The Survivor Volume 5 [5] 1881801101

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JUST A FEW OF THE ARTICLES IN VOLUME 5 MAKING ALCOHOL HOME CHEMISTRY WONDERS OF THE MICROSCOPE PILE DRIVER WATER POWER FROM STREAMS PHOTO-ELECTRIC CELLS HOMEMADE SEXTANT SURVEYING BIRD HOUSES FIRE-MAKING ENERGY FROM THE LENS FOUNDRY WORK VICTORY BARNYARD 1915 GLIDER JA,MS PICKLES, CONDIMENTS

DAR nRINKS AND

GRANDAD USED:70'M

|fsrotie

eh

THE SURVIVOR Volume 'ss

By Kurt Saxon

CONTENTS THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 (INDEX PAGE 2327). FOUNDRY WORK.--------2-+eeee MOULDER'S AND FOUNDER'S GUIDE VICTORY BARNYARD....PLAN AND SURVIVE...HOUSEHOLD GUIDE 1902 MRS. CURTIS* COOKBOOK 1908. HOUSEHOLD OF THE DETROIT FREE PRESS 1881THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA 1903.ART OF MAKING ALCOHOL... MAKE YOUR OWN FUEL......BAR DRINKS AND BOOZE

COPYRIGHT 1996 by Kurt Saxon Printed in the USA

ISBN 1-881801-10-1 PUBLISHED BY ATLAN FORMULARIES,

P.O. BOX 95 ALPENA, AR 72611 (870 ) 437-2999 FAX (870) 437-2973 WEB SITE kurtsaxon.com

CATALOGUE ON BACK

PAGES

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1865

Volume 5

By Kurt Saxon

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

THE SURVIVOR

; Wood Pinion eed cauress las for ling

Clamps

a

Sonal! pets oF foe clamping toretheron pieces ‘shite working them, here ate Lees nimple methods tor making You sil indthen30 many uses for these litthe clamps that yout Will want to sont tyles asics make ceveral in Dik. Hote lun i ol Sins Gabriel, « fests that yon shape thean fn Fiesawe an fees sl Inoue). Do val et the twas jaws tou hess {heyfn theshut th chhe langlu tobeenoughslightto esi heelbeshould prevent them from splittin lus 4 er 8 hn kon make the sites aout yi tek, ad the heel about Ite hy in dog” Proportion other sizes contig Taper clamp ents Lo 9 point or round the ens os shown, Use bolls wiih ving mute. ‘ise of the staller clam shown solder ita crews,the These ies the goodevesLeverageof ilisterfor heat titiening cua p

Copyright 1980 by Kurt Sason

How

Not to Survive

by Kurt Saxon Six years ago when | began The Survivor there were only vague glimmerings of the worldwide disasters confronting mankind. As a historian, | could match the causes and effects which led to the downfall of past civilizations with the same degenerative influences dooming our own civilizations. In the meantime, more and more people have at least awakened to the fact that the world is in terrible trouble. For the most part, however, they entertain themselves with the belief that wisdom will prevail; a feader is somewhere out there; the enemy will be exposed and destroyed, etc.. All such is merely wishful thinking. It is arrogance verging on paranoia to believe that our generation is somehow favored over, or superior to, peoples destroyed by the same causes throughout history. Too many people, even survivalists, are unable to accept the end of world civilization. They mistake it for the end of the world, period The fallof Atlantis was the end of the last world civilization. It was such a shattering experience, and so complete that even most scholars consider Atlantis a myth. Yet it didn’t mark the end of the world. Its totality lay in the fact that it was linked to, and interdependent with, all the other cultures on Earth, as in our present world civilization, There were survivors of the fall of Ur of the Chaldees, Babylon, Greece and Egypt. But to the majorityof their inhabitants it was indeed the end of @ eno curorr HOLE SMALL DRILE the world FoR HanGiNG SAND SMOOTH Almost like Atlantis, the Roman Empire had spread a web of Howard E. Moody of Upper Jaz. N.Y. makes interdependence throughout Europe. Its fall was followed by hundreds of lamps for model work from w iy clothes p‘Workang ins. cutting off the ends of the jaws fo permit years of ignorance, misery, despotism, inquisition and degradation known close to the clamp, as The Dark Ages. But it wasn't the end of the world. From 1348 to 1361 the Black Death engulfed Europe. One half of the Tap Fonnels Liquid «The or spoutshaped froma paste Fane mes British died while the rest of Europe suffered a loss of one fourth of its tard bats tile cepnaesahdrdy population. The plague ravaged the cities, for the most part, taking away the lower classes and leaving the aristocracy and the peasantry relatively

““Boceaccio’s Decameron is a collection of stories supposedly told to

forings. refilling bottles with smal-dian

each other by a group of affluent and intelligent Florentines. During the plague they lett the stricken Florence for the countryside and partied anc told witty stories until the worst was over. Ht wasn't the end of their world. When the plague died out they went back. Since the working class was decimated the survivors had 10 set about replacing hands with machines. Technology and science bloomed and the period was called “The Renaissance” or rebirth

So accept the end of world civilization with hope that you won't

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

From The Archives Here is a selection trom 19th Century Harper's Monthlies They are various entries in the science sections: which are thought provoking and sometimes clever. There might be an idea here, dropped back then, but worthy of reconsideration 18 THE BRAIN A GALVANIC BATTERY ¢ Among the supposed frets relied upon to prove that he animal brain few battery, which eaa send nerves £0 as trnvonts of electiciy through an theexperiment re et npn the museles, forfeered to bs Mr, C. F. Varley, iva late article, ‘whieh consists in conpecting: the to terials OF a very semitive galvanometer with separate Uasing of water, Hts hand be placed in eich basin, and one be squeezed siolenty, a positive tent ie said generally to flow froan that le other hata, whieh thongh thegalanometertothe afte Vatles, Mr, compressed Fe'nut arinns experiments, has conve to. however, the. conch Non thatthe pienotenton is dive toeh Tion alone, the act_of squeezing the hav Tently forcing some of the perspiration ont of the ores, proved ithe by the waGetter, that when Mort anusThis weseix paved aol ite sell was dropped on one of them, 8 ene a fenerated withon! avg mseular exertion, Cute fran nothing t shove that electricity ints iv the human body, either as a sunrce of an he cms theho tnonive poset or otherwie, ebtaived frm the tele to electricity feck tive tothe different chemical e of the mses themselves, {entfovee portions transmitted by the nerves is at a "0 ,0 times slower than an electric eurrent, he infels hat it ent not be an electric enrvent isle The in ‘exposure to the dict of various manabeeing infrequently with: forthe more er reset frees nt we beenare dwelthardly pou prepated on ts abject specie investigations 1 fertain Tuas hog been « diqaited point whether the lodge within yavticles of no, silien, ete, oF merely penetrate lean The airecolls of the Invgsy

1866 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 necessarily go with it. Having done this, you can see the absurdity of the following stopgap measures to survive a temporary calamity.

Investing in intangibles: Gold, silver. diamonds, antiques, paintings.etc are dependent for their value on desire, not need. When need is the uppermost consideration, desire is simpl a frivolous y emotion. In order to exchange your intangibles for your needs you will have to wait until surplusses are built up. In the meantime, say you approach a farmer and offer him a $600 Krugerand for its value in chickens. If you're lucky he may offer you a $600 chicken. Bugout vehicles: I'm amused by the fantasies of urban types who stock a camper with everything one could possibly need to survive. When it hits the fan they will leave just before the rioting gets too fierce or the mushroom cloud hovers directly overhead, Roads blocked by fuelless and/or wrecked vehicles will doom most bugouters, Bandits will account for many who make it past the congestion People in the rural areas, threatened by mobs of refugees, will shoot at anyone who doesn't keep moving. You can't carry enough gas to keep moving It will take weeks, maybe months, for rurals to run out of supplies in their villages and towns. Turning away strangers as a matter of course, there is little chance that you'd be allowed to settle among them before your own, supplies ran out, regardless of what you had to barter. Best to pack a U-Haul and move to the Ozarks now. Fallout Shelters: These are for urban areas. Business executives locked into the establishment figure they can submerge before the fallout chokes them. After a couple of weeks they seem to expect to come out to some kind of brave new world, go back to their desks and carry on as usual When the cities go, those trapped in shelters will share the fate of those without shelters. A chance for a couple of weeks of life is not worth the expense In the fifties shelters would have been practical in the event of a nuclear war. But in the eighties the devastation will be so much greater that rebuilding on nuclear ruins will be unthinkable for years. Outside the major cities a shelter might be nice and a real protection against the worst of the fallout, Even so, it would be with us for months, if not years. Hiroshima and Nagasaki have proven the fallacy of mutations and obliteration by radiation sickness, sterilization and cancer years later. But the majority will survive without shelters, unless all life is destroyed Arsenals: | love guns, but | have only enough for myself. | won't have to arm my neighbors because I've never met anyone here who isn’t well armed Ihave a complete reloading setup, accommodating every rifle, shotgun size and pistol of the common variety. Forgetthe exotic stuff. 'm prepared to reload for the community. That's all that’s needed Yet I read of gun nuts buying everything that will shoot as if guns were all that mattered. They must think the shooting will go on and on for years. Maybe they're right if they get trapped between the big cities and the well defended rural areas. in that case the gun nuts would become precisely what they fancy they are arming against.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 their walls into the tiesne Uetween them, ut Professor Zenker informe us that, on exainiving the lang of woman who had been exposed to the dnst of itm oxile, ved ia preparing bnoks ‘of oldceat, he found the yosder in the tissue Uesiveen te air-ells and i their walls, x¢ well ts their cavities, From fess that £80 ommees Sof thie Inng over twelve grains of fron wide Wwere obtained by ehemieal methals so That 3 eyelly thyongh uth lings, these tist havedistlmted ean at Teast three-yuatters’ of an nies inhaled. Tu auother ave-—that of a Svorknum to the dist of x mistine need fn preparingexposed wltamavine snbstanees-—he ful segaety estimated at falls a ence RUSTING OF IRoS. after repeated experiments, Professor Calvert, fd that pure dry oxsgen does uot de” hos termine the oxidation of fran, and that moist fosngan his bat fe ble nexion; elso that dy or noise pure earbone meld has no aetion, bat that ishen moist oxen containing tracee of carbon ie eid is brow into ght contact with on the later rhsts with grant rapiigy. Ie concludes, fives that carbonic acid is the agent which de termes the oxidation of iron and tat it isthe e presenc of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, and hote tt oxygen ot its watery vapor, that produces i oxidation of iton exposed te common a Tin ane experiment he found thet if clean blades of the best quality of irom be placed im water Wie ae been well oiled, and’ deprived atts ‘oxygen and earbonie acid, they wll nat rat for Several weeks; and thae 3 a similar blade be half immersed in a bottle containing equal el ties of pare distilled water and oxygen, the portion dipping in the water hecomerxpily Cxidized, while the appar portion bevemsine ua fered. uv if tothe sumony ere ndded some ccarbonie acid, chemical veastion on the exposed portion, with ropid oxidation, takes place i hhediately Tn reference ta the fact, fist publishedbe Pe slins, that cametie allies prevent the oxidat Of ivon, he semarks, asthe result of specialex periments om this subject, shat the carbonates find biearbongtes of the alkalies possess the sarae property ae their Dydrates and thaeof 3Psuchan eat irom ‘ae be lial Saamersed in solution Tionates, they exereise sich preservative fn tence on that portion of the int which is expose tothe atmosphere or eomnanon mir (oxygen and trbonie wei that it does not oxidize even after fn period of to yours,

RENDERING WALLS Waren-tionT, by Mr, B, Ransome, of London, eisrenderproposed soeating stone sndsacration brick wallswith water-proat hy them to molNtOn of Silicate of soda, which i snperBeialy ’ econ: Jwsel by the“he fuer application of ells‘consistsof Enis? sinface ths obtained StSrilaalieaceit doceof fim, which i perecty insole, not’ alter the appearance of the val

MANUFACTERE OF WoOD PULP FOR PAPER. Among tho more inoresting articles atthe Internationa Exhibition in London, 3 the sum ror of devised 1872, whyas a My.seriesomit of llnstrationsof the process for converte Frond uta pap for paper, It i sai that he Hitt hitherto in sing ts maeesial for he perpise mentioned has een the necosity ‘of Tsing ste farge qantites uf lalla to ashe the cust of ths operation too gent to be gener ally employer, atleast alnoads Thi ditivalty Is ean overcome. by Me. To ond ie fr exectel that lasze quantities of son osetufare wast, wal he meade available,

1867 ‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 So unless you're a gunsmith or an honest collector, you have no reason to collect guns just for the sake of having them. Best to spend your money on more useful items, Of course, you should have a good shotgun, rifle and pistol. You ought to get a copyof Mel Tappan's book, SURVIVAL GUNS and choose the best guns you can afford and in the variety which will suit your actual needs. But to consider an arsenal more important than long-term survival tools is juvenile Fighting Communism: With actual Marxist Communism on the wane. the money and effort expended in fighting that silly idiology is a waste. Of course the term “Communism” is becoming increasingly replaced by “Bildebergers”, “Trilateralism”, etc. which is supposedly the same thing. It seems that everything is part of a huge plot. Belief in such a plot is commonly known as "The Conspiricy Theory”. Communists, Bildebergers, Trilateralists and perhaps a dozen other vague groups are being given credit for just about everything wrong on our planet. If a culprit could be found, identified, fought and thereby stopped, the whole “fight” would be reasonable. But this nonsense has been going on for years with nothing to show for all the exposures by all the “patriots” we have left When Rome was surrounded by barbarians and wracked with rioting by proletarions and freed slaves the rightious citizens wasted valuable time following up their own conspiricy theories. Rome fell without any of the “conspirators” being bothered The point is that degeneration doesn't need any particular label and labeling it only gives false hope that a label is somehow like a target one can shoot at. This is a false comfort since the target itself is false. Political and international manipulation of the world’s inferiors should be ignored at this time. The better prepared you are to handle your own problems, the better able you will be to deal with the vermin when the collapse comes. In the meantime, don’t jeopardize your efforts toward survival by getting upset over what apack of doomed parasitical predators are up to. REVOLT AGAINST CIVILIZATION, by Lothrop Stoddard is being serializedin U.S. MiLiviA. It shows how communists are simply intelligent but warped losers stirring up feeble minded losers against their betters. As far as I'm concerned, the losers have taken the world's cities and destroyed its economies. Let them have the cities. Most of them wili die there. The only way to fight losers is by abortion and sterilization. Waiting for them to arm themselves and then trying to combat them is a bit late. Since its too late, anyway, give them this round. Move from the cities and let them rot. After the worst is over we survivalists can destroy what's lett of them at our leisure, ve the nexe manipulation, Th boiler byexehot a patent heated them into iatroduedng vn Wada and presse, great enire to k u l A t alee it in seater elreolaing im pipes which thetraverse ilae for papermaking, being heat length, ts throughout. ‘aiueleanmant ef sections fapabileof most curate regulating. ‘The pressure employed in the process of treat the fre dezrees,i ite and tho sda ito is the(80 boiler exges wuodrnin

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1868

yon a et of cal the emul pi y colin. Ueing sented ate by ste mean ad uf of form of 4 paste oF Tigi, om one alass, and beinsine the other i contact sth ie Let the cover plasesc reads the specimen material i 1 thin Tayer over each glass. After a Title pr you will be able to perform the operation tally” Tiwoezers. for “grasping the delicate over glasses probably ‘will hel. ‘A common Sway of ising bacteria when di tributed over cover glastes in this manner is to pass the glass “rapidly, several times, hroueh the tip of an aleshol or sas fame, This takes the place of the Haming-aleohol

Fig. 1. Heated eféereally by the

1876

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

HOMEMADE

Ezecrerc Pew Burns Designs in Wood and Leather Popular Science Monthly: — April 1836 ‘OU will enjoy decorating the hot-tip connectors, Wrap them with wood, leather and other asbestos. and hold inside the finget materials with this easily grip constructed electric pen, ‘with a pully made of asbestos and water which has several novel features not glass, found in other pens of this type, For ‘The tips, which are very easy to make, example, in an instant you can change consist of short pieces of nichrome ‘wire from a tip which burns narrow lines to CGthich ean be taken from 2 heating coil), fone that is broad and large for burning in bent as desired. and with the ends. at” backgrounds. It is not necessary to wait tached by crimping to short pieces of No. for the point to heat up, as it becomes 16 wite, A V-shape tip will be found slowing hot immediately’ the current is ‘most useful for general work, while loops. turned on, and cools almost as quickly Equares, and other shapes are suitable for when you want to use another tip, Tt background work and. for repeating a means that it is exceptionally speedy and design a number of times works almost as fast as you can write, When wood-burning designs call for a ‘The handle is made by wrapping a number of circles. a good kink is to make piece of sheet asbestos around a pencil so up a very short tip holder and attach it as to form a tube about 424 in, long and 3, s0 that perfectA te a compass,any a8 sizein Fig,canbe of Y4-in. diameter, Use water glass Greles of for burning your burned, (sodium silicate) for a cement, Wrap a initials on Special tip Lin, strip of asbestos around one end to the wood handles of tools can be made make a finger grip, half of it projecting by forming the nichrome wire around beyond the handle tube so as to provide a brads driven into a block of wood. as in space for the connectors into which the "s, Any other small design or figure hhot tips are to be inserted, Allow the can, of course, be made in the same ay. hhandle to dry throughly before finishing Figure 6 shows the resistance unit into it with enamel or lacquer. Constructed which the cord from the pen is plugged in this way, it is practical and safe, formIti merely a nichrome heater eoil cut ing an insulation against both heat and into one side of the current. supply. Reelectricity move several inches of wire from the coil After passing the connecting cord Ifyou desire to have the. pen tips glow through the handle, wind the bare ends white hot. The ordinary red. heat is around a No. 16 copper wire to form Usually sufficient, however, unless hard small coils, as shown in Fig. 2. These are

wood Ys to be decorated.

By.wire bending ichro me Baile ith eadaroundcut To ‘mde seal le

ecurieteeen FRelion sy illustrated above

ersstasockets popcolinrct )» guatded.

Ipeneer

Fig, 4to, When iecircles is neces Ea draw. with fheStull clecrie "pen. a special tp is made teae oneae thebeg attached “compace and Eight Soe Gnexpensive

Fig. & A erent advantageSeveral of this pepen areis theshowneasetelow with ace‘beingchanged, pushed taco the sockets of the holder

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Homemac

1877

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 PLAYS WEIRD RADIO >COMPANIMEN'T

le Color O,

> Is Interpreted In Vivid Hues on the ‘Translucent Screen of W This Vascinating and

Fasily

Built Accessory By JOHN L. RENNICK

fof a brondeast receiver

Siete

s aoe

Sitester se rity ying‘ De

ts

a

ta

oN a of a c, Inita cies tong.a Alandco i a isa refi inside the ¢ Forms, By sling Uh fore in and inductance of th

Heeontai

at the right in the diagram, Js the only uousualpart of the entire ci

rating. Le is dential with Ty.) By in the

(ov

we Sth tow at the

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 F

L isee | Wov.ac

dingram is a sis-valt dial kay only “The third network section passes It is . eyeles 0 6 above ncies those frenqte rofarad nser conde fwo-mic a of up made €,), and two blue lamps (Bs and 18). ‘These are six-voll dial The use of to we lamps is par necessary to get a good balance of color frequency Due to the overlapping of the eyeles 300 and ranges, nates between 250 will case hoth the red ane! zeven knnips 10 glow, while frequencies between 600 and

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

‘eo ru LauieateD cont ” /seai se mine : [vale maz) a eaeaei ey Cares areas papi ees say

750 eyeles wil ight the green givesas well the fn the bine bulbs, ‘This blending mixtures aru tones feimediate system is extsemely: simple The optical a wedge-shaped, sheet-miclal of consists Ie reflector and a rectangalar” translucent of the — upeningmounted Draper cut to fi the speaker e r a sockets Tainp The Tabinet. chassis so that the baths themselves,

List or PAR Stayudavel aio transformer, 3:1 weaker compling transform mer, r primary, 300-oh sec lod-oh ondary ty psformer, 50 volts CT electrolytic. condenser, ¢ JTralnlar mi , $0 volt ‘ anil mencer, Co—Dund1 mdclectrotytic filter . Paper cobndenser, il ‘ Paper condenser, 2 afd e Filter choke, 30 henry : | id La-—Network inductances(see 500 ohm, 2 wat #| Resistor, Flashlight butt 8.2 volt i BBs and Bs Dial lamps, 6 val

fn the fare at the rear of the reflector. ‘The two Fembled, Phe vefector fa seen in the backgroud blue lamps should be placed side by: side at the extreme. rear; the green and ted however, they may be made to the view of Uhe chassis. shows prongs famps directly in front of the blue. ‘The clearly theinderconstricti of the receiver output tubes of placement and on calor screens are made of colored gektin by wrapping the Teads around the mictances, “The sock network formed into small cylinders(0 fit over the placed immediately helow these coils, plate prongs if the circuit is of the Taps, push-pull variety, plate d Ie of the statidard Lye used on illamninate Although the placement of parts is the not dials, for may bh taken from a string of ind scteen prongs. or if tothe thereceiver ment shownmostin con Chiislnias.tice fights. ‘The powersupply uses a single pentode in the final arrangeted aitical, aphethe sugges as the Chntedi view — choke and inpat Cansformerof thealso,ch show — stageTo adjust the network, decrease aeie nese neul, Touking alal thethe rear in this view tight, the — prominently:Tn operation, OF the assembiy, we ser, the receiver volume antl the lamps the primary of the low mounted between” Uh ata bile Tess than normal input transformer (1T,) is connec ed brillianey. Site ie denserTeft, tandhe Copthe afpowerthe ‘Then set the movable netoss the primary of the spe ores of the inductances so ‘coupling {rausformerof the rece Sampler tae ay be seen liehind the hat the load appears Lo diin parallel with the speaker vide among the lamps ac cuit), Usially, the connections ioe Ch, Hie uae ge cording Lo the frequency of the six be made divectly.at the speaker nal, Bass notes should cause the nsinal block, IF this is nol practical,

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 red lamp to light up brightly, but should have Tittle “effect on the

1879 Unless a variable audio-Frequuency generator is available, the induct

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 important, however, that the nel work specifications ‘he followed to

strongly, while only high note

ing screen serving as a guide,

pleted organ, you wil

If the

Popular

Dec.,

1952

SOAKING PINE CONES in chemicol solutions praduces Colored flames. when cones ‘ore burned in fireplace. Bry ‘ones sock in hemizol thoroughly, ond cllow 10. dey before burning. Stromtion ni Hale produces orion nate, rad” M green; calcium chloride, Yellow, Vole hivpotersiom eMorde,chlorate purple

Scrap Leather Pulled Through

that the metal guide, which controls the

Mechanics

July,

1902

Skins of fish and various kinds of ani-

mals that not long ago were considered Uuséless are now found to make excellent leather. A northern firm recently manufactured shoes of the skins of codfish and cusk. Whip handles are made of sharks’ skin Porpoise leather make the finest razor straps, and whale skins make adm able leather for many purposes, Seal leather is male into pocket books and niany other sseful articles, Salmon hide makes waterproof shirts and hats for the Eskimos. Overalls of tanned fish skins are worn by the natives on the lower Yukon jn Maska, Walrus leather and sea elepphant Teather are seen on the market, bit ae both these auimals are nearly exterminpte it ill amount te hut Tittle commer

Cutter fo Produce Lacing

Lacing of almost any desired length and reasonable width can be made quickly by rotating a piece of scrap leather on this easy-to-make cutter. A razor blade held at aslight rake by a sheet-metal bracket provides the cutter, and a slotted wooden base receives the lower end of the blade, Note

find thatthe

POP’ ULAR MECHANICS Feb.,

1951

width of the lacing, is inserted between the mounting bracket and metal base plates, ‘The latter are set flush with the surface of the wood. The guide is adjusted by loosening the blade-bracket screw and the guide screw, and the blade is moved to renew the cutting edge simply by loosening the machine serew which holds it to the bracket. To cut the lacing, first cut a small disk from the center of the leather scrap and place the scrap over the blade bracket. ‘Then insert the edge of the Jeather under the lip of the blade bracket, bring it in contact with the blade and slowly rotate the leather counterclockwise.

When

the lacing projects from

under the leather, grasp the end and pull until the desired length is attained, —C. Mendendorp, Grand Rapids,

Mich.

1880

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

MIGRATION By Kurt Saxon

Reflector oven test on frozen pies, They Daked in 20 minates—f minutes less than package recommended for regular oven 1969

Easy-to-make 5)

reflector oven

The cost of the reflector oven pictured above was 10 cents, To make one like it, obtain a clean, 5 gallon rectangular ean from a paint store (one that held paint thinner or liquid wax) and cut it approximately as shown. Such cans are usually available for a very small charge, Use coat hangers or sinilar heavy wire for the geill and the folding Jegs, and make holes for these wires with a punch or an ive pick: Like the refle for ovens you ean buy, this simple version gathers heal from a camp. fire with surprising ef iciency. It will bake roast, and broil, and you do not have to wait Tor glowing coals, IL witi heat while the kindling burns, Place it on the ground about 2 feet away from the fire on the ‘windward side (so ashes will not blow in).

\ Cut with tin snips, diseard side with spout Bend ¥4 inch of each edge over with pliers

Copyright 1979by Kurt Saxon

A few survivalists have considered migration as a way of getting out from under the impending doom of the American system. R. Hodkinson of Australia recommends his country as a place for Americans to settle. He means well but he obviously has known few Americans. For most American migrants to Australia, the place Is a miserable experience, both for them and the Australians they deal with. 1 will go into dotail about this, but first, let me point out the general impracticality of migration. Most Americans believe the world is their oyster. They feel their influence, their products, their trade, makes them welcome anywhere. This is true only when they go to other countries as tourists. They take money which they intend to leave behind when they go home. All tourists are welcome, anyvere, by those who make their living off tourists. Tourists are usually insulated from anti-American sentiments, as the authorities and those living off the tourist trade are verbally and even physically rough on their natiowho nals accost tourists with belligerence. So Americans who have traveled to other countries, spent all their money and left, come home with much praise for the polite and quaint natives they met. In most cases, the natives were polite only because they expected payment and also because they knew the arrogant, cloddish Yanks would soon go home But when an American migrates to another country, the mask of politeness is off. He is a competitor and, as a national from a country with a higher standard of living, is considered a loser and a fool Since he has little money, except what he might earn there, he is no better than the natives. He is also astonished by the realization that he Is now in the same position as the Puerto Ricans in New York or the Carribean blacks and East Indians in England. For the first time in his life, he is a dependent foreigneandr is treated as such ‘i | migrated to Australia in late 1962 for various reasons; the main one being a quest for adventure in what I considered to be a new frontier. Also, | believed America was going socialist and didn’t know Australia was much further along the same road than we were. ‘You must realize that Australia has obviously changed in the last 17 years, but, as_a migrant, 'm sure | would run into the same general problems | confronted then. Although the standard of living might be somewhat higher, the people and their attitudes toward foreigners cannot have changed much Furthermore, although the following my seem very critical of Australians, 1 ‘ould probably have had justas hard a time anywhere else | migrated to. For It is their country and their ways. And their attitudes against Americans were mainly formed by Americans who had been looting Australia for years. Also, I've never gotten along with Americans so why should | get along with Australians? : Even so, most of the Americans | met there were just as hostile to the Australians as | was and they were also just as obnoxious as | was and | didn't like them any more than did the Australians. Few of the other Americans were migrants. Most of them were businessmen taking unfair advantage of the Australians. It wasn't thal the Australians were stupid. It was just that they re less sophisticated than the sharper Americans. The term “Robber Barons”, as, applied to our 19th and early 20th century millionaires would be mild in comparison to the crooks I saw bilking the Australians. As a near penniless migrant, though, | didn't feel that | should be treated with the same scorn as the Americans who deserved it. But | got it anyway, even though | had gone there with the idea of being an asset to the country. The reason that | had so little money was that | didn't take advantage of the

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Continued from page 1874 shines, but answers for hamstrings, back-bands, fd ter purposes on the fart, MEracHLoRAL Dr. Richardson, of London, hs lat pesimenting upon metachlorl,n anbsisee pos fessing mild narcotie. properties, eomerie sith Shloral and produced ‘when chloral yvate i bronghtintocontaet with sulphuric acid, Choral i also changed spontaneously Into metachloal svhen kept for along time in a stopjered bot, or witen a quantity of water insiticient to proce the hydrate is added to i Test eomverte metae Clloval int the Tigi ers, whieh becomes the Hnydate on the addicon of x suite quantity af water.” Dr. Richardson ls calls attention to the fact that bora, from ite afinity 0 ae ter, ia eausie,and thot its nee mas, perhaps, fometimes be advisable in this conection, it New ofits after soothing effect,

1881

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Australian government's “assisted passage”. Assisted passage was a government con whereby they payed about three quarters of a migrant's passage. The ripoff was that one couldn't leave the country until the assisted passage, amounting to several hundred dollars, was paid back. Since few migrants could get decent jobs, and if they did, the pay was barely enough to live on, one could not hope to save the money, so was trapped. | paid my full passage so left when I'd had enough. Wages then were one third for the same job an American got over here. The average wage in New South Wales was 18 pounds a week at $2.25 per pound. Food and rent were cheaper than here but manufactured products averaged three times higher, due to high tariffs on imports to compare with the naturally higher prices of Australia's smaller industrial output Resentmant of Americans was deep-seated and mainly originated from the Second World War when hundreds of thousands of Americans were stationed in Australia as a base for attacking the Japanese. The Australian serviceman ‘was paid very little and the American G.1. was comparitively rich. They literally bought up all the wornen, which enraged the Australian men. Like the British, the Australians complained of the G.l.'s that they were “over paid, over sexed ACTION OF BROMIDE OF POTASSHCM. and over her Singe the fst introduction of bromide of pos The Australians seemed to think they could beat the Japanese all by slam into the materit medica there hae been ipo Geers aon i regard coe vale themselves, or at least the ones that attacked Australia. They may have been Ss a. remeds, some praising i extiavnnniy right, as the Australian soldiers are among the best in the world; as good or snd others desing i t ny specie ire, Most better than American Marines, triter, howeresits are eased. Edninistered, substance thayof juiicions!, ‘ey gre Anyhow, much of the anti-American sentiment is male-oriented. Australian nett, altiogh it mode of operation i s even women are very nice and very pretty, on the average. They never gave me any fet not ently anderstood, Accordingto De Jhmorg, feelers ste proce tyvasomotor tho direct seae problems, | think because since their desirability was a big part of the conflict, dian the Dood-vesely or the they were too flattered to get into the Yank-baiting game fem which eontrals the aetion of ese veeslsy find he thinks t h a t this action will accowne for Asa reporter, | decided to get work in that line. | had rented a TV and read all find explain all ofthe the physiological sidate that sherapethe their newspapers before making any applications. Although most of their news tial Sotonces drags He s t thelr papers were bromide is easily absorbed by the mos mem- about America was from U.S. news films beamed over there, ranels and hy the skin, provided the water oftn biased to the point of outright lies. They have freedom of the press, as do we. ts dissolved i e below the temperate But freedom of the press is all too often a license to defraud the intellects of + ihat its elimination conducted. by. the the reading public. ‘in fn thevspntial loses aadis theot Sines, eliminatedand by thatthe intestines or te I watched the account of the blacks kneeling on the steps of a Southern Jnnges att passes ont of he skin withowt de at a civil rights demonstration. This was against the law so the compesiton;thatthe lagerfflaence the deseithethe Yasavore courthouse cops, with dogs, moved them off and there was a riot. One black was flicking and ending the Sintense Iotorrystem and that its action in the general his jacket at a dog, got too close and was bitten. The news film plainly showed that the dog was leashed and the black just Hint a the vso-motor nerves pon which iets her sedative. The highestie nite value seme of the remedy no judgement of distance. Next morning, the Sydney Morning Herald pos had mine ised to 4s. a picture of the black being bitten but they had blocked out the leash, tsSaxe overmajority eplepy,of ‘cet; being ofwhileigholabsolutely revvice curing it the showed Giving the impression that the dog had been set loose against demonstrators. ery many,a fdlncroel thefilingtackyto where diminish docethe There were, and are, enough things wrong with America that one doesn't ruber need to lieto point out U.S, defects. | decided to get even by going to work for Mot cares One advantage ofthe bromide of po tatsumn sah tobe that ie cam be given without the Sydney Morning Herald. as a reporter | was turned down with the explanation |applied for work foinetimes present themselves, each an the pro that‘When they didn't need any help. Maybe they didn’t, but | found later that they {ction of dene, oF ether eruptions onthe face oF lhembote,aihoogh onthe other handy sueh de wouldn't have hired me anyway. Later, in Cairns, Queensland, | applied at their tases have sometimes be n to eared byrede Inofthefal paper and the editor told me bluntly that he needed a reporter but he wouldn't loves is said sometimes eae a Yank. hire alate. eigasei ent, salvation, drowsiness, Eenfaion of mind, depression f a i l u r e af memory editor was nice enough to refer me to the women's weekly Sydney The remarkable arms supplement of the Herald. | went upstairs and talked to the editor there. He ndnn Teg but all Jegre, hese evswesknese disapeneof theently didn’t want to hire me either, although he did need someone. | persisted and fnSenttheil discontinannee ofthe remy, no perm effects having been observed to flow ite asked him to at least let me show what I could do so he could see that | could empleyrient write. He dug into a drawer and got a pile of rejects which were the worst garbage 1089 OF roweER. Foree i, meamed among. English-speaking I'd ever read. | then went to a spare typewriter and rewrote several of the fobpla baie nethons: parents Wal nee articles. | reworked them into some highly readable stuff and he was so Fiat he hired me as a sub-editor. igmetitypodeevethat toHy ivethe anil T povof 1 foot high impressed in by This consisted of proof-reading, rewriting hideous romantic drivel sent whole coinst the action of grasitation, athe surface tl the earth semi-literate women, and writing captions to pictures. Actually, the

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1882 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Heat is messed, among Fgtich speaking staff practically wrote all the stories sent in, they were that bad. ple, br what ‘Although socialists, the half dozen staff were intelligent and witty and I liked Frat Nhe 8 tatbe eal quanthe Bufo ee vusitoeni deof them. I got along all right for a couple of months until the editor asked me to Falientet'sthosiacte x about Americans. The French myexsive heat al fee ina simi writeFirst,lyinghe articles asked me to write an article on how American women celebrated la mimnery ering their units, however, fen May Day. | told him American Women didn’t even know what May Day was. He the French standards a distance aml weight The following facts sve devive. tom state he knew it and | knew it but the Australian women didn't. | refused. swonts mae. hy the Dresident of the Bits saidLater, he wanted me to write about the subjugation of the American negro. ‘Association a t the lash meeting it, | ‘One unit of heat # equivalent to aout Instead, | wrote an article entitled, “Don't Pity the American Negro”. In etc. Goat poutrds of foree—tnt fs, the heat necessary pointed out that American blacks owned more cars, homes, businesses, to rate the temperatnte oft poimil of water t than all the Australians put together. Also, that blacks on welfare got more Hogtee is sufficient, fempleyell as a raechancal force, aoxt provided it could be alle» enyplaged than the average Australian worker. torsaise abot 185 porns {foot from the geod I then pointed out that the Australian blacks, the Aborigines, could not cross ‘The heat produced by the combustion of 1 state lines without police permission, got half the pay of whites doing the point of coat amounts to firelre thon same jobs and had no political representation. | don't think they could even in other words, i i suicient to heat or T pont of wate vote. Also, al that time, they couldn't buy liquor. My boss then transferred me pounds of water L degre , T2040 degrees, or the eivatent of that deg to another department, gave me hardly anything to do, and when the quarterly any Form ; and these 12,0040 its of layoff foheat,heatif inronverted period came around, | was out. Tito force hy being employesl in expanding some substance eqpatle of espa ‘As much as Australians despised Americans, | believe they hated the sions as steam, woul be svfficient, at the at English more. While | was still a sub-editor, Queen Elizabeth and Phillip hore mentioned, of abnnt 186 fit pols ef visited Australia. They came over ee for every unit of heat, pronuct over to as | remember, she had the trots. in a small-ship and Liz was very seasick and, tnillions of foot-porinds of foree-the Higmnes were 2,240,000, Tn ther words, the combnstion sf The staff women went to the dock to interview them. When they came back 1" pound of coal sields force enough to. joked about the Queen’s condition. One said, “Poor bitch; | hope she 2,440,000 pouns of water I foot high, or over Another went on about the foul language used by Phillip to the press 100 tons" 1 foot highy or 1 ton TOO feet high, “tescoms nstonishing that s0 much force and said he was a homosexual. | didn’t believe the last part but could imagine cane involved in 80 smal an anpout of om for swearing at Australian journalists. Inston shut the proof of the fet fs ronelisie, hisThereasons next evening | watched Liz on TV. Although | care nothing for the [Now of thie foree employed in the use of the Ihest constrneted engines ore th if monarchy, | was angered by the Australians’ treatment of her. For three hours Tost, "The best punping-engines for the Enis they kept the cameras on her while every Australian politician got up and gave nines raise ‘uly 1,000,000" pout 1f-water 1 a stupid speech. They were no better nor worse than American politicians. it for every pon of coal onsite stead fof 2,210,000 pans Totally degenerate. They each droned on for from five to ten minutes. The lose is sill greater i other mosesof wi But even worse than forcing her to listen to all those clods, that camera was ining heat in the mechanic sits. For exannpl inv the nse of coal for heating. parpmees i fi on her the whole time. She couldn't scratch, yawn, stretch or do anything one races, {pani of coal shold he encient to heat would normally do sitting in a chair for three hours. So for three hours, she ny puns of iron up to the welling. point posed like a graceful statue, showing as much poise and class as the ‘nhefeas in practice, fw ordinary fartaces, ot Australian government owned TV station showed their incredible rudeness and wre than 2 poms ave #0 heated, The mst far the of walle the inconsideration. That woman is a real lady. heat isfost through Gt the expenitod. face, in diising. the, Mast, oF ex As if to outdo the press and TV, that section of the government bureaucracy fmiedor sneted in other ways. ‘Thus, fn pay ing wnter, lest than one-half the netusl pours in charge of protocol, not only made fools of themselves, but did their best to developed hy the combustion fa rexlized tn he Kill her. First, they had her tour a hospital. Around the hospital were some etal elt aid heating processes only aout piles of coal. They sprayed the coal piles white sixteenth of it Then there was this patient named Townsend. The English Captain Peter vets axe in one gence very enconna T h e s e Townsend was a commoner who had had an ill-ated affair with Princess as they show what a fiekl is opt Lofore fatase Fiventons and disruveters for improvement in Margaret. Believing Liz might happen upon this Townsend, ask his name and the methods of utilizing the vast teservoits of become embarrassed, they sent the poor devil home prematurely. Even if she power comtsined in the enrth's stores of eo had talked to him, the similarity of names wouldn't have phased her. TIP CONSTTTURSTS Following t sey they sent her up to Darwin, a tropical hell in Northern ‘Ov Liatr OF OWWATER HEAT AS A SOURCE Australia, to watch a rodeo. It was over a hundred degrees in the shade and the rom tne to tim n paragraph mppenrs in the humidity was unbelievable. She was out in the open with only a canopy for nnspapers either suggesting. tho fava af ‘htshang ight and manner hese Cromat water, shade. Seven bulls died of heat prostration before her eyes. | don’t think she’s recone been then by deem Heinrome sing back to Australia since. theaccomplishment elements, ov ofelsetheanonncing the rueessta ‘After being laid off | took several temporary jobs and with some money from object by some Ingenions home, | bummed around New South Wales and Queensland fora few months. ei kone ossgen atl deogen, ‘The eh Then | went back to Sydney and applied for workaway passage on any ship Jeal combining ofthese heat,sistaswhiti afte by leaving for home. Workaway means only food, a cabin and passage, but no couse of rent of development the and also (aee ee pay. thay be converte tnfnposer, High Sanguine intense combinations) tain for a ship | hung around observing and talking to Australians. | often likedWhilethem,waiting nee accorngly inventors and sayy"discoverers generally, but they had a bad habit which I don't think is shared by a afin ot dette with ehousaeds sing, whothe enthWhy ‘Americans. Upon mesting an American, the average Australian would rattle off for hundred Inhor tit

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

{ect through sofid com}, miencombustion we have the elemente of theracksmostaferpowerful osm in exhanstles quantitiesesterslwnesed ath inthe water of cur brooke, wells? ‘This ees to many persons who are but Bit caja wth the stienibe 8,pres iyo he ery pansies ao ml infact, that n= tolishvals of that clas often rineseely iosmae tat {the problem may be solved, and sometines ferious effort, a spent auch thne and ones inthe ntempis to tolve i Others, aid thes Ot the plnteibility of the hea sn mekns of proi ihat he wants. devilmil wl bythe eommbnstioofn hydrogen Jig seseliqed iy the chomeal woion of that subtance of fede he meaeure an exysession al nd tie nce with which they eve toetitry force-rthe wlsle nf has to be overcome, that them seperate other, getting nI vsomne way oeimpos, therefore, of nec ‘The hopelers eae sow set endmastby this Hits experutedal atyefeat bemse the farefieiat there Tevc mel ging fhe by will give out apart theyns they water whith {oreensthe wit aging comme Together fie be anol, You sms pro ain so andnothing expendwillthe een, or samo other tub cre of force, to over alate store Stance theeoutaining ome intense energy with which oxen nnd Inslrogen ave, wnter favor ciewmstances, tees, andy whicy whew once waited, ata ioe wre etdih ponbbuation "This tatense. ev nd ent-tat the origin ual hethlelightuaion, fies sts a d wat eeere by sperioy Fee Lefre they cyanate the care fe exactly analgie to that of a «gent psdwater fnposera who thinksbase beha hashs Page on hs La (farmer ier, anda hg descending vavine coming dove a hnountin hy the side of ie, "All that ie whe Lanny fos die ent tint, atea deye eter and reply woulwhichBa: ea"Tv, sciaticave element The futnish power a descent the water It that finingtheydiengenn andony otfurnish water,it while forte, Fat the bottom already. Yor’ must devise some tuwans of gettingthe contents of ne pol to the summit of the hill beforeyon cam derive any Tenet eons the deseenulingg Howe and in doing this you will expend nt Tenst ns ancl force in tis the water as it will give back to you on eis ywecisely thus with all plans for obtaining Tight or heat, or ang form of foree, from the de composition ‘aail_ceeomnpasition of water. You nist expe more foree inthe decomposition than the recomposition will restore, A SOLVENT FOR CARNOLIC ACTD, GLYCBRISE. ay It is stated that earbotie acid befor firstmedical dissolve shuld l_porpores thetnpeatiea co six Inglyeerine, inthe proportiofonoe part any degree rmucl more it ean then be siluted to sinple state. 1 forms, Feaulily than oten in its glsrerine, with in its ermbination, a exrbotiteof fer tere with ; fant avin any of its properties advantag eous certain hae Uebile the compound om, ofits situes remedial ant pecaliarities ‘Anmuong the applications ofthe nstnre a atedisinits suse for a gargley a Joion, am injection, toothache, et Feetant, were easesforthe earbalie acid is applied where Tn mang

1883

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

a string of real and fancied defects in the American system. This would be prefaced with, “You Yanks”, as if an American migrant had any control over his, country’s policies. When this happened in a group, the bystanders would not tell the insulting boor to shut up, as most Americans would in a reverse situation. That put the American in the indelicate position of returning the Insult to the whole group, although he would preferto repay only the individual | got so tired of being ganged up on like this that | became an expert on insulting Australians. If they hated Americans and wanted to take it out on me, to hell with them. One Sunday in a Sydney park, a communist was speaking to a group of wharfies (stevedores). He opened up by saying that an eagle was flying over the ocean and crapped and they called it “America”. He didn't know there were any Americans in the audience. They just all went on like that. | asked him what putrid vulture tore loose and created Australia. He started yelling at me, "If you bloody Yanks would get your thieving hands out of our pockets we could use our science to make a parat Not having my hands in any Australians’ pockets | replied, “Are you so stupid as to think that these moronic wharf rats could make use of any science? They can’t even read, except the cricket scores and what broken-down, doped-up Australian horse crawls across the finish line first”. The quarreling became so loud the cops hustled me out of the park. Actually, we were sort of enjoying ourselves. | was never punched, nor did | ever punch in an argument. There was no danger. But these constant, uncalled for, misdirected insults against America to Americans was a kind of national rudeness which made me want to leave. When I got my ship, the Goonawara owned by Sweden, | was assigned to the hold seeing that the wharfies didn't pilfer. At my first friendly comment, one of the wharfies took me to task for lynching negro workers. The rest chimed in with equally absurd charges and | told them they were a bunch of goddamned communist parasites who would starve if they weren't loading American cargo. When the bosun heard the yelling he ordered me elsewhere and put a Swede who couldn't speak enough English to understand or return any of their insults. | then took the job of second cook and got back home with fifteen cents in my pooket. Today I'm less quick-tempered and would just consider the source when confronted by such rudeness. | could succeed in Australia now. But I'll make my stand here. | would not be beholden to people who despised me, especially for things | was not responsiblefor. Americans just don’t make good migrants. Our ancestors left worse conditions. As bad as you might consider things here, Americans can only migrate to places with lower living standards. Australia and New Zealand are largely dominated by American interests and their nationals naturally resent this. As decent as most of them are, all too many wish nothing but the worst for Americans, whetherwe deserve it or not

BEBSES

parasitic inseets to plants fur the destructionn ofparjose it ie stated Voshenee killed, For suchHhe exrholate will insure solution of that a yenk the destruction of the latter without injury to the Former REMEDY FOR RINDERE A Russian remedy for the rinderpest, whieh, ie state hae been used with complete succes Iipona huge nutes ofeatl, consisti i edie taking thn haw fe ana Hecease, eidemul ofafter raping, pounds of salt an iy plein. ie fur @ whole sight befire « large fte he eat thas medicated fs to be administered to Teal eatley hich nre inocnlated with the dis. ease in a mild orn, (com which they recover ia shout twenty-fowr hows, and afterward become fntively proof ngainst the Hfection,

SOME OF OUR NATIVE RESOURCES, An English prodace-hruker ealls attention to ‘the fact thatthe leaves of the lmetto-tre, done ‘yp in buns, and wichout ang special prepara tion, are worth about $250 in gold per tou fr eon ‘erclom into fibre. This plat is abst fn the Soutliom States, and eat generally be had for the gathering, avd shipments of it are earnesty invited “Auioiher English writer refers to the anomaly: shown in the exportation to Amerien in-ane da fof 1200 bags of Rein sumac, costing 8129 por ton, when this arlielo fs, foun every where in the’ United States, and of a quality” and co nevi value trom tet! to twenty Per cent. st terior to the best Entopean,. Several species fF the genus (Ans) are kbundant in the Middle

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 and nemoy all can he used to alsa ates, For this pareve the cops of the bushes eve off aul dried, either i the si or by aut fiviod heat, snd. then grown’ wp, aver which they wre placed in bnge, aml ave teady fer soar pofsohons, Kinds—the swamp sume tao Aogeond, nnd the poison oak —are nf of those with fomse to be Tet along Iint_anythe divk sedis producing ard spennate Fenves places, dry im ing gros d n , t i a f of masses Frown fm be eolletest wil! impunity.

PHOTOGRAPHING ON WoO.

wool, ing spon graphfom of photo d metho new ‘A thee sce tis r withsa dange g thed st i basennseenfrrnprinte ed, heconsiptare Ta pnaployter cae thena medi ofby thememewoo, cf adether, eg ear th ta Sion the eoloton Tee that enn be easily Tivinetine tele l hy thebetngengenths ve. fetowe NEW ALKALOID, ly conr fonnd in ‘A newaddinatkalo g idanothnser recont alran ninbe the: to opin, subst e com highly at in exit hom ned fom papain Satpoeal obtai Irie more h.powerline physictgiea 9 even morp i be than ttion

1884

THE SURVIVOR Vol, 5

Tricks You

Do v “ith

Mirrors

Popular Seience Monthly

i, My

Can December 1935

Mysterious Living Hand sar

(inn‘iets tome

GLYCOGEN longer to Stneehy as such, is no since a

crtsin thefonTseof vegetable,fret discovered ax yeculfulyplycogen, Ene of comet ue tai is now elsimed ne rnuseley and elie to be

Tar action, thie fort tke fa with sshieh the ruselar engine is worked, TYPOSULPHITE OF SODA 18 WASHING A. German chemist advises washer-women to nse hyposalpite of sada, instead of the common arbuntte of sons, 8 ites not attack faresin nny wa while it exeste n certain Mearhingac Tisn, which greatly improvesthe appearance of white ponds POISONOUS CHARACTER OF wETHY“AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS Rotittens has ascertained thae the fodide of end the jodide of tetramylrmethylammonium finmonium act upon animals precizely like the fsurare poison, by desrosing mations without flfecting the sensibility, and with precizoly the Same subtilty and energy. A few eentigrammes svll kil a dog in a few inate. AMMONIA ENGINES,

France the dtsi elas offor ammonisea of the Moigaoayrbcabliy coves:‘he Abbé of ot the Patsie Snventor Tater, io hethe wellknown ofsnachine Slnees of Acadamy’ his lee ean of Inammonia gonearab Fine for thenapa Tie soli sven rt ces ydg Ligetatin read as in Seconds freakin of poses t i which fey atthe evinarytemperanie oar, Yresre t is rajorwithow peng tos hightof sapesesting Theabtng lyn and r temperto {Ee pensity of collectingthe vapors expend new intheof thope ga, ie tote woapieetions tem again, important Tacrnore traveling aroadgene, be in high thik, of working an’ bam oor mbes ustacaadl aus Tee mines so adnsn also incleap devrabey where‘ badads, oul thentiveminornot power need

HUMAN hand, apparently detached from the body, moves mysteriously atop a three Athe legged table in this staring sllusion Mirrors set between the legs of the table reflect images of the screen anil Moor the effect of empty space. througlea hole in the back sereen, andto give up through a hole inthe table The hand is passed Magic Bank Makes

Deposits Disappear to back and bound at the top with passe partout binding tape. Rach mirror reflects al of the box and, no matter how you look at i, the partition seems to be transpa hhow'the pencil, in the photograph, disippears Tuchind the lass. The cover is placed over jane compartment anda. coin Is. dropped through the slot. ‘To the observer, the coin appears to vanish completely

Mirror Used as a Square To draw a line at right angles with the a mittor as. shown, edge. ofa board, hold coincides When’ the ‘refletion is square withwith theit Board ise, ‘the mirror

OU can mystify your friends itwithand thissee wick bank. Tet them inspect only compartments that thee ae no secret , partition appears to. be &_ransparent This middle, the in t i DE plate glass dividingthin mirzors placed back telly a pair of

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 UTATION OF MANOGASY A method is now in se in is by which al at "any. in oF wood of clove ca ie fade to imitate mshogany eo closely ae 0 ren tr fe almost impossible to dissing betwen the real and fie article, The woul iv hrs planed so\as to render it perfectly svn sn [5 then retibed with dilate sulphnuse ail. Aft feened an otmice and al of ison sci Atissolsed ina pint of solo, and hal that tite nfearhonateof soda, are mise filgered, and the ig fr Li am Yo the Wood with a sat bra Process i rejeated nti in a short tn Will be fon ta have the apy nny. Bile eold- dra the polish, which becomes dimmed that! this substitute ie now applied with success was maligeony which in Paristo all purposes for formerly sed, PARCHMEST-TAPER use of parchmentaper for the prepara: tion‘Theof deeds And other purposes is ‘ery tapidly eid is replacing the ge of ite appli iment ih a great many proparieg. this sl method of Finpeoved cording to lst artiele, consists im using the state Commercial ofl of yitvol in am undiluted of solution 1 is fist passeddied,through She paper im its co ious pe ioronghly and tummy action of the tnersion, this preventing any due After the ap Corrosive principleof the vitriol, into.a plication of the acid the paper am is yaseed bat allatine paper throng printed Yat of water, and then Written atid washed, ngain be To ma nay anidergo this improved pracest and withont clearngs® alldistinctness Tevkaly afleting thethe paper its qa fof the letters, and being’ wetted)stains times in several after even ties, he usual Eecession, while paper preparedits inplanes, and loves, to a yeat Cstent, Imammer Uecomes hard snd sti NICKEL AND COHALT PLATING 18 TINE

Inbora of the postectiniea chemist Profesor Stolba,chnicn Linge, of , tojy of the Potste fist to anionnee to the world ASH5 hn been antthe tecnic l ies, especia a dseover importce tothe plating ‘cexalreferen just hts meal, ot ipin Journal,ofall2 r® Polytechnie metals Hathted, im theDingle of fosting erate witupon nickel method eabalthati the wilWet beoS,iteoF andchink Tint he and s ‘esi fr e theetect cffo, andthe evento Toestle tomat method by te castactonyeichsnctu Tien lating, has tataTately comeot so gener i Ueetrop iy value ofsel we plating i,mehof conse, ‘he toody and nickel sed wheries pow veryfs Hse suodes corre,of {her polednny:iron orthe bescase in the to.wiinity S2',Pymieu is espns In lugeal theyachts,metalterework er, ation, Shievdtcomder so 98 , fo ng steane's i often the ‘ehinery wayof sea-gci j-a notable instanceof whieh {Meated in this Neccal facely built for Mt, A. Slate, ot New York, ‘hie details of Professor Stolha’s process are too eomplientedfor our poyres bt we ray ea

the setaof nm thatinthe depends terme intpeveral elore of presence of michel reals The sub for conte, vessel tbe state Sine and of the aresmetal fey rapeited ees ing yore which maybe ofof Mieke, the operation, suite Sonud salt ifin ormetaly secon, chloride, sulate, or the Thich may be eitherand passa flan hit, nikel Tupeofac ot sheet footy clippings of zinesand powdeted Spettond pve Ath, fines wine zine ov Sine

188. EASILY MADE

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

SEISMOGRAPH

Records Distant Karthquakes Built like a pendulum, the instrument is amazingly sensitive fo faint shocks, but not to nearby traffic ny

Roy

H. BALpRipGe

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1935

soW and recorder, Karthquakes from 200 to 6,100 miles away have been registered When the earth trembles, the bob, freely. Pps. very insiame tne erome remains almost still while. the | {render bevel your i The suspended, post_and pivot vibrate, A delicate point at the end of a long, Tight arm fixed to ft rest; and somewhere in the the bob magnifies the movement of the world, perhaps ih the center of a conti seround and seratehes the record of it on a nent, possibly heneath some ocean, smoked paper wrapped around a revolvquake. is in action that may send its ing drum. Nibrations around the globe. For sheer ‘he post is an angle iron drilled as deUnbelievable, horror-tiiged experience, withow tailed in the drawing. Set il up in a connightinare. imposed thereafity,terrorthere ofais nothing crete foundation 16 in, square and 9 quite like a stif in, high: or a shellaboutof bricks built nt of tup, and concrete poured in maythe becenter. ‘To the accompanime trnth, shock. rambting, the ground srthes, fow-pitchet hardens, make the other parts rach, while theis WhileThe this baits d n a say, treed bob, is of lead, melted sickening realizalion ‘comes that eanUhereling and poured or into weight, by 314 in, about a can’ bo rigid thing Tefl to shich yor ‘The dimensions may vary somewhat, Ti for support the cat ig packed in damp sand, the hot ashen oF where an earthscentsts metal No one knows will not run out when the seams quake will oceur, Por this enson open. have rmovements,of and give studying earth In the center af the side of the weight, dis such nature the of much saned drill hole, 3% in, deep. wat -ean be dane 10 Vhreadand a tapJ4-in,a 4-in, furhances,daviage5 wellfronas them brass rods in, long at Jessen end to serew into the bob, and if i By. building. a. seistnograph similar to fone ig oo louse, make a Tew dents in the lead the ne illstrater, yt con make Vow a hobby Cut off of the rod so that the may distance theto theend center ‘nf quake recording fewyourself. is, only a houes after andcom-al 534 in., and drill a hole inof thethe endweight ave to ait check slightly up on shock, My jieting iL to a fewr days larger “than an exteatoud phonograph epee. st only has recone will of such depth that the inserted Forty-threeearthe needle, fevennenraph needle will he exactly 6 in, from the point varying in ds dauaees within six months, fries. to the bob center. A little solder melted thee Trem 200 t9 6.100 0f heavyAlthough into the hole around the needle will itis located within 75.ate noticeable street. fasten it bail effectsconsists of a horizontal Lrafie,This 10instrument In the center of each side of the weight, at right angles {0 the rod, drive a small wire from finishing hy ane foundation, pendatony suspend nail, allowing the head to proBs upright post ina heavy

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Iydroclorie acid, Cobaltiaing, Stolln terms it s of conducted aga eat cobalt bei in very inmellace theof alt of nickel SUGGESTION For DISrENSIN (0 WITH SMOKE. Kev. Mr, Gilsone proposes a method for dis. using with smoke-stacks--namels,by having Svlownwardthe corminating i the water-draine, of any district the urains that aif ventilati maintainsd with He connecte ng furnace havin al 9 at be would there shaft, ‘Tofiy ortament ttaived the motive entrent of air, avd a means of destroying the nosiows gases of ‘our under central farmuce woul atl system, while the apply warin sie or water, or even gts to al the ontiquons dwellings, s and the heaty fulginous| ter be condensed ehielly in the matwould fs Phe reste woulbe, frst absence of smoke of cost inn city atmesihere;, second, diminution in consénuction of vations ehimmey-stack thied, absence of arehitectusnl distigarements,#0 ine cowts and red eplindrie pots; fourth, saving t tuel hy total consumption of the synoke in the fate, the fie bnening dosemwandinetead ofp fear fh, greater ease in clenasing the flues Frum soot, andandirreversibility in the removal steadiness of airof drags, ashe sixty aod ower of thoronghly ventilating aroom even when furnished ‘vith ofre, of the Chemien? News re "To this the editor joins that the idea is not a novel one, the same iting having occurred many years ngo to Mr Epettea, of Manchester, but the dienity of get ling sulticientsughe was so great thot it could note carted out, A tower of an in diameter wou have tobe erected, a precinble effet woul be produced,

CAUSE OF SMORINESS IN QUARTZ CRYSTALS. well ofasvare smoky that quarts in 1808were « InrgeMineralogists mmiber of aracrystals furnished spectfound tens of inentSwitzrtand, Beaty andwhich sae to many eabinels throughout the wot! course ofof asomein= ‘eigation dato the physicalIn thecharacters tothe see f nas found,that much Dt theseof thegestaeexperimenter, Price on heating Tone their smoky appearance, and beceme they Timid and eolorless asthe most besatifalwhether rock tryst this suggested. the inquiry {hpSubstances color waswhichdue were¢o thedestroyed inclusionby heating, of organicor totho some changeeasedof theby themolecular constitution oF crystal heat. ‘To determine {his question, Profetoe Forster subjevtedm tries andy a earefalto thoexamination, enystalscameto Boal of&5 these eonelasion tha rely the the black color was not btthe that resultfosof anyprofaced pect: condition, {nrby themolecelar of bates containpretence ing ongunie carbonIn theand crystal hydrogen.

1886

ject about 14 in. Attach 9 stitcup of 2 Li or 16-gauge iron wire to these nails with loops, and Ge. the suspensi on wite to the center, thus bringing the point of suspension to the center of the hob. _ Three adjustment points are provided in the seismograph. ‘The upper, of wire adjustment (A in the diagram). consists of a threaded brass rod bent L-shaped and pierred with a A etait photograph of the situs » small hate, Mis serowed! into a bracket. consisting of a brass plate with the upper fend bent back ata Tittle ‘more’ thaw 45 deg. N tock nut behind the bracket keeps the adjustment rad from changing posttion Adjustment B, for shifting the upper sup: port sidewise isa pic of 34 by ein. brass Tent U-shaped, with a 3/16-in, threaded brass rod running hrough the ends, The U is) not. threaded, bearing for the rod, whieh is. kept from ‘The stytue ress on a drums made from a ean al covered with smoked end motion “by tv

Asal B in the drawing low is the pivot and snared Cin denwinge

YCING AGES

If an aqueous solution of sulphurous ncid be allowed to'net uponthe finedevelopment sine dst ofthe gna,2ine the Aiszoved without folition sssuming fornow a possesces tine a decked seow olor liquel the peculiarity ina rapidly decoleriing digo, vereabethighwalldegree Enownof to cherie, Seiltien terper, who hus lately been fovestigating, tis uljec anew, ascertained the thie decolorizing ‘ot the indigo is by no means the reel of exidas tion, but, enof reduction the contrary, inthe3 gidredetion; and {hs power isso exiaorif

‘that it will reduce, with heat, the

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

nls thal are soldered to the rod. after being Fightened against the U. ‘The U, with the bracket for A. adjust ment is fastened to the post with a4 by Lin, machine bolt Adjustment C ig made of 34-in, brass rod threaded full length, with 2 slot cut in the ear end for a screw driver, To the

Tracing of actual ceeordl maeby the sujlus of a quake 5920 miles teay other end solder a cone cup beating from. an old clack balance wheel, as a pivot for the phonograph needle in the bob rad. Supply the adjusting screw with a_nut efore and behind, after inserting. it in the lower hole of the upright, and tighten it with the cup hearing about J in, From the surface of the post, Make the extension “arm of 30-gauge siuminum, forming it into a” tapered channel by folding up the sides as. indi cated. ‘The small end terminates ina Y formed out the bottom and prending by thecutting sides {0 accommodate the stylus assembly For attaching the arm to the weight, make a sheet-brass clamp ¥ in, wide and 10 in, long to bind around the bob, where it is held with a screw and nut’in the

THE SURVIVOR Vol.

5

1887 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 as sho n. A-strip of brass You now have a horizontal pendulum ith in, at one end hent with a delinite period of oscillation. ‘The af right anes soldered to the clamp period is the time in seconde requited for nd fastened ( the extension arm with — the weight (o make a swing hack and Lovo. sinall bolts forth, With the pendulum in motion, avd To assenthle the machine, thread the using the farthest movement (0 the right the time. in fight to move starting point

table in is free con-

IMPROVED STOVE.

CapFe

it, shift the pivot outward, nearer

change a point direetly below the upper support, by loosening the nut on the rod bebind the angle iron and. tightening the front fone, Contintie moving the pivot outward = aes . Gi NUT : ? N Rob BENEATH

ing to the bob center, ‘The weight should

ecient e neg

asked theuid of reece

wil probably be se or elght sconds. To

from the bear.

ponteas Garon sei exedonwas encng of Cris horizon

ight anjcles the necessity ening the

the double come Lo 1 Jovisingm stove that woud fuk arions responses pera sere anade sept to this appeal, and mong the pate Metdingery of Terns furnished that of Professor a ; . is RMA best. whis thea double considered Cabra, was store yee with l , having Simply an'iron AFTER INSERTING ROD,” sip Permenneeam. ae Bream ADD NUTS OUTSIDE a AND SECURE

wate:

so

soup

PEO tal heat inthe oom i blag

WITH

Covering of the Hove; fy what heaed,” Gon 4iso eonstamly beng i e same, si'the cause le n WIRE IRON. eee eats pa in from wi the top ‘nd fills the . whole bout six feet high, Snsige ot the stove ore or less, It is then lighted at the top, and Kept by the nedraught se burning ha nie lncreated byheval¥esttmin-

of samethe the tempera tht aise treater iho AU beontorSpun femhecumhehe al beng at tsane rom the O05 a caecee ee etary ee amount ot! The expe ‘of fuel to produce asaficient ack festabeony thcaPsey eS sce

aMReMSEaTY cS

cura DIATOMS improved metho fe iste ofby Dr leaningMaloan each dhiehces and

a half drams of hydrochloric

to be placed in a the

acid,

the

@ vial, and

ite a sable git ne ad

whole

closed

ee s

[a0 5.

upbee SubboRt > ADJUSEMENT (Bras)

PHONOGRADH NEEOLE

at ve (we TINCAN WAN FILLED US bla

ir atoning

py

oo

ieee SxrenSTONi Ally FADJUSTMENT-C.

Brass)

BS

gta

whit, ththee aye ringof fakes inns The all one,ofthe materia Spmvopite l fr st a5 ty Yeung proper of air ie retains in ite inter feat quanti y rout soem fof every wll ft a nor :

‘of

the

original

e

Ir clock BALANCE= WHEEL: BEARING

BoB

‘

ysvashell ot with clean Year MINERAL COTTON, mal of the Fi kin Tnsttute reports which tis hon ey Coleman Sellers, ofa materia! of etl applicat be eapabl h general resemblance possesses The sulaamice to cotten, fur which ie may in some easesiy, prob hove

ndneting fens or which itis being teste

wibe PAT ea

‘irei EEG One SCREWED INTO

instrument

constructed by Mr,

| SQUARE HOLE,

sol beRED ON (Air) Netock Up eLack’ To CENTER WitH "SHAFT

Baldridge and thoroughly tested over a long period

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 until the pendulum has 9 perfed of tselve seconds, If the seismograph is placed out of doors it should hein a dry, shady spot and x larger fexndation should he used, fot water seepage under the. fonndatinn will cause the needle ta wanelee wf the paper. Place a screen around the instr iment to prevent. the wind from blowing directly on the pendulum, which is very sensitive (0 air ettents aronnd ih, Uf the Currents are very Lroublesonve, the seismo. teraph should he entirely inclosed The recording drum is simplicity. sel Obtain a tin ean OF about the. size in dicated and mount it on a S4in, brass Lube for a shaft. One end of iL is threaded, while the other is left smooth and termi nated by a washer having 2 square hole in iC slightly move than 14 in, on aside Bearings are made by drilling bar brass to receive the shal une) mounting screws, Drill one 7/16 in, im dinmeter and thread it to fit the shalt theeads, but drill the other 86 in. for a plain bearing. Havin. eat off the ends, serew the plates to wooden mounting Inocks, which in torn are held upright by a Ihase boaie Ife drt rotates it sill be alraven endhwise corresponding t0 the lead af the serew, and thus acontinuods Tine is traced Inv the etslus, Driven ome revolution ter hour iy a small eecteie clork, the pager will Tost days witht cians several lock‘ the eloeke until conta with the forbine. Retmose the Irn, avid attach a radio universal Jodot to the hour-hand shaft, To the thee sie securea steel rod 14 i square ba fe its other end. dust throng the shat ‘washer, thus providing adeive for the dtm, hho matter what its endvvise position TPHsuch dn a heightscent that theaieditbe Hecke is fttle beeto ANTAGO According to Dr. Frazer, the active principle of belladonna (atropia) has a remarkable coun terneting influence upon the poisons netion of the Calabar bean (physostigma). When doses of Atropia were given a few minutes before or after tskibg the bean, animals recovered from the ef fects, which would otherwise have heen fatal, the most succesful result eing hen the atropia tras given before taking the bean avarenana A vecent communieation Ty De. James Wane, of GuatemateCity, to the Rosa Mest ‘of London, calls at the Paci enast of topical America, ag residence for consutnptive. patients, "Ni city is sitgated 5000 eet above the sea, im Ist tude 137 82" north, having a mean’ temper tite of 66°F. ‘The elimace is that of perpa fl spring, the air i tonie and invigorating, yer hot too stimulating. Consumption is very rarely tot with, and plthiseal patients coming from diseane, if able to lead an open-air life, make emarkable progress. Of twelve eases record, Fine died, Gre recovered, while three still re mained under observation, OF the Fatal case, disease fad reached & hopeless stage i all theInte one, before being seen forthe fise cine, Ft of the Central Ameris suggested that the value should be tested. by jean platenus in phthisie

I888 Te the level of the estension arm ti, Tiction between the ets and the paper von the denn navst he redieed to anima, tied thie is pecomplihed by The ee of meats tribalancer! neelle. Cut amatch stick 3 i Fnit on et typ sina seve needles the pointed hatves it the ends of the ie Run another sinall meee theameh the fener of the nynteh so that a eros will be formed It is the point of this needle that traces the fine on the smoked paper Foe pivot earings, make &-small hole in cea side of the Vitam ie pick ae screw fn clack between ahineesisheel the lvlstivo pivot thems. caps, Mer a Mottstfe teats raving nelle any be Tkancerd so that the int wl reel_very Tightly on the paper, igh tae paper, sich a8 enamel finished honk sed hinder for thethe record, hier iepaper, eminothshould. curfacehe will move: tent of the neealle but Bille, Aaost ‘inline shop envries some in stock, Use a every kero rene Hants to. siake. the papery Wien tame tizh and holding thelyapee above isChe {ily Mack deport of soot has heen sepnsited: Sometione tring the recording, nantk tH rvostinn of the sistas a 12 mys hat ine fan br reckoned from it After’ econ fix ‘he sheet by spaying it with a solution of six parts neohol ta one of white shellac, and use iene 9 negative, for printing the Detmanent record ifon desied, photogeaphie paper The seismoeeaphn of course, will resister runly shucks that vibrate somewhat ont of the plate of the pact and arm. "To receive quakes Fromm all directions, to instrements should be Dil an set'upy ad right arses to enel other. Wher there # no dsturlinen, the pendula vill retain stationary andthe needle wil trace stenizht it;fine butnn when the smoked paper aise as ie owes beneath ses enna Tint quake pas neath, the needle sl ving from side to1 orside,2 in,sometimes it cuties Large or Tesssmall,thaneach34 Fine will-crente a deste Co Teaen ore bout the science of seismology

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 LEAVING obtain reco, you il want tw know the distance and Foeation of the tcethquake, ‘The distance can be_ estimated fsirly aceitately, Avniding teclinicalities, nay be said that three nan waves emanate fom the usual shock. ‘The hast, or primary (Py wave travels fastest, A slower secondary wave (S) comes a litle Inter, registering Ue paper, and ter still thied, oF main (AF) wave. They start together, and diverze more fal mote as they travel from the souree, and Tee rate of travel hye heen mneastred. Th charts have been prepsred that show feom the Time-separation of the recorded. waves. {he listynce epicenter,the ardisturbance the nex o€ groweditt Tnaistely to shave “The location of & thequakeU.S. is Coast learnedandby Geoobcard feom taining ddotic Survey nivine the data, or i ean be com puted from the records, as illustrated in the Siagram,

ending out twenty paiients in an enry stage of the diseace fora few years oF better, for a per= tonnent residence, st RING OF GLASS PLATES AND GLOBES.

takes pacedes mixture avers of the ion porit Decom inch, mine metal pare an inten died,the washed then which plate, the on ose slvering of purpose Borglobesthe te i 3 nice Int oneal glass of Interior ont soceeaine-smal ques of th

Aceoeling t0 Kerippendorf, the silvering of alas platesfollowing maybe substances: really accomplished yr the {co ofthe Ir Sodo.potase fefiestartrate; 2. Avtvo per ent, solition of otsilver this 3. Caustic ammonia 1 . Solution ita 1:8 (old silverand seducing bath wil uidserve), ar pros Brom Those the slvering pared reducing liquids prepared cube“The centimeters of distill wateryby andtaking90 900oteptimeters of oiling the soliton of together, the tartrate er mixing, strongly andthe tho steam i s issning violently fom. Hack, solutions dropping andin. 20boingcubicforcentimeters tier another ten ofmin:the utes. ‘This hyeoation not only Keeps,t0 butbe filtered seems toItoiimprove age. Tho liquids precipitated iti wanted, "The thesilering slationsilveris auprepared by taking 200 ‘cabie centimeters of dated water, and ‘Riding 80 cabie centimeters of the slvr solu tion tering and. 100 if drops of the ammonia solution, sand necessary. of the eo aolo= For silvering, equal volumes Aare adnla sepa ae togcet sons poured gts ashplage 19 shall inka cleansed fond tha ethothee thoroughly frp ibe eoveced by a layer of atleast one-tenth of aa

a Sitka 204g

contin, 0 to ep the vessel turingstsace theThre ile wet afr. DIFFERENCE OF BACTERIA FROM FUNGI, Some researches byof Dr,contagion Sandersonhave uponTed imthe intimetepathology {over eaveful Jlerorytver iveatigations(Bacteria) ino the sodeondsione ter which feng eronvape in anos elon, he Yeaults at ‘Mleronymen whieh he arives ave of great impor are.elution not capable of beingbe transmited from ene to another theane efit are Oncapable the eter fangh at ‘rel known, of beinghands0 anand, Tpoper be ken,10 A eolution precautions (basteurs, ints e.g) preperation may be expoted thethe aedevelopment for monthsin init an’of open veelBacteinm, withoot a singe. tile fongh (E¢ Mycelium tole) wil beaf deex: toto isiatreamount proportion iin hr eloped ths res Inorder ale the to Jone ifthe mecesory ito bol the elution, and Moruhly rinse with ling Water the este {geist contain ofi a drop of ordinary distied "Phe addition of to causin rpid water @ seluion, IF auch development im abundance Bncesais eflojent

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1829

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

{he distiled water be preston led, no clear such development ensues, "These vests show iy tht micronpmes there fs no anddevelopmental connection he fron forule ofcells,maeand tha ele anya asoiion Sao says fe nko in thiswithoperdene am nes acconntconanaf a singerie"There of experiments s organic an other solutions, which were, inDre Bastian’ well-known experiments, su ited to a high temperate, special exper iments being also made with teen nichDr. tore By Kurt Saxon Copyright 1982 less petecevactu was prodaced; Bar m {io avthat illTow beremembe he had ebelering ‘The imminent collapse of world civilizotion is becoming apparent 10 more people as the found organtame developed themselves Inore rap im fois exetng i'n atmosphere economy grinds down and internotional frictions accelerate. Even so, most people still Ofentirely low tension. Sandersn’s the overall decline is due to some kind of plot, political bungling or economic at varianceDr. with thoge ofconclusions Dr, Instonsre boliove miscalculation 4 Inno one eave there proper precantions were taken to exeife destroyfakegerms Whatever they believe, they ore still blind to the real root cause of every socio-economic Xeloqment of life and whatever pace Git any de

Warnings From

The Past

RICHARDSON HYPOTHESIS OF A NERVOUS Ina tate number of the Poplar Science feview Dre Richardson again tgs forward his fc ip, that beiween the moleeales of the ‘animal matter, slid or fai, of which: the nervous 0 anisms andy indeed, of whieh all the organic: Tarts of the body are eomposed, there exists n Fine, medi, saparons oF gaseous, which holds subsite the molesules in'a eondifon tor motion ton each other, and for arrangement atid tetvangement of forms a medivm by and throdgh Svhich all motion is conveyed, “and yaoi Thtowgh which the one organ oF past of the body itys ieldand inthrough communion ad ‘whieh withthe the outerotherting.partswork communieates with the Hing man; median Srhich, being present, enables the phenomena of Tio tobe demonstrated, and whith, being te erslly absent, Teaves the body” dend=—thae is, tha it ean hot, by any phesuch enndftion inttomenon of motion, prove itself tobe alive "According exidence pervading i fe of the esistenceto theof andoctor, elasticthemeatum the nervous matter, and enpabie of being ina excel by simple presace,f pevtly sttc tory. Namerous experimental foes siggest hint {hove exist in the nerves sn neta material #99ti e agemt=n someting ‘more than the soft mater whieh the eye enn see and the finger touch, ‘He therefore is led to believe that there ithick s another existsformit theof matter eouitionpresent of vaporduringoF gaie which pervades the whole: personal organi: furrounds, a8 an enveloping etmosiere, exc molecule of nervous structure, and isthe me dine of el motion communieated to or from the “The sowee of this refined matter in the body he eansiders to be the Llood, and te looks upon it'as vapor distilled from the Lion’, as being Posten forme, a0 tong ate Ud cca ntes nt theInta natural temperature,matics andto which a3 ben i tisfsed the nersont by the performed for every fntion qualityorganiantion. ives hevvows In the. elosed caviti Containing nervous structure, the emities of the ull and spina eotumn, thie gnscons matter. or ther, n3 he terns, astains a given requis inal parts of the nervous strneture srrounts the molecules of nervous matter, sep~ rates them from eachother, and yet is them a bond and mediam of communication. propin estimating and defining the physieal erties of this nervous ether he stggests tha iis ‘nts or vapor, having ints elementary constr. m earbon, hydrogen, snd. possibly nitrog He thinks i is condeneable unler cold, mouble

‘nd political upheaval; « surplus of people, and worse, a surplus of inferior people. Further, who they seem to think it Hillerian to advocate the destructionof the millions of porasites have doomed civilization. Actually, iler’s program was ploin ond simple nationalism, whereby the German wos to bo supreme over every other race and ethnic group. Much is made of his proposed program to sterilize defectives. But this only involved obvious mental basket cases. Any German oble to tell the difference between one end af « gun and the other was to become port of the “Master Race’. The uniformed Gerwanic ope would have been placed over even in telligent Americans Hitler's bias in fovor of Germans over the superior Americans and British of his day stems from his being on Urbanite and a politician, 1 any bias is volid I'd favor the most dim-witted bout productive clod kicker in the Ozarks over any Urbanite and/or politician | biing up Hitler only hecause I'm so often accused of imitating his thinking in my odvyocacy of sterilization and euthanasia in regards to ridding our species of inferiors, My only concern in ridding our species of inferior people is a kind of insurance. This is that all of our citizens will be well born, well reared, well educated and well occupied. Plus, without morons dropping surplus young onto the welfare rolls, adaquate individuals could keep most of their earnings for the benefit of themselves and their loved ones. Regardless of the socio-economic system, there is no justificotion for public funds being squandered on demanding parasites, Our present horde of public charges has become on accepted obligation on the port of the ‘overage American taxpayer. Every politician falls all over himself apologizing for ony fon cied slight to “the truly needy’. But who truly needs the truly needy? Any why should the truly needed be enslaved on their beholf? Why should the lives of the improvident aged be prolonged by strangers? Why should the fertility of welfore parasites be subsidized by society's workers? There is no logical reason for any of these miscarriages of compassion. But modern Urbanites have become so psycologically and economically locked into the system of perpetuating the useless ond unfit thot it will take o nuclear war to rid us of them, Ht does no goad to try to reason with Urbonites since they're unable to grasp the basic issues. Incase i's not clear in your mind, tet mie give you a few simple illustrations which | hope will put the problem in its overall perspective. Say this country was © body and the people were its cells. Say further thot over a third of the cells were either old and worn aut ar physically or mentally defective, or predatory, ottacking normol cells Now, say your doctor soid you hod concer and he wos going to cut it out. But you soy, No. My cancer cells have as much right to five as my normal cells”. You'd be judged insane. But our country has millions of old people, being kept alive artificially, in misery, long ‘after Nature /God decreed they should die, and at great public expense. Millions of physical ‘and mental defectives are not only allowed to live, but encouraged to reproduce their records, are biighted kind; again at greot public expense. Millions of predators, with known allowed to run free to rob, rape, maim and kill; still at staggering public expense. If jailed,

1890 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 they often live better than their victims, to the detriment of the toxpayer. So this country is afflicted with collective insanity ond terminal concer. The terminal cancer is self-explanatory. But the collective insanity is manifested in the average Urbonite’s ignorance in believing in the timelessness of today ‘The Urbanite’s mind is beset with thousands of impressions each day. Ropid change is @ naturat port of his life. His days ore so full of differences, he can’t remember well what life was like five years ogo, much less wenty. And history is 0 meaningless panorama of unreioted or foreign impressions. So it is natural. that the laws of cause and effect, so noticed by those dwelling in more placid rural areas is lost on him. Add to that the fact that the average Urbanite is possessed of o hopelessly low I.Q. ond the more intelligent is desperately neurotic and you have an urban populace of nitwits W's litle wonder that the relotively normal Urbanite con't see the forest for the trees. Surraunded by the imbecilc and the twisted, he thinks he’s anti-social, out of place ond just a frustrated malcontent if he doesn't see his Disneyland for dummies as the best of oll possible words you corner him ond give him the facts he'll admit he’s uneasy for himself and his loved ones, But his jab is there and besides, Congress won't let Social Security go bankrupt. The Russians aren’t suicidal enough to start a nuclear war. Without reafizing it, he’s been caught up in the hysteria of the dimwitted ond the psychotic Urbanites oround him. The wishful thinking of his inferiors has weakened his inCTS. SUIVE LPOX SMAL OF T TMEN TREA stincts for self preservation Living in the timelessness of the parasite, he hos no sense of i Paris in ox smallp of l wee preva the ng Dovi history or of the lows of cause and effect es repired th Inst sprithengpolicefromnuthoriti Of course, Rurals have litle better sense of history, os such. Since they are into a more Ti it to be sponge nageno isa those aging eighty tid composed stone hundred atvd bosic economy they seldom need the education or the broad frame of reference requiring Sit carholie. acid faa qwrt of distited: nesneerthis long term historical evaluations. But they ore much more awore of the laws of cause and tse: Formerly chloride uf eam ews rembevin g. it al effect and so con better understand what happens when losers reproduce. of enienc inconv t a e r g the had. to remain in. then $0 the above ond the following willbe lost on Urbanites but will be understoody by most ost innpossible for any one neid solutio Rurals. But ofter all, the Urbanites are deservedly doomed and the Rurals are the seeds of earbulie "The corpse, a ‘ith oom ges of ndvata the nll five enuf is n questio In the next civilization. So it’s to the Rurals these wornings are redirected in hopes that chloride of ealeiura with none ‘humans wil finally fear Warnings of overpopuiotion have been given since Plato's time and probably before. The ExTRACTIN LICE FROM SEGAR-CANB, ETC wornings all valid, as Greece, Rome and every following civilization-was eventually 2 ne method of esta 1 juice from sopar swomped were by vast numbers of useless and degenerate citizens. Misery and cultural loss has ano, beet, te deess of illusion, fas been anno ign always been the price of “humans” breeding like onimols. {iis purpose t h e cane, or other original substance Malthus put his finger on the problem in 1797 but was opposed by the Urbanites from whe the jee is to he extracted, fs Yo be of Thomas first eut in aices Uy m special machine, and the his day. The following is from Chamber's Encyclopedia, 1891: plead ina series of Closed water-tight tanks, MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT, the expounder of the theory of population, was born 14th ind brovght i contact with water at an elevated February 1766, at the Rookery, near Dorking, in Surrey, where his father owned o small He was ninth wrangler at Cambridge in 1797, wos elected Fellow of his college sic entrsing ‘ut onder, the wlcle Another process method of difisionconsists in single vee= estate. took orders, and was oppointed to o parish in his native county. In 1798 he ‘el in which the extraetion of the sngar scar (Uesus}, Principle of Population, which attracted great attention and Tied on continuously Uy introducing slices of ene brought out his Essay on theDuring the following yeors Malthus extended his knowledge of throng a eating apparatus atthe bottom ofthe met with no little criticism. sessel from whieh ‘they ike slowly to the top, both by travel and by reading, and in 1803 published a greatly enlarged ecition ‘ile fresh wateris constantly ransing int the ofthe hissubject essay. In 1805 he married happily, and soon after was appointed professor of top of the difusig vessel, and is drawn off at juice, after having t= Political Economy and Modern History in the East India Company's college at Haileybury, thetnsinedbottom,in contactison lives thefor operation cere post which he occupied till his death at Bath on 29th December 1834. Tengih of time, "Thwith e lyuidhe during Malthus was @ kindly and accomplished man, who followed whot he believed iergitated by muelinery. Te i suggested that to Pecsonally be the truth, and who endured without 0 complaint the abuse and misunderstanding to this process nay be ayptind on ne lomestie operations sm aking such eink 88 which his writings exposed him. The aim of the Essay was to supply a reasoned corrective lenimnade, ee to the theories regarding the perfectibility of society, which had been diffused by Rousseau and which had been advocated in England by Godwin. Malthus mointained school, his ‘ond IX DS COL FOR POTAS! PERMANGANATE OFIF HEAD. that such optimistic hopes are rendered baseless by the natural tendency of population to in the onimol ond the for increase foster than the meons of subsisience. He pointed out that tobothmultiply mention We find continued value it would fill ganate of vegetable kingdoms lite was so prolific that if cllowed free room ign jourials vf the in eases ofof coldpermenithe otis as n remedy sneezing, or use in hend millions of worlds in the course of a few thousand years. The only limit to its increase is the Auonded with severe ed of xbout one aml sue that want of room and food. With regard to man, the question is complicated by the fact check ‘Cases solution iy prepar nganate in two to. Aid the instinct of propagation is controlled by reason; but even in his case the ultimate thirds grains of the perma THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

THE SURVIVOR Vol, 5

1891

sega Nate net the wishils pen a apply this. ge, or

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

mer. this solution tents to population i the want of food, only it seldom operates directly, but Yokes 0 variety of eae oonea ene taal forms in accordance with the complexity of human society. The more immediate checks are every two hours and if there be any either preventive or positive. The former appear as moral restraint or vice. The positive thereatthe ume tices tw be_checks oe exceedingly various including al unwhlesome occupations, severe labour ond solution hy means atthe fountain &*POSUre to the seasons, extreme poverty, bad nursing of children, large towns, excesses sume ther af the methods adopt. of all Kinds, the whole train of common diseases and epidemics, wars, plague, and famine. ing salt and water, ws w eure for €3~ Mglthus goes onto illustrate the actian of his principle by a review of the history ofthe dif ferent nations and races, showing what ate the actual checks that have limited population IE OF clmOsIE SOMESAMIULISH celibacy, wars, infonticide, plagues, vicious proctices — and proving that the populo A forgem metal journal mentions wo in ton difficulty has affected the development of society from the beginning Shed by ndmisiaarne ton we met #5 i cannot be soid thot Malthus was orginal in his exposition of the theory of population the: dose even in one instance varying from It 1S a theme of both Plato and Aristotle. Shortly before the time of Malthus the problem {Hits tone nde grains per dnsend in the had been handled by Benjamin Franklin, Hume, ond many other writers. Malthus erysalisathe ae fiteen gain were give both mon 9 he viewsof those writers, and presented them in systematic form wth elaborate proofs wel beeame fess and evs frequent, aud in a derived from history. In certain details and in the form of exposition the Essay moy be short time entirely ceased. criticised; but the brood principles of it can be doubted only by those who do not understand the question, The enormous increase of the means of subsistence attained by colonisation sumo TENL couMISSION, ond modern industrial development hos only for @ time postponed the population difficulty sa The fontof the Suto Tunnel Commission for the worldat large, while its pressure is sil felt in the more thickly people centres both fost kegel, of Europe ond of the Eost, At the present time the most interesting feature of Malthus is He eMeehicr Beaiaccr ot thems ‘Tho ‘commission consisted of Gavel Il G. his relation to Darwin. Darwin said on reading Malthus On Population thot natural selection resuit of the rapid increase ofall organic beings’ for such rapid increase 7G. Foster ant Mts vajett 60S the inevitable iuiehe Geuatal forough examimion’ "The conclusions 10 necessorily leads to the struggle for existence. To prevent misunderstanding it should be Sic te ce are thatthe steel me gdded that Malthus gives no sanction to the theories and practices curently known os tiaosline mine, Melthusionism, In this reference Malthus approved only of the principle of moral selfeee e eee eee restraint; ‘do not morry till you have a fair prospect of supporting a family fa the Comstuek Too, thas bee Margaret Sanger published “Woman And The New Race” in 1920. She was a nurse workracer think,‘The iseasing of t h e tonne the placeil heyonvl a oat, its ing among the Urban poor and campaigning for freedom to publish information on birth timated ae oranda tal millions Control, The degenerate Moral Mjority of her day charged her with being a pornographer tnd held up birth control until it was too late. By the time birth control information was yews; and this mchinery period may te bo Itced if proper legalized, welfare took away most of the misery of excessive childbearing and even en“The al Ton ti couraged it 10 the she addressed herself o Socialist, since Margaret Sanger wos olso accused of being Heep Sogo,eile tefl working poor. This was nonsense, since the Socialists rejected ker program. Birth control

aba nT ieee

whether Te sll eailinge’to°be*or

ue

ean not be predicted sith

ae eens a ae SINPL

2

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‘ving

Tn sep

ae Oe

RECTION OF CONCAVE

oe

sop

Would have relieved the misery the Socialists depended on tc put them in power.

