The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe V, Parts i and ii: Europe 2 9781407389554, 9781407389561, 9780860541240, 9781407324609

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The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe V. Europe 2 edited by

Petei Davey Part i

BAR International Series 106(i) 1981

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury-Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., ::\I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, ::\I.A. B.A.R. S106(i), 198 1: Part i

"The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe, V'',

© The Individual Authors, 1981. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389554 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389561 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860541240 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407324609 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541240 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe editor: I II III IV

Peter Davey

Britain: the Midlands and Eastern England. United States of America. 1979 Britain: the North and West. 1980 Europe 1. 1980

1979

CONTENTS

P age P art One Ed itor ia l

1

P ipe Makers i n Wa l lon ia

by J . F ra ik in

The P ipe i n Ant iqu i ty The P ipe i n Wa l lon ia Conc lus ions L ist o f Wa l lon ian P ipemakers Notes

3 3 2 0 6 3 7 7 8 2

P art Two De

K le ip i jp

i n d e Z event iende E euwse Neder landen D . H . Duco

I nhoud The C lay Tobacco P ipe i n S eventeenth Century Nether lands D . H . Duco Contents

1 11 1 11

3 68 3 68

EDITORIAL The s econd p art o f t he c ontinenta l European c ontr ibut ion t o t he Archaeo logy o f t he C lay Tobacco P ipe s er ies c ons ists o f t wo ma jor p apers, o ne o n p ipe mak ing i n Wa l lon ia, t he o ther o n t he 1 7th c entury i n t he Nether lands. These e ssays h igh l ight v ery c lear ly b oth t he d ifferences i n ' t he h istory o f r esearch a nd t he s tages r eached i n t he s tudy o f t hese a reas. They a lso s uggest s ome o f t he p rob lems s t i l l t o b e s o lved i n t he e stabl ishment o f a n o vera l l p icture o f t he o r ig ins a nd d eve lopment o f t he p ipe i ndustry i n n orth-west Europe. The F ra ik in p aper i s a n a dm irable d ocumentary s tudy o f t he Wa l lon ian i ndustry f rom e ar l iest t imes o nwards. The i mportance o f t he a rea i s c lear b oth f rom i t s g eograph ica l p os i tion i n an exus o f European c ommun icat ions a nd more p art icu lar ly a s af ocus o f e ar ly i ndustr ia l d eve lopment b ased o n t he c oa l-f ie lds. The numerous r eferences i n t he Dutch l i terature t o t rade i n t he p ipe c lay s ources o f t he r eg ion under l ine t h is f act. F or t he f ul ler understand ing o f t he i ndustry i n Wa l lon ia, h owever, what i s n eeded i s ac omprehens ive r ange o f i t s p roducts t ogether w ith g ood p ipe g roups f rom we l l s trat if ied a rchaeo log ica l d epos i ts. I n o rder t o g et t hese l oca l a rchaeo log ists n eed t o b e pursuaded o f t he va lue o f h istor ica l a rchaeo logy i n g enera l a nd t he un ique r o le o f p ipe s tud ies i n p art icu lar. G iven t he r easonably d eta i led e v idence a va i lab le f or t he Nether lands a p roper understand ing o f t he r eg iona l c ontext o f t he Wa l lon ian mater ia l r equ ires a g ood d ea l more r esearch t o b e c arr ied out o n t he s ame l ines i n n e ighbour ing a reas o f F rance a nd Germany. The Duco p aper, which i s b ased o n a n e normous amount o f d ocumentary r esearch a nd a v ery l arge p ersona l c o l lect ion d er ived f rom a w ide g eograph ica l a rea, p rov ides t he f i rst r ea l ly c oherent a ccount o f t he o r ig ins o f p ipemak ing i n Ho l land a nd d ea ls w ith i t s t echno log ica l d eve lopment, t he r ise o f t he Gu i lds, t he management a nd u se o f c lay s ources, t ogether w ith a d eta i led s tudy o f e ach t own. I t E lso p rov ides ac oncise a ccount o f t he f orms a nd s tamp t ypes d eve loped i n e ach c entre t ogether w ith t ime ly warnings a bout t he p rob lems t o b e f aced i n a scr ibing a ny p art icu lar p ipe o r s tamp t o a s pec if ic c entre. F or t he Br it ish r eader i t i s p art icu lar ly i nstructive t o r ead t he e v idence f or t he i nvo lvement o f Eng l ish a nd S cott ish em igres i n t he e ar ly s tages o f t he Dutch i ndustry a nd a lso t o h ave s uch we l l d ocumented d eta i l d escr ibing p rocesses a nd t rade management, much o f wh ich i s l acking i n t he c omparab le Br it ish r ecords s o f ar pub l ished. I n s p ite o f t he e normous v a lue o f t h is e v idence f or p ipe s tud ies i n o ther p arts o f t he wor ld i t r ema ins f or Dutch a rchaeo log ists t o p rov ide i ndependent v er if ic at ion o f t he c hrono log ies a nd i nferences s uggested by Duco, a nd t o publ ish t h is i n a manner wh ich w i l l a l low o f c ompar ison w ith s im i lar mater ia l i n o ther p arts o f t he wor ld. On t he o ther h and i t i s f or a rcha eo log ists i n Br i ta in, I re land, Northern Europe a nd North Amer ica t o put t h is v ast amount o f i nformat ion t o g ood u se i n t he c hrono log ica l a nd s oc io-econom ic i nterpretat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n t hose a reas. Taken t ogether b oth p apers s how t he v a lue o f p a instak ing d ocumentary work a nd emphas ise t he n eed f or s er ious a ct iv ity by a rchaeo log ists t o c omp lement t hese s tud ies. I s t here p erhaps a n eed f or a n i nternat iona l r esearch c omm ittee t o t ry t o d irect work i nto t he more

o bv ious l acunae i n t he e v idence a nd t o ' c o-ord inate t he d isseminat ion o f i nforma t ion i n ar easonab ly s ystemat ic way. Acknow ledgements The p roduct ion o f t hese European v o lumes i nvo lved a l ot o f l i ngu ist i c a nd c ommun icat ion p rob lems. Anthony Hands t rans lated t he F rench t ext o f F ra ikin a nd P enny Brown g ave a g ood d ea l o f a dv ice i n t he l a tter s tages o f i ts p reparat ion. J anet Tyre 1 1 e d ited most o f t he Duco t ext f rom h is own Eng l ish t rans lat ion a nd Huub Ross g ave g ood a dv ice. P enny Brown a lso a ss isted w ith t he f i rst s tages o f e d i ting most o f t he p apers a nd Kay L ancaster d id much p ast ing-up a nd r edes ign ing c f i l lustrat ions a nd p lates. To a l l t hese a nd t he a uthors who h ave s hown c ommendab le p at ience t hroughout, t he p resent wr iter i s e xtreme ly g ratef u l.

P . J . Davey I nst itute o f Extens ion S tud ies, Un ivers i ty o f L iverpoo l. March 1 981

P IPE MAKERS I N WALLON IA : f rom t he e ar l ies t b eginn ings t o t he F irs t Wor ld War J . F ra ik in

THE P IPE I N ANT IQU ITY Many a rchaeo log is ts o ft he 1 9 th c entury , l i v ing i n t he ir g o lden a ge , s pecu la ted o n t he e x istence o f t he p ipe i n a nc ien t t imes . The ir p resen t d ay p os i t iv is t s uccessors a re n or ma l ly s i len t o n t he s ub jec t , e i ther f or l ack o f a ny s o l id e v idence o r f or f ear o ft he r id icu le a nd s corn wh ich t he ir c o l leagues wou ld d irec t u pon t he m . F ro m t ime t o t ime p ipes o f s tone , b ronze , i ron o r f i red c lay t urned u p b y c hance i n e xcava t ions o f C e l t ic , R o man o r F rank ish s i tes . These d iscover ies h ave s o me t i mes b een a ccep ted t oo h as t i ly a nd w i thou t v er if ica t ion , a nd h ave n o t b een c ons idered a nachron is t ic . The o ld man d escr ibed b y Axe l Mun the , i n T he S tory o f S an M iche le , who b e lieved h e h ad f ound T iber ius 's p ipe n ear t he f a mous v i l la b ui l t b yt he Emperor o n C apr i , was a c ase i n p oin t . 1 The d a t ing o f s uch f i nds i s o f ten p rob le ma t ica l a nd i tw ou ld b e i d le a nd i ndeed u se less t o a t temp t t o s um mar ise t he t heor ies a nd c on trovers ies t o wh ich t he s ub jec t h as g iven b ir th . We w i l l t herefore c ons ider o n ly t he e ssen t ia l e lemen ts w i thou t b ecoming l os t i n d e ta i l . F o l low ing t he a ppearance i n 1 853 o ft he s econd e d i tion o f C o l lingwood Bruce 's T he R o man Wa l l a nd i n 1 855 t ha t o ft he p aper b y t he Abbe C oche t , L a N ormand ie s ou terra ine , t he ma jor i ty o ft he p ipes d iscovered i n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ion i n E urope w ere c ons idered t o b e c on te mporary w i th t he s truc tures i n o r n ear wh ich t hey w ere f ound . 2 B y t ak ing u pon t hemse lves a nd mis-us ing t he a u thor i ty o ft hese t wo s cho lars , n umerous p opu lar isers h e lped t o a ccred i t t he mos t f an tas t ic i nven t ions .

S o me e ven c la imed t ha t"the u se o ft he p ipe was

p rac t ised i n p reh is tor ic t imes" .

3

I n 1 962 , t he e x is tence o ft he p ipe i n t he f i rs t c entury A .D . was d educed b y F ernand B eno i t f rom t he f i nding o f aR o man l amp o n ac oasta l s i te n ear Mar t iques .

" I t s hows an aked f i gure , i t hypha l l ic a nd i n a n a croba t ic p ose , t he

r igh t l eg r a ised , a nd t he h ead f ac ing b ackwards a nd h o ld ing i n i t s mouth , a cc ording t o F ernand B eno i t , ap ipe , t he b ow l o f wh ich i s c lear ly d ep ic ted a s a c y l inder t o w h ich i s j o ined a l ong s te m . "4 Th is i den t if ica t ion i s v ery u ncert a in a nd i ts ee ms p referab le t o i n terpre t t he s ub jec t a s a n " ero t ic f i gure p layi ng t he f l ute" . 5 Th is f i gure o f ac lown 's h ead i s c o mmon i n R o man a rt , i n a dd i t ion t o t he r epresen ta t ions o f men p lay ing t he P hryg ian a u los , many e xamp les o f wh ich a re t o b e f ound i n t he D ic t ionna ire d es a nt iqui tes g recques e t r o ma ines . We r ead t ha t t h is i ns tru men t c ons is ted o f t wo d iss imi lar t ubes , t he o ne s tra igh t a nd c y l indr ica l o r s l igh t ly t apering , t he o ther l onger a nd s e t a t ar igh t a ng le , a lso s tra igh t i n i t ia l ly b ut t erm ina t ing i n ab e l lo r e x tens ion

3

s harp ly f l ared o pen ing r em in iscen t o ft he b ow l o f ap ipe o r ah orn , h ence t he n ame

xp c

( c ornu )" .

6

I t was a c o mmon i ns trumen t a nd i s f requen t ly

d ep ic ted i n t he I ndex o f F igure-types o n t erra s ig ila ta ( "Samian ware") .

7

B eno i t 's p aper d oes n ot t hrow l i gh t o n t he q ues t ion o ft he l eaves wh ich t he R omans w ou ld h ave smoked . J eröme C arcop ino a t tempted t o a nswer t h is i n h is p aper S ur Pex is tence d e l ap ipe e t Pusage d e f umer c hez l es R o ma ins . 8 There was n o l ack o fp lan ts , a ccord ing t o P l iny t he E lder , w i th t he p ower o f c ur ing c oughs a nd i ncreasing v ir i li ty . r ocke t a nd s af fron .

H e n ames r amp ion , g ar l ic , b as i l ,

N one o ft hese c ou ld h ave b een u sed i n t he d ancer 's p ipe ,

s ince ,n one i s e ver u sed t o p roduce v apours o n c o mbus t ion a l though i nha la t ion o f v apours was k nown a s e ar ly a s t he 5 th c en tury B . C .

H erodo tus t e l ls u s

t ha t t he S cy th ians h ad a c us tom o f i nha l ing t he f u mes o fh e mp s eeds t hrown o n t o r ed h o t s tones d ur ing f unera ls . T he f i rs t c entury R o man g eographer , P o mpon ius Me la , c o m men ted t ha t t he T hracians b ecame i n tox ica ted n o t w i th w ine , b u t b y i nha ling t he f u mes g iven o f fb y ab ras ier i n to wh ich t hey h ad t hrown c er ta in s eeds . B u t i ft he f i gure d ep ic ted o n t he l a mp w as i ndeed smok ing , h e c anno t h ave h ad h e mp i n h is p ipe :

P liny was c arefu l t o n o te t ha t

"s emen

e ius ( canab is ) e x t inguere g en i turam v irorum d icitur" . 9 T he Greeks , a ccord ing t o D ioscor ides ( 1s t c en tury ) emp loyed t wo " aspira tors" f or smoking ; t he v pwv ( s iphon ) a nd t he XO tO a po . ,4 TuKo ( aro ma t ic r eed ) . T he R o mans u sed t he i nfurn ibu lu m o r i nfund ibu lum .

l u

S upposing t ha t t he d ancer

was smok ing , i tc ou ld o n ly h ave b een t he b ech ion wh ich D ioscur ides a t tr ibu tes h ea ling p roper t ies , e specia l ly f or c oughs . T h is b ech ion o ft he Greeks , k nown t o t he R o mans a s t ussi lago , i s o ur c o l tsfoo t . P liny r ecom mends b urning t he r oo t o n aC ypress b ras ier a nd i nha l ing t he smoke t hrough a r eed a s ac ure f or t he c ough ,1 h ence t he n a me t uss i lag ,o t ussim a go , " hun ts d own t he c ough" . The f i nd ing o fp ipes o n R o man o r G a l lo-Ro man s i tes d oes n o t p rove t ha t t he l eg ionary was i n t he h ab i t o fd raw ing o n h is p ipe t he e ven ing b efore a b a t t le , 1 3 j us t a s t he f l in ts a nd p ipe s te ms f ound i n s ome F rank ish g raves 1 4 s hou ld n o t l ead u s t o e nv isage t he S a lian a nd R ipar ian c harg ing , l i ke L assa le o r Bl i tcher ,w i th p ipes c lenched b e tween t he ir t ee th . F ur ther more , t he a nc ien t wor ld a nd t he Midd le Ages p roduced n o works o f a rt d ep ic t ing t he p ipe . H oaxes e x is t , o f c ourse , s uch a s a ddi t ions t o wa l l p a in t ings f rom P o mpe i i made b y i rrespons ib le p rac t ica l j okers . S o me f a lse s tor ies c ont inue t o c ircu la te , t wo o f wh ich a re we l l k nown a nd s een b y t hose who b e l ieve i n t he u se o f t he p ipe b efore t he i n troduc t ion o f t obacco a s i rrefutab le p roof o f t he ir v iew . I n t he c ourse o fp repar ing h is E tude s ur l es mod il lons d es e g l ises r o manes d e l a B asse-Normand ie , T heodore d u Monce l n o ted t ha t t he c hurch a t H uberv i l le i n t he d epar tmen t o f L a Manche was d ecora ted w i th" a c ur ious f i gure who h as a p ipe i n h is mou th" ( 1 1 th c en tury ) . a sk :

H is f i rs t r eac t ion was t o

"Was t h is mod i l lon a l tered af ter t he o r ig ina l s cu lp ture?" .

H is r ep ly

was d ecis ive : "No th ing i nd ica tes t ha t t h is i s t he c ase" . The d raw ing o ft he s trange s cu lpture r eproduced f or t he f i rs t t ime i n 1 842 i n t he B ul le t in monu men ta l ,

1 5

s t i l l a ppears f ro m t ime t o t ime i n p opu lar works .

H owever ,

t h is p ipe-s mok ing N orman , ac on te mporary o f Wi l l iam t he C onquerer , i s s i mp ly a h orn-p layer a nd t he " pipe" i s h is i ns tru men t .

T he Abbe Adam

c orrec ted D u MoncePs mis take i n 1 905 , b u t i ti s s t i l l r epea ted b y s o me u nc r i t ica l wr i ters .1 6 4

S imi lar ly , t he e rror made b y t he I r ish t rave l ler a nd a n t iquar ian , P e tr ie , n ear ly t wo c en tur ies a go i s s t i l l p erpe tua ted i n s o me q uar ters . H e c la imed t o h ave s een a p ipe i n t he mou th o f ar ec l in ing f i gure i n t he C is tercian A bbey o f C orco mroe , C oun ty C lare , I re land .

1 7

The t o mbs tone o ft he b enefac tor o f

t he A bbey , C onor n a S iuda ine O 'Br ien who d ied i n 1 267 , i mage b u t w i thou t ap ipe .

1 8

i s c arved w i th h is

P e tr ie was t he v ic t im o f aj oke o r ah oax .

B e lief i n t he med ieva l p ipe f ound s trong s uppor t i n t he p oem , c o mposed i n 1 276 b y t he S pan iard Mosen J a ime F reber , i n h onour o ft he c onques t o f Va lenc ia . O ne o ft he h eroes o ft h is e p ic p oem , F a ther E sp igo l , whose n ame means " lavender", smokes : " They s ay o fl avender t ha t i th as t he p roperty o fd r iv ing away s leep a nd g iv ing c ourage t o t hose who smoke i t , b ecause i td r ives away mo is ture f rom t he b ra in a nd o f ten a c ts w i th a n a s ton ish ing e f fec t iveness . F a ther E sp igo l , an ob le C a ta lan , b orn i n G erona , t ook p art i n t he C onques t . The k ing e s teemed h im a nd s howed h im g rea t f avours p erm it ting h im t o d ep ic t o n h is c oa t o f a rms f i ve l avender p lan ts o n af i e ld o f g u les The d es ign i sp ret ty . "1 9 H is tory d oes n o t r e la te whe ther h e i n troduced t h is p ract ice t o t he p r inc ip le a gent o f t he R econques t , t he C id . The s ingu lar l ack o fc o m monsense wh ich h as s urrounded t he a rchaeo logy o ft he c lay p ipe makes i tp ruden t t o awa i t more r e l iab le me thod o f d a t ing f or a ccep t ing a t tr ibu t ion o fp ipes t o t he R oman o r p re-Ro man p er iods . More t han a c en tury a go , B oucher d e P er thes r e la ted a f a mous s tory wh ich mer i ts c ons idera t ion : " There a re s o me s cho lars who l i ke t o p uzz le t he ir c ol leagues a nd o ne h as h eard t e l l o ft he j es t c arr ied o u t b y aF rench t ravel ler who , l ack ing i n r espec t f or t he r u ins o f

Thebes , b ur ied t here s o me p ipes

e ngraved w i th h ierog lyph ics . T hese i nsp ired a mos t s cho lar ly me moire b y a n I t a lian a n t iquar ian , who d emons tra ted b y ah os t o f p roofs a nd b y q uo ta t ions f ro m Greek a nd L a t in a u thors , t ha t t he E gyp t ians smoked . t obacco . "2°

H e d id n o t s ay whe ther t hey p aid d uty o n t heir

S evera l a u thors r e la ted t he s tory o ft he s upposed E gyp t ian o r ig ins o ft he p ipe , a nd S p ire B londe l h as t o ld a v ers ion b ased o n s evera l s ources , when h e s ays : "When o ne s ees t hepass ion o f modern p eop le f or t obacco , o ne i s l ed t o a sk o nese lf whe ther t he a nc ien ts k new o ft h is l i t t le d ev ice o f at ube e nd ing i n as or t o fb ow l i n to wh ich was p u t t obacco s o t ha t i t s smoke may b e i nha led . H ence t he s upposed E gyp t ian o r ig ins o ft he p ipe , wh ich was o nce t hough t t o h ave b een i n u se among t he s ub jec ts o ft he P haraos . were a ctua l ly t he w ork o f ah oaxer .

These f an tas t ic t heor ies

One may r ecal l B e lzon i 's a ccoun t o ft he

p ipe s o ld t o t he F rench e xp lorer C a l l laud a nd l a ter g iven b y h im t o a n E ng lishman , Mr . S a l t .

The C o mte d e F orb in s peaks o ft h is p ipe ; b u t a ccord ing t o 5

t h is l a ter t rave l ler , i t was s o ld b y an a t ive : " advan tage was t aken o ft he d esire f or a ny th ing a n t ique , wh ich was e xh ib i ted b y t h is we l l-informed t rave l ler a t Thebes . A n Arab , p roc ured b y t he mame louk Y ousef , s howed t o t h is ama teur c o l lec tor o f r ar i t ies , w i th a n a ir o f mys tery , ap ipe o n wh ich h ierog lyphs a nd v ar ious c o mp l ica ted c harac ters w ere a r t is t ica l ly e ngraved .

T he

s cho lar d id n o t r ecogn ise t he s hape o f t he B ychar i te p ipe u sed i n Abyssin ia . The sme l l o f t obacco c ou ld n o t b e c oncea led; i t was d isg uised b y t he o dour o f me lted b itu men wh ich h ad b een a r tfu l ly r un i ns ide t he s te m .

The t rave l ler t hanked t he B edouin p rofuse ly a nd

p a id 3 5 g ourdes f or a n a nc ien t p ipe o n wh ich h e p roposed t o wr i te a l ong me moire . N o G reek o r L a t in a uthor o f t he c lass ica l p er iod o r o f t he L a ter Emp ire h ad wr it ten a s ing le l i ne o n t he p ipe . N o r ace u nder R o man r u le k new o f i t s u se , t he C e l ts i nc luded . F ro m t he F a l l o f t he R o man Emp ire t o t he R ena iss ance n o t o ne s ing le p iece o f e v idence a l lows u s t o p os tu la te i t s e x is tence . The B yzant ines d o n o t men t ion i t .

We c an o n ly r egard t he e rroneous v iew o f

1 9th c entury s cho lars a s p ipe-drea ms , a nd c o mp le te ly a bandon a s n arve a nd u nrea list ic t he ir d es ire t o d e mons tra te t he e x is tence o f t he p ipe b efore t he ( re )discovery o f t he N ew Wor ld . THE OR IG INS OF THE EUROPEAN P IPE I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he I r ish monk B rendan ( 4 84-577 ) a nd h is c o mpan ions were t he f i rs t t o d iscover t he Amer ica l c on t inen t , c ross ing t he A t lan t ic i n a c urragh .

P erhaps L e if E r ikson f ounded t he c o lon ie o f V in land , aV ik ing

s e t t le men t b e l ieved t o h ave b een s i tua ted n ear l a t i tude 5 0° ( New found land , L abrador?) .

B ut i t was n e i ther t he I r ish o r t he S cand inav ians n or t he E ng lish

C arme l i te , N ico las d e L ynn t he s upposed a u thor o ft he I nven t io f or tuna ta ( 14 th c en tury ) , t he t ex t o f wh ich i s l os t , who i n troduced t obacco i n to E urope .

2 2

The e ar l ies t i nforma t ion o n i tc ame t hrough C hr is topher C o lo mbus , n o t a l o f whose n umerous wr i t ings h ave s urv ived .

L uck i ly , h owever , t he j ourna l o f h is

f irs t v oyage was c op ied o u t b y h is s on , F erd inand , a nd b y t he b ishop o f C h iappa i n Mex ico , t he D o min ican B ar to lo me d e L as C asas , who d evoted h i mse lf t o t he wr i t ing o ft wo g rea t w orks , t he Brev isima R e lac iön d e l a Des trucc ign d e l as I nd ias ( 1542 ) a nd t he H is tor ia d e l as I nd ias , where h e q uo ted f ree ly f rom t he G enoan s a i lor . When C o lo mbus l anded i n 1 492 o n t he i s land wh ich h e n amed S an S a lvador , t he i nhab i tan ts made h im a n o tewor thy g if t o fd r ied l eaves s i mi lar t o t hose wh ich h e n o ted s o me d ays l a ter i n t he b oa t o f a n I nd ian .

2 3

On N ovember 6 th ,

t he c arave l les r eached t he i s land o f C uba a nd t wo s ai lors l anded a nd o bserved men a nd w omen smok ing a t ype o f c igar . O ne o ft hese e xp lorers R odr igo d e Xerez , b ecame t he f irs t t o i mi ta te t he m o n r e turn ing t o S pa in .'

-I t wen t

i l l w i th h im , f or t he H o ly I nqu is i t ion i mpr isoned h im i n ad ungeon o n t he a ccusa t ion o fh orror-s tr icken p eop le who b e l ieved h e was p ossessed o f a d ev i l . 25 c igars :

O n t hree f ur ther v is i ts , C o lo mbus r ecorded i n h is l og t he o f fer o f

6

1 .

" They ( t he I nd ians ) o f fered u s s ome mu l t i c o loured c ot ton c lothes ,

t h is w i th j oy a nd g rea t p leasure , a s i ft owards t he ir own B re thren , a nd a lso o ther g if ts w h ich t hey w ere a ccus tomed t o make t o h os ts , A s w e h ave n ow b eco me a ccus to med t o , t hey g ave t o e ach S pan iard ab urn ing t ube f i l led w i th s trong ly p erfumed a roma t ics , o f wh ich t he s hape r eca l led t ha t o fp aper f i re-crackers , a nd t hey i nha led t he smoke wh ich emerged f ro m t heir n os tr i ls . "2 6 2 . " The o ld man made a s ign t o t he c ap tain ( Co lo mbus ) t o s i t d own , a nd p resen ted h im a nd e ach o ft he d ign i tar ies w i th a t ube o f a roma t ic h erbs a s d escr ibed a bove" .

3 .

" Once a rr ived a nd s ea ted o n t he g rass a nd

l eaves , h e ( t he I nd ian ) g ave b urning t ubes f i l led w i th l eaves , emi t t ing smoke , t o t he c ap ta in a nd t o t he S pan iards i n h is s u i te , o ne t o e ach . "2 8 Many Amor ind ians t r ibes d id n o t k now o ft obacco o r c onsumed i to n ly i n t he f orm o f c h ique ( chew ing t obacco ) . The v erac i ty o f Amer igo V espucc i h as b een q ues t ioned b y h is tor ians c oncerning t he a c t ions w h ich h e r epor ted a nd t he v oyages wh ich h e made i n t he N ew Wor ld , b u t h e c er tain ly s aw , o n h is s econd v oyage f rom C ad iz , o n May 1 6th 1 499 , o n t he i s land o f Margar i ta o f f t he c oas t o f V enezue la , s avages c ons tan t ly c hew ing a g reen h erb , l i ke b eas ts ( "una h erba v erde c he d i c on tinouo l a r ugumavano c o me b es t ie") .

2 9

I n D e o rbe n ove d ecades ( 1516 ) , t he M i lanese P e ter Mar tyr o f Angh iera , who made h is c areer i n S pa in , b ecame a "member o ft he C ounci l o ft he Wes t I nd ies a nd h ad o ccasion t o mee t w i th mos t o ft he g rea t n av iga tors o ft he a ge [•• ] ‚descr ibed i n p ar t icu lar t he d iscovery o ft obacco b y C o lombus . "30

Th is

r oya l c hron ic ler a lso c op ied l ong e x trac ts f rom " The f i rs t a ccura te e thno log ica l s tudy o ft he r e l ig ious a nd med icina l u ses o f t obacco b y t he I nd ians", a nd h is s urvey e n t i t led O n t he A n t iqu i t ies o ft he I nd ians , aw ork wh ich was n ever p ubl i shed a nd i s n ow l os t , wr i t ten b y t he H eronomi te monk R amon P ane o f who m w e k now o n ly t ha t h e p ar t icipa ted i n C o lo mbus 's s econd v oyage . 3 1 F erd inand , t he s on o ft he A dmira l , a lso i nc luded t he t ex t o f R amon P ane i n h is " H is tory o f C hr is topher C o lu mbus .

E lsewhere h e i s u ncer ta in i n h is a ccoun t o f a

p owder c a l led c ohoba o r c og ioba wh ich t he C ar ib I nd ians o f H a i t i i nha led "w i th ac ane a s l ong a s t he f orearm", t he e nd o f wh ich was i nser ted i n to t he n ose . Th is c ohoba p owder h as o f ten b een c onfused w i th t obacco , e ven a f ter S af ford i n 1 916 d e mons tra ted t ha t t he t erm r eferred t o ah a lucina tory s eed ( P ip taden ia p eregr ina ) .

3 3

P ip taden ia g rows " in t he r eg ion o ft he Amazon a nd t he Or in ico

a s we l l a s i n H ispan io la , P uer tor ico a nd t he o ther i s lands o ft he An t i l les" .

3 4

G onza lo F ernandez d e O v iedo who was g overnor o f S an D om ingo f rom 1 515 t o 1 556 a nd was f a mous f or h is c rue lty t o t he C ar ibs , t ook a n i n teres t i n t he ir c us to ms .

Ap assage i n h is H is tor ia G enera l yN a tura l d e l a I nd ias 3 5 h as

s pread t he v iew t ha t t he p re-Co lumb ian I nd ians smoked Y -shaped p ipes : " The I nd ians o ft h is i s land , i n a dd i t ion t o t he o ther v ices t o wh ich t hey a re g iven , h ave o ne wh ich i s v ery b ad .

They t ake i n Ik now n ot

wha t smoke wh ich t hey c a l l t abacos , when t hey w ish t o l ose t heir s enses .

Th is t hey d o w i th t he smoke o r s cen t o f ac er ta in h erb wh ich

f rom t ha t wh ich Ih ave h eard r ese mb les t he s hrub wh ich i s c a l led i n C as t i l lian V e le ri o , p opu lar ly k nown a s H anebane o r J usqu iane , wh ich t hey p ar take o fi n t h is way . " The C ac iques a nd c h iefs h ave l i t t le h igh ly-po l ished s t icks , we l l made a nd a bou t t he s ize o f ap a lm a nd a s t ick a s t he l i t t le f i nger o f 7

t wo l i t t le t ubes b eco m ing o ne a nd i s h ere d ep ic ted , a l i n o ne p iece . These t hey p lace i n t heir n ostr i ls a nd t he o ther s ing le e nd i n t he smoke o ft he smou lder ing h erb .

They b urn t he l eaves o ft he a fore-

s a id h erb c rushed t oge ther a nd e nc losed ; l i ke c our t p ages t hey h ave t he c us to m o fg iv ing smoke o rp uf fs o f smoke , a nd t hus t akeing a nd r ece iv ing t he v apour a nd smoke , o nce , t w ice , t hree a nd more t imes s o l ong a s t hey a re a b le , u n ti l t hey l ose t he ir s enses , g radua l ly s l ipp ing t o t he g round , d runk a nd a s leep i n ad eep a nd h eavy s lu mber . B u t t hose who d o n o t p ossess t hese l i t t le s t icks g ive a nd r ece ive t he smoke t hrough t ubes o r l i t t le c anes o f g ladio lus o r r eeds ; t hey c al l t h is i ns trumen t w i th t wo t ubes a nd t he l i t t le c anes t hrough wh ich t hey t ake t he a foresa id p erfu me T abaco , n o t t he h erb f or s leep ing , wh ich t hey t ake , a s o thers t hink . "3 6 H . K . R oess ignh h as wr i t ten a t l eng th o n t h is p assage b y O v iedo , a nd s o we t hink i tu sefu l t o q uo te e x tens ive ly f ro m h is c o mmen tary : "A t t h is t ime t he o r igina l p opu la t ion o f H ispan io la , u nder S pan ish r u le , was a lready l arge ly d ecima ted a nd r ep laced b y I nd ians f ro m V enezue la a nd C en tra l Amer ica a s w e l l a s b y b lack s laves . Ov iedo c o mb ines , i n h is d escr ip t ion o ft obacco a nd o f t he manner i n wh ich t he I nd ians o f H ispan io la smoked i t , h is k now ledge a nd p ersona l memor ies w i th t he s ta te ment o fo bservers .

S p inden 3 7

i nfers t ha t

Ov iedo h ad r ece ived t h is i nfor ma t ion f rom V enezue la , where C har les V , t o p ay h is d eb ts , h ad g iven c oncess ions t o ac o m merc ia l e n terpr ise a nd t o t he We lser 's o fA ugsburg f or e xp loi t ing mines a nd f or t raf f ic i n s laves w i th t he o b liga t ion a f c o lon ising a nd d eve loping t he t err i tory . B y 1 527 t he G ermans h ad , i n t he c ourse o f s eek ing t he f abu lous E l D orado , e xp lored a v as t a rea i n t he i n ter ior o ft he c oun try , a nd Ov iedo h ad t he o ppor tun i ty o f o b ta in ing i nforma t ion f ro m t hem . H e s ays t ha t i nha la t ion o ft he smoke o ft he h erb h as b eco me an arco t ic e f fec t , a nd t ha t t he h erb , s o f ar a s h e was a b le t o j udge , was o ft he s ame s pecies a s t he V e le r io , t ha t i s t o s ay h enbane , Hyoscyamus n iger L . Moreover i t was d iferen t , h e s ays , f ro m t he l arge , s of t a nd d owny l eaves , s omewha t s imi lar t o t he p lan t k nown t o t he a po thecar ies a nd d oc tors a s b ug losa .

H ere h e was p robab ly

r eferr ing t o C o mfrey , S ymphy tu m o f f icina le L . T hen f o l lows t he d escr ip t ion o ft he u se o ft obacco , i n wh ich t he smoke i s i nha led w i th t he a id o f aY -shape p ipe " wh ich wou ld h ave p roduced a p owerfu l ly n arco t ic e f fec t" , ad escr ip t ion b ased o n ac onfus ion b e tween t obacco a nd t he t ak ing o fp ip taden ia . The p ipe i n t he f orm o f af ork h as b ec o me i n i t s t urn a s ource o f e rror h av ing b ecome a "nose" p ipe f or smok ing . I l lus tra tion o f aY -shape p ipe i n O v iedo 's w ork i s n o t r eal ly b ased o n h is p ersona l o bserva t ion , f or t he t wo s tems a re s o s p layed t ha t i tw ou ld b e i mposs ib le t o i nser t t hem s imu l taneous ly i n to o ne p erson 's n os tr i ls . Ov iedo 's i nforma t ion , p ar t ly u n true a nd i nexa ct ,h as u nfor tuna te ly b e c i ted a nd t ranscr ibed i n many r ev iews . I n t h is way t he e rrors wh ich a re a lready man ifes ted i n t he o r ig ina l S pan ish t ex t h ave b een p assed o n f rom a u thor t o a u thor" .

8

3 8

I ti s g enera l ly a ccep ted t ha t t he f i rs t Amer indian p ipes h ad t he a ppearance o f s tra igh t t ubes o f v ery s imp le f orm .

At ube v ery s im i lar t o t h is h as b een

t ha t wh ich i s smoked b y t he " pr ies ts" s cu lp ted o n a Mayan b as-re lief f rom t he T e mp le o ft he C ross f rom P a lenque , Y uca tan ( Mex ico ) n ow d isp layed i n t he B r i t ish Museu m . T h is s cu lpture f rom t he Temp le a t P a lenque 4° i s among t he most b eaut ifu l works o fp re-Co lomb ian a r t t o h ave e scaped d es truct i on .

I ti s c ommon ly d a ted t o t he f i f th c en tury A . D .

I n a n e xh ib i t ion a t t he B ib lio theque F orney i n 1 976, among s ome 7 50 p ipes o n d isp lay , t here were s ome t ubu lar p ipes f rom C en tra l a nd S ou th Amer ica , a nd t hree p ipes o fb aked c lay w i th d oub le s tems wh ich c ame f rom C os ta R ica . According t o t he d escr ip t ion i n t he c a ta logue , t hese t hree p ipes were " smoked t hrough t he n ose [ . ..]" .

4 1

The a uthor o f t he c a ta logue , who was a lso t he

a dv isor o f t he e xh ib i t ion , F red er ic E de l mann , h as c onstruc ted a t ypo logy o f t he p ipe t ak ing i n to c ons idera t ion t he v ar ious f ac tors a f fec t ing t he d eve lop ment o f t he i ns tru men t ;

" the ma ter ia ls a t t he maker 's d isposa l , t he t echn ica l

l im i ta t ions o f t he a r t isan , t he c lass o f t obacco , t he r isk o f f i re , t he d egree o f t he d es ire t o smoke o r f ac tors s uch a s t he l aw , t he s uperst i t ions o f t he smoker , e tc ." H e b r ings t oge ther " those f ac tors wh ich d er ive f ro m t he l im it a t ions o f t he ma ter ia ls ...the l i gh t i n wh ich t he o b jec t i s s een a nd i t s r e lig ious o r s oc ia l s ign if icance . " H e d iscerns "7 b as ic t ypes wh ich c an b e o rdered i n r e la t ion t o o ne a nother h ist or ica l ly o rg eograph ica l ly : Type A :

T ubu lar p ipes ( s tra igh t o r t apered )

Th is i s t he mos t p r im i t ive f orm , t he f i rs t l i nk b e tween t obacco a nd man . I t may b e s een a s a n e x tens ion o f l eng th o n to t he b urn ing t obacco o r a s ad is tance p laced b e tween t he smoker a nd t he b urn ing t obacco . N or th a nd C en tra l Amer ica :

t h is i s t he o r ig in o f o ther t ypes .

