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English Pages [562] Year 1989
Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru
edited by
Don S. Rice, Charles Stanish and Phillip R. Scarr
Part i
BAR International Series 545(i) 1989
B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR S545 (I), 1989: 'E cology, Settlement and History ln the Osmore Drainage, Peru' Part I
© The Individual Authors, 1989
The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407387239 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407387246 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860546924 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407348407 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546924 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
CONTENTS Part i
1. The Osmore Drainage, Peru: An Introduction to the Work of Programa Contisuyu Charles Stanish and Don S. Rice 2. Programa Contisuyu Fernando Cabieses
15
3. Osmore Drainage, Peru: The Ecological Setting Don S. Rice
17
4. Early Maritime Adaptations in the Andes: Preliminary Studies at the Ring Site, Peru Daniel H. Sandweiss, James B. Richardson III, Eliz.abeth J. Reitz, Jeffrey T. Hsu, and Robert A. Feldman
35
5. Archaic Period Research in the Lower Osmore Region Karen Wise
85
1
6. Archaic Period "Complementarity" in the Osmore Drainage Mark S. Aldenderfer
101
7. Archaic Period Settlement Patterns in the High Sierra of the Osmore Basin Mark S. Aldenderfer
129
8. The Domestication of Camelids in Southern Peru: Models and Evidence Lawrence A. Kuznar
167
9. Pre-Incaic Cultural Ecology of the Ilo Region Garth Bawden
183
10. The Early Ceramic Periods of Moquegua Robert A. Feldman
207
11. The Tiwanaku Occupation of Moquegua Paul S. Goldstein
219
12. Cerro Baul: Un Santuario de Filiaci6n Wari en Moquegua Luis Watanabe M.
257
P ar t i
1 3 .
1 4 .
1 5 .
1 6 .
1 7 .
1 8 .
1 9 .
2 0 .
2 1 .
2 2 .
T he C o l lapse o f t he T iwanaku S t a te : A V iew f r om t h e O smo re D ra inage Mar c B ermann , P au l S .G o ld s te in , C har le s S t an i sh , a nd L u i s W a tanabe M .
2 69
T he T um i laca S i te a nd P os t -T iahuanaco O ccupa t iona l S t ra t ig raphy i n t he Moquegua D ra inage G ar th B awd en
2 87
An A r chaeo log ica l E va lua t ion o f a n E thnoh is tor ica l Mode l i n Moquegua C har le s S t an i sh
3 03
P royec to O smo re : I n t roduc t ion t o t he S tudy o f L a te P reh is tor ic V er t ica l C onnec t ions G e o f f r ey W . C onr ad a nd D on S .R i c e
3 2 1
Mo r tuary S i te E xcava t ions a nd S ke le ta l B io logy i n t he O smo re P ro je c t S l oan A . W i l l iam s , J ane E . B u ik s tr a , N ik i R . C l ark , Mar ia C e c e l i a L oz ad a C e rna , a nd E lva T or r e s P ino
3 29
A spec t s o f Mo r tuary D i f fe ren t ia t ion a t t h e S i te o f E s tuqu if ia , S ou thern P eru P e te r T . B ürg i , S l oan A . W i l l iam s , J ane E .B u ik s tr a , N ik i R . C lark , Mar ia C e c e l i a L oz ada C e rna , a nd E lva T or r e s P ino
3 47
Ana lys is o f E xposed A rch i tec ture a t S an An ton io : F ounda t ion f o r a n E xcava t ion S t ra tegy C hr i s tophe r L . B or s t e l , G e o f f r ey W . C on r ad , a nd K e i th P . J a cob i
3 7 1
Househo ld Un i t P a t tern ing a t S an An ton io G e of f rey W . C onr ad a nd A nn D . W eb s t e r
3 95
Dua l S ys tems o f I nka Agr icu l tura l P roduc t ion : E v idence f r om t he O smo re D ra inage , S ou the r n P e ru J ame s E . Ma thew s
4 15
Ag r icu ltura l Dynam ics i n t h e Andes C hr i s tophe r 0 . C lemen t a nd M i chae l E . Mo se l ey
4 35
2 3 .
2 4 .
A Ma thema t ica l Mode l o f t he Dyna m ics o f Hydrau l ic S oc ie t ies i n Anc ien t P eru C ha r l e s R . O r t lo f f
4 57
A rchaeo log ica l S urvey o f t he Moquegua B odegas P rud en c e M . R i c e a nd D onna L . R uh l
B ib l iog raphy
4 79 5 03
The Os more D ra inage , P eru : An I n troduc t ion t o t he Work o f P rograma C on t isuyu Char les S tan ish D ep ar tm en t o fA n thr opo logy F i e ld Mu seum o fN a tur a l H i s t o ry
Don S . R ice D ep ar tm en t o fA n thr opo l ogy U n iv e r s i ty o fV i rg in i a
L o ca ted a t 1 7 ° s ou th l a t i tude , t h e O smo re d ra inage i so ne o f t h e s ou the rnmo s t v a l leys a l ong t he P ac i f ic w a te r shed o f t h e P e ruv ian c oas t ( F igu re 1 ) . T he d ra inage i s o f ten k nown a s t he Moquegua , a s a re t h e n ame s o f t he D epa r tmen t i n wh ich i ts i t s a nd t he m a jo r c i ty i n t h e r eg ion . O ccas iona l ly i t i s a l so r e fe r red t o a s t h e I l o V a l ley . T he d ra inage s ys tem h as l o ng b een o c cup ied b y h uman p opu la t ions , f r om a t l e as t u ppe r A r cha ic t h rough modern t imes . U n t i l t h is d ecade , h oweve r , l i t t le s y s tema t ic a r chaeo log ica l o r h i s to r ica l r e sea rch h ad t aken p l ace i n t h e r eg ion , a nd l i t t le w as k nown o f t h e c u ltura l h i s tory o f t h e b as in . I tw as i n 1 98 1 a nd 1 982 t ha t M ichae l Mose ley , t h en a C ura tor a t t h e F i e ld Museum o f N a tura l H is to ry , f i r s t t r ave led t o t he D epa r tmen t o f Moquegua f o r t he p u rpose o f a s ses s ing t he p o ten t ia l f o r l ong te rm r e sear ch i n t h e z one . T he i nv i ta t ion f o r t he v i s i t h ad c o me f r om a g roup o f c i t izens i n P e ru who w e re c once rned a bou t t he c u l tura l p a t r imony o f t h e Moquegua a rea . T he p r inc ip le p a r t ic ipan t s -I ng . V ic to r B a rua , t hen D i re c to r o f S ou the rn 's C ua jone C oppe r M ine ; D r . F e rnando C ab ie se s , D i re c to r o f t he Museo P e ruano d e C ienc ia s d e l aS a lud ; a nd M r . R ober t P r i tzke r o f t he Ma rmom G roup , m a jo r s hareho lde rs i n t h e S ou the rn P e ru C oppe r C orpo ra t ion - w e re i n teres ted i n d eve lop ing a s c ien t i f ic p rog ram t o s t udy , p re se rve , a nd p romo te t he r eg ion 's s o c ia l a nd 1
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OS MORE DRA INAGE - Chapter 1
F igu re 1 . T he S outh C en tra l Andes . 2
C.ST AN I SH A ND D . RI C E ; OS MOR E DR A IN AG E , PE R U : AN I N T RODUC T ION
n a tura l r esources . T he g ene s is o f " P rog rama C on t isuyu " , n amed f o r t he s ou thwe s tern c oas ta l q uar te r o f T awan t insuyu , t he I nka " Land o f F our Qua r ter s " , b egan w i th c o l labo rat ions b e tween Mose ley , t he S ou thern P eru C oppe r C o rpo ra t ion , t he Museo P e ruano d e C ienc ias d e l a S a lud , a nd t h e I n s t i tu to N ac iona l d e C u l tu ra d e l P e ru . T he P rog rama was o f f ic ia l ly i n augura ted i n May o f 1 982 . P rog ra ma C on t isuyu i sn o t i t se l f au n i f ied r e sea rch p ro jec t . R a the r , t he P rog rama i s a n umbre l la o rgan iza t ion t ha t s e rve s t o c oo rd ina te a nd p rov ide s ome l og is t ica l s uppo r t f o r aw ide r ange o f s epara t e , i ndependen t ly f unded r e sea rch p ro je c t s i n a n th ropo logy , a r chaeo logy , h i s to ry , a nd t h e n atura l s c iences . S i nce i t s i n cep t ion , P rog rama C on t isuyu h as h os ted n ume rous s cho la r ly e ndeavo r s o f v ary ing i n ten s i ty , r ang ing f r om s ho r t te rm r e conna issance t r ips , t o d i s se r ta t ion f i e ld wo rk a nd l a rge mu l t i -yea r r e sea r ch p ro jec t s . T he f i rs t a rchaeo log ica l f i e ld s u rveys b egan i n t he s umme r o f 1 982 a nd i nve s t iga t ions h ave c on t inued t o t h e p resen t . T h is v o lume c ons is t s o f p re l im inary r epo r t s b y s ome o f t he p a r t ic ipan t s i n P rog rama C on t isuyu o n t he r e su l t s o f t he ir r e sear ch e f fo r t s t o d a te . I t d oes n o t , t he re fo re , n e ce s sar i ly f o l low a s i ng le o r u n i f ied r e sear ch t heme . R a the r i t r e f lec t s t h e v ar ied i n te re s t s o f i nd iv idua l p ro je c t s a nd s cho lar s work ing o n an umbe r o f d i s t inc t t heo re t ica l p rob lems b y w ay o f i nves t iga t ions o f t h e e co logy , h i s to ry , a nd p reh is to ry o f t he Moquegua r eg ion . Many o f t h e c on t r ibu t ions t o t h is v o lume w e re o r ig ina l ly p resen ted i n a n a cadem ic s ympo s ium o rgan ized b y D on R ice f o r t h e 5 1s t A nnua l Mee t ing o f t he S o c ie ty f o r Amer ican A rchaeo logy i n N ew O r lean s i n 1 986 . O the r p ape r s r epo r t r e sear ch c onduc ted s i nce t h a t t ime b y p ro jec t s wo rk ing u nde r t he a eg is o f P rog rama C on t isuyu . I n t he t h ird c hap te r o f t h is v o lume , R ice o u t l ines t he g eog raphy a nd e nv ironmen ta l c ha rac te r is t ics o f t h e O smo re r eg ion , a nd p o in t s o u t t h a t t h e e n t ire d ra inage i so n ly 3 , 480 s quare k i lome t er s i n a r ea ( F igure 2 ) . I ti so ne o f t he s ma l le s t d ra inage s i n a l l o f P eru , i n t e rms o f b o th t o ta l w a te r d i s charge a nd a rea o f a rab le l a nd . T he s ma l l s i ze o f t h e v a l ley s ys tem d oes n o t d im in ish i t s i mpo r tance a s a n a r chaeo log ica l r eg ion i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l A ndean c u l tu re a rea , h oweve r . T he O smo re i so ne o f af ew d ra inage s l o ca ted d i rec t ly s ou thwes t o f a nd a d jacen t t o t h e L ake T i t icaca b as in , t h e d emog raph ic , p o l i t ica l , a nd e conom ic c en te r o f t h e S ou th C en t ra l Andes t h roughou t p reh is to ry . T he mo s t i n fo rma t ive C o lon ia l h i s to r ica l d ocumen t f o r t h e r eg ion , t h e G ar c i D iez d e S an M igue l V is i t a o f 1 567 , d esc r ibe s t he v a l ley a s a z one o f s i gn i f ican t c o lon iza t ion f r om t h e T i t icaca b as in d ur ing t h e L a te Ho r izon , t he p e r iod o f t h e s p read o f t he I nka emp ire . I n t h e l a s t t wo d ecade s , n ume rous s cho lar s h ave a rgued f r om s uch e thnoh is to r ic d a ta t ha t ap at te rn o f c on tac t b e tween t he T i t icaca b as in a nd l owe r P ac i f ic w a te r sheds e x is t ed i n e ar l ie r p reI nka p er iods a s w e l l , ap at tern o f c o lon iza t ion t h a t wou ld c on t r ibu te t o c omp lex e thn ic a nd p o l i t ica l h e t e rogene i ty i n t he O smo re d ra inage i n t h e p reh ispan ic p as t . S po rad ic a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch a nd o ccas iona l h i s to r ica l o bserva t ions b y s cho lar s p r io r t o t h e i n i t ia t ion o f P rog rama C on t isuyu - p ar t icu lar ly t hose s t ud ie s o f P e ruv ians Agus to B e Ian , Humbe r to G he r s i , L u is H e rmoza , L u is K uon C abe l lo , L u is L umb re ras , E loy L ina re s Ma laga , F rank l in P ease , I smae l P in to , R ogger R av ine s , a nd t he No r th Ame r ican a r chaeo log is t G ary V ece l ius c on f irmed t ha t ar i ch a nd d ive rse i nven tory o f p reh ispan ic s e t t lemen t s a nd m a te r ia ls c ha rac ter ize t h e h i s to ry o f t h e r eg ion , a nd t h a t t h is h i s to ry w as m a rked b y c on t inued i n te rac t ions b e tween c oa s t s a nd h igh lands b y w ay o f t he O smo re d ra inage s y s tem . T he c hap te r s o f t h is v o lume e l abo ra te f u r the r t h ese v i ews .
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap ter 1
I n fo rma t ion o n t h e h i s to ry a nd p reh is tory o f t he O smo re d ra inage c ou ld h e re to fo re b e f ound i n a f ew w ide ly s ca t te red a cadem ic p apers , n ewspape r r epo r ts , a nd/or i n a ne cdo ta l s t o r ies b y t he p eop le who d is cove red a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls o n t he ir p rope r ty . C o l le c t ion a nd p reserva t ion o f l o ca l c u l tura l p a t r imony was l im i ted a nd s e rend ip i tous a t b es t ; a sma l l museu m a nd a r ch ive i n t he c i ty o f Moquegua h oused a modes t n umbe r o f a r t i fac ts a nd r e co rds , a nd F ranc is co P acheco i n t he c i ty o f I l o a nd F ranc is F ah lman i n t he c i ty o f Moquegua b o th c o l lec ted a nd c onse rved p reh i span ic c u l tura l o b jec ts t ha t wou ld h ave o the rw ise b een l o s t t o l oo te rs o r d es t royed b y n atura l a gen t s . P rog rama C on t isuyu h as s i nce b ecome t he v eh ic le f o r ac en t ra l iza t ion , s yn thes is , a nd s har ing o f c u l tura l a nd h i s to r ica l d a ta , a nd t h is v o lume i s o ne r esu l t o f t ha t c o rpora te e f fo r t . T o t h is e nd , t h is v o lume p resen t s t he g oa ls , d a ta , a nd p re l im inary c onc lus ions g ene ra ted b y c ons t i tuen t p ro jec t s , i n c lud ing i n fo rma t ion f r om a l l ma jo r g eog raph ic z ones ( F igure 2 ) a nd a l l t ime p er iods o f h uman o ccupa t ion o f t h e O smore d ra inage .
O smore S e t t lemen t :
Ch rono logy
C o lon ia l P er iod ( A .D . 1 534 -1 800 ) T he o f f ic ia l f ound ing o f t he c i ty o f Moquegua ( F igure 3 ) i s r e corded a s h av ing t aken p lace i n 1 541 . P ub l ished o r e as i ly a ccess ib le d ocumen tary s ources f r om t he e ar ly p er iods o f S pan ish s e t t lemen t a re s carce , h oweve r . T he wo rk o f P rudence R ice a nd Donna R uh l ( c hap ter 2 4 ) p rov ides a r chaeo log ica l d a ta o n C o lon ia l p er iod a c t iv i t ies i n t he m idd le d ra inage , f r om t he 1 6 th t o 1 8 th c en tury . T he ir s t udy d ocumen ts t he d eve lopmen t o f a s urp r is ing ly r i ch i ndus t ry o f v i t icu l ture a nd w ine p roduc t ion t ha t was t he p r i mary mo t iva t ion f o r S pan ish s e t t lemen t i n t h e d ra inage , a nd o ne o f t he ma ins tays o f t h e e ar ly C o lon ia l e conomy i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l Andes . L a te Ho r izon ( A .D . 1 476 -1 534 ) Wh i le d o cumen ta t ion f o r t he e ar ly C o lon ia l p er iod i si ndeed s c arce , w r i t ten i n fo rma t ion o n t he p reh ispan ic p e r iods i s v i r tua l ly n on -ex is ten t . T he I nka o ccupat ion o f t he Moquegua r eg ion i s r e fe r red t o d i rec t ly i n a s i ng le 1 7 th c en tury r e ference b y t he c hron ic le r G arc i laso d e l a V ega , i n wh ich h e c l a ims t ha t t h e t e r r i tory w as c onque red i n t he r e ign o f I nka Ma i tas C apac . G arc i laso w ro te t ha t t wo p r inc ipa l t owns were f ounded b y t h e I nka a u tho r i t ies i n t he r eg ion ( 1 961 :93 ) : T he c ap t a in s t h e re fo re s e n t m e s seng e r s t ot h e I n k a t oi n fo rm h im o f t h e i r c onques t a nd t oa s k h im t os e nd v a s sa l s t o f o und t wo n ew c i t ie s ...o ne o f t h e se w as e s t ab l i shed a t t h e f o o t o f t h e m oun ta in o n w h ich t h e I n d ian s h ad b u i l t t h e i r f o r t re s s a nd i tt o ok t h e n ame o fC uchuna ; t h e o t he r w a s c a l led Moquehua . F i v e l e ague s s epa ra ted t h e se t wo c i t ie s w h i ch t o day h ave g i ven t h e i r n ame s t ot h e p rov ince s s u r round ing t h em . I t i s a v i r tua l p la t itude i n Andean s t ud ies t h a t G ar c i laso 's C ommen tar ies c an b e u nre l iab le a nd t h ey mus t t he re fo re b e u sed w i th c au t ion . I ti si n te res t ing , h oweve r , t ha t s urvey a nd e xcava t ion p ro jec ts o f P rogra ma C on t isuyu i nd ica te s o me f o rm o f I nka p resence i n t he d ra inage . T he e x is tence o f a ma jo r I nka a nd C o lon ia l p e r iod s i te , T orata A l ta , h as b een c on f irmed i n t he T ora ta V a l ley t r ibu tary o f t he o f t h e u ppe r d ra inage ( F igure 3 ) . T o ra ta A l ta may w e l l c o r respond t o t h e s i te o f C uchuna ( R ice a nd R uh l , c hap ter 2 4 ; Ma thews , c hap te r 2 1 ) , wh i le t h e s e cond ma jo r I nka s e t t lemen t men t ioned b y G arc i laso , Moquehua , i s p resu mab ly u nde r s o me p o r t ion o f t he modern t own o f Moquegua . 4
C.ST AN I SH A ND D.RI C E ; OS MOR E DR A INAGE , PE R U : AN I N T RODU CT ION
F igu re 2 .G eog raph ic Z ones o f t h e O smo re d ra inage
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ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap ter 1
F igu re 3 .T he Uppe r V a l leys o f t he O smo re d ra inage .
T he Moqueguan h i s to r ian K uon C abe l lo s ugges t s t h a t t he I nka s en t m i t imae , o r c o lon is ts , t o s e t t le t h ese t wo l o ca les f r om C hucu i to , A co ra , a nd I l ave ( 1 98 1 :32 ) . T hese t h ree t owns a re a l l L upaqa c a be ce r a s , o r r eg iona l c ap i to l s , l o ca ted o n t he s ho re s o f L ake T i t icaca . T he L upaqa K ingdom , c en te red o n t he s ou thwes t s ho res o f t he l a ke , w as a p ower fu l p reI nka p o l i ty i n t he T i t icaca b as in . Wh i le K uon C abe l lo p rov ides n o d o cumen ta t ion f o r t h is i n t r igu ing s t a temen t , n ume rous C hucu i to p o lych rome c e ram ics , at ype manu fac tured i n t he L upaqa a rea , h ave b een r e cove red f r om t he s ur face o f t he s i te o f T o ra ta A l ta ( S tan ish , c hap ter * ) . J ames Ma thews ( c hap ter * ) a l so c on f irms I nka c ons t ruc t ion s i n t h e C hu ju lay R iver a rea i n t he u ppe r s i er r a o f t h e O smo re r eg ion , whe re a ma jo r a g r icu l tura l t e r race s ys tem ( t he l a rge s t w i th in t h e e n t ire d ra inage ) w as s i tua ted n ear a n I nka t ambo , n ow c a l led C ama t a ( F igure 3 ) , a nd l o ca ted a l ong a p robab le p reh ispan ic r oad t o t he T i t icaca b as in . T hese d a ta s uppo r t K uon C abe l lo 's s ugges t ion o f d i rec t I nka i n te rven t ion i n t he r eg ion , a nd s e rve t o emphas ize t he e no rmous p o ten t ia l t he O smo re d ra inage h o lds f o r u nder s tand ing t he d eve lopmen t o f t h e I nka S t a te . 6
C.ST AN I SH A ND D . RI C E ; OS MOR E DR A INAGE , PE R U : AN I N T RODUC T ION
Add i t iona l e thnoh is to r ica l i n fo rma t ion t ha t d i rec t ly r e fer s t o t he I nka a nd p reI nka o ccupa t ion o f t he O smo re d ra inage r ema ins s c arce . T he V is i ta o f G ar c i D iez , wh ich was as urvey o f t he L upaqa a rea i n t he e ar ly C o lon ia l p e r iod , makes r e fe rence t o h igh land c on tac ts w i th t he Moquegua r eg ion , i nd ica t ing t h a t t h e L upaqa ma in ta ined e conom ic c o lon ies i n t he Moquegua , a nd n e ighbo r ing S ama a nd L iu ta V a l leys ( Garc i D iez 1 964 ; Mur ra 1 964 , 1 968 ; R o s tworowsk i 1 985 :8 ) . T he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t a l t ip lano k ingdoms a l so c o lon ized t h e P ac i f ic w a te rshed i n p reI nka t imes a s p o l icy o f s t a tec ra f t ( Mur ra 1 964 , 1 968 ) i s a d eba ted i s sue t ha t h as mo t iva ted s eve ra l P rog rama C on t isuyu s ponso red s t ud ies o f L a te I n termed ia te s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s i n t he O smo re d ra inage . L a te I n te rmed ia te P er iod ( A .D . 1 000 -1 476 ) One ma jo r p reI nka s e t t lemen t t ype f o r t he L a te I n te rmed ia te i sk nown a s " Es tuqu ir ia " , n amed a f te r t he t ype s i te o f E s tuqu i t ia ( F igu re 3 ) . F i rs t i den t i f ied a nd r epo r ted b y Mose ley i n 1 983 , E s tuqu i f ia s i tes a re f ound p r imar i ly i n t he u pper v a l leys o f t h e O smo re d ra inage . T hey a re i nvar iab ly l o ca ted o n r e la t ive ly s t eep o r i n access ib le t e r ra in , a nd t h ey a re u sua l ly f o r t i f ied . T he p resence o f p os t -T iwanaku ( t he p e r iod o f T iwanaku o ccupa t ion d a tes r ough ly A .D . 6 00 -1 000 ) c e ram ic s a nd c hu lp a t omb s t y les , a nd C 14 ( Tab le 1 ) d a tes f r om e xcava t ions i n E s tuqu it ia s e t t lemen t s , c on f irm t h a t t h ese s i tes d a te t o t h e L a te I n te rmed ia te p er iod . E s tuqu i t ia s e t t lemen t s h ave b een f u r the r i nves t iga ted b y P royec to O to ra ( 1 983 -1985 ) a nd P royec to O smo re ( 1 985 1988 ) , a nd a n umbe r o f p ape rs i n t h is v o lume f o cus o n v ar ious c harac te r is t ics o f t hese o ccupa t ions . T he a r ch i tec ture o f t he l a rges t o f t h ese s i tes , S an An ton io ( F igure 3 ) , i s d iscussed b y b o th C hr is B o rs te l e t a l . ( c hap ter 1 9 ) a nd G eo f f rey C onrad a nd Ann Webs ter ( c hap ter 2 0 ) . Mo r tuary p a t terns a t t h e t ype s i te o f E s tuqu i t ia a re d ea l t w i th b y P e ter B urg i e t a l . ( c hap ter 1 8 ) , a nd b y S l oan W i l l iams e t a l . ( c hap ter 1 7 ) . G ar th B awden ( c hap te r 1 4 ) w r i tes o n b o th t he M idd le Ho r izon a nd L a te I n te rmed ia te o ccupa t ions a t t he s i te o f T um i laca ( F igure 3 ) , o ne o f t he f ew mu l t ip le c omponen t s i tes i n t h e d ra inage . T he r e su l t s o f P royec to O tora , wh ich s ough t t o i nves t iga te mode ls o f p os t -T iwanaku L upaqan c o lon iza t ion i n t he n o r thern O to ra t r ibu tary o f t he O smo re d ra inage ( F igure 3 ) , a re r epo r ted b y C har les S t an ish ( c hap ter 1 5 ) . A s econd L a te I n te rmed ia te p er iod s e t t lemen t t ype , k nown a s " Ch ir ibaya " , a f te r t he t ype s i te o f C h ir ibaya A l ta ( F igure 5 ) a nd l o ca ted p r imar i ly i n t he m idd le a nd l owe r v a l leys o f t he O smore d ra inage , w as o r ig ina l ly d i scove red i n 1 956 b y Gher s i a nd r epo r ted i n t he R ev is t a d e l Museo Nac iona l o f P e ru . I n te res t ing ly , t h is a r t ic le w as t he f i r s t s c ien t i f ic p ub l ica t ion o n t he a r chaeo logy o f t h e O smore r eg ion . Ghe rs i d esc r ibed C h ir ibaya " cu l ture " i n t he c oas ta l z one a round t he c i ty o f I l o a s a n ew c e ram ic a s semb lage s t y l is t ica l ly r e la ted t o p reced ing T iwanaku c e ram ics ( 1 956 ) . C h i lean a r chaeo log is t s h ave n o ted s im i lar c e ram ics i n t he a rea a round A r ica , C h i le , a c on tempo raneous s t y le k nown a s May tas -Ch ir ibaya . S ubsequen t wo rk i n t h e m idd le a nd l owe r O smo re d ra inage b y P rograma C on t isuyu p ro jec t s a t t he s i tes o f A lgo r roba l ( Ch ir ibaya B a ja ) a nd C h ir ibaya A l ta ( bo th , F igure 5 ) , a nd L a Y ara l ( F igure 4 ) h ave c on f irmed Ghe rs i 's b e l ie f t ha t C h ir ibaya i s c hrono log ica l ly l a ter t han M idd le Ho r izon o ccupat ions ( Conrad a nd R ice , c hap te r 1 6 ; B awden , c hap ter 9 ;G arc ia 1 988 ) , a nd t h a t t he C h ir ibaya p henomenon r ep resen t s ap o s t -T iwanaku a nd p reI nka p o l i ty c en te red o n t he O smore c oas t . R esear ch i n to t h e o r ig in s a nd d ynam ics o f C h ir ibaya i sb e ing c on t inued b y J ane B u iks t ra a nd D av id J e ssup a t C h ir ibaya A l ta a nd B ruce Owens a t L o re to V ie jo . 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43 ,000 : S I6 786 ) we re n o t i n s t ra t ig raph ic s uccess ion . I n o the r c oas ta l r eg ion s , s he l ls wh ich h ave b een s hown s t ra t ig raph ica l ly t o b e o lde r t han t he u pper l im i t s o f c onven t iona l r ad iocarbon d a t ing h ave y i e lded a pparen t C1 4 d a tes i n t he 2 0 ,000 -40 ,000 y ear r ange . C onsequen t ly , s he l l d a tes i n t h is r ange ( s uch a s t hose f r om T rench 9 ) a re mean ing less w i thou t c o r robo ra t ing s t ra t ig raph ic a nd c hronome t r ic e v idence . T he > 43 ,000 B. P.d a te i n ah or izon s t r at ig raph ica l ly y ounge r t h an t he 3 2 ,700 B. P.d a te i n t he T rench 9 s e c t ion v io la tes s t ra t ig raph ic p r inc ip les , a nd d oes n o t c on fo rm t o i ndependen t c hrono me t r ic d at ing b y AAR . Ic onc lude t h a t t h e C1 4 d a tes f r om T rench 9 r epresen t o ld s he l ls ( >40 ,000 y ears ) wh ich h ave s ubsequen t ly b een c on tam ina ted b y " young " c a rbon ( s ee T hom 1 973 f o r ar ev iew o f p rob lem s i n r ad iocarbon a na lys is o f mar ine s he l ls ) . T he d ata d is cussed i n t he p reced ing p arag raphs a l l i nd ica te t ha t t he 2 0 -25 m P ampa d e l P a lo t e r race f r on t ing t h e R ing S i te i sl a s t i n te rg lac ia l i n a ge . T he a verage u p l i f t r a te f o r t h e l a s t 1 25 ,000 y ears i sp robab ly l e ss t han 0 . 1 m/1000 y ears . F ur the rmore , t h e w id th o f t h e t e r race i s t he r e su l t o f a t l e as t t wo , maybe t h ree h igh s t ands o f P le is tocene s ea l e ve l . Iam c onv inced t ha t t hese r e su l t s c on f irm t h e h ypo thes is t ha t t he c oas t h as b een r i s ing s l ow ly i n t he I l o a r ea , a s e l sewhere i n P e ru a nd C h i le . T he s l ow P le is tocene u p l i f t r a tes f o r t h e P e ruv ian a nd C h i lean c oas t s a re c ons is ten t w i th t h e p redom inan t t heor ies o n t h e n on -co l l is iona l n a ture o f t he Andean c onve rgen t m arg in ( J ordan e t a l . 1 983 ) a nd w i th t he g eomo rpho logy o f t he n ear c oas ta l z one . C oas t s w i th h igh u p l i f t r a tes ( > 1 m/1000 y ears ) a re u sua l ly f ound i n c o l l is iona l t e c ton ic e nv ironmen ts wh ich h ave s t ruc tura l e v idence o f c rus ta l c omp ress ion ( e .g . , r eve rse t h rus t f a u l t s ) . T he P e ruv ian c on t inen ta l marg in b ears n o e v idence o f c ompress ion i n t he Q ua ternary . On t he c on t rary , l a rge a nd s ma l l s c a le n o rma l f au l ts a re a bundan t i n g eophys ica l a nd g eo log ica l s urveys o f b o th t h e P e ruv ian a nd C h i lean c oas t l ines ( Ku lm e t a l . 1 98 1 ; S eb r ier e t a l . 1 985 ) . W i thou t g eo log ic e v idence o f c ompress ion , i ti sd i f f icu l t t o p roduce g eo log ic mode ls a l low ing f o r h igh u p l i f t r a tes . T he re i s n o g eomo rph ic e v idence o f u p l if t r a te s f a s te r t han 0 . 1 m/1000 y ears f o r t he I l o r e g ion . I n c on t ras t , a t S an J uan d e Marcona , whe re t h e u p l if t r a tes a re 0 . 5 m/1000 y ea r s , t he mode rn s ea c l i f f i s4 0 m h igh a nd t h e re a re w e l l -deve loped mar ine t e r races a t 4 1 m , 6 5 m , 1 07 m , 1 45 m , 1 65 m , 2 00 m , a nd 3 30 m ( Hsu 1 988 ) . T he re a re o n ly o ne , o r p o s s ib ly t wo mar ine t e r races a bove t h e P ampa d e l P a lo ( a t 5 0 m a nd a t 1 00 m ) , b ut n o e v idence o f h ighe r mar ine t e r races . I f u p l i f t r a tes h ad b een l e ss t han o r e qua l t o 0 . 5 m/1000 y ear s , t here s hou ld b e mo re a nd h ighe r mar ine t e r races s im i lar t o t h e we l l p rese rved s equence a t S an J uan d e Mar cona . T he a g reemen t o f t h e I l o AAR r e su l ts w i th d a ta f r om t he we l l -s tud ied t e rrace s equences i n t h e P aracas -San J uan a nd C h i le c oas t s , t he c ons is tency o f t he s l ow u p l i f t r a te s w i th E SR a nd U ran iu m -ser ies a na lyses , a nd t h e c ons is tency o f t he s l ow u p l i f t r a tes w i th t h e s t ra t ig raphy , g eomo rpho logy , a nd t e c ton ics o f t h e a rea p rov ide s t rong s uppo r t f o r t h e e s t ima ted I l o u p l i f t r a te o f l e ss t h an o r e qua l t o 0 . 1 m/1000 y ears . I n l i gh t o f t h e se d a ta , t h e r ap id u p l i f t h ypo thes is s eems h igh ly u n l ike ly .
5 3
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OS MORE DRA INAGE - Chap ter 4
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D.SA NDW E I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R I T IM E AD A P T AT ION I NT H E AN D E S
V e r teb ra te f auna — E l izabe th J .R e i tz O n t he P e ruv ian c oas t , a b a r ren d ese r t p unc tua ted b y o ccas iona l f e r t i le v a l leys c on t ra s t s w i th o ne o f t h e wo r ld 's r i ches t a nd p o ten t ia l ly mo s t p roduc t ive ma r i t ime e co sy s tems ( I dy l l 1 973 ; R e i tz 1 988b ) . A s n o ted i n t he i n t roduc t ion , a r chaeo log is t s wo rk ing i n t h i s s e t t ing h ave l ong d eba ted t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f t e r re s t r ia l a nd mar ine s ub s is t ence r e sources . Un t i l r e cen t ly , f ew d a ta w e re a va i lab le o n c oas ta l s ubs is tence p r io r t o t h e L a te P rece ram ic P e r iod , a nd d esp i t e t h e h igh p roduc t iv i ty o f t he s ea , i tr ema ined p o s s ib le t ha t t e r re s t r ia l r e sources f o rmed t h e p r imary r e sou rce b ase o f e ar ly c oas ta l c u l tu r e s . Howeve r , e xcava t ion s a t t h e M idd le t o L a te P re ce ram ic s i te o f P a loma o n t he c en t ra l c oas t o f P e ru p roduced a f auna l a s semb lage o f a lmo s t e xc lus ive ly ma r ine i nver t eb ra te a nd v e r teb ra t e t a xa ( Re i tz 1 988a ) . T er res t r ia l a r t iodac ty ls a re p resen t b u t c omp r i se l e ss t h an o ne p e r cen t o f t he s amp le . S im i la r r e su l t s w e re o b ta ined f r om e x cava t ions a t t h e L a te P r ece ram ic s i te o f E l P ara iso , a l so o n t he c en t ra l c oas t ( W ing 1 985 ) . B o th o f t hese s i te s c an b e i n te rp re ted a s l a rge ly s eden t ary , a nd n e i the r h as d ome s t ic p lan t s a s a p r imary r e sou rce b as e . T he d a ta f r om P a loma a nd E l P ara iso p rov ide n o i nd ica t ion t h a t u t i l iza t ion o f t e r res t r ia l f auna p receded u se o f ma r ine f auna . I n t h is c on tex t , t h e a na lys is o f t h e R ing S i t e v e r tebra te f auna i sp ar t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t : t he se d ata s how t h a t b y p e rhap s a s e ar ly a s 1 0 ,000 B .P . , mar ine a n ima ls w e re c on t r i b u t ing t o t he c oas ta l P e ruv ian d ie t t o t he a ppa ren t e xc lus ion ( o r n ea r e xc lus ion ) o f t e r re s t r ia l o ne s . Ma t e r ia ls a nd me thods T he s a mp le o f v e r teb ra te f auna r epo r ted h e re c ons is t s o f t he ma te r ia l r e cove red f r om U n i t C u s ing a 1 /4 " m esh s c r een , a l ong w i th ma te r ia l r e cove red f r om l e ve l C 12 b y f l o t a t ion . T h is s amp le w as s t ud ied u s ing t h e c o mpara t ive s ke le ta l c o l lec t ion o f t he Z ooa r chaeo logy L abo ra tory , F lo r ida S t a te Museum , U n ive r s i ty o f F lo r ida , G a ine sv i l le . S t anda rd z ooar chaeo log ica l me thods w e re u sed i n i den t i f ica t ion . No te s w e re k ep t o f t he t a xa a nd e l emen t s i den t i f ied a nd t h e mod i f ica t ions o b se rved . Ma te r ia ls i den t i f ied w e re a l so w e ighed . B i rd a nd mamma l b one s w e re measured f o l low ing t he g u ide l ine s p rov ided b y D r iesch ( 1 976 ) . F i sh o to l i ths a nd a t lase s w e re a l so measured . M in imum Number o f I nd iv idua ls ( MN I ) w as e s t ima ted f o r e ach s t ra t ig raph ic l e ve l s epara te ly , u s ing s ymme try , a ge , a nd s i ze a s c r i te r ia . T he 1 /4 " a nd f l o ta t ion s amp le s f r om l e ve l C 12 w e re c omb ined b e caus e t he f l o ta t ion s amp le c on ta ined n o n ew s pe c ies . G ener a l ly , MN I w as e s t ima ted f o r t h e l owes t t a xonom ic l e ve l ; h oweve r , e s t ima t ing MN I f o r e ach s t ra t ig raph ic l e ve l me an t t ha t i n s ome c ase s h ighe r t a xonom ic c a tegor ie s w e re a s s igned a n MN I e s t ima te t h an w ou ld n o rma l ly b e t h e c as e . F o r e xamp le , i n l e ve ls C -3b a nd C 14 , t h e f i sh i n t he s amp le we re i den t i f iab le o n ly t o c l as s , s o U ID F i sh h as a n MN I o f t wo . I n o the r c ase s , s uch a s t he H aemu l idae i n l e ve l C -6 a nd t he U ID B i rd i n l e ve l C -9 , t h e u n iden t i f ied s pe c imens c l ear ly r ep resen t d i f fe ren t g ene ra f r om t he o the r s pec ie s i den t i f ied f o r t he h ighe r l eve l t a xon . I ti sh oped t h a t t h ese d i s t inc t ive b one s c an b e i den t i f ied i n t he f u ture . T ab les 4 6 p rov ide a b reakdown o f t h e d a ta b y l e ve ls ; h oweve r , t h e f o l low ing d i s cus s ion i sf o r t he c o l lec t ion a s a who le . T he U n i t Cf auna l a ssemb lage c on t a ins a t o t a l o f 1 3 ,035 i den t i f ied s pe c imen s r epresen t ing a t l e as t 4 36 i nd iv idua ls . T he t o ta l s amp le w e igh s 3 , 864 .69 g ram s , o f wh ich 1 3 11 .95 g ( 3 4% ) a r e u n iden t i f ied b ones . I t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t l e ve ls C -6 , C -7 c , a nd C -8 c on ta in 6 0% o f t h e b one s e xam ined a nd a l l b u t f our o f t h e t a xa i d en t i f ied . A ny d i s cus s ion o f c hange d u r ing t h e h i s to ry o f t he d epo s i t n eeds
5 5
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap ter 4
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5 6
D.SA NDWE I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R I T IM E AD APTAT ION I NT H E AN DE S
t o t a ke t h is c harac te r is t ic i n to a ccoun t . R esu l t s Mamma ls a re r a re i n t h e R ing S i te c o l lec t ion ( s ee T ab les 7 a nd 8 ) . New Wor ld m ice ( Cr ice t idae ) a re t h e o n ly t e r res t r ia l mamma ls i dent i f ied . Mar ine ma mma ls i n c lude s ea o t te r s ( L u tra f e l ina ) a nd s e a ls ( P inn iped ia ) . T h ree s ea o t te rs we re i den t i f ied : t wo a du l t s a nd o ne s ub -adu l t . B o th c r an ia l a nd p os t -c ran ia l s ea l r ema ins w e re r ecovered , r epre s en t ing a du l t , s ub -adu l t , a nd j uven i le i nd iv idua ls . Wh i le o n ly 1 2 p inn iped i nd iv idua ls we re i d ent i f ied , t he amoun t o f mea t p rov ided b y t hese a n i ma ls was p robab ly g rea t . Mos t , i f n o t a l l , o f t he u n iden t i f ied mamma l b one i s p robab ly p inn iped r a ther t han t e r re s t r ia l a n ima ls s uch a s d ee r o r g uanaco . T h is c onc lus ion i ss uppor ted b y t he r e covery o f as i ng le -barb b one h arpoon ( F igure 1 8g ) f r om L eve l J 14 ( =C/L/ M -8 ) ( s ee s ec t ion o n L i th ic a nd B one A r t i fac t s ) . A w ide r ange o f b i rds w as i den t i f ied i n t h e c o l lec t ion . A l l b u t o ne o f t he b i rd t a xa a re c ommon ly a ssoc ia ted w i th c oas ta l o r o cean ic s e t t ings . T he p resence o f a g rebe ( Pod i c ep s m a jor ) s ugges ts t h a t o xbow l akes o r ac oas ta l marsh w e re n ear t he s i te ( Parke r e t a l . 1 982 ) . S hearwa ter s ( P ro ce l lar i idae ) a re m ig ra to ry c oas ta l b i rds . T he d iv ing -pe t ra l ( Pe l e c ano ide s g arno t i ) i s af a i r ly c ommon r e s iden t o f t he P e ruv ian c oas t . P e l icans ( P e le canu s s pp . ) , b oob ies ( Su la s pp . ) , a nd c o rmoran ts ( Pha lacr ocor ax s pp . ) a re a l so c ommon c oas ta l b i rds . T he p e l icans a re a lmos t c er ta in ly t he P e ruv ian p e l ican ( P e l e canu s t h agus ) g iven t he v ery l a rge s i ze o f t he s pec imen s . C ormo ran t s a re t h e s e cond mos t a bundan t v er teb ra te t a xon a t t he R ing S i te a nd we re p robab ly a ma jo r i t em i n t he d ie t . T he p oss ib le c hacha laca ( c f . C rac idae ) i s a n i n te res t ing s pec imen wh ich w i l l r equ ire f u r the r wo rk t o i den t i fy w ith mo re c e r ta in ty . I t may b e O r ta l i s e n j thr op t er a , ab i rd wh ich i sf ound f u r ther n or th i n d ry f o res t a nd a r id s c rub ( Parke r e t a l . 1 982 ) . I f f u r ther wo rk s uppor ts t h is i den t i f ica t ion , i t wou ld r ep resen t ac ons iderab le e x tens ion o f t h e b i rd 's k nown r ange . F ina l ly , t he I nca t e rn ( L ar a s te rna i n ca ) i s ab i rd t yp ica l o f r o cky s ho res ( Koepcke 1 970 ) . Mos t o f t he u n iden t i f ied b one f r om Un i t Ci sp robab ly b i rd . F i shes a re t h e d om inan t g roup i n t he R ing S i te c o l lec t ion . Wh i le 2 0 s pec ies were i den t i f ied , t wo d rums ( S c i a ena d e l i c io sa a nd S . g i lbe r t i ) a re t he mos t a bundan t i n t he c o l lec t ion . T he d ru ms w e re i den t i f ied p r imar i ly f r om o to l i ths . O f 1 90 S . d e l i c io sa f r ag men t s , 1 6 1 a re o to l i ths . E igh ty -n ine o f t hese b ones a re f r om l e ve l C -6 a nd 2 2 a re f r om l eve l C -8 . O f 8 3 S .g i lbe r t i f r agmen t s , 7 1 a re o to l i ths . Twen ty two o f t hese a re f r om l e ve l C -6 a nd 1 8 a re f r om l e ve l C -8 . Wh i le t hese d i s t inc t ive o to l i ths m igh t b e p rom inen t i n t he c o l lec t ion b ecause t hey a re r ead i ly i den t i f ied a nd o the r b ones f r om t he s a me s pec ies a re n o t , t h e p a t tern ing i n t h e s pat ia l d i s t r ibut ion o f d rum o to l i ths s ugges ts a no ther p oss ib i l i t y . G iven t he u nusua l a bundance o f as i ng le e l emen t i n s pec i f ic l e ve ls , t he d a ta may i nd ica t e an on -d ie tary u se s uch a s f o r n eck laces o r o the r d eco rat ion . L i te ra ture o n s ou the rn P eruv ian f i sh h ab i ta t s i s r a re ; h oweve r , i n fo rma t ion o n t he d is t r ibu t ion o f f i sh i n t h e w a te r s o f n o r the rn C h i le s ugges t s t ha t mos t o f t h e i den t i f ied f i sh c an o ccur i n t he v i c in i ty o f I l o , a nd t ha t t h e i nhab i tan t s o f t he R ing S i te f i shed n ear s ho re w a ters e x tens ive ly ( Tab le 9 ; C h ir ich igno 1 974 ; Mann 1 950 ; Mo reno a nd C as t i l la n .d . ) . H er r ings ( C lupe idae ) c an b e f ound i n c oas ta l w a te rs n ear t h e s ur face ( Mo reno a nd C as t i l la n .d . : 6 4 -65 ) . S ea c a t f ishes ( Ar i idae ) a r e f ound i n s ha l low , n ear -shore w a ter s , o f ten o ve r muddy b o t toms ( Es chmeye r e t a l . 1 983 : 9 6 ) . G roupe r ( Ep inephe lu s s pp . ) a re n o t r epo r ted f o r e i ther n or the rn C h i le o r s ou the rn P e ru , s o t h is i den t i f ica t ion i s t e n ta t ive . C ab r i l la ( Par a lab r ax h ume r a l i s ) a re f ound i n s ha l low w a te rs o ve r r ocky b o t toms where
5 7
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 4
t hey f e ed o n i nver t eb ra te s a nd s ma l l f i she s ( Mo reno a nd C as t i l la n .d . : 2 9 ) . J a ck s ( C ar a ng id ae ; C ar anx s pp . ) a re f a s t -sw imm ing c arn ivo res a nd c an b e f ound i n s ha l low , n ea r s ho re w a te r s , u sua l ly i n s choo ls . P a loma p ampano ( T r a ch in o tu s p a i t en s i s ) a r e f ound o ve r s ha l low i n sho re s andy a reas ( Es chmeye r e t a l . 1 983 : 2 10 ) a nd j u re ls ( T r a churu s m urphy i ) a re f ound a l ong w i th h e r r ing s i n u ppe r c on t inen ta l w a ter s ( Mo reno a nd C a s t i l la n .d . : 7 1 ) . S argo s ( An i so t r emu s s c apu l a r i s ) a re p robab ly f ound o ve r r o cky o r r o ck -sand b o t tom s i n s ha l low wa te r s whe re t hey e a t i nve r teb ra tes ( Es chmeye r e t a l . 1 983 : 2 17 ) , a l though n o s pe c i f ic men t ion o f t he h ab i t s o f t h is s pec ie s h as b een f ound . T he c ab inza ( I s a c i a c on c ep t i on i s ) i sa n omn ivo rous , s choo l ing membe r o f t h is s ame f am i ly a nd l i ve s i n c oas t a l w a te r s n ear t he s ur face , whe re i ti sf ound v e ry c l o se t o t h e s ho re ( Mo reno a nd C as t i l lo n .d . : 6 8 ) . No s pec i f ic men t ion c ou ld b e f ound o f t h e mo s t c ommon m ember s o f t h e c o l le c t ion , t he d ru m s ( S c iaen idae ) ; h oweve r , e l sewhe re m ember s o f t h is f am i ly a re p ar t o f t he s ha l low , n ear -sho re c o mmun i ty ( E s chmeye r e t a l . 1 983 : 2 18 ) . Wras se s ( Labr idae ) , p robab ly P im e l om e top on m acu l a tu s , a r e f ound i n t h e u ppe r i n ter t ida l z one , g ene ra l ly n ea r r o cky b o t toms whe re t hey e a t i nve r teb ra tes ( Mo reno a nd C as t i l la n .d . : 3 3 ) . Sma l l s choo l s o f p i n tacha s ( Che i lod ac ty lu s c f . v ar i eg a tu s ) a re f ound among v ege ta t ion i n t he u ppe r s ub l i t to ra l z one where t h ey f e ed o n i nve r teb ra te s ( Mo r eno a nd C as t i l la n . d . : 3 0 ) . R o l l izo s ( Mug i lo id e s c h i l en s i s ) a re f ound s i ng ly o r i n s ma l l g roup s f e ed ing o n s ma l l i n ver teb ra te s a nd f i she s n ear t he b o t tom among r o ck s o r s ma l l p a t ches o f s and i n t h e u ppe r s ub l i t to ra l z one ( Mo reno a nd C as t i l la n .d . : 3 5 ) . C l in ids ( C l in idae ) a re s ma l l f i she s wh ich l i ve n ea r o r o n t he b o t tom ( E s chmeye r e t a l . 1 983 : 2 4 1 ) . T he v i e ja ( L abr i somu s p h i l ipp i ) i sa l a rge r c l in id ( Mann 1 950 : 1 6 ) . B e cause t he b one s i d en t i f ied a s c l in ids a r e o f r e la t ive ly l a rge i nd iv idua ls , a nd c ons ide r ing t h e s ma l l s i ze o f mo s t membe r s o f t h is f am i ly , t h e R ing S i te s pec imens p robab ly r ep resen t t he v i e ja . Mo s t o f t he mackere ls ( S comb r idae ) a r e p robab ly e i the r S ard a s pp . o r S c omb e r om e ru s s pp . Membe r s o f t h e S comb r idae f am i ly a r e p e lag ic c arn ivo re s o f ten f ound a s so c ia ted w i th s choo ls o f h e r r ings a nd a n chov ies i n u ppe r c on t inen ta l w a ter s . F lounder s ( P ar a l i ch thy s s pp . ) a r e c arn ivo rous b o t tom f i she s f ound i n s ha l low , n ea r sho re w a te r s a s so c ia t ed w i th p i n t a cha , r o l l i z o , a nd c a br i l l a ( Mo reno a nd C as t i l la n .d . : 4 0 ) . F rom t he d ive rs i ty o f f i shes i den t i f ied , i ti sa pparen t t h a t t h e i nhab i tan t s o f t he R ing S i te u sed a v ar ie ty o f f i sh ing t e chn iques . T he f a c t t h a t mo s t o f t h e f i sh a r e c arn ivo re s wh ich o ccur e i the r s i ng ly o r i n s ma l l s choo ls n ea r s ho re s ugge s t s t ha t u s e o f h ook a nd l i ne w as t h e p r imary f i sh ing t e chn ique . I n f a c t , o ne o f t he t wo c a tego r ie s o f b one i mp lemen t r e cove red f r om t he R ing S i te i s p robab ly t h e b arb o f ac ompound f i shhook ( s ee b e low a nd C onc lus ion s ) . A p r imary d ependence o n h ook a nd l i ne r a the r t han n e t f i sh ing wou ld a l so e xp la in why a nchovy a r e a bsen t a nd o n ly a f ew h e r r ing s h ave b een i den t i f ied i n t h e R ing S i te s amp le . Wh i le t h e u se o f 1 /4 " me sh d ur ing e xcava t ion u ndoub t ed ly a c coun t s i n p ar t f o r t h e l ow n umbe rs o f t h ese f i she s , r e cove ry t e chn ique i s p robab ly n o t t he s o le e xp lana t ion . L a rge q uan t i t ies o f a nchov ie s a nd h e r r ing s h ave b een r e cove red f r om o the r c oas ta l P e ruv ian s i tes s amp led w i th 1 /4 " me sh ( e .g . , S andwe is s i n p ress ) . A t P a loma , s ome g rab s amp le s r e cove red w i thou t t h e u se o f a ny s c reen h ad a s im i la r p e rcen t age o f h er r ing s ( 0 .4% ) t o t h a t i n t h e R ing S i te s amp le , b u t 2 . 5% o f t h e i nd iv idua ls w e re a nchov ies ( Re i tz 1 988a ) . T he e v idence f o r e x tens ive u se o f a nchov ie s i n P a loma , E l P a ra iso (W ing 1 985 ) , a nd o the r , l a te r s i te s may r ep res en t af i sh ing s t ra t egy u ncommon d ur ing e a r l ie r p er iods , p robab ly o ne i nvo lv ing t h e u se o f n e t s . T he p r imary mod i f ica t ion t o t he R ing S i te U n i t C v e r teb ra te b ones w a s b urn ing ( s ee T ab le 1 0 ) . F ive p e rcen t o f t he c o l le c t ion h ad b een b urned , w i th b urned b one s p ar t icu la r ly p rom inen t i n l e ve ls C -8 a nd C -9 . A f ew b one s h ad l i gh t c u t m arks a c ro s s t h e s ur f ace .
5 8
D.SA NDW E I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R I T IM E AD A P T AT ION I NT H E AN D E S
T hree s im i lar ly wo rked b one s w e re f ound i n l e ve ls C -8 a nd C 11 ( s ee s e c t ion o n L i th ic a nd B one A r t i fac t s ) . T he se a r t i fac t s a r e p robab ly p a r t o f c ompound f i shhooks . A no ther i n te re s t ing f e a ture o f t h e R ing S i te c o l lec t ion i s t he l a ck o f a r t iodac ty ls . M ichae l E . Mose ley ( pe r sona l c ommun ica t ion 1 987 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e l om a s n ear t h e s i te may h ave b een q u i te e x tens ive when t he s i te w as o ccup ied ( s ee C onc lus ions ) . B ased o n t he P a loma d a ta , l im i ted u se o f d ee r a nd g uana co f r om t h e l oma s wou ld b e e xpec ted . Un i t C may r epresen t as pe c ia l a c t iv i ty a rea a t t h e R ing S i te ; when a dd i t iona l s amp le s h ave b een s t ud ied , o u r u nde r s tand ing o f s ub s is tence a t t h e s i te w i l l p robab ly b e s omewha t a l te red . I n f a c t , S andwe is s ( pe rsona l c ommun ica t ion 1 988 ) r epo r t s t ha t h e r e cove r ed a v e ry s ma l l n umbe r p o s s ib le t e r res t r ia l mamma l b ones d ur ing t h e e xcava t ions i n 1 987 . I n s p i te o f t h is c av e a t , t he R ing S i te d a ta i nd ica te t h a t mar ine r e sour ce s inc lud ing ma r ine mamma ls , b i rds , v e r teb ra te s , a nd mo l lusk s ( s ee s e c t ion o n i nver teb ra te f auna ) w e re e x tens ive ly u sed o n t h e P eruv ian c oas t f r om q u i te a n e a r ly d a te . T he v ar ie ty o f v er teb ra te t axa r e cove red f r om t h e R ing S i te s how s t ha t t he b ehav io ra l r epe r to ire o f e ar ly P e ruv ian c oas t dwe l ler s i n c luded f i sh ing a nd s he l l f ish ing m e thods a nd a s e t o f s k i l led h un t ing t e chn ique s n e ce s sa ry t o c ap tur e c oas ta l m amma ls a nd b i rds . T he s ubs is tence d a ta f r om P a loma a nd E l P a ra iso b roaden t he s pa t ia l s cope o f t he e a r ly mar i t ime t r ad i t ion wh i le d emons t ra t ing t empo ra l c on t inu i ty t h rough t he L a te P re ce r am ic P e r iod . I n t h e a bs ence o f e v idence t h a t t e r r es t r ia l f auna s uch a s d ee r o r g uan a c o c on t r ibu ted s ub s t an t ia l ly t o t he d ie t d ur ing t h e t ime when t h e f ounda t ion s o f P e ruv ian c i v i l iza t ion w er e b e ing l a id , i ta ppea r s t h a t mar ine r e sources d id s uppo r t s uch d eve lopmen t s . T h is c onc lus ion d oes n o t mean , h oweve r , t h a t m ar ine a n ima ls w e re u sed t o t h e e xc lus ion o f p l an t f oods o r t h a t t h e re w as e ve r at r ade -o f f b e tween w i ld o r d ome s t ic p lan t s a nd a n ima ls . T her e i s amp le e v idence f r om s i te s s uch a s P a loma ( t hough n o t f r om t he R ing S i te ) t h a t a n ima l r e sour ces w e re u sed i n c omb ina t ion w i th b o t an ica l o ne s ( We ir a nd D er ing 1 986 ) . Wha t i so f i n te re s t i s h ow p l an t a nd a n ima l f oods w e re c omb ined i n to a d ie tary c omp lex t o s uppo r t d eve lop ing s oc ia l s y s tem s o n t he P e ruv ian c oas t . Z ooarchaeo logy a l one c anno t d emons t ra te t h e w ay i n wh ich ma r ine a n ima l r e sou r ces we re c omb ined w i th t e r re s t r ia l p l an t s t o s uppo r t c omp lex , s eden t ary l i f e o n t he c o as t o f P eru . No r c an t h e s t udy o f a n ima l b one s a l one d emons t ra te o r r e fu t e s w i t che s f r om mar ine a n ima ls t o c u l t iva ted p l an t s ( i f s uch o ccu r red ) o r t h e a dequacy o f t h e t o t a l d ie t a t a ny g iven t ime a nd p l ace . T h is k ind o f s t udy r equ ires c ompan ion b o tan ica l a nd h uman b io log ica l d a t a . Howeve r , z ooa rchaeo log ica l d a ta f r om P e ru d o d emons t ra te t he e x ten t t o wh ich c oas ta l p opu la t ions u sed ma r ine a n ima l r e sour ce s a t l o ca t ion s s uch a s t he R ing S i t e l ong b e fo re d ome s t ic p l an t s a ppea r i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he R ing S i te a nd r e la ted d a ta c l e ar ly s uppor t t h e t heo ry t h a t t he a n ima l -based p o r t ion o f e ar ly c o as t a l P eruv ian e conom ie s w as ma r ine .
I nve r tebra te f auna - D .H . S andwe is s , R .A . F e ldman T he i nver teb ra te r ema in s f r om t h e R ing S i te c ons is t mo s t ly o f b iva lve a nd g as t ropod mo l lusk v a lves , a l ong w i th c h i ton p l a te s , af ew c rus tacean s pe c imens ( b arnac le s a nd c r ab s ) , s ome l a ndsna i l s ( S cu ta lu s s pp . ) , a nd e ch inode rm ( s ea u rch in ) f r agmen t s . T oge the r w i th t h e v e r teb ra te f a una l e v idence , t h ese r ema in s i nd ica te a ma jo r e mphas is o n mar ine r e sou r ces i n t h e R ing S i t e e conomy , wh i le a l so p rov id ing d a ta o n l o ca l e nv ironmen ta l
5 9
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 4
MNI Taxon
Count
#
Weight
U ID Mammal
4 96
2 13.91
U ID U ID
1 1
0 .06 0 .13
Small Mammal Rodent
Cricetidae
( New World Mice)
P innepedia U ID
( seals,
s ea
8
4
0 .9
7 6
3
1
0 .7 0 .2
0 .62 1 1.92 2 .23
1 24
1 2
2 .8
2 99.12
1
Carnivora ( Carnivore) Lutra fellna ( river o tter) of. P innepedla ( poss. s ea l ion) l ions)
B ird
2 180
U ID Sm. B ird Spheniscus humboldt1
1
0 .2
5 83.45
2 .1
0 .09 3 5.48
3 2 3
9
grebe)
1
1
0 .2
0 .09
Procellariidea ( shearwaters) Pelecanoldes g arnoti
2 2
2
2 0 .5
0 .5 0 .21
1 0
4
0 .9
6 .20
1 63
2 7
6 .2
6 6.34
8 00
7 5
( Humboldt
( Peruvian
( great
( pelican)
( booby)
PhaIacrocorax spp. cf.
Cracidae
Larosterna U ID F ish C lupeidae Ariidae
( cormorant)
1
( chachalaca)
I nca
( Inca
tern)
( herrings)
( sea
Serranidae Cf. of.
c atfishes)
( sea
basses)
Epinephe1us spp. ( grouper) Paralabrax humeralis
( possible
( cabrilla)
Carangidae ( jacks) C aranx spp. ( jack) Trachinotus paltensis
H aemulidae
( jurel)
( grunts)
Anlsotremus scapularis c onceptionls
Sciaenidae cf.
Cynosclon
( sargo)
( cabinza)
( drums)
Bairdiella
1
1
6 87.61 0 .03
2
1
0 .2
0 .39
1 2
6
1 .4
1 .84
7 1 3
5 7
1 .2 1 .6
1 .65 1 .80
2 0
1 0
2 .3
4 .75
3 4 4
1 3
0 .2 0 .7
1 1.37 0 .77
1
1
0 .2
0 .06
7
6
1 .4
0 .99
spp.
1
0 .2
1 .23
7
1 .6
3 .97
1
1
0 .2
0 .20 0 .57
2
0 .5
( sea
trout)
1 5
1 0
2 .3
3 .51
2 0
3
0 .7
3 .17
1 90 8 3
1 01 4 5
2 3.2 1 0.3
4 5.75 4 7.60
1 5
4
0 .9
9 .20
1 41
3 5
8 .0
2 2.67
7 4
6 4
1 .4 0 .9
1 .42 0 .34
1 67
1 6
3 .7
3 1.58 0 .62
( drums)
( wrasses)
C heilodactylus spp.
( pintacha)
Mugiloides c hilensis ( rollizo) cf. Labrisomus philippi ( clinid,
5
1 8
2
deliciosa ( drum) g ilberti ( drum )
0 .35
v ieja)
Scombridae ( mackerels) cf. S arda spp. ( poss. bonito) spp.
5
( bonito)
Scomberomerus spp. Parallchthys s pp.
( caballa) ( lenguado)
Bone
Total
0 .14
0 .5 0 .2
( drum)
Sclaena Sclaena
U ID
0 .2
2
s pp.
spp.
S arda
1 8 402
6
Sciaena
L abridae
4 43.18 0 .04
p ampano)
Trachurus murphyl
Isacla
1 7.2 0 .2
1 1
c abrilla)
Paralabrax humeralis
( paloma
1 .06
d iving petral)
Pelecanus spp. spp.
0 .15
penguin)
Podiceps major
Sula
( g)
1 3035
5
3
0 .7
0 .47
5
3
0 .7
1 .54
1 3
9
2 .1
2 .87
1 311.95
4 36
3 864.69
T ab le 7 . Un it C v e r tebra te f auna , t o ta l b one c oun t , MN I , a nd w e igh t b y t a xon . c ond i t ions a nd a l te ra t ions t h rough t ime . Ma ter ia ls a nd me thods T he q uan t i f ied s amp le r epo r ted h e re c ons is t s o f t h e s he l ls f r om Un i t Ba nd Un i t D . T he Un i t B s amp le was r e cove red w i th a 1 /2 " s c reen ( we c o l lec ted b u t h ave n o t y e t a na lyzed 1 /4 " a nd f i ne s amp les ) . T he Un i t D s amp le w as s c reened w i th 1 /4 " m esh .
6 0
D.SA NDW E I S S , E TA L . ; EA R L Y MA R I T IM E AD A P T AT ION I NT H E AN D E S
Category
MNI
Terrestrial
4
0 .9
Marine Mammals
1 6
3 .7
B irds
1 23
2 8.2
F ishes
2 93
6 7.2
Total
Mammals
% MNI
4 36
T ab le 8 . S ummary o f v e r teb ra te f auna c a tego r ies .
Taxon
B urned
D ID Mammal
3 5
1
P innipedia D ID B ird
1 4 2 66
2 2
P enguin
1
D iving
p etral
f r om Un i t C s amp le , b y ma jo r f auna l
Cut
Worked
1
Pelican Booby
1 6
Cormorant
1 03
I nca
1
tern
D ID F ish Cabrilla
5
1 44 2
S argo
1
Sciaena
deliciosa
Sciaena Rollizo
g ilberti
( drum) ( drum )
1 2 1
Scombridae
3
Bonito
1
Caballa D ID Bone
2 3
Total
5 85
1 0
3
T ab le 9 .B one mod i f ica t ion s i n U n i t Cv e r teb ra te f auna .
We i den t i f ied t he mo l lusks b ased o n p r ev ious wo rk w i th c ompara t ive c o l lec t ions a nd p ub l ica t ions o n P eruv ian mo l lus can t a xonomy ( s ee s our ces l i s ted i n S andwe is s 1 982 : 2 15 ) . V . V a ld iv iezo ( I ns t i tu to d e l Ma r d e l P e rü ) i d en t i f ied p rob lema t ic s pec imen s . F o r e ach l e ve l , w e s epara t ed a nd w e ighed t h e i nver teb ra te r ema ins b y t a xon a nd d e term ined t h e M in imum Numbe r o f I nd iv idua ls ( MN I ) f o r t he ma r ine mo l lusks b y c oun t ing a p ice s o r c o lumns f o r g as t ropods , t a k ing t h e h ighe r c oun t o f l e f t a nd r i gh t v a lve s f o r b iva lve s , a nd d iv id ing t h e n umbe r o f c h i ton p l a tes b y e i gh t .
6 1
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 4
U pper P aralabrax h umeralis T rachinotus paitensis S ciaenidae C hei1odactylus v ariegatus Mugi1oldes c hilensis c f. L abrisomus phillppi P aralichthys m icrops
S ublittoral
C abrilla P aloma p ampano D rum P intacha R ollizo V ieja L enguado d e o jos
Z one
c hicos
U pper C ontinental W aters C lupea
s pp.
T rachurus murphyi I sacia c onceptionis S arda s pp. Scomberomerus s pp.
S ardina J urel C abinza B onito C aballa
T ab le 1 0 . H ab i ta ts o f mar ine f i she s i den t i f ied f r om Un i t C . T he Un i t B 1 /2 " s c reen s a mp le o f mar ine mo l lusk s ( i . e . , e xc lud ing b arnac les , c r abs , l andsna i ls , a nd s ea u rch ins ) c ons is ted o f 2 6 ,630 g r epr esen t ing a m in i mum o f 1 360 i nd iv idua ls ( s ee T ab le 1 ) . T he s he l l w e igh t f o r Un i t B i s a pp rox ima te , b ecause t wo Me sod e sma s a mp les a nd t h ree C ho r omy t i lu s s amp les w e re r emoved f o r r ad io carbon a na lys is b e fo re we igh ing . T hese s he l ls we re c oun ted , s o w e e s t ima ted t he w e igh t o f t he m iss ing s he l l b y mu l t ip ly ing MN I b y t h e a ve rage w e igh t p er i nd iv idua l o f t h e a pp ropr i a t e s pec ies i n t he r e s t o f t h e Un i t Bs amp le . T he Un i t D s amp le 1 /4 " s amp le w e ighed a t o ta l o f 3 3 ,346 g a nd c on ta ined a n MN I o f 2 236 ( s ee T ab le 1 2 ) . Un i t D we igh t s a nd MN I a re e xac t .
B ecause many i den t i f iab le s pec imens p as s t h rough 1 /2 " mesh b u t a re c augh t i n a 1 /4 " s c reen , t he q uan t i ta t ive r e su l t s f r om t h e Un i t B mo l lus can s amp le a r e n e i the r c omparab le t o n o r a s u se fu l a s t h e Un i t D s amp le , s o o u r i n terpre ta t ions r e ly p r imar i ly o n t h e l a t ter ma ter ia l . We f e e l t ha t t h e 1 /4 " s c reen u sed f o r t he Un i t D s a mp le c ap tured a lmos t a l l o f t he i den t i f iab le s pec imens : we p assed t h e r e s idue f r om t he 1 /4 " s c reen t h rough a s e t o f n es ted g eo log ic s c reen s ( 4 .699 mm , 2 . 362 mm , 0 . 99 1 mm ) a nd s aw l i t t le ma te r ia l t ha t c ou ld b e i den t i f ied mo re s pec i f ica l ly t h an " s he l l . " A l though w e c ou ld r e cogn ize C hor omy t i lu s c h oru s f r agmen t s ( by t he ir d i s t inc t ive p urp le c o lo r ) a nd s e a u r ch in s p ines , n e i the r o f t hese c a tego r ie s wou ld a f fec t t h e MN I c oun t s ; u s ing t h e w e igh t s f o r t hese c a tego r ies wou ld h ave b i ased t he t o ta ls d ue t o d i f fe ren t ia l r e cogn i t ion a t t h e < 1/4 " mesh l e ve l . We t a bu la ted t he m is ce l laneous i nver teb ra tes ( b arnac les , c r abs , l a ndsna i ls , a nd s ea u rch ins ) s epara te ly f r om t he mar ine g as t ropods a nd b iva lves ; T ab le 1 3 l i s t s t hese r ema ins f r om t he Un i t Ba nd Un i t D s a mp les . P a leoenv ironmen ta l i mp l ica t ions o f t h e mo l lusk s A l l o f t h e mo l luscan t a xa i den t i f ied f r om t he e xcava t ions a t t h e R ing S i te a re i nd igenous t o t he c o ld w a te rs o f t h e P e ruv ian a nd C h i lean c oas t s , s o o cean ic c ond i t ions t h roughou t t h e o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i te mus t h ave b een s im i lar t o mode rn c ond i t ions . However , t he p resence o f l i gh t -dark b and ing o n Me s od e sma d onac ium v a lves r e cove red f r om T P 1 i n 1 987 s ugge s t s t ha t s easona l c l i ma t ic v ar ia t ion may h ave b een g rea te r i n t he p as t . S t ab le i s o tope a nd g row th i n c remen t a na lys is c an h e lp d e te rm ine whe ther o r n o t t he b and ing r e su l ted f r om c yc l ic c hanges i n amb ien t c ond i t ions ( s ee R o l l ins e t a l . 1 987 ) . 6 2
D.SA NDW E I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A RH IM E AD A P T AT ION I NT H E AN D E S
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T ab le 1 1 . Un i t Bb iva lve a nd g as t ropod mo l lus can f a una , MN I a nd w e igh t i n g rams b y t a xon a nd l e ve l . MN I e s t ima te s a r e i n p a ren theses . A n a s te r isk ( * ) i nd ica te s a n e s t ima ted w e igh t ( s ee t e x t ) . S eve ra l o ther l i nes o f e v idence f r om t h e R ing S i te r e sea rch p o in t t o m ino r d i f ference s i n c l i ma te d ur ing t h e e ar ly Ho lo cene ( s ee C onc lus ions ) . Th e s t ra t ig raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f Sc u ta lu s l a ndsna i ls i n Un i t s Ba nd D ( s ee Ta b le 1 3 ) s ugge s t s s eve ra l e xp lana t ions . L eve ls i n wh ich S cu ta lu s i s a bundan t p robab ly i nd ica te t ime s when t he l omas ( f og -based p l an t c ommun i ty ) e xpanded . T he f a c t t h a t n ear ly a l l o f t he l a ndsna i ls o ccur i n t h e l owe r h a l f o f t h e s t ra t ig r aph ic c o lumn c ou ld r e f lec t a mo re p e rmanen t e xpans ion o f t h e l oma s , p e rhaps a s ar e su l t o f l owe red s ea l e ve l ( l omas a r e a n a l t i tude -dependen t p henomenon ) . T he p resence o f l e ve ls c harac te r ized b y ap ar t icu la r ly h igh a bundance o f S cu ta lu s may r ep resen t h ighe r i n tens i ty e ven t s s uch a s E l N if io . Dur ing t h e 1 982 1983 E l N i f io , l oma s c ommun i t ie s i n t h e s ou the rn P e ruv ian c oas ta l z one 6 3
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap ter 4
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T ab le 1 2 . Un i t D b iva lve a nd g as t ropod mo l luscan f a una , MN I a nd w e igh t i n g rams b y t a xon a nd l e ve l . MN I e s t ima tes a re i n p aren theses . e xpanded t r emendous ly ( pe rsona l o bserva t ion a nd D i l lon 1 985 : 1 0 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f t he mar ine mo l lusk s f r om t he R ing S i te s amp les a r e f r om e i the r r o cky o r s andy h ab i ta ts ( s ee T ab le 1 4 ) . T he s t re t ch o f s ho re l ine c l oses t t o t h e R ing S i te t oday i sp redom inan t ly s andy , w i th o n ly s c a t tered r ock s a nd s ome s t re tche s o f i ndura ted c o qu ina t o p rov ide a s ubs t ra tum f o r r o ck -dwe l l ing mo l lusk s . However , r o cky h ead lands l i e a bou t 8 km t o t h e n o r thwes t a nd 1 6 -17 km t o t h e s ou theas t o f t he s i te . A l tera t ions i n t h e l o ca l l ands cape p rov ide a n a l te rna t ive p oss ib le s ource a rea f o r t h e r o ck -d we l l ing mo l lusks . S ea l e ve l w as s t i l l r i s ing t h roughou t t h e e ar ly o ccupat ion o f t h e R ing S i te ( up t o c a . 5 , 000 B .P . ) a nd t he s ho re l ine w as c ons tan t ly c hang ing ( s ee C onc lus ions a nd R ichardson 1 98 1 ) . B edrock c rops o u t n ear t h e R ing S i te , a nd s he l l m in ing t r enches h ave s hown t h a t b edrock d ips s eaward ( t o t h e s ou thwes t ) u nder t h e P ampa d e l P a lo . S ome r ocks a ppear j u s t a bove s ea l e ve l a t t he modern s ho re l ine , a nd a l owe r s e a l eve l may h ave i n te rsec ted b edrock n ear t h e s i te . I n t h is c ase , s t re t ches o f r ocky s ho re wou ld h ave b een l o ca ted n ear t he R ing S i te d ur ing p ar ts o f t h e e ar ly Ho locene e po ch .
