The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe XV: The Kaolin Clay Tobacco Pipe Collection from Port Royal, Jamaica 9781841711140, 9781407351407

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The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe Edited by Peter Davey

XV The Kaolin Clay Tobacco Pipe Collection from Port Royal, Jamaica

Georgia L. Fox

BAR International Series 809 1999

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 809 The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe 15 The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe XV © Georgia L. Fox and the Publisher 1999 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711140 paperback ISBN 9781407351407 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711140 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1999. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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ED ITOR IAL T h i s s t udy o f t h e c l ay p i pe a s semb lage f r om P o r t R oya l , J ama i ca , i st h e f i r s tv o lum e o ft h e BAR s e r ie s T he A rchaeo logy o f t h e C lay T obacco P ipe t o b e d evo ted e n t i r e ly t o t h e p roduc t o f o ne a u tho r o n a s i ng le s i t e . T he i mpo r tan ce f o rc l ay p i pe s t ud ie so ft h e ma te r ia l p r e sen ted r e s t s b o th o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s a nd o n t h e m anne r i nw h i ch t h ey h ave b een d ocum en t ed a nd s t ud ied . T he A s semb lage T he g roup o fp ipe sc on s id e r ed h e re i sv e ry l a rge —ove r 2 1 ,000 i t em s i n a l l —and h a s b een r e cove red s y s t ema t i ca l ly f r om m od em e xcava t ion sa tP o r tR oya l f r om 1 981 t o1 990 . S uch as i zeab le e xcava t ed g r oup i s r a re a t aw o r ld l e ve l ;a nd s u ch a na s semb lage f r om t h e p rem ie rE ng l i sh s e t t lem en ti nt h e C a r ibbean p rov ide s av i ta l i n s igh t i n to t h e n a tu re o ft r an s -A t lan t ic t r ad e b e tween E u rope a nd t h e Am e r ica s . P e rhap se v en mo re s i gn if i can t ly , am a jo r i ty o ft h ep i pe f i nd s d e r ive f r om c on tex t s t h a t w e re s e a led i n a P ompe i i l ike manne rb yt h ed eva s t a t ing e a r thquak e o f J une 7 , 1 692 , wh ich c au sed t h e s ubme rgen ce a nd p re ser va t ion f o r a r chaeo log i ca l i n ve s t iga t ion o f mo r e t h an h a lf t h e t own . O ve r 1 8 ,000 o ft h e p ipe s c an b e s ecu re ly r e la ted t o i n s i tu 1 7 th -cen tu ry o ccupa t ion d a t ing f r om t h e f ounda t ion o ft h e t own i n1 655 t oi t s d eva s ta t ion i n1 692 . T hu s ,t h eP o r tR oya la s semb lage r ank sh i gh w i th t h eu sua l ly mu ch s ma l le rw reck g r oup s a nd f i nd s f r om c l ea r h i s to r ica l c on tex t s s u ch a s t h e G rea t F i r e o fL ondon ( 1666 ) o rt h e s i ege d epo s i t s o f t h eE ng l i sh C iv i l Wa r( m id 17 th c en tu ry )a s ap r ec i se ly d a ted c o l lec t ion . I n s t ead o f h av ing t o r e ly f o r i n t erp re ta t ion e n t i re ly o np i pe t y po logy , t h e s i t e i t s e lf p rov ide s af i rm c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk t h a t c an b e u sed t ot e s tr e ce ived i d ea sa bou tt h e f i nd s . Du r ing t h ee xcava t ion s ,p a r t so fa tl e a s te i gh tb u i ld ing s a nd t h e i r r e la ted y a rd s a nd /o r a l leyway s w e r e i nve s t iga t ed . T he p i pe s w e r e c o l lec ted w i th in ag r id s y s t em t h a ta l lowed as t udy o ft h eo ve ra l ld i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ef i nd st ob e m ade a nd ac ompa ra t ive a na ly s i s o f r ubb i sh d i spo sa lb ehav io rt ob ea t temp ted . T he S tudy G iven t h i s e xcep t iona l a s semb lage , G eo rg ia F ox h a s n o t o n ly p rov ided ac omp le t e c a t a logue o ft h e k ao l in c l ay p i pe sf r om P or tR oya la nd ad e ta i led t y po logy ,b u t a l so u s ed ad a ta s e t t od eve lop ar a nge o fi n qu i r ie s ,t h e ma jo r i ty o f wh ich b ea r d i rec t ly o n t h e w ide r s t udy o f n or thwe s t er nE u ropean c l ay p i pe sw o r ldw id e .

