t ion a nd t he Wenner-Green F ounda t ion f or Anthropo log ica l R esearch.

2 54

S OURCES O F

P ORT R OYAL P IPES

A drian O swald

A s tudy o f

t he

p ublished

r eports o f e xcavations a t P ort R oyal 1

t hrows s ome l ight o n the s ources f or t hese o bjects. b ased b e

o n

r ecent

k nowledge

s how p laces o f o rigin a nd

Tables 1 and 2 ,

s uch makers a s

T he b ases ( a) b een

f or a ttribution a re a s

B ristol

a llotted

P ipes . t o

B owls

B ristol

t hat C ity 's makers o n maker 's

n ames

f ollows:-

marked

s ince

w ith a c artouche

t his

f orm

o f

mark

o n

o ccurs

t he

s ide

mainly

a nd

i nitials

( b) London P ipes.

i n o rigin .

( Table

B owls

O ther

i dentification r ests

2 ).

with moulded

i nitials

s urmounted

c rown o n t he s ides o f t he s pur o r b ve h ave b een a ttributed t he

main

r elated

s ource o f s uch marks

J.

4

s hapes

A rmorial

p ipes h ave a lso b een

s ources

Dutch

p ipes

r ely on makers n ames a nd

i nitials on b owls or

h ave

b een

i dentified

T able B ristol

on

mark

s tyles

1 s hows

t he

d omination o f

d ocumentation

o f

makers

B ristol

r elative a nd

marks

makers

i n

t he

W est

t o London by the i s

more

b owl

Marx.

' Clay S moking P ipes r ecovered

Port R oyal.

f rom

May i st 1 966-March 3 1st 1 968'.

t he

I ndian

f act

c omplete.

d oes suggest t hat L ondon makers gained a b igger s hare o f a fter 1 700.

R .F .

and

.

T rade but t his may b e d istorted

1 .

b y a

t o London

t o L ondon f or t he s ame r eason.

( c) Other s tems.

h ave among

Incuse i nitials, n ot i n a f rame, on t he back of

t he b owl a re a lso mainly B ristol

a s

c an

i dentified.

t hat

T able

2

t he market

Sunken C ity o f

J amaica,

N at. T rust

C ommission 1 968 . P .Mayes ' Jamaica Excavations 1 969-70' Jamaica N at. T rust C ommission 1 972. p p.110-117 I .C.

Walker ' Clay Tobacco P ipes with p articular r eference t o the

B ristol Industry ' Parks C anada, 1 977. ' Bristol C lay P ipes'. 3 .

A drian O swald

' New L ight

o n

s ome

1 8 C entury P ipe

C ollectanea L ondiniensa -Studies L ondon a nd M iddx A rch. 4 .

F .W.H . F riederich N ederland, 1 975

R .G. Jackson a nd R .H . P rice

B ristol C ity M useum M onograph N o.l.

S oc.

p resented

t o

S pecial p aper N o.2

' Pljpeologie ' A rcheologische

2 55

makers

Ralph

1 974.

o f L ondon '

Merrifield,

1 978 p .347 Werkgemeenschop

v aar

T able 1 .

S ource

o f

P ipes.

C artouche I ncused B ack C artouche B ack B ase o f o f B owl

B ristol

L ondon

1 18

1 30

C rowned o n S pur

2 6 G lasgow

o f B owl

3 2

1 1 I dentified

e t

B roseley

t e

Laglish

F rench

D utch

1

b y n ame a nd

i t

e t

e t

I dentifi ed m akers i nitials 3

5 0

2

i nitial

2

i n E nglish S tyles

b y s tyle o f m ark a nd

2 56

2 99

2

I dentified b y n ame

I dentified

T otal

9

p lace

e t

S tyle o f mark a nd

B owls d ecorated

1 3

S tems

9

L iverpool

Y ork

6

Armorial

B ack o f B owl m ainly i n r elief

S tem

B owl

3 5

2

b owl

3 7

T able 2 .

I dentified

B ristol R ichard N onney 1 652-1713 W illiam E vans ( 1)&(2) 1 660-1697 R .Tippett ( 1)(2)(3) 1 660-1722 L luellin E vans 1 661-1693 F rancis R ussell ( 1)&(2) 1 6691 699 J ames A bbott 1 676-1718 P hillip E dwards ( 2) 1 680-1703 P hillip C alloway ( 1)&(2) 1 6801 720 F rancis E dwards 1 683-1715 W illiam T aylor 1 689-1712 D evereux J ones ( 1)&(2) 1 6911 739 T homas O wen ( 1)(2)&(3) 1 6961 739 T .Addison 1 697-1727 C harles C hick 1 697-1722 I saac E vans 1 699-1712 H enry H oar 1 699-1727 H enry E dwards 1 699-1731 J ohn M assey ( 1)&(2) 1 700-1738 . , . n ar-e7 ( 1)&(2) 1 705-1739 E wa rR eed 1 706-1734 J ames J enkins 1 707-1739 J ohn A rthur 1 707-1723 J ohn W ilson 1 707-1722 C harles B uckler 1 713-1729 G eorge E bbery 1 721-1786 C harles H icks 1 722-1757 W illiam N icholas 1 730-1775 W illiam F oord 1 733-1754

N os. 3 2 1 3 7 2 2 3 1 2 2 1 3 5

M akers

L ondon

N os.

N icholas B atchelor 1 679-?1710 J ohn K ing ( 1)&(2) 1 689-1740 W illiam P inkard 1 696-1715 W illiam M anby ( 3) 1 719-1746 F rancis S tray 1 732-?1760

1 2 4 7 1

T homas D ormer 1 748-1770 J ohn L each 1 832-?1860

9 2

Y ork A braham B oyes 1 660-80

2

B roseley W illiam B rion 1 695-1740

1

G lasgow D .McDougall & C o. 1 647-1968 W m W hite 1 805-1955

3 3

L iverpool W illiam G iles 1 802-c1840

1

D utch D irk R onde 1 759-1782 P ieter V erschut 1 759-1768

1 1

F rench G isclon 1 859-1895 F iolet 1 9th c entury

1 1

6 1 1 1 5 1 1 3 1 1 9 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 3

2 57

C LAY P IPES F ROM N ORTH-EAST B RAZIL,

U lysses P ernambucano d e M ello

( Translated

T he B razil

f rom t he P ortuguese b y E lisabeth W eeks)

E uropeans,

i n

t he

s ee I ndians B y t i .e e nd

and

y ears

i n

p articular

f ollowing

t he

P ortuguese,

i ts d iscovery i n 1 500,

who

went

t o

t he

f irst

t o

were

s moking t obacco a nd e ven b ecoming i ntoxicated a s a r esult. o f t he X VIth c entury, and e specially durin . „ , t he XVIIth

c entury ,

E uropeans w ere a rriving

t hough

t hey

were

warned

i n B razil a lready a ddicted

a gainst

i t

by

Andre

t o

Thevet,

t obacco, who

i n

L es S ingularitez d e l a F rance Antartique ( 1558) s tates t hat t he u se t obacco i s n ot without r isk, until one g ets u sed t o i t. 1 Thus,

o f i n

l ittle more t han 5 0 y ears, what was o riginally a n ative c ustom had b ecome a w idespread p ractice i n W estern E urope, a nd w ould s oon s pread t o the East and even the Far East. Fernand Braudel in his C iviliz «ao Material e Capitalismo, gives dates t o s how t he r apid s pread o f t obacco t hroughout t he world, where i t was u sed i n various w ays. I n

t he

p resent

a rticle,

we

will

a ttempt

s tatistical d ata o btained f rom an analysis c lay p ipes,

mainly D utch ,

o f

t o

s everal

e stablish

s ome

c ollections

whic l . w e made while c arrying o ut

u

o f

h istorico-

a rchaeological s tudy o f v arious s ites i n N orth E ast B razil . T hese d ate f rom t he t ime when t he r egion was u nder t he c ontrol o f t he Dutch West I ndies C ompany,

f rom 1 630 t o 1 654.

The l uy i-speakih6 n atives c alled t obacco p etum, a nd a g reat n umber o f v ariants o f t his t erm were r ecorded b y t he writers a nd n aturalists

o f

t hose

f irst

t wo

c enturies:

p etum,

p itima,

b ettin ,

p etigma,

p etume,

a s f ound i n B arre, T hevet, Lery, Hans S taden, Fernao C ardim, Gabriel S oares d e S ousa,

M arcgrave e P iso .

3

T he c learest d escription o f s moking E ast,

a mong

i s given b y F ather F ernao C ardim,

t he I ndians o f t he N orth

writing

i n

1 585,

who

s ays:

" These p agans h ave t he c ustom o f drinking t he smoke o f p etigma, a lso c alled

s acred h erb .

a c ane

t ube,

p ointed t he

e nd a nd

s moke

v illages,

T hey d ry i t a nd make a t ube

and f ill t his with t he l eaf; p lace

deriving

t he

t hick e nd

g reat

f rom a p alm

i n t heir mouths,

delight

and

l eaf,

l ike

then t hey s et l ight t o t he

p leasure

a nd f rom

s uck a nd d rink i t".

In

t he

t he n atives i ndulged i n t his habit a t a ll h ours o f the day

a nd n ight, a nd C ardim writes t hat s ometimes " they would l ie i n t heir h ammocks d rinking s ee a nd g etting i ntoxicated, e xactly a s i f t hey h ad b een d rinking

w ine" .