Following are some excerpts from “Woman And The New Race’”, 1920:

WOMAN AND THE NEW RACE — 1920

By Margaret Sanger Page 4 “The creators of over-population are the women, who, while wringing their hands over

206h fresh horror, submit anew to their tosk of producing the multitudes who will bring

the inveutiom of Nesmith, of Manelestr, 6 ready. preparation of eaneave at Foy hcl usally eonstiuates an expt

bout the next tragedy of civilization “yhile unknowingly laying the foundations of tyrannies ond providing the human tinder {for racial conflagrations, woman was also unknowingly creating slums, filling asylums with

and dhrvesisteenthsofan inet iuchesin diameter

stigutes,

Ltishumisclelisrjiate ute. stow bins

dl SPIRE irate alle abt es tsk

ingane, ond institutions with other defectives, She was replenishing the ranks of the profurnishing grist for the criminal courts and inmatesfor prisons. Had she plonned

chieve lis tog foal of human waste and misery, she eauld hay hove ely to effectively atgra done it more

finde et acing aay ter Urmexas of Poe“Wor,7 famine, poverty and oppression of the workers will continue while wornan mokes iHelnoah wil ustedes to boul wader ke Fifp chegp. They will cease only when she limits her reproductivity and homan fife is no esate intose -9the 2 cavity,a8on the4 — longer the of aves a thing to be wasted. inch. If air be blown iti Jum the plate become Te conve Page 138 {thw tepricess ean mele so pert "Lahr geems instinctively 10 have recognized the fact thot its servitude springs from nm stmniy aurenier the come willed with ome stonyti chewsephvctianugd posetfsck fi —qumbers. The basic principle of craft unionism is limitation of the number of workers inon o the purposin e aventoofr i Isaltimote s given trade. Every unionist knows thot if that number is kept small enough, his organizati tation,t aler sieeeate stal in “can compel increase: of wages, steady employment and decent working conditions. s pow and una Hlacing len “The weakness of craft unionism is that it applies its policy of limitation of numbers only

5 OF NICKEL PLATING,

nied plating. by oil he sbtains a this sna eine ithe Hate soiees will hot aint of the Teast en Sento Consists sling to the varios sutton of Nike, whether formed of single or fle salts seh, hte presenee present the toate lvoe f te slats ofthe ys hath snd the dejition of oxi of ailel alo finickel "vere ie ale to the sution ot the aiklics nd alkaline earths, summa, ed

1892 ‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 to the trade. In his home, the worker, whether he is a unionist or non-unionist, goes on producing lorge numbers of children to compete with him eventually in the labor market."* The last isan excerpt from Lothrup Stoddard's, “The Revolt Against Civilization”, 1922. It is reprinted in full in U.s. iuiria THE REVOLT AGAINST CIVILIZATION 1922 By Lothrop Stoddard

US. MILITIA “"4 the last analysis, civilization always depends upon the qualities of the people who are the bearers of it. All the vast accumulations of instruments and ideas, massed ond welded into marvelous structures rising harmoniously in glittering mojesty, rest upon living foundations — upon the men and women who create and sustain them. So long os those men and women are able to support it, the structure rises, broad-based and serene; but let the living foundations prove unequal to their task, and the mightiest civilization sogs, cracks, and at lost crashes down into chaotic ruin.”* Stoddard was the first, to my knowledge, to illustrate the reality of the "Underman’’. ‘The Underman, or sub-human, is a concept totaly rejected by Urbanites, most of whom ore sub-human, You see, oll humans are of the genus, homo, or man, but not all men are human. Humanity denotes a level of conciousness and awdreness enabling one to successfully integrate into ones social structure. Lacking such consciousness and awareness puts the blighted Undermon more on the level of one of the lower onimals. He is either on enemy of humans ‘ond therefore predatory, or docile and unthinking, like a draft animal Whether bighted by heredity or afflicted with Minimal Brain Damage (see Vol. 1, pages 57 ond 69), the Undermon is o danger to society through predation, excess fecundity and parasitism, Non-violent Undermen must be sterilized, as their issue is unneeded ond their core of the young is destructive of human characteristics. Violent Undermen must be dosiroyed. Although the above is harsh, os the arch Underman, Nikita Kruschev said, “You can't ‘make an omelet without breaking eggs”. After the collapse brought on by the world’s Undermen, Survivalists will have to temporarily set humanitarian principles aside in order to sove what's left of humanity. Sinity iv at work, and this previpitate after ex byjr, Latpiate with the of result copeof producing sulphate of fro pwstne to the air fr exo or three hors, actually Ninorbs two equivalents of water, In a worl, : “i ile substance lax ns much afinity METHOD OF CURING § AKE BITES, tone of th HALFORD opin o seeins to exof contrariety GIEAT wth this i AA ist im regard to the value of Dr. Halfords of sreating snake bites. ‘The American ‘ny tones che toon aethexd hie who have discussed Ceyuivalent¥, of water whicbeingi biTe Srbed fiom ad Eneupean physiologists fexposed once the question, oF Who have repented the exper ite any and that on Ne the sane ments, appear to attach very Tittle value to it to the atenosph tng experi ut the Anstealian faeuley are quite manimous in their indovsement, ed indoiniely Profestor Halfird, in a recent comm uacation ce LEDLCTION OF ORES bY CHLOIEIDE OF IRON. qjseueses the srtmptoms of twenty € A methonl of veducingoveshy menns ofchlo Wy Ie process, under the hands of different Jet innn has sovonelshoon patonted, whieh is practitioners, widely remote from each other. followed ; and in recovery enses seventeen, to the extraction of inetalsal- Ty Sjctlle gajted were of the practitioners the these af ghisteen The autinwy. iy spline, aasenie, re fae oF that ci death wonld certainly have ensued cf opinion agency.tire ‘The trea this eounterneting sedily chant ait ail and.wateryaiimonil posence of ayseniy ns in the Sulphur, slewinjo-es jyent consist in injecting about minis

dlocomposithn of the sotfon by ation oF th alte ed interchangeably ely. maytonebe the aidinventor peters to use,nd collect in ease ff the dimble sales of nickel ant alkaeg ad al Teale sats earth which which have fir thleearths, bases thethe organie alk or acidalkaline fe sssocinted with the nickel ja its dont sat hus when ning a sedation ofnickel and aman. nn ongaie cid salt of ammonia is preter, though the similar salts of toda aud potash sil newer very well. In ease of wing aelution of salt of nickel a potest or 9 dele fSaltdouble of nickel and sin, an organic acid Salt oF feila and potash i selected, Of the therlstaxtrates whieh fein be wet to accomplish the effet fie preforalle. A-comparatvely small quantity fol the argon salts fs neressaty to be added, GULDING AND stLVERISG Accoving to a firmnks published by Gi for silvering or iting silky the silk cent sulation of witasin soaked ppot auna3 pr diedm, ; then (in nen-nerinie Hight) mitre of sit Uipned i a 5 yer cent, soluof tion ets containing n foe drops of nite asi, tnd Yell nightsdrained; aod nest then expel died i for 0 fos anne tion ofSay,phateom redeion of iron. of Tt inmotstely he etal sor, a dising,the only metalic searsetebar irepeating ng in washing orderthisto ondncgrie treatment, atic, howe ding ttle free fine tothe scltion of Se fide f yotasinm, thetho silver deposi. becomes Stronger Ity Hig slsered sik nn trea soition of eo of gold, the silver veryb> Tomes eborid, theand chloride gold ofpenited; anaokieby then removing ieee by tion of byposulpbite of soda, washing, He pro: of gilding desing appearance tho burnishing tnd ned Hf the Gepost of metal es suficienty hicks’ chomfealsresultsmuse he used border to "The: securepurest satisfactory YGRAEFISITS. 1a a very important paper on the Estimation of Antimone,""published'in the CRenient gn ars als the attention of semis to comtanations iron oe coat petite gravity of «258 state ammonia, of ue specie the ser phenomenon, which the anthor. desis zlinets nf eohalt, nickel, sulpharet of antimansy its coats with piercing by vein, superficial q jig finder the naine of “hygratiniy.” This ore aun iran 7° the nozzle of a hypoderinie syringe, ‘The euraFo tive electphysicians is said to be. almost immediate, and OF antcnons—bigallate of amimony-—reh is the ehlormet o f iron being several stated that the recovery from totaly insoluble an water, and et possesses a and. startling. ns to be aloride by che influenceof the eotlanse was so rapid owt afiniy for moisture, whieh ie absorbs remainsa question, howstill Ie magical. yose t h e among IF te. armosphere, Fapily thom the. afer alib. Geer, whether, notwithstanding Dr.are Halfords weet tere be ro Tel really as ktner asstrances, che Australian snakesthe contrary inmsuse to atcWith“tke uitietcilorde s a cine bens those of theAmerica ion Yewomus ny itis unterstoad, of iron. Constitutionnf the opinion of Dr. Keeffe, ot copper pites iti only todd com fof Sydney. We anit with much interest the mosphere, Due this is don salt, sine th Yesult of renewed experiments in this country, Dy mons of thee lace of ancimons, «

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1893

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Constructing a Light, Adjustable &

Drarrinc [as_e POPULAR SCIENCE MONTRLY for Home December,

fn easily aajusted, a

wet

By

Holbrook

Leslie

M.

ae e tin aroe ally HANDY is Se an ee Ae Hotisns Sdn he Hake erent heSegasuhag despa rn fe Sau See Fe fhe ettap youshemay useuesan onthar oneie sexctig oon a to a ft She ake ta Se oF as sohd ee en aie en ie se 0 Se As la Histhe too set ha tie” fete 2 ee al anid Fasten {vom 3 ‘te shown in the side elevation, Side bracket C should be eul-as suggested in the same siow unless yout desiteto mount st eabinet fon the stand for supplies: in that ease the fends may he left straight, Fasten C to

farses

1933

Hote ite Tamp bracket leg with elve and. four wood serews. “Tien assemble all with erosspicces 2 ancl tal the foot rest where most comfortable

Workshop

Use

‘und eanminy onlyhe sheecafl express thein hope that the apieato cates of bite lafest of ateme sakes snd eopperlends; since inthe rican thoof Yen. the he rae, by opinDr itehell, Philadelphia, expresees te ion’ postively thaie matey to vomelaid exis 1 tay ses svete the psn has been introduced into the circulation in sufcient quan MALLEAMLE BRONZE. It is sad thine in consequence of the annonce ments made seme months ago before the cal fey of Seienees uf Paris fn reference tothe su ject of malleable brave, this sistance is now iikelsto come into practical nse i Esrope nd American att, The existence of euch a snbe lias Tog Been Known from specimens of ‘tance sory ancient ovigin, and fom its use bythe Chi hnece in the constriction of theit tom-toms, Te thay be prepared from bellmeralbranze, to whieh 20 per cent. of in has hecw added, wid heating todlarkred, This generally brit le meta thus Thecomes matienble, and canbe readily forged anal rolled on From & thickness of thre oF four inillimeters to that of @ helt to a quater of 2 millimeter. Jn the operation the density of the metal is creased, and it ean. be welded fas, presersing ts cntire bomngeneite. The tvhole seoret rests in giving the bronze the op: fr dogtee of heat, sinee, without this, it remaits Ite VARIATION ‘CORPUSCLES. IY TIE SIZE OF BLOOD Dr, Manassein, of St. Petersburg, fins ascertwined thet every influenee which occasions ferent alteration in any of the fanetions of the body alvecs materially the eliaaeter of the rel corpuscles of the Blood. | Amog other points he that all eieumetanees tending 0 iafsctrtaiged frease the temnperatire of the body’ reduced the Sie of the corpuseles, snch ag septiemmia, oF pnisoningg an animal bythe iajection of putid fatter ino is es e, exposuee ofthe body €o 8 big teinperaeae, and Keeping the anal iv a seized with On theof trom he ba thineearbonte of oxygen,seid.expose the whole body to cole the amination of Isdrorilorate of quinine, eyanie city al ale Tol tent eo Tower perature of the boy oducing at the same tine an enlargement of Expansion of the eorpuseles. -Mainte of mer pina constituted am exeeption; for, chongh proliucing depression of temperature, also eatees| is corpseles twhieh ino ul thesupposition diminton feex t a h the om expla Irobably bres a diitory dotluenee um the respiratory of ets, and therefore leas to theAcuteaceumulation also frbonie actin the blood. of the anemia eorpuscles, Sus found to canse dilatation Continued on page 1896

THES

Fun with |

ae

URN VOR

h

894

Explosive Gases

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

sms FOR

|

HOME

Hydrocarbons Are a Subject for Many Spectacular Experiments. in

ee

the Amateur's Chemical Laboratory By

RAYMOND

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

B.

WAILES

NOVEMBER, 1097

Tiny explasions and epectaculor light floshes result from th reatlion of chlorine got with acatylane in the experiment abo

are some of the curious ‘vith hydrocarbon gases thatand anyinteresting, amatewe experiments ehernist can easly, perform, Mony tosis can "gambo yydtrogon., ““TIydrocarhon_ are compounds of carbon Rerformedfascinatingwil scelyone A largegasesproportion of all natural gases, andi=

sh

‘ir nie app

ui

con gemenseal hee.

to this group.

ethane,

propane,

and butane,

belong

Manufactured illuminating gas—both

: DLLECTOR

such as hydrogen, car” with nomydroearbons together honTByeryone monoxide, earbon dloxte, nnd Rowe that heathig. coal nitrogen, ina closed chamhor or retort produces inflammable. gives coal gas. Leas eft hydro: slowly coal that fact Uhe tg familiar carbon gases even without being heated, Miners know

water SA) WATER he

‘They coal. forms seams Ieof fort underground issures in mel trom again pend amped ioe rehike a dangerously explosive mixture with air. Chemically

mye]

TROUGH

mc a

cluding methane,

ie

Heating alcohol end sulphuric oe 905, which can be collected nosy i OULD yon Tike to get gas from eoal without heating the coal? "To make an inflammable gas that will dissolve in certain liquids nes in coffee? To produce gas that burns with a flame you ean hardly perceive Or to create fiery bubbles of gas, jimping about like grasshoppers, from simple everyday chemicals? "These

Speaking, fire damp is largely methane, You can easily collect the same gas from ordinary house-furnace coal, A few days before you want to observe the result, pound up several large double handfuls of hard or soft coal into fragments the size of peas, finer, and place the pulverized coal in a deep bow! of er. ‘Connect the stem of a glass funnel to the glass part of a medicine dropper with a four-inch length of Tshher tubing, and place the funnel, mouth down, over the chal, Stick the water up until it Alls the funnel, and lose the rabber tubing with a pinch clamp or a springto type clothespin. ‘Phen let the set-up gasstand.risingFromfromday the ay, you will observe bubbles of coal, particularly when you tap the bowl, and they wilh he trapped ander the glass bell of the funnel. In several a eupful of methane gas. Then, if Gays you should have the funnel is higher than within, outside level water the the tip of the medicine dropper from escape the gas will

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 when you open the pinch clamp. You ean tight it, and it will burn with a pale bine flame, Gas that bubbles up Usrough the water of marshes also is methane. You can collect it by sliering up the mindy bottom of a Iily pool, or Uke oave at the holtont of a marsh, and trapping the ascending bubbles tier fan inverted fimnel. ‘Phe marsh gas, too, sill burn ‘Methane enn he manufactired in your home labora: ory from sodium acetate, Place an ounce or wo of the crystals on the Tid of a tin ean, or in a porcelain evapo. rating dish, and heat the material slowly. Soom it will become liguld. Continue heating for at least ton min= utes more, to dehydrate or dry the sodium acetate When it cools, if the heating has been sufficient, it will no longer be crystalline but wil resemble powdery snos ‘To the dehydrated sodium neetate, adil about one tenth of its volume of sodium hydroxide (ordinary. hotse lye will do) and an equal Amount of unsiaked lime Co clum oxide). Mix the ingredients thoroughly. Now place the mixture in a test tube, or an ignition ibe closed at one end. Stopper the tube with a one-hole cork in which you have fitled the glass pottion of a medi cine dropper Heat the tube slowly, anel wave the burner fame along its entire ten; every ten socan re 0. ‘This wil keep tg whole surface at a high temperature and prevents water vapor from condensing. rinning hneks, and orack= ing the hot glass, Soon the chemical mixture will melt and methane gas will be given off at the end of the ininiature retort system, Light it wilh a mateh, and it Sodium compounds, will burn for five minutes or more, as a spray along hore tho, the in chemicals the from yellow fhante the tinge gas, the by Methane gas does not react readily with most other can be per~ hemicals, In contrast, showy experiments formed with acetylene, another hydrocarbon gas, ‘This is the gaa that produces the fierce oxyacetylene flame ised for cutting metals, when it ie burned wilh oxygen ina specint torch. Avetytene has also otind service in rural-home lighting and in bicycle and miners" lamps “To generate acetylene and shidy ite properties, obtain fa can of calcium carbide, commonly sold simply as “carbide,” A hicyele shop or a sporting-goods store is your most likely sourceof supply. Several lumps of the ‘chemical placed in a large jar or ean of water will Hiber~ ate a copious quantity of heetvlene, A bottleful of the gas may then be collected for experiment by guiding p the stream of bubbles through a funnel into the merged mouth of an inverted bottle filled with w gas displacing the water, Reforeyou lift ott the rising the bottle of acetylene, cover the mouth with a sheet oF the gas until you glass or close it wilh a cork, to retain are ready to use it Hold a match to the mouth of a bottle sited with tylene, ‘The gas will burn with» brilliant yellow ne, depositing a large amownt of soot or eatbon, IT you Tet air mix with the acetylene and then apply. a Inateh, the gas mixture will explode sith a plop. The explosion is harmless, provided you take care to use a Dpottle with a wide monte HEN acetylene burns, it turnsInto earbon dioxide and water. ‘These are (he oxides of carbon and hydrogen, of whieh Ovo atoms apiece make up the eetylene’ molectile, After you have burned a hotter Of acetylene gas, place several drops of clear limewater about, A white prefn the bottle and shake the liquid ipitate of calcium earhonate will turn the Timewater e dioxide, for whieh, of earhon inilley, showing the presenc of this is a test. ‘The black flakes soot in the bottle will not interfere. ‘They float, due to the fact that they do hot become wet with the liquid, ‘Acetylene will combine with a ammber of gases, and

1895

NATURAL GAS Marsh gat isthe some, chemically, oe the firs ‘damp ane-lt conof tines, be collameth by ering up the cled ino ily pond. 30" modThe bubbles tise inte ‘on upside-down funnel

THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 jiggr ise

Inacid.the dripping. experimentinto.below,the fiosk absorbs the ethyl: fone gas it contains. A veevim i formed, such Jing waler from th tubo

METHANE propared by hating ©GASmistureis easily of sodium aeefoto, lye, and quichlime ino test ube ot thew obove. ‘The gos flow ing’ from the oullal burnt reodily

FIRE DAMP, the cause of many mine explosions, issue From all cool, “A. quantity can be collected in an ine Serted funnel at shown tn the illustration at the left

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 its reaction with chlorine i ‘A speetnenlar one, To dem:

1896

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 delivery tube of the Bask to dip In water Gnstrate this, place about. teaspoonful. of ordinary plneed Put some strong Sulphuriein theacid testin tube. the separatory funnel, IMenching powder Cenlchum hypoeiorite). and about & Aunt Several eubie centimeters of Ht to fale ounce (one elghth of sin oraimary drinking. glass) the flask, and then close the stopeocle otventywater inn wkle-mouthed hottie. ‘Then at ten oF again. ‘Phe aed will absort the gas, and cube centinneters «alt a fluid omce, more or the vacuum will draw water from the less) of muuriatie, or hydrochloric, acid, Chlorine gas i test tithe Into Ue tse r you substi produced, and may be recognized by Its yellowish eotor Lute ordina ‘ W h e n tive bottte has hecome Tone, vou w filed with the sae, took inWatera fewin thelumpsbottte,of calcium carbide, Falling into. the Toss" in volume, the carbide linmediately: ives ritains oniy a sina i per acetylene gas. As each bubble of acetylene bobs to the centage of ethylene. surface of the lguid, i t comes in contact with the ove ‘This may be-% good point for a word Iying chlorine gas, and the lwo gases react vigorously of caution to overzealous home exper: with each other, Bach contact produces a flash of light renters against the temptation to anbe 1Dombardment tiny explosion, andaproceeding lilile cowl of soot. With the things tozether indiscriminately and see at ie rate of several explosions what will happen. Some hydeoearbons— feetytene, for example--forn 2 second, the boltie resembles @ miniature. baittetet plosive compounds with eertainhighlychemiex ‘Tust as a lighted wax taper ora fet of burning hydro Cals, Likewise it is perfectly possible to gen will continue to burn when it fs lowered into-a vessel from oti substances materials dangerous prepare filled with chlorine, so this er easily obtained laboratory fiery reaction between acetylene ant acetylene, such as carbon tetrachloride Plain common sense should warn any chlorine provides another renminder of and turpentine amateur chemist to slick to experiinents the euriote fact that_oxygen Is not that fe positively Knows to. be sate, YLENE, like methane and acety sential to prodice a flane. whieh of course Include. all of those possibililios interesting offers Confined under high pressure, acely for Tene, Specifically recommended tm these ‘at home experiments. ‘This fageous Wy totes. ene may decompose and explod? in rebananas ‘Therefore eyl- Groearbon is ised iy ripening. sponse to heat ar shock, in. lumina present. is and of acetylene used for metal eut- neetiftelally, Inders gas. Ti ean be prepared easily sn an Continued from page 1893 ting are nol filed merely by pumping in iiateae laboratory. are they Instead, gas. the compressed HARD WATER PRRSES SOFT. place about "To penerate ethviene,meter packed with ashestos fibers eaturat- tnirty Hest s ounce) luld y been (one centi eubie tion has yeeentl fed In acetone, a liquid organie chemical of grain alcohol or denatured radiator enrions propsi ‘Phe , id= that don Lon of ly, Lethe Dr that dissolves and thus stores up aects enunciated hy twenty about add and Basle ng a in drinki for Meohal low suited relatively. under better is introduced water lene hand of strong sul- fcracely centimetors cuble five larger a that states He pressure, soft. s f that which phurie acid, Heat the mixture, and the than ntageof tench conseriptsare rejeeted from petee will dehydrate the aleohol or chent- Ebfewater 19 the re. ‘held s HAT makes this practical thay from neighborhoodsup nbstract water from it, liberating Pied with disthardietswaters gas Tally miarkable quantity of acetylene English thie also and a8 a flask of the dist neetone will absorh, You ean ob- ethylene that than ten degrees of owns, wich water of more use you TE serve the effect for yourself with the aid fit Ie with a. single-hole corte nd four per thonsawt. of ity mortal a hardness, have bit of apparatus. of an easily assembled softer ase tants inhabi whose is acid the which through tube, than those ‘Alineh a foue-dnch length of rubsber tub= thistie the usial uded, Tend the pas that lasues from the tTess ‘This assertion, $0 contrary beto expect , r e jing to the top of a burette, or to one end Side a to tubing, miglit a8 rubber is, , through arm, matter fof a glass tithe two fect long and half an funed-up glass tube submerged In a theory in the ted by’ other sanicarians. and ed,he Ineh in diameter. Arrange two. pineh Sharply contes be Touked for Final result of the controsersy willl public, on the rubber tubing, one near pnewmatie Clamps genera wit the Alted by t basin ng each end. Stand the glass colunin trough or gas-colleeti ‘vith much interes Kloally, with the rubber-tubing end up water, In eace your flask has no side STOLBA PROCESS OF TINA. to tte rim, fit with « two-hole eorle careyings ward and the lower end fed delivers of in a now) of the process referral t0Drotessr thistle tube and also a bentpneumatic Hem of a funnel inverted We hare already Uesisad Stab upon the rubbertubetub-is the tothe by leading: glass of water. Nov suek Vube cold the in tigning expec werted In nw Leaenwith thatmackbis acess andeen we.opted ing until the burelteand orclose.glass the pinch trough. Water-illed Drie Se may and water, with, bai filled te’ of east eon, wroght ron seh fot tioning lumps of calcium the plates until Hh is lass clot he Clamps. Place severalunder ‘he Tun el a wile, sista in the evolved, Yory when to bo even in the water Carbile heed. The yas will You burneanwithsafely) base fs found onpetsthe antn adhering sabe fly, ‘Acotylene gas will he Instantly very flame, Timinows tone bot ach how snlptrie dark with air in awide- mouthedmaten, ile produced and the bubbles wil rise tn theand water Sey hinie is ners, small thiglene HL with a lighted explode teland genoally filed column, growtngits smaller aid, Gren cemove teeing. periments spots hae Lop. ‘The bubbles fr as they appronch fi ethyabsorbs con Is acid c that sulphuri vapor the for water RONG the sme proves ‘These wereoF contain some apply to made Been much dlsin is this ibselt show can you and Tene, acetylene the talecast objects. of pon Gensing, and Hamentation rated demonst the you ae artes electron however, ifom fashion Soon, same. he water, in Solving. {iol especially ees acetylene a. that projecting he How acetone absors where withelaapthe andjas. tl "Now eappaes tid filled is Sind {ube felnss part ereate grey action A¥ h U the fleet. letting, by exedlon Gpen the upper pinch ove tinned, with ce Chenu and diaw up water, Ifyou have necessarywhereco rubber (ablnge with. open itisto onlythe places sinned, be Short section of upper not eam yots generator gas little handy the pinieh elamp, ol assembled fhe and sqiteeze. of laers one, Close one, pply very ithin the rubber Geceribed ina. previous article of this the remain the lower s desred withordertin, tothuscoat producing Jago will "37, p. 68), Tt par seetone down Series (PSM Maysuitable uhing. “this will foree the ginss atiele the ef r e T especisily consists forsimplythis of & lled walls,tbe.it Asab prove into the neetylene-f Striking eonteast devier ‘Phe pose, the down rans theforbs tlqnid stopper, flask with a. two-hole ineetylene. A partial vacuumforces Emit carries CHARACTERS OF PURE CLYCERINE. and funnel feparatory a c pressure the Which created, and atmospheri According to Kéller, among the characteris: into an open take gas delivery Uisbe leading Water up Into the glass thattubohas10 been tice of pre glycerine as compared with anim tube, Ure whote beings mounted on a aeetylone centimeter of ac:dis. fest for’ place of thesingle pute article, ae the following. Pare glycerine conventence, ethylene, Tetting he bate cuble Polved. A Jase newt reaction, and wn evaporation in a with cub Teil the flask fone will absorb shout twenly-Hve porcelain dish leaves only a ¥ery sight earbona. tube delivery: the through in gas. For com gas pissIhe slopeock. of the funnel fe open centimeters of acetylene hilt can repent(hatthe willexperiment parison,otheryou solvents Continued on page 1898 dissolve Then close the stopeoeke and arrange the With

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1897

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

HOMEMADE

he

A

Electric nemometer REGISTERS VELOCITY OF WIND

o,é

sam

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1937

c

By

Charles A.

wives rn down and Cheap

A

copper

tank

RR Kee outs are used as

seu ofices: "vanes, and the

gears

: [fiat

aim its spin. are taken from a toy construction set || ion The ane to be flescribed windis ve capble of inith indiealor cups 48

clicating nectiacy, and it may. be reasonable distance from the act in placed licator, which is an ordinary electric burzerfrom copper movdel were made about The ‘cups in this floats, twenty whieh cost or bulbs fush-tanke they and , m e h t of two need vill You cents each, standard . n i 4 of er shoold have a diamet ¥8-and cal pair of hy Sin, size), ‘Take a sharp the halves of each bulb apart on the socket from t the threaded circle of ¢ thin a and solder are made 6 arms The dered, ‘The 10d the cup which to 16 in, long, B/terin, bol center the in ned a "This ne oss. where both hvough ‘rilled wi which bushing, 3/IGin, a hy is soldered. to cover small A shaft. used to clamp it on the upright should soldered on to keep water out-of the Lop bearing eter is made of gal a The ly of the anemom brass, or sow can use vaniged iran or heavy 1 sheet vn swith walls piece of brass tubing in, im di is a. simple bearing top ‘The thick. , n i About 1/16 Tt may be revolves.” shaft the which bushing’ in the around poured made of Babbitt metal bushing in which shaft or rt from a_regular bras should fil rather Toosely. ‘The type of beatin

>

i 7 | ssbieua”

é

ee fan

(Bross)

‘Mou £0 cs} cunmoins “serew

va

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 1898, THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 cating. 1/60 of a mile of wind, at the bottom is called a step bearing and consists of null serew on the gear shaft closes the stecl hard a with disk o i d a r the inside bushing of a contact for every tuen of the gear wheel by conves is shail the plate at the bottom. The end of Fubbing The againstcontneta smalland strip of brass as find rests on the. steel disk. ‘This heating, whicly Shown. he ear are pro ist be well oiled, gives almost frictionless Support lected fron. the weather by a small cover to. the sha Inde‘The! of bolton thy galvanized sheet iron orJs bene and fhe heart of the instrument is theto one.gearing,A worm of the awemonseter filled a ralio af eight wih set sezour so! Hua it may be mounted te gears musfhave fon asin, pipe support gear of the typ@ found in 'A'binzer ‘transformer or dry cel shoud is clamped totherethe mprieht Loy mechanical sets bevconnerted with the anemometer as shown, theesds Tas r a e g ‘This hath as shown, about £6 in. in Tevet and is "Fo Tid the wind velocity, Hk is neceeaey. Te . n i ye to nly to turn on the current with the switch lensth, set tinea for Yin. of iteenvtotalas she he anmsbier of buzzes in one minute nh AS Ue crew fs incre i one 8/22 in, i rameter, cates the wind vetority iy miles per howe inne in this pear fs only. to A on he a7 6m The fins instrument yequzes reasonable ont resmed be it'hnust care, anid the beatings. be oiled.mechsan0cshat ‘sionally aeth clock il. shold The wehole "Tle worm gear meshes quithy sina! eae ism should be cleaned tisice a year in gasoline avhecl clamped on 2 y s and shoe shaft ported by (wo 1 swore in. brass.deilledcars, which are Form two. simple beatings. “These are yp ‘givoING ouracr POST ‘serieoN Dolted or. well sol deed to the npright facing. oF body. of tHheaniemameter, The aionis Post iself era OHPEMOMETER RSE OF seheel seear an onside diamet of $4 in, and. has ight teeth An -nnemometer with the. cup sess nari length Buzzer. transformer wuraen BELL-RNIGING one vill inve this appros tied TRANSFORMER t and etch, an mouse revol nately S00. times, ‘with the passage of one mile of win. In fonder to find the enerent wind velocity it wil hie necresiry Lo teehee the tile realings 10 Ved) the tal sind. milenges thererare ove nemoneter snust ‘lore a eimlact. every ‘The wiringshowsdingrann. The munsber of buzzes a fhias instead of every 500), allowing 20 tens nnvte wind velocity in ites an hae Toss for fretion, In this waiywill he nec sary only to find out hose often the cops re Valve 8 times in one mite, each 8 Crem in duce certain nervous diseases, which, according. far effect ie produced, the head boing to a great Continued from page 1896 toforms,Carles, “thepresont ander byfiveacne; diferentthe festent reideredSneensible to feling, while the frst themselves js represented Fest ofthe bony repusine comparatively sensible ‘eos crust, shi the impure has 9 mach greater sreond by wleess of dal yellow, having an ofIf the inilniion ie protonged, the spinal cord fercentage’ of coale matter. ‘The pire article fensive odor; thind, ved. blotches, like purpura oes noe become brown won etextel, diop by Ices its function, and rofles exeitabiity fs every fourth, by foraneles; ih (tho ratest of all), ex. where extingwished, Dating that stage both Srop, with concentrated aulfanie acid, even af Dibies the appearance of eczema, Uther’ the fer several hours; the impare becomes brow pee and respiration remain wochanged, ‘The of causing the eruptions ta only knownhasmethod hid stage, whieh is indeed by large: doses, i ‘istppear but slightly adulterated, Dave glve ren when been to suspend, oF diminish the fring, treated wiht pee nite seid ate so tharncreized by paralysis of the medalla blo of the bromide of potsesium ; but tion of nitrate of silver, dnes not besonne clo, tenia and death, "Animals mag, boweves be kept femplormene fs thore ave cases mere its eo reuse Th noes while the impure extibite w decide milky op five by aaifiial resitation, because the action fess, i t becomes important to, pearanes. Sometimes the impure article ee ‘of the heat not intorfred with, ther war of mestng the dificley Comes blackened with the sulphide of ammopatslyze €0 is of chloral fate efiect of hydrate om thatthe theoservations ofof Dr. potas Cale, isheichedyst nisms. Oxalate of ammonin produces a black to promises therefore, ebloral, Croton ear. the inflod bromide londing; Hnne-water sometimes eanses « milky of hydrate of chloral, produce all the guod effects liinated ty the wine, and that it only estab Aiscoloration, Pure flyeerine, however, con ju its to attached being drawback any ‘rithone Tisher self under tho elimination in, producing: teAidneysef tantly remains perfectly uncolored, ana clear as fects refered to-when by the rater, the impute besomning colored to. greater Incomplete. Onof dare, tht acevo, therturey heof or lest extent. If'a fow drops ave rubbed le CORULEIS, A NEW COLORING MATTER. guests the so and the opening ‘vec the Fingers, pre glseerine eausos no fate named emuein, is motter, [A now coloring. theite doondpores of very the sin by means ensure of hot baths; and smelly the contents the ase wih the impne, qnoned hy Hiner as itn fom eas romarkatile of Roose fespecially ifn few droys of dilute aunpinie acid ft palin, fist produced fem pega acl ty thie tenement ‘be introduced, acid Je fis substance be dissolvedcolo,fn soporte NEW COLORING MATTERS, a it furnishes an olive brown alkaies'aith finemaine ‘cnOTON CHILORAL, A SEW HYPNOTIC. green, Pvofesso Hgerer has ltely Urogitto the nofick indigo Une, and sth taken up by cod and tive of the Chemical Society of Metin new the rendily are ove we colors 9 whomhas Tey been are"Thesequite durable, ,hydrateof Bevin, Dr. Liebeich thes of meltcoloring matters Chas,gid yeregalie chloral, of icevery of the physiological propertice of a (ho e d sth naphithalic tid some ng compound formed Uy the netion of BFFECTS OF USING BROMIDE OF POTASSIUM. ecengiofeante ther anistances, a nes coring material is obe Moe upon allylene and whiek he eas craton Tong-contiaued use of the bromide of potas Thhotne Continued on page 1903 sium has, es isvell known, tendency 0 pro~ horas When administerel to animals a pec

Ld

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1899

Electric Ozone PURIFIES

AIR

OF

THE SURVIVOR

Vol. 5

Generator

ROOM

POPULAR SCIE

© RERUCHA The glass plate that

te 8b sin. clecintes, cop per. These vo solderedatof 28the gauge centerto the ends of the to the nuts, 1 I panel compo

oP cou They may anil there

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

190 0

rub ake and transform Tenth ting. nsert framane phite to thy dather and tothe teri

ee

Kesar?

sible from the ap osite. haw rninal lead and elect rx ines af th y cireuil to the nie Fait is supported on Asse able cal ip vhly- drawings Ts yy 12-40, plywol s an tube inner old n a frei s rubber of fir Faster r hefare rapped around the moto ing the metal clamp. It pays to set innth transformer on rubber inte as meh of fan should be pi sib Wisin Popular

MechaNICS

water pipe, hisis ral camp before wir wilfat the

IRVIVOR Vol 5 meter in 1.2 eeubic ofa of 007, of. of ozon he apparat, Avoidthe jae which rtions. might rack. nes. hildeen ngainsh poking a Cation ‘bjt the eereen,#¢ the high-voltage curcent low materials that aay be almost per = Feet instator for low vollazes. Dvanu ol de move the device while in operation, ny stand iiteetlyin from of the Tveathe the full steengtt of the ozonized ai

in, dinoter,12 nahersr ond U2

mpi ely‘biesterilized sehen cent ter at pfdnonepee

April saute

1952

Sunflower Logs sunflower a rn er bu

the hulls were a liz bility. Now the hulls leevesof a_cireulay are fed intothe

briquetting machine. Undera pressureof nds per square ineh, no bin two to three log a produce to required times as dense as wood, Each log weighs 7¥%4 pounds and measures 12 inches long by 4 inches in diameter. It yields about the same heat as low-grade coal but leaves of the the ash. Each pound only one quarter fuel yields about 8100 B.T.U.s.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 UNIQUE HOMEMADE

1901

Oscilloscope Shows

ound

Waves jv Action

z F ao

fa

} |

wore

| z aE

EAC ees waves mere

LIPHOUGHT you enn build it at tie ine cost, this remarkable instruc nent makes sound visile it pro. a fascinating motion picture nf sound oeeuering as rapidly as 2,000. or

forms: a graphic imnu of a your sceond,voice, andfavorite radio program,

A

for even the hum of an alternatingecierrent pow ter Tine. ‘Those acho do their awn photographic developing can waves per ordinary roll file, The secret af the vice is explained by thy fold bromide, “Is done ‘with mirrors.” ‘The tech ame for it, in fact vibrating: it~ ror oscilloscope. Forhid ding as. this may sound, the principle of opera lion is really quite si pile, Sound-producing vi

SSH CUR

‘Ed Vid (Film ad sering omitted) Sound Recorder Detaits of seanning screen ond

fee

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 POPULAR e MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1936 brations are inypressed! on a beam of Hight, which moves in-accordance sith these vi bration. This is accomplished by: means fof (vo mirrors, One is vibrated by sound waves and ives the Tight bean its. hor rontal scanning motion and the wave ii. ‘age its width or amplitude, other mirror revolves and spreads out the image ina verlival direction, IF the vibrating-mirror speaker unit is connected with the radio in exactly. the an ordinary: magnetic loud M,, Peb,, °34, p. 54), the sound waves will cause the’ mirror to vi inate. ‘This makes a point of Tight on the ferouned glass of the. scanning. screen ex: band hovizontally into a tine, When viewed in the revolving mirror, this line appears in the form of sound waves such as are illustrated, ‘Thus the sound waves ine visible at the same instant they issue from the radio loud speaker. ‘A “home broadcast” microphone nected to the radio (P.S.M., Apr. 73 p62) enables you to see’ your own voi¢e or any other Tocal sounds, Tf the tunit is connected directly to a toy train uansformer at about 14 volts, thie ac hum of the house current is easily seen In constructing the oscilloscope, Uh first step after cutting the base to si: fs to assemble the vibrating mirror uni “This consists of an_ old magnetic speaker unit of the so-called “Baldwin” type, fotainable for considerably less than a Jollar from most radio supply mail-order hhauses. Over the end of this is stretched a piece of thin rubber from a toy balloon, ‘which is held in place with a rubber band by Yin, minvor, made from a AM microstope cover wlass, is Tastened to one side of the rubber ‘with cellulose “household” cement. ‘The coves cul by. scratching it lightly glass cutter and cen carefully bending it until the ow lain howe

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2 SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1902 The

Apparatus.

Knables

Costs

You to See

Little

to

Your Own

Assemble,

Yet

It

Voice and Watch

Graphic Motion Pictures of Radio Programs

ttSOR ont ‘scAunine

r ORon stiRR MI

BAGEL

along the sctatch, After polishing the fdlass thoroughly with a clean, oil-free loth, silver it with the follosing sole. lion: Dissolve 700 milligrams of silver nitrate in 40 cc. of dlisted water. Add immonin water, drop hy drop, until the brown precipitate, which former at first clears again: then adi 200 milfigiams. of Rochelle salts, Any draggist- cm prey this solution if necess ‘apt Dracket cut from sheet copper completes vibrating mirror unit. hy the photo: fa at the top of this page, te unit sn removed from the bracket to the dels h revel ie mirror is ent from an ordinary: hand mirtor and cemented toa swoodlen hacking, which is attached to the shaft, ‘The motor, pulleys, aid shafting wore taken from a toy ennsianetion st “The illustrations reveal the construc tional details of the scanning sereen and lamp house, ‘The lamp-hoise slit is pro duced by making a fine seratch on the sivered side of aL hy Fin mirror. ‘The height of the automobile Ihinp filament in the kan house, the fo. cusing Tens, and the condensing Lens on the scanning sercen are al determined by the corresponding height of the vibrating mirror, Measure this height from the ven tor of the mirror to the baseboard “The scanning screen is cemented Lo the hascboard with the center Fin, fiom th ie mir tedge of the hase. With the value, thy tor also located Lin, fram the silting mirror tanit and the fan Howce aye hove in the iltsteatione, so thatth of Hight vellected by the viral titines on the center af the scanni fhe fight. earn should then travel p aseboard eslge af the taken to Thethe foensine from a ten-cent te camera cand cemented 104 mount, is moved back and sha ‘OL this beat of lighthouseIl appeaes lamp the Sion hele against the 9 sin tes.y ‘The paper Focusins fens fs then cemented p suet

VIQRATRRINORG? MIsRAcKer

eehdow BorTEDLINes~

When the paper is removed, the vertical shoud be tacused iirectly” om the. come Jit Uensing il poet onlens te wheeeapon geon d glassa point nek ofof Tight the fens, Any movement of the vibrating mievar causes of this, point masnifieds0 movement nereatiy. nil recorder, which re Hetilsountthe. d waves om No. #0. AN fin, ate cords the phate fy in a deaiving, iv it becnuered The him replaces the ng screen aed also takes the place: of flsing. mirror unit, which should he is removed The “etergroundturnedelisearoundy suit Duhs of hi Hitmidensing Tens,

ance between condensing the re Carding dam, thebefore Focusing.”lens and focusin crew fs need s0 (it the spot of light may ine Vofocused failtateaccurately focusing,on thedell film.x 3¢in. hole oyrough the recording eeu dieectly i bade ofSE thediscarded. condensing im hes. throughBy thetrending»reeordeeypiecethe lensing Tens can he slowly moved eloser {the fin hy means of the focusing sere hint the spet_of flight on the film, viewed Hieoucle the hole inthe ‘dra, is ag sharply Focused on the filmy as possible “The actual recording. must be done in a photosraphie dyeeroom under a red Tight safe for film. Thread the end of the film through he recorder, after making the recorder light. photograph. With the tight recorderas shoven connectedin the tthe radio, pull the film piace condensing Fens quickly" and evenly trhen the sound you wish to record occurs

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Then develop the filo a= wsial, Use orn film because it is not ns sensitive {0 ett Tight asthe faster types, ‘The secillograms ilustenting speech and tive are. hun were

1903

5

ey

Continued from page 1298 taine, named by hi pu ite so

cnet fh samara Bee ca ee

sentented salpriesci ietoon greanisi-hrown, nation he mass ie ampeted, fwater, an th of impunt

ang morn "hitention i galling cavulei Iter of ed,

poten, :

EXPLOSIVE BALLOONS. An interesting and amusing philosophical experiment may be made by filingmixttheure new-fof ishoxx~ Toned eolladion balloons , withand a afier ng closi gen ail hdrogen gases ly wich w string, allowthe mouth of the balloon right re, A fuse of Al. Ingit to tite into the atmosphe nnd half wn incl ik papers about an inedly Tong these of Trond Seto be previous gummto ed

sud military eaminiasary stores generally. Bread jared ithe ordinary way fst sulanitted drying process for from eight to Bftoon days, Toa cPRO-ACU tent every particle of moisture is eliminated, — Tt ie ten eompresced the utmost, so a8 to occu: kes of sargiesl science may py the Feast possible to bulk, been previo ‘ise of electr-aeupanetste for [exposed for short time having to the of st fanenin ofthe aveh of the aoe, a8 in'n suitable vessel, ‘The loaves areaction dire: thie in in Italy. gueExperiments pecticed tip npom iron plates with rims, which serve as aia ch eee aa ee during the eperntion. hese plates are mulls See eset la paice el ea than laced ter a brani press, exjeted to great pressure, and allowed to cool there dar. hours. The eakes thus obtained Jn omrrora ror wieionars ork are twenty-four placed in boxes, seuled 1p, and, 1 kept from ruistura, can be preserved formany years, ‘This Tread Ins a vitreous facture, but the teeth pone in ormany, in view of the trate it without effort, Ie softens readily in soup, Je from elton fons, hich fn for many pueposes is very much siperior €0 Fy fa sariows pars ofthe world, the preparations wsaally employed under the same iden: aid thle Inevease of price of a combination citenmstances, especialy on account of being Teavene ACRIDINE, 4 uN axuACESE The use ofotheremnad substances urged,pol for the is therefore bichwomate of eiad andfs manufacturers there ‘A tose subscance has atl been separate by browght to in one of the ero anthracene,pon Caro. offromHe Sriatingaetion andaccount Geaebe. Gertnan dveing 5 ‘attention € the Sttsch; on scl ae oe cloning have givenby theyis obained. fe dha fr many parpore,depart mucous membranes theUs sland eam thebe name of weidine, Ts body Hack, G he gives and ges nnta ing the emi seid portion of coal nap “geing. 100 puna of 1 ‘vin bots etween 500° and 60%, wit dl

so the balloon neat the mouth, and allowel

oolsns-mumofeyyepisic ponacid, and to poundsof Sue her Mitsoh an color which areed with to be’ fortybaled to toget how fy pondfors ofan ved Wackbt meofanpean ta ed t0 be ‘the black. thustfabtsilned 1s pronouncingf oose y reme wa sa, p Ye chea aml easl and PRENCH PRESERVED BREAD. d bread fasTa A new niicte called presorerve L is as 9 substitu,te sa ky been introduced (4 tra velers and form biscuit, oF haed-tack, for

ipl acid, and. Gisnorstes precipitating theAdyneid Dow ol tion with poassam caine, whieh dnsleog on or riptts sted treatinentio with boiling water. ‘The tle tion thes obtained sii, fer: itraton an cosling,erange-yellow eritals of tho chremass the these erste, fom base the math trliquoebasesby washings yickl feed the free when Started with ammonia Ths ined the by Fe not quite pore; but it may be rendered. 80 ty reerpstalizing ils bydrocMorite, "Acridine fubstance erystalies, as determined by Dr. P. Continued on page 1907

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1904

YOU, TOO, CAN Pho tograph Sketch showing the genoral hodof pl ing Whe back ground, comoro, nd Rights

POPULAR By

REGINALD

HOTOGRAPHING ehittren isa seinating pastime, and it ean also he made to pay good dividends, Given a fair camera and fa little homemade equipment, any nine tour familiar with the findamentals of shottld he able to turn picture ut child mating story-telling pletures and por traits surpassing those of the avernge professional, While the amatenr's re sults may for a time Inck the finish of the expert, he can cateh the spontaneity of expression that is so hard to get from A child in the strange environment of the sho, All three accompanying: iistrations were taken in my own home with pure ly amatetr-type equipment, and while some of their beauty is due to fair teebnique, their attraction es mainly, fas yout may see, in Lhe heauly of expres. sion, mposed and nattral If you own a eam ern of the simpler type that permits Focusing only at dis tances greater than six feel, you should obtain a portraie at thehment. This is an auiciliary Jes which slips on over the regular Tens and Quite y s Hore theHopnfight were at almost ‘quel distances on fithor ‘hand. fom The silfer. Ae the lights approach The’ position, the modeling ie aiven fHlatioe tendering

May, HENGE MONTHLY O.

LISSAMAN

IE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Children

haby birstudyUssoman above hosvorious” been hung photoof

permits focusing as salons, Rermits focosing, as graphic fey te

‘They come in both spond of I photoF/4.3. regiilar nnd diffusion No. Four Lypes, complete with Moods in ‘pois Lables of | distances, illusion screens over reflectors ‘and camera settings. White diffusion may he introduced Inter in printing from the negative, the diffusion oblained at the original exposure possesses a particular beauty of its own, and also tends to soften some of the photographer's errors of harsh lighting, When, however, the attachment is to he ised for other wore as well as portraits, the regular type is the best to buy. ‘The picture of the two children was taken through the regular attachment, while the portrait below It was taken through, the diffusion type. Note the slight

Portrait token No.with 2 some speed, lamps stop, were ond Tights, except nhotollod used. Both photos were made with on old tollfilm camera, adapted to ure cut film softening of detail in the latter picture, The fim used for this work should preferably he of panchromatic. type, ines even the Drillianee of phototioad Inmps ie low in photographic ight, when compared to the stn AML the ilustrations were taken with photoftoods, Information and tables regarding their use are obtainable at almost any shop that sells film. ‘The No, 2 size Is more economical than the smaller No. 1 lamps. A reflector should he used, My reflectors each hold two buths, and Tuse two reflectors, Regard~ less of what type of rellectors you have, each should be equipped with a diffusion sereen, ‘This is made from a. piece of very

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 thin, cheap sille (or (racing cloth), and is large enough to cover the front of the reflector ‘Phe equipment should be all ready before the child or children are called in. If the background (wall paper or paint) is not of a comparatively soft shade and design in the room you are to use, then a plain white or Nght colored sheet shottld he suspended oy the wall for a background. You wi find, as you progress, that a white background ean he rendered photographically as any shade you wish, dark. "This Is gov Irom white to very erned by the tight which fall upon ‘The farther the lights and subject are away from it, the darker it will become. For a start the model position should be about three or four Feet from the background; the lights at least that fae away agai,

eidncicno elec Loe rein son neuefor onal be picture and the angle But pion te should Bemodel,ed‘The camera {heNog slays chs theceeGamers a yuan ‘ay bear fo oe“propstat ii tie of are Ee Ce ee Peace Geely ee ee ote

1905 Now’ bring in the ehild (or children), y with the ebild, show him where you want him to stand or sit, but make ho attempt to pose him, Get the chi to forget the eamera and hecome so absorbed in your conversation that he even forgels himseir. Agent's revainder 1s to position may be Introduced from time to time, but Wo not make the de ssived positionof paramount importance, Formal portraits with full attention apparently divected toward the are very little more difficult, You simply repiace, the interest-ereating object with a story or with absorbing: eony sation, ‘The Hille boy inthe portrait was listening intently to a deeply Ine teresting (to him) conversation on the habitsof gophers. ‘The primary thing, of greatest. importance to romember, is tit portrait lighting shoutd he simple, ‘the light should come fundamentally from but one souree, Although we shall assume you are going to use two lights, the first is placed relatively close 30 a5 to light. the subject, but the second Tight is at a greater dislance to light up the shad‘ows east by the former. ‘These shadows Should still be shadows, yet illuminated well enough to show a degree of “tone” fon the finished print, ‘The amount of Tight to throw into the shadows is de= termined largely hy experience,

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 IF the light Js coming from two equat sourees, each illuminating a side of the model's face, andIf the secondary source is twice as far from the model as the first, then the light falling on. the model's face from the secontlary light is not one half as intense as that from, the first, but has only one quarter the intensity. "This fact. should be relied upon in determining the range of con trnst you wish from highlight to shadwv. (Negative development atso controls contrast but will be overlooked, since only lighting is being discussed.) ‘The placing of the lights should be somewhat as follows: ‘The dominant light, for normat effects, should preter‘ably come from above. ‘The well-estab= lished 45-eg, lghting is. suitable for the heginner. ‘This calls for the frst, fan nearer light to be about 45 deg. to fone side and 45 deg. above the model's head and, of course, in front of model The second light is placed, for a start, about twice as far from the model as the dominant light, and about eamera level. It is on tne side of the camera (and model) opposite the dominant light. ‘This second light is now In a good position, being lower than the first, to Uhrow some Hight into the shadows cast fon the face by the various features

Weighted Toy Clown SwingsPopular Precariou sly on Rail Mechanics Jan.

A flick of the finger starts a squaRes, this funny clown swinging ‘| merrily back and forth on his uncertain perch. ‘To make the toy, cut the clown from sheet metal according to the squared pattern and paint it in bright colors, ‘The base, which is a piece of ply wood or sheet metal, supports two dowel uprights fastened with screws driven from the underside. A shcet-metal or plywood crossbar is attached be. tween the uprights. If sheet metal is used for the crossbar, drill two hoki for the sheet-metal pivot member or, if the bar is of Y lywood, countersink two depressions for the pivot and drive a small carpet lack m the bottom of each depression to reduce frict Slot the pivot and the clown, as

1950

We Tae XN LEAD WEIGHT

older slot a lead weight over the end of the Rudolph G.

them together. ‘Then,

and squeeze it tightly clown’s leg. Kopp, Milwaukee, Wis.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

ish

1906

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY NOVEMBER, 1935

[Current rec pequene

NDALL

FORD

the skin of a Inuman

the peimary cconlany The iin)

love

asith the ent, gapWhereis

futher ide nd

be quite satis No, 10 than ‘al so the com to-any: lun, the spark sap ie studs 9 spark wil occur only aun Sony with the @0-eyele charging eurgent This may he decideliy unplen

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 throueh the boy. ‘The propre separation will depend upon the sped of te rat e part of thie gap. TU may ustally he nine by the Sound of the

Night avout picture ofand thetrough discharge ax it p freely 8 eommon

syark. Wen, 4 pre mmseal note i ven SMftstment by-Uhe nity.discber consklered acroe the caret. pay, teaThe Inasinnin separation betveen the #3) eh ments should not in any ease exceed The in. When ‘operating high-frequency appaatis forthe st the, especialy in oa dy Tight, the experimenter is apt ta be some

Only with be the viseresults, disappninted tela he stronsest sparks will fn bit Tint, and the beautiful brush dlisearse will hhecompletely Inst, Snme views of spectacular hight displays are shown. OF patti i terest i the tft, nto produced bythe te Volving’ wire described. in the May. see TH a sinall branch of a shraby or tree is fastened to the discharge rol of the coi, i will "wilt toed collage limos!” inymediafely after the erent ie tried on. TE the di hare is contivned, branch ITwil . adrburst nto flames within a fewthe. secon, rvell-seasoned board is placed aginst the ‘charge “tod, (lhe park wil branch ot 0 fand slowly creep the top and sides of the bard. At night the spectacle appears Tike nninons. tae slowly taki Detore the stunt that never fails Io mgatify the Tyme is the ight ine of a TammyMoving will the ‘current. Uo dhe Jam i tothe body. This Jnoob'e tndder pro may be performett by Froiing lamp swith feltage” ranstoriee attached sires. and socket between the experimenter and Oi Sischarge shark, or by. pacing, the lamp be of whom is 1aking two persons, ont metal tieiecenisehtege:thronigh vod Acneon sas be sill ght uy weadly if held within several Teel nf the rk. Ot Tines of figures an eters, if formed. From A continous piece of witewill and.glove. suspended with i ‘the aie. Strange Blue willy Tight sletigy when’ Une ent of the wire is‘connccted to the discharge 1 maybe Anather interesting experiment spar the with t o r e l y Tishtingn by performed a pieceout toof shaped from Hie tore anay. ofbe which is hollowed wood, one end Hold the burning material, A rare to.witethe partshould end extend from fhe hollowed end that is field fn Che hin,wasteTE theor holleseed cathy of bils cotton with filled ie

1907 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 aud remit ear the sine, spa The it ill insme= lamp, tn this experiment all connections tehast inte ‘ately the same a8 when sng the apparats or enhanced by previously sarangelect the may satebe 2 rninhigh-frequency. demonstration, except. Cit fie to leads that formerly went to the r= tie cloth ath kerosene be inelatons ine excellent co mary of the high-frequency’ cot are connected Ordinary the tor tothe ends af the stationary cot ductors nglass bottle ie freqeney placed. aver hedlischarge. diselvargeTf iy allaching tivo hare wires to the tere od the spitks nppeae to meet tthe of 0 minal transformer, the notepnstselfectnf theof abighcvollage. Tncab® fader me be Feaktanee tn pasa. through Ute Produced, ‘The wites” are. arranged so that Some interesting stunts my be (performed swith only grt of the apperatis, 10 the high theypoint come 44 in, ofavd each aother one ten ssithin slant pare way from at exch Frequency ‘cal fs removed from (he circuit find a ceil-of ineiited tire connected in biher at an angle of about aS deg. (oa plice of the high-freqieeney coil primary, an Fait ‘about 10". From the. point of Interesting demonstration of electrmmngnetie dloeest “ofseparation. erent an aeapplied tote primar of WheWhen nsf, wi iuetiontir which may befe connected ven, A a second coll socket “or re foram across the poms of Teas” separation The diameter of Use coils may ‘he an will then climb upwardwherelit it Te fs reaches extin: that sll hold ts shape, amd each ay of onlyseveralto beinches, used followed. by ‘series of Coil may consist of from font ta ten fog as the eureent eon, Ia lamp is placed im the socket and. the rcsAithouh from a_highste Faonp i broueht near the stationary coil, the quienes coil themay discharse be taken with. wo il ef Tans will i brilliantly whe the eusrent ie"Iuened ome IE the lay evil is moved back fects the spark should not be allowed to play to the have skin, otherwiee a painful ue nox forth before fay results TE the spark ie tvken throu a the stationary ei the extent of the magnetic Ictal ijl in the Caution hand, the should positheeof field maybe readily wheerved, Since thea intras adfecininate lion af the eile is similar toa lensformen aren circuit, working oraround high-voltagees the experimenter may vary the mmbee af ferried when theperforming. transformer luvene im each coil and note the varios di pocinents requiring the transformer alone lances ab whieh it is possible to ight the if a paper be Impvese great that is wo sacha Tiltg with [Continued from page 1903 exposed toquanto nid small'« soloion nate however im mercury, of Napor Grothin sal, fouesided, rectangular prismsof ne fe Colored ikblack, vomforming, ig ie becomes Ttres edges are often, bet the Mlombie system, whose vertical expet~ bis indeltte actual farses Ty, trubeated lyDy theobtuse domes,prin, while that meteary eta infers author the iinents formed 1072 and dstils without at the ends are melts pe Afotond, motes 180 of velocity a with tres at ‘Aeriine prac meter (700 of subheight Te toa 360%, reaches above Sid tomperstare a at fevation nts of Professor er experime test ofthese ial shows im Lares, Fines, even Below is melting-yoint iiditin eampaperhe a.#0 by meansof ofmeresry rtPrepared, thethat presenca inolte in cold, broad peales, Tt is alimost the On water, oiling, find bat little soluble it really in aleobo, ether, s e, especialy ofl ‘workshop immetalthe istmosplor Eerrined ther hand edssolece look in employed ‘chore thismanufacto arbonisulphides and dydro-earbons, ‘Phe di thatpenethe “Jt alo shows Tngeplass hun ety riet, Dl colorby re Tine soliton show a Leautiid ne wo workman 8 of lot a distinct but slight light, Teon eserts flected reaction ment become entire: a estblisi lourinatedsuch with fniimpregn litmus. When inhaled, eithet Ealine t only that iprepared and paper mereory, ge shetsing, andistableTar sap it eanses Fndustor conghing, ene hand his bring to ocean and It isexvealingly itunnttg have it tty ut ‘hay he distiled anatteed over eiuer ignited ‘nih all impossible, Tei notto st thine in backs" in rdge Tined iridium oe relly tacked ine of cede Time disnoveryaetho ts Duna, of mine raestor to g sei n i d r o t te o and.y which of meth Hime have siready been prepaged by the. nny he theinn ition are ma natare fn objects of Toplodact thors sd womevons compre with other sth perfectiobolln forin He complished in n-degroe st ofpresent aces examined by then anythingmid Know xeeodtng exceptingto notexited economy pity of fine DREEDING OF OSTRICHES IN CAPTIVITY. s hy. erally Specimen Fhowwgeag of the We have already refereed tothe in subject The denen of Seienees in the now arta mer. and eaptiity Europe, yeoling ofstricto: thisin e's utotspy ane very encouraging i their promise practice of common fre remiethae FUNG! IN POTABLE WATER. numbers Aven, where large snecessiv Secutrencein Southppose e seonving af Profesior Franka hasHeiselatelyin benTegatdrenewing ae ineloved ia arens the experiments of De, £0 the nop ot thet feathers, alateeneiteled by low stone 38 the acre, drinkin, in to tventy fang of {velopment fofweallHiteen Their artificia100l hatchedot abowe fouree’ of which he found that hen sOgar is eggs ave wsvallytare tempera ‘ie ting shite flded to waters contaminated with sewnge. 3 i Repeat (veiTla mp. Enmontaton ensuen with a sch growth of fungi 4 Nesting some unexpected exception, tthehowever, feashrs of the wings of the mel revel vestigate, of expr $1 fom in'te conevs of be,his neste Winging ost valoable, Elo ually making,Ciedsup are, pound eighty feathers fom and Snaiy dence the following geod the wild than those rents feathers Reda. lita Tesullg according to the Clemiral News. usin, saluable more ed consider however, AEDS sewage. sit mised 1s Potablennd waters tale of the of broght matters, other certain bumnens Ino dviae with animal acral Sao MERCU TO ETC, UM, IRIDI¥APORe SENSIBILITY OF RIAL when andsmalltheyquantities growthsie them, fungokd Aevelop ar ex dissolved ave Stougur the tion to eniea conmm a in , Profesor Merset of es posed to a summer atmospirs when tes Paris stathat Sciv,enc Academyons_ooffiidi 2. 'The germs ofthese organisms are present plainam, and other me! Snint acid are rongit_ into Sis in niteo-maringe Continued on page 1915 Telations with metalic mercury, Their sens

TH

URVIVOR Vol. 5

Sensitive

1908

Klectric

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY MARCH, 1936

Eye

Made from a Copper Disk Magical

little

photographic

device

will

operate

a

vpostre meter or automatic

garage-door opener...

lo 7st Wats erent siaeecre NNnaaia eres Med cara iii Fat Sraghas cee Sees sistent Presa iueencra cmhe gm pie eet eae comet Sere ea a ispina easne Rew tae ier ourrgun ae es suites ce eure Sue ee “Retard een stat casei faethe ante iene alia a eokt oe tans seers Satiercte nereees Sri tt Sgetatanci sacueaers aay tear wone nae el Seer resets sae ila eee Se cae ee eee eee eon et Sete nical ie iecae

Ht will guard

rooms, turn on lights, and do many stunts

, For making the disks, you will need pure sheet

By Kennevi Murray Pig, 1, The dine ft for several Invtes.nd costed

then vinse in water and dry with a clean cloth. Tt is important that the disk. be perfectly clean, Cuprous (copper) oxide is formed on the disk by subjecting i toa red heat for sev. tral minutes over a Bunsen burner, as shown in Fig. 1. Move Big. 2. A spical_ of ridon the red oxide

seats forms the it about so that all will he evenly heated, then Jay it on a cold metal surface (Such as a heavy stecl saw table) to cool, ‘The outer surface will be covered wilh a thin layer of black cupric oxide, sshich will loosen itself from the surface hy this cooling method and can be ceadily brushed off with fine steel wool, Be very eareful not Lo remove the-layer ‘of red material, which is the photoactive fcuprous oxide and lies immediately under the black oxide film, If the red oxide be comes scratched or worn Uhrotgh to the

copper underneath, the disk must be eaved and reheated, otherwise i would short-circuit the finished cell and a cur rent would not be produced, Usually the extreme edge of Che disk wil lack the red doxide coating, so the coat of silver or the ‘wire grid, which is to be applied next, is nol allowed to reach the edge, Hold in the Fight, the cell will now gen: erate @ current betiveen the oxide and the copper, the latter being positive and the foxide negative, So that the current may he usable, connections must be made, ‘The ack of ‘the disk can be cleaned with eanery paper for one connection, "To lower

1909

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Tig

Tv

the resistance on the face side, however the surface of the oxide must’ he partly covered over wilh a grid, which can b coil of silver-plated wire or acoatin pure silver TL HE ice gr is les etficient, bat ea ierto apply. Use 30-gauge wite, for ing it into-a spiral to cover the oxide Fig 2) and holding iin Light contactendby: tomeans pr ‘of a cover glass, Allow one for making a ject from ander the Connection, but see that it does nol touch |{ bare’ copes, A good way’ to make th tid is (o windthe wire on a wood cone as shown in Fig Coating the oxi wth a thin, tims ent fl of ciation. Itis done chemically by: pourity, |

\

SE COR TIGR Cire

inch atveona i cmos uss lstwal one in ie mated clang ig of Ue THeprowaeet hater tisove tay the Useatobe tithe Ui Sti dve-dropat {lng the calls med Th top, and Inti Pg haoSinoBeitat pening tech mofay saler e cl ttheorist e ‘renin’ immedaf iversolaion shuuld be Inginmeter Thssatto eufat the Ueht htYell enter, very ihn, ad shen g e n i l y ok te box the‘csk'wilstoolthe bave wate fits ta o ofthe be phoogrerbed sasshawsh etyied ler red oxo feet the cle One eesti ilghly Contact “shawing"thet hom an opeong & cut theSle Welier tehellobot finan? forthe meter Inde totalthi ingsuf(SE Ueontheregula sa table'wih theea anand wh WiVerlaled holon ot ihe way cones, icesoe terse Both tbe fronare ofhowthe photometer ied) ot sly" br Fig tad he iC nea Co ve INLLY calibrated sale mus be tod" the face af he 1 can be aesitately carted fron an ter bu de mt lows sueh ae 1/88 second aC PA. the ivecn the sg ai Gt mking' peel ro te sale where Sil shone the conc.‘ ‘Thet anefake set the meler indorsed iain i cafarm " aoa i n of site ear ame thtemp phototian! farp farther n refe Mahonwood eSbos ade hte lorMove neuer away Tron the erate, ntpollsthe to eteted igtcxipes Lie meler rat at theme ar Wy folding he eodboard IAAthe alter8hwl eta gh le elected dhaHop te net fer potion B sng vie y as sh artubard The next alee slop pos wtb insted tn atthse, peterean Joss far enh sap 1/28 seed Tea Forbe other fou soeand anesthe see Scope ean before esa cami oe there. for 1/2

solution over the oxi Capecilsifvering hig the ies to cite ye they eae ani g with the solution, so that the fatter wall Tor acircular pool as in Fie. ce distilled waler for the sofo am Makeup ten percent. andsolatins Rochelle sal mnonfa, eaustie potash, Allzate the size of a safetynateh heal brown, Add a dropof the potash solution,

Fig. 6. A group of ews of the phot

;

1910

THE SURVIVOR Vol

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

CELL, ) RELAY REGULATION H 10 up REGULATION HOOK-UP TO. GARAGE GARAGE -000R

CELL FUNCTIONS WHET Vr PERSON ENTERS DOOR OR

OTHERWISE INTERRUPTS, LIGHT. SET RELAY TO WoRK

Popular

Party Game

Mecha: nics February

1958

Tests Eye and

Hand

Coordination Introduce this interest~ ing device at your next party and let your guests te lenge ch other as to who has the better coordination between hands and eyes, A small metal eye must be guided over a metal rod without touching it, the eye being

just twice the diameter of

the rod. ‘The eye is bent on the end of a wire “wand” that is covered with rubber tubing to insulate it. A flexible wire is soldered to the end of the wand and run through a flashlight bulb, a dry cell and a switch to the ntal rod over which ed. With

bracket that is to a plywood screwed base. If a doorbell or is used instead of buz er a bulb, three dry cells will be required instead of just one—E, R. Haan, Evanston,

IL

THE SURVIVOR Vol, 5

191t

How # Find

the Stars

neta

with

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 POPULAR. SCIENCE MONTHLY

with a Crossbow

7"™"""

How You Can Bind the Important

Spring and Summer Star Groups jin Northern Hemisphere By

GAYLORD JOHNSON

x 1wo-Foor

Rute:

i}

| |

||

@ Manner of Making a S imple Astronomical

a Perpetual Ts

Explained

This

Article

Ress

Instrument and

Map of the Sky in

Detail

for

Amateurs

principal star

When you ta cam reeegnize Loa that dozen yougroupings tivo stars, lance have leaned eatain aboutimportant the geoxraphy of the sks. You can thea wanslerin skyland at will, and explain its of interest (o others, Yon ean in points dieite the brightest of the sparking suns fan say, "There is Arcturus, There is Vesst, find there ave the Guts, the tw stars

itn, Coluntiie milal by sen ledipeove, eredKnowing the New theWorl? stars by: mame, you will welenmne the reappearance of character istic spring star groups as beattily as yor

|

TWO BOW STRINGS

/ your now cRossBow ro wane, Floris bent and te il be terenty-etght nda half inches from

in

A glance at Uhe bwo pictures of the Seleome buddin trees ann] milder dys, You will soon look pone these strangely bella. shown makes it plain that € ancl people ag old o'clock appearance of the northern sky sn alays he Found changes from season to seasen. familiar friends, Chat Look closer and yout will see that the inv their expected ph *s Newly every’ one has at least two big dipper rotates through a quarter (urn “big dipper” aroun the polestar in Uivee months, Also friends amonpolestar.” irs—the Inv the last article T you will see that the four main groups told how to Cell Lime by following the iround the polestar can be joined by twa Gventy-four-hour rotation of the slip er lines crossing at right angles, ‘A Tine from the dipper erosses the pole 2100 the pole, Now we shall start anud micets a spraveling “W" or "AL" about the aobrella, on which you have chalked the same distance on the other side, This |W few lara: and. show die jAWCipAL sar

froups thatThen ateve visibleshall invent a¢ the different. shnple Seasins. —levice that will enable us to find these stars at any time af the year

“AW” gsoup s Cassiopeia, evossing the first al right otheriline, “The sinal . groupthe at,singleOre AMRKS, tast_of finsthe pole,fron acoutniaing.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1912

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

9pm. Aus. Isr.

| Oem. May Isr.

To find Arcturus, imagine the Be ae mc nae: Pace the en 2 “he ae TA =» CE Tine findabovethe theGuards, bu ox

the okstar enddiagon rer at ally Bt

14 Procyon, ext

Bite foe tg te| De find Dright star, Vers, to a group of five west ff the pole! The five form the constellation Auriga. The brightest of them isa brilliant yellow-white sun named Capel for each scison, cons ‘These ourfour,key oneeroups. stitite “Using. tem as leundimarks, we ean ind ll the star groups, at ang Lime of the year, for some one of them is always ia a good position from which Co run lines that will help us find Ue other constellations of the season, Notice in the illustrations that both the dipper and the Ware eat by the third short white parallel Tne, counting from Une pole. Bach of the ‘spaces. between hort fines, extending slong. our w's ribs from side to side, repre sents ten degrees. The dipper and theeW ire each therefore about thitly dexrees from the pole. It takes six more divisions to reach the edge of the umbrella—ninety degrees in all from the pole of our mninia~ ture sky Lo its equator TAC this point vou may: ask, why can’t we make a measuring rule, nrarked off in degrees, hold i up toward the real sky, fand {his find all the other principal stars by their distance in segrees from the pole tind front each ther? W That is just achat we are going to do, but first we Inust know the length of a degree, Here is a simple rule that tells us exactly what we want lo know: Any round object held at fifty-seven times its own, diameter from the eye, aveupies an angle of one degree, You can use a button, 2 coin, or a dinner plate, ‘Take a copper cent and measure its diameter, ICis exactly three-fourths of am inch, How far must it he held fron the

Castor and Potlus, ex eve to occupy an angle of one degree? Obviously, fifty-seven times three-fourths for forly-ivo and three-fourths inches, ‘To get a satisfactory measuring. rod, hold a two-fool ler at such a distance from the eve that each one-half inch divi sion will aceupy the of ane degeee be held titty: must ruler the this do To seven linies one-half inch, ov vent y-eight anxl_oneshalf inehes, from the eye TE we do this with a straight ruler, hove ever, itis obvious thal (he divisions at the ruler's ends will be more than twenty fight and one-half inches front the eye To corrvet this error we must bend the tvo-foot rule into a bow and fasten it by: iis center to a stick that is: Gventy-cight and one-half inches long, ‘Then we shall be fable to measure forty-eight one-half inch degrees in any: ditection on the curving bow! of the sky. With it, you ean find the angular distance hetween any two stars, jus as a ship captain does with his sextant To use your instrument, rest the bol tom end of the stick upon the check bone Delow your eye, phice ane end af the how uler on one of the stars, sand rend off the point where the other star touches the ruler, ‘The observer in the iMlusteation is using his erosshww to measure the niin her of degrees Between the star whee the dipper’s handle joins. the Thavwl and the pair of stars called the Guards, With the end of the how ruler at the star in the dipper, the Guards. fall ata point howt Lwenty-two degrees along Uhe edge df the ruler. This corresponds to vent hyo half-inches or eleven inches on the eucved how ruler: In making my instrument, 1

line soueeswillalongBnd thisAltai To find Dene, the tine tied ulin extend he "Guar ogres farther atong you snd Benet EJ ToXena findline Sauce of Pegasun,extrom dippers pointers Me ater to the polestar, At shuty degsces starthe where b e y o n d the pote you fil four bright bowel stared ar this ade isthe Square ordinary hardware store yardstick and 3 hiall-inch dowel rod, Tay order to sce. the divisions, when the bow ruler is held up nst the sky, 1 notched its edge at (0 and one-hali inch intervals, IfT want A more precise measurement, I turn on a Aashlight and note the exact half-inch di vision where the star touches the edge AC nine p.m, about the fitst of May the dipper is above the pole with Vegt almost straight east of it, About the first of August, at the same hour, the dipper hhangs-doww at the left of the pote, with 18 high above it During May, June, and July, Vega and the dipper are’ excellent finger posts for Finding all the otber principal stars of the carly summer sky. Now with the aid of your erosshow you are ready: to go out “and tnd a few stars. 1f_you read over the seris of siv para graphs, leitered A, B, Cy ete,, and look iI the dotted lines lettered to correspond inv the other illustrations, you will know tesielly how to se your bow euler in find ng cach star ‘Thea, iF you have chalked upon your umbrelkt the necessary lettered vaud aiiibered lines, yout can take it out tind use it as a memorandam of directions rau) distances, (0 be consulted with the vid of your thishlight, 11 is ensy to make a two-faced star chart that sill show on one side the cone Siellations in view in the Northen Hemi shliere of the sky at a certain hour in the evening, and on the other side the groups to be scew at the same time south of the sky's equator. "Yo do this, take a piece of heavy cards oad thisteen inches square, Cut from its

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1913

SURVIVOR Vol. 5

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Targing the charts, your cant c the poxe from this magazine to an olfice uimakes

1914 star map for a place ten degrees north of this, the mask

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 of Orion, whieh is almost ex actly on! the equator of the

has the larger opening over the faee of the disk on which. the hig dipper and horthern polar stars appear. “The parts alsy he fastened tegetlie ssith chips hay br rivets of by binding their edges with ndhesive tape. Cut recesses at the top of the small masks,the tetimeshownof inmonth theco that vieibie. will bedrawings, Gn thediske containing the star charts: alo Cut openings at the sidesof Lhe masks and so you cin turn the dial, in centertwotrame masks now hold the disk in The place, yet allow it to revolve freely, As it finns, the fourth cieeles from the north ind, south poles. shovkd just touch. the horizon lines. “This applies to al places niear the htlitade of New York City, that is, forly degrevs, north, fo making the

Uitunb and finger, and you will see the stars in ‘view al nine o'clock aL intervals af lwo Weeks. throughout tke year. Note that we see more of Uhe Northen Hall of the sky’ than AL the We do polethe we southern. should se only north Ue Northern Hemisphere, with Ue polestar straight overhead. AL the equator we should see northern and southern halves of the sky equally, with the north polestar on ibe northern horizon, and the faint south plestar, Sigma Octantis, on the southern horizon, ‘The belt

elass or four Limes pnagnityine tne anopert ‘The yrvat Galilew proved his heories amd revalutionized(he —yecepted ideas of The universe witht the aid of a rude lelescope that was no more powertul than is one tube of a modern opera glass. As T have sald. in earlier articles, elaborate equip= ment is by no means essential to understanding and enjoying the grandeur of the hes mture’s greatest show, Inz deed, important discoveries in astronomy have been made with just the kind of simple equipment T have described,

Photos prints and hrve both plasene pening. having the nerthern sky would then yes over vor lniged about t dol~ psi Tine util must thebe extended heds"Now Wing. wingerhavenilalesmned Ine, (See{0 Cen-inch note on ciecles oppositefor paee) dowwvand boron that you When your (vo circular plans are enfine toutes the fifth citele bete Rnow some of the sky coun: Hogue hie them firmly te the (xi sides owe the north, pole, but. the tries by wasight,fi yousthls an. tea athe feninh ice Make sine Hatthe tam ee "of the mask get on month names and their eorresponcing lites gpening having the southern seeing Urea magnify posse ofsomeIne moderate yaa It glassof be cutthe high must Couch icum- it priate thefromdisk which yp osite.it in Wh sreesncily principal the Gf c= hth just Should hole the replace Hite, Meas Cut Sanpaper the ede, tle above the south poleof the terest. he nest ancle_ wall give yu the igh spots of changes onst be sky. Opposite two the make cardbant strong From square maske shown fo the avail daw. made fora place ten degtess Asttonony. Yon THe Tiel PlucSTMeOn to Wie tuarERETanE 17 BIL Bt Uie Janie GK New < — CoGpora’Ie Ghee ouieiecd ae ieeea binowaicen threngh see can ‘out Cis Worle disk, the eat you eaniboardcubefrom esifeswhich ofWile ote -—.ished,Whetii your-stot charge even Lie lnapoatying Can ines a ings toward the lop. Glueof Inpinaek the mask which he disk slowly with through

Popular

Mechanics

September

1948

Amusing and Educating Spelling Game Provides Hours of Worthwhile Fun

—

cur oneninGs For (ereRs TO APPEAR CARDROARD Wine AUPHABELRINGS

himSalWhether alone amusing of slaving. with other children, the

youngster of school age will have hours of eduational Lun with this unusual spelling game. When the rings are ro{ated in the frame, letters of the alphabet printed on the rings appear in the windows cul in one of the eross members. ‘The rings are cut from heavy cardboard and the irame, also of cardboard, consists of front and back strips stapled together in the form of a cross. ‘The rings are held in place and spaced to align with the windows by inserting staples between them through the arms of the frame.-Opie Read, Jr. Chicago.

THE SURVIVOR Voi. 5

fu e ry eontnet e withthe Wh at them after momentate #8 Tet

‘Or pharplionisae ore

es fewenes me

191s

is

SURVIVOR Vol. 5

a Survivalist? by Kurt Saxon

Whi@n a person emborks on a course of action, whether it be a profession,

‘rede tem, hobby, belief, or whatever, a label is needed. Some people don't li @ labels but they are necessary for advertising and identification. EXPERIMENTS WITH COMPRESSED GUS: The term "Survivalist” is fast becoming a household word. It is mentioned COTTON af some se. Constantly on television, in newspapers, magazines and radio. Although just We have aheady given a nati maskableesprincitely Mr, Abel of Woslwieh, Bout everyone has come across it, few really know what it means. The term sad to the eiect yradiced hy compressed evolved from the general phrase "back to the lander”. That was used mainly Gouin, when singly eile or resed by ecologists and conservationists alarmed at the growing pollution affecting that have heen’ wag. the quality of life. esta of this new eTicatione xplosive agent. Asics ot The January 1970 of MOTHEEARTH R NEWS printaed comment by Gary ~parinents ims lately be n nadety the ofers Syyderon pollution. issue “The human race for the last century has allowed it's pro-

oi he Royal Engatage crit r "duction and. dissemination of wastes, by-products and various chemical Jpuiccotion tinl_goimposider; hil it was fond Substances to become excessive. Pollution is directly harming the eco-system. the wliew to hundred pounds of gunpowder If js also ruining the environment in every direct way for humanity itsel

wow il asia

on article titled “How fo Moke Hub stokof eems” Yq tha same istve, reprinting from CAVALIER, to communes. "So theair is full of crud

inclies apart, and sink three fe t in the earth, a It Your Way," they suggested escaping

Taege gap was made inthe front tockavle, white snide t paeven tls t yaecigelst anus, thie any, Cate pase tuxton wore next feted in these manner. und fred, as reanive, by adetonatingfms. In this-ease Inialy fear teach ss te nig baths rons ot titer, making it practicable for an attacking yputs tog through, In another experiment foe

bearsof ir alow seen Inches ston nelcled

sl

a

and the water tastes funny and the nine-to-five is a drag. You're tired of the SUBWay. dog crop in the streets, bumper-to-bumper traffic and plastic TV diners. Maybe the communes — with all that freshair, sunshine, love and homebaked bread — are really into something.” The ~gommunes didn't work out very well. There was an overall likemindedness but the lack of discipline and practical skills doomed most such projects from the start. Also, too many who joined communes simply wonted @ secure refuge where they could smoke their dope in peace.

The qOTHER EARTH NEWS had @ great Impact on the Urban Dropout move-

‘by necklaces of disks of ment from the time of it's first publication in January 1970. They made millions

impressed goni-eotion,

These were x= aware of the possibility of findia ng more pleasant environment and crecting a

one afer the outer, nnd te beats NC more secure and fulfilling lifestyle.

Sircre! west ted

the smu caniecton, svt

IN-ANG early ‘70's Don Stevens, who sells books on self-suffic

iency out of “a0 youve the hpostant ayiieations Washington state, popularized the term "retreater.” The term obviously inmi cotl Oe ell dicated one who had prepared a retreat in the boondocks to go to when city ving became intolerable, : ARSESIOUS ACID AND ALBCMES There Is nothing wrong with the term “retreater when ” used in it’s proper ion of allen fur mvt context. But it is @ buzz word to certain types. | just heard what might have is a problem of tae ie ‘of this subst is been a joke about a general who hod an auto accident because he ignored a consisting i, wn of "Yield" sign. “Yield” was a buzz word to him. Putin enter anette “Retreater’” was acceptable to pacifist drop-outs of the MOTHER EARTH ‘imei inconvenient, un acca of the gest NEWS school of thought. But to the more aggressive person it had strong conSiyectonbie‘onacamnt of satan neon NOAHONS of cowardice, Siering the application of che albumen. Fur Leertalnly didn’t like it, since my of the near future calls for ag. the papa tims, Poat gressive measures to protect mine fromscenario all comers. A poem says "I'll build my house by the side of the roa! and watch the rest of the world go by.” That attitude is fine for "retieaters” but what happens when part of the world turns fer hours, in to loot that house by the side of the road? albumen, “Fhe sunvs bstanice ea br The pacifist drop-outs and other non-involved persons simply leave the Sent fermentation, pteeietn, ant the del gies with no fanfare. They don't feel the need fora label because their move is not any form of protest. Also, they don’t seem aware that the people they gynentof fang Ie ot coe wi pou ap i we ates The pacifist drop-outs ond other non-involved persons simply leave the cities with no fanfare. They don't feel the need for a label because their move ORGANIC EFF ror pereresriy conoren 18 not any form of protest. Also, they don't seem aware that the people they aire simply don’t care to live near may well be a danger to them in the future os Acccting to M. Pouchet, certain ras of marauders. Hight are particulary favorable to she devcloty Unlike the back-to-the-landers, the ecologists, the retreaters and such, surMhile other rays ave most farnable to the Vivalists are not non-involved pacifists. They are not necessarily eager to kill, geowthy of microscopic forms of « vegetale either. They are simply aware that civilization is cracking up and see the possi-

THE SURVIVOR Vol character. ‘Thus, white light is said to be best Feted for the former results. after whiel comes the ved tay, then the violet, the Mive, and final Iy the green. On the contrary, for the devel ‘opment of vegetable organisms the green ray fs best fitted; next to this the blue and violet, and lastly the sshite light; the red ray hinder jing the development of these organising, AR txperimene of similar character Ins recently theon maile by Mr, Wake in rogard to the effect, of differently colored Tight wpon milk; aut he that the general revlt of his experiJnforins vithus this iments substance corresponds with those mentioned Ty M, Pouehet. According to his the fungoid filaments of the milky Etitements,exposed infusion to the green light were larger than those of the other infusions, while the tendteney to the formation of these filaments under the influence of yellow light was bn feobly exhnibited, although Bacteria were very plentiil

UTILIZATION OF SCRATS OF TINNED R08, ‘The method wailingOt, straps devised hy Dr, ofAdolph fe Sai of totinned anceiron,an texeellent parpose, and to beinle succes opera, Hog nigel esialicents in New York. For the purpose in question the scraps are placed in lage perforated copper ves sels and rotated thirty to forty minates in A tan containing from warm nid, when the tin, Lead, and aboutfrehyrocirie p e r c e n t , of drum is thenin lifeill be dissolved. ‘The eopr seater, then ino fom the seid rates, wien the cn of alka, Seuseillb i free from tn, may be set ing fasnce. ‘The Teal may le separated from the solation hy the addition of sulphur acid and the tin ray be obtéined in the metalic ‘state ye in eof inin UNITY OF THE PIG FROM INTERY BY

ihe anpresion ithegenerally resale 1 dhe Ui Stes tt common domestic nu tis ccpesin caenemy ofecchug al Kindetheof biterepent sda t e o of the Sn coppertead with the sigter personal somes a nani from bi India ne frrepented the eolirastewde them enpel ine Ihe tbserved ihe pig to be bitten over nd oxer ‘enim in the ehout and about the face hy the no. instance with the Il iii, Festand theia aggressor

CuFAP sUnstrrcTE FoR DocBEE WIxDows, It is suggested byDr. Oidkmann, in pam= rilet onthe care of eal eimply to a se tonsingle fash, and thus nelose a strat ofdry binvabout ofan inch mothick. "he excesshy tt cost, ifs 0.2t00:4 said willbe re than covered fhe ectiiomy of fal in winters and at 0%, in Suminer, 300m dus protected wil emain nine Alogroescooler than when supplied with ordinary Sinlows. The plan i also advantageons for A good band quality of ae, Hocbole, that dows eta.not tneume dal by decomposition, especiallyfacesforeana notsouthern must postr,be sinceselocted, the interior be cleanex Bar "eis noerary also not only that the glass

1916 THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 ble need for desperate measures to come through with a whole skin. The social unrest of the ‘60's gave a great but delayed impetus to the Survivalist movement. As discontent manifested in urban rioting, clashes between militont rightists and leftists, assassinations, etc., the government threatened gun confiscation. Millions grew afraid of th government and felt trapped and helpeless. As their children were bussed to black neighborhoods, as their streets became increasingly dangerous and the quality of life lowered, they began wanting out. The weapons oriented magazines urged protest on all levels. They also detailed to their readers the government threats as well as the overall urban dissolution. ‘Some of them used the term “retreater” when suggesting that their readers drop out. But gun-oriented types were more likely to sit tight than leave under the stigma of “retreater.” | am not suggesting that anyone put off leaving because of the term. It is just that they took a militant stand rather than retreat. In late 1975 when starting THE SURVIVOR, | coined the term “Survivalist” and used it in the first issue published in Jonucry of 1976. In THE SURVIVOR | have been urging decent people to abandon urban blight and take their loved ones to a safer environment. My term has been catching on and now those offended by “retreater” are quite satisfied to call themselves Survivalists and move out. It has turned out to be a word anyone can accept as a label if they want one. Eyen s0, the media is generally down or urban dropouts so they have been giving Survivalists a bad name. As you know, the media is part and parcel of the Urban Establishment. It follows that anyone unwilling to stay in the ci ond support the Establishment and it’s hordes of dependents is some kind of o kook. ‘Awhile back, Boyd Matson, of the TODAY SHOW called with the idea of interviewing me. When he found | didn’t wear a camouflage jacket, a beret and carry a burp gun he backed off. ‘Some time later | saw the segment he made to describe Survivalists. There was a flock of about a dozen turkeys wearing comouflage jackets and drilling with rifles in the Oregon woods. I ditin’t know them but | could tell they were urban clerical types fantasizing playing soldier. They said they had a cache of food and weapons they would go to when the collapse came. In the event that they could get to their cache they would find that roughing it might be o little harder than they thought. Also, with such a Mickey Mouse setup they would run out of supplies in no time. Then they would turn into the same kind of predators they claimed to be armed against Do not be surprised when you see Survivalists portrayed as idiots and feorcrazed kooks. The sorriest wos the Lou Grant segment titled "The

Survivalists.” They had @ nut in that show who, during @ California flood, stole 6 roll of plastic at gunpoint. He had his kids armed and waving their weapons at anyone who came around. He also used a phrase from one of my editorials, “Those who plan to survive deserve to survive.” So they had my material ond used it to make Survivalists look stupid and dongerous. They don't all do that but don't be disturbed when you see such depictions. though everybody uses it today, I figure since I mode it up | can also make predators, up it's definition. | certoinly didn't mean it 10 be used to describe himself and My definition of a Survivalist is o self-reliant person who trusts as the Establish: his obilities more than he trusts the Establishment. Insofar ment is deteriorating, the Survivalist prepares to leave it but | consider that a ists There are some who call themselves Urban Survivalexpect to survive mobs contradiction in terms. To hole up in an apartment and up. Add police and of starving rioters is sil y. Imagine utilities cut off or blownletting whole blocks Notional Guardsmen fighting urban guerrillas, firemen burn and all exits being cut off.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 should be perfecdy polehed, and not be soiled Jn patting ein, but, since the ai ielosed wage fo be dry the glasing should be done when the si fin theof best fexyatals, course,condition never inforamthat onvespert, sich ineTee

THE PRET (sf RatLWAY AIR-CSINON FORTRAVEL A weiter in the Mrdiend Times

1917 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 A real Survivalist would move out of the urban area to a small town while there is still time. I con't see how a Survivalist could live in a city in the first place

So if you consider yourself @ Survivolist and want to tell your unborn grand-

children abou get out of the city. Move toa small town and become part of the community When the wors ‘over you might have seen some turmoil and even driven

‘away some urban marauders. But you and yours will survive with dignity and with no regrets. That is what a real Survivalist is. Ut To iately prosecuting some inquiries into theotNerphysionex- Gr Tog smiley treated, fe was founerelaion Among arterial ihe halt cconitine. a of and action mine logical She noch sickened bd nena ba Sis of eenteth “one: injected they Trtiments, never e n i f he Friis ansverea so well that way, and bas Irilligram under the skin of the back of «frog Completely ceased} the nerves di not love thet one in this fraveled withoat to usingbea rematk nd ‘roti boca throught cesetonwithof =the ‘Thiety minntessfterward the sciatic thenervemuscles able improvement. found the effect Tua, they aid ot come in eontact ts motoreity, completely ff the thighHosteonteted. when though stimulated by an In mammalia the effects of the poison show ad the heart boat regularly. nducod dificalt Tn anotherearsent, experiment one leg of the frog was themselves more rapidly, and are more injected aeonitine of milligram 8 amslyac, fo then fog the anil tied s0 as to arrest circulation, n pee wat respiratio in whichafterartifical nal Inco to hour, an half found, was up iept the claie nerve fom prodeing contention Mich received the peisoned ‘ood of lstthe thepee ‘ent wile those nysiolopical remainedpropertice, meses. althongh these had preserved Drrthe 2 exeleabte Bop lb e t doses contact small that appears i t results these Tom MIND IN LOWER ANIMALS the motor ofpoweraconoF destroying toeurarinein dose futts the nerses._A of ane milligram Dr, Lander Lindsay, i an essay jst published the ess cnt fine, however jected into a fog (ewenty times which is excited. some attention, takes eh ounddiorthain sheKindmindfromof thothay lower animaleaud does Se nueh ae that weeddie nthaction of the spetiment) e e {for of man, that ventricles eet arrested Cometely eS ee Be fee they possess the same afetions vires, moral forte heart, the avriclesof thealonemotorcontracting nerves: con- Sse and espacity for enctiony atl re Hable fips the excitability and the an to the same kinds of mental disorders, ease, this ia tine long fora tiled PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF ACONTTE. Continued on _page 1919 inerosopie examination of aot have been CYCLE. set 5 or 6 ft distant. ‘o keep the bert tight a sliding brace can be made and worked by One of our re: Slattery vot Ems: a screw. worth, Pa., uses nol biey ae for running “1 hny one of these rigged up and it is a small 10-velt eenerator he ss y Just the thing for charging small storage "The front forks of the wheel are securely Dat + running small motor and for all k forks are Draced to the wall and the experimental purposes where light power Is then braced up so as to have the baci wheel required for a short time clear the floor about 3 in The generator Is POPULAR

M

CHANICS.