6 4
D.SA NDWE I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R IT IM E AD A PTAT ION I NT H E AN D E S
Unit
B
L evel
B alanus ( wgt)
S eaurchin ( wgt)
Scutal u s ( wgt) ( MNI)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 86 1 0 8 1 2
1 08 4 0 2 3 1 3 5 5 1 7
5
-
8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6
5 7 2 2 5 7 1 3 5 1 2 5 5
1 4 5 5 7 5 5 5 9 5
5 3 6 5 5 9 5 6
f ew m any f ew f ew m any f ew
T otal
5 47
2 71
1 57
L evel
B alanus ( wgt)
S eaurchin ( wgt)
C rab ( wgt)
Scutal u s ( wgt) ( MNI)
1 2 3 a 3 b 4 5
7 7 65 4 0 6 1 5 1 9
3 1 5 9 3 3 55 2 76 9 2
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
6 7 a 7 c 8 9
7 0 9 0 1 51 4 3
2 6 6 1 4 2 1 0 4 7
1
5 8 1 3 1 1
1 2 2 0 2 5 1 9
1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4
1 2 3 1 -
3 9 6 1 1 -
-
3 8 2 0 6 1 1
8 3 3 7 1 0 1 1
1 5
-
-
-
1 3
1 8
T otal
1 186
1 067
5
1 12
2 13
-
f ew
UnitD
T ab le 1 3 . B arnac les ( B a l anu s s pp . ) , c r abs , s ea u rch in s , a nd l a ndsna i ls ( S cu ta lu s s pp . ) f r om Un i t s Ba nd D . We igh t s a re i n g ram s .
6 5
E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap ter 4
R ocky S emimytilus a lgosus P erumytilus purpuratus F issurella s pp. Acmaea s pp. T egula a tra Prisogaster n iger T hais c hocolata C oncholepas c oncholepas Nassarius g ayi C hiton s pp.
a ter
k eyhole l impet l impet s nail s nail l arge s nail f alse a balone s mall s nail c hiton S ubtidal
s lipper s hell l arge s nail
Mulinia edulis Donax obesulus P olinices uber O liva peruviana
c lam s mall s mall o live
S andy
I ntertidal
Z one
s urf c lam s nail s hell
S andy S ubtidal
Z one
p urple mussel c lam c lam w edge c lam c ockle s mall s nail o live s hell B ay
Argopecten purpuratus
Z one
m ussel
C repipatella s pp. T hais c hocolata
C horomytilus c horus Protothaca protothaca Mulinia edulis Mesodesma d onacium T rachycardium procerum P olinices u ber O liva peruviana
z one
s mall m ussel s mall m ussel
R ocky Aulacomya
i ntertidal
F loor
s callop
T ab le 1 4 . H ab i ta t s o f m a r ine mo l lusk s i den t i f ied f r om U n i t Ba nd Un i t D . T he p resence o f D onax o b e su lu s i n s eve ra l l e ve ls i n U n i t D may i nd ica t e E l N i t io e ven t s ( s ee C onc lus ion s ) . I n May o f 1 983 , a t t h e h e igh t o f t h e 1 982 1983 E l N i t io , w e o bse rved D onax i n t he I l o a r ea ; l o ca l i n fo rman t s s a id t h a t t h is s pec ie s h ad a ppea red t ha t y ea r b u t w as n o t n orma l ly f ound i n t h e a r ea . We c on t inued t o f i nd D onax v a lve s i n t h e 1 987 e xcava t ion u n i t s , t hough n eve r i n l a rge q uan t i t ies .
I n t h e U n i t D s amp le a s a who le , r o ck - a nd s and -dwe l le r s a re a lmo s t e qua l ly r ep re sen ted i n t e rms o f MN I , a nd t h e r e la t ive p e r cen tages o f r o ck - a nd s and -d we l l ing mo l lusks s how n o c l ear s t ra t ig raph ic t r end ( Tab le 1 5 ) . I n t h e l e s s r e l iab le U n i t Bs a mp le , r o ck -dwe l le r s c o mp r ise o n ly a bou t 4 0% o f t h e t o ta l , b u t a ga in s how n o s t ra t igraph ic t r end . T hese d a ta d o n o t p rov ide s t rong s uppo r t f o r e i the r p o ten t ia l s our ce o f t he r o ck dwe l l ing mo l lusk s ( d is tan t h ead lands o r n ea re r b ed ro ck e xpo sed b y l ow s e a l eve l ) , e spe c ia l ly c ons ide r ing p os s ib le c u l tura l f i l te r s a f fe c t ing t h e c ompos i t ion o f t he s he l l a s semb lage ( Ro l l ins e ta l . i n p res s ) . P reh is to r ic u se o f t h e R ing S i te mo l lusks T he t r emendous a bundan ce o f mo l lusk s a t t h e R ing S i t e i nd ica te s t ha t t h e i r p r imary u se w as a s f ood . A f ew v a lves w e re c ha r red , s ugges t ing t h a t s ome o f t he s he l l f ish may h ave b een r oas ted i n t he s he l l .
6 6
D.SA NDW E I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R I T IM E AD APT AT ION I NT H E AN D E S
R ock
S and
L evel
1 4 1, 1 I
1 2
2 8 2 16
4 4 6 8
3 5 1 02
5 6 3 2
3 a 3 b
2 9 7 9
7 4 9 0
1 0 9
2 6 1 0
4 5 6 7 a
1 43 7 1 7 5 1 04
5 6 1 7 5 2 5 1
1 12 4 81 6 9 9 9
4 4 8 3 4 8 4 9
7 c 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
1 51 4 0 5 7 6 4 1 0 5 4 3 0
6 1 8 2 9 2 6 7 1 6 5 6 1 00 7 4 0
9 5 9 5 7 2 5 3 4 0 1 1
3 9 1 8 8 5 3 8 4 4 4 0 2 5 1 00
T otal
1 079
4 8
1 157
5 2
T ab le 1 5 . R o ck - v er sus s and -dwe l l ing mo l lusks , U n i t D,MN I , b y l e ve l . P e rcen tages a r e w i th in l e ve l . S ee T ab le 1 4 f o r h ab i ta t s o f R ing S i te mo l lusk s .
A s econdary u se o f ma r ine mo l lusk s he l l w as a s r aw ma ter ia l . I n 1 987 , w e f ound s eve r a l s he l l a r t i fac t s . T he se i n c luded : ab ead f r om T P 1 ( l eve l T -5 ) ; aG ly cym er i s o v a t a v a lve w i th i n c is ions a l ong t h e v en t ra l m a rg in ( Un i t L , l e ve l L 10a ) ; ab roken O l iv a v a lve w i th a s imp le g eome t r ic p a t te rn i n c ised ( p e rhaps n a tura l ly ) o n t he i n te r io r ( Un i t M , l e ve l M -2 ) ; a n O l iva v a lve w i th t h e a pex r emoved t o l e ave a s ma l l h o le a t t he t op ( po s s ib ly f o r u se a s ap endan t ) ( Un i t L , l e ve l L -5 ) ; a nd a t ubu la r p i ece o f wo rked C hor omy t i lu s ( Un i t M , l e ve l M -8b ) s im i lar i n a ppearance t o t h e b one b a rb s f r om c ompound f i shhooks ( s ee F i gure 1 8c a nd s ec t ion o n L i th ic a nd B one A r t i f ac t s ) . We a l so e ncoun te red a n umbe r o f t h e h eav ie r s he l ls ( e spe c ia l ly C hor omy t i lu s , C oncho lepa s , a nd F i s sur e 1 1 a ) w i th h o le s c aus ed b y p e rcuss ion . T hese s he l ls m igh t h ave s e rved a s n e t w e igh t s . A no ther n on -subs is tence u se o f s he l ls a t t he R ing S i te i nvo lve s C hor omy t i lu s c h oru s . I n 1 987 , w e f ound t h r ee a r t icu la ted p a ir s o f C ho r omy t i lu s v a lve s b enea th a r o ck s t a ined w i th r ed p igmen t i n T P 1 ( F igu re 1 0 : F -6 ) . T h is f e a ture h ad b een p l aced a t t he b o t tom o f ap i t d ug t h rough s ever a l s t ra ta f r om l e ve l T 10 . T he r ad io carbon d a te o f 7 , 4 15 + 6 5 B .P . f o r l e ve l T 16 i nd ica tes t ha t t h e C hor omy t i lu s f e a tu re w as emp laced s ome t ime a f te r t ha t d a te ; b e cause t he t op l e ve l o f T P 1 c o r re la te s w i th l e ve l J 10 i n U n i t J ,t h e C hor omy t i lu s b u r ia l w as d epos i ted w e l l b e fo re t h e 5 , 060 + 6 5 B .P . d a te f r om l e ve l J 8 . We a l so f ound a p i ece o f u nwo rked C hor omy t i lu s s he l l w i th a t r ace o f r ed p igmen t i n Un i t L , l e ve l L -8 . C ho r omy t i lu s h as a l ong h i s to ry o f n on sub s is tence , p robab ly r i tua l u se i n t he A nde s ; t he c o as t a l v e rs ion o f t h is t r ad i t ion c ons is ten t ly l i nks t h is s pec ie s w i th r ed p igmen t ( S andwe iss 1 982 : 2 22 -224 , 1 985 ) . F i na l ly , c o qu ina , w a t er -wo rn s he l l f r agmen t s a nd s and f r om t h e P ampa d e l P a lo w e re d epo s i ted i n l e ve l J 2 , p o s s ib ly a s a n a r t i f ic ia l f i l l t o e n large t h e s he l l r i ng ( s ee I n t ro d uc t ion ) .
6 7
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 4
L i th ic a nd b one a r t i fa c t s J .B . R i chardson I L i th ics c omp r ise t h e v as t m a jo r i ty o f i n ten t iona l ly mod i f ied o b jec ts r e cove red f r om e xcava t ion c on tex t s a t t he R ing S i te . T he o n ly o the r a r t i fac t s a r e s even e xamp les o f a b one t oo l t ype wh ich i s p robab ly t he b a rb o f ac ompound f i shhook ( s ee F i gure 1 8 a , b ,d ,e , f a nd C onc lus ion s ) , o ne b one h a rpoon ( s ee F igu re 1 8g ) , a nd a l im i ted n umbe r o f mod i f ied s he l ls ( s ee s e c t ion o n I nver teb ra te F auna ) . H e re , Ir epor t o n t he l i t h ic s a mp le f r om Un i t Ca nd t he b one a r t i f ac t s f r om a l l e xcava t ion u n i t s . T he l i th ic a ssemb lage f r om U n i t Cc ons is t s o f 1 24 s pe c imens f a l l ing i n to t h e f o l low ing c a tego r ies : was te f l ake s , u t i l ized f l ake s ( F igure s 1 2a , 1 2c , 1 3a , 1 3e , 1 4a , 1 5a c , 1 5e , 1 6a -e , 1 7a -d ) , u n i fac ia l t oo ls ( F igure s 1 2a -b , 1 2d , 1 3b -d , 1 4 -bc , 1 5d -e , 16 f -g ) , a nd c obb le c o r tex e nds ( F igures 1a c ) . One h amme r s t one a nd t wo r ound p ieces o f g a lena w e re a l so f ound i n l e ve l C -8 . T he f l ake s a r e ma in ly o f s i l iceous m a te r ia ls , wh i le t he c obb le c o r tex a nd u n i fac ia l t oo ls r ep resen t av ar ie ty o f l i th ic ma te r ia ls . T ab le 1 6 s hows t he s t ra t ig raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f l i th ics i n Un i t C . One h undred s even o f t he t o ta l o f 1 24 l i t h ics a re i n l e ve ls C -8 t h rough C 13 , wh ich a re a l so t h e l e ve ls ( a long w i th l e ve l C -6 ) c on t a in ing t h e g rea tes t amoun t o f n on -mo l lus can f auna l r ema ins ( s ee s e c t ion o n v er teb ra te f a una ) . T he u t i l ized f l ake s e xh ib i t u se a l ong t h e ir l a te ra l a nd d i s ta l e nds . F ou r o f t h e r e touched f l akes h ave s t eep -ang led e dge s a nd p robab ly f unc t ioned a s s c rape r s : o ne i s a b l ade a nd t he r ema in ing t h ree s how e dge r e touch . T he f i ve c obb le c o r tex e nds a r e s im i lar t o s pec imen s f ound i n many p r ece ram ic a nd c e ram ic p e r iod c oas ta l s i te s ( e .g . , B i rd e t a l . 1 985 : 8 0 a nd F igu re 5 0 ; D onnan a nd Mose ley 1 968 ) . T hese a r t i fac t s may h ave b een u sed i n s c a l ing f i sh . T he t wo u n i f ac ia l t oo ls h ave s t eep n o t ches a nd o ne h as a p o in ted p ro je c t ion . T hese t wo a r t i fac t s a r e s im i la r t o t hose wh ich I f ound i n t h e S i che s a ssemb lage i n T a la ra a nd i n te rp re ted a s wood -wo rk ing t o o ls ( R ichardson 1 978 ) . T he mo s t s t r ik ing a spec t o f t he R ing S i te l i th ic a s semb lage i s t he l a ck o f p o in t s . A l though w e f ound p o in t s i n s ur face c o l le c t ions n ea r t h e s i te , n one we re r e cove red i n a ny o f t he e xcava t ions ; t he c ompos i t ion o f t he l i th ic a s semb lage f r om t he 1 9 87 u n i t s ( J , L , M , a nd T 1 ' l ) a ppear s q u i te s im i lar t o t h a t r epo r ted h e re f o r Un i t C . T he e x cava t ions a l so f a i led t o r e cove r a ny o bv ious g r ind ing t oo ls , n o r w e re s uch t oo ls v i s ib le i n t h e e x ten s ive e xposed p ro f i les . N ever the le s s , t h e re i s al a rge n umbe r o f mor tar s a nd g r ind ing s t one s i n t he v i c in i ty o f t h e s i te ; a cco rd ing t o l o ca l r epor t s , t h ese o bec t s w e re u near thed d ur ing t h e b u l ldoz ing o f t h e R ing S i te . I ts e ems l i ke ly t h a t t he mo r tars c ame f r om t h e l a te s t o ccupa t ion p hase , when t h e s he l l r i ng w as i n u se . T he p redom inan t b one a r t i f ac t t ype c ons is t s o f a s l igh t ly c urved , t ubu la r b one f l a t tened o n o ne e nd a nd p o in ted o n t h e o the r . T h ree o f t hese a r t i fac ts w e re f ound i n U n i t C , i n l e ve ls C -8 a nd C 11 . F ive mo re e xamp le s w e re r e cove red f r om U n i t s La nd M ( F igu re 1 8a ,b ,d ,e , f ) , f our f r om l e ve ls e qu iva len t t o C -8 ( one e ach f r om l eve ls M -8 , M -8b , L -8b , a nd L -8c ) a nd o ne f r om l e ve l L 10a ( e qu iva len t t o t h e u ppe r p ar t o f C 10 ) . T hese t oo ls a re p robab ly b arbs f r om c ompo s i te f i shhooks . B i rd ( 1 943 : F igure s 3 4 -n , 4 3 1 , a nd 4 4 1 )i lus t ra t es a nd i d en t i f ie s a s b a rb s s eve ra l s im i lar p i eces f r om p rece ra m ic l e ve l s i n s i te s a t P un ta P i cha lo a nd T a l ta l i n n o r the rn C h i le . S ch iappacas se a nd N iemaye r ( 1 984 : 3 4 -37 , F igu re s 1 5d -h a nd 1 6 ) d es c r ibe a nd i lus t ra te a n umbe r o f i d en t ica l p iece s f r om C am a rone s 1 4 , a l so i n n o r the rn C h i le . T he C ama rones 1 4 s p e c imens i n c lude s eve r a l b arbs s t i l l a r t icu la ted w i th t he ir s ha f t s , s uppo r t ing t h e f unc t iona l i d en t i f ica t ion o f t h e s e a r t i fac t s . F our C -14 d a te s f o r C ama rone s 1 4 r ange f r om 6 6 15 + 3 90 t o 7 420 + 2 25 B .P . T hese d a te s
6 8
D.SA NDWE I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R I T IM E AD A PT AT ION I NT H E AN D E S
L evel
W .
F l.
1
0
2 3 a
U .
F l.
C C
E nds
0
0
2
4
1
0
3 b
2
4
0
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T ools
T otal
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
7 a
0
0
0
1
1
7 b
1
0
0
0
1
7 c
0
0
0
1
1
2
6
4 7
8
2 0
9
1 3
3
0
0
1 6
1 0
1 2
6
0
4
2 2
3
0
0
1
1
0
1 1 1 2
3 1 3
1 9
6 1 5
1 3
8
1
0
0
1
1 4
0
0
0
0
0
1 5
4
0
0
0
4
T otal
7 1
3 7
3
1 3
1 24
T ab le 1 6 . U n i t C l i th ic a r t i fac t s . F l . = f l ake ; W . = w as t e ; U . = u t i l ized ; R . = r e touched ; CC = c obb le c or tex ; Un i . =u n i fac ia l . a nd t hose f r om P un t a P i cha lo a r e c on s is t en t w i th t h e R ing S i te r ad io c a rbon a ssays , wh ich p lace t h e l e ve ls c on ta in ing t h e b one h ook b arb s b e tween c a . 5 000 a nd 7 200 -7400 B .P . ( s ee T ab les 1a nd 2 a nd I n t roduc t ion ) . T he o the r b one a r t i fac t , as i ng le -barb h a rpoon ( F igu re 1 8g ) c ame f r om l e ve l J 14 , e qu iva len t t o C -8 . T h is h a rpoon may h ave b een u sed t o h un t t h e k inds o f s ea m amma ls r ep re s en ted i n t h e R ing S i t e f a una l r ema ins ( s ee s e c t ion o n V e r teb ra te R ema ins ) .
C on c lus ions -D .H . S andwe i ss , J . B . R ichardson I T he i nve s t iga t ion s a t t h e R ing S i te p rov ide i n s igh t i n to t he e conomy a nd p hy s ica l e nv ironmen t o f o ne o f t h e e ar l ie s t m ar i t ime c u l ture s i n t h e N ew Wo r ld . Wh i le much wo rk i s i n p rog res s a nd f u ture f i e ld s easons a r e p l anned , t h e r e su l t s a ch ieved s o f a r p e rm i t u s t o m ake a n umbe r o f s t a temen t s c once rn ing t h e e ar ly i n te rac t ion o f p eop le a nd t h e c oas t a l e nv ironmen t i n t h e I l o r eg ion o f s ou the rn P e ru . P a leo env ironmen t o f t h e R ing S i te T he v e r teb ra te a nd i nve r teb ra te f a una l r ema in s f r om t h e R ing S i te i nd ica te t h a t , i n g ene r a l t e rms , t h e c l i ma te a nd t h e r ange o f a cce s s ib le h ab i ta t s i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e s i te 6 9
E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap ter 4
d id n o t d i f fe r g rea t ly f r om mode rn c ond i t ions . W i th in t h is f r amewo rk , h oweve r , we c an d e tec t av a r ie ty o f c hang ing c ond i t ions .
L evel
S hell
1 2 3 a 3b 4 5 6 7 a 7 b
1 196 8 951 6 98 7 81 2 272 8 904 2 131 8 46 0
7 c 8 9 1 0
3 903 3 63 5 29 1 621
1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
2 42 2 8 1 08 2 3 1
B one 0 0 0 0 2 4 5 7 3 37 1 87 1 43
S hell/Bone 9 4.67 1 56.21 6 .32 4 .52 -
5 93 1 470 3 24 2 33
6 .58 0 .25 1 .63 6 .96
1 80 8 9 1 2 1 97 1 8
1 .34 0 .31 9 .00 0 .12 0 .06
T ab le 1 7 . S he l l w e igh t ( Un i t D ) v e r sus b one w e igh t ( Un i t C ) . We igh ts a r e i n g ram s ; b one w e igh t h as b een r ounded t o t he n ea re s t g ram . U n i t D i s ac o lumn s amp le t aken a t o ne c o rne r o f Un i t C , a nd t h e s t ra ta a re t he s ame . T hus , a l though t he t wo s amp les a r e n o t d i re c t ly c omparab le , t r ends i n t h e r a t io s o f ma te r ia l f r om t h e Un i t s C a nd D d o r e f le c t r e a l s t ra t ig raph ic c hange s .
We b egan r esea rch i n t he I t o a r ea w i th t h e h ypo the s is t h a t t h e r eg ion h ad u ndergone r ap id Ho lo cene t e c ton ic u p l i f t , a nd t ha t t he s ho re l ine d u r ing t he i n i t ia l o ccup a t ion o f t h e R ing S i te l a y l e s s t h an 1 00 m away o n t he e as t ern ( i n land ) e dge o f t he P amp a d e l P a lo . Wo rk ing w i th t h is mode l , w e e xpec ted t o f i nd e v iden ce t h a t t h e s ho re l ine r egres sed s eaward ( s ou thwe s tward ) f r om t h e s i te a s ar e su l t o f u p l i f t e p isode s . T he r a t e o f u p l i f t r equ ired b y t h is mode l w as s o h igh t h a t w e d id n o t c on s ide r p o s t -g lac ia l e us tat ic s e a l e ve l r i se a s a n i mpo r tan t f a c to r i n i n te rp re t ing t h e l o ca t ion a nd c on ten ts o f t h e s i te . T he r e sea rch r epo r ted a bove b y H su h as c hanged o ur p e r spe c t ive o n t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he R ing S i te a nd t h e l o ca l , d ynam ic e nv i ronmen t . T he r ap id u p l i f t h ypo thes i s n o l onge r s eems t e nab le , wh i le E ar ly t o M id Ho lo cene s ea l e ve l r i se t a ke s o n n ew i mpor tance . R a the r t h an t h e s c enar io i n wh ich t he s ho re l ine i s c l o se t o t h e R ing S i te a t t he t ime o f i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion ( c a . 1 0 ,000 t o 8 , 000 B .P . ) , t h e r eve rs e n ow s eem s t r ue : w i th r e la t ive v e r t ica l s t ab i l i ty o f t he l a nd , r i s ing s e a l e ve l m eans t h a t f r om t he i n i t ia l o ccupa t i on o f t h e R ing S i te u n t i l t he s t ab i l iza t ion o f e us ta t ic s e a l e ve l a bou t 5 , 000 y ea r s a go , t h e s ho re l ine w as a pp roach ing t he s i te . T he r a te o f a pp ro ach m ay b e e ven f a s t e r t han t h a t d i c ta ted b y t h e b a thyme t ry o f t he c oas t a nd t h e r a te o f s e a l e ve l r i se : t he s ho r e l ine t oday i sf r on ted b y a2 0 m h igh s ea c l i f f f o rmed o f s o f t s ed imen t s ( t he P a mpa d e l P a lo ) , a nd a s s e a l e ve l r ose , c oncom i tan t e ros ion may a l so h ave c aused t h is c l i f f t o r e t rea t e as twa rd . E ven when s e a l e ve l w as l owe s t , c a . 1 8 ,000 y ea r s a go ( l ong b e fo re t he R ing S i te w a s o ccup ied ) , t h e s ho re l ine n eve r l a y mo re t h an 5 7 km f r om t he s i te , a t t h e a pprox ima t e l o ca t ion o f t h e 1 00 m i s oba th .
7 0
D.SA NDW E I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R I T IM E AD AP T AT ION I NT H E AN D E S
U nde r t h is n ew s cena r io o f a n a pproach ing s ho re l ine , t h e g enera l s t ra t ig raph ic t r ends i n t h e R ing S i te d epo s i t s make c ons ide rab le s en se ( s ee T ab le 1 7 ) . T he e a r l ies t l e ve ls c on t a in f ew mar ine s he l ls b u t r e la t ive ly a bundan t b one s o f mar ine b i rds , mamma ls , a nd f i sh . Mo l lusks h ave a h igh r a t io o f b one t o e d ib le mea t , much h ighe r t han d o v e r teb ra te s ( f o r i n s tance , c ompare m ea t w e igh t t o b one w e igh t c o r re la t ion s l i s t ed b y R e i tz e t a l . 1 987 f o r v a r ious v e r teb ra te a nd i nver teb ra te t a xa ) . When t h e s ho re l a y f a r f r om t he s i te , t he r e la t ive c os ts o f c ar ry ing mar ine s he l ls a s o pposed t o mar ine v er teb ra te s p robab ly f avo r ed b r ing ing o n ly t h e l a t ter a s f a r a s t h e s i te . I n t h e u ppe r l e ve ls o f t h e R ing S i te , ma r ine s he l l b ecomes s i gn i f ican t ly mo re d ense . A s t h e s ho re l ine a pp roached t h e s i te , t he c o s t o f b r ing ing t he s he l l f ish wou ld h ave d ecr eased . T he r ad io ca rbon d a tes o n c har coa l f r om t h e R ing S i te i nd ica t e t ha t t h e s t ra ta w i th t he h ighe s t d ens i ty o f s he l ls ( l eve ls C 1 t h rough C -7 , s ee T ab le 1 f o r e qu iva len t s t ra ta ) d a te t o s ome t ime b e tween a bou t 7 , 000 a nd 5 , 000 y ea r s a go ( s ee T ab le 2 ) . T h is i s t h e t ime when t he s ea r e ached i t s modern l e ve l a nd t he s ho re l ine c ame c l o se s t t o t h e R ing S i te . T he d is t r ibu t ion o f t he S cu t a lu s l andsna i ls i n t he s t ra t ig raph ic c o lumn p rov ides f ur the r e v idence o f t he e f fec t s o f s e a l e ve l r i se o n a va i lab le r e sour ces a t t h e R ing S i te . A s n o ted i n t h e s e c t ion o n i nve r teb ra te f a una , S cu ta lu s v a lve s a re c oncen t ra ted i n t he l owe r l e ve ls o f t h e s i te , b e low t he l e ve l s w i th t h e h ighe s t d ens i ty o f s he l l ( c ompare T ab les 1 a nd 1 2 w i th T ab le 1 3 ) . S cu ta lu s l i ve i n l oma s p l an t z one s ; b e cause l ama s a re a n a l t i tude -depend e n t p henomenon , d ur ing t ime s o f l owe r s e a l e ve l t he l ama s wou ld a l so d escend , a ppar en t ly a s f a r a s t h e R ing S i t e . C haucha t ( 1 988 : 5 7 ) a l so f ound a l a rge n umbe r o f l andsna i ls i n E ar ly Ho lo cene P a i jan s i tes o n t h e n o r th c oas t o f P e ru , i n a sso c ia t ion w i th a bundan t mar ine f i sh r ema in s . U n l ike t he R ing S i te , i n wh ich mar ine mo l lusks a re p resen t b u t r e la t ive ly s c a r ce i n t h e l owe r l e ve ls , t h e P a i jan s i te s h ave n o ma r ine mo l l u sks , p e rhap s d ue t o t h e g rea te r d i s tance t o t h e s ho re ( 1 5 km t o t h e mode rn s ho re l ine , c a . 2 5 km t o t h e 1 0 ,000 B .P . s ho re l ine ) . A c omp l ica t ing f a c to r i n a sse ss ing t h e S cu ta lu s/ l owe r s e a l eve l h ypo the s is i s t h e e v idence ( s ome o f i tf r om s our ce s i ndependen t o f s ea l e ve l ) f o r g rea te r s easona l i ty a nd i n c reased mo is tu re d u r ing t he E ar ly Ho lo cene i n t h e I l o a rea ( s ee b e low ) . G rea te r mo is ture c ou ld a l so c ause a n e xpans ion o f t h e l ama s . T he f auna l d a t a f r om t h e R ing S i te i nd ica te t h a t o cean ic c ond i t ion s a nd r ange o f a va i lab le h ab i ta t s w e re s im i lar t o t ho se wh ich o b ta in i n t he I l o a rea t oday , a l though t he d is t r ibu t ion o f t hese h ab i t a t s v ar ied f r om t he p re sen t . T he f auna l d a ta a l so p rov ide h in t s o f p o s s ib le c l ima t ic p e r turba t ions . T he s he l l a s s emb lage c on t a ins o ccas iona l e xamp le s o f D on ax o b e su lu s , as ma l l i n te r t ida l c l am wh ich n o rma l ly l i ves o n t h e c en t ra l a nd n or th c oas t s o f P eru . Howeve r , d ur ing t h e 1 982 1983 E l N i f io e ven t , w e o b served a n i n t rus ion o f D on ax i n to t h e I l o a r ea ; t h e p resence o f t h ese s he l ls a nd t h e n o r the rn b i rd ( O r ta l i s e r y th r op t er a ) t e n ta t ive ly i d en t i f ied b y R e i tz m ay m ark a n c ien t E l N i r io e ven t s . S uch e ven t s c an p o ten t ia l ly b e i den t i f ied t h rough g row th i n c remen t a nd s t ab le i s o tope a na lys is o f a rchaeo log ica l mo l lusk v a lves ( Ro l l ins e t a l . 1 987 ) . We c o l lec ted a s amp le o f who le s he l ls f r om Un i t M -a lpha f o r f u ture a na ly ses o f t h is s or t . T he re i s as e cond , p o s s ib ly c omp lemen tary e xp lana t ion f o r t he p resence o f n o r thern s pe c ie s i n t he R ing S i te f a una l a ssemb lage . O n t h e b as is o f d a ta f r om t h e n o r th c oas t o f P e ru , R o l l ins e t a l . ( 1 986 ) h ave s ugge s ted t h a t f o r s ome t ime p r io r t o a bou t 5 , 000 B .P . , t he c o as t n or th o f c a . 9 ° s ou th l a t i tude w as c har ac ter ized b y w a rm w a te r c ond i t ions . T he E l N i f io p henomenon m ay h ave s t ar ted a t t h is t ime , o r m ay h ave o pe ra ted o n ly t o t he s ou th o f 9 s ou th l a t i tude . T he n or the rn s pe c ie s a t t h e R ing S i te m ay r e f lec t t he l a t i tud i n a l d i sp lacemen t o f t empe r a ture regu la ted c oas t a l h ab i ta t s e v idenced o n t h e n o r th c oas t .
7 1
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 4
O the r l i nes o f e v idence s uppo r t t h e h ypo the s is o f d i f fe ren t c oas ta l c ond i t ion s p r io r t o 5 , 000 y ear s a go . S eve ra l l e ve ls o f t h e R ing S i te ( e sp . C -3a , C -3b a nd e qu iva len t s ) c on ta ined r oo t c as t s a nd a ccumu la t ions o f l a nd s na i ls ( S cu t a lu s s pp . ) , s ugge s t ing e p isode s o f g rea te r mo is ture . T he a bsence o f n on carbon ized mac robo tan ica l a nd o the r s o f t o rgan ic r ema ins i n t h e s i te i s a no the r i nd ica t ion o f i n c reased mo is ture d u r ing a nd/o r a f te r t h e a bandonmen t o f t h e R ing S i te . T he p resence o f c har co a l ( i nc lud ing s ome s e eds ) s how s t h a t t h e i nhab i tan t s o f t he s i te d id u se p l an t s , s o t h e p rob lem i s o ne o f p reserva t ion . Mo re mo is ture wou ld c r ea te a n u n favo rab le e nv i ronmen t f o r t he p reserva t ion o f o rgan ic t i s sue s . L a te r c e ram ic p e r iod s i te s i n t h e I l o a r ea h ave a bundan t macrobo tan i ca l r ema in s . Mose ley ( per sona l c ommun ica t ion 1 988 ) d a te s t h is p r ese rva t ion h o r izon t o a bou t 2 500 B .P . , s o amb ien t mo is tu re may h ave d ec reased a ta bou t t h is t ime . J . No l le r made a b r ie f s t udy o f s o i ls a round t he s i te i n 1 987 . He f ound t ha t t h ey " f o rmed i n ar e la t ive ly mo re mo is t e nv i ronmen t " ( No I le r , p e rsona l c ommun i ca t ion 1 987 ) . No I le r p ropo se s t ha t al owe r f og l e ve l d ue t o l owe r l a te P l e is tocene/ear ly H o lo cene s e a l e ve ls p rov ide s t he mos t p laus ib le e xp lana t ion f o r t h is o bse rva t ion . H oweve r , t h e p resence o f d a rk l igh t b and ing o n Me sod e sma v a lve s f r om T P 1 s ugge s t s i n tens i f ied s e asona l i ty , p e rhaps a ccompan ied b y s l igh t ly g rea te r w in te r p rec ip i ta t ion t h an t he v e ry l ow modern v a lue s . S uch s easona l i ty m igh t b e a sso c ia ted w i th t he r eo rgan iza t ion o f c oas ta l c ur ren t s a t c a . 5 , 000 B .P . p roposed b y R o l l ins e ta l . ( 1 986 ) . A f i na l o bse rva t ion c on cern ing t h e p as t e nv ironmen t o f t he R ing S i te i st h e s ugges t i on b y G . C ook ( pe rsona l c ommun ica t ion 1 987 ) t h a t a n a c t ive s pr ing w as l o ca ted n ea r t h e s i te d ur ing i t s o ccupa t ion . B ed ro ck o u t c rops n ear t h e s i te p rov ide c ond i t ions s im i la r t o t he a rea n o r th o f t h e I l o r i ve r , whe re a s e r ie s o f s p r ing s s t i l l f l ow . Howeve r , i fs uch a s pr ing e x is ted , t h e l a ck o f e ro s ion c hanne ls s ugge s t t h a t i td id n o t g ene ra te s i gn i f ican t f l ow ; t he n o r thern s p r ing s d o h ave e ro s ion c hanne ls . S ubs is tence e conomy o f t he R ing S i te T he o rgan ic r ema ins r e cove red f r om t h e R ing S i t e c l ear ly i nd icate t h a t v i r tua l ly a l a n ima l p ro te in c ame f r om mar ine v er teb ra te a nd i nve r teb ra te f auna . We c anno t a s se s s t h e n a ture o r d ie tary r o le o f p lan t f oods a t t h is t ime : m ac robo tan ica l r ema in s c ons is t o f a v e ry f ew c a rbon ized s eeds a nd o the r p ar t s wh ich h ave n o t y e t b een a na lyzed . F u ture wo rk a t t h e s i te w i l l i n c lude t h e c o l le c t ion o f l a rge s amp le s t o b e f l oa ted f o r c arbon ized p l an t r ema ins . Howeve r , t he a pparen t a bsence o f g r ind ing i mp lemen t s i n t h e p re she l l r i ng ( p re -5 ,000 B .P . ) s t ra ta s ugges t s t h a t p l an t f oods ( a t l e as t g r a ins ) may h ave b een a r e la t ive ly m ino r c omponen t o f t h e d i e t . D ur ing t h e 1 987 s eason , w e f ound a l a rge n umbe r o f c op ro l i t es i n a nd a round Un i t J , l e ve ls J 5 t h rough J 9a ( g rea tes t c oncen t ra t ion i n J 8 ) ( F igure 9 ) . I n t he f i e ld , we n o ted f i sh b one i n many o f t h e c op ro l i te s . C omp le te a na ly s is o f t hese c op ro l i te s w i l l p rov ide a no the r p o ten t ia l s our ce o f d a t a o n d i e t a t t h e R ing S i te ; w e c o l lec ted a n u mbe r o f s amp le s f o r f u ture s t udy . T he a r t i fac t i nven to ry d oe s n o t p rov ide a v e ry c l ea r p i c ture o f t he a c t iv i t ies c ar r ied o u t b y t h e R ing S i te i nhab i tan t s . T he mo s t a bundan t b one t oo l t ype ( a lso r ep l ica ted i n s he l l ) m ay h ave b een p ar t o f ac ompound f i shhook ( F igure 1 8a ,b ,d ,e , f ) . T he v i r tua l a bsence o f s ma l l , s choo l ing f i sh mo s t s u i tab le f o r n e t t ing s ugges t s t ha t mo s t f i sh ing w a s d one w i th h ook a nd l i ne . T he c obb le c o r t ex e nds ( F igu re 1 ) a nd p e rhap s o ther s o f t h e
7 2
D.SA NDWE I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R IT IM E AD A PT AT ION I NT H E AN D E S
u t i l ized f l ake s ( F igure s 1 2 17 ) may h ave b een u sed i n p roce s s ing f i sh . S ome o f t he l i th ic s mus t h ave b een u sed t o b u t che r b i rds a nd mamma ls , a s i nd ica ted b y t he c u t marks o n s eve ra l b one s . T he s i ng le -ba rb b one h arpoon ( F igure 1 8g ) s ugge s t s h un t ing o f mar ine f auna . T he w ide r ange o f b i rds a nd ma r ine ma mma ls i n t he f auna l a ssemb lage i nd ica te s t h a t t h e R ing s i te p eop le h ad a v ar ie ty o f s k i l led h un t ing t e chn iques . T he l a ck o f l i th ic p ro je c t i le p o in t s a nd t he p resence o f ab one h arpoon may i nd ica te t ha t b one , n o t s t one , w as t h e p r imary med ium f o r p o in ted p ro jec t i le s . T he p resence o f r ounded s t one s i n many o f t he l e ve ls , i n c lud ing a c ache o f s i x r ounded , o va l s t one s o f as t anda rd s i ze i n f e a tu re J 1 ( s ee F igu re 9 ) , s ugges t s t h a t h un t ing w eapon s may h ave i n c luded s l ing s o r b o l a s . A long w i th s eve ra l h ea r th l ike f e a tu res a nd s o me c har red b one , t he p resence o f c ha r coa l a nd f i re -c racked r o ck t h roughou t t h e d epos i t s ugges t s t h a t f ood w as c ooked . T h roughou t t he e ar ly o ccupat ion o f t h e R ing S i te ( up t o t he a ccumu la t ion o f t he s he l l r i ng a ta bou t 5 , 000 B .P . ) , t h e i nhab i t an t s e xp lo i ted a w ide v a r ie ty o f c oas ta l h ab i ta t s . F i sh c ame ma in ly f r om n ear sho re w a te r s , a l though a s ma l l n umbe r o f i nd iv idua ls p e r ta in t o s pe c ie s i nhab i t ing t h e u ppe r c on t inen ta l w a ter s ( s ee T ab le 9 ) . T he l a t ter s pec ie s may r ef le c t t he e ar ly p res ence o f b oa t s . Mo l lusk s w e re c o l lec ted f r om b o th r o cky a nd s andy l i t to r a l z ones a nd m ar ine m amma ls w e re p robab ly h un ted o r s c avenged a l ong t he s ho re l ine a s w e l l . Mo s t o f t h e b i rds a r e c oas ta l s pec ie s wh ich c an b e t a ken o n o r n ea r t h e s ho re . A l though n o t p resen t i n t he U n i t Cs amp le s t ud ied b y R e i tz , af ew s pec imens o f p robab le t e r re s t r ia l m amma l b one f ound i n 1 987 s ugge s t t h a t s o me h un t ing t ook p lace i n t h e l oma s ( s easona l , f og -based v ege ta t ion ) . A s ar e su l t o f l owe red s e a l e ve ls a nd mo re mo is t c ond i t ions , t he l om a s s t ands w e re p robab ly mo re e x t en s ive d ur ing t h e e ar ly o c cupa t ion o f t h e R ing S i te t h an l a te r . T he l oma s mus t h ave p rov ided t h e p lan t s u sed a s f ue l a nd p e rhaps y i e lded e d ib le p l an t s a s w e l l . C ompar ison o f t h e P a i jan i nve r teb ra t e d a t a ( Chaucha t 1 988 ) w i th t h a t f r om t he R ing S i t e s ugges t s t h a t d ur ing t h e P eruv ian P rece ram ic P e r iod t he re may h ave b een a moda l d is t an ce f r om t h e s ho re l ine a t wh ich i tb ecame e conom ica l ly f e as ib le t o i mpo r t mo l lusk me a t i n t he s he l l ( a t t h e momen t , i ti si mposs ib le t o a sses s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t s hucked mo l lu sk mea t w as t r anspo r ted i n land ; t r ade i n d r ied s he l l f ish mea t i s w e l l -documen ted i n t h e e t hnoh is to r ic a nd e t hnog raph ic r e co rd [ Masuda 1 98 1 , 1 982 ] a nd i ss ugges ted f r om a r chaeo log ica l d a ta [ C ra ig a nd P su ty 1 97 1 ] ) . P a i jan s i tes h ave l a ndsna i ls a nd mar ine f i sh , b u t n o mar ine mo l lusks . A t t h e R ing S i te , l a ndsna i ls a nd f i sh a re mos t a bundan t i n t he l owe r l e ve ls , wh i le mar ine mo l lusks a r e p resen t t h roughou t t h e o ccupa t ion b u t mo s t c ommon i n t he l a te r l e ve ls d a t ing t o a bou t t h e t ime o f s ea l e ve l s t ab i l iza t ion . T he moda l d is t an ce wou ld d e f in i te ly b e l e s s t h an 2 5 km ( Pa i jan ) a nd g rea te r t han o ne km ( pos t -sea l eve l s t ab i l iza t ion R ing S i te ) . A t a bou t f i ve km ( e ar ly R ing S i te , when s he l ls a re p resen t b u t s c a rce ) , s he l l f ish t r anspo r t i s p o s s ib le b u t a pparen t ly n o t v ery e f f ic ien t ; t he moda l d is t an ce f o r b r ing ing l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f u nshucked mo l lusks m ay l i e s omewhe re b e tween o ne a nd f i ve k i lome te r s . S e t t lemen t l o ca t ion l og is t ic s When we f i r s t b egan w o rk a t t he R ing S i te , w e b e l ieved t h a t p rox im i ty t o t he ( hypo the t ica l ) s ho re l ine a nd t h e a s so c ia ted s u i te o f mar ine r e sour ces e xp la ined t he l o ca t ion o f t he s i te . Now t h a t i ta ppear s t h a t t h e s ho re l a y a s much a s 5 km t o t he s ou thwe s t when t h e R ing S i te w as f i r s t i nhab i t ed , t h is e xp lana t ion mus t b e r ep laced b y o ne t h a t a n swe r s t wo m a jo r q ues t ions : 1 ) why w as a s i te w i th s uch a s t rong emphas is o n m a r ine r e sou rce s e s tab l i shed t h is f a r f r om t h e s ho re l ine , a nd 2 ) why w as t he s ame
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s i te o ccup ied f o r a t l e as t 2 , 500 y ea rs ( and p robab ly much l onge r ) b u t a bandoned b e fo re t he a dven t o f p o t te ry i n t h e I l o a rea? I f as p r ing w e re p re sen t n ear t h e R ing S i te , t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f f r esh w a te r ( a s ca r ce r e sour ce i n t he a rea t oday ) wou ld p robab ly b e as u f f ic ien t c ond i t ion t o a t t rac t s e t t lemen t , e ven b y p eop le e xp lo i t ing a f a ir ly d i s tan t e nv i ronmen t . T he g rebe ( P od i c ep s m a j o r ) s pe c imen i den t i f ied b y R e i tz s uppo r t s t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f al o ca l s ource o f f r e sh wa t e r , b ecause g rebe s i nhab i t c oas ta l mar she s a nd l a ke s . Ad ry s p r ing a s so c ia ted w i th e x ten s ive p rece ram ic r ema in s h as r e cen t ly b een f ound a bou t f our km t o t h e n o r th o f I l o , a nd o the r , s t i l l a c t ive s pr ing s , a re l o ca ted f u r the r n o r th ( Mo se ley , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion 1 988 ) . Howeve r , t he re a re n o e ro s ion c hanne ls n ea r t h e R ing S i te s im i lar t o t h o se l e ad ing f r om t he s pr ing s t o t he n o r th o f t he I l o r i ve r . I f as p r ing d id e x is t , i t mus t h ave b een t oo s ma l l t o c ause s i gn i f ican t f l ow . P rox im i ty t o a n ima l a nd p l an t r e sou rce s o f t h e l oma s , wh ich p robab ly s u r rounded t h e R ing S i te , wou ld p rov ide a s e cond mo t ive f o r c amp ing o r s e t t l ing i n t h a t v i c in i ty . F ina l ly , t h e R ing S i te i s i n as po t p ro t ec t ed b y t wo b edro ck o u t c rops t o t h e n o r thwe s t a nd s ou theas t a nd a s t eep s l ope t o t h e n o r theas t , w h i le o f fe r ing a c l ea r v i ew s ou th w e s twa rd t owa rds t h e o cean . T he s e cond q ue s t ion mus t b e v i ewed i n t he c on tex t o f t h e r eg iona l s e t t lemen t p a t te rn . No n earby s i tes d emon s t ra te t he s ame i n tens i ty o f o c cupa t ion a s t he R ing S i te ; t o f i nd s im i lar c oncen t rat ion s o f p rece ram ic r ema ins , i ti s n e ce ss ary t o g o o ver 1 5 km t o t h e n o r th o r s ou th ( s ee I n t roduc t ion ) . Once t h e R ing S i te w as e s tab l ished , t h e a pp roach ing s ho re l ine wou ld h ave made t he s i te a n i n c reas ing ly a t t rac t ive l o ca t ion f o r t h e mar i t ime h un te r -ga the re r s who l i ved t he re . T he s ame a rgumen t , o f c our se , wou ld a pp ly t o a ny p o in t a l ong t he e n t i re 2 0 km l e ng th o f t h e n ar row 5 0 m t e r r ace . T here fo re , we mu s t r e turn a ga in t o t he p robab i l i ty o f s ome s pa t ia l ly r e s t r ic t ed r e sou rce s uch a s as pr ing i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e s i te . D im inu t ion a nd e ven tua l f a i lu re o f t he s pr ing , s uch a s Mose ley e t a l . ( 1 987 ) h ave r epo r ted f o r t h e s p r ing s ys tem s t o t h e n o r th o f t he I l o r i ve r , wou ld t h en a ccoun t f o r t he a bandonmen t o f t he R ing S i te a nd t h e a bsence o f am a jo r p os t -R ing S i te s e t t lemen t i n t h e P ampa d e l P a lo r eg ion . T oday , t h e re i s n o s our ce o f p e rmanen t f r e sh w a te r n eare r t he p ampa t h an t he I l o r i ve r . T he R ing S i te a nd A ndean Mar i t ime Adap ta t ions We wou ld l i ke t o e nd t h is p ape r b y mak ing a f ew o b serva t ion s c once rn ing t he r o le o f t h e R ing S i te i n u nder s tand ing A ndean mar i t ime a dap t a t ions . T he R ing S i te d emon s t ra te s af u l ly mar i t ime e conomy i n p l ace o n t he P e ruv ian c oas t b y s ome t ime b e tween 7 , 500 a nd 1 0 ,000 B .P . A l though s im i la r d a te s h ave b e en r e co rded f u r the r s ou th , i n C h i le ( e .g . , L l ago s te ra 1 979 ) , t h e R ing S i te b r ing s t h e r e co rd o f e ar ly mar i t ime a dap ta t ion s g eog raph ica l ly c l ose r t o t h e l a te r f o cus o f t h e L a te P rece ram ic d eve lopmen t o f s o c ia l c omp lex i ty o n t he c en t ra l a nd n o r th -cen t ra l P eruv ian c oas t . A s R ichardson ( 1 986 ) a nd o the r s h ave p o in ted o u t , t h ese l a te r d eve lopmen t s c an n o l onger b e v i ewed a s a n i mmed ia te c on sequence o f t h e i n i t ia l r e l iance o n m ar ine r e sour ce s . R a the r , t h ey mus t b e s een i n r e la t ion t o o the r c hange s t a k ing p l ace i n t h e L a te P re ce ram ic P e r iod , s uch a s i n c reased i n te r reg iona l i n te rac t ion a nd t h e i n c reas ing i mpor tance o f d ome s t i ca ted p l an t s ( Mose ley 1 985 ) .
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D.SA NDWE I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A RMM E AD A PTAT ION I NT H E AN D E S
F igu re 1 1 L i th ic a r t i fac t s f r om U n i t C . C obb le c o r tex e nds : a ) l e ve l C -7 c ; b ) l e ve l C -8 ; c )l eve l C 12 .
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F igu re 1 2 L i th ic a r t i fac t s f r om Un i t C . Un i fac ia l t oo ls : a ) l eve l C -7A ; b ) l e ve l C -7C ; d ) l e ve l C -8 . U t i l ized f l akes : c ) a nd e ) l eve l C -8 .
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D.SA NDW E I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R I T IM E AD APTAT ION I NT H E AN D E S
F igu re 1 3 L i th ic a r t i fac t s f r om U n i t C . U t i l ized f l akes : a ) a nd e ) l e ve l C -8 . Un i fac ia l t oo ls : b ) , c ) , a nd d ) l e ve l C -8 .
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F igu re 1 4 L i th ic a r t i fac t s f r om Un i t C . U t i l ized f l ake : a ) l e ve l C -8 . Un i fac ia l t oo ls : b ) a nd c ) l e ve l C -8 .
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D.SA NDW E I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R IT IM E AD A PTAT ION I NT H E AN D E S
F igu re 1 5 L i th ic a r t ifac t s f r om U n i t C . S napped b l ade : a ) l e ve l C -9 . U t i l ized f l akes : b ) a nd c ) l e ve l C -9 ; e ) l e ve l C -10 . U n i fac ia l t oo l : d ) l e ve l C 10 .
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F igu re 1 6 L i th ic a r t i fac ts f r om Un i t C . U t i l ized f l akes : a ) , b ) , c ) , d ) , a nd e ) l eve l C 1 0 . Un i fac ia l t oo ls : f )a nd g ) l e ve l C 10 .
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D.SA NDWE I S S , E TA L . ; EA R LY M A R T T IM E AD A PT AT ION I NT H E AN D E S
F igu re 1 7 L i th ic a r t i fac t s f r om U n i t C . U t i l ized f l ake s . : a ) a nd b ) l e ve l C 11 ; c )l eve l C 12 ; d ) l e ve l C 13 .
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F igu re 1 8 . B one a nd s he l l t oo ls . P ar t o f c ompo s i te f i shhook : a ) b one , Un it M , l e ve l M -8 ; b ) b one , Un i t M , l e ve l M -8b ; c ) s he l l , Un i t M , l e ve l M -8b ; d ) b one , Un i t L , l e ve l L -8b ; e ) b one , Un i t L , l e ve l L -8c ; f )b one , Un i t L , l e ve l L 10a . S i ng le -barb b one h arpoon : g ) Un i t J ,l e ve l J 14 .
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D.
SANDWEISS, ET AL.; EARLY MARITIME ADAPTATION IN TH£ ANDES
To the extent that the shell ring was an artificial construction, the Ring Site also participated in a modest way in the tradition of monumental architecture that accom panied the increasing complexity of social organization on the Peruvian coast. Although the evidence that the Ring was built, rather than accumulated, consists (for the moment) of a small area of artificial fill. The presence of even a modest level of monumental construction so far south during the Late Preceramic Period would significantly extend the range of such expressions of complexity. We therefore plan to study the nature of the Ring during future field seasons. Another question raised by the Ring Site data is why similarly early evidence of maritime economies has not been found to the north of Ilo, particularly on the central and north-central coast of Peru. The only good candidate for an earlier Preceramic site with a heavily maritime economy is Paloma, in the Chilca valley (Benfer 1986; Reitz 1988a), but Paloma dates between 7,000 and 5,000 B.P. and has a more mixed terrestri al/marine economy than the Ring Site. Richardson (1981, 1986) has suggested that rising sea level may have submerged many coastal sites predating about 5,000 B.P., particularly on the north and central coasts of Peru, where the continental shelf is widest and the greatest extent of land was lost. In this context, the most likely place to find early maritime sites is on the south coast of Peru and in Chile, where the shelf is narrow and rising sea level submerged relatively little land. There are several alternatives to the hypothesis that early maritime sites north of Ilo have been submerged. First, such sites may never have existed. It is possible that highland hunter-gatherers first descended to the coast in the south, and that maritime lifeways subsequently spread northward. However, recent analysis of subsistence remains from Paijan sites on the Peruvian north coast indicates that fish were exploited there along with a variety of land animals and landsnails, although marine mollusks and sea mammals were not used (Chauchat 1988: 57-58). The Paijan sites studied by Chauchat lie 15 km from the present shoreline, and were even farther away during the early Holo cene. Chauchat (ibid.: 58) dates these sites to between 10,500 and 8,000 B.P. The Paijan evidence supports Richardson's (1981) suggestion that more fully maritime-adapted sites did exist on the now-submerged coastal plain. A second alternative to the submergence hypothesis is that processes of selective site destruction, other than (or in addition to) rising sea level (see Moseley 1983), may have affected early coastal sites in central Peru. As a final alternative, the lack of early central coast maritime sites may result from patterns in thr conduct of archaeological research, rather than from patterning in the archaeological record per se. To test all of the hypotheses raised by the evidence for early maritime adaptations, future research must include both continuing studies at the Ring Site to further elucidate the nature of the early maritime economy and a concerted effort to find other early maritime sites to the north of the Ilo area. Acknowledgements
Financial support for the Ring Site Archaeological Project has been provided by a series of grants from the M. Graham Netting and Edward O'Neil Funds of the Carnegie Museum and the University of Pittsburgh's Central Research Development Fund, 83
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P rovo s t 's D eve lopmen t F und , a nd C en te r f o r L a t in Ame r ican S tud ies . T he S ou thern P e ru C opper C o rpo ra t ion h as g iven u s t r emendous l og is t ica l s uppo r t , f r om f ood a nd h ous ing t o l a bo ra tory f a c i l i t ies . M ichae l E . Mose ley f i rs t i n t roduced u s t o t he R ing S i t e a nd h as c on t inued t o p rov ide v a luab le i deas t h roughou t t he p rocess o f f i e ld work a nd a na lys is . H is c ommen t s o n a n e ar l ie r v er s ion o f t h is p ape r w e re v ery u se fu l . Dur ing t he 1 985 s eason , we c oun ted o n t he h e lp o f Mark McConaughy a nd K aren Wise ; i n 1 987 , w e r e l ied o n Mar ia d e l C armen R odr iguez , L aura J ohnson , a nd J oe S ong . D av id J e ssup a nd C hr is topher C lemen t a l so p rov ided v a luab le a ss is tan ce . E l izabe th W ing g ave p er m iss ion f o r E l izabe th R e i tz t o u se t h e c ompara t ive c o l lec t ion a t t he F lo r ida S ta te Museu m , a nd G eo rge B urgess p rov ided h er w i th i n forma t ion o n t h e f i sh o f t he s ou the rn P eruv ian r eg ion . A t t he C arneg ie Museum , Nancy P e rk ins d rew t he a r t i fac t s a nd W i l l iam A thens p repared t he map a nd p ro f i les . We a re e x t reme ly g ra te fu l t o a l l o f t hese i nd iv idua ls a nd i n s t i tu t ions , w i thou t whom we c ou ld n o t c ar ry o u t t h e R ing S i te P ro jec t . H owever , a l l om iss ions a nd e r ror s a re t he r e spons ib i l i ty o f t he a u tho r s .
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A rcha ic P er iod R esearch i n t he L ower O s more R eg ion K aren Wise D epar tmen t o fA n thropo logy N or thw e s t e rn U n iv er s i ty
I n t roduc t ion A rcha ic p e r iod s e t t lemen t p a t te rns i n t he Andean r eg ion h ave l ong b een u nde rs tood a s a dap ta t ion s t o t he d i f f e ren t v e r t ica l e co log ica l z ones o f t h e r eg ion ( c . f . L ynch 1 97 1 ; 1 980 ; Nu f iez 1 983 ; R ick 1 980 , 1 983 ) . E ach o f t h e v e r t ica l z ones was u sed i n d i s t inc t ive w ays b y t he p reh is to r ic i nhab i tan ts o f Andean S ou th Ame r ica , b u t i ti sn o t c l ear whe the r t h e s e t t lemen t s ys tems o f t h e d i f fe ren t z ones w e re s epara te o r l i nked t o o ne a no the r . U n t i l r ecen t ly , mode ls o f A rcha ic p e r iod s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t p os i ted l a rge s ca le t r anshu mance a cross s easona l ly c omp lemen tary v e r t ica l e co log ica l z ones ( c . f . L ynch 1 97 1 ; R av ines 1 972 ; T rue 1 975 ) . C ur ren t mode ls s ugges t l e ss s easona l v ar ia t ion i n l o ca l e nv iron men t s a nd more c ons t r ic ted s e t t lemen t s y s te m s . T hey mode l s e t t lemen t s y s tems r ang ing f r om s eden t ism w i th in v er t ica l e co log ica l z ones ( R ick 1 980 , 1 983 ) , t o l im i ted t r anshu mance w i th in a s i ng le b road e co log ica l z one ( MacNe ish e t a l . 1 975 ) , t o t r ans h umance a cross t wo a d jacen t z ones ( Lynch 1 983 ; Nut iez 1 983 ; S an to ro 1 982 ) . T he c oas ta l z one i s g ene ra l ly v i ewed a s ar e la t ive ly r i ch a nd p roduc t ive a rea c apab le o f s uppo r t ing g roups o f mar i t i me h un te r -ga therer s f o r much o r a l l o f t h e y ear , b u t e ach mode l p roposes s l igh t ly d i f feren t p a t te rns o f u se a nd s e t t lemen t . R i ck ( 1980 , 1 983 ) a rgue s t ha t t h ree ma jo r r e source z ones o f t he c oas ta l a rea - l i t to ra l , l oma s , a nd r i ve r v a l ley - m igh t h ave b een c omp lemen tary i n t e rms o f s easona l a va i lab i l ity o f r e sources , a s P a t te rson ( 1 97 1) h as s ugges ted f o r ac en t ra l c oas t . P at ter son p o s i t s t ha t c oas ta l s i tes w e re o ccup ied y ear r ound i n a reas where t h e d i f fe ren t r e source a r eas were c l ose t o o ne a no ther , wh i le s easona l movemen t s p reva i led when t hey we re
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f a r the r a par t . Nunez ( 1 983 ) a rgue s t ha t d u r ing t he E a r ly A rcha ic p e r iod a s y s te m o f t r anshumance e ncompas s ing t he c oas t a nd l owe r e l eva t ion i n land a reas i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l A ndes w as f o cused o n c oas ta l r e sources . W i th i n c reas ing p opu la t ions a nd e nv ironmen t a l c hange , mob i l i ty d ec reased a nd c oas ta l a dap ta t ion s b eca me i n c reas ing ly f o cused u pon t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f mar i t ime r e sources . T he Andean e nv i ronmen t v a r ies n or th t o s ou th a s w e l l a s v e r t ica l ly ( e as t t o wes t ) , a nd a s i ng le mode l w i l l p robab ly n o t a ccoun t f o r a l l A r cha ic p e r iod a dap t a t ion s i n t he r eg ion ( c . f . S an toro 1 987 ) . I den t i f ica t ion o f d i f feren t t yp es o f o ccupa t ion a nd s e t t le men t s ys tem s r equ i re s i n ten s ive s t udy o f e a r ly s i te s b o th w i th in a nd a c ro ss e co log i ca l z one s . T he t ypes o f s i tes f ound , t he i r l o ca t ions , a nd t h e p e r iod a nd s e ason o f o ccupa t ion mus t a l l b e e s tab l ished b e fo re t h e r e la t ionsh ips among s i te s i n d i f feren t a reas c an b e s t ud ied . S tud ies f o cus ing o n o b ta in ing d a ta o f t h is k ind h ave n o t b een c ommon i n P e ru , a nd t he emp i r ica l b as is f o r t h e mode ls o f A rcha ic u se o f d i f fe ren t z ones r e ma in s l a rge ly s pe cu la t ive . A r cha ic p er iod a r chaeo logy i s b e t te r k nown i n n o r thern C h i le , b u t i t i s u nc lea r t h a t r eg iona l p a t te rn s o f s e t t lemen t a r e t he s ame i n a l l a reas . R es ea r ch i n to A rcha ic p e r iod a r chaeo logy o f t h e O smo re r eg ion i s a imed a t u nde rs tand ing r eg iona l s e t t lemen t s ys tems , r e la t ion sh ips among s i te s f ound i n d i f fe ren t e nv ironmen ta l z ones , a nd t he d eve lopmen t o f s eden t ism i n t he S ou th -Cen t ra l Ande s ( s ee A ldende r fe r , t h is v o lume ) . I n t h is p ape r , t he f o cus i s o n t h e c oas ta l c omponen t o f t he r eg ion , a nd o n mode l ing c oas ta l a dap ta t ions o f t h e A r cha ic p e r iod . Ques t ions o f h ow i n t en s ive a nd e x ten s ive A rcha ic u se o f t he c oas t w as , a nd o f h ow c oas ta l s e t t lemen t i s r e la ted t o s e t t lemen t i n h ighe r e l eva t ion s i n t he r eg ion , w i l l b e a ddressed .
Ma r i t ime S pec ia l iza t ion T he c oas ta l p eop le s o f P e ru a nd C h i le h ave l ong b een a rgued t o r e ly h eav i ly o n m ar i t ime r e sou rce s f o r i mpor tan t s ub s is tence n eeds ( B i rd 1 943 , 1 946 ) . A l though e ar ly s t ud ie s i n P e ru f ound l i t t le e v idence f o r c oas ta l a dap ta t ions b e fo re 5 000 B P ( s ee L ann ing 1 967 ; L umb re ras 1 978 ; Mose ley 1 975 ) , s uch e v idence i s e x tens ive a nd we l l k nown f o r much o f C h i le ( Nunez 1 983 ) . I tn ow a ppea r s t ha t c o as ta l A rcha ic s i tes i n P e ru , i ft hey e x is ted , h ave b een i nunda t ed d ue t o Ho lo cene s ea l e ve l r i se ( R ichardson 1 98 1 , 1 986 ) . E xp lo i ta t ion o f ma r ine r e sour ce s wa s a n i mpor tan t a dap ta t ion b y t he l a te P re cera m i c p e r iod i n P e ru ( Mos e ley 1 975 ; O sborn 1 977 ; Qu i l te r a nd S tocke r 1 983 ) , b u t i th as b een d i f f icu l t t o t r ace t he d eve lopmen t s o f t h i s a dap ta t ion i n t h e A r cha ic p e r iod . • A rcha ic p e r iod c oas ta l a r chaeo logy b egan i n n o r the rn C h i le w i th B i rd 's ( 1 943 , 1 946 ) d i s cove ry o f L a te A r cha ic s i tes c on ta in ing t h . e r ema in s o f c oas ta l r e sources a nd t h e t oo l s u sed t o c ap ture t h em . B i rd ( 1 943 ) s ugge s t s , b ased o n r e la t ive amoun t s o f s ubs is tence r ema ins r e cove red a t v a r ious s i tes , t ha t f i sh , s he l l f ish , a nd s ea mamma ls w e re t h e s t ap le f oods o f c oas t a l p eop le s . T h is a rgumen t h as b een a c cep ted a nd e xpanded u pon a s r e sea rch i n n o r the rn C h i le h as c on t inued ( c . f . T rue 1 975 ; Nunez 1 983 ) . A l though i ti sc l ea r , b ased o n t h e s i ze a nd e x t en t o f m iddens c on ta in ing t h e r e ma in s o f f i sh , s he l l f ish , s ea m amma ls , a nd s ea b i rds , t h a t p eop le d id n o t i gno re t h e o cean a s a r i ch s our ce o f r e sour ces , a rgumen t s f o r ap ro ce s s o f m a r i t ime s pe c ia l iza t ion h ave o f ten b een b ased o n l i t t le mo re t han i mpr es s ion is t ic c ompa r isons o f m a r ine v er sus t e rres t r ia l r e source s a tc oas ta l s i t es ( c . f . Mose ley 1 975 ) . T he re h as b een l i t t le a t temp t t oo u t l ine t h e i nd ica to r s o f i n c reas ing s pec ia l iza t ion i n as ys tema t ic w ay . F u ture r esea r ch a imed a t
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o u t l in ing a p rocess o f ma r i t ime s pe c ia l iza t ion mus t f o cus o n s i te s easona l i ty a nd o n t e chno logy , i n a dd i t ion t o s ubs is tence r ema ins . S t ud ies i n n o r thern C h i le d emons t ra te t ha t mar ine r e sources we re e x t reme ly i mpo r tan t t o A rcha ic p eop le s ( L lagos tera 1 979 ; Nur iez 1 983 ; S ch iappacasse a nd N iemeye r 1 984 ) , b u t f ur ther s ys tema t ic wo rk i sn ecessary t o u nde rs tand t he d eve lopmen t o f c oas t a l a dap ta t ions i n P e ru . I n o rde r t o u nder s tand t he p ro cess o f mar i t ime s pec ia l iza t ion t h roughou t t he S ou th -Cen t ra l Andes , f ur the r wo rk mus t f o cus o n i den t i f ica t ion o f A rcha ic s i tes a l ong t he c oas t , e va lua t ion o f p opu la t ion t r ends , q uan t i ta t ive a sses smen t o f r e la t ive c on t r ibu t ions o f mar ine v e rsus t e r re s t r ia l r e sources , s easona l i ty s t ud ies , a nd a na ly s is o f t e chno logy f o r d egree o f s pec ia l iza t ion .