A t at e chn ica l l e ve l , t h e e a r thquake sea led g roup p rov ided a n e xce l len t o ppor tun i ty t ot e s t s t em -bo re d a t ing a nd t o i n ve s t iga te s ome o f t h e c ompe t ing me thod s . Mo r es p ec if i ca l ly , t h es t em -bo re r e su l t sf r om g roup s o f p ipe s w i th in b u i ld ing s a nd f r om y a rd d epo s i t s a r e c o mpa r ed . F ox h a sb een a b le t od emon s t ra t e ad ef in i t ec o r re la t ion b e tween b ow lt y pe s a nd w he re t h ey o ccu ro nt h e s i te . I nt wo r oom so ft wo d i f f e ren tb u i ld ing s ,o ne t h ough tt o b e as hop , a no th e r as t o rage a r ea , l a rge c o l lec t ion s o f n ew , u nu sed p ipe s w e re f ound . T he se g roup s w e re d om ina ted b y t wo b ow l t ype s w h ich h ad t h e e a r l ie s t t ypo log ica lr ange f r om w i th in t h e i ns i tu 1 7 th c en tu ry ma te r ia l . T hu s , s he u se s ac omb ina t ion o f s i te g eog raphy a nd s t ra t ig raphy t oe xp lo re t h e q ue s t ion o f t h el i f eo f mou ld sa nd p ropo r t ion o fn ew a nd o l de rp i pe t ype si np rodu c t ion a t ag i ven t im e . S h ei sa l so a b le t o c on t r ibu te t ot h e d eba te o nc ompe t ing mode l so fr e f u se d i sposa lo nc o lon ia ls i te s . T he ma jo r i ty o ft h e i d en t if iab le e xamp le sd e r ive f r om B r i s to l , E ng land , w i th o n ly ah andf u lo fp rodu c t s f r om e l sewhe re . T he a s semb lage , t h e r ef o re , p rov ide s a n e xce l len t o ppor tun i ty t o e xam ine t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f a n umbe r o fi nd iv idua l B r i s to lp i pemake r s o ve r as ho r t p e r iod d u r ing t h e l a t e 1 7 th c en tu ry . F ox h a s t a ken t h e o ppor tun i ty t o c omb ine t h e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e a r t if ac tua le v id en ce w i th as t udy o f d ocumen ta ry s ou rce s . A n a na ly s i s o ft h eB r i s to l P or t R eco rd s f o r t h e p e r iod a l low h e r t o p l ace t h e e xcava t ion f i nd s i n to t h e c on tex t o ft h e v o lum e a nd v a lue o ft r ade f r om B r i s to lt ot h eC a r ibbean d u r ing t h e l a te 1 7 th c en tu ry . F ur the r e v iden ce o f t h e v a lue , q uan t i ty , a nd s o c ia lc on t ex to ft h ep i pe si sd e r ived f r om as t udy o f o ve r 1 00 J ama ican P roba te I nven to r ie s . T aken t oge the rw i th t h ea r t if ac t s , t h i ss t udy i s amode l o ft h e b a lan ced a nd c on s truc t ive u se o fd ocum en ta ry s ou rce ma te r ia li nh i s to r ica l a r chaeo logy . S ummary A s o ne o f t h e l a rge s t c l o se ly d a t ed a s semb lage s o f 1 7 th -cen tu ry E ng l i sh c l ay p ipe sf r om a nywhe re i nt h e wo r ld , t h i s s t udy o ft h e P or t R oya l P ipe s c on t r ibu tes s i gn if i can t ly t ot h e s t udy o fp i pe s f r om e xcava t ion s , t h e i r d a t ing , s ou r c ing , a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion i n as o c ia l c on tex t . P .J .D avey C en t re f o r Manx S t ud ie s Doug la s , 1 0 th J une 1 999

ACKNO WLEDGMENTS

My d eb to fg r a t i tude e x t end st os e v e ra li n d iv idua l sa nd o rgan iza t ion s who se k i nd a s s i s tan ce , u sef u l s ugge s t ion s , a nd i n -d ep th c r i t iqu e s h e lped m ak e t h i s r e sea r ch p o s s ib le . F i r s t a nd f o r emo s t i s D r . D . L .Ham i l ton , D i rec to r o ft h e P o r t R oya l P ro jec t a nd H ead o ft h e N au t ica lA r cha eo logy P rog ram a tT exa s A&M U n ive r s i ty , who se g u idan ce a nd f r i end sh ip w e r e i n s t rum en t a li n my r e sea r ch .B e cky J ob l ing g en e rou s ly s ha r ed t h e r e su l t s o fh e r i n i t ia l r e sea r ch o n t h e P o r t R oya lp i pe s . Ia mi n deb t ed t oD r .D av id C a r l son ,w ho p rov id ed a s s i s tan ce w i th t h e s t a t i s t ica l b e l l c u rve s , N an cy L udke f o r h e r h e lp w i th t h e m ap s , a nd e s pe c ia l ly t oS em aP u lak f o rh e rp a in s tak ing i n l c ing so f t h e p i pe d r aw ing s p r e sen t ed i nt h e A ppend ix . Ia l so w i sh e x t end my s i n ce r ea pp r e c i a t ion t oD r .P e t e rD avey f o r h i s r e v iew o f t h e m anu sc r ip t , a nd t oD r . H e len D e Wo lf a nd D r . Wayn e Sm i th f o r t h e i r h e lpf u l s ugge s t ion s a nd o ve r a l l e n cou ragem en t d u r ing my r e sea r ch . Ia l so w i sh t oe xp r e s s my g r a t i tud e t ot h e s t af fa tt h eP ub l ic R eco rd sO ff i ce i nL ondon ,E ng l and , a nd t o t h e s t af fi n t h e A n t h ropo logy D epa r tm en t a t T exa s A&M Un ive r s i ty . G eo rg ia L .F ox S an ta B a rba ra ,C a l if o rn ia 1S ep t embe r 1 999

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS E D ITOR IAL ACKNOWLEDG MENTS I I NTRODUCT ION TO THE S TUDY AND METHODOLOGY I n t roduc t ion Me thodo logy A r ch iva lS ou r ce s E d i to r ia l Me thod s