Br Running

Jan.,

1905

a 10-Volt Generator with « Bleycle

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 How

to Build

a Wind

1918 Vane

with

an Electric

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Indicator

Popular Mechanics — 1915 Quite often it is practically impossible to ascertain the direction of the wind by observing an ordinary wind vane on account of the necessity of 1ocating the vane at such a height that it may give a true indication. By means of the device shown in Fig. 2, the position of the vane may be deter~ mined without actually looking at the vane itself and the indicating device may be located almost anywhere and independently of the position of the while filing the slots and mark one wind vane. ‘The principle upon which the device edge top and one end right so that operates is that of the Wheatstone the pieces may be mounted alike, Now bridge. The position of the moving procure a small quantity of No. 20 contact A, Fig, 1, is controlled by the frauge bare manganin wire, Fasten wind vane. ‘This contact is inade to fone end of this wire to one end of move over a specially constructed re- the pieces of rubber by winding it in sistance R, Fig. 2. A second movable and out through three or four small holes and then wind it around the contact, B, is controlled by the observer piece, placing the various turns in the and moves over a second resistance, identical with that over which the con” small slots that were filed in the edges. After completing the winding, fasten tact A moves, These two resistances the end just as the starting end was two the are connected so as to form attached. Wind the second piece of main branches of a Wheatstone bridge; the rubber in a similar manner and make the points A and B are connected to may the length of the free ends current-detecting device, which re- insureeachto have case the same. Obtain a cylinbe a galvanometer or telephone 8 in, in dian ceiver, and current is supplied by a der of some thekind,piecesaboutof rubber by dipwarm eter, number of dry cells. In order to obtain a balance—that ping them in shot water, bend them is, no current through the receiver—the around the cylinder and allow them points A and B mast occupy core, to cool. Sponding positions on their respective A containing case, similar to that fecistances, If the two resistances shown in cross section in the upper ‘over which the points A and B move portion of Fig. 2 should now be are mounted in the same positionof with constructed from a good quality of the tin respect to the cardinal points or copper. The inside diameter of compass, then the points themselves this case should be about 1 in, more will always be in the same position than the outside diameter of the rewith respect to the cardinal pointsar sistance ring R, and it should be about when a balance is obtained. ‘The the 3 in, deep. The top C may be made row head on the wind vane and curved as shown in the illustration, corre- and point A are made to occupy be fastened to the cave sponding positions, and hence the po- propershould by a namber machine sit on of the point B, when no currentin- serews. ‘The base of ofthissmall case may be yasses through the receiver, is an the made so that the whole device can be ication of the direction in ‘which mounted on the top of a pole. wind vane is pointing, Mount a piece of ¥%4-in, steel rod, ‘The principal parts in the construc- about ¥% in, long, with a conical hole tion of the device are shown in the il- n one end, in the center of the bottom lustration, and the following «lescrip- of the case as shown by M. A number tion of their construction may be of in- of supports, similar to the one shown, terest to those who contemplate build- should be made from some %-in, hard ing the indicator, rubber and fastened to the sides of

Procure two pieces of shin, hard rubber, 1% in, wide by 24 in. long. Clamp ‘these, side by side, between two boards and smooth down their edges and ends, and then file small slots in the edges with the edge of a threecornered file. These slots shouldapartall be equally spaced about ;\y in. Have the pieces clamped together

aH} "§ cginga taunt Sac MacacaThat

D, in the exact center of the top and perpendicular to it. A washer, E, may also be soldered to the top so as to aid in holding the tube, Procure a piece of steel rod, F, that will fit in the tube D and turn freely. Sharpen one end of this rod and mount a brass wind vane on the other end. A small metal cup, G, may be soldered to a washer, H, and the whole mounted on the steel rod F in an inverted position as shown, which will prevent water from getting down inside the ease along the rod, The eup G may be soldered directly to the rod, Make a small arm, J, of brass, and fasten a piece of light spring, K, to one side of it, near the outer end, then mount the arm on the steel rod so that it is parallel to the vane and its outer end points in the same direction as the arrow on the vane, The free end of the light spring on the arm J should be broad enough to bridge the gap between adjacent turns of wire on the resistance ring. Four bindings should then be mounted on the inside of the case and all insulated from it with the of number 1, Numbers 2 the ease, to support the resistance ring. exception and 3 are connected to the ends of the The dimensions of these supports should be such that the ends of the winding and number 4 is connected to piece of rubber, forming the ring, are number 3. ‘A second outfit should now be conagainst each other when it is in place ‘The upper edge of the ring should be structed, identical with the one just except that it should have about 2 in, above the bottom of the described a flat top with a circular scale mounted Next, mount a piece of brass tube, on it, and the arm L should be con-

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 trolled by a small handle in the center of the scale. The position of the contact B may be indicated on the scale by a slender pointer, attached to the handle controlling the arm L., Continued from page

1917

Among the recent additions to thesine materia in the ssedinn which promise 10 fearmentof disease, one ofthe most interesting feat TF foe oF

{ston of reat ins ofthe head : aid rednes of the fae.

1919

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

current through the bridge circuit and a balance will be obtain ing the contact point B eduntilby adjust a min= imum hum is heard in the teleph one receiver. HVDROBROMATE OF CODEIA, ETC ureatened Fow substances of the vegotable kingdom Faeone sult i v so extensive a fe for investigation as op cic the remy rid we seen evensitaple Set to constituents, be far frorn faving incin Aetermined sll ite t0 say asus eons non of attacks i preventing nothing ofthe combinations which these are iiseave, ati evenof anginape ors, S00 pabie of forming with one class of bodies of an-ca tending 0 re. ther, Un the eourse of at elaborate inquity by ttl ‘Ds, Wrighe upon the action of hydrocirie and Tyron ets all hyteobromie acids upon eovein and morphine to of these opim Doles, ie was ascertained fey sae Continued on page 1922

Four leads of equal nce should be used in connecting resista the two devices and the connections made as shown.

Marble “Croquet” Is Interesting Indoor Game

TN

alike

being used to keep the

ren and adults wil enjoy this novel

marble game, which can be played on any flat sur-

face such as a floor or table top. ‘Ihe game is somewhat like croquet, the object being to shoot a marble through eight cardboard wickets, the winner being the one who accomplishes this in the least number of plays. The wickets are pieces of cardboard hinged together with tape as indicated. Each wieket has a centralized hole at the lower side, triangular pieces of cardboard Popular

Mechanics

Oct.

marbles from lodging in the corners where the wickets are hinged together, Hach piece is set in ata slight angle and is hinged to one of the wickets, a tab fitting into a slot in the opposite wieket to lock the piece in place and help make the wicket assembly rigid. When not in use, the assembly folds flat for storage. Rules of the game are optional. One shot in turn is the prevailing rule, If an opponent's play causes your marble to pass through a hole, your position is advanced or penalized accordingly, and your next play is resumed from that point R. L. Ralston, Jackson, Mich.

1945

THE

SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Tera By

Raymond

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

otheheeer B. Wailes

voruan sciewce sontiny manure

Can istry Equip ment

fFOM Odds

and

End:

and usedto make al sortsof apparatus— funnels, crystalli zing isos, "pneumatic ensers, diving or tow xs, anid reaction chaipbers, tubs Diseare d hraken glass

“straws,” tbe kind sed. for sipping heverages, make useful tubes. cconductinu Tiquids and gases, Corks of ferall kinds, and add leneths of rubber tubing, are worth-sshile finds for an amateur chem Doard, under Uhe metal cap; but do not discard it, for many chemicals would at proor tia asmmonta — lack the bare metal, Small-mouthed bot Gas WILL BURN lies. are preferable for keeping liquids, Wee ee Ordinary corks may be used for bottles i Rete ees containing substances that de not attack lip aaiiont, ammonia rss ts cook, Glass-stoppered battles will be needed eleven. A Tite match Far ammonium hydroxide, iodine in crys

of the tome guetet ngaen eee a yeazens tie inter tering eee from aventy as shown below

“FP

WISH E had a chemical Iahoratory Dut Fean’t afford if,” more than one would-he home experimenter hy: told me. ‘They share the popular idea that chemistry is necessarily an ex pensive hobby Te needn't be, Naturally, it is sensible to enjoy the convenience of the fine equip, ment that supply houses ean provide, if vou hae the money fo spend for it. Vout iight be surprised, however, if your pucse is limited, to discover how mntich of the als sont aved ean be assembled at ens, Pet haps fl may not_he as prates as some that vou have seen, fai if wo inv that-i¢ Hie main thine yeu are inter. sled in, Eater on, Jt your finaaces allow — sot Id more costly pieces of veady

ist ransacking the household cupboards, Bven unlikely looking objects sre sot to he passed rer ton hvctivdly—a pair of eller scales, for example, may come in handy for weighing oul chemic Ta store your supply of chemicals, yosr

Fabled sivall-neatly bottles anacray adWitesouthed ill eedor battles: se have vine eeperienre hamemarle thefrespense, Sudeep ithe et Teta wil guide sou in making wise honk be used for Apparatus lis, awd sal selections jars will mayonnaise of variety 2 Sour own home will yieldbe transformed — serve. the purpos ean readilyaccessories, Bottles Wash the mer tn objectsuselulthat hyoraory into roe, far ingot waxed catd fa egery description ave treastrenetheds by past, beet nay They scribed in previnas articles of this seri

powBleachingiyo: orand alcoholic Ls, oF sola the acids. solution; derSeals cannot be kept in eyen glass peed atte, for the stopper will stick: rubber slayer shold therefore be nse or a hntile may be fitted with a cork thal

een weighted and soaked in molten on the Kitchen and he famil v chest will help fll your bottles with chemicals, if you can identify the ones you find there under rious aliases. ‘The baking sora on the kitehen shelf is sodium bicarbonate, while sodium carbonate can be recognized as washing soda or sal soda is provide mygnesiom sulphate, Bleaching powder, sometimes labeled chloride of lime, eon tains calcium hypochlorite, Lye supplies you with sodium hydvoxide, slum with po {assium aluminum sulphate, and sal ary h ammonium chloride, Table Ls principally of sodium chlo: ride, Vinegar, which contains acetic acid cean be pressed into. servier when avery weak acid ig needed for chemical expert iments. Precipitated challe is a form of eal: m-carhonate, Familiar chemicals that avel under their right names include sul phur, charcoal, boric (or boracie) acid carbon tetrachloride, and denatured ale ‘hol, Ammonia water, or household am monia, is ammonium hydroxide; while the Commercial Foran #8 nol a pure one, TU ms nevertheless be used stccessfully in many

experiments, solution of am Avery strong and pureneeded, —cheiical is easy to if noniuin hydro, bie Poke Wao i assaves, combining with Trou water, ammonium hydroxide water gasto form tivenmonia for this pnpose may be ammo trated by heating an alkalt and anamount of sinll » with funn sall in ask sodium or water Ordinary honsehold Ive,

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 hydroxide, will serve for the alkali, ‘Phe anmmonium salt may’ he either ammonium Sulplinte or ammoninin ebloride: hath are readily obtainable. and very. inexpensive ‘The ammonia generating Mask in whieh lhese substances are placed “should be fitted ‘with 2 one-hole stopper A glass. tube leads the (oan onitlel under as. water in a marrow es scl, such as an olive bot tle. Keep the water cold, by: standing Ore bottle a can OF jar of waler and ice, as the fort tion of h strong solution would otherwise he inn peded hy the heat dk veloped as the ammonia as dissolves in the Fu Heat the flask, ate yout will observe that copious quantities of ammonia gas are produced Bubbles coming from oxtletbaswever, tnbe disap pear in the water at thethe start, he: "the completely, cause the gas dissolves water in the bottle is well satusatedd with the gas when a strong odor of ammonia is produced by bubbles escaping front the liquid. Mt this point, you may remove the bottle and substitule another of fresh water, if more of the solution is desired Wooden blocks will serve as a rest for the bottles, and may be slipped ot when a bottle is to be changed Bither an ammoni tun hydroxide solution prepared in this way for ordinary hansehold ammonia, nay he tse Io demonstrate that ammonia” gas will burn, Place whichever solution yen choose inaflask ihat is fitted with a one-hale stop per, and heat i eat ‘ously. "This the anmonin gas. Wa lass the is phavedd in the cork, a lighted imately eld at its op per end will kindle the

aks dsm , ‘Theanmneniabre escaping vaporseta s ts eemposed of which Sntnthe sub nce burns gen, en hydro og nitrand on sediand thisthe otter iment exper "The soluti d very ently, especially should iw heate ‘when hotselol Cp a" bu manyt pesc smnyonia is se ns crfeot A Hien arations ill ow can be empinged ertummed very ane atceht tao Sl alo ey Min fact macnn sel Tn ko d ientWhile heatthe foror llys. eeaiee thartypeis genera tone heolic Jamie tinny cam, slaty Tose entof toheat serveto {er temedy, A Ga preven t the the top lth wil , Remove undinaayg airsthe Centra satto ihe fhe l pono test fan, a eu

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

rune

pei ‘AND STOPPER,

tums chemien.oF

¢WTOtices (og NA.

inDoce elf an ine of the aster im tise ater rmoistening them and Inanginge them in the gives rgilly Detach the mouth of the test tube, Scraps of colored Thatta of the‘moreean aad et egy notches Hoth and paper are turned white, aud. the zed. portion of a snfety-anatch box is in the ses to nit ait for combusteon. When lived blenehed; sliver of Tt may be beat to this iting fs placer vee the lan Use bea nko and Inn on the edge of the tube is concentrated ‘where fi needed, Several SV" chip A'deop Inyers of asbestos paper, wrapped arene the for this test upper pant of the ran and cemented. over Sith dite water-gtnesufution, will further Tedice heat toes. A sqnrare of wire seteen ma bye paced pon the top of the ean to support AL Sse abraker oF ick W rupee WIEN yout ee 3 ordinary alent Ia, the cork, whieh antics he wick, often fatehes fie. This may be prevented by plae= ing a washer or disk of ‘hight tin around the myetal tobe. in which the wiek “passes is Biot Unoneh the ark. ‘The shiny’ metal releets the heat of the flame and also acts ae 9 cool inne fin For the tube. It is easily removed shen the lass shir, oF emp, of the lamp 8 to be tephieed. Denatured alcohol is Uhe best fel for such a lamp; other kinds are expensive, for; like rubbing sleabol, contain water Gas generated in theMask inn the list-of chemicals available by any home, even safely’ muatelies aniaht have beet inci. “Their heads contain potassium cha rate, from sshich yout ean liberate elaine ns in orler to aherrve ite interesting, properties The quantity of chlor gas ine produced i sal fore sures but that is just as well, for the tne fs so ivitaling that your wold not Io generate a rreat deal of it indoors. Place about a teaspoonful of wafer ina test they aad tivo safety" or mate rmiatic, hydrochtoti, acid, andl heat the fumtents) of the tube gently ‘with asa Mame. A Bussen burner tained low, a al fall limp, oe a cane sll do, Have the 5 & lumpedhonefora ville support free,of meBe kind, co st tnttube your, te nest faerite 8 topointing follow oe Thoiting fqcontents, 0 should Shatter they. sill not come yest way mate ends may calor the [) Bin Tony thebt ths ill not nterFere wil th setinn Hg tale Nace ashen. yont heal the and the py fect ties ‘The hyvirachtorie eachseid other rele with t c a e r chlorate ingHesiun te. Von ean teadly devect the chlor eautionsly your ‘Chlorine eas. produced by heat "bing vapor, ineDowby. pace nsewoodof th inench A better way to detect gel= for any nerd twithont skin nitsate, held in the mouth of the a oftest silver Ting too eteonye a whi iS to keep the tube Lube on a. glass rod or piece of tubing, wapor the aft n i l Tittle dictance From sot Turns whitey chlorine,a white reneting. with’ theof iy toward yew with your hand nifrate, the produces precipitate blexching. action iver Chlorine Ins a. powerful ‘om many’ dyed objects as you ean obgerve by ‘iver clots. Bghlly polished brass oF cop

TH! SURVIVOR Vol. 5 peer is quickly tarnished, and becomes ev ‘vith a ereen chloride of cop er fHi exp to the chlorine vapor for steeral minites, A stock way of of making hysleaen ga Losallow dite sulphuric a hydrochloric acid cl spon tine, Sulphate seid and zine well always produce hydrogen, however, ou can easily demonstrate

IX to e volumes sitpeionaed MSiton nent ofof stoneentat Lefora ito sons supe se the het ngthin nl spattr inthe icity:the Bloepowerthe aaedit-tater jonnotin inHeatack, nl someof pce of zineselmetal ae fk the contents the Molten apiece of sltign ite er andsili sev acetate l of dope crs o a d At the mouth of Ue fase; Ht will Gury brown

Chemical PANTERTAINING stunts of chemical Inagie can be performed willy zine in finely powdered form, which may wuvchased from dealers in chemicals ‘ine dust.” A composition that (akes fire spontane ously may: be made by mising the metallic powder with sodium hydeoside solution to form a pmste, "The exael strength of the fast-named ingredient does not matter a reat deal, bit a ten-peveent solution hal ure to he satisfactory ean be male by dissolving about ten grains (two teaspoon fuls) of sodium hydroxide or Iye in ninety lo ninely-five cubic centimeters of water (an ordinary drinking glass holds about iu eubie centimeters). Squeeze the zine alkali paste between sheetsof stiff, absorh, ent paper fo remove the

Continued from page 1919 that the pliysiological salts thas ation formed spamproduced ania a veryhe tall tnouth this application a tocondition adult eatofs develgent os Jn very for minates and ac ‘Semen, almost ompanied bya amounting copious flowto delium, of saliva and. a pupils. "This appente £9to great dilatationpar ofthe 10 teensed Feseytue,andin pay toa to res atound impulse sensitveness

1922 fhe Sulphide gas, “This is the gs produced ner sult fe nbtatuel Hf he sue Si ackiferent phtie i s nitted. Tn this cat, iste Linn'ith the ive prodces she site sas These exeriments shove that what happens wson share eid and ine ceactle the strength of eittion of the pens gas desired,of theane aceid ii thethe proport ydrone n pat titted same plies five ofn eater. The ion acid we ormh stratio some of then esperimen ts thal you m

perforoy willy bydingen, earlon dioxide, hy‘drogen pide, enees, is hat they should andhe other dried-—that is, freeddesrabiteof the water vapor that they may-comain as a result of ondinary Inboratory methols of prep fration. ‘This may. be done by passing them Trowel a nes tbe of half-inch to. onesinelt Aliameler, filled with’ granules of desiccated

MAGIC

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 (anhydrous) calcium eblotide, which acts as ulshyalrating agent. "To constrictthe drying fubecincert a wad of absorbent cotton, Hot 109 ulti packed, atonea end of the stopper tubing, carry Then close this end with one-hole fine lee Tube, to sehieh rab tabing Tea ing Irom other apparatsis may he attached The anyhyerous calcium chloride may now fe poured i from the open endl of the dry ing! tube until itis nearly led.” A second wad of cotton is inserted a this endl to keep the place, tubeand completes another one-hole Hoppercontents with ina glass the a= embly of the essentil parts, A useful sd tion, howwover, is 8 pait of square “bumpers” cit rom sponge rubber about one inch Uhiek, Wher lites are cut in the “hampers” and they are slipped aver the tube, one near each end, they protect it from beeakine and keep i fron rolling about on the top of your choral ‘workbench

with

Zine

hydvoside solution, and then spread it out in a layer about fone fourth of an inch thick, Within one or two minutes bf its own aceord, the paste will steam, smoke, and finally catch fire, forming white Flonds of zine oxide as it Inns Write some words upon a sinall square of paper, ¥ sin clean pen and employing ‘a solution of a cobalt chem ieal—cobalt chloride dis salved in water, fur instance as ink, When the writing is dry, it wil be invisible Now prepare a layer of al Keolicimpened. rine dust as before, and lay upon it The paper’ with the invisible ‘The heat frony the freshly prepared paste develops or sings ‘out the hidden stiting. The exphmation of the paste’s mysterious behavine is Ureetold, The alkali fixst dis solves some of the zine oxide that is always present in zinc Gust. The aine itself also reacts with the alkali, as well as with the oxygen of the air Each one af this series of 1e actions liberates heat, aad their combined effect "raises | the temperature of the paste

until the zine metal actually takes fie and hums at the expense of the oxyyen ia Ul tir. ‘The paste shoud be spread on a st face that will not conduct heat rapidly Another way you can make zine burn is (0 Lake a pinehof zinc dust inthe palm of your hiand, oF phice it in-a small ube, and blow it into a fame, Its rapid combustion pro‘duces a vivid flash of Light, Ordinary 2inc Stearale powder, Found in many household Inedicine ‘chests, can be used instead, In this case, the "sound accompanying the flash, a harness “woof,” mrakes the dem= onstration still more impressive,

mer mado wthefleotsKitenspro Wh the sumeweretestethe same thove {hough ctage of excitement,generalwhich in adults luce the graoally was followe i few hrs, g that fussed ot of ofalco60resemblin lovely Ura condition want the in especially Ne tuoxication ts. Rabbits on fuination of mneéular spovemen but Hite, afeced be to appented contrary, the in any Vomiting ted waeupon.not observed craneeases al ’ expetimen OF the

EN—A S NESW HEATING ‘TIP CALORIG "APPARATU at che exhibited apparatus inleyLondon, Tha heatingal Exbitition and eatledtho Joteraaion is taventer, George, Sls the Calorgon by fe:Magosine at i eon Afcchant's Londonto bea new prineple in heating whand veners artangemen meri. theThiscombustion oft very fogreatesonomize of only tation, tdsims not Continued on page 1925

THE SURVIVOR Vol, 5

1923

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

What's It Made Off

“tse

HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS IN YOUR OWN LABORATORY a]

ays

Be

liste FON ti

the exact amounts aged may easily be stengldt theefor Compared, By Te can ‘Ackte oforale saftable by aiutiee of stiure sulphitic nek MivicCoucitetels cable volumeaesof 100“uontales total toa Sinister Tilimeters dunking. centimeters)Tor indigestion shut 210 Pacecubic veineaiee ye onset tain PAESTING ee ees sith yarfous other bicurbonate)Manycombined ee Binpte experiments, a homevehi materials. of natural limitations

within the

of

the brands contain Taboratory, ssl yield a suprising foun af bis some oF information about such prey om and il the pres mth — nmmania, medicines, tooth powder. cos ence ‘of this com: and a a bialvariely leofsal athers. paratively meties, our puuichase WHat tobacco, priced ingredient animnonia, you actually are hold salttion of annie fan he detectellby

See

sumably,

d

ee the

best

eae buy,

You

can easily

find oui (or yourself which is the st

by “lilrating” them swith dilate acid,

a

indicator,

sulphuric

sulphuric

nll Che color of the solution fram orange to ted, Note testthe of acid used, Repeat the Contents of Ue other the, ‘The that remlires the most acid to TE yout change is. the stro or tube had from a gravhiated

+

TE the product is,

a powder,

(ry heat

inye son of ib ima test

tube

wilh

tee en

ee eee ‘Then add weak

Ine eae

Tews

acid,

muth, the

a

resulting

é

sree tte

ieee

Racca

GME

iMontited with the aid of a magnifying has cooted #0086 brown aflerdrops the of tubedistilled sulphurand “havethe tamed yellow, as otherwise. the sulphur for the seal. sath tay ode be mistaken To test a liquid. evaporating preparation dishfor heat. fe in an Inui, until nothing but solid material remains, Many tooth, powders. contain sodium perborate, which releases oxygen gas when Che moistened, One way to detect ies toi present Huron, an. clement present in {he perborate compound, which has the charac of turning a fame sreen,

Hace power Sn

Some et oftbe the.thattoothhas

forests

hown in one of

Add enough acid to cover Ue powder, and chen an equal the photographs. slrong sulphuric

amount

of

rai

sata ibe el

test tube.

You will find that

wil changes at the top of the brs quantity — por meetianteat, sHoKeR. this the resulting ame. wall he with Use dicey 3 sats wall ake" & colored gen through the for condense a ammonia the ination of a compoured known effect the let solid on ot the Cipareae whe "yow analyg borate ester, if the tooth powder eifisl a sidewall adhd the test tube This “sublimate” can best be contains sodium perborate, bietic,

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 1924 Oxygen released by a toatl powder of solve this in water an apply it bo the hair Ihis {ype comes from the decomposition — follawing the use al the silver of the hydrogen peroxide that is formed —— solution ‘Tey avkling an acid ——sulpunie acid, tothe povsder, ancl acrid perhoThrough the interaction af sadivo saothy provides. This water. and rate phar eioxide gas will Test for Uhe tooth powder. 1 hyde liberated, TT you

rut con, the, emis om with an easily prepared solotion omde by

ce wh several cm

nitrate saluting, you dissolving five grams (about a teaspoon will alain Gpitate thata heave pre Is ful)of ammonium molybdate crystals in {eens dark, “This silver filly cubie centinneters of waiter and then ulin filly. cubic centimeters af stron, That ols or aves tl Sulphoric aeid. Several drops af this tenent, added a solution obiained by fair, Reactions like Stirring some of the tooth powder ina those yet have just ob: ved indicate tab thy Tittle water, will shor powder isa Chivstl peroxide, by Luistr vhste You ean ‘iake Some freekle-temov rly by Lying iL out in an her ing prape Tost fuhe cablaining several deaps of dew ing cxeams contain ant store peroxie nowiated mercury ‘A variation ‘of the prc hich may prave harm ful'te the skin, A sims scribed also can be used to test for the ple way ta lest foe mer peroxide. Add a teaspoonful wf a tenPercent animonium molyivlate solution(a Cury in such a cream is the liquid under test, followed by several tar heat several guams of it tops of a dilute. solution of citric acid, ith a dilute sakition af lye inca Yellow calor develops iF hgdeagen or ether caustic, stinving Inweanvhile with xhass tod pres nt is peraside Then inmerse. a ship. ot Add 31 few arops of sall yotwaterwillto a abserse hheet oF mictallie alumni, and niltate, tion of silver aprecipitate precipitate of silver chloride, ‘The white such netal-foil weap will tum gray and ther black ping from a ean any eaustie’w ‘The liquid. The Kehr exposed ter the Tight. Sinitarly, if you add several drops of a solution of sp gets acith the aluminum, givthe At gas. hydrogen jngealf liquid the 10 salt, t a b l e or chloride, dium Canttafaedcin the. browir glass botlle (ut —ceammey timesvany ered ia nieshed with many hairalge “sets” or cole the. solution will amalganate with the. aluminun dors, a shite precipitate will form. H-twins seeayisheblack when exposed to the Hight, — Remove the aluminum foil Fidfeating that the amber bottle contains ach i thoroughly: with fer and set it aside without dyes, bir most In salt. r e v l i s soluble a nitva silver is salt thig A hover accompaniesthe thebuyertne to ds “the Instructions direct

Handy Kit for Chemical Reagents PO HOLD ofthe diantities used in “analytic like these, you can ihake neal andTle, professional aHooking kit. Ob tain a mimber of sal bolthes ‘of uniforin sir mi them swith passed and fit droppers. fine tinvougd hes in ht stop TE the is monthsialonof freeteh botte tam hal inch sillength steof a rubber eakanenoguta medicine. averand aseIhe thea lalsixc topper persed asthe cork, A sonal and) silve

hos af convenient dimensions kecps the boldlesin order. Your kit may in. clude “indicators” and other solutions use, about the — that. you frequently methyl « laboratory, such as

dium hydroxide, AS silver nitrate is slecamposed by Fight, keep this chemical ina brown: glass’ bottle, ar in an ordinary bottle

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

the ite, et aehtehie

‘This test reveals the presence of sodium pe the teat tube with suipburie etd aod atcokol atlempting to dry il, TL mercury is pres: tent, the foil soon will emit crackling noiges, and a fully white growth of al tnina will-appear upon dls suriace ‘A modification of this tes may be per formed by heating together for a quarter of an hour a one-gram sample of the freckle cream, a stip of aluminum foil, a thied of a teaspoonful each of five-per” Cent soulium hydroxide solution and Eventy-five-percenl sodium thiosulphate solution, In this ease, mercury is present if the growth of shite. alumina appears ifter the metal foil has been washed will, ileahiol oF acetone, “Tobacco smoke, blown through a hand: orchief, produces a brown stain—not of hiieotine, as piany. suppose, bul of veee= fable tar distilled from the burning shreds. Extiacting and testing for the nicotine it self is one of a number of interesting ex: periments you ean perform with cige areltes, ciEars, ninl cigarette paper in your oxen Iaboratory

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Pure nicotine in eolosless What a heanist means when he sperksliquid, nf the “nica tine™ in tahacea, however, is nicotine citrate fr nicotine malate. “These are nicotine sls ff ctsie and malic acs the seid yaa to angle ce jiee ikeand fyeatin fn lemon Salt t s Cale citrate by the “nicotine shuld unt contnse plain name of froin When we speak of the poatassiann that infants need in the sl for their Junper sooth, for example, of catese we niean some salt of the "mets, Sieh as palacsiim caibonate: wt Dpotasinm’ siete, and nt the. metal itl Wf the rownd ‘actsalty did contain metalic otascieim, which reacts with water tw pre a pictueesqyte aad tenting what fire, Hace he each time it asined wild eqeth the place FPO TEST for the nicotine in tobacco, break uy several cigaretteors Walls eit inva all jan, beaker,of glacs vee, ai ald se ral Mid ounces of solution vot soi Hisdroxide (lye: water) to the tebares, New Ida blob af absorbent cattan, wet with song hydrochloric ari, just xbinve the # tentsof the vessel, Ve wll sev a dee white cloud of “smoke” foenn stot fhe eal a, Tye chersitry of the prncess i simple. the skal or Ive water teleaces the newline froin its combination swith citric ot malic ack ant Forms feee nicotine, “As thie Haid is hight some of iL i liberated in the vessel volatile, nen vaqior, Noss, when the eayor of ble Chilorie acid, dntrogeed iy the essed hy the neid:sanked entton, He nicotine eayor re it to fori nicotine. hydeoetlorde fete will is the white smoke” thie is formed This Von may: recall that the vayiors of hydro cine eid and of amon alse renet te Tetm while sinoke, coustetine of ansinoniam ehloride, bn yout can readily shox? hata Ionia is hot involved in the present instance Novel stripy of red ums paper, he i the arlded, does not is tarTe vessel afler the Hatcaustics vapor to showing Iie, een Continued from page 1922

28ko oFto flcomingin thewithutmost this @ posible thototgh dogreo, ssstem batof Sentilacom, byfst which all noxious proves ae Yemoved a as formed, andthe ae eft pe fecly adaptedalthough by the itisine tentor pine. expeciallyIt hasnea Been gas stove, ‘nko used with coal an woot. "Tho gas stove arangement consists of boston, a evinder of olethe in, In top andHe entirely sit20 Uhoff from {Jowett the burner the of Foe umorplire of t h e 100m, This evlinder ifr hished pipes one place near thetheothertnp {orca with theto products of exmstin, the air nesessar. foe to supply te bottom going heat the eombastion om within "These ser to se wal Ino i.n second passthrough Fipes Feat eptinder,pacallel to open the large at the tp,ine oy shiner i thanter "This sile, fausing the sir entering airthe leaving, stove 40 set cometne the heated withreeabtor amine nving meh ofthea How,ft and ‘Cantalof eat Te may she area Sts finda sokutoneasyof eethe Prmtancess but factwe sball tata light ad fealtypntedin thego'a vessel Time, tie atthe samme Incing the eae. wilthe see to theTinstop whilethe Calorigen ge wilbottom. Tight tothe ‘Sik ont of theand room fuer of the gas are carried a0 any ofthe at, dravghe, tvithout cometing away called’ the far” the principlebetween ithoutemplosing no communication Ts theres of the xonm, "The dooraltho and theshut,ar ofthe Since of i ats eomplotly Zoves when

1925 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 leases the ation of the employ alkali ingenious room that is cloudy with tobneco smoke, now Large by:tobacco companies ‘nit why the amasonia vapne releqsed nathines to smoke eigrettes mechanically avd hnyrtheknowburning tobacco is Ingeely responsible. sualsze the element provduets nthe sole, ‘A bit of ehvemieal testing also wil pive you IF sont wish to investigate for yourself what fan insight into. the ehemitey “of cigarette Teappens. shew tabace buens, ym eam easily paper. Often this material i “loaded,” rity one of these “robot siuokees” in sine Fnsprenated sith some Biller iv make it moreor ied form. the rate of burnin, FIL the tip of a cigatette into one end of Thispaceshouldsted inYo wo eontrol sense be cossered an au gas tube, which servesasa holder. Cons terant, since itis not used to eveapen the prod hneet eid of the tube toa glass Te uct, but is incorporated with the paper pulp (abe, thevingallerubber tubing wil. 8 fo serve a veful purpose. Calcium pinch lamp or a-springe typeprovid elothespine, Ine the same nraterial of which chal andcarbonate marble feetoperthe fitted 1 tubeLn 4 iatallo ane hole of a tivo-hole are composed, isthe filler generally employed. jus of eatery whic nett ay a stcthan pain. The ater. hoe i "To TEST for this materia reduce sever the stopper raries st Toner alas. tube, Oat paper to ash, sips into the water, and st the top of this sway (ohectsdo ofthiscigarette # to heat the pape the a Tong section af rubber tubing i s at felain erteible or ev tached, ‘The siphon ie started’ by sucking om Bunsen burner, een this rubber Lohing,” When yor open ad elo putively burned out. ‘Thisthe villcartonTeave has.a white Ue pinch lan spine clothepitt the ei sh behind. During the heating, the calcium rete in the h o l d e r can be smoked! inputs, ashonsle will have heen converted into. calFealitically imitating the customary manner iui oxide, or qqieklime, Add several drops of shook fof water to the ashy and eafcium hydroxide, will form and disalve, Novy DLACE. a wet steip of blue fitmus paper in forwhenlakedyou Tine, add a drop or two of phenolph” tivepass tube that setvesas the tizaretle thafein’ to the Higuid turn ‘The Violet-red, holder, and set_the tobot smiaker working showing the presence ofit anwillalkali, alkall fr, if fom ae a user of tobacea, simply place responsible for the apmearance af this color the place tube to yoitr lips without the at fromes From the ealelm caehonale originally tachments, aud draw the smoke through in the eigneette paper Prescaty the fitmas paper will tra ted The present Thstend of adding phennlphihatein, you ean change is produced by formic ackd and other siy'n platinu swiee fw the soltion vou have ‘acids contained i the smoke, fprepared, and then hold the wire in the blue ‘Quite diferent, however, i the smoke com Thunsen flame. ‘The presence calcium tinge ing from. the other end ‘of the cinretie-— the flame with a earmine-redof color. little he wish ta ettrls apnvard Froon the slosting fof the Tiquiel may also he filtered and Atreated tip, and that not ‘sith''a Solution. of ammaniim oxalate. A iawn into. the month i smoking. Mold a Shite precipitate forms. "When ammoni solution is added to liquid under wel ship of rab litma paper inthis smokey fsalate test, sucha precipitate strongly indicates that and the test paper will ten bhue, shoving the liquid contains calcium the presence of sm alkali this ease, m= nonin. If your eves have ever smarted ina en reilon oF tho acid rollover to have onalgtie ie allows dhe Hight to be sen, Fnulenee the abandonment of the he nex norton in this invention Tnsie pticlethat afprecedes any ex: of water fs the inteodeton of coll of sought ron tl ‘eas of teil being Withoutthiseectsubstance, upon the gener Bien tte esta a fa esule, Tes siggested that this i cue, will Inosphere. ‘this tabe ean be open tothe apart have a important bearing pon the manatactnre ment; andthe ie, entering and following the fof explosive snbatanens enor, in relity ese course ofthe tuber provides plentifal venta: fing them at will from tulmainates to simple ex tion, sleady raised fo a pleasant and health plosives. temperature. Thy this atrangement the nsnal ute of procedure le reversed those nuisances SPRINKLED FABRICS, inan ordinary room, the spaces about the doors We have heretofore referred to a method for sind windows, Snstend of hing fertile sources of coloring the Tabries now so meh in vogne, “rao and discomfort, ate the means by which ‘which a ground color is dotted over vith the ni pases ont ofthe apartment ‘peeks of diferent shade, We have since learn CAUSE OF THE IseREAsEDBODE PLOSIVBNESS te ckiernis

Aceon to Les Mines, dhe explosive pro entice elevation af inmate ofthe matitemperatureare ofnot dependent the atmos: in its eronnetie state a8 exoGumpossder during qalitiess drowght evenwillwithout neque any spon tanenns exploxire tationof tomperatnre, ands mara ready 0 et fom the stale spe The hese sanity of ticons action of explosive materi, and Wit fproperties ot, atthe ofseethe powders. time, modilving tho’ propelling “Tins i pulveralen Inigtareof sunt and chlorate of potash or dete any thor combate substaiee oady fo tarnish ¢ he combined with one-thied prtoe of compounds, o s a l e eid, ad even to the a Taso, there ilthenbe heated no explosion, The

UTILIZATION OF IRON SLAG. “the iswtliantion of Heon furnace wvhicl pradaend of ie thesuchslag immense quantity, Ins long Yoen problem, although of late rears isn attempts have been maile tosolveit.Methfats have boon suggested for extracting various Sullstates of eal in the ts; and in som toes, Belgium especial, the mater isenst moulds ofa dofimte sap, and used, without farther preparation, for lnilding purposes, All nersons familiar wih the icon districts where this substance is produce are aware of che excellent tmacndamized roads makesin the neighborhood

Continued on page 1928

SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1926

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Home (Chemistry WITH SIMPLE APPARATUS Hlere are some easy chemical experiments that can be performed without elaborate equipment,

yet

are

spectacular

and

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY J teat cAUSHS REACTION! |

filled

with

interest

DECEMBER, 1936

(" and you can then hold Che tube the funnel and control the fas supply with the same hand, In ease I~ Sour laboratory workbench is not piped for gas, it should | not he slilficull to

far oneetea

Ged

tion ean be made When all the air inthe pistol has

3y Raymonp

een Cau: SliplestAino ae ae Hale ae

B. WaILes

ere

foie ave making a "gas pistol” that pre dhices. harmless exph small electrical set-up tom atively of va

ent kindsof alco hue rygas sted ordina kitten is nace Seon aga t the Farge wiletbe easy” ¢ then edges In ense the funnels are nf aluminsion yout are inexperienced is soldering, stripy DE adhesive tape wil minke a. sufficiently fight joint. Remove the sw the fimnels, smoothing ang s that are Hold your gas pistol with the sersaining spout up, and fill the interior with illumi ulate naling gas. The gas ma pinch witha Htted through a rubber tube

A

NER cine,

shout ten sceente, close the pic toe pur r. the,ged fA oyellow Keptthe spout,ready apy lane hnies cGolued ae thethe cant spot by air

Pat the holtom, tte ‘unmiged with Mt fir vin, sind will burn but not explant As you wateh, however, the gas flame becomes smaller and This

sill have entered to fire with the gas, When his happens, the Mame

plosive mix

DEMONSTRATING OSMostS Unde the layers of Higa ave mised

THE SURVIVOR Vol it, if you wish, hy pinching the spout af the ftinnel to reduce the size of the ori Metals. and nonmetal such ag iron and shar react willy each other to form a nmnher of interest ine compounds. but aften Ti takes thigh lemperabire lo make the reaction oc cur. There is a simple way to provide this high ten perature and to keepit der perfect control. All you need to do is aval I of wine of ihe desired metal, leat it eleetaiealty, at surroond it with whatever vapor! yon thiose for the combination, To make iron and sulphur interget, for No, 30 jamge, B. 8S, standard—ashich be botight in. spools at ten-cent stor ‘or unravel a single shrand front ap ture wire, A lengthof abo ted for a sin il into a coil and comneet it 10.2 his electric outlet in combination with an elec trie iron, a toaster, the heating element of a radiant heater, or any other appliance raving n rangof abou 600 to. 600 alts, ‘The connection should le nyade “in sev fs showin in-aty accompansing diagram. A switch should he added to enable you to the switch, If the wire is of the right siz it should glow red-hot sshen the currentis fourned on, Wire that ie too ¢hin wil bun foul, while wire that is too Chick. wl no get hot at all periment toxmine the sight size Suspend the elec in a thask con Irie evil taining flowers of sulphur. ar common pavsdlered sulphur. and heat the flask, When the anolten sah has been to boil close the elect rie Switch jtonentarily There will be a gentle hatinless explasien a Ue hea the mixture of st phar vapor and air in The flask, “The current should be cutoff at donee( keep the wine Grom buraing out Afier the explosion, the. interior of the ask becomes lear il Laanspavent ov clears. 1 thy current allawsed to atime, the a t Fong (oo flow mninintire ‘ean be

1927 repeated again andl again, Finally, with, he catrrent kept on, the coil sill yemain Fed-hot anid Che chemical = netion between it and the Sulphur vapor wil take place, ‘The surface to bil as Hf iL sere ‘of The wire first seems molten. Sudenky, the interaction occurs, se-rapidlly apd sith so much generation of Theat that the svine junmediately husns out A residue of ferrous sulphide, or iron sule phide, remains Try repeating this experiment sulphur as befor Unit substitating wiresof

Gther metals For he iran wire. Yowell find it inevesting To. connpane the com pounds formed, which ave, sulphides. af ttsi hes nespertive: elas. Avwid ing ma metal for th however itinder t ectscertain su vigorously witht suiphr. that contitons, the experimen, I he otherhatavapins besides sulphae ean Mang: he yindiced metals withat temperatures,to. chmhine a yeu canwit y show apparatus jst described, Place potas mixed with a Lidle manga int chlor ate, neseil sondio wl obtain i the task sulthe oxyeninstendvaporaf whet Tressel is heated. In anatmoephere of this hot iron vite burns: with dazaling fosInlfancy suitable materits enableandyo to Oliver try the elfect of «hlorine,wil jing, carbon dioxide gases upon lectrraly heated coilsof metal wire, Todine vapor may be obtained by heating the pure, sid Crystals, Do not use tincture of iodine, The cmon household preparation, in this experiment; thie alcohol Tt cantaing would Toni a vapor that avight cause an undesir aly. powerful explosion when ignited by the hot wite Magnesia metal can safely be usee in an electrically: heated coil surrounded by an atmosphere af carbon dioxide, IT this interesting. experiment is properly carried

THE URVIVOR Vol. 5 foul, you should observe white magnesium oxide, or magnesia, formed fi I and feee carbon libe ated in flaky form, “Another experiment with magnesium, Hlispensinge with the us of the clectrieal hank, will showy he the silvery metal reacts with ste oil water ina flask and Tead the vapor Unradieh glass tube antainingg a piece of onsgnesitm ribbon, made bright with emery cloth ‘Mier the steam has passerl aver the metal for a fev minutes, you will notice a while cist of magnesiuin oxide deposited an the ribl and on the walls of Ihe tube, "The metal decomposes the water vapor and can whines willy its osyen, Thy drawer is released, although iy such mis toute quantities That it would) ordinaril ly es: tape detection, Demonstrations of of dif the phenon fusion which have to dk lo with, the interminy ing of suetances hee wise of the motions. of heir Imoleciiles, mir ht be called aay man's ex periments,” ANU have beet plac ed in layers in 2 vessel there is nothing ar do but wail ‘until the action go es te completion whic may Lake weeks, To perform 0 one of these clow-motion es: periments, -sele cela piece of glass tating of half-inch or cut it

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 to a six-inch leneth, an mount it upright Assemble a medicine dropper tip, a rubber tube with fapinch clap, and a short length fof glass Inbing, and pas the fat ler throxigh a ane-hote stepper inserted inthe bottom of The vertival tubing, Nose pour water into the nvain tube wotil the liquid stands about an inch above. its hottom, Nest, adhd a half-inch layer of castor ail or of turpen= line, above the waters and, Bal Ty, atop layer of alcohol that has alveady heen dilated sith an teal voluine of water, ‘The ap paratus may then be put to stand for several days, The difference in spevitie grav lies of the three liquid layers fenels to keep them apart, but i is insufficient to. keep molecular aetion from mixing them. With in a week, at most, an apprecia File amount of alechol wilt have diffused downward Girough. the central oil layer and wih have feached the water at Lhe button Molectiles of water also tend migrate upward toward the alcohol. but the estrenwe insoluhilily af water in the dividing layer prevents this action from going far The oil or tuspentine might be Stid-to act asa semipermeable Tquidd membrane. That the aleohol does reach the water after a fev day's ca be demonstrated by ‘opening the pinch

1928 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5' clamp and drawing off @Jitle of the bottom Solids as well as liquids difuse throueh the Tighie into test tube, The wyedicine-dropper movement of their moteces, ‘This action ea arrangement aelin san innpaiced sep Ibe demonstented simple experiment neatory funnel. for this purpose. “The pres All yout will need,by isa very some fre af alcohol in the water tay the be tive dyes of lffvent colors clear gelatin, and foved hy a snipe heunieal test a solution of the gelatin and malke Tryon asd sin, or ethyl sleohol for the UeeePrepare into which it can be poured. to molds periment, add several drape of staan sl two inches square not slabs form iirie acid aael a alrop of acetic aed to the and about as thickmore as than, After slice a Tiglicl gumple you cbave. denen off Then the molds have beet poured, of saldbread,ilferent= Isat cheeamtents of the test tube. A. fruit colored dyes to two of the slabs, leaving the from the formation of a third len When thie slabs have set, place them topresence of ethst alcohol her sandvih-tike, with the clear pieee in middle, ander a glass tumbler so thst the the N CASE you se wood, sl or qintity meth, ofalcohl brittle,days, Allow dryfor andseveral become zelatin Sle them towill notstand this for the est way icy neil erystals aynd several craps of amine them daily’ and you will see thal Fsthe ie ace the drawn-oll saan colors of the two slabs Containing aye slow lest the containing his mis Inalzetheie appesrance it the clear portion i heated, the odor of methyl sieylate, dicating hs taken place between ny, vill sinieate the solid thatpiecesdilfusion gelatin of that methet keh eae pre a iOSTHTOROTS BRONZE. ontinued from page 1925 A great slvance has Iatly been made in the of the ion furnaces; and itis now transported const by than oa smal toconsiderable dstasies in England for similar pereentage of fats phosphor, tie precise pirpore, The best method of spplving fis said Fineion of thie sbstance hasalshough not been Iter fo be by breaking it up into cubes of about six wellunderstood, "According to Levi and Kunze inches, laying the rond-vay with them, and then Tewverer, ene eanse inferiority in brones covering the sslole with fragments, broken 10 consis in the constantof thepresence of tinces of fn'the state ofan inbout two inches in size, toa depth of about four oxi, which mets mechan ally Inches (inaking ten inches im al} ater which the Uybeyratng the molecules of the alley, mo tex rund is to be well watered, and’ crushed with a texporing s sbtonce vwhieh in ite hastvs Taw’ ollen Tn this way fo almost solid ed is ‘ty. Tie addition of phesyhorus,neloees anal, free fromdurability. anu, almostIn {ike owl, and renders the. alby: mach more So fiom which dist, 4sand entirely of ueommon povfece, improving its eeloy is tehaehy and. ‘eed this method seems to have given #0 much Hephysien properties The grain otis fractare Satisfaction Iately jn England that preparations reciev e that of hy cht fre being made to nse fe for paving certain por= tach angmented, and its se resistance preseie tious of London, with the antelpation that fei fometimes more than doubled. Tes to drab fnswer much better than the aephaltum rock ie"prenter, nd, whem mele i 3 of prea Hhoretfore imported from France, and. applied there toa similar purpose Continued on page 1932 POPULAR MECHANICS June, 1902 CHILD'S COT OF GAS PIPE. A serviceable and neat chi cot can very easily be made of Meinch gas pipe and fittings, says the Metal Worker. ‘The two rectangular frames formed by the elevated side rails and the ils tow the canvas is iched are put together without unions, by means of a long thread. ‘The distance from A to B

Lifter for Pvaporating Dish PIEPLATE HOLDER oan een Diy dlishes with their hut contents from the flame of yout

Bunsen burner Ordinarily used for taking a hot pie from an oven, an imp int-of this kind ean he obIained for ten oF fifteen cents at shops dealing in Household novelties, or atthe kitchen counters of nb sized stores. IT come in handy: when ten-cent "n hatches of chemicals are evaporated or diy ted shown inthe photograph

SSeS

———1

Cot—Faay to Make, should be greater than the distance from B to D, so that the hase from A to E shall be greater than the spread of the canvas fom C to D. The canvas ld be wider than enough to reach serose the #lde bars when the cot is in use, and securely stitched t the side frames. By using larger pipe a cot for adults may be made on the tame plan.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1929

THE SURVIVOR Vol 5

ae hings to Make in Your POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY Products of

Hom e Lab Chemistry May Be Reprod

Industrial uced JANUARY 193s by the Amateur, Supplying Useful Things at Low Cost acid can be used in ils pltce, or sulphuric acid ({s69 cubic centimeters) can be sub: By stituted. The tannic and gallie acids, strange crystals, For the ear Raymond fasholieit mayacid, seem,the’ areamateur will do best. to have his corner drug store inake up a s0B. Tution containing five oF ten centimeters of water, the entive amount being. substituted Tor the one gram called for inthe for Wat.es rnula. ‘The blue dye should he water-solu bile, chinablue aniline dye, Methylene hive dye cannot be used as it causes. a Croublesome precipitation when the ink is made, Although best results will be obtained if 1 sinall photographic balance is used to out the chemicals, the experimenter by using the Following government ‘weigh ONEV-SAVING instructive simply Tacking this piece of equipment can ap: Fannie as a guide: Taunie acid (eleven one teaby allowing aan sever tenths giams), gale acid Uhre proximatethe weightsgrams of any chem nin) vight-tenths etams), ferrous, sulphate Spoonful for each five Wilh hisheea am (lifleen ren,snd bles, inanufactu an ordinary measure, liquid the For (three acid hydrochloric grams), ical, beakers evens ier supply of sale he consid can glass Cone drinking acid eatbolic cight-ounce Cubic. centimeters), miny” Brake ered as holding about 240 cubic centiwater-soluble blue dye (three and that wil reveal the mnpstertsof fu tram), and 1,000 cubic centi- meters following the formuls, first dissolve five-tonths grams), water of ineters fo insanee, for Tes petectly posse, the tannie anid gallic acid erystalsin. about The ferrous sulphate in ti eubie centimeters. of water. In am 400 cop oF suiphate, iron friend old teiting ink, With ery fue tronble he ourTi hyurochlorie acid beaker, containing 200 cubic cen her 1 handy, not is nt compound so-called “stand ak

Easily

Made

Kleciric

Weater for Cructbhles

ric to. construct the IiaulyN Gnelectcan, PEW materials ate nerded lustre, heater ingish evapirat ne crucible U element, sume wite, Lvo connecting I and sane afurnaceheatingcement compete the cam be sed 2large ‘Any callow tin-can havin ‘obtainable g hy store, are the from The connectin fas the main container.electricia type supply ne n Youle neishhorhond heating electric The heaters, ied on electric frons and Tange or salvaged from a discarded 110bite cam eitherhe bought aypliance, other heater room Volt om i 3 spital fashion, element 9 Bast "Tine heating sings ot eross-shapd mii form made hy ends of the he The Dard. ered to the inside ends heat. with the inside pponched in the ean,its ‘Then, place un ‘clement ad(e cementform is iyanped Hine the cay fr or t0-0f a quater this layer. of Alter Inth

Soe

~ Four

ANG Sue

o"peaatehed on Pach Pte Relore Te ie Used

sjthe plates, A few distinctive stakes, some with one and some with two oF Khiree strips of cloth tied to them, placed at important points on the leround will help immensely in the loca tion of knolls and shore lines In plotting a camera survey, either the original plates, the prints, or enlargements may be used. The plates are the most accurate if a corrected ens has heen used; and the enlarge-

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 ments made back through the lens will he hest if the images on the plates 1 distorted, In any’ case, two Tines must be scratched on each plate before it is used to plot from, or to make the prints from which the plot ting is to be done. One of these lines, should connect the points at the tap the points line divides the objects w eon the right of the center of the c from those that were on the left, auul ng the the ho ates the obpoints on the sid

1994 STAB A

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

jects that were above the camera from those that were below made If the survey has heen with a fens that does not cover the plate fully or that has abeeon able uncorrected ation, causing distorted3s the shapes near corners ty and edges re” of the picture, sults can be mate:by Fially improved

plotting from ene FIRS E coantcr mash constaNT nerments. In Targe Sig nialing the en _icomiecr nang coustaur-l , largements and the lens in the the back of nd direction of that

and the light should be allowed to pass which were made by

t

| Viera

lhe straightened out, and the rerzements will he free from

for surveying work, th the bromide paper is

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 tacked must be square wi the cam era, and the paper itself shoutd be flat aud smooth. ILis just as necessary to Keep the easel ata constant distance from the camera during the enlarging. 1s iL was to keep the same focus while the original wes were being made era surveythe ha: ly Taid out on the paper to seh as Je that Uhe map will he of adesirable With the apex of the triangle representing Sta, A,

as a center, a cirele is drawn with radius arly equal as possible to the distance hetween the optical center of the lens and the plate when the pie ture was taken, Ordinarily. this will he the focal length of the fens; but if the was not focused most sharply on an object a great distance off, the radius may he greater, ‘This radius is called the “mapping constant.” When an approximate distance for the mapping constant has heen de termined by measurements on the cam or by knowing the focal length of the lens, the cirele, or rather the are, FG hetween the two lines to stations Band C, is drawn, ‘The plates taken USta, A, and ranged around this er cle on the outside and just touching it, will show the Iandseape exactly as seen from A. In the accompanying: diagram showthe method of determining the ping constant and of locating: the traces of the pkites, the letters HJ. P, Rand S designate points re ferring to the true mapping constant, and the construction necessary to lor cate the traces of the plates. ‘The primed letters F, F%, G1, G’, ete, are tised to show similar points where the trial mapping constant is. either too long or too short. ‘The following de scription refers equally to the construe: with (rue or trial-maption neve constanis, ping Nest, a line FIL is drawn perpendic ular to the line AL of the triangle at the point F where the are int On this Tine is laid off, in the proper direction, «distance eqttal to the diswee on th plateor print from Sta. B to the center vertical Tine. From this point is drawn a light fine, 11), toward the center of the are. Where this Ti crosses the are, at J, a tangent, KIM, is drawn, which will'show the location of the plate A-t on the drawing line is called the trace of the p je. An object which appears both on p ind A-2 is next picked out and tion on the (ace of plate AT deterinined by measuring the distance JN equal to the distance on the plate fron.

1995 the image of the object to the center vertical line. A light line, NO, joining. this Jastfound point with Sta, A, is then drawn... Where this. last. fine cecr theosse are, al s O, a tangent, OP, to the are is drawn, and the (race of the plate A-2 is found with the ai point whieh appears on both plates ji us plate A-L was located from the pie: ture of Sta, BL The traces of plate As and A-1 are found in exactly the same way as was that of A-8, Tf the radius of the are has been estimated correctly, Sta, C will be found to be exactly on the point where the trace of the plate showing the station crosses. the fine AC on the paper, If not fall on the Tine AC, whieh erally. the case, everything mus Son the trace of the plate A, s the case may be, to the arc, point of intersection of this il the are, G’ or G”, is preserve. If this point, G” or GY, is outside the hase triangle, the next trial are should be drawn with a lafger mapping stant as a radius, or vice versa IF the second mapping constant is off, find in the point of intersection of the dial line through the new location of Sta. C on the newly located trace of the last plate and the new are. Join the one found previthis : pointin theand same manner, with a

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

straight line, G/G”. ‘The point G where this last drawn Tine intersects the line AC of the base triangle, will be the point through which the arc, with the correct mapping constant as dius, ought to pass, provided the first two approximations were not too far error third trial ought to make the location of the traces of the plates exactly correct. If, however, the focus of the eamera was changed between exthe postres at one station, the traces of displates will not all be at an equal ance from the station point, and their be au almost impossible Iyeation will aces of the plates take “are fotmd in exacetl were those for St the traces have all incon located, it is. good plan Co ile them in Tightly and erase the pencil construction whieh woukd athe wise form an impenetraBle maze. ‘The tracesandto~ cated, the difficult part of the tiresome the aver: plotting is fandseape, hrought ixloors photoaphically, 1s all that Iocated as with the plane table; sigh the take to be done is to and find the points an the paper whiel show where the objects were on the ground S his taking the sights is simple

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 matter. With a pair of dividers, the nce from a given object fro center line of the plite is meastred. ‘This distance is laid off on the proper side of the point smarking the center line of the trace of the same plate; a radial line is drawn through the trace at the given distance fram the center Hine point and the station at which the ven plate is taken; this is one line of ight to the object is located from anoth same way; as on the plane table, the ersection of the two lines to. the ssune object marks the location of the point which represents the object on the map, Obtaining elevations for the drawing of contours is.a slight ly longer: process, Contours fare lines joining points of equal elevation; they represent successive shore lines, if the area mapped were inundated and the water should the can If foot. rise slowly foot by tours are close together, the ground and vice represented has a steep slope, versa, If, on a map, a number of points A are of kstown elevation, it is and auestion of judnent ell where contour lines go.

pefore contomrs can he drawn the

1996 elevations of a considerable number of points must he known, If the ele tion of any one of them is know nd the difference between that o1 nd any other ean be fond, detern Wf

the elevation of the second point is simply a problem in addition or subtraction, If it be desired to find, for instance, the difference in elevation between Sta. Cand the corner of the fence, as shown in the sketeh, two soli tions are possible, as follows: First: Perpendicular to the line of sight from Sta, C to the fence corner, ovo Fines are drawn, one at the inter” ction af the trace af the plate by the ine of sight, and one at the point on the paper which showsthe location of the lence corner. “On the firstof these two lines is laid off the distance Y’, equal to the distance of the ground at

the fence post above or below the hori zontal center Hine on the plate. Through this point, on the first perpendicular on the line ‘of sight, is drawn a line through the Sta. Cand extended to an Intersection with the second drawn perpendicular, The distince from the corner of the Fence, on the paper, to this intersection is the distance Y, th dilference in elevation front the cente of the camera at Sta. C to the ground at the fence post. ‘This solution is How x and less desirable than the second Second : In place of perpendicular Hines to the Tine of sip 1, the trace of

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 the plate, and a fine, through the point

representing the object, parallel with the trace, may be used. A datum plane, or referenc surface, from which all elevations ar weasured up to the ground surface 1 be as sumed. "The United 16s Geological Survey uses mean, 0 ‘eraye, sea level for the datum in its topograpl sheets, Generally unless there is a United Geological Survey “bench mark,” a monument of care fully determined elevation referred to sea level, within the limits of the survey,iL is hetter to assume the elevation of some point, as Sta, C, at 100 ft,oF greater if necessary t6 place the datum plane below the ground level at al poiuts within the area to be mapped. Other elevations are figured from the assumed elevation of Sta, C. Allow4 ice must be madle for the height of the center of the camera above the ground at Sta, Cia computing elevations above Sta. C. All elevations deter~ mined for the purpose of drawing contours are ground elevations. and not the elevation of the top of objects located on the map. ‘The topographi sheets of the Geological Survey are good examples to follow, in drawing contours. Form tours are not esse ments necessary for their drawing may be omitted

the outside diameter, 6% in, Another block, 54% in. in diameter, is glued to by BENNET the bottom of the small disk A. ‘This will appear as shown at C. A. small A boy who likes to do the things deep Into a enough board, %io ain hole is bored in the center of the bot= ‘ { “grown ups” do ean derive cone snugly, then a circle, A block on the under side to re4 in in tom le pleastre from the making, of ceive the threaded end of the screw a transit, which will enable hin to diameter, is drawn, having the same fon a camera tripod. By careful ad~ How

to

Make

a

start in surveying railroads, laying off town sites, and doing lots ‘of kindred work. It is necessar to have a compass, and one, 134 in. in diameter, can be purchased at a reasonable price. A hole is bored with an expansive bit

fpTornDolg Amateur Shen'and

the Surveying Laying Ow of Hoy

Surveyor’s Transit 1 ta

center as the compass hole, and the disk is eut out with a compass or seroll saw. A ring, B, is cut in the same manner from’ the same material, its inside diameter heing such that’ the ring just fits around the disk A, and

justment the threads in the wood will hold the transit firmly. A’ plumb bob must be attached exactly, in the cen ter of the tripod head, This can be easily done if the head is wood, but in ase the top is of metal, the Tine can “he attached to the screw with a dow le loop, as shown at D, 20 that th bob will hang centrally.” ‘Two stand ards are made as shown at E, each ahout 5 in, high, and fastened to the ting Bin the positions shown in the drawing of the complete instrument, ‘An are of ac arked on one of the standards, as shown, to designate angles, the markings being laid out with a bevel protractor. ‘The pointer is a hand from an old alarm clock. ‘The telescope arrangement consists of a piece of pasteboard tubing, about 114 in. in diameter, one end being cov-

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

ered with a piece of black paper with a pinhole in the exact center, and th other equipped with “cross hairs. Four small notches are cut in the late ter end of the tuhe, exactly quartering and two sill threads as fine as ean he oblained, are stretched across. in these notches. ‘The tube is. fastened a block of wood, 5 in. wide and 7 Tong, with small tacks and. two pieces of fine copper wire, This block is pinioned between the standards with two nails. ‘The hand is secured to the nail in such a position that it will point straight down when the tube is level ‘The, instrument is adjusted in the following manner: It is set up where a lone tree can he seen, about one mile distant, and the center of the cross hairs is carefully set on the tree. “Then a very fine wire is stretched across the compass, as. shown at E, and while keeping it directly over the center of the compass it is also placed on adi rect line pointing to the tree. Very. small brass nails, driven in at G and II, serve to fasten i in the position thus found. When this adjustment lias heen made the telescope can be turned to sight any object, after first placing the instrument so that the needle points to the Non the dial, and a glance at the wire will show the exact direction in which the abject is located. ‘The instrument is then taken to a level stretch of road and set up, and a stick is placed on end and marked at the height of the teleseape. ‘The stick is taken along the road about 200 yd the telescope sighted on it, and the hand set. ‘This makes the instrument ‘To Enlarge or Reduce Plots

1997

evel enonygh foi The plumb hob i tanceof 20 ft me on the road The tel scope is sighted on this mark, and mark is made on the standard at the point of the are, to which the hand proitits, Another 20 ft ft. from the hob, and made. ‘The telescope is sighted of it, and the location of the hand again imarked. ‘This works well up to about 00 ft, then the marks begin to come very close together. ‘This method. is used for laying out town sites. ‘The instrument is set-up directly over a stake from which to work. and the telescope is turned down tntil the 20: ft. mark is indicated, when the oper tor looks through the telescope and {ells his helper where to set the stake ‘Then another is driven at the next point, and so on, atid the Timit of the instrument is reached Wh ral start out te to cut away brush; one to carry pe two fo measure, oF chain, the distan hetween stakes, and one to do. the sighting. In this manner a line can he run that comes very near being per~ fectly straight for three miles, ‘A concrete example of how the tra of sit was used to lay out a map start ranch will now be given. ‘The fence. was made on an east and west the the instrament was set 5 ft. fromother fence at one point, aud atwastheset at a end of the fence the stick point 5 fl from the fence. When th stick was sighted, the wire cut the E

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 1 W on the compass, thus showing tthe fence was set line, due cast and west. The distance” was measured from the fence to the house, which wasYj mile, and this was noted in a book. ‘This’ operation was repeated on the rear, and the distance found to he 780 It, ‘while the compass showed the direction to he 4 deg. west of south. The next fine ran 427 ft and 1 deg. east of south, ‘This was kept up all the way around. After these notes had been obtained, it was a easy matter lo take a pieceof plain paper and strike a. line representing north and south and lay off the direc tions. A hevel protractor was used to find the degrees, ‘The transit was set fon the posis of the corrals and this saved the measuring out from the inclosure. ‘The creck was surveyed in the same manner. So many feet south= west, so many fe t west,so many fect 5 deg. south of west, and so on, until

its Length was run ‘The transit can also be used for finding distances without measuring. A line from A to B is. sighted, and F represents a point Y% mile distant, the re from F to G being (00 ft. A’ line is now sighted from A, through G to C. A person standing at'D is directed to move toward the point FE i stopped as soon as sighted in the telescope, He then measures the di tance

from D to E. Suppose this distance is 250 1. As cach 100 ft m ile, and the 60 {t.. 4 mile, the point Eis 14 les from the transit. ‘This method 1» he used quite extensively and disices obtained are fairly accurate

as in the first ease, using G Sometimes iL is necessary to enlarge proceed starting the or reduce a plot to a different scale. as ‘The location point ‘This can be casily and quickly accom- arbitrary and mayof the point P is of the plished without resorting, to the slow boundary of the plotbe oroutside figure to be process of protracting the angles and enlarged or reduced, but should be so sealing, the individual lines, 12 the that possible, if ake any point, P, and from it dra located, corner does not parallel light peneil lines through each of the ofiy theany plot corner. comers of the plot, On any one of point cannotlinesbe toso that located for a these lines, as AD, lay olf with dividers Hines, it may. be necessary scale the AC equal to CP.” Place a triangle on lines! A little practice in topicking out the Tine AB and with a straightedg the hest location for the poi or another triangle, laid on the line gratifying results. — Cont AP, slide the former to the point C, Junius D. MeCabe, Pittsburgh, Pa. then draw Tine CD parallel with AB until it intersects the radial Tine PR. Tn the same manner draw line DE parallel with BP, and so on, all about the plot, A test of accuracy will be in striking: the point C with the last line. If the original plot has a_scale of 40 ft. to the inch the reduced plot would he 80 ft to the inch, I it is, plot to 20 ft required to enlarg: Enlarging" Uotunen and ReicingPovie Plots by Radial Lines trom to the inch, make AG equal to AP, and Loeatea Propecty

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1998,

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Unique

Electric-Are Torch WELDS

SMALL

WORK

By Edward Shaw POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY MARCH, 1937

intensely Mane FeY SirkUTILIZING tionnew scaedthecutouts pieIype hotoftoca wesal inework lorein defor shop. expetintal purposes or ‘te aceito 8 dllected by trea ofan eet omagnel lng pened vaviovs purposes, eon be uscd forfor sample; which Mgteatel amc te (or Wasmel ed for wetness of ery hah Pit (chrome! and lume Anweedoxy-gathe ne con rveon of enecouies. soci cour’ do the came orks tit fo "rere aeayeofaye sealstherm torch that could be developedof mea into somethinhi tnore practi snd bes.yet aised Posey andheme ett el oui shapeslen that one could form te arnt a Ton dritis ameintereting tore concentrated than a ae eset Tears to mite thatthe Sete Maer forward te mere rection coments ad Printed nthe two enon fils in rodecontactwhen re.sientrom i=the ‘ayotiation of the Tent flowsteesThrogs tht a tipstie ptThe hta cone co thing prereed thebin ints heart ie expense ofthe wy which soy wer uray. Thatchanges Use sti of hae cons ene or sown Retinrsotion's tescted by a magicby theHel fact tat they are

‘Ay electromagnet daftests the fare Doin that ean be used for welding The caall Lorch described consists of two Yin. diameter carhon rods shove whicl inounted an eleetronsagnet ind rough which the current of the are Movs, ‘The magnet is connerted in sueh a way {hat its field detects the are outwards So Liat it becomes access bie for experiment. ‘The magnet consists of a Vein, diameter 85softturns.steel of core‘No, wound with, approximately TH cotton enamel, copper magnet wire, ‘The ends of the coil are matte of asbestos. board to. protect the winding from the heat, and the whole unit fe mounted inthe end of the slotted (ube shown, Th order to compensate for the wearing of the entbons, a device. "This is provided to. bring sane is made very together slowly. them bly and consists of a dashpot, the shel of Which is the handle of che torch. So that the tation will be quite slow, {he piston moves Unrough a heavy’ oil, A hole is dled through {he piston in the dieection of ils travel Lo ac= commodate a tube of approximately. 1/32-n, There and 1761-in wall, This should be a force fit ‘The tube ie allowed to extend a bit be yond the face together of the piston, so that to it make may ine squeezed if. necesary an adjustment, A strong, phosphor bronze helical spring, pushing against the piston, drives it Urouglt the oil, whieh flows through the tube. Both the size of the hole throteh whieh the ofl flows and the grade, of the oil nay be Toused allow to regulate the piston's speed of travel, for a.rapid reseting of he Piston, a Nap valve of 0S-in spring steel Inounted on'the end of the piston aver a? fn, diameter hole, IC is important to solder

Lis valve to the piston as far from the hole as possible Lo prevent permanent bending by the sudden tush of oillas the piston is reset A slider, fastened fo the outer end of the connecting rod, has aml pin allached to lis underside, ‘his communicates the motion ‘of the piston to the two eatbon-support ati, (On the top of the slider is small handle for resetting the piston ‘The carbons are held by split clamps.such andas, insulated by a heat-resistng material, sebestos tebot-support arms ate abot ‘hin, Tong and shaped inthe approx sketch ‘The eneve alone which a theshown pin slides instes @ cirle with a radiv of 7 in, \ smooth ‘curve is necessary’ to make helical the carbons spring ismoveat= evenly. A small together treled to the far ends of the two exebom st ports to bring the two carbons together. "The ‘are andthe electromagnet are! connected in such a wvay that the flame is blown futward, The leads to the two carbons should he mate of fesile copper raid in oeder not lo interfere with their motion “The are shown in the photoseaph required imperes ditect current. However, when this js used, the carbon connected to the postive fexminal shouldbe larger than the negative tcrbon because i wears away neatly (iver #8 fast. With alternating current, both carbons can be the same size The dimensions given are sugsestive of a ‘model made bythe author, Int the size of the torch may be modified to suit individual Aesies,

Bench Anvil

Pipe Cap Is *‘ A Lif-in, or larger pipe cap canthe bepipeusedon asa work. Mount inside the eap fan anvil for light to fit hbase turned or glued-up and raise it to a height that allows room for

Detomce & \

“The experimental torch tas an ingenious dashpot arrangement fn the handle to eepulate the are

ECAP

BASE e ToOF FITCAP INSIO

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

1999

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

NARKE MAN ‘By ISABELLE HAUFFELD

OUTDOOR LaFR MARCH, 1943

AN ve the Garden snakes have beet els npopilae animals, some as “"varmints:” ran giviy newer of fe Himid ae souls shivers wha But there 1 tiles vlevoted Lo like snakes--are even quile them and in almost every community ash oe finds nahi fone eullig c Ineredutity, or rid such York, Th Dutchess County, New a man can be found in the person of ert the Herb Nichols, Enwho i Nichols, ep bas ity,Batite y-liie (sty the usital small hoe w

hole captor fs spots one sunning itsalf on a ‘opproaches quieily, but the take, croveed, attempts to cope, Nichols quickly grasps it with @ special clamp rod AMATEUR PROVES THAT FEAR OF

RATTLERS CAN his mother's horror, are cluttered up with frogs, Uurtles, 2 kes, Nichols to reptiles

hunting. Ni tackle are are always racks, but al hand and show plenty of wear fo that ‘8 hobby had ite ie and fon the way to becoming an aunateur herpetologist. Up to that time taking he cou: the into ips vac seeasional Janices, principally try. Various ¢ a slack period in his business, caused hint to accept the position of caretaker of lonely piece of property on ayova-

EASILY BE OVERCOME a few miles from the town of , New York, His nearest is Unree precipitous miles down the mountainside Snakes are numerous in that counry; Nichols found that out soon ater he had taken up residence there, first rattler that he encountered 80 su prised and scared him that he almost broke a leg Jumping away from it incident ocearred one day when he weeding a flower bed in front of the old barn, which he had converted into a home, Nichols was on his knees pulling: weeds and absorbed in admiring his flowers, when he thought he heard a rustling sound in the grass near him. He didn't pay much attention, assum-

THE

SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2000

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

he fond holds the rattler Gemly while The fork Inanouvers o forked stick There!Nichols head: thenow head with conhis reptiles the Pine behind Grasp it fighlly Bore hand ond drop it into.e corrying sock

ing it was just a fleld mouse, thisuntiltime.be again—closer soundd ar hethe ually glancing up, Nichols was, startled to see a big timber rattler about six feet away, staring curiously’ at him, Without a moment's hesitation, he sprang up from his kneeling position and landed on his feet six feet in the ‘opposite direction il always be sorry for what T did next,” Nichols relates, “I obeyed my first impulse, ran for my gum, and pu fa bullet right through that snake's head, If T had only stopped to realize that he was just hanging around to help me rid the barn of rats and m T nev would have dispatehed hin heatly ‘The skin of Unis sae the bullet holes plainly visible, is mounted and the hanging in a local tavern, mocking: ow reptile-minded Nichols everyand time Inst he looks at il. ‘(That's the first snake he ever killed, ‘As soon as he began to Nichols said, Uial the snakes were more them, afraid of him than he washhiny of alone If And that they would leave he he gave them a ehance to escape, he ‘Then them. molest to not decided at frst, began studying them, casually available reptiles on books Tew the with Io him. His interest deepened, the niorean he learned, until he finally became acknowledged snake nian, ‘The neighbors around Fast Monntainfor enthusiasma pole id not share Nichols'shis pleas for of most snakes, ind ive and Tel live” fell on deat

ears as far as snakes were concernedTiven — ss. fither, venomous or harmle though he spent hours explaining, tos snalce nnyone who would listen, andIhab theref ore mice, and s t a r on Feed w= s rodent these keep farmer the help converts, w e f made still he control, ler of the ‘One farmer near the footaverse to partionlarly mountain was TC sight. on them Keilled snakes and savy farmer Nichols was there when the fone, he would let the snakeaway,fancierSo catch it alive and take it d this Nichols was exceedingly surprise spring to have this farmer stop lim fone day and tell bim that there was Diack snake around the farm, and that he didn't want Nichols to lay a hand ton it. In fact he wanted very badiy looked have it live right there, NicholsRealizing , incredulously at the man, hat his righL-aboutsface needed amptification, the farmer explained that his property was overran with rats that had! become so bold they even stole ‘oung kittens out of a box in the barn for foo “You were right about snakes, Nick, the farmer admitted, "won't kill any more and if yoll see "em around here eave ‘em by Other farmers have come around to this way of thinking, too, Nichols said, although with most of them the toler” tance doesn't extend to rattlesnakes and copperheads [can understand their attitude,” he sald, “"Pspecially if they have children. Tean't expect them to welcome poison-

ous snakes on their property. So they: fave glad to Tet me bunt on their land and take away ag many of the dangerfous ones as T ean find.” ‘Throtigh careful observations and deductions, he has located a few snake dens in the county, to the envy of other herpetologists, ‘This Imowledge assures him of a good catch in the spring, gehen the snaices are coming oul of hic hernation and are still in Ure dens, and in the fall when they are returning, for the winter's sleep, Tie knew the type of rocky hillside that snakes like for a. en, bul for some inexplienble reason the reptiles will choose one In preserence to another that seems equally good to the human eye, Mee Nichols knew that rattlesnakes and copperheads must have hibernating ‘dens on his mountain or on adjacent ‘ones, but without knowing the exact veal where they congregated, bunting: for them would be like looking: for the proverbial needle in the haystack. He looked for them anyway, of course, for a snake man is necessarily an enthusst and an optimist, but when he slumbled on a den it would he by pure luc it-or-mise method could be in ‘This proved upon, he believed, by outthink Ing the sualtes, Men are’ smarter than snakes, after all, but the solving of this problem even then depended a great Heal on ack, If snakes congregate in one spot for the winter, Nichols reasoned, and disperse over the surround ing countryside in the summer, then they must travel away from the den in the spring and toward it in the fall. ‘That seems simple enough, but the luck: comes in finding and observing the

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 snakes as they erawl to and from the dens, Nichols considers himself fortunate in seeing, from time to time, enough snakes crawling in one direction in the spring and in the opposite direclion in the fall to correctly surmise the exact hillsides which they chose for winter quarters. Nichols is reticent about disclosing the locations of the dens for fear of too many shale collectors depleting the shale population and upsetting: the bal ance of nature, He himself only col lects enough for is own needs, or to exchange for different species with collectors in other paris of the eountry Perhaps we had better explain. here ‘why any man “needs” a snake, A snake man wouldn't be a snake man if he didn’t want to keep a few as pets. Besides, he usually wants to tell people

End of @ hunt: the Snake Man comes down fom a lonely mountain with « bagful of reptiles to satisfy their all about his reptiles, thon: in fookng interest to and Suriosity unloved children. Sith favor on these showman like way most The best and. living whieh specimens ig to display. appeal” for Ute’, fearful have a morbid for the open-minded, anda fascinationconverte st or the already- to dfind. enthusia the. Int ‘the one piace the loca people is al within gatheringfair. of rural a towne Severn Ennual have these Wingate, distance theof summer Short , and at most Shows daring will find Tier in to them you. shake pen, anewerNiehols. ing ques Riis portable s for the fons and handling.ds hisof charge His tors, specta henefit of hundve Farm,” Stake feoke ehagt reads banner as far as although itis a misnoItmeris practi cally ned, concer fs “tarm™ because Impossible to. "farm breedsnakesin captivi ty, Gey usually do not Fas e becaus Schagticoke is waspart chosen of the Sehngticoke Mountain Indian tribe which the for named Tange, has whieh now near and region, the ted Inhabi on in the mount ains npeservati

2001 Kent,The Connectiout ast Mosntain “tarm" is merely a larie, open-topped Inelosure, with sides chest high, ‘The board planking i sunk A short distance into the ground and the top has a wirenetting flange: hus, no make can burrow or climb out. ‘The has been stipptied with rock interior. piles, dirt mounds, dead leaves, and the lype of one enddear to toprovide Lover a snalee, and to ding at pinces the Inmates to have Inalee of it possible fun shade ns forthey. prefer. Various in this penceablysometogether Specles Iange pen,livealthough of the smaller Une to tiene specimens disapp from when there Ia large cannibalistic shalee among them, Nichols tries to provide enough food to keep his pets satisfied, ut some will Appear more limes @ garter snaice shake than a. fro black tent toa suceu Gra mouse. Collecting frogs used to be gasy, as there were always plenty ina spring. on the place, until a couple of and deekded Phecnons fornd ox aboutNow Nieho ls has there. down seltie to frog for looking afield farther go to ponds. In eatehing field mice he gets Competition from his eo cuts, so he has had. to establish smather “farm” to breed mice to feed his reptiles for snake hunt ing‘Theis eqitipment very slight, needed according to Nichols but the most important thing ig a good tn its a snakeeopperyable to spot ‘The pair of eyes“surroundings, hatural colored copperhead, for instance, blends perfectly with the brown, dend leaves Jn the rock crevices Ht inhabits, and the Sulphur-vellow-and-blsck pattern of the tintber rattlesnake Js hard to distinguish fon a stin-dappled bowlder: Tn eatehing a venomous snake iL Is neenssary to pin down the head before pleking the animal up by the back of the neck, ‘For this purpose a stick, cut with a forle at the end, fe we d, Snakes in mountainous country ae never very far from a hideout, for which they will hake a dash when, danger approaches. To eateh them before they disappear,

SURVIVOR Vol. 5 the snake hunter should have a stick swith a clamp at the end with which he ean clasp the snake and prevent it from ferawling into. hole or under a rocle ledge. “After the hunter has got a good, firm grip at tho back of the snake's head, he drops the forked pinning #liele and with his free hand pulls out « cloth bag snakehanging is placefromin thehis belt. open The bag, tailthen ofthethe hhend is released with a quick, downward thrust, the top‘The ofbag,the usually bag twisted closed’ andand tied. about the size of a pillowensn, ig all Chat ls heeded if, one. Is hunting only non polsonous sakes, as they can be picked tp with the hands without danger Nichols always carries a snake-bite Kit—eontaining a blade, suction cup, tourniquet, and other firsLaid materials but he has collecting: snakesneverin been (he eldbittenot while while handling them at home. Once, however, at a fain, a timber rattlesnake sanke 1ts fangs into one of his thumbs, This caused fo. much excitement that the management has never allowed him to show his snakes at that town fair since. ‘"Tust.a little ehesty," is the explana fon Nichols gives as the reason for that gle bite, “Just a little overconfident. prove to the crowd that snakes aren't really bad-natured, I had offered early jnhands the evening any snaleto pick in thewp with pen. myAb bare that thine I had timber rattles, copperheads, and a variety of nonpolsonous. snakes, But had forgotten that one big Umber was a newly caught specimen, which T had pleked up on the road on my way’ to the fair. “After T had handled most of the shakes In the pena couple of Hundred times, T began to believe myself that none of my ‘pets’ were danger ous. ‘Then someone pointed to a. big, ‘fellow, and sald he bet I wouldn't that one up. A challenge like that, of course, had to be accepted, so without realizing Ik was a jew snake, not ac customed me, I stdidn't properit eaution andto pleked up ae usethough was an old-timer, Quick as lightning,

Nichols enters the snoke pen. Here he gives lectures and demonstrations with live snakes

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 the rattler twisted loose from my grip behind Anger.” hig head and stabbed at the closest gave hinge dontatd tents NICHOLE mentand then wistushed toadoctor, While in the dactor’s office he heard Someone from going. the fairto annotice Smelats’ wore ‘shoot all that the Chukes inthe pons This wae too mitch forthe ne Man to alund: although hardly able to walk, he insisted on going

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 back to the show grounds and putting A favored few of these reptile en bis cages. Not unl a (husiasts, who get to. “season” Toast. Mou for then snakes would heintogo their toa hospital. Within tain, ‘ieholsean inthe eck he wag Buck, at wore without il snaketunting tips elfect from his unfortunate experience. ‘The primitive country life he leads has Not only famous in. his own com become #0 enjoyable to Nichole that. he munityacquaintance as shake throughout man, Nicholsthe has will never Heforsake it to return wide coun. < ayto eityhe existence. is perfectly hapny mountain, a of top the on alone living fostered and made try as well_-mostly two. hound his onlytwo er companions —with other through mnatnst aslcorrespondence dogs, prote jonal herpetologista, 3, five goalsbeingand his enalees

STOVE

WONDER FROM

OLD

TIN

CANS...

It will boil, bake, and fry a complete outdoor meal over a tiny twig fire, and deliver it to you all hot and ready to eat af the same moment OUR tin cans and some wire—less metal than the utensils they substitute for, much less the usual camp stove ‘are everything you need to make this novel cooker developed at Cornell University wnder direction of Dr. BL. Palmer, Materials are a 5-qt. motor-oil ‘can, a No. 10 food can, two coffee tins, two bent wires, Smaller parts nest into the large can for carrying on the trail

meal Fist Settig up the stove-—and con fromthe made ban’ SaceP eFe S Mbettem te nda fuel ondfood thee Sete pags tn the top to Tot hoot OUTDOOR LIFE MARCH, 194

@ fir bor:tins then the ‘coffon oro laidone across unit Wires from laid s i the sf cover. with theme The flat rock mator o good base piesvise over but en estentol; dry, Hot earth. will do

of waterthis fortintoa moyor o coffee fe tinwanted, comesIf neither Next coffos. or oiher vegetables beor fousedhee!to upbolls9Uppotatoes or precooked boked beans

2003

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

oll, to rest on lid set The oil fin slips down over The boking compartment—a colise-tin ond Loep. the ising. heot confined with the. Hin diel for athe wires Gop the “Lette” it porees cut the lop veal on far side covernit now loaded with fish or bacon and eggs fy on the top ould be used fo heat

A good camp ink in itselfl The egg is fried os 0 compactly in'o hole in the bread-eaten food below Sendwich. Since frying i Himod right ‘hould bo ready when thi

with

a Penknife

he blade near the tip, like a penolder. many parts you must use the tip shaping Inof the blade almost entirely. For cuts at the b eneral shaping, the center of the Dade will work satisfactorily, shown in the T normally photo, witht themal from nose to tail, but it may be easier for you to make tiem as shown in the sketch, with the grain fuinning vertically through the body. The fatter miniiizes ‘eyebrows, and tail themay chance break off,tat but thebe ext, very ceful in sepagating the li A somesslat 0} like show-card colo work, beemse it fires quickly and does ot sink Water colors wil do, —B, J. TANGIRALAN

Pour pocketkaife miniatures, the ver San (PSM, — the blank at the end of Marthe andthe (Dec. six"35, inlhe carve it pbs} (eb. "36, 360) a8 anandee Tt is importa in miniature yout knife blade knives, Son‘heatpaper he crew for your obtain decurate cule ail iy 14 Jn. Uh agai hot requtie. cle them 04 our Tile Bier as do the rest ‘the blank, Tt white pine i Any Stal ser, partie thi w wool nls, to bol trick by %6 by

POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY

MAY,

1937

Shipper Sa

2004

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Le MN

There's room for 10,000 earthscorms in this culture bed: 1 stands high and 36" swide, ith Minch ven filation space itsecen all members

Burlap tacked on lath frame forms the top cover: burlap is ‘also used for side walls, The bed can be male of most teva; pine is the best of all

PARI HWORMS JANUARY

Ie mas eet Ath We burke tt okey eat tl fo pat eee inal fee ue boat about putting the earthworms to work, ‘This is what he wrote:

One million earthworms in an acre of ground will transform up: wards of 200 tons of dey topsoil inaterial per year, delivering this finely divided and conditioned earth to the surface in th diate root-zone to viehly nourish all vegetation, "The aneient Greck philosopher Aristotle, called earthworms the ‘intestinesof the earth,” a phrase whieh literally describes the f tion of these maste builders of topsoil. Streamtined to the altiate for functional performane the earthworm blindly eat shis way hrongh the ground, riddling and ioneycombingit to a deptle of ten Feet or more with his aerating tun-

1942

the ent roots, with AVnlathatashe i awallows containg—dead Dactera, the minute, and. nero” seopic voglable life of the sol nl minal leet I the calar mechanical miltube andof Lisboa cemieal laboratory all itera is roken dow to The sourelions aud treetions of the worm att valuable animal and elements to. the semi liquid mass of material, as it passes slowly through his body to final exeretion in and on the surface of the earth as castings Tumis. Earthyvorm eastings eon stitute the richest topsoil and potting material known to seience, they do in high pro: portion and water-soluble form all the clements of plat nutrition. Good garden or farm land will easily support one million or more earthworms per acre, ‘This repre 1 population of approximately 10 worms per cubic foot, figuring an average working depth fof 30 inches, How ean the gar: dene ‘orchardist, or farmer he wredof 10:working soil-builders per eubie foot of land? The answer is, propagate earthworms. scientiffeally andl intensively in special

THE SURVIVOR Vol 5

Dr, Thomas J. Barret earthscorm and “groxwer,” weaters bur‘authority lap swalls and lop of culture bed to insure the proper moisture within breeding beds and seed the land swith sufficient. exg-eapsules to int sure the maximum population. Here's how it is done: 1. Con post for earthworm food for in tensive production of capsules is made by thoroughly mixing one part of good topsoil with one part well rotted manure, and one part vegetable matter such as alfalfa, grass clippings, or other available vegetable waste. Fill the culture hed with the mixed compost to within 6 inches of the top, thor oughly wet the material down till itis moist all the way through. the hed with 2000 2. Imypregnate earthworm egg-capsules, now commercially available. Capsules should be planted about 2 inches deep, distributed over the surface of the bed. Place the lath subarea surface divider (see photo) on top ‘of the compost, adjust covers, re undisturbed for 60 to days except for sprinkling enough to keep contents of the hed moist throughout but not soggy wet. By the end of this period several thousand worms will have hatched out and reached maturity, the hed thus becoming fully” popuTated with breeder” stock for production of capsules. HARVESTING 8, Bor producing and harvesting ceapsuiles, nix compost as directed material aud place a layer of the the of top on # to G inches deep

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 sub-surface divider. Wet the material doswn and keep it moist by frequent. sprinkling Uirough the cover. ‘The breeder worms will move into this top layer, feeding, fon the compost and depositing their castings and egg-capsules in this surface Inyer. Under proper conditions, domesticated earth worms will pass one eg apse every 7 to 10 days. As the ineubating period before hatching is from I to 21 days, all of the capsules may be harvestedby removingthe surface layer of compost down to the sub-surface divider every 2 for $ weeks, ‘The compost. below the divider forms the permanent burrows of the breeders and should not he dist Ded except a intervals about Lwiee yearly when

2005

it should he renewed. In har ing. the covers should be removed nay be used Tor impregnating and the material allowed to dry flower pots, flower beds,neatne lawns, oot for a few hours or other lai, or maybe wed for itlayer by layer, raking about one sive compost Hat a Lime and allowing a few cra han ofthis inmates Lo elapse before re oving in well watered buried i s material th xt layer. The mature worms arth an earthworm colony willbe will rapidly work downward snd ‘tablished, to reed and spread to sarong arth nan ever lake refuge heneath the divider. Spread the harvested mate idening circle. ollowing this le tecniquo, from a sral a plece of eanvas to further dry then sift through fora short tn expensive heginning thousands of «ich sereen, The eastings dollars worth of highly valuable apsules. will pass throngh the tarthorm culture may be pro sereen, The ser material ean duced. ‘The stre way to build up bre nixed in with fresh compost le, productive topsoil, oF proand returned to the bed. Proceed ideal potting material is to mnpost above putvide the master-builder of topsoil as before, the divider and zepe 1the iar friend earthworm —to work.

Sheet Pins, Drive Fit

very 2 or 3

vesting procedure

Wire Bending Jigs ave often been working along in the cs of building some gadget all steam pipe bent, or a wire hook that would complete the control system of some engine. And then pops up the ques tion: Where will I get jigs to bend the stuff around? Why not make a set like these and have them in your kit? ‘Time after time they'll come in handy. Bending rods to a desired shape is not easy, nor is the handling of tubes without such equipment. Shee Brock

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 weeks. ‘The harvested material

Mechanical Package Magazine — 1932 Electric Wood-Burning Tool

Block with Hola 4s Oversize

Résistance Wire HE old style art of “pyrography” is rather out of date, but a wood-burning tool still has many uses in the workshop. It is useful in burning identification numbers on tool handles and in decorating various types of wooden models Get porcelain insulator of the type shown nd strip two lengths of copper wire, each two nches longer than the insulator. Run them through the insulator, permitting an inch to extend from each end, which is bent over to hold them in place. f

Gperition L Qreritin?.

Sma Mabing

Small jigs on which to bend wire should be a part of Here are useful every metal worker's equipment.

little jigs easy,to make and very useful in sor

Mechanical Pkg. Magazine 1932 Small eyes centered on the end of a rod are quickly made with two pins in a hardwood block. A hole bored in another block with a rounded corner will be found useful in working % 0. d. copper pizes—Morris Hall, White Plains, New York.

N0¥. Burning Toot Seroline at Bar with.