A rchaeo log ica l B ackg round Human o ccupa t ion o f t h e Andean r eg ion e x tends b ack t o t he L a te P le is to cene , when mob i le p opu la t ions may h ave c oncen t ra ted o n h un t ing l a rge mamma ls ( Lynch 1 983 ; Nu f iez 1 983 ) . T here i s e v idence o f h uman o ccupa t ion i n a l l z ones , i n c lud ing t he c oas t , d ur ing t h is p er iod . P a leo ind ian s i tes f r om t h e c oas ta l r eg ion h ave b een r epo r ted b y R ichardson ( 1 978 ) , b y O ssa a nd Mose ley ( 1 97 1 ; O ssa 1 978 ) , i n P eru , a nd b y Nu f iez e t a l . ( 1 983 ) i n n o r thern Ch i le . Nu f iez e t .a l . ( 1 983 ) r epo r t sma l l p e rcen tages o f mar ine f auna i n t h e e ar l ies t l e ve ls o f Que reo I ,i nd ica t ing s ome u se o f c oas ta l r e sources b y 1 2 ,000 B .P . Nu f iez ( 1 983 ) d iv ide s t h e A rcha ic p e r iod o f n or the rn C h i le i n to : E ar ly A r cha ic 1 0 ,000 t o 7 , 000 B .P . , M idd le A rcha ic 7 , 000 t o 5 , 000 B P , a nd L a te A rcha ic a s 5 , 000 t o 2 , 500 B P , a l though o the r a u tho rs s ugges t t ha t t h e A rcha ic p e r iod i n P eru a nd C h i le e nds a t a bou t 4 000 B P ( c .f . L umb re ras 1 978 ; L ynch 1 983 ; S an toro a nd C hacama 1 982 ) . T he A rcha ic p e r iod i s c harac ter ized b y s ubs is tence b ased o n ab road r ange o f r e sour ces t ha t b ecame a va i lab le d ur ing t he p os t -P le is tocene p e r iod , b y i n creas ing l o ca l d ive rs i ty i n a r t ifac t t ypes a nd s t y les among d i f fe ren t g roup s , a nd b y c hanges i n t he s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s ys tem s o f Andean p eop les ( Nur iez 1 983 ; MacNe ish e t .a l . 1 975 ) . C oas ta l g roups d eve loped d is t inc t ive t e chno log ies f o r e x t rac t ing r e sources , p ar t icu lar ly f i sh , f r om t he s ea ( B ird 1 943 ; Nur iez 1 983 ; T rue 1 975 ) . Dome s t ica ted p lan t s , s ubs tan t ia l a r ch i tec ture a nd p e rmanen t s e t t lemen ts a ppear b y t he L a te A rcha ic . C oas ta l s i tes f r om b e fore 5 000 o r 6 000 B P a r e r a re i n P e ru , b u t t hey h ave b een f ound i n t h e Moche a rea ( R ichardson 1 978 ) a nd i n t h e C h icama V a l ley ( Chaucha t 1 978 ) , a nd i n Moquegua ( R ichardson 1 986 ) . E nge l ( 1 973 ) r epo r t s s he l l m idden s i tes i n t he l oma s , s ome t imes m i les f r om t h e c oas t , d a t ing t o a s e ar ly a s 9 000 B .P . , a nd B en fe r ( 1 986 ) r epo r t s a n e x tens ive M idd le t o L a te A rcha ic s i te i n t he l oma s o f P a loma . We l l d o cu men ted d a ta i nd ica te t ha t mar ine r e sources w e re b e ing c o l lec ted , a long w i th t e r res t r ia l f l o ra a nd f auna , a t n ume rous s i te s i n n o r thern C h i le t h roughou t t he A rcha ic p e r iod ( A lan iz 1 973 ; B i rd 1 943 ; L lagos tera 1 979 ; Nu f iez 1 983 ; O lmos a nd S anhueza 1 984 ; S ch iappacasse a nd N iemeye r 1 984 ; T rue 1 975 ; Z la tar 1 983 ) . T he E ar ly A rcha ic p er iod i n t he S ou th -Cen t ra l Andes i sr ep resen ted b y t h e R ing S i te i n P e ru ( R ichardson 1 986 ) a s w e l l a s L as C onchas ( L lagos tera 1 979 ) a nd Huen te laqu & i ( Nu l lez 1 983 ) i n n o r the rn C h i le . A l l t h ree s i tes a re s he l l m iddens , c on ta in ing l a rge amoun t s o f f i sh a nd s he l l f ish r ema ins . Ana lys is o f R ing S i te ma ter ia ls i s o ngo ing , b u t i n it ia l i nd ica t ions a re t h a t a lmos t a l l o f t he s ubs is tence r e sources r e covered f r om t h e s i te
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a re mar ine s pec ies . F i sh , s he l l f ish , a nd s e a ma mma ls a re p resen t , a s a re s ho re b i rds ( R ichardson 1 986 , p ersona l c ommun ica t ion ) . L lagos tera 's ( 1 979 ) a na lys is o f ma ter ia ls f r om L as C onchas r evea l t he p resence o f 2 4 f i sh s pec ies , a s we l l a s s he l l f ish , s e a mamma ls , a nd s ea b i rds . Huen te lauqu n h as n o t b een r e searched e x ten s ive ly , b u t f i sh a nd s he l l f ish a ccompany E ar ly A r cha ic a r t i fac t s ( Nuf tez 1 983 ) a t t h is s i te . I n a dd i t ion t o t hese c oas ta l s i tes , t wo i n land s i tes , T i l iv iche 1a nd P i chas ca ( Nuf iez 1 983 ) c on ta in mar ine s ubs is tence r e sour ces a s we l l . M idd le A rcha ic s i tes f r om t he c oas t i n c lude C amarones 1 4 ( Shc iappacasse a nd N iemeye r 1 984 ) a nd Qu ian i ( B ird 1 943 ; L lagos tera 1 979 ) . T he a r t i fac t s equence f r om Qu ian i was t he b as is f o r B i rd 's ( 1 943 , 1 946 ) S he l l F i shhook a nd T ho rn F i shhook c u lture s . Qu ian i c on ta ins a lmos t e xc lus ive ly c oas ta l r e sources , a nd n ume rous f i sh ing t oo ls ( B i rd 1 943 ) . C amarones 1 4 i s a s he l l m idden l o ca ted a t a r i ve r mouth t h a t h as b een r e searched e x tens ive ly b y S ch iappacasse a nd N iemeye r ( 1 984 ) . T hey r ecove red a w ide r ange o f c oas ta l r e sources , a s we l l a s many t e r res t r ia l s pec ies . S eve ra l M idd le A r cha ic s i tes f ound i n land a l so c on ta in t he r e ma ins o f c oas t a l r e sources . T hese a re A ragen 1 ,P i chas ca , T rarpacä 1 A , a nd T i l iv iche 1 ( Nu ii e z 1 983 ) . L a te A rcha ic c oas ta l s i tes a re n ume rous , a nd c on ta in e v idence o f e x ten s ive u se o f t h e c oas ta l e nv ironmen t f o r s ubs is tence . C oas ta l s i te s f r om t h is p e r iod i n c lude Ab tao 1 ( L lagos tera 1 979 ) , C a le ta Hue len 4 2 ( Z la tar 1 983 ) , C a t iamo 1 ( O lmos a nd S anhueza 1 984 ) , C aramucho 3 ( O lmos a nd S anhueza 1 984 ) , Guanaque ro s ( Nu t iez 1 983 ) , L a Herradura ( A lan iz 1 973 ) , as er ies o f m iddens o f P un ta B lanca ( L lagos te ra 1 979 ) , P un ta P i cha lo ( B ird 1 943 ; Nu t iez 1 97 1 ; T rue 1 975 ) , P un ta T ea t ino s ( Nu f iez 1 983 ) , a nd T a l ta l s i tes i n c lud ing C er ro C o lorado a nd P un ta Mo rada ( B ird 1 943 ; T rue 1 975 ) . Coas ta l r esour ce s a re a l so f ound a t t he i n land s i tes o f C onanoxa a nd P i chas ca ( Nuf iez 1 983 ) . Our u nder s tand ing o f t he i n tens i ty o f u se o f t he c oas ta l r eg ion o f t he s ou th -cen t ra l Andes d ur ing t he A rcha ic p er iod r ema in s i n comp le te . I ti sn o t y e t c l ear h ow s pec ia l ized A rcha ic p e r iod c oas ta l t e chno log ies w e re , o r h ow c oas ta l s e t t lemen t s ys tems a re r e la ted t o h igh land s e t t lemen t s y s tems . A r cha ic p er iod r esear ch i n t he O smore r eg ion i sf ocused o n t hese q ue s t ions .
T he S tudy A rea E nv ironmen t S eve ra l f a c to rs make t h e c oas t o f Moquegua a n i d ea l a rea f o r s t udy ing e a r ly c oas t a l a dap ta t ions . R ichardson ( 1 98 1 ) o bserves t h a t , i n c on t ras t t o mos t o f P eru , r e la t ive ly l i t t le o f t he c oas t l ine h as b een l o s t t o s ea l e ve l r i se i n t h is r eg ion . I n t h e c oas ta l z one , many d i f fe ren t e nv ironmen ta l z ones a re f ound c l ose t oge the r , i n c lud ing t h e s hore , l oma s , l owe r Moquegua V a l ley , a nd sma l l q uebr ada s . F ur ther , t h e O smo re d ra inage s ys tem i s r e la t ive ly s ho r t , a nd i ti s o n ly a pp rox ima te ly 1 25 km f r om t he c oas t t o t h e a l t ip lano i n t he Moquegua r eg ion . I n terac t ion o r t r anshumance a c ro ss v e r t ica l e co log ica l z ones , i fi t o ccur red a nywhere , c ou ld h ave o ccur red q u i te e as i ly h e re . T he c oas ta l s ec t ion o f t he D epar tmen t o f Moquegua , P e ru , l i es b e tween 1 7 ° Sa nd 1 8 ° Sl a t itude . I ti sa pp rox ima te ly 5 0 km n or th o f t he b o rder b e tween P eru a nd Ch i le , a nd t hus i s e nv ironmen ta l ly s im i lar t o n or the rn C h i le . P rec ip i ta t ion a verages m easured a t
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I t o a nd a n P un ta C o le s ( s ee F igu re 1 ) a re 5 . 3 mm a nd 2 . 8 mm , r e spe c t ive ly ( ONERN 1 976 ) . R a in fa l l i s r a re , a l though t h ick f og t h a t i s a lmo s t ad r izz le d oe s o ccur i n t he w in t e r mon ths . T empe ra ture s a ve rage 1 8 .3 C , w i th a s umme r max imum o f 2 1 .2 C a nd a w in t e r m in i mum o f 1 6 .8 C . T here a re a pp rox ima te ly 4 0 km o f c oas t l ine w i th in t h e b ounda r ies o f t h e d epar tmen t . T he mou th o f t h e R io O smo re i sj u s t n o r th o f t he t own o f I l o . T he re a re n ume rous s ma l l q uebr ada s d e s cend ing o u t o f t h e h i l ls o n e i the r s i de o f t he r i ve r , s ome o f t he se c on ta in s ur face o r s ub sur face s our ces o f w a t e r wh ich a re e xp lo i ted b y r anche r s a nd f a rme r s t oday . T he c oas ta l s e c t ion t h e Moquegua r eg ion may b e d iv ided i n to t h ree d i s t inc t p hy s io g raph ic z ones wh ich a r e d is t ingu ished o n t h e b as is o f g eo log ic a nd t opog raph ic d i f f e r ences ( a f te r B e l l ido a nd Guevara 1 963 ; N a rvaez 1 964 ) . T hese a r e : t he c oas ta l b e l t , t he c oas t r ange ( Co rd i l le ra d e l aC os ta ) , a nd t h e c oas ta l p l a ins . T he c oas ta l b e l t i n c lude s t he b eache s a nd t h e t e r race s b eh ind t hem , e x t end ing i n land f r om t h e o cean t h ree t o s even km , e xcep t f o r t h e a rea b e tween A guas B uenas a nd P un ta C a l lango ( s ee F igure 1 ) , whe re i td i sappear s a l toge the r . T he c oas ta l b e l t r ange s f r om 0 -400 m e te r s i n e l eva t ion , a nd i sc ha rac ter ized b y as e r ie s o f mar ine t e r races wh ich h ave b een u p l i f t ing s i nce t h e t e r t iary ( Na rvaez 1 964 ) . T hese t e r race s r un p ara l le l t o t he b eache s , a nd s l ope t oward t h e o cean a s t h ey r i se u pwa rd i n as t ep l ike p a t te rn . T he ir s ur f ace s a re mo s t ly g rave l a nd s and . A bove t he c oas t a l b e l t l i es t he c oas t r ange , r e ach ing f r om 4 00 -1 000 o r mo re me te r s i n e l eva t ion w i th in n o mo re t han a bou t f i ve km o f t he o cean . I ti sp ar t o f t he C o rd i l le ra d e l aC o s ta , wh ich r uns p a ra l le l t o t h e c oas t f r om t h e P aracas P en in su la i n to C h i le . T he C o rd i l le ra i s p ar t o f a n a nc ien t moun ta inous b lo ck c ons is t ing o f p lu ton ic , v o lcan ic , a nd s endemen tary r o ck , wh ich h as b een c u t b y t r ansve r se f a u l t s a nd e roded a way t o f o rm a l ow moun ta in r ange o f v a r iab le r e l ie f a nd g en t le t opog raphy ( Be l l ido a nd Guevara 1 963 ; N arvaez 1 964 ) . I ti sv e ry d ry , a nd d ra inage i sg ene ra l ly d endr i t ic a nd i r regu lar . F u r ther i n land l i e s t h e c oas ta l p l a in , wh ich r i ses g radua l ly f r om 1 000 t o 1 300 M .A .S .L . T he p l a in f i l ls a d epr es s ion t h a t l i e s b e tween t h e c oas t r ange a nd t h e f oo t o f t h e A nde s . I t i s f o rmed b y t he a c cumu la t ion o f c l as t ic s ed imen t f r om t h e A nde s ( Be l l ido a nd Guev ara 1 963 ; N arvaez 1 964 ) . T he p l a in f o rms a r e la t ive ly f l a t , n or theas t -sou thwe s t s l op ing p la in , wh ich i sc u t b y t h e O smore a nd s ma l le r , d ry d ra inages . A s i st r ue o f mo s t o f c oas ta l P e ru a nd C h i le , t h is r eg ion i s ad e ser t . T he mou th o f t he R io O smor e i s g ene r a l ly d ry , e xcep t d ur ing a f ew w in te r mon th s . T he re a r e a n umbe r o f s ma l l q uebr ad a s d es cend ing o u t o f t he h i l ls t o t h e n o r th o f t he r i ve r , m any o f wh ich c on ta in s ur face o r s ubsu r f ace s ource s o f w a te r t h a t a re e xp lo i ted b y r anche r s a nd f a rme r s t oday . T o t he s ou th o f t he r i ve r t h e re a re many d ry q u ebr ad a s , b u t t h e re a re o n ly t wo ma jo r w a te r h o le s , a nd o ne o the r q u ebr ad a w i th s ome s ma l le r h o le s . A n u mber o f d i f fe ren t r e sou rce z ones m ay b e d i s t ingu ished a l ong t h e Moquegua c oa s t , e ach c on ta in ing a d i s t inc t s e t o f n a tu ra l r e sou rce s . T hese a re t h e b eaches , t he l om a s , t h e r i ve r v a l ley , a nd t h e s pr ing f ed q ueb r ad a s . T he b eache s c on ta in a n umbe r o f i mpor tan t c oas ta l r e sou rce s s uch a s s he l l f ish , f i sh , b i rds , a nd s ea mamma ls . T her e a r e b o th r o cky a nd s andy b eaches a nd b o t toms , t h a t p rov ide h ab i ta t s f o r b o th r o ck a nd s and dwe l l ing m ar ine l i f e . T he re a r e af ew s ma l l
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K.W I S E ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD RE S EA R CH I NT H E LO W E R OS MO R E RE G ION
b ay s a nd c ove s t h a t a re s l igh t ly mo re p ro te c ted t h an mo s t o f t h e c oas t , w i th w e l l d eve loped l i t to ra l z one s . I n g ene ra l , t he b eache s a r e a s sumed t o h ave b een i mpo r t an t p a t che s f o r p reh is to r ic h un te r -ga the re r s i n Moquegua , v a luab le f o r b o th t h e r e sou r ce s t hey c on t a in , a nd f o r t h e m ar ine r e sources t h a t l i e b eyond t h em . I n mos t a reas , as t re t ch o f f l a t , b a r ren c oa s ta l d ese r t l i e s b e tween t h e b each a nd t he h i l l s . T h is f l a t p l a in v a r ie s i n w id th , a nd i sa lmo s t n on -ex is ten t i n s ome s e c t ions whe re t he h i l ls c ome d own a lmos t t o t h e o cean . A l though i n p l aces i t i s c u t b y d ry q ue b r ad a s , t here i s v i r tua l ly n o w a te r , a nd i ti se s sen t ia l ly b ar ren o f a ny i mpo r tan t f ood r esou r ce s f o r h un te r -ga the re rs . I ti sa d jacen t t o t h e b each , a nd o f ten c l o se t o t h e h i l ls whe r e t h e l oma s a re f ound a s w e l l . R ad io carbon d a tes o f s he l l a nd c o qu ina d epo s i t s s ugge s t t ha t t he r a te o f u p l i f t a l ong t he Moquegua c oas t i s q u i te r ap id ( R . F e ldman p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion 1 984 ) , a nd t r ace s o f o ld s ho re l ines s ugge s t t h a t t h e re w as o nce a l a rge b ay i n a t l e as t o ne a r ea s ou th o f I l o . F u r the r s t ud ies o f t h e g eomo rpho logy a nd p a leoenv ironmen t a re r equ i red b e fo re w e c an d e te rm ine t h e e xac t n a tu re o f t h e c hanges t h a t h ave t a ken p lace d ur ing t he p e r iod o f h uman o ccupa t ion , b u t a e r ia l p ho tog raph s s ugge s t t h a t w e l l d eve loped a nd p ro t e c t ed b ay s o nce e x is ted s ou th o f t h e t own o f I l o , a l ong wha t i sn ow t he P ampa d e l P a lo . T he l oma s o f Moquegua v a ry i n t h e ir e x ten t a nd p hys iog raphy . S ou th o f t h e r i ver , t hey a r e e x tens ive a nd f a ir ly f l a t . No r th o f t h e r i ve r , t h ey a r e s ma l le r a nd mo re b roken u p , a nd a re f ound o n s t eepe r s l ope s . Wh i le n o t a s r i ch a s s ome o f t h e l oma s f i e lds i n c en t ra l a nd n o r the rn P e ru , t he Moquegua l oma s d o e xh ib i t s easona l f og -dependen t v eg e t a t ion . We ir a nd D e r ing ( 1 986 ) d emons t ra t e t h a t n ume rous l oma s p l an t s c ou ld b e h a rve s ted f o r h uman u se a nd c onsump t ion . S easona l v ege ta t ion i n t h e l oma s a l so p rov ided p as tu re f o r a n ima ls , a nd t hus a s e asona l h un t ing g round f o r h un te r -ga the re r s . T he R io O smo re i s t h e ma jo r d ra inage o f c oas ta l Moquegua ( s ee D . R ice , t h is v o lume ) . I ti s as ma l le r a nd l e s s i mpo r tan t r i ve r t h an m any o f t hos e f ound t o t he n o r th . L ike t h e L ocumba , t he S ama , a nd t h e C ap i l ina t o t h e s ou th o f Moquegua , i th as s ma l l d is cha rge o f w a te r , a nd t oday i r r iga te s f a r l e s s l a nd t h an o the r r i ve r s t o t he n o r th . Neve r the less , w i th a n a nnua l d i s charage o f 6 0 .3 m i l l ion c ub ic me te r s ( Rob inson 1 964 ) , i t i s t h e ma jo r s our ce o f w a ter o n t h e Moquegua c oas t , p rov id ing i r r iga t ion w a ter s f o r o l ive g roves i n t h e r i ve r v a l ley , a nd d r ink ing w a te r ( pa r t ly t h rough p ump ing o f t he s ub t e r ranean w a te r s a t t h e mou th o f t h e r i ve r ) f o r I l o ( ONERN 1 976 ) . L i t t le i s k nown o f t he n a t ive v ege ta t ion o f t h e r i ve r v a l ley . P r io r t o t h e a dven t o f h o r t icu l ture , t he O smo re v a l ley , l i ke o the r r i ve r v a l leys i n P e ru , mus t h ave c on ta ined a r ang e o f v ege ta t ion t h a t w as a va i lab le e xc lus ive ly w i th in t he r i ve r v a l ley . I t w as p rob ab ly a l so a n i mpo r tan t h ab i ta t f o r a n ima l l i f e , s i nce w a t er a nd f ood wou ld h ave b een c oncen t ra ted t he re , i n marked c on t ras t t o t he s ur round ing b ar ren d eser t . T he r i ve r v a l ley c an b e c ons idered a l i nea r s e c t ion o f e x t reme ly c l us te red r e sou r ce s . Wa t e r , v ege t a t ion , a nd a n ima ls , i n c lud ing f i sh a nd f r eshwa te r s he l l f ish , w e re a l l c oncen t rated t h e re i n d ens e c l us te r s r e la t ive t o o the r t e r res t r ia l e nv ironmen t s . T he r i ve r v a l ley w as c e r ta in ly t he b e s t p a t ch f o r e xp lo i t ing t e r re s t r ia l r e sour ce s o f a l l k inds .
9 1
E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 5
T he r i ve r v a l ley i sa l so r e la t ive ly c en t ra l t o t h e b eaches a nd t h e l oma s . A l though t h e l i ve f l ow o f t he r i ver d oe s n o t r e ach t h e o cean f o r mo s t o f t he y ear , t he w e s t e rn p o r t ion o f t h e r i ve r , n ea re s t t o t h e s ho re , i sn o t mo re t h an a f ew k i lome te r s f r om t h e b each . T o t h e s ou th , t he l om a s i ss epara ted f r om t h e r i ve r v a l ley o n ly b y s t eep s l opes . I n s um , t h e r i ve r v a l ley s hou ld b e c ons ider ed a n a t t rac t ive p a t ch f o r c oas ta l h un te r -ga the rers . I n a dd i t ion , i f movemen t o r c on tac t w i th a r eas f u r the r i n land o ccur red , t he r i ve r v a l ley w a s p robab ly a n i mpo r tan t r ou te o f c o mmun ica t ion , e x change , o r movemen t s , s i nce i t p rov ide s t he o n ly s e cu re r ou te t h rough e x t reme ly d ry d ese r t t o t h e s i e r ra . T he s p r ing fed q ue br ad a s c an b e c on s ide red s ma l l v e r s ions o f t h e r i ver v a l ley i n t e rm s o f t h e r e sour ces a va i lab le a t t h em . On a s ma l ler s c a le , t h e s p r ing s a re s ou r ce s o f w a t e r , v ege ta t ion , a nd a n ima ls t ha t w e re a t t rac ted t o t h ese r e sour ce s . T hese s ma l l s p r ing f ed q u ebr ad a s c an b e c ons ide red s ma l l , r e l iab le p a t ches f o r t h e ma jo r t e r re s t r ia l r e sour ce s . T he ir s ma l l s i ze , h oweve r , makes t hem much l e s s r i ch p a t ches t han t he r i ve r v a l ley . T he q u ebr ad a s a r e g ene ra l ly l o ca ted w i th in c l os e p rox im i ty ( one t o t wo k i lome te rs ) o f t h e o cean , a nd a re o f ten j u s t b e low t h e l oma s . A s n o ted a bove , t h e re i s s ome e nv i ronmen ta l a nd t opog raph ic v ar ia t ion n or th t o s ou th a l ong t h e c oas t o f Moquegua . I n t h e f a r n o r the rn s e c t ion o f t he c oa s t , n or th o f A guas B uenas ( s ee F igu re 1 ) , t h e t e r ra in c l o se t o t h e o cean i ss t eep . H i l ls r i s e u p a lmo s t i mmed ia te ly i n land f r om t h e c oas ta l c l i f f s , w i th i n te rm i t ten t s ma l l p la in s i n b e tween , h igh a bove t h e o cean . B e tween A gua B uenas a nd I l o , t h ere a r e an umbe r o f s ma l l s pr ing fed q ue b r ad a s c om ing d own o u t o f t h ese h i l ls wh ich h ave s uppo r ted a g r icu l ture s i nce p re ce ram ic t ime s ( C lemen t a nd Mose ley 1 986 ) . T o t h e s ou th t he c oa s t a l p la in i s w ide r a nd t h e c l i f f s a re s ho r te r . T he re a r e a l so l a rge a r eas , s uch a s t he mou th o f t h e R io O smo re , whe re t h e re a r e n o c l i f f s a nd t he p l a ins e x tend t o t he b each . H e re t he h i l l s a r e f a r the r a way f r om t he s ho re . S t eep q ue br ada s c ome d own f r om t hem a nd c u t d eep ly i n to t h e p l a in . T hese h i l ls r i se u p i n to t h e l oma s , wh ich i s g ene ra l ly w i th in a s ho r t d i s tan ce o f t h e o cean . Af ew s p r ings e x is t i n t h ese h i l ls a s w e l l . A l though t he b eaches a r e e xpo sed a nd c o ld , t h e s p r ing s t h emse lves m igh t h ave b een s u i tab le a s c en t ra l l o ca t ions f o r h un te r -ga the re r s . T hes e wou ld p rov ide i mmed ia te a cce s s t o w a te r a nd o the r a s soc ia ted r e sour ces , a s w e l l a s ac l ose p rox im i ty t o t h e b eache s . T he s p r ing s a r e a l so c l o se t o t h e l oma s p a t che s i n t h e h i l ls . S ou th o f t h e r i ve r , d i s tance s b e tween z one s a re s l igh t ly g rea te r , a nd c en t ra l l o ca t ion s m ay h ave b een mo re i mpo r tan t . H e re , s e t t lemen t s a re e xpe c ted t o c en te r o n t h e c oas ta l d ese r t , w i th in s ho r t d i s tan ces o f w a te r a nd t h e b eache s . T he s pr ing s t h emse lve s , e spec ia l ly s i nce t h ere a re s o f ew , may s t i l l h ave b een i mpo r tan t s i tes f o r s e t t lemen t . P rev ious R e search T he e ar ly p r eh is to ry o f t h e Moquegua r eg ion i sp oo r ly k nown . T he T oquepa la C ave s i n t h e s i e r ra z one p rov ide i n fo rma t ion o n t h e A r cha ic s equence o f t he h igh land s ec t ion o f t h e r eg ion ( Rav ine s 1 972 ) , b u t i ti s n o t c l ea r h ow c l o se ly r e la ted t h is s equence i s t o t h e c oas t a l s equence . O the r s i te s f r om s ur round ing a r eas a l so p rov ide i n fo rma t ion o n h igh land o ccupa t ions ( Bonav ia a nd R av ine s 1 972 ) . A ldender fe r 's ( n .d .a , n . d .b , t h i s v o lume ) wo rk i n t h e s i e r ra a nd t h e a l t ip l ano d emons t r a tes a s ub s tan t ia l A r cha ic p er iod o ccupa t ion o f t h e h igh land z one s o f t h e r eg ion , a nd p rov ide s a n i mpo r t an t b as is f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e e ar ly p reh is to ry o f s ou the rn P e ru . T he s equence f r om n o r thern C h i le
9 2
K.W I S E ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD RE S EA R CH I NT H E LO W ER OS MOR E RE G ION
i sw e l l d eve loped f o r a l l e co log ica l z one s , s ugges t ing t ha t s e t t lemen t i n a l l z ones e x tends b ack t o t he P a leo ind ian p e r iod ( Nur iez 1 983 ) . R esearch i n to t he e a r ly o ccupa t ion o f t h e c oas ta l z one o f Moquegua b egan i n 1 983 when P rog rama C on t isuyu a r chaeo log is t s b egan r e conna issance s urvey a ided b y c o l le c to rs a nd l o ca ls , a nd B aumann ( n .d .a , n .d .b ) b egan a s t udy o f t he e ar ly p ro je c t i le p o in t s i n l o ca l c o l le c t ions . T he ma jo r i ty o f t he wo rk i n c luded t h e r e co rd ing o f 3 5 s i te s o n t h e c oas t , d a t ing f r om v a r ious p e r iods . Mo s t o f t he s i te s r e co rded o n t he c oas ta l p la in a re s he l l m idden s , m any o f wh ich a ppea r t o b e p re ce ram ic . Many o f t h e o the r s i t e s r e co rded a re i n t he l oma s . T hese c ons is t ma in ly o f a r t i fac t s c a t te r s d a t ing f r om E a r ly A rcha ic ( b ased o n s im i la r i t ie s i n p ro jec t i le p o in t s t o t hose f ound a t T oquepa la a nd e l s ewhere ) t o h i s to r ic t ime s . I n 1 983 , 1 985 , a nd 1 987 , t e s t e xcava t ions o f t he S he l l R ing S i t e ( R ichardson 1 986 ; S andwe iss , e t a l . , t h is v o lume ) , as he l l m idden o n t h e P ampa d e l P a lo b each , s ou th o f I l o , y i e lded s he l ls o f v a r ious s pe c ie s o f mo l lusk i n c lud ing Me sode sma , C ho romy t i lus , a nd T rach icard ium . S amp le s w e re t aken f r om mos t o f t h e 1 6 l e ve ls b ear ing s he l l a nd/o r a sh . S amp le s f r om v ar ious l e ve ls , y i e lded A r cha ic d a tes , i n c lud ing 7 8 10+ 1 05 ( S I -6930 ) , f r om l e ve l 5 ; 7 675+60 ( S I -6784 ) , f r om l e ve l 6 ; 8 755+120 ( S I -693 1 ) , f r om l e ve l 7 ; a nd 1 0575+105 (S I -6783 ) , f r om l e ve l 1 6 ( R icha rdson 1 986 ) . T hese d a te s s ugges t t h a t t h is c ou ld b e o ne o f t h e e a r l ies t s i te s k nown f r om t h e c oas t o f P e ru . F ur the r s amp le s , s ome o f wh ich a re s he l l a nd o the r s wh ich a re c ha r coa l , a r e c ur ren t ly b e ing s ubm i t ted . S u rvey D a ta F u r ther s u rvey wo rk i n Moquegua , a imed p a r t icu la r ly a t t h e A r cha ic o ccupa t ion o f t h e r eg ion , w as c on t inued i n 1 984 , 1 985 , a nd 1 986 u nde r t h e a usp ice s o f t h e No r thwe s t e rn U n ive rs i ty A r cha ic P ro je c t ( NUAP ) ( A ldende r fe r n .d .a , n .d .b , t h is v o lume ; W ise a nd A ldender fe r 1 985 ) . On t h e c oas t , t wo t ypes o f A r cha ic s i te s w e re d i s t ingu ished : a r t i fac t s c a t te r s i n t h e l oma s ; a nd d epos i t s o f s he l l a nd a sh , f ound o n t h e p ampas a nd a l ong q u e b r ad a s (W ise a nd A ldender fe r 1 985 ) . L oma s S i t e s . T he l oma s o f t h e I l o r eg ion h ave b een k nown A rcha ic s i te s f o r many y e a r s ( Rav ine s 1 972 ) . P ro je c t i le p o in t s a nd o the r a r t i fac t s s ugges t h uman u se o f t he l om a s f r om a t l e as t t he E ar ly A rcha ic p e r iod t h rough mode rn t ime s . L o ca l c o l lec to r s h ave s hown B aumann a nd o the r P rog rama C on t isuyu p e r sonne l many o f t h e i r f avo r i te s po t s f o r f i nd ing a r t i fac t s , a nd b o th B aumann a nd F e ldman r e co rded a n umbe r o f t h ese a rea s a s s i te s ( R . F e ldman , p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion ) . T hese s i te s o r ig ina l ly s eemed t o h o ld p o ten t ia l f o r f u r the r s t udy , b u t s urvey a nd t e s t ing h ave i nd ica ted t h a t t h e re a re s eve ra l p rob lems wh ich l im i t t h e r e sea r ch p o ten t ia l o f t h is r eg ion : 1 )S urvey i n t h e l oma s r eg ion i nd ica te s t ha t a lmo s t a l l o f t h e l oma s a re c overed w i th a s c a t te r o f a r t i fac t s , a nd i t i sv e ry d i f f icu l t t o d e c ide whe re t he b oundar ie s o f o ne s i te e nd a nd a no the r s i te b eg in s , 2 ) A l though s ur face c oncen t ra t ions o f a r t i fac t s a r e d ense , p robe s i nd ica te t ha t t h e re i s l i t t le o r n o a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l b e low t he s u r face . L oma s s i tes a r e g ene ra l ly w ind d e f la ted , a nd t h e re i sl i t t le i fa ny p o s s ib i l i ty o f e x cava t ions a t a ny o f t he se s i te s , 3 ) L oca l c o l le c to rs o f p ro je c t i le p o in t s a nd o the r a r t i fac t s h ave b een a c t ive f o r an umbe r o f y ear s . C o l le c t ing i s o f ten a f am i ly a c t iv i ty a nd s o me c o l lec to r s h ave e ven t a ken a r t i f ac t s b ack o u t t ot he g ene ra l a reas whe re t hey f ound t h em a nd r e -s ca t te red t h em f o r o the r s t o f i nd . I n s p i te o f t h ese p rob lems , s urvey a nd c o l le c t ion o f l oma s a r eas h as p rov ided s o me v a luab le d a ta . T he r ange o f a r t i fac t s i n c lude s m a te r ia l i s d iagno s t ic o f v i r tua l ly a l l
9 3
E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap ter 5
p e r iods o f p reh is tory a nd h i s to ry . A l though t h er e a r e n o P a leo Ind ian a r t i f ac t s i n t h e c o l le c t ions o f t he P rog rama , s ome c o l le c to r s d o n o t h ave a ppa ren t p a leo p o in t s wh ich t h ey s ay c ome f r om t he l oma s . P ro je c t i le p o in t s d a t ing f r om t h e A rcha ic p e r iod a r e p l en t i fu l , a nd i nd ica te s ome u se o f t h e l oma s t h roughou t t he A r cha ic p er iod . G round a nd c h ipped s t one t oo ls a nd d eb r is a l so a bound , a s w e l l a s p reh is to r ic a nd h is to r ic p o t te ry , me ta l , g l as s , a nd r e cen t g a rbage f r om s ma l l c amp s i te s . S h e l l a nd A sh M idden s . S he l l a nd a sh d epo s i t s v ary f r om s ma l l l e n se s t ha t a r e e xposed i n t h e q ue br ada s t o l a rge s he l l m iddens . A l though s ome o f t he m idden s i tes o n t he P ampa d e l P a lo c on ta in A r cha ic p ro jec t i le p o in t s , m any a re a l so b ad ly d ef la ted , a nd c on ta in n o b ur ied d epo s i t s a t a l l . B ur ied l e ns es o f s he l l a nd c arbon d o e x is t i n land f r om t h e P ampa d e l P a lo , a t t he f oo t o f t he C oas t r ange . S ome o f t he se l e nses a r e e xposed b y q u ebr ad a c u t s b e tween C e r ro R edondo a nd C e r ro Hua ca L una ( s ee F igure 1 ) . S a mp le s t a ken f r om t h e l owe r l e ve ls o f f our o f t h ese l e nse s i n c lude s he l ls a nd c arbon . A s i ng le r ad iocarbon s amp le f r om o ne o f t h e l owe r l e nse s y i e lded a d a te o f 3 400+100BP ( Be t a 19549 ) , wh ich i sp robab ly n o t A rcha ic . L a rge r a nd mo re e x tens ive s he l l m idden s h ave b een f ound o n t he n o r th e nd o f t h e Moquegua c oas t a l ong s p r ing fed q ue br ada s , a nd a f ew s i te s a l ong t he q ueb r ad a s s ou th o f I l o h ave a l so b een i d en t i f ied . P o t te ry d i f fe rence s a nd t h e p resence o f a ce ram ic a rea s s ugge s t t h a t t h ese s i tes c on ta in mu l t ip le c omponen t s . T e s t e xcava t ions w i l l b e n ecessa ry t o c on f i rm A r cha ic o ccupa t ions s i nce t h e s i tes g ene ra l ly d o n o t c on ta in d iagno s t i c A rcha ic a r t i f ac t s . Mu l t icomponen t s i tes o f t h is k ind a r e f ound a t P o coma , C ar r iza l , a nd C huza ( s ee T ab le 1 ) . A no the r a ce ram ic s i te i s f ound a t L i cona . A l though t he a ges o f a ceram i c c omponen t s a t mos t o f t h e se s i te s h ave y e t t o b e d e te rm ined , as i ng le L a te A r cha ic d a t e f r om C a r r iza l p rov ide s e ncou rag ing e v iden ce o f A r cha i c u se o f t hese a reas . T es t ing a nd r ad iocarbon d a t ing a re t h e o n ly me thods a va i lab le f o r d e te rm in ing whe the r a ceram i c s i tes c on t a in A rcha ic ma te r ia ls . T e s t ing i s n e ce ssary a t a l l s i tes wh ich m ay c on ta in A r cha ic c omponen t s , a nd t e s t ing a t o ther s i tes w i thou t a ppa ren t a ce ra m ic a rea s , may a l so u ncove r b ur ied A r cha ic c omponen t s . S urvey r e su l t s i nd ica te e x tens ive u se o f t h e c oas t a l r eg ion o f Moquegua d ur ing t h e A rcha ic p e r iod . A rcha ic p ro jec t i le p o in t s a r e f ound t h roughou t t h e l oma s , a nd a re a l so r epo r ted f r om s eve ra l s i te s n ea r s p r ing s ( G . R odr iquez , p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion 1 984 ) . Wh i le s urvey i s i n su f f ic ien t t o d e te rm ine h ow i n tens ive A r cha ic s e t t lemen t i s , i t d oe s i lum ina t e s ome a spe c t s o f A r cha ic s e t t lemen t s ys tem s i n Moquegua . S u rvey i n t h e h igh lands r evea led t h a t l i th ic r aw ma t er ia l s a nd p ro j e c t i le p o in t s t y les , a s w e l l a s r o ck a r t , p rov ide e v idence f o r i n te rac t ion b e tween t he s i er r a a nd p una o f t he O smo re r eg ion ( W ise a nd A ldende r fe r 1 985 ) . I n t h e l ow lands , h ow eve r , n o e v idence w a s f ound f o r c onne c t ions b e twe en t h e c oas t a nd a ny i n land a reas . P ro je c t i le p o in t s t y le s f o und o n t h e c oas t a r e b road ly s im i la r t o A rcha ic p o in t s r epo r ted i n t h e S ou th -Cen t ra l A ndes ( e .g . R av ine s 1 972 ) , b u t r aw ma te r ia ls u sed w e re d i s t in ct ive t o t h e c oas t . Wh i le f ur the r s urvey i sn eces sary , n o i n land A rcha ic s i te s h ave b een i d en t i f ied t o d a te t h a t c on ta in a ny e v idence o f c oas ta l i nf luence . T es t E xcava t ions a t C a r r iza l T he s i te o f C ar r iza l i s a mu l t icomponen t s i te t h a t s u r rounds a s pr ing i n t h e q uebr ad a C ar r iza l . I ti sr ep resen ta t ive o f t h e s i te s f ound a t s p r ing fed q u eb r ad a s i n t ha t i tl i es c l o s e
9 4
K.W I S E ; AR CHA IC PE R IOD RE S EA R CH I NT H E LO W ER OS MO R E RE G ION
S ite
S ize
C arrizal
5 0
C huza
6 0m N -S x 4 0m E -W
x 5 0m
M aterial
P resent
S hell, f ish a nd m ammal s ome c hipped s tone
b one g round s tone
S hell, s ome g round s tone. S urface a rchitecture; p robably
L icona
5 00m a long q uebrada
C hipped
P ocoma
6 5m N -S x 2 50m E -W
S hell,
s tone,
l ater
Archaic p rojectile p oints
s ome b one,
g round a nd
c hipped s tone
T ab le 1 . K nown A cer am ic C omponen t s o f C oas t a l S i te s . S ee F igure 1 f o r l o ca t ions t o t h e o cean , i t c on ta ins a r t i fac t s r ep resen t a t ive o f al ong o ccupa t ion , a nd i s n ea r a s pr ing t h a t p roduce s w a te r t oday . T he s i te i s l o ca ted o n t he t e r race a bove t h e c oa s ta l p la in a t t he f oo t o f t he c oas t r ange . B e low t h e s i te t h e t e r ra in d rops i n t e r race s t owa rd t he o cean , whe re a r ocky b each l i e s b e low t h e s i te . A bove i tt h e t e r ra in i ss t eep , w i th s ome s parse l oma s v ege t a t ion v i s ib le i n t he d i s tan ce . O c cupa t ion o f C ar r iza l e x tends f r om t h e M idd le A r cha ic o r e a r l ie r t h rough h i s tor ic t o mode rn t imes . T he v a r ious c omponen t s o f t h e s i te a r e f ound o n e i the r s i de o f t he q ue b r ad a , a nd d i agnos t ic p o t tery i nd ica tes t h a t t h e l a te s t c omponen t s a r e a t t he l ow e nd o f t h e s i te , a nd t h e e a r l ie r c omponen t s h ighe r u p . C lemen t a nd Mose ley ( 1 986 ) a rgue t ha t t h is p a t te rn f o l low s t h e p at tern o f p rog re s s ive d ry ing o f t h e s p r ing , t h a t c aused t he o u t le t t o move l owe r t h rough t ime . T he A r cha ic c omponen t o f t h e s i te i sa n a r ea o f a pp rox ima te ly 5 0 x5 0 me ter s l y ing j u s t t o t he n o r th o f t h e m a in b r anch o f t h e q u eb r ad a C ar r iza l . I ti s t h e o n ly a ce ram ic a rea o f t he s i te wh ich c l ea r ly c on ta ins c u l tura l ma te r ia l . T he s ur face i su neven , c ove red w i th g round s t one , s he l l , a nd b one , a nd c on ta ins a s e r ies o f d ep res s ions , g ene ra l ly t h ree me t e r s o r mo re i n d iame t e r . T he a rea i sd e l im i ted b y t h e q ue br ad a a nd b y at r ibu tary o f t h e q uebr ad a wh ich b ranches o f f w es twa rd a t t h e n o r th e nd o f t h e a rea a nd t hen r e -en te r s t he ma in q ueb r ad a s t ream a t t he s ou th e nd o f t h e a rea . T he g round s l ope s g en t ly d own t o t he w e s t . Ao ne b y o ne me ter t e s t u n i t w as o pened a t t h e n o r th e nd o f t h e a r ea , a pp rox ima te ly t h re e m e te rs e as t o f t h e q ue br ad a t r ibu tary , a t t he n or th e dge o f o ne o f t he d ep re s s ions . T he u n i t w as e xcava ted t o 1 20 c m b e low t h e s u r face a l though c u l tura l ma te r ia l c on t inued b e low t h is l e ve l . Mu l t ip le l a ye r s o f s he l l , a sh , a nd s and w e re i den t i f ied . T he p re l im inary d a ta i nd ica te t h a t t h e s i te w as i n tens ive ly o ccup ied d u r ing t he A r cha ic p e r iod . L arge q uan t i t ie s o f s he l l a nd b one w e re r e cove red , a s w e l l a s g round s t one , c h ipped s t one d eb r is , a nd s ub s tan t ia l amoun t s o f c a rbon . T he s he l l r ema ins a r e mo s t ly f r om r ock dwe l l ing s pe c ie s , a nd t h e b one a ppea r s t o b e mos t ly f r om mar ine s pe c ie s , c omp r is ing b o th f i sh a nd s e a mamma ls . T he c u l tu ra l s t ra ta a l l c on ta ined a g ood d ea l o f s he l l , b u t t h e p ropor t ion o f s he l l t o s o i l m a t r ix v a r ied c on s ide rab ly . G ene ra l ly , t h e re w as much mo re s he l l i n t h e h ighe r
9 5
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 5
l a ye r s t ha t w as f ound l owe r d own ( S ee F igure 2 ) . mo rpho log ica l t oo ls w e re f ound .
L i th ic d eb r is w as u b iqu i tous , b u t n o
A r ad io carbon d a te o f 4 390+110 B P ( Be ta 18920 ) c ome s f r om a s a mp le o f b urned t a ken f r om s t ra tum e i gh t , 7 5 c m b e low t h e s u r face . T h is d a te s ugges ts t h a t t h e s i te w a s o ccup ied d u r ing t he L a te A rcha ic P e r iod . S i nce t h e t e s t e xcava t ion d id n o t r e ach s t e r i le s o i l , i ti sp os s ib le t h a t e ar l ie r o c cupa t ions u nde r l ie t he s e l e ve ls . T hese e xcava t ion s , wh i le p rov id ing o n ly p re l im inary d a ta , p rov ide t he f i r s t e v idence f o r A rcha ic o ccupa t ion o f a reas b es ide s t h e P ampa d e l P a lo , whe re t he S he l l R ing S i te i s l o ca ted . I t i s a f i r s t s t ep t owa rd c on f irm ing o c cupa t ion o f t h e s pr ing f ed q uebr ad a s d ur ing t h e A r cha ic p e r iod . S i nce s ur face s u rvey c an o n ly s ugge s t a r ea s t o t e s t f o r A rcha ic o ccupa t ion , f ur the r s ubsur face t e s t ing a t an umbe r o f l o ca t ions w i l l b e n eces sary t o c on f irm a ny mode l o f A rcha ic s e t t lemen t o f t h e c oa s t o f Moquegua . T e s t e xcava t ion s a t C a rr iza l , h oweve r , s ugges t t h a t s pr ing fed q u eb r ad a s w e re i mpo r t an t t o A rcha ic p eop le s .
C onc lus ions T h is p re l im inary wo rk , c o mb ined w i th R icha rdson ' s r e sear ch a t t h e R ing S i t e , p rov ide s a g ood d ea l o f i n forma t ion o n t h e A r cha ic o ccupa t ion o f t h e c oas t o f Moquegua . D a te s f r om t h e R ing S i te e s t ab l ish t he a n t iqu i ty o f o ccupa t ion o f t he c oas t a nd o f t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f mar i t ime r e sources . R ema in s f r om l oma s a nd c o as t b e lt s i te s , a s w e l l a s f r om s i te s a l ong t h e q ueb r ad a s t o t h e n o r th , i nd ica te a n e x ten s ive u se o f t h e c oas ta l z one t h roughou t t h e A r cha ic p e r iod . G ene ra l p a t te rns o f s e t t lemen t o n t he c oa s t c an a l so b e d i s t ingu ished . S ubs tan t ia l s i tes a r e f ound n o r th o f I l o i n t h e a r eas s ur round ing t h e s p r ing fed q u ebr ad a s , a nd s ou th o f I l o o n t he P ampa d e l P a lo a l ong o ld b each l i ne s . I ti s n o t y e t c l ear whe the r t h ese s i tes a r e c on tempo raneous o r whe ther t hey r ep resen t s im i lar t ypes o f o ccupa t ion , b u t o ngo ing r e sear ch b y R ichardson a nd c on t inu ing wo rk b y NUAP s hou ld c l ar i fy t h e A rcha ic s equence o f t h e r eg ion . T e s t e xcava t ions a t an umbe r o f s i tes w i l l b e n e ce ssary t o d a te t h e s i te s , a nd mo re e x tens ive e xcava t ions w i l l c l ar i fy t h e t ypes o f o ccupa t ion s t h ey r ep re sen t . S ca t te r s o f A rcha ic ma te r ia ls o ccur i n land f r om t h e se mo re s ubs tan t ia l s i t e s , e spec ia l ly i n t he l oma s . T he e xposed l e nse s a t t he b ase s o f t h e h i l ls may r epresen t l a te A rcha ic s pe c ia l u se s i tes . T he p ro je c t i le p o in t s f ound a t t he se s i tes d emons t ra te t h e u se o f t h e c oas t t h roughou t t h e A r cha ic p e r iod , a nd c on f irm A r cha ic u se o f t he l om a s f o r h un t ing a nd p o s s ib ly o the r a c t iv i t ie s . T he l o ca t ions o f a l t h e s i tes s ugges t s e t t lemen t p a t te rn i n wh ich l ong e r t e rm a nd mo re i n tens ive ly o ccup ied s i te s w e re s i tua ted i n c en t ra l l o ca t ions whe re t he mo s t i mpo r tan t r e sour ce s , m ar ine r e sou rce s , w e re e as i ly a c ces s ib le . T he l o ca t ion o f t he R ing S i te a l ong t h e s ho re o f a n a nc ien t b ay , n o t f a r f r om t h e l oma s , a nd t he l o ca t ions o f t h e s i t es a t C a r r iza l , P o coma , a nd C huza , wh ich a r e n o t o n ly c l ose t o t he o cean b u t a r e f ound a d jacen t t o f r e sh w a te r a nd n ea r t h e l oma s c on f i rm t h is i dea . T he s i ng le A rcha ic d a te f r om C arr iza l , wh i le n o t c onc lus ive , c on f irms t h e i mpor tance o f t h e se s i tes i n A r cha ic s e t t lemen t s ys tem s .
9 6
K.W I S E ; AR CHA IC PE R IOD RE S EARCH I NT H E LO W ER OS MORE RE G ION
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E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 5
S tratum
D escription
1
F ine a shy g ray s oil c apped w ith g reenish l ayer f rom l oose. C ontains small r ocks, s ome s hells a nd s ome b one
2
G rayish b rown
3
D ensely c arbon
4
D arker brown
5
V ery d ark
s oil
w ith m ore
6
V ery d ark
s oil
c ontaining
7
G ray brown
8
D arker brown ( Beta-18920)
9
D ark
h ard p acked s oil
p acked
s hell
s oil
s oil
g ray b rown
f ew
s oil,
1 0
L ight
D arker brown m ixed
b rown p lastic
1 1
S oil
s hell,
s hell,
f ew
s hells,
s ome
s oil l ayer,
r ock
l arger r ocks
d welling
e specially
s hells, s ome
c halky
s ome
s hells, w ell
S ome
S ome
smoke.
as a s
Very
w ell bone
a s
bone
a nd
s ome
c arbon a nd
c arbon
a nd
b one
b one
c arbon a nd b one
c arbon a nd bone
c arbon,
b one.
i ntrusions,
c ultural
s melter
a s
u rchin.
u rchin.
i ntrusions,
c ontaining v ery l ittle
s ea
a nd
s pecies,
e specially s ea
c halky white
c ontaining
1 1
i s g rayer,
f rom v arious
w ith more
s oil,
c ontaining
t he
R adiocarbon
m oderate amount
l ittle
s hell
D ate,
o f s hell
4 390+1
a nd
1 0B.P.
b one.
o r bone.
m aterial
f ine grained.
T ab le 2 .D es cr ip t ion o f S t ra ta , C ar r iza l T e s t Un i t .
A l though f u r the r r e sea rch w i l l b e n e ce ss ary t o e va lua te t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween c oas ta l a nd h igh land s e t t lemen t s y s tems , t h e d a ta n ow a va i lab le d o n o t s ugge s t al a rge s c a le s y s tem o f t r an shumance . R esear ch i n s i e r ra a nd p un a e nv ironmen ts r evea ls s im i lar i t ies i n t h e r o ck a r t , p ro je c t i le p o in t s t y le s , a nd c h ipped s t one r aw ma te r ia l s among t hese t wo r eg ions ( W ise a nd A ldende r fe r 1 985 ) , b u t t he re i sl i t t le e v idence o f a ny c onnec t ion among s i te s o f t h e c oas t a nd t ho se f ound i n t h e h igh lands . P ro je c t i le p o in t s f ound o n t h e c oas t , a l though o f t he s ame g ene ra l s t y le , a re made f r om c omp le te ly d i f fe ren t r aw ma te r ia ls , mo s t ly f r om c he r t a nd q uar tz i te wh ich i sf ound i n t h e l ow lands . R o ck a r t d oe s n o t p rov ide a u se fu l l i ne o f e v idence f o r r e la t ionsh ip s b e tween t h e c oas t a nd t h e h igh lands . A l though a g ood d ea l o f r o ck a r t i sf ound o n t h e c oas t , t he re i sa s y e t n o e v idence t ha t a ny o f t h e r o ck a r t d o cumen ted d ur ing c oas ta l s u rveys i sf r om t h e A rcha ic p e r iod . S ub s is ten ce r ema in s r e cove red a t t he R ing S i te , a s w e l l a s a t C a r r iza l , i nd ica te s ub s tan t ia l u se o f m a r i t ime r e source s b y A r cha ic p eop les . D o cu men t ing mar i t ime s pe c ia l iza t ion , h oweve r , w i l l r equ ire f u r the r r e s ea r ch . E xcava t ion o f l a rger a reas , r e cove ry o f mo re a r t i fac t s , a nd a na ly s is o f s ubs is tence r ema ins , a s we l l a s s easona l i ty s t ud ie s , w i l l a l l b e n e ce ssa ry b e fo r e at r ue p ro ce s s o f m a r i t ime s pec ia l iza t ion d ur ing t h e A r cha ic p e r iod c an b e u nde r s tood . A va i lab le d a ta t e nd t o c on f irm a mode l o f a mar ine f o cused e conomy w i th l ong t erm s i te l o ca t ion s d e term ined l a rge ly b y a cce s s t o mar ine r e sour ces , a s we l l a s f r esh w a te r
9 8
K . WI S E ; AR C HA IC PE R IOD RE S EARCH I NT H E LO W E R OS MO R E RE G ION
a nd t h e t e r res t r ia l r e sour c es c l us ter ed a round s our ces o f f r esh w a te r . F u tu re r e sear ch w i l l t e s t t h is mode l , a nd w i l l r e f ine o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e A r cha ic s equen ce .
A cknow ledgemen t s Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank t h e f o l low ing p eop le f o r p rov id ing i nva luab le h e lp w i th t h is r e sea r ch . T he a dm in is t ra t ion o f t h e S ou the rn P eru C opper C orpo ra t ion s me l te r a t I l o p rov ided h ous ing , l og i s t i ca l s uppo r t , a nd a cce s s t o a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . Gu i l lermo R odr iguez s howed me a n umbe r o f s i tes a nd p rov ided e x tens ive i n fo rma t ion o n t he e nv i ronmen t a nd a rchaeo logy o f t he I l o r eg ion . H e a l so a s s is t ed i n t he f i e ld wo rk , a s d id S imon K rause . B ob F e ldman i n t roduced m e t o t he a rea a nd g ave me i n fo rma t ion o n t h e e nv ironmen t a nd k nown s i te s . M ike Mose ley a nd C hr is C lemen t g ave me i n fo rma t ion o n C ar r iza l a nd s ugge s ted s eve ra l o ther l o ca t ions f o r r e sea r ch . R obe r t J e ske r e ad a nd c ommen ted o n ap rev ious d ra f t o f t h is p ape r . A s a membe r o f t he No r thwes t e rn Un ive r s i ty A r cha ic P ro jec t , Iw as a b le t o c onduc t t h i s r e search b ecause o f t wo g ran t s t o Mark A ldende r fe r f r om t h e No rh twe s te m U n ive r s i ty R e search G ran t s C omm i t tee . F unds f r om t hese g ran t s s uppo r ted a l l o f t he r e sea r ch r epo r ted h e re .
9
A rcha ic P er iod " Co mp le men tar i ty " i n t he O s more D ra inage Mark S .A ldende r fe r D ep ar tm en t o fA n thr opo l ogy N or thw e s t e rn U n iv e r s i ty
I n t roduc t ion T he i dea o f " zona l " o r " e co log ica l " c omp lemen ta r i ty h as a l ong a nd h oary h i s tory i n e t hnoh is to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i n t he A nde s ( Masuda , S h imada , a nd Mo r r is 1 985 ) . A l though t he c on cep t o r ig ina ted i n s t ud ies o f h i s to r ica l p o l i t ie s i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l Andes ( Mur ra 1 972 ) , i th as b een e x tended b ackwa rd i n t ime a t l e as t i n to t he L a te I n te rmed ia te a nd T iwanaku P e r iods ( Mu j ica 1 985 ) , a nd s ome h ave a rgued t ha t s ea sona l t r anshuman ce - a p a t te rn o f r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty w i th i t s o r ig ins i n t he A rcha ic - i sa l so a f o rm o f c omp lemen tar i ty ( Lynch 1 97 1 , 1 98 1 ) . D e sp i te a g reemen t t ha t s ome f o rm o f c omp lemen ta r i ty i su nque s t ionab ly o f g rea t a n t iqu i ty , t h e re n eve r the les s r ema ins c on t rove rsy a nd c on fus ion o ve r t h e d ep th o f t h a t a n t iqu i ty a nd t h e f o rms t ha t i tc ou ld h ave t a ken . I n p ar t , t h is s i tua t ion s t ems f r om t h e w ay i n wh ich t he c oncep t o f z ona l c omp lemen t a r i ty h as b een e x tended i n to t h e p as t . N a tu ra l ly b eg inn ing , a s d id Mur ra , w i th e t hnoh is to r ica l ly -known s o c ie t ie s , v ar ious s cho la r s h ave t a ken t h e k ey f e a tures o f c omp lemen tar i ty a nd s ough t t o f i nd ma te r ia l i nd ica to rs o f i t i n e ar l ie r a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re s . Wh i le t h is r eve r se -eng ineer ing a pp roach h as s ome l og ica l a ppea l , i t a l so i nhe ren t ly f l awed , e spec ia l ly i f o u r g oa l i s t o s e ek t h e o r ig ins o r t o a s ce r ta in t he a n t iqu i ty o f z ona l c omp lemen tar i ty . I t wo rk s w e l l w i th p eop le s k nown t o b e r e l ian t u pon a g r icu l ture , b u t p rov ide s l i t t le i n s igh t i n to h ow e i ther A r cha ic P er iod ( 1 0 ,000 -4000 B .P . ) f o rage r s o r p as to ra l is t s c ou ld h ave u sed t h e A ndean e nv ironmen t , a nd mo re i mpo r tan t ly , i ts imp ly i su nab le t o e xp la in t h e p roces s b y wh ich t h ese e ar l ie r a dap ta t ions w e re t r ans fo rmed i n to s ome t r ad i t iona l ly -de f ined f o rm o f e co log ica l c omp lemen ta r i ty .
1 0 1
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 6
T h is i s b e cause wh i le e co log ica l s t ruc ture ( t he n a tu ra l b as is o f z ona l c omp lemen tar i ty ) r ema ins mo re o r l e s s t he s ame t h rough t ime , s t ruc tura l f e a ture s o f s oc ie ty - d emography , p opu la t ion d ens i ty , a nd s ubs is tence s t ra teg ies - c hange c ons ide rab ly . T he Andean e nv ironmen t o f fe r s ad i f feren t s e t o f c on s t ra in t s a nd o ppo r tun i t ies t o t he se a dap ta t ions , a nd w e s hou ld n o t e xpe c t f o rage rs t o r e spond t o t h e v e r t ica l n a tu re o f t h e Andes a s t hey wou ld i ft h ey w ere a g r icu l tura l is t s . T hus i fw e a r e i n te re s ted i n d i s cove r ing t h e a n t iqu i ty o f e co log ica l c omp lemen ta ry , i tb ecomes n ece ssary t o u nde rs tand h ow f o rage r s e ven tua l ly b e came r e l ian t u pon d omes t ica ted p l an t s a nd a n ima ls , a nd h ow t h is t r ans fo r ma t ion c a me t o r e semb le e co log ica l c omp lemen ta r i ty a s Mu r ra a nd o ther s h ave d e f ined i t f o r mo re c omp lex s o c ie t ie s . T h is r eve r se -eng inee r ing a pp roach h as a l so c on t r ibu ted t o t h e t endency t o s ee t h e d eve lopmen t o f Andean c omp lemen ta r i ty a s au n ique p henomenon , p r imar i ly b ecause o f t h e s t rong ly v er t ica l n a ture o f t he e nv i ronmen t , a nd t o t r ea t t h e e vo lu t ion o f c omp lemen t a r i ty s imp ly a s ac u l tu ra l -h is tor ica l p rob lem . Mur ra d es c r ibed t he Ande s a s a" ver t ica l a r ch ipe lago " -l and u se w as l o ca l ized i n r e sour ce r ich p a t che s r unn ing u p a nd d own t h e s l opes . D e sp i te i mpor tan t mod i f ica t ion s o f t h is c on cep t b y e thnoh is tor ian s a nd a r ch a eo log is t s wo rk ing i n t he n or the rn A nde s ( Sh imada a nd S h imada 1 985 ) , a nd i t s g ene ra l iza t ion t o a mo re i n c lus ive " e co log ica l c omp lemen ta r i ty " ( Mur ra 1 985b ) , t here h as b een l i t t le r e cogn i t ion b y A ndean is t s [ w i th t he n o tab le e x cep t ion o f S a lomon ( 1 985 ) ] t h a t n ume rous f o rms o f " c omp lemen t ar i ty " e x is t a t a l l l e ve ls o f s o c io cu l tura l c o mp lex i ty ( Sp ie lmann 1 986 ) , a nd t ha t Andean f o rm s o f c omp lemen ta r i ty a r e s imp ly s pec ia l c ases o f h ow a g r icu l tura l is t s , p as to ra l is t s , a nd f o rage r s d ea l w i th r e source s c a rc i ty a nd u np red ic tab i l i ty . R e cogn i t ion o f t h is c an l e ad t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f a much -needed t heo re t ica l p e rspec t ive o n t h e o r ig ins o f e co log ica l c omp lemen ta r i ty a nd t he i d en t i f ica t ion o f k ey v ar iab le s , c oncep t s , a nd p ro cesse s a pp rop r ia te t o t h e s t udy o f h ow d i f fe ren t f o rm s o f c omp lemen ta r i ty emerged f r om f o rag ing a nd p as to ra l a dap ta t ions i n t he A ndes . Wha t i s n e eded t o i nve s t iga te t h e o r ig ins o f A ndean c omp lemen tar i ty i sac rea t ive s yn the s is o f ad e ta i led l o ca l o r r eg iona l u nde r s tand ing o f e nv ironmen ta l s t ruc ture a nd a r chaeo logy c omb ined w i th r e levan t t h eo re t ica l c on cep t s o n h ow e ga l i ta r ian s oc ie t ie s r e spond t o s t ocha s t ic i ty i n t he e nv i ronmen t . T h is a pp roach i s much i ndeb t ed t o r ecen t a n thropo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch d e s igned t o e xam ine t he d eve lopmen t o f c u l tura l c omp lex i ty ( P r ice a nd B rown 1 985 ) , a nd mode rn e vo lu t ionary e co logy a s a pp l ied t o h uman p opu la t ion s ( Be t t inge r 1 987 ; W in te rha lde r 1 98 1 ) . Mode rn s t ud ies o f c omp lex i ty p rov ide a d ynam ic s o c ie t a l c on t ex t f o r u nde r s tand ing c hange , w h i le s tud ie s o f e vo lu t ionary e co logy p rov ide d e ta i led a na ly se s h ow h umans make d e c is ions a bou t d ie t b read th , h ow t ime a nd l a bo r s hou ld b e a l lo ca ted i n s ub s is tence t a sk s , a nd h ow e nv ironmen t a l r i sk i sp e r ce ived a nd c oped w i th . Wh i le I p rov ide n o " answe r s " t o q ues t ions r ega rd ing t h e o r ig ins a nd f o r ms o f e co log ica l c o mp lemen tar i ty i n e i the r t h e O smo re b as in o r t h e S ou th C en t ra l Andes i n t h is p ape r , If e e l t ha t t he r e s ear ch o r ien t a t ion d eve loped p rov ide s n ew i n s igh t s i n to t h e eme rgence o f c omp lemen ta r i ty , a nd b r ings t h e s t udy o f t h is p ro ce ss i n to a b roade r a n th ropo log ica l p e r spec t ive . Much mo re emp i r ica l r e sea rch mus t b e c omp le ted b e fo re r e a l " answer s " c an a ppea r , b u t Iam c on f iden t t h a t t h is a pp roach w i l l move t h is r esear ch i n to a p ro f i tab le d i rec t ion .
1 02
M.
AL D END ER F E R ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD " CO M P L EM ENT A RHY
E co log i ca l a nd S oc ia l D imens ions o f C omp lemen ta r i ty f o r F o rage rs T he k ey f e ature s o f e co log ica l c omp lemen ta r i ty i n t he Andean s e t t ing a re w e l l -known ; R ice , C onrad , a nd Wa tanabe ( i n p re s s ) h ave s u mmar ized t hem i n to f our d imen s ions : e nv ironmen t/e conomy , wh i ch i s c once rned w i th t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sources a nd t he manne r i n wh ich t hey a re e xp lo i ted ; s oc ia l/e thn ic , wh ich c on s ide r s t he e thn ic c ompos i t i on o f c o mmun i t ies a nd t h ey w ay i n wh ich t h ey i n te rac t ; p o l i t ica l/m i l i tary , wh ich r e fe r s t o t h e manne r i n wh ich c o lon ies ( i f p resen t ) w e re e s tab l ished a nd ma in ta ined ; a nd h i s to r ica l , wh ich i sc once rned w i th t h e t r ans fo rma t ion o f d i f feren t f o rms o f c omp lemen t a ri ly t h rough t ime . T he t wo mo s t i mpo r tan t d imens ions f o r f o rag ing s oc ie t ies a re t he e nv i ronmen ta l ( h e re r enamed e co log ica l ) , a nd t h e s o c ia l . P o l i t ica l c once rns a re s ubsumed u nde r t h e s oc ia l , a s s ha l l b e e xp la ined b e low . E co log ica l D imens ions A t t h e mo s t g ene ra l l e ve l , t h e e co log ica l d imen s ion i sc on ce rned w i th e nv ironmen ta l s t ruc tur e , wh ich h as t r ad i t iona l ly i n c luded c on s ide ra t ion o f c l i ma te , r e source s , a nd g eo log ica l o r g eog raph i ca l s e t t ing . I n t h e A nde s , t h is h as g ene ra l ly f o cused u pon d es c r ip t ions o f t h e d eg ree o f r eg iona l a r id i ty , r a in f a l l a bundance a nd s easona l i ty , o ve ra l l p rodu c t iv i ty , a nd t h e v e r t ica l s t ruc ture o f r e sou r ce d i s t r ibu t ion ( Mo l ina a nd L i t t le 1 98 1 ) . D i f f e ren t c omb ina t ion s o f t h ese v a r iab le s a r e o f ten g ene ra l ized b y u se o f t h e l i f e -zones c oncep t ( To s i 1 960 ) . Wh i le t hese l i f e -zone s a r e u s e fu l s ummar ies o f b as ic e nv ironmen ta l v a r iab i l i ty , a n e xpanded s e t o f s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s mo re a pp ropr ia te t o t he s t udy o f f o r age r s a re r equ ired , wh ich i n c ludes t h e measuremen t o f t h e t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l p e r iod ic i ty a nd p red ic tab i l i ty o f r e sou r ce d i s t r ibu t ion , a bundance , a nd a va i lab i l i ty a nd c l ima t ic a nd l o ca t iona l f a c to r s t ha t e i the r i n c reas e o r d ec rease e nv ironmen ta l " r isk " . M easuremen t o f t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l v ar iab i l i ty i n r e source a va i lab i l i ty a nd a bun d an ce h as p layed a ma jo r r o le i n f o rg ing a mo re c omp rehens ive u nde r s tand ing o f h ow f o r age r s r espond t o t he i r " e nv ironmen t s " . T e r r i to ry f o rma t ion ( Cashdan 1 983 ; Sm i th a nd D yson -Hudson 1 978 ) , l e ve l o f e f fo r t ( Lee 1 979 ; W in te rha lde r 1 98 1 ) , d eve lopmen t o f e xchange l i nkage s o r p o l i t ica l a nd s o c ia l a l iance s ( Sp ie lmann 1 986 ; T es tar t 1 982 ; W ie s sne r 1 982 ) , d ie t c ho ice a nd b read th ( W in te rha lde r 1 986 ) , a nd p a t te rn s o f s e asona l a gg r eg a t ion a nd d i spe rsa l ( B in fo rd 1 980 ; J o ch im 1 98 1 ; S p ie lmann 1 986 ) c an a l l b e e xp la ined i n p ar t b y j u s t h ow much o f a nd when a s e t o f r e source s b ecome s a va i lab le . I tb e comes n e ce s sary , t h en , n o t o n ly t o i d en t i fy i mpor tan t r e source s b u t a l so t o d e te r m ine j u s t h ow t h ey v ary i n a bundance i n t ime a nd s pace . I n s o d o ing , w e a re a b le t o move b eyond s imp l is t ic z ona l c harac te r iza t ions ( a nd t hus a s imp le c u ltura l e co logy ) , a nd t o p o r t ray mo re r e a l is t ica l ly r e source v a r iab i l i ty . T he s ucces s o f t h is a pp roach , h oweve r , d epends o n o ur a b i l i ty t o d e f ine k ey t e rm s , a nd t h en t o m ake r e a l i s t ic measu remen t s o f t h em , a t b es t o n a n o rd ina l s c a le a nd a t l e as t o n a n om ina l o ne . No te t h a t t h e g oa l h e re i s n o t n e ce ssar i ly t o p roduce a q uan t i t a t ive mode l o f a p ro ces s ( a l though t h a t may b e d e s irab le u nde r t h e r i gh t c i r cum s tances ) , b u t i n s tead t o p rov ide a mo re o b je c t ive m ean s o f f i t t ing a n emp i r ica l s i tua t ion t o a mode l . F o r i n s tance , S p ie lmann ( 1 986 :289 ) s how s t h a t b u f f er ing a nd mu tua l is t ic i n t e rac t ion s t ra teg ies i n e ga l i t ar ian s o c ie t ies a r e i n p ar t r e la ted t o wha t s he l ab e l s " s ubs is tence r e sour ce a va i lab i l i ty " . O ne s t a te o f h e r mode l , measured o n a n om ina l s ca le , i s t ha t u nde r c ond i t ion s o f r e sou rce a bundance u nde r s t o chas t ic c on d i t ion s , e ga l i t ar ian s oc ie t ie s w i l l b u f fe r p o ten t ia l f ood s ho r tage s t h rough d i spe r s ion . A l though t he re a r e p rob lems w i th c ha rac te r iz ing a c o mp lex s ubs is tence s y s tem u s ing
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 6
g ene ra l t e rm s l i ke " s to chas t ic i ty " a nd " abundance " , t h e mode l n eve r the les s r ema ins u s e fu l i fi t i s p o ss ib le t o make s im i la r measuremen t s i n n ew emp ir ica l s e t t ing s . T he mo re p rec ise ly a nd a ccu ra te ly t h ese t e rm s c an b e measu red , t he mo re v a luab le t he mode l b e comes . T e rms t ha t mus t b e d e f ined a nd t h en measu red a r e e nv ironmen ta l s t ochas t ic i ty , p red ic tab i l i ty , a nd r i sk . S to chas t ic i ty h as a " f o lk " d e f in i t ion o f v a r iab i l i ty , a nd i s o f ten e qua ted w i th " r andomne s s " . Wh i le i td oes embody v ar iab i l i ty , n a tura l p henomena a r e r a re ly r andom . Mo s t o f t h e t ime , t h ey c an b e d e s c r ibed b y s ome k nown p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion , o r c an b e d es c r ibed emp i r ica l ly . F o r e xamp le , a nnua l f l ood p robab i l i t ies a r e t r ad i t iona l ly f i t t o t he Gumbe l d i s t r ibu t ion ( Cunnane 1 985 ) . T homas ( 1972 ) d eve loped a mode l o f v a r ia t ion i n p i t ion n u t p roduc t iv i ty i n t h e G r ea t b as in , wh i le A ldender fer ( 1 98 1 ) emp ir ica l ly mode led t he f r equency o f r a in fa l l e ven t s f o r We s te rn D ese r t f o rage r s i n A us t ra l ia . A t a mo re d e ta i led l e ve l , W in te rha lde r ( 1 986 :384 ) mode ls e n coun ter r a t e s u s ing t h e P o isson d i s t r ibut ion , a nd e l sewhe re u se s a n o rma l d is t r ibu t ion t o mode l p u rsu i t a nd h and l ing t imes . P red ic tab i l i ty a l so h as a n o bv ious f o lk d e f in i t ion , b e s t s ummar ized a s t h e l eve l o f c on f iden ce o ne h as i n ap red ic t ion . P red ic tab i l i ty h as l ong b een u sed i n c on junc t ion w i th s t o chas t ic i ty . H igh ly u np red ic tab le e nv ironmen t s a re o f ten l abe led a s s t ochas t ic , wh i le p red ic tab le o nes a r e d es cr ibed a s p e r iod ic o r r egu la r . P red ic tab i l i ty i s o f ten c omb ined w i th s t a temen t s a bou t t h e p er iod ic i ty o f i mpo r t an t e ven t s , l i ke r a in f a l l f r equency a nd s easona l c hange i n r e source a va i lab i l i ty . B u t a s Co lwe l l ( 1 974 ) h a s s hown , p e r iod ic p henomena c an b e u se fu l ly d iv ided i n to t h ree d i s t inc t c omponen t s t h a t c on t r ibu te t o t he i r p red ic tab i l i ty : p red ic tab i l i ty p rope r , c on s tancy , a nd c on t ingency . T he se t e rm s h ave p re c ise d e f in i t ion s d e r ived f r om i n fo rma t ion t h eory , a nd h ave c l ea r , u namb iguous i n terp re ta t ions . P red ic tab i l i ty ( P ) i s t h e " measur e o f v a r ia t ion among s ucces s ive p er iods i n t he p at te rn o f ap e r iod ic p henomenon " ( Co lwe l l 1 974 : 1152 ) . When v ar ia t ion i n t h is p a t te rn i sh igh , p red ic tab i l i ty i sl ow . Howeve r , h igh p red ic t ab i l i ty c an b e o b ta ined t h rough d i f feren t c omb ina t ions o f c ons tancy a nd c on t ingency . C ons tancy ( C ) i st h e d eg ree t o wh ich t he s t a te o f av a r iab le i s ma in t a ined a c ros s d i f feren t t ime p e r iod s . P red ic tab i l i ty i sa t a max imum when c ons t ancy i sc omp le te . F ina l ly , c on t ingency ( M ) i s d eg ree t o wh ich t he s t a te o f t h e v a r iab le d epends o n t h e t ime p e r iod . F o rmu lae f o r t h e se t e rms a re p resen ted i n T ab le 1 . I ts hou ld b e c l ea r t h a t t he u se o f t h e se t e rms c an h e lp u s t o mo re a ccura te ly c ha rac t er ize t h e p e r iod ic i ty o f r e levan t e nv ironmen ta l f e at ure s t h an t h e b l anke t u se o f t e rms s uch a s s t o chas t ic i ty . R isk i sa no the r p opu la r t e rm w i th a p l e tho ra o f m ean ings . I th as a s pe c i f ic mean ing i n f o rag ing t h eo ry ( S tephens a nd K rebs 1 986 :134 ) , h ow eve r , a nd i ti sc ompa t ib le w i th t h e s c a le s o f measuremen t d es c r ibed i n t h is p ape r . R isk i sd e f ined a s p robab i l i s t ic v ar ia t ion , a nd mo re s pe c i f ica l ly , i ti s o f ten e qua t ed w i th v a r ian ce . H igh v ar iance s ugges t s h igh r i sk . T h is d e f in i t ion c an b e e a s i ly a c commoda ted w i th c ons t ancy ; c on s t ancy v ar ie s i nver se ly w i th t he d eg ree o f v ar ia t ion ; h igh v ar iance i mp l ie s l ow c ons tancy . B u t r i sk i sn o t s imp ly a f a ce t o f e nv i ronmen t , b ecause i ti si n p ar t d e f ined b y c u l tur a l p e r cep t ion , a nd t h a t d epend ing o n c ho ice s ag roup m ay s e t , o f ten o n as i tua t iona l b as i s , wha t may b e r i sky t o o ne g roup may b e n o rma l t o a no the r . T hus s ome means o f d ea l ing w i th t he p e r cep t ion o f r i sk mus t b e d eve loped . W in te rha lder ( 1 986 :384 ) d ea l s w i th t h is p rob lem i n p ar t b y d e f in ing r i sk a s p robab i l i ty o f l o s s . I f t h i s d e f in i t ion i s u sed , a l l f o rage r s s hou ld a vo id r i sk , b u t d epend ing o n c i r cum s tance s , c ho ice , a nd
1 04
M .AL D END ER F ER ;
F ORMULAE F OR PREDICTAB IL ITY ,
A RCHA IC PER IOD
"CO l v fPLE MENTAR ITY
C ONSTANCY ,
AND CONT INGENCY ( after C o lwe ll 1 974)
P red ic tab i l ity P =
I -
Hx(Y)
-1 -
l og s
H (XY)- N (X) l og s
w here
H (X)= .