The t erm ' drinking s moke' was t hat o riginally u sed f or smoking. T he f ollowing p assage f rom G abriel S oares d e S ousa, 2 59

written i n 1 587,

i s

e nlightening: " They l ight t his t ube a t t he e nd f illed with p etume l eaves, a nd when i t i s a light t hey p ut i t i n t heir mouths a nd s uck i n t he s moke , a nd a l arge a mount e nters t hrough t heir n asal p assages a nd 5 I t t hroats a nd i s e xpelled w ith g reat f orce t hrough t heir n ostrils „. i s c lear t hat t he t erm means ' to swallow t obacco s moke' . A s Luis d a C amara C ascudo c orrectly o bserves, t he s moke p roduced b ore n o r esemblance t o s olids, b ut was more l ike a l iquid, " especially t he t hick a nd h eavy p uffs o f s moke" , s o i n t he X VIth c entury t he e xpression ' drinking s moke ' i s c onsidered t he c orrect o ne . 6 T he X VIth c entury a uthors a re u nanimous o n o ne p oint : t he n atives s moked t obacco i n a k ind o f l ong t ube o r c igar , a nd n ever u sed a ny k ind o f p ipe. A d escription o f t he way t he n atives s moked t obacco i s g iven b y t he well-known XVIth c entury a uthor G abriel S oares d e S ousa: " The smoking a pparatus i s a t ube made f rom a d ried p alm l eaf t hat t he I ndians r oll u p w ith t hree o r f our l eaves o f t he s acred h erb t hat t hey c all p etume i nside; t hey t ie a s tring r ound t he widest p art, t hat c ontains t he p etume l eaves, a nd l ight t his e nd, a n0 when i t i s a light t hey p ut i t i n t heir m ouths a nd s uck i n t he s mok e . I n t he l ate X VIth c entury a nother w ell-known P ortuguese writer , t he J esuit F ernao C ardim, writing i n t he c ollection e ntitled T ratados d a T erra e G ente d o B rasil s ays t hat " in t his l and t hey make t ubes o f p alm l eaves a nd f ill t hem with t his d ried h erb, t hen t hey s et l ight t o o ne e nd a nd p lace t he o ther i n t heir mouths and drink t he s moke ' s. ' I n L a C osmographie Universelle ( 1575), T hevet writes: " When i t i s d ry, t hey r oll s ome o f i t u p i n a v ery l arge p alm

l eaf ,

making a r oll a s l ong a s a c andle% 9

A s f ar a s we c an d iscover t he word c angoeira, c angoera o r c anguera , a ll o f which s pellings a re f ound, i s d efined i n d ictionaries o f t he Tupi l anguage a s b eing " a t ype o f f lute t hat t he B razilian I ndians make f rom t he b ones o f t he d ead", o r a s a " spine, s keleton, f leshless b one" , s o t he u se o f t his t erm t o d esignate a t obacco h older By must s tem f rom t he s imilarity o f t his o bject t o a b one f lute . 10 e xzen t 4d,a c hc t erm c . ame t o b e u sed f or a t ype o f c igar , made w ith a f ew t obacco l eaves t hat t he I ndians " rolled u p i n t he p alm l eaf l ike a The c angoeira a ppears i n o ne o f t he b eautiful p acket o f s pices . 11 wood e ngravings i n a b ook b y t he Warhaftige H istoria ( 1557). T his

G erman may b e

t raveller Hans S taden, t he e arliest p ictorial

r epresentation o f t obacco s moking i n B razil . I t s hows t he I ndians a t n ight i n t he s helter o f t heir v illege, s quatting o n t heir h eels a nd s moking a t t he d oors o f

t heir h uts .1 2

The most p opular way o f u sing t obacco i n t he y ears i mmediately f ollowing i ts i ntroduction was t o smell o r s niff i t u p, a p ractice f ound i n L isbon a s e arly a s 1 558, a lthough " powdered t obacco, w hile i t i s

t he most

o pinion

p opular k ind,

s eems

t o

c ontradict

i s

c ertainly t he

t hat

o f

t he

l east

h ealthy ” .13

T his

p harmacist J oaquim d e A lmeida

P into ' of t he s pecial s chool o f Pharmacy i n P aris', who a t t he e nd o f t he X IXth c entury writes: " the u se o f s nuff i n moderation i s o f v alue t o

s tudious

p ersons.

The P ortuguese a lso a dopted

t he h abit o f c hewing t obacco,

t hough i t was c onsidered u nhealthy ,

2 60

e ven

a s t hey w ere r eminded b y t he J esuit

A ntonil

( Andreoni),

who

i n

t he X VIIIth

c entury

i ndulgence c auses t he u ser t o work l ess, h ave b ad

b reath;

h is

i n

t he N orth E ast

t hat

" excessive

l ose h is s ense o f t aste a nd

t eeth b ecome b lack a nd

h is

I n t he f irst h alf o f t he X VIIth c entury, f irmly e stablished

w rites l ips

f oul"

1 5

t obacco growing b ecame

o f B razil,

a nd d uring

t his c entury

i ts e conomic importance p rogressively i ncreased u ntil i t was s econd o nly e nd

t o o f

s ugar c ane, t he

a p osition i t h eld

c entury .

T he most

u ntil o vertaken b y c otton a t

i mportant

t obacco g rowing

a reas

were

t he i n

P ernambuco, A lagoas, S ergipe a nd e specially B ahia . I n a ddition , a t t he b eginning o f t he X VIIth c entury t he Dutch and F rench were g rowing t obacco

o n p lantations

p rice i n F rance, d 'Abbeville. 16 I t I ndians

i n P arä a nd

F landers

and

Maranhao,

E ngland,

a nd

a s

t his c ommanded

i s

a ttested

b y

a g ood C laude

s hould b e r emembered t hat i n B razil n ot o nly t he E uropeans a nd u sed t obacco . T he n egro s laves were a lso a ddicted t o t he u se

o f t obacco a nd p ipes . T o p revent f ires i n t he c ane p lantations A ntonil r ecommended t hat s pecial c are s hould b e t aken t o p revent " foolish n egroes f rom s etting t hem o n f ire t hrough c arelessness, b y l etting t he wind f an t he embers t hat t hey t ake with t hem t o l ight t heir p ipes", which were o f c ourse u sed f or s moking. 1 / The

African

i mportant

p reference

f actor

i n

t rade

f or

B razilian

w ith A frica,

I n t he X VIIIth c entury t he weight o f s trictly c ontrolled

a board

t obacco

where

i t

t hese r olls a nd

e very v essel

t rading

made

i t

w as e xported

a v ery

i n r olls .

t heir q uantity was

with A frica,

i n c ase a n

e xcessive s upply p ut u p t he p rice o f s laves . A s pecial t ype o f t obacco was e xported t o A frica: t he p reference was f or t he b lack s moking t obacco o f m olasses.

B ahia,

o f

t hird

c lass

quality,

u sually

t reated

with

I n t he North E ast p art o f B razil t hat c ame u nder t he c ontrol o f t he D utch West I ndies C ompany , t he D utch f ound p lantations o f t obacco i n 1 630 ,

) y -t stence .

d escribes

t here u nder w as g rown :

A driaan V erdonck ,

t h2 Y erch E ast

t he P ortuguese, a round

P ernambuco .

a s mall o r l arge s cale,

a mongst

t he

b est

suggest

p asturelands,

r eferences t hat

i n

d uring

t o

f ound

a n

h e

i n

l ived

w here t obacco a ll

i n

t ogether w ith c attle f arming o n

a nd

a nd

C ompany

y ears

U na S irinha€m, a n a bundant

b y J oannes d e L aet,

U na

t he

t he

t he p rincipal a reas

i n P orto C alvo,

t he p lant r equired

i ts c hronicler ,

o n t he c oast g rows

H owever, n ot

a s

w as

i n a r eport

k new

l ists

I n t he r ecords u sed

C ompany a nd a lso b e f ound

a nd

S ao F rancisco,

T obacco g rowing

a nimal manure .

a s h e

s upply o f

D irector o f

B arra G rande a re d escribed a rea

where 1 / .

t he

b est

t obacco

t he a s t o

i n g reat p rofusion t he

o fficial D utch

t obacco-growing

r eceived

r ecords

a nd

a rchives d o

encouragement

f rom

t he

C ompany. Nothing i s s moked t obacco; u sed

c angoeiras.

k nown a bout t he way t he f irst E uropeans i n B razil t o b egin with t hey p robably c opied t he I ndians and C lay p ipes o f t he

t ype u sed b y t he N orth American

I ndians w ere i ntroduced t owards t he e nd did

o f

t he XVIth c entury ,

b ut t hese

n ot b ecome a s p opular with t he Portuguese a s with t he Dutch a nd

E nglish.