S ou th Amer ica : s t i l l i n u se among c erta in I ndian t r ibes . A fr ica : u sua l ly emp loyed f or smok ing h emp . Type B :

S em i-tubu lar p ipes

The o pen ing i s e n larged a nd i s c u t a t as lan t . b en t .

The t ube i s s l igh t ly

E xamp les a re f ound among a ncien t N or th Amer icans .

Type C :

P ipes w i th i nse t b ow ls ( t ubu lar a ppearance )

The b ow l i s h o l lowed o ut a t t he e nd o f t he t ube , a t r igh t a ng les t o i t s a x is , a nd l i es w i th in i t . o r S outh Amer ica . T ype D :

A nc ient t ype , n o t c o m mon , f ound i n C en tra l

P ipes w i th a ngu lar o r b en t h eads

Th is i s ap ipe w i th at ube a t tached t o t he b ase o f at ubu lar p ipe wh ich t hus b eco mes t he b ow l a nd i s ar esu l t o ft he b end ing o f at ubu lar p ipe . The f i rst h ypo thes is r egards t hese a s p ipes c ons is t ing o f ab ow l w i tho ut a s te m , t o wh ich a mou thp iece h as b een a t tached . The s econd h ypothes is r egards t he m a s o ne-p iece p ipes i n wh ich t he b ow l i s e xt ended b y as te m f or m ing a t ube . 9

Type E :

Angu lar p ipes .

B ow l a t tached t o t he s te m

I n c on tras t t o t he p reced ing p ipe , i ti s t he t ube wh ich f orms t he b ow l , c onsequen t ly , t he l a t ter i s g enera l ly sma l l . Type F :

Wa ter p ipes .

F ar E as t , A fr ica .

B ow l a t tached t o at ube i n terrup ted b y a

v esse l o f wa ter wh ich a c ts a s af i lter .

These p ipes o f ten h ave a

c omp lex f orm ( nargh i leh a nd k ha l lian ) , A s ia a nd A fr ica . T ype G :

S tem less p ipes .

T he e leva ted b ow l r es ts d irec t ly o n a

b u lg ing mou thp iece ( s uch a s ap a lm ) . A .

T h is a lmos t r e turns t o t ype

A fr ica . "42

F ro m C en tra l Amer ica , t he p ipes s pread f i rs t s ou th a nd t hen t o N or th Amer ican .

S o me N or th Amer ican t r ibes b egan t o u se t hem a t t he e nd o ft he

f our teen th c en tury , 44 i n r e lig ious a nd mag ic c eremon ies . 4 4 I ndeed , i fw e a re t o b e l ieve L ibermann , " traces o ft obacco a re f ound i n c ave-dwel lings i n Ar izona d a t ing f ro m 6 50 B . C . "4 5 Wh i le i th as b een d emons tra ted t ha t t obacco e x is ted i n t he w i ld s ta te i n Aus tra lia a nd t he S ou th P acif ic I s lands , i ti s n ever the less h is tor ical ly c er ta in t ha t i t s u se was k nown o n ly o ver a v as t a rea e x tend ing "f ro m C anada t o C h i li a nd f ro m t he A t lan t ic t o t he P acif ic" .

4 6

R ember t D odenee was t he f i rs t E uropean s cho lar t o d escr ibe t obacco l eaves s c ien t if ica l ly . H e f o l lowed t he c lassif ica tion o f D ioscor ides i n c al l ing i tH yoscyamus l u teus , o r y e l low h enbane .

4 7

S ince h e d oes n o t r efer t o t he

Amer ican o r ig in o ft he p lan t we may i nfer t ha t h e was i gnoran t o ft hem .

A

l i t t le l a ter t he c ura t ive p roper t ies o ft obacco were d iscovered i n P or tuga l , a nd i t was r eco m mended i n p owdered f orm o r a s a n u nguen t . ap urga t ive , a s a n e ne ma a nd a s ad en t ifr ice .4 8

I t was u sed a s

T o J ean N ico t ,a s cho lar o f r epu te , f l uen t i n L a t in a nd F rench , b e longs t he h onour o fh av ing i n troduced t obacco i n to E urope . H e was s en t i n a n Embassy t o P or tuga l i n 1 559 , a nd h e i s wrong ly k nown a s t he a u thor o f t he f i rst D ic t ionn a ire d e l a L angue f ranQa ise ,4 9 f a i led i n h is n egot ia t ions a nd s ucceeded i n c u l t iva t ing a n ew p lan t t hanks t o t he e xamp le o f s ome c our t iers a t t he C our t o f L isbon .

Q ueen C a ther ine d e Med ici , t o who m h e s en t s o me s eeds , was

a pparen t ly a b le t o a l lev ia te t he v io len t m igra ines t o wh ich s he was s ub jec t b y t ak ing t he m i n t he f orm o f ap owder . 50 F rom t h is h as d er ived t he n ame g iven t o t he Q ueen 's p lan t , med icee , a nd i n h onour o f N icot , N ico t iana . I t was c a l led " the h erb o ft he Grand Pr ior" , i n a l lus ion t o t he b ro ther o ft he C ard ina l o f L orra ine , who may h ave a c ted a s i n termed iary b e tween C a ther ine d e Med ic i a nd N icb t , " a c ause d u g rand-pr ieur d e F rance d e l a ma ison d e L orr a ine q ui e n u so i t b eaucoup" . 5 1 Over 1 00 n ames h ave b een e nu mera ted f or t obacco . 5 2 The P apa l N uncio : a t L isbon , C ardina l Prospero S an ta C roce , i nformed P ius I V i n 1 561 o ft he p lan t , a nd i t was k nown i n I ta ly a s " San ta Croce 's h erb" o r " erba S an ta" .

C ard ina l N ico lo T ornabuon i who c omb ines

f ro m 1 560 t o 1 565 t he f unc t ion o f Nunc io t o F rance a nd Ambassador o f C oso m i Id e Med ici , c on tr ibu ted s imi lar ly t o t he i n troduct ion o ft he h erb t o I t a ly where u nder t he n ame t ournabone , e rba t ornabuona , i te n joyed a g rea t p opu lar i ty .

1 0

A ndre

Theve t , aF ranc iscan F r iar a t A ngour eme b efore h e b ecame a l ay

p riest , v igorous ly c ontes ted N ico t 's c la im t o p r ior i ty . R ecrui ted b y N ico las D urand o f V i l legagnon , who h ad b een i nstruc ted b y A dm ira l d e C o lig-n y t o f ound i n " France a n tarc t ique" ( Braz i l ) ac o lony c ons is t ing o f P ro testan ts a nd C a thol i cs f ro m a d jacen t c oun tr ies . Theve t , as ick man , o n ly l ived t here a s hort t ime . H owever , h e l i stened a t ten t ive ly t o t he s tor ies t o ld b y h is c o mpan ions . T oge ther w i th i ncred ib le t a les , h e r e la ted t ha t h e h ad v er if ied t ha t t he I nd ians smoked a h erb wh ich h e c a l led " petun" .

H is f i rst work L es S ingu lar i tez d e l a

F rance A n tarc t ique , t he ma in e d i t ion o f wh ich a ppeared i n 1 557 , t wo y ears b efore N ico t 's j ourney t o P ortuga l , d id n o t c i te t he l a t ter , when h e i mputed h im i n ap ub l ica t ion e nt i t led C os mo&raph ie U n iverse l le—he was t hen t he K ing 's c os mographer—pub lished i n 1 575 .

5 3

T here f o l lowed a j us t if ied r eproach a nd l i ve ly c r i t icism o f Theve t , who h ad s pen t o n ly t hree mon ths i n B raz i l , wh i le J ean d e L ery u nder took i n h is H is toire d 'un v oyage f a i t e n l a t erre d u Bres i l, f i rs t p ub l ished i n 1 578 , t o d emons tra te t ha t t he f r iar was " as much a p roven l i ar a s a n i mpuden t s landerer" .

I n many p eop les4 o p in ion , h e h ad c augh t h im r ed-handed , a nd

t h is C a lvan is t wro te n ot w i thou t h u mour t ha t t he C osmographer R oya l " es t e n g rand d anger ...de n 'es tre p as mis a u C a lendr ier d u P ape p our e s tre c anon ise e t r ec lame a pres s a mor t c o mme mons ieur s a in t T heve t" .

Arr iv ing

i n B raz i l i n March 1 557 , t h ir teen mon ths a f ter t he d epar ture o f T hevet , L ery o bserved c arefu l ly f or t en mon ths t he h ab i ts o f t he T upa p opu la t ion o f t he c oas t a nd t he n a tura l h is tory , c lass ify ing a nd o rder ing t he f l ora a nd f auna . H is d escr ip t ion o fp etun , "a s i mp le o f r e markab le v irtue" a nd o f t he way i n wh ich t he " savages" i nha led i t , s howed t he e xac t itude o f h is o bserva t ion i n h is " pe t i t l abeur" a s h e c a l led h is work : " Pour Pesgard d es s imp les , q ue c es te t erre d u Bresi l p rodui t , Iy e n au n e n tre l es a u tres , q ue n os T o t ioup inambaou l ts , n o m men t P etun , l eque l c rois t d e l a f a9on e t u n p eu p lus h au t q ue n os tre g rande o zei l le , al es f uei l les a ssez s e mb lab les , ma is e ncor p lus a pprochan tes d e c e l les d e C onso l ida ma ior .

C es te h erbe , h .c ause d e l a s ingu liere

v ertu q ue v ous e n tendrex q u 'e l le a , e s t e n g rande e s t ime e n tre l es s auvages e t v o ici c o m me i l s e n u sen t . Apres g ul ls Pon t c uei l lie , e t p ar p e t i te p oignee p endue , e t f a i t s echer e n l eurs ma isons , e n p renan t q ua tre o u c inq f uei l les , l esquel les i l s e nve lopen t d ans u ne a u tre g rande f ueile d 'arbre , e n f a2on d e c orne t d 'esp ice :

met tans

l ors l e f eu p ar l e p e t i t b ou t , e t l e met tan t a insi u n p eu a l lu me d ans l eurs b ouches , i s e n t iren t e n c es te f avon l a f u mee , l aque l le , c o mb ien q u 'e l le l eur r essor te p ar l es n ar ines e t p ar l eurs l evres t rouees , n e l a isse p as n ean tmoins d e t e l lemen t l es s us tan ter , q ue p r inc ipa le men t s ' i ls v on t h .l a g uerre , e t q ue l a n ecess i te l es p resse , i l s s eron t t rois o u q ua tre j ours s ans s e n ourr ir d 'au tre c hose . Vray e s t g ul ls e n u sen t e ncores p our u n a u tre e sgard :

c ar p arce q ue c e la l eur f a i t d is t i l ler

l es h u meurs s uperf lues d u c erveau , v ous n e v err iez g ueres n os Bresi liens s ans a voir , n on s eu lemen t c hascun u n c orne t d e c es te h erbe p endu a u c o l , ma is a uss i at ou tes l es minu tes :

e t e n p ar lan t av ous ,

c e la l eur s ervan t d e c on tenance , i l s e n h u men t l a f u mee , l aque l le

1

c o m me j ' ay d i t ( eux r eserrans s ouda in l a b ouche ) l eur r essor t p ar l e n ez e t p ar l es l evres f endues c o m me d 'un e ncensoir : e t n 'en e s t p as l a s en teur ma l p la isan te .

C ependan t j e n 'en a y p o in t v eu u ser

a ux f e m mes , e t n e s cay l a r a ison p ourquoy : ma is b ien d iray— je q u 'ayan t moy— mes me e xper imen t ec es te f u mee d e P e tun , pay s en t i q u 'e l le r assas ie e t g arde b ien d 'avoir f a im . Au r es te , c o mb ien q u 'on a ppe l le ma in tenan t p ar d e9ä l a N icot iane , o u h erbe ä l a R oyne P e tun , t an t Wen f au t t ou tesfois q ue c e s oi t d e c e luy d on t j e p ane , g u 'au c on tra ire , o u tre q ue c es d eux p lan tes Won t r ien d e c o m mun , f l y e n f orme f l y e n p ropr ie te , e t q u 'auss i Pau teur d e l a ma ison R us t ique , l iv . 2 , c hap . 7 9 , a f f irme q ue l a N icot iane ( l aque l le d i t-i l r e t ien t c e n om d e mons ieur N ico t , q u i p remier P envoya d e P or tuga l e n F rance ) ae s te a ppor tee d e l a F lor ide , d is tan te d e p lus d e mi l l i eues d e n os tre t erre d u B res i l ( car t ou te l a Z one T orr ide e s t e n tre d eux ) e ncor y ai l q ue q ue lque r echerce q ue j ' aye f a l te e n p lus ieurs j ard ins , o i t l ' on s e v an toi t d 'avoir d u P etun j usques ä p resen t , j e n 'en a yp oin t v eu e n n os tre F rance . E t äf i n q ue c e luy q ui n ous a d e n ouveau f a i t f es te d e s on A ngonmo ise , d i t e s tre v ray P etun , n e p ense p as q ue j ' ygnore c e q u ' il e n ae scr i t : s il e n a ture l d u s imp le d on t i lf a i t men t ion r essemb le a u p our tra i t q u 'i l e n af a i t f a ire e n s a C os mograph ie , pen d i a u tan t q ue d e l a N icot iane : q ur en c e c as j e n e l uy c oncede p as c e q u 'i l p re tend :

t e l le men t

a ssavoir

a i t e s t el e p re m ier q u i aa ppor te d e l a g ra ine d e P etun e n F rance : o u a uss i äc ause d e f roi t , res t ime q ue ma la isemen t c e s imp le p ourr oi t c rois tre . "54 I n F rance , J acques C ar t ier s ee ms n o t t o h ave b een i n teres ted i n t he p ipe .

5 5

H e r eca l led h av ing s een i n 1 535 , t he I roquois e n joy ing smok ing , h e h i mse lf o n ly e xper ienced d isgus t when h e t ook " le c orne t" i n h is mou th . 5 6 T he p ipe d en igra ted b y C ar t ier was t o b eco me b e t ter k nown a nd a pprecia ted . The E uropean p ipe a ppeared i n E ng land a round 1 570 . a ga ins t i l lness i s f requen t ly a t tes ted .

5 7

F ro m 1 573 i t s u se

T he E ng lish s a i lors J ohn H awk ins a nd

F rancis D rake c on tr ibu ted t o i t s p opu lar i ty . Af ew y ears l a ter , i n 1 590 , a ccord ing t o Wi l liam v an d er Meer , E ng lish a nd F rench s tuden ts a t t he U n iv ers i ty o f L eyden , where h e was a med ica l s tuden t , smoked p ipes ,

5 8

a nd a

German l awyer n o ted t ha t , i n 1 598, t he E ng lish a re p ar t icu lar ly a dd icted t o t obacco a nd c onsumed i ti n c lay p ipes . 5 9 A t t he b eginning o ft he XV I I th c ent ury t he a r t o f smok ing u sing c lay p ipes was w ide ly p rac t ised .

6 °

A ccording

t o t he V ene t ian Ambassador i n L ondon i n 1 618 , men a nd w o men g ave t hems e lves u p d ay a nd n igh t t o t h is p leasure .

6 1

I n E ng land , a l though b efore 1 619 p ipe makers were n o t a ssoc ia ted i n to a n o rgan ised b ody , t here i s a lways a monopo l is t ic t endency among t hem , wh ich , a s e ar ly a s 1 601 , man ifes ted i t se lf d ur ing a d eba te i n t he H ouse o f C o m mons . The h ab i t d isp leased K ing J ames I( 1603-1625 ) a nd h e e xpressed h is d isgus t i n a n a nonymous a t tack , C oun terb las te t o T obacco ( 1 604 ) , t h is i n t urn was b y t he p ra ises o ft he P or tueguese J esu i ts ( 63 ) a nd o ft he S co t t ish h u man is t Wi l liam B arc lay , who p ub l ished i n E d inburgh i n 1 614 a n a po logy f or t obacco

1 2

6 2

e n t i t led Nepen thes o r t he v er tues o f Tabacco .

6 4

The K ing 's s tr ictures , h is

o ppos i t ion t o t obacco , a nd t he a g i ta t ions o ft hose who

w orked f or t he p ipe

makers , p ersuaded a n umber o fp ipe makers t o g o a broad a nd s eek s erv ice i n t he Pro tes tan t a rm ies o f S tadhouder Maur ice o f N assau 65 F reder ick H enry .

a nd h is b rother

T hese s o ld iers i n troduced p ipe manufac tur ing i n to H o l land ,

c h ief ly a t G ouda , at own f amous f or i t s p o t ter ies .

A lready b y 1 607, a ccording

t o D r . D . D ue° , who h as c o m mun ica ted t h is i nfor ma t ion t o u s v erba l ly , we k now o f t he p resence o f a n E ng l ish p ipe maker a t Ams terda m .

I n t he munic ipa l

a rch ives o f Amsterdam , W . F . H . O lderve l t h as d iscovered a d ocu men t d a ted 1 611 , c on ta ining t he n o te :

"W i l lia m J orreson B oyese man , E nge ls man , b oeck-

d rucker e nde t abackpyp maecker" .

The n ame o f o ne o f t he f i rs t E ng l ish p ipe-

6 6

makers t o em igra te t o H o l land h as r ece ived l ess a t ten t ion t han t ha t o f a nother E ng l ish man , Wi l liam B aerne lts o r B aren tsz ( Barnes )? , who i s r egarded a s t he f ounder o f G ouda p ipe i ndus try i n 1 617 .

6 7

D . A . G oedewagen , h as s o

c lose ly s tudied t h is man t ha t h e c ons iders t ha t h e was k nown t o Wi ll ia m S hakes peare .

6 8

A t t he s ame t ime t he E ng lish C a tho l ics s ough t r efuge i n t he S outh

N e ther lands a nd i n t he P r inc ipa li ty o f L iege . t ab l ished t he mse lves i n t h is e p iscopa l c i ty .

I n 1 614 t he E ng l ish J esui ts e s-

6 9

Der le ( C lay ) S ince t he e nd o ft he e leven th c en tury o r a s s o me ma inta in s ince t he e nd o f t he R o man p er iod , t he c lay o f t he A ndenne r eg ion h ad b een u sed b y p o t ters . I ti s n o t k nown when p ipe manufacture b egan , b ut i n t he f i rs t q uar ter o f t he s even teen th c en tury , t he D utch f ound i t more a nd more d if f icu lt t o p rocure s ui tab le c lay s im i lar t o t ha t wh ich t hey h ad h ad i n t he ir own c oun try a nd i n E ng land , a nd u sed a s as ubst i tute t he d er le o f t he c oun ty o f Namur .

7 1

The

b ea ters o f me ta l v esse ls f ro m Na mur a nd B ouv igne who , i n 1 639 , s o ld " h l eur p rof i t d es d er les g rasses n o ires e t b lanches moyennan t u ne r edevance d e 6 0 f l or ins p our e n f a ire d es v ases , p ipes , e tc ." s igned a n a gree men t i n 1 644 , whereby , wh i le u nder tak ing n o t t o s e l l t o Dutch b oa t men , t hey a greed t o p ro tec t t he manufac ture " de p o ts e t p ipes" o f C habo t teau .

7 2

A s we w i l l

s ee b e low , t he Gouda p ipe makers h ad n o t o n ly t urned t he ir a t ten t ion u pon t he c lay f ro m t h is r eg ion , b ut a lso u sed c lay f ro m C o logne wh ich t hey c arr ied d own t he R h ine t o t he D utch warehouses .

7 3

F or a l ong t ime t he U n i ted Prov inces t raded

i n Andenne d er le t hrough

D utch a nd L iego is b oa t men who l oaded t he ir b oa ts i n w in ter " e t d ans l es t e ms o u l es p lu ies a vo ien t f a i t g ross ir l a r ivf ere ...; o n n e l es v oyo i t p oin t p aroi tre e n t h ,Peau b asse e toi t p our e ux u n o bs tac le i nsurmon tab le". These l arge b oa ts w h ich c a l led o ne o r t wo a t at ime a t t he Andenne s hore , were e nab led b y t he f l ood wa ter t o d escend t he Meuse more e as i ly . When t hey a rr ived , t he b uyers wen t f ro m o ne c lay p i t t o a no ther t o e xamine t he d er le a nd e special ly t o ,e xa mine t he n ew ly-dug ma ter ia l . b es t c lay f or t heir p urpose , c ause t hey d id n o t f i re we l l .

7 6

7 5

They c hose t he

a nd t he s andy d er les were l i t t le e s tee med b eThe c us to mers d e manded a bove a l l t ha t t hey b e

a l lowed t o t es t t he q ua l i ty o ft he c lay . a t t he B e lgrade w ine-shop . 78

7 7

1 3

U sua l ly t he b arga ins were s truck

7 0

" Even tua l ly , i n r ecogn i t ion o f t he c o mp le te d ependence i n wh ich t hey h e ld t he c lay p roducers , t he D utchmen d id n o t t roub le t o c ome a ny f ur ther t han L iege , where t he Andenne p roducers c ame t o s how t he m s a mp les wh ich t hey b rough t i n l i t t le b ags . A l though t he l arge p rod ucers .... c ou ld a f ford t hese j ourneys , t he s ame was n o t t rue o f t he sma l l p ropr ie tors who , s hor t o f t ime a nd money , were u nab le t o t rave l .

T o g e t r ound t h is i nconven ience , t hey o f fered f i rs t i n terest

t o t he b oa t men who p rocured t he m b uyers" .

7 9

o r of ten t hey l owered t he ir p r ices c ons iderab ly , k eeping t he ir ma ter ia l i n t he ir warehouses .

8 0

The i nhab i tan ts o fA ndenne k new , b efore t he Du tch c ame , t he p roper t ies o ft he p las t ic c lay , a nd med ieva l s herds a nd v esse ls o f l oca l manufac ture a re f ound . B u t o ra l t rad i t ion s ays t ha t t hey " d id n ot b eg in t o f i re i tu n t i l t obacco smok ing was i n troduced i n to E urope , mak ing t he u se o ft he p ipe n ecessary"; f urthermore , i ti s "much l a ter t ha t i t was r ea l ised t ha t Andenne p ossessed c lay u n ique ly s ui ted t o p ipe manufac ture" .

T he N e ther lands s trugg led i n

8 1

e cono m ic s tagna t ion u nder S pan ish r u le , a nd h ad n o t g ot a t i t s d isposa l t he f i nanc ia l o r c o m merc ia l r esources t ha t o n ly p eace c ou ld a ssure . The o ff ic ia l c los ing o ft he S che ld t f o l low ing t he Trea ty o f Muns ter i n 1 648 ( i t h ad i n e f fect b een c losed s ince t he s iege o f An twerp i n 1 585 ) , t he embargo o n t rade w i th t he S pan ish C o lon ies , p roh ib i ted c us to ms d u t ies a nd t he r ov ing b ands o fp i ll ag ing s o ld iers , b led t he c oun try d ry . These t err ib le c ond i t ions g radua l ly b et tered t hemse lves u nder A us tr ian r u le .

V ienna s en t r epresen ta t ives o f

t he R oya l f a mi ly t o B russe ls , t he b es t k nown o f whom was C har les o f L orra ine , a nd i n r ea l i ty p ower c a me t o b e e xercised b y t he p len ipo ten t iary min isters . The L iego is , i n t h is c haot ic p er iod , h ad a bandoned t he L iege-An twerp e conomic a l ign men t i n o rder t o f o l low t he Meuse a nd t hus t o a rr ive a t t he marke ts a nd g rea t p or ts o ft he U n i ted Prov inces .

The e xpor t o fd er le b y r iver f ro m

H ol land was h indered b y e xpor t d u t ies l eve l led a t Ah in ,8 2 Navagne 83 a nd R ure monde . 8 4 O n J anuary 1 4 th 1 683 , t he t ar if was f i xed a t 2f l or ins p er l as t , a measure e qu iva len t t o aw eigh t o ff our t housand p ounds o r a pprox ima te ly 1 960 k i los . F ina l ly , i n o rder t o p ro tec t t he s a le o fp ipes made i n t he f ac tory e s tabl i shed a t N amur , t he e xpor t d u t ies o n d er les were r a ised o n 1 0 th O c tober 1 716 t o 6f l or ins p er l as t a t Ah in , whi le a t N avagne a nd R ure monde t he e xc ise men l ev ied t hree s ous " argen t f ort" o r t hree a nd a h a lf s ous i n " argen t c ouran t" . 86 The D u tch a nd t he L iegois r eac ted t o t hese measures b y f l ooding t he r eg ion w i th t he ir p ipes a t d er isory p r ices .

8 7

I n t h is way t hey b oycot ted

t he d er le a nd Andenne s uf fered a n e cono m ic c r is is .

I fw e a re t o b e l ieve t he

c o mp la in ts o f t he " propr ie tors , workers , c ar ters a nd b oa tmen ... work ing w i th a nd t ranspor t ing d er le" , t he e xcess ive i ncrease i n t he e xpor t d uty a t Nah in " disgus ted" t he Du tch merchan ts , who n o l onger were a b le t o make a p rof i t , a nd who e ach y ear h ad c usto mar i ly t aken u p 1 500 l oads o f 2 000 l bs e ach ( 1470 t onnes i n a l l ) . 8 8 A ccording t o t he e s t i ma tes o f t he r ece ivers o f c us to ms , t he r educ t ion was n ot iceab le when , i n 1 720 , t he Dutch o n ly i mported 1 013 t onnes a nd i n 1 725 , 1 044 t onnes .

8 9

The t rade was s low ing d own a nd t h is was p ut t o

1 4

g ood u se b y t he L iego is d e V i l le , a merchan t f ro m H uy , who o pened u p t he c lay p its n ear March in , l oca t ing a d epos i t a nd f i l ling h is warehouses w i th c lay wh ich h e s o ld t o t he D utch . "

S o me workers f ro m Andenne h ired t he mse lves o u t t o

d e V i l le wh i le o thers r eturned t o t he ir f or mer t rade a s f ar mers .

9 1

T he S ta tes o f t he p rov ince o f N a mur u sed t he ir i nf luence w i th t he c ounc i llors o f B russe ls t o h e lp t hese l i t t le p eop le i nvo lved i n t he d er le t rade , a nd a n o rdi nance o f N ove mber 1 2th 1 733 r e-es tab l ished t he a nc ien t d u ty o f 2f l orins p er l as t .

9 2

L iegeo is a nd D utch b ough t a new t he c lay o f A ndenne .

P ipes a nd t obacco w ere a t t h is t ime w idespread , a nd i n 1 727 a t rave l ler i n t he S ou thern L ow C oun tr ies n o ted t ha t " da t men b ui jten e n s ie t e en igen werk man o fb u i jten man s onder d e p i jpe i n d en mond" . t he C onsei l

9t ‘ s

The me mbers o f

d es f i nances a cknow ledged e ven l a ter o n t ha t

" th is i n tr ins ica l ly c o m mon ma ter ia l , wh ich i s o n ly e arth , b eca me a c onsiderab le a r t ic le o f t rade when t he h ab i t o f smok ing was g enera l ly i n troduced i n to E urope .

Th is c lay , p ossess ing t he u n ique p roper ty

o f f or ming t he n ecessary p ipes , was t o b e f ound o n ly i n t he d is tric t o f A ndenne i n t he c oun ty o f Namur .

A l l o ther c lays wh ich more o r

l ess r ese mb le i ta re n o th ing l i ke a s s a t isfac tory f or p ipe manufacture . I t mixes b e t ter a nd g ives t he e f fec t o f p rce la in , a l l o ther c lays h av ing l ess b ody a nd f or ming t w is ted o r d efec t ive p ipes , a nd b reak ing u nder t he e f fec t o f h ea t o r o n b e ing s truck" .

9 4

F or s evera l y ears a f ter t he o rd inance o f 1 733 , e xpor ts o f d er le i ncreased : i n 1 737 , 2 37 .748 t onnes were e xpor ted , a nd i n 1 738 , 2 52 .664 t onnes .

9 5

T he

c o l lapse o ft he t rade c ame i n 1 739 , when o n ly 1 44 .648 t onnes were p roduced , a nd t he t raf f ic c eased c o mp le te ly i n 1 740 .

9 6

I n t ha t y ear , c onf l ic ting t err i-

t or ia l c la ims b rough t t he g overn men t o f t he P r incipa l i ty o f L iege i n to c onf l ict w i th t he C our t o f B russe ls .

P roh ib i t ive e n try a nd t rans i t d u t ies were e s tab-

l i shed o n b o th s ides a nd t rade b e tween t he t wo s ta tes was i n terrup ted , a s a r esu l t o f wh ich i tb ecame i mposs ib le t o t ranspor t a long t he n orma l r ou te o f t he Meuse " s tone , c ha lk , d er le a nd o ther p roduc ts o ft he C oun ty o f Na mur" . Th is e conomic warfare e nded i n J u ly 1 741 .

9 8

9 7

I n me mory o f t hese e ven ts , a n

a nc ien t p i l lar f ro m t he c hurch o f S a in t-Jean a t L iege , was r e-used a nd b ui l t i n to a wa l l n ear t he c hurch .

U pon i tw ere i nscr ibed t he v ar ious misfor tunes

wh ich h ad f a l len u pon t he S ta te o f L iege i n 1 740 , a nd n otab ly t he i n terrup t ion o f t rade w i th t he S ou thern , L ow C oun tr ies .

Th is " p ierre d es c a lami tes" i s

t oday embedded i n t he r e taining wa l l o ft he h i l l n ex t t o t he f ormer C onven t o f t he F rans ican F r iars , n ow t he Mus e d e l a V ie

Wa l lonne .

Th is q uarre l , s o d es truc t ive t o t rade , l ed t he N amur b anker Ph i lippeAn toine L amque t a nd t he t wo merchan ts J ean-Fran2o is D ego t te o f H uy , a nd J ean-Fran9ois P irot te , an a t ive o f L iege , b oth o f whom were b ased i n Aust r ian N e ther lands , t o p ursue a n ew c ourse .

9 9

I n A pr i l 1 730 , L amque t , J .

Derkenne , a merchan t f ro m B oisle-Duc , a nd J . F . D ego t te h ad s igned a s

1 5

s ecre t a greemen t a t t he b ankers ' h o mes i n N amur , whereby L amque t w as t o u se h is c api ta l a nd h is i nf luence i n o rder t o o b ta in e xc lus ive r igh ts f rom t he G overnmen t t o e xpor t A ndenne d er le t o H o l land , w h i le D ego t te was r espons ib le f or monopo lising p roduc t ion a nd a cquir ing c lays a nd D erkenne was t o e xer t h imse lf t o d iscover t he p urchases o f c lay i n t he U n i ted P rov inces . 1 00 T he t hree men , L amque t , D ego t te a nd P iro t te , d id n o t f orm a g roup wh ich o ne c ou ld r egard a s a bove s usp icion .

J ean-Fran9o is D ego t te , who h ad e s tab-

l i shed h imse lf a t A ndenne j us t b efore 1 730 a nd who was i n t he w ine a nd b randy t rade , d id n o t e n joy a f l a t ter ing r epu ta t ion . I n o rder t o b ecome s ecre tary o f t he n ob le c hap ter i n A ndenne , h e b eca me a n a tura l ised s ub jec t o f t he L ow C oun tr ies .

Then o n May 2 4 th 1 741 , h e g ave u p c i t izensh ip o f N amur , where

h e h ad l i ved wh i le s t i l l r e ta ining h is A ndenn ian d omici le a nd where h is b usine ss was i n t he h ands o fh is mo ther-inlaw a nd r ema ined s ecre tary o f t he c hap ter . D ego t te h ad t he n a tura l c harac ter is t ics o f a smugg ler . H e h ad a lr eady i ncurred a f i ne f or f a i ling t o d ec lare t ha t h e h ad d is t i l led b randy i n a n i so la ted f arm i n ac lear ing i n t he w oods o n t he e dge o ft he P rov ince o f N amur . H e a lso c on tro l led a t obacco f ac tory a t Ah in , t he b u i ld ings o f wh ich , a ccordi ng t o ac usto ms o f f ic ia l , w ere

s o c lose t o t he b oundary wh ich d iv ided t he

p rov ince o f N amur f ro m t ha t o f L iege t ha t L iege t obacco c ou ld e as i ly b e t hrown i n to t he b ui lding t hrough t he w indows , o r o ut t hrough t he w indows i n to t he t err i tory o f L iege . S ecur i ty was ma in tained b y g uards who n ever s lep t . c rook e nded u p b y b e ing c augh t i n f l agran te d e lic to . 1 01

T h is

The d er le e xcava ted f ro m t he p i ts was l oaded i n to t ared wagons w i th a c apac i ty o f 2 000 p ounds a nd c arr ied t o t he b anks o f t he r iver Meuse a t Andene lle , h am le t o f A ndenne .

I t was c arried t hence b y b oa t t o N amur where

i t was o f f loaded i n c ar ts a nd t aken i n t he d irec t ion o f B russe ls .

U n loaded

a ga in t o b oa ts s a i ling t owards t he S che ldt b y t he Wi l lebroek c ana l , i tc rossed t he f ron t ier a t S a in t-Ph i lippe ( l a ter c a l led L i 1 1o ) , ap or t s i tua ted a t t he mouth o f t he r iver , t o b e d espa tched t o G ouda .

1 02

I t was o n May 1 7th 1 741 , t ha t L amque t , D egot te a nd P irot te o b ta ined t he r igh t t o u se t h is n ew r ou te , p ay ing o n ly 2 f l or ins p er l as t i n e xpor t d u t ies , s im i lar t o t he r a tes l ev ied b y t h e o f f ic ia ls a t Ah in o n t he Meuse .

Th is f avour

was g ran ted t o t he m a l l t he more w i l ling ly s ince t he c arr iage f ro m A ndenne t o B russe ls was more a dvan tageous t o t he c oun try , i n t axes a nd i n l oca l emp loymen t , t han t he t ranspor t t o Ah in v ia t he Meuse , wh ich o n ly h e lped f ore igners. 0 3 B ut t he c onc lus ion o fp eace i n t he s u m mer o f 1 741 was d isas trous f or t he t hree a ssoc ia tes .

The D u tch r eappeared a t Andenne a s s oon a s t he n av iga t ion

o ft he Meuse was f ree . S imu l taneous ly t hey l owered b y 3 0% t he p r ice o ft he g oods g oods a t t he ir p laces o f s a le . 1 04 R ea l ising t he ir d anger , D ego t te a nd P iro t te s truck b ack , making t he p oin t t ha t t he p assage o f t he c lay t hrough t he S ou thern N e ther lands b rough t t he S ta te 8 0000 f l orMs a y ear a nd a lso b rough t p rof i t t o t he c ar ters who c arr ied t he d er le a nd t he " cens iers" ( s torekeepers ) o f N amur a nd B russe ls who warehoused i t . T hey a sked t he C onse i l d es f i nances t o a ccord t hem t he e xc lus ive p r iv i lege o f o rgan ising t he t ransporta t ion . 1 05 The d eput ies o f t he S ta tes o f N a mur a nd B rabant were r eques ted b y t he C onse i l d es f i nances

1 6

t o i ssue a r eco m menda t ion .

The f or mer s w if t ly a pproved o f t he p ro jec t , em-

p has is ing t he a dvan tages o f n o t a bandon ing a l l t he p rof i ts t o f oreigners , a nd t he l a t ter a greed w i th t h is , w i th t he r eserva t ion t ha t t hey d id n o t a uthor ise a monopo ly wh ich wou ld p lace a t ad isadvan tage o ther merchan ts i n d er le who w ished t o u se t he s a me r oute , o r a t l eas t t hey wou ld o n ly a gree t o i ta f ter o ne y ear .

A f ter d e libera t ion i n t he C onsei l d es f i nances i t was d ec ided t ha t Dego t te

a nd P iro t te 's p lan a ss is ted i n terests wh ich mer i ted s upport , b ut t ha t a monopo ly wh ich wou ld p lace a t ad isadvan tage o ther merchan ts

i n d er le who w ished t o

u se t he s ame r ou te , o r a t l eas t t hey wou ld o n ly a gree t o i ta f ter o ne y ear . Af ter d e l ibera t ion

i n t he C onse i l d es f i nances i t was d ec ided t ha t Degot te a nd

P iro t te 's p lan a ss is ted i n teres ts wh ich mer i ted s uppor t , b u t t ha t a monopo ly s hou ld n o t b e g ran ted .