2 9 Z
l og
X j
a nd
H (XY): - E eh lj Z
I on
!i l
s= s tates o f t he p henomena N =n umber o f c yc les f o r w h ich t he p henomena i so bserved a nd Z= EI Ni j= EXj= £Y i j w here X j a re c o lumn t o ta ls a nd V i a re r ow t o ta ls
C onstancy C=
H (Y) F ois-
w here H (Y) =H (XY) -H (X)
C on t ingency
M=
H (X)
H (Y)- H(XY ) l og s
T ab le 1 . F o rmu lae f o r p red ic tab i l i ty , c on t ingency ( a f te r C o lwe l l 1 974 ) .
1 05
c ons is tancy ,
a nd
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 6
r e source r ank ing , f o rage r s may a t t ime s o p t f o r r e sour ces w i th h igh v ar ian ce . I n t h i s p ape r , Iw i l l a dop t b o th d e f in i t ions o f r i sk a nd w i l l t a ke c a re t o s how h ow e a ch c an b e u sed t o e xp lo r e t he p rob lem a t h and . S o c ia l D i men s ions A g enera t ion o f a n thropo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log i ca l r e sea rch h as e s tab l ished t h a t f o rage r s d ea l w i th v ar iab i l i ty i n r e source a bundance t h rough f our p r imary m echan ism s : mob i l i ty , s t o rage , a l l iance , a nd e xchange ( J o ch im 1 98 1 ) . Wh i le p rog re ss h as b een made i n i den t i fy ing t he c ond i t ion s u nde r wh ich t h ese me chan ism s a re emp loyed , m uch o f t h i s r e sear ch h as b een f o cused o n i n t raso c ie ta l c on t ex t s , o r h ave a s sumed t h a t t h e g roup u nder s t udy i s s u f f ic ien t ly i s o la ted f r om o the r s s o t h a t c ons ide ra t ion o f i n te rsoc ie ta l i n te rac t ion i s u nne ce s sary . T h is may b e v a l id i n m any h i s to r ica l s e t t ing s , b u t i t i s u nrea l is t ic , b e cause i ti sc l ear t ha t many f o rag ing s o c ie t ie s b e came t r ans fo rmed i n to mo re c omp lex s o c ia l e n t i t ie s t h rough i n te rac t ion w i th o the r s o c ia l o r e thn ic g roup s ( P r ice a nd B rown 1 985 ) . S p ie lmann ( 1 986 ) h as d eve loped a n i n te re s t ing a nd v a luab le mode l t h a t s eeks t o u nder s tand h ow f o rage r s r e spond t o v a r iab i l i ty i n r e sour ce a va i lab i l i ty w i th in a b roade r s o c ia l a nd r eg iona l p e r spe c t ive , a nd h as d e f ined t wo f undamen ta l f o rms o f i n te rsoc ie ta l i n te rac t ion f o r e ga l i ta r ian s o c ie t ies : b u f fe r ing a nd mu tua l i sm . B u f fe r ing s e rve s t o r eso lve l o ca l f ood s ho r tages t h rough d i spe rs a l - t h e movemen t o f o ne g roup i n to t h e t e r r i tory o f a no the r . T he " r ec ip ien t " g roup g ene ra l ly h a rve s t s t h es e r e source s t h em se lve s . B u f fer ing may a l so i nvo lve t he e xchange o f r e sour ce s , b u t t h is w ou ld b e l im i ted t o s i tua t ions i n wh ich r e sou rce d ens i ty i n t h e " dono r " t e r r i tory i sl ow , o r when t h e d ono r p opu la t ion h a s i nves ted l a bo r e f fo r t i n t ime i n t h e p ro curemen t a nd p repar a t ion o f t hese r e sou rces . I n g ene ra l , b u f fe r ing o ccur s i n e nv ironmen ta l s e t t ings l a be led b y S p ie lmann a s " s to chas t ic " , t h a t a re a ppa ren t ly d e f ined a s s i tua t ions i n wh ich t h e re i s h igh v ar ian ce ( S p ie l mann 1 986 :282 ) . E thnog raph ica l ly , b u f fe r ing t h rough d i spe rs a l i so bse rved i n f o rag ing s oc ie t ie s i n t he A rc t ic , Wes tern D e se r t o f A us t ra l ia , a nd i n t h e K a laha r i D e se r t o f s ou thwes te rn A f r ica . C lea r ly , g iven l ow p opu la t ion d ens i ty , t h e se f o rage r s move f r om a reas o f r e source s ho r tage t o a reas o f a bundance . T e r r i to r ie s i n t h ese a reas a re p e rme ab le , a s i s p red ic ted t h rough e co log ica l t heo ry ( Cashdan 1 983 ; D yson -Hudson a nd Sm i th 1 978 ) . T o move i n to t e r r i to r ies o f o the r g roups , t hese f o rage r s m a in ta in e x tens ive a nd d i spe rsed k in t i es o r c r ea te r e c ip ro ca l o b l iga t ions t h rough t h e t r ade a nd e xchange o f n on -sub s i s t en ce g oods , s uch a s t h e h x ar o n e two rk among t he ! Kung . T he s e cond s t ra tegy , mutua l ism , i s mo re c omp lex a nd o f fe r s a w ide r r ange o f p o s s ib i l i t ie s . Mu tua l ism i st h e r egu la r e xchange o f c omp lemen tary s ubs is ten ce r e source s b e tween t wo o r mo re g roup s g ene ra l ly o ccupy ing c on t iguous e co log ic a l n i ches . Mu tua l ism b roadens t he r ange o f s ubs is tence r e sou r ce s a va i lab le t o a s i ng le g roup . Mu tua l ism i sg ene ra l ly s een i n s i tua t ions o f h igh r e sou r ce d ens i ty a nd p red ic t ab i l i ty , a nd a s S p ie lmann o b se rve s , m ay i nvo lve t h e s pe c ia l iza t ion o f p roduc t ion when p roduc t ion c o s t s a re l ow a nd r e sou r ce d ens i t ie s h igh . Ar ev iew o f t h e e thnog raph ic l i t e ra ture s how s t h a t wh i le mu tua l ism i nvo lv ing d i sp e rsa l i s r a re , e xchange i s v e ry c ommon , a nd t ake s t h ree f o rm s : t he s po rad ic e xchange o f r e sou r ce s , t he p e r iod ic e xchange o f n u t r i t iona l ly s upp lemen ta ry r e sour ce s r a the r t h an s t ap le s , a nd t he p e r iod ic e xchange o f s t ap le f oods . T he l a t te r t wo s i tua t ions i n c lude t he s pe c ia l iza t ion o f p roduc t ion , g enera l ly o f p ro te ins b y f o rage r s o r p as to ra l is t s , a nd o f c a rbohydra te s b y h o r t icu l tura l is t s ( S p ie l mann 1 986 :293 ) . Mu tua l ism , e spe c ia l ly t h a t i nvo lv ing s pec ia l ized p roduc t ion , w i l l o n ly wo rk
1 06
M . AL D END ER F ER ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD " CO M P L EM ENTA R I T Y
when t h e s ubs is tence r i sks t o t he s o c ia l g roup s a re i ndependen t o f o ne a no the r ( Cashdan 1 985 :457 ) . T h i s f r amewo rk c an b e c omb ined w i th r e cen t t heo re t ica l a nd emp i r ica l wo rk o n t he eme rgence o f c u l tu ra l c omp lex i ty f r om a f o rag ing b ase l ine ( P r ice a nd B rown 1 985 :8 13 ) . C omp lex i ty h e re r e fe r s t o t he d eve lopmen t o f n ew s o c ia l , p o l i t ica l , a nd e conom ic s t ru c tu r es w i th in f o rag ing s oc ie t ies , i n c lud ing s t a tus d i f fe ren t ia t ion , s eden t ism , a c t iv i ty s pe c ia l iza t ion , a nd l a rge r p opu la t ion s . Mu l t iva r ia t e c ausa l mode ls a re n e ce ssary t o e xp la in t hese t r ans fo rma t ion s , a nd wh i le t h e re i s d i sag reemen t o ver t he n ece s sary a nd s u f f i c ien t c auses o f c omp lex i ty , t he re i s g ene ra l a g reemen t o ve r c ond i t ions : r e la t ive r esou r ce a bundance , h ighe r p opu la t ion , a nd s o c ia l c i rcums cr ip t ion . K ey c onsequence s o r i nd ic a to r s o f t h es e c ond i t ions a re a d ec rease i n r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , i n ten s i f ica t ion o f r e sou r ce p roduc t ion , s pe c ia l iza t ion o f p roduc t ion , a nd p robab le s o c ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion . T he t empo , s equence , a nd a ppearance o f b o th c ond i t ions a nd c on sequence s a re s t rong ly c ond i t ioned b y l o ca l a nd r eg iona l c i r cum s tance s o f r e sour ce d i s t r ibu t ion a nd a va i lab i l i ty a nd p opu la t ion d ens i ty . Ac ons ide ra t ion o f t h e e co log ica l a nd s o c ia l d imens ions o f c omp lemen tar i ty a pp l icab le t o f o r ag ing s oc ie t ies l e ads t o t h e p o s ing o f as e r ie s o f f undamen t a l q ue s t ions t h a t c an b e a sked o f t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i n t he S ou th C en t ra l A nde s a nd t h e O smo re b as in i n p a r t icu lar : 1 ) Wha t i s t h e s t ruc tu re o f t he e nv ironmen t , a nd h ow d oe s t h a t s t ruct u re c hange t h rough t ime? A r e t h e re s i gn i f ican t s hor t - a nd long t e rm c hange s i n e nv i ronmen ta l p roduc t iv i ty a nd p red ic tab i l i ty , a nd a r e t h e re f undamen ta l c hange s i n t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e se r e sour ce s ? How d o c hange s i n r e sou rce a bundance o r e nv ironmen ta l p red ic t a b i l i ty map o n to t h e a ppearance o f c hanges i n t h e c ond i t ions a nd c on sequence s o f t he e me rgence o f c omp lex i ty ? 2 ) When d o w e d i s cove r e v idence f o r s oc ia l o r e t hn ic d i f fe ren t ia t ion i n t h e r eg ion , a nd whe re a r e t hese d i s t inc t s o c ia l e n t i t ie s l o ca ted? 3 ) When d o w e s e e s o c ia l c i rcum s c r ip t ion a nd h ighe r p opu la t ion d ens i t ie s ? C an w e i d en t i fy t he i n i t ia t ion o f t he s eden ta r iza t ion p ro ce s s , a nd c an w e e s t ima te t h e p ace o f t h e p ro ces s ? E ssen t ia l ly , when d o w e s e e ad e c l ine i n r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , a nd when a nd whe re d o w e f i nd e v idence f o r mo re o r l e s s p e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s ? 4 ) Wha t r e sour ces c an b e " i n tens i f ied " i n t h e r eg ion , a nd wha t i s t h e f o rm o f t ha t i n t ens i f ica t ion? Once a ga in , wha t c an w e s ay a bou t t h e t empo o f t he p ro ce s s ? 5 ) When d o w e s ee e v idence f o r e i the r b u f fer ing o r mu tua l ism i n t h e r eg ion? r e sources c ou ld h ave b een t r aded?
Wha t
R esou r ce S t ruc tu re , P red ic tab i l i ty , a nd R isk i n t he O smo re b as in
T he O smo re b as in i s t yp ica l o f t he w e s tern v a l leys o f t h is p or t ion o f t he S ou th C en t r a l Ande s ( F igure 1 ) . T r ibu ta r ie s o f t h e b as in r i se a t o ve r 5 100 M .A .S .L . T he r i ve r i t s e l f i s1 39 km i n l e ng th . T he d r a inage i sc ha rac te r ized b y t h ree p r imary e nv ironmen ta l
1 07
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 6
F igu re 1 .T he O smo re B as in .
1 08
M . AL D END ER F E R ; AR CH A I C PE R IOD " CO M P L EM ENTA R I 7Y
f e a tu re s : 1 ) e co log ica l z one s t h a t v ary w i th c hanges i n a l t i tude , wh ich c r ea te s av e r t ica l b and ing o f h ab i t a t s f r om t h e c oas t t o p una ; 2 ) p e rvas ive a r id i ty l e ad ing t o l ow p r imary p lan t p roduc t iv i ty a nd t h e c l us te r ing o f r e sou r ce s a round p e rmanen t w a te r s our ce s ; a nd 3 ) h i gh v ar iance a nd u np red ic tab i l i ty i n t he a va i lab i l i ty o f r e sour ce s i n mo s t h ab i ta t s ( Mo l ina a nd L i t t le 1 98 1 ; T o s i 1 960 ) . A l though t h e d ra inage t e chn ica l ly i n c ludes o n ly t he we s t e rn v a l leys o f t h e A ndean f l anks a nd t he e x t reme e dge o f t h e p una , e co log ica l , e thnog r aph ic , a nd e thnoh is to r ica l w a r ran t s e x is t t o i n c lude p o r t ions o f t h e c i rcum -T i t icaca b as in s ur round ing L ago L or is cco ta a nd t he e as tern ma rg ins o f t he R io s C h i la a nd Qu ipa -Qu ipa a s ap a r t o f t h is s t udy a rea . F o r e xamp le , l ama c a ravan s r an f r om C h ich i l lape t o T o ra ta a nd Moquegua f r om a t l e as t t he 1 7 th c en tury . t o a pp rox ima te ly 1 950 ( A ldende r fe r n .d . d ; P ease 1 98 1 ; Wa tanabe m s ) .
R e sou r ce S t ruc ture T he d ra inage c an b e d iv ided i n to f ou r ma jo r h ab i ta t s : c oas t/ l i t to ra l ( 0 1000 m ) , l ow s i e r r a ( 1 000 -2500 m ) , h igh s i e r r a ( 2 500 -4000 m ) , a nd d ry p una ( > 4000 m ) ( F igu re 2 ; Webe rbaue r 1 945 ; W in te rha lde r a nd T homas 1 978 ) . Ma jo r f e a ture s o f e nv ironmen ta l s t ruc tu re a nd g ene ra l r ange o f a va i lab le r e sou r ce s f o r h uman c on sump t ion o f e ach h ab i t a t a re s umma r ized i n T ab le 2 . A l though t h e re a r e n o q uan t i ta t ive measure s o f o ve r a l l p roduc t iv i ty f o r e ach o f t h ese h ab i ta t s f o r t h e O smo re b as in , o rd ina l r ank ing s c an b e m ade t h rough c ompa r isons w i th o the r Andean r eg ions . T he c oas t a nd t h e p una a re c l ea r ly t he mos t i mpo r t an t h ab i ta t s f o r a f o rag ing p opu la t ion , w i th g ene ra l ly h ighe r p rodu c t iv i ty t h an t h e l ow a nd h igh s i e r r a . T he c oas t c an b e d iv ided i n to mar ine a nd t e r re s t r ia l h ab i ta t s ( C ra ig 1 982 , 1 985 ; Masuda 1 985 ) . Mar ine r e sou rce s , i n c lud ing f i sh , s he l l f ish , b i rds , a nd ma r ine mamma ls a re a bundan t , a nd a t l e as t o ne e conom ica l ly i mpor tan t s pe c ies o f f i sh o r s he l l f ish a re a va i lab le y ea r round . Ma r ine mamma ls a nd b i rds , wh i le l e s s a bundan t , a re n ever the le s s a va i lab le f o r much o f t h e y ea r . T he l oma s , az one o f s e asona l , f og induced v ege t a t ion , i s o ne o f t he p r imary e co log ica l n i che s f o r t e r re s t r ia l p l an t s a nd a n ima ls . Two t ype s o f l om a s , h e rbaceous a nd T i l l and s i a , a r e p resen t a l ong t he l i t to ra l . H e rbaceous l oma s a re f ound a long t h e b each s t rand s ou th o f I 1 ø , wh i le T i l l and s i a l oma s a re f ound f u r the r i n land t o a n e l evat ion o f c a . 1 200 m ( Masuda 1 985 ; O ko a nd Og awa 1 984 ) Howeve r , a s C ra ig ( 1 985 :28 -30 ) n o tes , t he e conom ic v a lue o f t he l oma s r e sour ce f o r h umans h as y e t t o b e i den t i f ied s i n ce f ew o f t h e p lan t s a r e e d ib le b y h uman s , a nd t h e d eg ree t o wh ich c ame l ids o r o the r u ngu la te s b rowsed i n t h e l om a s i s f a r f r om c l ear . I n c on t ras t , We ir a nd D e r ing ( 1 986 ) h ave a rgued t h a t an umbe r o f p lan t s c ou ld h ave b een e xp lo i ted b y h umans a nd a n ima ls i n t h e l oma s . A s e cond t e r re s t r ia l e nv i ronmen t o f i mpo r t ance o n t h e c o as t a re t h e r i ve r mou ths a nd v a l leys . I n n o r the rn C h i le , t h es e z ones a r e u sua l ly d e s c r ibed a s f e r t i le o ases ( Nur i ez 1 983 ) . T he se v a l ley s a r e t he s ource o f p e rmanen t w a t e r , a nd r e sou rces a r e c l us te red l i nea r ly a l ong t h e ir b ank s . T he l ow s i e r r a i s ag ene ra l ly i mpover ished h ab i ta t e xcep t a l ong t h e c ourse o f t he O smo re . R esour ce s a re c l us t ered a l ong t he b anks o f t h e r i ve r , o r a r e f ound a d jacen t t o t h e w ide ly s c a t te red s pr ings . T hes e r e source p a t che s , h oweve r , a re v e ry s ma l l , a nd a re s ub je c t t o f r equen t d rough t . T he h igh s i e r r a r ange s i n e l eva t ion f r om 3 000 -4000 m , a nd i s c harac te r ized b y e co log ica l z ones w i th i n c reas ing r a in fa l l w i th i n c reas ing e l eva t ion . Howeve r , r a in fa l l r a re ly e xceeds 2 50 mm/yea r b e low 4 000 m i n a l t i tude . C onsequen t ly , v ege ta t ion i s
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ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap ter 6
F igu re 2 .G ene ra l E nv ironmen ta l Z ones o f t he S ou th -Cen t ra l Ande s .
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M .AL D END ER F E R ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD " CO M P L EM ENTA R I T Y
s pa r se , a nd i s c l us te red a round v ery s ma l l b o f eda l e s , s ma l l s pr ing s f ound e i the r o n t he f l ood p l a in o f t h e ma jo r t r ibu tar ies f l ow ing f r om t he s t eep s l ope s o f t he v a l ley , o r s p read l i ne a r ly a long t he r i ve r c ou r se . Mode rn v ege ta t ion o f ma jo r d ie tary v a lue t o h umans i s l im i t ed t o v ar ious s pe c ies o f O pun t i a o r o the r c ac t i a nd p a t che s o f C hen . op od ium s pp . s c a t t e red t h rough t h e u ppe r r e ache s o f t h e v a l ley ( Webe rbaue r 1 945 ) . Wood r e sour ces , s uch a s P o ly l ep i s , o r q uenua , a r e f ound i n d ense g rove s i n e l eva t ions f r om 3 800 t o 4 200 m . T hese g rove s a re t h e n a tu ra l h ab i ta t o f h uemuh l d ee r , wh ich s t i l l e x is t i n t h is a rea . A l though n o w i ld c a me l ids c an b e f ound i n t he v a l ley , t h is e l eva t ion r ange i sw i th in t he n o rma l l im i t s o f g uana c o , a nd t h e e x t reme l owe r l im i t s f o r v i cu i i a ( F rank l in 1 982 ) . I n g ene ra l , r esou r ce d ens i ty i n t he s i e r r a i sl ow a nd i t s s pa t ia l d is t r ibu t ion p a t chy . A l l o f t he p un a ( 4 000 -4600 m ) w i th in t h e s t udy a rea i sc ha rac ter ized a s d ry ( ONERN 1 98 4 ) . R esour ce d ens i ty i sg ene ra l ly l owe r t h an t h a t o f t h e w e t p una c ommon i mmed i a t e ly s ur round ing L ake T i t icaca a nd t he p una e nv ironmen t o f t he c en t ra l Ande s ( Lava l lee 1 985 ; R ick 1 980 ) . Howeve r , when p laced w i th in a r eg iona l p e r spec t ive i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l Andes , t he d ry p una o f t he r e sea r ch a rea i s h igh ly p roduc t ive . T he mo s t p rom inen t e co log ica l f e a tu re o f t h e d ry p una i s t h e D i s t i ch i a moo r , o r b o f ed a l , ah igh q ua l i ty p as turage w i th p e rmanen t w a te r . D ur ing t he d ry s eason , b o f ed a l e s s uppo r t l a rge p opu la t ions o f c ame l ids . B o th g uana co a nd v i cuñ a w e re o nce c ommon o n t h e p una . An u nde r s tand ing o f t h e b ehav io ra l c harac te r is t ic s o f t h e c a me l ids i s a l so i mpor tan t f o r a s s e s s ing t he r e la t ive e conom ic v a lue o f t h e p una . I ti sg ene ra l ly a gr eed t h a t t he v i cuñ a i s ag regar ious , n on -m ig r a tory , t e r r i to r ia l s pe c ies w i th a r ange l im i ted t o t h e p una ( F r ank l in 1 982 ) . Wh i le v i cun a a r e c ommon i n t h e d ry p una o f t he O smo re b as in , p opu la t ions a r e v e ry s ma l l , a nd l i t t le s pe c i f ic i s k nown o f t he ir b ehav io r . T hey d o a pp ea r t o b e t e r r i to r ia l , a nd w e re p robab ly b ased a round t h e l a rger b o f ed a l e s i n t he r e g ion . S ing le m a le s , o r l a rge r g roups o f m a le s p robab ly l i ved a round t he f r inge s o f t he b o f ed a l e s o r moved b e tween t hem . T he k nown e co logy o f t h e g uana co i sl e s s s e cure , a nd t h e re i sd eba te o n i t s a l t i tud ina l r ange a nd d eg ree o f mob i l i ty ( F rank l in 1 982 :474 -75 ) . I t s e em s c l ear t h a t t he g uana c o u t i l ized e l eva t ion r ange s a t l e as t u p t o 4 000 m , a nd p o s s ib ly h i ghe r . T he a n ima l h as a s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion s im i lar t o t ha t o f t h e v i cuñ a , b u t i ti s mo re f l ex ib le i n b o th d ie t a nd b ehav io r . T hey a re t e r r i to r ia l a nd g rega r ious ( F rank l in 1 975 , 1 982 ) , b u t a re k nown t o m ig ra te when f a ced w i th r e source s c ar c i ty . I ti sl i ke ly t ha t t he g u an a co m ig ra ted b e tween b o f ed a l e s i n t h e h igh s i e r r a a nd p una d ur ing p e r iods o f p ro longed d rough t , o r moved i n to o the r v a l leys o f t h e s i e r r a r e la t ive ly u na f fe c ted b y r e sour ce s car c i ty . P l an t r e sour ce s a re a gg rega ted a round t he b o f ed a l e s a nd t h e i r marg ins b u t m icro e nv ironmen t s s he l t ered f r om t h e c o ld a nd t h a t a l so r e ce ive s i gn i f ican t s o lar r ad ia t ion a re i mpo r tan t t o mode rn p as to ra l is t s , who u se t hem t o p l an t s eed c rops a nd t uber s ( F lo re s O choa 1 977 ) . I n b e tween b o f ed a l e s a re p ampas o f v a ry ing s i ze t ha t s uppo r t v ege ta t ion c ommun it ies d om ina ted b y g ras ses s uch a s S t ip a s pp . a nd s h rubs l i ke t o la ( L ep id ophy l lum s p p . ) . D i s t i ch ia moo r i sa l so s p read l i near ly a l ong t h e b anks o f t he ma jo r r i ve r s o f t he r e g ion . Wh i le r e sour ce d i s t r ibu t ion o f p o ten t ia l v a lue r ema ins p a t chy , t h e p a t ches c an b e v e ry l a rge . R e sour ce P red ic t ab i l i ty a nd E nv ironmen ta l R isk A t p resen t , i ti sd i f f icu l t t o d eve lop o rd ina l measure s o f r e sou rce p red ic tab i l i ty f o r t h e c o a s t a nd l ow s i er r a e nv i ronmen t s . L i t t le i s k nown o f t h e s e asona l a bundance o f s he l l f ish p opu la t ion s i n t h is p or t ion o f t h e S ou th C en t ra l Andes , a l though w e c an o b ta in s ome i n s igh t i n to t h e p red ic tab i l i ty o f t he t e r re s t r ia l e nv i ronmen t t h rough t h e e xam ina -
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 6
t i on o f r a in fa l l a nd o the r c l i ma t ic d a ta . Ove ra l l , r a in f a l l i se x t reme ly s parse o n t he c oas t . Ove r af i ty -yea r s pan , n o measurab le r a in fa l l f e l l o n A r ica , a pp rox ima te ly 8 0 km s ou th o f t h e mou th o f t he O smo re . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t o ne wou ld e xpe c t n o r a in f a l l i n mo s t mon ths , b u t t ha t t h e a ppea rance o f r a in fa l l e ven t s o f a ny magn i tude wou ld b e h igh ly u np red ic tab le ( C ra ig a nd P su ty 1 968 :84 ) . G arua s a r e a l so r e la t ive ly u np red ic tab le i n t e rms o f b o th t h e ir i n tens i ty a nd a ppearance . A l though t h ey a r e g enera l ly mo re l i ke ly t o a ppea r d ur ing t h e c oo le r ( May -Augus t ) mon ths , i ti s c l ear t h a t t hey f r equen t ly f a i l t o i nduce g e rm ina t ion o f t he l oma s . On a ver age , t h e c oas t i s a mode ra te ly u npr ed ic tab le h ab i ta t . T he mos t s e r ious s ub s is tence r i sk i s t h e E l N i f io e ven t ; ap owe r fu l N if lo c an d e s t roy s he l l f ish p opu la t ion s , d r ive f i sh o f f c oas t , a nd e l im ina te t h e c rus t ac eans many f i sh s pe c ies d epend u pon . A s eve re E l N i f io c an a f fe c t t he a bundan ce o f mar ine r e sour ces f o r y ea r s ( O sborn 1 977 ) . T he p e r iod ic i ty a nd s eve r i ty o f t he N i t io e ven t h a s b een a s ub jec t o f d eba te f o r d ecade s . L o ca l i nhab i t an t s o f t h e a r ea c l a im t h a t N if io s a ppear o n ar ough ly s even -year c yc le , b u t t h e re i s l i t t le emp i r ica l d a ta a va i lab le t o s uppo r t t h a t a sser t ion ( s ee F igure 3 ) . F rom 1 948/49 1969/70 , t h ree N i f ios o c cur red , a nd o n ly o ne o f t h ese w as d es c r ibed a s " s eve re " ( 1 957/58 ) . I ti s c l ear , h oweve r , t h a t t hese e ven t s a re e s sen t ia l ly u np red ic tab le , a nd p robab ly w ou ld b e e spec ia l ly s o f o r p eop le s w i th n o a cce s s t o c l i ma to log ica l d a ta . R a in fa l l p red ic tab i l i ty c an a l so b e u s ed a s ap roxy m easure o f r e source p red ic tab i l i ty i n t h e h igh s i e r r a a nd p un a ( F igure 3 ) . D e sp i te t h e ma rked s easona l i ty o f r a in fa l l ( mo s t f a l l ing D ecembe r - Ma rch ) , i ti sh igh ly u np red ic t ab le ( Tab le 3 ) .
R ainfall
Predictability
P redictability Constancy
( C)
Contingency C /P M/P
( M)
( P)
a t
Quellaveco
( 3650 m )
. 434 . 174 . 260 . 401 . 599
T ab le 3 .
R a in fa l l p e r iod ic i ty o n t he p una a nd s i e r r a i sa l so s t rong ly c o r re la ted , a l though i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e re i ss pa t ia l v ar iab i l i ty i n r a in fa l l amoun t i n t h e s i e r r a ( c ompare T oquepa la w i th Que l laveco ) . T he k ey s t o e nv i ronmen ta l r i sk o n t h e p una a r e t h e s i ze o f t h e b o f ed a l a nd t h e i n ten s i ty a nd a bundance o f r a in fa l l . A s c an b e s e en i n F igure 3 , w a te r d i scharge r a te s ( an i nd i re c t measu re o f s i ze o f b o f ed a l ) a t P as to G rande , o ne o f t he l a rge s t b o f ed a l e s i n t h e r eg ion , s how a s t rong c o r re la t ion w i th r a in fa l l i n tens i ty , a nd s how s as im i la r u np red ic tab i l i ty . L ong - t e rm d rough t c an d ry u p s ma l le r b o f ed a l e s , a nd c an s i gn i f ican t ly r educe t h e q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o f p as tur age o n t h e l a rge r o nes . I ft he d ry s e ason s i ze o f t h e b o f eda l i s a ma jo r l im i t ing f a c to r o f t h e n umbe r o f c ame l ids t ha t c an u se i t ( a s s eem s e co log ica l ly r e asonab le ) , t h en s ho r t -and l o ng te rm u np red ic tab i l i ty i n r a in fa l l o n t h e p una a dds a s i gn i f ican t f a c to r t o e nv i ronmen t a l r i sk . T he c umu la t ive e f f e c t o f t hese c l i ma to log ica l f a c tor s make s t h e d ry p un a ar i sky h ab i ta t .
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M .AL D END ER F E R ; AR CH A I C PE R IOD " CO M P L EM EN 7 'A R I T Y
P a leoenv iron men t s S i gn i f ican t a dvances h av e b een made i n o ur u nde rs tand ing o f t he p a leoenv ironmen t s i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l A nde s d ur ing t h e p as t f i ve y ea r s . Nuf iez e t a l . ( 1 983 ) h ave r e c on s t ruc ted c l ima te a t a n i mpo r tan t c oas ta l s i te , Que reo , a nd h ave s i nce e x tended t he i r f i nd ing s t o s i tes i n t h e s i e r r a j u s t t o t he s ou th o f t he p ropo sed p ro je c t a r ea ( S an to ro a nd Nuf i ez 1 987 ) . I n g ene ra l , t h ese r e con s t ruc t ion s h ave c on f irmed t r ends o bse rved b y o the r r e sea r che rs i n t h e r eg ion , mos t n o tab ly C ab rera ( 1 968 ) a nd C ra ig ( 1 984 ) . W i th in t he O smo re b as in , R i chardson ( 1 987 ) a nd h i s c o -wo rker s a t t he S he l l R ing s i te h ave a l so c on f i rmed s ome o f t h e t r ends o b se rved b y Nuf iez e t . a l ( 1 983 ) , a nd i n r e sea rch n ow u nde rw ay , A ldende r fe r ( n .d . b ) a t A sana i n t h e s i e r r a o f t h e O smore h as a l so o bse rved s i gn i f ic an t s ed imen t c hange s t h a t c o r re la te w e l l w i th t hose o bse rved i n t h e s i e r r a o f t he No r te G rande , a nd t h e reby t o t h e S ou th C en t ra l A ndes i n g ene ra l . T he e n t ire S ou th C en t ra l A nde s h as b een u nde rgo ing p rog re s s ive d e s ic ca t ion f o r t he p as t 2 0 ,000 y ear s . T h is p ro ce s s , h oweve r , h as b e en i n te r rup ted b y p er iods o f i n c reased mo i s tu r e . S ince 1 0 ,000 B .P . , t h e re h ave b een t h ree m a jo r c l ima t ic e p isode s o f r e levance t o t h i s p ro jec t i n t h e r eg ion . T he Y ounge r D ryas ( 1 0 ,500 -6500 B .P . ) w as a p er iod o f i n c rea sed mo is ture a nd c oo le r t empe ra tures when c ompa red t o modern c l i ma te . T h is wou ld h ave h ad t he e f fe c t o f g ene ra l ly i n c reas ing r e source d ens i ty a nd i n c reas ing p a t ch s i ze . T he e f fec t o f t h is c l ima te o n r a in fa l l p e r iod ic i ty i su nknown , b u t i ti sl i ke ly t ha t i t wou ld h ave b een h ighe r t h an t h e modern s i tua t ion . T he B o rea l ( 6 500 -5500 B .P . ) w as c ha r ac t e r ized b y a w a rm ing a nd d ry ing t r end , w i th l e s s r a in fa l l a nd w arme r t emp e r a tures t h an t he modern e r a . T h is wou ld h ave l e d t o i n tens i f ied r e source c l us te r ing a nd l owe red p roduc t iv i ty a nd p red ic t ab i l i ty o f r e sou rce s . D ur ing t he A t lan t ic ( 5 500 -3500 B .P . ) t h e re w as a r e turn t o w e t te r a nd c oo le r c ond i t ions . T h is wou ld h ave h ad t h e e f fec t o f i mp rov ing r e sour ce p red ic tab i l i ty a nd a bundance . A t n o t ime d id t h is ame l io ra t ion o f c l ima te r e ach t h e c ond i t ions c r ea ted d ur ing t h e D ryas . T he a n t iqu i ty o f E l N it io e ven t s i s a n i mpo r t an t c ons ide ra t ion i n u nde r s tand ing t he p a leo c l ima tes o f t h e r eg ion . T he d evas ta t ing e f fe c t o f mode rn e ven t s o n t he s ou the rn h igh lands i s b e com ing i n c reas ing ly c l ear . I f i te x is ted i n t h e p as t , t h en i t wou ld h ave b een e spec ia l ly s eve re d ur ing t imes o f r e la t ive a r id i ty b y mak ing p red ic tab i l i ty o f r a in fa l l p e r iod ic i ty e ven mo re d i f f icu l t . R o l l ins e t a l . ( 1 986 ) a nd S andwe iss ( 1 986 ) h ave d e te r m ined t h a t t he o r ig in o f E l N if io c an b e t r aced t o a pp rox ima te ly 5 000 B .P . T h is f a l ls a t t h e e nd o f t he B o rea l a nd b eg inn ing o f t h e A t lan t ic . A s l igh t ly e a r l ie r o r ig in wou ld h ave i n c reased e nv ironmen ta l r i sk i n a n a l ready r i sky c l ima te . Ongo ing r e sear ch i n t he b as in w i l l p rov ide t h e o ppor tun i ty t o mo re p rec ise ly i d en t i fy i t s o r ig ins , a nd t hus c on t r ibu te t o af u l le r u nde r s tand ing a s t o h ow e nv i ronmen ta l c hange c ou ld h ave a f fec ted t h e e vo lu t ion o f t he f o rag ing s oc ie t ie s . R e cen t s t ud ies i n c oas ta l g eomo rpho logy a nd c l i ma to logy h ave p rov ided s i gn i f ican t i n s igh t s i n to t wo o the r p ro ce sses t h a t may h ave a f fec ted t he s t ab i l i ty o f t h e c oas ta l e nv i ronmen t i n t h e p as t , a nd t hus t h e d eg ree o f e nv i ronmen ta l r i sk f o rage r s may h ave f a ced . T hese p ro ce sse s a r e c oas ta l u p l i f t a nd i nunda t ion , a nd t he r e t rac t ion o f c oas t a l s p r ing s . R icha rdson ( 1 98 1 ) h as d emons t ra ted t h a t p r io r t o c a . 5 000 B .P . , t h e P eruv ian c oas t w as r e la t ive ly u ns tab le d ue t o t h e c omb ined e f fec t s o f t e c ton ic u p l i f t a nd i nunda t i on o f t he c on t inen ta l s he l f d ue t o g l ac ia l me l t ing i n t h e h igh lands . Wh i le t h e e f fec t o f t h e se p rocesse s o n f i sh a nd s he l l f ish p opu la t ions i s c ur ren t ly u nde r s t udy , t h e i mp l ica t i on i sc l ear t h a t as i gn i f ican t d eg ree o f b o t tom c hange a nd w a te r t empe ra ture wou ld h ave a dver se ly a f fe c ted t h e ir a bundance a nd p r ed ic tab i l i ty . A sso c ia t ed w i th t e c ton ic
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Chap te r 6
F igu re 3 . P e r iod ic i ty o f r a in fa l l amoun t a nd f r equency a t as er ies o f s e lec ted s t at ions i n t he O smo re b as in . D a ta f r om S ou the rn P e ru Coppe r C o rpo ra t ion s ources .
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M . AL D END ER F ER ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD " CO M P L EM EN T A R IT Y
u p l i f t o f t he c oas t i st he r e t rac t ion o f t he w a te r t a b le i n an umber o f v a l ley s y s tems b o th n o r th a nd s ou th o f I l o . C lemen t a nd Mo se ley ( 1 986 ) , i n ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f t he h yd ro logy o f t h e Queb rada C ar r iza l , h ave t r aced t h is r e t rac t ion t h rough t he l a te p reh is to r ic a nd C o lon ia l p e r iods , a nd a r e b eg inn ing t o e x tend t h e i r r e su l t s t o e a r l ie r p e r iods . T he ir r e search s ugges t s w a ter a va i lab i l i ty may h ave b een g rea te r i n t he p as t .
A rcha i c P er iod A r chaeo logy o f t he O smo re b as in D e sp i te t he s em ina l wo rk o f R av ine s ( 1 967 , 1 972 ) , a lmo s t n o th ing w as k nown o f t he A rcha ic P er iod a r chaeo logy o f t h e O smo re b as in u n t i l t he i n cep t ion o f P rog rama C on t i suyo i n 1 982 a nd t h e Nor thwes t ern U n ive r s i ty A r cha ic P ro jec t ( NUAP ) i n 1 984 . Ove r 1 50 c omponen t s , r ang ing f r om c a . 1 2000 -4000 B .P . h ave b een l o ca ted w i th in t he d ra inage t hrough " s i te le s s " s urvey i n t h e h igh s i e r r a , p re l im inary s ys tema t ic s u rvey o n t he p un a a nd c oas t , a nd p re l im ina ry r e conna i ssance i n t h e l ow s i e r r a . ( A ldende r f er 1 985 , 1 986 ; B au mann n .d . a ; K uznar , t h is v o lume ; S andwe is s e t a l . , t h is v o lume ; W ise , t h is v o lume ) . S urvey a nd t e s t e xcava t ion s a t i mpo r tan t o pen -a ir s i te s a nd r o ck she l te r s i n a l l z one s e xcep t t h e l ow s i e r r a h ave d emons t ra ted a n o ccupa t ion o f t he r eg ion b eg inn ing i n P a leo I nd ian t ime s a nd c on t inu ing t h roughou t t h e A r cha ic w e l l i n to t he F o rma t ive a nd b eyond ( F igure 4 ; T ab le 4 ) . T h is r e sea rch h as c r ea ted a d a ta b ase u n ique i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes f o r t h e s t udy o f A rcha ic P e r iod a dap t a t ions t h rough i t s emphas is o n s ys tema t ic d a ta c o l le c t ion i n a l l ma jo r e co log ica l z one s o f as i ng le d ra inage . O n t h e b as is o f t h is r e s ea rch , i ti sn ow p o s s ib le t o d es c r ibe s e t t lemen t p a t terns i n a l l z one s b u t t he l ow s i e r r a . A l though p re l im ina ry r e conna issance h as l o ca ted A r cha ic s i te s i n t h is z one ( i n t h e Aguas N eg ras d ra inage ) , t h e d a ta a re n o t s u f f ic ien t t o r e cons t ruc t s e t t lemen t p a t te rns . Two d i s t inc t ive s e t t lemen t p a t te rns a re f ound o n t he l i t to ra l : o ne f o cused o n s ma l l , n ar row , s p r ing fed v a l ley s y s tems n o r th o f t h e mou th o f t h e O smo re , a nd o ne t o t he s ou th o f t h e O smo re t h a t i sa s so c ia ted w i th a l ong , w ide mode rn b each s t rand ( P a mpa d e l P a lo ) a nd t h e mode rn d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he h e rbaceous l ama s . Queb rada C ar r iza l , o ne o f t he s ma l l v a l leys , c on ta in s a n i n tens ive A r cha ic P e r iod o ccupa t ion , i n c lud ing a ma jo r s t ra t i f ied s i te ( Car r iza l ) l o ca ted a t t h e s ource o f ad r ied s p r ing , a nd n ume rous , s ma l ler A r cha ic a nd a ce ram ic s u r face s c a t te r s f ound t h roughou t t he l e ng th o f t he v a l ley (W ise , t h is v o lume ) . I n c on t ras t , t h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s ou th o f t he mou th o f t he O smore i s c ha rac te r ized b y v e ry l a rge n umbe r s o f s ma l l s he l l m iddens o f A rcha ic a nd a c e ra m ic d a tes s t re t ched a long t h e P ampa d e l P a lo f o r o ve r 1 5 km . Wh i le many o f t he s e s ma l l m iddens h ave b een e xposed b y w ind e ro s ion , o the r s h ave b een b ur ied b y c o l luv ia t ion f r om t he c oas ta l h i l ls , a nd a re f ound b ur ied u p t o f ou r me ter s b e low p resen t g round s ur face ( A ldende r fe r 1 985 ) . T he S he l l R ing s i te ( S andwe is s e t a l . , t h is v o lume ) i s f ound a l ong t h is b each s t rand . Wh i le t h e a n t iqu i ty a nd mean ing o f t h is d i f fe rence i n s e t t lemen t p a t te rn i su n c lea r , i ti sp robab ly d ue i n p a r t t o a nc ien t r e sour ce d i s t r ibu t ion s ( r o cky v s . s andy b each ) a nd l ong te rm p opu la t ion g row th t ha t b egan t o f i l l i n t he s ma l le r q ueb radas , p robab ly b eg inn ing i n t h e L a te A r cha ic . P a l impse s t s d a t ing t o t he L a t e A r cha ic a re f ound i n t h e l ama s f o rma t ion s t hemse lves ( A ldender fe r 1 985 ; B aumann n .d . a ) T he s e t t lemen t p a t te rn o f t h e h igh s i e r r a i s w e l l - u nde r s tood ( A ldende r fe r , t h is v o lume ) . Ove r 7 0 o pen -a i r A rcha ic c omponen t s , s pann ing t he E ar ly A r cha ic t o t h e E ar ly F o rma t ive , h ave b een d i s cove red o n t h e t e r race s o f s t ream s i n a n e l eva t ion r ange f r om 3 000 -4000 m . S i ze s o f t h e se s i te s r ange f r om f i ve m t o 2 500 m , a nd s t ruc tu ra l r ema ins
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h ave b een f ound o n l a rge r s i te s . D i f fe ren t ia l d is t r ibu t ion s o f r educ t ion b y -p roduc t s a nd s haped t oo ls a t l a rge r s i tes s ugge s t s p os s ib le s pa t ia l s epara t ion o f a c t iv i ty p e r fo rman ce . I n g ene ra l , wh i le t h e n umbe r o f c omponen t s i n c rease s s l ow ly t h rough t ime , t h ey i n c reas e i n s i ze r ap id ly . One o f t he mo s t s i gn i f ican t f i nds f o r A r cha ic P er iod a r chaeo logy i n t h is r e g ion i st h e s i t e o f A s ana , d is cove red i n 1 985 , a nd t e s ted a nd e xcava ted i n 1 987 a nd 1 988 . ( A ldende r fe r i n p res s a , b ) . T he s i te i s l o ca ted a t 3 450 M .A .S .L . o n t he t e r race s a bove t h e R io A s ana , a nd i s t h e o n ly k nown s t ra t i f ied o pen a i r s i te o ccup ied d ur ing t h e A rcha ic/Ea r ly F o rma t ive i n t he s i e r r a o f t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes . T he s i te c on ta ins o ve r 4 0 d i s t inc t c u l tura l s t ra ta i n a n a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t t h a t r e ache s ad ep th o f 4m ( F igure 5 ) . R ad io ca rbon d a t ing h as f i rm ly e s tab l ished s i te o c cupa t ion f r om 9 580 B .P . u n t i l 3 640 B .P . S i te s i ze i sa t l e as t c a . 8 00 m ; t h e s i te w as a pparen t ly l o ca ted b es ide a s ma l l b o f ed a l t h a t e x is ted t h roughou t much o f t h e Ho lo cene . A t p resen t , t wo a reas t o ta l ing 4 0 m h ave b een e xcava ted t o d ep ths r ang ing f r om 1 . 5 -3 m . S t ruc tura l r ema ins , p re sumab ly h ouse s , h ave b een d i s cove red i n mo s t o f t he l e ve l s a s soc ia ted w i th t he M idd le A r cha ic t o E a r ly F o rma t ive . T he e ar l ies t s t ruc ture s a t t he s i te ( l eve ls X IV -XV I I I ) d a t e t o t he M idd le A rcha ic , a nd h ave b een t en ta t ive ly d a ted t o 7 100 -6040 B .P . ( F igu re 6 ) . T hese s t ruc ture s a r e c i rcu lar i n f o rm , c a . 2 -2 .5m i n d iame t e r , a nd a r e c omposed o f p r epa red c l ay f l oo r s s u r rounded b y p o s tmo lds . T he re i s a l so a l a rge s uppo r t ing p o s t i n t h e c en t er o f t h e f l oo r . E ach o f t h e h ouse s d i s cove red i s a s soc ia ted w i th e x ten s ive m idden s . T he re a re a t l e as t t wo c on tempo raneous s t ruc tu re s i n t h e se M idd le A rcha ic l e ve ls , a nd s ome t imes t h ree . House s a r e a l so f o und i n L a te A r cha ic l e ve ls b u t c on s t ruc t ion t e chn iques c hanged . T hese l a t te r h ous e s , o vo id o r c i rcu lar i n s hap e , a re r ough ly t he s ame s i ze , b u t d o n o t h ave p repa red c l ay f l oo rs o r c en t ra l p o s t s , a nd a ppear t o b e s u r rounded b y j a c a l o r b rush w a l ls . M idden s a re n o t e x ten s ive , a l though p res en t . F ina l ly , f ou r r o ck she l te r s a nd s ma l l c aves r ang ing i n s i ze f r om l a rge t o s ma l l a nd i n e l eva t ion f r om 3 000 -3800 m h ave b een t e s ted . E a ch c on ta ins e x ten s ive A r cha ic P e r iod d epo s i t s . S e t t lemen t p a t te rns o n t he p u r za a r e c omp lex ; o pen a i r s i te s a nd r o ck she l ter s h ave b een l o ca ted t h rough i n e l eva t ions f r om 4 000 -4600 m . T he n umbe rs o f s i t e s a nd t h e i r c omp lex i ty v ary w i th t h e e x tan t s i ze o f b o f ed a l e s a nd t h e p resence o f s u i tab le s he l te rs f o r l onge r h ab i t a t ion ( Kuzna r , t h is v o lume ) . T he p ampas a round T i t i jone s ( 4 200 m ) a r e s ma l l , a nd p rone t o d es icca t ion i n p e r iods o f p ro longed d rough t . S i te d en s i t ies i n t h e a r ea a r e l ow . However , a t P ampa C h i ch i l lape ( 4 100 -4300 m ) , w i th a n umbe r o f s ma l l a nd med ium s i zed r ockshe l te r s , i n c lud ing Que lca tan i , a t l e as t 3 0 A rcha i c P e r iod s i te s h ave b een d i s cove red . A n i n spec t ion o f s i te l o ca t ions a nd s i te c on ten t s a rgue s f o r s ome l e ve l o f d i f fer ence i n a c t iv i ty p e r fo rman ce b e tween t h e s i te s . L ike i n t h e s i er r a , t h ey i n c rease s ub s tan t ia l ly i n s i ze s l ow ly t h rough t ime a l though n umber s o f s i te s c hange s s l ow ly t h rough t he A r cha ic . T es t e x cava t ions a t Que lca tan i , o ne o f t h e m a jo r r o ck s he l t er s o f t he r eg ion , h ave e s tab l i shed t h a t t h e s i te w as o ccup ied a t l e a s t a s e ar ly a s 7 100 B .P . , a nd p robab ly much e ar l ie r , s i nce t h e d a ted s amp les w e re r e cove red f r om t h e m idpo in t o f ad eep ( 2 .5 m ) d epo s i t . P ro je c t i le p o in t s t hough t t o d a te t o t h e P a leo ind ian P e r iod h ave b een f ound o n n ea rby b o f ed a l e s , a nd i ts e ems c l ear t h a t o ccupa t ion i n t h e r eg ion w as i n i t ia ted s ho r t ly a f te r d eg lac ia t ion .
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M .AL D END ER F ER ; AR CHA IC PE R IOD " CO M P LEN IENTAR IT Y
F igu re 4 . L oca t ions o f i mpo r tan t A rcha ic P er iod s i te s i n t he O smore b as in .
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F igu re 5 . S t ra t ig raph ic p ro f i le o f t he n o r th w a l l o f T e s t Un i t s 1 8 a nd 1 9 , A sana . A r chaeo log ica l E v idence f o r T rends T owa rd C omp lemen ta r i ty S oc ia l a nd E thn ic D i f fe ren t ia t ion I ti sn o to r ious ly d i f f icu l t t o i den t i fy " e thn ic " o r s oc ia l d i s t inc t ion s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd e ven u nde r i d ea l c i r cums tance s . I t i s e ven mo re d i f f icu l t t o d e f ine t hese d i s t i nc t ions when d ea l ing w i th a r chaeo log ica l c u l ture s t h a t a re r ep re sen ted s o le ly b y l i th ic ma te r ia ls , a n ima l b one , a nd m is ce l laneou s r e fuse . U n fo r tuna te ly , t h is i s t h e c ase w i th much o f t he A rcha ic i n t he O smo re a nd t he S ou th C en t ra l A ndes i n g ene ra l . I n n o r thern C h i le , wh i le t he re a re i mpo r tan t o rgan ic c u l tura l r ema ins t o b e f o und i n L a t e A rcha ic c u l ture s , s uch a s t h e C h incho r ro c omp lex , t h e se s ame ma te r ia ls a r e n o t f ound i n h ighe r e l eva t ion s i te s . T he q ue s t ion b ecome s h ow much o f t h is p at t e rn i s d ue t o d i f fe ren t ia l p reserva t ion a nd h ow much i sd ue t o d i f fe rences i n c u l ture .
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F igu re 6 . F loo r s o f d omes t ic a r ch i tec ture i n C u l tura l L eve l XV I Ib , A sana .
T he se d i f f icu l t ies n o tw i ths tand ing , t he re i se v idence t ha t t he re h ave b een t wo d i s t inc t c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ions p resen t i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes b eg inn ing w i th t he E ar ly A rcha ic ( 1 0 ,000 -8000 B .P . ) . Ch i lean a r chaeo log is t s wo rk ing i n t he No r te G rande h ave p os tu la ted at r ad i t ion o f r e la t ive ly s eden tary c oas ta l f o rager s a nd a no ther o f mob i le h un ter s t ha t e xp lo i ted p una g rass lands f r om O c tobe r -Ap r i l a nd s l igh t ly l ower e l eva t iona l z one s i n t he h igh s i e rr a f r om May -Sep tembe r ( L lagos tera 1 979 , 1 985 ; Mu i ioz a nd C hacama 1 982 ; S an to ro a nd Nunez 1 987 ; S ch iappacassse y N iemeye r 1 984 ) . T he e v idence f o r t h is i st he s c a rc i ty o f h igh -a l t i tude r e source s a t c oas ta l s i tes , a nd b y t he g rea t d i f fe rences i n
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 6
a s semb lage s b e tween c oas ta l a nd h igh land s i tes . Howeve r , s i nce f ew h igh -e leva t ion s i t e s h ave b e en e xcava ted i n t h is r eg ion , t h ese d i f fer ences a r e t hus b ased i n p a r t o n n ega t ive e v idence . New e v idence f r om c oas t a l a nd h igh -e leva t ion s i te s i n t he O smo re b a s in p rov ide s s t rong s uppo r t f o r t h e t wo t rad i t ion mode l . I ti sn ow c l ea r t ha t o c cupa t ion o f t h e l i t to r a l a nd h igh e l eva t ion z ones i s r ough ly c on t empo raneous , a nd t ha t t he re i s s ubs tan t ia l d i f fe rences i n s ubs is tence s t ra tegy b e tween t h e t wo z one s . R icha rdson ( 1 987 ) h as a rgued t ha t o n t h e l i t to ra l , s ubs is tence s t ra tegy r ema ined f i xed u pon mar ine r esou r ce s t h rough o u t t he A r cha ic . T he s ource o f l i th ics a t t h e s i t e a re f r om a q uar ry a pp rox ima te ly 1 5 f r om t h e s i te , a nd t he re i sn o e v idence o f s i e r r a o r p un a r aw ma te r ia ls i n t h e a s semb lage . F u r the rmo re , t he re i s n o e v idence o f t e r res t r ia l mamma l s t o b e f ound i n c oa s ta l f auna l a s semb lage s . T he re i s a l so n o e v idence o f c oas ta l l i th ic r aw ma te r ia ls i n s i e r r a o r p un a a s semb lage s , a nd t he re a re n o s i gn i f ican t c oas ta l f auna l r ema in s f ound i n h i gh -e leva t ion s i tes s uch a s T oquepa la , A sana , a nd Que lca tan i . T he mos t i mpo r tan t q ue s t ion t ha t mu s t b e r e so lved i s t he t h eo re t ica l p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t s ome f o rm o f s easona l t r an shumance w a s p rac t iced b e tween c oas t a nd p una d ur ing t h e A rcha ic a s h as b een a rgued b y R av ine s ( 1 972 ) a nd D au lesbe rg ( 1 974 ) . T h is wou ld i mp ly t h a t t he d i f fe rences i n a s semb lage s b e tween c oas t a nd p una wou ld b e d ue t o d i f fe ren t ia l f unc t iona l r equ iremen t s b e tween t h e t wo h ab i ta t s , t hus c r ea t ing a " c oas ta l " a s semb lage a nd a " puna " a s semb lage . S o c ia l C i rcums cr ip t ion T he mo s t d i re c t measure o f s o c ia l c i r cu m s c r ip t ion i se v idence f o r t e r r i to ry f o rma t ion a nd a d ec rease i n r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty . A t p resen t , t h e re i s n o c l ear e v idence i n t h e O smo re b as in f o r t he f o rme r , b u t r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty d oe s d ec l ine t h rough t ime , e spec ia l ly i n t he h igh s i e r r a a nd p una . T he s i tua t ion i s l e s s c l ea r o n t h e c o as t , whe re r eg iona l s e t t lemen t d a ta a re l e s s c omp le te . T h ree l i ne s o f e v idence e x is t t o s uppo r t t h is i n feren ce : c hanges i n s i e r r a/puna l and u se , s i t e s t ruc tu re d a ta , a nd s t o rage f a c i l i t ies . C hanges i n l and u se s ys tems o n t he p un a a nd s i er r a a re mon i to red b y p resumed c hanges i n t h e i n tens i ty o f s i te u se a nd s i te s t ruc tu re . T he n umbe r o f c omponen t s i n t h e s i e r r a c hanges s l ow ly t h rough t ime , b u t t h e re a r e mo re o f t h em t e n ta t ive ly d a ted t o t h e L a te A r cha ic t h an a l l o the r p er iods c omb ined . A lso , t h e u se o f A sana c hang e s t h rough t ime , d emon s t ra t ing l onger , mo re i n tense o ccupa t ion s pans i n b o th t he M idd le a nd L a t e A r cha ic t h an i n t he E ar ly A r cha ic ( A ldende r fe r , t h is v o lume ) . T here i s n o e v iden ce , h oweve r , o f r e s iden t ia l b ase s i n t h e s i e r r a d ur ing t he A r cha ic . S im i lar c hang e s t a ke p l a ce o n t h e p una a t Que lca tan i , whe re d ur ing t he E a r ly A r cha ic , o ccupa t ion a pp ear s t o b e s ho r t te rm j udg ing f r om m idden d ens i ty a nd c on ten t . C ompared t o A sana , h owever , t h e o ccupa t ion s pan i s much l onge r , b u t i n n o c ase , d oe s i t a pp roach wha t wou ld b e e xpec ted w i th s eden ta ry o r l ong te rm u se . T h rough t h e M idd le t o L a te A r cha i c , m idden d ens i ty i n c reases , a nd s t ruc tu re s a re c on s t ruc ted . T he s i te w as p robab ly a r e s iden t ia l b ase t h roughou t t he A r cha ic , b u t l e ng th a nd i n ten s i ty o f o ccupa t ion i n c rea sed t h rough t ime . I t i s l i ke ly , b u t y e t t o b e d emons t ra ted , t h a t t h e S he l l R ing s i te s e rved a s a r e s iden t ia l b ase , a t l e as t b y t he e nd o f t h e E ar ly A r cha ic , a nd p o s s ib ly e a r l ie r . T he s i t e i st h e o n ly k nown E a r ly A r cha ic s i te o n t h e c oas t i n t h i s r eg ion . S i te s t ruc ture d a ta s uppor t t hese i n fe rences . A t Que lca tan i , l a rge , s t one s t ruc tures a r e b u i l t n ear t he e dge o f t he d r ip l ine n ea r t h e e nd o f M idd le A rcha ic , a nd t h i s c ons t ruc t ion c on t inues i n to t he L a te A rcha ic . T he b ack w a l l a rea o f t he s he l te r , wh ich s howed n o s i gn o f a c t iv i ty s pec ia l iza t ion f o r a l o f t h e E ar ly A rcha ic a nd t h rough m o s t o f t h e
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AL D END ER F ER ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD " CO M P L EM EN T A R I TY
M idd le A rcha ic , i s t r an s fo rmed i n to a s l eep ing a rea , c omp le te w i th a r ow o f s l eep ing h ea r th s s epara ted b y g ras s ma t s t h rough t he L a te A r cha ic . T he se c hanges i n s i te s t ru c tu r e c o r re la te w e l l w i th t he d eve lopmen t o f Que lca tan i a s ar e s iden t ia l b ase o f i n c rea s ing o ccupa t ion s pan t h roughou t t he A r cha ic P e r iod . O ne o f t he mo s t s i gn i f ican t i nd ica to r s o f d e c reased r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty i s t he a pp ea r ance o f s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s . S to rage e s sen t ia l ly " t e ther s " f o rage r s t o r e s iden t ia l b ase s . Howeve r , t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cogn i t ion o f s t o rage r ema ins p rob lema t ic . Mode rn mea t s t o rage i n t he h igh -e leva t ion z one s o f t he S ou th C en t ra l Ande s i sa ccomp l ished t h rough t he p roduc t ion o f c h iark i , o r d r ied mea t , a nd p o ta toes a re t r ans fo rmed i n to c hu r l ( ) t h rough f r eeze -dry ing ( Mamam i 1 98 1 ) . Wh i le t h e o r ig in o f t h ese t e chno log ies i s u nknown , w e c an u s e e thnog raph ic a na logue s t o g e t as ense o f h ow mea t a nd t ube r s c ou ld h ave b een s t o red . I n t he s i e r r a a nd p una t oday , mea t i s f i re -dr ied a nd o f ten h ung o ve r r a f ter s i n s t o r age b u i ld ings . Modern g oa t p as tora l i s t s a l so h ang mea t o ve r t he s t r inge r s o f t he i r t empo r a ry s t ruc tu res . N e i the r o f t h ese mode s o f s t o rage a re e xpec ted t o h ave c l ea r ma te r ia l c or re la te s . Howeve r , p o ta to o r c h 'u r i o s t o rage may b e v i s ib le . I n t he c i r cum -T i t icaca r eg ion , c h iu r i o a re s t o red e i the r i n b ag s , c e ram ic v es se ls , o r i n s ma l l , r e c t angu lar s t ruc tures p l aced a d jacen t t o h ouse s ( Mamam i 1 98 1 :243 -45 ) . T he l a t te r me thod i s d e s igned f o r l o ng te rm s t o r age . Above -g round s t o rage i s p re fe r red t o ma in t a in v en t i la t ion , wh ich a c t s t o p reven t s po i lage a nd g e rm ina t ion . T hese s ma l l s t ruc tu res a re l i ned w i th v a r ious r e eds a nd g rasses , a nd t h e c h 'u r io a re p laced a top t hem . Two m a te r ia l c o r re la t es a r e t h e s t ruc tu ra l r ema ins t hemse lves , a nd mac ro f lo ra l r ema in s o f l i ne r s . We wou ld e xpec t t h ese s t ruc tu re s t o b e p l aced w i th in t h e d r ip l ine s o f s he l ter s , b u t a way f r om s l eep ing a r eas . T he re i sn o e v idence o f s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s o f t h is o r a ny o the r t ype a t Que lca tan i d u r ing t he E a r ly a nd M idd le A rcha ic , b u t t he re i s p ar t ia l e v idence f o r t he L a te A r cha ic . Sma l l s t one f e a tur es h ave b een f ound a sso c ia ted w i th s ome o f t he s t ruc tu ra l r ema in s n ear t he d r ip l ine , a nd wh i le t h e f unc t ion r ema ins t o b e d e t e rm ined , i ti sp os s ib le t h e se s e rved a s s t o rage c on ta ine r s f o r t ube r s . T aken t oge ther , t h e se d a ta s t rong ly s uppo r t t h e eme rgence o f Que lca tan i a s a r e s iden t ia l b ase a t s ome p o in t i n t he L a te A r cha ic . Mob i l i ty f r equency b egan t o d e c l ine a t s ome p o in t i n t he M idd le A rcha ic , p os s ib ly b y 6 000 -5000 B P , a nd i tr e ached wha t a ppea r s t o b e e s sen t ia l ly a p at tern o f s eden tary l i f e n ear t h e m idd le t o t he e nd o f t he L a te A r cha ic . R e sour ce I n tens i f ica t ion a nd S pe c ia l iza t ion O n t he c oas t , wh i le q uan t i ta t ive s t ud ie s h ave n o t y e t b een c omp le ted , i ta ppea rs t ha t aw ide r r ange o f f i sh a nd s he l l f ish s pec ie s w e re i n c luded i n t he d ie t t h rough t ime . I n p a r t , t h is i s d ue t o c hange s i n p ro curemen t t e chno logy , wh ich o n t he l i t to ra l wou ld p e rm i t f i she rs t o r ange i n to d eepe r w a te r s , a nd o b ta in d i f fe ren t s pec ies ( Cra ig 1 982 ; S ch iappacasse a nd N iemeye r 1 984 ) . T he o ve ra l l i mp re s s ion i n t h e c oas ta l z one i n t he S ou th C en t ra l A nde s i s t h e mo re i n tens ive p roduc t ion o f aw ide r ange o f f i sh a nd s he l l f i sh s pec ies b y t he L a te A r cha ic . I n t h e s i e r r a a nd p una , w e c an s ee c l ear c hange s i n t h e u se o f f auna a nd f l o ra t h rough t ime . T rends i n t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f f auna d ur ing t h e t r an s i t ion i n c lude a c hange i n t a rge t s pec ie s f r om d ee r t o c ame l ids , a nd t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f c ame l id d ome s t ica t ion . Wh i le i ti s c l ear t h a t t h e p ropo r t ion o f d ee r r ema ins i n f auna l a s semb lages d ec rease s t h rough t ime , t h e d eg re e t o wh ich t h is c hange r ep resen t s am a jor r e -o r ien ta t ion i n g ame s e le c t ion i s n o t . I n t h e c en t ra l A nde s , s pec ia l ized h un t ing - af o cus o n c ame l ids o ve r
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d eer - i s t hough t t o b e ap re lude t o t he d omes t ica t ion o f c a me l ids (Whee le r e t a l . 1 976 ) . T h is m ay b e v iewed a s a n i n tens i f ica t ion o f u se , wh ich h as b een i mp l ica ted i n t h e s eden tar iza t ion p ro cess i n o the r c on tex t s ( Chr is tenson 1 980 ; H ayden 1 98 1 ) . Howeve r , t he re i s n o n ecessary c ond i t ion u nde r wh ich i n tens i f ica t ion p recedes d ome s t ica t ion o r s eden tar iza t ion . T he re fore , i tb ecome s n ecessary t o d e f ine mo re p rec ise ly t he t ype o f c hange i n t a rge t s pec ies i mp l ied b y d ecreas ing p ropo r t ions o f d eer i n f auna l a s se mb lage s a nd t he d eg ree t o wh ich t h is c an b e c a l led i n tens i f ica t ion , i fa t a l l . T he t im ing o f a ppearance a nd r o le o f d omes t ica ted c a me l ids mus t b e c ons idered , b u t t he e v idence f o r t he d omes t ica t ion o f c a me l ids i n t h is r eg ion i ss c an t . Nuf iez ( 1 98 1) a nd H esse ( 1 982 ) h ave a rgued o n t he b as is o f d emog raph ic c hanges o f f auna l a s se mb lage s t ha t d omes t ica ted c a me l ids a re p robab ly p resen t a t P ur ip ica 1 i n t he A tacama b y 4 000 B .P . P o l lard a nd D rew ( 1 975 ) h ave a rgued t ha t d omes t ica ted c a me l ids w e re p resen t i n t he R io L oa r eg ion a t l e as t b y 1 900 1600 B .P . a nd p robab ly e ar l ier . F i na l ly , T ar tag l ia ( 1 980 ) f o r t he No r te G rande c l a ims t o h ave c on f irmed t he ir d omes t ica t ion b y 1 600 B .P . T hese d a tes c on t ras t w i th t h e e v idence f r om t h e c en t ra l Andes , wh ich s ugges t s t h a t c a me l ids w ere d omes t ica ted b y 6 000 B P o n t he J un in p una (Whee le r 1 985 ) . I mpo r tan t f r equency c hanges i n s ke le ta l p ar t a nd s pec ies a re o bserved i n t he f auna l a s semb lages a t A sana a nd Que lca tan i , a nd t hese i n p ar t p rov ide s ome i n s igh t i n to t h e p rocess o f c a me l id d omes t ica t ion . T here a ppear s t o b e ad ec rease i n t he p ropor t ion o f d eer r ema ins t h rough t ime , b u t a n i n c rease t h rough t ime i n t he f o l low ing c a tego r ie s o f a n ima ls t ha t h ave b een s e cure ly i den t i f ied a s c ame l ids : i mma ture/neona te a n ima l p ropo r t ions r anges f r om 0 10% ( M idd le A rcha ic ) t o 2 0 -30% ( Ear ly F orma t ive ) a t A sana , a nd 0 -5% ( M idd le A rcha ic ) t o 1 2 -54% ( Ear ly F orma t ive ) a t Que lca tan i , a nd i n t h e p ropo r t ion o f l ow -u t i l i ty b one p ar ts ( s ku l ls , p ha langes , t e e th/ mand ib les , e t c . ) r ang ing f r om 2 8% ( M idd le A rcha ic ) t o 2 2 -25% ( Ear ly F orma t ive ) a t A sana a nd 2 5% ( M idd le A rcha ic ) t o 1 6 -28% ( Ear ly F o rma t ive ) a t Que lca tan i . T hese t r ends t r ack t h e d i rec t ion , b u t n o t t he magn i tude o f t he c hanges i n f auna l a ssemb lages t h a t a re t hough t t o mon i to r t h e a dven t o f t he s pec ia l ized h un t ing a nd e ven tua l d ome s t ica t ion o f c a me l ids i n t he c en t ra l Andes (W ing 1 977a , 1 986a ; Whee ler 1 985 ) . I nc rease s i n l ow -u t i l i ty p ar t s a r e p robab ly d ue d ue t o mo re c omp le te u t i l iza t ion o f c a me l id c a r casses ( Hesse 1 982 ) . Wh i le mo re d a ta a re n ecessary t o f u l ly r e so lve t h is q ues t ion , i ti sc l ear t h a t c a me l ids b ecame v e ry i mpo r tan t t o t he d ie t d ur ing t he M idd le A rcha ic , a nd t h a t b y t he L a te A r cha ic , t h ey w e re t he d om inan t f auna l s pec ies c on sumed . L i t t le i s k nown o f t he i n tens i f ica t ion o f Andean t ube rs a nd s eed c rop s i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes i n g enera l , b u t d a ta f r om A sana a nd Que lca tan i c an s hed s ome l i gh t o n t h is p rocess . T rends i n g round -s tone t oo l t e chno logy a nd f unc t ion a rgue i nd irec t ly f o r t h e i n creased u se o f s eed p lan t s . Dur ing t he E ar ly a nd M idd le A rcha ic , t he u se o f g round -s tone t oo l t e chno logy a ppears t o b e c on f ined t o t h e u se o f h amme rs tone s t o c rush b one o n s t one b locks a nd t o g r ind r e s ins , p robab ly f o r t h e h a f t ing o f s t one t oo ls . I n t he L a te A rcha ic a nd E ar ly F orma t ive , r ad io carbon d a ted a t A sana t o c a . 4 600 -3600 B .P . ( s ee T ab le 4 ) , many mo re t oo ls a re f ound , i n c lud ing m ano s a nd l a rge , p as s ive g r inde rs u sed i n s eed p roces s ing . B one p ound ing a ppears t o d ec l ine i n i mpor tance , a s d oes t h e p rocess ing o f r e s ins . T h is t r end i n t he u se o f g round s t one c or re la te s w i th t h e o bse rva t ion t ha t t he f r equency o f s eeds i n creases i n f l o ta t ion s a mp les f r om A sana m iddens f r om t he M idd le A r cha ic t h rough t h e E ar ly F o rma t ive . A s e xpe c ted , i ncreased u se i s mos t a pparen t i n t he s i e r r a , t he n a tura l h ab i ta t o f ma jo r Andean s eed p l an t s ,
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M .AL D END E R F E R ; AR CH A I C PE R IOD " CO M P L EM ENTA R I T Y
mos t ly C henop od ium s pp . H oweve r , t he p resumed i n ten s i ty o f u se o f t h ese s eed p lan t s c on t ra s t s w i th e v idence d e r ived f r om s i t e s t ruc ture a na lyse s t h a t s ugge s t t h a t s i t e s s uch a s A sana we re u t i l ized l e s s i n tens ive ly d ur ing t he L a te A rcha ic a nd E a r ly F o rma t ive P er iods . A lso , t h is i n t en s i f ica t ion o f u se may o r may n o t b e i mp l ica ted i n e i the r d ome s t i ca t ion o r s eden ta r iz a t ion . I fs eed p l an t s a re b e ing i n tens ive ly e xp lo i ted i n t he L a te A r cha ic -Ear ly F o rma t ive , t h e s e ason o f u se o f s i te s s uch a s A sana s hou ld b e s pr ing/ea r ly s umme r . T h is wou ld a l so b e a n i dea l t ime t o g raze c a me l ids o n t h e s ma l l b u t f e r t i le b o f ed a l e s o f t h es e z one s . I n s tead o f ac omp lemen tar i ty o f u se a s h as b een p red ic t ed a nd o bse rved e l s ewhe re i n t he Ande s f o r t h e c oevo lu t ion o f p as to ra l ism a nd i n ten s ive p lan t u se , t hes e r e sour ce s may i n f a c t b e e xp lo i ted s imu l taneous ly . T he re fo re , i t w i l l b e n e ces sary t o i n teg ra te s e asona l i ty d a ta f o r s i e r r a o ccupa t ion s t o i n fe r t r ends w i th t h e s eden tar iza t ion p ro ce s s . P rob le m s r ema in w i th t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cogn i t ion o f Andean t ube r s a nd t he p roces se s i nvo lved w i th t h e i r u t i l iza t ion . I nd i re c t i nd ica to r s o f t he i r u t i l iza t ion a r e t he a ppea r ance o f s t o rage f a c i l i t ies a nd p hys ica l r ema ins wh ich a re n o t e xpec t ed t o b e a bundan t . T he se i nd ica to r s , h oweve r , w i l l n o t b e u se fu l i n t r ack ing t he o r ig in s o f t he p roce s s . One f a c to r t h a t h a s n o t b een u sed i st h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f t h e t ube r i n t he Andean d ie t . S pec i f ica l ly , w e n eed t o d e term ine i fi tb e come s more i mpo r tan t t h an s eed c rop s . T he h arves t t ime o f t ube r s i sr ough ly f r om F eb ruary t o Mar ch . T he p ro ce s s ing o f c h 'u f i o b eg ins s ho r t ly a f t e rwa rd . T h i s i st he s ame t ime a t wh ich s i e r r a s e ed c rop s b e come a va i lab le . S ince l a bo r d emands a r e i n t en s ive f o r b o th h a rve s t s , Andean f o r ager s , p as to ra l is t s , a nd h o r t icu l tu r a l is t s w e re f a ced w i th a c ho ice o f wh ich c rop t o h arve s t . T he t r ends i n t he O smo re i nd ica te t ha t , a t l e as t t h rough t h e L a te A r cha ic , s e ed c rop s w e re c ho sen , b u t t ha t u se w as mo re e pheme ra l i n t h e E ar ly A r cha ic , e nd ing a t A sana a t a pp rox ima te ly 3 600 B .P . A l though o the r f a c to r s m ay b e i nd ica ted , t h is p ar t ly s uppo r t s t he i n f e rence t ha t t uber s b e came d om inan t i n t h is p e r iod , a nd t h a t l a bo r w as d i re c ted a t t he t ube r h arves t . T he re fo re , i tb e come s n e ce s sary t o p inpo in t a s c l o se ly a s p os s ib le s easona l c hanges i n s i te u s e i n t h e s i e r r a a nd d i re c t a nd i nd i re c t i nd ica tor s o f t ube r u Se o n t h e p una . O nce a ga in , i ta ppea r s t h a t r e sour ce i n tens i f ica t ion a nd s pec ia l iza t ion , i f w e d e f ine s pe c ia l iza t ion h e re a s t h e o nse t o f d ome s t ica t ion , b eg in s s ome t ime d ur ing t h e L a te A rcha i c ; f o r c ame l ids , t h e p ro ce s s o f mo re i n t en s ive u se p robab ly b eg ins s ome t ime d ur ing t he M idd le A r cha ic . F o r s eed p l an t s , i n ten s i f ica t ion b eg ins s ome t ime a round 4 600 B .P . , a nd c on t inue s u n t i l t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e E ar ly F o rma t ive . T ube r u se a p p aren t ly i n c reases n ea r t h e e nd o f t h e L a te A r cha ic a nd c on t inue s t h roughou t t h e E ar ly F o rma t ive . On t h e c oas t , s pec ia l ized f i she r s a r e c e r ta in ly p r esen t b y t h e m idd le o f t he M idd le A rcha ic , a nd p robab ly much e a r l ie r . T h is e xpec ta t ion c on fo rms w i th t he e v idence f o r a f i sh ing s pe c ia l iza t ion i n n o r the rn C h i le b y c a . 7 000 B .P . f ound a t C ama rones 14 ( S ch iappacas se a nd N iemeye r 1 984 ) . B u f f e r ing o r Mu tua l ism? G iven t he s t ruc ture o f e nv ironmen t t h rough t h e A r cha ic i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l A nde s , we w ou ld e xpe c t b u f fe r ing s t ra teg ies t o b e p re sen t , a t l e as t o n t h e b as is o f t heo re t ica l t h ink ing . A t s ome p o in t , h oweve r , t h is p a t te rn i s t r ans fo rmed i n to a mutua l is t ic i n te rac t ion b e tween c oa s ta l dwe l ler s a nd p un a h e rde r s a nd c u l t iva to r s . T he p rob lem , o f c our se , i s t he d e f in i t ion o f s e cure ma t er ia l i nd ica to r s o f b u f fe r ing o r mu tua l is t ic s t ra teg ie s . B rown ( 1 985 :223 ) h as d esc r ibed t h e u se o f " t oken s " a s ma rke r s o f i n te rg roup e xchange . G ene ra l ly , wh i le t okens m ay h ave a u t i l i ta r ian v a lue , t h e ir t r ue v a lue i s t o
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 6
c r ea te r e c ip roca l o b l iga t ions b e tween i nd iv idua ls . We wou ld e xpec t t o kens t o a ppear where b u f fer ing i s o pe ra t ive . E v idence f o r mu tua l ism i s s omewha t mo re d i rec t , f o r i n t h is c ase w e e xpec t t h e t r ade o f f oods tu f f s . A t n o p o in t d ur ing t he A r cha ic d o w e h ave c ompe l l ing e v idence o f t r ade i n f ood s t uf f s i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes a nd t h e O smo re b as in i n p ar t icu lar . Wh i le mar ine s he l ls a re f ound a t T oquepa la C aves d ur ing wha t a ppear s t o b e t he M idd le A rcha ic l e ve ls ( Rav ines 1 972 ) , t hese s he l ls a re f ew i n n umbe r , a nd a re n o t o f e cono m ic i mpo r t a nce . S im i lar ly , t he re a re n o mar ine r e sources k nown f r om A sana o r Q ue lca tan i , a nd t h e re i s n o r e cord o f h igh -e levat ion r e sources a t c oas ta l s i tes . S ch iappacasse a nd N iemeye r ( 1 984 :74 ) r epo r t v i cun a r ema ins , a pparen t ly r i b s , f r om C amarone s 14 , b u t g iven t he d i f f icu l ty o f d is t ingu ish ing t he b one s o f t h is a n ima l f r om r e la ted s pec ies , t h is i den t i f ica t ion mus t b e t r ea ted w i th c au t ion . I fi ti sc o r re c t , h owever , i tp rov ides p os s ib le s uppo r t f o r e xchange o f f oods tu f f s b y 7 000 -6600 B .P . T he amoun ts r ecove red , h oweve r , a re s ma l l , a nd a re n o t o f e conom ic i mpor tance when c ompared t o t h e a bundance o f mar ine r e sources f ound a t t he s i te . E v idence f o r t okens , h owever , i s mo re a bundan t . P ro jec t i le p o in ts made o f p una a nd s i e r r a r aw ma te r ia ls h ave b een f ound i n c oas ta l a s semb lages , p ar t icu lar ly o n t he l oma s ( Baumann n .d . b ) . S ty l is t ica l ly , t h ese p o in t s r e semb le t hose f ound i n g rea te r q uant i t ie s i n h igh -a l t i tude s i te a ssemb lages . I mpo r tan t ly , t he re i s n o e v idence a t p resen t f o r t h e r educ t ion o f s i e r r a o r p una r aw ma te r ia ls a t c oas ta l s i te s . T h is p at tern i sr ep l ica ted a t C amarones -14 , whe re p o in t s made o f p una b asa l t s o r a ndes i tes a re f ound b y 6 600 B .P . ( S ch iappacasse a nd N iemeyer 1 984 : F igure 2 6 ) . T he r ange o f s t y les a nd t he o ve ra l l n umber o f p o in t s o f h igh -a l t itude p roven ience i n creases t h roughout t h e A rcha ic . I f p o in t s a re s e rv ing a s t okens , i t may a l so b e mo re a pp rop r ia te t o t h ink o f t he s ma l l q uan t i t ies o f s he l l f ish i n t he s i e r r a a nd t he p os s ib le v i cun a o n t he c oas t a s t o kens a s w e l l . E v idence o f c oas ta l t okens i n h igh -a lt i tude a s semb lages i s l e ss a bundan t . One p os s ib le s e t m igh t b e a s t y le o f p ro jec t i le p o in t - s o -ca l led " doub le p o in ts " - f ound i n g rea t n umber s o n t he c oas t , b u t w i th l ower f r equenc ies i n t h e s i er r a a nd p una ( S ch iappacas se a nd N iemeye r 1 984 : F igure 2 5 ) . However , t h e e xamp les o f t h is s t y le f ound i n t he s i e r r a a nd p una a re made o f l o ca l , n on -coas ta l r aw ma ter ia ls . T o d a te , t he d a ta s uppo r t t he i n fe rence t h a t b u f fe r ing r ema ined t h e p redom inan t s t ra tegy o f i n terac t ion b e tween c oas ta l a nd p una p eop les t h roughou t t h e A rcha ic . However , i f n umbe rs o f t okens a re a ny measure , t h e d eg ree o f i n te rac t ion i nc reased t h roughou t t he A rcha ic . S ch iappacas se a nd N iemeye r ( 1 984 :176 -77 ) h ave a rgued t h a t wh i le c oas ta l f o rager s w ere g ene ra l ly s eden tary a t C amarones 14 d ur ing t he M idd le A rcha ic , t h ey p robab ly moved t o o ther c oas ta l o r l i t to ra l s i tes d ur ing p e r iods o f e x t reme r e source s t ress , a mo re l o ca l f o rm o f r ec ip roc i ty . T hey s ay l i t t le a bout t h e p oss ib i l ity o f i n te rac t ion w i th h igh -e leva t ion p opu la t ions , b u t t h e d a ta p resen ted h e re s ugges t t h a t c on tac t s w i th t hem w ere more e x tens ive t h an h as b een p rev ious ly e xpec ted . T he E nv ironmen ta l C on tex t o f S oc ia l C hange I td oes n o t a ppear t h a t e nv ironmen ta l c hange h as a c ted a s as i gn if ican t " c ause " o f t h e i n i t ia t ion o f p ro cesses a ssoc ia ted w i th t he o nse t o f c u l tura l c omp lex ity o r i n te rso c ie ta l i n te rac t ion s een i n t he O smo re b as in t h roughou t t h e A rcha ic ( F igure 7 ) . T h is s t a temen t mus t b e v i ewed w i th c au t ion , h owever , b ecause e nv ironmen ta l r e cons t ruc t ion i n t h is r eg ion i s s t i l l i n i t s i n fancy , a nd t h ere fo re , s ub jec t t o c hange a s n ew d a ta a re a c cumu l a ted . Howeve r , t he re a re c o r re la t ions t ha t mus t b e e xp lo red f u r the r .