2 61

I t was i n t he XVIIth c entury t hat t he c lay p ipe r eached i ts greatest p opularity amongst t he E uropeans, I ndians, and N egroes o f B razil, a nd t he e arly d escriptions o f t he n ew method o f smoking d ate f rom t he p eriod o f Dutch o ccupation o f t he N orth E ast ( 1632-1654). A description p owdered

b y

G eorge

Marcgrave

s eems

t o

b e

f ruit k nown a s p indoba,

o r u rucuruiba,

o r a qua.

t he i nside r emoved a nd t he s hell c ut t o s hape, t he

s ide

t he

a nd

a s mall

w ooden

t ube

i nserted.

o f p etume .

o f

t he

N orth

R io G rande,

H e c ites

t he

t exts o f

t he

i s c ut o ff,

t hen a h ole i s made i n

T his a ppliance

R oelof B aro d escribes a v isit h e made i n 1 647 T apuians

d ried

s hell o f

O ne e nd

p etimbuaba ( the P ortuguese h ave c orrupted t he w ord t he B elgians h ave g one e ven f urther a nd c alled J anduis

e arliest:

t obacco was p laced " in a ppliances made o f t he

t o i t

t o

w here

a

t he c ountry o f t he

h e

Marcgrave q uoted

i s c alled

C atimbaba , a ni Katgenbow) .lo

f ound

a bove,

' plantations ' a nd

s ays t hat

t he p ipes o f t hese I ndians were l arger t han t hose o f t he E uropeans: " The T apuians, f inding t hem t oo small, make t heirs with t he s tem a s broad a s y our t humb, e ither o f wood o r c lay, with a b owl a t t he e nd where t hey p ut t he p etun a s b ig a s y our f ist; t hey i nhale t he s moke a s we d o, a nd

and e xpell i t t hrough a ll t he h olAs t hey h ave i n t heir c heeks

c hin , A s

a t ruly h orrible

we h ave

s een,

a lready r ecorded b aked

c lay, The

l ike

l arge

s cale .

u se by

c olonisers

A n

o f

T upis: a nd

i n

1 565 b y t he

t heir

a c ane

h erb

' with

a nd

l ittle

t ube o f 2 u

were

f irst

a rchaeology

h aving

I ndians a n

t he

t o

t o manufacture t hem o n a

h istorical

a n American d evice ,

t he English a s early a s d ried

America

t he f irst

s pecialist

c ourse,

b ut Marcgrave h ad

" They u se

c all t hem Amrupetimbuaba .

N orth

i nto E urope a nd

E nglish

o f

s ee" .1 7

t he

t hose f rom E urope,

E nglish

p ipe w as,

t o

B aro s peaks o f ' clay ' p ipes,

t heir

i ntroduce c lay p ipes " The

s ight

o f

F lorida,

e arthen c up

w rites:

b een i ntroduced i n

who

t he

t o

s moked

e nd'.

T he

I ndians o f V irginia u sed a s imple c lay p ipe t hat was merely a t apering p ottery t ube b ent u pward a t t he b road e nd, a nd i t was f rom p ipes o f t his k ind

t hat

t her, t he

f irst

n o more

t he E uropean c lay p ipe developed".

t he

f irst

t o

t he

t obacco, ad " bzcaus2 , f t he . cal _ity h igh p r'c? rf E nglish p ipes h ad e xtremely s mall b owls a nd s tems t hat w ere

t han f our o r

f ive

i nches

i n l ength" .

I n t he Low C ountries smoking c entury,

A ccording

E uropean c lay p ipes w ere made i n E ngland a round

and

i s

was known a t t he e nd o f t he XVIth

p ictorially a ttested

p robably i ntroduced.

F rom

t hen o n ,

2 1

i n t he y ear 1 598,

t he h abit o f s moking

when i t

s pread

was

r apidly

t o t he p oint where a s ocial h istorian writing o f X VIIth c entury H olland c ould

s ay t hat

" all H olland

s melled

T o c ater f or t he n ew f ashion, C ountries b egan A s

t o

p roduce

a t J amestown a nd

t hese

o f

t obacco .

2 2

manufacturers

p ipes

i n V irginia,

i n t heir

i n E ngland

a nd

t he L ow

t housands.

p ipes made

o f

white

c lay c an b e

f ound i n l arge q uantities a long t he N orth E ast c oast o f B razil i n t he a reas o ccupied E nglish

b y t he P ortuguese,

a nd

D utch

c lay

p ipes

a nd o f

a fter 1 630,

b y t he D utch.

t he

a nd

X VIIth

X VIIIth

c enturies

a re t he s ubject o f a v ast b ibliography, n ot o nly i n Western E urope b ut a lso i n N orth America. T he s pecialist v iew i s t hat t hese c lay p ipes

2 62

c an b e d ated b y v arious m eans: b y a m aker 's m ark a nd d ate s tamp , t hough t his i s r are; b y a maker's mark t hat c an b e i dentified with a known i ndividual whose n ame s ame

a rchaeological

p resence

i n

i s o n r ecord;

s trata

c ontemporary

a s

g roups

p aintings

c an a lso b e d ated w ith t he h elp o f d etails, o f

s uch a s

t he b owl,

t he h eight o f

b y t he p ipes b eing o f

d atable

a nd

d rawings

s tatistical

t he b owl,

i nternal d iameters o f

o f

t he

t op

o f

p ipes;

p lace o f manufacture P ortugal . p ipes o f

T hey

manufacturing

t he

b owl,

i n o ne p iece w ere a lso

c an give v ery l ittle i nformation a bout t hem. t hese

t heir

and

t he

t he s tem.

P ipes o f r ed c lay manufactured

o f

i n t he

b y

k nown d ate .

s tudies o f

c ourse o f o ur h istorico-archaeological r esearches, r ecords

a nd

t he g reatest e xternal d iameter

t he i nternal d iameter o f

e xternal a nd

f ound

o bjects;

n o d oubt

There a ppear

t heir v alue was

t o b e r ecorded,

f ound

i n t he

b ut u nfortunately w e t oo

whether t his

t o b e n o

small

was

f or

t he

i n B razil

o r

T he b owl h as a bout t he s ame c apacity a s t hat o f t he L aropean t he f irst h alf o f t he X VIIth c entury, b ut t he e xternal

d iameter o f t he s tem i s c onsiderably g reater a nd i t i s much s horter. The s tem i s c ylindrical a t t he b owl e nd b ut b egins t o t aper h alf way a long and d ecreases i n e xternal d iameter t owards t he mouth . These p ipes, with t he s tem a t r ight angles t o t he b owl, a re o ften f ound i n X VIIth a nd X VIIIth c entury c ontexts . T he d ecoration , whether o n b owl o r s tem,

c onsists o f a l imited

Tests s ample

o f

r esults s cale ,

o f

were

a nd

I n

s trength

f ragments

a nd

f rom

o btained:

a ddiLion

t o

t he

k nown a s " pipe h eads". b owl

a ttached

m outhpiece)

t o

water

t he i n

i n t he s econd

r ange o f

a bsorption

s tems

t he

i ncised d esigns .

o f

t hese

f irst

t est,

were

p ipes,

c arried a nd

t he

o ut

on a

f ollowing

2 .5 s trength o n t he Mohs

t est,

a bsorption o f b etween 5 a nd

p ipes

d escribed

a bove,

we

f ound

1 1% .

ype, a notheL- t

T his group c omprises p ipes t hat c onsist o f a

a s hort

s ection o f

s tem

i nto

which a wooden

s tem ( or

c an b e f itted. a re most o ften f ound

i n t he c ontext o f X IXth a nd XXth

c zntury material, a nd c an s till b e f ound t oday . T hey a re mentioned i n l ists o f g oods e xported b y t he S tate o f P ernambuco a nd Maranhao i n t he e arly X IXth c entury. c ame f rom s een

The wooden s tems n eeded t o c omplete t he p ipes

t he P arä r egion o f B razil a nd

f rom

r ecords

o f

goods

imported

f rom Angola ( Africa), t hrough

t he

p ort

a s o f

c an ) m Recife

( Pernambuco). T oday

t hese " pipe-heads" a re made b y h and

B razil ( Bahia,

P ernambuco,

where t heir l ow c igarettes . b y h and

c ost g ives

T his t ype o f

i n s everal s tates

Maranhao) a nd a re s till u sed

p i

2

o f

i n r ural a reas ,

t hem an a dvantage o ver f actory p roduced i s u sually m ade b y women ,

who model

t hem

without u sing a ny f orm o r mould.

T he p roduction o f t hese " pipe-heads" d oes n ot i nvolve t he u se o f c apital

a nd

e mployees),

l abour a nd

a s

i s

t he

t his r esults

n orm

i n i ndustry

t oday ( there a re n o p aid

i n a g reat v ariety o f

s ize

a nd

d ecoration .

The f reedom o f a rtistic e xpression s een i n t ,day's p ipeheads i s a lso p resent i n t hose f ound during e xcavation, amongst t hese b eing a t ype with a f eature r arely s een t oday: a n e xtra p iece a t t he b ase o f t he b owl . T his p iece h ad a h ole t hrough i t, t hrough which t he s moker c ould

2 63

p ass a c ord ( Plates The c hanged p ipes

made ) .

way

o f

t hese

p lant

p ipes

f ibre

were

t o

h and

made,

a nd

t he

a re

p ipe

r ound

s till

made,

v ery l ittle, g iven i ts v ery p rimitive n ature a nd

w e

f ound.

B ackground

t o

h eads' b eing

Maria D avid

a P opular made

A rt

d e A .

B randao,

F orm" ,

i n h er

d escribes

h ow

h is

n eck .

c an

a rticle "The

s he

h ave

j udging b y t he

s aw

S ocial

t hese

i n t he i nterior o f t he s tate o f B ahia .

' pipe-

" On Monday

t he ' pipe c lay ', a f ine g reyish , e asily-worked c lay , i s t aken f rom t he c lay p its a nd p ut t o d ry f or a t l east a d ay a nd a n ight b efore b eing ground

b etween

s pecial Tuesday which

i s

t hen worked

t aken a nd i s

s tones

and

s ifted.