T he c h ief r eason f or t h is r eserva t ion was t he g overn-

men t 's f ear t ha t i t migh t t i e i t s h ands t o s uch a d egree a s t o b e u nab le t o s how t he s ame f avour t o i t s own s ub jec ts .

1 06

The e xpor t d u ty was t e mporar i ly

h e ld a t 2f l or ins p er l as t t o b e p a id t o t he S a in t-Ph i lippe c us to ms h ouse a nd was r a ised t o 6f l or ins a t t ha t a t Ah in , t he p lace t hrough wh ich D u tch b oa ts h ad p erforce t o p ass .

T hus t he t hree a ssoc ia tes h ad e very g round f or s a t is-

f ac t ion , a nd f ur thermore i n A pr i l 1 742 t hey w on e xe mp t ion f ro m t he t o l ls wh ich were l ev ied o n g oods t rave l ling b y r oad f ro m N a mur t o Brusse ls .

1 07

The b enef i ts g iven t o t hese merchan ts e xci ted t he d iscon ten t o f J ean d e C leves , aB russe ls b anker , a nd Den is Deb lende , a merchan t o f N a mur .

The

l a t ter c la i med t he s a me a dvan tages i n h is c apac i ty a s as ub jec t b orn i n t he L ow C oun tr ies a rgu ing t ha t h e o ugh t n o t t o b e d iscr imina ted a ga ins t t o t he b enef i t o f c i t izens o f L iege . t wo

s ocie t ies

T he C onsei l d es f i nances e xpressed t he v iew " tha t t he

s hou ld e x is t a longs ide o ne a no ther" .

1 08

F ur thermore t he

r ecr imina t ions o ft he c o mpe t i tors l ed t he C onsei l t o r a ise t he e xpor t d u ty o n d er le a t S a in t-Ph i lippe t o 4f l or ins f ro m t he 2 f l or ins l ev ied h i ther to . a nd P iro t te h owever p a id b y D eb lende . q u i t i n 1 749 . 1 10

Degot te

r e tained t he ir e xcep t ions f ro m t he t o l ls wh ich w ere s t i l l Weary o ft he s trugg le , D eb lende a nd d e C leves a t l as t

The c argoes o f c lay were s o ld a t G ouda t o t hree who lesa lers , t wo o f who m were u nder c on trac t f or t en y ears t o D ego t te t o s upp ly h im w i th v ic tua ls . The ir d er le was s upp l ied b y S a in t-Ph i lippe a long t he Meuse , p ass ing Ah in a nd N averre . o ld r iver r ou te . t onnes o fd er le ;

1 11

I n 1 741 ,

i n 1 742 ,

b oa ts a lone h ad c arr ied t o H o l land 7 56 . 5 60

9 46 .880 t onnes .

i n 1 743 , 1 432 .760 t onnes ;

1 485 .680 t onnes a nd i n 1 745 , 1 615 . 0 40 t onnes . r ose t o 3 451 f l or ins a nd 1 4 s ous .

1 12

i n 1 744 ,

The t o ta l v a lue o ft he e xpor ts

D ur ing t he f o l low ing y ear t he war b e t-

w een E ng land a nd F rance s er ious ly i n jured t rade . O n March 1 5 th , 1 744 , L ouis XV d ec lared war o n Grea t B r i ta in . O n A pr i l 2 6th h os t i li t ies b egan w i th Mar ia Theresa 's A us tria . I n May , Marsha l Maur ice o f S axony i nvaded F landers a nd t hen Ha inau l t , B raban t a nd u p t o a l i ne f ro m t he Meuse t o Maas tr ich t . The c onf lic t was e nded b y .a p eace b eing s igned i n O c tober-Nove mber 1 748 a t A ixla-Chape l le . The D u tch c ou ld n o t d ispense w i th t he Andenne c lay , a nd i t was we l l k nown t ha t t hey r e-expor ted i te ven t o p ipe makers i n o ur r eg ion , a nd t ha t t hey d id n o t f a i l t o b enef i t f rom t hese d ea ls . B u t " a g ood p ar t" o ft he c lay wen t t o t he I nd ies where , mix ing i t , v i t l i }"ä u ne c o mpos i t ion", t he I nd ians p roduced f i ne p orce la in .

1 13

The c lays o f Andenne a nd o f C o logne s erved t o make p ipes i n 1 7

R ouen a nd H o l land . D u tch p ipes w ere g enera l ly h e ld i n t he g rea tes t e s teem f or t he ir g racefu l s hapes a nd t he ir v ery f i ne f abr ics . S o me p ipes were a dmired f or t he ir e x treme l eng th .

The p res t ige o f t he d er le o f Andenne r ema ined

w i thou t e qua l . The manufac turers a t R ouen , who u sed t he l oca l c lay , i mi ta ted , b u t c ou ld n o t e qua l , t he D u tch mode ls . R ouen c lay was c oarser a nd i l l-co loured , a nd of ten p roduced t w is ted o r ma lformed p ipes .

F or t h is r eason t he manufac-

t urers a t N an tes a nd B ordeaux , a s w e l l a s t hose o f R ouen , i mpor ted t he d er le o f A ndenne , wh ich was a lso emp loyed i n t he F rench i s lands o ft he N ew Wor ld t o b leach s ugar . As a g enera l r u le , t he f i ne G ouda p ipes w ere made o f A nd enne c lay a nd t he c oarser o ft ha t f ro m C o logne . When A ndenne c lay was " too s trong" i t was mixed w i th t ha t o f C o logne .

1 14

I n 1 749 t he merchan t a nd b anker L amque t o f f ic ia l ly s ucceeded D egot te a nd i n 1 753 h e o b ta ined e xc lus ive r igh ts f ro m B russe ls t o t he i mpor ta t ion o f d er le , b y p aymen t o f 4f l or ins p er l as t e xpor t d u ty . T h is monopo ly , f ar f rom i mpari ng t rade , h e lped t o s treng then i ta nd made i tf l our ish . Ag rea t many o ft he p eop le o f Andenne w ere emp loyed i n e x tract ing t he d er le t hemse lves o r a l lowed o thers t o e x trac t i ti n r e turn f or r emunera t ion .

T he who le c ommun i ty b ene-

f i ted . S ince 1 751 , L amque t h ad u nder taken t he e x trac t ion o f d er le o n c ond it ion t ha t h e p a id a l evy o f s o much a c ar t load . T h is l evy , wh ich was p art ly t o t he c o mmuna l f unds a nd p art ly t o p r iva te i nd iv idua ls , v ar ied f rom 1 7 .5 a nd 2 3 s ous .

These r evenues r es tored t he c of fers o f A ndenne , wh ich h ad b een emp-

t ied b y t he mon ies l ev ied a nd t he e xpenses i ncurred i n t he c ourse o ft he war . S o me p rac t ica l d if f icu l t ies r e ma ins t o b e r eso lved . T hus , i n 1 744 , wh i le D ego t te was s t i l l a c t ive , i t was r ea lised t ha t many c ar ts d id n o t c on ta in t he s pec if ied 2 000 p ounds o fd er le , o r t ha t t hey o n ly b are ly c on ta ined i t , a nd a lt hough f i t ted w i th s o me e x tens ions , t hey l e t f a l l a nd l os t p ar t o f t he ir c on ten ts i n t rans i t .

T o c orrec t t h is f au lt wh ich was v ery c ost ly t o t he m , t hey wanted

t he c ar ters t o h ave l arger c ar ts s o t ha t t hey wou ld c on ta in 2 000 p ounds w i thou t e x tens ion . 1 15 The c o m mun i tyof Andenne p ossessed c lay p i ts wh ich i tl e t o n c on trac t f or e xp loi ta t ion . P r iva te i nd iv idua ls , w i th a f ew e xcep t ions , w orked o n ly i n t h is way . 1 1 6 E ach p i t emp loyed t hree w orkers , t wo e x trac ting t he d er le a nd t he t h ird h au ling i to u t . 1 17 Their working d ay l as ted s even h ours a nd p roduc t ion was a s h igh a s f i ve c ar t loads , o r 4 .9 t onnes . E ach w orker e arned 1 s ou 9 d en iers a d ay , a wage wh ich e xceeded t ha t o f ac o l l ier o r i ron - miner . 1 18 A p i t was worked f or t wo o r t hree y ears , r are ly l onger . The c ar ts wh ich s erved a s t ranspor t were f i l led b y " hourdeurs" a nd t he v a lue o ft he c ar t load , d e livered t o t he b oa t , was 1 0 e sca l ins .

F or mer ly , when t he L iegeo is w i th t he ir b oa ts a nd

D utchmen c a me i n w in ter t o r e move t he d er le , t ranspor ta t ion was v ery d if f ic u l t a nd a l though t he c ar ters h ad n o r es t f rom d awn t o d usk , t hey c ou ld move o n ly f our c ar ts o n t he muddy r oads . T he h orses s uf fered g rea t ly . Thanks t o t he e ncourage men t o ft he C onse i l d es f i nances , an ew r ou te was a dop ted f or t he d er le . A s we h ave s een , i ta vo ided t he t err i tory o f L iege . I n e f fec t , t he e xc lus ive r igh ts g ran ted o n O c tober 2 4 th 1 753 t o L amque t f orbade t he e xpor t o f c lay b y t he Meuse .

The r ou te f o l lowed t he wa terways a nd l and r ou tes o f

t he A us tr ian L ow C oun tr ies t o t he D utch f ron t ier .

S ome t imes t hey e ven t rans-

p or ted f i ve c ar ts t o t he r iver b ank b e tween 4 a nd 1 0 a .m . The r oads f ro m t he c layp i ts t o t he Meuse h ad b een p ut i n to a g ood s ta te b y L amque t , who h ad a lso c ons truc ted a warehousell 9 c apab le o f c onta ining 9 80 t onnes wh ich s erved a s ad epo t f or t he d er le wh ich c ou ld n ot b e e xpor ted b efore t he w in ter . 1 8

1 20

F ina l ly , t o s hor ten t he j ourney , t o r educe t he c os t o ft ranspor ta t ion a nd t o a l low"the c ar ters t o c o mp le te t wo j ourn ies i n a week , whereas b y t he NamurB russe ls r oad t hey o n ly make t hree i n a mon th", L a mque t p roposed f or t he f irs t t ime , i n 1 762 , t he " abandonmen t o ft he r ou te v ia Brusse ls a nd t he u se o f t he r oad f ro m N a mur t o L ouva in" , 1 22 a p aved r oad t he c ons truct ion 1 23 o f wh ich h ad b egun i n 1 754 . T he C onsei l d es f i nances r efused . Then , t hree y ears l a ter , o n F ebruary 1 3th 1 765 , 1 24 t hey g ave i n . The r oad f ro m Na mur t o B russe ls h av ing d e ter iora ted a nd t he r epa irs b e ing i n a rrears , t he c ar ters , a t t he i ns t iga t ion o f L amque t p leased t ha t t hey f eared t he ir v eh ic les w ou ld b e b ogged d own a nd f or t h is r eason t hey wan ted t o u se t he L ouvain r oad .

A t

L ouva in t he d er le was l oaded o n to b oa ts a nd t aken b y t he n ew ly made c ana l f ro m L ouva in t o t he r iver R upe l t o i t s d es t ina t ion i n t he U n i ted P rov inces . F ro m 1 754 t o 1 761 ,

1 26

1 25

L a mque t h ad e xpor ted t o H o l land 1 4 ,919 . 5 20 t onnes

o f c lay f or p ipe manufac ture , a nd f ro m J anuary i s t 1 763 t o J u ly 3 1s t 1 769 ( t he mon th i n wh ich h e d ied ) , 1 4 ,223 .720 t onnes .

1 27

H enry v an A erscho t s ucceeded L a mque t i n t he d er le t rade . The e xc lusive r igh ts i n h is f avour w ere s igned o n S ep te mber 2 5 th 1 770 . B ecause v an Aerscho t was r e la ted b y marr iage t o t he b arber J ean-Joseph V oge ls ( he h ad n o t g radua ted i n medic ine ) who h ad c ared f or C har les d e L ora ine , a nd r es tored h im t o h ea l th , h e h ad t he a dvan tage o ver many r iva ls s uch a s C har les Wouters o f L ouva in , P ierre-Joseph o f A nge lys e t F reres o f B russe ls , t he h e irs o f J eanF ran9o is D ego t te , t he c h i ldren o f L a mque t , t he R o mberg b ro thers o f B russe ls , J ean C lauwens o f L ouva in a nd t he a dvoca te Z oude o f N a mur who was t he s oni nlaw o f J ean-Fran9o is Dego t te .

1 28

v an Aerscho t was n o t a b le t o f u lf i l t he

u nrea l ist ic c ondi t ions s t ipu la ted i n t he g ran t o f r igh t ,

1 29

a nd a lready , i n t he

f i rs t t hree y ears , h e s en t t o H o l land 2 373 .560 t onnes l ess t han f orecas t .

I n

h is d efence h e c la i med t ha t h e h ad made a mistake b ecause h e h ad h oped t o make a b igger p rof i t , b ut h ad made a n e rror o f e va lua t ion :

1 , v an A erscho t

d iscovered t ha t L a mque t , b efore h is p r iv i lege h ad e xp ired , h ad h ad a wareh ouse c on ta ining 2 239 .300 t onnes o f d er le wh ich h e h ad s o ld a t al ow p r ice t o t he p ipe- makers;

2 , t he a uthor isa t ion t o e xpor t c lay f ro m O stend t o D unk irk

was g iven t o o ther B e lg ian d ea lers .

F or mer ly , o n ly t he D utch men h ad h ad

t he p r iv i lege o f s e l ling t he c lay b ough t f ro m L a mque t ; o fp ipes i n H o l land h ad f a l len .

3 , f i na l ly t he o utpu t

Th is c ou ld b e a t tr ibuted t o t he d iscovery o f

s im i lar c lays i n S axony a nd S i les ia , where l ess e legan t b ut c heaper p ipes were manufac tured o n t he s po t .

v an A erscho t i ngeneous ly c onc luded h is l is t

o f misfor tunes b y c onfessing t ha t h e h ad o n ly s igned h is c on trac t when r ea ssured b y a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he c ircu ms tances a nd b y t he r ea lisa t ion o f t he p rof itabi li ty o f t he e xpor t ing o f d er le wh ich h e h ad y ie lded t o t he g overn men t . The b as ic r eason f or t he s e tback r ece ived b y t he n ew l essee was p r imar i ly h is l ack o f e xperience a nd t he f ac t t ha t t he a nnua l r equ ire ments o f t he D utch d id n o t e xceed 1 960 t onnes o f A ndennes d er le .

1 31

H e a lso f or med a c o mpany

w i th C har les Wouters , a no ther L ouva in b usiness man . They r e ta ined t he ir p r iv i leges , e xcep t d ur ing t he t he a rr iva l o ft he F rench .

1 34

1 32

Braban2on r evo lt , u n ti l

I n 1 810 a nd 1 811 , F ran9ois Mo ls b ough t s o me

p roper t ies i n L ouva in f ro m t he Wou ters f a mi ly , a nd i n t he t ransac t ion h e a cqu ired t he r igh t t o v ar ious p i ts a t Andenne .

L ikew ise h e o b tained f ro m t he

p ropr ie tors c oncess ions t o c er ta in s i tes a t Andenne , a nd h e b eca me owner o f ah ouse a nd s hop a t G ouda .

1 35

A t t h is t ime a t A ndenne , 1 9

" 50 o uvr iers

e nv iron s on t o ccupes ...h . t irer d es a rg i les p ropres a f a ire d e l a f a ience , d es p oter ies e t d es p ipes .

1 Wen d eb i te a nnue l le men t 1 200 l as ts ( 2352 t onnes )

e t s e v enden t 2 4 F (rancs ) s ur l es l i eux .

L a p lus g rande p ar t ie s e d in ge p 3r

e au d ans l a r epub l ique b a tave o u p ar t erre d ans l e d epar te men t d e PEscau t . Ap eine e n c onso m met-on 1 50 l as ts ( 294 t onnes ) d ans l e d epar te men t" . 1 36 Accord ing t o a no ther s ource , 1 37 t he amoun t e x trac ted r ose t o 1 300 l as ts a nd t he c onsu mp t ion o n t he s po t was e s t ima ted t o b e 1 50 l as ts a s b efore , w i th 4 00 l as ts ( 7 84 t onnes ) e xpor ted t o F rance a nd 8 00 l as ts ( 1568 t onnes ) e lsewhere . These a nnua l r e turns a re c lear ly i mprecise :

t he amoun t u sed l oca l ly p lus

t ha t e xpor ted e xceeds t he q uan t i ty e x trac ted .

THE P IPE I N WALLON IA T he f irs t p ipe makers a ppear i n t h is r eg ion i n t he f i rs t h a lf o ft he 1 7th c en tury .

1 38

Tourna i The e ar l ies t d ocu men ts t o s how t he e x is tence o ft he c lay p ipe i ndus try a t Tourna i d a tes f ro m 1 639 .

1 89

I n t ha t y ear D en is D erasse ,

as hopkeeper i n

t he t own , p re tended t ha t h e h ad d iscovered o ft heir manufacture .

" Soon

af terwards , a s E ugene S oi l o f Mor ia l me r e la tes i n a n a ppend ix t o h is work P o t iers e t f ar enc iers t ourna is iens ,

h e j o ined w i th J ean F licon a nd J ean

Carpen t ier a nd t he l as t s ee ms t o h ave t aken t he l ead i n t he b us iness , f or i n 1 642 i n ar eques t a ddressed t o t he C onsaux [ t he mun ic ipa l mag is tra tes ], h e i s q uo ted a s t he f i rs t o ft he a ssoc ia tes .

I n t h is r eques t , t hey r evea l t ha t t he

manufacturers i n H o l land a nd E ng land t ake t he c lay w i th " laque l l s e c o mposen t l es d i tes p ipes , a u t err i toire c y a ux e nv irons ; q u 'üs s e s on t d one a dv ises d e c hercher q ue lqu 'ouvr ier i doine e t c apab le p our f a ire l es d i tes p ipes e n c e t te v i l le e t o n t t rouve u n j eune h o m me mar ie , n on c harge d 'enfan ts n a t if d e Bruye l le ( near Tourna i ) , q ui e s t e n tendu d ans c e t a r t" t hey a sked p ermiss ion f or t h is y oung p ipe maker t o l ive i n t he t own " soubs b i l le t d e g race s ans s e me t tre s oubs q ue lque b annf ere , a vec e xe mp t ion d e g ue t e t g arde e t d e j ou ir d e t e l les p reroga t ivex q ue V . S . ( v os s eigneur ies ) o n t a u trefois a ccorde a us e s trangers q u i amenen t q ue lque n ouvel le manufacture e n c e t te v i l le" . The C onsaux , i n t he ir d ec is ion d a ted F ebruary 1 8 1 642 , g ave h im f or t hree y ears t he p r iv i lege a nd t he e xc lus ive r igh ts t o manufacture t obacco p ipes . 1 40 Wi thout b e ing i ncorpora ted i n a workshop where h e wou ld b e f orced t o r epor t t o t he wa tch a nd t he c i ty g uard , a nd s o wou ld b e o b liged t o l eave h is work t oo f requen t ly . These p r iv i leges were n or ma l ly g ranted t o f ore igners who o pened a n ew b usiness i n Tourna i . Ac tua l ly , D erasse a nd h is p ar tners k new t ha t a l l t ha t was n eeded f or s uccess was t o t ake t he c lay wh ich t he Du tch a nd t he E ng l ish i mpor ted , n o d oub t t ha t f ro m H au trage ,

1 41

a nd t o f i nd a c apab le mou lder .

c a me d is i l lusioned a nd t he e n terpr ise c eased .

They s oon b e-

H owever , Dera

e d id n ot

a d mi t d efea t a nd i n 1 671 , a t t he a ge o f 7 0 , h e r enewed h is a t te mp ts a nd s ue2 0

c eeded i n ma in ta in ing u p t o n ine emp loyees i n h is f ac tory . h is b us iness was i n j eopardy. were s hor t-l ived .

S ix y ears l a ter ,

O ther a t te mp ts s tar ted u p i n t he mean t i me

S o me y ears l a ter J ean Grav ier , an a t ive o f Va lenciennes ,

r ece ived f or t en y ears e xc lus ive r igh ts t o manufacture a nd s e l l a l l t he p ipes n eeded i n T ourna i a nd t he s urround ing r eg ion .

The who lesa le p r ice h ad b een

f i xed a t a hard p er p ipe f or " ord inary p ipes" a nd t wo l iards f or t he b et ter q ua li ty o nes", wh ich l ef t t he r e ta i ler a 2 0% p rof i t .

The c i t izens a nd

1 42

p easan ts were f orb idden t o p urchase o r t o d ea l i n o ther p ipes u nder p ain o f c onf isca t ion a nd f i ning .

Grav ier 's p roduc ts , i den t if iab le b y t he ir mark , 1 44

1 43

c on t inued t o b e p roduced i n g rea t n u mbers i fo ne i s t o b e l ieve a d ocu men t o f 1 725 wh ich t e l ls u s t ha t" emp loyed 1 6 t o 1 8 workers i n p eace t ime a nd 4 0 o r more d ur ing t he war " .

These e s tima tes s ee m e xaggera ted o r t o h ave b een

1 45

t rue o n ly o f c er ta in o ccas ions , f or when Grav ier r e t ired t o G en t i n 1 699 146 h e l ef t t he b usiness t o makesh if t a s b es t i t migh t a t T ourna i , where h is s on J acques r ep laced h im w i thou t a ny b et ter s uccess .

Af ter t he d epar ture o ft he

s on a round 1 710 , t he f ac tory was c o mp le te ly c losed d own . AD u tchman , D ir ick- Mar l inck , f ai led i n h is a t te mp ts t o r es tore t he i ndus try . F o l low ing t he c essa t ion o f c lay e x trac t ion , d ue t o t he e nca mp men t o f t he a r mies i n t he a rea ,

1 47

i t was i mposs ib le t o a cqu ire c lay .

I n 1 714 , af ter D ir ick h ad

d isappeared , N ico las P inchon a ppeared a nd e s tab lished

as uccessfu l f ac tory .

P inchon s o ld a l mos t a l l h is p roduc t ion i n t he t owns o f F landers a nd H a inau t b u t h e a lso h ad c l ien ts a t H erve , t he ma in c en tre o ft he d is tr ic t o ft he s ame n ame i n t he D uchy o f L imbourg , i n t he Aus tr ian Ne ther lands . 1 48 f a i led t o c o me t o a n u nders tanding w i th t he Mun icipa l C ounci l , 1 49

Hav ing h e l ef t h is

b us iness a t T ourna i u nder t he d irec t ion o fh is w ife a nd wen t away t o e s tab l ish h i mse lf a t Mons .

I n 1 727 t he workshop d evo lved u pon t heir s on-inlaw ,

M iche l-Joseph P e t i t1 5° who , u n ti l 1 750 , e n joyed t he e xc lus ive r igh ts o f manuf ac tur ing p ipes . H e s uf fered a s i t was s a id a t t ha t t ime f ro m t he i ngra t i tude o f o ne o f h is emp loyees , F ran9o is P i tresson , t o who m h e h ad r evea led " the s ecre t o f mak ing p ipes" .

P i tresson , a n o rphan , h ad b een r a ised a t t he e xpense

o f t he t own o f Tourna i a nd h e s tayed f or a l ong t ime i n P e t i t 's f ac tory where t wo o f h is c h i ldren were a lso emp loyed .

D iscon ten ted w i th h is s a lary , h e l ef t

P e t i t a nd s ough t t o b eco me a n i ndependen t p ipe maker . worker w i th h im , h ad h is r eques t r efused . u nder F rench o ccupa t ion .

I n 1 747 h e , a nd a no ther

The t own was l iv ing a t t he t ime

They , who p ipe-s moked l ess e n thus ias t ica l ly t han

t he D utch , e s t i ma ted t ha t as ing le p ipe-fac tory wou ld b e s uf f ic ient a t Tourna i a nd t ha t i t was n o t ag ood i dea t o e ncourage t he d eparture o f a worker t o s e t u p ab ranch e s tab lishmen t .

P i tresson 's r eques t was t hus d en ied .

1 51

F o l low-

i ng t he r e turn o f t he t roops o f U n i ted P rov inces , h e o b ta ined s a t isfac t ion i n a r eso lut ion o f J u ly 7 th 1 750 a nd s e t t o work w i th t he a id o f h is c h i ldren .

1 52

P e t i t d id n o t g ive u p h is a t te mp t t o r ecover h is monopo ly , b ut i n v a in . H is s on , An to ine-Joseph , r ep laced h im i n 1 779 , a nd h is g rand-son , C har lesJ oseph , o pened a workshop a t Mons , i n 1 796 . H is d escendan ts l ived t here a nd a F ir m in P e t i t was i n c harge o f t he e n terpr ise f ro m 1 868 t o 1 871 . 1 53 A t T ourna i R enard-Pe t i t , s on-inlaw o f An toine J oseph P e t i t , t ook o ver t he b us iness wh ich i nev i tab ly s uf fered f ro m t he d iv ision o f i t s c l iente le . A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 9th c en tury , 1 54 R ichard P revos t owned a p ipe f ac tory . O n Apr i l 2 8 1 820 , G ousseau me , 1 56 who h ad c o me f ro m Arras , s e t h i mse lf u p a t 6r ue As P o is , i n t he o ld F ree masons ' L odge .

1 55

J ean-Bap t is te B a is ieux ,

o r ig ina l ly i nsta l led i n 1 815 a t 2 4 r ue B arre S a int-Br ice , r eceived p er m iss ion 2 1

t o b ui ld a k i ln a t 3 8 , r ue d e Marv is , o n May 2 8th 1 819 , a nd t hen o n J anuary 5 th 1 821 , t o move t o n u mber 3 2 i n t he s a me s tree t . Mons C har les-Joseph P e t i t moved t o Mons i n 1 796 1 57 a t t he a ge o f 1 6 . H e f ired h is k i ln i n t he r ue d e l a Hale i n 1 799 i n ah ouse b e long ing t o d e B ous ies , owner o ft he F arencer ies o f N imy , o f F err ierela-Pe t i te a nd , af ew y ears l a ter o ft he O nna ing f arence f ac tory .

I n 1 801 , P e t i t d ecided t o l ive i n r ue d e

J a G rande T r iper ie , b efore r eturn ing p ermanen t ly i n 1 804 t o r ue S ans R a ison , n ow r ue A . C lesse , where h e h ad o r igina l ly s tar ted .

1 58

When P e t i t h ad a nnounced h is i n ten t ion o f s e t t ing u p h is e s tab lishment i n t he r ue S ans R a ison , i n ap ar t o f t he h ouse o f t he a fore men t ioned F ranc iscans , t he mayor o f Mons , D uva l , a scer ta ined whe ther t he k i lns wh ich h e was g o ing t o o pera te w ou ld c ause a nnoyance t o n e ighbouring p roper t ies . 1 59 A n a rch i tec t was c a l led i n , made a n e xa mina t ion a nd s ub m i t ted a r eport wh ich i nc luded " no d anger o f f i re i s t o b e f eared , b ut t he f u mes may i n jure t he f rui t t rees i n t he a d jacen t g ardens i fC i t izen P et i t d oes n o t c ons truc t t he c h imney s tacks t o ah e igh t s uf f ic ien t t o a vo id t h is i nconven ience" . 1 60 P er m iss ion t o e s tab lish ap ipe f ac tory was r efused " par Mess ieurs S i lves tre , p ayeur d u d epar te men t , V anegdom , a t tache ' al a r ecet te g enera le , e t D esfossez , p ror t ie ta ire e t emp loye d e l a P refec ture , mo t ives s pec ia le men t mo t ives s ur c e q u 'independam men t d es i ncend ies q u 'i ls p euven t o ccas ionner , l a f u mee e t Podeur q ue p roc uren t c es s or ted d e f ourneaux n e p euven t e tre s ouf fer tes ; q ue l es emana t ions r esu ltan tes d e l a c uisson d es p ipes s ont t i es d angereuses al a s an te , q u 'e l les n u isen t al a v ege ta t ion d es a rbres f rui t iers e t a utres p lan tes e t c ausen t l eur d es truc t ion ; q ue c e s ero i t p r iver l es p ropr ie ta ires d es j ardins v o is ins d e l eur j ou issance s i l a p er m iss ion d e mandee e to i t a ccordee; q ue d 'a i l leurs l e l oca l o i l l e p e t i t ionna ire s e p ropose d e f or mer s on Pe tab lisse men t s e t rouvant d ans l ' in ter ieur d e l a v i l le , d ans u n d es q uart iers l es p lus p ropres e t p roche d e l ' ho te l d e J a P refec ture , i ln e p eu t e ' tre c ons ider ec om me u ne p osi t ion p ropre a l a c ons truc t ion d e s e mb lab les f ourneaux q u i s on t o rdina ire men t e tab lis I n al et ter a ddressed t o t he Prefect , t he mayor e x tended t he l i s t o f h is c omp la in ts : " A l ' appu i d e c es o ppos i t ions o n p eu t a jou ter q ue l es v oisins d e c et te f abr ique , l orsu 'e l le e to i t r ue d e l a Grande T r iper ie o i l e i le s 'e toi t e tab lie s ans p ermiss ion e t s ans q u 'on e u t P u d 'avance e n c onnoi tre l es i nconven iens , s e s on t p la in ts e nsui te n on s eu le men t q ue l es mauva ises e xha la isons q ui e n s or to ien t r epando ien t d es o deurs d esa greab les d ans l eurs ma isons e t l es g a toien t , ma is n u isoien t e ncore al a v ege ta t ion d es a rbres f ru i t iers e t d es l egumes d e l eur j ard ins . E n e f fe t , d 'apres l es r enseigne mens q ue

p r is , l es f ours q u i

s 'e tab lissen t a ü jourd 'hu i d ans l a c our d e Mr . P e ti t a t tenan t l e j ardin d e M . Wanegdo m [ s ic ] d oiven t g tre r e mp l is d 'une t e l le q uan t i te d e c harbon , q ue d 'abord l a f u mee e n s or t iro i t a uss i n oire q ue d 'une mach ine a f eu , e t s i e pa isse q u 'e l le s 'e tendro i t e t s 'a t tacheroi t s ur l es s urfaces a vois inan tes o u If audroi t g u 'un v en t b ien f or t s ouff la p our l a d iss iper , c e q u i me me n e s e f eroi t j a ma is c omp le te men t ... 2 2

J 'es time d one , Mons ieur l e P refe t , c onc lua i t D uva l , g ul l s ero i t d angereux e t n u isib le d 'accuei l lir l a d e mande d e M . P e t i t ;

q u 'i 1

s eroi t a u c on tra ire a d es irer q ue t e ls f ourneaux p ussen t g tre c onst ru i ts d ans u n l oca l p lus i so le a p or tee d es r e mpar ts o u i l s n e s eroien t p as d ans l e c as d e n u ire a u v o isinage .,t 1 62 P e t i t r eassured t he a u thor i t ies a nd s howed t ha t h is k i ln d id n ot p roduce a ny p o lu t ion , h is a rgu men ts h av ing b een g iven e x tra f orce b y t he n ecess i ty o fp utt ing 3 0 emp loyees o u t o f work i fh e d id n o t f i nd a p lace q u ick ly .

1 63

The c ons-

t ruc tion o ft he k i lns was p rov is iona l ly a u thor ised b y t he P refec t 's d ecis ion d a ted 1 8 t her m idor y ear XT I ( Augus t 6 th 1 804 ) . 1 64 S im i lar p leas a rose a new i n 1 808 :

" Ce f ourneau e s t a l lu me p endan t 1 2 h eures a u mo t hs e nv iron t ro is

f o is p ar mo is [ . ..] i s 'y c onsu me c haque f o is d eux mu ids e t d em i d e c harbon , f l au l e s eu l c apab le d e r e mp lacer l e b , o is p our l a c uisson d es p ipes" ,

e tc .

1 65

P e t i t r es isted t h is a t tack a nd t hwar ted f ur ther o ppos i t ion t o h is f ac tory , wh ich c on t inued t o g row i n s ize .

H is s on J u les s ucceeded h i m af ter h is d ea th i n

1 858 , a nd f ro m 1 868 t o 1 870 h is n ephew , F ir m in , h eaded t he b usiness . 1 847 , P e t i t emp loyed 6 0 workers a nd i n 1 855 , 7 0 .

I n

The q ua li ty o f t he p ipes

f ro m C har les-Joseph P e t i t workshops b rough t h im v ar ious h onours .

P e t i t 's

p ipes , o f wh ich a n i mpor tan t c o l lec t ion was e xh ib i ted a t Haar le m i n 1 825 were u nques t ionab ly we l l made , a ccording t o t he j ury who were r equ ired t o e xa m ine t he ir mer i ts a nd t o d raw t he m t o t he a t ten t ion o f t he Awards C o m mi tt ee . The R apport d e l a C omm iss ion s uper ieure s ur l es p rodu i ts d e l ' indus tr ie n a t iona le , e xposes ' aH ar le m d ans l es mo is d e j u i l le t e t mil 1 825 , p ub l ished i n The Hague t he s a me y ear , a lso e xp la ins t ha t "Mr . P e t i t p ersona l ly works o n h is mou lds , wh ich h e u ses t o make a l l s or ts o f Ger man s ty le p ipes , wh ich h e manufac tures i n o rder t o r educe t he v o lu me o f i mpor ts f ro m G er many" . A t t he n ex t e xh ib i t ion , h e ld a t B russe ls i n 1 835 , P e t i t a gain d isp layed h is p ipes .

They w ere v ery f avourab ly r ece ived ; t he j ury 's r epor t c harac ter ised

t he m a s " as f i ne a s t hose o f G ouda" . were a me tre i n l eng th .

1 66

I n 1 847 , h e e xh ibi ted 1 91 , o f wh ich t wo

On t he o ccas ion o ft he Mons e xh ib i t ion o f 1 851 ,

h is c o l lec tion was r egarded a s t he f i nes t a nd t he mos t c o mprehens ive .

T o

t h is Mon to is i s d ue t he i nven t ion o fp ipes c op ied b y a l t he o ther makers , f or e xa mp le " La B ora ine" , s tra igh t o r c rooked , a nd " La Mon toise", l ong a nd g racious . O ther l ess f amous Mons p ipe makers t r ied t o c o mpe te w i th P e ti t .

I n 1 817 ,

Dussar t-P ique t , a maker o f s tarch , was u ne mp loyed d ue t o t he s carc i ty o f c orn , p roduced a r eques t t o t he G overnor o ft he Prov ince f or p ermission t o e s tab lish a p ipe f ac tory a t C our Debehaut , a t t he b o t to m o f t he r ue lle d es P echeurs i n ab ui lding a d jo ining h is h ouse i n t he r ue B er ta i mon t .

N e i ther

P e t i t 's manoeuvres d irected a gains t t h is f r iend o fh is y ou th b ecause o fh is f ear o f l os ing s o me o fh is b usiness , n or t he o b ject ions o f C laude S er izo t , s ecre tary g enera l o f t he " Co m m iss ion d es H osp ices c iv i ls" , who f eared t ha t " the s oo t wh ich t he f i re s ends u p t he c h i mneys" wou ld f a l l " on t he b edding a nd c lo th ing e xposed" i n t he washhouse o f t he h ospice s itua ted n ear t h is n ew f act ory , c ou ld p reven t h im f ro m o b ta in ing wha t h e wan ted . I n 1 818 J oseph More l le , whose p aren ts a re r eferred t o a s p ipe makers a t N amur i n 1 779 , was a u thor ised t o b ui ld a k i ln f or f ir ing smoking-p ipes a t 4 5 , r ue Qu ief fro i . L eav ing t he N ihou l f ac tory a t N imy , where h e h ad b een f oreman a round 1 890 , Sbas t ien V angrundenberghe b egan making p ipes w i th t he 2 3

a ss istance o f h is s on i n a workshop o n t he O bourg r oad .

Th is s trange man

s poke v ery p o lished a nd r a ther p rec ious F rench , wh ich j arred among t he marke t-gardeners o f h is s uburb .

H e h ad a b eard t ha t was t h in , b u t n ear ly

2 me tres l ong , wh ich h e k no t ted i n to a b a l l a nd t ucked i n to h is b e lt s o i t wou ld n o t i n terfere w i th h is work .

H e d ied i n 1 908 a nd t he n ex t y ear h is s on E lo i

s o ld o f f t he s tock a nd h ired h i mse lf t o F ernand C roque t a t Ma is ieres . "1 67 N imy I n 1 829 , J ean Mau jean , b orn a t E pina l i n 1 768 , b ui lt a k i ln f or f i r ing p ipes i n t he Mara is d e N imy , as hor t d is tance f ro m t he F arencer ie .