1E SURVIVOR Vol. 5

How

2006

to set and align fence posts

Sooner or later most homeowners face the prospect of setting and alig a Fence posts, [1 can be quite a trial. We've talked the problem over with fence contractors, tool rental firms, and do-it-xourselfers, and we have s few suggestions thet may make your next fenee-selting job go more smootily For long fence life, use posts of Western red cedar or California redwood. "These woods inhibit the decay-rausing aetion of Fungus and insects. Specify fvarfiwood, the reddish brown wood from the central the Higher wood of the tree: sapwood, part ‘lose to the bark, is much less durable, Mountain express, sometimes sold in the Southwest for fence posts, seems lo em dure as well as eedar and redwood. DIGGING THE HOLES sink posts at Teast 18 low inches into the ground. For fences + to 6 feet high, sink posts at least @ feet: the deeper the better, especi ly if the com= pleted fence will present a solid barrier to winds, Moisture should be able to drain quickly past the bottom of the posts. For this rea son dig holes 4 to 6 inches deeper than the posts will he set, and fill the bottom of the holes with rocks sud gravel. In clayey soil, 8 wise to down even farther, 10 provide a fool-deep drainage bi in of gravel beneath each post

Batter boords in firm gronnd near corners help you position corner posts precisely Locate the fene comer points, if not Iy using string and. guides ter boards (see diagram). Mark string into the post spacing desired (6 and 8-foot spacing is most common, and allows econo al use of stardatel le ths ff lumber, but other spacing is often die ated by type of fenre, appearance de sired, slope of ground). Over uneven ground, drop plumb Tine frem each string mark to pinpoint post, locations, and drive in marker stakes, ‘Then begin digging. Digging tools. Of the two most popular

aCAY 1965 hole-digging tools, the auger type is fine in rock-free earth, the clamshell type be ler in rocky soil. Digging is still tougl work even with these tools, but the resulting hole (especially with the auger) is niet slimmer thn with pick and shovel ligging, and gives better support for posts required—an is fill inl backfill, And less important cousider ‘you ate setting tthe postsin concrete Fach tool costs about $8 lo $12 to buy, fonts to $1.50 a day lo rent. in really rocky: soil, ned hier works. well— you're right back to jek and shovel. If you have more than six holes to dig, and the earth is nol too rocky, power dig ners are certainly worth investigation One-maw and two-man power angers are ‘often available at tool rental shops. We recommend you get a husky friend Lo help you, and zeal @ twosnan units iL ean dig 2 10-inch-wide hole in 8 lo 5 minutes Rental rate is $2.50 to $b an hour. (If your soil is very rocky, ask a general eon tractor i ‘8 poswer auger is fea ble.) \ rented jackhammer equipped wit spmding, tip could also do the job. ‘T jackhammer is often the tool of choice in ‘areasof the Southwest where a hard layer ‘of caliche lies beneath the soil surface. Ifa great many holes need to be dug, eonsider a jeep-mounted digger. ‘These a avaiable for hire (with operator) i may areas of the West, al $12 lo $18an hour, POSTS IN BARTIE AND GRAVEL PILE, Where the soil is stable (wok subject to sliding, cracking, frost heaving ack ill. earth-and-gravel i probing with earth or ably all snost fence posts require

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 aravel, or gravel, tamping firmly every @ for 3 inches. If Ue hole is wide, big rocks jammed around the post near the surface ‘will minimize side mnovement. Slope the lop of the fill so water runs away from the post. In light, sandy soil—whieh offers

Cleats help hold posts in very light soit ceasy shoveling but poor stability for fence posts—nail T by 4 cleats of heartwood cedar of redwood across the fence posts near the end. SETTING POSTS IN CONCRETE Conerete fill ean eat up a surprising amount of eement, sand, and gravel—but it gives the strongest selting by far

i ‘GRAVEL on cRAvELLY SO, Fills using rurious amounts of concrete, Types 1 and 2 are best for wet climates

‘The concrete should be angled at ground line to divert water away from the post. Don't let concrete get under the post where it could hold in moisture and speed deeay. Above all, never set fence post ceuds completely int concrete, For fence post settin vou can use a lean. ‘concrete mix, with only a third the ce ment needed for a walkway mix. A mis ‘of 1 part (by volume) cement, 3 parts sand, and 5 parts gravel is good. Keep it rather dry, ‘To extend the mix, keep a supply of washed rocks on hand, and place them around the perimeter of the Vigorous tamping is key to successful use hole a you pour. of earth fill, Rocks near top also. help Using dry conerete mixes (cement, and gravel all in one bag) saves ordering, smaller few a , or time and trouble, and means you won't Dump in a big base stone stones, or several inches of gravel, aud have heaps of leftover sand oF gravel to tamp well, Set in post. Have a friend ie foot) sells for $1.85. You will need shovel in some gravel while you adjust bags of mix to make a solid pour the post until il’s aligned and vertic post, sunk 2 fect in a Continwe Bling will arth, earth l-

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2007

Se

ee

eeBy sncen ee

|

SmseLe aeace NA Allows

LEA) / warn ever,nen faces

cxtan rocks, 9 TQULDERS, BRICKS Extending conerete with boulders reduces cost, makes solid footing in large holes 10-inch diameter hole, Posts freshly set in conerete can be forced, into @ new position for perhaps 20 mi nites after the pour; they should then be Teft alone for 2 days before boards or stringers are nailed on, Duriug.a spell of dry weather, fill the small erack between post and conerete with tar, Frost heaving, Heavy: frosts bring two ving, and concrete cracking. ‘To minimize damage from heaving, dig post holes down to a foot below normal shovel in gravels drive nails into each post near its bottom end, of sides the and place this end in gravels pour concrete around nail area; complete fill, using gravel or gravelly soil. ‘To prevent concrete collars from cracking when wet posts freee and expand, eut shingles to width of posts, oil Uiem, and each post before you pour. place alongside Remove shingles when conerete has set, and fil spaces with tar or sand.

Tor poured between post and concrete ere ates expansion collar, minimizes eracking ALIGNING THE POSTS, Many consider this one of the knottiest problems associated with building a fence Welll describe three workable procedures among the many in use. Corner post method. This involves setting comer posts first: firnnly, permanently, and exactly vertical. ‘Then stretch aligs ing strings between these posts, top and hottom, Mark points on the top line to indicate where the centers of the interme: diate posts will be, and transfer the marks, using plumb bob, to the lower

Wood pieces iver aligning strings lear of posts, yet allow easy visual cheeking

Staking @ post. Carpenter's level held ‘against two adjacent faces (or plumb bob fon one corner) establishes true vertical

EVENING UP THE POST TOPS Tine, Set each intermediate post in gravel, Wait until the fence is finished before with its face brushing (but not distorting) trimming to the correct height, the aligning strings. Backfill carefully, Plat post posttops topscollect water, and this checking verticals as you work. In spoods early rotting. rainy areas, a bevIf rough posts su the aligning. str eled or rosinded top that will shed water rial hetwer slip a pivee of i inch muck preferable. Ifyou paint the fence, each corner post and the strings, then nail islavish paint on the tops. it on. (With batter boards [see method low], move both ends of the cord % inch.) ‘Then keep each intermediate post Popular Mechanie — 1913 the same ¥-inch distance from the ‘Trap for Small Animals strings. Once all the posts are in, make a final ‘This is a box trap with glass sides glass being held and back, the panesin of place leans slight t correc ean (You eye, by check re: d n a post the ing push by by brads time this at fi ll nping the concrete or ea ) placed on both sides. he animal does not Batter board method. With this method fear to enter the box, you lay out fence post locations first, then Ihecause he can see Set the posts successively. Build batter through it; when he hoards (see diagram, page 171), and mark however, and touches the bait tie intended post centers on the align- enters, is released and, dropping, shuts jn string, Continue as in the comer post the Tid “This is one of the easiest traps ‘method—but this time you will have only him in. and is usually successful. tne string to guide you, and you'll need to build to check verticals frequently with a level or plumb line. Here's a tip for plumb Tine users: Wrap, the Tine around a serap piece of wood half as thick as the bob is wide. Hold this block against any top eomer of the post. When the plumb fine lines up with the comer edge, and the bob is brushing the wood, the post is vertical. One-mon method. ‘The “stake-out" methSESS g workin man a for le possib t i cod makes SUNSET APRIL 1961 stakes alone to align a fence, Drive two shown Where’s the middle? into firm ground near each post, as Delove, and nail an arm to each stake. Setof This center-finder will work on boards of posts onto rock or gravel at bottomstring. width, up to thelimits set by the dishole, checking alignment against. nails. Drive a Using level of plumb bob, trae oneDo the tance between the ofouter a 1 by L-inch strip and tack its support arm in place. ver~ ‘them, driving same for adjacent face. Check both and it just far enough that a point of ain, adjust arms if neces ary, 1/16 inch protrudes on the underside. e pails. the point to a ehisel shape. With the ‘The beauty of this system is that you ea File wo outside nails riding the edges of the stake out all the posts and give them a board, the center nail automatically final visual eheck before backfilling, the center. Slide it and it will score marks a center line.

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2008

THE SURVIVOR Vol 5

CONCRETE BIRD HOUSES will bring shyest Mechanical Package Magazine 1931 Starlings, redstarts and the shyor songbirds will build in 2 coment bird house. OODEN bird hou s have had their way long enough. ‘They are good—but not

songsters to your own backyard - -

make a moistdry mixture which, when slump tested, wil seep out into a dumpling if sloughed out of a flower pot. If the mixture stands up N stiffly as shown it is too dry. ‘The mold, which has been tied or wired toenough for some birds. This is prover gether while the cast is being made, is covered good that there are plenty of birds of with a layer of the concrete on the bottom. t c a f the by ‘The sides are built up with a trowel. Some which will nest in conerete the concrete workers prefer to make a pattern or houses, shunning wooden ones. © for the inside, and pour a rather wetter Starlings and redstarts are typical of the unusual backyard nesters that ean be made your mixture than to build up the walls with a dry neighbors for the summer if you build a really mixture, Hither way is good. light tight place for them—such as they have When the top of the mold has been reached, small pieces of wood should be sunk into the heen used to in hollow. trees. ‘To construct the mold for casting the bird concrete walls so that the bottom (of board) make four pieces of wood similar to can be nailed on. ‘The opening for the birds should be profern shown in the blueprint below. This will give you a house which is a common and vided with a revolving door, made of sheet serviceable model, yet one which sheds rain metal and loosely mounted. |The birds soon well. ‘The mold is cored for a vent in the Tearn to enter and leave, or to adjust the top, and for a door on one side, ‘The prints door to give them just the amount of light and air they need. Of course, a vent should be for’ these cores are shown. ‘Then prepate a concrete of 1 part Portland placed in the top as before mentioned. It is nent, 2 parts sharp sand and 3 parts gravel. best to mount these houses in the darker por‘This must be thoroughly mixed before water tions of trees, as the shyer songbirds frequent is added. Enough water should be added to and nest in dark, protected places.

omar an

CONCRETE THAT StU MAS. LIKE THIS:1S. THE RIGHT. CONSISTENE: ip.

SSLUMP TEST. SHOWS HK. 700 ORY.

Cottain kinds of birds prefer abodes mado of concrote, This shows how the board mold is made for such a house and how to make a slump test for concrote of the right working consistency.

THE

5

2009

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Fixing a rattly furnace pipe. You just squeeze this riveting tool on the outside

find these rivets commonly available today, most of them in many sizes, and various metals, From left to right: two-piece, pop-type, tubular, solid, and split rivet

The usefi il art of riveting JANUARY 1965 the flat surface of a hammer or a hatchet For the split and tubular rivets, we show fa rivet set being used, but it is not essential ‘To round the driven heads of solid sivels, yout can use a ball peen hammer. Simply

Riveting scems to most of us.an antiquated way of connecting thing Somehow we seldom consider using rivets when we're assembling or repairing objects around the house, But this ancient way is often hard to beat. Rivets are very strong, never work loos and usually make a neat job, And they"re inexpensive, The eost of enough rivets to. repair a lawn chairor a metal sereen door is a matter of pennies. You can find all the types of rivets shown here at a hardware store or shoe repair shop. Often you'll find the solid aud tubular types ina wide variety of sizes and lengths, and in steel, brass, copper, and aluminum, TOOLS REQUIRED The new type of rivetin gun shown on page 85 is almost as fast and easy to use asa sta Je gun, You ean buy it at a hard ware store for about 86, complet with an nent of rivets. The pop-type rivets iL uses (see diagram, page 85) come in three lengths, and will handle thicknesses up to ¥ inch, For the other types of riveting shown, only the simplest of tools are required: You'll need a bucking block, as i s ealed, to place under the rivet. This ean be a A small rivet set (costing a dime) easily block of steel, the top of sour vise, or just spreads apart a split or tubular rivet

hammer them round with light blows on, top and sides. Or you can use a solid-rivet sel. This is a heavy piece of tempered steel about 4 inches long, with a small ccaplike depression in one ened that molds, the rivet’s end to 2 round shape when you tap the set with a hammer. It costs about, $9.50. The rivets’ appearance will smooth and uniform, but the connection is no stronger. TRICKS OF RIVETING As the illustrations on these pages show, riveting is y simple to do. But here are some addition little pointers that may De of help: Say you are attaching a buckle to a belt, and you want the neatest possible job: rivets. They come in variUse bwo-p ‘ous colors, hold well in such material, and look very professional, When installing a split rivet in leather or cloth, don’t punch a hole for it, Just drive Ue pointed rivet Unroughs it will hold better. You ean drive a tubular rivet, too, UUnrough soft materials, If you are connecting two or more pieces, of metal together with a solid rivet, push the pieces snugly together before you swell the rivet with your hammer, Other te rivet may swell out between the pieces, giving you a loose conneetion, An easy way’ lo push the metal pieces gether is to place a nut from a fairs bolt over the rivet, and tap the nut with, your hammer. In the “working” rivel sel, you'll ind another hole for doing the same thing, Washers are available for all types of rivels except the small two-piece ones. Use washers whenever you want the strongest possible joint in leather, loth, and soft plastic. IT you use rivets with wide, flat heads in Su materials, you will need washers only under Uheie smaller

THE SURVIVOR Vol. Aluminum, copper, and brass solid rivets, ean be countersunk easily. Smooth them with a file after tapping in place For metal-to-metal connections, choose a rivet that fils fairly snugly in its bole. Ts end should protrude only 1 to 1% times its diameter, IF Us To er, eu it off. Ordinarily we think of using rivets only ‘on canvas, leather, and sheet metals. But they ean also be superior lo serews or hoolts for fastening pieces of % or ¥-inch plywood or hardboard together, Look at a trunk,for example.

2010

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Soot

/

Pop rivets also are strong in metal and plastic, and washers are avaitable for their use in cloth and leather. They are quickly installed; no bucking block is needed

=

Jib tees, ne

Tal Two-piece rivets fiold well in leather aud cloth. Use a bucking block, and mash in the rivet with a blow from any hammer. The result is neat, professional-looking

aan Split rivets also hold well in leather and cloth (tips do not bury into harder mate~ rials). Use a rivet set, as here, or reverse rivet and pound tips out on block's surface

EB

Tubular rivets are stronger in metal and plastic. Spread them with a rivet set or large centerpunch (with latter, final flat tening ie done wth light hammer blows)

Solid rivets are strongest of all. You first swell the rivet in its hole, then round its head. The countersunk type ean be peened in and filed down to be almost invisible

Mechanical Package Magazine — 1932

How

to Care

for the

Household

Usually the midget utility motor, ‘Berane commutator lightly With sharp 2 hnire |ecaeveloving only froin “1/20 te

Wipe off all oil on brushes, Sleeves and commutator

Burn oil out ‘of brushes in FD ekohel Flame

File, grind, or sandoaper PALER siacunrGrin 20 aM Conaencers | Srusht surta Flat Oil in the wrong place is an enemy of small motors, Wipe off the commutator-keep it clean. Radio noises can be eliminated by grounding a 20 m.f.d. condenser across the circuit. Brushes are important, This shows how they are cleaned, IVE

that

little

Utility Motor

mill

Moen, a. Packmag about the household is so to neglect." And then in how to service the little

a break,”

says

Esten

reader. “Nothing abused and so given these words he tells fellows:

| hips is subjected to loads and lack of attention (through ignorance) more than any other piece of machinery on the face of the earth. When they yet worn and growly, they affect the radio, and cause no dof dissatisfaction that is really no fault of their own but of the gentleman who runs them. Clean them up and watch the difference. Take the end plates off. Clean che commutator by scraping lightly with a sharp knife, Do not scrape so hard that the copper comes off. just remove the scum from the burned oil. No emery or sandpaper

hould be used unless the commutator is badly scored. Even then it might be best to put the armature in lathe and face it off a little. Oil is never to be allowed on the commutator, Through ignorance somet nes people oil the whole works. Oil should be used only on the bearings. When the commutator is clean, next attack the brushes. See that they are square on the ends. When worn they are hollow and cover more segments than they should.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 FRONT BLATE.

2011

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 2 STEAM PIPE (BOSS

SAFETY VALVE! AND. FIBER PLUG BOSS “SCALE OF BOILER, ‘AND WATER GAUGE: SECTION IN INCHES)

ae Sale" STAY,

Ae

je

oR:

LTO

ie fal

ale

me Poke BLUNGER

DETAILS iN INCHES,

A SMALL for Little

BOILER Engines

Heated by a simple‘alcohol lamp, this little boiler will be found useful for the experimenter in powering small boats, or as a workbench source of steam. Mechanical Package Magazine - 49a

OPULAR American magazines have eg: lected the experimenter who likes to. dabire

power fon

engineering with on small engine

the de-

signs and data on boilers to run thea with are very scarce. We who make the Packmag here in the Experiment Station have cooked up this design for the model engine enthusiast, knowit will be welcome. The boiler has an evaporating capacity suf ficient to run a 36x56” engine. Ebullition can be controlled by the wicks of the lamp. ‘The shell of the boiler is of seamless brass

or copper tubing, 3/64” thick. The rear end plate is cast of brass. ‘AA tie rod is necessary to keep the ends from blowing, as the boiler can work to better than 60 Ibs./sq. inch with safety if properly built, The front end plate may be of sheet brass, 16 gauge, butted up against a retaining ring riveted inside the boiler. If this consiruction is used, as per the drawings the end of the boiler should be rolled down around the end plate, ‘This can be doneroundby bearing down against the shell with a tool-steel burnishing tool while spinning the boiler in a lathe. High speeds are used in spinning—about the same as used for wood turning,

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 LAMP FOR THE

2012 BOILER

Soldered up out of shoot metal the lamp looks like this. It is easy to build as here shown,

‘Tie rod is of bras . ‘Two interlocked tie bolts should be put inside the ends of the plate and a bead of silver solder sweated to them. Never use ordinary solder in beiler work. It lets go easily and it is impossible to braze a joint on which solder has been used if at a later date you wish to increase the pressure capacity of the boiler by brazing the seams. Next drill the shell for the bosses for the filler plug, safety valve, and steam take-off plug. ‘The front end is drilled with two %4” holes for the water glass. These are 13” on centers. A

Simple

Motion, bigture

Machine

The drum A is a piece of wood, 1% in. long and Ly in. in diameter, supported on the end of a round stick, B, which can be made in one piece with the drum, if a wood lathe is at hand, but a piece cut from a curtain pole

THE

SURVIVOR Vol. Ss

You may make the valve and the water ulass plugs as the drawing shows, or you can obtain them through the Experiment Station. We have contacts which can furnish you with them and also with the glas . At present a supply is coming from Germany at low pi which of course will be passed along to Packine readers, as it is the purpose of our Shop to be merely a service for readers. ‘The lamp is made out of simple elements, being but a reservoir for alcohol with a long half-inch tube that has wicking sticking through in several places. Three or four wicks will be enough. Height of fire is controlled by the height of the w he

builer is filled two-thirds full of water

and allowed to come to.a full head of steam before being used. ' The safety valve should first be set by testing it against a known’ air pressure for relief. This can be done by taking it to a free air station and checking the valve blow-off tension setting against the tire wage on the air line.

Ti is only necessary to put the parts together, grasp the base in one hand and turn the support B with the other, when, looking through the slot E, the boy is seen pounding the stones. Various pictures can be made and the strips changed

and a lead pencil inserted in a hole

bored in the end will answer the purpose. Be sure to have the diameter of the drum

17) inches.

The next step is to provide the pic~ ture and attach it to the drum. ,A pic ture of a boy pounding cobblestones is shown in the sketch, at F, which should be made on a strip of paper 4% in. long. ‘This is glued or attached with rubber bands to the drum. The drawing can be enlarged in pen and ink, or can be reproduced as it is, if a hand camera is at hand, and a print ts the drum

res ‘The Parts for Making the Revolving for Holding the Strip of Pictures Drum

Provide a base piece, C, 4 in. thick and 2 in, square, and fasten a piece of cardboard having a slit E, as shown. The cardboard should be 2 in. wide

Picture will Appear Different Positions of the with the Drum n When Turning The Pictlo

The

and 24% in. high, the slit being cut % in. in width, 14 in. from the top and 24 in. from’ the bottom. A hole is bored in the center of the block to admit the standard B easily.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Do YouReally Know How to FILE? by R. F. YATES ‘The Mechanical Pkg. Mag. 1932

O MANY mechanics a file is just a cutting surface, that is dragged. pulled, pushed or scraped over another surface. Indeed very few mechanics fully understand the potentialities of a file nor do they have anything more than a rudimentary idea of their manipula Skillful manipulation of files is attained only by experience and the best the following paragraphs can do is to describe the various types of files and the proper method of using them, Many operations can be done by an ordinary file when it is in the hands of « skilled mecha Files are usually classified as rough, coarse, bastard, second cut, smooth and dead smooth. Files are also known as double cut and single cut, depending upon the arrangement of lines as will be seen by reference to the drawing In the single cut file, all of the teeth are arranged at the same angle and run parallel, varying in different files between 60 and 80 de~ grees. The double cut file has two sets of teeth, each at a different angle. This point will ‘also be illustrated in the drawing. ‘The

2013

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

‘Tho man at the bench to the left is shown holding the file properly. In tho inset photos we see the reason. Left, incor ect hold; nds 10 round work, Right, correct grip, produces flat surfaco.

teeth of a double cut file are usually at an angle of 40 degrees in one direction and 75 to 80 degrees in the opposite direction. Files are also manufactured in a multitude of different shapes and many are made for very special purposes. A cross section of all of the common shapes is shown in the sketch. Not many hardware stores, however, are doing a large enough bu in files to warrant their carrying all of these types. It should be understood also that these varied shapes come in various lengths, and files of the same grade have the same number of teeth or lines per inch only when they are the same length. ‘Thus a second cut file nine inches in length would be more coarse than a second cut file five inches in length, ‘This is quite necessary as a bastard file four inches long would have but a few teeth its surface, It should also be known that th of a file does not include its tang, s the part that holds the handle.

Exaggerated view ee tendency oF Pie te bend whine hele

Exaggerated view of snamior "ie in which File Shoult bond Por producing Hat aurFaces

Hore is an exaggerated view showing the tendency to produce a round surface when the file is held like a fiddle-bow. For flat surfaces the tool must be held flat with down spring of the left thumb.

he first thing—and this may sound disgly elementary until we really see the point—that a mechanic should learn is the be used A file method of holding a file. properly only when it is held correctly. In ordinary cross filing—that is filing directly across the work—a thick, medium-sized file should be used if a quick cut is wanted, When

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

holding a file in this manner it will be found that it can be controlled very easily and that the hands are not easily fatigued owing to the ct that it is not necessary to tighten the grip. ‘The forward stroke should be firm and posi tive for this is the cutting stroke. ‘The file doe not cut on the return to the starting position. Indeed the return stroke should be very light to prevent the teeth from wearing down. ‘The improper method of holding a file is shown in the photograph. When used in this tanner the: file will have a tendency to bend as illustrated in the line drawing. Flat filesur-is faces can be produced only when the Par

ee soit

iege.

piesa

syuare

Cress

\

oO

Vo Roun

eriee

ee

extinee Sas

sing

single cut PEE

se xe

aro cross sections of all the commonly manutheir names. All have special los, uses, Hand, square and round files are well known— ant and pitt-saw are used for saw sharpening. Note difference between singlo and double cut. Siae to with side Jnotion hagie fle }rounect

z

ALY

Directions taxon by fie in making Rist cuts

\ How slot 1s Cat with ails Gna rile aoeSriageh grunt

roun; ded dou a hole is progr ess= out by using Wey smaiter Ailes

ow one surface7 carnage filed without foram adjacent aurface

Along with the saw and hammer and brace and bit, of the the file is ono of the topnotch necessities omshop. Here are a few methods of effectively this tool. the use of in a few g time-tried wrinkles ployin

RVIVOR Vol. 5

held in the manner illustrated as correct. When held in this position the cutting portion of the file becomes slightly convex and it is in this way that the flat surface is produced, in filing perfectly flac surface, a file with a slight belly should be selected. Modern Mechanix April, 1935 Make Insulators from Old Tires

‘TRONG and dependable insulators for aerial wires and mast guy wires are readily made from an old auto tire casing. Cut slices about one inch wide from the casing, and punch holes in each just inside the bead. ‘Two of these slices are looped together as shown in the sketch, and the wires then run through the holes, A single slice slipped over a large screw hook makes a good strain insulator for tying wires to buildings or posts, as in anchoring guy wires, ‘There is no danger of breakage here, Mechanical Package Magazine — 1932

NVILS cost real dough, and when the home workshop is equipped with the usval five-dollar variety it is mounted on a stump or wood block that makes it unhandy for riveting work. ‘A throw from an old five or seven-bearing crank shaft will make an anvil for riveting and. sheet metal work. With this type of throw the cheeks are generally flat. Here's an idea for an anvil to be mounted on the bench, It is “ possible to make ie with a swivel mount by boring through one of the cheeks and Crank shaft throws make good running a locked riveting anvils, Can be swivel bolt into the mounted. bench.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2015

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

BUILDING Is EASY

A

RUSTIC If You

FIREPLACE

Know

How

by ORVILLE GRISIER THe MECHANICAL PACKAGE MAGAZINE 1931 FIREPLACE, before which you can en ‘To build a successful it is, neces: joy the magic of the crackling flames, yet sary that all interior partsfireplace have navel ‘whieh will not destroy: your better nature by defined tealationships to each other. belching forth huge puffs of smoke, is a joy of which we all dream. Although the proper method of construction is wot dificul

many existence.

parts are shown in 1. ‘The main divisions of the working cavity are five in numher; the room opening,the fire box, the throat, the smoke chamber, and the flue, "The exterior dimensions of the fireplace here shown are seven feet wide by three feet thick. “The hearth should extend two feet in front of the fire ground plan of the foundation seven by five fe t. Build the founation up to height three or four inches bethe finish floor line of your building and olf the top.

firmly in order that the wr accomplished after the fire Center this form on the fou face three feet from the re level it and secure w

which Fig. 1. This shows in perspective the main parts of a fireplace, reader, Packmag throat, the smoke chamber and the flue, Mr. Grisiar, a '9 pleasing rustic interior with ship modal

the fire box, the are: The room opening, has sketched his own drawings toshow and andirons.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2016

THE SURVIVOR Vol.'5

FIRE BOX FORM COMPLETE]

SMOKE CHAMBER MADE OF BRICK

f

as given in Fig. 6. A mold bo: ‘Tho main dimensions of a properly proportioned fireparelace The face is laid laid, and the rough flagstones are built up about the foundation for the fireplace hasFig.been4 shows the method of placing the keystone. first, the stanework has been completed to the form in the rear, and complete the arch as the When top of the smoke chamber, place 12 by 12 shown in tera cotta fue liner on the open inch imber, which is of g Jn no case should you stop short of two made of brick,

ris built Figure 6.’ in straight up, while the is fros12 by 12 inches taper in size. until the top opening

fect aboye the highest point on your building. By this time it will he possible to remove the fire box form, which should be carefully done ‘Then plaster the walls of the fire box,

2017

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

A

from

FORGE

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

a Mechanical Pkg. Magazine 1932

WASHBOWL Drillect in Bottoms of Wash Bow! to Admib Drafe Prony air Chamber Heavy Mera. Aia-Cuamaee

Biowsr,

dire Brick Base

Line to cals Chamber T IS not necessary to have. an expensive forge fur smithwork, Anything co heat yood hard coal fire will serve as nd fire box. dea recently seen in « home

workshop, "The forge bowl is made from re-a granite wash basin’. A vacuum cleaner, draft find outlet to furnish versed on Jnstead of suction, with the blades trimmed to ioderaie the ble. seas coupled to wituyere box by a length of garden hose.

d ‘The other lid shoulhave three or four holes drilled into the center in a space which can be covered by a

silver dollar. This is for’ bringing a gmail fire up, so as to heal an e , localized Penge cane Thusfor with upsetting. these two lids acting as tuyeres (pronounced tweers — blacksmithese for forge air vents) controlled fires can

Capacity The forge w: capable of bringing small work to adeq ate heat very nicely. Later a be had through the medium. steam valve W: fitted to the blast intake, and of varying drafts and the draft now be controlled to a_hair, tuyere sizes. for and for annealing which isn ssary carbonizing. Seve! I refinements have been suggested and jpspaction. the resul wr simple, practicable forge is pice Me Mmtet Yatra tured here. cay Sotto

Rronevore —_ GPA

Take a granite washbowl and punch out the bottom so that a cast iron stove lid of proper size can be rested on the bottom. Drill 1/4” holes in two of these lids. Keep the pattern of the holes spread in one lid — this for open, large fires and general heating.

In place of the vacuum clesner or motor driven blowwill which installed: be can bellows power foot er, leave the hands free for manual work.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2018

‘Vhe forge should be mounted on a fire brick base. For an air chamber a piece of six-inch water or gas pipe can be cut to the proper height—could even be made as a stand, reaching to the floor. “The fire brick must be under this air chamber for catching cinders. Preferably it should be demountable for cleaning, Soal for forge work can’ be had from any supply house. It varies as to locality but most of it is known as Kentucky Forge coal. This

i

hard,

ey yy

small, very clean,

semi-bitumin-

Mechanical Pkg. Magazine 1932 Dark Red Spark |

THE RVIVOR Vol. 5 ous coal which kindles easily, burns steadily without a great deal of smoke. It can be kindled with a small wood fire. It is tem-

pered with water to confine the fire to the desired part of the forge. Such an addition will’ be welcome to the smithing equipment of any home workshop. It is cheap, adequate, ingenious. An asbestos shield should be set up around the forge if it is to be used on a bench near a wall so as to shield the wall from cinders and sparks

TEEL can be definitely analyzed in rather a rough manner by testing its grinding qualities on an emery wheel. Each steel used in shop work—high speed steel for lathe tools, cold. rolled steel for shafts, machine steel for dies—has a special sparking characteristic and grinding color. This is more definite than the method of noting its cutting color in a lathe, or_of noting how it cuts. These four fundamental steels show the greatest contrast in the color between high speed steel and tool steel. High speed steel throws off a red spark that does not break into a star, which is characteristic of all steels which have tungsten in their make-up. Tool steels having a carbon content ranging from 8% to 1.8% throw off a white spark that breaks into a star. ‘The length of the spark denotes the high or low carbon steei. ‘That is to say, the higher the carbon the shorter will be the spark before it breaks into the air. The drawing shows the main differences to be noted in determining steels by grinding colors.

\ | Waite Spark Few Stars The most reliable empirical method of deter the kind of steel you are using is the gri test. The steel throws off characteristic sparks.as above, GREENE'S GA LAMP, Sclentific American — May 1860 ofthis lamp ira physician who dlacover ‘oald make more moneyby ling patent Fights than be could by practising medicng, and ay, sctoning tothe tetimony of Loti, Jackson, aod al the mort leared mater of therseatc, there latte Ip anything postive known in rar tothe treatment of dice, tho dotor ooeidered the nopoiation ot thers fale amore wef nod Honorable an well ae dose, toongly obtained an egeney for alo of patent Fighu of Clayton & Baily’ ps bat inprovee ments ton oocre to hin, ati ho Tnvente the la ote Hlastated. Hes wo located in orton, ding ashing baroem, having, a be ay, okt ove nn ct sh genet siete worth of his ama duving the last ere gear ning a vigorous ert to fatoduce then al monid Weehl, Ay exits domsard ite be di, aml up ‘he lamps designe for boning the common mntore meet ton Be Ducaly rare of aloohol and enophone, called berning Bid. He thisapue t he isthe oidbol, seule «which communicates with she tery Simple, and wll bo relly undortood by inspect

verde ollow, mut hia with the inctined openings, 5, which are extended. ako though the tabs, for for tha evcpo ofthe vapor orgs Which is Jets WT eees, “The inp at enor b ls hot of the spar evaporate the Aad ich con Acted to bythe wick, and thos a constr How of va ‘ori eanecd to ese fromthe jt. “The patent fr thin invention was akon ost by Dr ©, A. Greene, ysl 21, 1857, and frtherinfrmation Felton tot nay be cbnive by addrening De. Greene € Co, St Warkingtonatet, Boston, Mae Popular Mechanic — 1913 ‘Venting a Funnel

When using a tight-fitting funnel in a -small-neck bottle, trouble is usally experienced causing a spill i abe byaslthe’air y remedied hy split. ing a match in half and tying the parts the sides of the stem with thread.— Contributed by Maurice Baudier, New Orleans, La.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 heated dust in a close heap if fire is to be gen crated (rom wooden tools. ‘The Quinaielt Indians of Washington Territory used a drill which tapers at each end. "This makes the downward pressure more firm, | nd does not allow the hands to slip down too rapidly. They used a slow-match of frayed and braided cedar bark, which could be lighted ‘at one end and carried for many days under the Dianket if carefully protected from wind and rain, ‘The slots in their hearth are broader, ‘which allows the dust to collect in larger quan tities before dropping below. aly ‘Some tribes make their fire-making tools more {inflammable and more easily ground away into combustible powder by charring the drill in the fe. Sand is often used to increase the friction. by Otto Bacher. e "This method of making fire was suficient for its time, for it was seldom necessary to make a new Should you find yourself in the wilderness v thou a ; fire except as a religious ceremony. The ar of, fire? fire preservation was at its beight. Mr. James mateh, bow could you ablain Mooney reports that “the Cherokees kept fire boaried in the mounds upon which the council. St, Nicholas — April 1899 hhouses were built, so that if the house was dea eerennmrncsn RS by enemies the fire would remain fora ves that are in use The wood chosen for the hearth is dry, worm: stroyed {ear oF 50. among uncivilized men for riddled pieces of the juniper, white map | getting fire are interesting. It is a cedar. Drills are also chosen of dey inflamma: feurious fet that the African, in bie wood. Many tribes prefer the starchy stem Some tribes use a hearth rounded and taperlighting the fire in which 10 smelt ‘of some flowering plant. ing at each end. The freslot widens toward the iton fom which he makes his ‘The hearth has one oF more—vsually' many the bottom, so that the pellet in dropping may hearth is madeof soft wood, remarkable steel weapons, uses holes or shal ow sockets drilled in its upper have draft, ‘The neither stone nor metal in obtain. face, and narrow slots leading from these while the fre-stick is made of the hardes ‘kets or fine-holes to the tinder beneath obtainable, and is pointed with resin ing the first spark. It is int esting to observe the fire-making ‘The tinder is made of shredded bark,or fungus, ‘which will ‘catch fre tools that have been used. They Indians of California use « hearth= may be divided by the sort of m quickly and bum slowly, lock“The ofHupa wood, and a drill of soft wood hard tion required into four classes, In~ like a slow-match, ‘which bas been charred on the grinding end, {) dians, Australian, Eskimos, Hindus, An Indian kneels with Ic is much easier to start a fire with a fie. and others use the whieling or drill. Sett certy wot. one knee on each end whieh las been for some time in use than with ing motion. Malays, Burmese, and of the hearth, which is of a convenient length, ‘anew one; and therefore the set is usually in others use a sawing movement, and placing an end of the firestick upright in the care of the most skilful fremaker, who Polynesians, Papuans, and others ‘one ofthe sockets, or fire-holes, twits it rapidly the parts carefully with long, narrow strips use 2 plowing motion, while the Detween his open palms by rubbing them back svraps and keeps them beneath his blan. custom of obtaining fire by strk and forth past each other almost to the finger. ofket buckskin, where they will not becorne damp. ing a light seems now as common tips. At the same time he presses the drill among barbarous as civilized men, firmly into the fire-hole, letting his hands move ‘An Indian takes great pride in being a quick In nearly all eibes several methods down the dill until they nearly reach the botton & with top the ¢o back are used, according to circumstances when they are brought fire-maker. Captain J. G. Bourke, U. S.A, sen the Apaches secure fre and the means at hand. A very ‘ack, deft motion, arxl move swifly down again reports having in eight seconds apparatus simple this ‘with fine collection of fre-making implements may S000 you will see that the wood inis abeing fine Under the most favorable conditions the fre-stick be seen in the National Museum in the Smith-eround of the end ofin tthehe narrow slot leading Apaches claim to be able to make fire with a Nearlypowder that collects sonian Institution at Washingion. from the firelhole to the tinder beneath. As series of motions that occupy exactly two is sec:the every method is represented there, fonds, If this ean be done, the Apache “The simplest and probably the oldest andthe amount of powder increases it growsYoudarker most skilful re-maker on record. One can, most widely used device is called the two-stick and darker, until itis almost black, after will the scarcely strike a match in less time, apparatus. It bas been used everywhere and notice the odor of burning wood, and

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

tall times. It consists of a rough plank or on the ground, as 2 large stick, which rests round stick, from one hieatth, and smooth, and a half to two feet long, which we wll call the dri. In the g:adual improvement of this finmple but necessary tool the diffrent tsbes show their mental development — their inof thinking. {genuity oF power

2019

stick has been ewirled from fifteen to forty-five seconds, a little curl of queer-colored smoke will begin to arise. Combustion has begun. ‘The Indian will then tap his wooden hearth, of the slot and the smoking pellet will drop out to the tinder below, where can easily be blown into a blaze Te is necessary to Keep the fine, friction

Many tribes can produce fire in Jess than wve seconds; and neatly al tribes resort to many devices, using flint and steel at one time, the fredrill at another, oF, if unable t0 bain either of these, they ean produce a spark by rubbing one dy branch up and cowr

2020

is the fre-making tibes beneath another. In some work, the dignity” ‘considered women’s and left wholly to the squaws; fof a war ior, Dut Me. H. H. Johnson, the well-knovn ex plorer, reports that in some parts of equa. torial Affien, where the usual_methods of fire making are much the same as in th an"

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

fot use the products of his forge to strike a fice interesting and for its lighting, is one of curious anomalies of sav ie ed a curious feature t0 arth are in most ways very similar to those already described, his yepalms,he byshins the the drill, instead of between Perot a cord which

conditions (oF $0 they say), revealed towomen.” When asked. the reason of this, the replied: If women kknew how to make fire they would In southern Africa ° expert with the fire 6 dil that the whole : strength of two men is often ex hhausted in prodUC- ascace oun ing fre. One man

S

qi wane

‘whies the sick until both hands have descended Almost to the lover end, tien the other man Dgins atthe top and continues the movement while his companion waits 10 relieve him in the same way. The second man also keeps the dust close to the point of the whirling stick, tnd genily blows it into a flame at the proper time, The Afican's clumsiness in firesmakingy and the fact, before referred to, that he docs

9

O°”

makes one turn around the drill at about the mid= ie of the stick, ‘This cord is usually made of the rawhide of a seal or other animal, and it is tied at ench end to a handle cut from 2 hollow bone, or fashioned out 0

a bear's tooth or a it of wood. In order t keep the stick in place in the shallow firehole it must be held at the top; therefore there is a fourth piece of appar fourth piece is usually < one or ivory, in. which admit the up er end of the drill, as will be explained, When one man is to make the fire this top-

Deer-skin tinder-bag-

THE SURVIVOR Vol 5

piece is held between the teh. A civilized ‘man can scarcely endure the jar on the jaws and head produced by whirling stick thus steadied by a block held between the teeth Among the Eskimos it is seldom necessary for A man to make fre alone, which all have an interest, and two men Us make it together, each pressing the p-piece with one hand and exch holding one en oF the whirling cord with the other, ‘The top-piece is sometimes merely a. block of wood, ivor , oF bone, but is more often elaborately carved to resemble as ‘whale, oF walrus. ‘The upp form a good grip for the teeth, specimens in our National Museum are chewed jn a way that shows the power of the Eskimo jaw. When the pieceis intended for an assis‘ant to hold in his hand, it is larger and has no teeth-gtip. In the under part of the top-piece there is 2 cup-shaped hollow set with some stone having antiffiction qualities. Taeve Stones seem to be chosen for their beauty They are mottled, striped, oF besutifuly ringe Against this inlaid stone in the hollow the top of the fi il rests Xl revolves easily An improvement on. th four-part fre-drill is the attaching of the whieling cord to a “Tins enables one-man to whirl the stick with great rapidity. and if he holds op-piece between his ‘wothor against his breast (when ie 8 made broad andofeonvenient shape), he can start a fire of drill a hole easily alone. ‘The bow is evidently a improvement onthe handled cord, and is an

2021 ingenious ides. These bows ceannot easily be eaeved, as ace the top-pieces; but, true to his passion for elaborate decoration, the Eskimo makes the bow of the gracefully curved ivory casks of the walrus, and, after working them down, covers the surface with the most lively and graphie engravings of the reindeer, whales, seals, and bears he has killed, or with a. pictureshistory of his hunting and fshing expeditions. The hearth is especially adapted to the snowy home of the Eskimo, Should the heated pellets of powder fall theough the slot t the iee-covered ground they would never ignite 1¢ Eskimo, therefore, cuts steps in his hearth so that the pellet will fall the lower step. Some heasths have a central hole to which the slots fiom the other fire-holes lead, At times the central-hole hearth and the slot-and= step hearth are both used in the same ibe The Eskimos also have ‘fre-bags” made of sealskin, and often embroidered with excellent needlework, ia whieh to carry the drill and the tinder so that they may be kept very. dry. The down of the arctic willow is used as tinder. The use of these sets for fre-making is prob: ‘They were undoubtedly used primacily for boring holes in wood and bone. When sed for boring, the drill is upped with line of bone, ‘The mouthpiece usually has a hole in one end through which a cord can be Wied co secure it 0 the other pieces, so that in moving it may not be lost in the snow. Firesmaking by sawing was per haps suggested to the Malays by nature. It is said that jungle fires are often started by the rubbing of the bamboo stocks together in high wind storms, “The ereaking of the bamboo is indescribable; the noise of the rasping and grinding ff the horny stems is almost unendurable” during these storms, say travele However the method y have been suggested to them, simple one, A piece

Japanese stort ousted In waed fot, Vindae-ter.

URVIVOR Vol. 5 fof bamboo having a sharp edge is rubbed across a rounded piece in which a notch has been cut, The Malay saws across until the hhollow convex piece i pierced. ‘The heated particles fal below and ignite. Some Malays Shave improved on this by striking a piece of china, tinder being hel with it, against the outside of a piece of bamboo, the silicious coating of the later yielding a spark, like lint”; but the sawing knife is more commonly used. | Sand is, Sometimes added to increase the friction. In some places, when the particles fall they are gathered ina dry leaf and swung around the Thea until the leat blazes “The plowing method seems to have sprung, wholly from the Pacific Islanders. It is closely connected with the saving method. A soft corky bit of wood is picked up near by, and a small, pointed stick of hard wood is found. Kneeling on the hearth or soft stick, the man holds the pencillike plow between his clasped hands, somewhat as one takes a peu, and forces it forward at an langle of about forty degrees, slowly at first and then with increasing rapidity ‘until the wood 3 ground off and forms inna small heap at the end of the geoove he hhas so made, ‘The groove is about six inches long, Mr, Dar win found it difficult to make fire inthis way, but at last sue ceeded. The Samoan ean get fire in forty seconds, and some can make the wood burst into flame by this method. “Phe fourth method of obtaining fre— that of “striking” a light —is one familiar, in a degree, to al , Before steel was obtainable, fint and pytites were used, Eskimos of the Mackenzie River district use a fie-set composed ofa tindespocket, which contains tinder made of down from the willow catkins mixed with charcoal, for soaked in gunpowder and water, a rougi: Dar of dint, and a balé-sphere of pyrites, evi ently a round stone broken in two for greater “The tinder-bag is made of reindeer skin. A. sitle bag hanging from the larger one contains tinder to use in case that in the larger one ecomes accidentally useless; ut the litle bag also acts as a toggle. 11 is passed under the belt when the tinder-bag is carried by the squaw, mach as our women wear their chatelaine-bags "The cover of the bag is an oblong pad staffed with deer hair, This pad is held on the fore finger under the pyrites to protect the hand when a spark is being struck off into the tinder in the bag. With the Iron Age came the use of the flint land steel, and the most ancient specimens of these fire-making tools are so nearly like those found in many an old gartet to-day that de scription seems unnecessary. Various devices

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

vere invented to improve the common sttike ight, One of these was the wheel tind ox. The wheel was spun by sharply palling

2022

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

tinder-bores have two compartments. ‘The Smaller one ifr the tinder and has damper. The larger one i for the int snd see, They Teount the stein wood, Our North American Indians were slow co acknowledge ciiized art and methods ss fupedor 1 their own; but fresnating wil fine and steel appeal to them a once, and was pompiy adopted. Buckskin pouches were mmade in which to cary the dim and sel fd hung from the ct beside the cma. belts Indians concerning andThey ishaveorigin.many "ThecuriousAlsskan wil Aeell you tht “Yet” the Great Reven, who crested Steet , flint 6: deer-akia Tran and gave him all besings, after obtain light and sh wate stole a baring band The Ainosof Japan nave a particularly con- ing fre itnd (volcano) in the sea, and he shoe-shaped steel is ffom stated back holding it in hs beak fastened with a piece of sinew to the cork of I But the joureyto earth so Tong that the brand a wooden bottle containing the soit chare thmed shorer andwasshorter. and more Besides the small piece of tint, swify Yell pied. his magic Svifly used asis tinder, but the there also a curious fire-stick which burns rand bucved his bl and then wings; dropped ce a slow-mateh for @ long time, and pouch found and seatered in all directions, to "Andthe fof twined and woven rush in which to keep tom Yet se the divine fe dropped. "The Aino takes out the cork articles, these entered into every rock and every Y dry with the steel attached, and stirs up the tinder beak,

around had been which cord a top. itswheel,pro‘The spins onewound ae much axle, jesting fliot was pressed against the whirling : e of sparks fell into the3 tinder and a shower Within the bos. The pocket strike-slight is sill used by the peasants of France fr lighting theie pipes. on the surface of the ea the sharp point. He then holds up the bitthey of saywoodone lying The Chinese stke-alighs showsteela verywith in with can always eall fire out of the a strikes and box, the over hand his in Hine the combining of way genious by striking them with steel, oF out of down into it. He transfers the coal 10 rocks ouch in which to carry the fimt and tinder spark ‘wood by rubbing it with other wood, with fiesstick, or Se, for mater or pipe, his elaborately often are pouches the Tibet In ‘This is the Alaskan explanation of the mys: ofthe steel.” trimmed with incrusted silver se vt wrth costly the ‘ThepointJapanese ‘known to us as fire-making. Their steel and int use still jewels HOW MAPLE SUGAR IS MADE, POPULAR MECHANICS Lillian C, Chase of Bast Fletcher, Vt, gives the following, April 19, 1902. maple sugar HOW THE EARTH'S HEAT MAY BE USED FOR POWER. ‘The Thermo-Electric couple, when perfected. may solve the problem of utilizing heat from the center of the earth as a source of power, mentioned in the last issue In Cassier’s Magazine it is stated that if the couple can be made to generate power to run large enterprises, a hole similar to an oil well could be drilled into the surface of the earth a mile or more and the instrument, with the attached wires, lowered until the heat was sufficient to give the desired amount of energy. ‘The principle of the thermo-electric couple is simple. When a change of temperature occurs at the junction of two slips of dissimilar metals an electric current is excited in them, Many inventors have endeavored to turn that phenomenon 10) account, Clamond built up a hollow cylinder out of alternate layers of tin and an alloy containing antimony and heated the interior with a gas flame formed around a perforated earthen. ware tube, Harry B, Cox of Hartford has constructed a somewhat similar battery, which may be run with a gas jet and left alone for a month at a time. The Postal Telegraph tested it and fonud that it would work a telegraph wire. These and other thermo-electric batteries, however, have thus far failed to generate currents cheaply, but it is hoped that experiments still in progress will lead to the discovery of the valuable secret The possibilities it holds out, such as giving us heat, power and light from the earth's center, are so great as to cause many of the present Jay to look upon it as incredible.

interesting description of the process of making in her stat It is an industry that will surely become extinct unless something can be done to preserve our maple trees or make it worth while to raise and nurse sugar orchards with the same care given fruit orchards. ‘A good “run” of sap means toil night and day while the sap lasts, though we seldom “boil” the whole night, as we were obliged to do before we had modern conveniences, We lap the trees, making a hall-inch hole, and the sap drops into the buckets, It is emptied into large tubs fastened to sles and drawn toa covored building, in which are evaporators. ‘The sap flows constantly into one end of a corrugated pan and is drawn out at the other end as sirup, ready for the market or to be made into sugar. This sirup is then placed in a large pan over another iron arch, like that for evaporator. and boiled till thick enough to grain. Tt is dipped into small pans while boiling hot and stirred with wooden paddles till well grained, then poured into the molds or tubs. Most of it is made into two-ounce cakes, Each cake has, to be lifted from the mold to cool on all sides. Then the ‘edges are trimmed with a knife and they are packed in diferent-sized boxes ready for shippin with the season, the very The quality of maple sugar varies first and last being the poorest, The color depends princi sirup pally on the eare of the makers in atralning the sap and always {s which sediment indlike “nitre the to take out present, The best maple sugar is a light brown color about the shade of sandpaper.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2023

Eleciricity Direct From Coal By Cr, William W. Jacques Harper's New Monthly Magazine — December 1895

This process worked, 35 shown by the figures. It was energy efficient and produced far more than it used. The process was abandoned due to the growing boom in petroleum production, As far as | know, it has been lost since then. Experimenters would do well to build a small pilot plant to prove it out Even if successful, it would not help the big picture, as new developments collapse. But you mightat the rt will take too long to implement in time to ave least set up a system to light your community. Sitting before an open fire T have of A LUMP of cannel is burning on the air The ton dreamed of converting the stored? e c a l p JA. grate, What takes rises and up energy of the eoal into some form of is deawn in beneath the grace through the bars, Its oxygen combines energy even move useful to man than at, We know that, theoretically at Teast, all of nature's forces are intereonvertible; why should not the potential energy of coal be converted directly into electticity instead of into heat? Could all of the energy be extracted from a sin gle pound of coal and made to do me: chanical work, this work would more than equal a day's labor of a very strong. man, In the great coal-felds that are distributed over the surface of he earth nature has stored up « supply of energy’ safely estimated to equal the and Jabor (of the entire population of the world con: tinued for a thousand years. ‘The most convenient and useful, beeause the most tractable, form of energy js electricity, In the facility with which we may at wil] and without waste convert it into such other form of energy as happens to be desired lies the superiority of electricity over all the rest of nature's forces. Having electricity, we may easily produce heat or Tight, or mechanieal mo: lion, o» chemical force; but electricity itself has hitherto been produced in quan: tity only by the use of complicated mech ‘anism and with great waste, Wleetrieity is to-day generated by adynamo that is turned by an engine whieh stick of is operated by steam, and the steam is made from water by means of heat de: tived from the combustion of coal. But Eu af bond une nmteedand this is a long and eixeuitous process, with a large leakage at every step. upMuchchim-of the energy of combustion goes the heat swith the coal to produce carbonic -acid hey as heat or smoke;water muehto of ste make gas, whieh, tozether with the inert ni: is lost in boiling the force of the stea trogen of the air and the sinoke or um much of the itexpansive chimney is wasted as escapes from the is engin constmed catvon, rises in the played by imutch of the power of the engine wasted ‘and escapes, This is the réle friction; and there is some loss in the the materials, Tow about the forces? tasdynamo Recent tests, made by a ‘The chemical union of the oxygen with committeeitself. Electric Light the coal sets free the eoal’s stored-up ener Association, of of theeightyNational modern electric light gy, and this energy, being indestructible, average must manifest itself in some way, and so ‘and power plants, show that theutilizes as wastes 97.4 per cent. and shows itself as heat. This is the whole plant energy the of cent. per 2.6 only electricity story of combustion.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 theoretically obtainable from the eval, The problem then was to convert the energy of coal more directly into electricity: to do away with the dynamo and the steam-engine: possibly even to do away with heat itselt, A multitude of experiments were made. In the earlier days my attempt was merely to do away with the dynamo and with steam, and convert heat into electricity. A. fire of coke. burningon an insulated grate. save some slight electrical manifestations, but they were not encouraging Experiments with various novel forms of thermopile were tried. but a consideration of the theory of the subject soon made it evident that it was not even theoretically possible to convert more than a very small percentage of the energy of the coal into electricity in this way. The generation of electric currents by alternately heating and cooling the magnetic cores of wire coils gave no promise of efficient results. I tried nature's plan of producing lightning—the evaporation of water and continual dissipation of vapor globules—and though succeeded in producing miniature thunderstorms, the quantity of electricity obtainable was not sufficient. for any commercial use. Indeed, my researches have led me to doubt whether the total energy of a good brisk thunderstorm, dramatie as is its display. is equal to the energy radiated from a bedroom fire. For minute fraction of a second the force of a stroke of lightning is terrific. but its duration is so brief that, even if it couldbe harnessed, it would be capable of doing very little useful work, Many other plans, all of them intensely interesting from a purely scientific point of view, were tried: Dut from most of them no current was obtained that was economically capable of being put to any industrial use Nature is a coy mistress, yet she Tikes to be wooed, and to the diligent suitor gives occasional tokens of encourage: ment: and it happened that one day surprised her in her secret, and diseovered the way by which we may abandon even combustion and heat itself, and convert the stored-up energy of coal directly into ime to me almost as a revelation iat if the oxygen of the air could be made {0 combine with the coal under sich cireumstanees that the produetion fof heat could be prevented, and at the same time a conducting path could be provided in whic a enrrent of electricity might develop, the chemical affinity of the coal for the oxygen would necessarily bbe convertod into electricity and not into heat; for any given form of energy will be converted into such other form as the surrounding conditions make most easy. Given the proper conditions, the potential energy of coal would rather convert itself into electricity than into heat. This led to experiments in which coal

THE SURVIVOR Vol was submerged in a liquid so that the oxygen of the ait could not come in di rect contact with the coal and produce combustion. Further, such a liquid was chosen that when air was forced through it to the coal, the oxygen of the air would tainporarily ‘enter into chemies with the liquid and then be crowded out by a further supply of oxygen and forced to combine with the coal, We may pieture each successive atom of oxygen, on its way from the source of air supply: through the liquid to the coal, as temporavily entering into chemical union with, each of a row of atoms of the liquid, just seach suecessive man as he circles around jn the “ grand right and left”of dancing: temporarily elasps hands with each of the ladies of the set. When one substance passes tlrrough another in this w nishes a path in whieh an electri may flow, so that by causing the oxygen to combine with the carbon through the intercening liquid opportunity is furnish fd for an electric current to develop, and since combustion cannot take place, the chemical ailiuity of the coal for the ox; gen is converted directly into electricity, and not into heat, Liquids whieh thus allow atoms of oxygen and a current of electricity to pass through them may be called ~ eleetroly tie carriers T have thus discovered what I believe to be a new fact or principle not hitherto known to natural seienee—a_ principle srhich L hope may be as valuable to pure jence as my invention promises to. be valuable to Hie useful arts, Stated scientifleally, my diseovery is that if the oxy gen of the air be eaused to combine with carbon, not direetly as in combustion, but through an intervening electrolytic earrier, the stored-up energy of the carbon may be converted directly into elec! energy, and not into heat, Ceudely spent sists in generating electricity by causing the oxygen of air to combine with coal beneath the level of a suitable liquid. ‘The invention is a process; it is not machine, The process may. be carried ‘on with very simple apparatus. An early of a platinum form of apparatus consisted crucible of the size and shape of an at Ginner coffee-eup, partially filled with common potash, that was kept liquid by suspending the crucible over a gas flame. Within the molten potash was suspende by means of a platinum wire, @ lunp of ondinary coke of the size of a peanut, air Into the molten potash a stream of tube was blown by means of a platinum Tike a straw, ‘The wire by which the Don was suspended formed the negative pole, and a second wire attached to the crucible the positive pole, of the genera to a smallair tor. Attaching these wires when that found I motor, electeie the potash the twas blown inio more rapidly asmotorair Sarted, and moved the current of air was twas blown in; when

THE

URVIVOR Vol. 5-

tonot be work no reason why iron as wellin a8theory platinum and should vessels ‘rere made from satnples of iron of all Kinds Finally the reason was foxind. Most

LCaILWOS ELECTIUCIES ERATOR,

interrupted, the motor stopped. — From this minute apparatus a eurrent of several amperes was obtained. The electro-motive force was a little over one volt ‘That the eleetrie corvent was due to chemical combination of the oxygen of (earbon), there could the air with the coke be no doubt, Quantitative tests showed that oxygen was taken from the airs that the earbon was eonsimed: that earbonie acid was formed. Moreover, the electro: motive fore obtained agreed almost ex: actly with that which is theoretically obtainable from the combination of oxygen with carbon to form carbonic acid (1.04 volts). That Uke phenomenon was nob due to thermo-eleetrie action was proved ct that when the whole appt ‘s0 enclosed that all parts Kept of uniform temperature the maxi mum electro- motive force and current peri were obtained. Again, not only have with far larger apparatus confirmed these results, but lave shown that under proper eonditions the electrical eral energy thus obtained is substantially of weight e h t to tie potential enersy of carbon consumed within the pot. ‘The invention had now been made. El lectrivity had been obtained directly from eatbon. Would it work on a larger scale? Could the numerous practical dit ficulties be overcome? Platinum is more expensive even than gold, and hence some ftler metal must be used. Tron was tried, dnt the eurrent obtained when the inven: tion was practised in an iron vessel as very small Vesselsof copper, lend, zine, tin, alumi |. num, nickel, magnesium, were dest in= but results, good gave silver and Gold © ferior to platinum, Again and There seemed experiments were repeated

into carbon, 30 thet the action upon the offset the action upon the proper carbon itself, ‘Thie led toa method of clemsing tie surface of he iron: and whey proper at platinum, ad of course fa elven. Tie pots were now made Tanger and larger until toa they are made ss large fi hundreds of nperes Numesous other difficulties have hadto fom the mines. is nol a good conductor ofeleaitcity, and though an experimental coke shovelled on to a submerged grate iC lias bevn found best to erush the coal und moti it into large sticks of conven: ientsie to handle, and bake thean todrive OM te ineluded gases and give them good The sapidity with which the carbon is consuaned,and eonsequenty the str ofthe vielded bya cell, really electric ivereased bycunvent thovowghly linpre hating all parts of the Tiguid with a ex fess of oxrgen; and this is best done by Cermiuating ihe alessupp)y pipe in a rose nousle tonething like that of a Watering yot.s0 that the air is injected into We Tiquid in « large number of fine sprars ‘here aye many liquids that. may be Unnatelyal elevated the inost suitable become liquid nly teniperatanes: so a cer {ais amount of coal other fuel lastoto bw burued on a grate oFbeneath Ure pots rainlin Gils tomperature, As, boseeer, there #2 no cousderable consumption of the incoming air of iy Tost by radiations te may expect that in large apparatus, wherea numberof large pois are enclosed In reasonably heabtight oven, he cone Sumptiowcomparatively of coal on very the grate. come, small. willBrenbea smallno Uworhorse-power apparatus, in‘ithwhicl very great sano taken to retait the heat,precautions measurements slowed tat only one-third of @ pound of coal per electrical horse-power hour was Dutned on the grate, Av steam: engine anid power would have dynamo consumedof equivalont at Teast forty times, as much Moiten potash fas many advantages as an olectrolytie earvier, but it has the disadvantage of absorbing more ot less of

the earbonic aeid given off by the carbon or contained in the air; so that if potash be used, although @ part of the earbonie acid is Swept away by the nit ogen, and

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 the dynamo is relogated to the attie with the spinning-wheel, or the wheels of the steam-enginecease to revolve It is interesting to speculate as to what may be the outcome of this discovery when, in the fulness of time, al of these details shall have been worked ont. ‘The first great field for this invention is power. The invention of the steam engine soon doubled the productive eapacity of the labor of the world. In this country alone it is to-day doing work equal to the hand labor of 100,000,000 ‘men, or a population of 350,000,000 peo ple.’ Now comes a power many times as efficient as steam, and much more conve nient and useful,

‘These appeas to by no insurmountable wo the construetio obstacle n ofheatcarbon and shail t h generators a tlestrie. tiem propel and trains, railmay out Tigit miles hundred. cone of velocity a wth stearm unlike electeeity, "Sines intuayhour,be applied directly ai a rolary mo: wheelsthe through: every. notpairomlyof could to train’ tion tein but the Out velocity, great with propelled Safely if could be sarted and sopped quickly, ‘and bebe nounder perfect control There would would cinders or smoke Our trasatien tieliners -—no longer “sumaship a™— vould not then nda Limit of sped set b y fuelscarrsi ng cape ty. Theup greater jar of the space now ven to coal, snd all that ‘ote to boilers aud engines,i nowwouldde. beDownavailable for passengers and freight, near thetheshaft, Keel gripping are the generators, and turn: along and Ingtors, Italworking. tremesntous spoednnd. arenoissesle, te mo. direct a prea sipbreakslike allthe ‘Campania ftforcing pce ‘whieh record aid Inn her passengers ab Queonstown per Sanay leaving of days Uhre within laps Hook,

[wthof tewhicheal experiments aceseme no beinga made ‘rh aebri sro i on fst. causean te or eh ‘ayo Sea shawn sein ‘ren’ pestected, his generator wil isa forty oct sIhore-powers : only relatively small carmore may be earried to the surface and steam-engines, bon electric generators have as yet been liberated by adding to the potash suitabie built; it should be remembered that ceartiers of earbonie acid, sooner or later with thisand generator, with the steamthe potash becomes contaminated and has engine, increased sizoas means increased to be cleansed. By choosing electrolytic ellicieney per pound of coal, particularly eaxbonie for affinity cartiers that have no the coal consumed on the grate. Folacid the need of frequent cleansing is inlowing, are some results of a avoided, since, fortunately, Une consump: test (madehowever, by experts not connected with commore much so is carbon the of tion the development of the invention) upon combustion ordinary in is plete than it a small and comparatively crude two: coal of that with reasonably pure grades horse-power carbon electric ouly a small amount of easily removable that has been in occasional use generator for some ash is formed. six months: be may that The quantity of current Aerage eletsical horsepower developed. 2.16 HP. taken from a pot is about three-quarters ‘Average electrical horsepower red Uy ai pot, ont of an ampere per square inch of carbon ‘Average net electical hoese-pomer develuped.. Surface; so that a pot containingsix sticks CCarhon consumed in pots per cleerieal horse-power bout seoveeee +1 ae 03289 Tb of carbon, each Give inches in diame! Coal consumed on grite per electrical horse power b SINE ‘and eighteen inches long—a size conven: ‘Total fuel consume per electrical horse-power hou 0.558 « ently manufactured, bandied, and used— Blectrisity obtained from 1 Th of coal (of sich O4 To, was eonstimed yields about seven hundred and fifty sm: { i n the pots and 0.6 lh, was buened om the grate). 1836 wate hoor, electrical one peres, or # little more than 5 ° BOG of that Cesretialy outnable, horse-power. ‘The electro-motive force of ‘Thus the elficieney of this particular Our White Squadron, with its vital each pot, whether large or small, is little generator twelve times greater Lhan machinery safely placed well. below the more than one volt... When greater volt: that of thewas average light and waterline ; with its bunkers easily conage is desived, the requisite number of power plant in use in electric country, and taining sticksof carbon sufficient to make pots are connected in series and heated in forty times greater than thisplants of corre- it independent of frequent coaling. sta fone common oven. The air is pumped sponding size. with its Wurrets revolved, its guns jin by means of an electrically driven air ‘There are, however, many details still tions; (rained, its ammunition raised, and all its pump, operated by a small portion of the to be worked out, and many improve complicated mechanism moved by elec: ments yet to be made, before the carbon trical hands; with absence of tie telltale current generated, It would be premature to attempt to electri¢ generator can be put into general clondsof smoke, and with its superior pow give any final data as to the efficieney of commercial use on a scale comparable er and speed--would be a formidable ad. the new process when praetised on a large with thatof modern steam-engines. Con versary to the other navies of the world. seale, Improvements are constantly be: trary to some statoments that I have read, Nor is the prospective change less starting made. As compared with modern T believe it will be some time yet before

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THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

apant

sie

PATA” AS SRE 18 ASD AS SHE WOULD DE IF EQUIPrED wtrHt CARBO

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Jing in matters of household economy. Cheap current means not only cheap elec: tie lighting, but heating and cooking by electricity. Apart from the question of expense, the eleetrie warming of dwellings is ideal; for it means even tempera: ‘ture, automatically maintained in each room at any desired degree, perfect ventilation, and doing away with the wasteful use’ of coal, with the Jabor and the Girt and the dust which accompany it ‘We are just beginning to appreciate the value of the electric current in metalJurgy as a means of redueing metals from their ores. Cheap electricity means de cheap production of copper; it means bringing aluminum into general use in the arts; it means great inerease in the production of gold and silver; it means changes in the great iron industry and the production of ste ‘The possibilities of the future applieation of electricity to other branches of chemistry we ea now but dimly see, but it is certain that the use of this form of energy, whose chemical power is such that it ean dissneiate comparatively valueless forms of matter into their constituent elements and yecombine these elements into new compounds of great value, has far-reaching possibilities upou the future civilization of swan, ‘Then there is the advantage of com: paratively pure air in omr larger cities Uhat would result from the absence of the smoke and soot of the millions of tons of coal now burned, The difference between cily air and the pure air of the county is Jnrgely, if not chiefly, due to the contamination by carbonio-aeid_ gas and smoke. Think of a smokeless London!

Popular

Science

Nov.

1935

GIFT JEWEL BOX OF WOOD LOOKS LIKE BEAUTIFULLY BOUND BOOK ESIGNED 10 resemble a book, the is merely a drawer of hardjewel bos illustrated is an unusually wood mide in the form of a attractive project for a Christmas” gilt hax to slide into the cover. TL requires: very little Stock and thete is ‘To the front of the drawer is glued a piece of ebony or rothing dificult about the construction ‘The bos or cover is made of tliree sie other duke wood shaped piecesof mapleor white pine with mitered joints and a top and bottom fof 3/32-in, walnut, The long sidepiece is grooved about 36 in. devp as in dicated, ‘This. can be done by band with or the evove ouge, may he coved out wilh 4 a cirewlar saw, The top, and bottom pieces may be inlaid with a small

SE

lozenge of holly | a8 wood other Tight show, oF july, with a more daborate pre ferred. ‘The other part

like the slightly rounded back of @ book, Apply a light wood filler to the walnu their give the entire hox a rubbed vanish Tinish=—FRawie ScHseIDEN

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2027

H

SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Magazine in Oct. 1877. This has the Energy From the Lens most science concerning burning glasses I've yet come across. Parabolic, or dish type, solar glass lenses of great optical POPULAR EXPOSITION OF reflectors are ail the rage today. The precision make you feel frustrated, SOME SCIENTIFIC drawback is that they are bulky and just consider plastic lenses filled EXPERIMENTS. immobile. with wateror clear oils. Such plastic, The lens, however, is much more lenses are easy to make and can be ‘THLE HEATING AND CHEMICAL EFFECTS compact and therefore easily moved formed in a kitchen oven. NQUBSTIONABLY the most important mado bg man wan that about. Aiso, since it directs its heat When you work out the eping up a Gre. Te per= downward instead of upward, as in specifications of your lens you can Jitted the geograpieal disteiintion of ovr the case of the solar reflector, its make a lens mold from clay mixed igpecies over a wider space; it rendered in. development. possible. applications are more numerous. with water. Form it on a board and fellecttal There are who wold bave than those of the parabolic reflector. dry it in the kitchen oven. Make it a nig Deliove thatphilosophers we have bee evolved ont some low auimal form; there are, also, Two lenses, mounted one above size a little larger to allow for fftheologians who tell us that the world was the other (see page 94, figure 8) shrinkage. If it cracks, so what?You ade out of nothing, and we ovt of the dust ‘They relate the incident with much could be used to run steam vehicles can just push it together and go on oft, cireumstantiality. We miycht suppove that with the job. from runabouts to tractors. fone of their ancestors liad been an eye-witInt that supposition would itself reGet some thick sheet plastic, hess; Ofcourse, the runabout and other ‘guite an explanation, machinery could only be used on maybe one quarter inch, and lay one these nbiosophers and hese sheet on the mold in the oven. You wit of 0 common bite sunny days. The lens powered ‘he world i t . softens heat steam tractor or other farm can adjust it as the swith their elamors, we, Who machinery would be a boon to When you have a square of sheet merely want to get at the in the its in shape lens eona to with them invite plastic poaee, pullic of interests agriculture as most of the work is siddor the thinge about whieb ther are quar done in the sunny month. Even so, middle, make another. reling from a difernt poine of vie What would be the result if the art of auxiliary power sources could be Then use plastic giue or epoxy to kindling used to run them on cloudy days. stick the two pieces together on the dente lose?and keeping up a fire were sud~ flat If we can have an answer to this quese A runabout should, of necessity, flat surfaces. Don't trim the we may perecive wif sone distinet have an alternative power source surfaces off. Leave well enough tion, ness what. that took place in consebut the savings in fuel would soon alone. Drill a hole down through the quence of theit wasoriginal discovery of that att all fill and lens the into edge outside The geographical distribution of plants pay for any modifications. and animals depends altogether on the die the way with water or some clear oil tribution of heat. A certain Jow degree of You have only to imagine the Use a wooden. plug or one with a ‘emperatnre limits he life of evers species, water reservoir jutting from beneath point so there will beno air bubble to sual therefore fixes bowsidaries te the Fegion the steam engine like a long foot so contend with in the lens. ins whiel i enn exist. The organization of than is s0 delicate that throughout a lange the lens could constantly focus onit portion of what we eall the temperate zone sheet square the mount just Now Also, the lens, or lenses, would not ‘cou not withstand the rigor of winter have to be so powerful since the idea of plastic with the lens in its middle His iuivitnal yowers of locomotion ave se he could not become to sus is not to melt the object focussed on in a wooden or metal frame and Perestricted (hat i a e s aninnl of passage, He its its for good as you'll have something but to heat the water inside. either the fight of the bird wor che et of the infiale, He eould not, 1hke In the case of a runabout or other purpose as any lens grinder could Gurance them, purse thenoct wane jones wf spn machinery, a manual focusing bar make from glass. shies Une sin crossed the live, or the stat could enable the operator to keep a I've never done the above but the Sond journex oC austinn wiry the sun and36. crossed it, The etrwetmne of his teeth general focus with little loss of time principles are obvious. When | get his organs is auch that lie 1m or attention from the operation of around to actually doing it I'l fearsydigestive iis food with him, -A pigeon ent il withrice in Carolina, abd breakfast the machine. Most focusing improve on it. But don’t wait for me. fis evop iu Cavada, ‘The buftalo nest the adjustment would apply to turns for Fortune is right around the corner. fan fiint morning ample supplies as Ine goes on the mobile machinery and every fifteen Get at it. Tusuriant prairies of the West, minutes or so with stationary A toss of the art in question means, shen, For more information, read practically an abandonment of a lange yor: machinery. The foot could be broad “Burning Glass", on page aoa, Zion of America, and Asia, enough so that it would take several “Lenses”, on page (337 and “Solar tors cold of such Siro, rexions would rendor them minutes tor the point of heat to Powerof the Past”, on page 934. Of as riuinhabitable as aro th iey piunactes 0. glittering fetion of modern nautical traverse the area. course, read the article below, that faney, tho Paleoseystic Sea, ‘Then the Imuman reo eould not have Lest the idea of building heavy published in Harpers New Montniy

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 spread from its original tropical hom tad it not possessed the control of tire, which gave it tho power of ereating artificiat clinates, and raising the mean tomporature of winter, Whoover is disposed to carry ont these amasing yet not altogether wortbless spe lations Will doubtless perceive that tho ‘change of eavironment £0 whiek man was ‘exposed in this bis dispersion over tho faco of the earth left an impression on his aspect, find even on his anatomical structure. To this such a plilosophizing inquirer ney add an investigation of what must have taken placa in eonsequence of tho use of cooked fool. The orabg, of chimpanzee, oF gorilla, stands by while tuan Tights and ses a dre, Dut never does it oceur to him to imitate what is thus taking place beforo his eres ‘That ie gravd point of distinetion betwe n Dim aad va. It he could descend from his native trees and roast his nuts, instead of eating them ras, he would hava “aizen the first step in that jouraey which might eventnally bring him to the table of Luewilus, tnd tranaform tho wives an hiis deseondauts into the buttery iadies of Paris, ‘Oui philosophizing inquirer most, how fever, bear im mind that elimates were not alwaya the same as they was a day when the roindeor was grazing in the Pyrenean valleys, along tho ellgo of the great ice sheot that covered all Middle Europe. Thero wras a day, before that, when the eamelopard was wandoring all over the hippopotamus bathing bimregion,in and Self its waters,” Again and aga hare been grand vicissitudes of hot periods of prodigious ation ake thre, tomating with similar cold one A study fof tho edfocts of theso will furnish abundant Decupation for the knowledge and ingenuie y of the philosopher who addresses: ins self to tho cousideration of the problem, nord to his antagonist, the theologian, Soporte for examining sd opseting T suppose that tho first artiGeinl ligiting of a fire consisted in the judicious rubbing together of two sticks, Some tribes of say ages still continie to follow that plan, Were we disposed to peasantry,we might picture to ourselves the astounded counte je of that old antbropoid whose ere first stared on the amazing event, whose fingers first discovered that fre will burn, inquiry No wonder that apinit of further unthat and bosom, his ii ‘vas lighted up which eareer that on ‘wittingly he entered {wo cal civilization. No wonder he thought that the shining and pain-inflieting beng, that he had thus evoked was something worthy of worship. ut to Tab two aticke together is of the ccarthearthy, After very maps ages it from found that fre mightbe brought thedown eonsun of warmth genial the heaven, concave a by heat searching into ccontrated polished metal or mirror. The preservation bea public o natioual Gre became a stato institution both, in Europe and America. howd In both thero were Vestal virgins, muremitwait to penalties under the dicest Hing on the sacred altar, If its firo were ‘stinghished, the extinetion of the state it-

2028 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 an inel farther in than the rest, The self was forboded, In Italy, with great about focus of all waa about twenty-two ceremony, the altar was rekindled by the ‘common fancicut plau of rubbing togethor two sticks and a half inebes distant, and about an neh frownn sacred tree. It Cuzco the Peruvians fn diameter. Te cond vitrify brick or tile in a singlo aecond, and melted a gold coin in pperinitted the fire to die ont on midsnmmer‘8 for moments.” lag, and then, with imposing aolemities, rekindled it hy collecting the eun’s rays Macquer, the French ehemist, found that ‘with a eoweave mirror. lass quickeilvered like au ordinary looking‘A concave snirror is not, however, the lass ansvrered very well. With & concave ‘only means of obtaining fire from heaven uly twenty-two inches in diameter and feonvex lens is equally effectual, Such Cwrenty-oight in foenl distance, he melted fone, made of transparent quartz, and found platiuum and fling, that had been powderin the rains at Nimroud, sows that in Asia fod to prevent its erackling and fying about, this was long ago understood. secured in a large pioce of charcoal, bubbled. ‘The designation of burning-lasses has ‘up and ran into a transparent glage in Tees ‘veen tse indifferontyfor mirrors and lenses, than half minute, - Hessian erueibles aud pots vitrified completely in three ‘Their porver increases with their sizo. It is ‘glase-house as the square of the diameter of the lens or for four soeonds, Forged iron actually boilInirror is to the square of the diameter of ‘od as aoon as it was put in the focus. ‘Trudaine constructed a Jens of two holthe focal iinage it yields theso of power low segments of glaas, four fect in diameter, ‘Consequently the heating give difficulty, containing aleoliol between them. It cost instruments mas, without a Villette, $5000. Io was, however, disappointed in to very surprising reeulta. speculum rise of its action. It could not melt platinum. He French optician, made a mirror ‘metal nearly four foot in diamoter; its focal presented if to the Royal Academy of Seiimage waa about half an inch. So tremen- fences, but shortly afterward it was accidents ‘dous wvas the beat in that focus that asbes- ally Urolen. Perliaps the most evlebratod buening-lens diamond ius was at ouco melted into glass,of a cast waa that made by Penn, of Islingtov, for ‘vas rapidly consumed, a pieeosomo alato ironin Mr. Parker. It was three feet in diameter, melted in sixtecn seconds, fund exposed iu its frame ts fect eight anit three seconds. Sitch was the effect of a mirvor. Techirne ‘a haif inches in tho cleat. In its centroBy ita huauis constencted a fens of about. three twas three and a quarter meliesthe thick. zays of tho Rhenish feet. in diameter, condensing the second long, whiel received diameter the focus waa bronght to a substanco rays coming from it by another, OF80 tisa8 toglassdi- offormer, half an inch, Almost every tninish the area of the focus. slate, pumice that was tried melted in an iustant ia its ii said thae it vitaiied It tile,melted sulphur, Tocus—-platinum, nickel, lava, asbestos, slate. stone, in a moment. was mado attempt piteh, and rosin under water; it couverted ‘This lous cost $3500, Au for purchasing ‘ood ashes into glass; “avy thing put into to taiso a subscriptionthat failing, it wasit from its owner, Dut its focus was either melted, burned up, or onlt by an officer who was attached to ftunied into smoke.” ‘Tschiraliaus believed that by the excess Lord Macartney’s embassy to China, and ive heat of great leuses a revolution in who lott it at Pek naturaliat Butfon demonstrated chemistry would bo effected.thereBut wasin alluo that"Thothegreat story of the burning of the Roman Saxony, hero he resided, eet at the siogo of Syracuse by Archimedes, neconld wudertake the manttThe ‘and that of the navy of Vitellius by Proclus, es might be something more than a mero le to permission him gave \d King of Pol ond. Ho constructed a machine of plano other in and tablish one in lis dominions, mirrors that could aot wood on fire at a disgreat "The operations. hi respects promoted ‘To him andto those of wonder tho tance of more than 200 feot.first suggestion Tons he produced sas of the owe wa Condoreet its to ap Twas perfectly polished ix improvement great lens—a “exactly was polszoual t h e xe. Its focal lingo l e nses. light-house in figure.” and sg excellent ita of ind,” "a ptoof “almost as rexarded were Sonn of ts elfects riracntons,” aud were received with inereby Alulity ; but the lens having been tobought France, eartied was Orleans, {he Duo of his able witness toin the and peovel an iereproach pregented he ono similar A favors male one Emperor Leopold, and, stil Inter, was however, whiel, diameter, in feet our s particular these Tn injured, y accitentall d pronounce éloge the from {am quoting mo Is meunory in 170% before the Freneb Royal Academy of Sciences. burnings Sir Isaae Newton preseuted"Tta consisted Fat Society. sto tho Royal joined foei thetr all that placed so seven, SC Fig. 1 is represented a polyzonal lens in one physical point, Eachdiameter;was six“aboutof ae Indevised by Brewster. It is in threo in half a ‘oven inches aud as s0 rings, a, and alens,c. When seventh, pieces—two the around ‘hem were placed the the rings may be comsphere, a very is of size the to form a Kind of segmentabout thirty-four posed of several great in the front pieces, Snbtense of which wasthe contral glass lay iow, in which the lenaag isshown of tom composed foes aud a half, and

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

tces,_ byAmong many otherfone advantages peSonted to flyaonel the cone: eens otredsce, ight byYowabortion Fhson gwtha ther greatly oneTorof cr-bo. wal then mech eo {ng sedi oe ofthe lat centry wed the eusine "Poe vuruingtnc bathe formsee thete wan, i ForTol anfdie feng,intention verynnerfeguent, of thetipo welt ple mazes ths exghgdogen blow the wae Tuing igh fotperiuen, andtue Inepare fa en succes iglling for Horevalof'elee vessel The Prcatle eritheeatagwatetio ihe unluof theof rosrerltog sith inofnydvogen showing tat the enue gallon portion ier metal eld be act repeals. ie tent die ate he thus obte adnan Prciples of the htop theo Tee testo That the dete rantrntoniisd, Talowtowta! gular peoletion Fees tiie mata re fedTh Fig. he legtoieifvecs 6c noitehs sete ak tages ie aie eapperiag Sereicayie hale pany we ease ped reciees cones apes ‘When, more than forty yoars ago, I com= menced an experimental examination of the chemical action of light, T entertained great expectations of what migght be accomplished Dy the use of bumning-glasses. It feemed

Le Fok Pu reasonable to suppose that if the direct su rays cond eeeasion go many decompositions, their chemical force would be ineompa greater when thi or alens, OF the two, a concave Us amirror nietallie mirror sliould prodatee 1 more clay acteristic effect, since it returns the rar8 us it receives them, but a apecial and very im portant portion of them is abworbed by the elective action of the lens. mirror reflectin: Tn Fig. 3, aa, a concaveIa Fig. 6, a eon tho sun rays npward. sun rays4, downward ‘ex lens converging the is the more contoa focus atf, ‘The latter use, ‘venient form for experimental T had not, however, at that time the means of making these experiments in a satisfactory maner,and fheugh very nae

2029 Aisappointed with the result, postponed the ‘prosecution of them to n more favorable op: portunity. Obtaining from time to tne Heveral isolated facts, Twas led, iu meditating npon them, to what seemed to be some general conclusions respecting the elienieal fetion of radiations, Several of these were, published, in a desultory manner, in the pee als of tlie time, ad it was nob witil that they were collected ia the Phitosopiicat Mepasine, wer the title o poit on the Chemiesl Action of Light.” a, the following fs an abstract, ‘The general discussion of the problem of the chemical action of a ray involves the following considerations 1. In what manner does the ray acl, and ‘wheat are the changes it undergoes 2. What in the nature of the impression made on tie material group, the deeomposition of whieh ensues 1 Many facts justifs the sopposition that the parte of all material substanees are is state of incessant vibration. To each pare ticular thermometzie degree tore belongs a particular frequeney of vibration, As soon fas these motions approgely fonr under bilions in a second, red Tight is emitted, and Ge texnperature is near 1000° Fas the frequeney increases, rays of a higher Fe frangibility are in snecession evolved, aid the femperatnte correspondingly rises,” On, ‘the other hand, when these seiliators move rents deeline, the temperature of the body falls, ‘These principles lead to a ready explanation of tlie nattre of the exchanges of heat the cause of the equilibrium of temper ature, The vibrators molecular motions aro necessarily propagated to tho ether, throngl, ‘which medium they are again transferred to the particles of other bodies, on Whieh the tethereal waves impinge, 4 a. vibrating string excites undulations in the air, and these, iu their tur, ean’ give Visth'to analogone motions in ‘other scrings at a distance. ‘There is an avalogy between the relations of a hot and eold ody aid those of tee atxings, fone of which is emitting a mu tical sound and compelling the bother to exeente esnehronons movements. The ether in the fone caso and the air in the athe fare the media throug sehiek ‘their motions pas. Equilibriaw of temperature takes placo when the molecntes of the sub stances concerned aro in synchronous and fequal vibration, A/hot body in presence of a cold oue compels the Ineter to hasten its Tate of motion, its own rate ail the time de= ‘and this continues until both have tho samo frequency ; then equilibrium of temperature results, | ‘The theory of the ex: ehasges of leat is, therefore, only an expression for the exchanges of vibrations throug the ether. Bat temperature in thermotiea is. the equivalent term for Brillieney in optics, Both refer to compoundquatities dep ot only on frequency nf vibration, but om its ampiitinde, As the degree of heat of a huiass rises, tho mass expan, the increase fnvity volumo indicating tbat not only do its

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 pacts vibrate mote swiftly, but also that their judividual excursions aro increased. Ie follows, therefore, that every mass will have a determinate volute for every degree of beat, a rolume increasing as tho temper: tute rises, On this view the explanation ‘of the expansion of bodies by eat ig that their pares aro not ouly vibrating more quickly, but also that the individual exeursions aro greater. ‘Tho atoms of tho chemical elements di ia weight, We therefore should ot expect that the ethereal vibrations would throw them into movement wieh equal facility, bat some would yield more readily than others. Is not this what wo express in chemis try by the term specitie heat Ia body, the requiring & procapacity of whic is great, onged application of erlereal puisea before a cousentaneons motion is reached, and in its tuen impressing ou tho ether during cooling a correspondingly prolonged series fof motions, And is not this the cause of that remariablo relation between the arwa ie weights of elementary bodies and tiie specifi heats, discovered by Dulong and Petit! "Thesa considerations may lead us to inquire whether tho general cause of the decomposition of compound bodies by radia tions is duo to the circumstance that all the atoms of which their molecntes are cone posed take on the vibratory motion with unequal facility. Thus if & certain compound moiecnlo be submitted to tho inilufenea of an intonso radiation, womo of its constituent particles may vibrate consentaneously at once, and others more tardily. the continved Under these circumstances eisteneo of the group may become impossible, and decomposition ensue in the neces77 of tho case, In entering upon the exporimontal anal ysis of the action of ray upon # decom potable body there aro threo different points to be considered, so far as the ray iteclf is concerned: 1. To what extent and ia what manner is the result affected by the intentity of the ray, or by the amplitude of the virating excursions 2. How is it affected Dy the frequency of tho pulsatory impressions and 3. How by the direotion in which ‘the vibrations are made, as involved in the idea of polarization? I shall now examine these in succession, 1. To ahat extent and in what manner ie the Aecompanition af « compound body affected by fhe tensity of a rag, oF dy the AsPLITCDE, Of the vibrating excursions? Hf the dierent degrees of facility with which atoms receive the iiupression of eth real vibrations be the true eause of decoaiposition by Tight, we sbonld expect that navy such elanges would become possible tunder the indluenen of a buringe-leus whieh, are not so in the direet rays of the sun. This idea is favored by what we find in the ease of heat. ‘The burning.xass has long had ‘celebrity in that respect, and in forauer times was the most powerful means of reaching a ligh temperature. is due to the rapidThe eflect of the lass calorie, consupply eau it lay with which radicouduetion, by tasted with the loss jou, ete, ‘Thus an object of any’ kind exposed to the sun reveives heat ata certain

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

rate; but itis simultanconsly experiencing 2 Too hy conduction, radiationant enrrents inthe aie, becomes, Exposed n10a thegivenfocustin,ofgreater a lens, the supply tian ‘before, and the temperatore rising, the necensars reatBat ollects ehangesao brongit about Felt. by Hight are ina different prodieauent. Here eonduetion is entivee abment, a8 is alo Tons ep currents in the alt. Tho eunulative ets Sti long exposure give the mame aetion on Highly coucentrated ray foraishes Sn Urief period of time. Tn this ease, there will depen on the absorp every thing fore, power tive ofthe substanee “frien a pleco of polished silver is placed in the foots of @ burning-leus, ¢ remaina tite cold, Deeawao of ite high relleting powers but if blackened, it melts in an ine Mant, Aud go with ehetaieal changes, A tbody hich ike chlotine, eau exert an ab sorptivo ationcliages; on tho ray,bat becomes oxen, if ike.aoe, Sn induces that. property, hag not and affected by1 theill mostremaleinieindiferent in ing, we may reasonably inquite whether, inbe ean action ehemieal the manner, liks impression cereased. Thero ia very goueral tropical cliof radiation intense the that not can which changes shes accompli maces be imitated by the feabler Light of higher may. latitudes, and perhaps decompositions lens convex largo a by be brought about which the direct rays of tho aun are wholly inadequate to produce. may possibly break ‘A very brilliant beam nap a givan combination, which afar greater quantity of light, acting through a long period, might be inadequate to touch. Sir ‘Kane atatea that ho, with Bf Dumas, could remove twa atoms of hydrogen from acetone by the action of ellorine fh the sunshine at Paris, but i Dublin only one.