T he

f inest

p owder

i s

p ut

i n

a

c ontainer a nd k ept f or t he f iner p oints o f modelling. On t he p ipes a re s haped b y h and. Water i s a dded t o t he c lay, s haped

s moothed

b y

i nto a mass.

i nto

a c one

r olling

i t

F rom

t his mass a s mall p iece i s

w ith a n a verage d iameter

o n a f lat p iece o f b oard

o f

1 2

c overed

c m,

w hich

w ith a t hin

l ayer o f p owdered c lay . One h and i s p ressed a gainst t he t hick e nd o f t he c one t o widen i t f urther, t hen t he c one i s b ent r oughly a t a n a ngle.when on t he

i t

h as

f loor o f

b een

r oughly

s haped

t he h ouse t o d ry,

i n

t his

On Wednesday, a s i f p eeling a n o range,

h ollowed Lastly,

o ut " in

c olouring,

t he

p ipe

i s

T hey a re t hen g reased a nd

F inally t he p ipes a re d ecorated a nd ' pierced', a t

t he

t he

t op

f inal

f or

t he

s tages

o f

p laced

t he s urface l ayer i s c ut away

and t he p ipes a re g iven t heir f inal s hape. smoothed o ff .

way

a nd k ept o ut o f t he s un o vernight.

b owl

a nd

t he b ottom

p olishing,

f or

d ecorating,

t hat i s

t he s tem". smoking

o r

s ome a ttention i s g iven t o e ffects o f t exture a nd c olour.

Very e arly o n T hursday morning t he p ipes a re p laced o n a r ack i n t he k iln,

and

a wood

f ire

i s

l it.

When t he

f ire

i s a t

p ipes are c overed with a l ayer o f l ive embers, d own a nd

g o

o ut a t

f ire h as g one o ut,

t he s ame t ime a s a fter b urning

i ts h ottest,

t he f ire u nder t he r ack .

f or 1 2 h ours

t he

which gradually c ool

f or a n ormal

When t he

l oad

o f 5 00

ime p ipes, t he p ipes r emain i n t he k iln until n ight f all, bz4 which t z t hey h ave c ooled d own a nd c an b e t aken b ack t o t he h ouse" . Dutch , ipes, o r r ather f ragments o f t hem, " th s tems a nd b owls, o und o n d ozens o f s ites p reviously o ccupied b y t he D utch a long t he

a re

n orth e ast c oast o f B razil. Municipio d o C abo, Nazare

da

We worked o n o ne o f t hese s ites,

i n Pernambuco.

T his

C apitania d e Pernambuco,

i s

b uilt

t he

s ite o f

a fter

i n t he

t he P ort

t he Dutch

o f

c aptured

R ecife in 1 630. S ugar was exported t o P ortugal f rom h ere, a nd t he C apitania was s upplied with a rms a nd o ther s upplies o n t he i nstructions o f

t he

C onselho

Portugal N azar &

b ound

U ltramarino, f or

B ecause o f

A gostinho b ecame, N orth

E ast.

i nstalling H owever ,

t o

p resence w orking

Dutch

t he

s tart o f

s urrender t herefore

t o

g ave

s ail

o rders

t hat

s traight

t o

t he whole a rea o f

t he most

o ccupied

s hips t he

r egion

i n t he e xisting

f rom

f orts a nd

t he P ernambucan R evolt

a rea i n t he

1 634

e leven

y ears

i n

( 1645),

t he

t o

1 654,

b uilding n ew o nes . t hey were h ere

t he P ortuguese a nd B razilian f orces .

l asted

o f

t he C abo d e S anto

s trongly f ortified

t his

f rom

p ort

area

T he D utch

where

we

were

( 1634-1645).

S ince a rea

a fter R ecife,

T he

l ater

s hould

t his N azare a nd

t heir g arrisons

a t

o bliged

which

P ernambuco

o nce

( 1630-34

t he XVIIth c entury,

o ccupied and

b y

1 645-54)

t he

many c hanges h ave t aken p lace i n t he

warehouses

and

t he

f ort

2 64

o f

t he

o f

Pontal

P ortuguese d e

p ort

S uape,

o f

N azare

o riginally

P ortuguese,

t hen

D utch

( when

i t

w as

n amed

V an d er D ussen

i n h onour

o f

o ne o f t he G overnors, A driaen v an d er Dussen),

t hen P ortuguese a gain.

T he

w hich

a rea

h as

s uffered

f rom

e rosion b y

t he

s ea ,

o n t he l and o ver a l ong s tretch o f c oast, o riginally b eside

t he s ea ,

h as

o nly a ccessible a t

l ow

t ide .

t he material a ccumulated

s cattered a long Chinese

p ottery

' Bellarmines'; i nterest w e

t o

of

D utch

d oes

w here

i t

i n t he c ourse o f h uman o ccupation was

XVIIth

b alls white

n ot

a nd c lay

c ome

f rom

l ay s cattered

c entury;

o ther

l ead

p ipes .

f rom

1 645 .

W e h ave

f ollowing p ipes

1 1

t he

y ears

c arried

o bjects,

B ecause

e xcavations ,

b ut

a nd

t his,

was

o f t he

p icked

e ven

German s pecial material

u p

o n

t he

n ot c ounting b owls , t his o f

s ite:

t hese

t hat

1 634

p ipe

t o

s tems,

b y J CH arrington i n h is s tudy o f E nglish

o n h istorico-archaeological s ites.

T he H arrington method

i s b ased

f raction o f a n i nch ( which we a lso i nternal

o f

o n t he s urface.

a s tatistical a nalysis

t he method u sed

f ound

o f

o f Dutch o ccupation o f

o ut

Dutch and

f ragments

We r ecovered 6 73 f ragments o f p ipe s tems, d ated

t he warehouses,

f ragments o f P ortuguese,

t he

musket

u s,

c ollected

b each,

t he b each:

i nroads

which was

A s a r esult o f

t he destruction o f t he a rea o ccupied b y t he f ort and a ll

m ade

l eaving t he f ort,

d iameter

o f

t he

p ipe

o n t he measurement, u se

f or

s tem,

e ase

o f

which

e xpressed a s a

c omparison),

H arrington

p rogressively smaller b etween 1 620 and 1 800.

o f

t he

f ound

H e c oncluded

g ot

t hat t he

majority ( 59%) o f p ipe s tems o f t he p eriod 1 620-50 had a d iameter o f 8 /64" , t he majority ( 57%) f rom t he p eriod 1 650-80 were 7 /64" , while 7 7% o f p ipe s tems f rom t he p eriod 1 750-1800 had a d iameter o f o nly 4 /64". 2 5 C ould p ossible

t he

s ame

t hat

manufacture

i t

o f

method

c ould,

b e

u sed

e specially

c lay p ipes

f or Dutch a s

4n

t he

o le

t o

t heir English masters.

make

s eemed t he

t he t echnical

b y t he manufacturers o f c lay

t echnical a dvances

t hat

On t he f irst h ypothesis,

s imilar measurements,

l t

2 6

introduced

s o

t wo c ountries w ere l ikely t o b e t he s ame,

f utch were . f ind

p ipes?

English

i nto t he Low C ountries,

d ifficulties and p roblems encountered , ,f pc2

t he

and o n t he s econd,

u nless o f c ourse

p ut

t hem

a head

o f

we would e xpect t o

d ifferert

o nes.

T he

r esults a ppear t o c onfirm t he s econd h ypothesis, a s c an b e s een f rom g raph n o .1, which g ives t he r esults o f H arrington 's a nalysis o f E nglish own

r esults

C abedelo ( in P araiba ,

p ipes,

and

o ur

B razil),

with

f rom

S uape

a s ite we s hall d iscuss

Dutch

p ipes

l azer .

a nd

f rom

A lthough

H arrington d id n ot h ave t he o pportunity o f s tudying a l arge n umber o f Dutch p ipes, h e h imself s ays t hat " it would s eem t hat f or c omparable ipes h ad s maller s tems a nd s maller em I iies p eriods, many o f D utchi p t han E nglish p ipes", 2/ and t his v iew s eems t o b e b orne o ut b y g raph n o .1

which

s hows

a bout 2 0 y ears d ifferences

t hat,

u sing

t he H arrington

i n a dvance o f English o nes.

i n t he method o f manufacture,

h ave b een t he

s ame,

which made i t

p ossible

t han t o

t he

f ormula,

D utch

p ipes

w ere

This may b e due l ess

t o

which i n f act was b elieved t o

s uperior q uality o f

t he Dutch c lay,

t o p roduce a s tronger a rticle .

Another archaeologist,

L B inford,

who has

s tudied H arrington 's

method, h as improved i ts u sefulness b y t he a ddition o f a f ormula t o c omplement H arrington 's ' Table ' . T his f ormula was d evised t o s olve a p roblem

r aised

b y H arrington h imself,

2 65

s ince,

a s h e s ays,

a g roup o f 2 0

o r

3 0

s tem

f ragments

manufacture . s tems, S uape.

we

A s

u sed

i s

t oo

B inford's i t

f or

o n

i t

a lso

i s

a nd

t he H arrington a pplicable

o btained

t o

o btain

c an b e

s ub-groups

I t must b e r emembered b ased

s mall

method

o f

a n

a pplied

t he

t o

a ccurate a ny

c ollection

Next,

o n

t o D utch

E nglish

p ipes

o f

decorated

w ith

t he

d e

t hat B inford u sed h is f ormula, which was

m ethod,

a n a verage d ate

t he

o f

p ipe

f rom P ontal

w e

f igures

p ipes

t ested 1 661

o nly .