" A

s peech i mped imen t wh ich made "mayva is" s ound t o t he Mon tois a s "monva is" u nders tandab ly c aused a n emp loyee o ft he mun ic ipa l a dmin is tra t ion t o wr i te a s Mon jean t he n ame wh ich was t rans m i t ted o ral ly t o h im , a nd h is p ipes r ece ived t he mark o ft he n ew n a me .

A gnes , d augh ter o f Mau jean ( or Mon jean ) marr ied

i n 1 814 P ierre J oseph S couf la ire o f Gh lin , who , w i th h is b ro thers , b ui l t a t Anna ing o ne o ft he mos t f a mous F rench p ipe f ac tor ies .

On r eturn ing t o N imy ,

wh ich h e s ee ms t o h ave l ef t i n t he w in ter o f 1 821-1822 , P ierre-Joseph S couf la ire b ui l t i n 1 834 a p ipe f ac tory i n t he l a V io le t te q uar ter , where t he B russe ls h ighway c rossed t he r oad t o A th .

" The f ac tor ies a t N imy a nd Onna ing c on t inue

t o r un j oin t ly f or a l ong t ime u n ti l t hey r ega ined t he ir i ndependence f or c o mmercia l r easons , t hough a lways c on t inuing t o w ork i n c lose a ssocia t ion" .1 68 T hree t ypes o fp ipe e nsured t he f a me o f t he S couf la ire f ac tory a t N imy : " the p ipe " Bois", t he b rown c o lour o f wh ich was o b ta ined n o t b y p ain ting o r v arn ish ing , b u t b y as econd f i r ing i n ab aker 's o ven a f ter s oak ing i n c o ld mi lk ; t he h ard , u nseasoned y e l low p ipe ; a nd l as t ly t he N om ' a nd F leurs ' p ipe . n 169 R egard ing t h is l as t p ipe , Marce l G . L efrancq e xp la ins t ha t u n ti l l a te ly c ard p layers l ef t t he p ipe i n t heir r egu lar e s ta m ine t a nd , s o a s n o t t o t ake t ha t o ft he ir p ar tners , t hey o rdered n a med p ipes .

T he i nscr ip t ion was

u sua l ly made i n wh i te e name lon t he wh i te c lay , a nd i t was n ecessary t o wa i t u n t i l t he p ipe was s easoned , wh ich was n o t l ong w i th t he O bourg o r R o is in t obaccos smoked a t t ha t t ime , f or t he i nscrip t ion t o s tand o u t p roper ly .

Th is

i nscrip t ion was e xecuted i n as ot t o fp enc i l i n wh ich t he l ead was r ep laced b y ah ard s tee l w ire d ipped i n v ery d i luted e na me l .

The p ipe was t hen f i red a

s econd t ime a t al ow t e mpera ture . "1 70 Around t he 1 860s , t he Onna ing f ac tory emp loyed 1 00 ma le a nd 2 00 f e ma le workers .

Among t he m were 3 0 mou lders a nd o n ly 1 2 a t N imy a l i t t le l a ter t han

t han t h is .

Th is sma l l n umber o f emp loyees i n t he Wa l loon workshop c o mpared

t o t he workforce i n F rance , c on t inued t o dw ind le , a nd a t t he c losure o ft he works i n 1 918 o n ly 2 mou lders r e ma ined . " The S couf la ire f ac tor ies marked t heir p roduc ts " Scouf la ire h Onna ing" a nd ' Scouf la ire

N imy ', a nd s tamped a l i t t le l e t ter D o n t he p ipes w i th

s purs . "1 71 F rancois-Joseph N ihou l who was b orn a t Andenne i n 1 766 b eca me i n t urn p ork-butcher , f arenc ier a nd g rocer b efore t urn ing p ipe maker i n 1 825 a t N i my .

H is c areer a s ap ipe maker was s hor t s ince h e d ied i n 1 831 .

p ipes were marked w i th t he l e t ter N . h im a nd a dop ted t he mark J . B . N .

I n 1 851 , h e j oined f orces w i th o ne N avez ,

a nd t he ir b us iness was c a l led N ihou l , N avez e t C ° . " Navez

H is

J ean-Bap t ise N ihou l , h is s on , f ol lowed S o me f ragmen ts marked

N i my" l eave o ne t o s uppose t ha t t his maker h ad h is own f ac tory o r 2 4

t ha t a t l eas t h e was f ree t o p u t h is own mark o n s o me o ft he p ipes p roduced b y t he c o mpany . Em i le-Fran9o is N ihou l , s on o f J ean-Bap t is te ' , •t ook o ver t he r unn ing o ft he b us iness f i ve y ears b efore h is f a ther d ied i n 1 886 . H is mark was a P , t he i n i t ia l l et ter o ft he ma iden n ame o f h is w ife , J u l iet te P arez . I ts ee ms i mprobab le t ha t a s B ourne 1 72 h as a f f irmed , t ha t h e emp loyed 1 00 w orkers , " for F e lix N ihou l , t he y ounger s on o ft he f ami ly , a n e ng ineer t ra ined i n t he S choo l o f M ines a t Mons , f ound o n h is r eturn f ro m t he Transv aa l i n 1 881 , t he f am i ly f i rm i n g rave d ec line .

H e t ook ma t ters i n h and , a s-

s is ted b y h is w ife , Mar ie C au lier , who t ook c harge o ft he b ooks , a nd b y h is s is ter-inlaw , A imee C au l ier , w ho s pecia l ised i n p a in ting p ipes f L eurs i a nd n om ' . "1 73 T hey s oon r igh ted t he s i tua t ion , b u t t he G erman i nvas ion o f 1 914 p roved f a ta l .

T he f ac tory , s i tua ted a t t he c orner o f t he r ue d e Ma isf eres

a nd r ue F ranche , n ear t he G rand 'p lace , was b urned d own , t he b ronze mou lds were r equis i t ioned a nd t he s pec ia lis t work f orce d ispersed .

Af ter t he war ,

A imee C au lier g a thered t oge ther t he a va i lab le workers a nd w i th t he ma ter ia l wh ich s he h ad b een a b le t o r escue , t he r esu med b usiness f or t wo s hor t y ears i n a n o ld d ance-ha l l .

Marce l G . L efrancq r ecovered f rom t he s i te many

f ragmen ts o fp ipes , i nc luding ap ar t icu lar ly n otab le o ne w i th t he b ow l i n t he f or m o f a miner s ea ted w i th h is b ack a ga ins t ac uf fa t ( at ub u sed f or h au ling c oa l t o t he s urface ) , a nd b ear ing o n t he s te m t he i nscr ip t ion : s ont d es n ui ts . Ma l a mpe e s t mon s o le i l . "

" Tous n os j ours

O n t he f eas t d ay o f S a in t-Ca therine , p a tron s a int o f t he Ha inau l t p ipemakers , ag rand b a l l was g iven a t t he h o me o f F e lix N ihou l , who h ad b een a b urger master a nd h is w ife e lec ted C o mmuna l C ounc i l lor . H e o pened t he b a l l b y d anc ing w i th t he o ldes t man a nd wo man emp loyees . 1 914 .

Th is t rad i t ion d ied i n

I n c on tras t , a t t he S couf la ire f ac tory a t N imy , wh ich p roduced o n ly p ipes w i th s te ms , t he N ihou ls s tar ted t o mou ld f i ne h eads . The c a ta logue o ft he E xpos i t ion d es p rodu i ts d u H a inau t , h e ld a t Mons i n 1 851 , s hows t ha t t he e xh ib i t o fJ ean-Bap t is te N ihou l c ons is ted o f aw ooden f rame c on ta ining a c o l lect i on o f c lay p ipes a nd t hree p ipe mou lds :

R ubens , Amura t a nd a T urk .

1 74

As was g enera l ly t he c ase i n l oca li t ies where d ispu tes d eve loped a t l e isure f ro m r easons o fj ea lousy , N imy was n o t f ree f rom t r ickery wh ich was w i thou t r ea l ma l ice . " There was a c er ta in d egree o f a n imos i ty b e tween w orkers i n t he p ipe f ac tor ies a nd t hese i n t he f atencer ie whose e conomic s i tua t ion was n ot b r i l lian t . The c h ime o ft he f atencer ie c lock was t hough t t o b e d eroga tory a nd t o s ay : ' t as d 'fa les p ip iers ' ( t as d e p ip iers p aresseu , ' heap o f i d le p ipemakers ' ) , wh i le t he p ipe-fac tory c lock r ep lied : ' al ' soupe s ans W ire ' ( 1l a s oupe s ans b eurre ) , at h in ly-ve i led r eference t o t he l ow wages o f t he f arencerie workers . Ma isf eres A t Ma isf eres , b y d ec is ion o ft he C om muna l C ounci l o f F ebruary 2 3rd 1 828 , Armand Grego ire was p ermi t ted t o u se t he s tamp o ft he " Be lg ian L ion" o n t he h ee ls o fg ood-qua li ty p ipes ; h e a lso marked t hem N , f or N i my , t he t wo c o m munes o n ly b e ing s epara ted i n 1 869 . I n t he c om mune o f Ma isf eres , L ou is Croque t h ad e s tab lished a f ac tory wh ich was men t ioned i n 1 872 .

I t was

t aken o ver b y h is s on F ernand who , i n 1 896 , emp loyed t hree w orkers , t wo men a nd a w o man .

I n 1 926 h e moved t o t he F aubourg S a in t-Lazare a t Mons , 2 5

t o d evo te h imse lf a l mos t e xc lus ive ly t o mak ing p ipes f or f a irground s hoo t ing g a r ier ies 1 75 a nd ' ronds d e c ougno les ' , 1 76 ( p las ter d iscs , o f ten i n t he f or m o f a swadd led b aby , u sed t o d ecora te a s pec ia l t ype o f c ake e a ten a t C hr is t mas ) . " He n ever the less p roduced i n 1 936 , t he 5 0 th a nn iversary-p ipe o f S ch m idt a nd Fa l leur , t he t wo s yndica l is t h eroes o ft he 1 886 s tr ikes a t t he B audoux g lassworks a t J u me t d ur ing wh ich many workers were c u t d own b y g unf ire" . 1 77 C as teau " P len ty o f o ther t owns a nd v i l lages i n H a inau t h ave h ad a t o ne t ime o r a no ther t heir own p ipe maker 's workshops .

A t Cas teau , J oach im S t ievenar t

o b ta ined p ermiss ion o f S ep te mber 2 0 th 1 828 t o i ns ta l l ap ipe k i ln 3 3 a unes 4 0 p ouces , t ha t i s t o s ay a bou t 4 0 me tres , f ro m t he c hurch .

H is mark was a

l arge S , a s h e d ec lared when e xa mined d uring t he e nquiry h e ld o n S ep te mber i st b efore Mai tre Massin , n o tary r oya l a t R oeu lx .

1 78

Quaregnon A t Q uaregnon , C ypr ien Danneau , o r ig ina l ly f ro m N imy , who h ad k ep t a b aker 's s hop o n t he r ue N euve ,

n ow t he r ue d e l 'Ega l i te , was g iven p ermis-

s ion o nSep te mber 1 6th 1 829 t o b ui ld a p ipe k i ln a t n u mber 2 i n t h is s tree t . 1 950 , ad escendan t was s t i l l a l ive

I n

a nd b ear ing t he n ick-name " e l . p ip ier t .

F ro m 1 948 t o 1 956 , R ober t B ecque t1 79

whose f a ther was emp loyed af ter t he

F irst Wor ld War i n mak ing ' ronds d e c ougno les ' i n o rder t o s upp ly o ne o f h is s ons who was a b aker , made t hese l i t t le d ecora t ive o b jec ts a nd p ipes f or af a irground s hoo t ing-ga l lery .

H is c lay c a me f ro m B audour a nd Andenne ,

h is mou lds were made b y a Mons ' a jus teur ' ( a worker whose t ask was t o e ns ure t he p erfec t f i t o f t he p ieces ) a nd were a c lu msy i m i ta t ion o f " La B ora ine" o f De B evere a t C our tra i .

A t t he e nd o f t he 1 9th c en tury , H ubert Vanvreko m 's

f ac tory o f i ndus tr ia l c era m ics , s i tua ted o n t he b ank o f t he r iver a t Q uaregnon h ad p roduced p ipes a s as ideline . B ury A t B ury , b y ar oya l d ecree d a ted S ep te mber 1 9th 1 847 , F . Deb l iquy , a n i nn k eeper , was a l lowed t o e s tab l ish a p ipe f actory a bou t 1 000 me tres f ro m t he f ron t ier .

I t was l oca ted a t t he b ack o ft he i nn o n t he Grand 'p lace .

L 'a l manach d u c o m merce e t d e l ' indus tr ie o f 1 878 q uo tes a p ipe f actory i n t he v il lage" . S a in t- S ymphor ien " A t S a in t-Symphor ien , F rangois Marcq , maker o f r oof- a nd f l oor-ti les , a lso made p ipes a t h is t i lery i n 1 851 . H is k i ln , wh ich was d e mo lished i n 1 928 , c on ta ined a s agger wh ich u nfor tuna te ly was n o t s aved . H is mark was a n M i mpressed o n t he h ee l . "1 80 J u me t " In 1 896 , a t J u me t , t here was o n ly o ne p ipe maker , p robab ly B eau jot . Marce l G . L efrancq 's c o l lect ion c on ta ins a p ipe marked ' Beau jot ä J u me t ' a nd a no ther marked ' Beau jot ä R oux ' .

" Beau jo t , t h is g rea t c o l lector n o ted

" is a n a me wh ich i s e ncoun tered among t he p ipe makers o f Andenne f ro m 1 816 o n , a nd t here i s s t i l l a n i mpor tan t t obacco b us iness o ft he s ame n a me a t J u me t e ven t oday .

We l earn t here t ha t t he f ounder o ft he b usiness , R ober t

B eau jo t , c a me o r ig ina l ly f ro m Andenne o r i t s v icin i ty , t ha t h e s en t a broad p ipes c arry ing h is mark R . B .J . a nd t ha t t he d ecora t ion was c arr ied o u t a t 2 6

h is own e s tab l ishmen t b y h is c h i ldren .

H e a lso a

e ared i n t he l i s t o f

c l ien ts o ft he S couf la ire p ipe-fac tory a t N imy . "1 Mon t-sur- March ienne A t Mon t-sur- March ienne , i n t he Char lero i d is tr ic t , L efrancq d iscussed t he e x is tence o f ap lace c a l led APfabr ique ä p ipes '

a nd " i t o ccurs a new o n

al i t t le e nd o f as te m f ound i n 1 9 th c en tury r ubb ish-du mp a t Mon t P an ise l , wh ich g ives t he n ame o ft he maker :

L . C o linvaux . "1 82

B efore c onc lud ing t h is s urvey o ft he p ipe i n H a inau t , we r e me mber t he w ords o f Marce l G . L efrancq who g ave s o much e f for t t o e n larg ing o ur k nowl edge o f t he s ub jec t : "We a l l k now t ha t ap rophe t i s n ever h onoured i n h is own c oun try a nd t h is s ay ing a lso g oes f or p ipe- makers .

F or e xa mp le , t h is s ide o f

t he f ron t ier t he p ipes o f Onna ing were much p referred t o t hose o f N imy , a nd i n F rance t he c onverse was t rue .

I n s uppor t o ft h is , we

h ave f ound i n t he w as ter-du mps o f t he N ihou l f actory a t N i my n u mero us f rag men ts marker ' N ihou l

O nna ing ' t hough a c tua l ly made i n

N i my , s o g rea t was t he f a me o f t he F rench v i l lage , a nd a lso t he F rench p ed lars c a l led r egu lar ly a t N i my t o r ep len ish t he ir s tock , a nd i t was n o t u nco m mon l ess t han a c en tury a go t o s ee t he m t here , t he ir d onkeys o r mu les w i th t heir p ack s add les l oaded w i th p ipes . A s im i lar s igh t me t t he e yes o ft he i nhab i tan ts o f O nna ing , b ut t here t here were g rea t c overed wagons d rawn b y t wo h orses a nd l oaded w i th c asks a nd b aske ts , t he h ead o fp ipe s ewn o n t op , w hich l ef t b y t he Q uevra in h ighway .

These g rea t b aske ts o f u npee led w i l low , were

made a t S o ma in ( wes t o f Va lenc iennes , F rance ) .

1 5 g ross o f p ipes

were p laced i ns ide , p acked i n c hopped o a ten s traw , a s t hey were i n t he c art wh ich c on ta ined 2 0 o r 3 0 g ross a nd wh ich we ighed o ver 1 00 k i los .

The p ipes d es t ined f or P aris o r t he Midi , o r f or e xpor t o ver-

s eas , were p acked i n b oxed o f 4o r 5g ross a p iece .

U p t o 1 912 , a

F renchman f ro m t he B lanc- Misseron r eg ion c a me , ab aske t o n h is b ack , t o s e l l F rench p ipes i n t he c orons ( m iners ' .c o t tages ) o f B or inage . I n e ach p lace h e h ad a " trustwor thy man who c o l lec ted t oge ther t he o rders o f t he men who were work ing i n t he c lay-pi ts .

Ac o m mon

c lay p ipe c os t 2c enses ( 4 c en t i mes ) , af i rs t c lass o ne 1 mastoque ( 5 c en t i mes ) a nd t he p ipe w i th g ro tesque h eads 1 g ros s ous ( 10 c en times ) , b u t t hese were s uch a n e xcep t iona l l uxury t ha t a nyone who h ad a' Jacob ' o r a' Napo leon ' o r a' Leopo ld was p oin ted o u t . "1 83 *

*

*

*

The p rox im i ty o ft he H au trage c lay d epos i ts r ead i ly e xp la ins t he c on t inui ty o fp ipe makers a t T ourna i .

A t Andenne , where t he s ub-soi l o ft he s urrounding

a rea i s r ich i n p ipe-c lay , i t was o n ly i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he e igh teen th c en tury t ha t ac au t ious e xpans ion t ook p lace i n t he manufacture o ft he c lay p ipes wh ich c on tr ibu ted t o t he f a me o f t h is t own , where t he p opu la tion were a bove a l l d ependen t o n t he p roduc t ion o f d er le . Namur I n t he C om te o f N amur , a round 1 630 o r p erhaps l a ter , p ot ters d oub t less 2 7

b egan t o c opy t heir D u tch c oun terpar ts i n o ccas iona l ly mak ing c lay p ipes . I n 1 637 , t wo b urgers a nd p o t ters o f Na mur , B ernars [ s ic ] S pr ic t a nd D . C har les , s o l ic i ted f ro m t he P rov inc ia l C ounc i l t he s o le r igh ts t o make a nd s e l l " tobacco p ipes" . 1 84

The u nfavourab le r esponse g iven o n March 3 0 th b y t h is a uthor i ty

was r epea ted t wo y ears l a ter t o J ean-Bap t is te C habot teau , " a r e t ired c ap ta in i n t he s erv ice o f S pa in", who a sked a s im i lar f avour o f P h i lippe I V . 1 85 The e x-cap ta in , d escenden t o f" a d ynas ty o fb raziers a nd i ndus tr ia l p ot ters , e qua l ly f a mi l iar w i th work i n c opper a nd i n mou ld ing , mixing a nd f i r ing o f c lay" ,

1 86

n ever the less c on t inued t o d ea l i n d er le , t o make p ipes a nd t o e x-

p and h is p ot tery manufac tury .

1 87

The r eques t a ddressed b y C habot teau t o

t he k ing i nfor med h im t ha t " qu 'on amene e s v i l les d e p ar d e9a p lus ieurs s or tes d 'ouvrages d e t erre manufac tures e n A ng le terre e t H o l lande :

t e ls q ue p ots ' ab oire

b ierre , p la ts , v ases , p ipes ä p rendre t abacq e t p luse iurs a u tres s or tes d e j o li te7 q u i r esse mb len t ' al a p ource la ine , t an t b lancq q ue p e in turez , c o m me a uss i d e p ar d e ll . C ou lo igne 1 88 R undhause 1 89

d 'un l i eu a ppe le

e t d 'un a u tre n o m me S ibr ich t . "1"

Th is manufac turer p roposed t o b r ing i n f ore ign workers ,

1 91

t o i n troduce t h is

i ndus try i n to t he C om te o f N a mur , where i th ad n o t h i ther to e x is ted , s ince t here e x is ted t here t he c lay n ecessary f or t he p roduc t ion o f s uch g oods , a nd a sked f or a t h ir ty y ear monopo ly .

1 92

By a d ecree o f Dece mber 7 th 1 639 , P h i lippe

P h i l ippe I Vg ran ted t o C habot teau , who h ad c o me t o l i ve i n Namur ,

1 93

a nd

t o " ses h o irs s uccesseurs a u a yan t c ause" t he r igh t " a l ' exc lus ion d e t ous a u tres e t p our l e t e mps e t t er me d e d ix-hu i t a ns p rocha in ( d ') i n trodu ire e t f a ire a u p a is e t c om te d e N a mur l a man ifac ture [ s ic ] d es o uvrages d e t erre —sui t l ' enu mera t ion c i te c i-dessus .—hor m is l es p ipes ' ap rendre t oubaque" o n c ond i t ion t ha t h is o pera t ions were r ea l ly " chose n ouve l le" . 1 94 H e was a sked t o p ay 1 00 l i vres a nnua l ly i n r ecogn i t ion o f t hese a dvan tages . 1 95 C habo t teau 's f i rs t c are was t o h ire q ua l if ied workers a t S iegburg ( Ger many ) , who u nder took i n h is f ac tory a t B ouv ignes 1 96

" % ap lus ieurs e preuves d es t erres

c e n ecessa ires , e n s or te q u 'h l a f i n , i ll es a ura ient t rouve e t l es j ug ea uss i b onnes , v oire a ucunes mei l leures q ue c e l les d 'A l le ma igne" .

1 97

I n h is d es ire

t o s ecure h is monopo ly o ft he i ndus try i n t he S ou thern L ow C oun tr ies , h e b rough t f orward a n ew r eques t o n Dece mber 2 3rd 1 640 , i n r ep ly t o wh ich t he C onse i l d es f i nances a nd t he k ing j oined i n r efus ing t o make h im t he s o le p ipe maker . 1 98 The r efusa l o ft he p ub lic a u thor i t ies t o g ran t t he e xc lus ive r igh ts t o a ny o ne c ap i ta l is t t o manufacture c lay p ipes f ro m t he S ou thern L ow C oun try 1 99 c anno t b e a dequa te ly e xp la ined i n t er ms o f t he ir s o l ic i tude f or t he r igh ts o f sma l l-sca le manufac turers .

I n t he midd le o ft he e igh teen th c entury , t he

t rade o ft he p ipe maker was a n ew o ne , a nd h is s ki l ls were n ot y e t w ide ly k nown .

T here i s n o d oub t t ha t t he f i rs t c lay p ipe b ow l was s i mp ly a p iece o f

c lay r o l led i n t he h and a nd f i red i n t he d o mes t ic f i re .

2 00

E ng land a nd H o l land

c arefu l ly h id f ro m p ry ing e yes k now ledge o ft he ma ter ia ls a nd t echn iques n eeded .

E ach w orker was c onf ined t o ac lose ly-def ined t ask a nd o n ly t he

emp loyer k new a nd c ou ld e xp lo i t t he mys tery o ft he c o mpos i t ion o f c lays , t echn iques o f f ash ion ing t he p ipe a nd o f f i r ing t he m i n k i lns .

2 8

An ew p ipe f ac tory w as f ounded i n N a mur i n 1 700 af ter a c er ta in Anciau , L ieu tenan t Mayor o ft he t own , h ad o b ta ined p erm ission . I tf a i led c o mp le te ly : n o t f or l ack o fp rac t ica l k now ledge , f or h e p robab ly h ad a c o mpe ten t workforce , b u t t hrough l ack o f f i nanc ia l e xperience .

Wh i le h is s torehouses w ere f u l l o f

p ipes , h e f ound h imse lf w i thou t c ash a nd " pour a ins i d ire r u in " .

2 01

H e d ied

o f c hagrin . N o more d id misfortunes s pare a c i t izen o f N a mur , A gnes D en ison , w idow o fJ ean G odar t , b us iness a ssocia te o f J ean P ero t a nd An thoine C ap i ta ine , merchan ts d ea ling i n c hoco la te , c of fee , t ea , t obacco a nd l i quers , who were j o ined b y P . H . D upa ix . 2 02 Th is e s tab lishmen t , f ounded i n 1 715 , r esis ted f or t hree y ears t he =br id led c o mpe t i t ion o ft he D u tch a nd t he L iegois who f l ooded t he marke t i n N amur w i th t heir p ipes wh ich t hey s o ld a t h a lf p rice o r e ven l ess .2 03 N or ma l ly a g ross o f 1 2 d ozen " p ippes f i nnes l ongue e s trangeres" c os t t wo c us , ag ross o f " de my l ongues f i nnes", a bou t t hree f l orins , a nd a g ross o f " co m munes g rosse(s )", n ine s o ls . 2 " Th is d u mping d eep ly i nf luenced a t t i tudes a nd e l imina ted f or a l ong t ime a ny s er ious manufac turing o fp ipes i n N a mur .

G odar t 's w idow , who h ad g one t o l i ve a t G ive t i n F rance , r e tr ieved

h er b usiness l osses a nd " e l l er euss i t as ouha i t p ar c e q ue l ' on y a d efendu P en tree d es p ipes a t abac v enan t d 'Ho l lande e t a ccorde a ux e n trepreneurs t ous l es a van tages e t b enef ices

o n t d e mande (s ) . "2 05

On Apri l 1 5 th 1 719 , a c ting o n t he i ns truc t ions o f t he a ssoc ia tes o f Agnes D en ison , N o tary Mot teaux d rew u p a n i nventory o ft he b usiness .

2 06

Among

t he t oo ls a nd g oods w ere " trois g randes f or mes d e c u ivre o u p o t isse e t t rois p lus p e t i t tes n o m mee(s ) d e my l ongue .., u ne g rande p resse d e f er a vec s on v erra in ,u ne p ae l [ pe l le ] af ouir l a t erre , u n t onneau o u e scuveau s ervan t as tamper [ ba t tre ] l a t erre", many b enches , t hree k i lns , e tc . A t f i rs t g lance , t h is l i s t o f e qu ip ment s ee ms r a ther s hor t , a nd y e t t h is c annot b e t he c ase i fw e a re t o j udge f ro m t he c ont i nua l r eference t o t h is b usiness o ver t hree d ecades i n t he c orrespondence o f t he C onse i l d es F inances a nd b y t he l eng ths wh ich were g one t o i n o rder t o d es troy i t .

I t s d isappearance d id n o t p ut a n e nd t o t he p roduct ion o fp ipes i n

t he t own , f or a n a c t ion i n 1 718 b y t he N o tary J . B . C as ta igne r efers t o " Arnou ld R egnard , t ambour ma jor d u R eg iment d e B roues .. e n t rava i l lan t a ux p ipes d e p orce la ines q u i s e f abr iquen t . e n c et te v i l le aP ordre d e G i l les Ma i l len e t c onsors , .. a t g a igne p ar p lusieurs f o is d ix s ep t ad ix h u i t e squa l ins p ar s ema ine , a uroi t p u g a igner t ro is e scus p ar s e ma ine s ' i l a vo i t v ou lu t rava i l ler a ss idumen t" . 2 07 I n al e t ter s en t f ro m L i l le i n 1 782 a nd a ddressed t o t he mayor a nd a ldermen o f N amur , t he N a murois D ieudonne J oseph An toine c la imed t o h ave " par d if feren ts v oiages e t b ien d es o bserva t ions ,... a cqu is u ne g rande c onnoiss ance d ans l a manufacture d e p ipes e t q u 'i l s ero i t p arvenu a e n f abriquer a l ' im i ta t ion d e c e l les d e H o l lande" .

2 08

B y t he s ame c our ier , h e p resen ted a

b ox o f s amp les o fh is own manufacture , i n t he h ope t ha t h e wou ld b e g ran ted h e lp b y t he t own i n r espec t o f a" s i te" , " s torehouses" a nd " workp laces" , a l l o f wh ich c a l led f or n o g rea t e xpense ! 209 Th is r eques t n o t h av ing b een d ea l t w i th , An toine r enewed i ti n as econd l e t ter d a ted N ove mber 1 7th 1 782 , i n wh ich h e w rote : 2 9

" Depu is q ue e u l ' honneur d e v ous e cr ire e t d 'exped ier d es p ipes [ . .. ] , j ' a i a cqu i t d epu is l ors q ue lques n ouve l les c onno issance [s ] . S i v ous j ugez [ . ..] q u 'i 1 s o i t n ecessa ire d e me r endre c hez v ous [ . ..], j e m 'y r endra i a vec d es p ipes q ue v ous c onfron terez a vec c e l les d e e l les s eront marquees d es n o ms d e v o tre y ule e t d u mien" .2 10 An to ine 's l e t ter , w i th l i t t le t o r eco mmend i t s s pe l ling o r a gree men t o f t enses , was q u i te e nough t o c a tch t he a t ten t ion o f t he mag is tra tes a nd t o a l low t he m t o p erceive t ha t h e a lone was t o t ake t he r isks f or i fo n h is b eha lf t hey " fon t u n a van tage , c e s era .. l es p auvres d e N amur q u i e n p rof i teron t; p our f a ire d es manufactures , i lf au t d e t ou te n ecess i te a voir d es o uvr iers . C o m me i l s s on t r ares d ans c e g enre , i lf audra q ue P en f or me a mes d epends , j e s era i d ans l e c as d e p a ier l a j ournee ä d es h o mmes o u d es f e m mes p eu t e ' tre t i n t e mps i nf in i a van t g ul ls n e s oien t e n ' e ta t d e r ien g agner , e t s ouven t i la rrive q u 'au b ou t d e s ix mo is , a pres l es a voir g prouver a t ou t , o n e s t o b lige d e l es r envoier , J e s u is i nfor me a u v ra i q u 'a G ouda , o n yc o mp te a u n o mbre d e d eux c en t [s ] q ua tre v ing t [s ] ma i tres , e s t [ e t ] l a p lupar t o n t j usqu 'a 6 0 a7 0 o uvr iers , q u i f a i t e nv irons 1 8000 p ersonnes , q ue l a moindre g agne 2 0 , e t l es a u tre 3 0 , 4 0 , 4 5 a5 0 s [ous ] d e F rance p ar j our , a uss i b ien l es f e m mes q ue l es h o mmes . V ous p ouvez i[ ...] c on tribuer a vec b ien p lus d 'a isance ä p rocurer l e mgme a van tage a v o tre v i l le , p re m iere men t v ous a vez l es t erres , l es l o l lando is s on t o b liges d e l es a che ter c hez v ous e t i l s v ous r envo ien t d es p ippes [ . ..] 1 e st p rouve q ue s i l es H o i lando is n 'avo ien t p o in t d e l a t erre d e N a mur q u 'i ls n e p ouro ien t p oin t f a ire d es p ipes , e t q ue d ans l a s u i te l es N amuro is l eur e n f ourn iro i [en t ] . t 211 The mag is tra tes g ran ted A n toine t he r igh t t o e s tab lish h i mse lf a t N amur a nd h is s w if t s uccess was d ue i n al arge p ar t t o t he c ap i ta l i nves ted b y B arba is , a n a dvoca te t o t he P rov inc ia l C ounc i l . I n al e t ter o f A ugus t 1 0 th 1 783 , a ddressed t o C ounc i l lor P arad is , a me mber o ft he C onsei l d es f i nances , t he p rov incia l c us to ms o f f icia l d escr ibed t he n ew f ac tory : "Messe igneurs , N ous a vons Phonneur d 'infor mer v os s e igneur ies i l lus tr iss imes , q ue l ' avoca t a u C onsei l d e c et te p rov ince , e t f i sca l d u B a i l lage , B arba ix , ae n trepr is i c i d epu is p eu u ne f abrique d e p ipes ' at abac , s ous l a D irec t ion d [ ' ]An toine d e c et te v i l le , j eune h o mme f or t i n te l l igen t , q u i ab eaucoup v o iage , e t a u q ue l l ed i t a voca t B arba ix c ede u n c er ta in i n teres t d ans c e t te f abr ique , är a ison d e s on i ndus trie e t d e s es s o ins . C et te n ouve l le f abr ique o ccupe d e ja 3 2 ä3 3 o uvr iers , p ar mi l es q ue ls i ls e t rouve e n tre a u tres , u ne f a mi l le e n t iere h o l lando ise , c o mpos e d u p ere , d e l a mere , e t d e t rois g argons ;

i t em d eux a u tres o uvr iers

h o l landois , d eux s o lda ts d e n o tre g arn ison , e t q ua torse g argons d u g rand h op i ta l d e c et te v i l le , d e d if feren ts a ges . C et te f abr ique e s t p lac e d ans u ne ma ison a ssez p assab le men t s pacieuse o ccupee c i d evan t p ar f eu l e c o lone l c o m mandant d e c et te p lace , S choger . 3 0

L e d eb i t d e c es p ipes s e f a i t äf ur e t ` a . mesure q u 'e l les s on t f abri, q uees . I le n p asse d ans l e d uche d e L uxembourg , d ans l e H aynau t , e t a i l leurs . I i Wen f abr ique d es c ourtes e t d es l ongues . C e l les c i p aro issen t p resque e ga ler e n b lancheur c e l les d e l a H o l lande . L es e n trepreneurs y t rouven t u n b enef ice h onn &e .

I l s o n t e u Pavan tage

d e n e p ayer a ucun s a la ire a uxd i ts q ua torse e nfans d u g rand h op i ta l , p endan t l es p rem iers mo is q u 'is s on t v enus t rava i l ler , e t a ux q ue ls u s d onnen t a c tue l le men t d euz s o ls p ar j our . is l eur d onneron t u n d em i e sca l in d ans q ue lque t e mps , d u mo ms a ux p lus g rands e nfans . C es e n trepreneurs Won t c esse j usqu 'ä p resen t d e f a ire d if feren tes e preuves d e me langes d e t erre , d on t l a d er le d 'Andenne f a i t l a p r inc ipa le p ar t ie . U s v iennen t d e d ecouvr ir d u c ote d e Ch imay , u ne e spece d e t erre Wes b lanche e t f or t d ouce , d on t u s o n t f a i t Pepreuve e n l a me langean t a vec c e l le d 'Andenne , e t d on t i l s s on t b eaucoup p lus s a t isfa i ts q ue d u me lange g ul ls a voien t f a i t d e l a t erre d e C o logne , a vec l a d er le d 'Andenne . L ed i t a voca t B arba ix c o mp te q u 'avan t s ix mois , i la ura u ne c en ta ine d 'ouvr iers d ans c e t te f abr ique , v oyan t b ien q ue c e ' Ves t q ue s ur l a q uan t i te d 'ouvr iers q u 'i l p oura f a ire u n c er ta in g a in .

N ous a vons

e te e xam iner c e t te f abr ique n a issan te , e t n ous a vons v u a vec l e p lus s ens ib le p la is ir Pac t iv i te e t P ordre q u i yr egno ien t . L ed i t a voca t B arba ix e s t a ussy d ans P in ten t ion d e j o indre ä c et te f abr ique , u ne r af iner ie d e s ucre , a yan t f a i t r encon tre p ar m i l es s o lda ts d e n o tre g arn ison , d 'un j eune h o mme d e f a mi l le , t re s e ntendu d ans c e t te manufac ture , s u ivan t l es e preuves q u 'l l af a i t v is a v is d e l u i .

I l a me me d e ja c onsign e' al a c a isse d u r eg i men t d e Murray ,

d ouze p is to les p our l e r achas t d u c onga d e c e s o lda t , q u i n e p oura Pob ten ir q u 'apres l a r evue d e c e r egimen t . Ma is c o m me l ed i t a voca t B arba ix e s t d e ja a ssex r eserre , d ans l a ma ison g ul l ac hois i p our s ad i te f abrique d e p ipes , i ld es ireroi t p ouvoir l ou r l e c ouven t d es c ydevan t c ar me l i tes d echaussees e n c et te vi le , p our y p lacer ä Pa ise s es d eux manufactures .

L 'adminis-

t ra teur d es b iens d udi t c ouven t , C lavareau f i ls , v a e n f a ire l a p rop os i t ion a u c om i te d e l a c a isse d e r e lig ion . N ous r endrons d ans p eu d e j ours c o mp te ä v os s e igneuries i l lus tr iss imes , d es s u i t tes d e l av en te s i mu lee , e f fec tuee l e 3 0 d u mois d ern ier , d e l a manufac ture d e f ayence ä S t S erva is , p res d e c et te vi le , s ous l a r a t if f ica t ion d e q uinze j ours . N ous s o m mes a vec l e p lus p rofond r espec t Messe igneurs • d e v os s e igries

i l

mes

l es t i es h u mb les e t t i es o berssan ts s erv i teurs N amur l e 1 0 a ous t 1 783

( s . )C lavareau

12 ( s .) H amoir" . 2

S udden ly , i n 1 785 , B arba is w i thdrew h is s uppor t .