1 1 1 2 3

I P ORT ROYAL ,J AMA ICA I n t roduc t ion T h eS e t t lem en to fP o r tR oya l S i te F o rma t ion A rchaeo log ica lI n v e s t iga t ion s

4 4 4 8 8

I I

THE A SSE MBLAGE I n t roduc t ion T he C lay P ipe A s semb lage f r om t h e 1 981 -1990 E xcava t ion s P rev iou sR e la t ed R e sea r ch T h eE vo lu t ion o fC l ay P i pe s , 1 590 1900 T he P or tR oya lP i pe T ypo logy T rend si nP i pe B ow l sa tP o r tR oya l D eco ra t ed P i pe sa tP or tR oya l Make r s ' Ma rk s C on c lu s ion

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 5 2 0 2 0 2 3 2 5

I V

S UMMARY O FD ISTR IBUT ION P ATT 'ERNS Me thodo logy a nd A pp roa ch T he D i s tr ibu t ion o f Smok ed P i pe sa tP o r tR oya l D i s t r ibu t ion o fP i p e sb yB u i ld ing T h e Mean ing o ft h eP i pe D i s t r ibu t ion P a t t e rn s

5 2 5 2 5 2 5 7 5 8

V DOCUMENTARY EV IDENCE I n t roduc t ion a nd L i t e ra tu r eR ev iew T he E ng l i sh P o r tR eco rd s T he J ama i ca P roba t eI n ven to r ie s E v idence f o rt h eP a ck ing ,S h ipp ing ,a nd S t o rage o fC lay P ipe s Smok ing -R e la t ed I t em si nt h eJ am a ica P roba te I nven to r ie s C on c lu s ion V I

V I I I

P IPE S TE MS AND FORMULA DAT ING I n t roduc t ion a nd L i t e ra tu r eR ev i ew Me thodo logy S t em D iam e t e rF r equen c i e so fB u i ld ing sa nd R oom s B inf o rd v s .H e igh ton /Deagan Me thod s Mean D a t e sf o rC ommon B ow lT ype sa nd Mak e r s ' Ma rk s C on c lu s ion CONCLUS ION

6 0 6 0 6 4 6 8 6 9 6 9 7 0 7 0 7 0 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 8

R EFERENCES

8 0 1 1

APPEND IX

8 7

L IST OF F IGURES 1 .

L oca t ion o fP or tR oya l , J ama ica

5

2

Map o fP o r tR oya ls how ing t h ei n t e r sec t ion o fQ u een a nd L ime S t ree t sa nd t h el o ca t ion o ft h e 1 981-1990 e xcava t ion s

7

T he f i ve s t ra t ig raph ic l a ye r sa tP o r tR oya li nt h ea r ea o ft h e 1 981-1990 e xcava t ion s

9

3 4

S i te map s how ing t h er oom sa nd b u i ld ing se xcava ted f r om 1 981-1991

1

5

N oë l -Hume 's t ypo logy s how ing E ng l i sh c l ay p ipe s

1 4

6

T he p a r t s o f ac l ay t obacco p ipe

1 6

7

S amp le o fd eco ra ted p ipe s t em sf r om P o r tR oya le xcava t ion s , 1 981-1990

2 2

8

D i s t r ibu t ion o f2 1 ,575 p ipe sf r om a l ll a ye r s o ft h es i t e

5 3

9

D i s t r ibu t ion o f1 8 ,537 p ipe sf r om L aye r3

5 4

1 0

D i s t r ibu t ion o fs moked p ipe s ,L aye r3

5 6

1

H a r r ing ton 's h i s tog ram s how ing d a te r ange sd eve loped f r om m ea su r ing t h es t em d i ame te r so fE ng l i sh c l ay p ipe sa nd t h ep e r cen tage s o fp ipe sw i th in t ho se r ange s

7 1

1 2

F r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o fp ipe s tem d i am e te r s ,L aye r3

7 5

1 3

F r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o fp ipe s tem d i ame te r s ,B u i ld ing 1 ,R oom 5

7 5

1 4

F r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o fp ipe s tem d i ame t e r s ,B u i ld ing 3 ,R oom 2

7 6

L IST OF TABLES 1

K ao l in c l ay p ipe sr e cove r ed a tP or tR oya l , 1 9811990

1 3

2

P o r tR oya lb ow lt ype s

1 7

3

C ompa r i son o fs moked v s . u n smoked p ipe b ow l s ,L aye r3

5 5

4

S h ipmen t so fp ipe sf r om B r i s to lt oJ ama ica , 1 682

6 2

5

S h ipm en t so fp ipe s f r om B r i s to lt oJ ama ica , 1 694 -1695

6 3

6

T obacco a nd t obacco re la ted i t em sf r om t h eJ ama ica P roba t e I nven to r ie s

6 5

S t em d i ame te rf r equenc ie s , L aye r3

7 2

7

i v

N ew c l ay p i pes f ound i ns i tu i nR oom 2 ,B u i ld ing 3a tP or tR oya l , J ama ica .