T o

p ipe

f ollowing

s tems

f or

were

r esults :

t he

f ind

o ut

i f

o n t he S uape c ollection t he

e ntire

o f 6 73 f ragments o f p ipe s tems, which a ppears t o c onfirm D utch p ipes w ere m ore a dvanced t han E nglish o nes.

u ndecorated,

d ate

n umber o f

c ollection

t he v iew

s eparated

d ecorated

t hat

f rom

s tems

t he

made

u p

2 9.39% o f t he t otal ( 673 p ipe s tems), a nd t he undecorated o nes 7 8.61%. Using B inford's method, we o btained a n average d ate o f u ndecorated g roup a nd 1 663 f or t he d ecorated. T he d ecoration i s n ot a ll o f t he s ame k ind; r epresented i n t his c ollection .

L i te f or .

1 661

two b asic t ypes a re

T he f irst i s i n h igh r elief, with a

r aised design p ressed i nto t he f abric o f t he p ipe while i t i s i n t he mould,

while

f or

t he

e ither b owl o r s tem, s till s oft. O f f ind

l eft

t he d ecorated p ipe s tems,

a mean

e arly

t ype a d esign

i s

s tamped

t he mould

o n

a nd while

t he

p ipe,

t he c lay

i s

( Fig 2 )

3 1.25% moulded. moulded,

s econd

a fter i t h as

1 44 i n a ll,

6 8.75% a re s tamped and

I f we a pply 3 inford's method t o t hese two g roups we

d ate

o f

1 658

f or

t he

s tamped

g roup

a nd

1 671

f o,

t hL

which s uggests t hat s tamped decoration was c ommonest i n t he

p eriod

a nd

moulded

d ecoration g ained

g round

l ater .

D etails

a Le

g iven b elow : D iameter

S tamped

M oulded

6 /64

3 8.9%

6 1.1%

7 /6 4

6 9.2%

3 0.8%

8 /64

9 0.9%

9 .1%

A s t he p ipes with t he s mallest d iameter h oles a re t hought t o b e l ater t han t hose w ith t he l arger d iameter h oles, t o c onfirm

t he v iew

e xpense o f

s tamped d ecoration .

H arrington 's

a nd

t he f igures a bove s eem

t hat m oulded d ecoration g ained i n p opularity a t t he

B inford's with

I t

methods

S uape

c ollection ,

1 650,

while w ith B inford's method

t herefore g ive

H arrington 's i t

m ethod i s

s eems

f airly t he

1 661.

c orrect

t o

s ay

s imilar d ates . a verage

What

i s

d ate

i s

s triking

b oth methods give a l ater d ate t han t he h istorical r ecord. t hat t he D utch o ccupation o f t he p ort o f N azare a nd t he f ort

t hat

F or

t he

a round i s

t hat

We k now o f P ontal

d e S uape b egan a t 5 pm o n 5 th March 1 634 and e nded a bruptly with t he s urrender

o f

t he Dutch

o n

t he 3 rd

S eptember 1 645.

I t

i s

t herefore

c lear t hat t he methods u sed f or d ating E nglish c lay p ipes c annot a pplied

t o D utch p ipes,

a t

l east n ot w ithout

b e

s ome c orrection f actor .

I n t he s ame p lace and u nder t he s ame c onditions we c ollected 6 4 p ipe b owls i n a ddition t o t he p ipe s tems. A lthough t his q uantity i s n ot l arge e nough t o d raw u seful c onclusions, we may o bserve t hat t here

2 66

a ppears

t o

b e

a c onstant

r atio

( from h eel t o t op e dge), i nternal

d iameter

o f

b etween

t he maximum

h eight

t he maximum e xternal d iameter o f

t he

t op

o f

t he

b owl

a nd

t he

o f

t he b owl

t he b owl ,

t he

e xternal d iameter

o f

t he s tem measured n ext t o t he b owl. I t c an b e c oncluded f rom a s tudy o f t hese b owls t hat t he maximum h eight o f t he b owl, 3 8 mm, c orresponds t o a maximum d iameter o f t he b owl o f 1 9 mm, a n i nternal d iameter o f t he t op o f t here

t he b owl o f 1 2 mm and

i s a r atio o f 2 :1

o f t he b owl,

t o 2 /3

a d iameter o f t he s tem o f 1 0 mm. t o a h alf ,

where 2 r epresents

T hus

t he h eight

1 i s t he g reatest d iameter o f t he b owl 2 /3 t he i nternal

d iameter o f t he t op o f t he b owl and 1 /2 t he e xternal d iameter o f t he p ipe s tem. We must emphasise t hat t his i s ap rovisional c onclusion, s ince u ntil f urther a chaeological w ork i s d one a nd

a g reater n umber

o f

b owls r ecovered i t will n ot b e p ossible t o p rove t hat t hese a re t he s tandard r atios f or D utch c lay p ipes o f t he p eriod 1 630-54. 28

t hat

T hera s eems a g reater p ossibility o f a ccurate d ating o n m aterial i ncludes D utch c lay p ipes i f we u se t he method o f D ouwe E gberts,

one o f which i s v alid f or t he p eriod 1 590 t o 1 700. t hat

t he multiplication o f

i ncrease

i n

t he

r esults,

d evelopments and d ate

T he author s howed

t hese measurements ( in mm) which

o f

makes

i t

g ives

p ossible

t he Dutch c lay p ipes

o f

t o

t he

a c onstant f ollow

t he

p eriod. 30

He

d ivides t he development i nto p eriods which c an b e s een a s ' basic' f or d ating. We a pplied

E gberts ' f ormula a nd T able

b owls f rom P ontal d e S uape, d ating

f rom

t he material

t o o ur c ollection o f 6 4 p ipe

t o c heck o n t he measurements a nd

s ubsequent

f rom t his s ite .

E gberts s tudied c lay p ipes i n H olland, a nd was a ble t o e stablish s b eing t he i nitial a s h is p oint o f d eparture a p roduct o f 2 .900 cm 2 a l imit o f c apacity o f t he o ldest known c lay p ipe b owls, o f about 1 590. The c apacity s hows a c onstant i ncrease u ntil t he y ear 1 700, y ear o f t he X VIIth c entury a nd b e

u sed,

t he l ast y ear f or which t his

when t he p ipe b owls h ad

a c apacity o f 1 3 .300 c m •

t he l ast

f ormula c an ( Fig 4 )

I n t he c ase o f a rchaeological material f ound a t a distance f rom i ts p lace o f o rigin, a s with t he Dutch c lay p ipes f ound o n t he n orthe ast c oast o f Brazil, t here i s an i nevitable t ime l apse b etween t he date o f manufacture, s tudy.

T his i s

The

a nd

t rue o f

f ormula

u sed

t he a rticle b eing d eposited

t he c lay p ipes a bove

was

f ound

n ot

E gberts t o t he s tudy o f Dutch c lay m anufacturers' m arks w hich i s a lso o f

t he

i n t he a rea o f

a t P ontal d e S uape. o nly

c ontribution made

p ipes: h e b egan i nterest t o u s.

an

a nalysis

b y o f

The f lat h eel o f t he p ipe, which e nabled i t t o s tand upright, u sually b ore t he m ark o f t he manufacturer . I n f act, t his p osition o f t he manufacturer 's mark i s i n i tself a u seful g uide f ound,

c haracteristic o f f or d ating.

i s

which we s hall s tudy i n more d etail, n ot o nly s erved t o

i dentify t he d ifferent manufacturers, p olitical

d ifferent r esult

a nd

t hough r arely, on t he r ounded p art o f t he b owl o r o n t he s tem.

These marks, or

t he X VIIth c entury ,

Manufacturers' marks a re a lso

o f

importance:

t he Tudor

b ut a lmost a lways h ave a s ymbolic r ose,

f orms n ot o nly o n E nglish p ipes t he

i nfluence

o f

t he

b ut

f or

E nglish masters 2 67

i nstance,

a lso who

a ppears

o n D utch o nes, f irst

a s

i n a

manufactured

c lay p ipes i n Holland. d ate .

W e s elected

T hese r oses a re a v aluable i ndication o f t he

f our t ypes o f

r ose

f rom o ur c ollection o f p ipe b owls

f rom Pontal d e S uape, a ll s tamped v ery c learly with e very d etail v isible , a nd b y n oting c haracteristics u sed f or d ating w e were a ble t o p lace

t he p ipes

i n c hronological o rder.

T hus,

b owls 1 00/4,

1 00/15,

1 00/38 a nd 1 00/41 ( in o ur c atalogue) h ave t he f ollowing c haracteristics i n c ommon : l a) maker 's mark o n t he h eel; 2 a) mark d epicting a r ose, w ith

s epals,

1 00/38

s urmounted

h as

i n

b y a c rown ;

a ddition

A ccording t o t he E gberts p eriod 1 625-1640 . T ests

o f

f ragments

o f

L aboratory o f b een c arried o f p ipe

s trength Dutch

t he

f ormula ,

a nd

c lay

3 a)

l etter

s amples

o f

t he

a bsorption

s tems

t he S tate o f P ernambuco . o ut o n t wo

t o

p etals ; r ight

t hese f eatures p lace

water

p ipe

n umber

S

o f

t he

f rom U p

h ave

P ontal

s tems with a h ole 7 /64" i n d iameter,

r ose.

b een made S uape,

i n t he

o n

t he

a t

t he

t hese t ests h ave

S ample

a nd

b owl

t he

t he p ipes

d e

t o n ow b oth

material .