An toine , d epr ived o f

t he f unds n ecessary f or t he p urchase o f r aw ma ter ia l a nd t he p aymen t o f t he w orkforce " qu i s on t a u n o mbre d e q uaren te", a sked t he E ta ts f or a n i n teres tf ree l oan o f f i ve t housand B raban t f l or ins wh ich h e u nder took t o r epay i n i nst a l l men ts o ver 1 5 y ears .

As p roof t ha t h is f ac tory c pu ldrespond t o t he s i tua-

t i on a nd c ou ld c on t inue f unc t ion ing , h e r eminded t hem t ha t ad e ja f a i t d iverses e nvo is e n Amer ique" . 2 13 I td oes n ot s eem t ha t h e w as l i s tened t o . U nder t he R epub l ic a nd t he Emp ire , s o me p ipe makers a re a ga in r ecorded a t t he p r inc ipa l t own o ft he D epar t men t o f S ambre e t Meuse . O n 3 0 p luv iose , y ear I I ( February 1 8th 1 795 ) , J ean B ap t is te G eorge Wer 1 1 , "mas ter p ipe maker , c i t izen a nd i nhab i tan t o ft he t own o f N amur" , i nfor med t he a dm in ist ra t ion " tha t d ur ing t he s ix mon ths t ha t Ih ave r un t he f ac tory t here h ave b een emp loyed f our h igh ly s k i l led a nd f our s em i s k i l led w orkers a nd i th as c onsu med t wen ty s ix t housand ( pounds ) o fp ipe-c lay"; c oa l i s "a p r i me n ecess i ty t o h is f ac tory t o d ry t he p roduc ts a nd t o f i re t hem" . ‘ " ` ± C onrad C orne l is , f o l low ing t he s ame c raf t , r epor ted o n 5v entose , y ear I I ( February 2 3rd 1 795 ) , t ha t " the q uan t i ty o f ma teria l wh ich h e h ad u sed" i n t he c ourse o f ay ear , " and o ther a ccessor ies ,

v iz .

/ Conrad C orne l is a nd h is w ife a nd h is d augh terY

o ne w orker/ f i ve a ppren t ices/ t h ir ty t housand p ounds o f c lay/ t h ir ty c ords o f wood/ f if ty t wo j ars o f o i l/ s ix c ar t loads o f f ue l/ t h ir ty p ounds o f c and les/ a l l t he a bove n ecessary f or t he s a id manufacture .. a nd t he c urren t ly mos t e ssen t ia l i t em i s t he f ue l a nd t he o i l" .

2 15

I n 1 808 , a sked a bou t " the n u mber o f i nd iv idua ls i n t he w orkshop a nd f act or ies o f N amur", t he P refec t r ep l ied t ha t t here w ere n o more p ipe makers .

2 16

Th is o f f ic ia l h ad p robab ly r esponded t oo h as t i ly , f or f our y ears l a ter o ne c an c i te L a mber t More l whose mark i s t he n umber 4 7 s ur moun ted b y ac rown , a nd a y ear l a ter t han t ha t , i n 1 813 , J ean B ap t is te Wer l l was mak ing p ipes marked w i th a c rown a nd W . 2 17 L ike h is c o l leagues i n t he o ther p rov inces , t he G overnor , J . J . d 'Oma li l ls , a sked t o b e i nfor med o f t he marks i n u se i n t he A ndenne a nd N amur p ipe f ac tor ies . The r esu lts o f t h is e nqu iry a re missi ng f rom t he a d h oc r ecords p reserved i n t he S ta te A rch ives a t N amur . I n 1 827, P ierre J oseph D uquesnoy a sked f or t he a u thorisa t ion o ft he P rov inc ia l G overnor , ar eques t wh ich h e p assed o n t o t he R eferenda ire I nspec teur G enera l p our l 'Admin is tra t ion d e l ' Indus tr ie n a t iona le , t o u se t he mark D . Y . " for t he p ipes wh ich a re d ecora ted i n h is w orkshops" . 2 19 C orne l ius L ecocq a sked a t t he s ame t ime t o b e a l lowed t o a dop t t he mark L . K .

N e i ther o ft hese marks was u sed i n t he p rov ince o f Na mur , t he p roposa ls

s ee m ing ly h av ing r ece ived f avourab le r esponse . D uquesnoy c ame i n f ac t t o u se t he f i rs t a nd l as t l e t ters o fh is n a me a s a mark a nd a s f or L ecocq , t he mark L K h av ing a lready b een i n u se i n a G ouda p ipe f ac tory s ince 1 674 , was i nv i ted t o c hose a nother .

h e

2 20

F a l mignou l On S ep te mber 2 3rd 1 820 , Em manue l d e B ehr s o lic i ted K ing Wi l liam f or p ermiss ion t o b ui ld ap ipe f ac tory , r evea l ing

3 2

" qu 'i l p ossede e n l a c o m mune d e F a l mignou l d es p roprie tes d ans q ue l les [ s ic ] s e t rouven t e tab l is u ne s a line e t u n d eb i t d 'ob je ts s oum is a ux d roi ts ; q ue l es p ersonnes q u i yv iennen t c hercher d u f i l e t a u tres marchandises c r es iro ien t a uss i a vo ir d es p ipes I f u mer d e t erre d u p ays ; q ue p our l es s a t isfa ire ä c e t e gard , is eroi t a uss i n ecessa ire d 'e tab lir e n l es me mes p ropr ie tes u ne f abrica t ion d e p ipes d e c e g enre [ . .. ] C e t te f abr ique [ . .. ]o ccupera q ue lques ma lheureux , emp loyera d e l a t erre i nd ig . b ne e t n e p eu t d 'a i l leurs p resen ter l a p lus p e t i te c ra in te d e p ouvoir f avor iser d es i ns inua t ions c landes t ines d e marchand ise d u me me g enre , p arceque d 'abord P ob je t e s t t rop p eu i n teressan t p ar l u i me ' me e t s econdement , p arceque c et te marchandi se e s t p lus d e moi t ie I me i l leur c o mp te d ans l es P ays B as q u 'en F rance , t e l lemen t q ue l es F ran9a is c hercheroien t p lu t ch a e n e x tra ire d u r oyau me d es P ays B as" .

2 21

Af avourab le r ep ly , s igned b y t he K ing , was s en t f ro m B russe l ls o n N ove mber 4 th 1 820 . 2 22 Andenne P ierre Men icken ( Men iecken o r Man icken a ccotding t o t he manuscr ip t ) , was b orn a t C ob lence , a nd g ave u p , i n 1 757 , ap ipe f ac tory wh ich h e o ccup ied t here a nd d ec ided t o s e t t le a t Andene l le , where h e t ransferred t he f ac tory , t o b e n ear t he d er le wh ich was p resen t a bundan t ly .

Th is f ac tory was c on t inued

t here i n a n h onest manner , s uppor ted b y t he c onsiderab le marke t wh ich h e h ad f or h is p ipes , a nd wh ich o ccup ied many work men . 2 23 T he e s tab l ish men t o ft he f i rs t p upi i n Andenne was r ecorded i n t he S ta t is t ique d es p roduc t ions e t i ndus tr ies d es P ays-Bas a u trich iens , 2 24 o f 1 764 . We h ave e x trac ted f ro m t h is s ource t he i nfor ma t ion g iven b e low : " 1° I l y aa uss i ( en p lus d 'une f abr ique d e p o t teries ) a u d i t l i eu d 'Andene l le , u ne f abr ique d e p ipes ä t abac , l aque l le a ppar t ien t a u n o m me P ierre Man icken . 2° E l le c ons is te I r edu ire l a d er le e n p ipes ' af u mer . N [ot ]a : L es d [ i ts ] o f f ic ier p [rinci ]paux n 'on t p oin t d onne n u mera t ion d e l a q uan t i te d e g rosses d e p ipes q u e i le f abr ique a nnue l le men t , n on p lus q ue l ' eva lua t ion d u p rodu i t d 'ice l le . 3 ° C e t te f abr ique e s t e r igee d epu is e nv iron 6 a ns . 4 ° S ans a u tre o c troy q ue d u c hap i tre d 'Andenne a uque l i lp aye u ne r econna issance a nnue l le d 'un s ouvera in . 5 ° C et te f abr ique emp loye 4 o uvr iers , s cavo ir :

2f abr ica teurs

e t p erceurs d e p ipes , e t d eux manoeuvres p our p reparer l a t erre . 60 E l le d eb i te s es p ipes ä Namur , äB ruxe l les , e n g ros , d e mgme q u 'ä 'S ege . 7° E l le t i re l es t erres d 'Andenne . 8° L es l i egeois l es a ssu jet t issen t I Pen tree c hez e ux a u d ro i t d u 6 0e me .

3 3

9 ° I ln 'y a p o in t d e p are i l les f abr iques e tab l ies s ur l es f ron tf eres e trand eres , p ar c onsequen t c e l le c y n e p eu t s erv ir d e c ouver ture l a f raude . "2 25 The s lender means 2 26

o f Men icken a nd p erhaps a lso t he h opes f ounded

o n h im l ed t he E ta ts o f Na mur t o r eques t t he C onse i l d es f i nances t o wa ive t he e xpor t d u t ies o n t hose o f h is p ipes w h ich wen t a broad , wh ich was g ran ted o n May 1 6th 1 766 . 2 28 We t hen 2 29 who was t he f ounder o ft he p ipe i ndus try i n Andenne . A s econd w orkshop o pera ted f ro m 1 768 .

2 27

ar eques t

l ose t rack o ft he man

I th ad a s i t s h ead P ierre H oer ter

a nd h i 's s on f ro m H örlez-Cob lence a nd J ean D irucq , ac i t izen o f Na mur . A ccord ing t o t he m , t hey were g oing t o make p ipes a s f i ne a s t hose f ro m H o ll and , a nd t hey r eques ted t o r ece ive s o le r igh ts " ' a p ouvoir f abr iquer d es p ippes d ans l a p rov ince d e N amur , a vec l es e xe mp t ions e t f ranch ises o rd ina ires . "2 30 I n 1 789 , t he P rov ince o f N a mur c ou ld c oun t s even mas ter p ipe makers , t h ir ty f i ve a ssis tan ts a nd t wen ty a ppren t ices mak ing o n ly e veryday p ipes . These n u mbers w ere u nchanged i n t he y ear I X ( 1 800-1801) .

2 32

2 31

Wh i le t he

r e la t ive n u mber a re n ot s ta ted , o ne g uesses t ha t t here were o ne o r t wo f act or ies i n N amur a nd f i ve o r s ix i n Andenne . U nder t he Emp ire , t he mos t i mpor tan t p ipe f ac tory i n Andenne was r un b y t he b rothers F ran9ois a nd L ou is Winand .

The l a t ter , a s i s s hown i n t he

l ega l d ocu men ts o ft he 1 0 f r i ma ire , y ear V I ( Nove mber 3 0 th 1 797) , e xercised t he p rofess ion o f " se l ler o fp orce la ine" .

2 23

E x trapo la t ing f ro m t h is , T o mbu

t hough t t ha t h e migh t a lready h ave b een mak ing p ipes a t t ha t t ime .

Th is

t heory h as l i t t le f ounda t ion a nd d oes n o t mer i t more t han p ass ing u n l ike t he f o l low ing i nfor ma tion wh ich s ee ms more wor thy o f b e lief :

" And

i ft he s i te o n t he G rand 'rue , where t he Winan t [ s ic ] worked was h anded o n f ro m f a ther t o s on u n t i l 1 892 , was o n ly a cqu ired i n 1 814 , we l earn f ro m t he l as t o ft he l i ne t ha t h is g randfa ther h ad , b efore s e t t ing h imse lf u p t here , b egun t he manufacture o fp ipes i n t he f afencer ie a t t he P lace d u C hap i tre . "2 34 H enr i J avaux 2 35

d oes n o t h o ld c o mp le te ly w i th t h is v iew :

" The Winand

b ro thers , F ran9ois a nd L ou is , " h e wr i tes , " apparen t ly b egan a t t he C hapi tre , a nd t hen s e t u p ap ipe f ac tory i n 1 807 o n t he G rand 'rue .

They a dded a

f arencer ie t o t h is f ac tory i n 1 813 a nd i n 1 818 a p orce la in f ac tory t oo . L ou is Winand emp loyed s even ty w orkers .

I n 1 813

I n 1 816 , h is p ipe f ac tory s t i l l

f or ty workers ( t h ir ty t wo o n p iece-work a nd e igh t d ay-workers ) . t i2 36 P ipes made b y t he Winand b ro thers were much s ough t a f ter b y smokers , e specia l ly t he mode ls marked W :S . T oo much i ndeed f or t he l i k ing o f s o me manufacturers who t r ied t o c oun ter t he ir l oss o f s a le b y mark ing s o me o f t he irs W :S .

Smar t ing f ro m t he a buse o f t he ir t rade mark , t he Winand b rothers

r eac ted s w if t ly a nd v igorous ly , a nd o n N ove mber 3 0 th t hey a ddressed t o t he P refec t o ft he D epar t men t o f S a mbre e t Meuse a l e t ter d escrib ing h ow t he ir p ipes h ad " exc i ted t he j ea lousy a nd i nf la med t he c up id i ty" o f c o mpe t i tors " to s uch a d egree" t ha t P ierre H ur ter o f Andenne , P e t i t o f Mons , More l a nd Wer l l o f N amur were c oun terfei t ing " or s oon wou ld" make u se o ft he ir t rade mark " w i th i mpugn i ty" .

2 37

The r equ ire men t t ha t t hey s hou ld d epos i t t he ir

t rade marks w i th t he P refec ture f ro m J anuary 1 812 2 38 t hese f raud len t moves . 3 4

t e mporari ly l im i ted 2 39

I n o ne o f h is s tores i n h is f actory o n t he G rand 'rue , L ou is Winand t he e lder h as " a g rea t c h i mney o f c arved o ak o n t he b order o f wh ich was a t rophy o f l ong-s te m med p ipes , t ha t i s t o s ay c lay p ipes .

Th is s tore h ad a c o mfort-

a b le a t mosphere wh ich l ed o ne t o t h ink t ha t i th ad i n t he ma in f or med p ar t o f t he p ropr ie tor 's h o me" .

2 40

H e a dded t o t he p roduc ts o f h is f ac tory " af ter

s o me t ime p orce la in p ipes , wh ich work o n t he p u mp s ys te m , l i ke t hose u sed i n G er many" . 2 41 A t t he b eg inning o f t he n ine teen th c entury , ad ozen p ipe makers ' w orkshops were i n a ct ion i n Andenne .

T he n u mber was u nchanged i n 1 840 .

mas ters were a ss isted b y v ar ious n u mbers o fp ersonne l :

2 42

T he

P ierre H ur ter , t he

s on o f P e ter , emp loyed f our w orkers i n 1 813 a nd s even i n 1 816 ;

L amber t

F oss ion , who h ad s ucceeded h is f a ther , P ierre-Joseph , h ad s even w orkers i n 1 813 a nd n ine i n 1 816 ;

L osson , s even w orkers i n 1 810 a nd o n ly t wo i n 1 811 ,

h is n ame n o l onger a ppear ing i n t he l i s t o f l oca l i ndus tria l is ts i n 1 813 ; C har les-Joseph Sme t , w ho i nher i ted t he f actory p rev ious ly r un b y h is mother , w idow o f t he f ounder J acques-Joseph , t wen ty workers i n 1 816 , " th is b eing a f ew l ess t han i n 1 813"; J ean-Char les-Joseph N ihou l-Po le t , e leven w orkers i n 1 816 .

A lso i n 1 816 , J ean-Joseph Mag is emp loyed f i ve w orkers ;

f our teen a nd S e l lings , t en . t he f ac tor ies . 2 43

B eau jot ,

T he d a i ly wage h ad b een f i xed a t 1f ranc i n a l l

F or t hree d ecades t he c o mpany o f D es ire B arth , t he e x is tence o f wh ich i s r ecorded i n 1 855 , was d is t ingu ished b y t he magn i tude o f i t s s taf f a nd o f i t s p roduc tion : " I t emp loyed , i n 1 870 , b e tween 4 0 a nd 5 0 mou lders i n aw orkforce o f 1 20-130 .

Among B ar th 's emp loyees t here were many F renchmen

( probab ly d eser ters o r u nw i l l ing c onscr ip ts who h ad l ef t t he ir c oun try d uring t he F ranco-Pruss ian war ) .

I n 1 862 , t he B ar th f ac tory p rod-

u ced a t housand g ross o fp ipes a week . Ag ross s o ld f or o ne t o t en f rancs . They e xpor ted t o C a l ifornia t housands o fg ross o f at ype o f s hor t p ipe t he b ow l o f wh ich w as d ecora ted w i th i mbr ica ted s ca les" . 2 44 I ti s i n terest ing t o a dd wha t h appened l a ter c oncern ing t he f ac tory o f D . B ar th .

The r epor t o f t he B e lg ian d e lega tes t o t he I nterna t iona l E xh ib i t ion o f

L ondon i n 1 871 emphas ised v ery n ice ly t he p lace o ccup ied b y B ar th i n t he B e lg ian p ipe i ndus try .

Th is i s wha t t hey wro te c oncerning t h is manufac turer :

"M . B ar th , o f A ndene l leslez-Andennes , i s t he most i mportan t o f o ur c lay p ipe manufacturers , a nd a lso t he o n ly o ne who e xh ib i ts h is p roduc ts a t I n terna t iona l E xh ib i t ions .

Those wh ich h e s en t t o L ondon

i n 1 871 were o f e xce l len t q ua l i ty , v ery modes t ly p r iced , a nd a b le o n a l l c ounts t o c o mpe te w i th f ore ign p roduc ts .

Emp loy ing 1 10 workers ,

M . Bar th h as b rough t t he p roduc t ion o f h is f ac tory ,wh ich d a tes f ro m 1 855 , t o 5 0 ,000 g ross o fp ipes a nnua lly .

B efore h im , o n ly t he

c o m mones t t ypes o fp ipe were made a t Andenne .

Th is i n te l ligen t

manufac turer h as p erfec ted t he manufac ture , s eek ing b e t ter c lays , p repar ing t he m mechan ica l ly b y means o f mixers i n p lace o f h andwork ing , e tc .

M . B arth p roduces p ipes o f a l l q ua l i t ies , f ro m t he

c o m mones t t o t hose a rt ist ica l ly p a in ted .

F our-f if ths o f t he p roduc t ion

i s e xpor ted t o a l l p ar ts o f t he wor ld , n o tab ly t he U n i ted S ta tes , A us tra lia , t he A fr ican C oas t , e tc . 3 5

T he l ast t rad i t iona l p upf i n A ndenne . Emi le L eve.q ue , i n whose e s tab lishmen t t he S erv ices d 'execut ions d u Mus e Wa l lon made a f i l m 245

i n 1 942 ,

c eased work ing o f f ic ia l ly i n t he n ex t y ear . F rom t hen t o 1 964 , M . J ean Dernoncour t u nder took t he r unn ing o f t h is f ac tory a t n u mbers 7 a nd 9 , r ue d es C ha ts . G enera l d iscuss ion o f t he manufac tur ing o f c lay p ipes i n t he S ou thern L ow C oun tr ies d own t o t he 1 8th c en tury I n 1 770 , C ounc i l lor P arad is , a me mber o f t he C onse i l d es f i nances , h ad d rawn u p ar epor t i n wh ich h e c o m men ted a s f o l low 's o n t he u nhea l thy c ond i t ion o f t he p ipe i ndus try i n t he S ou thern L ow C oun tr ies : " I l s ero i t d if f ic i le d e b ien c onnoi tre a u j us te l es c auses p our l esque l les n os f abr iques d e p ipes n e p rosperen t p oin t e t n e d onnen t p as d e p rodu ct ions s i c o mp le t tes q ue c e l les d e H o l lande .

C haque f abr ique a d es

p rocedes s ur l esque ls l es f abr iquan ts g arden t u n s ecre t q u 'i l Wes t p oin t a ise d e p ene trer .

O n n e p eu t d one q ue j e ter q ue lques c on jec-

t ures s ur l a n a ture d e c es c auses . O n p eu t c ro ire q u 'un d es s ecrets d e l a f abr ique d es p ipes e n H o l lande , c ons is te d ans u n me lange e xac t d es t erre q u i s on t p ropres a c e t te f abr ique .

C e la e s t d 'autan t p lus

c royab le q u 'i 1 y aq ue lques a nnees l e r apor teur e tan t a Andennes , e u t u n e n tre t ien a vec u n h o m me n a t if d es e nv irons d e C o logne o u l ' on f a i t a uss i d es p ipes e t a u tres o uvrages d e t erre , l eque l s 'e toi t y enu e tab l ir d ans l e t err i toire d 'Andenne o u if abr iquoi t d es p ipes , d ans l eque l e n tre t ien c e t h o m me l u i d i t q ue l a d er le d 'Andenne e toi t e xce ll en te , ma is q u 'e l le p echoi t p ar t rop d e f i nesse e t q u 'e l le d evoi t e tre mé lang e a vec u ne t erre mo ms f i ne , p our e n f a ire d es p ipes s e mb lab les ac e l le d e H o l lande e n b eau te e t e n b on te . N os f abr iquan ts i gnoren t e ncore v ra isemb lab le men t e n q uo i c ons is te c e me lange , o u , s ' i l l e s aven t , u s Won t p oin t e ncore t rouva d ans l e p ays l a t erre q u i ye s t c onvenab le , l aque l le l es H o l landa is t i ren t v ra ise mb lab le men t d u c o te d e C o logne . O n p eur c ro ire a uss i q u 'un d es s ecre ts d e l a f abr ique h o l landoise g i t d ans l a man iere d e c ons tru ire l es f ours o 1 i P on c u i t l es p ipes , d ans l e d egre d e l a c uisson , o u d ans d 'au tres p rocedes q ue P oe i l s eu l d u f abr iquan t i ns tru i t p eu t d ir iger , p our a vo ir d es p ipes d 'une b eau te e t d 'une b a r it e p arfa i te .

C 'es t l a u n s ecre t q ue l es f abriquans n 'acqu ier-

e n t q ue p ar l ' exper ience ,qu 'on n e s auro i t t rans met tre p ar i ns truc t ions , e t d on t d epend c ependan t l a p erfect ion d es f abr iques d es o uvrages d e t erre o u d e p ierre c u i t te t e ls q ue l es p ipes , l es f ayances , l a p orce la ine . On p eu t c ro ire e nf in q ue l es o uvr iers h o l landa is o n t p lus d 'adresse q ue l es n ö tres ;

q ue l eurs o ut i ls s on t mieux f a i ts q ue c eux d on t n os

o uvr iers s e s erven t .

P eu t &re mr eme q ue P a ir e t l 'eau c on tr ibuen t

a uss i al a p erfec t ion d e l eur o uvrages .

L 'eau s urtout p ouvan t c on-

t en ir d es ma t ieres q u i s ero ien t p ropres a r endre mei l leures l a p ä te a vec l aque l le o n f abr ique l es p ipes .

O n s ca i t l es i nf luences q ue l es

e aux o nt d ans l es t e in turer ies , d ans l es p ape ter ies , d ans l es b rass er ies , d ans l es b lanch isseries , e tc . 3 6

I le s t t res p robab le q ue q ue lques-unes d e c es c auses r enden t l es p ipes d e l a f abrique h o l landoise me i l leures e t p lus b e l les q ue l es n ötres .

Ie s t me me p robab le q u 'e l les y c oncourren t t ou tes .

D ans

c e d ernier c as , n os f abr iquans n ia t teindron t j a ma is l e d egre d e p erfec t ion a uque l l a f abr ique h o l landoise e st p arvenue . N ous e uss ions d es ire d e p ouvoir s a t isfa ire a vec p lus d e p recis ion [ . ..], ma is , c o m me n ous Pavons d i t p lus h au t , i l s ero i t d if f ic i le d e s e p rocurer l a d essus d es n ot ions b ien c oncre tes .

C haque f abr iquan t

r egarde s es p rocedes c o m me u n s ecre t q u 'i 1 e s t i n teressg a n e p o in t l a isser p ene trer , e t s ur l eque l o n P in terrogero i t e n v a in . "2 46 Th is p icture , p a in ted b y a n o f f icia l w i th n o p ersona l a xe t o g r ind , r ef lec ts e xac t ly t he d ep lorab le i nef f iciency wh ich was n o t r es tr ic ted t o t hese p rov inces i n t he e igh teen th c en tury .

Twen ty y ears af ter t h is r epor t , t he s ta tus q uo was

n oted : " Les s eu ls H o l landois p euven t e n f a ire l e d eb i t [ des p ipes ] a vec b enef i ce r e marquab le , p arce q u 'i ls o n t s eu ls l a me thode d e b ien p r ' eparer c et te t erre , d e l a b ien f a9onner e t q u 'i ls o nt l e t act j us te p our d e term iner l e d egre d e c u isson d es p ipes . .Ce l les q u 'on f abrique a i l leurs

e t an t

p our l a p lupar t t orses , manquees , f rag i les e t e n g enera l

r e je t tees a u p oin t g ul l n‚e s t g uere d e p e t i t a r t isan q u i n e p refere c e l les d e H o l lande , ma lgre l es h au ts d roi ts d 'en tree , t on lieux , e tc ., a uxque ls e l les s on t i mpos es .

D roi ts q u i d 'a i l leurs s on t l arge men t

c o mpenses p arce q ue l es p ipes d e H o l lande s on t f or tes a u tan t q u 'e l les p euven t P e tre d ans l eur e ta t d e p erfec t ion e t q ue c e l les d es a u tres p ays , d e R ouen , p ar e xe mp le , p our p ar ler d es e ndro i ts e loignes , a ins i q ue c e l les d es p rov inces v o isines s e b r isent a u moindre e f fort . De s or te q ue l a q uan t i te q u 'i l e n f au t , p aye a u-de la d es d roi ts q u ‚o n p aye s ur u ne

q u an t i te

b eacoup moindre d e c e l les q u i v iennen t d e

H o l lande , q u i e n r a ison d e c es h au ts d roi ts , e n tren t p resque t ou tes e n f raude . "2 47 I n t he s ame s ense a s i n a more d irec t manner , we h ave t he e v idence o f E gber t H arsevoor t a nd s on , o f An twerp , o rig ina l ly f ro m Dordrech t i n H o l land , o n t he o ne h and manufacturer o ft obacco a nd o n t he o ther o fp ipes .

They c o m-

p la ined v ociferous ly a ga ins t t he p rofess iona l i gnorance o f v an A erschot :

h e

d id n o t o f fer t he D u tch manufacturers A ndenne c lay e qua l t o t ha t o f C o logne , s upp ly ing a mix ture t o t he m , a nd f ur ther more h e c harged e xhorb i tan t p r ices when s e l l ing c lay t o l oca l p ipe- makers .

They g ave t he ir a ccoun t o f t he

s ta te o f t he c lay p ipe i ndus try i n 1 783 : " ...les f abr iques d e p ipes n e s on t e tab l ies e n p erfect ion n u l le p ar t q u 'en H o l lande , e t d ans c es p ays d epu is q ue lques a nnees .

Que l a

F rance , PAng le terre e t PA l le magne me 'me o n t g enera le men t f a i t d e v a ins e f for ts p our e n f or mer a vec a van tage e t p erfect ion d ans Pence in te d e l eurs r oyau mes , p u isque c es

e t ab l issemen ts

q uoique mu l t ip l ies

n e s on t j usqu 'a c e j our q ue t res i mparfa i ts e t med iocres , e t meme i ncapab les d e p ouvo ir s ou ten ir u ne l ongue e xped i t ion e x terne . L es r e mon tran ts c ro ien t p ouvoir d onner p our r a ison d e l a p ref erence q ue c es p ays o n t s ur e ux : 3 7

10

L a f ac i l i te d e p ouvo ir s e p rocurer l es t erres u n iquemen t

p ropres ' al a f abr ica t ion d es p ipes . 20

L 'industr ie q ue l es f abr ica teurs d e c es p ays o nt mis [ s ic ] e n

o euvre p our s ' ins tru ire d es d e ta i ls s i d if f ic i les , m inut ieux e t mu lt ip l ies d e c et te f abr ique , d es ma t ieres p re m ieres r equ ises , a ins i q ue d es u stens i les q u i s on t d e l a d ern iere n ecessi te p our p ouvo ire e ga ler l es e tab lisse men ts h o l lando is . T ou t c es d if f ieu ltes o nt e te b ien d if f ici les a s ur mon ter p our l es r e mons tran ts , e n c e q ue v os S eigneuries I l lus tr iss imes s 9aven t p arfa i te men t b ien l a r igueur a vec l aque l le o n t [ s ic ] p un i t t ou t o uvr ier q u i q u i t tero i t l a v i le d e G ouda p our v en ir s 'e tat lir e n c es p ays s urt ou t e t c hez l ' e tranger , a insi q ue l es amendes r uineuses a vec l esque l les o n p oursu i t c e lu i q u i s 'exposeroi t av endre e t s ä .e xpor ter a ucun d es u s tenc i les a t taches " a .c et te f abr ique . L es r e mon tran ts q u i p rtvoien t l a n ecess i te d e l es a vo ir , n 'on t p o in t q u it tes [ s ic ] l a v i l le d e G ouda a van tJ d 'e *.t re e n e ta t d e f a ire p ar e ux me 'mes t ous l es u s tens i les d e c u ivre , d e b o is e t d e p ierre , e n c oncurrence a vec c eux d es mei l l ieures [ s ic ] f abr iques h o l landoises , s ecre ts e t c onnoissances q u i h eureuse men t o n t p or ts e n p eu d e t e ms l eur f abr ique a u p oin t d e p erfect ion o u e i le e s t p arvenue p resente men t . E t l es r e mon tran ts o nt d ecouver ts d es e ndroi ts o u s e t rouve u ne t erre t i es p ropre a ud i t i n6 lange e t q u i s upp le e xce l le men t b ien l a t erre d e C o logne q ue l es f abriquan ts h o l lando is s e p rocuren t e t q ue l es f abriquan ts d e c es p ays n e s auro ien t s e p rocurer q u ' ' a d es f ra ix q ui s urpassen t d e b eaucoup l e b en ef ice d e l a f abr ica t ion [ . .. ] O u tre c es d ecouver tes , l es r e mon trants o n t t rouves e ncore s ur l es l i eux u ne e spece d e t erre d on t o n n 'a t i re a ucune u t i li t

j usqu ' i c i , e t q u i ,

d 'apresl 'experience q ue l es r e mon tran ts v iennen t d 'en f a ire e s t s uper ieure it ou te a u tre p our l a f abr ica t ion d es p ipes , e t d 'apres c es d ecouver tes e t o bserva t ions l es r e mon tran ts c onc luen t q u 'une e xport a t ion e xc lus ive e n tre l es ma ins d e v an Aerscho t e t c o mpagn ie n e s auro i t q ue l anguir e t p ar c onsequen t e tre n u is ib le t an t a ux i n terg ts d e s a Ma jes te q u a u b enef ice d es f abriques d e c es p ays . L a r a ison e n e s t q ue q u iconque n e c onnoi t l es p rinc ipes d e l a f abrica t ion n e s auroi t r a isonner j us te s ur l es b esoins e t p ar c onseq uen t n e f or mer q u 'u r i c hoix i mparfa i t d e l a ma t iere p re miere .

E t

d e l a l es f abr iquan ts h o l lando is o n t u s b esoin d e r ecourir c ons ta mmen t al a t erre d e C o logne p our l e me lange , t and is q u il l s e t rouve " a . Andennes d es t erres e n q uan t i te , q u i s upp lero ien t e f f icace men t p our l e me lange ' al a t erre d e C o logne e t empor teroien t , q u i p lus e s t , u ne p reference d ec idee , c e q ui f or mero i t al a l ongue u ne e xport a t ion a u mo ms r edoub le ! "2 48 T o l ook a t t he ma t ter r ea l is t ica l ly , t hese o f f icia l a nd s em i-of f icia l r epor ts s how t ha t t hough o ur p rov inces may h ave p ossessed r aw ma ter ia ls o f a n u ns urpassab le q ua li ty , t hey were i ncapab le o f u sing i tt o make p ipes c o mparab le t o t hose p roduced b y t he U n i ted P rov inces . 3 8

J . S erva is , " rece iver o f d ues a nd d u t ies f or H is Ma jes ty t he Emperor a nd K ing , a t t he Andene l le o f f ice , s ubord ina ted t o N a mur , c oncerning t he d er le wh ich i s e x trac ted a t Andenne a nd wh ich i s s en t t o s upp ly t he n eeds o f t he n a t iona l manufac turers , i n v irtue o f t he c er t if ica tes l ogged i n t h is o f f ice", i n 1 792 , " the l i st o fn a t iona l manufacturers a nd f ac tor ies a nd t he ir r espec t ive n eeds" .

As r egards t he c onsu mp t ion o f c lay f or p ipe- mak ing , t he f igures

a re a s f o l lows : a t Namur , 2 manufac turers , 1 9 .600 t onnes ; a t An twerp , C laessens , 3 9 .200 t onnes a nd Hassefor t H aersevoor t ] , 6 6 .640 t onnes ; a t Ma linne , S p i l lers a nd V erheyden , 9 .800 t onnes ; a t G en t , N ekerbrouck , 2 7 .440 t onnes ;

a t C our tra i , B ernardin , 1 9 .600 t onnes ; a t T ourna i , Defack a nd

Du moun ier , 1 9 .600 t onnes a nd P e t i t , 2 3 .520 t onnes .

I n t he l as t t own , S erva is

n o ted , " there s t i l l e x is ts'so me sma l l p ipe makers who c onsu me t oo l i t t le t o mer i t a t ten t ion" .

2 49

I ti s a ppropria te t o men t ion h ere t ha t f raud was p rac t ised o n al arge s ca le , t o t he p oin t where o ne c an f i nd n o t race o ft he 6 31 .300 t onnes o f d er le wh ich h ad , i n t he c ourse o f e igh teen mon ths , b een d iverted t o H o l land .

2 50

I n c onc lus ion , o ne c an q uo te t he r esponse made i n 1 782 t o ar eques t b y t he r eg iona l o f f ice t ha t t he t rans i t o fp ipes f ro m H o l land t o t he N or thern L ow C oun tr ies , b e b anned , t he d e ta i l b e ing g iven in t hese t er ms : " S i l es p ipes q ue

f abr ique d ans c e p als a pprochoien t p our l a

q ua li te e t b eau te a c e l les d e H o l lande , c e s eroi t u n mo t if p our n e p as e n p er met tre l e t rans i t .

Ma is l a d if ference e s t a uss i g rande

q ue d e l a mauva ise f ayence e t d e l a b e l le p orce la ine , e t j e c rois q ue l e t rans i t d e t ou tes l es p ipes d e l a H o l lande n e p re jud ic ieroi t p oin t al a t res p e t i te e xpor ta t ion q ue n ous e n f a isons" .

2 51

F or mer ly p ipes w ere s en t o u t i n D u tch b oa ts t o F rance a nd E ng land , b u t i n 1 781 t he p ipes were s en t o u t v ia t he S ou thern L ow C oun tr ies .

The o n ly

e xpor t o fp oor q ua l i ty p ipes f ro m o ur r eg ion p assed t hrough t he Y pres a nd Na mur s ec tors , a nd w ere sma l l i n v o lu me .

The t rans i t o fp ipes c o ming f ro m

H o l land t o O stend s ee ms t o h ave b een q u i te n or ma l . 252 " La f ranch ise d u p or t n e p ourro i t f a ire u n t or t r ee l [ . ..1 a ux [ . ..] f abr icans [ . ..1 q ui p ar p arent hese f on t d e t r.e s mauva ises p ipes a vec d e l ' exce l len te d er le" . 253 Th is r efers c h ief ly t o t he Antwerp p ipe maker C laessens , who p r ided h i mse lf o n h av ing t he b es t p ipe f ac tory i n t he L ow C ountr ies , wh ich emp loyed 3 0 t o 4 0 workers a nd wh ich p roduced p ipes a s g ood a s t hose f ro m H o l land . 254 Meanwh i le , Haersevoor t , ac o mpe t i tor o f C laessens , a lso f ro m A ntwerp , u nder took t o d e l iver a " large c ons ign men t" o f f i rs t-c lass p ipes t o Amer ica . F ran9o is Mo ls , whose f i rm i n 1 814 was " repu ted t o h ave t he b es t q ua l i ty p ipe-c lay" a nd " seven e igh ths o ft he marke t o ver a l l i t s c o mpe t i tors" , wh ich w as r eady a t a mo men t 's n o t ice " to h ave a l l t he b us iness e xc lus ive ly t o i t se lf" d rew u p as hor t p aper wh ich h e e n t i t led :

" Ref lec t ions s ur l a q ua li te d e l a t erre

äp ipes d e mandee d e t ous t e ms I i Gauda , c onnue s ous l a d eno m ina t ion d e w i t te p o lders a arde" , f ro m wh ich we e x trac t t he e ssen t ia ls . " Lorsque l es b aasen ä Gauda s on t e n d efau t d e t erre d e C o logne q u i e s t n ature l le men t ma igre e t a ride , i l s d e manden t c e t te t erre b o lders p arcequ 'i ls l a t rava i l len t p ure o u a vec me lange d e b ien p eu d e c e l le d e C o logne .