2030 tho sun; ¢,@ stant on shiek objects m bho exposed to the Foeal point, ft is eared ‘bya stowe bas, m attached 10 the Thave endeavored to collect a seriesof facts which might set this part of the ques tion in its true light. | Mg firat experiments ‘were made with a lens of very five aud thin French plate-glass, twelve inebes in diame‘erin the clear. Its goodness was such that in its ‘on a fine day platinum mightbe melted focus, It was ground and polished for me Dy the late Mr. Fitz, whose skill was shown in the large aud excellent tolescopie object= iver that he made, Ho mounted the lene fon a suitable support; it required, however, to be guided by the hand ay the sun moved, When the cotiege building of the Medical Departmentof the University of New York ‘cas destroyed by fire in 1865, 1 bad to regret the loss of thia inatramont, with much other apparatus, and many documents that were fof unapprociable value to me. Mounted as the lens waa, ite neo was attended with conjerable Fiak te tho eyes, on aceout of the excessive lrilliaacy of the focus. Screens to be very ‘and dark spectacles were foundwhich T eon toneatiafactors, and en jliness tequently contracted admonished me sither to abandon the eabject or pureue it in some other way. In Fig. 6, @ ¢, the heliostat clock ; 5, its a’ dy a polarne axis; carrying the lens, e,and liaving an arrangement at f for supporting asks ere tibles, or other appa. ratus, This tutus on a double joiut at ¢s0 that the lens may be directeil to the sun, The following es

\

In Fig, 5,4, the convex: burning-lens supported ia ribbed frame, b ; there is at ea d dy convergence; tho Second lens to hasten toward lens tho fe circular ace for directing

Fie periments were made with, Rswialler glass, consisting of s combination of twos being diameter Tenses, their diss focal and Inches five tamescight, Tewas, in fact the large lens of an old-fashjoned Incernal aieroseope, mate i London Thad it fied

Big th aidthe oftne fallow ‘locke aodcon iyaccorsey Ort, such, with ama the of tion object an moroiig, onee set in the frien Ings be exposed inIt itshad focun, sf desire, a contrivance on fue whole day. Deus for upporting the earring frame fhe gatrases glass. erneiblen, ctey at the peepee(Hg.point7) funll supportbe either at the focus oF SHrreoa!might Sich as the lene,required fromthe othe distance Ing esperiment tho of SiEamstances instruments sere {hermume these or other wise no arcane a8 ‘Among aekenedang desired {erm selective absorption. ockoreise [ethe onteot of sop experimen, the whole

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 faco of tho lens conld be covered with Vlackened pastoboard sereen, with «hole half an inch in diameter. Throngh this a suficieut amount of Hight could be transmit. ted to evable one to arrange the various Aetails of the proposed experiment, aud when every thing wae ready, the wereen Was removed, and in the concentrated, and brilliant fo= feue tho action went on. T found that thie simple contriyvaluabloreliefto 4, 9 small flask receiving the ‘converging rays, bat their focus. ‘The lens being five inches in diameter, and the spaco covered ty the solar focal mage, owing to wane of aelvomatieity and splierical aberration, one-fifth ofan inch the multiplying eifect would be 625 times, ifthe glass woro perfeetly transparent, and there vere no loss by relleetion from ita surfaces. On a smnmer day of avorago rightness, swith tho thermometer at 0s* in tho shade, anu the bib, not being blackened, at 103° in tho sn, this lens could fuso copper ine sanity, tho bead oxidizing only super Jy, and outting readily after fasion. Black, side of enpper in a litle erneil dram foil wielted into a slaty-look Stance at once, Wronght iron did wot mele Alone, but if exposed on a eharooat support ina globule of icracosmie salt, previously Tused by the lous, it gave a. clea, sould Dead, whieh readily extended when beaten pon an anvil. ‘The globule of Hux tuened Dinek. ‘Tho specimen emplosed was out from & piven of good iron wine, asl thou it might bo thoughe that exposure on the hatenal would tend to torn st into east jou, its subsequent completo malloability sveuis to disprove this, Spangy platinwas ‘id not melt alone, noe even if melosed im a {lobule of fied nierocosmie salt. We may, {herefore estimate tho working power of this Tens on a substance placed int ite focus a8 somewhat above the point of fasion of sweonlit irom, aud loser than the point of fusiou of platinum, ‘This refers to tom ature only, The posser of the lens as to Tight must be enormously greater. We may now examine the chemical efeets produced by this lens, ‘Tova small glasy matrasses, the bulbs of sick were abont half an inch in diameter, rere ‘filled. with ellorinn water, tho one boeing exposed to the direct rays ofthe aun, tho other to the converging raya ofthe lens. Decomposition of the water occurred in oth, but with far more activity in that difference placed in the focal point. to ‘Tho that J eye the seriking ao ouce at Tyas made no attempt to measure it. Teis plain tliat tho greator tho quantity of incident Light, the. moro rapid the decomposition ; hough, after the rst moment of action, the solutions being no longer the sano in constitation, tho quantities of gas disengaged fare uo longer proportioual to the incident light.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

In Fig. 8 a, the flask containing the bromine waters ba battle serving as a reservoir, It is ualf tilled with fie same water In like mannerT endeavored to decompose. water by iodine, and with the sane nega tive resi, even whom the exposste to fhe focal point lasted for four hours, When, proper eae had been taken to remove fron tho solution all traces of ais, no gas was evolved, To redueo the heating effect of the lens, and allowthe more reftangibl raye alonee to act, there wae interposed between the Tens land i focus s steatnm of & salation of sul phate of copper and ammonia ove-third of fn inch thick, and incladed etween two Hat plates of glass, auitably arranged and carried along with the other parts by the movement of the elnek. The cove of eolar raya now parsed through thie absorbent sedinm (Fig. 9),

In Fig. 9, @ bis a8 in Fig. but tho eon verging rays pas through an alorhont,

2031 trong, ¢ 6 shown in front viow at d « ing the eireular coll containing the lation. In tho foons of Dine light thn» formed there was expoaed for tio and a half hours (Grom 73 to 1b Ase, Fane £1618) an invert= -d halfineh bulb, containing water, with a fow particles of iodine,iodine‘Tempera: tuo in the shade, 61°; in tho san, 80". AE the end of that timo thero waa fonind an in signiticant bubblo of ain, estimated at 9 thirtieth of an inch in diamoter. ‘of course, bo nothing: but atmosphereIt contd, aiz ‘The absorbing medium was nov removed, ‘and tho fall rays of the ain permittod to converge on the matsas , ‘Tho temuperacure of tho ‘water quickly ran up to the boiling point, and the bulb wae filed with steam And the purple vaporof odine. Every thing seemed favorabio for the decomposition 0 the water to tak place, if the iodine could complish it under ao intonse a radiation, At first I thonght that the experiment tad ‘succeoded, for the color of tho bulb boeains paler—a fesult that ought to have ensued if hydriodiec acid was forming and oxygen boing eliminated, ‘The wetion, therefore, seas kept up for four hours; but ag soon a9 {the sun was sereened from the lens and the bulb began to cool, the water returned aud filled it almost entirely. ‘This, therefore, shows that under a most inteuso radiation fodine ean not decompose water, Acsimilar experiment ssa tried with be mine, aud with the samo xeaule, It failed to devomposo water. Some silver chloride, carefully purified, was exposed in little crucible of platinum, foil (Pig. 10) so jnelined that the cone of vays could conic fu at its mouth, ‘The ab nigh was not used. "Though the ve were not beiliant, the chloride ‘at once melted, forming @ reddish-looking Tiquid. Tt was kept ju that condition all day, “When cool, it proved to be in the te of horn-silver, easily ent by a koife ‘When the rays frst touched it, a fume was disengaged, due probably to the exeape of ‘vapor of water, It aeeins, therefore, that {his eubstanes when perfectly dry is not decomposable by suntight, thongh so sensi tive at common temperatures when moist.

Pio. In Fig. 10,0, the platinom erneitile B, the place of the material experitaented upon, re‘ceiving at their foous the converging Tays,¢ T must refer to the original memoir for the detail of numerous experiments on many rictallie compounds, the general result of these being that, no matter hors brilliant a ray wnay be, i€ eah Hot earry a decomposition, farther than a feeble one acting for a corresponding longer period of time eould do, Comiponnda tat can resist the foree of an, ordinary tay ean not be broken down by the

TH SURVIVOR Vol. 5 intonse illumination of the foeal point of a burning-lens. ‘That instrament es not de shat the voitaie pile has done—effect decompositions which had never beon effected Defore

Fiat

Fig. 11, 4,9 matrass fled with wates, through whieh coin in the converging rays, ‘Through the neck atd a spoon, niay’ bo passed down to the foeal pola "Po reduce the disturbing effect of heat a9 farto thoas condensod pocaible, andluminous give every Zoeus, advantego received the cone of rays coming from a twelve: incl thuraing-tens on 1 glass globo (Fig- 11) sfx inetes sm dismoter led with water This inereaged tho converging of the rays, and Sought them morequiekly toa focus, Then neck of the globe ‘was introt h o atrongh ‘lucod to tho foes, in a tiatrass #000, oF ther ouitabte support, the substance to be experimented upon. ‘The mass of water pe the temperatiro dove, and Dyin a0s0m0a8Water ‘vas removed tases pirstorthoand.lot cold water introduced Velow, spoon could be used! when powders sero imploged of s0 great a specific gravity a8 Sot to drift too big from the foo in the Jscending eurrent of hot water. the same as beresultfocunwas, ofhowever, foro,”“Tho ‘The a buraing tens the ean teot eango whieh to pro. fanvo any chersical are incompatent aun rayhatons Sonverged {toca Se merely tho est. ‘Foon tho sve, we may therefore co clad that iis not tho indesity of eam hich determines its decomposing power, greater chemSilat vo can not produce of converging tir{Ca effects by thethasaction wo ean Dy the applies. ors on adof tholensessimple staves, coated for "un equivalent period of time, in estimating the fulltenco of Tight on Ailfient solutions, so sbonld constantly Sear in miud thot the maximum effect is rover produced tnless complete absorption Xan taken plac, Whon tho color of 8 50° considerable i way requireabsorption Intion ip Pale 18 8¢complete thickness befbra © tubes Thus if to ofequal complished, 20 samo tho eqtial inquantities {inog water, be exposed to theof tion of chlor equal one.quantities ays theygasywillbutovorve of them a bein if eyigen bo placed, thoThe effect ieee of looking-glass 7958 inereased, Brie i immediately the solution and pasged through that have thei aro competed to e085 fronce if effect exhausted, thas not aneadyfollowing [eRaa, and more. Tho same kind:iustratact ouenexamples of the tions ate equal sizeto thecontaining bulbs ofexposed ‘vo suall rays of were eilorine water hem acoueave them of one ‘he sun Behind

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

jepherical misror was placed 90 that the rays ‘whielt had crossed the solution were com polled te crows it again. ‘The amount of Dxygen ec feo i ths bulb was about onefoueth greaterwasthanrepeated, that in thethe exposize other. be‘The samo ing to the sky lighe instead of tho sun Fass. ‘The quantity of oxygen set free In the two Dube was a8be 16supposed to 8 that part of tis in‘Te might to the rae of tempera~ creasedfrom effecttho indie tre, mizror obstructing radiation, action the folowing mod exert awascooling ‘To‘fication therefore tried. In 8 glass jar (Pig. 1) fall of quicksilver a haleinel bal containing eblotine water yeas placed in such a way that a amall portion of its sur. face, abont one-eighth of ah fel in dames ‘er, Projected above the surface of the liquid metal. On this part the wolae focus from a Inmning-glase was thzown, ‘The rays there fore gained access to the interior of the bulb, fd ‘vero thrown about in all dreetions, Crossing aud secrossing the liquid in every ‘ray liy the nuniorous reflections thes us Aerweent, the mereursy ae it appted ital to the onter wurface of the glass ating lke spherical concave mirror, ni from its masa and high eoudueting power effectually keep ing the temperature down. ‘Tho quantity of ‘oxygen eutted in a giventired.timeFheameex was meao Doriment was then Fepeated with the bulb removed feom the ex themereury. close of Aftthe sameperiod oftime, fon measuring the oxygen set S00 Sw found that the reflecting astion of the mercury had nearly ‘tripled the elect Tn Fig.12,00,the esse filed with mercury; 2 atthe te gagepe in it, but having’ aynersod ‘Bank joer part a amall portion uncovered, through ‘Which the converging rays, may come in, ou L¥.—Wo ‘The power of99.48 « ray thus depending on tho degreo of abvorption exerted admixture upon ity 1 inquire whether, by to Ted sos ‘with other suitable substances in oeolation undergoing decomposition, the effect could tbo increased. —Chiorine water decomposes ore rapidly as ita yellow tint ia deeper. Four equal bulbs wero therefore. taken— water; 5, the samo, 4, containing leepeued with chlorine chloride of gold; ¢, chlorine ‘water with commercial hydrockloric acid of a yellow tint; d; chlorine water with tinetate of iodine. Theso wero all exposed, together to the sun. Tt aaa at onco obvi us that a was giving off most oxygon, aud, svontually it was found that & yielded a ‘much smallor quantity, and and none at all. The preseneo of these bodies, therefore, exerted a prejudicial effect. molecules will soAayatedn of vibrating similar mooxecnte licit an ajacont ono to tions through the medinm of the intervening, thier, A rise of temperature is dno to au, Increased rapidity or intensity of the oseillations of the groops of vibrating molecules,

2032 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 but chemical decomposition is duo to tho tion, the number of impulses it can eommnadislocation of their parts. It,of course, by nicate in a given period of time, depends the hho means follows that when’ a compound, power of a ray to break down the union of moleeulo ia vnulergoing entire disruption, apy group of atoms, A compound that mey thoao in the neighborhood should be com: resist a slow recurring motion may be wu pelled to pase into a sinilar state. Por the ble to maintain itself when the impulses ery readon that chemical decomposition Increase in froquenes. ‘So numerous and well known are the takes placo is because the group that r0ceives the provoking ray ean not vibrato photographie and other ehanges Drought ox ‘onsentaneously swith it; andif that group by Tight that E need not occupy apace with fan not assume the motion ia question, how ‘8 deseription of them here. Iehall only re{er to some enrions instances of antagonises tan i possibly transmit it to any other? ‘Any artificial coloration by the addition ‘or interference, the detaile of which will bo in the original memoir. Hitherto they of extraneous boies does uot inereato the Found rato of decomposition, but rotards it, This hhave been very mch overlooked. ‘Two rays may be ao placed in relation to is procisely what onght to be expected. A compound atou Nas ths groaping destroyed cack other that their motions may conspire by tho action of light upon its own parts, ‘or may antagonizo; and as ono of other of ‘anil ia in no manner concerned in what is these conditions enaues, tho chemical result taking place in other atoms around. They ‘will correspond. therefore can not inereaso the effuct on it, ‘When iodine vapor ia permitted to have bat, on tho contrary, they may greatly di- access to a surtaeo of polished silver, the minish the aetion on’ tho mast by exerting silver tarnishes, tho tarnished film inoteas‘special absorption themselves. ‘Thus the ing in thickwesa as tho exposure to the io‘chloride of gold retarda the decomposition dine is profonged. Tt assumes in succession fof chlorine water, when mixed therewith, colors which undoubtedly arivo from the fn the same manner aa if woro placed in a intorfereneo of the incident light with the trough in Jront of the water, aud intercepted, Light rellected from the metal at the back of tho film. They aro the colors of thi tho impinging beam. “Experiments similarto the foregoing were plates, ike those of a aoap-bubble, Now there is a great difference in the acmado with a solution of forrie oxalate mixe fil sith alcohol, atamonia citrato of iron, tioa of light upon theso diffrontly colored tincture of turmeric, sodie chloride, te. In films, though chemically they are the aelf very instance it ora clear that the action same silver iodide. Some have een unof the light is strictly molecular, that it is acted upon} in thei the effect of the ineiimpressed on tho group of atoms, and not light hos been destroyed or rovoreed, ‘on the mass, and. that when various bodies dont by tho of the light reflected from the ‘are conjointly exposed to tho sun, each one hack of effect the Gm, Some have been power: undergoes its ow specific change, inilepend= fully acted upon; im them the chemical catly of and unaffected by all the rest. lfect is at a maximum—tho inetdent and rays liave conspired. ‘These experiments, with others of @ Hike reflected If any wero required that these ind, made many yoars ago, have an im- maxima andproofminima of chemieal effect aziso portant bearing on some recontly publish from the superposition or contrary ei by Professor Vozel, Captain Ales, Cap: rmotious, it is found in theof similar relative tain Waterhouse, and others on imparting of tho ims which have been actedthiekness uninsereased sensitiveness to collodion by mix- Acted upon. Those ia whieh thers lasor been jing it with variously colored substances. action liavo thicknesies ag 2213 reyeated their experiments aa carefully as maximum tint showing the minimum action is Lt Teonki, and should bave thought that my simple apectram rays daylight the ss bo ‘Ifpermitted to actandtogether “want of eecess was duo to unskillfalneconon a daguerroud I not borne in mind the foregoing ‘type plate, tho rays of whieh the times of ato as 1, 2, ete, aid the daylight; wire, To what extent vibration times of vibration ut as.those4,14,of 24,whichete, theinterfere ‘end in what manner ig the decomposition of « aro with it and, of Uestroy ite elfect. ‘compound body affected by the FREQUENCY tibration of a ray? Ti these numbers we may digeera the From the beginning of opticalforchemistry suggestion of some very important facts, investigations have been made the pur Ono of tho most striking instances of this peso of determining the action of raysInneof positive and negative action I discovered in. iffevent refrangibilities. Almost tho case of the electric spark. Let there bo ‘red years ago it bad been shown in epeciat between teases that there is au theantagoniam Thue spectram, the opposite ends of Cantoo’s in excite the phosphorescence preparation by the violet end of the specTram is extinguished ly tho red. Asahow-re speets colored compounds, Grotthnas fl that thesactive say is verythatcominoaly whieh it ff the tint complementary to Alestross. ‘More recently this branch of the aubject extent, avd hnas been esamived to a greatsubstances in the behavior of all kinds of The gen the solar spoctrum made known. length, oF, tral resnlt is this, that on wave Fis what is the same thing, frequeney of vibrae

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 placed over a daguerreotype plate (Fg. 13) two metal balls, connected respectively with the inside aud outside of a Leydenjar in sue a way that tho discharge may pass from one of the balls at about half an iach Aistaueo to the sensitive plate, aud from the feusitive plate to the other ball at about the samo distance. Ono spark is sumtieiont. ‘The experiment should be made in a darke tn Fy 13, a 4, the metal photographie plate By, the brass balla connected with the Leyden-phial. The aparie passes between ‘chem and the metal plate. At de the effect, is shown, and again more plainly in Fig. 14. On developing it will be found that om tho point which rocaived the spark there is fo blue-white spot about one-fortieth of an inch in diamotor (Fig. 14). Immediately around this an auuular space whieh is perfeetly Vinck, the ME] says of aio ‘epark MF basing there bad en JA v0 action; then fol lows a white ring, ‘and then auother Diack one. Finally sneceetls a whiieh stain of an indie tinct eireular fori ast shiek ean be tr Dy ivelining the plate as having a diameter of about 1F inches. ‘That past of the plate from which the spark eseapad shows a repetition of the ‘same phenomenon. ‘Tow shall wre account for the production of these alternate white and black spaces, Hinge of action and inaction? Some perfnons might at first be Jed to suppose that ‘this is only an interesting form of Priest~ Joy's experiment of "the fairy rings,” formed ‘uy receiving the shock of & battery on a. polished steel eurface, when, hy the oxides ion that ensues, fm is formed of varin‘le thickness, and giving the colors of thin plates, But alittle consideration will how that thie is impossible, and the fucts are only to be explained on the principles of interference. ‘3 In achat manner in the decomposition of « compan boaly nfosted by the condition of 10EARZantoy af the distding ray? a ei “A beam of light passing through lag -apertire ome intel in diameter was received on the acliromatie Tens of a camera retract Dlseuea, and then fell ov a donbly ing prsin, 30 placed go to gira on tho gronucl glass two cigewlar iuinges of tho apesture, ‘onecthind of am inch in diameter, and ov lapping each other to a small extent. Ia these images the light 09, o€ conse, polar f angles respectively. ‘When paper tendered sensitive by being ‘washed sith ferric oxalate was placed so a5 to act {to reecive thein, the light permitted rhine minutes, and ita effect deroloped by ehloride of gold, the images (Fix. foundof equal blackness, space forined by their overlapping of great: several lepth. This ‘was repeated with. and ale iiferent photographic componads, sways with the sanio result, Te shows that

plano potarized fight acts pee ly Tike common light, and vith a rapidity yeopor tonal to ite jue Fro tensity. Th Fig. 15, a, the dises of plane polarized fight, potwsized at right angles to each other} at «the place of overlapping. While ths attempting to detect a disfercence in the decomposing aetion of comaion and polarized light, I mado some inquisies fa to the possibility of polarizing Wight by a magi ‘A great_many experiments have been wade at different times for tho purpose of produeing distuebaace on a ray of Nght by fuagnets, Thero are tivo methods ‘which tuay be resorted to, ‘The owe hitherto fulTowed has beeu to intercept th roy in ity conse, and subusit it to magnetic action; bat to principle on which my attempts have been fouled is to attack it at its origi, and attempt to produco. an inspeession ot the shining body. These methods are es sentially distivet, Thero would be a dif ference ia trying to woilify a gomud on ita passage through the aie and by exerting some iuenco on the sounding bods When Banedlar's experiment ou the in finence of the poles of a powerful moznet fon a flame was ‘rst published, I repeated it fat onee, expecting that the oseillations of the shining particles were eoustrained to take place in one plane by the magnetism, fant that tle light emitted would be pol ized, ‘The result, however, did not see to prove this. ‘A situa experiment was then made with he electric spark from the prime conductor of a machine. Tt was compelled to cross etween the poles of a powerful electromagnet, But when the maguetism was on, it did not seem that the light was polarized, De la Rive lias shown that the voltaic are between charcoal points ia greatly disfuarbed whien it passes between the poles of poverful cleetro-magnet. In the hope that this wowld produce the expected disturbance, examined an are formed bet ween points of copper, platinum, and gas carbon 5 though the sounds emitted were stron but resembling the eudden tearing of a piece of Cloth, L could not perceive that the light ‘was polarized. Tn Tike manner the juduetion spark from fa coutact-breaker aud the phosphorescent Tight from Suor-apar wero tried without success, I still think, however, that sith Vetter means than thove thus emplosed the experiment would succeed. the commencement. of this paper it sasAt atated that we should consider, 1st, the iauner in whieh s ray of light acts in bring ing about decomposition, aud the changes i¢ undergoes; 2d, the nature of the impression made on the material group, the decomposition of which ensues. ‘be observa tione T proposed offering in relation to the former of these pobnts being completed, 1 may’ pass to sonie remarks respecting the latter io examivation of many eaves of the de

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 composition of bodies by light has Jed me to_the conclusion that its eause ia to be at: nuted to the inability of the group of molecules affected to withstand the periodic impulses communicated to them. OF those molecules some, perhaps, take on a vibratory motion more resdily than the others, and the continuanes of # given group becoming impossible, «re-arrangement ensues ‘But in ‘other casos the mocbaniam of Aocomposition is undoubtedly different; a ‘change i impresaed on ono of the elements feted upon, which weakons its adinity for the others.” ‘Thus, under tho indlueues of the sunshine, plants ean decompose many Doiies, such as carbonie,sulphuric,and phos‘photic acids, ‘The naturo of these changes may bo Dest ittustrated by tracing the complete course through which any ono of theso substances passes, ‘The chiof facts may bo soon in the fase of phosphorus. This ¢ubstance, when freshly made, commonly exhibits a white, ‘waxy appearanee, but when oxposed to sunshine i tarna to a deep mahogany red. If "ue expoture has been Tong continued, or the effect hastened by the action of a burn Ing-lens, tho change of aspect is very striking. It'is analogons to that whieh sulphar exhibita when heated to 400° or 500°. T have a specimen which ns beon kept for many yeara in an atmosphere of dry carToate acid; the sides of the vessel aro inervsted with crystals, which havo slowly aublimed, and which in color resemble the ferrid eyanido of potassium. ‘Tho ehemieal properties of theso two ¥ariotios of phosphorus are very different; in‘ised, ther i seareoly a point in which they ‘uot be anid to be nntike, ‘The common kind shines in the dark; tho red docs not. The common is soluble in a variety of menstrua whieh do not act on the other; thus ‘one of the methods of préparing red phosphorus is to oxposo a solution of the comred pow‘maou in enlphurio other to light—a iter, the aabstaneo in question, precipitates, Compared together, tho one displays a range of adiuity whieh tho other does not, nor do these properties seem to leavo them when they aro united with other bodies. ‘Thus ‘the active of white phosphorus, whon united with hydrogen, Yields a gas which is spoutaneously combustible in the air; the fed or passive variety yields a hydrogen but dethe same ofconstitution, ‘Compound Soid of thoof property spontaneous comDustibiity. ‘Tt shoald be understood that though othe cr agents—as a high temperature—ean impress this remarkable elange upon plioshorus, none can do it with more energy or moro completely than the wolar rays. 1 Found by exposing a stick of white oractive phosphorus to the prismatic apectram that itis the more refeangible rays that are the most effective—those formerly termod deoxidating. ‘Thus the rasa which are most efficient in ectting oxygen fr00 from the bodies with which it is united havo also he quality of impressing auch a change on those bodies that they oxidize subsequently with difficulty. It follows that the true cause of auch decompositions is the impression which the light makes on the elementlary substaueo; thus if phosphoric acid be

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

rays, the decom: by theto solar ocomposodio owing being phosphorus tho position state stato~a passive or red tho into Rirown has almost o=pgon for atiuity ito in'which entirely “These disappeared considerations enabo ws toof explain economychargedplants in thealwaye takes what with,the sili the ofacplac water ‘Th 8 to s communicate which d i arbonte tho soato honecearhy of itolving quality spongolea the throng passing thon aap. Hore fntigoesadeex. su ascending the leoveslight, of whicplaceto sot ellct taking the cere to poved rovth cell the Uythe phampborie nei fre, ad ue ie phox eontin.eld Itscompound pasiiveatate intowiththe oxygen yofus saan union ed andand Te ellyis owtiesas impossible, becomes thas poutibo the withthe plants Nor does it agnin foctated in forming passed intoof until as'n hasconatituent oxygen ith finite snimale of eyatens thetheir nervous and masenine tisaves. At ho eapecallybe of these, thand change of activity fomentfornoer, olive, it the consequence onand,immediate ng apparentiy itna o #0to acid reverting activtsy m9 om digninsd ally itunderip tho form of phosphate of ede State fem find aunmonia. In tho same manner might bo explained tho decomposition of earhonie acid by plants in the sunshine; for carbon, like phosphor

2034 tae, and, indeed, like all other elementary bodies, has its active and passive atates, as is exemplified in the coutraat botwoon dia‘mond and lamp-black. The snulight ena‘les the leaves of plants to bring the carbon into the inaotive state, and decomposition ensues as a secondary result. ‘The carbon ‘compounds ariving form the food of varions animals; nor docs this clement recover its active state until it hay given rive to the processes of life, when it suddenly unites ‘with oxygen brought by the arterial blood, fand the compounds it thon forms are di ‘missed from the system by the lungs and kidneya conjointdy. It might eoem that tho mechanisin of decomposition by vibratory movement is essentially differont from that by these allotropie changes, but a more de tailed examination will show that this i not necessarily eo Tu the foregoing pages I have endeavored to examine how far tho decomposing action fof a radiation is dopondent on the amplitude, tho trequeney, or the direction of its vibrations. Tho result arrived at is that ecompositiona are not determined by amplitude—that is, brilianoy—sines a faint Tight continued tong enough ean produce feet a8 the more con precisely theray samo eeontrated of a burning-lens applied for a shorter time. Nor does the direction of motion, ax involved in tho idea of polatizntion, whethor plane or circular, exert any

MECHANICS POPULAR April 5, 1902. HOW TO MAKE A BOAT FOR BOYS. AX sale convenient and easily constructed boat foF boys may Ihe made with the aid of (vo logs, oF beayy timbe a box and a fow hoards or seuntlings, Place th ovo logs.or timbers ow four feet apart on the ground, Connect them by a couple of ne cross. piezes, as shown in the illustr thatthe cross pieees be fastened mon securely 10 the timbers. it is Ihenter te attach them by: boring holes in them and th timbers vith an augur, and driving pegs in the holes, The pegs should he driven in at each end of each cross piece. ‘The oarsman's seat may be made of a bos or hoards as you desire, Make the oak locks by hollowing out a piece of thick board and fastening it securely to the timbers either by large nails or by: sharpening the lower end and driving it ipto an augur hole. Brace the oar locks to the sides of the timbers and to the foot brace, ‘The oars ‘can he made of any kind of boards or strips. Such a boat to accommodate one boy may be made of a couple of railroad cross Hy ohtaining Iarger timbers it can be used by a number ‘of boys, ‘The device will give better service by sharpening the ‘ovo main timbers in the front end,

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 effect, but it in tho frequency of the periodic Jnpulios that io th aole determin Anil the phenomena of interferenen from ‘tho superposition of such small motions oceur exactly as might have been predicted, ‘Tho immediate cause assigued for scl Accompositions is that a ray forcing the ‘material particles ou whieh it falle into 2 stato of rapid vibration, it comes to pass in hiauy compound molectles that their con stituent atoms can no longer exist together a the same group, becauso of tho impossiDility of their being animated by eousentaneous or conspiringg motions, and dislocation, re-arrangement,or decomposition is the result, In this paper I haro apoken of heat and ighe ag thongh they were distinet agen ‘and considered sich facts aa conductibility, te, displayed by the one and not bs de bother, But if we recall what has been said, ju preceding papors to tho eilvet that these fro only movtes of motion, and that tho difference of the effects they display tums on tho character of the receiving surfice or substance, there will be no dificulty. in translating this commoner langunge into terms that aro amore exact, and in present ing the phenomona in question under a more rigidly scientific point of view. Familiar expressions very frequently convey to the ‘mind elearor ideas than others whieh, perluapa, may be nore atrictly correct.

IRRIGATION OF THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO.

Discoveries Which Prove the Grest Inferiority of Modern CiviTisation, Thousands of years ago, it is claime: there existed in New Mexico a system of reservoirs, irrigation and viaducts that is allelled at this age ‘This is proven beyond a doubt by dis coveries and investigations that have recently been made. Un. der the lava whieh covers hundreds of square -s are found traces of cement ditches and reservoirs that are marvels of engineering. In those days, says the Rural Californian, the deserts bloomed like a garden and a civilized race of millions occupied the arid Southwest. Our irrigation engineers have much to learn from the people older than the Pueblo race, who inhabited New Mexfico when the race from which Columbus sprang were still barDarians. In those days reservoirs at convenient basing stored the water, which was led in cemented ditches across the loose soil to where it was needed for use. Chasins were crossed hy Viaducts. Into some of the ditehes lava has run, showing their great antiquity. Others are covered with shifting sands, ut cnough are visible to enable skillful engineers to understand the system which modern civilization with its boasted attai iments, has been incompetent to construct.

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Foundry Work MOLDING SANDS. FOUNDRY BLACKINGS. MOLD MAKING. THE ODDSIDE. RAMMING. VENTING. RUNNERS AND RISERS. CORES. PATTERNS. BEDDED-IN MOLDS. LOAM MOLDS. FALSE ODDSIDES. PLATE MOLDING. MOLDING MACHINES. MULTIPLE MOLDS. MACHINE-MOLDED GEARS. MENDING-UP. PERMANENT MOLDS. MELTING IRON. POURING. FETTLING. MALLEABLE CASTINGS. CHILLED CASTINGS. NON-FERROUS METALS. GLOSSARY OF FOUNDRY TERMS. Machine Shop Practice 1941 Molding Sands See also Survivor Vol. 1, page 58 taro part of the work done by the man in the machineshop has to do with castings

of one kind or another, and it is ne sary, therefore, that he should have at least some knowledge of the way in which they are produced. ‘This chapter does not pretend to be a technical treatise on every aspect of the foundry; it is written more for the ‘man who would like to know the gen‘ral principles underlying the manufacture of castings.

An Old-Established Industry

‘The founding industry is probably the oldest branch of engineering, and it is certainly one of the most important, It was practiced by the craftsmen of the ancient Greck and Roman civilizations, and even earli

and erude examples of the founder's work have been excavated from many ancient sites. Although modern meth~ ods have transformed it from a crude art into an exact science, itis interesting to note that the basic principles remain unchanged, and the molder of today uses methods very similar to those employed by the ancient founder. Castings are made from patterns which are an exact facsimile of the article to be. produced. ‘The patterns are pressed into sand, and when removed leave their impression. Into this, sand impression, or mold, molten metal is poured and allowed to cool. When it is removed it will be of the same shape as the mold, only slightly smaller ‘owing to the contraction of the metal. Before explaining how the mold is made, we will discuss the sand from which it is made.

Molding sand must possess six main characteristies—porosity, plasticity, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, refractoriness, and strength when heated, It be porous, in order to allow of the eseape of any air, gases tore present or generated in the mold when the hot metal is poured into it. It must obviously be plastic so that it can be shaped to the form of the pattern, It must be adhesive—ic. capable of attaching itself to another bod; so that it will cling to the sides of the box or flask in which it is molded or to the supports provided in the flask

for the purpose. Cohesion—or the ability of the particles to stick together— is necessary to allow the pattern to be removed without breaking the mold, and also to stand up to the flow of the molten metal as it enters the mold. Moreover, it must retain its cohesion on becoming hot, Refractoriness, or resistance to fusion by heat, is an obvious requirement in molding sands, for they have to stand execedingly high temperatures and yet retain their stability. Moreover, a sand that is not refractory would affect the face of the casting and make it difficult, if not impossible, to machine, Very few natural sands possess all these qualities in the right proportions, so it is usual to make up the deficieney of a sand in any particular characte istic by mixing it with other substances which possess that characteristic toa high degree. Most of the substances added to make up any deficiencies consist of loamy sands or sandstone which is crushed especially for the purpose. Some sands can be improved by mechanical means such as grinding, a process which will be explained later in this chapter.

SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Size and Shape of the Grains

‘The size and shape of the grains in any particular sand have a large bear~ ing upon its strength and general character. Sands in which the grains are round are weaker than those in which they are sharp and irregular, because the round grains do not interlock or overlap with each other, whereas sharp, irregularly shaped grains do, especially when rammed together, forming ® much stronger structure, Sharp-grained sands, having less clayey matter in their composition are often more porous and more easily vented—i.e,, it is easier to make provision for the eseape of the air and gases in the mold. ‘The size of the grains is also important. If the grains are large and regular in shape and size, the sand will be more porous than if the opposite were the case. Grains of equal size and irregular or angular in shape also favor porosity, while grains of unequal sizes and smooth surfaces do not, although they give a strong sand. The size of grain does, of course, determine the smoothness of the mold grained sands are generally unsuitable when castings with yery smooth skins are required. This difficulty can be overcome by using a fine sand on the face of the mold. Somo Natural Sands

Sands suitable for foundry work are found in several places. Natural sands which are suitable for foundry use are found in the vieinity of Albany, New York; Sandusky, Ohio; and Ottawa, Lilinois, as well as other places. They are generally known merely as molding sand, and usually contain about 85 percent silica; about § percent alumina (clay) and the balance magnesia and other minerals. ‘They are generally classed as (1) Sharp grained river sand, (2) Round grained lake sand. The difference has been explained in the previous paragraph, Sand Mixtures ‘Molds may be poured while moist,

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‘or they may be dried out in an oven before the metal is cast. These are known respectively as green-sand and dry-sand molds, and the sand mixtares used vary considerably. We will firstof all consider green-sand mixtures For green-sand molds various mate rials are added to the natural sand with a view to making it more refrac~ tory. These substances separate the ‘grains, thus making them less liable to bum together when they come into contact with the hot metal. They also make the sand more open, and allow the steam and gases to eseape more readily from the mold. Uses of Coal-Dust

Coal-dust is perhaps the most widely used substance, which accounts for the fact that most molding sand is black in color. Powdered charcoal, cokedust, and anthracite are also. used. These substances tend to make the sand more open, but at the same time they impair its cohesiveness and render it weaker. It stands to reason, therefore, that the mixing has to be done with extreme care. The addition

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of coal-dust is of great value in help- losing its cohesion, the better it will ing to cool the mold after it has been be, poured, for as soon as the molten It is impossible to give any hardmetal comes into contact with sand and-fast rules for the correct moisture containing coal it dries the face of the content, because different sands remold and begins to heat the sand. The quire different amounts of moisture to coal-dust immediately gives off gas, enable them to be used; but the exthe liberation of which, combined with perienced molder will be able to dethe conversion of the water in the sand termine for himself the quantity that into steam, absorbs heat and cools the gives the best results. In large foundsand, thereby preventing the grains ries where a chemist is employed, the from becoming overheated and fusing. sand will be mixed under his super‘The amount of coal-dust used in mold- vision and delivered to the molders in ing sand varies not only with the ehar- the best possible condition. This much, however, ean be said: acter of the sand, but also with the too little is better than too much, for type of work Moisture Content of Sand ‘The amount of moisture in a molding sand has a considerable effect not only upon the making of the mold, but also upon the behavior of the sand when the metal is poured. A mold may be perfect in all other respects and yet the casting may turn out to be # reject on account of the sand being too damp. Damp sand when rammed Light will not retain its porosity so well as drier sand; hence, the drier the sand that can be used without

necessary additions, Fig. 1. A centrifugal sand-mixing machine. The sand, with any number of vertical is thrown into the hopper A and falls to the plate B which has a minute. The sand is ons per prongs bolted to it. This revolves at about 1500 C.revoluti thrown out of the machine through the plate A thorough mixtura is obtained in this way.

there is nothing that will produce poor castings and castings with blowholes more readily than large quantities of steam in the mold, however well it may be vented. Facing Sand

‘The purpose of facing sand is to form a smooth surface and prevent the mold from being washed away by the flow of the molten metal when pouring takes place, Facing sand is placed next to the pattern, and is then surrounded by used molding sand. it is the most important portion of th mold, this sand is usually composed of a mixture of high grade molding sand and carbon dust. The earbon dust is generally about 10 percent of the total volume. It is not possible to give mixtures for every type of work, but broad principles may be laid down, The first of these deals with the mixing, The various ingredients must be thoroughly intermingled. It is advisable as a rule to do the mixing in a separate shed swith a good clean floor. Where more than one kind of sand is being use, they should be kept well apart to avoid the possibility of their getting mixed accidentally. Where large quantities of sand are boing mixed by hand, several men should be put on the job. In mixing the ingredients they should be spread in layers to form a mound finishing with the ingredient that is used in least quantity. The laborer should take a vertical slice from the mound and mix it well on the floor. The process should be continued until the mound has been used up.

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Sand-Mixing Machines In modern practice, especially when there are large quantities of sand to be mixed, mechanical mixers are ei ployed, Fig. 1 shows a machine of this type. Core Sand

Core sand differs from molding sand in several respects, First, it has to be handied when removed from the coreboxes, before being baked so it must be very adhesive. As cores are to large extent surrounded by metal, it ust be very free venting, otherwise the gases will be unable to eseape, and blown castings are sure to result. This trouble is to a large extent removed by the fact thet cores are usually dried, ‘and consequently more porous than in the damp state. ‘The difficulty is to retain sufficient cohesion after drying to enable them to be handled and withstand the pressure of the metal which is poured into the mold. Additions to Core Sand

Various additions are made to core sand in order to make it meet these requirements. These include gums of various kinds, flour, powdered rosin, and oils of various descriptions. Syrup and water mixed, and even be sometimes used, Core sand must not be mixed too wet, or it will adhere to the sides of the core-box, especially if the box is a wooden one, and rough cores will result, Small cores should be made with a finer sand than large ones, alhough the type of casting will determine this, Dry-Sand_ Mixtures Dry-sand molds are dried in an oven before the metal is poured into them, and consequently the mixture of the sand varies somewhat from that used in green-sand molds, Only th heavier types of sand of a close clayey texture will retain their when dried, The usual green-sand mixtures would pulverize and break up under the action of the heat, Horse manure, straw, or cow hair is frequently added to dry sand to render its otherwise close texture sulfi

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ciently open for venting. Dry-sand molds are made in much the same way as green-sand ones (to be described later), but, being dried before pouring, ess gas is generated, and they are therefore safer. The face of the mold is generally thoroughly blackened before drying.

‘THE

SURVIVOR Vol. 5

terns which are the exact facsimile of the article to be produced. They are slightly larger, in order to allow for the shrinkage of the metal on cooling and for any later machining that may he necessary. The patterns are pressed or buried in the sand, and when removed leave their impression. Into this impression molten metal is poured and allowed to cool. When it is removed it Parting-Sand will be found that it will be of the as the mold, only smaller Parting-sand is used to prevent the same shapeshrinkage. This is allowed to surfaces between the halves of a mold owing from sticking to one another when the for in the pattern. two parts of the flask are separated. While it is @ simple matter to press It also prevents the sand from sticking or bury a pattern into the sand, to reto the pattern, It is sprinkled on the move it presents some difficulties. In surface of the drag before the cope ia order to make this easier, molds are rammed up, as will be described later. usually made in a box in two or more It is composed of burnt sand, pul- sections, the former being verized blast furnace slag, brick dust, the more common for most or very fine grained sand. It is impor- types of work. tant that it should not contain any ma The boxes in which terial which would draw or retain the molds are made are moisture. It may be sprinkled on by lnown as flasks. ‘These hand or shaken from a bag. consist of frames of wood Facing

In order to prevent the molten metal from coming into actual contact with the sand on the face of a mold and producing sandburns on the face of the ting, the mold is frequently painted or dusted. Various substances may be used for this purpose, including charcoal, Iamb black, coke dust, plumbago, black Iead, or xraphite These substances, which are all more refractory than the molding material, are nearly all some form of carbon, They may be applied wet or dry, according to the nature of the mold, and for use in the wet state some adhesive is employed, clay, gum, syrup, and other substances being mixed with the water used. When applied wet, they arc usually painted on to the mold with a brush. ing used dry is dusted over the face of the mold All facings must, of course, be fairly porous, for they must not close up Use pores of the mold. Making the Mold Molds are made in sand from pat~

oor metal, two such frames being required to make a mold. These boxes fit accarately together, and are provided with pins to insure an exact fit when they are put together. The accuracy with which these parts fitis of the greatest importance, as will be seen later. Any displacement of the parts will produce inequalities on the surface and in the thickness of the easting.

ig. 2 shows a simple type of twopart flask. The part, A, is the top, or copes B is the bottom, or drag; the bars, C, are provided to locate the two halves of the box, and the handles, I, are used to lift the boxes. Making the Oddside

In making the mold, the cope i placed joint upwards on the bench or floor and strickled off roughly ‘The pattern is then embedded in the sand up to the joint, which is usually some what about the half-way line. At this stage the cope is used only to support the pattern while the drag is rammed and the joint made. This support is

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SURVIVOR Vol. 5,

cope being now on the top and the rag. beneath he cope is lifted from the drag and the sand knocked out. The joint must now be carefully made and troweled smooth, great care being taken with the sand near the edge of the pattern. It is sometimes as well at this stage to lift the pattern very slightly to make sure that it does not lift the sand at the edges with it,

Fig. 2. Simple type of two-part molding-box, consisting of a top, oF cope, A, and a bottom, or drag, B. The bars Care provided to retain the sand in the box. The two parts are held in register by means of the pin D. The handles & are for purposes of handling, in the metal and cause blow-holes in known as the oddside, cope, the casting. If hard ramming is nece ‘The drag is now placed on the and and facing-s sieved on to the um: sary it must be done not on the facing covered part of the pattern. This sand sand, but on the sand behind the face, is rammed evenly round the pattern, and the dangers arising from it pre~ care being taken to avoid hit- vented by the free use of the vent wire, special ting the latter with the rammer. ‘This, for the harder the ramming the more apart from causing possible damage to the venting that will be necessary. Fig, the pattern, would be detrimental to 3 shows three types of rammers in the mold owing to uneven hardness on Jing sand round the exthe surface, posed part of the pattern has been rammed, floor sand, or backing sand, top. This is rammed up evenly all over and may be rammed somewhat harder than the sand on the face.

20 @

CIEY © © ® al use Fig. 3. Types of rammers B, intwogenerforms in the foundry. A ond for general rom-of ers used 9 for final nging C, ramm peogi rammer used flot ning: ramming. Ram

9 ‘The object of ramming the sand is to consolidate it, thereby preventing the cavity of the mold from being enarged by the pressure of the metal without maiking it so hard as to obstruct the free passage of air and gases escaping from the mold. The sand must be rammed evenly and to the same density all over, otherwise the metal may swell at the soft spots and produce a casting that is not true to pattern. Again, if any part of the face -d too hard, the gases may stay

TH

Fig. 4. Trowels used in making molds. A, heart-shaped trowel; B, gate knife used for cutting gates and runners; C and D, two types of trowel used for purposes of jointing. ‘The flask is then turned over, the

Use of Parting-Sand Parting-sand is next dusted over the surface to prevent the two halves of the flask from sticking when they are separated for the removal of the pattern, The eope is replaced on the drag, and facing-sand riddled into it, as was done in the ease of the drag. When rammed, backing-sand is added as before and rammed up evenly all ove: ‘The pattern is now completely buried in the sand, but before the two halves of the flask are separated for its removal, provision must be made for the free eseape of gases and steam that will be generated when the hot metal comes into contact with the damp sand. The method of venting varies with the weight of the easting and the nature of the mold, small castings being frequently cast without any vents at all, whereas in very heavy ones numerous vents may be necessary. Venting Broadly speaking, venting consists of providing holes from the top of the flask to within about one-eighth of an inch of the mold-face, They are usually made with some form of thin wire, which is pushed through the sand, and which, when withdrawn, leaves channels for the free passage of air and steam contained in, and generated by, the contact of the hot metal with the mold. ‘The need for careful venting is due to several causes: the ex pansion of the air contained in the pores of the mold, steam and gas caused by the water vapor coming into contact with the hot metal, on the coal dust and other ingredients of which the sand mixture is formed. ‘When the venting is completed, the ‘cope and drag may be separated. This is a very delicate operation, and must done with great care, If the joint

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 has been properly made it will be found that, when the cope is lifted the pattern is left in the drag, from which it must now be removed. It may sometimes be found necessary before lifting the pattern to loosen it by rapping it gently. This usually makes it separate cleaner and more easily. ‘The op~ eration of removing the pattern is known as drawing.

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shrinks in cooling. This makes better casting. Fig. 6 illustrates a section through 2 mold showing both these channels. AUNNER sen vents ae i

clamp, bolt, or weight the two parts of the flask together, so that they cannot be forced apart by the pressure cre~ ated by the head of metal in the runners and risers, This may be considerable, and in big castings may run into tons. Should the mold lift, the metal swill escape through the joint and ruin the casting. Another result might be Bo that thecasting would be thicker and not S2 true to pattern, Fig. 7 illustrates the general arrangement of u mold ready for NEF Neccacasting. with runner-cups and weights in position

Cutting the Runner ot! We now have the two separated halves of the flask each containing the | impression of half of the pattern, but now-oFF INGATE Gate before the mold can be finally closed a runner, oF channel, for the metal, must Fig. 5. Section through completed mold be cut through the cope to the mold. showing the runner, down which the metal and the riser, which is provided ‘There are various means of doing this, isto poured, rid the mold channels cut perhaps the most common being by from the runner ofintodirt,theetc.moldThe and from the pushing a piece of thin tubing through mold to the riser are known respectively as the cope from the mold-face outwards. in-gates and flow-off gates. ‘his removes the sand in much the same way as an apple-corer removes In order that the metal may be the core from an apple. In certain poured easily down the runner, a rin~ ‘cases the runner is rammed up swith ner cup of basin is cut either directly the cope. This is done by inserting a into the sand in the top of the cope oF piece of round stick into the cope while in a separate box used for the purpose. ‘the ramming is being done, and after- ‘This acts as a funnel into which the wards removing it when the parts of metal is poured, and provides for a the box have been separated. constant flow of metal to the mold. A Runners may be led directly into the section through such a cup is illusmold, or they may be placed some dis- trated in Fig. 6. tance away and a channel cut from Te should be noted that, if molds are them to the mold at the most suitable not east immediately they are closed, spot. The channels from the runner to some form of covering should be placed the mold are known as gates. The posi- over the runners and risers to prevent tion of the runners and gates will be any sand or other material from find~ determined by the type of casting, but ing its way into the mold vie these as a general rule they are so placed channels, This would obviously be det~ that they can be removed from the to the casting. finished casting with the least amount imental of trouble. Risers (On some molds risers are ent, These are provided for in exactly the same way as the runners, and their purpose ia to remove any dirt or slag formed by fof the metal from the Fig. 6. Section through runner cup, oF the 0 mold. ‘The metal when it is poured sand funnel, through which the metal is runs through the mold and out through poured into the runner. It may be made the riser, taking any dirt or sand with ina separate box or hollowed out in the sand of the cope. it, Risers, like runners, may be led of dircetly from the mold, or they may be When the mold has been closed it connected with it by gates. The metal contained in the riser serves as a ready for casting, but’ before the sc~to feeder when the metal in the mold ‘tual pouring is done it is necessary

Cores

‘The mold described above is of the simplest form, producing merely a solid piece of metal. Many castings are more complicated and have hollow portions, sometimes of very intricate design. The water-jacket of an internal-combustion tengine isa good example, Whether simple or intricate the hollow portions are made by inserting cores into the mold to form the exact shape of the hollow part of, the casting. These cores are made of sand, It stands to reason that damp sand molded into any particular shape would not possess sufficient strength to be handled easily. The cores are, therefore, Irequently reinforced, and special binders are added, as already described, which, baked, give additional strength, Core-Boxes Cores are made in boxes. These are somewhat similar to the flask in principle, but are usually made from solid ‘wood, They are made in two or more parts into whieh the sand is rammed. The core. box is in fact a mold, and the process of making a core is the exact reverse of that entailed in making a mold. Alter ramming the sand into the core-box. the two halves are separted and the core is turned out. It is then placed in an oven and baked, after which it is ready to be placed in the mold, Fig. 8 shows a simple core-box together with the core that has been made in it. ‘The cores rest in the mold in recesses especitlly made for the purpose. ‘These recesses are added to the pattern in the form of projections known fas core-prints, Fig. 9 illustrates a sim-

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 aie Fountc easins

core ‘RAG COVERS TOTO BOXES TOGETHER,

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sea

3sy

Fig. 7. General arrangement of a mold after it has been closed and is ready for casting. It is provided Fig, 8. Leff, simy ple core-box made in two parts, used with two runners and two risers, and the two parts for the produc tion of cylindrical cores. Right, core ‘of the flask are cottered together to prevent them {5 it would appear when removed from the box becoming separated by the head of metal in runners Note the central vent. ‘and risers. On many jobs weights are used in place Cods ‘The Grst requirement of a good patof the cotters, tern is thet it should be removed from ple pattern with core-prints and als trietly speaking, a core the sand without disturbing the mold. Impression left by these prints in i nd is any portion of a mold mold achieve this the faces are tapered produces a hole To which the taper in use being genVenting of Cores through or a hollow in a slightly, about ¥% in. to the foot. When casting, and although most erally Although coresare thoroughly driedou shape of te pattern is such that, in an oven before be placed in the cores are made entirely the taper will not work, as in a pattern mold, it is still nec separate from the mold, the that is wider at the bottom than at the means of escape for the gases get hollow parts in a casting top, then loose pieces or cores are used when the metal comes into contact with upby produced often are them. Venting is of extreme to meet the particular case. These nce standing parts leit in the so far as the core is concerned,importa loose pieces are fixed to the pattern by for the mold when the pattern is means larger part of it is as Grawn. These projecting soon as of thepins,sandwhichhas arebeenremoved often entirely surrounded by metal, portions fulfill the Tunetions round the Joose picee to hold it rammed ‘and any gas failing to get away in posiof cores, and are known as tion in the mold, through the vents will stay in the cols, metal, thas causing blow-holes. A-core is vented in a similar m: Where large cods are left behind in to a mold—that is to say, it is pro- the mold when the pattern is drawn Loose Pieces vided with channels through which the they may have to be reinforced with gases escape. These are made in the wires to prevent them breaking away When the pattern is drawn, the arrange to core in its green, or damp, state by It is usually desirable loose pieces are left behind in the sand the mold in such a way that the cod is and drawn out into the cavity left in pushing a wire through the center. for the the mold by the removal of the patWhere the core is not straight, string left in the drag. ‘I is frequently rammed up in the box simple reason that it is obviously eas- tem. See Fig. 10. Generally speaking, patterns are with the core and removed when the ier and safer to draw the pattern upward from the cod than to draw the core is completed, but before it has made of wood, but where very large cod away from the pattern in the cope numbers of molds have to be made been removed from the box. In machine molding, dealt with later from a single pattern, as in the ease of fon, turp-over machines are used in mass-production jobs, metal patterns Use of Wax String cases where large cods have to be are used. These have a highly polished surface to make them draw easily. It is essential that molten metal ean- drawn, Patterns not find its way into these vents and Core-Boxes Block them up, as this might result in ‘A pattern is a facsimile of the eastthe bursting of the core, owing to the ing to be produced, and its menufaefact that the gases have no free means ture calls for a very high degree of Core-boxes and patterns are somemade together in one piece, the of escape. skill on the part of the pattern-maker, times With very intricate cores the vent- as well as a sound knowledge of pattern being made in two parts and ing is frequently done by means of wax- foundry practice The pattern-maker hollowed out inside to form the core~ dual-purpose patterns, coated string. The wax melts when the decides the manner in which the east- box. These core is in the drying oven, and when it is ing is to be molded and where the however, are only used in small types removed the strings can easily by pulled Joints are to be made in the mold of work and never in repetitive jobs. out.

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THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 SKEWER

LOOSE PIECE

Fig. 10. Where patterns must be of such a shape that they cannot be drawn from the sand owing 10 projections, loose pieces are employed to get over the difficulty. These are detachable from the patiern and drown seporotely afer the potten has been token rom the mold. Left, pattern showing loose pieces: right, the loose pieces being removed from the mold by means of a skewer.

Fig. 9. Abovo, simple pattern wil core-prints. The core fits into and is supported by the impressions left in the sand by these prints. Below, impression left by the pettern, Care of Patterns Patterns are expensive to make, and floor, the lower faces of thethe mold pat should be handled carefully if thes are which are formed underneath to be maintained in good condition. tern cannot be easily rammed, for, unThey must be stored in a properly ven- like molds made in a box, there is no tilated building where the temperature means of providing an oddside, is even, otherwise they may warp and Proparing the Bed become unserviceable It is best to number each pattern, In making a bedded-in mold together with its loose pieces, if any, smooth surface is first made on the and core-boxes, store tiem ina rack sand and the level care with the number painted on the out fully checked. The sand side, In this way much time may be is then dug up and saved in finding the pattern when it loosened to a sufficient is wanted, When patterns come from depth and the patte the pattern-maker they have a smooth beaten into it with heavy surface. Frequent use in the foundry wooden mallets. The pat will, in time, tend to roughen them, so tern is then removed and it is desirable that they should be an inch or two of facing looked over periodically and treated, sand riddled into the imif necessary, with applications of var- pression. The pattern is nish or shellac. then replaced and beatei down again. The sand Other Types of Molds round the pattern is then Very heavy castings, or castings of thoroughly packed with the rammer, after which a considerable depth or area, may be such In molded in the foundry floor. it is smoothed off and the drag, the cases the floor itself acts as joint face made ready to a cope, wit covered and this may be receive the cope. Parting: Open op east be may or the wold sand is then dusted over sand castings usually have the joint and the eope rough surface, and only castings in rammed up in the jormal manner. ‘The mold is then which this is not important are made opened, the pattern removed, and runin this way It stands to reason that when mold- ners and risers cut as for box-molds. Bedded-in molds have to be made ing patterns in the sand of the foundry

swith great care, for itis a difficult mat ter to make the lower half of the mold of even density all over. They call for considerable skill on the part of the molder, because if the sand is of unequal density, the metal is liable to swell over the softer portions and produce castings that are not true to pattern, The lower half of a bedded-in mold is difficult to vent, and consequently the best type of sand for use with this work is one which possesses a large proportion of sharp sand of a free-venting type. Cinders or other such loose material are sometimes placed beneath the mold. Loam Molds

Where a mold has to be modeled to the required shape without the use of a pattern or with patterns only of such portions as depart from the general sectional form, some sort of plastic material, possessing considerable adhesiven , must be used. Clayey sand, or loam, is used for molds of this type ‘Che wet loam is daubed on to brick supports built up in the rough shape of the mold, and, in addition, iron plates and supports are used to give it suGicient strength and rigidity to stand up to the weight of the metal when poured. The mold is thoroughly dried before pouring takes place. ‘The apparatus used in the produc

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tion of these molds is simple, and consists of spindle bars, striking-boards, and the like, which are used in shaping the mold. The making of Joam molds calls for great skill Molds of this type are generally used only for very heavy castings or in case wre the cast of the pattern single mold would be lor a prohibitive. Fig. 11 shows plan and sectional viewsof a loam mold in course of construction. A is the suiking-bar, B the striking: board, C socket for striking: bar, and D the loam-bricks Forming the skeleton of the mold We have explained earlier in this. chapter that an oddside is the support upon which the pattern stinds while the drag is being rammed up, and shown how this may be madeinthe cope, the sand being knocked out alter the drag has been rammed. Sometimes, however, false oddsides are used to save the time and trouble in- volved in having to make a fresh sand oddside for each ynold. False Oddsides ‘These false oddsides ma be made of several substances. They may be of clayey sand blackened or painted on the surface, or of plaster of Paris. The latter tubstance is perhaps the more suitable. as it will stand up longer against wearand is less likely lo become chipped or damaged, These oddsides do not lorm part of the mold, but only assist in the molding operations, Plaster oddsides may be made as follows. A drag is filled with sand and strickled off, The pattern is then bedded in up to the joint and the sand carefully sleeked. A cope is then put on top of the drag, and graphite or some similar substance dusted over the pattern to prevent the plaster from

adhering to it. A suitable misture of plaster may now be poured in to cover the pattern, Tt need not fll the box, being poured only to a depth which is suficient to withstand. ramming. When the plaster has set, the eope may be removed, when it will be found that a plaster impression of one half we pattern has been left, This may

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N Fig. 11. Loam mold in plan and section. These molds are built up from loam, or clayey sand on a skeleton structure and modeled to the required shape by means pattern of sirik ing-boards. Usually very large molds, where the cost of a complete before out dried thoroughly are would be prohil /e, are made in this way. They 1g begins. The letters indicate, A, striking-bar; B, strking-board; C, socket for striking-bar; D, bricks forming skeleton of mold. Tt will be realized, when the follow= be reinforced on the underside by ing section on plate molding has been means of wooden struts, if nec When making a mold by this means, studied, that false oddsides very much the pattern is first placed in the odd- resemble pattern plates in their appliside, and the drag pat on top and cation. Fig. 12 shows a section through a false oddside showing the drag rammed up. The boxes are then turned rammed up. over and the oddside removed. If only one false oddside is used, the second half of the pattern is rammed up in Flate Molding the usual way Use of Two Oddsides Frequently two false oddsides are used in making a single mold—one for cach half, This considerably reduces the molding time, especially in the making of the joint

Much time ean be saved in the mak~ ing of molds if the pattern is divided in half across the parting and mounted in halves on two plates with parallel sides of the same shape as the parting. ‘The use of plates enables the molder to handle the pattems rapidly and vwith certainty, for he is relieved of the

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Metal patterns are frequent ly used in plate-molding where large numbers of molds are required from one plate, They

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THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 task of making the joint between the two parts of the meld, the plate providing its own joint when the flask is

rammed up. In addition, the patterns grayry me 79 can be drawn quickly, as the plate Feluronce REMORS the laps the side of the bor, and

pusten are highly highly burnished burnished t to Spode facilitate drawing. Single-sided _pattern-plates

in positon act as pine high holdthe it drawing operation.

are used chiefly in conjunction, with nrolding machines ‘TThhee wiih molding-machines.

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Procol 20 mendiigany of tie mod

ary. made Pattern plates are generally ee of wood or metal, and the patterns

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Fig. 12. Section through plaster oddside, showing halves of the "mold register the drag rammed up. The use of a false oddside eset soyes considerable time, os it obviates the necessity

Use of Snap-Flasks nay be mounted in halves either on Gf moking @ new oddside for each mold. When plaster need not fill the both sides of a single plate ot on one making the oddside be thesufficiently ap-fhasks are flasks which thick to withstand are hinged box, but need only side of two plates, Fig. 18 shows at one corner so ramming. plate with half a pattern on each side Ural they eam be openandedthe in plan and section. ae cease = The seguene of erations entailed parr Ate in making mold from such a plate meal Y

aaa d is sieved in and Facing-san backing-sand added and up, rammed to fill the box, and the sand strickled off. The flask is next turned over and the cope rammed up in the same manner, The cope is then lifted off and the pattern or patterns on the plate drawn by lifting the plate off the drag.

Cite plate,

Provision of Gates Where a number of patterns are mounted on one plate, the gates—ie. the channels from the runner to the molds—are allowed for on the pattern plate and made as part of the mold, ‘These are shown in Fig. 18, Runners and risers are now cut, and runner cup added. ‘The mold is tiv finished « ready to be closed, weighted,

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Fig. 13. Plan and sectional views of a double-pattern plate on which several patferns are mounted. The gates into each mold are allowed for in the pattern.

Fig. 14, By using © snop-flask such os that shown, Lef t ,considerable saving in flasks

mold removed, Molds are ade in these flasks. but mit feast in them, and their use in foundries engaged in repeti Ue work effects a great saving in flasks, whieh are very expensive. Molds are

may be effected. When the mold is completed the flask is opened and the mold removed. The main parts shown are: A, locking device; B, hinges; C, pins to hold parts in register; D, slide to take pins; E, grooves to made in snap: retain sand in flask. flasks in precisely the same way as ordinary ones. Fig. 14+ shows a typical snap-flask with a locking device A. It is hinged at B, and the two parts are hield in register by the pins C. These are triangular in section and fit into a movable slide D. ‘The grooves E are

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 provided for the retention of the sand in the flask, Snap-flasks are largely used in conneetion with the molding of patterns from plates.

Machine Molding Ia recent years the use of mold machines has become the accepted means of producing castings in very large quantities, The molding-machin performs two important functions—it rams the mold and draws the pattern, know! toe skill be= no. sp% ing required on the part of the operny types of ator. Th in use—manually operated, hydraulic, pneumatic and electrie, ‘These again can be sub-divided into two main types: straight-draw and turn-over. ‘The straight-draw machine lifts the mold away from the pattern, whe the turn-over, as its name implies, turns the mold over before drawingthe and draws the pattern away from mold. The former is used where thereof sand in the form ering to the face of the mold.

Phe turn-over machine is used where heavy sand projections make it impossible for the mold to be drawn upward a from the pattern, A mold with such of projection can be seen on the table the machine illustrated in Fig. 20 D. We will now deal with these types of machine in turn,

Hand-Operated Machines usually of simple are es Hand machin design and area, as a rule. nly the employed in the manufacture of ome In-s smaller types of castings.a table with of Cases they consist only gra patte an atiachment for drawbythein as hand ed ramm the mold being the es hin with [oor work, On other macsqueczing ramming is done by a obtained by device, the pressure being form or mechanical leverage of some -squ eeze other, An example of a hand Straight-down machine is illustrated in Fig. 15 Straight-Draw Machine ‘The patern is fixed to the table. A. pattern ind the flask is placed over the roughl y ‘and filled with sand, 11 is then

2044 rammed round the edges of the flask. with the handle of a shovel. The head, B. is then swung over the mold in the position shown in Fig. 15. aind the tever, C, is pulled lorward applying the pr ‘sure through a crank to the ram, D.1 his causes the squeeze head, B, 10 de: ‘cend and pack the in the flask. The arm is then lilted by returning the lever, and the head swung clear of the machine. The handle, E, is then moved from lett to right, and through a erank rais s the four pins. Thesear ‘oudjusted asto register with the four corners of Une

JRVIVOR Vol. 5

ox, and thus, when the pins are raised, the box is lifted from the pattern. During the Arawing process it is customary to rap the pattern plate with a mallet to assist the draw, The weight of the box on the four pins is counterbalanced by the weight, G, enabling a very steady pattern draw to be obtained.

‘The mold is then lifted from the pins and the latter returned to their original position by moving the lever, E, from right to left. This completes the eycle of opera tions, and the machine is read to receive the next flask. Use of Two Machines

It is often the practice to employ two machines in the production of a single mold, half being made on one ma and half on the other. chine It follows, therefore, that considerable care must be taken by the pattern maker in mounting the patterns accurately, so that when the molding-boxes are mated the two halves of the mold will register exactly. A turn-over machine will very often worl. in conjunction with a straight-draw if one half of the mold has a cod that is ifficult to draw and the other has not

Fig. 15. Hand-operated straight-draw molding machine. The patiern is fixed to the table A and the flask placed over it and filled with sand, It is then roughly rammed round the edges of the box. The squeeze head B is then swung over into the position shown above, and the lever C pulled forword. This operates the squeeze through the ram D, and squeezes the mold. The pattern is drawn by the four pins F, which rise when the handle E is moved from left to right. The weight of the box fon the pins is counterbalanced by the weight G. Assuming that each opera. tor works at approximately the same speed, the molds may be closed as soon as they have been removedfrom the machine, had the runner cut, and any cores inserted. It ‘is often the practice. parucularly where there are 4 large number of cores to sel. to employ a third man to do the coring and closing up ol the molds.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Hand Turm-Over Machines 4) ‘The pattern on this type of machine is fix to the edmain table, A (Fig, 16). The method of ramming and squeezing is precisely the

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2045, Power-Operatod Machines

‘Phe nest machines to be dealt with are those operated by power, the simplest form of which is the squeezeEY thine. These differ from the handhhines only in that the squeezing operation and the pattern draw are worked hy power, hydraulic, pne matic, and electrically driven machines being the most usual. ‘A popular type of power-machine is the pneumatic, or compresscd-air type. Its popularity arises from the fact that it covers a very much wider range of molds than the others, and in addition sueeessfully handle many typesof mold that cannot be made on the other machines

Advantages of Air-Machines ‘The main advantage the air-machine

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

the table. The lever, B, is now moved to the draw posicauses the four tion, which pins, F, to rise and lift the mold from the pattern in exactly the same way as in the ease of the manual type During the first part of _ the draw the pins rise slowly, and gradually increase in speed as the mold gets clear of the pattern, While the drawing operation is in progress the table is autoth it. This replaces the rapping of the patte plate in the manual machines an easy and clean and insures drawing action. The mold is removed from the pins and the draw-lever returned to neutral. That completes the

possesses over its competitors is the fact that it docs not rely for ramming ¢yele of operations. How the Air-Machine fon direct squeszing pressure only but has a shaking device, usually termed Works

the jolt which enables ang depth of A very brief description sand to be rammed, whereas with plain of the internal construction squeeze-machines there is definite of this machine will give the limit to the depth of sand that ean be reader a clearer understandrammed. Furthermore, » very much ing of its method of workmore uniform ramming density is ob- ing, tained when a jolt is employed, resultis a sectional draw18 . Fig. 16. The turn-over machine, shown above, dif- ing im considerable improvement in ing Vig of the body of the mafers from the straight-draw in’ that it draws the the quality of the castings. chine illustrated in Fig. 17. mold away from the pattern in a downward dicecThe main eylinder is cast Pneumatic Straight-Draw fion, It is used mainly where the mold contains with the frame, A. This is aclarge sand projections, or cods. The pattern is fixed Both straight-draw and turn-over curatel y machined and to the main table A and the box placed over it. machines may be power-operated, and The method of ramming and squeezing is exacily we wil first of all deseribe a pneu- ground to take the squeezethe same os with the straight-draw machine (Fig. matic straight-draw machine as illus- piston, B, This piston is 15). After squeezing, the flask is clamped to the out in the center with 17. ‘This machine has ‘bored toble by means of the pins B, and the table turned trated i a similar cylinder in which ‘over through 180 deg. and locked in position by a table, A, to which the pattern-plate is moves piston, C. The the screw C. The draw-table D is raised by the fixed. The flask is placed over the pat- piston, another C, is fixed to the lever E to support the underside of the flask when tern in the usual manner, and the lever, the clamps are released and the draw-table low1, moved to the jolt position. ‘This ered away. the table to rise and fall rapeauses side of the flask, when the same as with the straight clamps Bare releaed and the idly and has the effect of ramming the draw machine just deserib- mold drawn away from the sand in the flask, While the table ed. After squeezing, the flask pattern in a downward motion the sand is shoveled into the is clamped to the table by direction by lowering the flask, and when itis full the erm, C, is means of the pins, B, and the During this swung into position above the flask and table turned through 180 deg, lever. the pattern plate is the Jever, D, depressed. This operates The table is locked in position operation rapped with a mallet_as the squeeze-piston, which lifts the taafter being turned over by before. The mold is lifted the serew, C. and squeezes the mold against the from the draw-table and the ble The draw-table, D, is next main table turned back presser-plate, E. ‘The squecze-lever, raised by lifting the lever E again to ils normal position D, is then returned to its original position and the arm, C, swung clear of until it supports the under ready for the next job.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

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URVIVOR Vol. 5

Fig. 18. Sectional drawing of pneumatic straight-draw machine, showing details of the operations. A, frame containing main eylinder; B, squeeze piston; C, table piston; D, table; E, jolt anvil; F, draw-rod guides: G, bridge coupling draw-rods; H, draw-piston; J, casing; K, il reservoir; L, draw cylinder; M, ground level.

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chine. Besides performing the squeezing and pattern-drawing automatically, this machine possesses two features not included in the hand-operated type. These cre the jolting device, for ramming the sand, and the vibrator, which assists in drawing the pattern cleanly. The moin features are shown above: A, the pattern toble; B, lever for operating the jolt; C, squeeze-head arm; D, lever for operating squeeze; E, presser-plate; F, pins for lifting box. of the table table, D, which in its normal position, up-and-down movement jelting proc continues throughout the rests on the anvil, E.

ess at approximately three hundred strokes a minute, The Jolt-Cylinder When the squeeze pressure is apWhen air is admitted into the jolt- plied to the main piston, B, the table jolt-piston are lifted upward and eglinder, the jolt-piston rises about sand the flask on the table pressed against 1% in,, in which position it uncovers the squecze-plate, the table-pressure on an exhaust port which allows both piston and table to fall, the table hitting the small machine illustrated amountthe anvil, E, with a sharp blow. This ing to about three tons

‘The draw-rods that Jift the mold from the pattern operate through two quides, F, which are attached to and coupled together through a bridge, G. his is in turn fixed to a solid piston, H,, the whole being housed in the casing, J. he reservoir, K, is filled with oil, and when the pattern draw-valve is moved, air pressure is applied to this, reservoir, forcing the air down the channels situated immediately below and allowing it to enter the chamber, L. This causes the piston to rise, thus effecting the draw. "The pneumatic turn-over machine is illustrated in Fig. 19. The method of

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 operation is similar to that described for the straight-draw machine in so far as the jolting and squeezing of the mold are concerned. After the squeeze pressure has been applied, the lever, A, is moved, which causes the machine to rotate through 180 deg. about the shaft which is coupled to the column at B. machine is then in the position illustrated in Fig. 20. The lever, B, is depressed, causing the table and the pattern, C, to rise and leave the mold, D, on the squeeze-plate, E. The mold fs then taken off the machine. The lever, A, is then moved back to the neutral position, causing the machine to turn back. ‘The construction of the machine so far as the jolt and squeeze are concerned is identical with that of the straight-draw illustrated in Figs. 17 and 18,

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THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Turn-Over Mechanism ‘The turn-over mechanism consists of

ft running through the main housing, C (Fig. 19). ‘This shaft is coupled to the column at B. A sprocket-wheel is keyed to the shaft under the cover, D, over which passes a chain conn d to two pistons situated in the lower part of the housing. ‘The turn-over valve merely allows the air to pass from one cylinder into the other, thus rotating the sprocket and causing the machine to revolve,

Hoppers and Conveyors Molding machines, and particularly those of the power-operated type, turn out molds at a considerable speed, and it is frequently the practice in large foundries to employ hoppers to keep the machines supplied with sand. These hoppers are placed over the table and filled hy means of conveyors at a speed proportionate to the speed of the machine, In such foundries other convey ors are usually used to carry away the finished molds from the machine to be ‘east. It need scarcely be added th such cases continuous pouring is als employed. Machines for Multiple Molds

‘The use of molding machines in

Fig. 19. Pneumatic turn-over molding machine, showing pattern fixed on table. The method of operation is similer to the straight-draw, but the machine is turned over before the pattern is drawn. A, lever operating 1Urn-over; 8, shaft on which machine rotates; C, main housing; D, housing cover; E, squeeze-plaie, small foundries frequently causes difficulties through lack of sufficient floor space, for even if the molding machines themselves do not occupy a great deal of room, considerable space is necessary for the finished molds and the many empty” flasks, ‘This problem, whieh arises through the speed with which the machines turn out the molds, is sometimes solved by multiple molding, Machines are used which are capable of making two half molds in a single half-flask. he flasks are stacked one on top of the other, a complete mold being formed at each joint; and thi whole stack is poured through a sin fe runner, gates being provided for each mold. All the runners are made wider at the top than the bottom, so that when pouring

begins the metal will fill the bottom box first, the boxes above being filled in turn as the metal rises. Reference to Fig. 21 will make th point clear. Machines used for multiple molds sometimes consist of a pattern plate, swith one half of the pattern on it, and a squeeze head which carries the other half of the pattern, The half-flask is placed on the pattern plate, a sandframe placed on it, and filled with sand, ‘The presser head is then brought over the half-flask and the mold squeezed in the usual manner. A halfmold is thus made on both sides of the balf-fiaske at one operation, Only comparatively small castings are made in this way, for it is doubtful whether the quantity of sand required to fill a large half-ilask could be satisfactorily

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URVIVOR Vol. 5: RUNNER ry

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‘TOGETHER

Fig. 21. Special machines ore sometimes employed which mold two halves of a mold, half on each side of a half box. The boxes ere then stacked on each other, @ complete mold being formed ‘et each joint, and the stack is poured through @ single runner. The diagram illustrates the principle of this system.

the ig. 20. Pneumatic machine in turned-over position, showing the mold after pattern has been drawn. A, turn-over lever; B, draw-lever; C, pattern; D, mold; E,

squeeze-plate, The mold shown affords a good illustration of the use of the turnover machine, for it would be difficult to draw the projection, or cod, upward from the patern without it becoming separated from the parent mold, rammed to stand any real weight of ing table of the machine as shown at metal, A, Fig. 23. The table is revolved by means of the handle, B, whieh, through Machine-Molded Gears a bevel gear, C, tums one of the two Machines are largely employed for parallel horizontal shafts under the molding all kinds of spur, worm, bevel, table. At the other end of this shaft is miter, and helical gears, complete a change-gear, E, on the other shaft. patterns for which would cost a con ‘The latter carries the worm, F, in the siderable sum, The patterns in use on center, which actuates the dividingsuch machines consist only of a single gear, G, attached to the under-side tooth-space or short segment of the pe of the table riphery known as the tooth-block (see By this means the table can be Fig. 22). ‘This block is attached toa turned through any required fraction bracket on the machine as shown in of the circumference of a circle with Fig. 28. By repeating the mold of the great accuracy, thereby repe tooth-block the required number of mold of the tooth-block, It stands to Fig. 22. Tooth-blocks used for molding times molds may be made for gears reason that for each tooth the table gears. They consist of a short segment of any diameter. Core-boxes are em- must turn through an angle of 360, of the periphery of the gear to be molded. ployed for molding the arms. where x he number of teeth in the Details of the Machine wheel he method of regulation is by ting lathe and explained in Chapter +. ‘The tooth-block, H, is attached to means of change-gears, and is similar ‘The mold is made in a cizcular mold~ to the method adopted in a thread-cut- the lower end of the carrier, I, which ing-box which is earried on the revoly-

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HE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

ig. 24. Striking-board used to prepare the bed for molding gears. A, depth of face of gear; B, bottom edge of board that strikes the bed; C, top edge of board that strikes the mold-joint.

See

SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Fig. 25. Striking-board used for striking a cope direct. ro,

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handle Fig. 23. Main features of a gear-molding machine, A, revolving toble;G, B,dividingworm; for revolving table; C, bevel gear; D and E, change-gears; F,turning-h andie. L, weight; K, ‘gear; H, tooth-block: I, carrier; J, guides;

slides in the guides, J, and is counterbalanced by the weight, K, By turning the handle, L, the carrier may be racked up and down to any desired height. The gear is molded by placing the box on the machine-table and preparing a bed with a striking-board which fits on to a central spindle in the-table. ‘This is shown in Fig, 24,A being equal in depth to the depth of the face of the gear. The bottom edge, B, strikes the bed, and the top edge, C, the joint of the mold. ‘The spindle and striking board are then removed, and the toothblock, having been serewed to the car rier, is set to the correct radius and lowered until its face bears on the sand-bed. Facing-sand is next rammed between the teeth of the block, and if the wall of the bed is sloping, as would be the case- if it were made with the striking-board in Fig. 24, the slope is

ee oo struck to the required shape by means of a suitable striking-board such as that shown above. also filled up. The ramming should be done with a small wooden pegging may be made by means of a strikingrammer to avoid damaging the pattern, board or rammed up in a reverse mold. A flat rammer is used for the top, and. Copes made by the latter method are the joint scraped and sleeked with a generally more satisfactory, as they trowel. ‘The teeth are vented and the can be rammed up harder than by a pattern is lifted clear of the moi Gentle rapping during lifting will help striking board,copes are struck direct, a ‘When the the pattern to come away cleanly. The striking-board is used which produces table is ‘then revolved through one similar to the top of the space, lowered into position, and the fa surface cope has to fit. ‘This board operation repeated untilsthe circle is mold the adjusted that its upper surmust be so complete. beAs the tooth-block molds a ring of face is in the plane of the joint Fig. mold, the of teeth only, the interiors of the gears tween the two parts have to be formed with cores. These 25 shows a striking-board for striking are made in core-boxes and put into a cope direct. For ramming a cope up in a reverse the mold before it is closed. mold a hard sand-bed is first made and the surface struck up to shape with a Making the Cope reverse board, as shown in Fig. 26. Copes for flat gears may be rammed ‘The cope is now put on, parting-powup on a flat surface, but copes for der added, and rammed up as if on a Devel gears or gears that are not flat pattern.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Machines for molding gears may be cither bench types, as shown in Fig. 23, or floor machines. The latter are used for molding gears up to 25 ft

Mending-Up of Molds Few sand-molds, with the possible exception of those made on moldingmachines from plates or from very good patterns, are perfect when the pattern has been withdrawn, Faults of various kinds are liable to arise, the most common being caused through

2050

rough patterns, patterns made without sufficient taper, or through bad workmanship; and the result is that when the pattern is withdrawn from the mold, parts of the mold become fractured or broken off. Bad ramming is a frequent cause of bad molds, or rapping too vigorously while withdrawing the pattern may break down weak parts of the mold or weaken them to such an extent that they wash off when the metal is poured. Jerking of the pattern while drawing it may also cause portions of the mold to be broken oF to become loosened. Cutting Out Soft Spots All parts broken or loosened through these or any other causes must be made ‘good, and in addition any parts of the mold that are found on examination to be either too hard or too soft must be cut out and remade, If the mold is seriously damaged it is often quicker in the long run to remake it completely. If the damage is small it is generally better to patel it by hand rather than with a trowel, for the latter tends to sleek the mold and close the pores, thereby impairing the venting. When applying new sand to the mold, as little water as possible must be used thein assisting the sand to adhere to parent mold, as this may chill the metal in that part of the mold and cause hard spots on the ca: Uso of Sprigs In cases where the edges have suffered badly it is often a good plan to replace the pattern in the mold and make the repairs with the pattern place. When this is done the sand should be well troweled to make it eohere, In this instance the use of the , trowel is not injurious to the mold ‘metal docs not come into contact

TH SURVIVOR Vol. 5 ‘These are small pins which are pushed into the sand below the surface and the holes filled in and made good. In some molds specially bent irons are used as strengtheners. Permanent Molds

For certain types of work, particaJarly in the manufacture of bedsteads, sand-molds are replaced by permanent ones made of metal, usually iron. The cost of such molds is obviously heavy, but where articles have to be produced in very large quantities, the time saved jin making a fresh mold for cach casting fully justifies the cost. Non-ehilling brands of iron are usually used in making castings in permanent molds, and the molds into which it is poured may be either cold or hot, It wil generally be found that the best results are obtained if the molds are kept at a temperature of about 300 deg. F. ‘The metal must be very hot when cast, and the castings must be turned out of the molds at approximately an orange-red color. Soft iron cores are used in conjunetion with permanent molds. These must be removed before the casting begins to contract, otherwise they will be gripped fast and it wil be impossible to remove them.

Melting tron Iron for foundry purposes is melted in a furnace known as a cupola. This is a blast furnace, ‘and a simple type is illustrated in Fig. 27. It consists of a boilerplate shell, A, which rests on a base-plate, B, supported on a brick platform, C. The shell is lined with Srebricks, D, and the iron base is covered with fireclay sloped |. 27. Cupola, or furnace for melting iron. Sprigs or small pins may be used to slightly in the direction of the It consists of a shell A standing on a base- strengthen weak parts of the mold. tap-hole in front of which a chanplate B supported by a brick platform C. nel is fixed to carry the metal to ‘The shell is lined with firebrick D. The fire is lighted through the opening E and the ledle, The cupola is generally pipe G, the blast is led into the cupola through the tuyeres F and from the supply through built on the outside of the foundry which, in turn, connects with the main supply pipe H. The furnace is fed wall, the channel from the tap-hole the charging door J from the charging platform K. When the charging door is being carried through the wall into closed the swiveling heads of the tuyeres are swung into position and the biost the molding shop. turned on, the tap-hole being left open to allow the clay ing to dry. The metal, On the side of the cupola shell opwhich begins to run after about 15 minutes of full blast, is observed through the posite to the tap-hole is an opening mica sight-holes L.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

covered by a plate, E, through which the fire is lighted and the furnace cleaned out when necessary. The blast is led into the cupola by means of the tuyerea, F, each of which has a swi ing head resting on the supply pipes, G, which take the air from the main supply pipe, H. The materials are fed to the furnace through the charging hole, J, placed at a suitable height above the charging platform. K. A fire is lighted in the bottom, and a charge of coke added. When this is well alight filling begins. A charge of iron of suitable weight is put i gether with a suitable flux. Another layer of coke is added and followed by a further charge of metal. The proportion of coke may vary between

ight and twenty pounds of coke per hundred pounds of iron, according to the requirements of the cupola, Alternate charges of coke and iron are then added to fill the eupola

Lining the Tap-Hole This is done two or three hours before the blast is put on. During this perriod the various openings in the eupola are left open to assist combustion and allow it to become warmed throughout. Before the blast is turned on for melting down the metal, the tap-hole ia ined with clay, and the plate, E, Fig. 27, packed round the edges with sand. ‘The charging door, J, is then closed and the swiveling heads of the tuyeres swung into position. ‘The blast is then turned on, but the tap-hole is left open at this stage to allow the clay Jining to dry before the clay stopper, or bot, is put in, The stopping is done by sticking the bot on to the end of a botstick, and the latter held with the plug pointing downward toward the hole, in which position it should be driven home. Full blast may now be turned on, and in about a quarter of an hour the ‘metal begins to run down. This ean be observed through the mica sight-holes, L, in the tuyeres. When sufficient metal has collected,

2051

the bot is knocked out of the tap-hole with the sharp point of the bot-stick and the metal run down the channel into a Indie. As the metal in the cupola sinks, additional charges of metal, coke and flux are added as required. Metal from the cupolas is collected in ladies and poured from these ladles into the mold. Ladles of various types are illustrated in Fig. 28, A is a hond ladle holding about half a hundredis weight, used for very light a tworman ladle for heavier work; C is a crane ladle for easting up to a ton of metal; and D a heavy erane ladle capable of holding from one to twelve tons. The ladle shown at C is tipped direct by means of the handle, while that at D is a geared type and is tipped by turning the wheel, Ladles are lined with fireclay, and

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

must be thoroughly heated before the metal is run into them, This is done in the case of small ladles by heating them over a coal or coke fire, but with the larger types a fire is lighted within them. When they have been filled the metal is protected with coal-dust or charcoal and covered with a plate. All material used for covering the metal while collecting, or foreign matter thrown up by the metal, must be skimmed off before pouring begins, and in addition it is customary to hold fa rectangular bar of iron across the ‘mouth of the ladle during the actual pouring to keep back any dirt or oth matter which remains floating on the surface of the metal and which, if it were allowed to enter the mold, would prove detrimental to the quality of the finished casting,

Temperature of the Metal ‘The temperature of the metal while being poured is of the greatest importance, as it influences the shrinkage of the casting during solidification. ‘The lowest tempera~ ture at which the mold can be completely and properly filled is the best temperature at which to pour. ‘This will, of course, vary with different types of mold, being influenced by the distance the metal has to run, the thickness of the mold, and other factors. Pou! 1g the Metal Pouring must be done steadily, and a constant stream of metal must be maintained until the opera~ Fig. 28. Types of ladles used in the foundry. A, tion is complete. Any iron hand ladle for light casts; B, two-man ladle for entering the mold in driblets heavier work; C, crane ladle for casting up to © is liable to become chilled ton of metal; D, heavy erane ladle with geared and cause marks on the east tipping d , capable of holding from one to twelve tons of metal. ings. In view of this, the p runner-u or pouring basin ‘A basin that is kept full in this way is closed by a stopper and ‘will also prevent foreign bodies from metal poured in until the entering the mold, as these will float basin is full. on the top of the metal. ‘Lhe stopper is then removed, and ‘When pouring very heavy molds a the flow of the metal from ladle to jand channel is sometimes made from basin must be sufficiently rapid to keep the cupola to the mold and the metal the basin full until casting is complete. poured without the use of ladles,

2052

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Feeding of Molds

Feed-gates are frequently provided in molds to compensate for the contraction of the metal as it cools and to supply fresh metal to make up the deficiency, thus stopping shrinkage of the casting. They are therefore cut in those parts of the mold where the mass of metal is greatest. and the total coi traction is large. If metal is not supplied in this way the castings may turn out to be spongy, or drawn and twisted, because of stresses set up dur~ ing cooling. Fecd-gates are vertical passages cut through the cope to the mold. Like runners, they are provided with a cup or basin-shaped cavity at the top. Feeding is done by means of an iron rod }4 in, or 3% in. in diameter, which is first heated by dipping it in the hot metal in the ladle. As soon as the mold is full, the rod is pat into the molten metal in the head of the feed-gate and moved up and down in a regular manner, care being taken to avoid touching the sides of the gate or pushing it in so far as to touch the mold. ‘The pumping movement of the feeder-rod keeps a passage open in the center of the metal and allows metal in the feeder-basin to pass down into the mold. Feeding is continued until the iron clings to the rod, which should then be removed with as little disturbance to the metal as po: In cases where the runner runs di into the mold the Intter may be fed through the runner, although th should only be done in cases where very clean metal is used. Fig. 29 shows a mold being fed as described. ‘When castings are cool enough to be removed from the sand the boxes are knocked and the castings allowed to cool down uniformly. ‘The cooling process should not be hurried, and on no account should artificial cooling be resorted to. Fettling ‘Phe castings are now ready to be cleaned up and finished. When they are removed from the mold they have several unwanted projections in the shape of runners, risers, feed-gates, ete, These are removed, in the case of iron, by nicking them with a chisel and

snapping them off. Non-ferrous runners are sawed off, and steel ones 1 moved by means of the oxy-acetylene cutting process, The core-holes should then be cleaned out and any fins removed with a cold ebisel Cores are cleaned out by means of drifts oF otherwise. The use of a wire brush on the exterior faces of a east ing will remove any sands adhering to it, while sand-blasting is also emplosed for this purpose. Castings that are not too delieate may be cleaned by tumbling in a rattler, and even fragile castings, if properly filled, may be treated in this way, |=Feeoen ROD

22

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‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

grades of which can be bought, Alloying In addition, iron is frequently alJoyed with nickel, chromium, and other metals to give it special he durable, oF other properties. tion of the composition and alloying of cast iron is dealt with fully in Chapter 2, to which the reader should refer for further information on this subJect. It should be noted that. any serap to be used for re-melting should be sorted over before being used. The use of dirty serap, or scrap which has a Jarge quantity of sand adhering to it, can only prove detrimental to the quality of the metal. In addition, special care should be taken while sorting to see that any unsuitable metal is removed. ‘Matleable Castings

Fig. 29. Feeding a mold. The pumping action of the feeder-rod keeps a passage open in the center of the metcl and allows the metal in the feeder-basin to poss down into the mold. Feeding compensates for the contraction of the metal as it cools. Mixing tron

Cast iron is readily recognizable by its brittleness and its inability to bend without breaking. When being machined, the chips are small, brittle crumbs, and parts of the casting may be so hard that they eannot be touched with 2 machine tool or a file. There are, however, various grades of cast fron, and these are produced by mix1g different types of iron in the cu pola or other melting furnace so that the best type for the job can be obtained. ‘A good proportion of foundry serap is generally employed in such mixtures, ranging from light shop scrap, such as runners, risers, ete., from small castings, to heavy shop scrap, which consists of heavy defective castings, heavy runners, and the like. This serap may be mixed with a suitable quantity of new izon, or pig iron, different

Although castings are normally rather hard and brittle when removed from the sand, it is possible to prouce castings that are less brittle and very tough. ‘These qualities are produced largely by prolonged annealing (see Heat-Treatment of Metal), but annealing ean only be really satisfactory if suitable iron is used in the first place. Malleable castings are made in green-sand molds, and although the method of making the mold is the same as for any other type of casting, there are one or two points whieh, if borne in mind by the molder, will help to insure the success of the’ finished article, ‘A good fine facing sand should be used to produce a good skin or face fon the casting; a mixture of cement and plumbago makes a good facing. It is also well to remember that the iron used for malleable castings tends to shrink to a greater extent than the ordinary iron, and larger gates and risers should therefore be provided. Shrink heads or feeders should be larger for the same reason, and they should be made wider at the bottom than at the top. This is done because metal for malleable castings is not very fluid and is liable to set rather quickly,

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 especially in the narrow neck of the runner, riser or feed-gate, and will thus impede the passage of feed metal to the casting. Heat of Ladles Ladles for malleable iron should be hotter than those used for ordinary grey iron, and they are frequently heated by filling them with metal from the cupola, allowing them to stand until they have become thoroughly heated through, and then pouring the metal back into the cupola. Some furnaces are provided with an aperture near the tap-hole {or this purpose. Chilled Castings In case where certain faces of a casting are required to stand up to considerable wear while the body of the casting remains soft, chills are put into the mold as, shown in Fig. 30. The molten metal coming into contact with the chil! becomes very rapidly cooled; this prevents the formation of free carbon near the chilled surface and results in a very hard and durable surface,

Chills are made of iron, 2 close, strong grey iron, with a high melting point being the ‘most suitable. They are usually dressed or blackened before use with a thin wash of blacklead or other substance that will not inter~ fere with the cooling effect of the chill. Sometimes they are not dressed, but allowed to form a thin coating of rust, and smeared over with a little oil before being put into the mold as explained later. ‘The depth of the chilling effect may be regulated by the thickness of the chills, Skin chilling can be effected by means of chilling plates from half to cone inch thick. Chills sometimes crack through unequal heating, and if this is to be avoided, the molds should be filled as quickly as possible so that the whole surface of the chill may be similarly affected. Larger gates than for ordinary molds are therefore necessar ‘The face of the chill that comes into contact with the casting should be carefully prepared in the first instance and thereafter kept in good condition.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Fig. 30. In order to produce a durable and hardwearing surface on certain faces of a casting, iron chills are inserted into the mold, as shown above. The diagram illustrates a mold for a truck wheel ‘with chills for the tread and axle.

Frequently these faces are machined for accuracy and also to remove the outer skin of the-iron, ‘The removal of this skin is generally desirable because being cast iron, itis often of a slightly different composition from the interior, and if not removed might cause cracks or other blemishes to form on the surface, When chills are being machined, the greatest care should be exercised to avoid coarse tool marks. On very smooth surfaces it is ditt cult to get the blacking to adhere properly, and in addition, the molten ‘metal coming into contact with them

will not lie quietly. Tn order to overcome these difficulties the smoothness may be removed by carefully rusting the surface, but no more than a very thin layer should be allowed to form. For this purpose chills are often ex posed to the weather, or they may be treated with a very dilute solution of sal-ammoniae, Sometimes urine is used to produce the film of rust. Phe chill should be rusted uniformly over the surface, which is then rubbed over by hand Repairing Damage to Chills It will be obvious to the reader that severe chills have to withstand very conditions. They must, therefore, be frequently inspected and kept in good order. Rough patches are liable to ap= pear on the surface, and these must be rubbed down. A little blacking may be used as a filler where the damage slight. Chills that have been in use for a long time- lose their chilling properties and are liable to produce defects in the casting. This is due to the annealing effect of the hot metal coming into contact with them, In order to reduce the danges of

fracture, chills should be heated in a stove before being put into dry-sand molds, and the metal should be poured before they have had time to cool. Brass, aluminum, and other nonferrous metals arc cast in sand molds in much the same way as iron. The making of the mold is in most cases the same as for iron, although, in the brass the flasks are usually poured vertically instead of horizontally. It is usual, when making molds for brass castings, to provide several in-gates from a central runner, while the runnet itself should be somewhat wider than that used for iron, With aluminum the most important point is the pouring temperature of the metal. This metal readily overheats, but if satisfactory castings are to be obtained, the temperature should not be allowed to rise very much above the melting point. Before pouring, the dross and dirt should be carefully skimmed off, and the metal given vigorous stir. It should then be poured quickly into the mold in a steady stream, Greew-sand molds are generally used, and the cores are often made from sawdust with resin as a binding agent, With this metal hard cores tend to produce cracked castings, owing to the fact that they do not contract to the same extent as the metal itself. It is desirable to remove them from the sand as soon after pouring as possible. Owing to the lightness of the metal, heavy runners and risers are essential.