4 .Pipe

o f

" A "

c onsisted

s ample " B" o f p ipe

s tems w ith a h ole 6 /64" i n d iameter . T he r esults were a s f ollows: " A" : s trength o f b etween 1 .5 a nd 2 .5 o n t he M ohls s cale ; a bsorption : f rom 1 0 t o 1 9%: " B": s trength 1 .5 o n t he Mohls s cale; a bsorption: b etween 1 5.5 a nd 2 1.6%. We a lso d id a n a rchaeological s tudy o f t he f ort o f C abadelo, t he S tate o f P araiba, This

f ort

was

i n t he N orth E ast o f B razil. e ffectively

c olonised

a t

i n

( Fig 6 )

t he

e nd

o f

t he

XVIth

c entury , when t he f ort o f S anta C atarina , a lso k nown a s C abedelo , was e stablished. I t w as s ited o n a c abedelo o r s mall c ape a t t he m outh o f t he

r iver P araiba.

I t was

f ounded

G erman c olonist who h ad s ettled " 150 s pans s quare, with two

about

1 585

b y C ristovao Linz,

a

i n P ernambuco, a nd w ho l aid o ut a f ort watch t owers.—opposite e ach o ther;

f oundations o f s tone a nd l ime, with a b ase o f s tone and o yster The f ort s hell—.walls o f r ammed e arth and c lay f our s pans b road . 31 appears

t o

have

undergone

c onsiderable

a lterations

d uring

t he

o ccupation o f P araiba b y t he Dutch West I ndies C ompany ( 1634-1654). G overnor

E lias H erckmans

writes:

" In

t he

t ime o f

t he K ing o f P ortugal

t here was a lready a s mall f ort h ere c alled S anta C atarina , b ut when we G overnor C ount J oao g ained c ontrol, t his f ort was g reatly e nlarged" . 32 Mauricio d e N assau ( 1637-1644) h omage

n amed

' Defence

f ever '

r aged

c ertain t hat We c ut

h ere,

' Margarida '

a s

a mark

o f

s everal

and

o ccupation, t he P ortuguese were c olony , p articularly t he N orth E ast .

f ortifications

t he f ort w as c ompleted t renches o n t his

s ite,

were

s trengthened,

and

i t

b y t he m id-XVIIIth c entury. b ut

c annot g ive f ull r esults

a s a c omplete p icture will n ot emerge u ntil a s tudy i s made o f

t he s ite a s a whole, D utch

f ort

t o h is mother M argareta v an H olstein .

A fter t he p eriod o f Dutch e specially a nxious t o p rotect t he s eems

t he

c lay

p ipes .

with a ll i ts a rchaeological material,

T he

r esults g iven a re

f rom

T rench

/ 18-19

n ot

j ust

which w as

e xcavated i n l evels 2 0 c m deep t o a t otal depth o f 1 20 cm. The f ollowing t able s hows t he d istribution o f c lay p ipe s tems a nd b owls i n t he d ifferent

s trata:

2 68

D epth

Q uantity

P ercentage

D ate

( Binford)

D ate

( Egberts)

( cm) 0 -20

0

2 0-40

2 8

0

0

0

1 8.18

1 657

0

4 0-60

3 3

2 1.42

1 666

1 635-1645

6 0-80

6 1

3 9.61

1 658

1 630-1640

8 0-100

3 0

1 9.48

1 651

1 630-1635

1 .29

1 644

1 635-1640

1 00-120

2

T he r esults g iven a bove w ere o btained u sing B inford's t he p ipe s tems a nd E gberts' f or t he b owls. ( Fig 5 ) I n

a ddition

f ragments

o f

t o

p ipe

C abedelo f ort,

t he

s tem

a nd

material f rom

t he

f rom T rench s urface o f

/ 19

we

method

f or

c ollected

4 91

t he g arrison

s quare

i n

t hese were a nalysed b y H arrington 's method.

r esults o btained a re s hown i n a graph,

T he

( Fig 7 ) and a re c ompared with

t hose o btained

f or p ipe s tems f rom P ontal d e S uape a nalysed b y t he s ame

method.

s imilarity

T he

o f

t he

r esults

o btained

c ollections o f s urface material i s s triking. t hat a t p ipe

S uape ,

s tems

C abedelo, A s

where t he D utch o ccupation e nded

with

a h ole

a t

was

f ragments, g roups T his

i n d iameter,

S uape,

t he B inford method was u sed

w ould

Undecorated

a nd d ecorated a ppear

a nd t o

s tems

s tems 2 6 .5% .

o btained

t he

t he

i nvalidate

t he

made

d id

w ere

n o

o ccur

a t

l ater d ate o f 1 654.

a n average date o f

u p

a verage

r esults

two

t o c heck t he a verage d ate

A s a t S uape, s ame

t hese

t here

t hese

F or t he c ollection a s a whole,

o btained.

s eparately

i n 1 645,

b ut

w hich w as o ccupied b y t he D utch u ntil

o f t he p ipe s tems. 1 658

5 /64"

f rom

I t i s a lso n oteworthy

7 3.5%

o f

t he

w e a nalysed d ate

o btained

( 1658) f or

4 91

t he

f or

S uape,

t wo e ach .

where

we f ound a d ifference o f two y ears b etween t he d eLurated and undecorated groups. However, when t he B inford method was a pplied s eparately t o t he m oulded a nd s tamped s tems,

w e f ound a c onfirmation o f

t he r esults o btained f or t he a rchaeological s ite i n Pernambuco: a n a verage d ate o f 1 670 f or t he moulded s tem a nd o f 1 655 f or t he s tamped s tems,

w ith

t he

c onstant

t rend

o bserved

a t

S uape

a lso

p resent

i n

t his

c ollection: D iameter

S tamped

M oulded

6 /64

6 2%

3 8%

7 /6 4

8 4%

1 6%

8 /64

9 0%

1 0%

These f igures c onfirm t hat t he s tamped p ipe s tems antedate t he moulded o nes, and t hat t he l atter t ended t o g ain i n p opularity a t t he e xpense o f t he I t

i s

f ormer.

w orth

( Fig

n oting

t hat

s tems i s t he f leur-de-lys, o f p ipe s tem f rom b oth r epresentative d esign f or 1 ,128 a dditional f rom

t he o ther

C abedelo .

1 0) t he

c ommonest

d esign o n

t he

s tamped

p ipe

which i s f ound o n more t han 8 5% o n t his t ype a rchaeological s ites. T his i s t he t ruly t he p eriod

1 634-1654.

f ragments o f w hite c lay p ipe s tems were r ecovered

t renches made

T hese w ere a nalysed

i n t he garrison s quare b y t he H arrington method

2 69

o f a nd

t he t he

f ort

o f

r esults

a re

s hown

i n

t he g raph

a lready

r eferred

t o .

T o

c heck t he a verage d ate

o f t his c ollection i n t he s ame way a s t he p revious o nes, B inford

method

t o

a nalyse

t he

f ound a mean d ate o f 1 659 . s urface

material

f rom

whole

c ollection o f

T here was n o d ifference

t he

g arrison

s quare

a nd

t he

1 ,128

we u sed

t he

f ragments

a nd

i n d ate b etween t he e xcavated

m aterial,

t hough we h ad f eared t hat i n t he c ase o f t he s urface material t he p rocess o f r ubbish r emoval might h ave d estroyed e vidence o f t he e arly p eriod

o f

o ccupation,

which

would

h ave

b een

p resent

o nly

i n

t he

e xcavated m aterial. O ne o f

t he g reatest d ifficulties

p ipe b owls

i s n ot

o ccurrence, a bundance t he s ame

b ut,

c auses

f acing

t he a rchaeologist

t he l ack o f manufacturers ' o n

t he

c ontrary,

d ifficulties

i n

t heir

d ating,

marks,

s tudying

n or

t heir

r are

p roliferation .

T his

v ery

f ound

w ith

b ecause

marks

a re

c haracteristics.