3 9

L orsqu 'i ls o n t d e c e t te d ernAre ä f o ison , i l s d emanden t d e l a t erre g rase , s t i jve b ruyne ate b louw a arde , p our f a ire l eur me lange d ans t e i le p ropor t ion q u 'i ls p u issen t emp loier l a t erre d e C o logne ä f a ire d es l ongues p ipes , a u tre men t s eu ls i l s n e p ourroien t e n f a ire q ue d es p e t i tes . E n g enera l l a t erre b lanche e s t p lus ma igre , p arcequ 'e l le c on t ien t d ans s on e ssence p lus d e p ar t icu les s i l iceuses q u i e s t u ne p ar t ie c onnue d ans l a n o menc la ture c him ique d es t erres . C e t te t erre e s t l e s ou t ien t a u f eu , e i le n e s e t ourmen te p as , l es l ongues p ipes r es ten t d ro i tes e t l e f abr ican t p eu t d onner p lus d e f eu , s ans c ra indre q ue s es marchand ise [s ] s oi t p ipe o u f ayance , j aun issent ' ac ause q ue l a s l ice v i tr if ie b lanche . L a t erre n o ire , b rune , b leue o u f oncee g ris e s t a u c on tra ire p lus g rasse , p lus l i an te , p lus s avoneuse e t p lus f or te , p arceque d ans s on e ssence c ons t itu t ive e i le c on t ien t p lus d 'a lu m ine , q u i e s t e ncore u ne t erre c onnue d ans l a n o menc la ture c himique p our i tre l a b ase d e t ou tes l es p o t ter ies ma is q u i p ar s a f orce g auch i [ t ]a u f eu , s e t ourmen te e t v i tr if ie r ouge . V o i la l a r a ison p ourquoi l es b asen d emanden t d e l a t erre w i t te b o lders a arde q uan t i l s s on t e n d efau t d e c e l le d e C o logne e t d e l a t erre seve s war te b ruyn of te b louw q uan t i l s e n s on t p ourvus a bondamen t , i ls eroi t d one d e P in ter e t d e t ou jours l i vrer d e l a b lanche b o lders p our l ors l es b asen n e p ourroien t s e s erv ir d e c el le d e C o logne q ue p our f a ire d es p e t i tes p ipes e t P on e n l i vreroi t b eaucoup p lus d 'Andennes [ • ••i t .256 L iege A tL iege , c api ta l o ft he p r inc ipa l i ty whose f ron t iers were c on t iguous w i th t hose o f H o l land , af ew E ng l ish a r t isans h ad v ery e ar ly o n s e t u p sma l l c layp ipe w orkshops , i n o rder t o c ope w i th l oca l n eeds . R ober t S wymborne , a n E ng lishman t urned c i t izen s hopkeeper i n L iege c omb ined d ea ling i n d er le , a nd t he s a le o ft obacco . H e d id n ot c oncern h i mse lf w i th t ranspor ta t ion , b ut d e l ivered t he c lay t o t he b ank o ft he Andenne where t he b oatmen c a l led t o l oad u p f or t he v oyage t o L iege a nd H o l land .

On May i s t 1 637 h e made a n

a gree men t w i th P ie ter H aer inx , who was a lso a c i t izen o f L iege , a nd J acob Tyvaer t , a merchan t f ro m B o isle-Duc , d ea l ing i n p ipes a nd t obacco , u ndert ak ing t o d e l iver t o t he m o ver t he n ex t t hree y ears d er le o fg ood q ua li ty f or p ipe mak ing , u nder c ond i t ion t ha t t he p urchases were n o t t o s e l l i n t he S ou thern L ow C oun tr ies , o r i n t he l and o r c ountry o f L iege , b u t o n ly i n H o l land , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f Maas tr ich t . They r eserved t o t hemse lves t he e xc lus ive r igh t t o S wymborne 's d er le . I n r eturn , Tyvaer t p ro m ised t o s upp ly S wymborne w i th h is l eaf t obacco a t t he s a me p r ice a s h e s upp lied H aerinx a nd n o t t o s end t o L iege p ipes made i n H o l land a nd a lso n o t t o s e l l h is t obacco s o a s t o i n jure S wymborne .2 57 I n O c tober 1 637 , H aer inx e n trus ted t o t he L iegeo is b oa tmen B er tho le t l e C rauue "Wa l ler a u l i eu d 'And inne a vecq [ue ] s a b arque a s es f ra is e t i l lecq [ue ] c harger t ro is c en t c h incquan t b egnon ( charre tee-to mbereau ) d e t erre b lanche p ro mp te a f a ire d es p ipes d e t abaceue } p esan t e nse mb le t rois c en t c h incquan t mi ls l ivre , e t d e l a l es menner e n H o l lande d ans l a 4 0

v i l le d e G orcome [ Gorcu m ] p our d escendre o u aD ort ( Dordrech t ] a ussy t o tz q ue l es e aues s eron t p ropre p our d escendre" . 2 58 P erhaps a s ar esu l t o f s o me d istort ion o f t he o rig ina l c on trac t , S wymborne r enewed h is p ro mise t o H aer inx o n D ece mber 3 0 th , a nd a ssured h im ? te n

f oy d 'ho mme d e b ien e t b on marchan t . [ . .. ]d e n e l ivrer o u f a ire

l i vrer p [ar ] d au tres , e n s on n om , aa u l tres p [er ]sonnes , q u i q ue s oyen t , d e l a t erre b lanche men t ionnee a ud i t c on trac t , q u 'aud i t S r H aerinx" .

2 59

I n 1 639 " a n ew " fa iseur d e p ippes a t oubach" c a l led R ober t H am mes a ppears .

T h is E ng lishman t urned L iegois p ro m ises t he merchan t G eor is v an

O verdycck " de l i vrer t ou tes e t c hacunes l es p ipes q u i l f era e t f era f a ire p ar l uy , s a f e m me , s ev i teurs , s ervan te e t f ami l le [ . ..], G eor is l uy p ayan t p our c hasq [ue ] g rosse d e s i mp les p ipes d iex p a t tars , i t em p our l a g rosse d e f i nnes p ipes s a ize p a t tars e t p our l a g rosse d e p ipes p rintees t re ize p a t t [arsr . 2 60 F orseeing t ha t h e w ou ld b e u nab le t o s upp ly h is s leep ing-partner s o le ly w i th t he a id o fh is f a mi ly , h e h ired t he s erv ices o f Abe l le G rozf i lz , who u nder took t o w ork f or h im f or o ne y ear mak ing o rd inary a nd f i ne p ipes . 2 61 The c on trac t d oes n ot men t ion t he p ipes " pr in tees", t ha t i s t o s ay p ipes c arry ing a mark . O n J u ly 2 7th 1 641 , " in t he h ouse o f t he C hayne d 'or , s i tua ted a t t he f oo t o ft he P on t d es A rches w i th p ar ish o f S t . P hoyen" , ac on trac t was made b ef ore t he N o tary O up ie , b e tween ' o uden marr ied t o G ie l Mar t in ...l iv ing a t S . V a lburhe p ipe maker" .

Wa lburge ] "a nd " Tho mas C andin , mas ter t obaccon is t a nd 2 62

C onfor ming t o ac us to m wh ich h ad l arge ly g one o u t o fu se , t he c on trac tor h ired h is c ous in , t he y oung Aymond G ie l , —"avec p ro mes s e d e f a ire l e p resen t d e s on d i t mar i ... e n c as d e b eso in", t ha t i s t o s ay t o s ubs t i tu te h er h usband f or t he c h i ld i ft he l at ter g ave u p h is j ob— " e mpres l e d i t ma is tre Tho mas a ccep tan t p our t rava i l ler empi es i ce l luy d e Par t d u d i t ma is tre Tho mas l e t erme e t e space d e c incque a ns p rocha ins c o menchan t ac e jourd 'huy e t f i n issan t

mes me i our

l es d i ts c incque a ns r evo lus e t e xpire , p army g angnan t l es d eux p re miers a ns , l e d espens d e b ouche , l og is e t r eb lanch imen t d e s es hi nges , e t , l es t rois a u tres a nnees , l es d i ts d espens d e b ouche , l og is e t a b i t e t l e r eb lanch imen t . E n o u ltre c e , l e d i t ma is tre Tho mas d ebvera t e nse igner e t a pprendre h e d i t Aymond e n c e q u i c oncerne s on a r t d e f a ire p ipe .

E t p our d enier D ieu , l e d i t Tho mas d ebvera t

d o rmer ad i t Ay mond u ne p a ire d e s o l liers e t u ne p a ire d e c he m ises" . On D ece mber 3 1s t 1 642 , J an Me lch ior , l i v ing a t S ur Meuse , i n t he p ar ish o f s a in te-A ldegonde , h ired f or t hree y ears h is s on H enry t o " Tho mas Kand is f a iseur d e t ubach t" who u nder took t o " trava i l lier a f a ire p ipe a l a t ubach p ar my p ar l edi t Tho mas d onnant e t p ayan t a udi t H enry l e p re m ier a n t ro is p a tars b b [ b -ra ban t ], h e s econd e tt roix ie eme q ua tre p a tars p ar my e t p our h e d en ier [ D ieu ] l ed i t T ho mas d ebvera t d onner a ud i t H enry u ne p aire d e s o l liers" . 2 64 4 1

2 63

The n a me o ft he B r i t ish mas ter " fa iseur" o fp ipes , R ober t S wymborne , r eappeared i n 1 647 . H e emp loyed a b oy o f l ess t han t h ir teen y ears o f a ge . c a l led Tho mas Wem, t o work i n h is w orkshop i nt he p ar ish o f s a in t-Gangu lphe . The b oy r enounced h is p r iv i leges a s a minor , " pour l a l ed i t T ho mas r endre p endan t l e t e mps s usd ic t b on e t l ea l s erv ice s e lon s on p ossib le a ud ic t S ieur S wynborn e n l ' ar t af a ire p ipes : d on t i ce luy f a ic t p rofess ion s 'ob l igean t p ar i ce luy d ie t Tho mas e n c as q u 'i l mancquasse q ue lcques i our p endan t l es d iets t rois a ns , d e l es r efa ire e t a cco mp l ir .

E t a u r ec iprocq l ed ict

Swymborn a t p ro m is , c o m me p ar c es tes i lp ro me t d e l uy f i de lemen t e nse igner e t mons trer s on a r t e t l uy s ubm in is trer s es a l i men ts e t f ra ix d e b ouche e t l e l oyer s u ivan t s es p e t i tes f acu ltez p endan t l e t e ms s usd ic t" . 2 65 I ti s o nce a ga in a h ir ing c on trac t w h ich r evea ls t he e x is tence i n 1 674 , o f ap ipe maker c a l led J ean L a loire : " L 'an mi l le s ix c en t s ep tenc te q uat tre d u mo is d e j u in l e d ix h u ict ieme i our [ .g co mparu t p ersonne l le men t S erva is D aousse l eque l le a t l oue c o mme p ar c es te l oue F ranco is D aousse s on f rere p our l e t erme d e d eux a ns e n t ier c on t inue l le c o m mencean t al a d ae te d e c es te , aJ ean L a loire c e a ccep tan t v eo ir c ond i t ionne q ue l ed i t F rancois n e g a ignera t l a p re m ier a nnee q ue c incq harz p our l a f acon d e l a g rosse d e p ippe e t l a d eux ie me i le n g a ignera t s ix harz p our l a g rosse , e t l ed i t L a lo ir p ro me t d e d onner a ud i t F rancois p our d en ier D ieu s ur l es d eux a ns u ne p a ire d e b a ts d e f et te [ = fg te ], s e b onne q u 'i l n 'aura t f i n ies d e Wen p la in te e t p our a sseurance d u p [rese ]n t l ouage h e s [ ieu ]r S erva is Daous t a tp ro mis d e l e f a ire s u ivre l es d eux a ns e n t iers e t e n c as q u 'i l a rr ivero i t q ue s on c u t f rere n e s erv iroi t s es d eux a ns e nt iers l ed i t S erva is s 'ob l ige d e p ayer u n d e my s ouvera in d 'or[ ...]" . 2 66 As a s ecuri ty i n r espec t o ft h is c ond i t ion , S erva is D aous t was b ound f or h is who le e s ta te . The c on trac t was " fa ict e tp asse e n l a ma ison d u p [re ]d ic t L a lo ire s e ize e n p u i ts e n S ock s oub l a p aroiche d e S t N ico las O u l tre Moeuse a L iege" .

2 67

F ranco is Daous t b eca me " p ip ier" i n h is t urn a nd s e t h i mse lf u p

b eh ind s a in t-Pho lien , i n t he p ar ish o ft he s ame n ame .2 68 b our t here , p rac t is ing t he s ame t rade , G i l le Mens ior .2 69

H e h ad a s h is n e ighThe t wo were c i ted

i n 1 689 a s " p ip iers" l iv ing i n t he a foremen t ioned s tree t b eh ind S a in t-Pho lien i n wh ich t here a lso l i ved , a t t he s a me d a te , t he " fa iseurs d e p ipes" H endr ick Augus t in a nd

e r man F erd inand , who may h ave b een t he ir emp loyees .

2 7

° A t

t h is t ime , t he e nd o ft he s even teenth c entury , t wo h ouses i n t he r ue E n tre D eux P on ts i n t he p ar ish o f s a in t-N ico las , O u tre Meuse , h oused t he w orkshops o f t he " p ip iers" N oe l Me lch ior a nd H enry B a l loix .

T he l a t ter i s k nown t o u s b y

ac on trac t made b efore t he N o tary L eonard , l iv ing i n t he p arish o f s a in t-N ico las i n O utre Meuse : " Henry B a l lo ix marchand b ourgeo is d e L iege [ . ..] a yant l ivre [ . ..] q ue lque p ar t ie d e marchand ise t an t d e t abacq q ue p ippes p or tan t t reng t h uic t f l [orin ls b [ra ]b [an t ] e t c e p asse e nv iron d eux o u t ro is mo is a Dam [o ise ]l le Mar ie L ourbesse r [e l ic ]te d e f eu h on [ora ]b le H enry B ouen" -

4 2

t he t ex t o ft he h as t i ly d rawn u p c on trac t d oes n o t s pec ify i t , b u t t he p urchase h as s ee m ing ly b een d es t ined f or h er h usband—refuses " une p ar t ie d e t abacq t ou t a f fa ic t g as tee e t p ourr ie" 2 71 d ays .

wh ich s he h ad r eturned af ter t hree o r f our

I n Augus t , h e s igned a r ecogn isance o f ad eb t o f " cinque f l [orin [s e t

d e my b [ra jban t ar a ison d e marchand ise d e p ippes" d e livered t o Ma th ieu F ran9ois Mosbeux , " demeuran t e n t roz d e b ois d essoub S oiron" who p romised t o r eimburse h im " de h u ic t i ours a h uic t i ours" . T hepo l ltax o f 1 689 2 73

2 72

a lso l i sts t he f o l low ing n ames :

P ar ish o f s a in t-

N ico las , r ue A ns ion , C har les P ur lo t , p ipe- maker ( 1° 1 08 v ° ); [ rue ] P u i ts e n S ock , P ier E verard , p ipe- maker ( f o 1 11 v ° ) ; r ue d es R eco le ts , A rno ld L a loire [ f a ther o fJ ean L a loire? ], p ipe- maker ( f ° 1 12 v ° ) . r ue d e B gche , S erva is P ur lode , p ipe- maker , L eonard a nd D enys Moreau ( f° 1 13 v° ) ; [ rue ] Derriere s a in t-N ico las , G ui l lau me Me lch ior , maker o fp ipes ( f ° 1 21 r° ) . We k now t ha t i n 1 693 , N ico las S erva is , p ipe- maker o f L iege , u sed A ndenne d er le .

2 74

The p ipe- maker a nd merchan t , J ean Mens ieur a nd h is w ife Marie C oune l i ved u n t i l t he ir d ea ths i n 1 719 i n ? tu ne

b e l le e t c o m mod ieuse ma ison p or tan te e nse igne d u S auveur

s i tuee d ans l a C haussee d es P rez , p aroiche d e s a in t-N ico las O u tre Meuse , j o indan te d 'amon t ` a .l a ma ison P ascha le D ouf fe t p or tan te e nse igne d u C erf d 'or , d 'ava l i .l a p e t i te N assarue , d erier a u d i t P ascha l D ouf fe t e t d evan t a u r ea l c he m in , d ans l aque l le ma ison s e r e treuven t l es c o m mod i tes s u ivan tes , s cavoir u n b eau g rand b ou t ique { - •• 1 " s epara ted b y ac our tyard , " i l y au n q uar t ier d e ma ison , s cavo ir u ne c u is ine d ans l aque l le o n yf a i t d es p ipes [ . .]'

2 75

T he c ensus o f 1 740 2 76

c on ta ins

t he n ames o ft he f o l low ing p ipe makers i n t he p arish o f s a in t-Pho lien : b es ide t he r iver , J ean J arb ine t , maker o fp ipes ( f3 1 55 r° ) ; t o t he l ef t o f S aucy , J ean D ebour , p ipe- maker ( f° 1 73 r0 ) ; D err iere S a in t P ho lien t o t he l ef t , H enry B o land , " p ip ie" ( 1° 2 21 v ° ) . On Apri l 9 th 1 747 , Mar t ine D efosse , w idow o f H enri B o l land , b equea thed t o h er n iece Marguer i te B o l land , w ife o f M iche l Massi l lon " tout tes l es t erres e t u tensi l les [ s ic ] s ervan tes a f a ire l es p ipes t e l les q u 'i ls s eron t r e trouves a pres l a mor te d e l a t es ta trice" . On t he a f ternoon o ft he s ame d ay , " at tendu t q ue l es s en t imen ts p euven t c hanger j usqu 'au d ern ier s oup ire", s he a l tered h er w i l l a nd d ec lared h er w ish " la isser e t l egat ter a J ean G u i l lau me D othee , G erard C o l le t , G erard J acque D ebras , J acque L ou is l a F on ta ine , J ean F ran9ois D eveau e t J ean F ran2o is G erardy , s es o uvr iers , t out tes l es t erres e t u tens il les s ervan tes a f abr iquer l es p ipes q u i s eron t t rouvees e x istan tes a pres s a mor te e t t e l les q ue l le l es a voi t l ega te a Ma sr guer i t te B o l land s a n iece" . c hanged a ga in :

On O c tober 4 th i t was

s he l ef t ,

" pour r a isons a e i le mouvan tes , t out tes l es t erres , f ach innes e tuf fe e t u tensi l les s ervan tes a f abr iquer l es p ipes q u i s eron t t rouvees e x is tan tes a pres s a mor te , a ussy b ien q ue t out tes l es marchand isses f abr iquees e t af abr iquer [ . ..] I s es h er i t iers u n iverse ls d eno mes a s ond i t t es tamen t s ans q ue s es d i ts o uvr iers y p uissen t c lamer a ucun d ro i t" . 4 3

The w orkshop o ft he p ipe maker H enr i B o l land was s i tua ted i n t he p ar ish o f s a in t-Pho l ien , v ery p robab ly i n t he r ue D err iere s a in t-Pho l ien . 2 77 I n t he 1 7th , 1 8th a nd 1 9 th c en tur ies , t he O u tre Meuse d is tr ict , a nd e specia l ly t he r ue Derr iere s a in t-Pho l ien , was t he h o me o ft he " p ip iers" . I n 1 762 , " ä . ma in d ro i te" , t he " 7e ma ison", b e long ing t o S imon De th ier , nmaf tre p ip ier7 was a workshop emp loy ing a t l eas t t hree w orkers , among t he m h is s on . The l as t i s a pparen t ly t he p erson who p laced t he f o l low ing n ot ice i n t he

7 8

G aze t te d e L iege o f A ugus t 2 3rd 1 780 : "Ma ison e nse ignee d e l a C oupe d‚o r , s i tuee d err iere l e P a la is , ä v endre , r endre o u l ouer .

As 'adresser a u S r L amber t D e th ier ,

marchand , ' al a manufac ture d e P ipes , d erriere S t . P ho l ien , p our e n s avoir l es p rix & c ond i t ions" .

2 79

The C oupe d 'or was p robab ly n ot f ar f ro m t he A rbre d 'or ,

2 80

t he h ouse i n t he

r ue D err iere l e P a la is , n ear t he c onven t o ft he F ranciscan F r iars , wh ich was b ough t b y F ran9ois L efebure o n A ugus t 1 7th 1 765 ( t h is was a l mos t f i ve months l a ter t han t he ma ison d e C oronmeuse , o n t he b orders o f L iege a nd H ers ta l , where h e f ounded t he f i rs t f ar ence f actory ) . F rom t he f or mer h ouse h e t raded i n " fru i t t rees , w ines a nd t obacco a nd a lso f afences" . 2 81 C oncerning t h is s tree t , M . L eon D ewez , k eeper o ft he Mus e d 'Ar t r e lig ieuse e t 1 ;• Ar t mosan t ha t h e r e me mbers " tha t h is l a te f r iend , t he L iege a rchaeo log is t , J acques B reuer , when t hey were t ra ining t ogether a t t he L iege U n ivers i ty L ibrary a round 1 922-1923 , h ad t o ld h im o fh is d iscovery o f ah eap o f f ragmen ts o f c lay p ipes i n t he b ase men t o f a n o ld h ouse i n t he r ue d u P a la is , wh ich h e t hough t d a ted f ro m t he 1 7th c entury .

T o b ack u p h is i nfor ma t ion , J acques

B reuer h ad f i l led h is p ocke ts w i th many s pec imens" . I n 1 770 t he P r ince-B ishop , C har les-N ico las d 'Ou l tre mon t , g ran ted t o P ierre R egou t o f Maes tr ich t ta yan t

t res h u mbe l men t r e mon tre q u 'i l p ossedoi t Par t d e f abr iquer

d es p ipes d e t ou te e spece d e l a meme q ua l i te e t b on te q ue c e l les q u ‚o n f abr ique e n H o l lande" l ' octroi e xc lus if l u i p er met tant d ig tre l e s eu l t ranger a u torise a " fabr iquer" ... v endre e t d eb i ter s es p ipes d e d e t ou te e spece p endan t l ' espace d e d ix a nnees" .

2 82

I t may b e t ha t t he s e tback s uf fered b y N ico las-Fran9o is Gauron a nd F ran9o is L efebure i n t he r unn ing o ft he t he ir f afence f ac tory a t C oronmeuse h ad d r iven P ierre-Henr i R egou t t o s e t u p ab us iness i n wh ich h e r an n o r isk o f ar epe t it i on ,2 83 b u t h e d id n o t c arry t hrough t he p ro jec t wh ich h e h ad a pparen t ly a ba ndoned when h e l earned t ha t L efebure h ad h ad c on tac t w i th J oseph Eousse mar t , t he s on o f a n i mpor tan t f afence manufac turer i n L i l le , who " seems t o h ave a rr ived i n L iege i n J u ly 1 770" .

2 84

O ne may o b jec t t o t he s uppos i t ions o n t he

g rounds t ha t af aience f ac tory i s n ot ap ipe f ac tory .

H owever , we k now t ha t

t he f af ence f ac tory a t C oron meuse s o ld p ipes , a dm i t ted ly a t al a ter d a te , when i t was r un b y Tho mas C a mbres ier ( 1 786-1802 ) :

among t he i t e ms " d 'un

b ordereau d e f ourn itures d e f afence , p ar l a manufacture d e S a in t-Leonard , ' al a ma ison L och t mans , d u 1 0 d ece mbre 1 788 a u 1 6 n ove mbre 1 790" 2 85 t here were " tg tes d e p ipes o rnees" i n f i ne f aience ; t en i t e ms , t he marks v ery f a in t , were e ach s o ld a t t he i ncred ib ly h igh p rice o f 1f l orin 8 s ous , a l mos t t he 4 4

s a me p rice a s ag ross o f c o m mon p ipes ( 1f ranc 1 5 c en t imes ) d ur ing t he p er iod o f F rench r u le . Em i le G adeyne t hough t t ha t " i t was c er ta in ly a n a r t is t ic a nd c os t ly p iece o fw ork ; t he f ragment i n t he Mus e C ur t ius g ives u s a n i dea o ft he k ind o fp ieces i nvo lved" . 2 86 M . J oseph P h i lippe , t he k eeper , g ives u s t h is d escrip t ion : " A p ipe w i th a d oub le b ow l , t he o u ter p ar t o f wh ich i s d e l ica te ly f re t ted a nd f ormed f ro m a n a can thus l eaf t he v e ins o f wh ich j o in i tt o t he i nner b ow l .

Y e l low ish l ead g laze" .

2 87

Wish ing t o h ave a n

a u thor i ta t ive o p in ion , we a sked M . J . P h i l ippe f or h is v iews r egard ing t he p ipe i n t he c o l lec t ion i n h is museu m .

H e t o ld u s t ha t h e d id n o t c ons ider t o

t o b e al oca l p roduc tb u t more p robab ly t o b e o f E ng l ish manufacture , t hough h e c ou ld n ot d eny t ha t s uch a p iece migh t h ave b een made l oca l ly .

C ons ider-

i ng t he p r ices a nd t he n u mber o f e xamp les i n t he L och tman 's l i s t , t he C oronmeuse p ipes a ppear t o b e e xcep t iona l .

S uch o b jects w ere n o t g enera l ly

t o b e smoked , b u t were d irec ted ma in ly t o c o l lec tors . Monsieur Maur ice H au le t , o f L iege , p ossesses ap ipe v ery s im i lar t o t ha t i n t he Mus e C urt ius . According t o a n o ra l t radi t ion , i t was s upp lied b y t he R egou t f or m a t Maastr ich t . L . -F . Tho massin h as l ef t2 88 ap ic ture o ft he F abrique d e p ipes i n L iege a round 1 800 , wh ich w e r eproduce h ere i n e x tenso . L iege p ossessed t wo sma l l b ut g ood-qua li ty p ipe f ac tor ies , e ach emp loyi ng

workers a t a n a verage d a i ly wage n o t i n e xcess o f []c en t imes .

They

o n ly made sma l l p ipes wh ich were s o ld t o t obaccon is ts a t 1f ranc 2 5 c en t i mes t he g ross . B e lg iu m g radua l ly b ecame i n t h is r espec t ad ependency o f t he D utch , who c a me t o A ndenne ( Depar t men t o f S ambre e t Meuse ) t o s eek p ipe-c lay , wh ich t hey mixed w i th c lay f ro m C o logne . O n ly t he v ar ious q ua li t ies o fA ndenne c lay were u sed i n t he L iege f ac tories , t hough t hey were mixed t oge ther a ccording t o t he g rea ter o r l esser amoun ts o f s and wh ich t hey c on ta ined . I ft he c lay was t oo c oarse i td id n o t make g ood p ipes , s ince t hey t ended t o c rack when t hey were d r ied i n t he a ir a nd e ven more s o when f i red i n t he k i ln . P ipe manufac ture c a l led f Or a c lay wh ich was more o r l ess s andy . When t he c lay i s s e lec ted , i ti s worked a nd s oaked i n wa ter u n t i l i tf or ms a s of t p aste . Then i ti s p laced i n ab ow l f i t ted w ith b lades o n t he i ns ide , where i ti s mixed a nd worked f ur ther . Th is t ype o f mi l l i s t urned o n a whee l . T he f ore man o f t he works t hen d ec ides whe ther t he c lay i s f i t t o p ass o n t o t he r o l lers o r t o c h i ldren who r o l l r ough ly mou ld t he p ipe . When t hese r o l ls h ave a cqu ired t he c orrec t c ons is tency t hey a re r e moved i n o rder t o p ierce t hem w i th a n i ron w ire . When t he w ire i s i nser ted t o i t s f u l l l eng th i n to t he c lay r o l l , t he worker p resses w i th h is t hu mb o n t he b a l l o f c lay wh ich i s t o f or m t he b ow l o f t he p ipe , s o t ha t i ti s i nc lined a t t he a ng le n ecess ary f or t he mou ld ing s tage . The p ipe a nd t he w ire a re p laced i n ab rass mou ld wh ich h as b een r ubbed w ith o i l . The mou ld i s p laced i n al i t t le p ress a nd i n t h is p rocess t he b ow l o f t he p ipe i s f or med i n as ing le o pera t ion . H owever , t o f i nish t he b ow l , wh ich i s s t i l l o n ly r ough ly s haped , t he mou ld i s l ef t i n t he p ress a nd t he b ow l i s p ressed o ut w ith t he i ndex f i nger a nd i s t hen smoo thed o u t w i th a n i ron p o in t s o t ha t t he wa l ls o f t he b ow l s ha l l h ave a u n ifor m t h ickness .

4 5

T he p ipes a re f i red u s ing c oa l o r wood , i n al i t t le k i ln i n t he s hape o f a sma l l t ower , t wo me tres h igh a nd a me tre w ide .

T o d o t h is , t he p ipes a re

p laced i n e ar thenware c on ta iners 1 .30 me tres l ong a nd 3 2 cm h igh .

The

o pen ing i s b locked u p a nd t he f i re i s l i t , f i rs t a t al ow t e mpera ture a nd t hen g radua l ly h ea ted , a nd i s t hen k ep t h o t f or a bout 1 6 h ours .

Wood o r p ea t ,

wh ich b urn l ess q u ick ly , a re c onsequen t ly p referab le f or t h is f i r ing .

A lso ,

a t G ouda , wh ich was f a mous f or i t s p ipe f ac tor ies , t hey p referred F r is ian p ea t t o t ha t f ro m H o l land .

The p ea t e x trac ted b e tween E upen a nd Ma l medy

was a s g ood f or t h is p urpose a s t ha t o f F r ies land . O ne o f t he c h ief h azards c aused b y t he p ipe was e v iden t ly t ha t o f f i re . To c o mba t t he h ab i t o f smok ing i n t he p ar t icu lar ly d angerous e nv iron ments , t he P refec t o f t he Depar t men t o f O ur the , Micoud d 'U mons , u rged mayors i n ad ecree i ssued o n A ugus t 1 4 th 1 806 t o p ersuade p eop le u nder t he ir a dm inist ra t ion t o g ive u p t h is b anefu l c us to m : " Depu is q ue lques a nnees , Mess ieurs , l es i ncend ies s e s on t mu l t ip lies , s ur-tou t d ans l es c o m munes r ura les d u d epar te men t .

L a c ause d e c es

c es a cciden ts e s t s ouven t r es tee i nconnue , p arce q u ie l le a t ou jours e te s o igneuse men t c ach e ; ma is j e s u is i nfor m eq u 'el le t ien t ' a Pusage im modere , q ue f on t l es h ab i tans d e l a c ampagne , d u t abac f u mer , e t ' ah ab i tude o i l i l s s on t d e p arcour ir , l a p ipe ä l a b ouche , l eurs g ranges , l eurs & tab les e t l eurs g ren iers . "2 89 R espons ib i l i ty f or t hese misfortunes r es ted w i th t he c lay p ipe a nd , t o al esser d egree , w i th b ow ls o f s i lver o r t i n a nd t hose w i th c opper b ow ls r ese mb ling b rasswork .

2 90

I n 1 826 , t he t own p ossessed o n ly t wo p ipe- makers : e s tab l ished i n t he r ue Derr iere s a in t-Pho l ien .

2 91

N ossen t a nd Def fe l t ,

At h ird a r t isan , a lso c a l led

Def fe l t , worked i n t he n ex t y ear i n a workshop i n t he r ue Derr iere l es P ot iers .

2 92

F ro m t he midd le o ft he c entury t hese makers w i th t he s a me

n a me a lways a ppeared i n t he c ensus u nder t he s a me a ddress .

2 93

A t H uy , t wo f actor ies a re men t ioned i n 1 827 , t ha t o f G ode t , a t 2 29 r ue d e N a mur ,

2 94

a nd t ha t o f \ V ery ),a t 1 24 r ue d es R ot isseurs .

G ode t i s men t ioned a t H uy ,

z 96

2 95

I n 1 845 , o n ly

wh i le t he n a me o f J . P ierre r eappears a t

Ak in , where h e h ad t aken o ver t he workshop o fo ne V oi turier .

2 97

P erhaps h e

h ad t aken t he p lace o fJ . J . L auren t who , i n 1 826 , a sked f or p er m iss ion t o b ui ld a f ac tory .

2 98 .

On Augus t 3 1s t 1 834 , J acques Knoedgen a nd h is s is ter Mar ie-Anne , o f H öhrlez-Cob lence ( Pruss ia ) , makers o f p ipes a t C hok ier-sur- Meuse , b ough t ah ouse wh ich s erved a s ad is t i l lery , ap lo t v ague ly l oca ted a s s i tua ted b eh ind t h is h ouse a nd a b akehouse f ro m t he b urgo master J ean Toussa int B ecco , f or as um o f 4 000 f rancs .

B y t he n ex t y ear t he b us iness f ounded b y t he t wo

G er mans c ons is ted o f 7 ma le w orkers " aux p ipes" a nd o ne f e ma le , a l l l iv ing o n t he G rand trou te f ro m L iege t o H uy :

J ean-P ierre S te inbach , 3 3 y ears o ld ;

P ierre Wingender , H° 3 3 y ears ; J ean-P ierre Wingender , 2 5 ;

H enr i v an

Muns ter , 2 6; Henri Wingender , 2 6 a nd C a ther ina S an t , 1 7 , f ro m H örh ; L ouis K a lbe tzer , 3 1 , n a t ive o f H e lger t 3 °1 a nd J ean K leu tgen , 2 6 , f ro m V en lo . F our o ft he m l ived f or a s hor t wh i le i n t he Knoedgen ,

3° 3

b u t H enr i Wingender

s e t h imse lf u p a t C hok ier a nd c on tribu ted much t o t he f a me o ft he p ipe o f t h is 4 6

3 02

l i t t le p lace .

O n O ctober 1 7 th 1 835 , h e marr ied Mar ie A nne K noedgen a nd

a lso b ecame ap ipe maker . 3 °4 T hree y ears l a ter , J acques K noedgen a lso married . 3°5 H is w ife , Marie Anne Therese c a l led P e troni l le B aud ine t was b orn a t C hok ier . I n March 1 839 , t he K noedgen- W ingender f i rm w as l i qu idat ed a nd t he " bui ld ings f or h ab i ta t ion a nd t he manufac ture o fp ipes" wh ich J acques a nd Marie Anne K noedgen p ossessed j o in t ly were d iv ided u p . f ormer s o ld h is h ouse :

K noedgen f i rm , b uy ing ap iece o f l and i n 1 848 , ah ouse i n 1 854 .

3° 9

3° 6

T he

H enri Wingender a nd h is w ife f ounded t he Wingender3 °7

ab ui ld ing i n 1 851 308

a nd

O n J anuary 1 8th 1 874 , t hey g ave t he ir c h i ldren , H enr ie t te ,

F e l ix a nd H enr i , merchan ts a t C hok ier , t he ir p roper t ies c o mpr is ing s evera l dwe l ling-houses , c ourtyards , ag arden , ap ipe-fac tory , k i lns , s torehouses , s heds , v ar ious b u i ld ings a nd f i xtures a nd f i t t ings .3 1 ° T h is f i rm i ssued s evera l c a ta logues o fv ar ious t ypes o fp ipe b u t o n ly o ne s ing le c opy , d a t ing f ro m a bout 1 850 h as s urv ived .3 11 Among t he B e lg ian p roduc ts d isp layed a t t he I n terna t iona l E xh ib i t ion i n P h i lade lph ia , o rgan ised i n 1 876 t o c e lebra te t he f i rs t c en tenary o f Amer ican I ndependence , t here w ere c lay p ipes s en t b y t he manufac turers Des ire B ar th o f A ndene l le a nd t he Wingender b ro thers . 3 12 P ar ts o ft he l at ter e xh ib i ts r eappeared i n tac t a nd w ere o f fered i n 1 942 t o t he Mus e d e l a V ie Wa l lonne where t hey a re e xh ib i ted t oday .

The 1 914-1918

war a nd t he e cono m ic c r is is o ft he 1 930s b rough t t o a n e nd t he manufacture o f c lay p ipes b y t he h ouse o f Wingender , who o n ly p roduced b riar a nd a sbes tos 3 1 3 p ipes . On N ovember 2 9 th 1 843 , J acques K noedgen h av ing l ef t C hok ier , a sked p erm iss ion t o e s tab l ish a c lay p ipe f actory a t L iege , b eh ind n ow q ua i O rban .