1 24
M .AL D END ER F E R ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD " CO M P L EM EN T A R I 7Y
C lea r e v idence f o r b u f fe r ing b e tween t h e c oas t a nd p una a nd t h e i n tens i f ica t ion o f u se o f c ame l ids i n t he s i e r r a a nd p una i s r ough ly c o r re la t ed w i th t h e o nse t o f t h e B o rea l P hase , a p e r iod o f e x t reme a r id i ty a nd w a rm th when c ompared t o t he p re ced ing Y ounge r D ryas . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t t h is p er iod o f fe red t he g rea tes t s t res s t o h igh e l eva t ion p eop les . S an to ro a nd Nu t iez ( 1 987 ) h ave a rgued t h a t t h e s i e r r a a nd d ry p un a o f e x t reme n or the rn C h i le w e re a bandoned d u r ing t h is p e r iod d ue t o e nv ironmen ta l d eg rada t ion a nd v u lcan ism a sso c ia ted w i th t h e o nse t o f t he B o rea l . Wh i le t he O smo re d a t a c on t rad ic t t h e a bandonmen t h ypo the s is , i t s eems c l ea r t h a t p una dwe l le r s s h i f ted t h e i r s ubs is tence emphas is t owa rd c ame l ids . I ti sa l so i n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t w e s ee a d ec l ine i n r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty d u r ing t h is p er iod a s w e l l . I t i s p robab le t h a t l a rge , p e rmanen t b o f ed a l e s b ecame s e t t lemen t f o c i o n t he p una . I n c on t ras t , t h e o nse t o f t he B o rea l s eem s t o h ave h ad l i t t le e f fe c t o n c oas ta l p opu la t ions , s i n ce t h ey a ppea r t o b e e s sen t ia l ly s eden tary a nd f o cused u pon c oas ta l r e sou rce s . T h i s s ugges t s t h a t t he u namb iguous a ppearance o f t hese c hanges i sd ue t o ad i f fer en t , p os s ib ly s o c ia l , d ynam ic .
A pparen t i n tens i f ica t ion i n t h e u se o f t ube r s a nd s e ed c rop s t a ke s p lace a f te r t h e e nd o f t h e B o rea l i n t h e A t lan t ic , a p e r iod o f r e la t ive c oo lnes s a nd d ampnes s . T he ir i n tens i f ica t ion a l so f o l low s t h e i n ten s i f ica t ion i n u se o f c ame l ids , a nd i ss ho r t ly f o l lowed b y t h e a t ta inmen t o f e s sen t ia l ly s eden tary p una f o rage r s . A l l o f t h ese t r ends c u lm ina te d ur ing a p e r iod o f r e la t ive r e sou rce a bundance , b u t i ti sc l ear t h a t c hange s i n i t ia ted i n e ar l ie r p e r iods , s uch a s s eden t ar iza t ion a nd i n tens ive u se o f c ame l ids , h ave a n e f fe c t o n L a t e A r cha ic s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s ys tems . A s h i f t away f r om t h e u se o f s eed p l an t s i n t h e s i e r r a o ccur s r ough ly w i th t h e o nse t o f t h e S ub -Bo rea l , a nd i t may i n p ar t e xp la in why t h ese p l an t s w e re a bandoned . Howeve r , a no the r s e t o f f a c to r s t ha t mus t b e w e ighed i st h e i mpo r tance o f c a me l ids a nd t h e i n tens i f ica t ion o f t ube r u se b y t h e e nd o f t he L a te A r cha ic . T hese p una r e sou r ce s w e re h igh ly p roduc t ive , a nd p robab ly s e rved a s ar e sou r ce " pu l l " ( B rown 1 985 ) . T he i r c omb ina t ion m ade c on t inued , b u t s easona l u se o f t he s i e r r a f o r s eed c o l lec t ion a nd p ro ces s ing , l e s s a t t r ac t ive d ur ing t h e E a r ly F o rma t ive . We c an i n fe r t h a t t h is s h i f t w as a l so i mpe l led b y p opu la t ion g row th t h a t h ad b een o ccur r ing i n t h e b as in t h roughou t t he A rcha ic , a nd wh ich w as p robab ly a ugmen ted b y t h e a t ta inmen t o f s eden t ism o n t he p una . T h is a sse r t ion , wh i le p l aus ib le , r ema ins t o b e t e s ted .
C on c lus ions Wha t c an w e n ow s ay a bou t t he o r ig ins o f " c omp lemen tar i ty " i n t he O smo re b as in? I t s e em s c l ear t h a t c omp lemen tar i ty d u r ing t he A rcha ic c ons is ted o f t wo me chan ism s : b u f fe r ing s t ra teg ies a nd h igh r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , a t l e as t o n t he p una . A s l ong a s p opu la t ion d ens i ty w as l ow , mob i l i ty c ou ld b e ma in ta ined , a nd i n t h a t c ase , b u f fe r ing i n t h e u np red ic tab le h ab i ta t s o f t he O smo re make s e co log ica l " s ense " . However , w i th t he o ns e t o f s eden tar iza t ion , s t i l l i n comp le te ly e xp la ined f o r t he p una b u t t i ed i n p ar t t o e nv ironmen t a l c hange , mob i l i ty a s ap o ten t ia l b u f fe r ing s t ra tegy b ecame mor e d i f f icu l t t o ma in ta in , a nd v ar ious t ype s o f r e sour ce s pec ia l iza t ion o c cur o n t h e p una . B y t h e e nd o f t h e L a te A r cha ic , mos t o f wha t i s i n c luded a s c omponen t s o f t r ad i t iona l A ndean " e co log ica l c omp lemen ta r i ty " a re i n p lace : s pe c ia l is t p roduc t ion o f f i sh o n t h e c oas t , a nd i n tens ive u se o f A ndean t uber s a nd c ame l ids o n t he p una . B u t a ppa ren t ly , b u f fe r ing
1 25
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 6
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F igure 7 . T he c o r re la t ion o f e nv ironmen ta l c hange a nd f our p ro cesses a sso c ia ted w i th t he o nse t o f " c omp lemen tar i ty d ur ing t he a r cha ic p e r iod . T he c urve s how s t h e r e la t ive a r id i ty a nd w arm th o f t he e nv ironmen t i n t h e S ou th -Cen t ra l Andes t h rough t he Ho locene . 1 26
M.
AL D END E R F E R ; AR CH A I C PE R IOD " CO M P L EM ENT A R I T Y
r ema ined t he s t ra tegy f o r d ea l ing w i th l o ca l r e sou rce s c a rc i ty . I f w e a s sume t h a t p opu la t ion g row th i n c reas ed t h rough t he e ar ly s t ages o f t he E a r ly F o rma t ive , a nd t h a t s urp lus p roduc t ion o f t ube r s a nd p o s s ib ly d ome s t ica ted s eed c rop s w e re a t ta ined s ho r t ly t he rea f te r , we c an c on f iden t ly l ook f o r t he a ppearan ce o f mu tua l ism , o r e co log ica l c omp lemen tar i ty , s ome t ime b e tween 4 000 -3000 B .P . O ne i mpo r tan t q ues t ion t ha t r ema ins t o b e i n teg ra ted i n to t h is t e n ta t ive mode l i st he t im ing o f t he a ppea rance o f i mpo r ted d ome s t ica tes s uch a s ma ize a nd b eans f r om mo re n o r the r ly r eg ion s . E v idence f r om n o r the rn C h i le s ugges ts t ha t c amo t e , m and i oc a , c ur curb i t s , a nd C henop od ium s p . ( a h igh e l eva t ion p l an t ) w e re i n u se i n d e se r t o ase s s uch a s C ap i l la i n t he V a l le d e A r ica p o s s ib ly a s e a r ly a s 4 000 B .P . ( Mu t ioz a nd C h icama 1 982 ) . I f t h is i s t h e c as e , a s s e ems p l aus ib le , t h is wou ld p rov ide c oas ta l dwe l ler s w i th a n a t t rac t ive s e t o f s t ap le s t ha t c ou ld b e u sed t o d eve lop a mo re mu tua l is t ic s y s tem o f i n te rac t ion . U n fo r tuna te ly , w e h ave n o d a t a f r om t he O smo re f o r e a r ly u se o f t h ese p l an t s . I ti si mpor tan t t o s t re s s , h oweve r , t h a t t h e r o le o f i mpo r ted d ome s t ica te s c an b e e as i ly a ccommoda ted b y t h is mode l .
A cknow ledgmen ts T h is p ape r , wh i le ow ing p ar ts h e re a nd t h e re t o o the r wo rks , h as b een s pec ia l ly p repared f o r t h is v o lume . T he f i e ld wo rk s uppo r ted h e re in h as b een s uppo r ted b y f our g ran t s f r om t h e U n ive r s i ty R esea r ch G ran t s C omm i t tee o f No r thwe s te rn U n ive r s i ty , a g ran t f r om t h e Wenne r -G ren F ounda t ion f o r A n th ropo log ica l R esear ch i n 1 986 , a nd a g ran t f r om t h e H . J ohn H e inz I C ha r i tab le T rus t a warded i n 1 987 . Ig ra te fu l ly a cknow ledge t h e g enerous s uppor t o f t h ese f und ing s our ces . K aren A ldende r fe r h as d ra f ted t he f i gure s f o r t h is p ape r , a nd It h ank D on R ice f o r h i s f r iendsh ip a nd p a t ien ce .
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ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap ter 6
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i n
uncalibrated
r adio
c arbon years
before
present.
T ab le 4 . R ad iocarbon c hrono logy o f t he A rcha ic a nd E ar ly F o rma t ive i n t he O smo re b as in .
1 28
A rcha ic P er iod S e t t le men t P a t terns i n t he H igh S ier ra o f t he O s more B as in Mark S . A ldende r fe r D epar tmen t o fA n thr opo logy N or thw e s te rn U n iv er s i ty
I n t roduc t ion D e sp i te t he k now ledge t h a t t he h igh s i er r a p l ayed a k ey r o le i n t h e t r an s forma t ion o f A rcha ic P er iod s e t t lemen t s y s te m s ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , Nur iez 1 983 ) , a lmos t n o th ing o f s ub s tance i s k nown o f t h e a r chaeo logy o f t he s i e r r a i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes , e spe c ia l ly i n t he c i rcu rn -T i t icaca B as in a nd a d jacen t w es tern v a l leys o f s ou the rn P eru a nd n or the rn Ch i le . Wh i le o ur k now ledge o f c oas ta l a dap ta t ions i s s ubs tan t ia l , e spec ia l ly i n n o r thern Ch i le , t he n atu re o f h igh -e levat ion l and u se h as r ema ined a lmo s t e xc lus ive ly i n t he r e a lm o f s pecu lat ion . F ew s i tes h ave b een d i scovered o r e xcava ted , a nd u n t i l r e cen t ly , n o c omp rehens ive mode ls o f r e source u t i l iza t ion h ave b een o f fe red . E ven f ewer o f t h e se mode ls h ave b een t e s ted . T h is s i tua t ion s t ands i n s t ark c on t ras t t o t he p le tho ra o f mode ls t ha t h ave b een p roposed a nd t e s ted i n t he c en t ra l Andes ( Lava l lee 1 985 ; L yn ch 1 980 ; R ick 1 980 ) a nd i n t he s ou the rn p o r t ion o f t he S ou th C ent ra l Andes i n t he R io L oa/A tacama ( Nur iez 1 975 , 1 982 ) , t he P isagua/Tamaruga l r eg ion ( Nur iez , Z la tar , a nd Nut iez 1 975 ) , a nd t he T a rapaca/T i l iv iche r eg ion ( Nu t iez 1 983 ) . T he l a ck o f r e search i n t he c i rcu m -T i t icaca B as in a nd a d jacen t wes te rn v a l leys z one means n o t o n ly c an we n o t c ompa re t h is a rea t o t hese b e t te r -s tud ied r eg ions , b u t t ha t w e a l so c anno t make p rog ress t owa rd u nde rs tand ing q ues t ions o f b roader a n thropo log ica l a nd t heo re t ica l i n te res t s uch a s t h e d o mes t ica t ion o f A ndean c a me l ids a nd p lan t s , a nd r eg iona l t r ends t oward s eden tar izat ion . S ince many h ave a rgued t h a t t he c i rcum -T i t icaca r eg ion i s al i ke ly l o cus o f t h e d o mes t ica t ion o f b o th t ube rs a nd c a me l ids ( Lynch 1 983 ) , t he d ear th o f r e sea rch i n t h is z one i sd oub ly d i s turb ing .
1 29
E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 7
T h is p ape r d es cr ibe s t he r e su l t s o f ap rog ram o f s y s tema t ic a r chaeo log ica l r e conna is s ance , t e s t ing , a nd e xcava t ion i n t h e h igh s i e r r a e nv i ronmen t ( 3 000 -4000 m ) o f t h e O smo re d ra inage o f f a r s ou the rn P e ru c onduc ted b y t he No r thwes te rn U n iver s i ty A r cha ic P ro je c t ( NUAP ) s i nce 1 984 ( F igure 1 ) . T he r e s ea r ch c onduc ted i n t h e s i e r r a i s o n ly o ne p a r t o f l a rge r , mo re c omp rehens ive p ro je c t d e s igned t o s t udy t he t r ans fo rma t i on o f A rcha ic s e t t lemen t a nd s ub s is tence s ys t em s i n t h is r eg ion t h rough s y s tema t ic r e sear ch i n a l l o f t h e m a jo r e nv ironmen ta l z ones o f t h e d ra inage . T he b roade r g oa ls o f NUAP a re t o 1 ) d eve lop a n A rcha ic P e r iod c h rono logy f o r t h e r eg ion , 2 ) r e con s t ruc t s e t t lemen t p at te rn a nd s y s tem i n a l l ma jo r e nv ironmen t a l z ones , a nd 3 ) t o d eve lop a nd e va lua te mode ls o f s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t c hange t h rough t ime . T o d a te , NUAP h a s f o cused mo s t o f i t s e f fo r t o n t h e s i e r r a ( A ldender f e r 1 985 , 1 986 ) a nd t he p un a ( A ldende r fe r 1 985 ; K uzna r , t h is v o lume ) , a l though s ome i mpo r tan t r e search s ponso red b y NUAP h as a l so b een i mp lemen ted o n t he l i t to ra l ( W ise , t h is v o lume ) .
S ite
D ate
Toquepala
9 490 + 1 40 9 580 + 1 60
R avines
( 1967,
C aru
8 190
+ 1 30
R avines
( 1967)
Coscori
7 610
+ 1 30
A ldenderfer
( this
Asana
3 640 4 580 4 610 6 040 6 850 7 100 7 860 8 080 8 530 8 790 9 580
+ + + +
A ldenderfer
( 1988,
Tojo-Tojones
9 580 + 1 950 3 740 + 1 30
D auelsberg
L as Cuevas
9 540 8 720
7 250
+ 1 60
S antoro y C hacama
( 1982)
H akenasa
8 340 4 380
7 120
+ 3 00
S antoro a nd N uhez
( 1987)
P atapatane
8 160 4 890
7 130
+ 1 60
S antoro a nd N uMez
( 1987)
G uahure
4 330
+ 1 05
S antoro y C hacama
( 1982)
P uxuma
4 240
+ 9 0
S antoro y C hacama
( 1982)
P uxuma
1 4010
S antoro y C hacama
( 1982)
P ihuta
3 750
S antoro y C hacama
( 1982)
( Years
B .P.)
8 0 1 20 6 0 9 0 7 70 + 7 0 7 110 7 110 7 240 + 1 70 7 130
+ 1 00 + 1 40
R eference 1 972)
volume)
( 1983)
T ab le 1 .K nown h igh s i e r r a s i te s i n s ou the rn P e ru a nd n or the rn C h i le .
1 30
i n p ress)
M .AL D END ER F ER ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD SE T T L EM ENT PA T T ERN S
F igu re 1 . T he O smo re B as in w i th s e lec ted A rcha ic P e r iod s i tes .
C ur ren t T h ink ing Abou t A rcha ic P er iod U se o f t he s i e r r a T he A rcha ic P er iod i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes i s c ommon ly d iv ided i n to t h ree c hrono log ica l s ubd iv is ion s : E ar ly ( 1 0 ,000 -8000 B .P . ) , M idd le ( 8 000 -6000 B .P . ) , a nd L a te ( 6 000 -4000 B .P . ) . A l though a n umber o f p hase s f o r e ach o f t hese s ubd iv is ions h ave b een p roposed , n one h as y e t g a ined s u f f ic ien t a c cep tance f o r g enera l u se . ( c ompare , f o r e xamp le , Nuf iez ( 1 983 ) , R ive ra ( 1 984 ) , a nd S an to ro a nd Nu i lez ( 1 987 ) ) . C ompared t o t he c en t ra l Andes , r e la t ive ly l i t t le a r chaeo log ica l r e search h as b een c onduc ted i n t he h igh s i e r r a o f t he wes te rn v a l leys r eg ion s ur round ing t he c i rcum -T it icaca b as in , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he d ry p una ( puna s e c a ) . W i th t he e xcep t ion o f R av ines ' ( 1 972 ) b r ie f wa lkove r o f a sma l l p o r t ion o f t he R io A sana i n t he D epar tmen t o f Moquegua , s ou the rn P eru , t he re h as b een n o s ys tema t ic s ur face r e conna issance i n t he 1 31
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap ter 7
s i e r r a , a nd e xcava t ion h as b een l im i ted t o t he t e s t ing o f f ewe r t han 1 5 sma l l c aves a nd r ockshe l te rs ( Tab le 1 ) . An e xa m ina t ion o f p ub l ished r ad iocarbon d a tes s hows t h a t h u man u se o f t he r eg ion h as a g rea t a n t iqu i ty , r ang ing b ack t o a lmos t 1 0 ,000 B .P . T he re i s a c onsp icuous g ap i n t he d a tes , h owever , f r om a pp rox ima te ly 8 000 -5000 B .P . Wh i le t h is may r ef lec t i n p ar t s a mp le s e le c t ion o r s a mp le p rese rva t ion , t he d a t ing g ap i sp ara l le led b y ag ene ra l d ear th o f o ccupa t ions i n t hese s i tes t ha t c an b e a ss igned t o t h e M idd le A rcha ic o n t he b as is o f c ross -da ted a r t i fac t s . Wh i le t hese e f for t s h ave p rov ided a rchaeo log is ts i n t h e r eg ion w i th a c h rono log ica l o u t l ine a nd a r ough s ense o f c u ltura l c hange a nd d ynam ics , t he a rchaeo logy o f t h is r eg ion r ema ins i n a n e xp lo ra to ry s t age d esp i te t he i mpo r tan t a dvances d ur ing t he p as t 1 5 y ear s i n o ur s ubs tan t ive k now ledge . Mode ls o f h uman a dap ta t ion a nd l a nd u se r ema in a t ad escr ip t ive l e ve l , a nd mos t p os tu la te s ome f o rm o f s easona l t r an shu mance , a t ype o f r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , a s t he mos t a pp rop r ia te manne r i n wh ich t o e xp lo i t t he a l t i tud ina l z ona t ion o f n a tura l r e sources i n t he Andes ( Mur ra 1 972 ) . T he c oncep t was f i r s t d i scussed f o r a nd a pp l ied t o A rcha ic p opu la t ions o f t he c en t ra l Ande s b y L ynch ( 1 967 , 1 97 1 , 1 973 ) , a nd h as b een b o r rowed a nd e x tended r epea ted ly t o o the r p or t ions o f t h e Andean wo r ld ( Lynch 1 981 ) . Two t ypes o f mode ls b ased o n s easona l t r anshumance h ave b een d eve loped f o r t he A rcha ic i n t he c i rcum -T i t icaca a nd a d jacen t wes te rn v a l leys r eg ion o f t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes h ave b een d eve loped : 1 ) t hose t ha t p os tu la te c oas ta l r e source u t i l iza t ion f r om May -Sep tember a nd h igh -e leva t ion z one u se f r om O c tobe r -Apr i l ( Daue lsbe rg 1 974 , 1 983 ; R av ines 1 967 , 1 972 ) a nd 2 ) mode ls t ha t p ropose a mo re l im i ted t r anshumance b e tween a d jacen t a l t i tud ina l z ones ( L lago s te ra 1 985 ; Mu i ioz a nd C haca ma 1 982 ; Nu i lez 1 975 , 1 982 , 1 983 ; Nuf iez a nd Mo ragas 1 977 ; S an to ro a nd Chacama 1 982 ; S an to ro a nd Nut iez 1 987 ; S ch iappacasse a nd N iemeye r 1 984 ) . T he s econd g roup o f mode ls a ssumes t he e ar ly e x is tence o f t wo d i f fe ren t b u t c on temporaneous c u l tura l t r ad i t ions o r p opu la t ion s o f A r cha ic p eop les : e s sen t ia l ly s eden tary c oas ta l f o rage rs , a nd mo re mob i le h igh -a l t itude h un te rs t h a t e xp lo i ted p una g ras s lands f r om O c tobe r -Ap r i l a nd s l igh t ly l owe r e l eva t iona l z ones i n t he " h igh s i e r r a " f r om May -Sep tember . E ach o f t h ese t ypes o f mode ls p os tu la tes a s l igh t ly d i f fe ren t u se o f t he s i e rr a e nv ironmen t : d epend ing o n t he s c a le o f mob i l i ty , t r anshuman t mode ls s ee t h e s i e r r a a s e i ther a n e nv i ronmen ta l z one t o move t h rough a nd t o e xp lo i t o n al im i ted b as is , o r , t o u se mo re i n tens ive ly d ur ing t he we t s eason ( Decembe r -Ap r i l ) . T hus T oquepa la , as i te a t t h e l ower f r inge o f t he " h igh s i er r a " , wou ld h ave b een o ccup ied b y f o ragers a t t h e e nd o f t he w e t s eason ( Ap r i l/ May ) a nd t he e nd o f t he d ry s eason ( S ep tembe r/Oc tober ) ( Rav ines 1 972 ) . A l though n o t e xp l ic i t ly s t a ted , r e s iden t ia l b ase s wou ld b e l o ca ted o n t he l i t tora l a nd t h e p una . Mode ls o f l im i ted t r anshumance b e tween a d jacen t e co log ica l z ones a re mo re e xp l ic i t i n t h e ir e xpec ta t ions a bou t t he u se o f t he s i er r a . S an to ro a nd Nut iez ( 1987 ) h ave d eve loped t he mos t s oph is t ica ted mode l y e t p res en t ed . I n t h is mode l , wha t Ic a l l t he h igh s i e r r a i s d esc r ibed a s al ow -e leva t ion p or t ion o f t he p una . I n t h e d ry p una ( p una s e ca ) o f t h e r eg ion , s e t t lemen t d ur ing t he E ar ly A r cha ic i s d es cr ibed a s at ype o f " s em i t ranshumance " t h a t was f o cused o n p una r e sou rce s . T he p una was a pparen t ly a bandoned d ur ing mos t o f t h e M idd le A rcha ic , a nd w as r eoccup ied d ur ing t h e L a te A rcha ic b y f o rage rs i n " s em i -pe rmanen t c a mps " . T he e conomy w as b ased u pon t he s pec ia l ized h un t ing o f c a me l ids a nd may a l so h ave i nvo lved h erd ing d ome s t ica ted o r p ar t ia l ly -domes t ica ted c a me l ids . Ne i ther t he s eason n o r d ura t ion o f o ccupa t ion o f s i e r r a s i tes i se xp l ic i t ly s t a ted i n t h is mode l , a l though i ts eems l i ke ly t h a t t he l owe r e l eva t ion z ones o f t he p una were u sed d ur ing t he we t s eason .
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M . AL D END ER F E R ; AR CH A I C PE R IOD A I I L EM ENT PA T T ERN S
A n A l t erna t ive V iew o f A r cha ic P e r iod U se o f t h e s i e r r a I ti sn o t s o much t ha t p rev ious a t temp t s t o c ha rac te r ize s i e r r a l and u se a re man i fes t ly i n co r rec t , b u t t ha t t h ey s imp ly r ema in u ndemon s t ra ted . A mo re s e r ious p rob lem , h oweve r , i s t h a t mo s t o f t hese r e cons t ruc t ions h ave n o t b een d eve loped w i th in a c ons is ten t t heo re t ica l o r ien ta t ion t h a t n o t o n ly e xp la ins l a nd u se p a t te rn s f o r a ny p er iod w i th in t he A rcha ic , b u t t h a t i sa l so a b le t o e xp la in h ow t h ese l and u se p a t terns c hanged t h rough t ime . One p roduc t ive a pp roach t o t h is p rob lem i s t o e xam ine t he o r ig ins o f " zona l " o r " e co log ica l c omp lemen tar i ty " w i th in t he S ou th C en t ra l Ande s a s a who le a nd t h e O smore b as in i n p ar t icu la r a s as pe c ia l c ase ( A ldende r fe r , t h is v o lume ) . E co log ica l c omp lemen ta r i ty h as b een d es c r ibed a s a n i mpor tan t a dap ta t ion t o t h e v e r t ica l s t ruc ture o f t h e Andean e nv ironmen t . B y ma in ta in ing k in t i e s , t r ade r e la t ion sh ips , o r c o lon ies i n l owe r e l eva t iona l z one s , a g r icu l tura l p opu la t ions o n t he p un a c an b u f fe r t hemse lves f r om e nv ironmen t a l u nce r t a in ty a nd l o ca l r e sour ce s ho r t ages . Wh i le s ome f o rm o f c omp le men tari ly h as b een i den t i f ied i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l Ande s a s e a r ly a s t he L a te I n te rmed i a t e P e r iod ( Mu j ica 1 985 ) , i ti sl i ke ly t ha t i t s o r ig ins a re much e a r l ie r , p o ss ib ly e x tend ing i n to t h e A r cha ic P e r iod . A s Ih ave a rgued e l sewhe re , i n o rder t o u nde r s tand t h e o r ig in s o f e co log ica l c omp le men tari ly , i tb ecomes n e ce ssary t o i den t i fy f o rm s o f i n te rso c ie ta l i n te rac t ion a pp ropr ia te f o r f o rag ing p opu la t ions ( A ldende r fe r , t h is v o lume ) . I f i t i s p os s ib le t o i d en t i fy r e sour ce -bu f fer ing mechan isms u sed b y A r cha ic P er iod f o rage r s , i tt h en b ecome s p o ss ib le t o d e f ine t he t r ans fo rma t ion o f t hese mechan isms i n to wha t i st r ad i t iona l ly r e cogn ized a s e co log ica l c omp lemen tar i ty f o r a g r icu l tura l p eop le s . T h i s a pp roach mus t b e c omb ined w i th a s econd t heo re t ica l p e rspec t ive t ha t i s c once rned w i th t he eme rgence o f c u l tura l c omp lex i ty ( P r ice a nd B rown 1 985 ) . C omp lex i ty i s s een a s a n i n c rease i n s o c ia l a nd s t a tus d i f fe ren t ia t ion , s eden t ism , a c t iv i ty s pec ia l iza t ion , a nd l a rge r p opu la t ions . Wh i le t h e c ausa l f o r ce s t ha t l i e b eh ind t h ese t r ans fo rma t ion s h ave b een i den t i f ied , t he t empo o f t he p ro cess a nd t he v ar ie ty , s equenc ing , a nd r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f t hese f a c tor s v ary d ue i n g rea t p ar t t o l o ca l a nd r eg iona l c ond i t ions o f r e source t ype , a va i lab i l i ty , a nd p opu la t ion d ens i ty . Among t h e a r chaeo log ica l ly o bse rvab le c onsequen ces o f t h is p ro ce s s a r e d ec reas ing r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , r e sour ce i n t ens i f ica t ion , a nd c hanges i n s e t t lemen t p a t te rn a nd s y s tem . I t b e come s n ecessary t o i den t i fy t he o nse t a nd t r a je c to r ies o f t h ese c onsequence s w i th in a r eg iona l f r amewo rk i n so far a s t h a t i s p o s s ib le . I n t he O smo re b as in , w e c an o bse rve t he f o l low ing p at te rns ( s ee a l so A ldender fe r , t h is v o lume ) : 1 )I ti sl i ke ly t h a t t wo d i f fe ren t e thn ic o r s oc ia l e n t i t ies w e re i n p l ace i n t he b as in b y t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e E a r ly A r cha ic . One g roup f o cused o n m ar ine a nd l i t to ra l r e sources , wh i le t he o the r h ad r e s iden t ia l b ase s o n t h e p una . 2 ) R es iden t ia l mob i l i ty d ur ing t h e E ar ly A r cha ic , a t l e as t o n t he p una , was r e la t ive ly h i gh , a nd w as p robab ly l owe r o n t he c oas t . Mob i l i ty d ec reased t h roughou t t h e A r cha ic , a nd c oas ta l f o rage r s w e re p robab ly s eden tary b y t h e M idd le A r cha ic . S eden t ism w as p robab ly n o t a t ta ined o n t he p una u n t i l t h e e nd o f t h e L a te A rcha ic . 3 ) T he mo s t s i gn i f ican t r e sour ce " pu l ls " w e re a lways l o ca ted i n e i ther t he l i t to ra l o r t h e p una t h roughou t t h e A r cha ic . A l though t he s i ze a nd r e l iab i l i ty o f r e sour ce p a t ches i n t h e s i e r r a w axed a nd w aned , a t n o t ime w e re t h ey s u f f ic ien t t o s uppo r t
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l ong te rm h ab i ta t ion . We c an t here fo re p o s tu la t e t h a t t h roughou t t h e A rcha ic , e xpec ted s i te t ype s i n t he s i e r r a wou ld b e l im i ted t o l og is t ica l c a mps o r l o ca t ions ( Thomas 1 983 :73 -87 ) . 4 ) I n t he h igh -e leva t ion z one s o f t he O smo re b as in , i n i t ia t ion o f t he i n tens ive u se o f c a me l ids p robab ly b egan d ur ing t he M idd le A r cha ic , a nd d omes t ica t ed c a me l ids a ppear b y t he e nd o f t he L a t e A r cha ic . Andean s e ed c rops w i tnessed i n tens i f ica t ion o f u se e a r ly i n t he L a t e A rcha ic , p robab ly i n b o th t h e s i er r a a nd p una , b u t t h e l o cus o f i n tens ive u t i l iza t ion o f t hese c rop s w as a pparen t ly s h i f ted t o t he p una b y t h e e nd o f t he A r cha ic . I n c on t ras t , t he i n ten s ive u t i l iza t ion o f t uber s r e ma ined a p un a p henomenon , b u t h eavy r e l iance o n t hem p robab ly d id n o t o ccu r u n t i l s ome t ime i n t he e ar ly E ar ly F o rma t ive . U s ing t hese t r ends a s ab as is , w e c an a rgue t ha t t h e h igh s i e r r a i n t he O smo re b as in l a y w i th in t he l og is t ica l r ad ius o f p una f o rager s t h roughou t t h e A rcha ic , b u t t ha t t h e n a ture a nd i n tens i ty o f t ha t u se c hanged t h rough t ime . T he re may a l so h ave b een a c company ing s t ruc tu ra l c hange s i n t he s i ze a nd c ompo s i t ion o f t a sk o r s o c ia l g roup s t ha t u sed s i e r r a s i te s . T h is mode l o f l and u se i s c l ea r ly d i f fe ren t t han t h a t p o s tu la ted u nde r s easona l t r anshumance , b u t i th as s ome s im i la r i t ie s t o t h e mode l o f d ry p una u se d eve loped b y S an to ro a nd Nu t iez ( 1 987 ) . Howeve r , i td i f fe r s f r om t hem b y a vo id ing t h e u se o f s uch t e rms a s " s em i -pe rmanen t o ccupa t ion " i n t h e L a te A r cha ic , a nd i tp laces t h e s i e r r a w i th in a r eg iona l s y s tem o f l a nd u se a nd i n te rso c ie ta l i n te rac t ion . A rchaeo log ica l E xpec ta t ions f o r L og is t ica l C amp s a nd L o ca t ions F o l low ing T homas ( 1 983 :73 -87 ) , w e c an d e f ine t h e g ene ra l r ange o f a r t i fac t t ype s a nd s i te s t ruc tures t o b e e xpe c ted a tl og is t ica l c amps a nd l o ca t ions . L og is t ica l c amps , o r f i e ld c amp s , a r e t empo rary s i te s a t wh ich s pec ia l a c t iv i t ies a r e p er fo rmed . T hey a r e b road ly s im i la r t o r e s iden t ia l b ase s , b u t t end t o e xh ib i t l im i ted a ssemb lage d ive r s i ty when c ompared t o r e s iden t ia l b ase s a nd a l im i ted d ive rs i ty o f f auna l r ema ins a nd s ke le t a l p ar t s p res en t . T hese p ar t s s hou ld r e semb le a p a t te rn o f " snack ing " ( Thomas 1 983 :80 ) . A r t i fac t s p resen t s hou ld b e r e la t ive ly s pe c ia l ized , a nd mo s t s hou ld r e la te t o t he p r imary s ubs is t ence " r eason " f o r t he o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i te . S t ruc tures may b e e re c ted i fh ab i tua l r eo ccupa t ion o f t he s i t e i s e xpe c ted , b u t t h e re s hou ld b e n o s i gn i f ican t i nves tmen t i n t he i r c ons t ruc t ion A s b o th B in fo rd ( 1 982 ) a nd T homas ( 1 983 :80 -1 ) p o in t o u t , i t i s e x t reme ly d i f f icu l t t o d i s t ingu ish f i e ld c amp s f r om r e s iden t ia l b ases i f t h e f o rme r a r e r epea ted ly r eo ccup ied , o r i f t h e l a t te r a r e h eav i ly s c avenged t h rough t ime . A lso , t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e d ura t ion o f o f o ccupa t ion b e comes s i gn i f ican t . A s Ih ave d emons t ra ted e l sewhere ( A ldende r fe r 1 98 1 ) , t he p robab i l i ty t h a t a ny a r t i fac t w i l l e n te r t h e a r chaeo log i c a l r e co rd d epends o n t he i n te rac t ion o f ac omp lex s e t o f f a c to r s , t he mo s t i mpo r tan t b e ing t he l e ng th o f t ime p eop le s pend a t as i te . T he l onge r af i e ld c a mp i s o ccup ied , t he mo re i tw i l l b eg in t o r e semb le a r e s iden t ia l b ase . T h is p ro ce s s w i l l b e e xace rba ted i f t he s i te b e comes a p a l impse s t o f o ccupa t ions o f v ary ing i n tens i t ie s . L o ca t ions a re t empo rary s i te s t h a t a re a s so c ia ted w i th d a i ly e x t rac t ive a c t iv i t ie s , a nd t h ey t e nd t o b e o f l ow a r chaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty o n t h e who le u n le s s t he a c t iv i ty p e r form e d p roduces d urab le ma te r ia l d eb r is a nd t h e l o ca t ion i si t se l f r epea ted ly r eo ccup ied , a s i t i sw i th in a f o rag ing a dap ta t ion ( Thomas 1 983 :85 ) . Wha t k inds o f l o g is t ica l c amp s a nd l o ca t ions a re e xpec ted i n t he h igh s i e r r a o f t h e O smo re b as in? L og is t ica l c amps c an b e o r ien ted t oward e i the r h un t ing o r p l an t
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p ro curemen t a nd p ro ce s s ing . F o r h un t ing c amp s , w e wou ld e xpe c t t he s i te t o b e o ccup ied d ur ing t he w e t s e ason , a nd t h e a s semb lage s hou ld c on ta in a r t i fac t s r e la ted t o r e too l ing o r t he ma in tenan ce o f g ea r , e spec ia l ly f o r r e la t ive ly s ho r t o ccupa t ions o f t he s i te . R e lat ive ly l i t t le r edu c t ion o f c h ipped s t one i s e xpe c ted , a nd t h e r educ t ion b y p roduc t s s hou ld b e s t aged . S pe c i f ica l ly , w e e xpe c t t he l a te r s t age s o f t h e r educ t ion p ro ces s , w i th i n i t ia l s hap ing o f c o res p e r fo rmed e l sewhe re . F auna l r ema ins p resen t s hou ld b e r e s t r ic ted t o e i the r d eer o r g uana c o ( l a rge r c a me l ids ) , a nd d epend ing o n t he l e ng th o f o ccupa t ion a t t h e s i te , t he re s hou ld b e al im i ted r ange o f s ke le ta l p a r t s p resen t a t t h e s i te . T he o n -s i te u s e o f s ke le ta l p a r t s s hou ld b e r e s t r ic ted t o mar row p ro ce s s ing o f l ow -u t i l i ty p ar t s , o r t he c onsump t ion o f mea t f r om t hese p a r t s . L og is t ica l c amps d evo ted t o p lan t h arve s t ing o r p ro curemen t a r e mo re p rob lema t ic . T he p l an t mo s t l i ke ly u t i l ized i n t h e h igh s i e r r a w as C henop od ium s pp . , a l though i t i s p os s ib le t ha t l im i ted p ro cu r emen t o f t uber s a nd r oo t s a l so o ccu r red . C henopod ium s eeds a re v e ry sma l l , a nd c ou ld b e e as i ly t r anspor ted w i thou t s i gn i f ican t p roces s ing . I n t h is c ase , w e wou ld n o t e xpe c t g r ind ing s t one s t o b e p resen t a t s i te s . A l te r na t ive ly , i t may h ave b een d es i rab le t o p ro ces s t hese s eeds i n to f l our b e fo re t r anspo r t , i n wh ich c ase g r ind ing s t ones s hou ld b e c o mmon . L i th ic ma te r ia ls a nd s ke le ta l p a r t s p re sen t s hou ld b e s im i lar t o t h e h un t ing c amp a s semb lage . T he c on ten t o f l o ca t ion s i s mo re d i f f icu l t t o p red ic t s imp ly b e cause t hey a re l i ke ly t o b e o f l ow a r chaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty , w i th t he p r imary e xcep t ion b e ing s i tes d evo ted t o q ua r ry s i tes . S t ray f i nds o f p ro jec t i le p o in t s s hou ld b e f ound a c ro s s t h e l ands cape , t h is r ef le c t ing t he l o s s o f p ro je c t i les wh i le h un t ing . S ca t te red p o in t t i p s , m idsec t ion s , o r b ase s s hou ld a l so b e f ound , a nd i ft he se ma te r ia ls a r e n o t a s so c ia ted w i th l a rge amoun t s o f r educ t ion d ebr is , i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t t h ey r ef le c t t h e r ep lacemen t o f o f b roken p o in t s d ur ing h un t ing . S ha f t s a r e mo re v a luab le t han p o in t s , a nd i ti sl i ke ly t h a t b roken p o in t s w e re s imp ly d i s ca rded a nd r ep laced w i th a l ready f l aked p o in t s . O ther a c t iv i t ie s , e sp e c ia l ly t ho se r e la t ed t o p l an t p rocuremen t , a re n o t e xpe c ted t o b e d i s cove red d ue t o t h e i r l ow v i s ib i l i ty .
E nv i ronmen ta l S e t t ing Mode rn E nv ironmen ta l S t ruc ture T he mode rn e nv ironmen t a l s t ruc ture o f t h e O smo re d ra inage p rov ide s ap o in t o f d epa r ture f o r t h e d es c r ip t ion a nd s ubsequen t a na ly s is o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls f r om t h e s i e r r a e nv i ronmen ta l z one . T he re a re t h ree f a c tor s o f i mpo r t an ce : p hys iog raphy , w a te r r e sources , a nd e co log ica l s t ruc tu re . T he p hys iog raphy o f t h e s i e r r a c an b e d iv ided i n to t h ree d i s t inc t p a r t s : al owe r v a l ley z one , b es t d e s c r ibed a s at yp ica l V shaped A ndean v a l ley , a n i n termed ia t e z one c ha rac t e r ized b y ab roade r v a l ley a nd i t s r emnan t r i ve r t e r race s , a nd a n a r row u ppe r z one b e low t he r im o f t he p un a . T he l owe r v a l ley z one , wh ich i n c ludes mo s t o f t h e s u rvey a r ea , r anges i n e l eva t ion f r om c a . 2 400 m t o c a . 3 400 m . T yp ica l ly , t h e v a l ley b o t tom s r ange i n w id th f r om 1 00 -200 m , a nd mo s t o f t h e n a tura l r i ve r t e r races h ave b een d e s t royed b y e ros ion . On ly v ery s ma l l r emnan t s o f T i a nd T 2 c an b e f ound w ide ly s c a t te red t h roughou t t h e v a l ley , a nd mo s t o f t h ese a r e p resen t ly h eav i ly d i s tu rbed b y mode rn c u lt iva t ion . T he v a l ley i s v e ry d eep , w i th t h e s umm i t o ve r 6 00 m f r om t he v a l ley f l oo r . T he g rade o f t he r i ve r i n t h is z one i s s t eep , a nd t he r i ve r h as r e la t ive ly
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f ew meande rs a nd p o in t b a rs . T he s ur round ing s l ope s o f t he v a l ley a r e v ery s t eep , a pp roach ing 3 0 - 4 0 d eg rees o f s l ope when n o t mod i f ied b y a g r icu l tura l t e r race s . T he s l opes a re c u t b y many q uebr ad a s , a l l o f t h em d ry e xcep t d ur ing p e r iods o f t he mo s t i n tens ive r a in . I n c on t ras t , t he u ppe r v a l ley z one , r ang ing i n e l eva t ion f r om 3 400 -3800 m , i s c harac te r ized b y aw ide r v a l ley , i n s o me p l aces a pp roach ing 5 00 m , w e l l -p rese rved t e r race s , w i th T 1 , T 2 , a nd T 3 p resen t i n m any p lace s , a nd a l e s s s t eep r i ve r g rad ien t . Many o f t h e t e r races , e spe c ia l ly o n t he s ou th b ank o f t h e r i ve r , a r e c ove red w i th t h ick c o l luv ia l d epo s i t s . F ina l ly , t he u ppe r z one i s s im i la r t o t h e l owe r v a l ley z one , a nd i s c ha rac te r ized b y a lmo s t v e r t ica l v a l ley w a l ls , as t eepe r r i ve r g rad ien t , a nd l im i ted t e r race d eve lopmen t . H e re t he r i ver n ar rows c on s ide rab ly , a nd i so f ten n o w ide r t h an 1 00 m . N ea r t he r im o f t he p una , t he r i ve r i t se l f n ar rows t o s t ream w id th , t h e g rad ien t i n crease s d rama t ica l ly , a nd t he d ep th o f t h e v a l ley d ec rease s c on s ide rab ly . T h ree t ype s o f w a t e r r e sour ces c an b e f ound i n t h e d ra inage : t h e r i ve r i t s e l f , b o f eda l e s , a nd s ma l l s pr ings . T he r i ve r r un s y ear round , w i th w a te r v o lume wax ing a nd wan ing d epend ing o n r a in fa l l i n ten s i ty a nd f r equency o n t he p un a , t he p r imary s our ce o f wa te r i n t h e d ra inage . B o f ed a l e s a re p l aces i n wh ich t h e w a te r t a b le b reaks t he g round s ur face . I n t h e O smo re r eg ion , b o f ed a l e s a r e s ma l l , g ene ra l ly n o l a rge r t h an o ne h e c t a re i n s i ze , a nd u sua l ly much s ma l ler . B o f ed a l e s s uppo r t g rasses y ea r round , a nd a re r e l iab le e xcep t i n p er iods o f p ro longed d rough t . Sma l l s p r ings a r e f o und a long b o th s i de s o f t he r i ve r i n f i s sure s a nd b reaks i n t he s t eep v a l ley s l opes . Wa te r v o lume i s l ow , a nd mo s t s uppo r t o n ly a v ery s ma l l p a t ch o f g rasse s a l ong t h e i r c our ses d own t o t he r i ve r . G enera l s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s o f t he e nv i ronmen t i n c lude p rec ip i ta t ion p e r iod ic i ty a nd a bundance a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f i mpor tan t r e sources a c ro s s t h e l andscape . P rec ip i ta t i on i s s e asona l , w i th mo s t f a l l ing d u r ing t he mon ths o f November t h rough Mar ch ( SPCC 1 985 ) . Mo s t p re c ip i ta t ion f a l ls a s r a in , b u t d epend ing o n t empe ra tu re , s o me c an f a l l a s s now , e spec ia l ly a bove 3 600 m . B o th t h e i n tens i ty a nd amoun t o f p rec ip i ta t ion i n c reas e w i th a l t i tude ; i n t h e l owe r z one o f t he s i e r r a , r a in fa l l amoun t s a ve rage 10 mm/year , wh i le n ear t he r im o f t h e p una , p r ec ip i ta t ion a ve rage s 7 20 mm/yea r ( ONERN 1 984 ) . Ove r ad i s tance o f a pp rox ima te ly 2 5 km , t h en , t h e amoun t o f p re c ip i tat ion i n c reases o ve r s even t imes . D e sp i te a s e asona l t r end , h oweve r , p re c ip i ta t ion p e r iod ic i ty a nd amoun t i su np red ic tab le ( A ldende r fe r , t h is v o lume ) . B o f ed a l e s a l so e xh ib i t s ome i n s t ab i l i ty . A s W in te rha lde r a nd T homas ( 1 978 :13 ) n o te , d rough t i s f a ir ly c ommon i n t h e h igh e l eva t ion z one s o f S ou th C en t ra l A ndes , a nd i t s p e r iod ic i ty i s u np red ic tab le . S ince b o f ed a l e s a re i mpo r tan t r e sour ce p a tche s , i tb ecome s i mpo r tan t t o a s se s s t h e i r s t ab i l i ty . A ne cdo ta l d a ta s ugge s t t ha t b o f ed a le s c an s h r ink u nde r p ro longed d rough t . A f te r t h ree y ear s o f mode ra te d rough t , P ampa T i t i jone s , a sma l l b o f ed a l a t 420 m o n t he p una n ea r t h e R io T o ra ta , am a jo r t r ibu tary o f t he O smo re , w as e s sen t ia l ly d r ied o u t , a nd h ad b een a bandoned b y l o ca l p a s to ra l is t s . E ven l a rge r b o f ed a l e s c an b e a f fec ted , a s t h e d a ta f r om P a mpa P as to G rande ( 4 5 15 m ) d emons t ra t e . U s ing t h e v o lume o f mon th ly w a te r d i s cha rge a s a n i nd ica to r o f s t ab i l i ty ( SPCC 1 985 :69 -74 ) , i ti s c l ear t h a t w a te r v o lume , a nd t hus t h e p roduc t iv i ty o f t h e b o f ed a l , v ar ie s u np red ic tab ly ( A ldende r fe r , t h is v o lume ) . R esou rce d i s t r ibu t ion i n t he s i e r r a i s b e s t d es c r ibed a s b o th p a t chy a nd l i near : i ti s p a t chy a round b o f eda l e s a nd t h e mou ths o f s ma l l s p r ing s , b u t i sl i near ly d i s t r ibu ted a long t h e c our se o f t he r i ve r . P r imary p roduc t iv i ty , a nd t hus r e sour ce d ens i ty , i sl ow when c ompared t o t he l i t to ra l a nd d ry p una . I ti s mo re p roduc t ive t h an o n ly t h e l ow s i e r r a .
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P l an t s o f e conom ic i mpo r t ance t o h umans a re s eed c rops ( Chenopod ium s pp . ) a nd v a r ious g ene ra a nd s pe c ies o f w i ld Andean t ube rs ( U l lucu s a nd S o l anum ) , u sed f o r f ood , a nd q u e r iv a ( Po ly l ep i s ) , u sed f o r f ue l a nd a r t i fac t manu fac tu re . Many o the r p lan t s a re p resen t , o f c ou rse , b u t a re o f m ino r e conom ic i mpo r tance . S eed c rop s a nd t ube r s a re g ene ra l ly f o und n ear w a te r , e spe c ia l ly a round t he marg ins o f b o f ed a l e s a nd a long t he r i ve r o n s ma l l , g rassy p o in t b ar s . T hese s pe c ie s a re e spec ia l ly a bundan t i n s he l tered l o ca t ions o u t o f t h e w ind a nd t ha t a r e p ro te c ted f r om f r o s t s . Q ue r iva i s f ound e i the r o n t h e r i ve r b o t tom s ( s ing le t r ees ) , o r i n t h ick g rove s a bove 3 800 m u p t o a pprox ima te ly 4 100 m , w h ich marks t h e r im o f t h e p una . Ma jo r f auna l r e sources i n c lude g uana co a nd d ee r . A l though n o w i ld c a me l ids a re n o f o und i n t he s i e r r a , i tl i es w e l l w i th in t h e k nown r ange o f g uanac o ( F rank l in 1 982 ) . T he g uanaco h as a f l ex ib le b ehav io ra l e co logy , a nd c an e i the r b rowse o r g raze d epend ing o n r e sour ce a va i lab i l i ty . I th as b een d es c r ibed a s g regar ious a nd t e r r i tor ia l , b u t c an a l so b e m ig r a tory , e spec ia l ly i n a r id c ond i t ions . D eer a r e s t i l l f ound i n t he u ppe r r eache s o f t he mode rn s i er r a a bove 3 600 m . T hey t e nd t o b e c oncen t ra ted i n t he q ue r lua g roves , a nd a r e t hus t e r r i to r ia l ly -based . D ens i t ie s o f e i the r o f t he se s pe c ie s a re t i ed t o t he s i ze a nd s t ab i l i ty o f b o f ed a l e s . B o th t h e n umber a nd s i ze o f b o f ed a l e s i n c rease w i th e l eva t ion , a nd t h ey a re e spe c ia l ly c oncen t ra ted j u s t b e low t h e r im o f t he p una i n a n e l eva t ion r ange f r om 4 000 -4200 m . When b o f eda l e s d ry o u t , d ee r a nd c ame l ids a re k nown t o s eek o ther , l a rge r , mo re p e rmanen t s our ces o f w a te r a nd c an t hus b e d es c r ibed a s m ig ra to ry . Sma l l m amma ls , s uch a s v i z c a cha , a re a bundan t . P a leoenv ironmen t s Wha t was t h e s i e r r a l i ke i n t he p as t ? R e cen t wo rk i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l Ande s b y N uf iez e t a l ( 1 983 ) a nd S an to ro a nd Nu i lez ( 1 987 ) h as p rov ided a c l ea r o u t l ine o f r e g iona l e nv i ronmen ta l c hange . T he r eg ion h as b een u nde rgo ing a p rog re s s ive d es icca t i on o ve r t he p as t 2 0 ,000 y ear s , a nd t h e re h ave b een a s e r ies o f f l uc tua t ion s i n r a in fa l l a nd t emperatu re d ur ing t h e Ho locene . T h ree m a jo r p e r iods h ave b een i den t i f ied : t he Y ounge r D ryas ( 1 0 ,500 -6500 B .P . ) , a p e r iod o f c oo l t empe ra tures a nd r e la t ive ly h igh r a in f a l l a nd mo is tu re . T h is c omb ina t ion wou ld h ave p robab ly i n creased t he s i ze s o f l o ca l b o f ed a l e s , a nd c r ea ted l a rge r , p robab ly mo re p roduc t ive r e source p a tches t han e x is t a t p resen t . We c an a s sume t h a t r a in fa l l p e r iod ic i ty w as p robab ly mo re p red ic tab le , mu ch a s i t i s i n t he mode rn w e t p una f u r the r t o t he n or th . T he l owe r t empera ture s p robab ly a l so i n c reased t h e p robab i l i ty o f f r os t s i n t h e s i e r r a , a nd a l so l owe red t he e l eva t ion a t wh ich s now wou ld f a l l d ur ing t h e r a iny s eason . Ove ra l l p roduc t iv i ty , h oweve r , w as g rea te r t h an s e en i n t h e mode rn s i e r r a . T he B o rea l ( 6 500 -5500 B .P . ) s i gna ls a d rama t ic s h i f t i n c l i ma te w i th t he o n se t o f v ery d ry a nd r e la t ive ly w arm c ond i t ions . T h is wou ld h ave h ad t he e f fec t o f s hr ink ing a l l r e sour ce p a t ches , a nd p robab ly l owe r ing t he ir p roduc t iv i ty a s w e l l d ue t o l owe r r a in fa l l a moun t s . P e r iod ic i ty p robab ly b ecame mo re u np red ic tab le a s w e l l . Sma l ler b o f ed a l e s w ou ld h ave d r ied e n t ire ly , t hus c oncen t ra t ing r e sour ce s i n d i s c re te p a t ches . T he o ve ra l l i mp r es s ion o f t h e B o rea l i n t h e s i e r r a i sb e s t d es c r ibed a s h ar sh . T he A t lan t ic ( 5 500 -3500 B .P . ) s how s a n ame l io ra t ion o f c ond i t ions c r ea ted d ur ing t he B o rea l w i th a r e turn t o c oo le r t empe ra ture s a nd g rea t e r r a in fa l l . However , a t n o t ime d o e s r a in fa l l amoun t o r t empe ra ture a pp roach t h e c ond i t ions s een d u r ing t h e Y ounge r D ry as . R esou r ce d ens i ty wou ld h ave i n c reased , i t s p e r iod ic i ty p robab ly mo re p red ic t a b le , a nd t h e e nv ironmen t wou ld h ave b ecome g ene ra l ly mo re p roduc t ive . Sma l le r
1 37
E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap ter 7
r e source p a t che s p robab ly r e appea red , b u t wou ld h ave b een s ub je c t t o p e r iod ic d es icca t i on d ue t o p ro longed d rough t , much a s t hey a re t oday . B o f ed a l e s wou ld h ave r ema ined s i gn i f ican t r e sour ce " pu l ls " , a l though t he re wou ld h ave b een mo re o f t hem t h an d ur ing t he B o rea l . I n s ummary , t he h igh s i e r r a w as a g ene ra l ly u np red ic tab le h ab i ta t t ha t n ever the le s s c on ta ined a s ma l l n umbe r o f h igh r e sour ce d en s i ty p a t che s - b o f eda l e s tha t w ou ld h ave b een i mpo r tan t t o A r cha ic P e r iod f o rage rs , e spec ia l ly o n as easona l b as is .