CHAPTER I .I NTRODUCT ION TO THE S TUDY AND METHODOLOGY

N o w he re i st h i s b e t te r d emon s t ra ted t h an i nt h e c a se o ft o bacco . S in ce i t si n t roduc t ion t oE ng land i n t h e m id -16 th c en tu ry , t o bacco w a s a dop t ed w i th az ea l t h a t w a s u np receden t ed . C on sume r d emand f o r t obacco e ncou raged i t s c u l t iva t ion a nd t r ade , a s w e l l a s t h e m anuf ac tu r e o f c l ay s mok ing p ipe s . T ha t 2 1 ,575 c l ay p ipe s w e re f ound i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr ema in so fP o r tR oya l t e s t if i e s t o t h e p opu la r i ty o f s mok ing a nd i t s i n teg ra t ion a s ac u s tom i n to d a i ly l i f e . A s a c ommod i ty , c l ay p ipes w e r eo ne o ft h ef i r s ti t em s t o b e ma s s p roduced p r io r t o t h e I ndu s tr ia l R evo lu t ion , a nd b ecau se t h ey w e r em ade o ff i r ed k ao l in c l ay , t h ey p r e serve w e l l i n t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd .

I n troduc t ion O nd i semba rk ing a tP or t R oya l , E ng l i sh s e t t le r s f o und t h em se lve s" on o ne o ft h ew o r ld 's g r ea te s t h a rbo r s , w i th t h e ma jes t ic B lue Moun ta in sp i l ing u p o n t h e h o r izon -a b igge r h a rbo r a nd t a l le r m oun ta in s t h an a ny a th om e" ( Dunn 1 973 :36 ) . T ha tv i s ion c hanged a s ad eva s ta t ing e a r thquake s h ook P or tR oya lt oi t s v ery f ounda t ion s s hor t ly b ef o re n oon o n J une 7 , 1 692 . F o r P o r t R oya l 's c i t izen s , l i f e w ou ld n eve r b e t h e s am e a s mo r e t h an h a lf o f t h e i r t own s unk t o t h e b o t tom o f K ing s ton H a rbo r .

T h e a im o ft h i s s t udy i st op rov ide a r chaeo log i s t s a nd o the r r e sea rche r s w i th a c ompa ra t ive c o l lec t ion t h a t r ange s f r om 1 655 t o 1 850 , r e f lec t ing t h ree c en tur ie s o f p i pe smok ing i n E ng l i sh c o lon ia l c u l tu re a nd s o c ie ty . T h i s i s a ccomp l i shed i n t h e n ex t s i x c hap te r s b y t h e f o l low ing a pp roache s .

T he e a r thquake ma rked t h e e nd o f E ng land 's m o s tt h r iv ing p or tc i ty i nt h e C a r ibbean , b u tl e f t a si t sg rea t e s tl e gacy t hou sand so fw e l l -p r e se rved a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s , w h ich o f f e r ag l imp se i n to 1 7 th -cen tu ry s oc ie ty a nd c u l tu r e . Among t h e a r t if ac t s , t h e re i sn o o the rm o re u b iqu i tou s t h an t h e E ng l i sh k ao l in c l ay p ipe . Mo re t h an 2 0 ,000 p i pe s w e re r e cove red b e tween 1 981 a nd 1 990 , a nd t h e i rp re sence t e l l s as t o ry .

F o l low ing t h i sc hap t e r ,C hap t e r Ip rov ide s ab r ief b ackg round d i scu s s ion o nP or tR oya l .I n C hap te r I I ,t h ep ipe a s semb lage i sa na lyzed f o ri t sc on t en t a nd g ene ra l t r end s . C hap te r I V s umma r ize s t h e p i pe d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n s a t P or t R oya l . I n C hap te r V , r e su l t s d e r ived f r om d ocum en ta ry r e sea r ch a nd h ow i tr e la te st ot h eP o r tR oya lp i pe c o l lec t ion a r ed i scu s sed . C hap t e rV Ie xam ine st h e m e r i t so ff o rmu la d a t ing c l ay p i pe s t em s . C hap te r V I I c onc lude s t h e s t udy , f o l lowed b y t h e A ppend ix , wh ich i s ac omp le t ec a ta log o ft h eP o r t R oya lk ao l in c l ay p ipe s w i th m ake r s ' m a rk s .

C l ay p ipe s , w hen i n te rp re t ed w i th in t h e b roade r c on t ex t o fP or t R oya l a nd 1 7 th -cen tu ry E ng l i sh h i s tory , r e f lec t t h e e conom ic a nd s o c ia l t r an sf o rma t ion o f as oc ie ty e m e rg ing f r om a n e c onom ic c r i s i s . I n t h e t r an s i t ion f r om af e uda l e c onomy t o aw o r ld s y s tem b a sed o nc o lon iza t ion a nd t r ade , P o r t R oya l a nd E ng land 's o t he r Ame r ican c o lon ie s f i gu red p rom inen t ly i n E ng land 's e conom ic r e cove ry . T he c o lon ie sn o t o n ly p rov ided r aw ma ter ia l s f o r e xpo r t , b u t a l so r e qu i red g ood s f r om t h eh om ec oun t ry .