TH!

SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2054

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5,

sisting of two or more parts. The a sand surface. term is often loosely applied toa Sxar-riasi. Molding-box, hinged on half box. fone side so that it may be opened ow-orF Gare, Channel cut from the to allow the finished mold to be mold to the riser. removed. Gare, Channel by which metal may Senacs. Small pegs of wood or metal Apnestveness. The ability of particles enter or leave a mold. See Inused to strengthen weak portions of sand to cling to some other maGate; Flow-off Gate. of a mold or to assist in the mendterial.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE FOUNDRY

Backrne Saxp, Sand used to fill asks ‘after facing-sand has been used to cover the pattern Beovep-1s Mop. Mold the bottom half of which is made in the sand in the floor of the foundry. It may be covered with a cope, or cast open, according to the type of work. Brown Castinas. Castings in which bubbles, or blowholes, have been caused through gases, steam, ete., generated when the mold is cast, finding their way into the molten metal, Bor. Clay wedge used in a cupola to stop the hole through which the metal is run, Cop. A sand projection left behind in the mold by some patterns. Strictly speaking, it is e core, but instead of being inserted separately into the mold, it forms part of the mold itself Conrsivennss. The ability of particles of sand to cling together. Corn. The top half of molding-box. Core. Sand facsimile of the interior, or hollow, portions of a casting. Cone Box. Box in which cores are rammed up and shaped. Dnac, The bottom half of # molding box or flask, It is rammed up before the cope Facise. Materials used in the foundry for painting the surface of a finished mold in order to produce a smooth skin on the casting. Facrve-Sanp, Sand used to form the faces of a mold. Permanent oddside Faxse Onpsipr, made of plaster or other material Se Oddside, Farpine. Process of assisting metal to run into a mold to make up for any contraction of the metal as it cools. Ferriivc, Cleaning up, trimming and finishing of castings after they have been taken out of the sand asx. A complete molding-box, con

Grex Sawv-moun. Mold made and east in damp sand. The opposite of a dry sand-mold, which is dried in an oven before it is poured. Ix-oaen. Channel cut from the bottom of the runner into the mold. It is used in cases where the runner docs not enter the mold direct. Lapue. Receptacle into which molten metal is run from the cupola and from which metal is poured into a mold. Loose Pizces. Undereut portions of @ pattern which are made separate from and fixed on to the pattern pins or other means, in order that they may be left behind in the sand when the pattern is withdrawn and removed separately from the mold. Mou. Impression of the article to be It is usually made in sand, but may be of metal Muuripue Mouvs. Molds which are stacked on top of each other and east through a. single runner. Each half box contains a half mold on each face, Oposipe. Support used for supporting 1 pattern while the drag is being rammed up. Parrers. Facsimile of the article to be produced. It may be of wood, metal or other material, made larger than the cas allow for contraction. Paix, Woden projection put on to a pattern to provide supports for the cores in a mold. Rarpixo, Tapping of the pattern with a mallet in order to loosen it as it is drawn from the mold. Ruser. Channel from a mold used to carry foreign matter out of the mold or to assist in feeding the casting as it cools. Ruxwer, The channel down w h the metal is poured into a mold, Sunex. Term meaning to make smooth, It is applied to the troweling of

ing up of a damaged mold. SrricKxe. Piece of wood by means of which surplus sand is removed from a molding-box or other surface. Strickles may also be used to ‘shape sand surfaces in the mold. ‘Vewrr. Channel made in the sand in the vicinity of a mold to allow steam, ‘gases, ete., generated when sand ‘and molten metal come into contact with one another, to escape. Waster. Faulty casting, POPULAR MECHANICS

Hinged Blocks Hold Sandpaper Here's block 1 handyo sanding aninintes. annie InaHinge Fee tro blocks with Jeather ‘and drive brads through theso upper block Unt the points jn. to ty sandproject fold the ears paper securely. Rubber Band Holds Pail Handle to Often hold it’sthe handy hanaeaint or pailbal,upright of A rubber around band shapped wildoTt the Vande trick thenicely bait upholds Night where W's easily atthe grasped same timeandit serves as 2 brush rest or wiper, “Teardrop” Drawer Pulls Casting sinkers of the type that are teardrop: shaped made into canattrac.be tive and durable drawer pulls for a shop cabinet, Just open a small altaeh, sinker and then turn the serew eye into the drawer front,

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THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 rue

MOULDER'S

AND

FOU

DER'S

POCKET GUI DE A TREATISE ON

WITH AN APPENDIX

By FRED. OVERMAN, MINING ENGINEER, wtp Portytion ood Tugradings. PHILADELPHIA! A. HART, tare CAREY & TART. 1852,

CONTENTS. cHar’ RI. MOULDING, Materiae for Mout wg-—Band, 145 groensind, 145 dry sand, 155 cored 16 olay, 1 loam, 18; Backesing, eal-Jost,black-tead, fnthracit, 195 soapstone powder, 205 localities of materials, 25 frind-nils for backeving, Aoatn-Plasks or boxes, 2 eroue, 255 small tools, towels le per, shovels, sires, 29} poaso-meal, parting-sand, gate-pins serous, By 20 Moulding in Green Sind-—Moalding of & bedl, 3 fling tm tho Uragebox, 92; ths tap box, 6; its, 265 removlog tho top box, 355 ‘traming of th pattern, 30} Wackeaing tho mouldAL; pattrn hse tened tothe moulding-board 43; composition of mouMing- sand, {35 oneral observations, 435 vison of labous, 4. im 000 Moving in Open Sand—Malking of the bed 48; moulding moulds ‘ox, Sts moulding ofa cog-whoe, $25 causes of fallures, 97 , 615 og in more than tivo boxes, 60; aiall articles of machinery ornamental mouling, 62; hollow-ware,66; stl atl, ; ouldfingof colette, 65; patterns for bollow-ware, 7, iced Soniding. Moulding in gecon-eand with deied cores, 135 corer and their nee, 735 care-boxes, 755 moulding of s eolumo, 785

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5+ raking a pipe-core 805 moulding with pate, 82 Dey-Sond Moulding.—Dryiog of tha mould, $4; glands, 855 verte eal casings, $03 moulding of @ large pio, S15 loam cre, 885 ay ropa, 88; eoreiron, 89; making ofthe core, 89; casting pipes withe ‘outa cor, 925 small on ymontal castings, 24; @inkels 45 moulding ‘sag, 96; sereing together of ornaunents, 99; auldeting, 99 brass ‘enstings, 99; fine iron euslings, 99. Loain-Afoutding.—Quality of Jom, 101; sompounding loam, 101; ‘moulding of simple round forms, 104. Mowingof a eonp-pan, 104 tho ore, 1085 the hlokness, 108; the eops, 1085 taking apart the mould ; Dlackwash, 10; gates, 12; gae-pipe, 1227 cat-gate 1125 covering of the fw-gate, 12; ws of tho low-gata, 114 east ing hy s single gate, 155 gaspipes, 115. Moulding withont Thicknet.—A stout cylinder, 116; making of tho cape, Ts the stoam.srays, LT; eoros for the seam-ways,123 for th eylinder, 122; sllage pov, 123; fstoning of the core, 1265 Dorsing of the mould, 126; fatening ofthe exaust pipe core, 1265 von of chuplots, 126; oneral mark on eptindor moulding, 127. veep Forme. Mouliing of a eurved pipe, 128; oval forms, 1225 Dthing-tab, 182 elbow-pipe, 185; complioated forms, 154 Mowtding of Bronse Ornament,-Moulding of statues by tho anciont Grooks, 128; Feonch mode of moulding statues, 159; prasent mole of easing statues ML ou statues, 1425 basrelit, 125 ool of bells, 13, Metal Mowtda—Thve boro of wheol, 140; zllroad-ear wheels, 14635 ied rollers, 1485 casting togothor of iron and steel, 152; would for tin, end, porter, rig, types, be, 168; mould for copper oF ‘ras, 164; plastor of Paris woehds, 155; sterotyping, 155. Tnprevions aud Cantinge—Wax, eras of bread sealing-wax, 1605 lpn, 1605 glass, TOL; olay, actifiotal wood, 162; plater of Paris, 163 mould of a ee, 165; mould of statue,108; esting of plato, 192) taking of a snus 1725 sulpbur castings, 174) wax easing, sealing-way another ents 175 elastio mould, 1753 alom,saltpetey moulding of natural abjets, 176. CHAPTER IL. MELTING OF METALS. Fron-—Qualities of ion No. 1 Seon, 199; No. 2 fron, No. 3 iron, 181; choracorstes of onde pig 191; mixing of ron, 184; Kind of castings, 187; kind of woulds, 188; molting of iron, 188; in tho Lnst fornaes, 188; in eruebles, 192; Ia rororberatories, 196; tho cupola, dectiption of, 201 operation ia a expola, 205; pots, 2105 DiasLmaehines, 2125 fans, 212; lot blast, 217 Arging stoves, 217, Generat Remarks.—Cleansing of eatingt, 218; tine of easing, 22 ost of mong and casting, 220; melting of bronze metal,22 aoltng of lend, ting antimony, and brass, 224 APPENDIX—RECEIPTS AND TABLES. ANtoyeof Tron-—Teon and slp, iron and edrboo, ron and plo ‘phorus, 26; Iron nd silico, ron and arson, iron and chromium, From and gold, ion and sileer, fron and eopper, iron and tin, ion no lead, 2 8 yr of Precons Met loys of Cnypen-—Bronse, 8; ball motal, 2 9; bronze for guns, 5 bronze for statues, 290; bronzo of the ancient Gresks, 251; neon of the Actos, speculum metal, speeuinn metal of Rose teloscopen, 2825 bronze for medal, bronze imitation of gli, 253, Brose—Comon brass, solder, button-Drase, red. brass, prince”

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2056 rota, brags and Toad, tompering brass, 284; brass for ship nails Mouldi ing may be considered in two distinct ‘aes forpoas and stops, bracsand platinum. German silver, Chines branches; the one is the moulding proper, the other packfong,argentan for plating, 2855 elestron, solder for German silver, copper and platinusn, eopper and silver, copper ani antithe forming of the pattern. Moulding proper is al‘any, 230; copper aod carbon, eopper and phosphonys eopper snd zost the same in principle and in practige for ench of seven, 257 the various kinds of metals or alloys. Slight varia. Tend ant ity A thea an aceon, Fol and antimony, stre0‘yp ela, faible meta, 238 ‘ions in the materials for moulding, and in treatment, in end ste Alloyt—Tin and oad powter,quoon's wel, Briann ave the only differences in moulds which are designed ‘ola, Gorman tis, masie mela, antifrction metal, epuriow sitet, to be used for iron, brass, bronze, tin, or lead, and ‘organ-pipon 290; Hnsitation of diamonds tin foi 240, other metals, ‘Che principal materials used in mouldZine wd ite Alloys, 281 Broncing.—Nataral bronze, antgue bronze, 261; vasoas eoloers, 2425 ing, ave, sand of various kinds, loam, plaster of paris, ‘bronze paint, 243, blackening, and metal. Gitding of bronze and Brass, 2495 of foo, 244, Sand is the most common, and certainly the most ‘inning of brass, heonas, and copper, 245. perfect and convenient mater It is superior to inking of copper ox bronze, 245. Glazing of castings, coamel, 248. all other materials for moulding. Sand is more or Bilackoning of iron with plumage, 2475 with varnish, 247 Jess porous, and very refractory, so that the hot Geincing and polishing, 248. metals do not melt nor bake it; two qualities of DMallesbe iva, 248, great importance in the successful operations of the Silvering of fon, 240 able L250. business. The various kinds of good moulding sand, 1% employed’ in foundries for easting iron or brass, have

For some reason, the page numbers began with the cover. No material is missing from the book. (gy THE MOULDER’S

AND

POCKET

FOUNDER’S GUIDE

been found to be of an almost uniform chemical comP ition, varying in grain or the aggregate form only. Te contains betweon 93 and 96 parts of silex or grains of sand, and from 8 to 6 parts of clay, and a Tittle oxide of iron, in each 100 parts, Moulding sand ‘which contains lime, inagnesia, and other oxides of metal,.is not applicable, particularly for the easting of iron or bronze. Such sand is generally too weak ‘or too, close; it will not stand, or retain its form, ox it will caso, tho: metal to boil by ita cloecose:

Tn practice the diferent classes of castings require

different kinds of sand for the purpose of moulding.

CHAPTER £. MOULDI

‘uz moulding of metals and other materials into the various forms, required for the accomplishmentof

certain purposes—whether of an economical or ornamental eharaeter—is an object of high interest. Moulding is the noblest of the arts; it serves with unvaried interest the fine as well as tho useful arts. ‘Whe heavy eastings for the construction of machinery, to the weight of thirty tons and more ; the statues of the ancients, and of modern heroes, are ornaments of bm: genius. ‘The minute, well finished castings of fron and bronze are evidences of human skill and ingenuity.

For ono Kind of eastings the sand is to be porous,

open, and is still to bo adhesives for another class it is to be very adhesive

and fine, almost

free

of grit, to make itself conform to the minutest parts

of the pattern imbedded in it. At the proper places

in the description of the process of moulding, we

shall allude to the various kinds of sand best qualified for specifie purposes. ‘The best moulding sand is gonerally found along the banks of large rivers; that procured from the shores of mountain streams, is in most eases too coarse ‘or too poor and weak. Gooil. sand, however, has beon found on the very top of high hills. ‘The best is generally found in the vicinity of the primary rocks, ot along those river banks which receive their

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

supply from the primitive mountains. ‘The alluvium of the transition or metamorphous rocks, as gray-

wacke, slate, and feldspar, forms a very superior

‘moulding sand, if it does not contain too much iron. In the eoal districts there is generally little or no Aificulty in finding good sand, for most of the river flats are composed of that useful material, which, however, frequently contains too much iron, and is liable to melt from the heat of heavy castings, an evil which ean be modified by mixing the sand e-dust, or anthracite powder. In tertiary ons, andl along the sea-eonst, some spotis always found where fine and strong sand may be dug; in these localities the best kindis frequently deposited. The greatest difficulty in obtaining sand of a good quality, is mostly encountered in limestone and voleanie regions, also where porphyry, mica slate, and micaeeous rocks predominate. Sand which contains too much iron or lime, or still worse, mica, will not adhere, and is liable to absorb and retain too muck moisture,and cause rough and unsound castings. Good moulding sand has in its green state a yellowish jour, balls easily on being squeezed in the dand, and, if sulfciently fine, assumes the finest impressions of the skin without adhering to it. White or gray sands generally either too strong ot too weak. Sand for undried moulds—green sand moulds— erally more open or porous; it should not conas much clay as that used for dried moulds, or it caanot assume or retain the finest impressions of the pattern, Sand for dry moulding Frequently of the finest kind, and very strong; for h ry castings a coarse but adhesive sand is mostly selected. Core-sand.—The material most dificult to obtain is good core-sand. Core-sand should be coarse, very porous, but still very adhesive. Rock-sand—the debris of abraded rock—free-sand from river banks or from the sea-shore, pounded blast-fur ace cinder, and other kinds of coarse sand, are frequently mixed with fine strong sand, or with ola ; the use of the latter, however, isto be very limited. ‘The best core-sand is frequently found on hillsides, or the very top of hills, in places where feldspathie or primitive rock recently been decomposed, where the rock conta 8 sufficient clay to make it adhere, and where

the coarse angular grains have aot supported vege-

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‘THE SURVIVOR Vol: 5* tation, and it is consequently free of all vege-

Where sand of abraded rock cannot be obtained, free-sand, or, which is preferable, pounded blast-furnace cinder may be used, tempered with clay, barm,- pease-meal, or horsedung. In the use of the latter vegetable and an mal substances, caution is to be exercised to prevent the boiling of the easting, because of the quantityof g1s liberated from such matter. Vor cores, fresh sand must be used in each east; old sand, burned sand, or sand mixed with coal, cannot be employed for this purpose. Clay is frequently used for improving the adhesiveness of sand. I! fp e selected from the white aluminous kind, argillaceous earth, or fine clay. It is either dissolved in a large quanuty of water, and Kept in the foundry for oceasional use, or is dried, pounded, ran through a fine sieve,and then mixed with the sand. ‘The best plan is, to mix sand and loam tother, and ran this mixture moist through a mill; 2 common grist-mill, or a dust-mill, will answer for this purpose, One part of clay mixed vith nine parts of free-sand, or any other pure sand, is considered suficiently strong for eore-sand ; still these proportions depend very much on the naturo of the ‘sand, and the adhesiveness of the clay, and also what kind of table or animal matter,

es are to be made from it. The sand for large

nd complicated cores, is to be stronger than that

for small cores.

Loam.—Common loam, or elay of which common bricks are made, is generally used for loam-moulding. ‘The loam ought to be as free from iron, lime, maga a, and other alkaline matter as possible, because xy make the loam too hard and close, axid eause boiling of the metal. Such mixtures are also not sufliciently refractory to resist the heat of a large mass of melted iron. IF good loam eannot be obtained, a mixture of sand and elay, as deseribed above, is pro-

ferable to any imperfoet Ioam. Loam, or any coment for loam-moulding, is to be mixed with sawTer uh lng, ho tees, yo ial matter, which makes the loam adbesive and porous. Chat-dust, black-lead, and anthracite dust, aro simply means of blackening the mould, by mixing it with the sand or loam, If hot metal is allowed to

be in immediate contact with some Kinds of fresh

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sand, the sand will partially melt, or if the sand is coarse, the hot metal will penetrate into the spaces between the grains, and the easting in consequence will be rough, Blackeuing, or a coating of earbon, will prevent in a great measure the burning of the sand, and consequent roughnessof the casting, Blacklead is a very effee re material for this purpose ; but if used in too largo a quantity it i apt to fill the necessary pores of the sand, and, as it is almost incombustible, will prevent the eseape of gases from the hot metal, and consequently eause unsound eastings. Next to plumbago in refractory quality is anthracite; and its dust, if not too fine, is an excel lent means of preventing the burning of the sand. If there is too much anthracite dust in the sand, it will impair its strength; and if the dust is too fine, it will fl the pores of the sand. Dust of bituminous coal weakens the sand considerably, but it makes it very porous and open, thus facilitating the escape of tho gas. Te causes,tho enstings to be very

smooth, but without fine impressions ; it entirely detroys the sharp angles. Bituminous stone-eoal dust appears to have a remarkable indluence upon iron. Cast in a mould composed of sand and bituminous coal, the iron appears to be more gray and coarsegrained than when in any other mould. Tt is in consequence generally weaker; pig No. 2 improves by it. Coke-dust mixed with sand is better than any of tho enumerated materials for making Targe castings, and for casting stove-plates It makes the sand open, without impairing its strength too mueb. Coko-dust is not well qualified for face-dust; it does not make sinooth castings. The most generally useful coal-powder is charcoal dust—ground charcoal of hard wood, such as oak, beech, sugar maple, hickory, or dogwood, well burned, Char‘coal powder ean be mixed with sand to nearly onetenth of its volume.

It is an excellent face-dust

for small castings. Very small delicate castings require a very strong fine sand, free of all coal and coaldust; these cannot be dusted with eharcoal or any other dust, for such would impair the finer parts of the mould, Very swnall moulds are blackened by a rush candle, or the flame of a pineknot. Soapstone powier is a very eficacious means

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of preventing the burning of the sand. For thin castings, as stove-plates and hollow-ware, it is not excelled in making smooth, sharp castings. Its use, howover, is not to be carried to an excess, because itis as weak as coal-dust, and finally spoils the sand of the foundry by making it too weak. Coal will burn out of the sand, but the magnesia of the soapstone will not both eause porosity, as well as weakvues of sand, Sand, clay, eoal of every kind, and blacke so abundant in the United States, that we hardly need enumerate localities. Good mouldings found everywhere along the eastern slope of the Alleghenies, from the old rocks of Maine, through the metamorphic strata of New Jersey to the Missisippi river, along the sea-coast in the tertiary deposit, or in the coal and gold regions of Penn sylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. In the coal basins of the Allegheny, Monongahela, and Ohio rivers, there is no lack of good mouldingsand, and the same may be said of the valleys of the Missouri and Mississippi Clay is also found there ji abundance, and of good quality. Anthracite is in Pennsylvania, in Massachusetts, Ohio, and North Carolina, and where it is foand, there is ard bituminous coal, or splint coal, which serves the seme purpose, Bituminous coal and charcoal are found in every region of the union. Plumbago is found in Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, and other places. Soapstone exists in Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and along the Atlantic coast. ‘here is an abundance of good materials spread all over the United States. Mitts for grinding blackening —Coal-dust is prepared in mills of a particula r construction, to pre vent the fh ing about of the Vlackeoal. It is commonly ground in iron barrels whieh turn around ir own axis, and in which a number of cast-iron Fin.

aI

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balls roll over the coal and break it, as represented in figure 1. Such an iron eylinder is generally from 2 to fect in diameter, and from 1 to 5 fect Jong. It makes from 20 to 30 revolutions per minute, and is moved by a strap and pulley, or eogwheels, ‘The number of balls, of which each one weighs from 25 to 50 pounds, is indifferent; the more there are at work the better. In the larger cities, as in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, the manufacturing of blackening and dust is carried on by men who make an exclusive business of it. Remote and country foundries prepare their own dust.

TOOLS. ‘The instruments and tools used by the moulder are various and expensive. For moulding in green as well as in dry sand, boxes or flasks are used; these may be made of iron or of wood. Iron boxes aro in the course of time the cheapest. For mould-

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the two parts of the flask as firmly as possible, to prevent a separation o the lifting of the upper box. ‘These hooks are to be strong without being unnecessarily heavy. ‘The eyesin which these hooks ft, are firmly fastened into the wood and clinched inside, or ae east into the iron when the box is being east. On each box are four snugs or handles; these are for fitting and carrying the boxes or flasks. On large boxes, and also on very swall boxes, there are but two handles, in the middle of the small side, strong enough to bear the weight of the box when filled 5 with sand, In this ease the snugs, or swivels, are in the axis of the box 5 and if a box is suspended by aerane, it may be turned around its swivels, and be at rest in every position, Figure 3 shows a box Fip.d.

ing in loam, iron plates, core spindles, wrought-iron bars, hoops and wire, are used.

Boxes or flasks are the enclosures of the sand, pr ch is filled around the pattern. A flask consists of tivo parts, as is represented in figure 2, where A is the upper box, and B the lower box. C shows the flask from above. ‘The traverses, which are generally wider in the upper box than in the lower, are best made of wood, even if the box is made of cast fron. ‘These traverses are moveable, and m: be put into such positions as to suit the varied forms of the patterns. ‘Phe threo iron pins, D DD, are to be well pointed and tapered, and long enough to afford a safe descent of the one box upon the other. Tn case ther are high projections on the pattern, these pins ought to be nearly as long as the flask itself is igh. On each side of the flask are two hooks, fitting to eyes, which serve to connect

suspended from a crane, which in most instances is the proper way of lifting it. We see here that a box must be very strong to resist tho influence of the heavy weight of sand and iron, If the dox gives way, the sand will erack and drop out, 26 spoiling the mould. Large hoxes should always be made of iron. ‘The form of the box is generally suited to the pattern if tho pattern is round, the box is made round. ‘his close fitting of the box to the pattern is in many instances expensive ; it eauses new boxes to be made where often but one or two castings of a pattern are required. ‘The only inconvenience resulting from square boxes, is the amount of dead sand in the corners of the flask,

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which may be avoided by putting corners of wood or izon in the upper or both boxes. As in most s the lower box is not moved, the weight of sand in that part of the ask is of little consequence ; but here the nature of the pattern rendersit necessary to lift and turn the bottom or drag. box, the corners of a square box may be spared just as well as in the upper box. ‘The chief objection to a square box for round castings, is its weight; but where a, strong erane is in the foundry, a little more or Jess weight to be lifted is of small consequence. In all eases, at least two inches space ought to be between the box and the pattern, and in ease of heavy castings, more, This space is also to be larger in ‘wooden than in iron boxes, When the space between the box and the pattern is too small, the mould is able to leak, the hot metal will flow out if the parting between the box and the pattern is too

narrow. Flasks are to be as rough inside as they possibly can be made, for itis by adhesion ehielly that the sand remains in the box. In large flasks, the adhesion of the sand is increased by driving into the traverses and sides of the box, when the box is made of wood, nals of such a length that the poiuts project on the inside, In eastiron boxes, nails are vither east in the box, or its incr surface is covered with projections, made by driving the piercer an inch or s0 into the sand before casting the box the latter mode is preferable. Nails are incon veniont in many eases, and in all cases troublesome; they frequently eause imperfect castings, a8 the sand never ean be rammed as close where nails project, as where there are none. If the sand is

not of a uniform closeness, the east will be imperfect; for where the sand is too loose to resist the pressure of the fluid metal, the casting will bulge. A better method than the foregoing of making the sand adhere, is to put as many traverses in a box as can eonveniently be done, and place them as close together as possible, ‘The interior of the box is made wet, traverses and all, with a solution of 3s Joam or lay. ‘This loamor clay is put on by ofa whitewash or ang’ other brush, ‘Mouiding-boxes ought to be made of east-iron ; it r es strong and durable flasks. Wooden boxes

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cost less than those made of iron, but are more expensive in the course of time; they are liable to burniag and leaking, and never make correct east. ings their pins never fit well, and the wood is apt to warp. Hollow-ware, pipes, and ornaments a 00 be cast in iron flasks exclus ely, or such castings are liable to incorreetness. Iron boxes are more heavy than wooden ones, which is objectionable, but, considering the greater security of the iron flask, the work may be done to more advantage than in syooden flasks. Figs —

mame

=,

Sy

Small Tools.—The trowels, Fig, 4, A, A, are from

the size of a small mason's trowel, down to one inch Jong and half an inch wide, ‘The trowel is used for

snoothing down the surface of the sand, and elearaperiluous sand, polishing the blackening or 20

coul-dust, and repairing injuries in the mould,

‘The

whole of the trowel is generally made of metal, handle and all.

B, B, are round forms of tools for

polishing hollow moulds of a eylindvical or spherical form.

is a cleaner, often twelve and more inches

long; it is used for cleaning and smoothing sunken, surfaces, where the trowel cannot be used.

‘These:

tools are generally made of steel, but are thus liable

to corrosion, which injires thet polish. The best metal for tools is hard bronze, as this is not injured.

by oxidation,

igh polish and straight surfaces are the chief requisites of these tools. ‘Their shape or form may be varied, according to individual general forms as represented, are the Ahi

represents both a wooden rammer and an iron one. ‘The wooden rammer, edge shaped on both ends, is made on the turning-lathe, in one piece; it serves

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for pressing the sand close into the corners of the ‘Phe other figure repre sents an iron rammer, which, however, is merely east

iron at one end, where there is a round buttonof from 2 to 4 inches in diameter on the face. ‘The wooden shank or handle is gonevally tapered or pointei at the opposite end of the knob, for piereing the sand, or to roach more closely into corners, Each of these rammers may be from 2 to 4 feet long, according to the kind of work to be done with it. Besides the tools here enumerated, the moulder has

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which is laid perfectly level upon the floor of the foundry, or, for small articles, upon a pair of trusses, or a box which contains sand, Upon this board the pattern is laid with its sinooth side on the board. If the pattorn is divided in two halves, but one half of it is laid down, tho jointed sido upon the board. Figure 6 shows the arrangement seen from above.

hort-handled light shovels, for filling boxes and for

-ves of various sizes or mes! and a riddl Jo for filing the flask; stall bellows, for blowing dry loose sand from the mouldings, and parting-sand from the pattern; and also, coal-dust or blackening. ‘The moulder needs an iron pot for holding parting-sand, and alsoa water-pot; two or more linew Dags for coul-dust,black-lead, and pease-meal a piece of rope for tufts, for which paint-brushes also can be used. Pioreers or priekers, are iron or brass needles, wadeof wire, from } to } of an inch thick ; thoy avo from 6 inches to tr and more feet long, tapered the whole length, and drawn to a point. Parting-sand, is that sand which is strewn over the moulding sand where the boxes separate; it is either fvee-sand, river-sand, sea-sand, or pounded cinders or may be the burnt sand seraped off the castings working the sand;

in cleaning them.

Pease-meat may be substituted

by any other meal}, the first, however, is the best. Many tapered pins of various lengths, round, syuare, oval, and oblong, are needed in a foundry for making gits or gates; some strong, well-tapered and pointed screws for lifting out the patterns iron hammer and wooden mallets, small erowbars, pinchers and tong: Moulding in green-sand.—Uhere are three distinetions in moulding green-sand, dry-sand, and Joam moulding, Greens d moulding is generally applied to light iron castings; as small, unimportant parts of machinery, stove-plates and stoves, hollow-ware, sate-bars and fire-grates, shot and cart-wheel bushes, water-pipes, s-pipes, and many other articles. ‘This method is seldom used for any other metal than iron, In making a mould for a small piece of machinery, say a wheel, in gree sand, the pattern is put upon a flat board,

made of tworinch pine plank, or, if the article is small, but one-inch, After the wheel is laid down and well adjusted, or made solid by sprinkling some sand on those places where it does not touch the board, ‘the lower box of the flask is put down inverted upon tho board. Before the drag-box is put down, a tayer of sand of one inch thick is frequently spread over the pattern and the board. Tn this sand the box is imbedded, and rests more firmly in it than upon the bare board; the box and pattern are not so liable to shake, or the board to vibrate. ‘The first layer of sand upon the pattern is to be worked through a fine sieve: this sieve is to be finer, the smaller and thinner the pattern, or the more smooth the surface of the casting is to be. This facing-sand, or the frst layer, is, in instances where a very smooth sharp impression is required, to be fresh sand from the pit, which never before has been in a mould. OF such fresh sand, a layer of § to f of an inch in 33 thickness is to be sifted over the pattern. One inch, or, aveording to the pattern, a greater depth of fine sand, is to form the facing of the monli. All coarse grains of sand are to be prevented from coming in contact the pattern. IE the pattern is eompli-

cated, or contains many nooks and corners, the facing

pattern by hand, to secure a uniform covering and a uniform tightness of the sand, After the facing is properly secured, common mould ing-sand is thrown into the box through a coarse ridldle, flush wich the box. ‘This sand is rammed down,

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2062 THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 caution ly and uniformly, with the wooden and edged injuring the facing of the mould. In this case the

stamper, When the first box-full of sand is secured and well. worked into the cavities of the pattern, the box may be filled again by throwing in sand from the pile, which is repeated until the box is properly. filled and of uniform ti nines. The coarse, or last sand, is rammed with the round iron stamper, the superfluous sand is stricken off by running an edgo rule over the box, so as to make the sand perfectly flush with the box. If th first, or the drag-box, has tr erses, ag shown in the drawing, there are often dificalties in getting the sand properly distributed over the pattern, and it is not easy to obtain a uniform compactness of the sand. ‘Traverses in the drag-box are admitéed only in eases of very 24 smooth single patterns. Most of the moulds are tnade without traverses in the lower box; it is considered more safe in working the sand, and the work is done easier and faster. When there are no travorsesin the lower box, the sand, after being levelled, is sprinkled over with some loose sand and covered a board, which covers the box all overs it is rubbed on, and the whole, box and board, turned. 0 that the former bottom is now the top of the bo: If the patterns are large, and the box is heavy, it is necessary to fasten both bottoms to the Vox by means of glands, so that no slipping of the boards may happen while the box is turned over. If tr srses are in tho box, and no bottom is used, asmooth place on the floor of the foundry is to be prepared beforehand, upon which the box is laid. Tn case there are no traverses, it is set upon a plank bottom, When the box is deposited in ils prop position, that is, in that placo where the casting is to bo performed, the first bottom upon svhich the pattorn was laid is removed, in which there is no difieulty, if the bottom is not fastened to the pattern. his bottom is frequently fastened to the p torn, which is done in eases where the patterns are limber; as is the ease with I he and ornamented railing, ornamented stove or fire-grate In this casea few gentle taps aro to plate

be given on the back of the board, either with a

wooden mallet where the bottom is of value, or with

an iron hammer; these taps will loosen the sand at tho pattern, and there is less danger of breaking or

Join-pins of the boxes are fastoned to the drag-box, and are to go through the bottom to secure the exact position of the pattern in the sand, when repairs are to be made to the mould, in which cases the pattern is put in again after having been removed. In ordinary eases these pins are fastened to the upper bo: Tn many instances no bottom for the pattern is used, but the upper box of the flask is filled with sand, rammed in and levelled; upon this th pattern is bedded, then the drag-box put on, and the work done as described above. Tt is a bad practice to work without a pattern-bottom; itis a slow way of working, the patterns are liable to be injured or bent, and the castings are never very fine or correct After the bottom is removed, the upper surface of the sand-parting is smoothed down, and the superfluous sand cut away by means of a trowel. Pattern, sand, and box are to form one flush surface 5 th is surface forms the parting. ‘The parting-surface is, thinly covered with parting-sand, gently sprinkled on by hand; as small a quantity as possible is to be used, just enough to prevent the adhesion of the

4 it is impossible to avoid theow= ing some of the parting-sand on the pattern, which, f left there, would cause a rough surface to the casting, this sand is gently blown off the pattern with small hand-bellows, After the one half of the mould is éo far prepared, the other parts of the pattorn ave put on, in eases whore the pattern is divided; the upper box is then laid in its proper plaeo, the hooks fastened, the faeing-sand is put on; after which the common sand is stamped in; in short, the same operation is performed as previously deseribed for the lower box. When the pattern is simple and smooth, there is not mach difieulty in adjusting the traverses, which may be straight, and reach with their lower edge down to within half an inch of the pattorn, If the pattern is not smooth, and parts of it project into the upper box, the traverses are to be ut out in those places where they touch the ioe parts of the pattern, For these reasons wooden traverses are preferable to iron ones, because they can be easily fitted to any pattern, Many boxes have no traverses at all; this is the ease with boxes of less than eighteen inches or two feet sqnare.

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Gates. —Immediately after the face-sand is putin a7 the upper bos, and before the second Iayer is thrown

in, preparation: are made for the gits, gates or pas-

sages for themetal. ‘This isdone by settingin wooden pins, very much tapered, and of a sufficient Tength to roach above tho ed; of the upper box. These pins are generally ade of wood, and are of a great variety of forms, lengths, and thicknesses. The of these for gits is a nice point, and requires sot some discrimination on the part of the mouliler; parti ularly whore iron is to be east, and where the patterns are very thin, On the di ribution of the gits depenis in a great measure the ieoess of cast~ ing, If the pattern is of a heavy thiek form, say more than half an inch thick in its thinnest par and its surface is not too Targe, one gate will be sut= ficient. In proportion as the surface inereases or the pattern is thinner, the number of passa es is to be increased. Tn most instances it is preferable to gits outside the patter but this always have requires a somewhat larger flask, for which reason this rule is not adhered to, ‘Thin plates require flat gfts of a very oblong form; mere edges, in ease the gits are to be set upon the plate or the casting itself. On round patterns, wheels, pulleys, or any others of that description, the gits must always be set ontside. Tn alll eases there is to be an air or cere gas gate, which is always set upon the pattern directly, whether the passages are inside or outside of the latter. For very light, thin, or open ornamental castings, it is often difficult to find the proper places for the gits, and it requires somo experience to decide, at first sight, where to put the gates on a new pattern, Frequently more than one of the first castings of a new pattern fare lost on this account. Tn all instances it is a rule to put tho gits in suh places that the ‘metal may find the shortest way to fill the mould ; where the metal, in passing through the narrowest parts, will find wider and heavier channels to b filled, so that the partially cooled metal may unite again in the heavier parts of tho mould. If one pa sage is not sufficient, thers are to be tiro or mores in fact, as many as are necessary to secure su ‘The fluid metal fs to be poured into all the gits at once, whatever nuinber there may be, so as to fill the

2063

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 mould in the shortest timo, and promote a union of the metal from the various passages. When boxes, pattern, and gits are in their proper places, the flask has the appearance of Figure 7. When the upper box is well filled with sand and levelled, the hooks are unfastened, and the top box gently lifted by one, tivo, or more men, or, which is

safest, by means of a erane. ‘The box is then set on one edge, or turned edgeways in the erane; the pins for the gits are then withdrawn, and the tapering holes are cut larger, bell-mouth shaped, at the top of the flask. ‘The gits are to be very tapering and smooth, to allow an easy passage for the hot metal, and prevent the washing down of loose sand. When the uppor box is well mended and secured, and ready to be put on again, the pattern in the lower box is removed. Before this ean be done, the edges of the sand all around tho pattern are wetted, which is done with a swab, or with a paint-brush soaked in water, and pressed gently between the fingers while running it over the mould, In that way a greater or smaller quantity of water may be thrown on the edges, as the workman may find it necessary. ‘The sand is now examined with the finger all around the pattern, in order to ascertain if it is of a uniform closeness. If too loose, s0 as not to resist the with 40 Geawal of the pattern or the influence of the hot netal, it is pressed down, and some fresh sand worked n with the trowel. If the sand around the pattern is iformly elose, the trowel is used for smoothing the whole surface, and then the pattern is withdrawn.

‘Yo withdraw a pattern is in many instances a del

cate operation, for the sand will more or less adhere to it and damage the mould, in ease the pattern is lifted without being properly liberated from the sand. To free the pattern from the adherent sand, the lifting-serews are put in, after which it is loose: d by striking it gently downward with

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a woolen mallet. In lifting it, it is to be tapped sideways against one of the corners of the pattern, or against the Tifting-serows, or against studs made for the parpose, ‘Tho lifting-screws are skarp-pointed and tapered, and of a coarse thread when the pattern is of wood. In metal patterns the thread is eut into the pattern, fitting the serew. Richly ornamented or carved patterns, or thoso of complicated mae seldom lifted withont breaking more or less of the mould, and damaging it. ‘The moulder repairs such damages by putting some water on with the swab, and adding as much sand as appears to hinn sufficient for filling the break. ‘The more prominent parts receive 4 touch of the swab. The pattern, when removed, is well cleaned by moans of a dry brush, and laid in the sand again, in its former bed. With simple pat terns this Jatter operation is not nevessary: a skilful mouller can repair a damaged mould without resort ing to this expedient. In ornamental moulds there is, however, no chance of successfully repairing a break, ‘The pattern is once more pressed down to its former site, and then withdrawn, the mould generally being then found to be perfect. Blackening the mould.—By shaking a small bag filled with blackening or ground charcoal, over the mould, it is covered with a thin film of coal-dust. ‘This dust is to be distributed evenly as possible. TE fresh sa 1d has been used for facing, the dust will adhere to the sand, and the pattern, after being well brushed over, may be laid in again to smooth the dust down. ‘The sand around the pattern is smoothed swith the trowel. If the mould is faced with old sand, the dust is not likely to adhere, and may be blown off, which is to be avoilled. In this case a coating of fine meal is given to the mou ny meal wi answer for this purpose, either rice, corn, or-pease-meal, If meal has been used before the dust put on, ibis not advisable to put the pattern again the mould, until a heavy coating of dust has been given over the 42 nical. Caro must be taken in using coal-dust or weal, both cause dull castings if used to excess. The best and smoothest sastings are made where the facing eon ts of a thin éoating of fresh sand, and with as lite blackening as possible browght upon it,

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Skilful moulders will however succeed in putting in the pattern again, whether they have been using meal or not. When the sand is well smoothed down, and the pattern laid in again, the channels or passages are scooped out of the parting surface. ‘The pins which formed the wits, have given an impression ia the sand of the lower box. Between these impressions and the pattern, channels are dug a quarter of an inch or more deep: where these chaonels Jjoin the pattern, they are seldom more than of the above-mentioned thickness, but may be thicker and narrower t ids the gate; the channels must be Ubinner at the pattern than anywhere else, to make them break close to the pattern, when broken off. If one of such channels is not deemed sufficient, two or more may be eut from the same gate; the channel also may be widened towards the pattern, to afford a suffefent inlet for the metal, and may be swabbed, to give greater seeurity against being washed away by the hot metal, After this is done, the pattern is taken out once more, the upper box pat on gently, tho hooks fastened, and the mould is ready for casting. When parts of the pattern project into the upper box, or the pattern is divided, the same process is to be followed with the upper, as has been done with the lower box. In this ease the upper part of the box is to be covered with a board after the gate-pins are withdrawn, and the box laid upon its baek, so as to have that part of the pattern uppermost, whieh is to be withdrawn. ‘The process of lifting the pattern is here exactly the same as in the lower box, except that more cation is required in patching up damages than in the lower box, to prevent the dropping of sand when putting this box on the other. When a pattern is fastened to the pattern board, it is lifted out before the upper box ean-be filled with sand. In this caso tho upper box is filled over a smovth board, well polished with the trowel, and put on without further preparation, It is prethis instan to bear the upper box down fron, instead of hooks. This mode of moulding is easy and works fast, but is only

applicable to very tapered and low patterns Composition of Moulding-sand,—Atthough mould and at first sight appears to be s0

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simple, yet great didiculties, and often failures, may 4

be encountered by not observing certain practical

‘ho composition of the moulding-sand is of the first importance. If the sand is too strong, that is, If it contains too umeh elay, it is only fit for small or vory thin castings. In this instance, eare is to be taken not to make it too wet, for it absorbs a gr ab deal of water without showing dampness, but it is soon found to be too damp for casting, Such fat, strong sand may be improved by burning it, or by continual use. It may also be improved by a mis ture of chareoal-dust, coke-dust, or anthracite-dust. IE too much eoal-dust is used to make the sand work well, the eastings are apt to be rough. Such strong sand is to be avoided for heavy eastings. The heavier the east, the poorer and coarser the sand is to be. Fine moulding-sand is liable to the same objections ag strong san it works well in small moulds, if

tmixed with chareoal-dast, but it will not do for heavy

castings. A large mass of hot metal generates a great quantity of steam in the moist sand, also compounds of carbon, which gases require vent: open coarse sand is necessary to give that vent. Core sand is always coarser then mou! ing-sand, and seldom fit to be mixed with it, Where many cores ave used, whether large or s: ll, it is advisable to ary the castings to some spot in or out of the 45 foundry, where the cores may be withdrawn and broken without their sand mingling with the moulding-sand of the foundry. A ot of good, well pr pared old sand, is of great value in a foundry; its proper aggregation ought to be kept up by daily additions of fresh sand, or is liable to become too weak in the course of time. After each casting the sand is to be wetted with as much water as is, required to give it the dampness necessary for its adhesion. ‘Lhe amountof water differs in almost every instance, and ean be determined only’ by experienc: All the sand of a foundry ought to be riddled at least once a week, to free it from ips of ‘wood, pieces of fron, lumps of burnt sand, aud similar matters, which produce inconveniences in founding. If green sand is rammed too ti htly, especially for ngs, it is frequently broken, and bad large

porous eastings

are the consequence. ‘This happens

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because the confined steam or gases cannot eseape through the sand, and in rushing over the face tear it down. ‘The running in of the piercer, to make artificial air-holes, is in such eases of groat service, bat is almost ineffectual in large or thick castings. It nevds open, porous sand, to make the best kind of vont. Vent-holes piereed or left purposely, will nover replace the advantages of open sand. If the 46 nd is not rammed tight enough, the liquid metal is apt to break down all the projections in the sand, an by its fluid pressure eause unevenness and swelling of the mould, and in consequence imperfect castings. Hach kind of sand, and each form of pattern, requires a different treatment to insure success. "Loo loose open sand, and too much eoal or blackening, will make rough, imperfect, dull castings. Fino or strong sand is liable to eause boiling, explosions, or porous castings. Many of the difficulties maybe reuioved by a skilful moulder; still it cannot be expected of him to make smooth sharp eastings in coarse sand, or in sand which contains too much coal. ‘The skill of a green-sand moulder is more frequently nit to the test, than that of any other z ivery different form of pattern, different 1nd, different coal, different metal, and different ocality, makes it necessary to modify his mode of working. Division of labour.—The most successful way of orereoming the prat 1 difficulties of green-sand moulding, is to divide the business into branches, 30 that each different kind of casting may be carried on in its own appropriate locality, and with its own proper workmen and materials. ‘Tho sand suitable for heavy machine castings, is not fit for moulding Jess so for hollow-ware, and still less proper for ornamental carved castings. The moulder who has been

trained

to small articles, is

hardly able to do heavy machine work; and those

moulders who have been used to moulding heavy articles, eannot at ones compete wit moulders of light castings. ‘No work successfully in green-sand, it is almost absolutely necess to divide the articles of manufacture. ‘There ought to be a separate shop,

and separate hands, and particular sand for heavy machine-frames; a division for small machine-castings; a separate foundry for hotlow-ware and stoves and another for casting ornaments and railings, for

SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2006 brass and for bronze. Hach branch of these articles

of founding requires peculiar conditions under which, it ean bo most perfectly done, and carried on with the largest profit. ‘The author has observed an instance

where a moulder had been making, for eight conse-

cutive years, a cortain kind of flat-bottomed pot, with

great success. No other moulder could earn half as much on the same article, nor make it equal in quality. ‘his moulder could not make anything else but that pot; he failed ‘in everything else he tried. Moulding generally is a very particular art, but green sand moulding more so than any other kind of moulding,if we wish to economize in the prosecution of the business, 48 ding in open sand is frequently resorted to, Mou to avoid the making of flasks. It is in no way cheaper than mouliing in boxes, and the castings are alvaysrough and uncouth; but there areinstances '0 mould in open where it cannot be avoided. sand, a particular bed is prepared in the foundry. ‘The ground below it is dug out to the depth of two fect below the level of the foundry Door. ‘This hollow is to he as large in extent as the largest mould to be made; a little Jarger does no harm. It is filled with coarse charcoal, coke, or anthracite-dust, or even, with small, say halfinch pebbles, in the bottom. Upon this bed of open matier, two inches thick of the coarsest mould, or river sand, is riddled, and upon this common moulding-sand is sifted. When the bed is so far prepared, two straight edge-rules are put edgoways, one on each long side of the bed. These rules are adjusted by a level, so as exactly to range with each other, as well as with a horizontal line. If now an edge-rule is drawn slanting over these edges, it of course will cut the sand between the rules down where it is too” high, and will All any this surfce of the sand cavities there may be. spill still be rough, even after this levelling is aecomsifted over the whole plished, some fine sex is now and a long straight wooden roller, of about surf ie 0) r, 4 long enough to six or eight inches in diamete reach over both eige-rules in the ground, is rolled gently backwatds and forwards over the bed, caro boing taken that the edges of the rules are clean, and that the roller never misses them. his operation will smooth the surface of the bed; and in case the

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sand is not considered sufficiently solid, some more fine sand is sifted on, and the roller used to press it down, ‘This process may be repeated as often as it is found neces ury, until the sand is sufficiently compact to resist the pressure of the fluid metal. After finishing the bed, the rules are removed, Upon this lovel bed the pattern is laid; if ithes any projections, these are turned downwards and pressed into the sand; the largest part of the pattern however is left aboyo the sand, particularly if the pattern forms a plate, Around the pattern, which is to have a straight surface, some si nd is piled by hand to form a dam all around the pattern, and flush with it, After the pattern is withdrawn the sand-dam forms the enclosure, and must be strong enough to resist the pressure of the fluid metal. - On a convenient side of the mould the channel is elevated; that is, a place on the top of the dam is made broad enough to receive the fluid metal, and distribute it gently

over the mould.

If there are any cores in the 50

mnould, these are to be held down by pieces of iron, to prevent their being lifted by the fluid metal, After casting, the hot congealed metal should be covered by a thin coating of sand, to prevent its liating too much heat into the work-room. ‘This kind of moulding is hardly ev used but for the roughest kind of iron castings; it is seldom applicd to other metals. Tt is mostly in use for foundry utensils, a¢ plates and platforms for the Joam-moulder, furnace-plates, grate-bars, and the like articles. Plates of any size and form may be made without

pattern: the edges are then formed by rulers, and tho corners by woollen squares of the desired angle. ‘The thickness of such plates is determined by the amount of metal poured into the mould. Rongh flooring plates, rough railing, and other indifferent castings, are sometimes made in open sand. Moutding in one bor.—In eastings whieh are to bo made from smooth patterns, and where no great accuraey is required, the pattern may be suak into the foundry floor and covered by a box. Every foundry floor is eonsislered to consist of sand, at least @ couple of feet deep. A ditch is dug, or a place as large as the pattern, and every coarse piece of burnt sand, nails, iron, &e., removed, by riddling the sand,

IE the place is too dry, some water is

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thrown over it, and if tov damp, dry sand is thrown over until it is so far elevated that the moisture will

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not injure the casting, ‘The place is to be level "The pattern to be moulded is laid upon the sand

and pressed into it, and the sand worked against the patt ‘n by hand, The filling-up around the pattern is to be flush with the pattera, and to extend far enough to resist the pressure of the fluid metal. Upon this mould, whieh forms the lower box, the upper box is laid, and kept in its place by four or more wooitpoles, driven around the box into the ground, This upper box is managed just as any other upper box, with on! this dfferonee, that weights are used to bear down upon it and resist the uid prossure of tho metal. If a pattern is largo, and there are no means in the foundry to lift a heavy box, and if the upper side of the pattern is smooth, the mouli may be covered with iron fran 3 in the form of open network, east in open sand, and covered with a coating of coarse loam, well dried. By joining the edges closely where these plates meet, a easting maybe made just as good as if an upper box had Joon used. Castings made in these kinds of moulds are never so goo as if made in the regular way in two boxes moulding in this manner is admissible only where necessity compels, and quality is no desidoratum, Tt is in rather more general use than there is need for. In a foundry where large machine castings are made, it requires much voom and considerable dead capital to keep a sudicient stock of flasks, but the interest on capital ths invested is ly paid for by the facilities and secur y afforded in mould, and the better quality of the castings. Mout ing in ul floor of the foundry answers for iron better than for others. some kinds of Moulding of a Cogwheel, —Weavy green-sand mouldings are very frequent, and it will not be amiss to deseribe the moulding of a large piece. Wo will select the mouldi of a large fee: wheel Some of the wheel-patterns aro divided into arms and eircumference, which is on many accounts preferable to other methods, but particularly on account of exactnes: A wheel east to it okes is never round, asthe cs between the arms stretch in cooling. We will adopt a wheol with arms, and these arms divided

Figure 8 is a vertical section of 2 flask filled with 53 sand, and ready for lifting the upper box. ‘The dif. ferent shades of the sand indicate what belongs to the upper and w to the lower box, In a wheel of this kind the fuee of the wheel is square, as a

matter of nevessity; no tapering is permitted, as in

patterns of other deseriptions. The inside of the rim may be tapered, and as the spokes of the wheel ‘cannot be lifted from the lower box, only the spokes are divided 0 a8 to lift one half of each with the upper box. ‘Pho lifting of the upper box is now not aia ult, since a part of the pattern is carried with it. ‘The part of the pattern which belongs to the upper box, is fastened to the box by the serews A, A, which pass through the sand, and are fastened to planks on the top of the box. ‘These screws are drawn tight, 50 as to leave no space for any motion of the pattern. ‘The half pattern in the lower box is withdeawn, by lifting it perfectly vertical and in all its parts at onee. "This work is dono by several men; ton or more hanids are often required to perform this part successfully. While the pattern is being raised, the mon lift with one band on iron pins firmly sorewed into the pattern, and strike the pattern gently but in vapid su sion, $0 as to loosen the adhering sand. Before the pattern is lifted the damages done by removing the upper box ve repaired, whieh is easily ac54 compli hed by using some damp sand and the trowel. In case the sand is not very porous, itis pierced lose to the pattern, to make air holes for the eseape of the gases. ‘The number of holes required depends entirely on the quality of the sand; close, strong, or fine sand requires more vent-holes than that which is coarse and open. If the pattern in the lower box is smooth and varnished, the swab may be used liberally, but if not, or if the wood is porous or coarse, but little water is used, and the pattern is to be withdrawn as soon as possible. Ie is altogether a good rale in tnoulding to work fast,

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and withdraw the pattern from the sand as soon as possible, particularly a wooden one. It is no advantage to a metal pattern to remain long in the sand; no pattern ought to remain there over night. It is almost unavoidable to prevent injury to the mouid, particularly at the periphery of a cog-wh the sand between the teeth will be always more or less broken, To repair these injuries, one or more single teeth are generally supplied by the pattern-maker, of which tivo at once may be set in and

the sand between the two filled up by means of @

long sleeker. A preferable mode is to have a segment of the whe l, of at least three teeth; such a. segment may be easily withdrawn, and gives more correct divisions. ‘To work with Ioose teeth requires

great experience not to injure the division or piteh

of the wheel. Other parts of the moul are generally d simple, and if any injury is done it is not diffieult to

repair such with damp sand, by means of the trovel

or sleeker. A long, well made, and polished sleeker is of great service in moulding wheels. ‘The mould is well polished over, r the pattern is withdrawn and every broken part mended; it then receives a slight sprinkling of charcoal-dust, and is again lower box is finished, the upper box, which is still fastened to and suspended in the erane, may be turned over and laid upon its back. If the box is too heavy, or the means insufficient to turn the box, it is left suspended in the erane as it is, face down. Some temporary supports however ought to be erected below the box, to bold it in ease the chain of the erane should break, whieh would endanger the life of the workman engaged in repairing injuries, All the work to be done at the upper box is in this ease accomplished from below the box. While ‘one workman is below, first mending and wetting, and then watching the mould, others unserew the pins from above, and in case there is any danger of sand breaking loose, the unserewing is stopped, and the doublful places soaked with water, and firmly pressed. Tn many instances hooks of small wire, wet in clay-water, are stuck around the edges of the pattern in the sand. Whe patte n, after every injury has been repaired, is removed, the mould polished, and the upper box is then ready to be put on the

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lower, In this instance no coal-dust can be used in polishing the mould the casting, therefore, will be rough at the upper side. In all eases of divided patterns the better plan is to turn the top box upside down, which gives an equal chance fo the upper as to the lower box; the proper work can then be performed on it, ‘To turn a box upside down, requires ‘suspension of it on two points or swivels; the box must of course be strongly made. In lifting, too much attention cannot be paid to the uniform and vertical raising of the box; the least twisting of ix will break the sand and eause injury to the mould. Boxes made ton weak are very apt to bend, and often cause the falling out of the sand altogether. After the upper box is well repaired, the gits ready, and the channels cut in the lower mould, the flask may be closed, Zooks are useless on large boxes ; the only means to keep the upper box down against the pressure of the fluid metal, is by weights or serews. Planks are laid over it to prevent damage to a7

the mould, and the weight, which may consist of broken pigciron or any other heary metal, is gently

aid upon these planks 5 in this way the pressure is more uniformly distributed. ‘The gits to a wheel should be between two spokes, near the periphery, and two or three channels ent from each git, either to the spokes, or, preferably, to the spokes and rim. For a large wheel there are to be at least two gits— three would be better. ‘There are also to be some flow-gates, one in the eentre and to or more at the circumference. The gits should to be large, say tivo inches wide, and also hare a wide trumpet-shaped mouth. ‘The channels which conduct the fluid metal from the gits to the mould, are to be smaller in section than the git; for in pouring the metal the git is to be kept full, to avoid the passing in of impurities, as 1, dross, or sand, which may float on the metal ; such impurities would injure the easting if permitted to pa into the mould. ailures from some unforeseen diticulty frequently take place in the moulding and easting of large patterns, Fine strong sand is never to be used for heavy mouldings in green-sand it invariably causes boiling, or at est, causes the eastings to be porous and full of holes. If fine sand is mixed with much coal-powier, it is liable to be too weak to r jist the

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 53

pressure of the metal, or even the drawing of the

pattern, Tt requires too much coal to make fine sand porous enough for heavy eastings. Coarse open sand is the best for heavy castings where a large quantity of metal is poured in a moulds such sand however makes rough eastings, which ean be remedied in various ways. ‘The mixing of coal-powder with coarse sand is not to be recommended, for it makes the sand too weak, and ses the generation of too much gas. Open porous sand, fr from coal, be use to advantage, if the pattern is covered with a layer of fine sand, say one quarter of an ch thiek, or such thickness as is. sulci to resist the pressure of the iron ; a very thin coating is in most eases sufficient. Such a coating of fine sand, well dusted and polished, will make smooth castings. Coal is not of much use in and for heavy castings, for if the iron retains its heat long, a3 it does in ponderous masses, it destroys the coal nearest to it, in cons quence of which the casting assumes a peculiar roughness. ‘The only coal which resists the influence of hot iron in large masses, is plambago or anthe: cite, but these, if they are so fine as to make a , are too fine to admit the free eseape ses, and if such carbonaceous matter is t causes as rough eastings as eoarse ae 59 In practice, coal mixed with the sand is advantageous, but it is not to be in excess, and coke or ebar coal-dust ave to he preferred on a count of their peculiar porosity. But in heavy castings, coal can never prevent the metal from penetrating between the grains of sand; and if eoal is of no service on tho facing, it is of none in the body of the mould. Heavy castings are therefore best made in dried sand of lo n, as we shall hereafter describe. Machine frames of a large body of metal, or of little importance, may be moulded in green-sand; but frames which are to be strong, wheels, or beams, ought to be cast in dry sand, for the unequal shrinkae of iron in wet sand, eaused by the moisture, is very apt to impair the strength of a casting. Moubtings of more than two bores, are not so frequent and are generally avoided in moulding machine el pattern may be frames, May ac moulded in tivo boxes, if proper! ly managed. If no

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division of a pattern can bo devised to meet all the difficulties, the moulding with cores is resorted to, to meet the emergeney. We will illustrate this in one instance, Figure 9 represents a flask in which a pulley is moulded. ‘The pattern of the pulley is divided at the dotted line, After the lower box is filled and turned, the sand is eut out around the

circumference as indicated, the surface of the sand

smoothed and parting-sand sprinkled on, which is

carefully brushed or blown off the pattern, The other or upper part of the pattern is now laid down, and a core of fresh moulding-sand pressed carefully into the groove of the pulley, in the form as indicated. ‘his cove is filled flush with the pattern, anil slanted towards the edge of the box. Te is welll polished, covered with parting-sand, and then the upper box put on and moulded. When both boxes are filled, the flask is corored with a board and tuned upside down, the dreg-box is then lifted off first, and the lower half of the pattern removed. ‘After this the ask is once more closed and turned, putting it this time on its bottom part, ‘The upper box is now lifted, and the other half of the pattern removed. Whilo turning the box, and lifting the pattern, the very brittle round core of green-sand is here always supported, without danger of its breaking, In a similar manner many complicated ol patterns may be moulded, by simply putting in eores of this kind. Whero green cores cannot be applied, dry coves must be used, and the spaces for such pro vidled for in the pattern ; but of these hereafter. ‘nail artistes of machinery require in many instances yery skilful workmen, and a dexterous ‘here is no branch of handling of the pattern: mechanies where more perfect eastings are required and made, than for spinning machines. ‘These castcon ings are to be true, smooth, sound, and malleable, ditions which are not easily effected. To succeed well, it requires particular sand,’ and ‘a certain

amount of coal mixed with it, and workmen who are

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

experienced in that kind of work. Many advantages, however, may be given to the moulder in the arrangement of a pattern. If a small face-wheel is to be moulded, and tho tecth aro to bo parallel, it is a ring difficult to mould such a pattern. If however of Iead is cast around the wheel, so that each space between the teoth of the wheel is oscupied by a lead tooth, and the wheel may be drawn through the lead without diieulty, the moulding of such a small wheel is rendered comparatively easy, by laying the lead ring upon the sand around the wheel, when the weight of the lead will hold the sand down, which otherwise is apt to fol62 that portion between the ularly low the wheel, par teeth. In moulding small machinery of iron, it is not so much the smoothness of the castings whieh is to be considered, as the soundness of the metal ; for this reason, the sand of such a foundry will bear and requires more coal-dust in admixture, than other foundry sand. Ornamental Moulding.—-The moulding of ornamonts and railing is a subject of some interest, besides being a branch of the fine arts, Railing of simple forms, with one side sinooth, may be cast in open sand ; but there is the objection against it that open castings, made of the same metal, are neverso strong as those cast in flasks. There is no economy in casting rai 1g in open sand. For coarse railing, open porous sand is used, containing a good portion of coal. Here we have to remember that eoal causes faint dull castings; the outlines are generally imper~ fectly developed. Carved work or sharp outlines can never be expected to he good if too much coal is used, either mixed with the sand, or dusted on. In ornamental moulding, itis not generally the strength of the metal which is the most valuable, but it is the perfect representa: mn of the pattern which is desirable. Shaxp outlines and smooth castings are the of tthe moulder in this ease. Some coal mixed objec with the sand, is necessary, but it ought to be as little as possible. ‘To secure sharp eastings, the facing of the mould is made of fresh fine sand; a layer

of one: welfth of an inch thick is sufficient, aud this, dusted with fine dust made of oxk or hickory chavcoa!. Ornamental work always is and ean be sulliciently tapered to leave the sand readily, and if the pattern

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is made of metal, and well polished, it may be repeatedly laid in the mould, and all imperfections ‘of the mould may be repaired to the most minute correctness Dusting the facing of the mould is the very last operation; every damage is to be repaired ‘with fresh sand, and every.line of the mould is to be correct before the dust is put on. ‘There is no more coal-dust shaken over the mould, than is just sufli cieut to make a smooth easting. Pease-meal or any. other meal is inadmissible in ornamental moulding; it is injurious to the sharp outlines of the casting. Common panels of railing are generally smooth on one side, and may be east in wooden flasks; but where both sides of a railing are ornamented, iron boxes are to be chosen, As an illustration of ornamental green-sand moulding, we will choose a square hollow column or railing-post, represented in figure 10. Figure 11 is the post represented in a seetion

cutting through the post and the flask. ‘The pattern 6

is divisible in four parts ;it divides on each corner. In moulding, one of these parts or one side is laid on a Doard, and the lower box filed over the pattern; the box is then turned, the sand sinoothed, and the two other 3 AA puton. ‘To keep these parts of the pattern places, four or more amall square boards are put between them. ‘These boards are of exactly the size to fill the inside, B, of the square. Parting sand is now thrown on, and the middle box put inits place. ‘The middle box is divisible on both ends, kept gether by hooks, so that each part, A, of the box can be removed by itself, ‘The spaces, A A, and B, rammed in and filed flush with the pattern After this the fourth side of the pattern

2071 THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 65 all such articles, which are standard articles of comparting-sand ; top the forms which place, its in put is meree. In this ease it is not alono the sharp, and the upper box put on, and this box rammed in. well expressed outlines of the pattern which are ‘The pins for the gits are to pass through the middie essential; besides these, well finished articles Box into the lower and if the metal is to be not require smooth surfaces, uniform thickness, and amore than half an ineh thick in 5 thinnest parts, it 2 high degree of lightness, The sand of a bol requies four gits, if thinner, six gits. On each end low-ware foundry is to be fine, but it may be of the column a Mov-gate is set upon the upper part 07 and filed, liberally mixed with coal-powder; blackening or anare boxes of the pattern. When all the the: ‘te may be used for dusting. ‘The most elegant the gate-pins in, the top is covered with a board, and patterns arenow manufactured intostoves, and wemay the flask inverted. ‘The dr -box is now lifted, and say, that there is no nation where the art of construetthe side of the pattern removed. ‘The four parts of ing elegant and economical iron stoves and fire-grates, the pattern are to be fastened, each to its respective has been carsieito so great arf extentasin our country. box, by meansof serews passing throwzh thesand into ‘Phe moulding of these patterns is simple, there are the pattern. Each of the four sides of the pattern but few complicated forms, and therefore this branch has its taper towards the box. ‘his lower partof is no particular object of our investigation. In the the mouldis to be well finished before closing, for there manufacture of hollow- are, there is a great advanwill be no opportunity of getting at it again, ‘The tage in good well-finished patterns. If the patterns small square boards, B, are now withdrawn, and the are perfect there is genorally no aifigulty found in spaces left by them in the core, filled up with sand. making good castings, for most of the articles are When the requisite work on this side is performed, the thin, and there is jttle danger of the sand burning drag-box is pat on again and the flask reversed. and adhering to the metal. Articles of commerce ‘Tho git-pins are now withdrawn, the upper box with are generally worked to as much advantage as posits part of the pattern removed and put aside, until sible. Patterns of small articles, as parts of locks, both parts of the middle box are ready. ‘The pins latches, binges, knife-blades, knife-covers, and other which hold the middle box to the lower, are not to small articles, are generally put ton or twenty or fit too closely, or are to be moveable, for the parts more t her, connected by a permanent ebannel 65 which conducts the metal from the gits to the patof the middle box are to be drawn in an angle, bea batel, Such terns, and forms a part of the pattern, cause it cannot be done straight. ‘The process of or set of patterns, generally fills one flask. ‘The withdrawing the pattern from the middle and upper Now England States, and Pittsburgh, aro remark. no particular deseription, bos is simple, and requires ably sucoessfil in manufacturing swall articles. "Tn For this kind of work a somewhat open sand, or fine some cases various articles are put promiscuously mixed with ground eoke or ground charooal, is sand os to be used. ‘Too close or too strong sand is liable to into ono flask, in which, however, a similarity of apparently Many ease. this in explosions cause size is to be observed. Whatever mumber of patbe pattern, this like patterns may ted terns there may be in ono flask, it is always caleu‘ly moulded, and by simple means, if they lated to cast a flask of small objects with one ladleful ane properly divided, of metal. of objects distinet he rare.—T Hotlowof ng Mouldi Moulding of a Coffee Kettle. —Asan object to illusthis branch are, however numerous, still of great Pip 12, is similarity. In no branch of the art of moulding skill and dexterity brought to such perfection as here; it is the result of the division of labour, practised in this department. ‘The objects belonging to this branch, are pots, Kettles, fire-yrates, stove: stove-plates, grate-bars, locks, latches, hinges, and

1E SURVIVOR Vol. 5

trate hollow moulding, we will choose the form of a common eoflve pot, or water kettle, represented as moulded, in figure 12. ‘The form of a water kettle is generally known. It is an almost spherical vessel, with asnout or pipe. We have selected one whicl fits toa cooking stove, with a contracted flat bottom 5 in other eases that bottom is round, with three studs to stand on. ‘The pattern is here an exact model of the kettle as is to be, with the exception of the pipe, which is, or may be solid. ‘The flask consists of three boxes, of which the middle box is divided by a div ‘This vertical division into two balves-—ebeeks. sion runs through tho pine and divides the mould into two halves, so that when both boxes are removed, the pipe, which is not fastened to the pattern, may be withdrawn, In this ease the upper part of the pattern is divided just in the division of the middle box, which leaves an unsightly division, and likely to expose the pattorn to injury. A better plan of work: ing is, to have the middle box in one piece, and divide at the lines A, A, and B, B, AAt the pipe the upper box reaches down into the middle box, as far as the pipe goes down, and divides the sand just along, the bend of the pipe; the middle box parts with the lower at the rim of the kettle, where the eore also separates, as indicated by the darker and lighter shades of sand in the di swing. ‘The pattern is only divisible in the line A, A, through the pipe. In moulding this kettle the lower (in the drawing the upper) half is put ow a board and the upper box rammed in, this box turned upside down and the other half of tho pattern put on. ‘The middle box is then set in its place, and fastened to the upper b Both boxes may also be put together, arid rammed in togthor, just as conveniently. Sand is then filled

in the widille box around the pattern, and after this

the sand is rammed insi e of the kettle, ‘The parting is made between the lower and middle box, as indi70 ted, and the lower box filled. ‘he flask stands now inverted, and the kettle on its bottom. ‘The lower box—as the flask stands it is the upper box— is now withdrayrn, then the middle box lifted and the upper half of the pattern withdrawn. First the middle and then the upper box put on again, and tho flask turned, which will now stand as in the draw-

2072

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ing. We may now draw the upper box, remove the lower part of the pattern, and put in the core for the pipe, which is made in a separate core-box. ‘The gitpin is now drawn : this is very much tapered one way, and thin, the other way three or four inches wide, formed like a blunt wedge, whose edgeis of an inch thick. ‘The box is now put on again, and the mould ready for easting, Patterns for hollow-ware require to be very aceurate, if we expect the moulding to be well done. ‘The originals of these patterns aro generally moulded in loam, cast in brass, and turned ina turning Jathe, or, if not of a round form, worked by other means until a perfect form is obtained. A pattern having been smoothed and polished, is then eut into such parts as are considered necessary to make it available, Pins, ears for handles, and studs for feet or hanilles, are generally pat on loose. All dished utensils a e generally east with their mouth down7 wards, except covers. Where the neck of a core is, narrow, and there is any danger of the hot metal lifting the core, as may occur in the case of the coffee pot, the core is fastened to the bottom of the flask by a thin iron rod with a cross at the upper end, buried in the core and fastened below the bottom, Hollow-wrare moulders need a variety of peculiarly shaped tools, and sleckers. Most of the tools are button-shaped, with short studs for handles, moro or Jess round, or even cylindrical, to suit the arious hollow forms of the patterns; others are plain and heart-shaped; others again have double plain surfaces at certain angles with each other, to suit certain corners in the mould. Blackening—plumbago—is chiofly used as dust, and if well polished, it will make smooth and good-looking castings. In this kind of moulding, iron boxes are generally used; this is necessary to secure good and correct castings ; itis also the cheapest way. If iron flasks aro well made, the work in them is done fast, well, and safe, while imperfectly made or wooden flasks always cause more or less delay in work. From well made flasks many advantages may be derived: we will mention one. Suppose « moulder is to mould twenty flasks of one and the same pattern, if the boxes are well made and fit one upon the other pro

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

miscuously, there is no need of boards after the fi drag-box is moulded. Upon tlie first box which is moulded, say the lower box, its complement the upper box is rammed in, After parting upon the upper box, the next lower box is moulded, leaving of course the pattern always in that box which serves as the bottom of the flask. In this ws the top box of he first flask serves.as the bottom to the next hottom box, anid soon through the wholerange of boxes. Each two boxes come together as they have been moulded, and it may happen in the course of the work, that one of the lust boxes will not fit to one of the first, which however does not make ang perceptible difference in the eorreetness of the castings. Tt requires some dexterity and experience to sueceed well in this moile of moulding. ‘here are many articles here not enumerated as belonging'to gree and moulding ; such as iron eastings, parts of architecture, which are now so exten sively a. ‘To this belong window and door sills, door andy indow frames, columns and railing. All

these forms are easily moulded, and require no particular details; we shall, however, mention some of them in the following

Mixed Sand Moutding.—Bioutding in green sand with dried cores may be considered a mixed moulding, which requires particular knowledge of the composition and construction of cores. In previous pages we have spoken of core-sand, but we shall here treat upon the formation of cores, and the quality of the core-sand for particular purposes. ‘The management of cores is a matter which requires some ingenuity ; malformation often causes perplexing res, and is in most eases the source of unsound castings. Cores aro especially used in forming vacancies in which cannot be successfully formed by the pattern, ‘The forms of cores vary greatly, as may be expected ; but in general, if made of open porous sand, free of vegetable and animal matter, and of coal, and if the sand does not contain too much elay, and the cores are properly dried, there is hardly any difficulty experienced on 2 fount of the cores. ‘A. cuution not to be neglected is, that cores are never to be put into a green-sand mould until the

2073

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vory latest moment before easting. Cores which are not surrounded by metal on all sides, aro made of stronger sand than others which are often not dried at all. In cores which are corered with metal on all sides, and have only one or it two small yont-holes for the escape of the gases, a3 is the ease with cores for natrow pipes, the sand is

moderately mised with free-sand. Tt is to have no more elay or adhesive matter than is just necessary

to make it adhere for being moulded and dried Sand of sharp grains, as pounded rock or slag, is ‘moro open than the composition of round grains, as river or sea-sand, and for this reason preferable. In many eases, yeast or meal water is used besides lay water to strengthen the eore-sand, but these ought to be used cautiously, for not only water, but any other substance which generates gases is injurious to core-sand, eausing blower holes in the castings. ‘The safest core-sand isa natural sand which can be used without any artificial admixtures. Moulders ought to examine their neighbourhood until they find sand suited to their purpose, in ease they are not already provided wit it, Long or thin cores

ffened by iron wires, or small rods of iron,

which are moistened with clay water. Such wires or rods are buried in the core, and recovered when the casting is cleansed from its adhering sand. Cores of considerable length, also those in which the sand is rather stro are pierced with long wires through the whole length, ing care not to drive the piereer ‘through the surfaceof the core. Curved or angu-

lar cores, w ick eannot be piereed, and are too long to do without vent-holes, are made open by laying one or more strings along the stiffening wire in the heart of theeore, which stringsare dravn outafter the core is dry. If cores are too long to bear their own weight and the p ssure of the metal, they are to be supported by chaplets or by staples. ‘he latter are simply nails with broad flat heads ; they are stuck into the sand mould, and proj with their heads just so far as tho thickness of the metal between the mould and the eore sto be. Chaplets are simply bent pieces of sheet iron in the form of a [, or two pieces of sheot iron riveted to a pin, the distance Detween both being equal to the thickness of the

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2074

metal, Cores are covered with a coating of black-

ening, which is put on wet. ‘This is the more necossary, as the cavities made by cores are mostly Aifficnlt of access, and an easy sealing off of the sand from the iron is therefore very desirable. Liquid blackening for cores is the same as that used in Ioammoulding; and by referring to that chapter a receipt for its composition will be found. he blackening is laid on the wet core, as it leaves the core-box, by means of a hoary paint brush, and both the core

and its blackening are dried sienultancousl

boxes, such as are represented in figure 13.

A,

is two strips of boards, with a square projection on each ond. Both are at liberty to be moved, and if taid upon a flat board, sand may be filled in the space which is formed by the squares: for each size, that is, section of core, such a box is required, but any length of core of that size may be made in a box of this kind. Round cor are made in boxes similar to that represented in fig. B. Globular cores are made in sph sal eavit , and in fret any

core in such a cavity as it #4 destined to fort in the casting. Cores are not always made because they are necessary: they are frequently made to save

expense in patterns and in moulding, and to render

a successful east more certain. Boutding of « Column. As n instance of mixed moulding, we will describe the moul ing of a fluted colon, which may set serv as an illustration for most eases of this kind, particularly for pipes. Figure

1A represents the pattern of a column with orn

mented capital, as it is imbedded in the sand, mould-

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

ed, and ready for removal. A, A, are the eore-prints, which leave a cavity to be filled by the long core ‘which is to form the bore, or hollow in the column, It is in many eases difficult to mould a richly orna‘mented capital in green-sand, along with the trunk of the column, and still tho eapital ought to be ina solid connexion with the shaft; this case is hore represented, On the pattern of the column, instead of the ornamented capital, a bluck of six or eight sides, or of more or less than that number, occupying, tho place of the eap, is inserted, as indicated by the Jines in the drawing, and more distinetly represented in figure 15, by the dotted lines whieh represent hexagon. ‘The fluted shaft of the pattern is divided through the whole length into two halves, which is bost done through the opposite channels, as indicated ; for a seam which falls_otherwise upon two ribs, 78

makes these ribs always more or less imperfect, which is nob so glaring if it falls in the channels. Besides this division of the pattern, each half of the pattern is again divided into three subdivisions, or more, a8 the ease may be, ‘hese Intter divisions, as shown in the drawing, divide the circumference of the e0Jumn into six parts, each halfin three, held together by blocks and wood-serews, Afler the serews and the blocks are drain, the pattern may be taken froin the sand in parts, exch part by itself, No se cond part is removed until the first impression is mended in the mould, in ease there is anything bro‘en in the sand. _ ‘he eapital is formed in the followIf it consists of six equal ornaments, as leaves or spirals, one of these is ved, and prepared for being used as a pattern over this pattern a core-box is made, and so calculated that a core in this box will fill one of the parts of the made 79 polygon formed by the pattern. Such a core will fit in the mould, and occupy one part of the space having on one side the impressions of the ornaments

2075 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 two square projections to rest upon when laid down 5 of the capital, j ning with two sides the noxt eores, d around these projections an iron strap is drawn, to and resting with one side in the sand of the mould. hold both halves together when in use. A. core-box ‘The cores which belong to the upper box may have SL vires or rods inserted to be fastened with, to the box. is to bo true in its bore, for which reason it is bored After th 1 cores aro ph ced, the contre eore is put or planed, so as to make it true. Both edges, where down, the flask closed, and in faet managed like any the halves of the box join, are, if not quite sharp, other object of our consideration. In placing the cores, to form a blunt edge in ease the core is made when peneeannot metal liquid the that taken be isto care lying in a horizontal position. ‘To make good cores trate below a core anil lift it; all the erevices whiel in a lying box requires great deal of experience, d to such a result are to be avoided, or and it is for this reason not generally practised. filled up with green-sand; and if there is In most eases the box is rammed-in vertical or ine any doubt as to the safety of the cores, they are to clined ; the latter way is more convenient than the be wired down, At each end of the flask in the first, and quite as good. ‘The ratmming-in of the sand parting a small opening is left to communicate with is done by a long iron ramrod. ‘The eentre of the the vent-holes of the eore ; the: is, in vory thin cores, say 1} inch diameter, an way connected with the interior of the mould, so as iron rod, along which a wire is laid; both ave ramto endanger the cast by admitting hot metal to ran med in togother, and the wire is withdrawn while out this way. Gitsand ehann are as uswal in the tho core is in the box. ‘This leaves o cylindrical nd if means permit it, the eolumn proper plac channel all through the core, and serves for the ought to be cast inclined, into one gate which is at the esvaye of the gases. In thicker cores, of two or lowest part, the git raised, by means of sinall boxes, three and more ches in diameter, the centre rod is to such a height as to balance the flow-gate. The a hollow pipe of east or wrought iron, full of holes. latter is to be at the highest point of the pattern and The latter are necessary, or the gas would not find 80 its way to the interior of the pipe. Heavy cores the box. Here, as in any other ease, the ca are made of loam, of which we sball speak in another to be kept fall, in pouring in the metal, to prevent the place. ‘The centre rod is to be a few inches on cach running in of impurities along with the iron. Direetend Tonger than the core. ‘This forms the bearing ly after the colamn is east, or better still while the for the eore to rest upon when it is to be dried, and metalis pouring in, five is to be applied at both ends 82 to kindle the gases escaping from the core, which so the journal on which it is to be turned, when the gases will e fe If left to kindle spontaneously. blacker 1g is to be laid on, Water pip es, gas pipes, pr pipes for any purpose Moulding with Plates.—In many eases cast-iron whatever, are mouldedin the samo manneras columns. plates with handles are used when one part of the ‘There is no essential difference, but in the form of the mould is to be removed before the pattern ean be fae pattern, ‘The core of a pipe is to be 2 fac simile of the drawn, ‘This is the ease with the sand between the bore or hole to be formed. A core-box for water or arms of a bevelled wheel ; also with fa 10 wheels, or gas pipes is represented in figure 16: it shows a in cases whiere the pattern, and consequently the sand, is too deep to admit the drawing of the pattern withFig 16. out injury to the mould. Plate moulding is generally performed on beit-plates of steam engines, bedplates of turning lathes, house props, and inall eases where the sand is surrounded on three sides by hot Iongitudinal seetion of an iron core-box. Frequently Fig. 11, such boxes are made of wood; but in well eondueted lishinents they are made of cast iron. Woo

is apt to twist and warp, and in consequence causes

mperfect. cores, An iron core-box is generally round, about half an inch thick in metal, and has

2076 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 ‘end unifor metal. ‘The sand lifted outin these instances is dried

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

texture of the castings is quite as well

and treated like a core. In the ease of a bevelled wheel the moulding by plates is effected as follows: Figure 17 shows a section of a bevelled wheel as it is imbedded in the floor of the foundry, which has been levelled for the purpose, ‘The sand, in immediate cont ct with the pattern, is sifted. ‘The parting Ah is in the line In the spaces between the spokes, cast-iron plates, B, B, are insorted, with wrought-iron handles east into them: these plates are east in open sand, and from } to fof an inch thick, ‘They have in this case a triangular form,

secured in dry-sand moulds as in loam moulds. Dried or baked sand often consists of a mixture of Joam which has been used, and fresh sand; in most cases, however, particularly in orname al moulding, fresh sand is used. Dry-sand obtains a very firm and open texture, and is well qualified to east machine shafts, pipes, and such articles as require sérength and beauty. ‘The manipulation of moalding in drysani is exactly the same as in green-sand, bat is less difficult. In this ease no coat powder fs mixed with the sand, which leaves the sand stronger. If fresh sand is used, it is of ery easy moulding, When

Teast two inches all round, smaller than that space. ‘hese plates are Jnid upon the parting, or, in mar instances, impressed into the sand about } of an inch deer. ‘They are then covered over with a layer of small iron rods, or wire, or in many cases wooden rods, dipped in clay-water. These rods overhang the plate and reach near to the patter The body of sand in the e entre of the plate will sustain that end of the rod which is to carry the sand beyond the plate. ‘hespace between the arms is then filled upon the plates with moulding sand, flush with the pattern, This forms the parting for the bos After tho pattern is covered, and the top box removed, the sand botwoon the arms is removed, by means of the handle C; of which there may be more than one if the core to be lifted is too heavy for one hand, or it is to be lifted by the erane, ‘This part of the mould forms separate pieces: cores in the formof triangles, which may be blackened and dried. The pattern Being removed andthe other parts of the mould ready for casting, the plates are replaced, either green or dried, just as eouvenient. ‘The upper box put on, and the mould may be filled with metal his kind of moulding is very extensively used 5 it is a cheap and very convenient way of working Dry-Sand Moulding. —Vhis is a very inter: ving branch of moulding ; to it belong most of the brass and bronze moulding, ornamental iron moulding, and a great partof machine woulding, T sand mould ing is in many respect preferable to Loam-moulding § it gives a casting more truo to the pattern t! Joaw, shrinkage, frequently whi latter, on account o gives imperfect forms to the cast. ‘The strength

ths ndulds ara’ aiahed and’ blatiened, they. ato

jmilar to the space they serve to occupy, anil are at

conveyed tothe

drying stoves, forat least twelve hours,

tiventy-four hours is better to expel by the action of

heat the moisture contained in the damp sand. ‘The

blackening is done by a paint brush il the humid way,

just as loam moulds or cores are blackened. ‘Thisis dono wi some caution, $0 as not to injure the sharp es of the mould. ‘The blackening is applied very thin, A moulder who understands mixing his sauil properly, s0 as to be strong and porous, and assume at the samo time fine impressions, will make finoe castings in thia way than ean be done in any other modeof moulding, Dry-sand moulding requires strong iron boxes; wood is impracticable, for evenif it did not burn in drying the mould, its warping and ‘ing would injure the mould, All the traverses, if ve needed, are to be of iron, Long patterns, as shafts, roquive particularly strong boxes, for these are mostly cast in a vertical, or at least in an i clined

position, ‘The pressure upon sand and boxes is then

very heavy. Hooks and eyes are in these cases not strong enough to hold the boxes together it glands to accomplish this. Glands are requires Goubie angles, made of flat wrought iron. ‘he rods are to be six inches longer than the height of the flask, or of the two boxes together : these six inches are for 36 bending a square angle at each end of the rod, after it assumes the form of af. ‘he distance on the angular ends is to be a little greater than ight of the boxes and bottom. Jn slanting these glands upon the boxes, the flask may be drawn together as tight as the strength of the glands will

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2077 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 permit, ‘The drawing of the glands is performed by of the foundry. ‘This mode of drying moulds, however, is imperfect, and slow, produces inconveniencein small erow-bars gently, s0 as not to injure the mould. the foundry, and is expensive, ‘The making of a loam We shall speak of this hereafter. Boxes for dry-sand core is a matter of no difficulty, if core-bars, loammoulding, if heavy, are to be provided with swivels board, and loam are in good condition. ‘The eore‘on each end, for each box is to be turned, the facing bar is in this e: a hollow, cast-iron, oylind eal ‘of the mould uppermost; blackening and drying pipe, perforated all over its surface, with either equire thi In moulding pipes, which need strength, round or oblong holes. ‘The eore-bar is about three it is necessary to mould thom in dry sand, in strong inches less in diameter than the core is to be, with boxes, and to east them vertically, or at least inclined 4 view to proviile room for a hay or straw rope, by 80° or 40°, Pipes, or any other objects which are which the core is made porous, and so thick as to cast horizontal, have always one bad side. ‘ho upper side is in most eases porous, unsound, and, leavo just sulficient. space for loam. The cor iron has 2 journal at each end, made of wrought iron and in pipes, generally thinner than the bottom side. ‘The liquid metal is apt to Tift the core, in spite of serewed to the east pipe, leaving as much opening as possible for the eseape of the gases. ‘These bearstaples or chaplets, Another advantage arises from ings, or journals, may be of cast iron, in which ease casting vertically, in the better eseape of the they are made hollow and square inside, to receive and the greater security of the core against injury. awineh by which the eore-bar is made to turn upon ‘Phe cove is not so liable to bend and the core-rods Rip 18 may bo Tighter. a There is not the Moutding of @ Large Pipe slightest difference between moulding in dry-sand,

and moulding in green-sand, except in the compo. tion of the sand, blackening, and drying of the mould;

and therefore it hardly seems necessary to illustrate this branch.

We will, however, describe the mould-

ing of a large water pipe, as illustrative of this ease, and introductory to loam moulding. All water pipes of more than twelve inches diameter, ought to be moulded in dry-sand, and with loam cores. Water pipes are generally made from eight to nine feet small pipes frequently but five or six feet long. Io ‘The pattern is like the exterior of the pipes as it is

to be when cast, having at each end’ a core print

five or six inches long. ‘The pattern may be of a solid piece of wood, but is gonerally composed of strips of plank, to dimi ish the weight of it; it is After divided parallel with its axis, into two halv the moulding is performed in the usual way, the mould is blackened and earried to the drying-stove, a crane. If the of ns on an iron tram-road, or by mea foundry possesses no drying stove, or if the boxes aro too heary for transport, some boxes may be put together, @ tempor -y wall of bricks or moulding boxes set around it, rovered with sheet iron, and is Kindled fire of coke or charcoal 88 or anthr: below. ‘The boxesare ried in this way 1m the floor

its axis, ‘The bar with its hearings is laid upon two iron trestles, as represented in fignre 18, on which it may be turned to reevive its bay rope and loam. ‘Phe trestles are about three or four feet long, and are provided with various sized triangular dentations for different-sized journals. ‘The hay or straw for ropes is kept in a moist plaeo, to have it soft and more fit for being twisted. ‘To make a hay rope, simple winch, made of quarter inch iron rod, with a wooden handle, required, such as is represented in figure 19, A. Hay ropesare made by the boys when not

otherwise engaged, and kept for use when required. ‘Phe method in which the rope is applied is si ple: the core-bar is laid with its journals in the trestles, as shown in figure 18, the rope fastened at one end, and the bar turned upon its axis; the rope is led

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2078 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 so.as to make a close and tight covering. If the put in the mould. If the eores are long and limber, the staples are not to be forgotten. rope is loose on the spindle, it is liable to be pressed ‘The thickness of the covering of loam depends together by the fuid metal, which would, in the partly on the quality of the loam, but ebiefly on the most favourable ease, injure the casting, but would thickness of the metal, and the duration and amount OR ets ces a Wood of pressure upon the core by the fluid metal. For en core-bars are not to be recommended, as it ‘common water pipes, if cast inclined, and porous requires something stronger than wood to resist Joam is used, one inch is sufficient for the core, but, the pressure of a high column of fluid metal. In if cast standing, one inch and a half of loam ought figure 19, B represents the eross section of a core, tocover the hay-rope. If02 the thickness of loam on a in which the core-iron, journal, hay rope, and loam core be more than three-quarters of an inch, it is covering are shown, ‘The hay rope receives a slight essary to lay on the loam in two or more layers, covering of thin loam, just s fliciont to eover the always drying the first layer before the next is put on. hay, and remove the roughne of the rope. ‘This ‘Whe foam which forms the core is made as open as coating of loam being dried, the core is taken again possible in its composition; old moulding-sand, in the trusses and the loam-board is applied. old core sand, or river-sand is mixed with the loam, ‘The loam-board is, in this ease, an almost strai ‘The working edge of the loam-board is not a square, board, of eight or ten inches wide. It is straight but is slanted so as to form an angle of nearly 45° every W y, and to prevent its bending while in use, to the tangent of the periphery of the core, Thi it is supported by a rib, screwed to it, or by a strong in order to make the board to sleek (to is necos plank, upon which it rests. ‘The board is so long make the loam smooth). A square edge would cause ‘as to rest upon both trusses, and is fastened to these, a rough surfa to the core. ‘The slanting of the just so far from the centre of the eore-fron, as to edge is ted in figure 19, C, at one end of the form half the diameter of the finished core. ‘The board. edge of the board (in the drawing, the upper edge) After careful drying, blackening, and polishing, is shaped as the form of the core, which is in the core may be put into the mould, if required. this case almost a straight Tine, but is eut out, at ‘he mould is provided with staples so as to support one end, to form the funnel, or eup-mouth, of the the re, and is then carefully closed. If the box, pipe. When the board is in its proper position, or the pipe, is large, it is advisable to cover the box nd fastened at both extremiti by means of bya strong board, and put the glands upon the board, weights or serews, it is obvious that when the coreso that there is a board at top and bottom of the js turned upon its1 axis, it will describe tho ask, to protect the sand from being pushed out. form of the core along the edge of the board. In many instances the moulding boxes are tapered By turning the core-bar with its hay rope and super~ so as to form half 4 hexagon ; in these cases glands ficial coating of loam, and throwing on additional are of no use, and heavy iron weights which reach moist loam, the surplus moist loam will be stricken the boxes, are-used to bear the tap-box off by the Ioam-board, or Inid on in those places where the board does not reach the loam. When down, Aircholes at both ends of the box are to be the core is properly filled up and closely eorered provided for, for the core in this case emits a great Joam, the loam-board is taken away, washed, and pub to be kindled in deal of combustible gas, which in its place again, ‘The core is now turned somepro} e to prevent explosion. what faster than before, and receives a slight washPipe moulding is a very common employment in ing, merely by dipping the hands into water, and iron foundries, but stil there is something peculiar moving them over the surface of the rotary core. in it, whieh makes it inconvenient to east pipes in a When smoothed, which is done with as little water foundry where green-sand or dry-sand moulding is 28 possible, the core is brought to the stove and dried, done at the same time. It suits best in a loam-mouldthen blackened, dried again, and is thon ready to be

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ing establishment, ‘There are great varicties in the form of pipes, but as long as they aro straight, a pattern is mado and moulded in dry or green sand. ‘The core in this ease being also straight, is easily made, Ib is more Gificult to form the core for a bent pipe or knee. ‘We will allude to this in the next chapter, Casting Pipes without Cores —There was considera ble interest mani sted, some time ago, in a process for casting pipes without cores, by means of machinery. An iron mould, well bored and polished, is made to turn upon its axis in a horizontal position; the fuid ‘metal cast in at one ond, will naturally fow round in the mould, and if sufficiently uid, will ake a pipo of niforn thickness. How this machine turned out in practice, we do not know, for nothin, has been said about it for a long. tim Any improveOL reduce the fe of ivon water pipes wi whieh ment is worthy of notice, and the above machine ought to attract sufficient attention to give it a fair trial. One thing is certain, that every kind of pig-iron is unsuitable for this process. e Castings. Before we conclude Moulding of this cheptor wo will ive a short deseription of orna‘iental moulding; that is, the moulding of small ornaThere is little ments and trinkets in iron or bronze.

difference between moulding for iron, and moulding for

bronze; the chief distinction is in the thickness of the

ast. Bronze must be cast very thin, if'sharp, fine, and ct outlines are desired. In iron, the same attention need not be paid to the weight of the cast.