3 14

2 82 , r ue L ongdoz ,

H e i ns ta l led h imse lf a t 2 84 w i th h is w i fe , h is c h i ldren

a nd h is emp loyees , P ierre a nd J acob K noedgen , J acob D roum o f H örh , J acob Men ikenne a nd J acob K le ine o f H e lgerg t . h is way t o A ixla-Chape l le .

3 16

3 15

H e d ied o n J une 1 3th 1 845 , o n

S hor t ly b efore , o n March 2 9th , h e h ad f or med

ac o mpany w i th h is b ro ther J ean f or t he manufac ture a nd s a le o f c lay p ipes , ac o mpany wh ich c arr ied o n u nder t he d irec t ion o f h is w idow a nd h is b ro ther , a nd a lways b earing t he n ame o f K noedgen f reres l .3 17

H e r ece ived f ur ther

p er m iss ion , o n O c tober 2 5 th 1 847 , t o c ons truct i n t he g arden o f 4 29 r ue G re try , i n t he C o m mune o f G r ivegnee , ak i ln f or f i r ing p ipes .

3 18

P e tron i l le B aud ine t

c on t inued t o l i ve i n t he r ue d e L ongdoz u n t i l t he f i t t ing o u t o ft he e s tab l ishmen t a t r ue G re try , was c o mp leted , where s he i ns ta l led h erse lf o n J une 1 6th 1 847 .

3 19

On O c tober 2 1s t a nd 2 2nd 1 846 , P e tron i l le B aud ine t h ad a n i nven tory made i n wh ich were d escribed a l l t he movab les b e long ing t o t he h e irs o fJ acques K noedgen a nd l oca ted i n h is h ouse a t L ongdoz . 3 1 ° T he i nven tory was made b y t he N o tary B iar , who s ough t a dv ice f ro m P ierre K noedgen , "mou lder o f p ipes" , o n t he v a lue o ft he o b jec ts l i s ted h av ing r egard t o t he ir a ge . H enr iJ oseph De theux , 321 " worker i n c lay p ipes", a ss is ted . The e s ta te o ft he d ead man c on ta ined mos t n o tab ly 4 8 d i f feren t mou lds f or t en p resses , s o me s ing le- mou ld v ices a nd o thers w i th a r ow o f mou lds . H is k i ln was h ea ted b y w ood , o i l a nd c oke . The b ooks w ere k ep t i n G er man . H is s tores c on ta ined s hort p ipes , p ipes w i th l i t t le h eads , w i th b ig h eads , w i th Turk 's h eads , med iu m l eng th o rd inary p ipes a nd t hose " ä Pe mpereur", o rd inary l ong s tra igh t o r b en t p ipes , l ong p ipes c a l led " Sa in t-P ierres" ( w i th t he h ead o f t he a pos t le ) a nd a l ong t ype c a l led Mon toises o r " p ipes d e Mons" . v a lue o f t he who le was 8 861 .76 f rancs . 4 7

The t o ta l

On October 23rd 1846, before the Notary Biar, living at place Saint-Paul, Petronille Bauduinet appointed. "pour son mandataire general et special le sieur Antoine Thres, fabricant de pipes, domicilie Baummbach, duche de Nassau, et demeurant commune de Liege, auquel elle donne pouvoir de, pour elle et en son nom, regir, gerer et administrer tant activement que passivement toutes les operations relatives son commerce". 322

a

a

The company which she and her brother-in-law had was dissolved on July 1st 1847, "all the tools and utensils used for the manufacture of clay pipes" re­ maining the property of Knoedgen's widow, 323 and on July 2 2nd, revoking the power of attorney or mandate of October 23rd 1846, she signed an agreement with Antoine Thres: "Ledit Thres entre chez la veuve Knoedgen en qualite d'employe depuis le premier juillet courant, s'obligef d'y rester pendan't une annee en la meme qualite, et y travailler avec zele, exactitude et probite, comme aussi faire les voyages necessaires pour le debit des marchandisesf. .]De son cote, ladite veuve Knoedgen s'oblige fournir audit Thres pendant tout le temps qu'il sera son service, la nourriture et le logement, plus un traitement de cinq cen� cinquante francs par an, qui sera payable en quatre termes egaux [... ] La nourriture et le logement evalues deux--cents -francs [ •.• J Led it Thres est autorise recevoir le montant des factures relatives au commerce de la premiere nommee, en dormer quit­ tance et souscrire des traites pour le montant du prix de la terre necessaire la fabrication des pipes". 324

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

Bound together by the business ties, they were not slow to bind themselves by contract in which the first article stipulated the joint marriage also. tenure of goods except for the reservation of the movables as details in the inventory of October 2 2nd 1846, was signed on August 27th 1848. 325 On Christmas Day 1851, Petronille Bauduinet died, 326 leaving three children by her first marriage, Jean, Therese and Henri Knoedgen and two by her seco�d, Jacques-Henri and Henri Emile Tures. On January 9th 185 2, it was "procede l'inventaire fidele et description exacte des objets mobiliers, deniers comp­ tants, titres, papiers et renseignements dependant de la succession et de la communaute qui a existe entre ledit Thres et ladite Petronille Bauduinet et qui se trouvent dans la maison situee Grivegnee numero 429 ". 327 The Notary Biar made the valuation with the advice of Jean-Georges Defelt, 328 an old pipe maker who lived behind saint-Pholien, and Guillaume Thelen, a pipe-worker, resident at Grivegnee.

The

a

a

The workshop run by Thres included all the equipment needed to make moulds, boards of various types for rollers and trimmers packing cases, boxes329 and especially pipes of all kinds, the iron wires which kept the stems straight, etc. In comparing this inventory with the previous one, we note that Antoine Thres had to a notable degree increased the equipment and diversified the types of pipes produced. He acquired in addition many items at Grivegnee, with the property known as "Bonne Femme". 33 0 In April 1856, he married a 48

s econd w i fe , Anne Mar ie J oseph ine Def ize , b orn a t J a lhay .

3 31

H is n a me ,

i n t he marr iage c on trac t e nac ted b efore t he N otary Augus te Aer ts , i s wr i t ten " Trees" .

H e l ived w i th h is w i fe a nd t wo s ons a t 4 29 , r ue G re try , a t G rivegnee .

A t4 27 i n t he s a me s tree t was N ico las S pech t , ap ipe worker , b orn a t E psche id ( Pruss ia ) , who moved w i th h is f am i ly t o C hok ier o n March 3 rd 1 866 .

3 33

Th is

h ouse was t herefore o ccup ied b y P ierre Wingender , p ipe worker b orn a t H örh i n 1 802 .

3 34

T o j udge f ro m t he b ir thp laces o ft hese c h i ldren , i t s ee ms t ha t

P . Wingender h ad l ived a t Maese ick (1837-1839 ) , h is w ife 's h o me t own , a t B ree ( 1 850 ) a nd t hen a t J e meppe ( 1852-1854 ) b efore c om ing t o G r ivegnee i n 1 855 o r 1 856 .

H e l ef t f or Cho lder i n 1 866 .

3 35

An to ine Thres d ied o n March 1 9th 1 869 .

H is o ldes t s on; H enr i-

3 36

An toine , b eca me d irec tor o ft he f ac tory i n 1 866 a nd i t was n ot u n ti l 1 883 t ha t H enri-An toine a nd H enr i-E m i le T rees f ounded t he c o mpany u nder t he j oin t n a me o f " An toine T rees e t C ie p our l a f abrica t ion d es p ipes e n t erre ä G r ivegnee" , wh ich was d isso lved i n Augus t 1 885 .

Wish ing t o d iv ide t he

3 37

a sse ts e qu i tab ly a nd w i thou t d ispu te , t he t wo b ro thers d iv ided t he i nher i tance i n to t wo a nd H enr i-An to ine t ook , i ndependen t ly o ft he g oods wh ich were h is b y t he a c te n otarie " a l l ma ter ia ls f or manufacture , c o mp le ted merchand ise , t hose i n s tore , t hose u nder manufac ture [ . .. j " .

3 28

The manufacture o f c lay p ipes c eased i n t he Trees b usiness , a s i n t ha t o f Wingender , i n 1 930 . I n t he 1 9 th c entury , o ne c an p oin t t o many sma l l workshops i n L iege a nd i t s s urround ings .

I n 1 849 , t o J e meppe , F ach-Co l leye e t C ie ;

F le ma l le-Grande , J ean Ka iser ; i n 1 867 , t o Hers ta l ,

i n 1 854 , t o

a t ap lace c a l led

Hayeneux , u nder t he ownersh ip o f G erard Tho mson , J acob K a iser ; i n 1 853 , a t L iege , a t 1 29 r ue d e L ongdoz , An toine S tauve , a nd i n 1 863 , E ras me B ernard who r ece ived ur m iss ion t o b u i ld a p ipe f actory o n h is p roperty a t 4 0 , f aubourg V ivegn is .' 5 39 Genera l ly s peak ing , o ur u nderstanding o f t he e cono m ic s i tua t ion l oses l i t t le d ue t o t he d isappearnace o r d es truc t ion o f r ecords r e la t ing t o t he manufacture o f c lay p ipes .

A lso , t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t

d ocu men ts may y e t b e d iscovered wh ich w i l l t hrow a n a ddi t ional l igh t o n t he s ta te o ft he i ndus try i n t he l a te 1 9 th a nd e ar ly 2 0 th c en tury c anno t b e e xc luded . Ten y ears a f ter i ndependence , p roduc t ion was n o l onger a b le t o s a t isfy n a t iona l d e mand a nd , s ince Be lg iu m e xpor ted o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o f i t s p roduc t ion , t he n eed was s upp l ied b y H o l land .

S uch was t he c onc lus ion o ft he

j ury a t t he B e lg ian I ndus tria l E xh ib i t ion o f 1 841 .

I t was e xpressed t hus :

' A l though we p ossess t he b es t c lay f or t he manufacture o fp ipes , we s t i l l d o n ot p roduce o urse lves a l l t hose wh ich we r equire ; we impor t t he m a nnua l ly , c h ief ly f ro m t he k ingdo m o ft he Ne ther lands , f or a s u m wh ich h as r isen , i n 1 840 , t o 8 ,120 f rancs ; a nd d ur ing h ave e xpor ted t he m d ur ing t he s ame p eriod t o F rance , t he k ingdo m o ft he Ne ther lands , t he G rand Duchy o f L uxe mbourg a nd t o P russ ia , t o av a lue o f o n ly 1 ,330 f rancs ' .

3 4°

On ly f our p ipe- makers p ar t icipa ted i n t he 1 841 e xh ib i t ion , p osed ' t o c lassify t hem a nd r eward t he m a s f o l lows :

The j ury p ro-

The b ronze meda l F irs t

C lass t o Monsieur F .-J . R i tzen o f Maeseyck ( L imbourg ) .

H is p ipes , e xh ibi ted

a s n o . 8 91 , a re d is t inguished b y t he ir f i n ish , u n ifor m i ty a nd t he p erfec t wh i ten ess o ft he ir f abr ic , b yt he ir s urface p o lish a nd b y t he ir g ood e xecu t ion ;

4 9

3 32

those which carry the number 19 (German style) have' very long stems (0. 76 m) and are excellently made. The marks which are to be seen on the 'royal' ones are notable for their precision. ' · This factory, which, until recently had still employed 56 workers, saw the number dwindle to 30 following the enforced reduction of the radius within which it could market its products. It still re­ tained a turnover of about 15, oon francs a year, however. The Bronze Medal Second Class went to Monsieur J. -B. Nihoul of Nimy­ Maisieres (Hainaut). The_paste of his p'ipes, which bore the number 66 at the exhi}?ition, while fine and well-worked, had neither the whiteness nor the polish of M. Ritzen. But their good execution and the wide range of products exhibited by this manufacturer certainly earned him the proposed distinction. Monsieur Constant de Beveren of Courtrai received an honourable mention. The fabric of his pipes (no. 522 in the exhibition catalogue) was inferior to that of the above mentioned, but the standard of workmanship was nevertheless very good. On the other hand, this exhibitor had not presented as varied an assort­ ment of products as had the preceding one. 341 The name of the fourth competitor was not mentioned. The Annuaire de 1 'Industrie belge published in 1848 at Brussels listed the pipe factories in the country but unhappily it only mentioned the provinces and localities where the industry was established: Antwerp (Malines), West Flanders (Courtrai, Poperinghe, Vlamertinghe), East Flanders (Grammont, St-Nicolas), Hainaut (Casteau, Soignies, Hautrage, Mons, Nimy-Maisieres, Quaregnon), Liege (Huy, Liege, Seilles), Limbourg (Maeseyck), Namur (Andenne, Namur, Sclayn). 342 At the International Exhibition in London in 1862, 'the clay pipe industry only produced a single exhibitor, [Desire] Barth of Andenne, whose products, composed of a very fine white, lustrous clay, denoted skilled manufacture'. 343 The report produced on the occasion of this exhibition saw the future of the industry in a pessimistic light. Its author concluded briefly on a mournful note with a general review of Belgian clay pipe trade with other countr.ies: 'This branch of the ceramic industry seems to be struggling painfully against foreign competition. Statistical tables of Belgian trade show that our exports continue to dwindle, while imports remain at a high level. This outcome, which cannot · be attributed to the quality of the products, is very probably due to the lack of development in our· country in the factories which specialise in these products. ,344 In 1863 M. J. Clerfeyt produced a balance-sheet for trade and industry in Belgium, and regarding pipes he wrote that these were manufactured 'mainly at Andenne (Namur), at Nimy (Hainaut) and at Bree (Limbourg)'. He summed up as follows the variation in our exports of pipes for the period from 1851 to 1860:

50

Year

Value (Fr)

1851

18 ,000 1,000 5,000 15,000 26,000 3 6,000 2 3,000 41,000 18 ,000 16,000 20,000

18 52 18 5 3 18 5 4 18 55 18 56 18 57 18 5 8 18 59 18 60 Average for 18 51 to 18 60

In 18 60, the total exported broke down as follows: Netherlands, 6,892 francs; British India, 4,600 francs; England, 4,102 francs; other countries, 220 francs. Total, 15,8 14 francs. 345 The years which followed did not see a notable expansion of this trade. At the World Exhibition in London in 18 62, Desire Barth exhibited clay pipes at prices varying from 1 to 10 francs a gross. He received an honourable mention at the Dublin Exhibition in 18 65 and participated in the World Exhibi­ tion in Paris in 18 67 where he exhibited 'clay pipes, plain white and painted according to a new method. ' Without a more precise description it is difficult to Imow what this 'new method' can have been. Maybe it was that which en­ abled the workers to decorate pipes not using a paint-brush but a sort of funnel filled with enamel ? 348 Barth would then have been the inventor of this technique which was thought to have been introduced by the Gambier firm. J. T. P. Chandelon, Professor at Liege University, edited a vast report on the Paris World Exhibition of 18 67. This. is what he noted concerning clay pipes: "Pipes, which are made like fine fafence from a fine-grained, plastic, and homogeneous clay which whitens on firing, constitute a fairly important industry in Holland, Belgium, France and England, where over 5,000 workers are employed in their manufacture" This branch of the ceramics industry was represented at the Champs-de­ Mars by only four exhibitors, of whom three, M, Barth of Andenelle, Namur province, P. van der Want Azn and P. J. van der Want Azn of Gouda, obtained honourable mentions. The workshop of M . Barth exhibited samples of all the types encountered in the trade: common pipes, long pipes, fancy pipes, those enamelled and those not enamelled, tapered pipes, etc. , etc. , all of them well worked, well moulded, well pierced and with a very good colour. In accordance with the tastes of the smoker, some are made of porous clay which is penetrated by the tobacco juice; others, of a more compact and im­ permeable fabric, do not blacken in use.

51

The Andenelle factory, which dates from 185 5, employs between 1 00 and 120 workers and produces 900 to 1,000 gross (129,600 to 144,000 pipes) a week. About one fifth of the production is sold abroad. The raw materials are found on the spot, and labour costs there being low, M. Earth's pipes recommend themselves by their modest prices among other things. Nevertheless, imports ·into Belg.ium between the years 1861 and 1864 amount to 15, 533,150 pipes, of which 9,397,8 59 came from the Netherlands and 4,889,39 3 from France. Our exports over the same period did not exceed 1, 596,046 pipes. 349 We select the following comments of an official Belgian representative at the Paris Exhibition from among the many general reviews of the economic state of the pipe industry: "A branch of the ceramics industry which is not without importance in the country, the manufacture of pipes, takes place at Andenne (Namur), Nimy (Hainaut), Bree (Limbourg), etc. It is in a rather precarious situation, with similar products from France and the Netherlan�s competing vigorously for the internal market. The total imports from these sources increase year by year, while our exports, on the contrary, continue to diminish. There have been some noteworthy improvements in manufacturing, and travels abroad have been undertaken on a large scale; but the war in America [the Civil War of 1861-65] and the financial crisis [of 1 866] have paralysed our pipe manufacturers. Australia, which formed one of our better outlets, has for the past two years been filled with the representatives of foreign companies. n 350 Table summing up the value of the pipe trade from 1 856 to 1864351

1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864

Export

Import

36,000 23,000 41,000 18,000 16,000 11,111 8,754 8,720 3,337

60,31 2 64,371 61,855 72,027 72,474 71,043 87,525 70, 555 81, 562

The clay pipe trade with other countries in the year 1841 saw the importation of some 479,790 pipes for a total sum of 9,596 francs, and the exportation of 84,8 54 pipes for a sum of 1,698 fr�cs. The figures break down as follows:

52

I mpor ts C lay P ipes ( pr ice o r v a lue :

0 .0 2 f r . p er p ipe )

Quan t i ty P rovenance R ussia P russ ia Ne ther lands E ng land F rance Tota l

Impor ted

V a lue

Used

Impor ted

Used

2 .0 00

2 .0 00

1 50

1 50

4 0

4 0

4 71 .085

4 70 .509

3 68

3 68

6 .187

6 .187

1 24

1 24

4 79 .790

4 79 .214

9 .596

9 .584

3

3

9 .422

9 .410

7

7

E xpor ts

Quan t i ty Des t ina t ion P russia

E xpor ted

Va lue

Be lg ian

Exported

Belg ian

5 76

5 76

1 2

1 2

N e ther lands

4 4 .9 62

4 4 . 9 62

8 99

8 99

F rance

2 0 .016

1 9 .440

4 01

3 89

R io d e l a P la ta

1 9 .300

1 9 . 3 00

3 86

3 86

T ota l

8 4 .854

8 4 .278

1 .698

1 .686

Trans i t 5 76 p ipes ( va lue :

1 2 f r ) c o ming f ro m t he Ne ther lands a nd d est ined f or F rance ,352

By 1 851 t here h as b een a g rea t e xpans ion b oth i n imports a nd e xports . Thus 2 ,136,591 p ipes t o av a lue o f 4 2 ,732 f rancs were imported a nd 1 ,0 18, 5 73 p ipes t o av a lue o f 2 0 ,372 f rancs were e xpor ted . f o l lows :

These t ota ls b reak d own a s

Impor ts Quan ti ty

V a lue

P rovenance

I mpor ts

Used

Imports

Used

Ne ther lands

2 .0 35 .7 08

1 .9 60 . 7 08

4 0 .714

3 9 .214

F rance

8 6 .047

4 9 .908

1 .721

9 98

O ther c ountr ies

1 4 .8 36

1 4 .8 36

2 97

2 97

2 .1 36 5 91

2 . 0 25 . 4 52

4 2 .7 32

4 0 . 5 09

Tota l

5 3

E xpor ts Quant ity Des tina tion

Expor ts

Guinea

Va lue

B e lg ian

E xpor ts

B e lg ian

5 4 .060

5 4 .060

1 .081

1 .081

Aus tra lia

6 72 .757

6 72 .757

1 3 .455

1 3 .455

USA

2 54 .285

1 79 .285

5 .086

3 .586

7 50

7 5

2 0 .372

1 8.197

O ther c ountr ies Tota l

3 7 .471 1 .018 .573

3 .732 9 09 .834

Trans i t 7 5 .000 p ipes ( va lue : 3 3 .739 p ipes ( va lue :

1 ,500 f r ) f ro m t he Nether lands t o t he USA 6 75 f r ) f ro m F rance t o t he N e ther lands 353

B y 1 861 i mpor ts h ad r isen s t i l l f urther :

3 ,697,930 p ipes t o av a lue o f

7 3 ,959 f rancs , wh i le e xpor ts h ad f a l len t o 7 01 ,339 p ipes wor th 1 4 ,027 f rancs . I mpor ts Quan t i ty

Va lue

P rovenance

I mports

U sed

Impor ts

U sed

Nether lands

2 .654 .671

2 .536 .018

5 3 .094

5 0 .721

F rance

7 56 .570

7 45 .320

1 5 .131

1 4 .906

O ther c ountr ies

2 86.689

2 70 .809

5 .734

5 .416

3 .697 .930

3 .552 .147

7 3 .959

7 1 .043

Tota l

Expor ts Quan t i ty

Va lue

Des t ina t ion

I mports

Ne ther lands

2 62 .552

1 32 .649

5 .251

2 .653

E ng land

2 22 .800

2 22 .800

4 .456

4 .456

F rance

2 07 .654

1 91 .774

4 .154

3 .836

8 .333

8 .3 33

1 66

1 66

7 01 .339

5 55 .556

1 4 .027

1 1 .111

Quant i ty

Va lue

O ther c ountries Tota l

U sed

Impor ts

Transi t Provenance Pruss ia Ne ther lands F rance Tota l

1 5 .880

3 18

1 18.653

2 .373

1 1 .250

2 25

1 45 .783

2 .916 5 4

U sed

3 54

F ro m t h is t ime o ur e xpor ts dw ind led r ap id ly , a nd i n 1 864 t he sma l l s um o f 3 ,000 f rancs l ed t o t he c omb ina t ion o f t he f i gures f or t he e x terna l p ipe t rade w i th t hose f or t he t rade i n c om mon p ot tery .

3 55

F ro m t he I n terna t iona l E xh ib i t ion a t L ondon i n 1 871 , t he B e lg ian d e lega tes c o mposed a s ubs tan t ia l r epor t o n t he ' works o f a r t ' a nd , ' as a n a ppendix t o t he l i s t o f f i ne f ar ences ' t hey s a id ' a f ew w ords o n t he p ipes made f rom f i red c lay , s omewha t s im i lar t o t ha t o f f i ne f ai ence , t he manufacture o f wh ich f or ms av ery i mpor tan t i ndus try ' . A f ter a r ap id s urvey o f t he me thods o f manufact ure a nd t he p roducts f rom v ar ious c oun tries , t he r epor t i nforms u s t ha t t here a re s ix p ipe f actor ies a t Andenne , o ne a t H eer n ear N amur a nd a nother a t Namur i t se lf . These e igh t e s tab lishmen ts emp loy 1 59 w orkers a nd u se Andenne c lay . The mos t i mpor tant o ft he p ipe manufacturers i s D esire Barth o f A ndene l le . H is s ing le f ac tory a lone c ounts f or 1 10 w orkers . I t s a nnua l p roduct ion amoun ts t o 5 0 ,000 g ross , t ha t i s t o s ay 7 ,200 ,000 p ipes , f our f i f ths o f wh ich a re e xpor ted t hroughou t t he wor ld . 356 I n 1 876, a t t he Wor ld E xh ib it i on a t P h i lade lph ia i n t he U n i ted S ta tes . B ar th a ga in e xh ib i ted h is p roduc ts , a nd Wingender was a lso r epresen ted . 3 57 The l a t ter i s t he o n ly manufac turer t o e xh ib i t a t t he Wor ld E xh ib i t ion a t Par is i n 1 878 :

"W INGENDER f i eres , o f C hok ier , L iege p rov ince . P la in wh i te p ipes a nd e f f igy p ipes , p r ice : 3f r . E name l led a nd v arn ished p ipes , c o loured a nd a ssor ted s hade, p r ice : 6t o 9f r .

f rom

H eads o fp ipes , e name l led a nd v arn ished , f ro m 7 t o 1 5 f r . H eads o fp ipes a nd c igar h o lders w i th s tems , f ro m 8 t o 5 0 f r . The p r ices a re q uo ted p er g ross ( 12 d ozen ) "358 I n c on tras t i ti s c ur ious t o n o te t ha t t he Wor ld E xh ib i t ion a t L iege i n 1 905 d id n ot i n teres t e xh ib i tors o f c lay p ipes .

O n ly t he f i rm o f V inche o f B russe ls a nd

t he h ouse o f B reyer o fA r lon —Breyer F rere e t S oeurs , makers o fb r iar p ipes , meerschau ms , amber p ipes , e tc . —exh ib i ted t he ir p roduc ts . B reyer d id s o i n ar ust ic p av i l ion i n t he f or m o f a Sw iss c ha le t .3 a9 Marce l B ourgu ignon , t he l a te K eeper o f t he S ta te Arch ives o f A r lon a nd a uthor o f many monographs o n t he v ar ious a spec ts o f B e lg ian L uxe mbourg , h as r e traced t he h is tory o f t he B reyer f i rm i n minu te d e ta i l . We q uo te h ere as hor t e x trac t f rom h is wr i t ing o n t h is s ub ject : " The B reyer b ro thers a nd s is ters ( Jus t in , C a ther ine a nd Maria ) h ad f ormed ap ipe-fac tory o f modes t s ize i n a workshop i n t he Avenue T esch , f acing a nd a l i t t le b eyond t he R ue d u C as ino .

According t o t he ir p rospec tus t hey w orked

t here n ot o n ly R henish , B e lg ian a nd F rench c lays , b u t a lso meerschaum f ro m V ienne .

T he ir s pecia l i ty was b r iar p ipes .

S hor t ly a f terwards t hey t ransfer-

r ed t he ir f actory t o t he ir h ouse a t N o . 1 1 i n t he G rand-rue .

O n ly w i th a d eed

o f 9 th S ep tember 1 906 d id t hey a cquire t he H ö te l d e l a Ma ison R ouge , where t hey s e t u p t he ir b us iness .

The s ign s t i l l s urv ives o n t he f açade o f t he b ui lding .

The manufac ture o fb r iar p ipes was t hen —around 1 901 —a s pecia l i ty o f A r lon , where t here were t hree o ther i mpor tan t f i rms :

5 5

t ha t o f H enr i S cho ltus , o r ig in-

a l ly f rom G ermany , who s e t h i mse lf u p i n b us iness , a t N o . 1 3 , Avenue d es V oyageurs , s hort ly b efore i n t he p resence o f t he a c tua l a nd p rov is iona l J us t ice o f t he P eace , a nd who d isappeared a round 1 918; t ha t o f P ierre K le in , w oodt urner b y t rade , who l ived a t N o . 1 7 , R ue d es F aubourgs ; a nd t ha t o f A do lphe H ei n tz -de F er , al i t t le b e low t he o ld S cha lber t p ropre ty . A t t ha t t ime a g ood b r iar p ipe c os t a bou t t en f rancs , t ha t i s t o s ay t w ice t he d a i ly w age o f as k i l led w orker . Thus s ome s hops o n t he P lace , wh ich were n ot f ac tor ies b ut r e ta i l s tores , p ossessed s imp le e quipmen t f or r epa iring p ipes a nd d ea ling i n s econd-hand s tock . B riars w ere s tocked b y L auren t S chraf f-Hau th , 5 3 , G rand- Rue ; H enri K nops-S terpen ich , 1 4 , P lace d u Marchea ux-Legu mes —Henr i L ambe-Hauper t , 3 8 , G rand-Rue . a nd f i sh ing e qu ipmen t .

They a lso s o ld h un ting

I n a ddi t ion , Knops w as a f i shmonger a nd Lambe a

h a irdresser . The r epu ta t ion o ft he p ipes o f A r lon e x tended b eyond t he l im i ts o ft he l oca l marke t : o ur f e l low-c i t izens l i v ing a broad c on tr ibu ted t o t h is f ame wh ich was c ons iderab le i n G ermany , C anada a nd E ng land . T he f i rm o f B reyer u nderstood t he p ower o f a dver t is ing , a nd p ro lifera ted t he ir n o t ices o n p lacards a nd i n n ewspapers .

Ac urved p ipe f o l low ing t he p rof i le o ft he c h in was much f avoured

b y h un ters , f i sher men a nd f ores ters .

The r ect i linear s te m w i th t he t rumpet-

s haped mou tp iece a lso h ad i t s f o l lowers .

When t he Amer ican s o ldiers l i bera-

t ed o ur t own i n 1 918 , t hey d id n o t f a i l t o b es iege t he s hop i n t he Marche-auxL egu mes where J us t in B reyer , w i th f l ow ing b eard a nd i mpress ive wa is tcoa t , r eceived t hem w i th d ign i ty .

E ven t he f u ture P res iden t , F rank lin R ooseve l t ,

s tayed f or s ome d ays i n t he Gaspar h ouse , f acing o ur v ery Museum , f e l l f or as pecimen o f o ur l oca l Ar lon manufac ture [ . ..1 . The p ipe f ac tory s oon b ecame a w orkshop , wh ich n ever h ad more t han a sma l l work-force a nd wh ich , t owards t he e nd o f i t s l i fe time , emp loyed o n ly as ing le p o l isher a nd a n a ppren t ice . J us t in B reyer h ad t he b lanks d e livered t o h i mse lf i n b u lk . b e ing f i n ished .

They o n ly h ad t o b e t urned , h o l lowed a nd p ierced b efore

F or t he r es t we h ave l i t t le i n forma t ion a s t o t he e nd o f t h is

l i t t le i ndus try , wh ich l ef t n o r ecords a nd wh ich b egan a s low d ec l ine a f ter 1 919 . "3 6° The R ecense men t g enera l d es i ndus tries e t d es me t iers , e nded o n t he 3 1s t O c tober , s howed t ha t t he mos t i mpor tan t o f t he e igh t c lay p ipe f ac tories i n Wa l lon ia a t t he e nd o ft he n ine teen th c en tury was t ha t o f Wingender a t C hok ier .

I th ad a l abour f orce o f 4 8 , n ot c ount ing 8 t r i m mers who worked

a t h o me . I n a l l t hese e stab l ishmen ts t he wh i te-co l lar w orkers w ere a l l ma le , wh i le t he l abour f orce s howed o n t he who le a b a lance o f t he s exes . I t was t hus a t Chok ier a nd a t Andenne . B u t t here was a p reponderance o f ma les a t G rivegnee ( 2 :3 ) a nd o ff e ma les a t N imy ( a lso 2 :3 ) .

The a verage r a t io b e tween n on-manua l

a nd manua l w orkers was 1 :7 , a s a t C hok ier a nd Andenne . The n on- manua l f orce was r e la t ive ly i mpor tan t a t G r ivegnee ( 1 :5 ) a nd l eas t a t N ir ny ( 1 :12 ) . Wi th t he e xcep t ion o ft he C hok ier c o l lec t ive s oc ie ty , r un b y t hree p eop le , a l l t hese workshops were f am i ly b usinesses r un b y as ing le owner- manager . A t J u me t t here were n o emp loyees .

B ecause t hey worked a t h o me , t he t r im-

mers a t C hok ier were r egarded a s h eads o f b us inesses . O n ly a s ing le b us iness i n A ndenne emp loyed a me mber o f t he owner 's f am i ly a s a worker . 5 6

a ) 2 . 5 E 1 O u ts iders

H ead o fb us iness

0 0

C • 1 7 4 0. 3

0

T r i

5 7

0 0 0 0 C O

C q 0 r 1 0 0 1 1

0 r 1

C O

C . 0 r 4

c oun ted a s w ork ing a t h ome

T ota l ( A +B )

d e f acto o r u nder a

Members o f t he

0

Chok ier ( Lg )

e rs ( f e ma le )

a ct ive f i rms

N umber o f

A s a ssocia t ion e i ther

Me thod o f w ork ing

0

The l eng th o f t he w orking d ay v ar ied f ro m t en h ours a t N imy It o t en a nd a h a lf h ours a t C hok ier a nd e leven h ours a t Andenne a nd N imy I .

The c u iseurs ,

t ha t i s t o s ay t he w orkers who s toked t he k i lns w i th w ood a nd/or c oa l , a nd l oaded t he k i lns a nd s uperv ised t he f i r ing a nd u n loading o f t he k i lns , r ece ived t he h ighes t d a i ly w ages :

f rom 3 .50 t o 4f rancs .

wages were b e tween 1 .50 a nd 1 .99 f rancs .

A s f or t he w o men , t he h ighes t

S o me j obs w ere s pec if ica l ly ma le :

t he c u isseurs whose wages e xceeded 3 .50 f rancs , a nd t he mou lders who e arned 2t o 3 .50 f rancs a nd t he o pera tors who were p a id 2 .50 t o 3f rancs a d ay . , O ther j obs were e xc lus ive ly f e ma le :

t he t rameuses ( t r i m mers ) who r e-

c e ived a wage o f 1t o 2f rancs; t he e ncas teuses who l oaded t he p ipes i n to t he s aggars f or p lac ing i n t he k i lns r ece ived 1 f ranc a s d id t he p o l ishers . y oung g ir ls who o f ten c o mb ine t he t wo l as t j obs . s exes :

e na me l ling , r o l ling a nd p ack ing .

V ery

S o me j obs were d one b y b o th

The p ackers a t B ree ( L i mbourg ) ,

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A t N imy t hey were

p a id b y t he h our , b y t he d ay , o r p iecework r a tes , a ccording t o t he j ob .

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B ree a nd C our tra i , o n t he o ther h and , t he w orkers w ere p a id c o l lec t ive ly .

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CONCLUSIONS

The h is tory o ft he c lay p ipe i s we l l k nown t oday a t l eas t i n b road o u t lines . I t was d iscovered b y E uropeans i n u se b y c er ta in Amerindian t r ibes a t t he e x tre me e nd o ft he 1 5 th c entury . The Ang lo-Saxons were t he f i rs t t o i n troduce i t s manufac ture i n to t he ir c ountry i n t he c ourse o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 6th c en tury .

T hey were f o l lowed b y t he D utch , t o whose c oun try an u mber o f

E ng lish p ipe- makers em igra ted a t t he e nd o f t he 1 7th c en tury , h av ing l ef t E ng land b ecause o ft he o ppos i t ion t o t obacco o f K ing J ames I s t a nd t he mach inat i ons o f r e lig ious a u thor i t ies p o l i t ic ians a nd e cono m ic f orces o f wh ich t hey were t he v ic t i ms . A lready b y 1 607 , we k now o ft he p resence i n Ams terdam o f a n E ng l ish p ipe- maker , b u t t he t own where t h is i ndustry u nderwen t t he g rea test e xpans ion w as G ouda . I n o ur r eg ion , t ha t i s t o s ay t he s outhern l ow c oun tr ies a nd t he p rinc ipa l i ty o f L iege , manufac ture b egan a round 1 635 . T o manufac ture c lay p ipes i ti s n ecessary t o h ave a ccess t o s em i-f ine c lay , o f ap a le g rey c o lour , wh ich i s c o m mon ly r eferred t o a s " p ipe-c lay", a l though i t s c h ief u se i s i n t he manufac ture o fp orce la in . Whereas t he E ng l ish p ossessed i n t he ir c ountry d epos i ts o fp ipe-c lay c o m mon lyIn otab ly i n t he s ou thwest , t he D u tch were t o ta l ly l ack ing i n t h is ma ter ia l .

I n i t ia l ly t hey u sed E ng l ish p ipe-c lay b efore t he d iscovery o f t he

d epos i ts a t A ndenne , t he f a mous d er le , o f wh ich t hey made t he g rea test u se . Around 1 630 , t he t rade i n Andenne c lay w i th H o l land was c arr ied o ut b y Lr egeo is b oa t men .

We k now t he n ame o f o ne i nd iv idua l who s o ld d er le t o t he

b oa tmen a nd t hus f or t he manufacture o f p ipes .

We r efer t o t he E ng l ishman

R ober t S wynborn , c i t izen o f L iege . The l arge b oa ts t ied u p , o ne o r t wo a t at ime , o n t he b ank o ft he E p ine t te a t A ndenne a nd u pon t he ir a rr iva l , t he b uyers wen t f rom p i t t o p i t e xam ining t he d er le a nd e spec ia l ly t ha t wh ich h ad b een f resh ly d ug u p . They o n ly c hose t he b es t c lay ; s andy c lays were r e jec ted f or t hey were c onsidered u nsu i tab le f or f i r ing .