Me thodo logy T he p r ima ry d a ta u sed f o r t h i s s t udy a r e t h e 2 1 ,575 k ao l in c l ay s mok ing p i pe s e xcava ted d u r ing t h e 1 981 t o 1 990 f i e ld s e a son s a tP or t R oya l , J ama ica , d i rec ted b y D onny L .H am i l ton f r om t h eN au t ica lA rchaeo logy P rog ram a tT exa s A& M Un ive r s i ty ( TA MU ) a nd t h e I n s t i tu t e o f N au t ica l A rchaeo logy ( INA ) a nd i nc oope ra t ion w i th t h e J ama ica N a t iona l H e r i tage T ru s t . T he t e rm " p ipe s" u sed i nt h i ss t udy r e f e r st oa no ve r a l l c o l lec t ion c ompr i sed o fw ho le p i pe s , b ow l s , a nd s t em f r agm en t s , u n le s so t h e rw i se s t a ted , a sw hen

N ece s s i ty ,h oweve r , w a sn o tt h eo n ly mo t iva t ing f a c to ri nt h ee xchange o fg ood s ;b o th a th om ea nd i nt h e c o lon ie s ,p eop le d e s i r ed n ew c ommod i t ie s . E xposu re ,t h rough me rchan ta c t iv i ty ,t o av a r ie ty o ff ood s a nd h ou seho ld g ood s , a l ong w i th o t he r i t em s , p rovoked a w ave o f d emand . T h i s d emand , i nt u rn , h e lped s t imu la te p r e indu s t r ia l m anuf ac tu r ing a nd c o lon ia l t r ade , u l t ima te ly c on t r ibu t ing t oE ng land 's e conom ic g r ow th a nd p r edom inance i nt h e e xpand ing w o r ld s y s tem .

1

o n ly b ow l sa r eb e ing d i scu s sed .

a nd a r e i n c luded i nt h e c a ta log i nt h e Append ix . T he m ake r s ' ma rk s a re i mpo r t an t f o r s e ve r a l r e a son s . F i r s ta nd f o remos t , t h ey a i di na s c r ib ing p ipe s t o s pec if i c p ipemake r s a nd p rodu c t ion c en t e r s . I n t h e c a se o fP or t R oya l , mos t o ft h e p i pe s c ome f r om B r i s to l , E ng land , a nd t h e m ak e r s ' m a rk sc onf i rm t h i s ;h ow ev e r , t h e re a r ea f ew p i pe s f r om L ondon , o ne f r om B rose ley , o n e f r om H u l l , t h ree f r om G la sgow , S co t land , a nd t h r ee a r e Du tch .

P ipe sf r om t h e 1 981-1986 f i e ld s e a son sa r es t o r ed i nt h eO ld N ava lH o sp i ta li nP or tR oya l ,u nde rt h e s uperv i s ion o f t h e J ama ica N a t iona l H e r i tage T ru s t ,a nd t h o se r e cove red f r om 1 987 t o1 990 a r e h ou sed i nt h eP o r tR oya la r t if ac tc o l lec t ion i nt h e N au t ica l A r chaeo logy P rog ram a tT exa s A& M U n ive r s i ty .P ipe sr e cove red f r om a l lf i e ld s e a son s w e re d r awn a nd m ea su red , a nd t h en r e co rded i n ad a taba se f i l e ,s ot h a ta na ccu ra te a s se s sm en tw a s p o s s ib le ,p a r t icu la r ly i nb ow l s t y le s a nd m ak e r s ' m a rk s .

A l so , b y i d en t if y ing s pec if ic p i pem ake r s , d a t e r a nge s f o rs pec if i c s t y les a nd p i p emake r s c an b e p l aced i n to mo re d i sc re te t im e f r ame s . F ina l ly , b y e xam in ing make r s ' ma rk s , p a ra l l e l s c an b e d r awn f r om o the r s i te s . T h i s a i d s i nv er if y ing a t tr ibu t ion s t o c e r ta in p ipem ak e r s a nd i n d e te rm in ing t h e e x ten to ft he i re xpo r tt r ade .

T he p ipe s r e cove red f r om t h e 1 987 -1990 f i e ld s e a son s , w h ich r ep re sen t t hose p ipe s r e cove red f r om t h e B u i ld ing 5 / 4 c omp lex , w e re c oun t ed , e xam ined f o r m ake r s ' ma rk s , b ow l t y pe s , a nd s mok ed p i pe s . S im i la r i n f o rma t ion f r om t h e 1 981-1986 f i e ld s e a son sw a sd e r ived f r om B ecky J ob l ing 's ( 1 992 )p rev iou se xam ina t ion , a sw e l la s t h e d a taba se f i l e f o r t ho se y ea r s . A l l t h e f i e ld n o te s , d r aw ing s , a nd p ho tog raph s p e r t a in ing t o p i pe sr e cove red f r om a l l f i e ld s e a son s w e r e a l so c on su l ted .

I nd e t e rm in ing p ipe d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s , c oun t s f r om t h e d a taba se w e re t aken f o r s p ec if i c y ea r s a nd l o t n umbe r s o f t h e v a r iou s r oo m s a nd b u i ld ing s o n t h e s i te . T he s am e a pp roach w a s a l so u sed wh en e va lua t ing t he r a nge o fv a r ia t ion a nd d i s tr ibu t ion p a t te rn o fs t em d i ame te rr ange s , s moked p ipe b ow l s , a nd b ow lt y pe s .