‘The principal thing to be attended to in moulding

small articles, is the quality of the moulding-sand, ‘his must be as fine as it possibly ean be obtained. Te ought to have ay little clay, or any other foreign dimisture, as p ible, to provent its shrinking, and in consequence breaking and eracking Sand for Ynis purpose is to be an almost pure silicions compound. Coal-powder or any other admixture is inadmi sible ; it fs fatal to tho beauty of the east. with the and of this kind adheres ea amount of water, takes the finest impressions ski nd may be eut into fine slices by a sharp

knife.

For

this kind of work, the greatest

evil is too much lay in tho sand ; other impurities

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‘THE SURVIVOR Vol 5

can be removed by sieves, or by washing. Fine tvipoli is the best sand for theso purposes. Small articles of bronze or fron, are moulded in the same manner as larger parts of machinery, or hollow-ware. ‘The sand is rammeil very close in small iron moulding-boxes, and the boxes dried in the stove, blackened if for iron, but not so if for bronzo or brass. For brass or bronze it is advisable to face the mould each time with fresh sand, thrown on through a fine silk sieve.

If this coating is but

one-twelfth or one-eighth of an inch thick, it improves the casting considerably, Moulds for iron cannot be dusted with chareoal, or black lead, a9 these would be too coarse. ‘The moulls after they are dry ave blackened by rush-candle, or the black smoke from a pine knot. ‘The box which contains the mould is inverted, so as to turn the fuee of the mould downwards, rested upon two extreme points, ‘The flame of the candle or wood is held under the mould, whieh will assume in consequence a ~slvoty coating of fine carbon. ‘here is to bo as litt.e blackening as possiBe; too wuch will injure the mould and the casting. Yo mould a simple rosette, or anything which gives

Dut a simple impression in the lower and upper box, 36

is of very easy performance. ‘The ease is different with more complicated forms—articles which can not be serewed together, but must be east in one pievo, as statues, columns, and other similar objects. ‘This is an interesting art, and it may be of some use to iMustrato a few cases of this kind. Moulding of a Stag—If the small formof a stag, figure 2 resting upon a platform, is to be moulded,

it is at once visible that the antlers cannot well be Drought into the same monld with the body: they are moulded by themselves, and screwed on. ‘Pho platform can be cast with the body, but it makes lesa work in moulding to cast them separate, and screw the platform also to the body. We have now only

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2080

the body of the animal left to make a mould for. In this ease the natural parting is over the back, following the spine, and so dividing the face and breast. "The pattern is, accordingly eut in two in this lino. Wh n one half d of the pattern is moulded, the box is turned up, and so meh of the sand as eannot be lifted, is eut out around that half of the pattorn; this forma the parting of the boxes. The surface of the parting is well polished, some partingsand thrown on, and the other half of the pattern set upon the first. Gores are now to be provided in those plac where the upper box will not lift. We find that a core is to be made between the two ferelegs, as indicated by’ the dotted line.

Another core

js needed on the face, from the nose to the eats; and a third core, joining the second at the ears, running down its neck. ‘his will be all the cores needed, for the other parts of the pattern divide naturally. ‘These cores are maie of fresh sand, even if the other mould is made of old sand. old sand will not stand the necessary moving of these cores ‘The cores are often moulded upon fine blotting or oiled tissue paper, if small; but if the cores are large, wire fs to be buried in them. When the upper box is filed with sand, whieh is done after the cores aro well finished and parting sand put on, the upper box is iféed, one half of the pattern removed, and the flask elosed again ‘The flask is now inverted, the lower box lifted, and the other half of tern removed. ‘The same manipulation,in principle, 93 is used in moulding a grooved pulley. , By this mode of moutl ing, the cores are not removed. This is only praoticable srhere the pattern ean be and is divided, If the pattern is and where it is of Tight rat. heavy, made of metal, and it eannot be divided, then the cores are to be drawn back from it as soon as the upper box has been lifted. ‘Ther is no need of moving the cores further than és just necessary to have them out of the way for lifting the pattern. and is suflicient to separate cores Good pa so large as to take wire. Very small cores are best bedded upon paper; in pulling the paper, the core resting upon it will follow. As soon as th pattern js removed from the sand, the cores ag in putin their places, and the boxes removed are

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to the drying-stove for drying. Tt is a matter of precaution to fasten the cores, if they are once in their places, with hooks of thin iron wire, bent at one end, and pin the cores to the mould. ‘There is less dangerof injury happening to the mould, in handng th boxes, if the cores are sccured in this manner. When the mould is properly dried, which may be done within twelve hours (though a longer time would be preferable), it is joined together, glands or sorews puton, asthe ease may be, and cast. If the artile is to be east in bronze, brass, or any other metal 9 besides iron, it is not blackened ; but if it is to be cast in iron, it is blackened as before described. ‘There will be no di alty in casting the antlers to this pat~ ter: the platform also is very simple. Moulders who are skilled in this kind of work, will mould two Joose eores, one upon the other, but in most eases it fs proferable to dry one part of the mould with its cores, and then put on the other cores; in both cases, however, it requires experience to handle such tender, brittle things, as small sand cores, often but one-eighth of an inch thick, and half an inch in Ornamental compositions aro serewed together, to form an ornament of many parts. Small ornanents are soldered together, or riveted and soldered. Solder for icon trinkets is a fluid composition of a little silver and gold. ‘The soldering is performed by the blow-pipe. Solder for brass and bronze is the same, if the articles are to be gilded; in ordinary eases, brass or tin solder is used. Brass ornaments are mostly east hollow; this not so much for reasons of economy, as with a view of making more perfect castings, and saving labour in chipping and chiselling. As no eoal ean be used to protect the metal against burning together with the sand, it is necessary to cool it as quick as possi100 ble, and in this way give it a smooth surface. ‘The making of cores in these instances is often connected

with considerable dificulties. ‘The cores of complicated figures are composed of parts, that is, a cor box is made for one part of the core, and the parts cemented together to form the core. Tron castings are but seldom east hollow, if small, that is, articles

of less than six or eight inches extent ; larger figures

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in iron are cast hollow, for if the body of hot iron is largo, it will burn the san 1, or melt together with it, Fluid iron, suitable for small castings, and the use of good fine sand, will make ornaments finer and sharper in expression than castings in any other metal. Hor e-hair and cotton thread may be imitated to perfection, ‘The wings of a fly with its microseopie nerves may bo copied in irons nd green Ieaves stiffened so as to be applicable as patterns, may be cast in iron without difficulty. Foam-Moutding. —Whis is the most ancient branch of mould In this department the moulder is his own pattern maker. He furnishes in most eases the pattern, and makes the mould also, In some instances a pattern, or parts of a pattern, are maile of wood, and buried in the loam, but theso eases do not happen frequently. ‘Whe loam-moulder will furnish pa terns with groat ease, which eannot

be made well or a0 cheaplyOL in any other way. Any

form of a pattern, or any eas easting of whatever kind, may be done in loam. In practice, loam-moulding is generally restricted to forms which cannot be east conveniently in any other way Loam-moulding is gre expe 2, gener: peaking, than any other Kind of moulding, except in eases of shinple forms and heavy castings. very piece of loam-moulding is a regularly structed edifice. No moulding in loam for a ea of importance, is commenced until a perfect plan of the 9 yhole operation from beginning to end is Jaid down, If no such plan is made, it may happen, and frequently does happen, to be impracticable to mould in the way commeneed, whereby often the Tabour spent so far, is Tost. ‘The most important part of this branch of moulding, is the composition of the losm employed; it demands the strictest attention, and is varied according to the objects to be moulded, as loan suitable in one ¢ will not answer in another. Fineness and porosity, and a3 little shrinkage in being dried as possible, are indispensable qualities. ‘The mould must be dried hard, to resist the pressure of the duid metal, hich will otherwise broak it or crumble it to dust, and spoil the, gasting. IF loum is too 0, or imporous, it wil ‘etain the gases developed by the heat of the metal and cause either the metal

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 to boi and make porous eastings, or in the worst

-sse cause explosion, and throw out the hot metal. If Joamt shrinks too much in drying, i will inevitably crack, make erevices into which the hot metal runs, and what is still worse, some parts of the facing of the mould will be pressed back, which causes uneven, deastings. ‘The most important quality of loam is its porosity. ‘The heat of the cast, and the presence of gas-generating material in evory part of the mould, renders it necessary that the gases should eseape through the substance of the mould, while it is impervious to the metal. ‘There is no use in piereing holes by the prickers iff the loam is too strong, the cast will boil. Moulding-loam is generally artificially composed of common brick-elay, and sharp-sand, Ins of the latter, old coarse foundry sand, or used coresand, or burnt brick-powder, may be used to greator aulvastage. ‘Che quantity of sand to bemixed with the clay can only be known by experience. Itisimpossible to give receipts for compositions, because the quality of loam as well as that ofthe sand is variable, and differs inevery instance. Forheavy, thick eastings, theloam is to be stronger than for small or thin casting: : ws Cow-hair obtained from tanneries fa used to prevent the erackingof loam and make it porous. Mi seed sawdust, horse-dung, hacked-hay or straw, are still niote extensively used than eow-hair, Loam is to be worked dili nly, to make its texture as uniform as possible. ‘The matter to be mixed with it is to be istribated equally through the whole mass. Each part of the mould requires a different kind of loam : one for tho facing of the mould, and another for the body ; a stronger loam for brick-work, and a weaker one, with more straw or hors dung, for a common mould. Parts of a mould which are almost surrounded by the pattern, and of course by the metal, are to be burned in a fire almost to a red heat, not only to expel water, but also to destroy everything which could gonerate gas, and to destroy every particle of vegetable and animal matter. ‘Phis operation -y to be performed on all cores, and such parts of a mould as form the interior of it. ‘The gases generated in a loam mould are of a complex nature? there are gases of water—steam— bonie

acid, earbonie oxide, and ammoniaeal compositions

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which are not determined. ‘The fai issuing from ba bluclight, inter a loam mould, generally burn sporsed w h greenish yellow streaks and specks. 04 i Moulding of Simple Round Forms —Axticles of

round form, that is, a spheroid, or a segment of it, a oylinder and its ausiliaries, are moulded by means of a loam-board fastened to am iron spindle, which may be turned upon an imaginary axis, or the axis

of the spindle, Wherever a loam-mould is built up, it must be always in the sweep of a crane, or it is to be built in thatpit where it is finally to be east. We ‘will commence our illustration by the moulding of

soap-Kottle in the pit. A soap-kettle—or soap-pan— is gonerally partly cylindrical, with a round bottom, broad brim, and a collar, for the wooden superstrueture of planks to be set into it, All kettles are moulded and east in an inverted position, as is shown in figure 21. Te would be better for the quality of the cast if kettles could be cast bottom down, but

this is almost impossible on account of the core. ‘he moulding of a kettleis represented in figure 21

105 It is here performed, r want of a crane in the pit, on the very place where it is to be east. A hole is dug in the floor of the foundry suflviently deep to bury the whole mould, and wide enough to permit the moulder to walk around the mould when he is at work, ‘The first thing to be done is to cast a round 0 reach at least plate or ring in open sand six iuches into the kettle: that is, its smallest dia meter is to be twelve inches smaller than the shorter or interior diameter of the Kettle, and its lerg diameter is to be from eight to twelve inches ton, than the longest diameter of the pattern. This pla be three-quarters of an inch or one inch thick. Ib is placed in a perfec ly level position on the bottom of the pit, and raised by bricks to the height of six or eight inches from the bottom. In the centre of this ring-plate a pole or piece of east iron is

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driven in the ground, and covered by sand to protect it against heat. Tn this pole a pan, or step, is cut for the pivot of the spindle to move in. A spindle of oneand a half or two inches square vrought iron, having a round bearing st its upper end, and a steel point at its lower extremity, is now erected; resting below in the centre step, and above in a plank laid across the pit, borne down and held in its place by weights placed upon it at the extremities. ‘This 106 spindle is to \d perfectly plumb, being exactly in the centre of the foundation plate. ‘Zo this spindle a moveable arm is serewed, made of two rods of flat fron, with many holes in it. At the spindle these two flat bars are bent in such a manner as to catch two corners of the spindle, and be immoveably fastceneid to it by bvo screws. In other eases aeast-iron forked arm is made with holes for serewing on the Toam-board, and a spindle-box with pinching-serew for adjustment, ‘To this arm the Ioam-board is serewel, which is an inch thick pine board, clear of Knots. ‘The loam-board is at first a skeleton of the interior of the kettle with the brit, and that slanting part beyond the brim, called the knee; if turned upon the axis of the spindle, it will describe the form and size of the interior of the kettle, Tn commencing the mould, a four inch brick wall is built upon the foundation plate, or platform, round, s0 as to Jeave tivo inchesspace between it and the loam-board, ‘At the height of six inches below the corner of the bottom, a layer of one and a half inch iron bars is Jnid, and these are crossed by smaller bars, all vvalled-in in the brick work. Upon these bars the bricks forming the erown are founded. If the hottom is round, forms half a sphere, these iron bars are not neoded; an arch may be sprung of bri 107 which generally is strong enough to resist the pressure of the fluid metal. ‘The moulder leaves a small opening around the spindle, sorving the purpose of a drafthole for the fire which is to be kindled inside. ‘Whis first brick wall is dried by a stone coal or charcoal fire, kindled inside below the mould. ‘The Joam-mortar for putting up the wall, is to be porous, but also strong ; some horse-dung is generally mixed with it, Is is composed mostly of sand, and the layers of mortar aro from half an inch to one inch

2083 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 thick. ‘The bricks used for this purpose are hardburnt, light, but such as have not been melted, or burned too hard. Bricks are used in halves or bate. While the brick wall is drying, a thin layer of loam 1 be given to the mould, which here constitutes the core, in case the work is pressing; but if there is time, it is better to dry the bricks first. ‘The loam may after this be inereased to within a quarter of an inch to the loam-board, still keeping up the fire, and drying the core gradually. The last Jayer of loam is put on when the first loamcoating is nearly dry. Ib consists of finer and stronger loam. It is free from horse-dung, straw, or any other admixture, but is mixed with some cowhair, ‘The surface is finished off by a smooth ¢ te ing of wet fine loam, the redundancies being swept 108 off by the loam-board, which has been washed and freed of all adherent loam and straw. As the surfa e gradually dries, it is painted over, by means of a paint-brush, with a mixture of chareoal-powder, clay,

and water, ‘This coating forms the parting between the core and the metal-thickness.

which the core has been The loam-board with formed is now removed, and is replaced by another board, called the thiekness board. ‘The edge of the thickness hoard describes the external form of the Kettle, and merely touches the knee made by the first board. We see hore the use of the knee: it serves not only for the more perfect closing of the ‘mould below, but it is the standard mark of the loaraboards. Over the nearly dry eore a layer of porous sandy loam is nowspread, and made smooth by sweeping the thickness board around it. This layer of Joam forms the exact pattern of the kottle as it will be after casting. When well dried, this layer of loam receives a black: h as the core did, and is to be well dried. ‘The spindle may now be removed, f there is no more use for it in this instance. Over tho first foundation plate, or platform, is now

aid another platform, whose interior diameter is equal to the diameter of the knee, so that this ring when Is id down just fits, ov is'a Tittle larger than 9 the largest part of the core. Upon this platform another layer of loam of nearly two inches thick is laid, and smoothed over by hand. ‘There is no need

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of a smooth surface, ‘As Iong as the loam continues soft, the mould is kept under bars of iron bent in the shape of the bottom, or crown of the mould, and reaching down to the platform, to which they attack themselves by being bent under the platform. ‘Dwo or three of such bars reach all over the, kettle, others may be shorter and reach merely along the sides. ‘Dhese bars are laid over the soft loam, and thon the mould is gradually dried. When nearly dry, iron hoops, which keep together the rods, are laid around the mould, and fastened to the rods by means of wire. ‘The whole mould, iron and ail, receives after this a good coating of straw loam, with horse-dung, the iron bars being partly covered with it. In this manner, iron and loam are comVined and form one solid part of the mould. ‘The structure of the mould is now completed, so far as the form is concerned. The whole is now thoroughly riod or baked by keeping up & constant firo in the interior of themould. Fire may be applied on the outside also. Ta this instance, which is that of moulding a kettle with an open core, not so much fire is required as if the core was solid. In the latter ease 110 it requires thorough burning ; the eore is then to be made red hot; but in this instance a good drying sullicient to secure a safe cast. In twenty-four hours the mould will be found to be dry, and ready to be taken apart, ‘The taking apart of the mould is done by means of a crane, in caso there is one; otherwise it is to bo done by hand, by a pulley, or by some other ‘means which are suflicient to lift the cape or cope. ‘The first step to be taken is to lift, by means of a sharp crow-bar, the platform of the cope from the platform of the core, that is, to loosen the first from the latter part, after which it may be lifted and set upon a pair of timbers over the pit, or on any other convenient place where it is not exposed to moisture. ‘When the cope is removed, the “ thickness" is peeled off from the core, the draft-hole in the erown is elosed by a brick-bat and plastered over with loam. The hole in the centre of the cope is also filled up to within two inches, all the damages on the mould repaired, and these patches dried. After this the mould receives @ blackwashing, and is then finally Aried once more.

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Blackwash.—The Vlackwash for parting consists chiefly of chareoal-powder, and a Tittle lay. This is almost entirely lost in taking the mould apart, 10. and the remainder is lost in sleeking the mould by the finishing elay-wash. Blackwash is always on hand in the foundry; it is contained in the blackswash tubs, of which there is one for parting and one for finishing, ‘The latter is composed of finely ground plumbago, often mixed with a little charcoal, the whole diluted with horse dung water, or a solution of the soluble parts of horse-dung. ‘This blackwash is frequently mixed with pease-meal or other meal, glue, and extracts from the refuse of tanneries ; but all these latter compositions are more or less too close, and cause a dull surface to the east, ‘The first is the best, if applied not too much diluted. ‘The sleck-washing as well as blackwashing is to be done with proper caution, so as not to i jure the sharp outlines of the mould; it is better if the first of these to operations can be dispensed with, and the mould finished just as the loam-board lett it.

‘This latter can be done in following the plan to be described in cylinder forming, which is also applicable in this ease; that is, working without thieknesses, When the parts of the mould are properly aries it is put together again; but before this fs done, 2 hole of ‘0 inches round is cut in the brim of the cope, to conn: the gates with, for casting. ‘he cope is to rest firmly upon the core, that is, it 2 is to be put exactly in that position in which it Before, and shut tightly ab the knee. A pipe is now laid below the foundation of the mould, which pipe is to be carried through the sand which is subsequently rammed in, to conduct the gas from the Interior of the core to the surface. ‘This pipe may be either an iron pipe, or may be of baked clay, or it may be a space left in the sand, ‘The latter is objectionable, because it may fill up, aud cause an explosion by stopping the eseape of the gas. ‘The mould is now rammed in with sand, which

is done by

iron stampers with strokes in rapid succession. This operation is performed by at least three hands at onee, to break the vibrations caused by stamping, and preventinjury to the mould in consequence. With the

ramming-in of the mould, the gate for the reception

HE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

of the metal is to be provided for. ‘This we contemplate to be in the lower part of the mould; it 4s frequently done from the top, but the latter mode not qui safe, and never makes as sound castings as the way proposed here, ‘The gate may be formed

by a wooden pattern or pin, as in greon-sand mould

ing, but this is + best a very doubtful operation in its consequences ; for the gate will be a long one in all cases, and in pulling out the pin, sand may drop in the gate and stop it up altogether, or drop so 3 ‘much sind as to injure the casting. ‘The best plan is to have pipes ready made of burned Ioam such pipes may be conical,and tapered so that the smaller end of one pipe will fit in the larger end of another. In this way any length of gate may be formed, perfectly secure against damages from stamping, On the top of the mould a flow-gate is set, wl be also formed of one of burned loam-pipes, or it may be moulded in the sand. The first. plan, howover, is preferable, The whole space around the mould is in this way filed up with send, and tightly rammed. Over this sand, tha is, over the mould covered by the sand, pieces of pig-iroit or other heavy pieces of iron are laid, or iron beams tied down by serews which reach to the platform, and are fastened to the latter, to prevent the least motion of the mould upwards, for such a motion would spoil the mould. Before casting, the flow-gate is covered with a dry ball of loam, to’ be removed when the fluid metal shows itselfin the gate and the mould is filled with iron, Over that channel or pipe, communicating with the interior of the core, a handful of dry wood shavings, or dry straw, is laid, and kinlod as soon as the hot motal is being poured in. The stopping up of the flow.gate is a necessary operation, and the flow-gate itself also is necessary 1s in all cases of lar castings. The flow-gate is very useful, beau: it is always put on the highest point, or ata point to which most of the light impuritics which float on the melted metal are very apt to flow. If the flow-gate is placed in such a situation, the impurities will naturally flow into it. For these

reasons the flow-gate is always made wider than the

casi-gate. ‘The stopping of the flow-gate until the metal appears, is an operation exjually important, If

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

the flow-gate, or any other aperture to the interior of the mould, is open, the gases or hot air will rush to the opening with a force equal to the space of the mould and the amount of hot metal tobe poured into it. ‘This rush of air is vory apt to tear loose some loam or sand of the mould, or even break the mould. By stopping the openings, a certain amount of confined gas

finds its way through the sand or loam of the mould, and opens the pores of the mould. ‘This stopping up of tho air channels is the fost way of preventing good castings. In ease there sions and making explo is no flow-gate toa mould, and only a east-gate, the latter is to be kept full all the time during which metal is poured in. If there is an interruption of the flow, and the rush of air finds its way through tho cast-gate, it very apt to cool the motal, tear some sand loose, anil by tha means stop up the gate, Ft or even break the mould. Such aceidents happen frequently, and are the eommon causes of failure in founding. When castings are made by a single cas gate, it is advisable to make a reservoir for the fluid metal at the top, that is, to make the mouth of the gate very wide, and skim the metal well to prevent the flowing in of any impurities. In moulding hollow-ware, the wedge-shaped gits are made partly for causing an easy separation of the git from the east, but chiefly to have a git of large capacity and small opening, to be kept full while casting. Gas Pipes.—he aie pipes leading from the core of a heavy casting ought to be made of iron, for these pipes have an important office to perform. In caso such a pipe is stopped up, an explosion is almost inevitable. ‘The atmospheric air confined in the hollow space of the cot and that air contained in the pores of the send, mixed with the carbonic oxide gas generated of the vegetable or animal, matter in the mould, will form an explosive mixture of the most dangerous kind, and will destroy any mould if it explodes. ‘The mouth of the air pipe may be covered with burning shavings,but itis advisable first to lay over the mouth of it a pioce of w to prevent the falling in of any dirt or fire. there is fire in the pipe before the air is moving, 16 , that ; before there is any metal in the mould, am explosion will take place.

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2085

Removing of the Core—As soon as the casting is done, the mould is dug up, and a portion of the core removed before the cast is entizely cooled. Cylindrical eastings are liable to be split by the eore, if the core is too strong. For these reasons the core is made chiefly of sand, and only enough of clay is used to keop it together. Briel cores are proferable to Toam cores, if put together with sand and thick joints, because bricks offer somo ance to the fluid metal by their mass, and are easily moved by a strong powor, such as metal in tho act of contraction. ‘This is one of the evils attending iron core pipes. If there is no hay-rope or a thick I ‘er of sand around a core-iron, the casting will split upon the core before it is cool, and Dofore it ean be prevented. In all casos it is advisable to remove the core as soon as possible, and if it cannot be taken out altogether, then remove at least a part of it, that is, eut it in some place so'as to afford room for the contracting east. Moulding without Thiekness.—As an illustration of moulding in loam without thickness, which is certainly the most. adv: ntngeous plan of Joamn-moulding, we will desribe the moulding of a eylvier ‘The operation is similar in all cases: whether for 2 stoam-engine, a blastanachine, or a cylinder for any other purpose; for illustration, however, we prefer that of a steam-engine, as the most complicated.

In

cases of natrow cylinders it is preferred to havo

the core

fixed, and move the cope, particularly

where the latter is to be divided. Dividing the cope ought to be avoided, if possible, for it is almost impossible to make a correet casting in stich a mould. We will take a ease for illustration where core and cope are each in one piece, and the latter stationary, that is, moulded in that place where the eylinder is to be east. In this instance the mould for ope is put in the pit, the same as the mould of the pin, above deseribed, and founded the same way upon a platform. Ib is not advisable to make the cope above ground, even if there is a crane strong enough to carry it to the’ pit, In a mould like this, a erevice may open in transporting it, and give access to hot metal, which

ay frustrate the purpose for which the mould has been wade. In figure 22, the moulding of a short

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

cylinder is represented, sue as is now used in steam engines to turn the screw propellers of steamboats.

A pattern of the steato-ways is made in wood, solid,

as represented in figure 23, which figure shows a sido 118 elevation, anda view from above. ‘This block has the

Tength of the cylinder between its flanges, and in

case there are any mouldings in the flange which run across the steam-ways, they ¢ to be moulded in the wood. ‘The three eore-prints are of consuderable length, because the cores find here their chief ‘support. ‘The middle core finds another support in the opening for the exhaust pipe, as avn in figure 23. One sitle of the pattern is hollow and cylindrical, fitting the exterior diameter of the eylinder, or the sweep of the Ioam-board. Having laid 19 the platform, erected the spindle, and screwed in tho Joam-board—which is almost a straight board, with the exception of the two knees, one above and one Dotow, and the moulding or hoops around the eyli dor—the brick enclosure is laid, leaving from two to two and a half inches spaco for loam, ‘The pattern of the steam-way is fastened, just touching the loam-board in its travel upon its axi ani walled in, giving it a loam coating where the bricks touch it, After the brick wall is nearly dry, a coating of loam is given; this loam may be pretty strong, and mixed with hay, for the pressure upon it will be great, ind if the loam gives way to this pressure, the eylinder will be defaced. ‘This coating is superficially deied, and another coat of hair-loama laid on,

2086

TE

SURVIVOR Vol. 5

which is to reach very near the loam-board, so that the last coating is but a little thicker than a claywash. In drying the previous loom coats, and ing the coats thin, an almost perfectly smooth surface of the mould may be obtained, Tt will be as round and straight as a turned and polished iron cylinder, and of course the casting will be similar to the moulding. Clay which shrinks a great deal, or is plastered on in too heavy coats, causes uneven and rugged surfaces in the mould, which is the ease also if the ground is not dry before the last washing 126 is performed. A. good facing is as smooth, sharp, and distinct ia its outlines as a well made pattern of wood. ‘The blackiwashing is here to be the very last operation, and to be well performed, and when dry must be polished by a large slecker fitting the civele of the cylinder. Before the blackwashing of the cylinder is performed, however, the steamways are moulded ; while the cylinder is under the influence of the fre. ‘The pattern of the steam-ways is covered by hair-loain, leaving the core-prints proJecting, s0 as to afford access to the interior through the holes left by the core-prints. ‘The pattern receives two or three coatings of loam, sufficient to make the Ioam at Ieast two inches thick. Close to the brick, or as far off as the square of the pattern gps, a groove is cut in the loam, around the pattern, indicated by the dotted line, figure 28, ‘This groove cuts the loam nearly through, so that the mould ‘may be separated at this mark. ‘The mould around the steam. ays pattern is provided with iron, bent around it, and also irons bent around the cylinder. ‘These irons meet at the joint or parting, and are secured in their places by wire and loam, the ends of the irons at the parting terminating in hooks. Fastening a mould in this way by iron straps is convenient ant adv jeous, andl answers every puryl pose, if the mould is made strong enough. Ita cope is,made too weak because of the iron straps, the above is a bad fastening, and the eause of failtures or imperfect castings. Fastening a mould with iron is expensive, and where it ean be avoided it is advisable go todo. Inthis instance it can be avoided, and the mould may be made serv iceable without iron

fastenings. When tho steam-ways pattern is re-

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

moved, and the mould ready to be elosed again, it is simply closed and secured by brick-work, wh hhlatter bottom. While the brick-work is commenced at is progressing, the cope of the steam-wvays is secured temporarily by some wire fastened around the eylinder. Th brick-work forming the enelosure to this part of the mould is dried by external fir or the united heat of the fire inside and outside of the mould. ‘The cores, forming the stearn-ways, must be strong and porous. ‘They are to be as long a the hollow they are to form in the casting, to whieh is to be added the length of the core-prints. Cores of this description are generally moulded in a wooden corebox; but this plan is not to be recommended, for wood will twist and warp, particularly where it is wet on one side and charring hot on the other, as is the case in this instance, ‘The best plan of mak1 a wood pattern of a coremake to is ing the cores, box, and st i at once in iron and in open sand, In such an iron box, a good and correct core may be made without much labour. ‘The cores for the stoam-ways are made of strong loam, and provided with several eore-irons, which are rods of quarter or half inch square iron, bent in the curves of the core. The core-irons are dipped in strong elaywater before they are buried in the core. Besides the eore-irons, ste .g3 of hemp, cotton, oF stray, are laid in the core, which burn out in drying and form channels for the escape of ait. A. great many of these strings may be used, but they must be thin, s0 as to arrest the uid iron, in case any of it finds access to the interior of the core. ‘The core ann may contain cow-hair if necessary, but this is a matter which depends entirely on the quality of tho m of which the core is made. ‘The cores, after being moulded, are heated to redness in a coal fire, with Tiberal access of air, to expel every trace of water, vegetable and animal matter, and carbon, good black When well burned, the cores rece’ washing of black-lead and clay, as little as possible of the latter, ‘These cores ave the very last to be put in the mould. While the enpe of the Core for the Cylindgr< cylinder is progressing, the core for it is moulded

somewhere near it, on the floor of the foundry, but

2087

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 within the sweep of the erane. ‘The eore is founded upon an iron platform, which has its suugs inside, and its diameter is six inches less than the diameter of the interior of the cope. ‘The platform of the core is to rest upon the platform of the cope.

simply bi

‘The core is

of bricks, finished in loam, blackened

and polished, and is then ready to be set in its cope.

‘The core has tio knees, one below and one above,

which are at an angle of 45°. hese two knees are necessary to Keep the core in its position, In aso the metal is liable to porosity, wh h is frequently the ease with some of the anthracite iron, and generally s0 with charcoal iron, it is necessary to prolong, the mould of the eylinder, above its flange, as shown Tbe in the drawing, Ggure 24, into which the sullage rises. In east iron which does not form holes, or raise any sullage, this precaution is not required. Upon the sullage piece, or in want of that, upon the upper edge of the cylinder, the flow-gates are set, of which there are to be at least two or three, and more if the iron is doubtful and the diameter of the eylinder large. Before the core is put in s place, two rests for the steam-way cores are ext into it, ‘The steamway cores avo suspended only at their two ends, and liable to be lifted out at the contre eore. A deop rest in th: core, or an iron fastening which passes through that core, is required to secure it in its place, when the eylindor core is set and well seeured, resting upon the platform of the cope, where it is secured by iron wedges. For these reasons tho knees of the mould may be madeto ch before the platform plates tow one another, and the space left between them can be filled up by iron wedges or seraps. ‘Whe cores of the steam-ways, when put in, are well ed to the core, and then the cope of the steamways put in its place. ‘The cores are after this

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

secured in the openings left by the core-prints of the pattern, and well stopped up by moist loam, whieh is to be dried, In many eases, that straight part of the steam-ways cope where the cores pass through, 125 z is covered by an iron plate, coated with loam, and the core-irons fastened to this plate. This eauttion is unnecessary, as the projecting cores ean be well secured by dry brick-bats, The mode of fastening, however, depends very much on the size and form of the steam-box, and the form of the cores. ‘The burying of the mould and ramming-in of the sand is done in the usual way, but here the space below the mould is filled with sand and well secured, to prevent the hot metal entering below the core, in caso the lower knee does not fit tightly, which in this case is always doubtful, and eannot be secured ‘The interior of the core is also filled beforehand. with sand, if there is any doubt of its being strongenough and tight. It is better when there is no sand in the core, at least but vory little in the bottom of it, ‘Tho opening of the core at the top is covered by an iron plate which is well secured, leaving but a small opening for the eseape of the gases; which opening is, as in any other instance, covered by a pisce of wire gauze and burning straw. ‘Phe whole mould is covered, as well as the core-plate,

ith a load of iron or serows, to prevent any motion of the core or cope by the static pressure of the fluid metal, for the least lifting will inevitably destroy the east. The cast. ate is at the lower lang.

and the metal is to rise gradually from below. The cores of the steam-ways are often of such forms a8 not so easily to be secured in their places, which is particularly the case with the middle, or exhaust core, In this, the assumed case, there is no Uifficulty ; for we have two strong eore-prints, and the host is but small. core cannot be large, as the st If a core-print ean be given on each sido of the chest, there will be no dificulty at all, for then the core has three points to rest upon, and ean be made safe enough. If the other two cores are strong ‘enough to take strong core-irons, there is no danger of their failing. Where such advantages cannot be had, and where the cores are in danger of being lifted off their seats, it is necessary to secure the cores by ebaplets, which are put between the cores

2088

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

and the cope of the steam-ways, for there are none applicable to the core of the cylinder. The use of chaplets in the steam-ways cannot be recommended, if it can be avoided by any means. ‘The ehaplets must be strong and of good wrought iron, or the fluid iron will melt or dissolve the ehaplets, and the effect is worse than if they had not been used ; for the moulder depended upon a support which failed, and would have done better without 197 supports. Tf chaplets are not made of good and very pare wrought iron, they are liable to melt, or are dissolved in the mass of east iron. ‘The greater the amonnt of the latter and the longer it keeps fluid, and the hotter it is, the greator is the danger of the chaplet being destroyed. Impure fron, or iron which contains mach einder, or thick scales of hammer-slag, is apt to produce holes in the casting, for the oxygen of tho scales, or cinder, will combine swith the carbon of the cast iron and form carbonic oxide, which cannot eseapo, as it the interior of the casting, and the iron next to the mould is generally chilled before suck gas appears. General Remarks on Loam- Moulding —Precautions which are to be taken in loam-moulding in general, are to be particularly observed in moulding steam cylinders, for here the object is to make a smooth, well finished casting, and one of compact sound metal, free of pores or holes. ‘To accomplis this, particular attention must be given to the following requisites: A strong but still a porous loam; iryingin coats ; 2 well smoothed facing before the blackening is put on ; well burnt cores for the steam-ways, and the jr-holes in these eo small and so arranged, as to prevent any possible entrance of hot iron into

these air channels; the absonee of all chaplets if 18

possible; and every part of the mould well dried. ‘The bearing down of the mould, and the stamping in, are ‘operations which are in all cases the same. If there are any square or unusual forms on a cylinder, as, for example, if one or both flanges are siguare, or if there are extra, steam-ways, or ornaents, all such forms are made in wood or in (the latter is preferable), buried in the mould, and removed before the fink ing of the mould. Irregular Forms.—Where forms are to be mould-

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

ei which do not permit the use of the spindle, a Toam-mould is made eith jer by hand, or over a wood ‘There are also cases where both instances patter happen in one mould. We will illustrate this by giving an instance of the first and an instance of the latter ease. In figure 25, a bent pipe is represented, which cannot well be moulded in sand, and for which Fig 2

2089

THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 Fig. 26,

tho dimensions of the pipe inside which are here out~

side, with the addition of one-cighth of an inch for each foot in the length of the pipe, for shrinkage. In this latter skeleton the inner diameter of the pipesis,

129 ‘a loam-core is to be made in every instance. It may be moulded in sand or in loam, ‘This pipe forming a knee, is bent i such a way as to make a wood pattern aad in sand almest the moulding over out of the question, ‘The first step taken is to make a drawing of the actual size of the object upon a board, and in drawing two or three sections of it, ving sullicient Iength for the core-prints, ‘This poard is given to the blacksmith, and one or moro bats of iron bent in the shape of the core, and I the these bars united to form the cor pipe is more than eight inches in diame , these ars are to be laid around small ‘ngs, forming in this way an open channel in the centre of the core. ‘These iron bars are covered with hay-rope as usual, and then by loam, which latter is laid on by hand, roferring repeatedly to the drawing. ‘The last loam coating is thin and well smoothed off, before the parting-blackwash is given. In such eases as this, it is all important to have the flanges at the right distance and in correct angles ; and as such castings generally are designed to fill a space or form a connexion botween tivo pipes, it is necessary to form a skeleton pipe of two boards, of which each fits to Such a skelethe flange of the corresponding pipe. ton is easily formed by nailing boards together in will that place where the pipe is to be. Fignee show how it is performed. ‘The boards are fitted and nailed together, stayed by some lath, and the place of the flanges marked by seribing around them. Over this another skeleton of boards is made, so s to have

marked and cut out, the newly made core laid in this boar skeleton, in the exact position in which the now pipe is to be attached to the other pipes. The core is fastened in this position to the skeleton, and the “thickness,” which of course includes the flanges, is laid on the core, and gently dried. When the thickness is so far dried as to be secure against ing, it is removed from the skeleton boards,

ddviod, blackened, and the cope put on. If the pipe wal is heavy the cope is to be fastened with iron, taking

care to have the parting free.

Moulds

for light

pipes may be secured by a succession of wire fasten

ings which are laid at eortain distances around the cope. ‘The parting of the cope i done as usual, by ‘eutting two grooves along the pipe in such a direction a5 to divide the cope into two halves, but so that each half may be lifted off the core. If the flanges ‘or the thickness break off in removing the eope there is no harm done, if the core is not damaged in this operation, After the usual finish of the facing, the mould may be put together, and rammed in sand as usual. In this case the core caunot be Kept in its place without cbaplets, and a liberal number of them is to be distributed between the core and the cope. ‘This pipe is rammed in and east in the usual

When the object to be moulded presents more complicated forms than the one represented, the experience of the moulder must be his guide in forming the plan of the mould. Analogous processes are here everywhere, but it the sagacity of the moulder which gives to the most complicated forms tangibility, which analyzes @ pattern, and finds mode of execution in eases where success at first

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

sight appears to be impossible. Te the form of a 1 to be di blo into two happen pattern does not parts, or permit a mould of two parts, there is no objection to dividing it into three, four, and more parts, but it is a rule to make as few partings as possible. In every mould, it is to bo a standard rule to provide liberally for the escape of the gases. If forms are to be moulded which require more than two platforms, there is no objection to taking as many as may secure the greatest advan tage and security to the mould. Oval Forms.—Oval, eurvod, or triangular forms must be traced by corresponding platform-plates, for no application of the spindle is possible in these cases. For example, to mould an oval bathing-tub, without pattern, a foundation plate in the form of the upper side of the tub is cast in open sand. There is no need of its being solid— it may be an oval ring. Figure 27 represents the

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2090

pipe-core are mado; and these joined by moist loam and wire. In most instances of this kind a wood pattern of the object is made, and this moulded in sand; but as the core of such forms eannot well bo moulded in sand, it is made in loam and applied in the usual way, Square forms of objects which are to be moulded without patterns, are made in a similar Tissce AF tabset ora

alr irregular form; such

moulds, however, require more strength than the moulds of round forms, for the pressure of the fuid metal upon a plain surfuee, tends to drive the core ani mould apart, with more energy than it does in round forms. ‘To guard against this pressure in flat or straight forms, is an object which requires somo judgment on the part of the moulder. Ji complicated forms aro to be moulded, the best

plan always fs, first to make a pattern in wood of the object. Even if the pattern is not used in moulding divectly, it ig of gront service to the moulder, in having a form to imitate, which is more plastic to his mind than a mero drawing. All heavy and complicated castings, such as heavy bed-plates

for steam engines, housings, and rollers for iron works, are moulded in loam, if good work is ex-

moulding of sucha tub. ‘The loam-board A is guided by hand axound the plat m, and if kept in close contact with the edge of the plate, there is no difl-

culty in obtaining a correct mould. If there are any projections, or departures from the regular form, a ave made by hand. Curved forms sro made ina fay similar to the above. ‘A.core, or a mould to an elbow pipe, is moulded on a platform which hes the form of the curved pipe, as shown in figure 28.

‘The loam-board A can make only the current part of the mould, also a mouth or bell-shaped widening 5 but if there are any flanges, for these a wood pattern is to be made. In this instance two halves of a

peeted.

‘The heat and pressuro of a mass of hot

iron like that

poured

into the mould

for the

bed-

plate for the engines of the Collins Atlantic steamers, boing forty tons or more, will destroy any sand mould, no matter how carefully made. Complicated forms of this Kind are pa tly made to drawings and partly fe patterns. We will illustrate over wood or me subject by an instance which is not complicated,

but sullciently so to show the principle upon whick 135, constructed. In figure 20 is kind this of mould 2 ascrew-propeller is shown, such as are ly used to propel steamboats. ‘These cast in iron, copper, brass, or bronze does not cause an essontial difference the mould. The four constru

nbw frequentpropellers are this, however, to be made in wings of this

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2091 THE SURVIVOR Vol. Ss pattern are twised as shown in B. It is advisable ed Colossus of Rhodes was a bronze statue of 130 to make a wood pattern of this propeller, dividing feet high; it was broken by an earthquake fifty-six it at the dotted line in B into two halves. An ‘years after its erection, and its remains lay scattered experienced moulder will prefer to make the mould over the ground for nearly nine bundred years, when by hand, bat generally the pattern is buried in the they were sold by a king toa Jew, who carried at Joam, and kept there until the mould is nearly dry. that time 360 tons of metal away. More recently, ‘Thero is little difficalty in moulding this object in in the middle ages, bronze was extensively used for the latter way. As the pattern is divided, the one doors and gates of churches and cities, "Phe doors half is moulded upon an iron platform, the larger ab the Battisterio in Florence were of such ex: quisite workmanship, that Michael Angelo, the spaces filled by brick, and over thes the usual eoatgreat architect of St. Peter's at Rome, declared ing of loam. ‘The four wings of the pattern aro that these tes were worthy to be the gates of fastened by wood-serews to the nave, which may be 136 heaven, More recently, in-our own times, this drawn and the pattern removed in parts; this forms beautiful art has been degraded to the manufacture the lower part of the mould, ‘The other half of the of implementsof war, and in other eases to celebrate pattern is moulded in parts, upon quadrant plates, the memory of mititary heroes—an application no with its dividing side downwards. ‘The mould of Detter than the other, ‘The ancients were not this half is taken apart, each quarter resting upou acquainted with a definite alloy, to make their bronze its quadrant platform, ‘These four quarters are set 138 whole, is which mould the of half first the upon castings of ‘Their mixtures were accidental ; but wwe will speak of this hereafter. and has a solid platform. ‘The edges of the four wings or paddles. ar Es erally sharponed out, 50 Moulding of Statues.—The mode of forming the moulds for bronze castings of large size, as statues that there is little difficulty in hitting the thickness and bas. fs, was nover reduced to a systematic of the paddles. A better mould than that described may be made by hand; it is then divided into two art. ‘Thero is satisfactory evidence to show that the halves as the above, but it affords a better opportiknovledge of this art lay dormant for centuries. nity of having the facings of the mould correct and ‘The ancient Grecks were the most skilful in the execuuniform in texture. Many serow-propellers are tion of statues of this kind, not only so far as form is moulded by dividing the pattern at the nave, and concerned, but also in their preparation of the moulds making a cope over each paddle, wi ich is fitted and and th casting of the statue. ‘Their plan of makfastened to the cope of the nave, ‘The first way of ing a mould, was to make a skeleton of plastic clay, moulding is preferable to the latter ; it is perfectly svhich was to form the core. ‘This skeleton was kept: safe, and makes a more correct and sinooth casting as the sculptors of the present day mould Moulding of Bronze Ornaments —The att of clay—and made into an exact mould casting bronze statues bas beon traced to remote of the figure to be produced. Over this wet antiquity, and, to all appearance, the ancients were clay pattern the eope was made, and so far dried as more skilful than the moderns in this rt. Bronze it of removal, afver which core and cope were statues were so plentifal in Greece at the time of dvie@ and burned. ‘The space resulting from Alexander the Great, thet Pliny ealls them the mob the ininking of the eore, formed here the thickness which such a mould was for the metal. ‘Phe wa of Alexander, Tt is recorded that the Romans found made is an evidence of the high skill of the artists 3000 bronze statues in Athens, of that time; for in ease tho casting fails, all the Rhodes. ‘The ‘Temple of Solomon was adorned Inbour of the artist and the moulder is Tost, for patwith heavy and 1 chly ornamented bronze castings. ternand nl e destroyed ateach east. Terequives ‘The pillars of Jachin and Boaz at the portal were 139 of bronze; the molten sea of the priests to wash great experience and skill to succeed in this mode in, was east of bronze, and the metal basins at the of easting statues and larger ornaments. entrance were of thesame metal. ‘The world-renown-

1E SURVIVOR Vol 5] 2092 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 horse-dung loam, This loam-cope is to be provided French Mode of Moulding Statues.—A more safe, with iron fastenings, and at last receives a brick but very expensive plan of making moulds, was

practised in the seventeenth and eighteenth centu-

‘The pattern for larger statues was made of plaster of paris, instead of clay because the latter shrinks a great deal in large masses. ‘This plaster ‘was laid on and fastened toa skeleton of iron. Over this pattern, which might be either an original or a pattern at hand, a cast of plaster is made, and this plaster mould divided so as to remore i conveniently. ts of this plaster mould coats of wax are ich form the “thickness.” ‘The wax is a compound of six parts of wax and one of white piteh, with which a little tallow or oil is mixed. Th e plaster mould receives 2 film of oil before the wax is pub on, and the first coating of wax is laid on warm by means of a paint brush, A. skeleton of iron bars is now made, composed of heary and small gauze, haying, as near iron, also iron wire and as possible, the form of the object to be east. The segments of wax are fast ned to this iron skeleton, and finally the w le surrounded by the plaster cope. Into this hollow mould, which is composed of the cope of plaster, a thickness of wax, and an iron 140 skeleton in the interior, the cement forming the

core is east. ‘This coment is composed of two parts of plaster of patis, and one of brick-dust, or ground bricks, east through an opening wade in a convenient place as high a possible on the mould. When this

core is hardened, which takes but a short time, the

plaster cope is removed, the damages in the wax mould repaired, and a number of small gits for conducting the metal, and othor gates for letting out the gases, are fastened around the figure, ‘Theso gates are made of wax, from half an inch to one inch thick, and fastened to the figure in such places where the least injury will be done. None are to be on the face, hands, or other delfeate parts. Sinall wire is, used to keep these gates in their places. ‘The final cope is then made in the usual way of sand-loam, mixed with cow-hair, or horse-dung, he first coating on © wax figure, however, consists of finely ground briel dust, mixed with the white of exg or glue, forming a kind of paint. This is painted twonty times and more over the pattern. After this first coat follows a coating of hair-loam, and finally

enclosure, which is also secured by iron binders, ‘Below and around this mould fire-places are erected, ML which are so distributed as, when fire is made in them, to make the mould uniformly wari outside and inside, and heat it to.an almost red heat. ‘The wax forming the thickness is the first that flows out, and leaves a space in the mould of the same thickness as the east is tobe, The quantity of metal neoded to fill the mould is exactly that space occupied by the wax. This process of moulding is complicated, but it is safe and insures good eastings. Tt has the advantage over the Grecian mode, that the original pattern, the plaster cope, is never lost. By skill and dexterity the artist may shorten the above process. One way is to build the plaster cope iroctly over the iron skeleton for the core, cast the mould fall of core-cement, remove the plaster cope, and shave the “thickness” off the core. ‘Then put tho plaster cope again around this eore, and east the thickness space full of wax. Over this wax east, the Joam cope is made, as described above. ‘At the present timo there is no settled system in the casting of bronze statues: the artists follow their own individual ineli ations and experience, In many instances cores are builé up first, covered uy hand with loem, and burned; then the wax is put on, and the pattorn made upon the core over this pattern the loam eope is moulded, the wax melted out, and the mould filled with inélal iu the usual way. In this way the pattern is lost. In other eases they make a core as above, cover it by wax plates made in the plaster mould, and proceed as deseribed before. Allthe difference from that deseribed in the past pages is here the making of the core, which, if made in the latter way, is moro perfect, and more certain to secure suveess. Tron Statues require more metal than bronze statues, and also strongly burnt moulds, Here the core is built up first, and the * thickness” laid on in fine elay. ‘The pattern is made by the seulptor upon the core. ‘The cope is made and divided ‘sin common loatn-moulding, the thickness removed, and the mould put together with that eaution required to make the operation suecessful. ‘The pattern

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of course is lost, and if the casting fails it is to be made anew. A mould over a pattern at hand, may be made over that pattern, but the core is to be mado by hand, In all eases core as well as cope axe to be well provided with fron stays, and chaplets, and are to be perfectly dry. IF such cautions are taken, there will be no failure in casting. Bas-relinfs.—Wlat bronze castings,as ornatnented panels, facings, and single ornaments, are in the usual way in iron flasks, in new sand, and dried. M3 Tf the patterns are too complicated, or underworked, s0.as to make many cores necessary, the ing of the mould is made in fine strong sand, entirely composed of cores, and over these cores, as a parting, the whole of the cores are covered with common moulding sand and dried all together. ‘The parting between the cores and the sand is made by common partingsand. To avoid the division of the mould, the pattems are frequently cut in such places and directions the pattern in parts. his latter mode as to remove of moul ing, because it is the cheapest, is practised in the thanufacture of articles which are in common us Moulding of Bells—Small bells are generally moulded in sand, from a metal or wood pattern, and the sand mould is dried in a stove, as before described. We shall give no deseription of the manufachire of small bells, to which class bells of from one hundred to two hundred pounds’ weight belong, but confine ourselves to a deseription of the moulding of the larger kinds. ‘The most important part of this art, is the construction or the form of the bell. Another equally interesting is the composition of bell-metal. In this place we shall only speak of the moulding of a large bell. In figure

80, a mould is represented as it is sunk in the pit pn

for casting, ‘here isno essential difference between moulding a bell and a cast-iron kettle. ‘Che core is Duilt in brick upon an iron platform, which is to

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hhave snugs, in ease the mould is made above ground. ‘Diiis brick core is covered with three-fourths of an inch or one inch thiek of hair-loam, and the last surfaco-vashing is given by a finely ground composition of clay and brick-dust. ‘This latter is mixed with an extract of horse-dung, to whieh is added @ little eat ammonia. Upon the core the “thickness” is laid in loam-sand, but the thickness is again washed with fine clay to give it a smooth surface. Ornaments whieh, have been previously moulded, either in wax, wood, or metal, are now pasted on by means of was, glue, or any other kind of cement. it the ornaments are of sucha nature as to prevent tho lifting of the cope without them—for the cope

cannot be divided—the ornaments are fastened to 15 or a mixture of tallow and tallow, by (Bickness the

Allittle heat given to the mould will melt the tallow, after which the ornaments adhere to the cope, from which they may be removed when the cope is lifted off the core, ‘The thickness is to be well polished ; and, as no eoal can be used for parting, the whole is slightly dusted over with wood-ashes. The parting between the core and the thickness is also made with ashes. ‘The cope is laid on at first by ‘means of a paint-brusb, the paint consisting of clay and ground bricks, made thin by horse-dung water. ‘This coating is to be thin and fines upon it hairloam, and finally straw-loam is leid. ‘The

crown

of the bell is moulded

pattern, after the spindle is removed.

over a wood

The iron or

steel staple for the hamumes set in the core, into tho hollow left by the spindle. Tt projects into the thickness, 80 as to bo east into the metal. ‘The facing of the mould ought to be’ finished when the cope is lifted off. Small defects may occur, and are, if not very large, left as they are; the excess of metal in those places is chiselled off after the bell is east. ‘All that can be done in polishing the facing of the mould is to give it a uniform dusting of ashes. When the mould is perfectly dry, it is put together for casting. ‘The core may be filled with sand, if 146 preferred, but there is no harm done if it is left open 5 for bell-metal does not generate much gas, and there is no danger of an explosion, ‘The cope is in some measure secured by iron, but its chief security

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is in the strong, well rammed sand of the pit. ‘The east-gate is on the top of the bell, either on the crown, of, if the latter is ornamented, on one side of it. Flow-gates are of no use here, the metal is to be clean before it enters the mould: there is no danger of sullage Moulds consisting partly of loam or sand, and partly of metal, are in frequent use in iron foundries. ‘Small car-wheels, boshes for eart-wheels, and eax wheels for mining establishments, re ive their bore by boing east over an iron or steel core. Such a core-iron isa little tapered, to admit of its being freed from the casting by a smart stroke of the hammer. ‘Phe casting is never left to eool entirely before the core is removed. Tb is generally removed when the casting is hot, but so far cooled as to resist the draving out of the eore-iron, Chilled railroad-ear wheels are another article where iron is employed as a part of the mould, The cast and chilled raitroad wheels now in general use, are cast in a mould composed of green sand and moult in which a chilled ion. In fg UT wheel is cast. It consists of three boxes. Tho lower is a box of common round form, merely to

hold the sand and give support to the contre core

and the middle box. ‘The upper box is of similar form, also round. ‘The middle box is a solid ring cast of strong gray or mottled iron, and bored out upon a turing lathe, giving it the reverse of the exact form of the rim of the wheel. This middle box ought to be at least as heavy as the whe: js to be after ensting, and it is preferable if it has two or three times that weight. All the three boxes are joined by ears end pins as usual, and the latter ought to fit well without being too tight. ‘The culty in casting these chilled wheels is to chief make the cast of a uniform strain to prevent the wheels from breaking. Wheels with spokes or arms are very liable to this evil, and are to be cast with their hubs divided into three or more segtnents, which ate afterwards banded by wrought-iron tires before

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fastening them to the ear axles. At present, most of alae these heels avo 1s east with corrugated dises or plates; in this way the hub may be east solid, and the wheel is not so liable to be subjected to an un equal strain in the metal as when cast with spokes. Tn such plate-wheels the whole space between the rim and the hub is filled by metal, which, however, jn most eases i not more than three-quarters of an inch or one ineh thick, ‘The rim of a good wheel is to be as hard as hardened steel at its periphery, Dut soft and gray in its central parts. ‘The first requisite is more safely attained by having a heavy chill; but if the chill is too heavy, the ianer parts are apt to sulfer the cooling qualities of the chill. Success in this branch of founding depends very much on the quality of the iron of which the wheels ave east; but of this we hall speak again in another place. Soon after casting such wheels it is adv sable to open the mould, and remove the sand from the central parts, so as to make i eool faster; this precaution saves many castings, not only in this particular case, but in many other instances. Uniformit in cooling is as necessary to success as good ‘The thinnest parts of castings whieh cool moulding. first, will invariably break ; but if a casting cools uniformly, there is no danger of strain in the metal. Chilled Rotters.—One of the most important cases 149 of this kind of moulding and easting in iron moulds, fs the casting of chilled rollers. ‘There are some good chilled rollers manufactured in the Western foundries, particularly at Pittsburgh. We will not allude to ny particular ease, but describe the process of making ehilled rollers, generally, ‘The mould for a chilled roller consists of three parts, as shown in figure 32, The lower box of iron or wood is

filled with “new sand” or a coment, a strong com

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2095, TH E SURVIVOR Vol. 5 po ‘tion of clay and sand, in which a wood pattern side of the lower box. In A is represented is moulded which forms the coupling and the neck the east-gate and channel, as it is seen from above. of the roller. ‘The middle part of the mould is the he gate is conducted to the lower journal of chill, a beavy iron eylindee AL bored. The upper the roller, and its channel continues to a certain part of the mould eo again of a box, but is istance around it it touches the mould in a tanhigher than the lower bos, s0 as to make room for gential direction. Tn casting fluid metal in this gate the head in which the impurities of the iron, “sullago,”” the metal will assume a rotary motion around the 150 axis of the roller, or, which is the same, the axis of are to be gathered. ‘The two boxes with their conthe mould, ‘This motion will carry all the heary tents of sand are to be well dried. Tn many estaband pure iron towards the periphery or the face of lishments the two ends of the roller are moulded in the mould, and the sullago will concentrate in the loam, over the chill, to secure coneentrieity of roller contre. It isa bad plan to lead the current of hot and coupling; but this ean be quito as safely arrived iron upon the chill, for jt would burn a hole into it ab hy fitting the enrs and pins of the boxes well to and melt cbill and roller in that place together. the chill. The chill is the important part in this ‘The gate must be in the lower box, in the sand or the mould: it ought to be at least three times as heavy loam-tmould. ‘The quality of the melted iron modifies as the roller which is tobe east in it, and provided with in some measure the form of the gate, for stiff or cold ought-iron hoops to prevent its falling to pieces, iron requives a rapid circular motion, while fluid, for it will invariably crack if not made of very strong thin iron is to have less motion, or it is liable to cast iron. ‘Whe iron of which a chill is tis to be tuelt to the chill, ‘The roller is kept in the mould strong, fine-grained, and not too gray. Gray iron until perfeetly cool, but the cooling may be acceleis too bad a conductor of heat; it is liable to melt rated by digging up the sand around the ehill. with the east Iron that makes a good roller will Casting Tron to Steel—One branch of moulding make a good chill. ‘The facing of the mould is ani casting we have to mention before we leave this blackened like any other mould, but the blackensubject: it is the easting together of iron and stecl. ing is to be stronger than in other cases, to resist Ab present many anvils, vices, and other articles are more tho abrasive motion of the fiuid metal. The made of cast iron, mounted with steel, which are in chilli blackened with a thin coating of very fine ‘2 fair way of driving all the wronght-iron articles black-lead, mised with the purest kind of clay; of this kind out of the market. ‘The welding together this coating is to be vory thin, or it will scale off of steel and cast iron is not dificult, if the steel is Defore it is of service. ‘The most important point in not too refractory. is proc! s will not succeed making chilled rollers is the mode of casting them, at all with German or shear steel, and hardly so and tho quality of iron used. OF the latter w o shall ith Dlistored steel, but it is easily performed with speak in another place. To east a roller, whether a iron by means of cast steel, by soldering it to chilled roller or any other, from above, would cause east-iron filings and borax. Of the manufacture a failure, for the roller will be useless, All rollers of these cast-iron articles with steel faces we can are to be cast from below. Ib is not sullicient to ing had no opportunity of give but the outlines, conduct the iron in below; there is @ particular becoming thoroughly acquainted with this branch. roller may be east, for the way in which ‘The east-steel plates to be welded to the faces almost every kind of iron. ‘The general mode is of anvils, aro generally from a half to fve-cighths represented in figure 33, which shows the upper of an ach thick, and as wide as the face itself. Fig. 38 hese are ground or filed white on one side, and then covered on that side with a coating of ealeined borax. The plate, with the berax on it, is heated gently until the borax melts, which covers it with fusible transparent glaze. ‘The plate in this condi-

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tion is Taid quite hot in the mouki, which Jatter is

made of dry and strong sand. ‘The iron is poured in and rises from below; the steel plate being the lowest part of the mould, it will have the hottest iron. ‘The heat to be given to the iron will depend in some measure on the quality of the steel; shear steel requires hotter iron than east steel. ‘The e iron used for these purposes, is to be strong and

gray, but not too gray, or the union of the iron and steel is not strong. White cast iron will not answer in this case, partly because the easting would be too

weak, but chielly beeause the cast iron would fly or crack, in hardening the steel. ‘The hardening -is done under a considerable heat, with an access of ater falling from an elevation of ten feet or more. Moutis for Lewd, Tin, fe. —Besides these moulds of sand; loam, and partly iron, there are moulds which aro entirely constructed of metal, or bronze. Such either of iron, copper, bras , aes moulds a used for casting tin, lead, pewter, Britannia metal, zine, spes, and other articlesof economy and ornament, Brass or bronze moulds are generally preferred to iron moulds, because they do not corrode as iron moulds do, and retain a more perfect polish. Such moulds are constructed on the same principle as sand or loam-moulds. If a metal mould is divided into two, three, or more parts, each part is provided with a handle sufficiently long to protect the hands against the heatof the snould. ‘The parts of such a mould mu: be nicely fitted together, and Kept in their position by ears and pins, or in many nstances by wedges. ‘The mould is gently heated before any m al is poured into it, to secure the fill ing of the space in the mould, for amy of the most fusible metals and alloys cannot lose much heat from melting to ¢0 ling. ‘he moulds must be ell po hed after each east, and are then rubbed wr with a rag containing oil or tallow, and which jn film of oil or tallow over the facing of spreads the mould, In many eases a covering or fil of pounge-powder—sandarach—beaten up with the white of an egg, is preferred, particularly for alloys. Single metals work better with oil or fat. Mouldsfor Copper and Brass, if it is intended to 155 make sheets of these metals, are for the first metal

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2096

simply east-iron boxes, in which the iron is from one and a half to tio inches thick. These boxes are formed so as to be taken apart, for the copper will adhere to the iron if it is very hot. ‘These iron moulds are to be very clean, or the east of copper, which is from two to three inches thick, is apt to have holes, which makes it useless for sheets. Brass may be cast in

the samo way as copper, but it is more safe to east

brass plates for sheets between two stone-plates. any other ‘Phese stones may be of granite, freestorone, Kind of hard fine-grained quartz stone. ‘They are to be from six to twelve inches thick, and ‘secured.

against falling to pieces, in case they erack, by iron hoops. ‘The space between tho stones for making the thickness, is formed by iron rods. Such a mould js to be in the sweep of strong crane, and is in the whole a somewhat complicated operation, foreign to our subject. Stereotyping.—Plaster of Paris moulds are used for many articles east of fusible metal, but partieularly for stereotyping plates used in printing books. Fine plaster of paris is first cast over a page of letter composition, and this thin coating strengthened by coarso plaster. ‘This plaster mould is dried at a boiling heat in appropriate stoves, end then dipped 158 in a kettle filled with melted type metal. When the mould is cooled the plasteris broken off, and, ace cording to the skill of the operator, a more or less true copy of the letters which served as a pattern is obtained. There was a kind of stereotype process formorly practi a, which deserves, on account of the principles involved, not to be forgotten. Before the invention of the present mode of casting stereotypes under the influence of pressure in a metallic bath, they were madé simply by pressing the pate tern,—whict might be a wood cut, or a composed form,—upon the liquid metal, just when at the point of congolation. Tt was a process which required skill and dexterity, but made better casts than the present mode of stereotyping, ‘The fine stereotyped prints made at the ond of the last and the first part of this century were stereotyped in this way. 1@ Veautiful stereotypes of Firmin Didot in Paris ‘were done in this manner,

‘Phe metal used for ma

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load with alittle tin; this wasmelted and east in a paper-box as large as the east was to be, ‘Whe fluid metal was but one-eighth of an inch ing the mould

thick and resting upon a level table, cooled very uniformly. ‘The moment when th metal was going to crystallize (assume its solid form) was the time to Pate wood snetet ine gn form of lypen/down ‘upon

it, with @ certain force. ‘This provess, performed vvith skill, made better and more correct impressions than the present plaster of paris mould. This frst or Tead impression served as a mould for the next cast,” The next east was made of type metal, or an alloy stil more fusible, ‘This metal was east like the first, in alow paper bos, and the moment when it was going to congeal, the lead mould was with force put down upon it, his latter east was the true copy of the pattern, ‘The paper boxes were surrounded by a seteen of sheet iron, to protect the operator against the flying hot metal. ‘The thin film of oxide,

covering the melted metal, was the means of preventmetalto the other Machines of onence ing the adhere have been in operation to perfect this process, and make it less dependent upon the operator ; still, the present made of casting stereotypes has prevailed over the old method, as it is supposed to be more dvantageous. If there is no advan so in stereotyping letter-prss in the old way, it is certain that engravings are made more perfect in that manner. ‘The composition of the metal for this art, may be varied from the melting point of lead to the melting of an alloy which requires but the boiling heat of water, 158 Impressions and Castings. —Before we proceed to the consideration of metals, we will speak of somo interesting operations connected with the fine arts. We allude here only to relief impressions, not to those in ink or colours. ‘The materials in which impressions may be made, are wax, paper, whalebone, horn, glass, sulphur, and many other materials to be mentioned in the course of this chapter. Impressions are made in many materials, and a variety of operations in the useful arts depend upon this manipulation. ‘The operations in the mint, and stamping of medals and uéensils, as spoons, forks, and pans, ‘are parts of this branch of art; reliefs in copper, brass, and silver sheets, the pressing of wooden snult

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or other boxes, of handles for eanes and umbrellas, of leather, cloth, and paper, all belong to a different branch from that we are investigating. Most of this work is performed by stamping-machines and dies, where tho rolief part of the die is station ary, and the counterpart or intaglio moveable. Some of these operations aro closely connected with oor art, and for these reasons wo will deseribe a few of them. Impressions of small objects are easily taken: the iieulty io making large impressions inereases rapidly with the size of the impression, ‘The use of impr ions in this ease, ia

159 to obtain moulds from patterns which will not bear a cast or mould, 2s coins, gems, &e,

Wax is one of the best materials to take impres-

sions with ; yellow wax is particularly qualified for

this purpose. Before using it, it is to be gontly warmed and worked between the fingers, after which

it is more uniform in composition, less adherent to other matter, and stronger in itself. ‘The only objec tion to it is, that it is not very durable, and is to bo kept with caution to save the sharp impressions of the original. Such impressions in wax are made where the original pattern will not bear heat or water. ‘Theiruse is to make plaster coats over them, and prepare the plaster cast for patterns to be moulded in sand. Bread in crumbs, is another material for taking impressions. If this is well worked between the fingers before the impression is taken, it ean be dried without cracking, and casts of sulphur, plaster, or other matter may be made in it with success, Impressions in sealing-roan ean only be made in eases where the pattera is not liable to injury from the heat of melted sealing-wax. Tn this operation sealing-wax of the best quality is required ; it is to be melted in « thin layer in a metallie eapsule over the flame of a lamp, and the pattern, as lapidary or seals, is impressed upon it when near the point of 60 congelation, Impressions in sealing-wax are very. useful for taking easts in clay or plaster, and if enclosed in a metal capsule they may be moulded in sand. ‘The melted wax must be free of blisters, and the pattern which gives the impression very Sulphur, is material very useful in taking impressions, but it is somewhat difficult to succeed with

SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2098 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 or body plate can ho melted to it, ‘The glass used it, ‘There are two ways in which it can be done in this art is that of which pastes or artificial gems will mention both. If sulphur is melted to nearlyits and precious stones are made. oiling point, it assumes a pasty appearance. Ifin Clay is an excellent material for ta ing impresthis condition it is quickly east into a lange vessel of sions, but its shrinking, and consequent erackcold water, it will retain that pasty form. ‘The ing, make it less useful as a material for taking detached parts may be united under water, without impressions. It is most extensively employed as injury to the condition of the sulphur. ‘This putty a means of raising ornaments upon porcelain. I sulphur will take fine impressions, and regain in @ few days its natural hardness. A less diffieult operacoloured ornaments are wanted, the white clay is tion is the following. In melting sulphur it first coloured by a fire-proof colour, pressed into a bronze assumes a watery appearance, is clear and liquid, mould, made flush with the mould by a bone spatula. ‘Who ground mass is laid over it, to which it will adbut b; vroased heat becomes brown and tough, and here. The contraction incident to clay impresat Inst it burns with a blue flame. In this state it sions may be brought to useful account. By fs cast upon a plate, where, in gradually cooling, it becomes liquid, and after this congeals all at once. peated moulding and drying a diminution of tho When the sulphur is just beginning to harden, the original pattorn may be obtained, true in all partioulars, but somewhat less sharp. pattern is pressed firmly upon it, and a good sharp alvtifciat-wood impressions may be made by miximpression is thus obtained. 161 ing sawalost with @ solution of glue 5 parts and Glass impressions are very durable, but are not isinglass 1 part. ‘The moulds for this mass may 80 easily made. ‘Lo eopy coin, cameo, or medal in be made of me 1, wood, sulphur, or even plaster of glass, an iron welded ring abouts half or three-fourths paris, covered with a film of oil Tho ma of an inch high, a little larger than the pattern, is pressed into the mould by hand, Impressions of # laid around it, Tn this iron ring upon the pattern, Kind are never sharp, but answer for many purposes dainp tripoli of Corfu,—other kinds of rotten stone 103 cannot be recommended, because the chemical cominstead of wood-carvings. ‘They may be varnished and gilded like wood,.but cannot be used in damp position of this tripoli is the chief condition of suceess—is rammed on just as in sand moulding. places. Say-dust of willow, maple, gam, and similar kinds of wood, is preferable to that of hard wood, ‘Whe facing is to be the finest part of the tripoli, and worked through fine silk sieve. ‘When the pattern as mahogany, or pine wood. An addition of finely is removed, this mould is at first gently dried and powdered chalk, rotten-stone, or fine sand, improves gradually exposed to a stronger heat, to expel ever the sharpness of the impression, Clay does not particle of moisture. Upon the face of this mould answer in this composition, on account of its affinity around picce of fusible glass is laid a little larger for water. Castings of other materials than metals are than the pattern, and the whole exposed to the heat use, but are of importanee as not extensi of & cupola or mufile, such as assayers use for means of making patterns. refining and assaying. ‘The glass will soften by Plaster of Paris is the most important in this degrees and fill the mould. the re ‘actory character range of materials. It is made by calcining pounded of the silicious tripoli preventing it from melt or ground gypsum gently in an oven: a common ing together with it, Coloured impressions may bake-oven is sullicient for a small quantity,for there be made simply by melting the coloured glass first is no other ingredient in the composition of the down into those parts which are to be eolouréd, and ‘gypsum to be driven off but the water of erystallizathen covering the whole with such giass as we intend tion. ‘Too much heat deadens the plaster, and too the body of the impression to consist of, ‘This latter process, however, requires two moulds, and two opera little heat makes it work slow and absorb less water 162 of crystallization, Plaster of paris exposed to atmotiona 3 the 4 moulid makes but one colour of glass, spheric air loses its quality of hardening with water; before the second whieh is to be ground onits revorse,

THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2099 wwe will give a deseription of some practical eases. gentle heat in an iron kettle and stirring, restores the lost capacity for water. ‘To work successfully ‘To cast a mould of a coin, ot of a wood engraving, the pattern is first brushed over with oil or soapin plaster, experience and sh L are required, but we 164 water, and then laid on a level place upon a board or will try to give as good practical information asis in table. Ttis now surrounded with an enclosure of varour power. nished pasteboard, tin-plate, or anything light and One of the first requisites to success inthis flexible, which is to be fastened tightly around tho work is a thorough acquaintance with the nature pattern, ‘This is to project above the faee of the patof the plas Tf the material is a strange one, it is

advisableto ealeine it in an iron kettle under repeated stirring to a red heat, or so far as the kettle will admit of, before running the ris of a cast. The quantity of water with which any kind of plaster will assume its greatest hardness, is to be tried by experiments, Some qualities absorb more water than others. he hardest easts are made with the Ie ¢ water, but it requires dexterity to make sharp castings ofa stiff pasty plaster. The casts are also harder if warm water is used. To prevent large pores, and ters in the east, the solution is to be constantly stirred, and kept in motion until the plaster is hardened in the mould. ‘The best

plaster casts are made if a very thin solution is frst

spread over the face of the mould, and upon this, is made, ‘This will unite while wet yet,a stronger cast strength and beauty in the same cast. Foreign matter 0 ht not to be mixed with plaster : it invariably impairs the strength of the east. If plaster to be eid for making patterns, on third of slack~ ed Time may be mixed wi i ‘This keops the pl 0 in a pasty condition, and offers ter for a long an opportunity to alter the form of it so long as it mixed with pure is in that state. A little lime plaster, makes it more useful for inoulds, partieuJarly where metals are to be cast in it. ‘The best mixture for making moulds of plaster for metal, is to mix it with one-third of finely ground pamice-stone, All other admixtures to improve and a Tittle the barduess or strength of plaster are useless. The strongest casts are casts of fresh, well burnt plaster, which was not too thin when east, A mould of plaster ay be mae over any pattern whieh is impervious to water; therefore all patterns which absorb water are to be covered by a varnish which excludes water. In varnishing pattern the varnish is to be Taid on thin, and uniform, not to umutilate the pattern, or fill up fine cavities, As an illustration of this subject,

tem the proposed thickness of the plaster exst—if i it is hig! or there is no harm done, Plaster of paris, is now mix il with an excess of water, in a common vvater pitcher, well stirred, and after remaining a ‘moment at rest, the coarse plaster will settle at the bottom, and the finer portion be suspended in the water. ‘The lighter part of this liquid is gontly east over the pattern, while the latter is constantly and gently struck, so as to settle the particles of plaster in the finest erevices of the pattern, and make air bubbles rise, which often pertinaciously adhero to the pattern. ‘The coarse sediment of the plaster is thrown away, or saved anil exposed to another fire before being used again. After five or ten minutes’ standing, the fine plaster is settled f the mould, and clear water stands over it ‘This water is cast off as dry as possible, and some fresh plaster, mixed vory stiff, is east over the first thin facing to strengthen it, ‘Tho first east is made very thin merely to cover the pattern, for it will be too weak and porous for any practical purpose, even if cast thicker. ‘The vo casts will unite firmly, and form a useful whole, giving 2 very minute impression and being strong Desides, Such a plaster mould is dried, to expel all the water from it, and may then be used to cast fusible metal, wax, or sulphur in, Tf this mould is to be usod for making plaster casts, itis varnished 107 first, whi is done by a gum-shellae varnish, or by soaking the mould in wax. ‘The first is the preferablo plan. ‘Whe first coating or facing of plaster may be put on by a fine camel’s-hair brush, but this way is not go sure of making perfect impressions as that de nibed. There is a certain time for removing the cast from the pattern; if this is done too soon the east is too soft, and will break, and if done too late it will adhere to the pattern. For small objects, and strong plaster, from ten to

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sul nt; for larger ones, from fifteen minutes to one hour will be required, before the east can be separated from the pattern. The patterns are to be covered by a film of oil, as remarked before; this subject requires more attention than at first sight appears necessary. Pure oil is Tiable to fill the finer parts of the pattern and prevent of the plasters it has, besides, the evil the ac es influence upon the cast that it prevents the hardening of it, and if, therefore, the cast is sharp at first, the least rubbing will abrade the facing, at least the finer parts of it, A solution of white hard soap brushed over the pattern is preferable, but if the pattern is not very well staoothed or well varnished, if of wood, the east is apt to adhere to the pattern. Tn most eases a mixture of a strong solution of soap,i 168, he the best parting material. to found {s anda little oi Oil generally gives a colouring to the white plaster, white hard soap does not. The Moulding of Statues in plaster of paris is not an object of general interest, and for this reason is hardly worth the pains of describing and reading an essay on it; but as it affords the best illustration of moulding busts and statues, we will give this subject more attention than we otherwise should do. ‘There are three ferent ways of moulding 2 complicated statue, The first is to make the mould and the east in parts, and serew or cement these parts together. ‘This is an imperfect moile of forming statues, which never makes correct work, for it depends not only on the moulder, but also on the finisher who puts the parts of the statue together, how far the cast may be true to the original pattern, ‘The parts of metal ‘statues are serewed together; if plaster they are comented together by plaster, and the joints smoothed. Statues of this kind are weak, nor can they be correct, as it is almost impossible to destroy all traces of the Joints. "The second manner of forming statues is to cover the or final with a thin e: ting of plaster, one-fourth to one-half of an inch thick, and paint this coat black, 9 of charcoal-powder, strengthfilm thin avery givingit ened with glue, and over this conting a thick coat of ‘gypsum, two or three and more inches thik, accord ing to the si of the pattern, ‘This is laid on with

fifteen minutes

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tho trowel. When this last coat is sufficiently dry to admit working at it, the eope is divided by black chalk into so many parts as are necessary to secure the separation of the cope from the pattern. ‘The moulder of course is to be well acquainted with the pattern, or ho could not with any certainty mark the parting-lines on the eope, having no means of ascertaining and tracing the lines on the pattern. ‘To make this operation less difficult, a part of the pattern may be left uncovered, say the back (of a statue) ; this makes the tracing of the partings more safe. ‘The omitted part is covered in a second operation, where the joining is formed by that Tine, and those parts of the eope which enclosed the covered pace. ‘The partings are effected by cutting down with a chisel or sav through the cope to the black stratum, and breaking the first coveringof the pattern, ‘Phe black paint forms here a uniform stratum interlining the cope; it gives warning to the operator to stop cutting, for the pattern is near. ‘This mode of operating is easy and safe, as it makes a good and correct mould ; but the broken edges whieh form 19 the parting are very soon injured, and show un. Joints on the easts. For plaster this method is imperfect, because it does not make many good casts, One cast may be made very correctly, but the following easts are not certain, ‘The parts of the mould are held together by winding tapo or twine around the mould.

‘The third plan of making a plaster mouid is tedious and slow, but the safest and most correct, and by good treatment of the mould may admit of sixty and more castings being made in it, ‘The manner of forming such a mould is the following, which, ‘with unimportant modifications, is practised in making moulds for metal casts.

‘The surface of the pattern.

is marked by a lead pencil with such divisions as will secure the lifting of that part of the mould from off the pattern, as is enclosed by such mark

‘The operation of making the mould commences on 1 convenient place, by enclosing one division with fine plastic clay, and giving the borders towards the enclosed space that form which will eause the plaster to have the shape desired for that particular spot. ‘The space enclosed by the clay is then filled by

, and when the latter is settled, and so far

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dried as to admit its removal, the clay enclosure is first removed, ‘This Ieaves a part of the mould to Wh cast standing. ‘This east plaster de made, or the may be one, two, or three ine 5 thick, ave dling to circumstances, ft being the object to equalize the surface of the mould, so as to have less abrupt reliefs. ‘This first part of the mould is taken off the pattern, and the edges cut smooth by a knife ‘The

‘warts which ft in corresponding holes in the first ‘cope, if found necessary, which, however, is not often

of an arch, so that when all parts of the mould are laid together without the pattern, no partof it ean move or fall off ffom the others, To seowre the relations of the parts of the mould still more perfeetly, each part is provided with warts in the joints, fitting into opposite hollows of the next part. ‘These warts are made with the point of a knife, by turning it backward and forward, and are set in the middle of the joints, or in such places as are eon. sidered more convenient than the middie, When the first part is dressed, it is again put in its place, and one side of it joined by elay enclosures. It the

face of the mould.

taperof the edges i

caoulated as to form the joints

space now to be covered is square, the plaster will

form one side of it, and the three othe des are a1 formed with el: his second space is again by plaster, and it forms part No. 2 of the mould. One side of No. 2 fits to one side of No. 1, and threo are to be dressed and provided with hollows for warts. In this way the whole pattern is covered ‘hich in man with small parts of the mou! require fifty or more vores or parts. ‘The last part of course is cast without any clay to form the enclosure, and is generally without warts to form the the patthe mould. ng When starting pointin separati tern is perfectly covered with this mould, the surface of the m 4 is dressed and ent smooth, to remove all sharp angles and abrupt reliefs Over this first cope is made a second cope, but the first ought to te in such a condition that the second divides only into two, or at most into thr parts, ‘The divisions of th st cope of course fit exaetly into the second, and

if there is any doubt or danger that one of the parts of the first cope would fall out from the others in turning the mould, that part is to be provided with awire staple to whic astring is fastened. ‘This string

passes through the second cope and is secured out-

site. ‘The second eope tnay also be provided with

ng a comparatively thecase, ‘The whole monld, formi heavy mass of plaster, is held together as in other ises by means of tape.

Large Plaster Castings are male hollow. is done by casting first a small quantity of fine plaster in the mould, and in turning, the mould is ed into all parts of it, and gives thin covering to the whole A second east of coarse plaster

follows the fist soon after, and this is oqually distributed over the mould.

A. succession of su

casts will give any thickness desired. Parts whieh rovuive extra strength are laid on by hand or the trowel, Sta ues and busts generally require no east-

gate, because they are open below and are east from

that side, Patterns and moulds in which plaster easts are to be made, are coated with a film of oil or soap; but valuable picees of art, as marble statues or busts, do not admit of oil or soap without injury, and these means cannot be employed. In such eases the pat torn is covered by tea-chest-tin or tin foil, but so a8 not to show the joints of the foil. The tin-foil is pressed on by a cloth-brush in such a wnanner as to seoure the perfectly close eovering in the undulations. Whe face of a living or dead person may be copied in plaster by making a plaster cast over the face. ‘The limits of the mask are marked by laying a wet cloth around the face. ‘The hair and eyebrows are covered by pasting some tin-foil over them. Living persons are to have two paper or tinplate pipes in the nose, to admit of breathing while the plaster is put on the face, Such ama masks are generally used as patterns for making dusts of those persons from whom they are taken. ‘The bait, ears, and the back part of the Lead, are to be supplied by the artis Sulphur is, next to plaster of paris, the most valumaterial for sbarp castings; but its application is limited to very small eastings, on account of its brittleness. Tb can be east over metals and many other materials without oil, and. gives for these reasoi vory sharp immpressions. Sulphur may be east over a coin by surrounding the coin with a ring

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of paper; the melted sulphur will not kindle the paper if it has the proper heat, In melting sulphur for casting, it is not to be overheated; at first heat it melts to a transparent clear iluid, and that is the storms it into a time to pasty mass, which eannot be used. ‘The kindling of the sulphur should be prevented, by all means, for it will impart a dirty gray colour to the s Sulphur may be mixed with foreign matter to augment its strength, One part of plaster of paris, and tvo of sulphur, improve the tenacity of sulphur without diminishing its eapacity for fine impression. Next to the above, fine Spa it brown, fine ebalk, or slay in power, may be mixed with it ‘Throo parts of sulplir, and one o! ver, is a ood composi ion

plaster in, Alon cautiously melted, so as not to expel its water of crystallization, will assume a very fluid appearance, and may be east in swnall moulds with success. Thirty parts of alum and one of saltpetre is still better; it makes opaque castings of a beautiful white. Vive parts of alum and one of ‘common salt melted together, makes transparent sharp castings. Melted saltpotre by itself, may be cast in hot metallie moulds, and makes castings of a fine alabaster appearance, Moulding Natural Objects —A mould over an object of nature, as over a small animal, a flower, or loaves, be made in the following way. The ead animal, say a fly, or a bug of any kind, is put

Wax in its paro state, as well as mixed with other matter, is a useful material for enstings, butit shrinks considerably, It requires skill not to east it too warm, or too cold. In the first ease its eastin will be det iced, in the latter they will not ta sharp impressions. Wax may be mixed and suecessfully used with pluabago, einnabar, white-lea plaster of paris, and other substance: wherein wax is to be cast, is to be very cold or wet, if the material admits of the absorption of moisture. When the face of the mould is covered by a thin coating of wax, the surplas fluid wax may be east back into the ladle. A thin east will not shrink so much as a thick east. ‘Sealing-wax, isinglass, and glue, are also materials for making easts of, and are frequently used for small here is one compos fon to which we articles, have to allude more particularly it is a composition useil in making clastic monlds, for casting in plaster of paris—eight parts of glue, four parts of molasses, mixed and boiled together, and to this gradually ailded one part of varnish or boiled linseed-oil. ‘This mass is east hot over a pattern, and when cooled may bo easily removed. It forms a golatinous v

foot and everything else in such a position as we want it in the east, ‘his wax ring will form the channel or gate for the fluid metal, The objeot— animal or leaf—is painted with » very thin solution 77

for sharp and durable impressions.

mass, and makes an excellent mould for plaster

casts, having the great advantage of admitting of un der-carving the pattern, Sue a mould will not make more than six or eight sharp easts; but as the making of the mould is no object, it is the cheapest and quickest way of forming @ mould for casting

with its feet upon a ring of wax, so as to place the

of gum-shellac in aleohol; and, after being dried, is placed ina small pasteboard box, andso fixed by means of small wires as to secure it in a permanent position. ‘These wires, after being withdrawn, form air channels through the mould. A small tapered pinof wood is fastened in some convenient place for making a cast-gate. A mixture of three parts of fine plaster of paris, and one part of fine brick-dust, formed by an adequate amount of water, to whieh a little alum and an equal portion of sal-ammonia is added, into a thin pap, is now gently east over the pattern, under continued shaking of the mould, or if that cannot be done heeause the pattern is too delicate, the pattern may be first covered by means of a fine camel’s-bair brush, with a thin coating of the above ‘mixture, and then the remainder east over it. When this cast is bardened, the pasteboard enclosure is removed, and the cast gently but very strongly dried. After all the water is expelled, the mould is brought, slowly and gradually toa cherry-red heat, to expel and burn all the animal and vegetable matter. Amould of pure plaster would not resist such a heat without alum anddust brickof fallitongpicoes, butan addition gives it that xesistaneo to heat which is needed. ammonia is added to facilita the destruetion of the natural pattern, the animal or plant. ‘The

2103 THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 180 18 ‘his pig-iron fs, if anthracite and chareoal, mostly equally d performe be to is mould burnt cooling of the of a coarse-grained, apparently erystalline fracture, as slowlyas the burning itself, to preventits breaking. ‘There axe, however, no erystals; the form of the In the cooled moutd some mercury is east and gently fracture is an aggregation of leaves. Tron, and the shaken, By gradually aiding more quieksilver, the black graphite with whieh it is intermixed, appear to remains of the pattern which may be left in the assume the same erystal form; they are so closely mould will float on the mereury, ani may be broughé united that no distinetion ean be made of the differout. By repeati he latter operation, all impurities ence in the form of theerystals, ifthere isany. Cokemay bo effectually removed. Before casting any pig, No. 1 stone-coal iron, and hot-blast iron, are metal in this mould it ought to be heated to a certain, gen ally finor in the grain than the above-mentioned degree, which degree will depend in some measure qualities, Pennsy nia anthracite pig No. 1, and con the mass of the pattern, and the metal to be east Pittsburgh or Hanging-Rock No. 1, are generally very Very thin fine patterns, and metals whieh concoarse and black in the grain fracture, Charcoal geal quickly, require a hotter mould than the reverse iron No. 1 from the Hastern States, Marylind, Allequalities Silver is the best qualified for such asta: gheny river, and Ohio river, Tennessee and Kenafter this, type metal, 4 er, and fustble alloy: tucky, is generally hot-blast, and finer in the grain ‘Avcast made in this way may be prepared to form than the above. Soottish pig, is of a fine-grained a pattern for tho current business of the foundry. fracture. If the mould has been hot and the metal also, the ‘The pig-iron of this class is soft, and often tender: casts are generally s0 perfect as to show the finest most of our own manufactured iron is strong, It nerves of the pattern. Larger objects may be mouldmelts very fluid, and eools ery slowly, whieh quali ‘ed quite as suecessfully as small ones Dut it requires fies it particularly for castings. his iron, if very more experience to succeed as well. gray, may be remelted once or twive, but the fine179 ‘grained kinds, and those whieh contain less carbon, CHAPTER I. or are exposed to too much fresh air in melting, turn OUNDING. into the following, or yoy No. 2 Tron. —This contains less carbon than the MELTING OF METALS, above, is more gtay in appearance, and of a finer Tron,—It is impossible to qualify the various grain, If approaching near to No. 1, it is Kinds of pig-iron brought into the market, by the best foundry iron, for it is stronger than No. 1. Jocal terms and marks. It would, after all, not If this iron assumes a wore gray colour, it is not bo of any use, because the produce of one and qualified for small castings, but is very excellent for tho same furnace may change in one week’s time large castings in dey montis. Tt melts duid, fills from No. 1 iron to No. 2 or even No. 8 which fhe mould well, makes less sullage than No. 1, and cortainly makes a great difference in its application does not burn tho mould so much as the above. ‘There are, however, distinctions in the foundr; Ie is tenacious, may be filed, turned, planed, and in the, quality of iron caused by the ore, or by polished; it is close, and more certain to be free the fuel which has beon used in its manufacture, as from impurities than No. 1. chareoal or anthracite; as well as by manipol No. 8, is white pig-iron. By remelting No. 1 and tion. We will allude to these local and practical jer the influence of a liberal access of air, No. differences when pointing out the specific qualities of they will be converted into No. 3 ‘This iron is metal for certain purposes, and confine our demonwhite, and most of it of a bright erystalline fracture. strationsat present to general remarks, Taking no Ue is of no use in the foundry. notice of the difference between charcoal, anthracite, ‘Phe quality of foundry-pig in our Atlantic cities, and coke or stone-coal iron, we have three distinct also in Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and other eities along qualities, known as No. 1, No. 2, and No, 3 rou. the western rivers, is no doubt of such perfection that, No.1, or Dark Gray Pig-Tron, s the foundry iron.