S u rvey a nd E xcava t ion P rocedu res I n tens ive s ur face s urvey a nd c o l le c t ion p ro cedures w e re emp loyed i n t h re e a reas o f t he s i e r r a : a ) p or t ion s o f t h e R io A sana a t e l eva t ions f r om a pprox ima te ly 3 200 m a bove mean s ea l e ve l t o a pprox ima te ly 4 000 m a l ong t he s t ream b o t tom s a nd l owe r s l opes o f t he v a l ley ; b ) p o r t ion s o f t he R io C ha raque a t e l eva t ion s o f 3 600 m t o 3 900 m ; a nd c ) p o r t ions o f t he R io C os co r i ( we s t o f t he R io s A sana -Cha raque c onf luence ) a t e l eva t ion s o f 2 900 m t o 3 200 m a l ong t h e v a l ley b o t toms a nd l owe r s l opes . A t o ta l o f 4 . 8 km2 o f t e r ra in wa s i nves t iga ted ( Tab le 2 ) . Two t ype s o f s urvey p rocedure w e re emp loyed : o ppo r tun is t ic s urvey o f r e mnan t t e r race s a nd p o in t b a r s , a nd " s i te le ss " s urvey ( Dunne 1 1 a nd D ancey 1 983 ) . Oppo r tun is t ic s urvey w as c onduc ted o n ly o n t he b o t tom s a nd l owe r s l opes o f t h e R io C os co r i a nd t h e R io A sana . A long b o th o f s t ream s , t he v a l ley w a l ls b ecome v e ry n arrow , a nd t here i s l i t t le t e r race f o rma t ion , a nd g ene ra l ly p oo r ly -deve lop ed b o t tom f o rma t ion . I n g ene ra l , t h e b o t toms h ave b een e xposed t o e x ten s ive e ro s ion t h rough t ime a t p e r iod i c i n terva l s . T e r race r emnan t s n o t d e s t royed b y g eo log ica l p ro ces se s w e re i den t i f ied o n a e r ia l p ho to s , a nd t hese a reas w e re i n ten s ive ly s ur face s urveyed a nd c o l lec ted . " S i te les s " s urvey w as u sed t o i nve s t iga te a reas n o t h eav i ly d i s tu rbed b y e r o s ion a nd s t ream a c t iv i ty . P o r t ions o f t he R io s A sana a nd C ha raque w e re d iv ided i n to " b locks " o f v ary ing s i ze s , b ased u pon n a tura l t opog raph ic v ar ia t ion o f t he l a ndscape . C e r t a in a reas w e re e xc luded f r om s u rvey : a ) a reas w i th s l ope g rea te r t han 2 5% a s m easured o n t opog raph ic maps ; b ) a reas mo re t h an 1 00 m u p t h e c onf luence o f q ueb r ad a s w i th t h e ma jo r s t ream c ou rse s ; c ) a reas o n s t ream o r c hanne l b o t tom s t h a t c ons is ted p r imar i ly o f s ands o r s ands a nd g rave ls , s uch a s p o in t b a rs ; a nd d ) a reas i d en t i f ied i n t h e f i e ld o r t h rough t h e u se o f a e r ia l p ho tog raphy t ha t h ad b een c ove red w i th h eavy s o i l e ros ion o r w e re t a lus s l opes . B lo ck s w e re s urveyed b y means o f p a ra l le l t r ansec ts a l ong t he l ong a x is o f t he b lo ck ; t r ansec t s w e re g ene ra l ly n o mo re t h an f i ve me te r s a par t , a nd o ne c r ew membe r w as a s s igned t o e ach t r anse c t . C rew membe r s w er e i n s t ruc ted t o w a lk e ach t r anse c t i n az ig -zag f a sh ion , a nd t o p lace a w i re f l ag b es ide e ach a r t i fac t o r s uspec ted a r t i fac t o r a r ch i te c tur a l f e a tu re . No c o l le c t ion was p e rm i t t ed u n t i l t he e n t i re b lock h ad b een e xam ined . T he f l agg ing p ro cedure w as mod i f ied when h igh d en s i t ie s o f a r t i fac t s w e re e ncoun te red . H e re , " h igh " d en s i ty i si n te rp re ted a s mo re t h an f i ve a r t i f a c t s p er o ne me te r o f l i nea r d is t an ce i n a ny d i re c t ion s ur round ing a n a r t i fac t f i nd . I n p r ac t ice , o nce a n a rea o f h igh a r t i fac t d en s i ty w as e ncoun tered o r s u spe c ted , t h e s urveyo r i n fo rmed t h e c r ew c h ie f , a nd t h en p laced a f l ag a t t h e p o in t a t wh ich t he d ens i ty s eemed t o c hange . T he a rea o f h igh d en s i ty w as w a lked t h rough , a nd a f l ag w as p l aced a t t h e b oundary i f i tw as f ound w i th in t h e b lo ck . T he f l agg ing o f i nd iv idua l a r t i f ac t s b eyond t h e " h igh " d ens i ty l o cus c on t inued u n t i l t h e t r an sec t w as f i n ished . T he c r ew c h ie f w as r e spons ib le
1 38
M .AL D END ER F ER ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD SE T T L EM ENT PA T T E RN S
AREA S URVEYED
R io
L INEAR D ISTANCE
Coscori/
1 0
AVERAGE WIDTH
S URVEY PROCEDURE
k m
1 00 m
opportunistic
c amp)
4 k m
5 00 m
" siteless"
c amp)
3 k m
2 00 m
" siteless"
4 50
" siteless"
R io Asana R io Asana
( east
of Quellaveco R io Asana
( west
of Quellaveco R io
Charaque
2 .7
km
m
T ab le 2 .A reas i n tens ive ly s u r face i nve s t iga ted 1 985 f i e ld s e ason . f o r i n spec t ing t h e b ounda r ie s o f t h e " h igh " d ens i ty l o cus , a nd f o r mak ing a d e te rm ina t i on o f i t s g ene ra l s i ze a nd e x ten t . U pon c omp le t ion o f a l l t r anse c t s w i th in t h e b lo ck , at r ans i t s t a t ion w as e s tab l ished , a nd t h e l o ca t ion o f a l l f l ag s w as s ho t i n r e la t ive t o t h is s t a t ion w i th a B run ton c ompass . D is t ance s t o e ach a r t i fac t f i nd w e re p aced b y c r ew membe r s whos e p ace w as k nown . E ach a r t i fac t f i nd w as l a b e led s epa ra te ly w i th t h e b lo ck n umbe r a nd s equence n umbe r f o r t h a t b lock . G r id s y s tems w e re e s tab l ished f o r e ach " h igh " d ens i ty l o cus w i th in t he b lock , a nd a r t i fac t s w e re c o l le c ted f r om w i th in t h ese g r ids . E ach g r id n ode wa s s ho t i n to t h e b ase map f o r t h e b lo ck . T he s i ze o f e ach g r id s qua re w as 2 5 m ' . B lock a nd s equence n u mbe rs w e re a s s igned t o t hese g r ids ; a l l a r t i fac t s f ound w i th in a s i ng le g r id r ece ived t he s ame s equen ce n umbe r . A f ter a l l g r ids h ad b een c o l le c ted , t he ma rg ins o f t he " h igh " d ens i ty l o cus w e re w a lked i n o ne m e te r t r anse c t s t o i n sure t h a t a l l a r t i fac t s we re i n f a c t c o l le c ted . T he n umbe r o f o ne me t e r t r anse c t s v a r ied d epend ing o n s i te s i ze a nd o r ien ta t ion , b u t n o mo re t han f i ve w e re w a lked a round t h e b ounda r ies o f e ach l o cus . T he p rocedure s u sed i n t h is i mp lemen ta t ion o f " s i te le s s " s u rvey r ef le c t ac omp rom ise b e tween t he f i ne -s ca le mapp ing o f e very a r t i fac t e ncoun te red a nd c ons t ra in t s o n f i e ld t ime a nd l abo r . T he m e thods d o p e rm i t af a i r ly o b jec t ive means o f r e cons t ruc t ing t he e ven t s t ha t t ook p l ace w i th in e ach b lo ck t h a t l e f t b eh ind ma te r ia l r e s idue s , a nd a l low f o r c ons ide rab le i n te r - b lo ck c ompa rab i l i ty . I n a dd i t ion t o t he i n ten s ive s u rvey o f b o t toms a nd t e r race s o f t h e s t ream s , a ma jo r e f fo r t w as made t o l o ca te r o ck s he l te r s a nd q uar ry s i tes . D ur ing w a lkove r o r s ur face i n spe c t ion , a l l s l opes s u r round ing t h e v a l ley b o t tom s w e re s c anned , o f ten w i th b ino cu l a rs . A e r ia l p ho tos o f t h e r eg ion w e re i n spe c ted f o r o bv ious s he l ter s . Ove rhang s , o u t c rop s , a nd s uspec ted s he l te r l o ca t ions w e re t hen v i s i ted . Quar ry s i te s w e re s ear ched f o r d ur ing s u rvey o pe ra t ions o n t h e v a l ley t e r races a nd b o t toms ; g eo log is t s o f S ou thern P eru C oppe r C orpo ra t ion w e re c onsu l ted a bou t l o ca t ion s l i ke ly t o b e t h e s our ces o f ma jo r o u tc rops , a nd t h ese w e re e xam ined i n t h e f i e ld . A reas n o t s ys tema t ica l ly s u rvey f o r s i t es , s uch a s h igh s add le s w e l l a bove t h e v a l ley f l oo r s o r s add les a nd r i dge l i ne s we re a l so i nves t iga ted when s uspe c ted r ock s he l te r l o ca t ion s w e re v i s i ted . Nodu les o f s uspe c ted r aw ma t er ia l w e re a l so t e s ted i n t h e s t ream c hanne ls , b u t s uch t e s t ing w as n o t c onduc ted o n as ys tema t ic b as is . I ti sd i f f icu l t t o e s t ima te t h e amoun t o f t e r ra in c ove red i n s e a r ch f o r t hese q uar ry s i tes ; i n a dd i t ion t o t he 4 . 8 km ' i nve s t iga ted d ur ing i n ten s ive 1 39
E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 7
s urvey , a no ther t wo t o t h ree km ' s c a t te red t h roughou t t h e d ra inage we re a l so s urveyed . T he s ea rch f o r q ua r r ies , t hen , c anno t b e c on s idered e xhaus t ive o r c omp le te a t t h is t ime . A l l r o ckshe l te r s w e re mapped , a nd mos t w ere c o l le c ted . I n t h is c a s e , c o l le c t ion p rocedu re s w e re c oncen t ra ted o n t h e t a lus s l ope s , s i nce e ach o f t he s he l te rs h ad a s ub s tan t ia l c ap o f r e cen t a n ima l manu re a t op t he a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s . T he t a lus s l opes w er e c o l lec ted i n p ara l le l t r ansec t s s paced a pp rox ima te ly t h ree me te r s a par t . T he t r anse c t s w e re o r ien ted p a ra l le l t o t h e l ong t e n me te r s b eyond t he e nds o f t he s he l t e r . A r t i fac t c o l lec t ion c on t inued u n t i l as e r ie s o f f i ve emp ty t r ansec t s w ere e n coun tered . A l l a r t i fac t s w e re b agged t oge the r , a nd a s s igned a s i ng le c o l lec t ion n umbe r . T e s t ing a t r o ck she l te r s i te s f o l lowed a v e r t ica l s t ra tegy ; p r io r i ty w as g iven t o t h e e s t ab l ishmen t o f as t ra t ig raph ic c o lumn t h a t w as c a re fu l ly e xcava ted a nd p ro f i led . T e s t u n i t s w ere p laced a pp rox ima te ly h a l fway b e tween t h e d r ip l ine a nd b ack w a l l o f e a ch s he l t e r . E ach u n i t w as al m xl m s qua re , a nd 5 c m a rb i t rary l e ve ls w e r e e xcava ted u n t i l b ed rock w as r e ached . B e tween o ne a nd t h ree t e s t u n i t s w e re e xcava ted a t e a ch s he l te r t e s ted . A l l c u l tu ra l ma te r ia l w as s c reened t h rough 1 /16 i n ch h a rdware c l o th . F l o ta t ion s amp le s w e re r emoved f r om c u l tura l f e a tur e s , a nd s o i l s a mp les w e re t aken o f e ach s t ra tum i n t he p ro f i le . R ad ioca rbon s amp les w e r e t a ken a s e ncoun te red . A r t i f ac t s f ound d u r ing e xcava t ion w e re b agged a s g ene ra l p roven ience ; o n ly a r t i fac t s a sso c ia ted w i th c u l tu ra l f e a ture s h ad t he i r l o ca t ions mapped a ccura te ly . A t o ta l o f s i x s he l ters w e re c o l le c ted o r t e s ted ( Tab le 3 ) . T o d a te , t h e o n ly ma jo r e xcava t ion t ha t NUAP h a s u nde r taken i n t he h igh s i e r r a o f t h e O smo re b as in i sa t A sana , a n i mpo r tan t o pen -a ir s i te l o ca ted a t 3 450 m o n t he n o r th b ank o f t he R io A sana . T he s i te w as t e s ted w i th a 2 x 2 m u n i t i n 1 986 , a nd o ve r 3 6 m2 i n t wo l a rge c on t iguous b lo cks w e re o pened i n t he 1 987 f i e ld s e ason . T h is e x cava t ion h as d emon s t ra ted t ha t t h e c u l tu ra l d epo s i t a t t he s i te i s i n p lace s o ver t h r ee me te r s i n d ep th , a nd t ha t o ve r 7 2 n a tura l s o i l s t ra ta c an b e d is ce rned . Ove r 4 0 d i s t in c t c u l tu ra l o ccupa t ion s o f t h e s i te h ave b een r e cogn ized , a nd o c cupa t ion a t t h e s i te r ange s f r om 9 580 -3640 B .P . ( A ldende r fer i n p re s s a , b ) . T he e xcava t ion s t ra tegy w as d es igned t o o b ta in i n fo rma t ion o n s i te s t ruc tu re a nd a c t iv i ty p e r fo rmance . S t ruc tu r a l r ema in s , i n c lud ing d omes t ic a r ch i te c tu re b u i l t i n t wo d i f fe ren t w ays , a re f ound i n mo s t L a te a nd M idd le A r cha ic l e ve ls . E ar ly A r cha ic o ccupa t ion a t t h e s i te a ppear s t o h ave t a ken a dvan tage o f an a tu ra l b ou lde r f i e ld . T he s i te w as a ppa ren t ly s i tua ted b e s ide a s ma l l b o f ed a l t ha t w as p resen t t h roughou t t h e E a r ly A r cha ic a nd p robab ly mos t o f t he M idd le a nd L a te A r cha ic p e r iods a s w e l l ( A ldende r fe r e t a l . n . d . ) . T h is s i te , u n ique i n t he S ou th C en t ra l A nde s , o f fe r s c ons ide rab le p rom ise f o r h e lp ing t o r e cons t ruc t s e t t lemen t p a t te rn a nd s ys tem i n t h e r eg ion .
Ana ly t ica l P rocedu res P ro je c t i le P o in t Mo rpho log ie s A s ide f r om t h e a na lyse s o f R av ines ( 1 967 , 1 972 ) , t h e re h as b een v ery l i t t le work d one o n t h e a na ly s is o f t h e mo rpho log ie s o f who le b i face s a nd p ro jec t i le p o in t s f r om s ou thern P e ru . T he re h as b een s omewha t mo re wo rk o n p o in t s f r om n o r the rn C h i le , b u t t h ese d es c r ip t ions h ave b een g ene ra l ly i n comp le t e , a nd t he c r i ter ia u sed t o d eve lop morpho log i c a l t ype s a r e g ene ra l ly n o t d is cussed a t l e ng th [ s ee , f o r e xamp le t he p resen ta t ion o f p o in t s b y S an to ro a nd Nu t iez ( 1 987 ) ] . T ype f o rma t ion a ppear s t o b e a ccomp l ished o n
1 40
M .AL D END ER F ER ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD SE T T L EM ENT PA T T ERN S
S ite
E levation
S ize i n
Coscori
3 000m
4 5
out
2 2
Art
Archaic
total
6 7
s ize
yes
l evels;
of test
Surface:
( m)
T ype
Group
2B, c a. 3 500-1500 B .C.; Levels 7 -10: 4 0-65cm B S;
( 1)
Apacheta C hica Cueva
4
3 300m
2 7.6
2 2
4 9.6
no
not
tested
3 400m
6 0.9
9 6
1 56.9
no
Levels
7 -14:
5 5-115cm B S Type i n
Group
L evel
1 00cm BS; T ala
1
3 250m
5
T ala
2
3 250m
9 .3
S ize
3 800m
i s
i n
1 10
square meters;
5
yes
Levels 5 -6: 2 5-35cm B S ( 1)
9 .3
no
Levels
1 10.5
" in"
c a.
( 1)
2 -7m
4 0-75cm BS Quellaveco
lA
1 4,
yes
r efers
to
Levels
the
a rea
( 1)
1 4-16.
of
a s helter
and " out" refers to relatively f lat, open work a reas a ssociated w ith on a s teep talus s lope. Measurements of the s ize of Quellaveco are
beneath the
dripline,
the s helter, but not m isleading; a lthough
the c ave i s l arge, only t he western third i n f act w as occupied during Archaic bedrock r ises s harply to t he e ast. The published f igure r eflects this.
t imes
s ince
T ab le 3 . R o ck she l te r s t e s ted/exam ined .
t h e b a s is o f v i sua l e xam ina t ion f o l lowed b y c ompa r ison t o p ub l ished e xamp les o f p o in t s . Wh i le t h is i s s t anda rd p ro cedu re , t h e f uzzy d e f in i t ion o f mo rpho log ies make s i tv ery d i f f icu l t t o a ss ign p o in t s t o t h e a pp rop r ia te c a t egory . F o r e xamp le , i ti sn ow c l ea r t ha t t he re a r e s t emmed p o in t s f ound i n b o th t h e E a r ly a nd L a te A rcha ic l e ve ls o f t h e h igh s i e r r a s i t es o f P a tapa tane , H akenasa , a nd L as C uevas i n e x t reme n o r the rn C h i le ( S an to ro a nd Nu f iez 1 987 :103 -106 ) . Wh i le t h e i lus t ra t ions o f fe red a re a ccep tab le , i tr ema ins u nc lea r wha t c r i te r ia a r e s a id t o d i f fe ren t ia te t h ese p o in t s b e tween t h ese c h rono log ica l ly d i s t in c t p e r iods . Wh i le f o rma l d es c r ip t ions may b e t e n t a t ive s i nce t h e re a re r e la t ive ly f ew e xamp les o f e ach , s uch a d es c r ip t ion wou ld h e lp t o d ec ide wh ich p o in t s s hou ld g o whe re , e spec ia l ly f o r p o in t s f r om s ur face c on tex t s . T o d ea l w i th t h is p rob lem , Id eve loped a n a na ly t ica l p ro cedure t o d es c r ibe t he mo rpho log ica l v ar ia t ion o f t h ese ma ter ia ls r e cove red f r om o ur e xcava t ions a nd s ur face c o l le c t ions . I n 1 985 , Im ade my f i r s t a t temp t t o c l as s i fy l i th ic ma te r ia ls f r om t h i s r eg ion , a nd i t me t w i th l im i ted s u cces s ( A ldende r fe r 1 986 ) . I n p a r t , t h is w as d ue t o al a ck o f e x cava t ion c on tex t s t ha t c on ta ined p ro jec t i le p o in t s , b u t c ou ld a l so b e t r aced t o ag enera l l a ck o f a ccess t o p ub l ished s our ces t ha t d e s c r ibed p o in t s f r om o the r r eg ion s o f t h e S ou th C en t ra l A ndes . Wh i le If e e l t ha t t he p ro cedure i mp lemen ted i n 1 985 w as v a l id , many o f t h e a t t emp t s t o c ro s s -da te p o in t s f a i led . I n t h is p ape r , Io f fe r a r ev is ion o f t ha t c l as s i f ica t ion , o ne t h a t i si n t ended t o s upp lan t t he e a r l ie r v e r s ion . T he c l as s i f ica t ion s cheme i s a c omb ina t ion o f p a rad igma t ic a nd h i e ra rch ica l a p p roaches . T he a t t r ibu te s a nd a t t r ibu te s t a te s a r e f i r s t c r ea ted t h rough a n a na ly s is o f t he r ange o f s t a tes p resen t ; i nd iv idua l s pec imen s a r e t hen p l aced i n to c l asse s o n ah i e ra r ch i c a l , d iv is ive b as is . T ab le 4 p resen t s ab r ie f d es c r ip t ion o f t h e d imens ions a nd a t t r ibu te s 1 4 1
E COLOGY , S ET TLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 7
s e lec ted f o r a na lys is . Me t r ic a t t r ibu te s , s uch a s w e igh t a nd o ve ra l l l e ng th , t h ickness a nd w id th w ere a l so r e co rded . F o r c e r ta in t ypes o f b i face s , o the r a t t r ibu t es , p r imar i ly v ar ious r a t io s o f b ase w id th , c urva ture o f e dge , a nd o the r measu re s we re r e co rded . T he a t t r ibu te s t a tes f o r e ach o f t h e a t t r ibu te s i s p resen ted i n T ab le 5 . A t o ta l o f f i ve t ype g roups h as b een c r ea ted f r om t h is c omb ina t ion o f a pp ro aches , a nd my b e s t a t temp t t o a s s ign s e lec ted p o in t s t o c ur ren t ly k nown A rcha ic P er iod p o in t t ypes i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l Andes i sp resen ted i n T ab le 6 .
1 .S hape s ublanceolate l anceolate/foliate " tapering s tem" t riangular p entagonal s temmed 2 .
" ovoid"
" flattened o void"
D istal morphology u nstemmed s traight c onvex c oncave
s temmed c ontracting s traight c onvex
n otched
3 .
E dge a ttributes e dge s hape s traight i ncurvate e xcurvate e dge t reatment s traight s errated d enticulate s pines
4 .
S ize d imension l ength l arge s mall
c oncave n otched p arallel margins s traight c onvex c oncave n otched i ncurvate m argins s traight c onvex c oncave n otched
( > (
. 6) n arrow ( < . 6) r atio o f m aximum w idth t o b road ( >.5) n arrow (
93 .75
0 62 . 50
52.50
3 1.25
3 1.25
0 .00 0 .00
3 1.25
83 .50
93 .75
125 .00
155 .25
187 .50
2 1 8.73
0 . 00 250 00
F igu re 2 . I nd iv idua l B lock 1 r aw ma ter ia l d is t r ibu t ions . 1 50
M.
AL D END ER F E R ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD SE T T L EM ENT PA T T ERN S
d eb r i s a nd t oo ls o r t oo l f r agmen t s . F i na l ly , w e c an e s t ima te t he r e la t ive d ens i ty o f r educ t ion b y -p roduc t d en s i ty f o r t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f e ach r aw m a te r ia l t ype . T h is h as b een d one b y e s t ima t ing t he a rea o f t he p o in t s o f h ighes t d ens i ty f o r e ach r aw ma te r ia l c oncen t ra t ion . A s c an b e s een i n T ab le 9 ,d en s i ty v a lues v a ry c ons ide rab ly . G iven t hese map s , wha t b ehav io ra l i n te rp re t a t ions c an w e o f fe r t o e xp la in t he i r p resence i n t h e b lock ? L e t u s b eg in w i th t h e s imp le a nd move t o t he c omp lex . C omponen t 4 a pp ea r s t o b e as i ng le e p isode o f b i face manu fac ture o f r educ t ion i nvo lv ing t wo r aw ma t e r ia l t ype s - 9a nd 1 . T he ir d i s t r ibu t ion s a re t i gh t ly c o te rm inous , a nd o ccupy a s pa ce o f c a . 1 0m 2. G iven t h is t i gh t o ve r lap , i t i s u n l ike t ha t t h is i s a p a l impse s t o ccupa t ion . Two d i f fe ren t r educ t ion p ro cesse s a r e i nd ica ted i n t h is d ens i ty . T ype 9 r aw m a t e r ia l i s r ep resen ted b y av ery h igh p ropo r t ion o f p r imary r educ t ion d eb r is , much o f i tl a rge r t han t wo cm i n s i ze ( Tab le 9 ) . T he t wo who le b i face s p resen t a re l a rge , a nd w id th/ th ickne s s r a t io s a s w e l l a s mode o f f l ak ing i nd ica te t h ey a re l a rge , r ough p e r cus s ion b l ank s . T he s ma l l ( < 2c m ) r educ t ion d ebr is i s r e la t ive ly l a rge , w i th a c oun t/we igh t r a t io a pp roach ing o ne . C oun t/we igh t r a t io s i nd ica te t he r e la t ive s i ze o f r educ t ion b y -p roduc t s . R a t ios f o r f l ake s c l ose t o z e ro s ugges t t ha t p re s sure f l ak ing i s i mpo r tan t , wh i le r a t io s o f 1a nd mor e s ugges t t h e p e rcus s ion o f r e la t ive ly l a rge f l akes . I n c on t ras t , T ype 1 r educ t ion b y -p roduc t s a re e xc lus ive ly t e r t iary , a nd t h e c oun t/we igh t r a t io i si sl ow . Mo s t o f t h e f l ake s a re b i fac ia l t r imm ing/ th inn ing f l ake s , a nd w i th in t he d en s i ty i s aT ype 1 u n f in ished , f i ne p e r cus s ion b l ank wh ich e xh ib i t s l a te ra l s nap . No p r e s su re f l akes a re p re sen t . No o the r b i face s o r b roken t oo ls w e re f ound w i th in t he d en s i ty , b u t t wo e nd p i eces o f T ype 3 4 a nd 9 8 a re f ound w i th in t e n me t er s o f t he d en s i ty . I n s umma ry , C omponen t 4a ppea r s t o r ep resen t as i ng le b ehav io ra l " i ns tan t " o f r educ t ion o f t wo d i f fe ren t r aw ma te r ia l t ype s w i th t wo d i f fe ren t g oa ls : r ough p e r cus s ion wo rk o f T ype 9 ,a nd f i ne p e rcus s ion o f T ype 1 wh ich a pparen t ly e nded i n ap roduc t ion m is t ake a nd t h e d i s card o f t he u n f in ished T ype 1 f i ne p e rcus s ion b l ank . C omponen t 3 i ss im i lar i n s t ruc ture t o C omponen t 4 . Two d i f fe r en t r aw m a t er ia l t ype s a re p resen t T yp e 7a nd T ype 2 1 , a nd a l l o f t h e r educ t ion b y -p roduc t s a r e t e r t iary . C oun t/we igh t r a t io s a re mode ra te , s ugges t ing f i ne p e r cus s ion s i nce n o p res sur e f l akes a re f ound w i th in t h e d ens i ty . No b i faces o r t oo ls w e re f ound w i th in t h e d ens i t ie s , a l though t wo T ype 2 1 u n f in ished p rox ima l f r agmen t s a re l o ca ted w i th in 1 0 m o f t he T ype 2 1 d ens i ty . T h is p a t t e rn may r epr esen t p roduc t ion f a i lure s o f T ype 2 1 f i ne p e r cus s ion b i face s . C omponen t 2i s a ga in s im i lar i n s t ruc ture t o b o th C omponen t s 3a nd 4 . D en s i ty v a lue s a re v ery l ow , a nd s i ze s a re r ough ly e qu iva len t . T he c omponen t i sc omposed o f t h re e d ens i t ie s o f T ype 4 , 9 , a nd 1 . T he r educ t ion o f T ype 4 a nd T ype 1 r aw m a t e r ia ls a re a lmo s t i den t ica l , i n t h a t t h e re a r e n o p r imary o r s e condary f l ake s . N e i the r h as a ny b i face s o f a ny t ype w i th in i t s b ounda r ie s , b u t t h e T ype 4 d ens i ty c on ta ins t h ree f i n ished T ype 4 p rox ima l p o in t f r agmen t s . I ts e em s c l ea r t h a t t h e T ype 4 r aw r educ t ion w a s d i rec ted a t t oo l ma in t enance o r r ep lacemen t o f t h ese t i ps . T he T ype 4 d ens i ty i s r e la t ive ly l a rge when c ompa red t o o the r d ens i t ie s e xam ined t o d a te . T he T ype 9 r educ t ion s equence , h oweve r , i s s im i lar t o t h a t s een i n C omponen t 4 , i n wh ich t h e p ro c e s s ing o f r ough p e r cus s ion b i face s w as o bse rved . T he d en s i ty i sr e la t ive ly l ow , a nd n o b i f aces o r t oo l f r agmen t s h ave b een f ound w i th in t h e d ens i ty . T hese d ens i t ies a ppea r t ob e p a l i mpse s t s ; t h ey a re n o t s t r ic t ly c o t erm inous .
1 5 1
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap ter 7
F igu re 3 . G loba l p a t tern o f a r t i fac t d ens i ty , B lo ck 1 . 1 52
M .AL D ENDERF ER ; AR CHA IC PE R IOD SE T T LEMENT PA T T ERN S
S uper i mposed mo rpho log ica l t oo ls . F igure 4 .
r aw
ma ter ia l
d ens i t ies ,
1 53
B lock
1 , i n c lud ing
d i s t r ibu t ion
o f
E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 7
C omponent/ D ensity
1
T ype 4 T ype 7 T ype 9 T ype 1 1 T ype 1 1 T ype 2 1
( 1) ( 2)
P rimary/ s econdary < 2 2 >
T ertiary < 2
2 >
% P rimary b y-products
D ensity/m2
. 3
2 .15 3 .06 1 .65
. 81 . 68 . 64 . 62 . 68 . 60
1 .72 2 .45 2 .94 2 .65 2 .15
1 5 0 1 7 0 0 1 3
. 92 1 .43 . 92 1 .00 2 .25 2 .20
2 .3
. 61 . 81 . 98
2 .59 1 .35 1 .98
0 6 4 0
. 37 . 20 1 .80
. 64 . 67
2 .27 2 .41
0 0
. 15 . 27
. 95 . 57
-
6 3 0
1 1.40 1 6.70
2 T ype T ype T ype
4 9 1 1
T ype T ype
7 2 1
T ype T ype
9 1 1
1 .5
3
4 1 .26 -
1 .43 -
F igures i n c olumns of p rimary/secondary a nd t ertiary r eduction b y-products i n t he weight/count r atio f or e ach r aw material t ype a nd c lass o f by-product. S ee t ext f or e xplanation o f t hese v alues.
T ab le 9 . L i th ic r educ t ion b y -p roduc t s f r om d ens i t ie s i n b lo ck 1 .
C omponen t 1e xh ib i t s t h e g rea tes t c omp lex i ty . T he re a re s i x o ver lapp ing d ens i t ie s , wh ich s t rong ly s ugges t s t ha t w e a re d ea l ing w i th a p a l impse s t o ccupa t ion o f t h i s c omponen t . T h r ee o f t h e d ens i t ie s - T ype 7 , T ype 1 ( 1 ) , a nd T yp e 1 ( 2 ) a r e s t ruc tura l ly v ery s im i la r . T hey a re a l l s ma l l , h ave r e la t ive ly h igh d en s i t ies , a nd r educ t ion b y -p roduc t s a re g ene ra l ly s ma l l a nd e xc lu s ive ly t e r t ia ry . A l though t he re a r e n o b i face s o r t oo l o r p o in t f r agmen t s w i th in t h ese s ma l l d ens i t ies , t hey a r e s ur rounded b y a l a rge n umbe r o f e nd , m idse c t ion , a nd p rox ima l p i ece s o f p o in t s a nd b i f ace s s c a t te red l i gh t ly a round t h e i r ma rg ins . Mo s t o f t h ese t oo l f r agmen ts a r e f ound w e l l o u t s ide t h e b ounda r ie s o f mo s t o f t h e d ens i t ie s , a nd t h is p a t te rn o f d i spo s a l s t rong ly r e semb le s o u r e xpe c ta t ions f o r at o s s z one . O f t h e 2 8 p o in t a nd b i face f r agm en ts f ound w i th in t h e t o s s z one , 4 3% a r e made o f r aw ma te r ia ls n o t r ep resen ted a s d en s i t ies w i th in t h is c omponen t . T h is , t oge the r w i th t he p resence a nd c on ten t o f t he t o s s z one , s ugge s t t ha t r e too l ing w as a s i gn i f ican t a c t iv i ty a t t h ese d ens i t ies . T h ree o f t he d en s i t ies - T ype 4 ,T ype 9 ,a nd T ype 2 1 s how s t ruc tura l s im i la r i t ie s i n t e rms o f c on ten t , a nd a ppear t o b e d i rec ted a t t he r educ t ion o f r ough a nd f i ne p e rcus s ion b l anks . T he re i sn o e v idence o f p ressu re f l ak ing , s ugge s t ing t ha t wh i le r e too l ing w as p e r formed a t t he s i te , t h e d isca rded p o in t s w e re r ep laced w i th a l ready f i n ished p o in t s b rough t w i th t he i nhab i t an t s o f t h e d ens i ty , a nd t h a t t h e i n i t ia l s t eps t owa rd t h e r ep lacemen t o f t hese f i n ished p o in t s w e re a l so p e r fo rmed h e re w i th r aw ma te r ia ls f ound i n t h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f t h e s i te . I ti se x t reme ly i n t eres t ing t o n o te t ha t o f t h e s i x d i agno s t ic p ro jec t i le p o in t s f ound i n t h e b lo ck , o n ly o ne o f t hem , aL a te A rcha ic s t emmed p o in t , w as f ound w i th in t h e
1 54
M.
ALDENDERFER; ARCHAIC PERIOD SEITLFMENT
pAITERNS
boundaries of any density. This point is in the Type 4 density of Component 1. Two other Late Archaic points of the same style are located in the toss zone of this compo nent as well. The other points are found scattered throughout the block, and none of them are associated with either components or densities. Half of all of the diagnostic points are broken, and are mostly distal fragments. The concentration of Late Archaic points surrounding Component 1 supports the inference that at least one of the densit ies-- probably the Type 4 density-- dates to the Late Archaic period. None of the other components or densities can be dated through this associational manner. Thus in Block 1, there are 13 densities in four components, some of which are single behavioral "instants" of reduction, while others are clearly palimpsests. None of the densities appear to have been created through the secondary disposal of refuse, but some blurring of boundaries, especially in the larger Type 4 densities in Components 1 and 2 may be due to site clearing through palimpsest reoccupation of the same spatial location. The activities represented in these components and densities are remarkably homogeneous, and involve the reduction of different raw material types to make various types of bifaces (mostly rough and fine percussion blanks) and the replacement and retooling of broken points. No strong evidence of gear replacement has been discovered either. In short, the densities of Block 1 appear to meet the criteria for logistical camps, or possibly hunting blinds within the foraging radius of other, larger logistical camps located elsewhere in the valley. The results of the application of this analytic approach to data obtained from other blocks is discussed at length below. Discussion These analytical procedures the basis for the investigation of the structure of activity performance at surface densities and excavated sites within the high sierra of the Osmore ba�n. Activity Performance at and Distribution of Densities On the whole, the densities discovered in the survey blocks show a remarkable homogeneity (Table 10). Most are broadly similar to those found in Block 1, but vary somewhat in size, relative density, raw materials worked, and other activities performed. The activities performed at most densities is the reduction of rough and fine percussion bifaces made of local raw materials. Some finer work is found, but it is relatively rare. Two densities, both in Block 32, contained scraping tools and possible utilized flakes. One density had a large, hand-held scraping tool with steep edge retouch, while the other contained two small, hafted scrapers made of local raw materials. Since these tools have been wind scoured and modified by desert varnish, it is impossible to objectively determine function. None of the scrapers, however, have the highly rounded edges that are expected with hide scraping, either dry or wet. Their morphology and edge damage is consistent with wood scraping. Lithic reduction at these densities, however, is similar to that found at these others: rough percussion bifaces and reduction by-products are found at both, and there is no evidence at either to suggest the pressure flaking or finishing of finer bifaces. No diagnostic artifacts are found either within the densities or their associated toss zones. The presence of these scrapers can be explained by a number of processes: possible activity differentiation (site occupation to process wood), or more likely, longer duration of site utilization which led to the discard of the tool in anticipation of future use. If the latter interpretation is accurate, this suggests 155
E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 7
t h a t wood p ro ce s s ing p robab ly o ccu r red a t o the r d en s i t ie s , a nd t ha t t h e d ura t ion o f o ccupa t ion a t t hem w as s ho r te r , o r t h a t r e too l ing w as n o t n e ce s sa ry . I n a ny c ase , t h e p resence o f t he se s c rape r s i sf u l ly c ons is ten t w i th t h e l ow in tens i ty g ear m a in tenance t h a t wou ld b e e xpe c ted a t al og is t ica l c amp .
B lock
C omponents
D ensities
T errace
Asana b locks 1 2 3 6 7 1 3 1 5 1 6 1 7 2 1/23 2 5
4 t race t race t race t race
1 3
T 3
6 1 1
1 5 1 2 1 1
T 3 T 3 T 3
t race 1 t race
1 7
T 2
3 0
2
5
T 2
3 1 3 2 3 3
1 2 4
4 8 1 6
T 2 T 3 T 2
T otal
2 2
1 05
C haraque b locks 1 2 3
2 2 1
T otal
5
T otal, a ll b locks
T ab le 1 0 .
2 7
3 7 4 1 4
1 19
D is t r ibu t ion o f c omponen t s a nd d ens i t ies i n b lo ck s .
F ew o f t he d en s i t ie s c an b e s e cu re ly d a ted . None h ave E a r ly A rcha ic p o in t s t y le s d i rec t ly w i th in t h e ir b oundar ies , b u t t h ree c omponen t s h ave p o in t s o f t h is d a te i n t h e i r t o s s z one s . One d ens i ty h as a s i ng le shou lde red M idd le A r cha ic , a nd e i gh t d ens i t ie s h ave L a t e A r cha ic p o in t s e i the r w i th in t h e i r b oundar ie s o r i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t t o t h em . A l l o f t h e o the r d i agno s t ic p o in t s w e re f ound a s s t ray f i nds o r i n t h e t o ss z one s o f p a l impse s t d ens i t ies a t d i s tance s t oo g rea t t oc on f iden t ly a s s ign t o a ny s i ng le d ens i ty . S ome o f t h e d ens i t ies , p ar t icu la r ly t ho se i n B lo cks 1 ,3 2 , a nd 3 w e re f o und n ea r a nd b e tween l a rge b ou lde r s t ha t a r e f ound i n l a rge f i e lds o n t h ese t e r race s o f t he A sana . Mos t a r e f ound o n t h e e as te rn s i de s o f t h ese b ou lde r s . S ince w ind d i re c t ion i sg ene ra l ly f r om t h e w es t -sou thwe s t , i ts e em s r e asonab le t o c onc lude t ha t t h e se b ou lde r s were b e ing u sed a s s he l t e r s . A s im i lar s i tua t ion e x is ted a t A sana i n t he E a r ly a nd M idd le A r cha ic l e ve ls . T he o the r d ens i t ies a nd c omponen t s , h oweve r , w e re f ound i n t h e o pen . Mo s t a r e f ound o n l ow e l eva t ions o n t h e t e r r ace s , h oweve r , a nd t h ey p rov ide s l igh t ly b e t te r d ra inage a nd a n i mp roved v i ew t h an s ur round ing l o c a t ions . T hose c omponen ts t h a t h ave t h e l a rge s t n umber o f p a l impse s t d en s i t ie s a r e o n t h e h ighes t o f t hese r i se s , i nd ica t ing t h a t t h ese l o ca t ions w e re p re fe r red a nd r ep ea t ed ly r eoc cup ied . A pprox ima te ly 1 56
M . AL D END ER F E R ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD SE T T L EM ENT PA T T ERN S
6 0% o f t he d ens i t ie s a r e f ound o n T 3 , a nd 4 0% o n T 2 . I n f a c t , o n ly o ne d en s i ty was f ound o n T 1 , a nd i ta ppea r s t o p o s t -da te t h e A rcha ic b ased o n t he t oo l b lank s a nd r aw ma t e r ia ls b e ing u sed . T h is r aw ma te r ia l i s c o mmon ly u sed t o make r ough , c rude a gr i cu l tura l t oo ls f ound i n c e ram ic p e r iod s i te s i n t h is p o r t ion o f t h e b as in . A l l o f t he E ar ly a nd M idd le A rcha ic d ens i t ie s a re o n T 3 , wh i le t he L a te A rcha ic d ens i t ie s a re e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted b e tween T 2 a nd T 3 . T he d ens i t ie s f ound i n B lo ck 1 o f t he C haraque d ra inage e xh ib i t as l igh t ly d i f fe ren t p a t t e rn t han t hose f ound a l ong t h e A sana ( F igure 5 ) . T hese a r e f ound a t t he h ighe s t e l eva t ion o f a ny o f t h e d ens i t ies ( c a . 4 000 m ) , a nd h ave a s pec tacu la r v i ew o f t he r im o f t he s u r round ing p una a nd o f t h e b o t toms o f t h e C har aque a s i tf l ows t o t he w e s t . T h is i s a n i d ea l l o ca t ion t o w a t ch f o r g ame a nd t o o bse rve i t s movemen t . D en s i ty c on ten t i s v ery l i gh t , a nd t h e a c t iv i t ie s p e r fo rmed a re s im i lar t o t hose f ound a l ong t he b o t toms o f t he A s ana . T he p i c ture o f u se o f t hese d ens i t ie s , h oweve r , i st h a t t hey w e re l i gh t ly a nd s po r ad ica l ly u s ed . T he d en s i t ie s f ound i n B lock s 2a nd 3 o f t h e C haraque a re s im i la r t o t he A sana d en s i t ie s i n t e rm s o f r e la t ive s i ze a nd d en s i ty o f c u l tu ra l ma ter ia ls . None o f t he C ha raque d ens i t ie s c an b e d a ted . T he p i c ture t h a t eme rge s f r om t h e a na lys is o f t h e s ur face d a ta i so ne o f c on t inuous , b u t l ow in tens i ty u se o f s l igh t ly e l eva ted r i s e s o n T 2 a nd T 3 o f t he A sana a s l og is t ica l c a mp s o r p os s ib ly h un t ing b l inds mon i to red f r om a l a rge r , mo re i n ten s ive ly o ccup ied l og is t ica l c a mp l o ca ted e l sewhe re i n t h e s i er r a . T he d ens i t ies s how ing t he mo s t i n t en s ive p a l impses t r eo ccupa t ion a r e l o ca ted n ea r am a jo r c on f luence o f t h e A s ana j u s t b e low a l a rge c oncen t ra t ion o f b o f ed a l e s t o t h e e as t ( B lo cks 1 ,3 2 , 3 ) , o r n ea r l a rge q ueb radas t h a t d es cend t o t he A sana f r om t h e n o r th ( B locks 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 2 1/23 ; s ee F igure 5 ) . T he n a ture o f a c t iv i ty p er formance a t t h es e d ens i t ie s d o es n o t c hange t h rough t ime , n o r i st he re a ny t r end t oward d ens i t ies i n cr eas ing i n s i ze o r r e la t ive a r t i f ac t d ens i ty t h rough t ime . I ft he n umb e r o f d en s i t ie s t ha t c an b e a s s igned t o ac h rono log ica l p er iod i s a ny i nd ica t ion o f t he i n tens i ty o f u se o f t h e s i e r r a , t he re a r e mo re p a l impse s t s d a t ing t o t h e L a te A r cha ic . T he l a rge n umbe r o f E a r ly A rcha ic p o in t s s ugges t s t h a t t h e s i e r r a w as h un ted , b u t t ha t o pen -a ir h un t ing b l inds o r l og is t ica l c amps w e re n o t c ommon o r w e re n o t p a r t o f t he h un t ing t e chno logy o f E a r ly A r cha ic p eop le s . T h is p o s s ib i l i ty o f ac hange i n h un t ing p rac t ice f r om t h e E ar ly A r cha ic t o t he M idd le a nd L a te A r cha ic d ese rve s f u r the r i nve st igat ion . A c t iv i ty P e r fo rmance a tC ueva 4 a nd A sana C ueva 4 i s o ne o f t h e l a rge r r o c i c she l te r s i n t h e h igh s i e r r a . I ts i t s a lmos t 1 00 m a bove t h e b o t toms o f t h e A sana , a nd t h e s he l te r h as a n o r the r ly e xpo sure . T he s u r r ound ing s l ope s a r e v e ry s t eep , a nd d eep b u t n a r row q uebradas a re f ound i n t he v i c in i ty o f t he s i te . C ueva 4 i s o ne o f f i ve o the r s ma l le r s he l te r s t ha t a re p re sen t ly e rod ing o u t o f c ong lome ra te b edro ck . T hese o the r , s ma l le r s he l te r s a l l h ave s ou the r ly e xpo sures , a nd n one a ppea r s t o h ave a s i gn i f ican t a r chaeo log ica l d epos i t . N e i the r d o t hey h ave a r t i fac t a ccumu la t ions o n t he t a lus s l opes i mmed ia te ly b e low t hem . C ueva 4 h as a n i n te r io r , s he l te red s pace o f c a . 6 1 m 2,a nd a f l a t , a lmo s t l e ve l t e r race 9 6m2 i n s i ze . T he a ve rage h e igh t o f t h e r o ck she l te r t oday i s1 . 7 m . T he s ur face o f b o th t he i n t er io r a nd t h e t e r race i s c ove red w i th a c ap o f a n ima l d ung ( mos t ly g oa t a nd s he ep ) t o ad ep th o f 1 5 -20 c m . T he d ep th o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t n o t i n c lud ing t h i s d ung c ap i sc a . 1 . 0 1 . 1 m . S i te s t ra t ig raphy i sn o t c omp lex , a nd i sc omposed o f a s e r ie s o f l ayer s o f d us ty , a eo l ian s o i ls , r o ck fa l l , g rave ls , a nd s i l ty , o rgan ica l ly s t a ined s o i ls
1 57
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 7
F igu re 5 . D is t r ibu t ion o f d ens i t ies i n s urveyed b locks a l ong t he R io A sana . o f i n creas ing h um id i ty n ear t h e b o t tom o f t h e d epos i t , wh ich t e rm ina tes a t b edrock . C ueva 4 w as t e s ted w i th a s i ng le 1 x 1 m u n i t p l aced w i th in t he d r ip l ine a nd r ough ly h a l fway b e tween t h e d r ip l ine a nd t he b ack w a l l o f t he s he l ter . I f T homas ' ( 1 983 ) e xogene mode l o f s he l ter/cave u se i s v a l id i n a n Andean c on tex t , w e wou ld e xpec t t o f i nd s ma l l t o mode ra te amoun t s o f s ma l l l i th ic a nd b one d ebr is t h a t wou ld h ave b een n ear o r w i th in d rop z ones a sso c ia ted w i th c ook ing h ear ths l o ca t ed c l ose r t o t he d r ip l ine o f t he s he l te r . A l though n one o f t he s t ra ta a t C ueva 4 h ave b een c h ronome t r ica l ly d a t ed , ap o in t b l ade o f aL a te A rcha ic T ype G roup 5H was f ound i n L eve l 9( Lo t 3 5 1-10 , 8 0 -85 cm B S ) . T h is l e ve l i s t h e f i rs t c u l tura l s t ra tum f ound a f ter a n e x tens ive r ock fa l l t h a t p robab ly c overed mos t o f t h e s he l te r f l oo r . On ly t wo o the r p o ten t ia l ly d i agnos t ic p ro je c t i le p o in t s w e re f ound o n t he t a lus s l ope o r i n t h e d epos i t o f t h e s i te . A p rox i ma l f r agmen t o f a l a nceo la te p o in t p oss ib ly o f T ype G roup 5 A w as f ound o n t h e t a lus , a nd a m idsec t ion b ase f r agmen t o f aT ype G roup 1A p o in t was f ound i n L eve l 1 6 ( Lo t 3 5 1-20 , 10 -115 c m 1 58
M .AL D END ER F ER ; AR CHA I C PE R IOD SE T T L EM ENT PA T T ERN S
B S ) . U n fo r tuna te ly , t h is p o in t s t y le h as y e t t o b e a s s igned t o ac u l tura l c on tex t i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes . We c an e xam ine a c t iv i ty p e r fo rman ce a t C ueva 4 b y e xam in ing t wo A rcha ic P e r iod l e ve ls - L eve ls 9 ( La te A r cha ic ) a nd 1 8 ( pos s ib ly E a r ly A rcha ic , b u t p re sen t ly u nknown ) - u s ing t he s ame p ro cedure s d eve loped f o r t he a na ly s is o f t he s ur face d en s i t ie s . A s c an b e s een f r om T ab le 1 , i n te res t ing p a t te rns o f l i th ic r educ t ion s t ra teg ies c an b e o bse rved . F our r aw ma te r ia l t ype s d om ina te t h e c on ten t o f t hese l e ve ls - T ype 4 c he r t , T ype 7 j a spe r , T ype 1 6 b rown v o lcan ic a ndes i te , a nd T ype 1 7 g ray s i l iceous v o lcan ic a ndes i t e . T he l a t t e r t wo ma te r ia ls a re f ound i n o u t c rop a nd f l oa t f o rm i n t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f t he s i te , wh i le t he o the r t wo ma te r ia ls a re o f s i e r r a o r ig in . I n g ene ra l , t h e p a t te rn o f r edu c t ion o f T ype 4 a nd 7 r aw ma te r ia ls i n b o th o f t he l e ve ls i s c ons i s ten t w i th f i ne p e r cus s ion a nd p r es su re f l ak ing . Howeve r , t he re i s s ome r ough p ercu s s ion f l ak ing o f t h e se t wo r aw ma te r ia l t ype s i n L eve l 1 8 . T he s i ze r ange o f T ype 1 6 a nd 1 7 r educ t ion b y -p roduc t s s ugge s t s t h a t r ough p e rcus s ion f l ak ing c ha rac te r ized t he u se o f t h ese ma ter ia ls i n b o th l e ve ls . No p r ima ry o r s e condary f l akes o f a ny r aw ma te r ia l t ype w e re f ound w i th in e i the r o f t he l e ve ls . T he d ens i ty o f e ach r aw ma te r ia l t ype i s c on s is ten t w i th t h e d ens i t ie s c a lcu la ted f o r t he s u r face f i nds , s ugges t ing a s t ru c tu r a l s im i la r i ty o f a c t iv i ty .
L ook ing a t t h e t a lus s l ope p rov ides a dd i t iona l i n s igh t i n to t h e r educ t ion o f t h ese f ou r r aw m a t e r ia l t ype s . We igh t/coun t r a t io s f o r T ype s 4a nd 7 a r e 2 . 76 a nd 3 . 2 1 , r e spec t ive l y , a nd n one a re p r ima ry o r s e condary f l ake s . T hese s i ze r ange s a re c ons is ten t w i th t he ma te r ia ls f ound w i th in t h e l e ve ls , a nd t h is r e in fo rce s t h e i n te rpre ta t ion o f r educ t ion o f t hes e m a te r ia ls o f fe red a bove . Howeve r , f o r T ype s 1 6 a nd 1 7 , a d i f fe ren t p i c ture eme rge s . We igh t/coun t r a t ios a r e 3 5 .33 a nd 1 5 .58 , r e spec t ive ly , a nd a t l e as t 5 0% w e re p r ima ry a nd s e condary r educ t ion b y - p roduc t s . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t t he r educ t ion o f t hese ma te r ia ls i n c luded t he i n i t ia l s hap ing a nd b lo ck ing o f r aw m a t e r ia l n odu le s , a nd t h is \ i s c er ta in ly c ons is ten t w i th t h e u b iqu i ty o f n odu les o f t h is ma te r ia l n ear t he s i te . T he re a te a l so t h ree b roken b i face s f ound o n t h e t a lus o f T ypes 1 6 a nd 1 7 ma ter ia l , a nd e ach o f t hem i sc ons is ten t i n s i ze a nd t r ea tmen t t o r oughou t s a nd r ough p e rcus s ion b l ank s . No f e a ture , h ea r th s , o r o the r f a c i l i t ie s w ere f ound i n e i the r o f t h e l e ve ls , a nd n o mo rpho log ica l t oo ls o the r t h an t h e b i face f r agmen t s w e re f ound . F auna l r ema ins a re a lmo s t t o ta l ly s ma l l b one s p l in te r s l e s s t h an 1 c m i n max imum d imen s ion . T he f ew d iagno s t ic p ar t s p resen t a r e f r agmen t s o f t e e th a nd v e r teb rae . T he re i s n o d i re c t e v iden ce f o r s eason o f o ccupa t ion o f t h is s i te . A l though a 1 m2 u n i t i sn o t s u f f ic ien t b as is t o o f fer d e f in i t ive c onc lus ions o n a c t iv i ty p e r fo rmance , w e c an o f fe r t h e se t e n t a t ive c onc lus ions . B o th o f t he l e ve ls e xam ined a re c ons i s t en t w i th t h e d e f in i t ion s o f a l og is t ica l c amp . T he d i s t ance f r om t he s t ream b o t tom s , c omb ined w i th t h e p oo r l i ne -o f -s igh t t o t h e b o t toms f r om t h is l o ca t ion make t h is s i te a n u n l ike ly c and ida te f o r ah un t ing b l ind o r s t a t ion . A c t iv i ty p e r fo rmance i s s imp le , a nd i s p r imar i ly d evo ted t o t h e r ough a nd f i ne p e r cus s ion a nd p re s sure f l ak ing o f T ype s 4a nd 7 r aw m a t e r ia ls . T he re i sl i t t le e v idence f o r r e too l ing i n e i the r o f t hese l eve ls . I n i t ia l s hap ing a nd b lo ck ing o f T ype s 1 6 a nd 1 7 r aw ma te r ia ls a l so o ccu r red , a s we l l a s t h e r educ t ion o f r ough p e r cus s ion b l anks . C ueva 4 a ppear s t o b e a n a l t erna t ive t o a n o pen -a ir o r b ou lde r f i e ld l o ca t ion f o r al og is t ica l c amp , a nd may h ave b e en u sed o n a n o ppo r tun is t ic b as is d ur ing b ad w ea the r .
1 59
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 7
S ite/Level
C ueva 4 L evel 9 Type 4 T ype 7 Type 1 7 Cueva L evel
P rimary/ s econdary < 2 2 >
T ertiary < 2
% P rimary b y-products
D ensity/m2
2 >
-
-
. 086 . 019 . 265
3 .55
. 95 1 .20 . 90
4 1 8
Type Type
4 7
-
-
. 065 . 136
. 43 3 .70
o
0
. 95 1 .35
Type
1 6
-
-
. 215
4 .61
0
1 .40
Asana L evel
XVIIc
Type
4
-
-
. 207
2 .93
Type Type
7 1 1
-
-
. 355 . 519
. 92 3 .01
o 0 o
-
-
. 131 . 260
-
o o
-
-
. 026 . 850 . 016 . 035 . 016
1 0.90 4 .30 -
Asana L evel V IIb T ype 4 Type 7 T ype Type T ype T ype T ype
9 1 1 1 7 2 2 2 3
0
o o o o
2 .10 . 66 1 .60
. 80 . 14 . 88 . 61 . 44 . 33 . 86
F igures i n c olumns o f primary/secondary a nd t ertiary r eduction by-products i n t he w eight/count r atio f or e ach r aw m aterial t ype a nd c lass of b y-product. S ee t ext f or e xplanation o f t hese v alues.
T ab le 1 1 .
L i th ic r educ t ion b y -produc t s f r om C ueva 4 a nd A sana .
T he l a rge r s ca le o f e xcava t ion a t A sana o f fe rs a g rea te r o ppo r tun i ty f o r t he r e con s t ruc t ion o f a c t iv i ty p er fo rmance . Much o f t h e f o l low ing d i scuss ion i s a bs t rac ted f r om A ldender fe r ( i n p ress b ) . Iw i l l d is cuss t h ree c u l tu ra l l e ve ls : E ar ly A rcha ic , XXV I I I ( 8 790 + 1 70 B .P . ) , M idd le A rcha ic , XV I Ic ( 6 850 + 10 B .P . ) , a nd L a te A rcha ic , V ITb ( c a . 4 600 B .P . ) . T he E ar ly A r cha ic l e ve ls a t A sana a re f ound w i th in a n ow - b ur ied f i e ld o f g l ac ia l ly a nd c o l lu iva l ly d epos i ted b ou lde rs . T he b asa l l e ve l o f t h e s i te ( XXXV I ) r e s t s d i rec t ly u pon f i ne a l luv ia l s ands a nd i n s o me p lace s , d i rec t ly u pon t he l a rge s t ream c obb les a nd s ma l l b ou lde rs t ha t f o rm t h e f o rmer b ed o f t he A sana . C u l tura l l eve l X XV I I I i s embed d ed b e tween a l te rna t ing l e ve ls o f s i l ty c l ays a nd c l ay -s i l ts . O ccup ied l e ve ls i n t h is p o r t ion o f t he s i te a re d i f f icu l t t o d i s t ingu ish i n p ro f i le , b u t c an b e r e cogn ized b ecause t hey t e nd t o b e h ard -packed a nd s t a ined w i th o rgan ic d ebr is a nd s ma l l p iece s o f c a rbon ized wood . A t o ta l o f 1 6m 2 o f E ar ly A rcha ic d epos i t h ave b een e x cavated t o d a te a t A sana . B ou lder s a re u sed a s w indbreaks a nd s he l te rs . Hear ths a r e p l aced a ga in s t b ou lde rs , a nd wha t f auna l r ema ins p resen t a re f ound w i th in t he h ea r th s . A s i ng le p os tmo ld h as b een f ound i n t h is l e ve l b u t i t s f unc t ion i s u nc lear . No o ther f a c i l i t ies w e re e ncoun tered i n t h is p or t ion o f t h e s i te , b u t as moo th , p ecked , o vo id p ound ing s t one w i th b one r e s idue i n i t s m ic ro topog raphy w as f ound i n a sso c ia t ion w i th a l a rge mo r t ar w i th a b ow l -shaped d epr ess ion i n l e ve l XXV . 1 60
M .AL D END E R F E R ; AR CH A I C PE R IOD SE T T L EM EN T PA T T ERN S
V IIb
XVIIc
XXVIII L evel 9
C ueva L evel
1 05 ( 2.3) 1 3 ( 2.3) 2 ( 0.3) 4 64 ( 76.3) -
1 2 ( 7.1) 7 ( 4.2) 4 3 ( 25.6 ) 6 7 ( 39.9 ) 1 ( 0.6 ) 5 ( 3.0)
-
1 ( 1.8) 5 ( 9.3) -
2 ( 100) -
1 3 ( 2.1) 1 0 ( 2.1) 3 ( 4.0)
1 1 ( 6.5) 1 2 ( 7.1) 4 ( 2.4) 3 ( 1.8) 3 ( 1.8)
-
-
-
-
-
-
6 08
1 68
0
6
2
T otal number o f b ones
3 144
6 48
4 2
5 3
2 4
I mmature p arts
0
4 6
1
6
S keletal p arts ° s kull/teeth r ibs v ertebra l ong bones s capula p elvis m etacarpals c arpals p halanges a ntlers o ther T otal i dentifiable p arts
M NI
4
a nimal
c ounts
C ounts i ncludes whole b one o r f ragments; r elative to i dentifiable b ones.
T ab le 1 2 .
4 C ueva 1 8
f igure
i n
p arentheses
i s
p ercentage
o f
p art
t ype
F auna l d a ta f r om C ueva 4 a nd A s ana .
C u l tu ra l r ema in s i n t h is l e ve l a re s c an t , a nd c ons is t p r imar i ly o f s ma l l ( < 2c m ) b one s p l in t e r s a nd s ma l l med ia l p o r t ions o f l ong b one s ( Tab le 1 2 ) . T he h igh f r equency o f s p l in te r s i s c on s is ten t w i th t h e p re sence o f t oo ls u sed t o c rush a nd p ound b one , p re sumab ly f o r ma r row . On ly t h ree s ma l l b roken f l ake s a nd p e rcus s ion s c rap w e re f ound i n t h is l e ve l , a nd a l l o f i tw as t o ssed i n to t h e h ea r ths . T he a c tua l l i v ing s ur face s a round t he h ea r ths w e re f r ee o f d ebr is w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f af ew b one s p l in te r s a nd s c raps . L i t t le o r n o l i th ic r educ t ion w as p rac t iced a t A sana a t t h is t ime . No morpho log i c a l t o o ls we re f ound i n t h is l e ve l , a nd t h e f a una a r e i n t oo f r agmen tary a c ond i t ion t o b e u s ed t o g a in i n s igh t i n to s e ason o f o ccupa t ion . T he p auc i ty o f r ema in s a nd t he s imp le s t ructure o f s i te u se s ugges t t h a t t h e l e ng th o f a ny o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te w as s ho r t , a nd t ha t i tw as o ccup ied b y ar e la t ive ly s ma l l g roup . T he p resence o f t h e c ached s t one m o r tars , h oweve r , i nd ica te s t h a t r euse o f t h e s i te w as a n t ic ipa ted b y i t s i nhab i tan t s . T he re a re s i gn i f ican t c hanges i n t he u s e o f t he s i te a nd t h e s t ruc tu re o f a c t iv i ty p e r fo rmance b y M idd le A r cha ic t ime s . D u r ing t h is p e r iod , l a rge r , mo re p e rmanen t s t ruc tur es h ave b een c ons t ruc ted ( A ldende r fe r i n p res s b ) . T hese s t ruc tu re s h ave f l oo rs made o f p udd led wh i te c l ay o r ac l ay -sand m ix ture , a r e c i r cu lar i n f o rm , a nd p robab ly h ad b rush o r p o s s ib ly s k in w a l ls . P o s tmo lds n ear t h e c en t er s o f s ome o f t h e f l oo rs s ugge s t t h a t t hey w e re r oo fed w i th b rush . T he s t ruc tu re s w e re p laced i n b e twe en l a rge c o l luv ia l b ou lder s wh ich h ave t umb led d own t h e s l ope s t o t he n or th . T he s i ze o f t h ese s t ruc tu r es i ss im i la r t o t h a t o f e thnog raph ica l ly -known a r id l a nds f o rage rs . I n t h is l e ve l , t he re a r e t h ree p robab ly c on tempo raneous s t ruc ture s p resen t . T he s t ruc tures s how n o o bv iou s r e cons t ruc t ion , d o n o t o ve r lap , a nd n on -a r ch i tec tura l f e a tures d o n o t o ve r lap w i th f l oo r b oundar ie s .
1 6 1
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F igu re 6 . S t ra t ig raph ic p ro f i le o f t h e n o r th w a l l , TU 1 8 a nd 1 9 , A sana .
A sso c ia ted n on -ar ch i t ec tura l f e a ture s i n c lude l a rge s hee t m iddens f ound b e tween t h e h ouse s , t o s s z one s l o ca ted i n c r ev ices a nd c r ann ie s b e tween t h e b ou lde r s , l a rge c ook ing h ea r ths f i l led w i th r ocks , a sh , a nd b one d eb r is , s ma l l , s ha l low a sh f i l led h ea r th s o n t h e f l oo rs o f mo s t s t ruc ture s wh ich a r e p robab ly w arm ing o r s l eep ing h ear th s , a nd r o ck f e a ture s e i ther w i th in o r i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t t o s t ruc ture s . T hese r o ck f e a tures a r e s ur rounded b y h igh d ens i t ie s o f s ma l l b one s p l in t er s , a nd t h is p lus t he p re s en ce o f l a rge , o vo id p ound ing s t ones , s ugges t t h a t t he se a r t i f ac t s w e re u sed t o c rush b one s t o e x t rac t m ar row . L i th ic d a ta s ugges t t h a t t h e r educ t ion o f T ype s 4 ,7 ,a nd 1 w as p e r fo rmed a t t he s i t e ( T ab le 1 ) . None o f t h e r educ t ion b y -p roduc t s h ad c o r t ex , i nd ica t ing t h a t i n i t ia l s hap ing o f r oughou t s w as c onduc ted e l s ewhe re . T he s i ze r ange a nd w e igh t/coun t r a t io s o f T ypes 4 a nd 7 a re mode ra te i n v a lue , a nd i nd ica t e t h e r ough a nd f i ne p e r cus s ion f l ak ing o f t h e se ma te r ia ls . T he a pparen t g oa l o f t h e r educ t ion o f T ype 1 r aw m a te r ia l w as t h e 1 62
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AL D END ER F E R ; AR CH A I C PE R IOD SE T T L EM ENT PA T T ERN S
f l ak ing o f r ough p e rcus s ion b l ank s , a nd n o p re s sur e f l ake s o f t h is ma te r ia l h ave b een f ound . Mo rpho log ica l t oo ls i n c lude f i ve b roken f i ne p e r cus s ion b l anks o f T ype 4 r aw ma t e r ia l a pparen t ly b roken d ur ing r educ t ion , a nd a c omp le te f o l ia te p o in t w i th a s e r ra t ed e dge , a l so o f T yp e 4 ma te r ia l . Un iden t i f iab le f r agmen t s o f t wo f i n ished p o in t s ( Type 7 a nd 1 ) s ugges t t h a t s ome r e too l ing t ook p l ace a t t he s i te . F ina l ly , t wo p robab le u t i l iz ed f l akes w i th s t eep e dge r e touch a nd a n e xhaus ted h a f ted s c raper o f T ype 4 ma te r ia l i nd ica te t h a t s ome g ea r ma in tenance o r p roduc t ion w e re p e r fo rmed . H igh p ow e r m ic rowear a na lys is i nd ica te s t h a t t he s c rape r w as u s ed t o wo rk d ry h ide , wh i le t he u t i l ized f l ake s w e re p robab ly u sed t o wh i t t le o r s c rape wood . B one f r equenc ie s a nd s ke le ta l p a r t s p resen t p rov ide a dd i t iona l i n s igh t t o a c t iv i ty p e r fo rmance ( Tab le 1 2 ) . B one p ound ing f o r mar row e x t rac t ion h as a l ready b een men t ioned . S pe c ies p resen t i n c lude d ee r a nd c ame l id . T he f o rme r a re i den t i f ied o n ly t h rough t he p resence o f a n t ler s , s o t h e i r i mpor tance t o t h e d ie t may b e u nde res t ima ted . V e ry s ma l l amoun t s o f s ma l l mamma l b one a re p re sen t , a nd t he MN I c oun t i sl ow . T he l im i t ed d emog raph ic d a ta a va i lab le s how t ha t i mma ture ( 6 -18 mon th s i n a ge ) c ame l ids a re p resen t a s w e l l a s a du l t s . Mo s t m a jo r s ke le ta l p ar t s a re p resen t , s ugge s t ing t ha t who le k i l ls we re t r anspo r t ed b ack t o t h e s i te f o r p ro ces s ing a nd c on sump t ion . T he se s t ruc tu res a re v e ry s im i lar i n s i ze a nd c ons t ruc t ion me thod t o e thnog raph ica l ly k nown we t s eason c amps o f a r id l a nds f o rage r s l i ke t he S an a nd A lyawara ( H i t chcock 1 987 ; O 'Conne l l 1 987 ; Y e l len 1 977 ) . A l though t h e re i s n o d i rec t e v idence o f s e ason o f o c cup a t ion , i ti sp robab le t h a t t h ese c amp s w e re o ccup ied d ur ing t h e w e t s eason . T he p r es en ce o f i mma ture a n ima ls p rov ide s i nd irec t s uppo r t f o r t h is i n ference . T he c l ear ing o f t h e f l oo rs , t he p e rmanen t s t one f e a tures , a nd c are fu l c ons t ruc t ion o f t h e f l oo r s i nd ic a t es t ha t t h e r eo ccupa t ion o f t h e s i te w as a n t ic ipa ted . T he L a te A r cha ic o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i te s hows s ome s im i lar i t ies t o t ha t o f t h e M idd le A r cha ic , b u t t h e re a re s ome i mpo rtan t d i f fer ence s . I n t h e b lo ck e xcava ted , t h e re a re t wo , a nd p o s s ib ly t h ree s t ruc tu res p resen t . I n s tead o f h av ing f l oor s made o f wh i te c l ay , t h ese s t ru c tures a re o u t l ined b y c l ose ly spaced p o s tmo lds , i nd ica t ing t h a t t h e w a l ls we re c on s t ruc ted o f b rush a nd n o th ing mo re p e rmanen t . T he s t ruc tures a re r ough ly t h e s ame s i ze a s t hose f ound i n t h e M idd le A r cha ic l e ve ls . S ome o f t he p o s tmo ld p a t te rns a re o ve r lapp ing , a nd i nd ica te t h a t t h is l e ve l i s p robab ly a p a l impse s t o f a n umber o f r epea ted o ccupa t ions . B e cause o f t h is , i ti ss omewha t d i f f icu l t t o d e term ine wha t b e long i n i n d iv idua l s t ruc ture s . T he " c leane s t " s t ruc tu re i si n t he n o r theas t c o rner o f t h e b lo ck . T he r e i s as i ng le , s ha l low c ook ing o r h ea t ing h ea r th i n s ide t he s t ruc ture a s w e l l a s a sh s t a in s a nd s ome b one s p l in te r s a nd d eb r is . T he mo s t s t r ik ing f e a ture o f t h is s t ruc ture i s t he a l ignmen t o f t wo " k i t chen r ocks " , b o th o f wh ich h ave s moo thed a nd a b raded d o rsa l s u r f a ce s . T hese r ocks a re s ma l l r i ve r c obb les t h a t h ave b een r ough ly s haped . T hey a re emb edded i n t h e f l oo r , a nd a ssoc ia t ed w i th t h em a re s ma l l manos o r g r ind ing s t one s , a l so m ade o f s ma l l r i ve r c obb le s . T he se s t ones h ave b een p ecked i n to o vo id f o rm , a nd e ach e xh ib i t s u n id irec t iona l p ush -pu l l a b ras ion o n t h e ir v en t ra l s ur face . Two o the r t wo ro ck a l ignmen t s a r e f ound t o t h e w es t o f t h is s t ruc ture , a nd e ach i sa sso c ia ted w i th s ma l l h ear th s a nd mano s . T hese g r ind ing s t ones a rgue f o r as i gn i f ican t c hange i n a c t iv i ty p e r fo rmance a t A sana . I t s e ems r easonab le t o c onc lude t h a t t hese g r inde r s w e re u sed i n s eed p roces s ing , p rob ab ly C henopod ium s pp . M ic rowear a na lys is o f t he g r inde r s d id n o t r evea l o rgan ic r e s idue s i n t h e s ur face t opog r aphy o f t h e s t one s , b u t l a rge n umber s o f a s -ye t u n iden t i -
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f i ed c a rbon ized s eeds h ave b een r e cove red f r om t h e w i th t hese s t one s a nd s t ruc ture s .
m iddens a nd h ea r th s a ssoc ia ted
L i th ic r educ t ion a t t he s i te i n t h is l e ve l i sr e la t ive ly u n impo r tan t when c ompared t o o the r l e ve ls o f A sana a nd o the r s i tes . C oun t s a r e v e ry l ow , a s a r e d ens i t ie s o fe ach r aw ma te r ia l t ype . T he p roduc t ion o f f i ne p e rcus s ion b l anks a nd p r es sure f l ak ed f i n ished p roduc t s i sr e f le c ted b y w e igh t/coun t r a t io s o f T ype s 9 ,4 0 , 1 7 , 2 2 , a nd 2 3 r aw ma te r ia l s ( Tab le 1 ) . T ype 4 a nd 7 r educ t ion i s ac omb ina t ion o f f i ne p e rcus s ion f l ak ing a nd s ome m ino r amoun t o f p re s su re f l ak ing , wh i le T ype 1 r educ t ion i s c harac te r ized b y t h e wo rk ing o f r ough p e rcus s ion b i face s . T he o n ly mo rpho log ica l t oo l p resen t i s ap oss ib ly u t i l ized f l ake w i th s t eep e dge r e touch . T he l i th ic r educ t ion d a ta i n g ene ra l s ugges t t h a t s ome r e too l ing o r f i ne f i n ish ing o f b i faces w as p e r fo rmed a t t he s i te . Wh i le f auna l d a ta a re a bundan t , mo s t o f t he r ema ins a re s ma l l , n on -d iagno s t i c s p l in te rs ( Tab le 1 2 ) . O f t he i den t i f iab le p a r t s p resen t , mo s t ( by c oun t a nd w e igh t ) a r e med ia l s egmen t s o f l ong b ones , t e e th a nd t e e th f r agmen t s , a nd s ku l l p a r ts . T he s p l in te red b ones s ugge s t t ha t c rush ing f o r mar row w as a n i mpo r tan t a c t iv i ty . T he a bsence o f l a rge , l ow -u t i l i ty p a r t s l i ke v e r teb rae , s c apu la , a nd p e lv is s ugge s t t ha t s ome p roces s ing o f t he c a rcas s t ook p l ace e l sewhe re . T he re a r e n o i d en t i f iab le d e e r p ar ts , a nd n o i mma tu re a n ima ls . MN I c oun t s a re a l so s ma l l . T he s eed g r ind ing f o cus , p lus t h e p resence o f s ma l l , c a rbon ized s eeds i n t h e m idden s may i nd ica te a l a te w e t s eason o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i te ( Ma r ch -Ap r i l ) . C henop od ium s eeds c ome r i pe a t t he e nd o f t h e r a iny s eason a nd a r e h a rves ted a t t h a t t ime . R eo ccupa t ion w as p robab ly a n t ic ipa ted , a nd t h e p a l imp se s t o c cupa t ion a nd c ached g r ind ing s t one s i n t h e f l oo r s o f t h e s t ruc tu re s s uppo r t t h is i n fe r en ce . D e sp i te c hanges i n t he i n ten s i ty o f s i te u se a nd a c t iv i t ie s p e r fo rmed , i ti sp robab le t h a t e ach o f t hese t h ree l e ve ls a t A sana r ep resen t s ome f o rm o f l og is t ica l c amp . T he r ange o f a c t iv i t ie s p e r fo rmed i s n a r row , t he d ens i ty o f r ema ins l ow , a nd a l though s t ruc tures a r e p resen t i n t he M idd le a nd L a t e A rcha ic l e ve ls , n one o f t h em a ppear t o h ave b een i n tens ive ly u sed . A l though s e asona l i nd ica to r s a re s c an t , wha t e v idence d oe s e x is t a rgues f o r a w e t s eason o c cupa t ion . E a r ly A r cha ic s i te u t i l iza t ion w as v ery s po rad ic , a nd o f l i gh t i n tens i ty , whe reas M idd le a nd L a te A r cha ic u se i s mo re s ub s tan t i a l . S e t t lemen t P at te rns i n t he H igh s i e r r a Wha t h ave w e l e a rned o f A r cha ic P e r iod s e t t lemen t p a t te rns i n t he h igh s i e r r a o f t h e O smo re b as in ? T he mo s t i mpo r tan t o bse rva t ion i st h a t a l l k nown s i tes a nd d ens i t ie s a r e e i the r l og is t ica l c a mp s o r h un t ing b l inds p robab ly o ccup ied d u r ing t he we t s e ason . T h i s p a t te rn a pparen t ly d oe s n o t c hange t h roughou t t h e A r cha ic . T he o r ien ta t ion o f s i e r r a l a nd u se s eems d i re c ted s o le ly a t t h e p una , s i nce wha t n on lo ca l l i th ic ma te r ia ls f ound a t s i e r r a s i tes a re e xc lus ive ly f r om t he p una . No l i th ic s f r om e nv i ronmen t s b e low t he h igh s i e r r a a re f ound u n t i l t he L a te A r cha ic . E ar ly A r cha ic p eop le s r epea ted ly u sed t h e s i e r r a e nv i ronmen t , p rob ab ly f o r t h e h un t ing o f c a me l ids a nd d ee r . T he s ma l l s i ze a nd l ow d ens i ty o f k nown E a r ly A rcha i c c omponen t s i nd ica tes t ha t t h e g roup u s ing t h e s i e r r a w as p robab ly s m a l l a nd w a s l og is t ica l ly o rgan ized . O ccupa t ion o f a ny s i te w as p robab ly r e la t ive ly b r ie f , a nd i ti s p robab le t h a t f avo red l o ca t ions , s uch a s A sana , w e re r epea ted ly r eo ccup ied . B o th
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r o ck she l te rs a nd o pen a i r s i tes ( Asana a nd a f ew d en s i t ies ) w e re u sed . Hun te r s p robab ly c a me f u l ly e qu ipped f o r t h e h un t b e cause mos t o f t he b roken a nd who le E a r ly A r cha ic p ro je c t i le p o in t s a r e made o f p una r aw ma te r ia ls , a nd i t i s l i ke ly t ha t t hey b rough t p una -made " s pa re s " w i th t h em s i nce t h e re i s v e ry l i t t le e v idence o f f i ne p e rcus s i on a nd p res su re f l ak ing i n E a r ly A r cha ic a s semb lage s . S ince u sab le r aw ma te r ia ls a re a bundan t i n t he s i e r r a , l i th ic p ro cu remen t w as p robab ly o ppo r tun is t ic a nd embedded i n t h e p a t tern o f s i e r r a r e sour ce u t i l iza t ion . T he l o ca t ions o f E a r ly A r cha ic r e s iden t ia l b ase s a r e p resen t ly u nknown , b u t i ti sl i ke ly t ha t t h ey a re t o b e f ound o n t he n earby p una i n s he l t e r s n ear o r o n l a rge r b o f ed a l e s . I mpo r tan t c hange s i n s e t t lemen t p a t te rns c an b e o bse rved i n t he M idd le A r cha ic . A l though t he s eason a nd r ange o f a c t iv i t ies a re e ss en t ia l ly t he s a me a s t hose s een i n t he E a r ly A rcha ic , i ta ppea rs t h a t t he i n tens i ty o f s i e r r a l a nd u se h as c hanged . S ubs t an t ia l s t ruc tures we re c ons t ruc t ed a t A sana , a nd a t l e as t t h ree a re c on tempo raneous . T h is s ugge s t s t ha t t he s i ze o f t h e g roup u s ing t he s i te i sl a rge r t h an i n E ar ly A rcha ic t imes . H ow ever , t he s ma l le r n umbe r o f d ens i t ies t h a t c an b e c on f iden t ly d a ted t o t he M idd le A r cha ic , a s w e l l a s t h e f ew M idd le A r cha ic p o in t s r e cove red s omewha t c on t rad ic t t h is r e con s t ruc t ion . U se o f t h e s i e r r a a ppear s t o f o cused a t A sana u n l ike t he p a t te rn o f r e la t ive d ispe r s ion o f l og is t ica l c a mps d ur ing t h e E a r ly A r cha ic . I ft h e M idd le A rcha ic i s ap e r iod o f d rough t a s h as b een s ugges ted b y S an to ro a nd Nu i iez ( 1 987 ) , A sana wou ld h ave b een a n i dea l l o ca t ion f o r h ab i ta t ion s i n ce i t w as a d jacen t t o a s ma l l b o f ed a l t h roughou t much o f t he A rcha ic . I ti sa l so p robab le t ha t t he d ura t ion o f o ccupa t ion o f a ny s i ng le o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i e r r a i n c reased d ur ing t h e M idd le A r cha ic . M idd le A rcha ic p o in t s a re g ene ra l ly made o f b o th p una a nd s i e r r a r aw ma ter ia ls , a nd s ome f i ne p e r cu s s ion a nd p res sure f l ak ing o f l o ca l r aw ma te r ia ls i s f ound a t M idd le A rcha ic d en s i t ie s . A sana d u r ing t h e M idd le A r cha ic w as p robab ly a l og is t ica l c a mp mon i to red f r om a r e s iden t ia l b ase o n t he p una . One c and ida te f o r t h is r e s iden t ia l b ase i s Q ue lca tan i , al a rge s he l te r a t 4 400m i n e l eva t ion o n t h e R io C h i la , a pp rox ima te ly 6 0 km t o t h e e as t . T h is s i te h as a s ubs tan t ia l M idd le A rcha ic o ccupa t ion ( A ldende r fe r , t h is v o lume ) . Ano the r c and ida te f o r ar e s iden t ia l b ase o n t h e p una i s T omuco o n t he R io Q u ipa -Qu ipa a pp rox ima t e ly 4 5 km t o t he e as t . S i gn i f ican t c hanges i n t h e u se o f t h e s i e r r a a re s e en i n t h e L a te A rcha ic . T he n umbe r o f d en s i t ies d a ted t o t h is p er iod i n c rease s s ubs tan t ia l ly , a nd t hey a ppear t o b e s pa t ia l ly d i spe r sed a s w e l l . C ueva 4 i s a ppa ren t ly r eoccup ied d ur ing t h is p e r iod . A c t iv i ty p e r fo rmance a t A sana c hange s f r om a h un t ing f o cus t o o ne d i rec ted a t t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f l o c a l s eed c rop s . S ome h un t ing , h oweve r , i s s t i l l p rac t iced a s i s e v idenced b y t he l a rge n u mbe r o f d ens i t ie s t ha t c an b e i n t erp re ted a s e i ther s ma l l l og is t ica l c amps o r h un t ing c a mp s mon i to red f r om A sana . S t ruc ture s a re p re sen t , a nd t hey a re s im i lar i n s i ze , i fn o t c ons truc t ion , t o t hose f ound i n t he M idd le A rcha ic . T he p resence o f g r ind ing s t one s i nd ica tes t h a t g roup c ompo s i t ion i s p robab ly m ixed s i nce t he se t oo ls t e nd t o b e u sed b y women i n e t hnog raph ica l ly -known f o rag ing s oc ie t ies . Que lca tan i i s n ow a f u l l -f ledged r e s iden t ia l b as e , a nd i ti sl i ke ly t h a t c ame l ids a re d ome s t ica ted a nd a re b e ing u sed e x tens ive ly b y t h e e nd o f t h is p er iod . I f t h is r e con s t ruc t ion i s c o r robo ra ted b y f u tu r e r e sear ch , A sana a nd i t s a s soc ia t ed b o f ed a l may h ave b een u sed b y eme rgen t h e rdsmen mov ing t o w e t s eason f o rage i n l owe r e l eva t ion z one s . L ava l lee a nd h e r c o l le agues ( 1 985 ) h as i n fe r red t h is p a t te rn o f l a nd u s e i n t he L a te A r cha ic i n t he J un in r eg ion . I t mus t b e s t re ss ed , h oweve r , t h a t a t p re sen t t h e re a re n o d i rec t i nd ica to rs o f c ame l id d omes t ica t ion t o b e f ound i n t he L a te A r cha ic a s semb lage s a t A sana .