O n ce t h i s i n f o rma t ion w a s c omp i led f o r a l 1 0 y ea r so fe xcava t ion , i tw a st h en c a ref uly c h eck ed a nd c r o s s -checked a nd c omb ined i n al a rge d a taba se c o mpr i sed o f 2 1 ,575 p i pe s . T he d a taba se i n c lude s i n f orma t ion r ega rd ing p i pe p roven ien ce s , m ake r s ' ma rk s , p ipe b ow l t y pe s , s t em d i am e t e rs i ze s ,s moked p ipe s ,a nd q uan t if i e s . F rom t h e d a taba se , o ne d a ta s e t o f 1 8 ,537 p i pe s w a s e x t rac t ed , r e p re sen t ing o n ly t h e p ipe s f r om L aye r3 ,t h ei ns i tu 1 7 th -cen tu ry o ccupa t ion l a ye r .

A rch iva lS ource s D ocum en ta ry r e sea r ch h a s p roven t o b e a n e f f ec t ive t o o l i n h i s tor ica l a r ch aeo logy , a s d emon s t ra ted b y S tone ( 1970 :73 , 1 988 :205 ) , D ee tz ( 1977 :8 , 1 993 :161) , B eaud ry ( 1988 :43 ) , H am i l ton ( 1992 ) , a nd S hacke la nd L i t t le ( 1994 ) . F o rt h e s t udy o ft h e P or t R oya lp i pe s , t wo t y pe s o fd ocumen t sw e re c on su l ted ; t h eP o r tB ook sf o r L ondon a nd B r i s to l , E ng land , a nd t h e J ama i ca P roba t eI nven tor ie s .

F rom t h e t o ta l d a taba se , 6 1 b ow l t y pe s w e re d i scove r ed a nd a r ranged i n a n e xpandab le t y po logy b a sed o nb ow l s hape a nd t y pe o fh ee l . O nce c omp le ted , t h e t ypo logy s howed a d i sce rnab le e vo lu t ion o fb ow l s hape s a nd s t y le s o ccu r r ing w i th in t h ree c en tu r ie s ,w i th t h eg r ea t e s t c hange so ccu r r ing b e tween 1 680 a nd 1 7 10 . O nce t h e b ow l t y pe s w e re e s tab l i shed , t h e n ew b ow l t y pe n umbe r sa s s igned i nt h i ss t udy w e r ea dd ed t o t h e d a taba se i na dd i t ion t o t h e a l r eady e x i s t ing n umbe r sa s s igned t ot h em i nt h e f i e ld .

T he P o r tB ook s w e re f i r s t e s tab l i shed i n1 428 t o r e co rd , o n b eha lf o f t h e E xch eque r , g ood s s h ipped f r om E ng l i sh p or t s a nd t h e a moun t o f d u ty p a id o n t h em b y t h e s h ippe r s , m a in ly i na n e f f o r t t op reven t f r aud o n c u s tom s . T he m a in s e r ie s o f b ook s w e re t h en o rgan iz ed b e tween 1 564 a nd 1 565 ( C la rk a nd F rank s 1 9 38 :52 ; Wa lne 1 972 :177 ) . A sp a r to ft h e E xcheque r S er ie s E1 90 , b o th t h e L ondon a nd B r i s to lP o r tB ook s a r eh ou sed i nt h e

T h i r ty -n in e m ake r s ' ma rk s w e re a l so i d en t if i ed

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P ub l ic R eco rd s O ff i ce i n L ondon , E ng land ; h oweve r , m i c ro f i lm c op ie s o f t h e B r i s to l P o r t B ook S e r ie s E1 90 f o r 1 682 a nd 1 694 -1695 a r e o n f i le a t t h e N au t ica l A r chaeo logy P rog ram , T exa s A&M U n ive r s i ty . S om e o f t h e e x i s t ing L ondon P o r tB ook si nt h eL ondon P ub l i cR e co rd s O ff i ce w e re c on su l t ed d ur ing av i s i tt h e re i n May 1 996 .

c on su l ted a nd q uo ted f o r t h i s s t udy . F o r e a s ie r r e adab i l i ty , 1 7 th -cen tu ry l e t te r s s uch a s t h e " : , " wh ich r e p re sen t s a n " s ," w e re r ep laced w i th moder n -day l e t te r s ; h oweve r , 1 7 th -cen tu ry s pe l l ing w a s m a in ta ined f o r a ccu racy , a nd t o r e ta in t h ef l avo ro ft h ew r i t ing s t y le c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h ep e r iod . When n ece s sary , c l a r if i ca t ion s o f w o rd s a r ep l aced i nb racke t s f o l low ing aw o rd .

O ve ra l l , t h e L ondon P or tB ook s w e re u sefu l i n a s cer ta in ing w hen t h e e a r l ie s ts h ipmen t s o fc l ay p i pe sw e re s en tt ot h e E ng l i sh c o lon ie s i nN or th Ame r ica . B ecau se B r i s to l w a s t h e m a in p roduc t ion a nd e xpo r t c en te rf o r t h e P or t R oya l p i pe s ,t h eB r i s to lP o r tB ook sp roved i n va luab le i n c ompa r ing q uan t i t ie s l i s t ed t o t ho se e xcava ted f r om t h es i t e ,i nt r y ing t od e t e rm ine t h e q uan t i ty a nd v a lue o fp i pe s b e ing s h ipped f r om B r i s to l , E ng land ,t oJ ama ica a nd o t h e rc o lon ie s ,a sw e l la s a s se s s ing t h ev a lue o fc l ay p i pe sd u r ing t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry . T h e r e ta i l v a lue o f t h e p ipe s a tP or t R oya l w e r e a l so a s se s sed b y c ompa r ing t h e f i gu re s l i s t ed i n t h e B r i s to l P o r t B ook s t o t h e v a lue s l i s ted i nt h eJ ama ica P roba te I nven tor ie s .