S everal marks c onsist o f l etters o f t he a lphabet s urmounted b y a c rown , s ome w ith t wo l etters b elow t he c rown , o thers w ith o ne o r t wo l etters

a nd

s urmounted

a n

a dditional

b y a c rown ,

a s

s ymbol,

s eems

t o b e

a bove which a f aint s emi-circle i s a s

t he

c rown

c ircle.

i s

n ot

e ven c ase

s tamped,

c learly v isible

o ne w ith

with t he

3 l etters

i nitial D .I.K .

s uggesting a c rown,

w e h ave

r eproduced

o nly

t hough

t he

s emi-

( Fig 8 )

A drian

O swald

p ossibility t hat E gberts

i n

h is

C lay P ipes f or

b ut

a lso

d oes

which a ppears

t he A rchaeologist

t hese e xamples a re D utch. mentioned

t he

t hree l etters o n t heir own, a bove,

and t he

n ot d escribe o r

i n F ig .

a s

e xistence

and

r aises

o f

m anufacturers ' marks w ith

t hree l etters with a n e xtra r eproduce

' letters

a bove '

t he

3 3

t his c ould

s ymbol .

s ymbol

T he marks

e qually well

S .I .

b e a mark

o f t he t ype described a bove i f t he l etters a re i n f act I .S. T hese i nitials o ccur very f requently i n t he l ist p ublished b y O swald, but o nly i f

t hey a re d rawn ( as w e d o h ere)

Another o f a c rown,

t he marks,

c an c omparisons b e m ade.

c onsisting o f

t he l etters H .B .

s urmounted b y

i s s imilar t o t he o ne g iven i n t he a rticle " Early D utch C lay

P ipes" a s b eing t hat o f t he G roningen f actory i n t he e arly p art o f t he X VIIth c entury . 34 T he mark E .B . i s t he o ne most c ommonly f ound i n m idX VIIth r ose.

c entury F .W.

i s

c ontexts,

I nitials F W F W S imilarly,

w ith

t he

e xception

a lso g iven i n O swald, S urname W ood W illiamson P d enotes P

I nitials

o f

t he

d ifferent

t ypes

w ith t he f ollowing d etails:

C hristian n ame F rancis F rancis

D ate

P lace

1 682 1 690

H ull Y ork

t wo X VIIth c entury E nglish m anufacturers:

S urname

C hristian n ame

D ate

P lace

P P

P helps

P henuel

1 637

L ondon

P P

P arker

P aul

1 698

C anterbury ( 35)

2 70

o f

I t i s i nteresting t o n ote h ere t he o ccurrence o f manufacturers' marks

i ncorporating a f leur-de-lys,

a s ymbol o ften u sed

f or d ecoration .

( Fig 9 , N os 5 & 6 ) T here a re a lso s ome e xamples o f a r ose mark moulded i nto t he s ide o f t he b owl a s well a s another mark c onsisting o f a n a nchor

i n a l ozenge w ith t wo

s tem o f

i nitials,

o ne o n e ach s ide,

s tamped o n t he

t he p ipe.

There a re many more manufacturers' marks which we a re u nable t o r eproduce h ere b ecause t he

p ublication o f

i dentification a nd The

t he d etails a re n ot

p revent a s eries o f a pparent

v alidity

o f

t his

means

a rtifacts may b e q uestioned h ave u sed y ears. and

more

s ufficiently c lear ;

h owever,

t he c learest o nes may h elp i n t he f uture t ask o f

t han o ne

o n

o f

d ating

t he g rounds

t ype o f mark ,

c oincidences. c olonial

t hat

t he

material

manufacturer

a nd

c ould

o r e ven c hanged h is mark o ver t he

I t i s t herefore a dvisable t o s ee t he method a s c omplementary

u se

i t

o nly

i n

c onjunction

with

o ther

methods,

t o

o btain

an

a ccurate c hronology. A t

t he e nd

o f 1 630,

i n t he c ity o f R ecife,

t he D utch b uilt a f ort with f ive b astions, P rince o f O range, a nd

B razilian

r ebuilt n ame

was

which was c ommonly k nown a s V ijfhoek .

f orces

a f ew

y ears

c hanged

r econquered l ater

t o

o f

f inishing

P ernambuco

s tone

S antiago

h istorico-archaeological r estoration,

S tate o f Pernambuco,

n amed a fter F rederk H endrik ,

a nd

das

s tudy

1 654,

l ime a nd

C inco

o f

i n

t he

f inished

P ontas.

t his

T he P ortuguese

a nd

f ort,

We with

f ort

w as

i n 1 684 .

c arried

I ts

o ut

a v iew

t o

a

i ts

i n J une 1 978.

I n t he c ourse o f t his work we r ecovered 1 ,153 f ragments o f p ipe s tems made o f white c lay , d ating f rom t he D utch o ccupation o f t he s ite, f rom 1 630 t o 1 654 . A t t he t ime o f w riting i t h as o nly b een p ossible t o c arry

o ut

a n

i nitial

a ppraisal

o f

t his

c ollection

f ragments, b ut a s pecial monograph i s p lanned i n g iving a s tratigraphical c omparison w ith o ther f inds.

o f

t he

When t he B inford method was u sed o n t hese f ragments, s ites,

d ecorated

s tems

made

u p

2 1.4%

o f

s tem

f uture,

w e o btained a

mean date o f 1 667 f or t he p ipe s tems f ound i n t his f ort. p revious

p ipe

n ear

A s with t he

t he

t otal

a nd

u ndecorated 7 8.6%. C lay p roject

p ipes

h ave

a lso

b een

c ollected

w ith which w e a re c oncerned.

T his

i n

t he

c ourse

i s a p roject

o f

o f

a nother

u nder-water

a rchaeology i n p rogress o ff t he c oast o f t he S tate o f B ahia, H ere

l ie

which

t he

s ailed

s hipwrecked

r emains

f rom L isbon b ut

o f

t he

f oundered

B razil.

P ortuguese g alleon S acramento, o n

t he 5 th M ay

1 668,

t rying

t o

c ross t he b ar o f t he b ay o f T odos o s S antos and e nter t he p ort o f t he c ity o f S alvador,

i n t his B razilian S tate.

The e xamples o f c lay p ipes

f ound during

t he

f irst

p hase o f

t he

u nder-water o peration a re p articularly i mportant t o c onfirm t he d ate o f t his

wreck .

A s

t he material

i mmediately c leaned, W e

s hall,

h owever,

t he d esigns o f

t reated t ake

s ome o f

t he

i s

a nd

r ecovered p reserved,

o pportunity

t he e xamples

2 71

f rom t o

p resented

c ollected.

t he

s ea-bed,

f acilitate h ere

i t

i s

f uture s tudy .

o f

r eproducing

P ROVISIONAL C ONCLUSIONS 1 . C lay p ipes a ppear t o h ave t he greatest a dvantages f or t he a rchaeologist i n p roviding data on which t o b ase a c hronology o f t he h istorical s ites o f N orth E ast B razil. 2 . t he 3 .

The u se o f c lay p ipes i n North E ast B razil i s f irst mentioned i n l iterature

i n

c ited

i n t his a rticle .

T he s imilarity o f t he r esults o btained f rom c ollections o f p ipe

s tems f ound o n t renches, s hows u nderestimated. 4 .

t he D utch t exts

When

t he

t he s urface, and t hose f ound i n a rchaeologists' t hat t he i mportance o f t he f ormer s hould n ot b e

H arrington

a nd

B inford

methods

o f

a nalysis

( for

E nglish

c lay p ipes) a re u sed i n c onnection with Dutch p ipes, t hey give a d ate a pproximately 2 5 y ears l ater t han t he a ctual d ates o f t he material f rom D utch o ccupied

s ites

5 .

J C H arrington 's

F ollowing

i n N orth E ast B razil. method,

p rovisional s cale f or d ating D utch p ipe t he p eriod 1 630-54, a s f ollows:

i t

i s

s tems

6 /64":

1 7%

7 /64": 8 /64":

5 6% 2 7%

p ossible

t o

e stablish

a

f rom N orth E ast B razil i n

6 . I n t his a rticle , a n i nventory h as b een s tarted o f manufacturers' marks on c lay p ipes f rom s ites i n N orth E ast B razil, a nd i t would b e u seful i f t his c ould b e e xpanded s o with

s imilar

i nventories

o f i nformation ( manuscripts, 7 . are

A s urvey o f r epresented

s tarting 8 .

a nd

b e made

w ith o ther s ources

p ictorial r epresentations e tc.).

t he D utch a nd would

t hat a c omparison c ould

i n t he U SA a nd E urope,

make

E nglish

p ossible

i conography a s tudy

o f

i n w hich c lay p ipes t heir

d imensions,

f rom a p roportion t o b e e stablished.

The E gberts method

s eems

t o o ffer

t he greatest

p ossibility o f

a ccurate d ating f or t he a rchaeological s ites o f N orth E ast B razil i n t he p eriod 1 630-54, a s l ong a s t he t ime l ag b etween t he m anufacture o f t he a rticles and t heir deposition i n N orth E ast B razil i s t aken i nto a ccount. 9 .

B etween

1 630

a nd

p ipe s tems c an b e f ixed

1 654

t he

p roportion

a t 2 0 -3 0% f or

l atter.

2 72

t he

o f

d ecorated

f ormer a nd

t o

u ndecorated

7 0 -8 0% f or t he

N OTES 1 .

A ndre T hevet, ( Brasiliana)

2 .

3 .

S ingularidades d a F ranca Antärtica, v ol.219,

( Sao P aulo,

1 944)

1 98.

P .

F ernand B raudel, C ivilizagao M aterial e C apitalismo, ( Lisboa, 1 970) p . 2 14. N icolas B arre

" Copie d e q uelques

l ettres

s ur

l a n avigation d u

c hevalier d e V illegaignon e s t erres d e l 'Amerique" f rom P aul G affarel. H istoire d u B rgsil F rangais, ( Paris, 1 878) p . 4 .

5 .

3 79.

T he r eferences

t o

t he o ther a uthors a re l isted

F ernao C ardim,

T ratados d a t erra e G ente d o B rasil,

J aneiro,

p .

1 925)

I p . I

2 69.

N oticia d o B rasil 2 v ols.

C achagens a re

w hich a llow t he a ir w e b reathe

" hollow b ones t o p ass

6 .

L uis d a C amara C ascudo, M ade i n A frica p . 1 78.

7 .

G abriel S oares d e S ousa,

8 .

F ernao C ard i m

9 .

A ndre T hevet, Lussagnet ( Paris,

l iv.

s ome o f

( Rio d e J aneiro,

I p . I

1 01.

f rom S uzanne 2 v ols.