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 7
A cknow ledgmen ts T h is p ape r i n p ar t i n co rpo ra te s p o r t ions o f t he f i r s t t wo p re l im inary r epo r ts o f t h e 1 984 a nd 1 985 f i e ld s easons o f NUAP . T he a na ly ses a r e n ew , h oweve r , a nd s hou ld b e c ons ide red d e f in i t ive g iven o u r p resen t k now ledge o f t h e s i e r r a . T he f i e ld wo rk w a s s uppo r ted b y t h r ee g ran t s f r om t he Un ive r s i ty R esea rch G ran t s C omm i t tee o f No r thwe s t e rn Un iver s i ty , a nd t he e xcava t ion s a t A sana w e re f unded b y ag ran t f r om t h e H . J ohn H e inz I I C ha r i tab le T rus t . T he o ngo ing s uppo r t o f t h e S ou the rn P e ru C oppe r C orpo ra t i on i s v ery g ra te fu l ly a cknow ledged . It hank t hese a genc ie s f o r t h e ir s uppo r t . K a ren A ldende r fe r h as d ra f ted t he f i gu re s f o r t h is p ape r .
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The Domes t ica t ion o f C ame l ids i n S ou thern P eru : Mode ls a nd E v idence L awrence A .
Kuznar
D epar tmen t o fA n thropo logy N or thw e s te rn U n iv er s i ty
I n t roduc t ion T he d omes t ica t ion o f n a t ive S ou th Ame r ican c a me l ids h as r e ce ived c on s ide rab le a t ten t ion i n Andean a r chaeo logy . R esear che rs h ave p ur sued me thods o f i den t i fy ing d ome s t ica t ion i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd (Whee ler 1 984 ; W ing 1 977a , W ing 1 986a ) , a nd h ave d eve loped mode ls o f h ow t he p rocess t ook p l ace ( Hesse 1 982 : Whee ler e t a l . 1 976 ) . T he d omes t ica t ion o f c a me l ids i s s een a s af undamen ta l s h i f t i n t he e conom ic f o cus o f S ou th C en t ra l Andean f o rage rs wh ich p receded r ap id p opu la t ion g row th , t he d eve lop men t o f p o l i t ica l h i e rarchy , a nd l ong d i s tance t r ade ( Hesse 1 982 ; MacNe ish e t a t 1 975 ; Nui iez 1 983 ; S an to ro a nd C hacama 1 982 ; Whee le r e t a l . 1 976 ; W ing 1 986 , 1 977b ) . R e search b e ing c onduc ted b y t he No r thwes te rn Un ivers i ty A rcha ic P ro jec t ( NUAP ) w i l l c on t r ibu te t o ab e t te r u nde rs tand ing o f h ow a nd why t h e d ome s t ica t ion o f c a me l ids o ccur red i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes , a nd wha t t he c onsequences o f c a me l id d ome s t ica t ion w ere f o r h uman s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion i n t he O smo re d ra inage . NUAP i s a mu l t i -d isc ip l inary p ro jec t wh ich i s i nves t iga t ing A rcha ic P e r iod l i feways i n a l l ma jo r e nv ironmen ta l z ones ( F igure 1 ) o f t h e w es tern f l ank o f t he d ra inage ( A ldende r fe r 1 987 ) , i nves t igat ions t h a t a re t hus c oncen t ra ted i n t he D epar tmen t s o f Moquegua a nd P uno . T he p una e cozone a t t h is r eg ion i s t h e f o cus o f t h is p ape r . H ere , p rev ious r e search o n c ame l id d omes t ica t ion i sr ev iewed , as c enar io o f c a me l id d omes t ica t ion i sp roposed , a nd t he a r chaeo log ica l c o rre la te s o f t h is s c enar io a re s t a ted . T hen , r e search c onduc ted b y
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ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 8
NUAP d es igned t o a ddress A rcha ic P e r iod l i feway s i n t he p una i s r ev iewed , a nd t h e c o r respondence b e tween mode l a nd d a ta c hecked . P rev ious R esea rch Mos t r e search a rgues t ha t t he d omes t ica t ion o f n a t ive S ou th Ame r i can c a me l ids o ccur red i n t he p una e cozone , t h e n a tura l h ab i ta t o f t h ese a n ima ls ( Hesse 1 982 ; Whee le r e t a l . 1 976 ; W ing 1 977a ) . Two e xp lana to ry mode ls o f c a me l id d omes t ica t ion h ave b een p roposed . Whee le r e t a l . ( 1 976 ) s ugges t a mode l o f i n c reas ing ly c l ose h uman -an ima l i n te rac t ion wh ich f i na l ly r e su l t s i n t he d omes t ica t ion o f t h e a n ima ls . C ame l id d omes t i c a t ion i ss een a s t he o u tcome o f i n creased h uman f am i l iar i ty w i th t he p una e nv ironmen t a nd i n creas ing ly e f f ic ien t u se o f t he e nv ironmen t t h rough t ime (Whee ler e t a l . 1 976 : 4 89 ) . I mp l ic i t ly , t he d omes t ica t ion o f c a me l ids i sc ons idered t h e mos t e f f ic ien t f o rm o f r esou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion i n t he p una . T h rough t ime , f o rag ing b ecomes s pec ia l ized o n c a me l ids , r e su l t ing i n a s t a te o f s em i -domes t ica ted a n ima ls a nd f i na l ly , i n f u l ly d omes t ica ted l ama s a nd a l paca s . Wing ( 1 986a , b ) o f fer s a s im i la r r e cons truc t ion o f d omes t ica t ion s t ages . H esse ( 1 982 ) a rgues t ha t t he v ary ing , u npred ic tab le a nd h arsh p una e nv ironmen t c r ea ted a n eed f o r i n c reased c on t ro l o f t he p r imary f ood s ource - c a me l ids . H e a rgue s t h a t o nce t h is c hange o ccur red , b as ic s oc ia l r e la t ionsh ips o f s har ing i n h un t er -ga the re r b and s oc ie t ies b roke d own , a nd i nd iv idua ls t ook owne rsh ip o f a n ima ls a nd t r ied t o i n c rease h erd s i ze i n c ompe t i t ion w i th o ther h e rde r s ( Hesse 1 982 :3 ) . I n t h is w ay , as h i f t f r om h un t ing a nd g a the r ing t o p as to ra l ism o ccur red i n t h e p una . B o th mode ls h ave p rov ided u se fu l d es cr ip t ions o f wha t may h ave h appened i n d omes t ica t ion o f c a me l ids . Howeve r , n e i the r mode l p os tu la tes t hose f a c to r s t ha t may h ave a f fec ted t he t im ing a nd r a te o f d omes t ica t ion . T hey a re n ecessary f o r b u i ld ing a p red ic t ive , t e s tab le mode l wh ich c an b e v er i f ied o r r e je c ted i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ecord . Andean a r chaeo log is t s h ave made p rog ress i d en t i fy ing d omes t ica ted a n ima ls i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e cord . T h is i s ab as ic a nd n ecessary s t ep b e fo re a ny mode l c an b e e va lua ted . A n u mbe r o f i nd ica to rs o f d omes t ica t ion h ave b een p roposed . I ncreas ed MN I o f c a me l ids t h rough t ime i s t he mo s t b as ic i nd ica to r ( W ing 1 972 , 1 977a ; Whee le r 1 985 ) . A mo re u se fu l i nd ica to r i sa n i n c rease i n t h e c a me l id/deer r a t io a t as i t e t h rough t ime . I n t he h igh land Ande s , b o th Huemuh l a nd Wh i te ta i l d eer l i ved p reh is tor ica l ly (W ing 1 977a ) . A t s i tes i n J un in , t he r a t io o f c ame l ids/dee r i n creases t h rough t ime i nd ica t ing mo re i n tens ive u se o f c a me l ids (Whee ler e t a l . 1 976 ; Whee ler 1 984 , 1 985 ; W ing 1 986a , b ) . Ano ther i nd ica to r o f ten u sed i sa n i n c rease i n t h e p e rcen tage o f n eona te c ame l ids a t a s i te t h rough t ime (W ing 1 986a , b ) . Whee le r e t a l . ( 1 976 ) n o t t he h igh i n fan t mor ta l i ty o f mode rn a lpacas . T h is mo r ta l i ty i s d ue t o e n te roxem ia wh ich r e su l ts f r om t h e d amp , c rowded c ond i t ion s o f c o r ra ls . T here fo re , t he h igh p e rcen tage o f n eona te c a me l ids i nd icates c o r ra l l ing a nd d omes t ica t ion ( He sse 1 982 ; Whee le r e t a l . 1 976 ; Whee ler 1 984 , 1 985 ) . F ina l ly , Whee le r ( 1 984 ) n o tes c hanges i n t oo th mo rpho logy wh ich c o r r espond t o d i f fe ren t s pec ies o f w i ld a nd d omes t ic c a me l ids . O the r me thods wh ich a r e i n mo re e xpe r imen ta l s t ages a re b one m icros t ruc ture ( Ken t 1 977 ; P o l lard a nd D rew 1 975 ) , t oo th m icrowear ( Moo re 1 985 ) , a nd i s o top ic s t ud ies ( Ter ranova n .d . ) .
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L.KU ZNA R ; DO ME ST I CAT ION O F CA M E L ID S I N SO U TH ERN PE R U
F igu re 1 . Map o f Andean E co log ica l Z one s . B ased o n t h e c r i te r ia d es cr ibed a bove , t h e d omes t ica t ion o f c a me l ids a ppear s t o h ave o ccured i n t h e p una e cozone s ome t ime b e tween 6 000 a nd 4 000 y ears a go . I nc reased MN I , i n c reased c a me l id/deer r a t io , i n creased p e rcen tage o f n eona tes , a nd c hanges i n t oo th morpho logy o ccur b e tween 6 000 a nd 5 100 B .P . i n J un in a t T e larmachay (Whee le r 1 984 , 1 985 ) . I n Ayacucho , Wing ( 1 977a ) , a nd V ie r ra ( n .d . ) n o te i n c reases i n t he u se o f c a me l ids b e tween 6 550 a nd 5 100 B .P . I n n o r the rn C h i le , i n creased n u mbe r o f n eona tes i n t h e f a una l a s semb lage i sn o ted a round 5 000 t o 4 000 B .P . a t P ur ip ica 1 ( Hesse 1 982 ) . O ur k now ledge o f c ame l ids d omes t ica t ion c an b e s ummar ized a s f o l lows . T he d ome s t ica t ion o f c a me l ids t ook p l ace i n t h e p una e cozone s ome t ime b e fo re 5 000 t o 4 000 B .P . T he p ro cess i nvo lved a n i n creased f o cus o f f o rag ing e f fo r t o n c a me l ids , p oss ib ly i n r e sponse t o e nv ironmen ta l u np red ic tab i l i ty . G iven t h is i n forma t ion , t he p rocess o f c ame l id d ome s t ica t ion c an b e mode led , w i th t he h ope o f b u i ld ing a p red ic t ive a nd t e s tab le mode l t ha t c an b e e va lua ted i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cord .
1 69
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 8
Mode l ing t he P rocess o f C ame l id Domes t ica t ion T he E nv ironmen t T he p una , o r a l t ip l ano , r e fer s t o s t eppe l ike e nv i ronmen t a t h igh a l t i tude ( 3 800 -5 000 m a bove s ea l e ve l ) t h a t o ccu r s b e tween Andean moun ta in c ha ins (W in te rha lder a nd T homas 1 978 ) . G ene ra l ly , p una e nv ironmen t s a re d ry , c o ld , a nd c harac te r ized b y e x t reme d iu rna l t empe ra ture c hange s ( Cab re ra 1 968 ) . T he mean t empera ture v a r ies b e tween 3 ° a nd 8 ° C , w i th a d iu rna l r ange o f a bou t 1 5 ° C ( Mo l ina a nd L i t t le 1 98 1 : 1 34 ) . T he p e renn ia l f auna mos t n o tab le i n t h e p un a a re c ame l ids , a nd r oden t s , b u t t h e b iomas s o f s ma l l r oden t s i sl ow ( W in t e rha lde r a nd T homa s 1 978 : 4 7 ) . R ick ( 1 980 , 1 983 ) a rgue s t h a t w i ld c a me l id p opu la t ions w e re h igh , s t ab le , a nd c l us te red i n w a te red a rea s d ur ing t h e P re ce ram ic P e r iod i n P e ru . T hese mar shy a reas k now a s " d is t ich ia moo r " ( W in te rha lde r a nd T homas 1 978 ) , o r b o f ed a l s ( Ko fo rd 1 957 , J ung l ias 1 97 1 -72 , F rank l in 1 98 1a ) . T he re i s a NW - S E g rad ien t o f d ec reas ing mo is ture wh ich c r ea tes t h ree d i f fe r en t p una e cozone s i n t he A nde s ( F igu re 1 ;C ab re ra 1 968 ; Mo l ina a nd L i t t le 1 98 1 ) . T he w e t p una i s l o ca ted i n c en t ra l P e ru a nd r e c ieves g rea te r t h an 4 00 mm o f p re c ip i ta t ion/yea r ( Cab re ra 1 968 : 9 4 ) . T he d ry p una i sl o ca ted i n s ou the rn P e ru a nd n o r thwe s te rn B o l iv ia , a nd r e c ieve s 1 00 -4 00 mm p rec ipa t ion / yea r ( Cab re ra 1 968 : 9 4 ; Mo l ina a nd L i t t le 1 98 1 ; ONERN 1 976 ) . T he s a l t , o r d es e r t p una , i s l o ca ted i n n o r the rn C h i le , w e s te rn B o l iv ia , a nd n or thwes te rn A rgen t ina . T h is z one i s c harac ter ized b y c o lde r t empe ra tu re s , mo re ma rked d iurna l f l uc tua t ion , much l e s s r a in fa l l ( < 1 00 mm/year ) , a nd t he p re sence o f s a l t l a kes , a nd s a l t f l a t s c a l led s a l ar e s ( Cab re ra 1 968 :94 ; Mo l ina a nd L i t t le 1 981 ) . T he d ry p una i s t he c en te r o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f S ou th Ame r ican c ame l ids ( F rank l in 1 98 1a ) . B ecause o f t h e i n c reased d rynes s a nd r e s t r ic t ion o f b o f ed a l s , r e sou r ce s a re mo re c l us te red i n t he d ry p una , t han i n t h e w es t p una . A lso , r i sks o f d ough t a nd f r os t a r e g rea te r a s o ne moves s ou th i n t he A ndes ( Cab re ra 1 968 ) . B ecause o f i n c reas ed r e sou r ce c l us te r ing ( o f c a me l ids ) a nd u np red ic tab i l i ty i n t he d ry p una , s o c ia l p res su re f a c to r s a nd r i sk m in im iza t ion s t ra teg ie s wh ich a f fec ted t h e s h i f t t o p as to ra l ism ( s ee b e low ) p robab ly o pe ra ted mos t s t rong ly i n t h is z one . T he re fo re , t h e d ry p una i sp re su med t ob e al i ke ly p l ace f o r t h e i n i t ia l d ome s t ica t ion o f c ame l ids . T he c l us te red a nd a bundan t n a ture o f c ame l id r e sou rce s i s o ne d ime sn s ion o f t h e e nv ironmen t t o wh ich f o rage r s wou ld h ave t o a dap t . A no the r d imens ion i sr i sk . R i sk a f fe c t s b o th t he s urv iva l o f b o th h umans a nd r e sour ce s t h ey r e ly o n . R i sk s p resen t i n t h e p una e nv i ronmen t a r e p r ima r i ly f r o s t s , s now s , a nd d rough t ( B rush 1 982 : 2 9 ) . T hes e c an b e s eve re a nd t h e i r o c cur rence i s h igh ly u np red ic tab le ( Mo l ina a nd L i t t le 1 98 1 ; W in te rha lde r a nd T homas 1 978 ) . T hese e nv ironmen t a l h aza rd s a re d ependen t o n p rec ip i ta t ion f o r al o ca t ion i n t h e d ry p una e cozone b ased o n a n i n fo rma t ion t h eo re t ic measure ( Kuzna r n .d . ) . A s T ab le 1 s hows , t h e p robab i l i ty o f p red ic t ing p re c ip i ta t ion i s o n ly a bou t 5 0 p e rcen t , wh ich s ugge s t s t h e u np red ic tab i l i ty o f t he p una e nv i ronmen t t o wh ich f o rage r s wou ld h ave t o a dap t . T he e f fe c t s o f t h ese u np red ic t ab le r i sk s a r e d i s cussed b e low . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e u np red ic tab l i l i ty o f a nnua l mo is ture r eg ime s , h u man a dap ta t ion t o t h e h igh Ande s w as c ond i t ioned b y g ro s s c l i ma t ic c hang es t h rough t ime . Nur iez ( 1 983 ) o f fe r s t h e f o l low ing s u mmary o f S ou th C en t ra l A ndean c l i ma t ic c hanges a nd a r chaeo log ica l p e r iods ( Tab le 2 ) . T he f i rs t 4 000 y ea r s o f t he A r cha ic P e r iod o ccu r red d ur ing t h e c oo l w e t c l ima te o f t he Y ounge r D ryas p has e ( 1 0 ,500 -6 500 B .P . ) . D ur ing t h e
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L . KU ZNAR ; DO M E ST I CAT ION O F CA M E I JD S I N SO U TH ERN PE R U
P henomenon
P rediction
C onstancy
P recipitation
. 233
C ontigency
. 311
T otal
. 544
Predictability
( After
Colwell
1 974)
Constancy i s a p articular Contigency p articular
the a bility t o p redict s tate a ll of the t ime.
a phenomenon b ased
o n
i ts t endency t o
i s t he a bility t o p redict a p henomenon b ased o n i ts s tate a t a p articular t ime ( e.g., a s easonal r esource).
e xist
e xistance
i n
i n
a
P redictability = C onstancy + C ontigency.
T ab le 1 . P red ic tab i l i ty Measures o f P rec ip i ta t ion f o r T i t i j one s ( ONERN 1 976 ) . B orea l p hase ( 6 500 - 5 500 B .P . ) t he re was a w arm ing a nd d ry ing t r end c aus ing a s hr ink ing o f w a te red a reas a nd a c l us te r ing o f r e sources . T he A t lan t ic p hase ( 5 500 3 500 B .P . ) s aw a n ame l io ra t ion o f t he c l ima te w i th we t te r a nd c oo ler c ond i t ion s . F ina l ly , t he s ub -Borea l p hase ( 3500 -2 500 B .P . ) c or responds t o a no the r warm a nd d ry p er iod . A s im i la r s cheme o f c l i ma t ic c hange h as b een p roposed f o r t he Ayacucho b as in ( MacNe ish a nd V ier ra 1 983 : 2 25 ) a nd t h e V enezue lan Andes ( S a lgado -Labour iau 1 986 : 2 14 ) b ased o n p o l len d a ta . A lso , r e cen t wo rk d one i n s ou thern P eru ( A ldende r fer e t a l . n .d . ; K uznar a nd A ldender fer 1 987 ) a ppears t o c on form t o t h e s cheme p roposed b y Nu f iez . I n c on junc t ion w i th t hese w e t/dry e p isode s , e v idence f r om s a l t p una s a l ar e s i nd ica tes t ha t
Y ears
3 000
B P
G eological P eriods
A rchaeological
P eriods
S ub-Boreal ( warm a nd d ry ) L ate
A rchaic
4 000 A tlantic 5 000
( wet
a nd
c old)
6 000
B oreal ( dry a nd w arm )
M iddle
A rchaic
7 000
Younger 8 000 Dryas E arly
Archaic
9 000 ( wet
a nd
c old )
1 0,000
1 1,000
T ab le 2 . G eo log ica l a nd A rchaeo log ica l P er iods i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes ( a f te r Nu t iez 1 983 : 1 94 ) . 1 71
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 8
t he re h as a l so b een a t r end t oward i n creas ing d ess ica t ion i n S ou th C en t ra l A ndes s i nce t he l a s t g l ac ia t ion ( Cabrera 1 968 ; C ra ig 1 982 , 1 984 ) .
N a t ive S ou th Ame r ican C ame l ids T he re a re p resen t ly f our s pec ies o f S ou th Ame r ican c a me l ids : t he d omes t ic f o rm s l ama ( L ama g l ama ) a nd a l paca ( L ama p aco s ) , a nd w i ld f o rm s g uanaco ( Lama g uan icoe ) a nd v i cuña ( L ama v i cugna ) . F o l low ing Whee le r e t a l . ( 1 976 ) , t he g enus n a me L ama w i l l b e u sed b ecause c rossbreeds b e tween a l l f our s pec ies p roduce f e r t i le o f fspr ing ( Novoa a nd Whee ler 1 984 ; F rank l in 1 98 1a ; L ink 1 949 ) . T he v i cuña i nhab i t t he h ighes t z ones o f t he p una a nd a re e spec ia l ly a dap ted t o t h is e nv ironmen t . T he ir r ange i s f r om 3 500 t o 5 000 m ( Boswe l l 1 97 1-72 ; F r ank l in 1 98 1a ; J ung l ias 1 97 1-72 ; K o fo rd 1 957 ; L ink 1 949 ) . T hey a r e s t r ic t ly g razers , r e qu ire mo re s uccu len t v ege ta t ion f oud i n i n b o f eda l s ( F rank l in 1 98 1a ; J ung l ias 1 971-72 ; K o fo rd 1 957 ) , a nd h ave b een n o ted i n d ens i t ies o f 1 0 v i cuña/km 2 ( F rank l in 1 981a ; Ko fo rd 1 957 ) . I n fan t mo r ta l i ty i s h igh w i th 1 0 -3 0% d y ing d ur ing t he f i r s t f our mon ths o f l i f e , a nd a bou t 5 0% d ur ing t he f i rs t y ear ( F rank l in 1 981a ) . T he p r imary c ause o f t h is mo r ta l i ty i s p reda t ion b y f ox , c ondo r , p u ma , a nd w i ldca t s ( F rank l in 1 973 , 1 981a ; K o fo rd 1 957 ) . I n c lemen t wea the r i s a no the r i mpo r tan t f a c tor i n c ame l id mo r ta l ity ( F rank l in 1 973 , 1 98 1b ) . G uana co a re mo re g ene ra l i n t h e ir h ab i ta t p re feren ce a nd f e ed ing b ehav io r s ( F rank l in 1 98 1a ) . T hey i nhab i t t he s i e r r a s o f t he w es t f l ank o f t h e Ande s , a nd t h e p a mpas o f P a tagon ia a nd T ier ra d e l F uego i n a l t itudes o f 0t o 5 00 m ( F rank l in 1 981a ) . B ecause t h is r ange i s b e low t ha t o f t h e p una e cozone , g uanaco w e re p robab ly n o t i nvo lved i n t h e e ar ly d omes t ica t ion p rocess i n a reas o f h igh p una , a l though t hey may h ave b een i mpo r tan t e l sewhere ( Te r ranova n .d . ) . T he re fo re , t h e b ehav io ra l e co logy o f t h ese a n ima ls w i l l n o t b e c ons ide red f u r ther .
C ame l id E xp lo i ta t ion E ar ly p una f o rage rs l i ved i n t h e we t a nd c o ld c l ima te o f t he Y ounge r D ryas p hase , 1 0 ,500 t o 6 500 y ears a go ( Nu t iez 1 983 ; Nu f iez e t a l . 1 983 ) . C om muna l h un t ing o f c a me l id h erds wou ld h ave b een t he mo s t e f fec t ive means o f p rocur r ing t h ese a n ima ls d ue t o t h e a n i ma ls ' a l e r tness , a nd t he l a ck o f c over i n t h e p una e nv irn men t . C ommuna l h un t ing t e chn iques , o f ten u s ing d ogs , w e re t he p r imary means o f p rocur ing w i ld c ame l ids among t he T ue leche , a nd Ona h un ter s o n t h e p ampas o f P a tagon ia a nd T ie r ra d e l F uego ( Coope r 1 946a ,b ; S tuar t 1 977 ) . T he T ar aca , o r Huemuh l d ee r ( H ippoc ame lu s a n t i sen s i s ) wou ld h ave b een a no the r i mpor tan t r e source ( MacNe ish a nd V ier ra 1 983 ; Moo re 1 985 ; Whee ler e t a l . 1 976 ) . T hese a n ima ls , t he s a me w e igh t a s av i cuña ( 4 5 -5 5 k g ) , l i ve i n e x t reme ly r ugged , r o cky a r eas i n a l t i tude o f 2 500 -5 000 m a nd o f ten r equ ire t he c over o f t r ees ( Roe a nd R ees 1 976 ; T ho rnback a nd J enk in s 1 982 ; Wa lker 1 975 ; C aha lane 1 939 ) . T he d ens i ty o f r e la ted H . b i su lcu s i n s ou the rn C h i le i s a bou t o ne d ee r/km ' ( Pov i l i t is 1 986 ) . B e cause o f t h e a n ima l 's l ower a bundance , a nd u ndoub ted ly mo re d i f f icu l t c ap ture , d ee r s hou ld n o t b e a s i mpo r tan t af ood i t em a s c a me l ids i n t h e p una e nv i ronmen t . Howeve r , d ur ing t h e w e t te r Y ounge r D ryas p hase , wood lands we re p robab ly mo re c ommon i n t he p una ( MacNe ish a nd V ier ra 1 983 ) , a nd t hese a n ima ls may h ave b een more a bundan t t h a t
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L.KU ZNAR ; DO M E ST I CAT ION O F CA M E L ID S I N SO U TH ERN PE R U
t oday . T here fo re , E ar ly A rcha ic f o rage rs s hou ld h ave made u se o f t h is r e sou rce , a l though t h e ir i n c reased a bundance wou ld n o t h ave o u twe ighed t he ir i n creased p ursu i t c os t s a nd c a me l ids wou ld h ave r ema ined t he p r imary r e source . R i sks wou ld h ave b een p resen t i n t h is c o ld , we t c l i ma te . T oday , s now c an c ove r f o r age , a nd s ome t imes k i l l y oung c a me l ids f r om e xposure ( F rank l in 1 981a , 1 975 ; K o fo rd 1 957 ) . A lso , f r os t s d ur ing t h e a us t ra l f a l l c an k i l l y oung p lan ts , a f fe c t ing f o rage f o r t he r e s t o f t he y ear ( McRae 1 982 ; W in te r fa lder a nd T homas 1 978 ) . T hese s nows a nd f r os t s wou ld h ave b een mo re c ommon d ur ing t he we t a nd c o ld Y ounge r D ryas . F aced w i th p e r iod ic s ho r tages o f f ood d ue t o f r os t a nd s nows , p una f o rage rs wou ld h ave b een e xpec ted t o m in im ize r i sk a s h un te r -ga therers t yp ica l ly d o ; t h rough mob i l i ty , t r ade , a l l iances , a nd s t orage ( Bende r 1 978 ; B in fo rd 1 987 ; B rown 1 985 ; C ashdan 1 985 ; D yson -Hudson a nd Sm i th 1 978 ) . Mob i l i ty i sg ene ra l ly s een a s t he p re fe r red c ho ice f o r i t r equ ire s l i t t le c hange i n t e chno logy , s oc ia l s t ructure , o r s oc ia l r e la t ion s i n as ma l l -s ca le h un te r -ga the re r g roup ( B in ford 1 987 ; B rown 1 985 ; C ashdan 1 985 ) , a nd sma l l -s ca le t r ade b e tween i nd iv idua ls i n n on food a nd f ood i t em s a nd mar r iage a l l iances b y mob i le h un te r -ga the re r g roups a f te r movemen t i n to o the r 's t e r r i to r ies o r c a mps i n t imes o f n eed ( B in ford 1 987 ; C ashdan 1 985 ; C us ter 1 985 ) . S to rage i s u sua l ly l abo r i n ten s ive a nd r equres t ha t i nd iv idua ls h ave a more f i xed p a t te rn o f h ab i ta t ion l o ca t ions ( Cashdan 1 985 ) . I n t h e c o ld , d ry , p una , mea t i se as i ly f r eeze -dr ied f o r s t o rage ( F lo res -O choa 1 979 ; R ick 1 980 ) , h oweve r , a nd t h ese c h ark i a re c ommon ly made , s t o red , a nd t r aded among c on tempo rary p as to ra l is t s i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes ( Casaverde 1 977 ) . I n s um , e ar ly ( approx . 1 0 ,000 B .P . ) p una f o rage r e conomy wou ld h ave b een b ased o n h un t ing c ame l ids a nd d e e r . S to rage o f mea t c ou ld h ave c oun terac ted s ho r t term s ho r tages . T he re fo re , e ar ly p una f o rage r s n eed n o t h ave h ad a h igh ly mob i le s e t t lemen t s t ra tegy ( s ee a l so R ick 1 980 ) . Howeve r , mob i l i ty a nd s o c ia l f l u id ity wou ld c o mpensae f o r s e r ious p er iods o f r e sou rce f a i lure . S ubs is tence C hange a nd C ame l id Domes t ica t ion R ecen t e xp lana t ion s o f s ubs is tence i n tens i f ica t ion h ave f o cused o n p opu la t ion g row th ( B in ford , 1 968 , 1 983 , 1 987 ; C ohen 1 977a , 1 985 ; H ar r is 1 969 , 1 977a , 1 977b ) a nd s y mb io t ic i n te rac t ion b e tween h umans a nd t he ir e nv ironmen t ( F lannery 1 968 , 1 986 ; O 'Br ien 1 987 ; R indos 1 984 ) . B o th o f t hese a pproaches h ave b een u se fu l i n e xp la in ing t he d omes t ica t ion o f p lan t s i n t h e O ld Wo r ld a nd Mesoame r ica ( F lannery 1 968 , 1 969 , 1 973 ) , a nd P e ru ( Cohen 1 977b ) . Due t o t he s ys tem ic , mu l t i -causa l n a ture o f d omes t ica t ion , a r e a l is t ic mode l i n c ludes b o th f a c tor s . C lose s pa t ia l a sso c ia t ion a nd i n terac t ion w i th c a me l ids wou ld b ene f i t p una h un te r -ga the re rs b y : a ) p rov id ing a mo re e as i ly l o ca ted , a nd t he re fo re l e ss c os t ly f ood s ource , a nd b ) p rov id ing a mo re c on s tan t a nd r e l iab le f ood s upp ly . I ff o rage rs w ere t o e s t ab l ish a d ose a ssoc ia t ion w i th a n ima ls i n ap ar t icu lar a rea t h rough c on t ro l o f a n ima l movemen t a nd p ro tec t ion o f t he h e rds f r om p reda t ion , t h en mob i l i ty wou ld b e s ac r if iced a s ar i sk m in im iz ing s t ra tegy . A ssoc ia t ion w i th h umans wou ld a l so b ene f i t c a me l id s urv iva l . P reda t ion b y f oxes , c ondo rs a nd p uma c l a ims u pwards o f 5 0% o f t he c a me l ids d ur ing t he ir f i rs t y ear ( F rank l in 1 975 , 1 981a ; K o fo rd 1 957 ) . Wh i le h uman s a re p reda to rs t oo , i f h uman p opu la t ions h arves ted o n ly 2 0% o f ah e rd p er y ear , a s c a lcu la ted b y R ick ( 1 980 ) , b u t
1 73
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 8
p reven ted p redat ion b y o the r a n ima ls , t he a ve rage r ep roduc t ive s uccess o f ac ame l id wou ld b e i n c reased b y 3 0% . Hu mans c ou ld p reven t t h is p reda t ion b y h un t ing p reda to rs , a nd t h rough t h e u se o f g uard d og s a s among Ona h un ter s , C hukchee r e indee r h e rde rs , a nd c on tempo rary Andean p as to ra l is t s ( Bogoras 1 904 -09 ; C ooper 1 946a ; F lo res -O choa 1 979 ; L eeds 1 965 ) . E nv ironmen ta l i mprovemen t i s a no ther b ene f i t t o c ame l ids o f c l ose a sso c ia t ion w i th h umans . T h is wou ld mos t l i ke ly o ccur i ff i re w e re u sed t o d r ive g ame , w i th n ew t e nde r v ege ta t ion g row ing i n b urned a reas . B urn ing i s a c ommon f o rm o f p as ture i mprovemen t u sed b y c a me l id h e rde rs i n t h e A nde s t oday ( F lo res -O choa 1 979 ) . T he re fore , as ymb io t ic r e la t ionsh ip c ou ld h ave e x is ted b e tween h umans a nd c ame l id ; f o rage rs r e ce iv ing a s e cure s upp ly o f mea t a nd c a me l ids r e ce iv ing a n i mproved h ab i ta t a nd p ro tec t ion f r om p reda to rs . T he r e s t r ic t ion o f h un te r -ga the rer mob i l i ty t h rough t ime d ue t o e nv ironmen ta l p ack ing may h ave b een o ne o f t he c r i t ica l f a c tor s t ha t c on t r ibu ted t o g rea te r c on t ro l a nd p ro tec t ion o f c a me l id r e sources o n ap e rmanen t b as is . I n n o r the rn C h i le t h e re i s a n i n c reas ing n umbe r a nd s i ze o f s i tes t h roughou t t h e A rcha ic P er iod i nd ica t ive o f p opu la t ion i n crease ( Nuf iez 1 983 ) . A s p opu la t ion i n creases i n b and l e ve l g roups , d i spu tes b ecome c ommon a nd b ands h ave a t e ndency t o s p l i t , o r f i ss ion ( Cohen 1 985 ; Harr is 1 977a ; L ee 1 982 ; S ut ton a nd R igsby 1 982 : 1 6 1 ) . A s ar e su l t , ar eg ion wou ld e ven tua l ly b ecome p acked w i th sma l l b ands d es cended f r om a n o r ig ina l c o lon iz ing b and ( B in ford 1 987 ; B rown 1 985 ; V ier ra 1 982 ) . P ack ing l e ads t o o ver lap i n h un t ing t e rr i tor ie s w i th a c oncomm i t tan t d e crease i n f o rag ing e f f ic iency a nd i n creased c on f l ic t s b e tween g roups ( B rown 1 985 ; H ar r is 1 977a ; K uznar n .d . ; Moore 1 98 1 ) . Hun ter -ga the re r s w i l l a vo id t hese p rob lems b y d ecreas ing t e r r i to ry s i ze ( B in fo rd 1 987 ; H ar r is 1 977a ; Moo re 1 98 1 ) . T he r e s t r ic t ion o f mob i l i ty w i l l i n tens i fy f o rage r 's s us cep t ib i l i ty t o r i sk b e cause mob i l i ty i s n o l onger a r i sk m in im iz ing o p t ion ( B in fo rd 1 987 ) . One s t ra tegy f o r m in im iz ing t h is r i sk i s t o f o cus e f fo r ts o n p r imary r e sources ( Ch r is tenson 1 980 ; W in te rha lde r 1 986 ) . I n tens i f icat ion o f c a me l id u se wou ld c ome a bou t t h rough p ro tec t ion f r om p reda to r s , c on t ro l o f a n ima l movemen t , a nd h ab i ta t i mprovemen t . E nv ironmen ta l c hange c an i n tens i fy a nd m im ic t h e e f fe c ts o f p opu lat ion i n c rease i n t he s pa t ia l d i s t r ibut ion o f p opu la t ions . T h is s i tua t ion u sua l ly o ccurs when a p e r iod o f d ess ica t ion r e s t r ic ts r e sources t o o n ly t he mos t w a te red a r eas a round wh ich h umans c an c l us te r ( S tark 1 986 ) . S uch a p e r iod o f e nv ironmen ta l d ess ica t ion o ccur red d ur ing t he B o rea l P hase ( 6 500 -5 500 B .P . ) . Dur ing t h is w arm a nd d ry p hase , e xp lo i tab le r e sources wou ld h ave b een r e s t r ic ted t o b o f ed a l s , a nd t h e e x ten t o f b o f eda l s wou ld h ave b een s ma l le r . E x is t ing h uman p opu la t ions wou ld h ave p acked a round t hese s hr ink ing r e source z one s a t t h is t ime , mak ing t he B o rea l p hase a l i ke ly t ime f o r t h e i n i t ia l d omes t ica t ion o f c a me l ids a nd t he a dop t ion o f p as tora l ism b y p una h un te r s . T h is p e rspec t ive o n c a me l id d omes t ica t ion i sd iag rammed i n F igure 2 .
E xpec ta t ions o f Mode ls o f C ame l id Domes t ica t ion T he d eve lopmen t o f e xp lana to ry mode ls a r e n ecessary f o r u nde r s tand ing d omes t ica t ion i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes , t h ese mode ls mus t b e t r ans la ted i n to f e atures o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i ft hey a re t o b e t e s ted . S pec i f ic a r chaeo log ica l e xpec ta t ions
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L.KU ZNA R ; DO M E ST I CAT ION O F CA M E L ID S I N SO U TH ERN PE R U
E nv iron menta l Dess ication
Pack ing F iss ion ing Populat ion
Conf l ict
Restr icted Mobi l ity
G ro wth
Ca me l id Do mest icat ion
I ncreased R isk
F igu re 2 .P rox ima te h ypo the t ica l r e la t ionsh ip s i n c ame l id d ome s t ica t ion . f o r t h e p roces s o f c a me l id d ome s t ica t ion i n t h e O smo re d ra inage a re g iven i n T ab le 3 . E xpe c t a t ions o f E ar ly A r cha i c ( 1 0 ,000 -7 000 B .P . ) A dap t ions E a r ly p una f o rage rs a r e e xpec ted t o h ave l ow p opu la t ion d ens i ty , h ave l a rge f o rag ing t e r r i to r ies a t t h e ir d i spo sa l , a nd t o s ub s is t p r imar i ly o n c ame l id a nd d ee r . T h ree t ype s o f s i te s m igh t b e e xpec ted : r e s iden t ia l b ases , f i e ld c amp s , a nd l o ca t ions ( A ldende r fe r 1 987 ) . R es iden t ia l b ase c amps a re l i ke ly t o o c cur i n s he l te red l o ca t ions ( due t o t he e x t reme ly c o ld c l i ma te o f t h e p u r t a ) , a nd n ea r b o f ed a l s . A t t he r e s iden t ia l b ase c a mp , who le f am i l ies wou ld l i ve a nd a w ide r ange o f a c t iv i t ie s wou ld b e c ar r ied o u t r e su l t ing i n ad ive rse t oo l a ssemb lage f r om t he se s i tes ( Thomas 1 983 ) . F i e ld c a mp s wou ld b e u sed b y p eop le when s ub s i s ten ce a c t iv i te s r equ i red mov ing o u t o f t h e f o rag ing r ad ius ( B in fo rd 1 982 ) . S uch wou ld o ccu r o n e x tended h un t ing a nd p lan t c o l le c t ing t r ips . T hese s i te s w ou ld b e a c t iv i ty -spe c i f ic , r e su l t ing i n s pec ia l ized a s semb lage s . F i e ld c a mps wou ld b e e xp ec t ed o n t he ma rg in s o f b o f ed a l s i n s he l t e red l o ca t ions . T he p r ima ry l o ca t ions wou ld b e c ommuna l k i l l a nd b u t che r ing s i te s , e xpe c ted i n c ons t r ic ted a reas n ear b o f ed a l s i n to w h ich a n ima ls c ou ld b e d r iven . F auna l a ssemb lages a t a l s i tes s hou ld b e d om ina ted b y c a me l ids , a l though o ppo r tu n i s t ic u se o f d ee r a nd o the r a n ima ls i se xpe c ted b y mob i le h un te r -ga the re r s . A s t rong " s h lepp " e f fe c t ( Bowe r e t a l . 1 977 ) i se xpec ted i n t h e f a una l a s semb lages o f b ase c amp s . I n c ommuna l h un t ing , mos t b u t che r ing t a ke s p l ace a t t h e k i l l s i te ( Fo rb is 1 978 ; J ohnson 1 978 ) . On ly b one f r om h igh -mea t y i e ld p a r t s o f ac ame l id w i l l b e b rough t b ack t o t he b as e c amp ( s ee W ing 1 972 ) . C ons ide r ing t he b u t che r ing p rac t ice s o f p re sen t d ay Andean p as to ra l is t s , c ho ice p ar t s wou ld i n c lude s hou lder s , h ind q uar te r s , l owe r b ack , a nd n e ck ( M i l le r 1 977 ) . B ones a s soc ia ted w i th t hese p a r t s s hou ld b e f ound i n h igh p ropo r t ions a nd i n a ssoc ia t ion a t b as e c a mp s ( Thomas 1 983 ) . K i l l s i tes s hou ld e xh ib i t h igh p ropo r t ions o f c ame l id b one s t h a t a r e f r om l ow mea t y i e ld p a r t s o f ac a me l id . T hese b one s i n c lude u pper b ack , r i bs , a nd l owe r l imb b ome s . On ly l a rge g ame a n ima ls s hou ld
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Expectations
Presence/Absence
Younger Dryas
Phase
R esidential
Foragers
B ase
Camps:
S heltered
l ocations
D iverse tool
n ear
bofedales
+
assemblage
Primarily
c amelid
H igh meat
y ield
0
f auna
f aunal
0 e lements
0
n ear bofedales
+
F ield Camps: S heltered
l ocations
Hunting/butchering
tool
assemblage
+
Primarily c amelid f auna L ow meat yield f aunal e lements L ocations
( Kill
0 0
S ites):
L ocated
i n
spatially
Primarily projectile
r estricted points
i mplements Changes Associated w ith
0
P astoralism
I ncreased
Number of
I ncreased
S ize
of
S edentory
B ase
Camps:
-
S ites:
S ites
+
P ermanent S tructures S torage f acilities, i ncreased d iverse c onflict Corrals C amelid
+
areas
and butchering
a ssemblage, 0
s ite
year-round
+ patterning, s easonally
l arge
Complete
u se
of
s keltons
0
c arcases
0
0
I ncreased MNI, i ncreased
L ack of
i ncreased
c amelid/deer
% neonate
c amelids,
r atio
0
L ocations: L ocated Walls
+ Presence
0
0
C amelid Dung
- i ndication
of
C amps:
Corrals
H erding
a rtifacts, evidence
+
c amelid
I ncreased F ield
heavy
( +) dung
I ncreased MNI of c amelids, i ncreased % neonate c amelids, i ncreased c amelid/deer r atio
H erding
and
i ndicators,
i n
spatially 0
restricted areas
of projectile points
i ndcator when c ontrary
predicted.
to model
0
+
+ Data
n ot
yet
c ollected,
or a nalyzed.
prediction.
T ab le 3 . E xpec ta t ions o f C ame l id Domes t icat ion Mode l . b e f ound a t k i l l s i tes . Sma l le r s pec ies o ppor tun is t ic h un t ing ( Thomas 1 983 ) .
may
b e p resen t
a t f i e ld
c amps
d ue
t o
E xpec ta t ions o f aP as to ra l Way o f L i fe A c hange i n t he s ubs is tence s t ra tegy h as b een p red ic ted b e tween 6 500 t o 5 500 B .P . f r om a h un t ing a nd g a the r ing e conomy t o t h e i n c ip ien t h erd ing o f c a me l ids . I ncreas ing p opu la t ion , d ecreas ing t e r r i to ry s i ze , i n c reas ing s oc ia l s t ress , a nd i ncreas ing c on t ro l o f c a me l ids c an b e h ypo thes ized t o l e ad t o t he a dop t ion o f p as tora l ism . T hese p henomena h ave p red ic tab le e f fec t s o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . W i th i n creases i n r eg iona l p opu la t ion , h ab i ta t ion s i tes a re e xpec ted t o b e mo re n u me rous a nd l a rge r ( Kuznar n .d . ; T rue 1 975 ) . T he mo re s eden tary s i tes o f t h is p e r iod w i l l e xh ib i t t he h a l lmarks o f s eden t ism wh ich i n c lude p ermanen t h ouses ( B rown a nd V ier ra 1 983 ) , s t o rage f a c i l i t ies ( Cashdan 1 985 ; R a f fer ty 1 985 ) , i nc reased i n t ra -s i te 1 76
L.KU ZNA R ; DO M E ST I CAT ION O F CA M E L ID S I N SO U TH ERN PE R U
p a t te rn ing ( B rown 1 985 ; T homas 1 983 ) , l a rge a nd h eavy a r t i fac t s , d ive rse a ss emb lage s ( B in fo rd 1 982 ) , y ear round s e asona l i ty i nd ica to r s ( Monk s 1 98 1 ) , a nd e v iden ce o f c on f l ic t ( Dyson -Hudson a nd Sm i th 1 978 ) . T hese b ase c amps w i l l b e l o ca ted o n t h e l a rge s t b o f ed a l s , a nd o pen -a ir s i te s may b e a sso c ia ted a s b and s i ze i n c rease s . W i th c on t ro l led movemen t a nd c on f inemen t o f c ame l id h e rds , ma le a nd f ema le a n ima ls mus t b e h e rded s epara te ly d ue t o t h e v io len t , t e r r i to r ia l b ehav io r o f t h e ma les ( F lo re s -O choa 1 979 ; F rank l in 1 981a ) . T he re fo re , s ma l l h e rd ing c a mp s c an b e e xpec ted i n h igh land l o ca t ions whe re s uch c amps a re l o ca ted t oday ( Pa lac io s -R io s 1 977 ) . R o ck wa l ls a nd c o r ra ls a re e xpe c ted t o a ppear a s a n ima ls a re c on f ined ( MacNe ish a nd V ie r ra 1 983 : 2 34 ; R ick 1 980 : 2 95 ) . A lso , t h e t h ick l a yer s o f d ung wh ich b u i ld -up i n c o r ra l s s hou ld b eg in t o a ppear ( Ho le 1 979 ; I zum i a nd T e rada 1 972 ; Mu r ray a nd C hang 1 98 1 ; R usse l a nd D ean 1 985 ; S h imada a nd S h imada 1 985 ) . T hese p henomena a r e v ery c l ea r i nd ica to r s o f p as to ra l ism ( Chang a nd K o s te r 1 986 ) . C o r ra ls a nd d ung a re e xpe c ted a t b o th b ase c a mps a nd a th igh land h e rd ing c amps . A c hange i n s i te f unc t ion i s e xpe c ted f o r k i l l s i te l o ca t ion s . Whe reas among h un te r -ga the re r s , t hese l o ca t ions w e re u sed f o r k i l l ing a nd b u t che r ing a n ima ls ; among i n c ip ien t p as to ra l is t s t h ese l o ca t ion s w i l l b e u sed s imp ly f o r t h e c on t ro l o f a n ima l movemen t . T he re fo re , f ewe r b u t che r ing a nd k i l l ing i mp lemen t s w i l l b e f ound a t t h ese s i tes . F auna l i nd ica to r s o f a n ima l d ome s t ica t ion w i l l a l so b e f ound a t t hese s i te s . T hese i nd ica to r s i n c lude i n c reas ed MN I o f c ame l ids , i n c reased c ame l id/dee r r a t io , a nd i n c reased p e rcen t age o f n eona te c ame l ids . Two o the r i nd ica tor s i nvo lve t he u se o f a n ima l c ar casses . F i rs t , b e cause h e rds c oex is t w i th h umans , t r anspor ta t ion o f c a r cas ses i s n o l o nger a c ons t ra in t , a nd a l p a r t s o f ac ame l id s hou ld b e p re sen t a t t he s i te whe re t he a n ima l w as k i l led , a nd e a ten ( i . e . b ase c amp s , o r f i e ld c amp s ) . S e cond , b ecause , a h e rde r 's g oa l i s t he c onse rva t ion o f a n ima ls , n o t t he k i l l ing o f a n ima ls ( He s se 1 982 ) , mo re c omp le te u se o f a n ima l c a r casses i s e xpec ted . T he re fo re , b u t che r ing m arks a re e xpe c ted o n l ow -mea t y i e ld p ar t s o f t he a n ima l s uch a s s ku l ls , r i bs , a nd f e e t .
A rcha ic P er iod S i tes i n C h inch i l lape NUAP h as b een wo rk ing i n t h e h igh land c o mmun i ty o f C h inch i l lape i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand p una a dap t ions d ur ing t h e A rcha ic P e r iod ( A ldende r fe r 1 987 ) . C h inch i l lape i s l o ca ted a bou t 2 0 km f r om Mazo C ruz i n t h e D ep r tmen t o f P uno . T h is l o ca t ion i sa t t he h eadwa ter s o f b o th t h e O smo re a nd L o cumba d ra inage s , w i th in t he T i t icaca B as in . C h inch i l lape i s w i th in t h e p una e cozone a nd h as a mean e l eva t ion o f 4 400 m . T he c ommun i ty i s c en tered a round l a rge b o f ed a l . A ymara speak ing a lpaca h e rde r s l i ve i n p e rmanen t c ompounds a round t h e b o f ed a l e dge , a nd t hey ma in ta in t empo rary c ompounds f o r h e rd ing ma le a n ima l s t h ree t o f i ve km a nd 1 00 m a bove t he ma in b o f ed a l ( Pa lac io s -R io s 1 977 ) . NUAP h as c onduc ted t e s t e xcava t ions a nd s i te s urvey s i n C h inch i l lape . T he re a re t wo v e ry l a rge r o ck she l t e r s i n C h i lch i l lape l o ca ted o n l a rge p e rmanen t b o f eda l s . A l x2m t e s t p i t w as e x cava ted , al o o ter 's p i t p ro f i le c l eaned , a nd r o ck a r t r e co rded i n o ne o f t he s s he l t e r s c a l led Que lca tan i ( A ldende r fe r 1 987 ) , a nd s i te s urvey u s ing t wo s t ra teg ie s w as
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c onduc ted i n t h e v i c in i ty . A w a lkove r r e conna issan ce w as c onduc ted a t 1 0 t o 2 5 m i n te rva ls o n a l l l a nd s ur face s w i th in 1 00 m o f t h e m a in b o f ed a l s e dge . S e cond , a l r o ckshe l te r s w i th ing a 5 km r ad ius o f Que lca t an i w e re i nve s t iga ted . E ach r o ckshe l t e r w as mapped i n 2 x2 m u n i t s a nd a l l s ur face m a te r ia ls c o l le c ted . T he r e su l t o f t he wo rk i n Q ue lca tan i w i l l b e p re s en ted o n ly b r ief ly , a s n o t a l l t h e ma te r ia l h as b een a na lyzed , a nd i t i s a l so p resen ted e l sewhe re ( A ldende r fe r , t h i s v o lume ) . T he b o t tom s t ra ta o f Que lca tan i ( 1 20 -200 c m B .S . ) c on ta in a bundan t l i t h i c r ema ins , s hou lder ed , f o l ia t e p ro je c t i le p o in t s a nd r hombo ida l p ro jec t i le p o in t s t yp ica l o f t h e E a r ly A r cha ic P e r iod i n t he S ou th -Cen t ra l A ndes ( s ee A ldender fer i n p res s a ; R i ck 1 980 f o r t ypo log ie s a nd d a te s ) . A bove t h is ( 1 00 - 1 20 c m B .S . ) , a re o ccupa t iona l s t ra ta w i th a bundan t l i th ic a nd b one d eb r is , a nd f o l ia te p ro j ec t i le p o in t s t yp ica l o f t he M idd le A rcha ic P e r iod . I n o ne p ar t o f t h e s i te , t h ese s t ra ta a r e r ad ioca rbon d a ted 7 100 + 1 70 B .P . ( A ldende r fe r 1 987 ) , i nd ica t ing e a r ly M idd le A r cha ic P e r iod . I n t h e b ack o f t h e r o ckshe l te r , at h ick l a ye r ( 7 5 -1 00 c m B .S . ) o f v i sc a c ha ,a nd p o s s ib ly c ame l id d ung i s f ound . A bove t h is s t ra tum o f d ung a re 2 0 c m o f i n t e rd ig i t a ted o ccupa t iona l a nd c am e l id d ung s t ra t a . T hese s t ra ta c on ta in f o l ia te a nd t r iangu la r p o in t f o rms i nd ica t ive o f M idd le t h rough L a te A r cha ic P e r iods i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l A ndes . Near t he mou th o f t h e s he l t er , i n l e ve ls wh ich c o r re spond t o t h es e M idd le A r cha ic/La te A rcha ic s t ra ta , t h e f ounda t ion o f as t ruc ture made o f l a rge s t ones w as f o und . L a te A rcha ic p ro jec t i le p o in t s w e re f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e s t ruc tu re ( A ldende r fe r n .d . b ) . T he p r imary r e su l t s o f t he s i te s urvey w e re t h e d e te c t ion o f a n o bv ious h i e rar chy o f s i te s i ze a nd u se , a nd t h e c on f irma t ion t h a t o pen -a i r s i te s we re u t i l ized t h rougou t t h e A r cha ic P e r iod i n C h inch i l lape . Twe lve r o ckshe l te r s a nd 2 7 o pen -a ir s i t es w e re f o und ( Tab le 4 , F igu re 3 ) . A h i e ra r chy o f r o ckshe l te r s i ze s hows t h ree c l asse s o f r o ck she l te r . T he l a rge c l as s c ons is t s o f r ockshe l te r s ( N=2 ) wh ich a r e g rea te r t han 2 00 r n2 i n a r ea . T he se i n c lude Que lca tan i , a nd T umuku , a s im i la r s he l te r 1 0 km f r om Que lca tan i ( Pa lac io s -R io s 1 984 ) . T he s e cond c a tego ry ( N=4 ) o f r o ck she l te r h as a bou t 4 0 m2 o f a r ea a nd a d ense s c at te r o f d eb r is . F ina l ly , t he s ma l l c a tego ry ( N=8 ) a ve rages 2 8 .5 m ' i n a r ea , a nd h as l i gh t s c at te r s o f d eb r is . T hese r o ckshe l te r s w e re u sed f r om E a r ly A rcha id t o mode rn t imes . T he t wen ty -seven o pen -a ir s i te s w e re s im i la r ly c a tego r ized b ased o n t h e ir s i ze , a nd d ens i ty o f d ebr is . T he re w e re s i x c a tego r ies o f o pen -a i r s i te : l a rge a nd d ense , l a rge , s ma l l , q uar ry , a r t s i te s , a nd i s o la ted f i nds . L a rge a nd d ense s i tes ( N=2 ) c ons is ted o f d ense ( 1+ i t em/m ) s c a t te r s o f l i th ic d eb r is i n a n a rea g rea ter t h an 0 . 25 h a . T hese s i te s w e re l o ca ted i n a reas whe re t he b o f ed a l w as r e s t r ic t ed b y h igh l a nd fo rms . O ne l o ca t ion ( S i te # 5 , P a tka ta ) w as a t ap o in t whe re a g o rge f o rm s a t t he e n t rance t o t h e b o f ed a l a t C h inch i l lape . T he o the r l o ca t ion ( S i te # 28 ) i s whe re t h e b o f ed a l f o rms a s ma l l s t ra i t b e tween t wo l a nd masse s . T he a s semb lage o f t h ese s i te s i ss im i lar . A l l c on ta in a h i gh d ens i ty o f p ro jec t i le p o in t s , l a rge f l ake s a nd s c rape r s . T he p ro jec t i le p o in t s a r e d iagno s t ic o f a l A rcha ic P e r iods , a nd l i t t le o r n o c e ram ic s a r e f o und a t t h ese s i tes . A l though m a te r ia ls o f a l l p e r iods c an b e f ound a t t h e se s i tes , t h e u se o f t h ese s i t e s a s h un t ing l o c i a ppear s t o d e c rease t h rough t ime . T he i n c idence o f p ro je c t i le p o in t s d e c rease s f r om E a r ly A rcha ic t o L a te A rcha ic t ime s a t t h e p a r t ia l ly c o l le c ted s i t e o f P a tka ta , a l though t he re i sd i f fe ren t ia l e ro s ion a c ro s s t h e s i te 's s ur f ace ( Tab le 5 ) . S i te # 28 w as e roded e ven ly a c ro s s i t s s u r face , a nd w as 1 00% c o l lec ted . T he re fo r e , t h is s i te s hou ld p rov ide u s w i th a n u nb iased s amp le o f d i agnos t ic p ro je c t i le p o in t s . A t S i te # 28 ,
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t he re a re f i ve E ar ly A rcha ic p o in ts , o ne M idd le A rcha ic , a nd o ne L a te A rcha ic p o in t ( Tab le 5 ) , d emons t ra t ing a d ecr ease i n h un t ing a c t iv i ty t h rough t ime a t t h is s i te .
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1 79
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ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 8
F igu re 3 . Map o f A rchaeo log ica l S i tes i n C h inch i l l ap e .
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L.KU Z NA R ; DO M E ST I CAT ION O F CA M E L ID S I N SO U TH E RN PE R U
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T ab le 5 . I nc idence o f P ro je c t i le P o in t s T h rough T ime a tC lass 1S i tes i n C h in ch i l lap e .
L a rge s i tes ( N=2 ) a r e g rea ter t h an 0 . 25 h a i n s i ze , b u t h ave a v e ry l i gh t s c a t te r o f l i th ic ma te r ia l wh ich may , o r may n o t c on t ian d iagno s t ic i t em s . Sma l l s i te s ( N=15 ) a re l e s s t h an 0 . 25 h a i n s i ze , a nd h ave v e ry l i gh t s c at ter s o f ma te r ia l . Quar ry s i te s ( N=3 ) a re f ew a nd sma l l . T hey c ons is t o f c oncen t ra t ion s o f ma te r ia l ( B lack a nde s i te ) , a nd p r imary r educ t ion d eb r is i n s ma l l q ueb r ad a s a round t h e b o f ed a l . A r t s i te s ( N= 1) a re l o ca t ions i n t h e f a ce o f s moo th c l i f f s whe re r o ck a r t h as b een p rese rved . No h ab i ta t ion d ebr is i s f ound a t t he o ne s i te i n t h e s t udy a rea . T he re i s n o a pprec iab le i n c rease , o r d e c rease i n t h e n umbe r o f o pen -a i r h ab i ta t ion s i t e s t h rough t ime . T here a re s even e a r ly A r cha ic , s i x M idd le A r cha ic , s i x L a te A rcha ic , a nd e i gh t C e ram ic P er iod s i te s . However , t he s i ze o f s i te s i s n o t c ons tan t o ve r t ime . E x c lud ing t he u nusua l ly l a rge s i te a t P a tka ta ( 2 .56 h a ) t h e a ve rage s i te a rea d u r ing t he E a r ly A rcha ic P e r iod i s0 . 4 1 h a ( N=6 ) , d ur ing t he M idd le A rcha ic i s0 . 61 h a ( N=5 ) , a nd d u r ing t he L a te A r cha ic i s0 . 53 h a ( N=5 ) . T he o n ly a pp re c iab le c hange i sf r om t h e E ar ly A r cha ic t o M idd le A r cha ic P e r iods when s i tes b ecome 0 . 22 h a l a rge r o n t he a ve rage .
I mp l ica t ions o f C h inch i l lape D a ta I ti sp os s ib le t o c ompa re t h e p re l im inary d a ta f r om C h inch i l lape t o t he e xpec ta t ions r a ised f o r t he p roce s s o f c ame l id d ome s t ica t ion d is cussed a bove . F i r s t , a l l s i te s d ur ing a l l p e r iods w ere e xpe c ted t o b e l o ca ted d i rec t ly o n t h e e dge o f b o f ed a l e s , a nd t h ey a re . T he p o ss ib le b ase ( Que lca tan i a nd T umuku ) a nd f i e ld c amp s a re l o ca ted i n s he l te red a r ea s n ear b o f ed a l e s . T he p r imary f a una l s pec ies r ep resen t ed a t a l l s i tes i sc a me l id . T he t wo l a rge o pen -a i r s i te s a ppear t o b e i n p e r fe c t l o ca t ions f o r c ommuna l h un t ing e f fo r t s , s uch a s t he d r ive . A lso , t h e ir a s semb lages a re n a r row ly r ef lec t ive o f h un t ing a nd b u t che r ing a c t iv i t ie s . T he c o l lec t ions made f r om t he s ma l ler r o ck she l te rs a l so r ep resen t h un t ing a nd b u tcher ing a c t iv i t ie s . T hese s i te s p robab ly r epre sen t k i l l s i te s a nd h un t ing c amp s r e spec t ive ly . C hanges a s so c ia ted w i th t h e a dop t ion o f p as tora l ism a re e v iden t . A l though t he n umbe r o f s i te s d oesn ' t i n c rease t h rough t ime , t h e s i ze o f o pen -a ir s i te s i n c rease s d ur ing t h e M idd le A rcha ic P e r iod i nd ica t ing p opu la t ion , a nd b and s i ze i n c rease s . T h is i n c rease , m ay w e l l b e t he r e su l t o f r e s t r ic ted mob i l i ty a nd s edenf i sm . Mo re i mpo r t an t ly , l a ye r s o f c ame l id d ung p re -da te t h e L a te A r cha ic ( 5 000 B .P . ) l e ve ls a t Q ue lca tan i , a nd p os t -da t e t h e l e ve ls o f t h e s i t e d a ted t o 7 100 a nd 5 000 B .P . , i n c l o se
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a g reemen t w i th i t s e xpe c ted a ppearance b e tween 6 500 a nd 5 500 B .P . , d ur ing wh ich i n c ip ien t p as to ra l ism p robab ly b egan . P e rmanen t s t ruc tures b ecome e v iden t d ur ing t he L a te A rcha ic P e r iod a t Que lca tan i . F ina l ly , E a r ly A r cha ic P er iod k i l l s i te s a ppear t o b e come h erd ing l o ca l i t ies , a s t he i n c idence o f p ro jec t i le p o in t s d ecreases d rama t ica l ly d ur ing t he M idd le A r cha ic . A cknow ledgemen ts Iwou ld l i ke t o e xp res s my g ra t i tude t o Mark S . A lexande r fer who h as d i rec ted my r e search , a nd made i tp oss ib le f o r me t o c onduc t f i e ldwo rk i n t he S ou th C en t r a l Andes . H is h e lp a nd a dv ice i sv e ry a pp rec ia ted . Iwou ld l i ke a l so t o t hank C ar l T e r ranova f o r d eba t ing t he many i s sues c once rn ing a n ima l d omes t ica t ion w i th me . K aren A ldende r fe r d ra f ted F igure 1 . O f c ourse , t he o p in ions e xp ressed i n t h is p ape r a re m ine a l one a nd I t ake f u l l r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r t hem .