S even teen th -cen tu ry mone ta ry amoun t s w e r e s peled o u ta sp ound s ,s h il ing s , a nd p en ce . Un i t s o f mea su re f o l low t h e m e t r ic s y s tem , e xcep t f o r t h ee xcava t ion g r id ,w h ich i si nf e e ta nd t e n th so f f e e t .

T h eJ ama ica P roba te I nven to r ie sw e r et h es e cond s e t o f d ocum en t s p er t in en t t o t h e s t udy . T he i n ven to r ie s a r e h ou sed i n t h e J ama ica P ub l ic A r ch ive s o f f ice i n S pan i sh T own , J ama ica , b u t a r ea l so a va i lab le o nc ompu t e r ized t r an scr ip t ion s a nd m ic rof i lm a t t h e N au t ica l A r chaeo logy P rog ram , T exa s A& M U n ive r s i ty . F rom t h i s c o l lec t ion , 1 08 i nven to r ie s f r om V o lum e s 2 ( 1679 -1686 ) a nd 3( 1686 -1694 ) w e re c on su l t ed . When d i scu s sed i n t h e t e x t , t h e p roba te i n ven to r ie so fs p ec if i ci n d iv idua l sa r ef o l low ed b y t h ev o lum en umbe r , f o l io n umbe r ( s ) , a nd y ea r . T h eJ am a i ca P roba te I nv en to r i e sw e re mo s tu sef u l i na s se s s ing t h ev a lue o fc l ay p ipe s , i nc ompa r ing t h e q uan t i t ie s o f p ipe s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd t ot h ed ocum en ta ry r e co rd ,i nd e t e rm in ing t h ep o s s ib le r e ta i lv a lue o fp i pe sa tt h e i rp o in to f u se i nP or tR oya l , i nt h ep ack ing a nd s t o rage o f p i pe s , a nd i nt h e t ype s o fs mok ing re la ted i t em s u sed i n1 7 th -cen tu ry P o r tR oya l . E d i tor ia l Me thod s A n umbe r o f 1 7 th -cen tu ry d ocumen t s w e re

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CHAPTER I . PORT ROYAL , JA MA ICA

S pan i sh t r ade r ou te s b e tween C uba a nd t h e S pan i sh ma in land . A l though t h i s made t h et own v u lne rab le t o a t tack , i tp rov ided a u n ique o ppo r tun i ty t o f i l l P or t R oya l 's c of f er s q u ick ly a nd g enerou s ly . B y e ncou rag ing b uccanee r st o make P or tR oya lt h e i rb a se o fo pe r a t ion s ,t h et own w a sp ro tec ted b yt h e i rp re sence , a nd t h e i nf low o f b oo ty f r om b uccaneer r a id s o n S pan i sh s h ip sa nd s e t t lemen t sc on t r ibu ted h and some ly t oP or t R oya l 's g row ing e conomy , a s t h e b oo ty w a s e i the rd i s tr ibu ted , s o ld , o rs pen ti nt h e g row ing t own .

I n troduc t ion On May 1 0 , 1 655 ,t h ef l ee to f Wi l l iam P enn a nd R ober t V enab le sc ap tu red J am a ica f r om t h e S pan i sh w i th l i t t le d i ff i cu l ty .T he c ap tu r eo fJ ama ica r ep re sen t s ap ha se i n t h e E ng l i sh c o lon iza t ion o f t h e C a r ibbean , more c ommon ly k nown a s O l ive r C romwe l l 's "Wes te rn D es ign ," wh ich c on s i s ted o f " as e to fb ad ly o rgan ized e xped i t ion s t ot h e We s t I nd ie s . . ." s en t i na n e f for t t o s e cu re c on t ro lo ft h eC ar ibbean ( Ham she re 1 972 :60 ) .

Unfo r tuna te ly , c o lon iza t ion o fJ ama ica 's i n ter io r w a s r i f e w i th d i sappo in tmen t a nd t r agedy a s f am ine , d i sea se ,a nd a t tack sb ys u rv iv ing r e s iden tS pan ia rd so n E ng l i sh s e t t lemen t s t o ok at o l l o n t h e e a r ly c o lon i s t s . F o l low ing t h ed ep loymen to fB r i t i sh r eg imen t sa r ound t h ei s land ,t h e S pan i sh t h rea ts ub s ided a nd p l an t ing w a s e ncou raged , p a r t icu la r ly t h rough t h e e f for t s o f S i r T homa s Modyf ord , w ho e ncou raged t h e i mm ig ra t ion o f 7 00 e xpe r ienced p l an te r s f r om B a rbados i n 1 664 ( Sher idan 1 973 :95 ) .