T hevet's e ditor a nd a nnotator a ttempts

t he I ndians u sed

c achimbos

( pipes)

" I e ven o bserved

o ften t ook a w ooden t ube t he d ried

b y q uoting t hat

t ext

t his

c ase w as u nusually l ong.

a nd

l ong l it

i s c learly a d escription o f a c angoeira, I t w as

1 0.

M oraes

G rande D icionärio P ortugugs

S ilva,

c it.

c it.

p .

( Porto,

J ean d e L ery,

1 2.

H ans

1 3.

A ndre J oao Antonil, C ultura e O pulgncia d o B rasil 1 711) ( Ed. f ac-similar, R ecife, 1 969) p . 1 19.

1 4.

J oaquim d e A .

P into,

A ntonil,

l iv.

p .

( Sao P aulo,

1 942),

p .

2 03.

1 19.

2 73

p .

( Lisboa,

D icionärio d e B otänica B rasileria

1 873)

c it.

1 873)

1 63.

D uas V iagens a o B rasil

( Rio d e J aneiro, 1 5.

t he c ustom o f

s .v.

1. 1

S taden,

l iv.

l iv.

p ut

w hich i n

1 .

D omingos V iera, s .v.

a nd

i t"...

c ertainly n ot a c achimbo.

T his m ay b e t he e arliest p ictorial r epresentation o f F ig

t o

t he

t hey ( the

f our t o f ive f eet

h erb c alled P etun i n t he e nd

T his

s moking.

1 965)

2 69.

( ed.), L es F rangais e n Amgrique,

f ollowing a ccount b y L ery : s hamans)

c it.

( Sao P aulo

i n t he n ose,

t hrough".

" La C osmographie Universelle"

1 953) I I p .

s how t hat

( Rio d e

1 72.

G abriel S oares d e S ousa, s .d.)

b elow.

8 1.

1 6.

1 7.

C aio P rado J r.,

F orma ao d o B rasil C ontemporäneo,

P aulo,

1 47.

1 961)

P .

J oannes d e L aet,

C laude d 'Abbeville,

l iv.

( Sao

c it.

P .

1 62.

H istoria o u Anais d os F eitos d a C ompanhia

P rivilegiada d as I ndias O cidentais ( Rio d e J aneiro, 1 916) P . 2 72. I n e razil,, t obacco was o nly p lanted o n a l arge s cale i n t he d istrict o f C achoeira 1 8.

1 9.

J orge M arcgrave, 1 941) p . 2 74. R oulox B aro,

i n B ahia.

H istöria N atural d o B rasil

( Sao P aulo,

" Relation d u V oyage...au p ays d es

t apuies",

f rom

R elations V eritables e t C urieuses d e l 'Isle d e M adagascar e t d u B rasil, ( Paris, 1 651) p p. 2 97,298. 2 0.

J orge M arcgrave,

2 1.

I . J .

N . C .

l iv.

c it.

p .

2 74.

H ume, H ere L ies V irginia ( New Y ork, 1 963) p . 2 61. H arrington, " Tobacco P ipes F rom J amestown" i n Q uarterly

B ulletin o f Archaeological S ociety o f V irginia 2. 2

s .d.)

P .

1 79.

I n t his c onnection, w e f ound a r eference t o a l ist o f g oods s ubject t o i mport d uties a t t he C ustoms p ost o f S ao L uis d o M aranhao, d ated 1 818,

w ith t he f ollowing

w hich w as e xported 2 4.

e ntry:

f rom P ark a nd,

M aria D avid A .

B randao,

l ike

t he b owls,

" As C ondi oes

2 6.

t hat i t

a s e xceptions a re f ound

" During

t he u se o f

p ay i mport d uty.

S ociais d e u ma A rte P opular", v ol.

V I,

n o.

1 ,

E nglish

J une 1 969. c lay

p ipes

t o

s hould

b e u sed

t his u sual

w ith

s ize o f h ole :

a rt. c it.

A w ell-known p ipe a nd t hat

t o

5 0,000 s tem f ragments a nd n early

5 ,000 b owls . T he a uthor warns J . C . Harrington,

h ad

o nly o n a s tudy o f

i n t he J amestown c ollection :

f rom P ernambuco",

T he w ooden p ipe-stems w ere

W isconsin P ress,

H arrington 's g raph i s b ased

c aution ,

" Clay p ipe-heads

t he e xporting P rovince.

L uso-Brazilian R eview, 2 5.

1 951).

P aul Z umthor, A V ida Q uotidiana n a H olanda d e R embrandt ( Lisboa,

2 3.

( Richmond,

t obacco m anufacturer,

t he T hirty Y ears'

t obacco a nd

W ar

A lfred D unhill,

( 1618-48),

w hen s oldiers

t he c ustom o f p ipe-smoking

s tates s pread

t hroughout

E urope, i t w as t he D utch p ipe, i n i tself n o d ifferent f rom X VIIth c entury E nglish p atterns, t hat b ecame t he p rototype f or t he c lay p ipes

o f C entral E urope".

2 7,

J .

H arrington,

2 8.

L ewis B inford,

C .

c it.

" A N ew M ethod

S tem F ragments", ( Cambridge,

a rt.

1 962,

o f C alculating D ates

f rom K aolin P ipe

S outh E astern A rchaeological C onference N ewsletter p p.

1 9/21.

2 9.

" Early D utch C lay P ipes".

3 0.

D ouwe E gberts,

F ibula

( Utrecht,

1 964).

2 74

3 1.

D iogo d e C ampos M oreno. ( Recife,

3 2.

1 955)

P .

E lias H erckmans,

L ivro Q ue D ä R azao D o E stado D o B rasil

2 00. " Descri ao G eral d az

C apitania d a P araiba"

i n t he

R evista d o I nstituto Arqueolögico, H istörice e G eogräfico P ernambucano, n o. 3 1 ( Recife, 1 886) p . 2 40. 3 3.

A drian O swald,

" Clay P ipes

f or

t he A rchaeologist",

B ritish A rchaeological R eports N o. 3 4.

" Early D utch C lay P ipes",

3 5.

A drian O swald, X XIII

O xford

1 975,

p .83.

s ee n ote 2 9.

" The A rchaeology a nd E conomic H istory o f E nglish

C lay T obacco P ipes", v ol.

1 4,

J ournal o f

( London 1 960),

p p.

t he A rchaeological A ssociation

4 0/101.

2 75

o c o

1 : 4 1 o

t " u P

( 1 )

( 9 r

0 L O

C z . o z 1

' 0 r 1 i t /

( f ) .

2 4 . 4 1 1 1 1 11 11 1 1 1 1.1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11. 1 11 1i

0

V )

C O 4 1 0

1 1 1 13 1 11 1 1 11 111 1 11 1111 1 1 1 11 11 111 1 1 1 1 1 Mig

P I D

Zee

9 i ) ( C i )

rr r

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11

1

1

1

1

( C ' 2 1

2 76

B ar g raph s howing

a )

9 L . A a3

O DO Wj a 6Jor

0

P .

• •

c 0 J

2 78 s eries o f

1 620 -1660.

• ' 4 01

I

4 1

0 0

0 \

tn

c apacity o f D utch p ipe

0 +

0

I n

1 0

S . '

4 9 t 9 r 4 0 ‚ r c 2 , e n

2 79

o g p

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i -e '

9 2 80

F ig.

6

P lan o f t he F ort S anta C atarina d o Cabedelo

KEY T O N UMBERED A REAS

1 .

E ntrance Gateway

7 .

M agazine

2 .

E ntrance C orridor

8 .

C ommanding O fficer's Q uarters

3 .

G uard H ouse

9 .

Q uarters

4 .

P rison

1 0.

R amparts

5 .

C hapel

1 1.

B astions

6 .

P arade Ground

1 2.

R amps

S tem-bore a nd b owl-form d ates f or t he e xcavated a reas a t C abedelo T RENCH

M EDIAN D ATE ( BINFORD) S TEMS

D ATE R ANGE ( EGBERTS) B OWLS

2

1 653

1 625 -1635

3

1 652

1 620 -1640

4

1 668

1 610 -1635

5

1 657

1 630 -1635

6

1 660

1 625 -1640

7

1 660

1 625 -1680

8

1 654

1 630 -1650

9

1 663

1 625 -1635

1 0

1 674

1 620 -1635

1 1

1 655

1 625

1 2

1 647

1 620

I A

1 647

--

--

1 5

1 658

1 645

--

2 0

1 636

1 630 -1640

2 3

1 650

1 625 -1630

2 81

M I . I . M I

• M

M M

m l .•••

r / I r-

II

r—

/ I

I

I

/

I I I I I

/ /

I

/

_

/

/

/

/ /

/

/

( C )

1 c r ,

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—

0 , z rc o c m c m

o o b

e

\ , ‘

> \

h

0 ) 0

-

C \ J

\

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_

1 620 1650

1 650 1680 t r x )

C o

i f d S f r u c n s a e

t n C o tn

F • J

= SS J

2 83

7 r4

F ig.

8

6

D utch m akers' h eel s tamps:

2 84

s imple a nd c rowned i nitials

F ig .

9

1

2 K t

4

5

D utch m akers ' heel s tamps:

2 85

s imple f loral a nd c rowned m arks

0

8 0

T 99T c o

I

8

2

8

I ••

w w

7 1 IVZVN e -

S 8GT -

2 86

O r IS MEND

• L a i