When t he b arga ins were c onc luded, v ery of ten a t t he B e lgrade

c ar e n ear t o Andenne , t he b oa ts l ef t a nd wen t d own t he Meuse . A l l t h is a c t iv i ty o n ly t ook p lace d uring t he w in ter , t ha t i s t o s ay a t t he t ime when t he wa ter when i t was n o t f rozen , was d eep e nough f or n av iga t ion . I n s u mmer , when t he wa ter l eve l f e l l u nt i l t he r iver was o n ly 0 .45 o r 0 .50 m d eep , made a l l t ranspor ta t ion d if f icu lt n o t t o s ay i mposs ib le . A s B eno i tMar ie D upuy wro te i n 1 751 i n h is Descr ip t ion d e l ' econo m ie d es P ays-Bas a utr ich iens , n av iga t ion o n t he Meuse " is v ery i n ter m i t ten t ow ing t o t he i nsuff i c iency o f wa ter d ur ing t wo t h irds o f t he y ear" .

3 63

U n t i l 1 740 , t he t rade i n d er le was c arr ied o n a long t he Meuse .

I n t ha t

y ear , ad isagree men t t ook p lace o ver t he t erri tor ia l c la ims b etween t he g overnment o ft he P r inc ipa l i ty o f L iege a nd t he c our t a t B russe ls . 6 3

S ooner

t han r esor t t o a r ms , t he t wo s ta tes s tar ted a c ustoms war wh ich c aused t he i n terrup t ion o f c o m merce . The c onf lic t was r eso lved i n J u ly 1 741 . Ag roup o ft hree f i nanc iers l ead b y t he N amur b anker P h i lippe An to ine L amque t t ook a dvan tage o ft hese c ircu mstances t o p ropose a n ew r oute f or t he d er le .

Th is

r oute d id n o t f o l low a s f ormer ly t he c ourse o f t he Meuse a s f ar a s H o l land , b ut f o l lowed i tt o N amur where t he d er le was l oaded i n to c ar ts a nd t ranspor ted t o B russe ls . T here i t was l oaded o nto b oa ts a nd c arr ied b y c ana l t o S a in t-Ph i l ippe , n ear t he A n twerp , a nd t hen o n t o H o l land . I n 1 753 L amque t , a f ter many a pp lica t ions , r ece ived a t l as t t he monopo ly o f t he e xpor t o f d er le v ia B russe ls , a nd t he t ranspor t v ia t he Meuse t o t he p ipe- makers o f G ouda was f orb idden . V ery s hor t ly a f terwards , t he t ra f f ic a nd t he e xcess ive wear wh ich t he r oad f ro m N amur t o B russe ls u nderwen t i n a ddi t ion t o t he b ad s ta te o f r epa ir wh ich was n or ma l a t t ha t t ime , c aused a d e ter iora t ion i n t he r oad , s o much s o t ha t e leven y ears l a ter i th ad t o b e a bandoned i n f avour o f a no ther r oad g o ing t h is t ime f ro m N amur t o L ouva in .

D epo ts were b ui lt i n t he l a t ter t own f ro m wh ich

t he d er le c ont inued i t s j ourney b y wa ter t o H o l land .

B etween 1 754 a nd 1 769 ,

2 9 ,143 ,240 t onnes o f A ndenne d er le were t hus e xpor ted t o G ouda . Af ter L amque t , t he monopo ly i n t he d er le t rade was t ransferred t o H enr i v an Aerscho t , c er ta in ly t hanks t o h is r e la t ionsh ip w i th t he b arber J ean-Joseph Vöge ls t o who m " Char les d e L orra ine , g overnor o f t he A us tr ian L ow C ountr ies , h ad t o t hank f or t he h ea ling o f h is r igh t k nee , wounded a s t he r esu lt o f ah unt ing a cc iden t , i n S ep te mber 1 766" .3 64 E ventua l ly i n o rder t o i mprove t he s ta te o f h is afa irs , v an Aerschot wen t i n to p ar tnersh ip w i th C har les Wou ters , a nother b us iness man o f L ouva in whose c h i ldren i n t he ir t urn a lso r ece ived i n 1 788 t he monopo ly o ft he d er le t raf f ic . F o l low ing t he B raba non r evo lut ion , t he F rench s uppressed t h is monopo ly . I n 1 810 , F ranc9 is Mo ls , an a t ive o f Antwerp , b ough t f ro m t he Wouters f am i ly t he ir p roper ty a t L ouva in a nd , i n ab us iness •t ransac t ion , a cquired t heir r igh ts o ver v arious c lay p i ts a t Andenne . f ur ther more a cquired a h ouse a nd wharehouses a t G ouda .

H e

A s we l l a s t he Andenne d er le , t he c lay f ro m H autrage , n ear Tourna i , was e xp lo i ted f ro m t he 1 6th c en tury o nwards . I n t he n or th o f F rance i t was mixed w i th t he Andenne c lay . A t t he b eg inning o ft he 1 9th c entury , ac er ta in Duwez i n troduced a r eques t f or t he p refec ture o ft he d epar tment o f J emappes f or t he a u thor isa t ion t o e x trac t , o n t he t err i tory o ft he c o m mune o f H autrage , c lay s u i tab le f or t he manufacture o fp orce la in a nd p ipes .

I t was p r imar i ly

Arras where merchan ts c ame t o b uy t h is c lay i n o rder t o manufac ture p ipes . These c lays f ro m Ha inau t were e xported t o t he p orce la in f ac tor ies o f D e lf t a nd were c er ta in ly u sed a t T ourna i , where , f rom 1 751 , t he P e ter ing p orce la in f ac tory p roduced a s er ies o fp roduc ts wh ich e n joyed a h igh r eputa t ion b o th l oca l ly a nd a broad . I n t he o ld B e lg ian p rov inces , a s was t he c ase e lsewhere , i t was p r imar i ly t he p o t ters who i n i t ia ted t he c lay-p ipe i ndus try . T he n ames o f s o me o f t hem a re k nown b ecause t hey t r ied t o a cqu ire a monopo ly o f t he manufacture a nd s a le o fp ipes i n t he a rea i n wh ih t hey l i ved .

Thus , a t Namur , i n 1 637 S pr ict

a nd C har les , c i t izens a nd p ot ters , w ished t o o b ta in t he e xc lus ive r igh t t o t he marke t ing o fp ipes i n t he c oun ty a nd t h is s ame d emand was r epea ted i n 1 639 b y af or mer c apta in i n t he s erv ice o f S pa in , J ean-Bap t iste C habot teau , t he d escendan t o ft he f am i ly o f workers i n c opper a nd o fp ot ters , who was f am i liar w i th t he mix ing a nd t he f i r ing o f c lay . 6 4

H owever , t he p rov inc ia l

a uthor i t ies d id n o t g ran t t he ir r eques t t o b e g iven t he monopo ly o f manufact ur ing a nd s e l l ing c lay p ipes . I ts hou ld b e s ta ted t ha t t he workshops were e s tab l ished p r i mar i ly n ear t o t he s ources o f c lay f or a t c en tres n ear t o t he l i nes o f c o m mun ica t ions wh ich p er m i t ted t ranspor ta t ion o f t he r aw ma ter ia ls . A t T ournai , i n 1 639 , Den is D erasse , a merchant , p re tended t o h ave d iscovered s ecrets o ft he manufac ture o f c lay p ipes . He was s oon f o l lowed b y many p ipe- makers who p rac t iced t he ir t rade i n t h is t own w i thou t i n terrupt i on u n t i l t he b eg inning o ft he 1 9th c en tury .

O ne o f t hese Tourna i p ipe-

makers , J ean G rav ier , an a t ive o f V a lenc iennes , who s ee ms t o h ave b een v ery a c t ive i n manufac turing p ipes , h ad emp loyed n ear ly f or ty workers , a nd r e t ired t o G en t a round 1 699 .

I ti s n o t l i ke ly t ha t h e f ounded a workshop i n

t ha t t own where h e l i ved a nd where J ean T radenus e s tab lished a p ipe f ac tory al i t t le b efore 1 665 .

We k now t ha t , i n t he 1 8th c en tury , t he Verbrugge f i rm

was f ounded a t G en t i n 1 770 .365 A t A n twerp , i fo ne d oes n o t b e lieve i n t he e s tab lish ment o f ap ipe f ac tory a t t he e nd o ft he 1 6th c entury o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 7th c entury , i ti s a l mos t c er ta in t ha t o ne e x is ted a round 1 720 .3 66 Th is f ac tory , l i ke t ha t f ounded a t N a mur i n 1 716, c losed i t s d oors a f ew y ears a f terwards , d r iven f ro m b us iness b y t he D utch p ipe- makers , who , i n o rder t o ma inta in t he ir s a les , were f orced t o e l im ina te a l l c ompe t i t ion i n ar eserved monopo ly i n t he i ndus try . I n 1 751 , C har les C laessens s e t u p h is p ipe f ac tory a t Antwerp a nd i n 1 754 h e a lso r ece ived t he monopo ly i n manufac ture f or t en y ears .

We may a dd

t ha t C laessens , i n 1 769 , p ossessed t he b es t p ipe f ac tory i n t he L ow C ountr ies , c apab le o f mak ing p ipes a s g ood a s t hose o f H o l land . H e emp loyed t here 3 0 t o 4 0 workers . S o me t imes h e c la i med t o emp loy 7 5 workers , o ther t imes a h undred . I n 1 762 , a f ter a n of ic ia l c ount , h is e stab l ishmen t c ons is ted o f 1 8 workers a nd t he i ndustr ia l c ensus o f 1 764 g ives a l i st o f 2 2 workers . C laessens h ad d if f icu lt ies i n a cquir ing g ood A ndenne d er le b ecause a l most t he e n t ire p roduc t ion was r eserved b y L amque t who s en t i tt o G ouda .

C laessens

c la i med t o n eed e ach y ear 1 5 t o 2 0 l as ts o fd er le , t ha t i s a bout 2 9 .400 t o 3 9 ,200 k g . E gber t H aersevoor t a nd s ons , n a t ives o f Dordrech t , i n H o l land, who were e stab l ished a t Antwerp s ince 1 760 a nd were o v e .ners o f at obacco f ac tory "a nd o f ap ipe f ac tory , c o mp lained b it ter ly o ft he d if f icu lty i n a cqu ir ing d er le . L ike t he G ouda p ipe- makers , H aersevoor t mixed t he Andennes d er le w i th t ha t o f C o logne . S o me o ther f ac tor ies o fl esser i mpor tance a re a lso men t ioned a t t h is t ime .

A t B russe ls , a n e stab lish men t , o f wh ich t he n a me o f t he p ropr ie tor

i s n ot k nown , was f ounded i n 1 752 a nd emp loyed 5 workers .

I tp roduced

4 ,000 g ross o fp ipes a y ear ( 8 888 ,000 p ipes ) , f or t he s um o f 6 ,000 f l or ins . The d er le c ame f ro m Andenne .

3 67

A t L ierre , f ro m 1 753 , af ac tory wh ich

u sed A ndenne d er le emp loyed 1 3 workers a nd p roduced a nnua l ly a bou t 2 ,600 g ross o fp ipes ( 5 82 ,500 p ipes ) .

A l l c arr ied t he s ta mp o f t he t own .

3 68

A t

S chaf fen , t he w orkshop f ounded a round 1 758 o r 1 759 o n ly emp loyed o ne workman .

3 69

A t Ba ien , i n t he h am le t o f S teegh , i n J u ly 1 766, a ccording t o t he

r epor t o f a n o f f ic ia l c a l led Van E nge len , " there h as b eco me e s tab lished .... 6 5

af ore ign t obacco p ipe manufacturer who h as n o t p er m iss ion . H e works w i th 2 men a nd t hree c h i ldren , f i r ing i n h is k i ln a ccord ing t o h is own a ccount e very f our teen d ays a round 4 5 g ross o fp ipes ( 10 ,980 p ipes ) d raw ing t he ma ter ia l f ro m t he L iege a nd f ro m t he a rea o f L imbourg a nd s e l ling h is p ipes i n t hese a reas marked W . "3 7 ° R e turning f or a mo men t t o A ndenne , manufacturers o fp ipes were o n ly e stab l ished t hete v ery l a te . P ierre Men icken , an a t ive o f C ob lenz , c ame i n 1 758 t o s e t t le i n t h is l oca l i ty o r more p rec ise ly i n t he h am le t o f A ndene l le , t o t he e as t o f A ndenne . T h is p ipe maker f ro m Wes terwa ld t hus o pened t he way t o many o f h is c o mpa tr io ts who s et t led i n t h is r eg ion . The L ow C ountr ies e n joyed t he c ons iderab le a dvantage o fp ossess ing t he ir own s ource o fp ipe-c lay , b ut t hey were n ever a b le t o t ake f u l l a dvan tage o ft h is . A lthough t he p ipe- makers h ad s tudied a l l t he many sma l l a nd d if f ic u lt ies o ft he ir t rade , a nd a l though t hey h ad a g ood u nderstanding o ft he r aw ma ter ia ls r equ ired , a s we l l a s t he t oo ls a nd e quipmen t wh ich were i ndispens ib le t o t he m i ft hey were t o e qua l t he Du tch f ac tor ies , t hey n ever a rrived a t t he p erfec t ion a ch ieved i n t he w orkshops o f G ouda .

Wi th r are e xcep t ion , t he

r esu lts p roved v ery d ecept ive . I n 1 783 , E gber t H aersevoor t a nd h is s on s ta ted n ever the less t ha t t hey h ad n o t l ef t t he t own o f G ouda w i thout h av ing b een a b le t o a cquire f or t he mse lves a l l t he n ecessary t oo ls o f c opper , wood a nd s tone , i n i m i ta t ion o ft hose o ft he b est D utch f ac tor ies . F ur ther more s teps were t aken a t G ouda a nd t hroughout H o l land t o p reven t t he r e mova l o f a ny t oo l o r mach ine f or mak ing t obacco p ipes . A t L iege , t he c ap i ta l o ft he P rinc ipa l i ty , s ome A ng lo-Saxon a rt isans h ad , a t av ery e ar ly d a te , s e t u p s o me smal l p ipe f ac tor ies t o s erve t he l oca l n eeds . • I n 1 637 , t he E ng l ish man R ober t S wy mborne ( =Swymburn ) who s ty led h i mse lf a merchant c i t izen o f L iege , u n i ted u nder h is own d irec t ion t he d er le t rade , t he manufac ture o fp ipes a nd t he s a le o f t obacco .

I n t ha t s ame y ear h e s truck

ab erga in whereby h e u nder took t o d e liver d ur ing t he n ex t t hree y ears d er le s ui tab le f or t he manufac tur ing o ft obacco p ipes t o t he n a t ive Du tch p ipe- makers , P e ter H aerinx , c i t izen o f L iege , a nd J acob T i jvaer t o f B o isle-Duc . The l a t ter , whose c h ief c o m merc ia l a ct iv i ty was t he s a le o f t obacco , p ro m ised o n h is p ar t n o t t o s end t o L iege p ipes made i n H o l land .

R ober t H am mes ,

a no ther E ng lish p ipe- maker who h ad b ecome a c i t izen o f L iege , h is n amed i n d ocu ments d a ted 1 639 a nd 1 641 a nd t he p resence a t L iege o f a no ther E ng lish man , Tho mas C andis , who d escr ibed h i mse lf a s " a master t obaccon ist a nd maker o fp ipes" , may b e n o ted . I n t he s econd h a lf o ft he 1 7th c entury , we k now t he n a mes o f 1 6 p ipemakers i nsta l led o n t he r igh t b ank , i n t he p ar ish o f S a int-N ico las i n t he q uarter k nown a s O u tre-Meuse .

I n t he f o l low ing c entury , t he n u mber o f

mas ter p ipe- makers a ppears t o h ave b een r educed wh ich c an b e e xp la ined , we b e l ieve , b y t he p redo m inance o f Du tch p ipes i n t he L iege marke t .

We

may a lso n o te a s l igh t i ncrease i n t he n u mber o f workers i n t he f ac tor ies . A l though t he P rince B ishop C har les N ico las d 'Ou l tremont h ad g ran ted i n 1 770 t o P ierre R egou t o f Maas trich t t he r igh t o fb e ing t he o n ly f ore igner a uthor ised t o manufac ture , s e l l a nd d ea l i n p ipes o f a l l t ypes f or a p er iod o f t en y ears , i ti s n o t l i ke ly t ha t t h is mas ter p ipe- maker a ctua l ly s e t t led a t 6 6

L iege where h e wou ld h ave f eared t he c o mpe t it ion o f t he p orce la in f ac tory o f C oron meuse wh ich a t t ha t t ime , a f ter a n i n i t ia l s e tback , h ad u ndergone a r ev iva l i n i t s b us iness . There i s n o d oub t t ha t t he e st i ma te o f t he q ua l i ty o ft he p ipes f ro m t he L ow C oun tr ies c ou ld a lso b e a pp lied t o t hose o f t he L iege workshops i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he e igh teen th c en tury . I ti s s t i l l t rue , moreover , t ha t o n ly t he D u tch were a b le t o d raw b enef i ts f ro m t he s a le o f t he ir p ipes b ecause t hey p ossessed a nd j ea lous ly g uarded t he me thod o fp repar ing t he c lay p roper ly , o f f or m ing i t we l l , a nd b ecause t hey h ad t he a b i li ty t o d e ter mine p resice ly t he d egree o f f i r ing o f t he p ipe . Those t ha t were made e lsewhere were i n g enera l t w is ted , f au l ty , t oo b r it t le a nd i n g enera l t hey w ere r e jec ted b y smokers who were p rimar i ly a r t isans a nd p easants , a nd who p referred D utch p ipes . The h eavy t axes e xac ted o n t he p ipes i mpor ted f ro m H o l land , i n a n a t te mpt t o p ro tec t t he h o me marke t , d id n o t p reven t t he ir b e ing p referred t o t he l oca l p roduc ts f or t he ir q ua l i ty c ou ld b e s et a ga ins t t he b r i t t leness o f t he o thers , wh ich b roke a t t he l east s hock . B y t he 1 9th c en tury , t he t echn ica l s k i l ls u sed i n o ur r eg ion h ad c ons idera b ly i mproved a nd s ome p ipe- makers h ad a cquired a mastery o f t he ir a r t a s c o mp le te a s t ha t o ft he ir f ore ign c o l leagues . A t Mons , t he f a me o f C har les-Joseph P e t i t , who h ad e stab lished h is p ipe f ac tory i n t he t own i n 1 796, c on t inued t o g row w i th t he p assage o f t ime .

About

1 825 , h is workshops made t he ir own mou lds a nd p roduced d ecora ted p ipes , P e t i t a lso i n troduced t he manufac ture o f h ead p ipes s im i lar t o t hose p roduced a t t ha t t ime i n G er many , t o w i th s uch s uccess t ha t t h is n ew f ash ion l ed t o h opes t ha t t he e xports f rom t ha t c oun try o f t h is t ype o f p ipe migh t b e r educed . H is p ipes were c ons idered b y t he j ury a t t he B russe ls E xh ib i t ion o f 1 835 t o b e a s f i ne a s t hose o f G ouda . A t N i my , t wo l arge f ac tor ies , t hose o f S couf la ire a nd N ihou l , h ad b een f a mous f or a l ong t ime . P ierre-Joseph S couf la ire h ad a lso b u i lt u p i n F rance , a t O nna ing , o ne o ft he mos t f a mous F rench p ipe f ac tor ies , wh ich h e h ef t u nder t he d irec t ion o f h is b ro ther i n o rder t o s tart u p a ga in a t N imy i n 1 834 . H e b ui lt a n ew p ipe f ac tory i n t h is l oca l i ty n ear t o Mons wh ich e n joyed a we l lmer i ted f a me . F ran9o is-Joseph N ihou l , b orn a t A ndenne i n 1 766 , b ecame i n 1 825 a p ipe- maker a t N imy a f ter h av ing b een a p ork b utcher , ap orce la in maker a nd ag rocer .

H is s on , t hen n o tab ly t he y ounges t o f h is g randsons , F e lix N ihou l ,

e nhanced t he f a me o ft h is f i r m wh ich mou lded s ome f i ne h ead p ipes , u n l ike t he S couf la ire f ac tory a t N i my , t he p roduc t ion o f wh ich was l im i ted t o c lay p ipes . I n H a inau t , we s t i l l f i nd workshops a t Ma is ieres , C as teau , Q uaregnon , B ury , S a int-Symphor ien , J u me t a nd Mon t-sur- March ienne . I n t he p rov ince o f N a mur , o r s hor t ly a f terwards i n t he Department o f S a mbre-e t- Meuse , t here were i n 1 800 s even master p ipe- makers , t h ir ty f i ve a ss is tan ts a nd t wen ty a ppren t ices . A t N amur , t here were o ne o r t wo f ac tor ies a nd a t A ndenne f i ve o r s ix .

I n t h is l as t p lace t he ir n u mber i ncreased

r ap id ly , a nd t he l i t t le t own s oo m n eca me a s ort o f s pec ia lised c en tre f or t he manufacture o f c lay p ipes . 6 7

U nder t he Emp ire , t he most impor tan t f ac tory i n Andenne was r un b y t he b ro thers F ranc9 is a nd L ou is Winand .

I n 1 813 , L ou is Winand emp loyed s even ty

workers a nd F ran p is a t t ha t t ime r an a p orce la in f ac tory .

The mark W :S

o f t he Winand b ro thers was v ery much s ough t af ter b y smokers who g rea t ly a pprec ia ted t he ir p ipes .

I n o rder t o p rof i t b y t h is s uccess , o ther manufacturers

im i ta ted t he mode ls p roduced b y t he W inand f ac tory a nd s ta mped t he m w i th t he ir mark . Des ire Bar th o f Andene l les whose f ac tory d a ted f ro m 1 855 , b eca me t he mos t i mportan t o f o ur c lay-p ipe manufacturers u n t i l a bout 1 885 . Abou t 1 870 , h e emp loyed 1 10 workers a nd h e p roduced 5 0 ,000 g ross o f p ipes , t ha t i s 7 ,200 ,000 p ipes , t he a nnua l p roduc t ion o f h is f ac tory . Th is manufacturer was t hough t t o h ave p erfec ted t he mak ing o f p ipes , s eek ing o ut t he b est c lays a nd p reparing t he m mechan ica l ly b y means o f k neading mach ines i n p lace o f h and mixing .

B ar th p roduced p ipes o f a l l q ua li t ies , f ro m t he mos t c o m mon

t o p ipes d ecora ted w i th a r t ist ic p a int ings .

F our f if ths o f t h is p roduc t ion was

e xpor ted t o a l l p ar ts o f t he wor ld , n otab ly t o t he U n i ted S ta tes , A ustra l ia a nd t he c oas t o f A fr ica . The manufac ture o f t he t radi t iona l c lay p ipe c eased a t Andenne i n 1 964 , t he y ear i n wh ich t he workshop o f t he p ipe- maker Em i le L eve 'que was c losed , o f wh ich t he manage men t was a ssured b y M . J ean D ernoncour t . L iege , f ro m t he b eginn ing o f t he 1 9th c entury t o 1 826, o n ly h ad t wo p ipe f ac tor ies .

Workshops were a lso e stab lished a t H uy a nd Ah in .

O ne o f t he mos t f a mous f ac tor ies was f ounded a round 1 834 a t C hok ier n ear L iege , b y a Ger man b y t he n a me o f J acques K noedgen .

The f o l low ing y ear ,

o ne o f h is workers , H enr i Wingender , marr ied J acques Knoedgen 's s is ter a nd b eca me h i mse lf a maker o fp ipes .

F o l low ing t hese p ar tnersh ips a nd t he

marr iage o f J acques K noedgen w ith P e tron i l le B aud ine t , v ar ious f ir ms were c rea ted i nc luding t he Wingender c o mpany a t C hok ier a nd t he K noedgen f rere b us iness a t L iege , wh ich t hen b eca me t he " An to ine Thres e t C ie p our l a f abr ica t ion d es p ipes e n t erre" .

Th is f i rm s topped mak ing c lay p ipes , l ike

Wingender , a round 1 930 . F our g enera t ions o f t he De B evere f am i ly h ad o pera ted f or a c entury a nd ah a lf a p ipe f ac tory i n t he Meenses traa t a t C our tra i '.

J oost De B evere ,

b orn i n 1 776 , b egan t he b usiness i n 1 800 a ccording t o s o me , o r 1 825 a ccording t o o thers .

H is s on C ons tan t who o b ta ined a n h onorab le ment ion a t t he n a t iona l

i ndustr ia l e xh ib i t ion .o f 1 841 , l ived f ro m 1 804 t o 1 871 .

Ar mand-Char les De

B evere ( 1 938-1917 ) c rea ted v ery f i ne p ipes a nd h is workshops p roduced t he Groen ingue p ipe , made f or t he 6 00 th a nn iversary o f t he b a t t le o f t he g o lden s purs .

P ipe manufac turer s topped i n t he De B evere c o mpany i n 1 950 .

R ober t L apor te , who h ad worked i n t he b usiness s ince 1 913 , b ough t s o me o f t he mou lds a nd e qu ip men t a nd o pened a workshop i n v an D i jck laan a t C our tra i . I n 1 954 , h e moved h is workshop t o K uurne , a nd t ook o n h is s tepson F rans v an O versche lde i n 1 965 .

The many p ipes made b efore t he F irs t Wor ld War c arr ied

t he De B evere mark K or tr i jk . u nder t he s pur .

The l e t ter D was p laced u nder t he b ow l o r

L a ter , t he i nscr ip t ion " Fabr iquee e n Be lg ique" was p r inted

o n t he s te m a nd of ten t he s ta mp D . B . K ., ( "Vraag t h e t merk De B evere K or tr i jk t ( Be lg ie )" .

A f ter t he S econd Wor ld War , t he p ipes c arr ied n o mark .

Around 1 930 , t he f i rm p roduced a bout 3 0 ,000 p ipes a week . 6 8

R ober t L apor te

o r ig ina l ly u sed t he mark " Fabr iek L R K ortr i jk" .

Among t he b es t k nown t ypes

f ro m t he D e B evere f ac tory were t he G roeninghe-P i jp a nd " La p ipe wa l lonne" w i th t he e f f ig ies o f t he g lassworkers S chm idt a nd F a l leur , who were h e ld r esponsib le f or t he s tr ikes i n B orinage i n 1 866 a nd who were d efended i n t he c ourts b y t he a dvoca te J u les Des tree .

Th is p ipe was l a ter r eproduced b y t he

C roque t f ac tory a t Ma iz ieres a nd b ore t he i nscr ip t ion " 50e a nn iversa ire — S chm idt e t F a l leur" .

We may a lso mension a s p roduc ts o ft he De B evere

f ac tory t he f o l low ing p ipes : " Le R o i A lber t" , " De Z ouaaf", De s too mpi jp , " He t manneke" , " He t v rouw i jt je", H e t p aard je" a nd " De f ranse s o ldaa t" .

3 71

A t B ree , i n t he n or th o f t he p rov ince o f L i mbourg , i n 1 763 , when t he a rea was a d ependency o ft he P r inc ipa l i ty o f L iege , ap orce la in worker b y t he n a me o f S tregnart h e lped b y s o me p o t ters f ro m G ue ldre , o b ta ined t he a u thor i ty o f t he P r ince B ishop t o e stab l ish a p orce la in f ac tory .

3 72

Th is i ndus try d e-

v e loped t o t he p oin t where , i n t he 1 9th c en tury , f our p ot tery f ac tor ies were a c t ive t here .

I t was i n 1 846 t ha t J . J . K noedgen , f ro m H örh n ear C ob lenz ,

f ounded a p ipe f ac tory wh ich , a bout 1 900 , emp loyed 2 7 w orkers .

3 73

The

e stab lishment was t aken o ver b y H i l len a nd c on t inued t o make c lay p ipes u n t i l 1 928 .

Th is we l l k nown f i rm n ow makes t he H i l lson b r iar p ipes .

The mos t impor tan t o ft he f i r ms men t ioned i n t he C ensus o f 1 896 i s t ha t o f Wingender a t C hok ier .

I t emp loyed a workforce o f 4 8 p eop le who worked

f or 1 0 t o 1 1 h ours a d ay .

The workers who s uperv ised t he f ir ing o ft he k i lns

a nd who emp t ied t hem r ece ived t he h ighes t wages o f 3f rancs 5 0 t o 4f rancs , t he mou lders e arned f ro m 2 f rancs t o 3f rancs 5 0 a nd t he o pera tors e arned 2f rance 5 0 t o 3f rancs a d ay . O ther j obs were e xc lus ive ly d one b y wo men a nd g enera l ly b y v ery y oung g ir ls :

t r i m mers , p ackers a nd p o lishers r ece ived wages o f 1f ranc t o 2f rancs .

S o me j obs were mixed :

s uch a s e na me l lers , r o l lers a nd mou lders .

A f ter t he F irs t Wor ld War t he c hang ing f ash ions r e lega ted c lay p ipes t o t he s econd p lace a f ter wooden p ipes .

F or s o me t ime p ast , smokers h ad u sed

many t ypes o f t h is ma ter ia l t o p ursue t he ir v ice : h ornbea m , b eech , a cac ia , map le , e tc .

c herrywood, b ox , t horn ,

B ut a r ea l r evo lut ion t ook p lace w ith

t he d iscovery o f t he s pec ia l p roper t ies o ft he b r iar r oo t , E r ica a rborea , a s hrub f ro m t he Med i terranean a rea a nd S outh A fr ica , . wh ich a t ta ins a h e igh t o f f our me tres .

U n l ike t he o ther woods wh ich r ap id ly c har , b r iar , t hanks t o

t he h igh p ropor t ion o f s a licy l ic a c id wh ich i tc on ta ins , i s h igh ly r es istan t t o f i re , wh ich o n ly a f fec ts i tt o a sma l l d egree ,

I t was i n a bout 1 860 t ha t t he

f i rs t b r iar p ipes aw ere t urned o n a n i ndustr ia l s ca le a t S a int-C laude i n t he J ura . I n a bout 1 930 , t he p ipe makers , t he Wingenders , Tr ies a nd H i l lens , c onver ted t he ir b us iness t o t h is n ew p roduc t a nd . brough t i n t he n ecessary modern e quip men t . A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 0 th c en tury , t he B reyer f i rm a t Ar lon c arr ied t he p a lm f or q ua l i ty . o f b r iar p ipes .

Th is f ir m , f ounded i n 1 880 , s pec ia lised i n t he p roduc t ion

The - meerschau m p ipe was c ons idered b y s o me smokers t o b e t he s upre me t ype , a nd i t was u sed b y ah appy f ew who h ad we l llined p urses .

6 9

A lthough i t

had been known for sorne centuries, the Belgian craftsmen did not use this material until very late on. In 1905, Le livre d'or du tabac et des industries qui s'y rattachent, publié l'occasion de l' Exposition Universelle de liege attracted the attention to the house of Vinche at Brussels, "The most important factory for luxury pipes in the country". "The production includes all types of carved, one­ piece pipes and uses as its material firstly the sublime meerschaum (hydrated silicate of magnesia), briar root, yellow, black and green amber, ambrofde (co:mpressed from genuine amber), horn, ebonite, ivory, etc. We also find the Vinche company selling narghiles at prices from 7 to 1500 france! Also certain cigar holders, real works of art, worth up to 1500 francs, such as the Vendangeurs, modelled on the tableau of Emile Robert".

a

In the workshops of this firm, which used the trade mark AU NABAB, the very modern equipment included electric motors, band saws, adjustable mandrels, etc. Their speciality, unique in Belgium, was the manufacture of pipes in calcined meerschaum, in oiled meerschaum and in tarred meerschaum. The decoration of articles for smokers and the manufacture of luxury holders had assured its place. Awarded prizes at many international exhibitions, Vinche created, in 1905, a model specifically designed for motorists: "the patent pipe for cars and other vehicles", which consisted of a bowl which could be adapted for use any where and was connected to the mouth by a flexible tube -resembling that of a narghile. In 1896, the industry counted 21 businesses, spread among six centres, which counted the manufacture of pipes from wood and meerschaum among their activities: 9 at Brussels, 5 at Arlon, 3 at Anvers, 2 at Mons, 1 at Lierre and 1 at Liege.

We conclude this study, imperfect and often fragmentary as it is, by acknowledging our great debt to Fnglish researchers, whose work is still far from being understood on the ,. Continent, with the exception of Holland. We hold the view that our ·archaeologists will one day discover the interest and the skill of the clay pipe, for this popular art form in· no way merits the disdain in which it is held.

70

.. ,

MAP 1 •

( 1637-1794 )

S outhern L ow C ountr ies a nd Pr inc ipa li ty o f L iege ( Hachured) Andenne :

1 757, 1 768

Bouv ignes :

1 639

L iege :

1 637, 1 639 , 1 641, 1 674 , 1 675 , 1 689 , 1 693 , 1 698, 1 719, 1 740 , 1 747, 1 762 , 1 770 , 1 780 , 1 786

N e mur :

1 637, 1 700 , 1 715, 1 718, 1 779 , 1 782

Tourna i :

1 639, 1 642 , 1 700 , 1 710 , 1 714 , 1 727, 1 750 , 1 779

Mar ie mon t :

1 741

7 1

MAP 2 ( 1795-1814 )

Andenne :

1 807, p re-1810 , 1 813

Mons :

1 796, 1 804

Na mur :

1 795

Tourna i :

1 800

7 2

MAP 3 ( 1815-1830 )

C asteau :

1 828

F a lm ignou l :

1 820

H uy :

1 827

L iege :

1 827, 1 827

Mons :

1 817, 1 818

N a mur :

1 827

N i my :

1 825 , 1 828, 1 829

Quaregnon :

1 829

Tourna i :

1 818, 1 820

7 3

' • .•

t e a to tA•

r\ A .H e r s to l ' Na t Fl emo l le -Grande %.1 14 9 e C hok i e rt r .a " dIG 'i v e 9^ e J emeppe

Ah ,

.. 4 .7 . M i n mo s yi s ie res

J u me t

A N ,

s ra o r t t regn. '

'a l

s . S c r u n n p i t , ri e n

•f lAndenne

I n F r ox

Mon 7 .3 s u r- March ienne

1.

w

A

L L

O

N

Adon

0

1 0

7 0

3 0

4 0

•

5 0 km

MAP 4 ( f ro m 1 830 t o p resent )

Ah in :

1 845

Andenne :

1 855 , p re-1942, t o 1 964

Ar lon :

1 905

B ury : C hok ier :

1 847 1 834 , 1 835 , p re-1848, 1 866

F le ma l le-Grande :

1 854

Gr ivegnee :

1 852

Hersta l :

1 867

J e meppe :

1 849

J u me t :

1 890

L iege :

1 843 , 1 846, p re-1852, 1 853, 1 863, 1 866, 1 883

Maisf eres :

1 872 , 1 896

Mons :

1 858, 1 868

Mon t-sur- March ienne : 1 9th c en tury 1 834 , 1 841, p re-1851, 1 851, 1 881, 1 888, 1 890 , a f ter 1 918 Quaregnon :

e nd o f 1 9th c entury , 1 948, 1 956

Roux :

1 896

S a int S ymphor ien :

1 851

7 4

1639

1 = before; 2 = circa;

Ahin Andenne Arlon Bouvignes- 1639 Bury Casteau Chokiersur-Meuse Falmignoul FlemalleGrande Grivegnee Herstal Huy Jemeppe Jumet 1 637 Liege Maisieres Mariemont Mons Mont-surM archiennE 1637 Namur Nimy Quaregnon Roux Saint Symphorien Tournai L639

i

1674

1675

century

1 689

1693

165 1 -1700

3 = end: 4 = until; 5 = after.

1 642

164 1

1 637-1650

1 7th

17 1 5

1700

1700

1 719

1698

1727

1750

1779

171 4

1 770

1710 1

1762

1768

1779

174 1

1747

1757

17 1 8

1740

1701-1750

18th century

1782

1780

1751-1800

1800

1795

1796

1 786

1

=

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- - .

=

1

1 868

1 851

1 858

1 851 1

1 851

1 853

1867

1 881

1 872

1 863

1851 .... 1900

1 8521

1 852

1 854

1855

until; 5 = after.

1 841

1 834

4

1 84 6

1 84 9

1 1 848

1 84 7

1 84 5

1 843

1 835

3 = end:

fMin Andenne 1 807 181 01 1813 Arlon Bouvignes Bury Casteau 1 828 Chokier1 834 sur-Meuse 1 820 Falmignoul FlemalleGrande Grivegnee Herstal 1 827 Huy Jemeppe Jumet 1 827 1 826 Liege Maisieres Mariemont 1 81 8 1 817 1 804 Mons Mont-sur1 9th. e M archiennE 1 827 Namur t825 1 828 1 829 Nimy 1 829 �aregnon Roux 3aint Symphorien rournai 181 5 1 820

18 O 1·-185' O

19 th century

1888

1 866

1890 end 1 9th e 1 896

1896

1 890

1 88 3

1 9012

1 91 85

1 905

19:01- 1950

.,.

20th century

1 94 8

1 1 94 2

1

1 956

19 51 ,. ..� 19644

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