T he c ap tu re o fJ ama ica w a sp receded b ya na t temp ted i n va s ion o fH i span io la b yP enn a nd V enab les i n1 654 . H av ing b een f o rewa rned o ft h e i nva s ion , t h e S pan i sh e a s i ly d ef ea ted P enn a nd V enab les . T o ma in ta in B r i t i sh h ono r a nd p l aca te C romwe l l , P enn a nd V enab le s t h en s a i led t on ea rby J ama ica , where t h ey c ap tu red t h ep oo r ly d ef ended i s land f r om t h e S pan i sh . T he b a se o fE ng l i sh n ava l o pe ra t ion s i nJ a ma ica w a s t h e t i p o f al ong s and sp i t wh ich e x tended f r om t h e s ou thea s te rn p a r to ft h ei s land i n to wha ti sn ow k nown a s K ing s ton H a rbo r . T h i s a r ea , r equ i r ing i mmed ia te f o r t if i ca t ion , s oon b ecame t h e l o ca t ion f o r F or t C romwe l la nd t h en a scen tP or tR oya l . T hen k nown a s P o in tC agway ,P or tR oya lw a si d ea lf o rs e t t lemen tw i th i t s d eep w a te r , s a f e a n cho rage , a nd f l a t t opog raphy ( F igu re 1 ; P aw son a nd B u i s se re t 1 975 :7 ; T ay lo r 1 965 :130 -131) .

T he t y pe s o fc r ops p l an ted o n t h e i s land v a r ied f r om p rov i s ion c r ops s uch a sp ea s , c a s sava , p lan ta in s , a nd y am s t o c a sh e xpor t c rops t h a t i n c luded g inge r , p imen to ,c o t ton , t obacco , i nd igo ,a nd s uga rcane . I tw a s s uga r , h oweve r , t h a tb ecame J ama ica 's l e ad ing e xpor t b yt h e 1 680 s( Dunn 1 973 :168 -169 ) . B y 1 668 ,a bou t8 00 h ou se sh ad b een b u i l ta tP o r tR oya l ( Tay lo r 1 965 :135 ) . B y 1 692 , P or tR oya lo ccup ied 5 1 a c res a nd i n c luded 2 , 000 b u i ld ing s , many c on s truc ted

Once f o r t if i ed , P or t R oya l 's a dvan tageou s l o ca t ion p romp ted me rchan t s , s e a c ap ta in s , a nd c raf t smen t o s e t t le i nP o r t R oya l , s o t h a tb e tween 1 655 a nd 1 692 , P or t R oya l w a s t h e f a s te s t g row ing c o lony s e t t led b y t h e E ng l i sh i nt h e N ew Wo r ld , a nd b ecame t h e mos t e conom ica l ly i mpo r tan t E ng l i sh p or t i nt h e Amer ica s ( Ham i l ton 1 992 :40 ) . F o l low ing t h e r e s to ra t ion o ft h e mona rchy o fC ha r le s Ii nE ng land i n 1 660 , t h en ame P o in t C agway w a s o ff i c ia l ly c hanged t o P or t R oya l , a nd F or tC romwe l lt oF or tC ha r le s( Tay lor 1 965 : 1 31 ; P aw son a nd B u i sse re t 1 975 :9 ) .

o f b r ick ( Ham i l ton 1 992 :40 ; P aw son a nd B u i s se re t 1 975 :98 -99 ) . P or t R oya l 's a ppea rance d epended o n o ne 's p o in t o fv i ew . F o r H en ry B a rham , a n E ng l i sh med ica ld oc to r , t h e s t ree t sw e re " very R egu la ra nd t h e H ou se sB u i l tw i th B r ick a nd B eau t ifu l w i th B a lcon ies a f t e rt h e Modern Way o fB u i ld ing i nL ondon a nd t h e r en t sa r eD ea r . . ." ( 1722 :177 ) . B y 1 692 , P or tR oya l 's p opu la t ion c ompr i sed b e tween 6 , 500 a nd 7 , 000 i nhab i tan t s . T h i si n c luded al a rge m ix o f i mm ig ran t sf r om B a rbado s a nd B e rmuda a sw e l la s N ew E ng land a nd t h e B r i t i sh I s les . J ohn T ay lo r ( 1688 :260 ) d e scr ibed t h e p opu la t ion a s" f or t he Mo s t p a r tE ng l i sh ,t h er e s ta r eS co t t s ,a nd I r i sh , a l so h e re a r e many J ewe s . . ." An e s t ima ted 2 , 500 Af r ican s l ave sa l so c on tr ibu ted t o P or t R oya l 's i nhab i tan t s , a s w e l l a s i nden tu red s e rvan t s a nd p ros t i tu tes f r om t h e B r i t i sh I s land s a nd C a r ibbean . T he t own w a s a l so r efuge f o r

T he S e t t lemen to fP or tR oya l P o r tR oya l s oon b ecame t h e h eadquar te r s f o r C o lone l E dwa rd D 'Oy ley , t h e f i r s t c i v i l g ove r no r o fJ ama ica ( B lack 1 979 :57 ; T ay lo r 1 965 :131) . T he t own d eve loped q u ick ly , p ar t ly a s ar e su l t o f D 'Oy ley 's d ec i s ion i n1 657 t oi n v i te E ng l i sh b uccanee r sf r om t h e i s land o fT or tuga t o d i spo se o ft h e i r p lunder a tP or t R oya l ( Tay lo r 1 965 :133 ) . D 'Oy ley 's c l eve r d ec i s ion w a s b a sed o n P or t R oya l 's s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion n ea r

at r an s ien t p opu la t ion o f b uccanee r s , s a i lor s , a nd s mugg le r s ( Tay lo r 1 965 :134 ) . A s t h e C a r ibbean 's b u s ie s t p or t , P or t R oya l w a s

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