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there isno difficulty in making a muality and kind of castingsinany of these places. ‘There is hardly a limit to the variety of good foundry-pig in these mark ts. Some general remarks on the characteristics of pigiron for foundry purposes 4 il however be in place. Dark Gray pig-ivon, with large leave of plembago, s 182 is qualified for small castings, as hollo ware nd small machinery, but would not answ rs0 well for heavy castings, which requiro strength. There are, however, exceptions to this rule. ‘The pigsiron most useful for the very finest kind of eastings, is to be fine-grained. C grained pig will not fill a fine mould, at least will give but dull impressions. If pigiron contains a little phosphorus, it may be finegrained and still be an excellent foundry iron, pa ticularly for hollow-ware and stoves. ollow-w maile of gray fron which contains much carbon or plumbago, is liable to evoking blac his evil is not so apparent where pig-iron of lighter colour, containing a little phosphorus, is used, Black iron is not qualified for large or heavy casting sit is generally too spongy. Hot-blast and eold-blast iron are simultancously brought into the market, and the former is frequently sold for the latter. For found: -pig it ma but Tittle difference whether made with hot or eold-blast, and we may say, generally speaking, that hot-blast iron is preferable to eold-blast, because the grain is finer, the iron more uniform, and it rans more fluid than the latter. In anthracite and stone-coal pig there is but one kind, and that is hot-blast A difference is often found in charcoal-pig, but then ib 183 onerally marked cold or hot-blast, when made at an establishment of reputation. ‘To distinguish eoldblast from hot-blast iron, is almost impossible. ‘The only permanent. differen isa finer geain in hot than in cold-blast, provided the amount of carbon in both Kinds of fron is the same, and the ivon is made from the same kind of ore. ‘This mark of distinetion is, however, very doubtful, and may lead to errors A more certain criterion is the eolour and lustre of the pig, in a fresh fracture. Provided all other things— ore, coal, manufactare—are equal, the fracture of hot-blast iron is duller than that of eoldblast; the latter shows more life than the first, and a

2104

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freshness of colour, which isnot so clearly expressed in hot-blast iron. Iot-blast iron is frequently found to be of @ fine grain, interspersed with clusters of coarse grains, the fine parts of dull appearance. ‘These distinctions of colour are a safer criterion than the size of the grain, bub both together may alford some means of distinguishing between the two. Tt would be,of little value to know whether specimen of iron was smelted by hot or hy eoldblast; bt as the cold-blast iron contains less carbon and impurities, if of the same colour as hot-blast, and as a mixture of cold-blast and hot-blast iron 1st makes the strongest eastings, it is desirable to have the two qualities separated. ‘The miving of different kinds of iron is an object of considerable interest, and all foundries ought. to anake their own oxporiments to ascertain the strength of the material they are working. In making orna~ mental casts, strength is of secondary consideration, but in machinery, and beams for architecture, it is of the first importanee. In foundries where machinery is east, or water pipes or beams for bridges or architecture, there should be means of testing the strength of their cast-iron. ‘The safest and best

way of doing this, ia to have a standard pattern,

say a prism of two fect long, one inch thick, and tivo inches wide. ‘Chis pattern is to be moulded in © particular flask, with uniformly dry sand, and cast inclined at a particular degree. ‘The mixture of iron is mede in a erucible melted in an air furnace, ‘Zhis trial or proof-bar is fastened one end in a viee, and at the other end s platform is suspended, upon which so much weight is piled as to break the bar. In the mx n time the deviation from the straight line, or from original position, is. measured. In this way the relative strength as well as the degree of elasticity may be measured, and the relations of the strength of one 185 mixture of iron to the other, decided on with great cortainty. ‘This is not to be considered a scientific expe ent—it is a mer ater of local, practical interest. Under all conditions, a mixture of iron ‘melted together is stronger than the average strength of the whole, each measured by itself, Hot-blast iron has the advantage of being of a more uniform

2105 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 dest in all these instances. toxture than cold-blast iron, and being more firmly An important influence in mixing iron is due to the united with carbon. A mixture of hot-blast iron kind of casting, its size, and its purposes. Iron of may therefore be made which supersedes any eoldwhich beams and rolls for iron mills are cast would last iron, in respect to strength, provided hot and make poor hollow-vare or ornaments, and iron cold-blast are made of the same mater is, and in which maki harp impr ions on small articles, is the same manufactory. ‘The kinds of pig-iron which generally not qualified for heavy articles, Meary are to be mixed together to form the strongest commachine: -y is best made of No. 2 anthracite iron, pound, are difficult to decide upon here. It depends ora mixture of No. 1 a e, and No. 3 charvery much upon the experience of the founder, coal. ‘The variety of anthracite iron is not indifferent and also on circumstances which are beyond in this question, for there is some very weak, also his control. Few of our blast-furnaces have yet some very superior iron, Hanging Rock pig of good settled upon a definite quality and mixture of quality is no doubt the strongest east iron in the ore, shape of the furnace, and other matters which world, and it would be an advantage to western {influence the quality of the iron smelted, So long enterprise if scientific experiments were made to as such matters are not definitely ottled, no brand Aecide the valie in numbers of its superiority over of pig-iron ean be depended upon for its qual other y igrivon. © Small castings and ornamental In purchasing, the buyer is to depend upon his own castings require a fusible iron which eoagulates soon If pigciron is too gray, or experience and chan and is not too gray, so as to assume sharp impres~ too spongy, it may be improved by aiding 0.8 sions’. Irom containing a little phosphorus, boing a iron, or in most cases8 8 of old castings aro Jittle cold-short, is preferable for these purposes ; preferable, Very black-gray iron will bear an that snielted of bog-ores is the proper kind for small addition of 30 per eent. of No. 3 pigor serap. Tron castings. Railings and ornaments which require hich contains too little carbon is successfully imstrength to resit sudden jerks, are to be cast of proved by adding No. 1 until the wished-for strength a fine-grained, pure iron, free from phosphorus or ‘and texture are obtained. In all cases iron from 88 different furnaces ought to be mixed together, and if any such admixture, Chilled rollers or chilled of obtaining iron from differthere is any possibility wheels require a very strong No. 2 iron, but it is and different ores, it is to be preferred. ent localities preferable to make No. 2 of No.1 and scraps or An anthracite pig of the Schuylkill region is stronger No. 3 charcoal. In hard rollers a little phosphorus if some Seottish pig is added to it; eharcoal iron from does no harm, but in wheels any pig-iron made of the State of New York, or from Baltimore, is still Dog-ore is to be rejected. better for that purpose, ‘The superior qualities ‘The kind of mould in which iron is east has a of Obio iron may be made still stronger by mixAecided iniluence upon the strength of the ast. ing it with some kinds of Allegheny or ‘Tennessee Machine frames, beams, rollers, and all castings In all eases, however, it is better to mix No. which requir ‘ength, are to be east in dry sand or 1 of one kind with No, or No. or seraps of loam, for rreen sand will cool the too rapidly, another kind. And if possible, mix cold-blast with ani cause it tochill, or become hard and brittle. Casthot-blast iron, he strength of iron depends a ings which ought to havo good smooth surface, to shall we but it, melting of mode the upon deal great be perfect, require a green-sand mould. A mould speak of this hereafter. well dusted by blackening will make smooth and Besides the consideration of strength, economy good-looking castings. ‘Thin eastings, that is, castin many instanees decides the qualities of iron to ings which soon eool, are always more smooth than be worked ina foundry. ‘True economy, however, thoso where heavy masses of metal are confined to zs, and gives is that which secures the best casti a small space. Castings which require strength are most seewrity in avoiding aps. A mixture wh to be cast upright, or at least inclined, having the 187 ae st-gate to enter from below, and a flos-gate at the makes a close and compact soft gray iron, is the

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highest part of the mould, MELTING OF CAST IRON. Toon in the Blast-Furnace.—Iron is in some few instances used directly from the blast-furnace to

make castings of. It is done in those places where 189 fusible ores, as g-ores and hematites, are smelted by charcoal in small blast-furnaces.

‘here are

but few establishments where this is practised ; some are along the Atlantic sea-coast, a few in the interior of the Eastern States, and but vei few in the Western States. ‘The whole business done in

this way does not amount to much. ‘There

is really

no advantage in casting directly from the blast-farnace, for the iron is never of such uniform quality as to secure good castings. It is on the whole dis. advantageous, and more expensive than remelting the east iron, and giving it a proper quality by mixing it with other kinds of iron, ‘There are, however, instances where casting from the blast-farnace is not only excusable but necessary. Where bog-ores are smelted which make cold-short iron, it is advisable to transform the iron direetly from the blast-furnace into castings. Iron, eold-short of phosphorus, is generally not used in forges, and it has too little carbon to admit of remelting. ‘There is hardly any other way left but to make castings of such iron, It is not qualified, however, for machine frames, or castings which ought to be strong. The only and best purpose it is adapted to, is for easting hollowware and stoves; i¢ will form fino and sharp eastings, and cooking pots made of such eold-short iron eannot be surpassed iin quality 90 It makes enamel superfluous ‘The usual ayof tasting from the blast-furnace is to prepare a stopper of slag, just fitting in helow the timp of the furnace. ‘This stopper will separate the interior slag and that in the forehearth of the furnace, provided the stopper reaches down into the liquid iron, the blast at the furnace of course being stopped. The surface of the iron in the forehearth, after being cleared of its slag, is clear and will koop so, provided the stopper is thiek enough and remains in its place. ‘The iron is dipped, with dippers or ladles of cast or wrought iron, as far as this can be accomplished ; after this the stopper is removed, the cinder from the back of the hearth drawn forvard, and the furnace pub into blast again, A

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more perfect way of taking iron from the blast-furnace is to make dip-pool in one of the tuyere arches, provided for that purpose, and where there is no Dlast-pipe. If the back arch, opposite the work arch, is chosen, the moulding and casting may be carried on very conveniently, without coming in contact with the smelter and his operations. A hole Tike a tap-hole is here pierced through the back stone, or one of the flanks of the hearth, down at the bottom or near the bottom, and around this hole a

round basin is walled up in fire-brick, and well secu. ae _ 11 red in its plueo by iron binders. ‘This basin need

not be larger than to admit a ladle. ‘The hole which puts this basin in connexion with the intorior of tho furnece-hearth is to be of such a height over tho hottom of the hearth as to leave # cover of Auid fron always on it, ‘This pool is filled with some burning chareoal to keep it warm, and as the iron rises in the hearth it will rise in the pool, from which the moulders may dip and take it at any time they choose. When the pool is once thoroughly hot, it requires no charcoal to keep it so. In figure 34 are represonted two ladles. The one is made of east fron, the other of wrought iron. ‘The latter is preferable for dipping, because there is loss danger of its being burned. ‘These ladles are covered with a thin coating of loam, indicated by the dotted lines. A, the cast-iron ladle, receives a Fig.

strong washing of loam; B, the wrought-iron one, forms merely the bottom to a clay ladle, ‘ho well worked clay is set upon the edge of the ladle and forms a 102 dipper as largeas the moulder may choose it to have, The ely is put on every day, or every east, anew, and it is to be well burned before it is dipped into the iron, or dangerous explosions may be the eonsequence of such neglect. Melting Iron in Crucibles.—Vhis mode of melting is not now practised, but it was formerly in use, and is still so for some particular purposes. All the fine iron castings, 2s trinkets and similar objects, are cast

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

from crucibles, ‘The fron melted in a crucible is very quiet, and generally not so hot as to burn the sand; it makes smoother and more solid castings than iron melted in a different wa; Compositions of iron may be mado and melted in 2 erneible, which would not retain their quality in any other mode of melting. ‘The melting in erueibles is expensive, Decause of the cost of crucibles, coal, and labour ; Dut there are instances where these are secondary considera ions. A good blaek-lead erucible ough’ to last ton or twelve heats of fifty pounds each, a as the plumbago is found in large masses, ie cheap, and coal is no object, it may be found a profitable way of making small eastings for carpenters and knife-manufaeturers. ‘Tho air furnace for melting iron in crucibles is the same as that used for melting Brass, brome, and similar metal itis reprosented 93 in Bgure 35. ‘This figure explains itself; the furnace is put below ground to a chimney whose lower interior part is built of fire-brick, as well as the interior of the furnace. ‘The furnace is covered by

2107

TE SURVIVOR Vol 5 employed Charcoal requires the highest elevation, coke less, and anthracite the least. "The best form for the furnace pit is a square: the four corners resulting from this arrangement are very useful to hai ¢ fresh fivel in, which, if the furnace is round, requives more room than ean be advantageously given. ‘The crucibles are to be, perfectly dry before they ave put in the furnace; the least moisture will Aestroy a crucible if not removed before exposing

it tothe heat of a furnace. ‘The iron, or other metal, is to be heatod before it is chargod, and the fuel must be dry and warm, before being laid around the er ble. ‘Phe mode of operation is simply as follows. ‘The grate is put in the furnace, and upon t the brick-bat or broken erucible, which fs to form the pedestal—sole-picee—of the crucible. ‘The fire is then kindled and made to burn briskly, while we erucible and metal are heated on the doorplate. When the interior of the furnace is red hot, and the fuel burnt as low down as the sole-piece in the centre, the empty erucible is put upon it, and then the metal in pieces gradually charged, until the cracible is filled. When the metal is partially welted, there will be room for more, which is 195 piled upon the other, and the whole covered with a few soraps of gla , whieh, when melted, will form a. film on the surface of the iron to protect it against the access of air.

‘a eastiron plate, » kind of trap-door, which is balanced by a weight and an iron chain passing over a roller; or in any other com ent way. The grate bars are simply square in ods of wrought or cast iron, and may be pulled out one after the ‘other, to drop coal and cinders at once, or to clean the furnace. ‘The erueible is set upon a pieceof firebrick which rests upon the grate. ‘The bottom of a broken crucible inverted, is preferable to brick as a 194 sole-picee. ‘The erucible to he raisod from three to six inches abovo the grate, according to the fuel

A moveable cover of crucible

clay will serve the same purpose as glass, but it is ‘more troublesome than the latter. In fifteen minutes the first portions of iron are melted, and the addition may be charged. In three-quarters of an hour the whole of the iron is melted, if properly attended to, and is ready for casting. ‘The fuel is always kept as high as the erucible, and from the first somewhat higher, but the last fuel is given when the metal is not entir ly melted, so as not to cool the fire after that by fresh fuel. ‘he fuel is burned down at last so far as to free the crucible of it to a certain depth, and to admit the access of the tongs for removing the crucible. ‘The tongs are made of strong bars of ivon, three-quarters or seven eighths square, and and fiom four to six feet long, one end provided with prongs bent in such a manner as to form a basket to catch the eracible as low down as possible. ‘These tongs are suspended ina chain and a crane,

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

or, the ebain very long and fastened to the eeiling of the building. ‘The first operation is to move the crucible from the fire and at the same me put it into a pet-handle for casting. Whis handle is the 196 same as those on iron pots, to be deseribed hereafter. It is to be heated previously, to prevents injury by cold to the crucible. "wo men carry the eracible to the mould and east, and return the crucible directly to the furnace, into which it is set without delay. Gradual charges of metal are now given, and the melting goes on as before. Tn ease no more metal is to be melted, the erucitle is put inversely in the fire to let it cool slowly. In all instances a hot erucible is to be put inversely in ease it is set down anywhere; the heated bottom of a crucible never is to come in contact with anything colder than itself, Four or more fur tees may be put at one stack, anid as many way be put in a row as is considered necessary. Charcoal may be used in these furnaces, coke is better, but the best fuel is anthracite coal. ‘The danger from the latter is its being too severe upon the crucibles, on account of the great heat it evolves. Malting in Ber heratory Furnaces.—The best 1g furnaces on the largo seale are the reverberatories. ‘They are in use in some foundries where

the proprietors are desirous of making good eastin,

Dut are ina great measure replaced by cupola furnaces. ‘The reverberatory is next to the erucible in making good foundry petal: it gives uniformity to the various qualities of pig-iron charged, and the melted iron is quite free from ait-holes, and flows like lead into themould, All foundersand engineersagree

are stronger at castings maile from the reverberatory i

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than those from the cupola, if made of the same iron. In figure 36 areverbevatory furnace is reprosented in section, ‘The whole interior is constructed of fire-bricks, and comonted by fire-proof clay. The enclosure is generally maile of east on plates, but we also find fu which are enelosed in common Dricks, bound together by iron eross ties or binder: ‘The stack is gonorally 40 and more feet high, even as high as 80 feet; bub there is no need of that, as'40 198 feet makes sufficient draft. The grato is 34 fect long and from 5 to 6 fect wide, or as wide as the interior of the furnace. ‘The hearth is from 5 to 8 fect long anid equally as wide; it slopes gradually towards the chimney, and forms a basin for the accumulation of the melted mets The fire-bridge, ‘which separates the fireplace from the hearth, is from 10 to 15 inches high, according to the eapacity of the furnace. One side of the furnace is provided with a large iron sliding-door for charging iron and repairing the hearth; th door is at the highest part of tho hearth, near the fire-bridge. Tn the lowest part of the hearth, in the contre of the basin, is the tap-hole. This may be at one side of the furnace, fo: behind the stack at the flue. A damper on the top of the stack is @ useful fixture to regulate the draft. A furnace of this kind is to be very thick in the walls, so as to be as bad a conductor of beat as possible. ‘Foo much attention cannot be paid to close joints in. the brickwork; open erevices whi admit air are to be carefully stopped up, or the iron 4s liable to a loss of carbon, and will make, in consequence, hard and brittle castings. ‘There are ¥: rious forms of reverberatory furnaces in use, but the

most general is that represented above. ‘Where are furnaces with double arches; that is, where iron is,

: melted . at the fire and199 at the fue-bridge, and melted metel concentrates in the centre of hearth where tho arch is drawn down, ‘There also far aces where the cold pig is charged in contre of the basin, which is the centre of

tho the are the the

hearth; but none of all these various forms is superior to the above. ‘The pig-iron is here charged behind the fire-bridge, and, as it melts, flows down into the basin, ‘The impure matter adhering to the pig-iron, and which does not melt, as sand and coal, will remain behind the bridge, and may be removed

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

at any time after the heat. In this way, the melted fron is not in contact with any impurities which can injure it. ‘Phe heat of the furnace is generally greatest near the flue, and the melted metal isin this case exposed to the strongest heat of the furnace, ‘The manipulation at this furnace is very simple, When a cast is to be made at a cortain time, the furnace is hi ted some five or six hours before, da brisk fire kept all the time; for it will take from three to four hours before the furnace is sufficiently hot to charge iron, ‘The furnace is to be white hot before pig-iron is charged. ‘he large door is then opened and the pig-iron charged, one ton or more at once; in fact, as much iron as is

required to make the east20desired; for itis not conae

sidered advantageotis to charge cold iron while a partis already melted, All the iron contained in a liquid form in the basin, is to be tapped before any fresh pig ean be charged. When all the iron con tained in the furnace is melted, the tap-hole is opened with a arp crowbar, and the liquid irom either let into pots or direetly into the mould. The tap-bole is opped with damp sand, or a mixture of Joam and coal-dest. When the furnace is charged with iron, all the ereviees and joints at the door and in the briek-work are to be cautiously st ea with ‘moist Joam, to prevent the access of any air npon the hearth. The firegrate is also to be well attended to, and Kept well filled with coal, but not too high, so as to impair the draft of air through the fuel. ‘The grate should be kept free from elinkers, and the formation of holes where the air could pass through unburnt, is to be prevented. ‘The reverberatory furnace is not only used for melting iron, but is also employed for the inelting of large quantities of brass, bronze, tin, lead, and other alloys and metals. 1 ige bells, statues, wachine-frames, and eitnilar objects, are « st from the reverberatory furnace. All metals, except very gray, fusible iron, which may be cast from a pot, are to be run in dry sand-ditches, directly from the furnace into the 201 mould, ‘Phe best fuel for the reverberatory is bit minous coal. Tard coal or coke ma de used, but js not so well aiapted as tho first. ‘The disqualification of the latter arises partly from their incombustible nature, but ebiefly on account of the mass

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2109 of fine ashes which

is carried over from the fireplace

to the hearth, covering the melted iron and prevent-

ing its absorption of hea

‘Phis evil is more apparent in the use of anthra fe than of coke. Wood, particularly green wood, is not at all qualified for

use in the reverberatory ; if no mineral coal ean be obtained, charcoal ts to be substituted for

For the

general character and quality of eastings, it is to be

regretted that the reverberatory furnaee for the melting of iron is fast disappearing. Machineframes of large size, rollers for iron mills, ahd even chilled rolls, are east from the cupola, Machi e; engine and iron manufa bridge builder and , ought to inscitstureorns, having their csa,stin archite done fcrtosi,n iron melted in the reverb Furnacgs Casts from the blastdirectel ratorarye the veer.y weakes and, next tofurnita, ce ranges’ yt,he iron of the and the crucib make cupola,t, ‘The reverb e closest raatnodry safest casting le the strong The Cuepsotl,a has , the advantage of s.melting iron eheaper than any other furnace. Besides this, itis a 202 -y convenient apparatus, because a small amount

fifty pounds, or as large a quantity as five or six tons, may be melted in a short time, with comparatively asmall amountof fuel, and in furnaces showing but little difference in size as well as form. Tn casting small objects, as hollow-ware, agricultural implements, architectural ornaments, and similar forms, and, in fact, in all eases where the strength of the metal is a secondary consideration, there is no question but the cupola is the best form of melting-farnace. ‘There is a great variety in the form of cupolas, but only in minor points; all cupolas generally agree with the form represented Fp.

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Fig. 37. In A, a section of the cupola-furvace is shown, with another section to represent the sloping bottom. Tt consists of a cylindrical cloak or east-iron, of from or enclosure of boiler three to six feet in diameter. ‘This rests upon two brick walls, BB, which are overlaid by a square iron plate, having a round orifice as large aa the ine terior of the furnace. ‘This orifice is closed when the furnace is in operation, by an iron door, @, shut and held close by means of an iron bar propped against it, When the furnace is going out of blast, and is to be emptied of its contents, this door is let down, and with it the slag and hot coal of the interior will drop. ‘The inside of the furnace is lined with fire-brick, or it may be lined with mixture of fire-clay and river-sand, firmly rammed in and gently dried. A. good Tining for a cupola may be made of turnpike-mul, where the road is maeadanised with flint or hard sand-stone; but, where iron or lime is contained to some extent in such mud, it should be rejected. Some eupolas are but four feet in height, while others are made from eight to nine fect high. We consider five feet as too grent a heights there is no other advantage in it than having a larger body of fuel at once on fire, which may be effected to more advantage by a greater diameter. Low furnaces, even as low as three feet, use less fuel than the higher ones. 204 The width of cupolas is quite as variable as the be ht; there aro furnaces of eighteen inches in di meter, and some are four fect. With chareoal, eighteen inches wide and one tuyere will make hot iron, but eoke requires at least twenty-four inches and two tuyeres, and anthracite thirty inches or more to produce the same result, A cupola is generally overbuilt by a spacious chimney, to Jead the hot gases over the roof of the building ; but a sheet-iron pipe will serve quite as well asa brick chimney. ‘The lining of a ‘cupola should be at least nine inches thick, and may made of fre-briek. ‘These bricks are if r, be still thicke to be laid in fire-clay mortar, a m cure of refractory sand, and as much fire-clay as is neeled to hold the sand together. The tuyeres are generally from ten to fifteen inches above tho iron bottom of the furnace, and are simply round orifices, of the size of the nozzle, eut through the in-wall. For small fur-

2110

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aces, but one tuyere is used at the back of the furnace; for larger furnaces, at least two tuyeres are needed; and for still Jarger, and particularly hard-coal furnaces, we frequently find six or eight tuyeres, ent in the same horizontal plane, in one farvace. If the diameter of the furnace is large, the tuyeres are multiplied, in order to generate 203 a uniform heat at all point the furnace. Where a large quantity of iron is to be melted at once, tuyeres are cut one above the other; if the melted

iron is raised to the height of the lowest tuyeres, these are topped with fire-clay, and the next above opened, ani if the iron is raised to the second; it is also stopped up, and the next higher put in ope-

ration.

‘Chis process is continued until all the iron

required for the east is in the furnace, ‘The vortical distance between the tuyeres is generally six inches. ‘The nozzlos of the tuyeres are simply sheetiron conical pipes, of from three to five inches in y ‘th at the narrowest part. ‘The conducting-pipe from the fan to the furnace ought to be at least twice the diameter of the nozzle, or four times as large as the area of all the nozzles. Where more than two tuyeres are used in one furnace, we frequently sco a square cast-iron pipe surrounding the furnace ; in this pipe are as many orifices, directed towards the centre of the furnaco, as there are tuyeres; the nozales are attached to these orifices. ‘The operation in a cupola is simple. If iron is to be melted, the first thing to be done, is to lock the iron door at the bottom, then fill in a bottom of

sand: mouliing-sand is generally used in cases where all quantity of iron is tobemelted. Ifa large but a: 206 qua tity of melted metal is required, a more refractory sand is used. ‘The fire is kindled by laying ‘ few chips of wood on the bottom, and placing charcoal, or anthraupon them some coke, stone-coal, cite ‘The fire is kindled through the tap-hole, which is at least six or eight inches wide. ‘The taphole is left open to admit fresh air for promoting the combustion. ‘The tuyeres are also left open. ‘The furnace is now filled to its mouth with fuel, which is Kept at a brisk combustion Tt generally requires two or three hours to heat or prepare the furnace for blast, whieh is not put on until the flame

2111 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 appears on the top of the fuel. When the furnace limestone, broken into two-i ich pieces, or oyster shells, is eharged, to about two, or three, and often is thy roughly heated, the nozzles are laid in and the five per cent. to the weight of the iron. ‘Too bla t-machine is put in operation. Previous. to this, however, the large tap-hole is stopped up with much Jimestone, as well as too Tittle, causes tho iron to become white, lose some of its earbon, and moulding-sand, or with a more fire-proof sand mixed in most eases, its strength and softness. The with clay, leaving a small orifice at the bottom, furnace should be kept full while in blast, or at forms the tap-hole for the fron. ‘This tap‘which Teast so long as iron is melted, by alternate charges hole is 1} or 2 inches wide, and is formed by placing of iron and coal, Coal is gonorally put on first, a tapered round iron bar in the place wh 2 the then iron, ad on the top of these the limestone is hole is to be, ramming the sand tightly around aid, When all the iron neoted for the oeeasion is it, and removing it as soon as the hole is filled up. melted, the charges are stopped. ‘Tho blast, how‘The blast, when put on, will drive a flame through ever, is urged on, until all the iron has been tapped. the small tap-hole as well as out of the top of the ‘The sand bottom of the furnace is made sloping, furnace. ‘The small tap-hole is kept open to dry so as to admit of discharging the last portions 207 the fresh loam or sand more perfect! and also to of the iron. A well-constructed cupola furnace will Jaze the tap-hole so as to resist the abrading friemelt one ton of iion every hour; some furnaces as tion of the tapping-bar. ‘The flame, also, helps to much as three tons per hours small ones, frequently glaze the lining of the furnace, which is more oF nob more than half a ton in an hour, Most furless injured after every smelting, and requires races are wider at the bottom than at the top; they mending with fresh fire-clay. When the furnace is 209 to hold a large quantity of metal, the large tap therefore work hotter than those with parallel sides, hole is covered by an iron plate, which is fastened and also have the advantage of lasting longer, as by woilges to the iron enclosure, leaving only the the melted iron, which is apt to ent the fire-brick, small tap-hole free. ‘he iron is el ged as soon as does not ran down along the brick. ‘The taper to the lower parts of the furnace show a white heat, be given to a lining is dependent upon the size of which is best known by the colour of the flame 1! t the cupola; a large furnace will bear more taper issues from the tap-hole, it being at first a light blue, than @ narrow, or small furnace. If ditferont kinds but, with increasing heat, assumes a whitish eolour, of iron are to b melted in the same heat, a thick and apparently a higher heat, Tn about ten minutes is interposed between the various after charging the iron the melted metal appears at es, 50 as to admit of the extraction of all the made stopper a by closed now is the tap-hole, which fron which was first charged before the second apassumes it until hand the in of loam, which is worked pears at the bottom. In such 08, ib is advisable a certain degree of tenacity; a round ball of it is to melt the gray iron, or that fron which is to make then fastened on the end of a stick of wood, prosoft castings first, and the white or hard iron last. vided with a dise of iron, which, being previously When as much iron is melted as neeiled for filling ‘wet, is then pressed into the tap-hole. A charge of one or more moulds, the clay plug of the tap-hole is iron never consists of less than two hundred pounds, pierced by a sharp, stecl-pointed bar, and the metal and, in most cases, of four or five hundred pounds. yun into pots, ich are carried by hand or with a Pig-ivon is broken into pieees of from ten to fifteen crane, or it is ran direetly into the mould by means of

inches in length before it is charged. From ten to twelve pounds of fuel are consumed and charged

th every hundred pounds of iron in good furnaces.

Small furnaces, and those which are driven slowly, use more fuel, and the amount often rises to t ty

pounds of fuel to one hundred pounds of iron. Mong with the charges of coal and iron, a little

gutters moulded in the sand of the floor. Between cach successive tapping of the fron, the tap-hole is closed, and more iron gathered. Where more iron than the furnace will hold is required for one east, a portion of it is tapped into a large pot, which process may be carried so far, as to make castings of five or more tons from a small furnace.

‘THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2112 THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 210 ratus are often advised, but there is no essential to furnaces the from carried is Pots in which iron difference, no alteration in the principle, Fusible

the moulds are represented in figures 38 and 39. Bip 38,

metals, such as lead, tin, xine, antimony, and the

alloys of those metals, may be melted in iron po kettles, crucibles, and

"The first is generally of a capacity sufficient to hold from two to three hundred pounds of melted iron. Te can be carried by three or more men} the forked part of the handle is used for tipping the pot, 80 as to pour the iron gradually into the mould. Figure 30 is designed to be raised by means of a erane, and emptied therefrom into the mould. ‘The cupola or reverberatory at which such a pot is used, as well as the mould, should be within the sweep of the erane. Pots of this description are of various sizes; we an find some which will hold five hundred pounds, and others will hold two tons and more, ‘The swivels on sueh pots are generally strong, and their ends square, with a key-holo to fasten one or two forks

to them, for the purpose of tilting the pot and pour-

ing its contents into the mould, ‘These pots are alvays made of boiler-plate, as it would be dangerous to make them of cast-iron. Before each cast, the pots receive wash of strong clay-water, to provent corrosion by the hot iron ‘The foregoing are the most important means of melting metal ; in the cupola, no met but iron is melted. Copper, bronze, brass, Germans ver, silver, gold, and the alloys of these metals, are either melted in erucibles, or, if large quantities are to be smelted, in the reverberatory furnace. ‘The furnaces, crucibles, and other tools, are essentially the same for other metals as those deseribed for melting iron. Slight variations in the form of melting appa-

iron ladles, and also in clay

crucibles. ‘The heat required to melt these metals is not so high as the melting-heat of iron. DUAST-MACHINES. Formerly, eylinder blast-machines were used to supply the eupola with air for combustion, and in some fow establishments they are still retained for fanning the furnaces; the impression being, that iron melted by cylinder blast is stronger and less injured than that melted by other Dlast-machines. ‘There is no doubt that the eylinder blast is preferable to the blast generated in machines where water is in contact with the compressed air; in all other respects the impr Jon is erroneous, as there is evidence sufficient to satisfy the mos . In the present case, only, a blast is required for the

cupola; in other furnaces it is not needed. ‘Yo nourish a eupola, no better or more perfect blast can be generated than that made by the fan, or the centrifugal blast-machine. Practice has proved that the fan makes the cheapest blast, and also saves fuel; it has no deteriorating influence upon the iron, provided the quantity of blast sent into the furnace is sufficient to generate a stroug heat. Tn figures 40 and 41, 2 common fan is represented. Tt is an iron box, consisting of two cast-iron sides, with a rim of sheetiron beteen them. In the centre of the box is a hori218 zontal shaft, with four fans or wing: which move with great rapidity, drawing in the air at the centres on exch side, and driving it towards the periphery,

thus imparting to the particles of air a momentum, by ho cenicifugal motion, which presses them against

IE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

the citeumference, and if there is any opening at

the ci sumference, the air will eseape with a speed

proportionate to that pressure. ‘These fans have deen constructed of various sizes and forms; their depth is v: ried according to the quantity of air to be derived from them; the wings are from four to tventy-four inches wide ; eight inches wide is suflcient to supply a well-sized eupola, ‘The diameter is as various as the width of the fan, but it is generally admitted that three feet in diameter is the most profitable and practical size. ‘The wings aro often placed in the direction of the diamete as is shown in the engraving; sometimes in an ol diameter; and also have been the to position inclined curved in a spiral line, but without any appreciable difference in ellect. ‘Whe latter form of the wings oes not cause as much noise as the radial vanes. a fan isto form it s0as ‘The chief object in constructing todo the greatest amount of work, ‘Phe ease should be strong and solid, and for these reasons wood is not the proper material for its construction. he shaft and vanes are to be as light as possible; the shalt, of steel, hardened at both ends, where it runs in brass, steel, or east-iron pans. ‘Whe vanes of the fan are to be of thin sheet-iron or sheet-copper, and the w ns to them of wrought iron. One of the most imp rtant conditions of a fan, is the equal weight, and the equal distance from each other of the vanes} and ch arm supporting them is to be exactly of the same weight as the other, If these conditious are not complied with, the machine will shake, and soon be out of order. A mere adjustment of the axis, and the vanes attached to it, is not suflicient it is absolutely necessary, for a good machine, that all the parts around the shaft should be of an Ina fan of three feet diameter, the cual thick:

centre openings are generally one foots in larg fans the openiny are larger. Very large apertures

‘vill not answer; the air is conducted too quickly to 215 the periphery of the vanes, and there is not suificient time to impart to the particles the momentum requisite to produce a good effect. ‘The chief difficulty in constructing @ fan is, in the close fitting of the vanes to the sides of the case. ‘The latter mot be made very straight without

2113,

SURVIVOR Vol 5 incurring much labour, and, on the other band, it would be very dificult to adjust the axleso perfectly in the centre of the ease as not to touch it, which, considering the great speed of the vanes, is almost impossible, It is also easily pereeived that the loss in pressure is in the space between the vanes and the cast-iron sides of the ease. ‘To diminish this loss, fans are now constructed in which the vanes are covered on both sides with two concentric plane rings, so that the axle with the vanes, forms a hollow drum, open in the centre and at the periphery. ‘he vanes are fastened to these two bottoms or rings, and also to tho arms, radiating from the contre. ‘The two bottoms move round with the axis, and parallel with, and close to the siles of the case, In the centre, where the air is drawn in, the case is turned perfectly round, as well as the rim on the contre of the bottoms; both fit closely, but do not touch exch other. Where these join there is but from eight to twelve inches diameter, which may 216 bo kept tighter than the larger surface and cireumference at the vanes. By these means tho loss in pressure is greatly diminished, and it is an established faet that these fans require less power, and make stronger blast than fans of other descriptions. Fans of this construction are now most commonly used. ‘The bottoms and vanes in these fans are made of thin sheet cojiper. ‘The effect of a fan does not depend so much upon its size, as upon its speed and the size of the nozzle. It does not require large vanes to make strong blast; it is sufficient if tho surface of each is one-and-a-half times the area of the nozzle, or, if ther are more nozzles than one, of the sum of the areas of all the nozzles. ‘More thar vanes in one fan are useless, In the conducting-pipes from the fan to the furnace, there is to be a throttle-valve at each nozzle to shut off the blast at each without disturbing the others. ‘The speed of the axle of a fan is from seven to twelve hundred revolutions per minute, It is driven by a belt and pulley on one side of its axle. To melt @ ton of iron in an hour's time, requires about seven hundred eubie feet of air per minute, or, by a three-foot fan, eighteen hundred revolutions, and two three-inch nozzles, Six horses

URVIVOR Vol. 5 21d THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 217 avying-stove is represented. power is needed to drive a fan with the above speed GBNBRAL REMARKS. and size of nozales. Cleansing of castings. —Whon the metal of a cast Hot blast bas veon tried in various instances, but is so far cooled as to adhere together, and strong not with such results as to induce a continuance of enough to bear removal, the moulds are taken apart it. Tn this instance, hot blast has no other advan 219 ‘and the sand or loam is removed from the casting. tage than a small saving of fuel, and as the fuel Small castings require but a few minutes to cool, consumed is not to be considered expensive, the while heavier casts take hours and days. A massive getting up of the apparatus, rep i, and disturbcasting, such as a forge-hammer of five tons weight, ances caused by it, amount to more than the g will take twenty-four hours cooling in a green, and of fuel. forty-eight hours in a dry mould. A. bed-plate for Drying Stoves are simply brick chambers, one side the engine of one of the Now York line of Atlantic of which is entively open. ‘Three sides are formed by steamers, weighing thirty-five tons, took a week for a nine or twelve-ineh brick wall. In one of the sides cooling and the removal from its mould. Heavy isa fire-place, which ean be supplied with fuel from castings are chained to a crane and hoisted by it. the outside of the stove, and may be shut by a closeVery heavy eastings require the united strength of fitting iron door. Tn the opposite side of the firetwo and more cranes. Small castings are remo ed place is a flue which leads to a chimney this fue from their moulds by tongs; one, two, or more peralso low down, almost below the ground. ‘The sons taking hold of it, at the sane time, earry it to three sides are covered by a brick arch, ‘The fourth a place designed for the reception of such hot eastside is provided with iron doors, which open to both ings. Whe exerescenees which may happen to have les, and leave the whole fourth side open to. any been formed in the partings or eore-joints are broken pices of moulding which may be put in, Tron off as soon as the east is removed to the general shelves are generally put up along the walls towards deposit of hot castings. ‘The gates are, at the same the roof, for drying small cores and boxes on. A time, broken off by the moulder; it requires some railroad, which is within the sweep of a erane, leads degree of skill to break a gate off smoth, Gates into the stove, and any heavy mould which is to. be and aceidental exerescences which cannot be removed dried may be laid up a18 ear running on this track, in the fomndry, are chiselled and chipped off in tho and both ear and mould are shoved into the stove, yard or in the eleansing-shop. Heavy eores, and the doors closed, and fire put in the furnace. The particularly hard cores, are removed in the foundry of a drying-stove is varied according to the siz before the casting is entirely cold. of the castings commonly made in a foundry. A 220 stove of twelve feet in all diveetions, and seven feet Tine of casting.—The casting in iron foundries h is a goot-sized stove. Foundries whieh mako is oneraily performed in the afternoon after three large castings have to be provided with drying-stoves o'clock, $0 as to make it the last business of the day. of the proper size. ‘There are frequently more than ‘This time is chiefly selected to escape the heat of the one ar. ing-stove in a foundry, often as many as five hot sand after casting, which will then cool during or sis, small and large. If there is no occasion for the night. After casting, the castings are removed, using a large stove, a small one is selected, beeauso and the moulding-boxes piled in a eorner of the it works fastor, and with les fuel. In figure 43.5 building, so as to be handy for the next day's work ; Fi, the sand, after receiving some water, is shovelled over, mised, and thrown in heaps, where it remains during the night. If the latter work has been properly performed, the sand will be of a proper and uniform dampness the next morning. Each moulder takes charge of his own sand, and but little pract

THE

2115 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 melting of iron in the crucible is the most expensive: fs required to learn the proper amount. of water to be used in damping the sand. it consumes from fifty to two hundred pounds of coal to one hundred pounds of iron. The greatest exThe cleansing of castings is a simple operation in penses are, however, in the erucibles: a good cruiron foundry where common castings are made; cible, well-managed, will not last more than twelvo any workman is fit to trim a of se casting, or heats, and if each heat is fifty pounds, it will mele seour it, ‘he first is dono by means of chisels six hundred pounds of iron. Acrucible of this kind or sharp hammers; the latter, with dull, coarse files, will cost fifty cents; but very few erucibles will melt which have been used and rejected by machinists. six Inundred pounds, and, on an average, not more Cast-iron files are also used for the latter purpose. than three hundred pounds can be calculated upon. ‘The trimming and cleansing of valuable eastings, ‘Tho loss in iron is invariably from five to six per such as statues or ornaments of art, is not so eas ly cont. in every ease of the different forms of melt performed. An unskilful workman could undo almest

by trimming off a channel or gate, This kind of

vwork is done by an artist skilled in the performance of such labour; and, on iuable statues, it is pe formed by the original designer of the work, at least so far as particular parts, sueh as the, face, or eba. tie clements, are coneerned. The trimming of fine castings is an art in itself, which requir more explanation than our limited means allow us

to give.

‘The expenses of moulding

and eastin

are very

variable. Moulding of common articles of commerce and machinery in iron, is done by the ton, at prices

varying from two to twelve dollars por ton, and even

at higher prices Dry-sand moulding is paid higher than moulding in green nd, and loam-moulding higher than either of them. ‘The moulding of brass, bronze, or other metals, for monuments of art, is of such variety, and so different are the expenses, that no standard priee ean be assig: ed to it, The cexponses incurred ia welt ing metal are not very great, —the logs in the metal which is melted is greater than the labour and fuel in melting it, . In the eupola, twenty-five per cont, of fuel is consumed in melting iron, including all the fuel used in warming the furnace, the & ying stov ss, and other incidental uses of fuel. Besidles fuel, there are two labourers at the cupola, one smelter, and one filler. ‘The reverderatory takes from soventy-five to one hundred pounds of fuel to each hundred pounds of iron, including the heating of the furnace. Exelusive of , the reverberatory will take but Silty pounds of fuel. One workman ean do the work at the reverberatory, but there are generally two. The

ing; fron. it will gates, oss;

the reverberatory furnaco consuming most Each easting always requires more metal than finally contain; this surplus iron, consisting of channels, and false seams, increases the above and as small castings make more serap iron

will be larger on small easts than on large ones. Machine castings make, on an average, thirty-three per eo of refuse or serap in a well-condueted foundry. Commercial articles twenty-five per cent., and Jarge castings lesa ; very small articles frequently make more serap than ware. ‘The remelting of these ‘aps costs fuel, and causes a waste of otal, whieh inereases the expense of melting. Other metals than iron are generally Jess expensive in melting, bei 1g more fusible; and, as far as copper is concerned, there is but little waste if the copper is pure. Bronze will waste a little ; the waste in volatile metals, as tin and zine, ean be prevented in somo measure, if the surface of the melted metal is covered with a mixture of equal parts of potash and soda, mixed with some charcoal powder. ‘Tomelt and make bronze in the reverberatory, the copper is melted first, and if there is any bronze on hand, in seraps or other forms, it is added as soon as tho copper is melted down; after this, the tin is Taid near the liquid eopper, upon tho hearth, and if any zine or antimony is to be used, it is added last. Before casting bronzo, it is to be well stirred by previously heated iron bars. The amount of potash and soda used to protect the metal, is two pounds to one ton of metal it is added when all the metals 4 are melted and a white seum is visible on the surface of

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2116 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 the metal. Bronze metal designed for strong castings, contained is too large, it renders i¢ brittle, A little particularly bells, ought to be exposed to the fire in a carbon makes east iron brittle and hard. Hard east fluid state for atl st eightor ten hours; this will give it as beautiful a polish as hardened steel. 2 more homogeneous texture and Ie: nystallization, Phosphorus makes iron brittle when cold. It imparts a brilliancy and white colour to iron more If any zine is to be added to such an alloy, it is perfectly than any other matter, Phosphorus makes advisable to add it in the form of brass, leulating, of course, the quantity of copper it contains. The iron very hard, but renders it liable to corrosion ; relative quantity of the metals forming the alloy one-balf or one per ceut. causes a great alteration in can Le caleulated and mixed according to this the quality of iron. arrangement; but the melting operation has an influe ‘Silicon is a constant companion of cast iron ; hotenee upon the strength of the metal. ‘Tin or zine blast iron contains more of it than eold-blast 5 it also may be evaporated, and the alloy would not be contains more sulphur and phosphorus if any is preof the quality intended; the founder, therefore, sent in the ore or coal. Silieon makes iron brittle takes proofs before c ting, and if they are not and hard, and hase similar effect on it as phossatisfactory, either copper or tin added to the phorus. melted mass. It requires some experi ce to judge Arsonie imparts a fine white colour to iron, but of the quality of an alloy by appearances. Proof makes it brittle. is taken by a small iron ladle, the little metal in it Chromium eauses iron to be as hard as diamond, is broken after it has cooled, and the form of er but it is difficult to make this combination. tallization and the tenacity of the metal is decisive Gold combines very readily with iron; it serves as of the quality of the composition. 2 solder for small iron castings, as breast-pins and Lead, tin, and antimony way de melted in a similar articles. reverberatory furnace; bress, however, is to be ‘Silver does not unite well with iron, but a little melted in crucibles. Brass is sometimes made by may be alloyed with it; it causes iron to be very hard melting copper, and adding,8 after it is melted, as and brittle. ‘Phe alloy is very liable to eorrosion. Copper, if alloyed with iron, eauses it to be brittle much zine as is needed to form the alloy. A cheaper when hot, but increases its strength considerably method is to melt a mixture of copper seraps and when coli, i the amount of copper is not more than ine ore together with some charcoal powder; ot, one-fourth of 1 per cent.; more copper than this melt both copper and zine ore together with carbon. causes cold-short. In both eases, however, the brass is to be remelted, ‘Tin, with iron, makes a hard, but beautiful alloy, because the first smelting does not produce strong whieh, if nearly half-and-half, assumes a fine white and pure brass. colour, with the hardness and lustre of steel. 226 Lead combines with iron, but, like silver, in a small APPENDIX, proportions it causes iron to be soft and tough. RECEIPTS AND TABLES 228 Alloys of iron aro very little in use at present, Alloys of Tron —All admixtures added to iron make it more fusible than it originally is; these may but we call attention to such alloys, because the easy bo metals or metalloids, method by whieh, at present, iron is gilded, silvered, or coated with other metals, and also the covering Sudpiiur causesiron to be more fusibleif melted togeof irom with glass, enamel, and varnish, may, and ther, but this mixture is more liable to corrosion than undoubtedly will lead to the use of iron alloys with pure iron. A little sulphur does not injure east iron, greater advantage than the common east iron is Dut more than one per cent. makes it brittle when used. cold, If there is any sulphur in iron when hot, it Alloys of Precious Metats—hore are but few causes the iron to be brittle. which claim our attention. ‘The gold coin of the Carbon is contained in all east iron from two to United States is composed of 90 parts of gold, 2.5 six per cent.; it makes the iron fusible ; if the amount

THE SURVIVOR Vol 3

silver, and 7.5 copper;

parts of gold, 25 of eopper, and often a little silver, is the composition for most trinkets; 66.6 gold, 16.7 silver, n and 16.7 copper, forms the solder for gold and iron. Fine silver plate and medals are generall compose of 95 parts silver and 4 oper. Silvery solder isd 66.6 silver, BU. copper, aan 8 bras. Alloys of Copper axe the most numerous and useful Bronze, or bell-metal, is one of the most beautiful of these alleys. 72 parts copper, 26} parts tin, and 1} parts of iron is said to be a superior bell-metal. Tron, tin, and copper do not unite well if each ig added soparately to the other, but if tin-plate seraps are melted in a crucible together with tin, and then this tin and iron alloy added to the melted copper, it will unite readily. Common Bell-metat consists of 100 parts copper and 30 or 40 tins ibis more brittle and of not so ‘good a tone as the other. Another receipt prescribes 78 parts of copper and 2 of tin ag a first rate bellmetal. Another highly recommended composition is 80 copper, 10.1 tin, 5.6 ine, and 4.3 lead. ‘The latter composition is of a good sonorous sound, even if tho mould has not been quite dry. ‘The silver bell of Rouen, France, consists of 80 eopper, 10 tin, 6 zine, 4 lead. ‘oo much tin eauses the composition to be very brittle, Some bell-founders recommend the addition of a small portion of silver to the com position, butit appears there is no particular necessity for it. Bronze of great tenacity is composed of 9, 10, ot LL parts of copper to L of tin. If this alloy is east fn large masses, it has the peculiarity of separating into parts which contain moro or less tin or eopper. ‘The tin is generally found on the higher parts of the cast, the copper predominating in the lower parts, ‘This composition, besides being strong, is vory hard, and resists abrasion very effeetually; it also is very little acted upon by the atmosphere, he ancients used to m: their weapons 280 : = which, and edged tools of a similar composition,—to however, a little phosphorus appears to have been added,—before the invention of steel. If bronze is suddenly cooled, by heating and plunging it in cold wvater, it becomes less dense and hard, and increases

2017

HE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

its malleability; but this is not the case in the same degree with all compositions, but the tone of the metal is decidedly impaired, and bells ought never to be cast in damp moulds. Bronze made of the last composition is improved by being tempered, whilo

the tenacityof hell-metal, bythe same prar

Gr one-thind of tts al atrongttt. ‘he alloy of 80 copper and 20 tin bears tempering best, and inereases in strength, ‘The gongs or cymbals, and tamtams of the Chinese, are composed of 80 copper and 2 tin, To give these musical instruments their, sonorous property, they are plunged in cold water after being cast; a reheating to ignition, how1, is to precede the rel igeration. After this

latter process, which deprives the metal of almost all its sound, itis tempered, and very slowly eooled, which impavts to it the eapacity of emitting that peculiarly powerful somnd, Bronze for Statues is of a great variety of composition, Wo also find alloys for this purpose composed Tike b J-metal, and also of almost pure copper. 231 Modern statues are composed of a composition of 80 copper and 20 tin. ‘he present state of the art of making valuable bronze eastings i however, so imperfeot, that our age cannot be considered competent to give a standard of metal compositions for that purpose. ‘The French artists, in the frst partof this century, ‘were 50 ignorant in this peculiar art, that some parts, of the Vendome column are an alloy of 94 copper and 6 tin, while other parts contained but of alloy to 99! of copper. ‘These defects caused bad castings, so that the chisellers had to cut off seventy tons of protuberances on this one monument. Ab the

time of Louis XIV, a period: when the art of casting statues was more cultivated in France, statues were st of an alloy consisting of 91.3 eopper, 1 to 2 tin, 5 to 6 zine, and 1 to 1.5 lead. “The statue of Louis XV. is east of eopper 82, zine 10.8, tin 4, and lead 3. ‘The Bronze of the Ancient Greeks consisted chi fly

of eopper and tin, but was frequently alloyed with oN, silver, lead, zine, and arsenic. ‘The Grecks not only made statues, tripods, lamps, and other articles of art of bronze, but also their weapons,

shields, coin, nails, kitchen utensils, and ebirurgical instruments. Whe ancients understood the art of

28 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 hardening and tempering bronze to perfection, so that the want of steel was not so severely felt as we

be inclined to believe at the present time, ‘The Ancient Mexieans—Aztecs—understood the art of converting bronze into edged instraments in a high degree. ‘Yo small castings,88 an audition of iron, in the form of tin-plate seraps, appears to be advantageous: large articles are liable to erystallize by the addition of that metal. ‘Speewlum Metal is gonevally composed of 664 copper andl 333 tin, ibis white, and has a b ant lustre, and is susceptible of a high polish. An ancient mirror was found to consi of 62 copper, 32 tin, and 6 lead. In France, parts of copper and 1 part of tin are used, which are melted separately in cerueibles, and mixed just before casting. ‘The addition of a little arsenic, one or two per cent., makes the metal more compact and gives it a greafer lustre and hardness, but renders it liable to be tarnished by the air. The speculum metal of Lord Rosse’s Jarge telescope is composed of 126.4 copper and 58.9 tin. This alloy is of a brilliant white lustre, and has a specific gravity of 8.8115 ib is nearly as hard as steel, and as brittle as sealing-wax. The spect Tum is cast 6 feet in diameter and 5} inches thick, and weighs upwardsof three tons. ‘Thecasting of this mirror was an interesting process. After repeated 233 failures and experiments, 2 mould was made whose bottom co: sted of a wrought-iron ring, p cked full of hoop-iron laid edgeways, so close tha air, but no metal, could escape through the erevives. This bottom was turned convex on a turn athe, true to the concavity of the speculum; it wa s then placed ma

upon alevel floor open from above. crucibles, because injured the alloy.

and enclosed by a sand-darn, loft ‘he metal was melted in cast-iron

wrought iron or clay would have ‘The east was earsied while red

hot into the anneal x oven, which w: previously heated to a ved heat, and left there sixteen weeks to cool, Bronze for Medals generally contains least tin. 100 copper with 4.17 tin has been proposed, but this alloy is so hard, that it has been found necessary to cast the coin, Bronze medals are, however, stamped shen composed of 92 copper and 8 tin, a little zine being added in a form of brass.

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URVIVOR Vol. 5

Bronze in imitation of Goli, consists of 90.5 copper, 6.5 tin, and 8 zine. If bronze ie to be gilt, it should be of easy fusion, and take perfect impressions of the mould. A combi. nation of copper, tin, zine, and lead, as previously noticed for statues, is the best in this ease. An alloy which is sail to possess the best properties for being gilt, was composed of 82.25 copper, 1748 zine, .28 tin, D2 lead, An alloy for gilding is to be

compact and of elose grain. Tt absorbs gold and iereury in proportion to its porosity.

Brass is a composition of eopper and zine; 2 parts of coppor and 1 of zinc—or more correctly 635 copper 14 82.3 xine—form common brass. wo parts of brass and one of zine form hard solder; to this a little tin may be added. If the solder is to be tough, as for pipes or kettles, which are to bo drawn or beaten, but $ of zine are to be added to 2 of brass, Bulton-brase consists of 8 parts of brass and 5 of zine,

Ted-brass or tombak is made of 8 or 19 copper, and 1 zine, or, as in some German works, of 11 copper and 2 zine. Princes metal, Similor, Nurnberg gold, or Manheim gold, are different compositions, varying between 8 copper and 1 sine, and 2 copper and 1 zine, These elements are separately melted, and mixed together by constant stirring, Brass containinga little lead, from one to two per cont., is more easily turned than common brass, but is more brittle. Brass which is best adapted for bammering consists of 70 copper and 30 zine, ‘Tempering and sudden refrigeration has a similar effect on brass as upon bronzes the first vouders it hard and more tenacfous, and the latter oh Aelita mncimeles a wsldlch bison; aad iow parts a golden hue; larger quantities make it a greenish yellow, and more than fifty por cent. of zine causes brass to be of a bluish gray colour. Brass ‘for ship naile consists of 10 eopper, 8 zine, and L ron. Brass for pans and steps to ran machine shafts in, is to contain less zine than common brass; an addition of bronze to brass increases its applicaDility for such purposes. It is said that 16 copper, 1 xine, and T platinam is almost equal to gold. If melted red-brass is stirred with an iron or steel rod, so as to impart a little iron to it, its strength is sensibly augmented. The variety of brass eomposi-

THE

§ URVIVOR Vol. 5

tions is so numerous, as to make it impossible to note

all the known compoun In the above, the most useful alloys are enumerated German-sitver, Avgentan, or Chinese Packfong, is one of the most valuable alloys; it nearly comines the durability of silver and the utility of iron, steel, and copper. Common German-silver is composed of 60 copper, 26 zine, and 15 nickel. A better quality is 50 copper, 25 zine, and 25 nickel Chinese packfong consists of ‘eopper, 17 zim nickel, and 3iron, A highly sonorous, tenacious Argentar,

which can be hammered and rolled, resembling sil-

, is composed of 40.4 copper, 25-4 zine, B15 nickel, 26 iron, At

present, a fine argontan, and one the best qualified to

be plated with silver by the galvanic process, is made of 62 coppor, 19 zine, 18 nickel, and 4 to 5 cobalé and iron, ‘This argentan is very close, strong, and cheap, and may be covered by one or two per cent. of silver, forming a good fine plate. A very tena cious, ductile, and hard argentan may be made of BTA copper, 25 zine, 18 nickel, and 9 iron, This alloy can bo substituted for steel in many of the vroding common uses of steel, particularly where influences upon steel are strong, because this alloy is not affected by atmospherie air. Electron, a fine of argentan, ig composed of 8 copper, + quality nickel, and 3.5 zine. Solder for German silver is made by adding 4 parts of zine to this composition, then laminate and pound it to coarse powder. Before we part with eopper allo; twillbe proper to allude to some combina fons of copper with other Copper and matters which are useful to kno} platinum form a yellow alloy hardly distinguishable from gold. Copper and silver do not form any distinguished amalgam; the addition of a little arsenic to such an alloy makes it whiter and more like silver.

‘A little copper and antimony make fine rose 8 coloured alloy ; if the eopper is increase, it» a darker hue; equal quantities make a violet compound, and more copper increases the dark shade. This alloy is brittle in all proportions; 90 part of copper, antimony, and 5 xine, are used for plumber-bloeks, and pans and steps for steel and iron gudgeons to run in. Cardon makes copper very

2119

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SURVIVOR Vol. 5

brittle, Phosphorus makes copper as bard as steel, 80 that it can be used for kni sand edge-tools; it, however, renders copper more lixble to corrosion. The appearance of this compound when newly polished is like puro copper, but it is very soon covered or tarnished with a greenish-black eovering. ‘This greenish black being the eolour of ancient weapons, renders it probable that the ancionts hardened their copper or bronze tools by means of phosphorus, Copper and arsenie form a bright white alloy, which is used for candlesticks, buttons, dials, and similar articles, but ag this compound is easily soluble and highly poisonous, it cannot be used where food is Drought in contact with it ‘This alloy is made by melting copper scraps and white arsenie—arsenious acid—in a crucible, covering it with a layer of eommon salt. Te has almost the colour and density of pure silver, but is very liable to corrosion. Toad and its alloys are very extensively used; the alloys are usually harder and less tough than lead. A amall amount of arsenie is added to the lead to make shot; arsenie is more fusible and more brittle than lead; for fine shot, three pounds of arsenic, and for coarse eight pounds, to one thousand pounds of lead, are generally used. ‘To alloy lead with arsenic, nothing more is needed than to melt white arsenie together with metallic lead; half the weight of the arsenie employed will bo absorbed by the lead. 5 lead and 1 antimony, to which frequently a little sine nd bisinuth are added, forms type metal. A good French type metal is said to consist of 2 lead, antimony, and 1 pper. Cominon type metal is 80 le: ad and 20 antimony ; a more fusible stereotype metal is 77 lead, 15 antimony, and 8 bismuth, Some stereotype founders add tin to the above, that is, add to lead, antimony, and bismuth, tin; or leave the ismuth out and supply its place by tin, If much n is used it renders the metal rather soft, but fusible ‘and fit for fine impressions. A. superior alloy is said to consist of 9 lead, 2 antimony, and 1 bismuth. ‘Lo alloy lead with these metals, the lead is first melted, and the other metals added to the fluid lead. Fusible metal may be compounded of various degrees of fusibil ; BL lead, 19 tin, and 50 bismuth may be fused at 203°, An alloy which fuses at 149°, and hich is used for plugging teeth, consists of 28.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Tend, 45.5 bismuth, 17 tin, and 9 mercury.

2120

8 of

bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, will melt at the boiling heat of water, or 212%. Bismuth makes Jead stronger if the amount of bismuth does not exceed that of the leads tivo parts of bismuth and threo parts of Iead is said to be ten times stronger

than lead, and as the durability of bismuth is oq! L

to lead, it forms a good alloy for making pipes and wire, Tin forms a range of very useful alloys, Tin and lead melt together in all proportions. Most of the tin vessels which are called pure tin are alloyed swith lead, Soft solder is 33 tin to 6T lead, and in all proportions from that to 67 tin to 88 lead halt and-balf is common soft solder. Plate pewter is composed of $9 tin, 2 bismuth, 7 antimony, and 2 copper. Queen's metal, of 75 tin, 9 lead, 8 bismuth, 8 antimony. Britannia metal, of 89 tin, 2 copper, 6 antimony, 2 brass, and 1 iron. Chmemon pewter, ot ‘The German tin, is composed of 4 tin and 1 best plate pewter is 100 tin, 8 antimony, 2 bismuth, and 2 copper. Music metal 80 tin and 20 antiSpurious silver leaf is 59 tin and 50 zine. mony. Antifriction metal is a variable compound of lead, antimony, tin, and copper. Organ pipes are made of 4 composition of 9 tin and 1 Jead ; these proportions 240 tin and 19 lead are varied by different form a fusible compound, of which im ations of diamonds and precious brilliants are made. To ‘make such imitations, a glass rod is ground at one end in the form which is to be represented, whether a brilliant or rose-diamond. ‘The melted metal is skimmed by a paper card, and the ground facetted end of the glas rod dipped in the clear metal; on withdrasing the rod a thin film of metal will adhere to the cold rod, which, when taken off, will show We e of a diamond. hollow capsule having the lustr find such diamonds at present used to make signe boards in show windows. ‘his metal forms excellent reflectors, which may easily bo made by dipping » round bottle or the bottom of a retort in the metal; but the metal is tarnished by anything coming in contact with it. 1 part tin, L lead, 2 bis mth, and 10 mere ny is very fusible; with this com: pound giass pipes and glass globes are ated wit

TH

URVIVOR Vol. 5

thin film, by placing some of this metal in the article to be coated, and allowing it to flow round, thus giving it the brillianeyof silver. ‘Un foil, if designed for mirrors, i pure tin, but common tin-foil is lead and tin—often tin, zine, and lead; it has so great a variety of comp jon, that no standard can be assigned it, ‘Tin-foil ig made either by hammering or rolling, but most of it is made by easting the hot metal over an inclined plane, made of a frame covered with cotton or linen canvas. It requires some skill to perform the latter operation. Zine, alloyed with other metals, has already been enumerated. In its pure state it forms fine sharp cast~ ings, good for ornamental purposes; but as these castings have no strength, they are not much used for other purposes. A composition of lead and zine is used for patterns, but with little advantage; itis soft and flexible, and the patterns soon lose their shape. DRONZING. ‘When bronze metal has been exposed to the atinospheric air for a long time, it assumes a dark green colour, ‘This colour,a rich hue, may be imitated by chemical agencies, or by paint. Bronze metal, after being cleaned, is bronzed by being painted or iinmersed in a solution of two parts of verdigris and one part of |-ammonia, dissolved in vinegar, boiled and filtered, and used very dilute. Tis left. in this solution or brushed over until the desired hue is obtained. ‘The colour of antique bronze is obtained by painting the bronze east with a solution of one part of sal-amimonia, three parts eream of tartar, six parts of common salt, the whole dissolved in twelve parts of hot 242 water; with this ave to be mixed eight parts of a solution of nitrate of copper. ‘This solution should be Taid on in a damp place. ‘The first mixture will give more reddish dark green colour to bronze than Difforent tints may be imparted to the Ia bronze and brass, from red to bright yellow, and from dark to light green. Boiling bronze in muriatic acid will ive it a red colour; and soaking it in ammonia renders it whiter than it already is. Bronze painted. swith thin solution of equal parts of sal-ammonia and oxalate of potash, in a warm room, or in the heat of the sun, gives it a fine green colour, parti If a dark blackish bronze eularly if rubbed with

SURVIVOR Vol. 5 colour is required, the foregoing solu in a room where some liver of sulphur—sulphuret of potassium—is dissolved in water, and set out in flat dishes to generate sulphuretted hydrogen, which will cause a uniform blackish brown colour on bronze ‘The foregoing receipts answer for br or br as well as bronze, Wher the desired colour is obtained, the object is washed in clean water, dried, and then rubbed with a bi ush and wax, ‘The bronze for the latter operation is heated, but not so much

50 as to burn the wax. Bronze colour is impartod to other castings besides brass antl bronze, by paint, Cast iron maybe bronzed by dipping it in a thin solution of sulphate of coppor, or muriate of copper, and when suliciontly covered with copper, ib is washed and painted with Al objects to be bronzed n iy howcil varnish. ever, be painted of any colour, either a shade of green, from the faintest to an almost black green, or of a blue or bluish green. The paint cover should be coated with pure varnish, and when that is nearly dry, 9 metallie powder is dusted over it by o dusting-bog, or rubbed on by the fine gers, a linen pad, or a paint-brush, ‘The metallic

powder is generally mosaic sol,

is made of

aluost every shade, and is of greet beauty; or i ‘may be copper in powder, goid leaf, silver Teaf, and imilar articles; dry paint of a convenient shade may so be used. ‘The highest parts of the articles are generally bronzed so as to appear as if rubbed and worn hy use, Over the whole of these, a last

coating of spivit varnish is laid on.

‘Phe gilding of bronze and brass castings is porformed, in the dry way, by mal ing the surface perfectly smooth, then brushing it over with an

amalgam of gold, end dissipating the mereuryby heat,

a durable fin of gold over the surface. which leaves ‘his surface may be burnished or deadened. ‘tho amaigam js made by heating one part of gold, in 4 thin laine, ins crucible, and when it becomes faintly red, pow pour the combined gold and moreury into cold water, and sqneeze the surpins mere yout. ‘The amalgam enclosed in cuuyis or chamois lexthor, and more mereury pressed out; the remainder will contain one part of gold to two parts of mercury

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

amalgam is rubbed over the objects to be gilded: it may be had in its true composition from the gold mines of Virginia, and of the best quality from North Carolina, It is advisable to brush the brass over with a thin solution of nitrate of mereury and some free nitric a , a8 this facilitates tho adxoreuce of the amalgem, ‘he gilt and burnished artieles may be eoloared by a simple process to any shade from a bright and crimson red to a violet and deep blue, by being submerged in a bath of caustic potash in which some metallic oxide is dissolved, but, as a galvanie process is to be applied here, it is beyond our provinee to describe it. There are other methods of gilding which, for the same reason, must be excluded. Tron may be gilded by brushing it over with a solution of gold in sulphuric ether. ‘The iron is to be bright and polished, and the gold rubbed on by the burnisher. ‘This is not very durable gilding. Dinning of brass, bronze, and eopper, is done by washing the surface of the east with very diluted sulphuric acid, after whieh, wash in water, and seour with sand. ‘Che object is then heated to the melt jn, and the tin, kaving been previously melted, is rubbed over the surface by means of a damp rag or piece of oakum, first covered with rosin, to protect the tin against oxydation. Cast iron must be turned or filed, so as to offer a clean surface, before it can be tinned. A solution of tin, as muriate of tin, mixed with an equal part of salammonia, if brushed over the metal, will highly facilitate the opera ion of tina’ g A more convenient mode of tinning than the above, is to plinge the object to be tinned in a solution of tin and caustic potash, which solution is to be as hot as it can possibly be made. Such a solution of tin is made by dissolving oxyde of tin. -puity of tin— in potash ley, adding to the saturated solution some metallic tin, in the form of filings or shavings of tin, A fow minutes are sulficient to cover brass or copper with tin,

Zinking of copper or bronze may be done by ‘exposing (ho objects to the fumes of zine. On copper casti s, itis often desirable to have some parts of a golden or yellow ius, which may be done by

2122 THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 URVIVOR Vol. 5 246 castings are blackened with common black paint. A. exposing those parts to the fumes of zine, Avery rich lead-colour may be imparted to eastings by an perfect conting of zine may be obtained by placing oil paint, made of fine litharge gently heated in an the objects, well cleaned, in a solution of chloride fron pan, and, when hot, some flour of sulphur of zine, in whieh a surplus of metalliczin 9 present. finely and uniformly sprinkled over it under constant muriin zine Chl {do of zine is made hy dissolving sti irring. Whe resulting sulphuret of lead assumes a atic acid, always having so much zine in the acid, 248 that some of it will remain undissolved. Zine rich Iead-colour, which is not altered by ofl-or the atmosphere. solved in sal-ammonia is as efficacious as the fore~ Grinding of cast iron is resorted to where any going, smooth, polished surfuce is required. Tt is done on Glazing of metal castings, or coating with enamel, large, fast-revolving sand or grind stones. Cast iron is very little practised, and will hardly ever amount is generally lard on its surface and sandy, so that it to a lucrative operation. Iron to be coated with an ‘vould :equire too much labour to fileit, besides wearing first well cleansed by means of acid and out too many files, Machine castings are planed or scouring with sand. Tt is then uniformly covered turned by proper machinery. with the enamel, which hes been previously prepared Maileabie cast iron, an article now very much in or melted, finely ground, and mixed with water for use for carriage and harness furniture, and various the purpose of laying it on. ‘his operation is very other purposes, is made of the hest kind of No. 2 little practised, as it is very expensive and the procharcoal pig. ‘Whore the foundry scraps are of a uot is not durable. Tt has been, and stil is used for good quality of iron, they are preferable. A good covering the interior of cooking utensils to prevent article maybe made by mixing No. 2 and No. 8 iron. their cooking black. A better means to accomplish Any pig iron which makes good bar iron will make this obj in a cheaper way; is the application of malleable iron. Most of the malleable iron is east cast iron, which contains a little phosphorus, and not from the cupola, but the crucible makes better casttoo much bon, a8 has been previously remarked. gs of the same material. he cast articles are More recently, a new invention, that of covering tempered in an iron cylinder, and imbedded in fine fron with transparent glass, and also with coloured fresh river sand, or finely pounded iron ore, or black 2n7

glass, has made its appearancein England.

Serious

doubts, however, may be entertained as to its ultimate success. Iron coated with enamel or glass ean never be brought to a successful competition with porcelain either in beauty or price. Blackening of iron easts is either don with bleckead, moistened with ale ol, oF, in many instances, with spivits of turpentine. ‘This is laid on by a brush, and rubbed until the blackening is dry, and assumes a metallic lustre. ‘This is the blackening used for stoves. If the object to be blackened is a little warm, the operation works better and much more quickly. Fine ornamental castings are beated to the blue annealing heat, and then covered with black copal b, and dried at the same degree of heat. ‘The heat takes most of the gloss of the varnish off, The copal varnish is then blackened by an admixture of finely rubbed lamp-black, or printers’ ink, or, still better, by fin ground pure hone-black, Larger

manganese, or a mixture of the whole of these mate-

rials.

An exposure of the hardest cast iron, if pure,

‘enty-four to thirty-six hours to the fire, will render it malleable to a certain degree. ‘When tempered, tho articles are put in a revolving iron barrel 249 together with some sand, to be cleaned and polished, to certain extent, by rubbing one against the other, ‘Uhis malleable iron is particularly qualified for being tinned, or plated with brass or silver. For tho silvering of iron, a process has ‘eon lately recommended which appears to be valuable itis performed by means of galvanisin. The iron article, well cleaned and freed of all oil and grease, is immersed in a solution of silver, and connected with the zine pole of a ga ranie battory;; the copper pole is connected with a platinum plate placed jn the solution at some distanee from the east iron. ‘The silver solution consists of eyanide of silver. Tt is made by putting eyanide of potassium in a well-

H

Bs

eECERE

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 2123 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 ‘TaDLE Un, corked vessel, together with freshly prepared chloride Showing sho tonasitie, ani reestances t» compression, of various of silver; the whole is then eovered with water and apple metals aad alloys, jolently shaken. It is advisable to use an excess of chloride of silver, and if a little remains undissolved, add a few pieces of cyanide of potassium, A little gst Foe sgoal'sh ano | sqpev%'liowe | 29 chloride of silver ought to remain after all the eyanide : $0 vo 900 hoi is saturated. This solution is filtered, to render it perfectly clear, and is then ready for use. Ib is said that a few minute time is suflicient to cover a leitacca Copper’ par, atu] = Hin part | 00,000 large surface of iron with silver. 50 ne TABU F te Viena ju] Weight of a lineal fot of enstirom pipes in pounds. 252, ‘TABLE IV. Speciicgravitia of tals and alloys. Water 1000,

moh co Ser

N.B, ‘The to danges of pipe are considered equal tothe weight of one fat Tenth

aCopp 2a TiSit)

Popular Mechanics 1952

TABLE fons of epliudrcalcouunns of cat jon to sustain a gi Tod with sats

N:P, Tho colusnns ax Hollow, tho area tothe given daeter ft onverted into the ring, or the difeenee of tbo ontar and anor Aiamoters multiplied by 3, Meenuse hollow eat-irou columns ato seomger than sol ones in tht proportion. TRIMMING ENDS OF WORN BRISTLES ingle transforms eld pointbrush lato Sash brosh, By topering brits to Gittng it onnere 9F window sosh fs

ot « 15.deg on excellent chivel edge, no problem

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

Four-Place Swing FOR DESIGNED SAFETY

Giant Home Workshop Manual, 1941

LEHOUGH the unique swing

without thatne swingTt tsl.t alone can thi designed. 30 effort. Glue there aad d climinate s i sway side tikely Angers t areconsider wanderingan , importan whore always siaeeenceeched

gers in the swing may stt facing either way. ‘Make the framework of sound material approximately the sizes specified, ‘The bottoms of the posts which go into the ground should be treated with asphallum paint or creosote to forestall decay. Vor the hangers that support the swing, select vertical grain pine or other strong, straight-graied, knot-free material. ‘The ends are retnforced with strap on to prevent splitting, and short sections of brass tube are set in the bolt hules to provide durable and noiseless bearings. One of the reasons most outdoor equipment loses its popularity is, indeed, the noise and looseness of neglected bearings. However, even if oiling negleeted, the brass bearings of this swing ‘ll give litle annoyance. agree Ao scat ‘he eross members supporting the seat plank are rounded at the ends so The general method that there will be no crevices to of orsombly > 2 2 ee Glov 7 Sore ea Gresaiof7ns Para dise = 7 s 7 Aimb Muskergria = Sad osase ie y noe oe Infuse these for tweniy-four hours, then put a pound of sugar to a quast of red wine or cider, and drop three or four drops of the infusion into it, and it will make it taste richly.” This compound was usually given at marriage festivals, when it was introduced at the commence ment of the banquet, served hot; for it is said to be of so comforting and generous a nature that the stomach would be at’ once put into good temper to enjoy. the meats provided, Hypocras was also a favorite winter beverage, and me find in an old almanac of +699 the “Sack, Hypoeras, now, and burnt brandy ‘Are drinks as warn and good a can be.”

SALOON-KEEPING It is rarely that a saloon-keeper succeeds who is in different to the quality of the whiskey sold to customers, No article sold in a saloon is subjected to s0 much criti cism as the whiskey. If the qualiyy is good the custo: mer is sure to be pleased, and 4 continual patronage is bound to follow. A young. unripe whiskey, no matter what make or brand, is alv ays ruinous to. the business of a saloon, Failures ase nearly always due to grasp. ing fortoe much profit on the whiskey served over the bar at ten of twelve and one-half cents a drink, and on which three to six hundred percent profit is wanted,

With cach succeeding purchase goods are bought cheaper by the thoughtless saloon keeper, and with each cheapness the grade deteriorates, patronage grows less and fess, and it ends with Mr, Saloon-keeper going out of business a failure, Bourbon whiskey is ripe between the ages of eight and ten years and continues to improve until much older, Rye whiskey pens between six and eight years: its taste and flavor is most perfect at these ages; further age is of no benefit to rye whiskey.

CUPS AND THEIR CUSTOMS Let your utensils be clean, and your ingredients of first-rate quality, and, unless you have someone very trustworthy and reliable, take the matter in hand your: self; for nothiog is so annoying to the host, oF #0 ut palatable to the guests, as a badly compounded cup. In order that the magnitude of this important businest may be fully understood and properly estimated, we will tansfer some of the excellent aphoristic reratkeof the illustrious Billy Dawson (though we have not the least idea who he was), whose illustisity consisted in being the only man who could brew punch, ‘This is his testimony: “The man who sees, does, or thinks of anything while he is making Punch, may as well look for the Northwest Passage on Mutton Hill, A man ‘can never make good Punch unless he is satisfied, nay, positive, that no man breathing can make better. Tean and do make good Punch, because I do nothingselse; and this is my way of doing it, I retire to a solitary

corner, with my ingredients ready sorted they are as follows, and I mix them in the order they are here written: Sugar, twelve tolerable Jumps; hot water, one pint; lemons, two, the juice and peel; old Jamaica rum, toro gills; brandy, one gill; porter or stout, half a gill arrack, a slight dash, I allow myself five minutes to make @ bowl ca the foregoing proportions, carefully stirring the mixture as I furnish the ingredients until it actually foams; and then, Kangaroos! how beautiful it isl”. If, however, for ‘convenience, you place the matter in the hands of your domestic, 1 would advise you to caution her on the importance of the office, and this could not be better effected than by using the words of the witty Dr. Kin 0 Pengy, Peggy, when thon go'st to brew, Consider well what you're about to do Be very wlse—very sedately think ‘That what you're going to make is—drink;

THE SURVIVOR Vol 5 lot guatity prevail over guantity, and try to hit a happy medium between the cup of Nestor, which waa so large that a young man could not eatzy it, and the country halfpint of our own day, which we have heard of as Deing so small that a string has to be tied to it to prevent it slipping down with the cider. In order to appreciate the delicacy of a well compounded cup, we would venture to suggest this laconic rule, “When you drink—think.” Many a good bottle thas passed the first round, in the midst of conversation, without its merits being discovered. For Claret Cup tee page 8.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5 Consider who inst drink that drink, and thea What "ts to have the praise of honest mens ‘Then future ages shall of Peggy tell, ‘The nymph who spiced the brewages so well” Respecting the size of the eup no xed rule can be laid down, because it must mainly depend upon the number who have to partake of it; and he it remem. ered that, as cups are not intended) to be qualfed ad Jibitum, as did Bicias, of whom Cornelius A— says— To Hcios shee Ht gave, and maya “Drink of this cupof myne He quickly quate i, and tlt not Of licoore any aygine!

az

RECIPE FOR A PLASK ‘As to the best compound for a hunting-lask it will seldom be found that any two men perfectly agrees yet, asa tule, the man who carries the largest, and is most liberal with it to his friends, will be generally esteemed the best concocter. Some there are who prefer to all ‘others a flask of gin into which a dozen cloves have been ingerted, while others, younge in age and more fantas tic in taste, swear by equal parts of gin and noyeau, or of sherry and maraschino, For our own part we must admit a strong predilection for a pull at a flask contain ing a wellmmade cold punch or a dry curacoa, ‘Then again, if we take the opinion of our huntsman, who (ot course) is a yfiy fellow, and onght to be up in such matters, he recommends piece of dry ginger always kept in the waisteoat pocket, and does not cate a fig for

HUNTING

anything else. So much for difference of taste; butas swe have promised a recipe, the one we venture to insert is specially dedicated to the lovers of usquebaugh, or the crathur.”” It was a favorite of no less a man than Robert Burns, and one we believe not generally known wwe therefore hope it will find favor with our readers, a3 1 wind-up to our brewings.

“Yo a quart of whiskey add the rinds of two lemons, an ounce of biuised ginger, and a pound of ripe white currants stripped from their stalks. Put these ingredia few cents into covered vessel and let them stand for powof pound days, then strain carefully, and add one dered loaf sugar, ‘This may be bottled two days after the sugar bas been added.

THE MODEL BARTENDER He should be a man of good character, straight nd temper, cheerful, obligin personal hy pits, wide-awake, quick, graceful, attentive, sympathetic yet too smatt to be “worked, neither grum nor too talkative,of neat appearance and well dressed He should study the tastes of the patrons. For stance, in mixing a cocktail most clerks make the mistake of putting in tou much bitters, in whieh case the drink is spoiled, of rathe;, is unpalatable to the customer Most men like but very little bitters, You should, in order to become proficient and popu

Jr, study al the points in the mixing of all drinks. ‘Phere can be tov much syrup or sugar, lemon juice same way as too used, in the or other ingredient much bitters in acocktail. This isa profession that every anan can not master, ‘There are men who would not make a first-class bar-clerk in a lifetime. A clerk should not encourage " hangerson,” louigers, of men ander the influence of drink. In fact, he should never sell or give to a man in his eups, for this feature casts the greatest odium on our business, which could be made as legitimate as any if in the hands of proper persons.

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

2326

THE

JRVIVOR Vol

PREPARATION FOR CUSTOMERS

‘The firstthing to be done in the morning upon opening a saloon is to luok after ventilation. ‘There § generally a very odious smell about a place that has been tightly closed during Use might,and itis as unwholesos is disagreeable It should be gotte tid of asnsoon as possible. See that you have enough fine ice prepared to serve your morning cus: tomers with drinks, and if the juan om watel the hight before has failed to BIL his, bottles, you must perform this duty at once, and place the on ice so fat your customers may not have to use warn liquors. You must keep Gling thent up all day to

supply the drain on them, atid to avoid serving warm Liquors. Polish ap your lasses between drinks, and always be ready for customers. See to it that the vee is neat and tidy; the window panes, showeases anu nickelplating clear as crystal, and bright as new minted coins: the Tinen towels white as snow; the Juuch fresh and inviting, A progressive clerk, and. the proprietertoo, for that matter, will sit other plnees to see what laudable innovations re being rade, what new inducements are bei 1g offered, vke your own domains correspondingly or surpa ingly a ractive, and give the boys a right royal welcome.

DONT'S FOR YOUNG BARTENDERS Don't bring yourself into prominence before a crowd at the bar. Be polite and approachable, but Tet them advance to you. Don't join in any conversation, but if it is general you may seem interested. Don't volunteer any opinions unless your patrons express a desire, or at least a willingnessto hear you, Don't express your sentiments at all if at variance very important interests are with the majority,unless at stake. Dot't be too positive about things, You may be

Don't fook fiercely at people, or talk loud and harshly, but cultivate a smiling countenance and quiet, but firm tone of speech Don’t occupy too much space, but give your col leagues behind the bar a chanee. Don’t fail to put things in their placesos, that you and your coworkers will know where they are when you want them,

Don't fail to get pay for all drink Don't be in too great a hurry to find out what a , party of gentlemen want as they approach the bar, Don't Tet then feel that you begrudge the space they occupy while they tall.” Sometimes placing glasses of water before them will break the ice on the sub-

ject Don't use a wet glass if there isa dry one to be had.

Don't forget to serve your effervescent drinks last in waiting on a party. Don't overcharge, and don't make short change ; be exact and honest as a banker.

Don't use profane language, and do not talk your customersto death, Don't drink. your own liquor is bad policy

and is liable to make you “how come you so?" Don't fail to mind your own bu ss, and go to bed sober, More liguors in volume 6

THE SURVIVOR Vol

THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5

INDEX. Aconite, physiological Acupuncture, electro, Mibuniny preserving, ‘Muminum bronze:

action. 1917

tion in water.. + gating. Any nitrate... Anasthetics, nervous system. Anenoweter, electric. Life and plants 1 destroy. Astronomical instrument. Pacteria, differ from fungi Ballons, explosive, Rar Drinks And Fooze. Battery, thermo. Vatkery, thermoelectric. . 1» Hontevidean. PeLtadonna Bird houses, concrete... Diood and Life: lood corps les, size. oat, paper, mancsize. Boat, skier Roller, stall: brain a galvanic batt bread-naking with sea bread, preserved. read, wholevheat. heonze, tialteable. ipso s1893 brushes, tr burgtar alarm, radio. samp equipments e.

candied fruits. 2242 Candies, dyes for. 1468 Canning’ vegetables. 2199 carbolic acid, disolving..... +1883 Carbolic acid, reuoving odor. -1969 163 : toe nineature Figures.....2003 Casts, gypsum. . 2263 catsup. £12228 Catsups. 2231 Center Finder. fee 2007 Cereal recipes....+.4. 2187 Corulein, coloring matter....+1898 Chemical analysis. 1923, Chemical apparatus, 1920 Chemistry, simple apparatus. +1926 chickens: 2132 chloral. 12258 Cholera and carbolic acid.....2261 Cholera, workers in copper... «2264 chutney T2209 Clamps, #o0d. T1e65 Cold remedy. Tipso Coloring matters, “new. tesa Compas, drawing. +eeseeceeeee 1972, Consunption, Guatanala resort. 1808 Cooking box 1982 Cot, child's, oF gas pipes... 1928 Cotton, mineral. iiiea7 Croton chloral, hypnotic. 11898 Crystals, electric phenomena. . 1868 barvinism. 11871 Diatons, cleaning. +1887 EL Adee. see e ess yatvetees 2178 Diseases, infectious. 12181 Drafting table....++. 11893 Dried frui een 12242 bust, inhalation occa!

ying. Barthworms. « Bugs, preserving... Fggs, preserving. Blectric eye, Flectricity direct from coal. .2023 sree 11932 Electroplating. Energy, creating your owns... .217L Engraving, use of slate......-2255 Bther theory..+ssss0++ Bvaporating dish Lifter. Excelsior, how nade... Explosivess+eeseeeee 1925 Extracts. sBieeponneeeaadal brifuge, cucalyptus..++e... 1871 at, air cushion forsscsee.s1917 posts, aligning. 2006 2013, 2262 Fire extinguisher. Firefly Light examined, 2259 Fire making... 2019 Fireplace, building. 2015, Fireproof clothing. First ald... Fish, preserving with sugar Plane, sensitive. Flames, colored, pine cones Flatulency, cure of. FLles, to banish. Forge from xashbowl + Founder's guide. Foundry work. Freezing mixtures: Freezing water. Frutts, storing. Fuel making. Pungi in drinking water. Funhel from condiment, bottle.

THE SURVIVOR Vol Funnel, tenporar Funnel, venting. Furnace, blox-pipe. Game, croquet, marble. Gane, bowLing..« ana, marble. Gane, spelling. Gane’ Lests coordination. Gases, explosive... Generator run by bicycle. Gilding and silvering silt

2160 12018 1869 1919 £41972 1931 1014 1910 1891 1917 1892 2161 Glider, monopta Glider, monoptane, tanden...+-2160 lycerine, characteristics Of.1896 S1YCOYCN. seesseesesseeseeseees/BO4 (Goatasten docs Sieg 2149 ise Livers, enlaraed 259 rease spols, removing 11872 Grindstone, bieyete 1974 Guncotton, expertients...././1915 lair eradicator 1873 2259 fevar.sssee lay seeee liealth In vegies and fruits...2181 2022 Heat from the Farth. Heater for crucibl 1929. 1922 Heating with calorigen hides, preparation of. 1874

itigh Frequency stunts: Worseradishs..seececs0s0 liydrobronate of codeié.....11.1919 Hiygeatfinity.eeeeeee esos Induction apparatars Insulators from tires tron 8123, using. Tron, spongy, as deodorizer Irrigation from the past....1.2034 Jans. vesestesssssesss2243

2328 THE SURVIVOR Vol. 5; Nature's factoriesI872 — gcariet fever, origin. ...++---2261 Nature's jevets...1946 — scienti¢ie anerican Cyclopedia2247 polarized Light-..1957 Seesaw. 22230 problens..---+-++--1940 Seismogeaph. 21885 Rauch. +1960 sextant, 25521983 eggsess, Stik worm howemade:

Microscope, Microscope, Microscope, Microscope hicroscore, Microscope, secrets of life-..1937 Microscope stains and reagentslON9 Sted, child's... Microscope, tissue-thin spec.-1951 snal“pox treatment. 11890 Mites and Knots.» +1968 Snokestacks, dispensing with..1886 Mind in lower aninais.... 1917 Snaits, ralsing.+s.++sseee+ ss 1980 nirrors, concave and convex. Snake bite cure. +1892, 2264 Mirrors, tricks with, Snake Man. +1999 Notion picture machine +2012 Soap cutter: Serie) Hotor, controller 186 Soap, metalic. 11874 Motors, cate of « +2010 Sodium hyposuiphite in washinglaa4 Mrs. Curtis Cookbook....+2+.-2187 — Sonnambulism, cure. ve e1891 Mustards....+.+ peeeeess2251 Spiced fruits....+ss+s 12243 Nail, hanging heavy things on:2174 Sprouts, seed. l276 O11, egg. ++ Squabs..eeee. teeees 214 OLL paint, preparation of...+-2262 Steel, analyzing from sparks. .2018 Opium, new alkaloid from. Stove from tin cans. £2002) ser ores, reduction by ferrous ch.1892 stove, improved. Organ, color. +1877 stoves, poisonous. 12259 +1901 oselitescope, ‘howanade Sugar, ‘maple, how nade. 12022 ostriches, breeding. ee 22166 oven, reflector. +1880 Sunftower tog... £1900, ozone, electric generator. +1899 Surgery, todized cotton in. +1873 pegoks epee 12168 Sume sibstitute. 12259 pantoucenh12106 Surveying. 11987 11885 Surveyor's transit: teesveress]996I parelent. paper. 21876 Survival shelter. Pon, electr: £2169 Photo-electric coils +1981 Survivalist, What Is A. S915 Photographing children. +1904 Survives low Not Tossesee. 11865 Photogeaphing on wood... -+.+.-1084 Survive, Plan And Smead

Dekloaes sco icere+ 2080/9037 2087" Pickles, pletures, green copyingGolor-inss++.-l9L7 by collodion1670 Jellies ee eee ee ser+++2142 Telly making..c.cscsscuccossss2197 Pigs, inmnity to snakebite...1916 evel Roxeesscccecsscsesesss 2026 Pigs in partitions......-..+-+193L UU ie90 pile driver... SOP Kiln, ve cary howenade. 2165 nickle 1892 tot pies 1976 Plating, Plating with nickle and cobaitl805

1l1932 : Fv ab, hone, things to wake in:1929 2018 : Famp, gas. 2164 mae...from....:2171 tathe, how boprofiting Yathework, 1879 Leather from fish skins. 1879 Testis: lacing cicter +++2027 from..+++.++++ energy Jens, Nahogany, imitation 1985 2235 Narmalades. «s+s+++2255 preparing. Neat: Nental illnes, arsenic in...+.2258 1907 Mercurial vapor. 1881) Netachioral....« 1884 poisons. ammonium Hethy1 Netioric sand, analysis of. Microscope, 100 power........1935 Microscope as shop tool....++1965; ...-1969 Microscope, art designing. 1952 bacteria. Microscope, 11943 Microscope, crystals Mlcrescote,, double eyepiece...1956 Nicroscope for a dollar-+..++.1933 11954 icrescope, insects: "1972 : hferoscope Lamp 1971 Mcroscope, Hght for.

plots, drawing, enlarging..--+1997 potassium bichrowate substituti903. potassium bronide.........++..2264 potassium bromide, action of--1851 powers Lose of sestsI881 preservation of Eruits and vey2190_ 2250 preservation of grai veg-.2201 and meat of preservation preservation with copper 01162257 2233 Preserves Quartz crystals, snokiness in.1886 2125 pabbites-+++ ID 2i66Rake handie grip.LINzies Rats, to poison 1866 Reaucing avent, ne: Is24 agents, kit for Reagents, storage tacks...+.+1948 1103 Resources, native. [1083 Rinderpest, remedy 2009 Riyiting. TIIIT1867 Rusting of iron. Sand pail fron paint can....++2246 2182 Sanitation. 3332) 2249 Sauces. 2212 Sauerkraut. 2206 Sausage making.

atta’ tat ieee Seka syrupgesesesee work, for eee invalide...li6n T2242 ‘Tapies test tube rack. he7s tinned iron, using scraps.....1916 tinning proces cere armenia Toes eens optical.. eee 2165 qoyTop, clown eco cc cee ete ee

toy Toop-The-Loop. Toy Sopwith Camel ...sssseee 1975 ‘Trap for small animais......-.2007 Tree, measuring height of.....2174 ‘Tunnel, Subeo-eeeeree eee seess1891 Victory Barnyardee scene. 200022125 Vinegar..eeeseeereceese e221, 2253 Vision, duration of-.-..++++++1932 Warnings Fron the Fast. ...+++-1609 Water as power source.........1882 Water, hard and soft....1896, 2264 Water’ power from streans......1977 Waterproofing fabric....2257, 2264 .+ +1867 Waterproofing wats... Water purification. .......++..2264 Windows, doubte, substitute. ..1916 e + 19LB Wind vane....ssesseeeeses Wire bending jigss....t..2 Mire on spool, measuring. Wood burning toole.+eeess Wood pulp for paper..+..+ Woods, dark, imitating... : Work benches. Work shop, 1aying Gut a... Yeast and hop flovers.....+..-2264 Zine, chenical magic with... +1922