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I n t rodu c t ion T h i s a r t ic le d es c r ibes s urvey a nd e xcava t ion i n t h e l owe r O smo re D ra inage o f t h e f a r s ou th c oas t o f P e ru a nd i t s a d jo in ing a reas a nd e xam ines t he e co logy a nd h uman a dap t ive h i s to ry o f t h e c oa s ta l z one . T he s t udy t hus a t temp t s t o e xpand u nde r s t and ing o f t h e w ider c u l tura l m echan ism s t h a t w e re s pe c i f ic t o t he u n ique e nv ironmen t a l c on f igu ra t ion r ep resen ted b y t h e S ou th C en t ra l A nde s . T he t ime f rame f o r t h is s t udy i s t ha t r e presen ted b y P reco lumb ian p o t tery p roduc t ion i n t h e r eg ion , a p er iod n ow e s t ima ted t o f a l l b e tween a pp rox ima te ly 5 00 B .C . a nd A .D . 1 500 . P re ce ram ic o ccupa t ion o f t h e a rea i s d i scussed e l sewhe re i n t h is v o lume wh i le t h e p os t -Conque s t p e r iod w i th i t s v e ry d i f fe ren t c u l tu ra l c on f igu ra t ion f a l ls mo re p rope r ly i n to a s epara te s t udy . F o l low ing J ohn Mu r ra 's i nf luen t ia l d i s cus s ions o f t he " ve r t ica l a r ch ipe lago " p a t te rn o f S ou the rn Andean e co log ica l c omp lemen t ari ly a nd c o lon ia l e xp lo i ta t ion ( 1 972 , 1 976 , 1 985a , b ) e t hnoh is to r ian s a nd a r chaeo log is t s h ave e n thus ias t ica l ly a dop ted t h is mode l t o i n te rp r e t l ong range c u l tu ra l i n te rac t ion i n t he r eg ion . E ndo r semen t o f t h e mode l i s i n c rea s ing ly a c compan ied b y r e search i n t h e a reas i n wh ich t he a r ch ipe lago s y s tem h as b een mos t c l ear ly d emons t ra ted , n ame ly s ou the rnmos t P e ru , t he c on t iguous p o r t ion o f n o r the rn Ch i le a nd t h e T i t icaca b as in w i th i t s i mmed ia te e nv i rons . ( Masuda , S h imada a nd Mo r r is , 1 985 ) . T he T i t icaca b as in h as b een d e s igna ted t h e " c o re a rea " i n t h is v e r t ica l s y s tem o f l i nked e nv i ronmen ta l z one s o n t h e b as is o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch , h i s tor ica l r e co rds a nd v i s ib le monumen t s . I tf o l low s t h a t t h e i mpo r tan t a nc ien t s i te s o f t h e b as in a re g enera l ly a s sumed t o h ave b een t h e " nuc lea r " c en te r s f r om wh ich i nf luence w as e xe r t ed t h rough c omb ina t ions o f e conom ic c on t ro l ( B rowman 1 974a , 1 978 ) , p o l i t ica l
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d om ina t ion ( Ko la ta 1 983 , 1 986 ) a nd i deo log ica l p r imacy ( I sbe l l 1 983 ) . C onve rse ly , o the r p ar ts o f t he r eg ion s uch a s t he v a l leys o f t he m idd le A ndean s l opes a nd t h e c oas ta l z one a re u sua l ly b e l ieved t o h ave b een e conom ica l ly a nd p o l i t ica l ly s ubord inat e i n t he v er t ica l r e la t ionsh ip t o t he T i t icaca c en te rs a s b e f i t s t he ir a s sumed p r inc ipa l r o le a s s ubs is tence r e source d onor s . T h is s cheme l e aves l i t t le r oom f o r t he eme rgence o f s t rong l o ca l c u l tura l t r ad i t ions d eve lop ing a par t f r om h igh land i nf luence a nd i t s r e la ted i ndependen t p o l i t ica l s t ruc ture . T he c h ie f v o ice o f a rgumen t w i th t he i dea o f t h e v e r t ica l i ty s che me a s au n ive r sa l mode l f o r u nder s tand ing S ou th -Cen t ra l Andean i n terac t ion i s t h a t o f Mar ia R o s two rowsk i d e D iez C anse co . S he h as a rgued o n h i s to r ica l g rounds t h a t a q u i te d i f fe ren t p at tern o b ta ined o n t he c oas t ( 1 970 , 1 977 ) . G iven t he v ar ie ty o f c oas ta l e co logy a nd s ubs is tence p o ten t ia l R os two rowsk i a sser ts t ha t i t was em inen t ly p oss ib le f o r g row ing p opu la t ions t o b ecome s e l f -su f f ic ien t w i thou t e ngag ing i n t he e s tab l ishmen t o f c o lon ies a t h igher a l t i tudes . Mo reove r , r e c ip ro ca l e xchange , f undamen ta l t o mo s t i n te rpre ta t ions o f Andean e conom ic i n te rac t ion was n o t d om inan t o n t he c oas t , a t l e as t a t C h incha , t he s ub jec t a rea o f h er s t udy , b e ing r ep laced t h ere b y t r ade ( 1 977 ) . T o d a te , h oweve r , l i t t le a rchaeo log ica l wo rk h as b een b rough t t o b ear o n t hese p rob lems a nd n one o n t h e f a r s ou the rn P eruv ian c oas t . C onsequen t ly t he a c tua l n a ture o f P re c o lumb ian c u ltura l d ynam ics i n t he c oas ta l z ones n eare s t t o t he " nuc lear " a l t ip lano c en te r s r ema ins l a rge ly u nknown . T he s parse e x is t ing r e cords f r om t he r eg ion i n c lude a f ew s urveys c onduc ted i n t h e c oas ta l r i ve r v a l lesy ( F lores E sp inoza 1 973 , 1 979 ; K leeman 1 975 , 1 981 ; T r imborn 1 973 , 1 975 , 1 977 , 1 98 1 ; Uh le 1 919a , b , 1 922 ; V es ce l ius 1 960 ) . T h is r a the r s upe r f ic ia l wo rk h as i nd ica ted t ha t t he z one g enera l ly p ar t ic ipa ted i n t h e i n terac t ion s pheres c en te red i n t h e T i t icaca b as in , ac onc lus ion b ased c h ief ly o n t he a ppea rance o f T iwanaku c e ram ics i n t h e v a l leys . We s ha l l n o te l a ter , h owever , t h a t a t l e as t i n t he I l o V a l ley t h e n a ture a nd s i gn i f icance o f T iwanaku l ike p o t tery r ema ins i n d oub t . Mo reover , l i t t le i sk nown o f t h e p re -T iwanaku c u l tura l o ccupa t ion o f t he c oas t wh i le i t s b es t -known p o s t -T iwanaku e xpress ion - C h ir ibaya ( Ghe rs i B er re ra 1 956 , B e Ian 1 981 ) -r ema ins c h ief ly a s t y l is t ic e n t i ty o f t h e l a tes t P reco lumb ian p e r iods . T o d a te l i t t le u nde rs tand ing e x is t s o f a sso c ia t e d s e t t lemen t p a t te rn , s pec i f ic c u l tura l a f f i l ia t ion s o r i n te r na l d eve lopmen t . F ur the r s ou th , t h e n o r the rn C h i lean s equence h as b een much b e t te r d e te rm ined w i th n u merous c e ram ic s t y les b e ing c onso l ida ted i n to a c l ear c u l ture d eve lopmen ta l s cheme ( Berengue r e t a l . 1 980 ; F occac i 1 969 , 1 981 ; Mu f ioz 1 981 , 1 983 ; Nu t iez 1 974 ; R ivera 1 975 , 1 977 , 1 980 ) . A s i gn i f ican t e l emen t o f t h is d eve lopmen ta l s equence i s i t s s t rong e v idence f o r d i re c t h igh land i n t rus ion f r om p re -Pukara t o T iwanaku t imes ( Mu j ica 1 985 ) . R ecen t r e search b y t he p resen t a u tho r a nd c o l leagues M ichae l Mose ley ( Un ivers i ty o f F lo r ida ) a nd L u is Wa tanabe ( Museo P e ruano d e C ienc ias d e l a S a lud , L ima ) , i n t h e m id -va l ley o f t he O smo re D ra inage , r ough ly 4 0 m i les i n land , a nd c on t inu ing wo rk b y o the rs i n t he s a me a rea d es c r ibed e l sewhe re i n t h is v o lume , h as r e f ined t h e a r chaeo log ica l p i c ture i n t he n ear v i c in i ty o f t he c oas t . A c u l tura l s equence h as emerged f r om s e t t lemen t s urvey i n t he Moquegua r eg ion t h a t c l ear ly s hows t ha t t h is h igh land v a l ley s ys tem h as b een d i rec t ly a nd p er s is ten t ly i nf luenced b y a l t ip lano c u l tur es f r om t h e e ar l is t c e ram ic t imes t h rough p e r iods o f T iwanaku o ccupa t ion t o t he I nca C onques t . I n g ene ra l t h e i nves t iga t ions h ave r e in for ced t h e a ccep ted p a t te rn o f a l t ip lano d om inat ion o f t h e e n t ire S ou the rn P eruv ian P ac i f ic Andean s l opes a nd c oas t i nd ica ted b y e ar l ie r r e search . T he c ur ren t p hase o f wo rk o n t he c oas t c en te red o n t he l owe r O smo re
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d ra inage was t h ere fo re e xpe c ted t o d emons t ra te t o a s i gn i f ican t d eg ree t h e s ame i nf luen ces a nd t h e s t reng th o f t he v er t ica l i n te rac t ive a r ch ipe lago p a t tern t h roughou t t he e n t i re r eg ion e ven t hough s ome v a r ia t ions s haped b y a c oas ta l e co logy w e re a l so a n t i c ipa ted . A s w e s ha l l s e e , t he a c tua l f i nd ing s s ugge s t a marked d ive rgence f r om t h is a n t i c ipa ted p a t te rn .
R esea r ch A rea T he 1 986 -87 s t udy a r ea i sc en te red o n t he p or t o f I l o , l o ca ted i mmed ia te ly s ou th o f t he h o R ive r mou th a nd i n c ludes t h e v a l ley o f t h is r i ve r a nd t he a rea i mmed ia te ly a d jo in ing t he c oas t t o t h e n o r th ( F ig . 1 ) . T h is l a t te r a r ea c omp r ises a s e r ies o f s ma l l s p r ing fed a g r icu l tura l s ys t em s e x tend ing a l ong t he c oas t . T he C ar r iza l S ys tem , 2 0 km n o r th o f I l o , w as c ho sen f o r i n ten s ive s e t t lemen t s urvey a nd s uppo r t ing e xcava t ion wh i le s upe r f ic ia l s urvey w as c onduc ted a t o the r n e ighbo r ing s y s tems . T he I l o V a l ley i t se l f r e ce ived p re l im inary w a lk -ove r s urvey w i th m ino r e xcava t ion a s a c omp lemen tary c omponen t o f t h e s t udy . T he I l o V a l ley , t he l owe s t s egmen t o f t h e Omo re d ra inage , r ef lec t s t h e c ommon c on f igura t ion o f s ou the rn P e ruv ian c oas ta l v a l ley s . T he r i ve r i sd eep ly i nden ted ( F igure 1 ) , a f a c tor t h a t p reven t s s i gn i f ican t i r r iga t ion a g r icu l ture , t h e r e su l t ing n ar row f l ood -p la in b e ing b ounded b y s t eep h i l ls . Mo reove r a t ap o in t r ough ly 5 0 km i n land t he r i ve r e n te r s a s ub te r r anean c our se t h a t c on t inue s u n t i l t h e m id -va l ley Moquegua d r a inage i s r e ached , t h e i n te rven ing 2 0 km -w ide s t re t ch o f t o ta l ly b a r ren d ese r t c on s t i tu t ing a r e a l , i fr e la t ive ly n a r row , e nv i ronmen ta l b a r r ie r t o t h e t wo s e c t ion s o f t he O smo re D ra inage . N eve r the les s i n t h is c on f ined l owe r c our se , n ow c h ie f ly t he l o cus f o r o l ive c u l t iva t ion , t h e e x is tence o f l ong -abandoned c ana ls a nd t e r races n o r th o f t h e f l ow c hanne l c l ear ly i nd ica te s t he e x is tence o f mo re e x tens ive a g r icu l tura l a c t iv i ty i n P re co lumb ian t ime s . T he C ar r iza l s p r ing s y s tem i s a r ep re sen ta t ive , i f s ma l l , e xamp le o f a s e r ies o f s pe c ia l ized e co log ica l c omp lexe s , u n ique t o t h is p ar t o f t h e P e ruv ian C oas t ( F igure 2 ) . T he c oas ta l z one n or th o f t h e I t o R ive r mou th i sc ha rac te r ized b y an umber o f l o ca l ized , s pr ing fed " o ase s . " Now e me rg ing a t a n a l t i tude o f a round 1 00 m ( i t i s c l ear t ha t a h ighe r l i ne o f s p r ing s o nce e x is ted s omewha t f u r the r i n land ) , t hese s p r ing s p rov ide t he o n ly r egu lar s ource o f f r e sh w a te r i n a n o the rw ise u nb roken d e se r t t ha t e x tends t o t he T ambo R iver 8 0 km t o t h e n o r th . Mo se ley h as d emon s t r a t ed t h a t t hese r e s t r ic ted s ou r ce s h ave s uppor ted f l our ish ing a g r i cu l tura l s y s tems f o r m any c en tur ie s ( C lemen t a nd Mose ley 1 986 ; t h is v o lume ) . L arge a r ea s o f l eve l t e r race f i e lds e x tend b e tween s pr ing a nd s ho re l ine , w a te red b y e l abo ra te c ana l c omp lexe s . T he r e la t ive ly s ma l l v o lume o f w a te r a va i lab le f r om t hese s y s tems c omb ined w i th a s l ugg ish f l ow h as i n sp i red t h e c r ea t ion o f a d i s t inc t ive i r r iga t ion p a t t e rn whe reby s p r ing w a te r i sd i re c ted i n to mas s ive t a nks a nd i mpounded t h e re u n t i l p e r iod ica l ly r e leased i n s udden p owe r fu l s u rge s . T he e n su ing f o rce g ene ra tes t he v e lo c i ty r equ i red t o p rope l w a te r t h rough t h e l a rge r c ana ls t o mo re p e r iphe ra l f i e lds . T he s uccess o f t h is s pec ia l ized h ydrau l ic s ys t em i n g ene ra t ing a bundan t a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion i s a t tes ted t o b y t h e p resence o f l ong las t ing a nd i n tens ive a ssoc ia ted s e t t lemen t , t h e n a tu re o f wh ich i s o ne o f t h e m a jo r s t udy t op ic s o f t h e r e sea rch d i s cussed h e re .
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F igu re 1 . R esearch A rea .
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F igu re 2 . T he C ar r iza l S pr ing S ys tem : E co log ica l Z ones .
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R esea rch A ims a nd Me thodo logy T he c en t ra l g oa ls o f r e s ea rch i n t h e v i c in i ty o f I l o a r e t o o b ta in u nde r s tand ing o f P reco lumb ian h uman a dap t ive me chan ism s i n t h e c oas ta l z one t h rough t ime , a nd t o e xam ine t he r o le o f c oas ta l e co logy i n t h e w ide r i n te rac t ive p a t te rn . T he se g oa ls r equ i re r e sea rch o n t wo l e ve ls . F i r s t i ti sn eces sary t o u nde rs t and t he n a ture o f c oa s ta l e co logy a nd t h e l im i t s a nd p o ten t ia ls t ha t t h is p resen t s f o r h uman o ccupa t ion i n t he r eg ion . S e cond , t h e s pec i f ic p a t te rn o f h uman c u l tura l c on f igu ra t ion a nd d eve lopmen t mus t b e e l uc ida ted i n o rde r t o r evea l t he s pec i f ic w ays i n wh ich c oas ta l s oc ie t ie s m an ipu la t ed t h ese e co log ica l f a c to r s f o r t h e ir own n eeds . I ts hou ld t hus b e p oss ib le , b y i n teg ra t ing t h is i n fo rma t ion w i th t h a t a l ready d e r ived f r om o u r p rev ious work i n t h e Moquegua s e c to r o f t h e O smo re d ra inage , t o r e con s t ruc t t he w ide r i n te rac t ive a nd e vo lu t iona ry p roces se s o pe ra t ing i n t he P re co lumb ian S ou th C en t ra l A nde s . I n o rde r t o a t ta in t h ese g oa ls , t he d ua l c omponen t s o f c oas ta l e nv ironmen t s u i t ab le f o r h uman o c cupa t ion - t he I l o R ive r v a l ley a nd t he s p r ing s y s tems - a re b e ing s tud ied , f i r s t t o d o cumen t t he ir e co log ica l p arame te r s , t h en t o r e cons t ruc t t h e i r s e t t lemen t c on f igura t ions i n b o th s ynch ron ic a nd d iach ron ic d imen s ion s . T he i n i t ia l r esea r ch , d i s cus sed i n t h is s t udy , c oncen t ra ted o n c omp rehens ive e xam ina t ion o f a s i ng le r ep resen ta t ive s p r ing s ys tem - t he C a rr iza l s ys tem - a nd s uppo r ted t h is b y p re l im ina ry s urvey i n o the r s p r ing s a nd t he H o V a l ley . T h is i n forma t ion p rov ides t h e b as is f o r t h e f o rmu la t ion o f ac u l tu ra l -e co log ica l f r amewo rk , s u i tab le f o r d i re c t ing f u tu re w o rk a nd f o r mean ing fu l c ompara t ive s t udy . I n i t ia l r e conna issance i n t h e s urvey a r ea d epended h eav i ly o n t he s t e reo s cop ic s t udy o f a i r p ho tog raphs . E nv i ronmen ta l z ones a nd s e t t lemen t s i den t i f ied b y t h ese means w e re c he cked b y g round s urvey . T h is i n i t ia l i den t i f ica t ion a nd m app ing w as s upp lemen ted a t t he C arr iza l s ys tem b y l im i ted e xcava t ion o f r ep resen ta t ive s i tes o f a l c u l tu ra l c a t ago r ies s ugge s ted b y s ur face s u rvey . T h is e xcava t ion a imed p r ima r i ly a t f u l ly r evea l ing t he c u l tura l a f f in i ty a nd h i s to ry o f e ach s i t e , t hus t o b eg in t o c ons truc t a d iach ron ic f r amewo rk f o r s e t t lemen t d i s t r ibu t ion a nd d eve lopmen ta l c hange . B e cause o f t he t ime s t r ic tu re s o f r e la t ive ly s ho r t r e s ea rch s easons a nd t h e d es i re t o c ons t ruc t a mean ing fu l c on tex t f o r f u ture mo re i n tens ive wo rk , s pec i f i c e xcava t ion l o ca t ions w e re s e le c ted s o a s t o m ax im ize i n fo rma t ion w i th m in i ma l w o rk . T hus e x cava t ions w e re l o ca ted f i r s t o n t he b as is o f t he ir a s so c ia t ion w i th wha t a ppeared t o b e r e s iden t ia l s i t es , s econd b e cause o f t he i r l og is t ica l a cce s s ib i l i ty . Whe r e a va i lab le n a tura l ly -e roded q u eb r ad a f a ce s , o ld c ons t ruc t iona l c u t s a nd l oo ted a reas w e re c l eaned a nd e xpanded . E l sewhe re s ma l l e xpo sures a nd s hove l p i t t r an sec t s w ere u sed t o i den t i fy s e t t lemen t d imens ion s , c on ten t a nd s t ra t ig raph ic h i s to ry . C o l lec t ions o f n a tura l a nd c u l tu ra l a r t i fac t s w e re r e cove red f r om a l l s ur f ace a nd e xcava ted s i te s a nd i n t ac t a r ch i te c tu ra l f e ature s a nd s t ra t ig raph ic c u t s mapped a nd d rawn . On t he b as is o f t h is s t ra tegy w e n ow h ave a n i n i t ia l , t hough i n comp le te , u nde rs tand i ng o f h uman o ccupa t iona l h i s to ry a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i n t h e s t udy a rea . I mpo r tan t ly , w e h ave i den t i f ied t h e v ar ious e nv ironmen ta l m ic ro -zone s t h a t t oge the r c ompr ise t h e p e cu l iar c oas ta l e co log ica l s ys tem . T he C a r r iza l S p r ing S y s tem i s n ow g ene ra l ly u nde r s tood o n b o th o f t hese l e ve ls . E l sewhe re , l e s s i n t en s ive wo rk a t t he o t he r c oas t a l s ys tem s i nd ica te s t ha t t he C ar r iza l i n fo rma t ion r ef lec t s t h e w ide r e co log ica l s i tua t ion ,
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wh i le p r e l im inary s u rvey i n t h e I l o V a l ley , a s w e s ha l l s ee , h as p roduced a r a the r mo re c omp lex i n i t ia l p a t te rn .
R esea r ch A rea : C a r r iza l S pr ing S ys tem T he C ar r iza l s ys tem ( F igu re 2 ) i s c ha rac ter is t ic o f t h is t ype o f s pe c ia l ized e nv i ronmen ta l u n i t i n t h a t i t s s pr ing s a re t he c en te r o f a mu l t icomponen t e co log ica l m ic ro comp lex who se g eog raph ica l c on f igura t ion a nd s ubs is tance p o ten t ia ls e ncou rage i n te rdependence a nd c omp lemen tary u t i l iza t ion . T he C ar r iza l s p r ing eme rge s a t a n a l t i tude o f r ough ly 1 00 m , n ea r t h e j unc t ion o f a l o ca l ized c a tchmen t b as in t h a t d ra ins t he w e s tern s l opes o f t h e c oas ta l r ange o f moun t a in s f o r a d is t ance o f a pprox ima te ly 1 5 km a nd t h e c ons t r ic ted a nd d eep ly i nden ted c hanne l o f t he m a in t r unk o f i t s d ra inage s y s tem ( F igu re 2 ) . T he f oo th i l ls t h a t mark t h e i n land b o rde r o f t h e C ar r iza l e co log ica l s ys tem , wh i le t oday b as ica l ly a r id , s t i l l c arry t h e r ema ins o f y ur a t r ees , a t te s t ing t o a n e ar l ie r mo re e x tens ive l oma s g row th , t oday much r educed l a rge ly b ecause o f e nv ironmen t a l p o l lu t ion . T hes e s l ope s a nd t he c a tchmen t b as in a t t he ir f o o t p rev ious ly c omp r ised a n a tu ra l h ab i ta t f o r s ma l l g ame h un t ing a nd t he c o l lec t ing o f l oma s p l an t s . T he m a in d ra inage c hanne l a t t he t e rm ina l w e s te rn e nd o f t he c a t chmen t b as in a f te r r unn ing b e tween s t eep b u t l ow b lu f f s i s b ounded b y af a n shaped r un -o f f d e l ta t ha t e x tend s d own t o t he s ho re ( F igure 2 ) . T h is d e l ta c omb ine s t h e f unc t ion o f d ra in ing t he i n te rm i t ten t r a in fa l l f r om t h e c a t chmen t w i th t ha t o f b e ing t he n a tura l f l ow s y s tem f o r s pr ing w a te r a r is ing n ea r i t s i n land a pex . I ti s t h is g en t ly s l op ing a nd g ene ra l ly l e ve l d e l t a t h a t p rov ided t he s e t t ing f o r a g r icu l ture i n t h e P re co lumb ian p e r iod w i th a n i n t r i ca t e c ana l s ys tem d i s t r ibu t ing w a te r f r om t h e s p r ing c a t chmen t t ank s i n a nd a d jacen t t o t h e m a in d ra inage t r unk a c ro s s s e r ie s o f t e r race s t ha t e x tend t owards t h e s ho re l ine . F i na l ly t he s ho re a nd a d jacen t l i t to ra l c on s t i tu te t h e w e s te rn b o rde r o f t he s pr ing cen te red e co log ica l s y s tem . I n t h e l i t to ra l z one t h a t d i re c t ly b ounds t he C a r r iza l d e l t a , ar ocky s ho re l ine , p rov id ing a n e xce l len t h ab i ta t f o r a v ar ie ty o f s he l l f ish , i s o ve r looked b y g ene ra l ly l ow c oas ta l b lu f f s t h a t a l low e asy a cces s t o t he s ea b e low . I n a dd i t ion , a s he l te red b ay w i th s l op ing s andy b each ma rks t h e n or the rn e dge o f t he C ar r iza l l i t to ra l , p erm i t t ing e asy b each ing o f f i sh ing c r a f t a nd r ep resen t ing a n i d ea l l oca t ion f o r ma r ine -based s e t t lemen t . T oge ther t hese v a r ious e nv i ronmen ta l z ones c ons t i tu te a n e co log ica l m ic ro -comp lex who s e c o mponen t s e ach p rov ided t h e b as is f o r d i s t inc t ive s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s . T he h ighe r e as te rn e l eva t ion s uppo r t ed h un t ing a nd c o l le c t ing e conomy i n t h e e a r l ie r p e r iods a nd p rov ided i n term i t ten t g raz ing f o r c ame l ids i n l a te r p er iods . T he s pr ing fed d e l ta t e r r a ce s p e rm i t ted d eve lopmen t o f a bundan t a g r icu l tu ra l r e sour ce s wh i le t he c oas t w a s t he s e t t ing f o r i n ten s ive mar ine e xp lo i ta t ion . I n c omb ina t ion , t hese e co log ica l m ic ro -zones c ons t i tu ted a v ar ied a nd p l en t i fu l f ood p roduc t ion s ys tem a nd f o rmed t he b as i s f o r ar e la t ive ly s e l f -su f f ic ien t s ubs is tence e conomy . T he a ccumu la ted p o ten t ia l o f n ume rous s ys tems o f t h is t ype d i s t r ibu ted i n c l ose p rox im i ty t o e ach o the r a l ong t he c oa s t w as c l ear ly g rea t f o r c ons t ruc t ing a s t rong i n teg ra ted r eg iona l e conom ic n e two rk .
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R esea rch A rea : I l o V a l ley B y c on t ras t w i th t he C a r r iza l s ys tem a nd i t s c oun t erpa r t s t h e I l o R ive r V a l ley ( F igu re 1 )r ep resen t s ac l ea r ly d e l inea ted e nv i ronmen ta l e n t i ty , l a rge i n s i ze b u t c on f ined o n b o th f l ank s b y s hee r moun ta in s t h rough wh ich a cce ss t o t h e s ur round ing c oun try i s o n ly p o s s ib le b y means o f af ew s t eep q ueb r ad a t r ibu ta r ie s a nd d i f f icu l t moun ta in t r a ck s . A l though i nhab i tan t s o f t he v a l ley w ere c l ea r ly i n c on t inuous c on tac t w i th c o m mun i t ie s o f t he c oas ta l s p r ing s ys t em s i n t he w ide r r eg iona l s ense , i ti s i mp robab le , g iven t h e v a l ley 's r e la t ive i s o la t ion i n t e rm s o f i mmed ia te a c ces s , t ha t t he a r ea w as t i gh t ly i n teg ra ted i n to t h e i r m ic ro -env i ronmen ta l a dap t ive s t ruc ture s . T h is wou ld h ave b e en e spec ia l ly t r ue f o l low ing t h e d eve lopmen t o f i n t ensve a g r icu l ture w hen t he h igh p roduc t ive p o ten t ia l o f t h e v a l ley c omb ined w i th t h e r e la t ive i n access ib i l i ty o f t he d i s t an t c oas t a nd t h e h igh l oma s wou ld h ave made t he ir d i r e c t e xp lo i t a t ion a s c onduc ted i n t h e s pr ing s ys tem s u nnecessa r i ly d i f f icu l t . S uch e xp lo i t a t ion i s much mo re l i ke ly t o h ave b een t h rough e xchange o r t r an spo r ta t ion c onduc ted i n c o l labo ra t ion w i th g roups l i v ing i n t hese mo re d i s tan t a reas a nd s har ing t h e s ame e th i c i den t i ty . T hus w e c an r egard t h e I l o V a l ley a s t he s e cond ma jo r c omponen t o f c oas ta l e co logy . Wh i le i tw as p robab ly l o ca l ly s pe c ia l ized i n t e rms o f i t s p r inc ipa l s ub s is tenc e s t ra tegy i tf o rmed a v i ta l p a r t o f t he w ide r c oas ta l i n te rac t ive s phe re . I n i t s i n te rna l c on f igura t ion t h e I l o V a l ley c omp r i ses t wo d i s t inc t s e c t ion s , a n u ppe r c anyon c ommenc ing r ough ly 2 5 km i n land whe re a b rup t c l i f f s c l ose ly c on f ine t he r i ve r c ourse l e av ing n o s a t is fac to ry s pace f o r h uman s e t t lemen t o r c u l t iva t ion , a nd a l owe r s e c t ion ( F igu re 1 ) t h a t e x tends f r om t h is c anyon t o t h e s e a . I ti st h is l owe r s eg men t t h a t c once rns u s i n t h is s t udy a s i ti s h e re t h a t b o t tom l a nds b ound ing t he r i v e r g radua l ly w iden t owa rd t h e c oas t , c r ea t ing t h e p o ten t ia l f o r a g r icu l tura l d eve lop men t a nd a s soc ia ted l a rge -s ca le p opu la t ions . T he u ppe r t wo th i rds o f t h is o p t i ma l o c cupa t ion z one i sq u i te n ar row , n ever e xceed ing o ne km i n w id th , h oweve r , n ea r t he c oa s t t h e f l ank ing moun ta in s r e cede s i gn i f ican t ly i n c reas ing t h e l e ve l v a l ley -bo t tom a rea a va i lab le f o r h uman u t i l iza t ion . I ti s c l ea r t h a t t h is h igh p o ten t ia l f o r a g r icu l tura l d eve lopmen t w as r e a l ized i n P re co lumb ian t ime s . A ma jo r i r r iga t ion c ana l , n ow a bandoned , t a ps t he r i ve r j u s t b e low t he l owe r e nd o f t h e r i ve r c anyon a nd r un s w e s twa rd a l ong t h e n o r the r f l ank o f t he r i ve r v a l ley o n ah igh b road t e r race t ha t i n a n c ien t t imes c ons t i tu t ed a ma jo r a r ea o f i r r iga ted f i e lds , a lmo s t d oub l ing t he amoun t o f l a nd n ow u nde r c u l t iva t ion i n t h e v a l ley b e low . T h is e v idence f o r e x ten s ive a g r icu l ture , c omb ined w i th n u me rous a s soc ia ted l a rge s e t t lemen t s c l ear ly r evea ls t he i mpo r tan ce o f t he I l o V a l ley i n t h e P re co lumb ian p e r iod . T he t wo d i s t inc t e co log ica l t ype s r ef lec ted b y t h e I l o V a l ley a nd c o a s ta l s p r ing s ys tem s i n c omb ina t ion r ep re sen t a ma jo r r eg iona l e conom ic c omp lex . A s w e h ave s e en , t h e v a r ious m ic ro -n iches c on t ro l led b y e ach s p r ing s y s tem i n t h emse lve s p rov ide t h e c apac i ty f o r b road s pe c t rum s ubs is tence e xp lo i ta t ion . T he a gg rega t ion o f t h e p roduc t ive a nd o ccupa t iona l r e sour ces o f t h e n umerous a nd c l ose ly s paced s ys tem s t h a t e x tend n o r thward f r om I l o , t h en , f o rm s o ne i mpo r tan t c omponen t o f as t rong , v a r ied e conomy - a n e x ten s ive p a t te rn o f r e la ted m ic ro -env i ronmen t a l c omp lexes . T h i s e x ten s ive c omponen t i s , o f c ou rse , c o mp lemen ted b y t he e nv i ronmen ta l u n i t t ha t c omp r ises t he I l o V a l ley w i th i t s m a jo r r i ve r ine -o r ien ted e conomy . T oge the r t h ese d ua l c o mponen t s f o rmed a l a rge , v a r ied e co log ica l s ys tem whose c ons t i tuen t s p rov ided t he b a s is f o r w ide s ubs is ten ce v ar ie ty a nd a n i n t en s ive f ood b ase . I n b o th e conom ic a nd d emograph ic
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t e rm s t h is c oas ta l z one p o sse s sed t h e n e ce s sary q ua l i t ies t o c ons t i tu te a d i s t inc t ive r eg iona l e co -sys tem w i th t h e r e a l c apab i l i ty o f g enera t ing s t rong c u l tura l s e l f su f f ic iency .
O ccupa t iona l P a t terns I n t roduc t ion T he C ar r iza l o ccupa t iona l s equen ce e x tends f r om t h e r emo te p re ce ram ic p e r iod t o mode rn t imes . A s Iam d i s cus s ing t he P reco lumb ian c e ram ic p e r iod s e t t lemen t i n t h is s t udy , t h e e ar l ie r p hases w i l l n o t b e d es c r ibed o the r t han t o n o te t h a t p r ece ram ic s i te s a re f ound a long t he l i t to ra l , a d jacen t t o t h e s p r ing , a nd s ca t te red a c ro s s t h e c oas ta l s egmen t s o f t he d ra inage b as in . C lea r ly f r om t h e e a r l ies t t ime s a l l e co log ica l m ic ro -zone s w e re b e ing e xp lo i ted w i th r e su l t ing e conomy i n co rpo ra t ing b road s pec t rum mar ine a nd t e r re s t r ia l h un t ing a nd g a the r ing . T h is a dap t ive s ys tem s e t t h e s t age f o r s e t t lemen t o f t he c e ram ic c u ltura l p er iods a nd i n augu ra ted a t r ad i t ion t h a t l a s ted u n t i l t he S pan ish C o lon ia l P er iod when t he c hange t o a s pec ia l ized p l an ta t ion e conomy d ras t ica l ly a l tered o ccupa t iona l a nd l a nd u se p a t te rn s . T he I l o V a l ley s e t t lemen t h i s tory i sn o t n ea r ly s o w e l l k nown a t p resen t d ue t o t he p re l im ina ry n a tu re o f o u r i nve s t iga t ion s . On t h e b as is o f w a lk -ove r s urvey a nd l im i ted e xcava t ion , ag ene ra l i d ea o f l a te r p re Inca s e t t lemen t i s eme rg ing . Howeve r , v i r tua l ly a l l k now ledge o f e ar ly s e t t lemen t a wa i t s mo re i n tens ive r e sear ch b ecause o f t h e b ur ia l o f o ccupa t iona l s i te s o n t h e s t eep v a l ley s i de s r e su l t ing f r om t e c ton ic a c t iv i ty a nd l a te P reco lumb ian a nd S pan ish p er iod a gr icu l tura l d i s tu rbance . A ma jo r r e cen t ly in i t ia ted i nve s t iga t ion o f t h e l a rge s i te o f A lgo r roba l ( Ch i r ibaya B a ja ) b y D av id J e s sup i n t he l owe r v a l ley ( F igure 1 ) s hou ld a s s is t s ubs tan t ive ly i n a dd ing t o k now ledge o f t h e l a te r p er iods . E ar ly C e ra m ic O ccupa t ion : S p r ing S ys tem S e t t lemen t P a t te rn Mo s t o f t he s pr ing s y s tem e v idence t o d a te d e r ives f r om t h e C ar r iza l s ys tem a l though s ome s ma l l -s ca le b u t i mpo r tan t wo rk f u r the r t o t h e n o r th w i l l a l so b e d i s cus sed . T he c e ram ic i nven to ry o f t h e C a r r iza l S p r ing S y s tem p r io r t o t he d eve lopmen t o f t he l a te p o lych rome w are s d i s cus sed l a t e r i s r ep resen ted b y a c omp lex o f c oa rse , l a rge ly u ndeco ra ted w ares . T h is c e ram ic c a tego ry i n corpo ra te s v esse ls o f f a i r ly t h ick b ody w id th , u sua l ly w i th t h ickened l i p s a nd r ound b o t tom s t h a t r a re ly c on ta ins h and le s o f a ny t ype . P as te i sd ark i n c o lo r a nd t empe r c ons is t s o f c oa rse m ine ra l g r i t w i th n o s i gn wha t eve r o f f i be r i n c lus ions . A ma jo r i ty o f r e la ted v esse l s s how s i gn s o f s moke b lacken ing i nd ica t ing t h e i r i den t i ty a s u t i l i ta r ian i t em s . G iven t he f a i r ly e x t en s ive s amp le , i ti sp e rhaps s u rp r is ing t h a t t he r ange o f v e s se l f o rms d i sp layed b y t h ese w a re s i s s o l im i ted . T he n e ck le s s o la i sd om inan t . I ndeed o u t o f at o ta l s amp le o f 28 r im s he rds , 1 83 o r o ve r 8 0% w e re o f t h is s i ng le c a tago ry w i th t he o n ly o the r s i gn i f ican t f o rm , t h e b ow l , r ep resen t ing o n ly 1% ( 2 6 r im s he rds ) . R ema in ing v e s se l s hapes w e re e i the r f o rma l ly u n iden t i f iab le o r o f r a re o ccu r rence . Howeve r , w i th in t he t o ta l s amp le t he re w as a d i f feren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f f o rm s a cco rd ing t o s i te p roven ience , t h e p o s s ib le s i gn i f ican ce o f wh ich Is ha l l d i scus s l a te r . T h is c a tego ry o f e ar ly c e ram ic v e s se ls i s a s so c ia ted w i th a s e t t lemen t p a t te rn t ha t e x tends i n to a l l e nv i ronm en ta l z ones o f t h e s pr ing s ys tem ( F igu re 3 ) . T he t h ree mo s t c en t ra l ly -s itua ted s i te s , s i t es 5 1 , 5 5 , a nd 7 0 , e xh ib i t f e a tu re s e xpe c tab le i n t e rm s o f t h is l o ca t ion c l ose t o t he s our ces o f w a te r . T hese a ppea r t o h ave b een p e rmanen t r e s iden t ia l
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F igu re 3 . T he C arr iza l S pr ing S ys tem : S i te D is t r ibut ion .
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s e t t lemen t s c on ta in ing a bundan t d ome s t ic m idden , p len t i fu l e v idence o f c ook ing h ea r ths a nd s t u rdy s t one a r ch i te c tu re . I n t h e c ase o f S i te 5 1 , t he s e t t lemen t e v idence d er ive s s o le ly a t p resen t f r om s t ra t ig raph ic s t udy ( F igur e 4 ) . A d eep p ro f i le e xcava ted i n to t he s ou the rn s i de o f t h e ma in d ra inage c hanne l t r unk o f t h e c a t chmen t b as in r evea led a c omp lex s equence i n wh ich t he e ar ly c e ram ic o ccupa t ion o ve r lay a p rece ram ic d epo s i t a nd i n t u rn w as o ve r la in b y al a te r C h ir ibaya s t ra tum , e ach o f t he c u l tu ra l l e ve ls b e ing s epa ra ted f r om i t s f e l low b y ad epo s i t o f w ind -b lown s and . I n t he c en te r o f t h e e a r ly c e ram i c l e ve l ac obb le w a l l e x t ended d i re c t ly s ou thwa rd , o u t f r om t h e p ro f i le . I t s c l ose p rox im i ty t o af o rma l h ear th s t rong ly i nd ica te s t h a t t h is e xcava t ion w as l o ca ted i n a d ome s t ic s e t t ing , p robab ly t h e c on t iguous s e c t ions o f t wo r ooms s epa ra ted b y a s t one -bu i l t wa l l . A r ad io -ca rbon s amp le f r om t he h ear th d a ted t h e o ccupa t ion t o a pp rox ima te ly 2 00 B .C . B y c on t ras t t o S i te 5 5 , S i te 5 1 i s as ur face f e a ture , c ove r ing t he s umm i t o f ah i l l a nd t he i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t s l opes ( F igure 3 ) o ve r look ing t he s p r ing s ource a nd t he p rox ima l s ec t ion o f i t s r un -o f f c hanne l . T h is s e t t lemen t i sn ow c h ief ly d i s t ingu ished b y a c on fused s ca t te r o f f a l len w a l ls . I ndeed t h e p reponderan t l a ck o f a ny a r ch i te c tu ra l o rde r , e ven i n f ounda t ion p a t t ern , s ugge s t s t h a t t h is c ons t ruc t ion h as a t s ome p o in t b een i n ten t iona l ly d e s t royed , ap os s ib i l i ty t h a t r equ i re s f u r the r i nve s t iga t ion . T he a r ch i tec tura l r e s idue o f S i te 5 1 i st ho rough ly m ixed w i th d ome s t ic m idden wh ich , i n t hose f ew a r eas whe r e i n teg r i ty o f d epo s i t ion a l low s c l ear o bse rva t ion , i s o f c ons ide rab le t h icknes s , i nd ica t ing i n tens ive r e s iden t ia l s e t t lemen t . S i t e 7 0 , a no the r s uper f ic ia l s i te , s t ands o n t h e r i dge r i s ing a bove t he a g r icu l tura l t e r race s j u s t n o r th o f t h e s p r ing r un -o f f c hanne l ( F igure 3 ) . T he s i te c omp r ises a t h ick ( ave r age 8 5 c m ) r e s iden t ia l m idden d epos i t i n te r spe rsed w i th w a l l f r agmen t s . N e i the r m idden n o r a r ch i te c tu re e v idences t h e m a jo r d i s turbance p resen t i n S i te 5 5 , s ugges t ing t ha t i t was n o t i nvo lved i n t h e e ven t t h a t c aused t h is d i s t ruc t ion . P reserva t ion o f o rgan ic ma ter ia l i sp oo r a s i n t h e o the r e a r ly c e ram ic s i te s a nd c e ram ic f o rm s r ep resen t e d a r e o verwhe lm ing ly o f t h e n e ck le s s o la t ype ( 4 3 o f 5 1 r im f r agmen t s ) . T he se c en t ra l ly lo ca ted s e t t lemen t s w e re i dea l ly p l aced f o r t he ir o ccupan t s t o e xp lo i t t he f o od r e sou rce s o f a l l o f t h e m ic ro -zones c en te red a round t he s p r ing . T hey s t ood c l ose t o a n a bundan t p ermanen t w a t e r s ource t o t he e as t o f wh ich l a y t h e p redom inan t ly h un t ing a nd g a ther ing r e source s o f t h e i n land d ra inage b as in a nd i t s a d jacen t h i l ly s l op e s , t o t he w e s t t h e a g r icu l tura l p o ten t ia l o f t h e r un -o f f d e l ta . A l though t o d a te t h e re i s n o d i rec t e v idence o f e ar ly f i e ld s y s tem s , t h is a b sence i s l og ica l ly e xp la ined b y d e s t ruc t ion c aused b y l a t e r a g r icu l tura l e xpans ion d ur ing t h e C h ir ibaya o ccupa t ion . I n a dd i t ion t o t hese c en t ra l ly lo ca ted s i te s , t wo a dd i t iona l s e t t lemen t s , S i t e 8 1 a nd 8 2 , a re l o ca ted o n t he l owe r r un -o f f d e l ta w e s t o f t h e a g r icu l tura l t e r race s , s epara ted b y t he d eep c hanne l t h a t c a r r ied w a te r f r om t h e s p r ing s ( F igure 3 ) . T hese b ad ly -e roded s i tes a r e l i t t le mo re t han s u r face s c a t te r s w i th s ma l l p o cke t s o f m idden f r om wh ich s eve ra l l i ne s i nker s a nd a h a rpoon p o in t w e re r e cove red . Wh i le t he l o ca t ion o f s i te s 8 1 a nd 8 2 i s a dvan tageous f o r m a r ine e xp lo i ta t ion , t hey s t and i n land r e la t ive t o o the r s pec ia l ized f i sh ing s e t t lemen t s , s t rong ly s ugge s t ing t h a t a n a dd i t iona l c once rn p l ayed a r o le i n t he i r p l acemen t -n ame ly p rox im i ty t o a g r icu l tura l l a nd . T he s t ronges t e v iden ce o f a g r icu l tura l a c t iv i ty i n t h e r un -o f f d e l ta i n t he e a r ly p e r iod d e r ive s f r om t h e a s so c ia t ed s e t t lemen t p a t te rn . A l l o f t h e e a r ly c e ram ic s i tes s o f a r
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i den t i f ied a re l o ca ted i n land . Wh i le s i te s 8 1 a nd 8 2 a re h ave e asy a cce ss t o t he s e a a nd ma r ine r e sources , t hey a r e a l so w e l l l o ca ted t o c onduc t f a rm ing o n t he a reas o f t h e d e l ta c l ose s t t o t he s p r ing r un -o f f c hanne l . E ven mo re s ugge s t ive o f a g r icu l tu re a re t he l o ca t ions o f s i te s 5 1 , 5 5 , a nd 7 0 ( F igure 3 ) . E ach o f t he se r a the r s ubs tan t ia l r e s iden t ia l s e t t lemen ts s t ands i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t t o i r r igab le l a nd . B y c on t ras t t o t h e s i tua t ion i n S i te 8 1 a nd 8 2 , n o f i sh ing p araphe rna l ia h as b een f ound i n t hese i n land s i tes . T he i r c l ose p rox im i ty t o f r esh w a te r wou ld h ave m in im ized t he t e chno log ica l p rob lem s a sso c ia ted w i th i r r iga t ion o f t he s ur round ing l and . Mo reove r , t hese s i tes s t and a t a s i gn i f ican t d is tan ce f r om t h e s ea , t h is f e a ture c on t ras t ing w i th t h e d emon s t ra ted p at te rn f o r s pe c ia l ized f i sh ing s e t t lemen t s i n t h is r eg ion/ lo ca t ion c l ose t o t he s hor e l ine . T h is c omb ina t ion o f l o ca t iona l a nd a r t i fac tua l f a c to r s s t rong ly i nd ica tes t ha t a g r icu l tu re w as p rac t iced i n t h e p rox ima l p or t ion o f t h e d e l ta i n t h e e a r ly c e ram ic p er iod . S uch a s ys tem mus t h ave r e l ied o n c ana l c on s t ruc t ion , n ow o b l i te ra ted , a nd c an f e as ib ly b e r ega rded a s t h e f o rma t ive e xp re s s ion o f t he a ccomp l ished h ydrau l ic t e chno logy t ha t e vo lved i n al a te r e po ch . T he f i na l C a r r iza l s e t t lemen t r e la t ing t o t h e e a r ly c e ram ic p hase ( S i te 7 6 ) s t ands a pp rox ima te ly o ne k i lome te r i n land f r om t h e s p r ing s ou rce o n ab lu f f o ve r look ing t he ma in q uebr ad a c hanne l o f t h e d ra inage b as in ( F igure 3 ) . T h is l o ca t ion p lace s t h e s i te n ear t he c en ter o f t he b as in w e l l away f r om a ny o the r e nv i ronmen ta l z one s a nd a t ac on s ide r a b le d i s tance f r om w a te r , i nd ica t ing t h a t i t s p r imary f un c t ion w as a c en te r o f i n land s ub s is t ance a c t iv i ty . S i te 7 6 i s a n i n tense s ur face c l us te r o f c e ram ic , l i th ic a nd s he l l f r agmen t s i n wh ich a lmos t a l l c u l tu ra l d epos i t ion h as b een d es t royed b y w ind e ro s ion . However t he r ema ins o f h ear ths a nd a sso c ia ted m idden a t tes t t o a n o r ig ina l d ome s t ic r e s iden t ia l u se a nd a d ense c e ram ic s c a t te r c e r ta in ly s ugge s t s t ha t S i te 7 6 w as mo re t h an at empo rary h un t ing c amp . T h is e v idence mo re c l ea r ly i nd ica tes t ha t e xp lo i ta t ion o f i n land r e sour ce s w as o f s u f f ic ien t i mpo r tance t o t h e o ve ra l l e conomy o f t h e s pr ing s y s tem t o w a r ran t t r an spo r ta t ion o f w a te r t o as e t t lemen t t ha t s e rved a s ab ase f o r s uch a c t iv i t ie s . B eyond t h e C arr iza l s y s tem wo rk h as b een l e s s c omp rehens ive . Neve r the le s s , a dd i t iona l e v idence o f e a r ly c e ram ic o ccupa t ion a t t h e mo re n o r the r ly s ys tem o f P acoma a nd i t s e nv irons ( F igure 1 ) i n g ene ra l c on f i rm s t h e C ar r iza l s c enar io a nd e x tends o ur k now ledge t o ad i f fe ren t c l ass o f d a ta . T he l a rge P acoma s p r ing s ys tem p o ssesse s a c ons ide rab ly h ighe r v o lume o f w a ter t han C a r r iza l w i th c o r re spond ing ly e x tens ive f i e ld t e r race s a nd l a te P reco lumb ian r e s iden t ia l s e t t lemen t . A l though t h is l a te r o c cupa t ion h as d i s rup ted a nd p robab ly o b l i te ra ted mo s t o f t h e e ar l ie r s e t t lemen t , as i ng le e a r ly c e r am ic s i t e c ompr is ing d i s tu rbed m idden w as i d en t i f ied n ea r t h e s p r ing s ource s a nd a d jacen t t o o ne o f t he n a tu ra l r un -o f f c hanne ls . T h is l o ca t ion r ep l ica tes t h a t o f t h e C a r r iza l e ar ly c e ram ic p e r iod s i tes a nd , g iven i t s c ons ide rab le d i s tance f r om t he s ho re ( 2 .5 km ) p robab ly , l i ke t h em , r ep re sen t s af o rma t ive a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lemen t . F u ture wo rk i n t he n o r the rn s pr ing s ys t em s s hou ld f u r the r c on f i rm t h is eme rg ing p a t te rn o f e a r ly h ydrau l ic s ub s is t ence i n t h e r un -o f f d e l tas . J u s t n o r th o f P acoma , t h e s i te o f Wawak ik i h as p roduced t h e f i r s t c eme te ry o f t h is g ene ra l t ime p e r iod . A d ense ly p acked g roup o f b u r ia ls w as d is cove red e rod ing f r om a r o ad c u t a nd y i e lded f u r ther i mpo r tan t i n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t o t he e ar ly c e ram ic p e r iod p opu la t ion o f t he a rea . Un l ike l a te r b ur ia ls , t h e Wawak ik i e xamp le s w e re u n l ined , c ons i s t ing o f s imp le o va l b ur ia l p i t s i n wh ich b od ie s w rapped i n c oarse t e x t i le a nd a n o u te r mat t ing l a ye r w er e l a id i n af l exed p o s i t ion o n t h e ir s i de s . S i x s uch b ur ia ls h ave
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b een s o f a r e x cava ted . E ach c on t a ined o ne o r mo re l a rge n e ck les s o l l a s , a l l u ndeco ra ted w i th t h e p rom inen t e xcep t ion o f av es se l w i th o u t tu rned n eck a nd c oa r se l i near b lue p a in t ing ( F igu re 5 ) . T h is v esse l r ep resen t s t he o n ly k nown e xa mp le o f p a in ted d e co ra t ion i n t he e n t ire c o rpus o f e a r ly c e ram ic s a nd p l ace s t he i n it ia t ion o f t h i s t e chn ique much e a r l ie r t h an h as p rev ious ly b een s uppo sed . I n s ummary , t he p i c tur e i lus t ra ted b y t he e ar ly c e ram ic o ccupa t ion o f C a rr iza l a nd n ea rby s p r ing s y s tems i s o ne o f r e la t ive ly s ma l l s e t t lemen t s , p e rmanen t i n n a tu re , c en te red o n t he s p r ings a nd t he i r d e r ived w a te r c ourse s a nd l o ca ted s o a s t o u t i l ize e ach c omponen t e nv ironmen ta l m ic ro -zone o f t he s y s tem . I n a l l p robab i l i ty , t h e n a tur a l r e source s e xp lo i ted b y e a r l ie r p re ce ram ic p opu la t ion s w e re a ugmen ted d ur ing t h is p e r iod b y i r r iga t ion a g r icu l tu re i n t h e s egmen t o f t he r un -o f f d e l ta a d jacen t t o t h e s p r ing fed s t ream . We s ha l l s ee t h a t t h is d ependen ce o n a g r icu l ture was much i n ten s i f ied i n l a te r p e r iods , b u t t ha t s pec ia l ized e xp lo i ta t ion o f o the r n a tur a l a reas c on t inued t o as i gn i f ican t d eg ree , t hus c on t inu ing a l ong las t ing h uman e co log ica l p a t te rn t h a t e x tended b ack t o t h e b eg inn ing o f s e t t lemen t i n t he a r ea . E a r ly C eram ic O ccupa t ion i n S p r ing S ys tem s : H is tor ic D eve lopmen t T o d a te o n ly a s i ng le r ad io -ca rbon d a te i sa va i lab le f o r t he e a r ly c e ram ic p e r iod -t h i s i s2 140+240 B P o r 1 90+240 B .C . ( Be ta -2 0905 ) . T he s amp le t h a t p roduced t h i s d a te w a s c o l le c ted f r om t he s ea led s t ra tum o f S i te 5 5 ( F igu re 4 ) . Wh i le f u r the r c h rono log ica l c l ar i f ica t ion i s c l ear ly n eeded , t h is d a te , t oge the r w i th c harac te r is t ics o f t h e a sso c ia ted p o t te ry , d oe s p e rm i t as o l id b eg inn ing t owa rd u nde rs t and ing t he d eve lopmen ta l h i s to ry o f e a r ly c e ram ic p e r iod o c cupa t ion a l ong t h e c oas t . I n g ene ra l t he e a r ly c e ram ic c o rpus r e la te s t o o the r r eg iona l u ndeco ra ted i nven to r ie s i n wh ich n e ck les s o la s a re a p rom inen t f o rm . S uch c e ram ic w ares a s t ho se o f t h e Wanka r in i a nd C h i r ipa c omp lexes f r om t h e T i t icaca b as in a nd s ou the rn a l t ip lano ( c a . 1 000 -800 B .C . ) , t he F a ldas d e l Mo ro p o t te ry o f No r the rn C h i le ( 8 00 B .C . ) a nd , s i gn i f ican t ly , t he r e cen t ly iden t i f ied Hua racane P hase , t h e c e ram ic e xpress ion o f a n e a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l c u l ture i n t h e Moquegua V a l ley ( Go lds te in a nd F e ldman 1 985 ) , c an a l l b e r ega red a s t y l is t ic a nd t e chn ica l c oun t erpa r t s t o t h e c oas ta l e ar ly c e ra m ic p hase . T hese c oas ta l c e ram ics , h oweve r , d i f fe r f r om o the r e a r ly r eg iona l c omp lexes i n o ne i mpo r tan t r e spe c t . Whe reas a l l o f t h e o the r e a r ly s t y les a re f i be r tempe red , t ha t o f t he c oas t e x c lus ive ly u t i l ize s m ine ra l t empe r . T h is f e a ture , t oge the r w i th t he a ppearance o f p a in ted p o t tery i n t he Wawak ik i c eme te ry , d i f fe ren t ia te s t h e c oas t a l c e ram ic s f r om t h e i r c l ose s t c oun te rpar t s , s ugge s t ing t h a t l o ca l ly -spec i f ic mode s w e re o pe ra t ing b y t he l a s t m i l len ium B .C . i n t h e c on t ex t o f eme rg ing a g r icu l tura l s oc ie ty a nd s t r eng thens t h e p robab i l i ty o f a n e s sen t ia l ly i nd igenous c oas ta l c u l tura l t r ad i t ion . A l though w e n ow h ave a p re l im inary i d ea o f t h e a ge o f e ar ly c e r am ic p er iod o ccupa t ion o n t he c oas t , t h e s i ng le d a te d oe s n o t b y i t s e l f a ddre s s t h e i s sue o f l ongev i ty o r i n te rna l e vo lu t ion o f t h is p has e . Howeve r , e xam ina t ion o f t he i n te r s i te c e ram ic v a r iab i l i ty among t h e r e la ted v e s se l f o rms d oe s p rov ide t he means t o a pp roach t h i s q ue s t ion . A s Ih ave n o ted p rev ious ly , t h e v a r ious s i te s w i th in t h e C a r r iza l s p r ing s y s tem i n wh ich e a r ly c e ram ics a r e f ound e xh ib i t a d i f fe ren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f f o rm s . Wh i le n e ck le s s o la s a re t h e d om inan t f o rm i n a l l a reas , m ino r f o rm s d i sp lay marked v ar iab i l i ty o f o ccu r rence f r equency . I n S i te s 5 5 , 7 0 , 8 1 , 8 2 a nd t h e Wawak ik i c e me te ry , o u t o f a
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F igu re 5 .E ar ly C e ram ic P a in ted V e sse l f r om Wawak ik i C eme te ry . c omb ined r im i nven to ry o f 9 7 p ieces o n ly s i x b ow l r ims a nd t h ree o the r f o rms ( 9 5 t o ta l ) w e re f ound . Howeve r t h e re i s mo re v ar iab i l i ty i n t he o ther s i te s . S i te 5 1 p roduced t h ree b ow ls a nd 2 s t rap - h and led v e sse ls o u t o f at o t a l o f 2 0 f o rm s ( 2 5% ) wh i le i n S i te 7 6 t h is t r end i s e ven mo r e p ronounced w i th n on -o l la f o rm s ( 1 9 b ow s , 1 2 s t rap -hand led v es se ls , o ne f i gur ine ) c on s t i tu t ing a lmos t 3 0% . A l though i ti so f c our se p o ss ib le t h a t t h is s i t e v ar iab i l ity i s d ue t o s amp l ing , t h e mode ra t e s amp le s i ze s make s t h is u n l ike ly . S im i la r ly , f unc t iona l s pe c i f ic i ty a ppea r s a n u n l ike ly c ause f o r s uch v a r iab i l i ty . A l l s i te s a r e c l ear ly r e s iden t ia l s e t t lemen ts w i th c on s ide rab le d ome s t ic m idden o u t o f wh ich many o f t h e f r agmen t s w e re r e cove red . I ti s t o b e e xpec ted t h a t as amp le o f a l l u t i l i tar ian f o rms u sed a t t h ese s i t e s w ou ld a ppea r i n t h is c on tex t . T hus t h e a lmo s t to ta l a b sence o f a ny f o rms o the r t han n eck le ss o la s a t S i te 5 5 , 7 0 , 8 1 a nd 8 2 i n a l l p robab i l i ty r e f lec t s t he a c tua l s i tua t ion , a s d o es t h e i n c reas ing i n c idence o f b ow ls a nd h and led fo rms a t t h e o the r s i tes .
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Ic onc lude t ha t t h is v ar iab i l i ty i n f a c t , d eno te s t h e g radua l e vo lu t ion o f ac e ram ic t r ad i t ion w i th a n o r ig ina l i nven to ry a lmos t e n t i re ly c on f ined t o o la s b e ing a ugmen ted t h rough t ime b y o the r v esse l f o rms . I n t he l i gh t o f t h is c onc lus ion we mus t a c cep t t h e p robab i l i ty t ha t t he e ar ly c e ram ic p hase a t C ar r iza l r ep resen t s al ong , d eve lop ing c u l tura l t r ad i t ion o n t h e c oas t whose p re c is e c h rono log ica l p a rame te rs a r e s t i l l t o b e i den t i f ied . I n b roade r t e rm s t h is p robab i l i ty c a r r ies i mpor tan t i mp l ica t ions f o r c l ar i fy ing t h e n a ture o f c o as ta l s o c ie ty , s ugge s t ing a s i t d oe s t h a t f r om t h e e ar l ie s t c e ram ic p e r iod a l o ca l c u l tu ra l p a t te rn a ssoc ia ted w i th s pec i f ic e co log ica l a nd a g r icu l tu ra l a dapa ta t ions w as e vo lv ing i n t h is a rea , d i sp lay ing l i t t le s i gn i f ican t r e la t ion sh ip w i th o ther r eg ion s . E a r ly C e ram ic O ccupa t ion o f I l o V a l ley A s In o ted a bove , t h e s upe r f ic ia l n a tu re o f p re l im ina ry s urvey i n t he I l o V a l ley h as o n ly a l lowed t he f o rmu la t ion o f a mos t g ene ra l c u l tu ra l f r amewo rk a nd t h is r e la t ing a lmo s t e xc lus ive ly t o t he l a te r c e ram ic p e r iods . Howeve r , as i ng le s i te o n t h e n o r th s i de o f t h e v a l ley r ough ly s i x km f r om i t s mou th s ugge s t s t ha t p opu la t ions a s so c ia ted w i th t h e e a r ly c e ram ic p hase d es c r ibed a t C ar r iza l a l so o ccup ied t h e v a l ley . I t i s t o b e a s sumed t ha t s e t t lemen t i n t h is z one wou ld b e l o ca ted s o a s t o u t i l ize t h e s upe r io r a g r icu l tu ra l p o ten t ia l o f t h e r i ve r v a l ley b o t tom , a nd t h e re fo re c on fo rm ing t o t he p a t t ern i nd ica t ed f o r t he c oas ta l s p r ing s ys tem s . A t t h is s t age , l i t t le e l s e o f a mean ing fu l n ature c an b e s a id r ega rd ing v a l ley o c cupa t ion o f t he e a r ly p e r iod .
L a te C e ram ic O ccupa t ion S p r ing S y s tem S e t t lemen t o f t he L a te P hase T he l a te c e ram ic p hase a t t he C ar r iza l s pr ing s ys tem c omp r ise s t wo c omponen t s , e ach w i th a d i s t in c t ive d i s t r ibu t ion . B y f a r t h e l a rge s t o f t h ese c omponen t s i sr ep resen ted b y t h e C h i r ibaya S ty le , u ndoub ted ly t he b e s t k nown s ou the rn P e ruv ian p o t te ry e xp re s s ion . C h ir ibaya p o t te ry , a r ed -pas ted , m inera l t empe red w a re w i th n ume rous f o rms a nd p o lych rome , g eome t r ica l ly a bs t rac t d e co ra t ion ( F igu re 6 ) , d om ina te s a l l o f t h e r e s iden t ia l s i t es y e t i d en t i f ied i n t h e C a r r iza l s y s tem p rope r . O f t h ese s i te s t he mu l t i componen t S i te 5 5 c on t inue s i n u se f r om t he e ar l ie r p e r iod w i th t h e C h ir ibaya o ccupa t ion o ve r ly ing t h e e ar ly c e ram ic l e ve l i n t he o n ly s t ra t ig raph ic j ux t apo s i t ion o f t he t wo p hase s y e t i den t i f ied ( F igure 4 ) . E lsewhe re s eve ra l s ma l l r e s iden t ia l c l us te r s c o l lec t ive ly d e s igna ted S i te 5 6 s t and o n l ow k no l ls a nd r i dges i n t h e e x tne s ive a gr icu l tura l t e r races a s soc ia ted w i th t h e l a te p e r iod s ou th o f t h e ma in c hanne l o f t h e r un -o f f d e l ta ( F igu re 3 ) . B ur ia ls a s soc ia ted w i th t h ese r e s iden t ia l a reas a re q u i te d i f fe ren t f r om t he ir p redecesso r s , c omp r is ing s t one l ined o va l s ha f t c hambe r s t opped b y l a rge f l a t c aps tone s i n wh ich t he w r apped b od ie s r e s t ed i n as i t t ing p o s i t ion a ccompan ied b y a bundan t g rave g oods . O f t h ese C h ir ibaya s e t t lemen t s , s i te 5 5 , s t and ing j u s t e as t o f t he s p r ing s ource o ve r look ing t he t e rm ina l e nd o f t he c a t chmen t b as in , i s i dea l ly l o ca ted t o c onduc t a c t iv i t ie s r e la t ing t o t h is i n land z one . Wh i le l oma s a nd f oo th i l l h un t ing a nd g a the r ing m ay w e l l h ave c on t inued t o p l ay a r o le i n t h is e conom ic p a t te rn , a no the r s pec ia l ized a c t iv i ty i s n ow r ep resen ted . A c l us te r o f s t one e nc lo sure s , s i te 5 4 ( F igure 3 ) s t and o n t h e l owe r d ra inage b as in a s soc ia ted w i th s ma l l s he l te r s . T he p resen ce o f c ame l id manu re a t t h is s i te i nd ica tes t he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t h e rd ing o r l ong range c a ravan t r anspo r ta t ion w as a f e a ture o f C h ir ibaya e conomy , c en te red i n t he i n land h in te r land o f t h e s p r ing s y s tem . F ur the r w e s t , t he h ydrau l ic d i s t r ibu t ive s ys t em b y t h e C h ir ibaya p has e u t i l ized c a t chmen t t anks a nd c ana ls , g rea t ly e xpand ing t he a rea o f l a nd u nde r
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c u l t iva t ion a nd mod i fy ing t h e a sso c ia ted s e t t lemen t p a t te rn . T hus a n e x tens ive s ys tem o f w ide a g r icu l tura l t e r race s s p read f an l ike f r om t h e s p r ing s ource ( F igu re 2 ) . C h i r ibaya r e s iden t ia l o ccupa t ion f o l low s t he s ame p a t te rn , mov ing away f r om t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f t he ma in f l ow c hanne l whe re e a r ly c e ram ic s e t t lemen t h ad c l us te red a nd s p read ing t h rough t he e xpanded a g r icu l tu ra l s ys tem ( F igur e 3 ) . I ti s s i gn i f ican t i n t he l i gh t o f t he b roade r C ar r iza l s e t t lemen t p a t te rn o f t he l a te c e ram ic p hase t h a t C h i r ibaya s i tes o n t he r un -o f f d e l ta a re s ur rounded b y f i e lds a nd l o ca ted f ur the r i n land t h an s o me o f t he ir e ar ly c e ram ic c oun te rpa r t s ( F igu re 3 ) . Whe reas s i te s 8 1 a nd 8 2 s t ood b eyond t he e dge o f c u l t iva ted l a nd a nd w e re l o ca ted s o a s t o c on t ro l b o th a g r icu l tura l a nd ma r ine r e sour ces , t h e Ch ir ibaya s e t t lemen t s s t and f u r the r f r om t h e s ea a nd a re u n i fo rm ly a sso c ia ted w i th a g r icu l ture . T h is d i f fe rence i s a l so r ef le c ted i n t he m idden r ema ins wh ich , wh i le i nd ica t ing t h a t mar ine p roduc t s c on s t i tu ted a n i mpo r tan t C h i r ibaya d i e ta ry c omponen t , d i sp lay a n ea r a bsence o f f i sh ing t a ck le , a c ha rac te r is t ic t h a t c on t ra s t s s ha rp ly w i th t h e mo re c oas ta l ly lo ca ted s i te s , b o th o f e ar l ie r a nd c on tempo rary d a te . I ta ppear s t h a t ma r ine e xp lo i ta t ion a t t h is t ime w as d om ina ted b y av ery d i f fe ren t s e t t lemen t t yp e - t he s e cond c omponen t o f l a te c e ram ic p e r iod o ccupa t ion . S i te 7 1 ,
F i gu re 6 .C h ir ibaya B u r ia l V e sse ls f r om S i te 5 6 a t C a r r iza l . 1 99
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l o ca ted o ne km b eyond t h e n o r the rn f r inge o f t he C a r r iza l s ys tem ( F igure 3 )o ve r look ing as ha l low b ay , a nd S i te 8 6 , 1 . 5 km f u r the r t o t he n o r th , a re s ma l l mar ine spec ia l ized s e t t lemen t s . S eve ra l s ma l l e xcava t ions i n t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s c l ear ly d emons t ra ted t ha t t h ese s i tes we re o ve rwhe lm ing ly r e s iden t ia l i n n a ture w i th c ane -wa l led r oom s c on ta in ing p l en t i fu l d omes t ic m idden o f n o g rea t d ep th . E xam ina t ion o f t h e m idden r evea led a n i n tens ive p re sence o f mar ine spec i f ic t oo l s ( F igu re 7 ) , a n a r t i fac tua l c on ten t d i f fe r ing marked ly f r om t h a t o f t h e a g r icu l tura l , C h ir ibaya s i te s . T he mar ine s ubs is tence o r ien ta t ion o f s i te 7 1 a nd 8 6 i sa l so i nd ica ted b y t he i r l o ca t ion - d i rec t ly a d jacen t t o t h e b each a nd o ve r o ne k i lome te r s d i s tan t f r om a ny w a t e r s ource t ha t c ou ld b e u sed f o r i r r iga t ion a gr icu l tura l p urpo ses . I ti s , h oweve r , s i gn i f ican t t h a t a bundan t p l an t r e ma in s i n c lud ing ma ize a ppear i n t he a s so c ia t ed m iddens , c l ea r ly r evea l ing t ha t i nhab i tan t s o f t he s e t t lemen t s h ad a cces s t o t he p roduc t s o f t h e s p r ing s y s tems . T he p o t te ry i nven to ry o f t h ese s i tes l i kew ise d i f fe red f r om t ha t o f t h e C h ir ibaya s e t t lemen t s . C e ram ics a r e d om inan t ly u t i l i tar ian a nd u nde co ra ted . Sma l l " nubbed " b ow l f o rms n o t p resen t i n t h e C h i r ibaya i nven to ry a re c ommon . Howeve r , am inor i ty o f v es se ls w er e d e co ra ted w i th b l ack l ine a nd g eome t r ic d es ign ( F igure 8 e , f ) , a ga in o f a s t y le q u i te u n l ike t ha t o f C h i r ibaya . I n f a c t t he c l oses t a f f in i ty o f t h e c e ram ic c omponen t o f S i tes 7 1 a nd 8 6 i sw i th t he No r thern C h i lean s equence , s pe c i f ica l ly p o t te ry o f t he L a s Ma i tas a nd S an M igue l p hases ( c a A .D . 7 00 1250 ) . I ft h is i d en t i ty i sb o rne o u t b y f u ture i nves t iga t ion i t wou ld i nd ica te t h a t i n t he l a ter P reco lumb ian p e r iod , e xp lo i t a t ion o f t h e ma r i t ime z one w as s ha red b y s ma l l f i sh ing c ommun i t ie s f r om d i f fe ren t a rea s o f t he c oa s t a nd w as n o t t he e xc lus ive p reroga t ive o f t he d om inan t l o ca l c u l tu re . I l o V a l ley S e t t lemen t o f t h e L a te C e ram ic P hase I l o V a l ley o ccupa t ion o f t he l a te p hase i ss im i lar t o t ha t o f t h e C a r r iza l s y s tem i n i t s mu l t i componen t n a tu re a nd i t s p o lych rome c e ram ic a s so c ia t ion . Aga in , t he mo s t p reva len t c u l ture i s t h e C h i r ibaya . C h i r ibaya c e ram ic s a ppear o n s i tes t h roughou t t h e s e t t led p ar t o f t h e v a l ley . I n t he l owe r v a l ley , n eares t t h e c oas t , t h e l a rge s e t t lemen t s o f C h i r ibaya A l t a a nd A lgo r roba l ( Ch ir ibaya B a ja , F igu re 1 ) a re e x ten s ive s e t t lemen ts o f q ua l i ta t ive ly g rea te r s i ze t h an t h e c oas ta l s p r ing s e t t lem en t s . E l sewhe re , i n land , e x tens ive o ccupa t ion b o rde r s t h e n a r row ing r i ver v a l ley b u t h er e a l though t h e Ch ir ibaya s ty le i s w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted , i ti s h eav i ly i n te rm ixed w i th p o t te ry o f an on -Ch ir ibaya d eco ra t ion a nd f o rm . T he e conom ic b ase f o r t h is i n tens ive s e t t lemen t w as c l ear ly a g r icu l ture , c onduc ted b o th o n p er iphe ra l i r r iga ted t e r race s a nd v a l ley -bo t tom l a nds . A w e l l -p re s erved ma jo r h igh leve l c ana l , c e r t a in ly t he ma in f e ede r c hanne l f o r t e r race a g r icu l ture , p a ra l le ls much o f t h e o ccup ied s e c t ion o f t h e v a l ley , o r ig ina t ing a pp rox ima te ly 1 5 km i n land a nd p as s ing t h rough t h e a r ea s o f d ense s t s e t t lemen t r ema in s . T h is c ana l s erved b road f i e ld s ys tem s o n t h e n o r the rn s i de o f t h e v a l ley , r unn ing a l ong t e r race s n ow c omp le te ly a r id , t h a t a re s epara ted f r om t h e b o t tom l and b y s hee r b lu f f s . T he re i sn o c oun te rpa r t s y s tem s ou th o f t he v a l ley d ue t o t h e c l o se r p rox im i ty o f t he s t eep b o rde r ing moun t a in s l ope s t o t he r i ve r o n t h is s i de . T he c omb ina t ion o f v a l ley -bo t tom a nd f l ank ing t e r race a g r icu l tu re c ou ld c e r ta in ly h ave c r ea ted t he p o ten t ia l t o s uppo r t d ense p opu lat ion s d ur ing t he l a te c e ram ic p hase .
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F igu re 7 . F i sh ing T oo l I nven tory f r om S i te 7 1 .
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F igu re 8 .Non -Ch ir ibaya C e ra m ics o f t he L a te C e ram ic P e r iod A -D : Upper I l o V a l ley S i te s . E : S i te 7 1 . F : S i te 8 6 .
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C h i r ibaya s e t t lemen t i n t he I l o V a l ley i s d om ina ted b y t h e e x tens ive s i tes o f A lgo r roba l ( Ch i r ibaya B a ja ) a nd C h ir ibaya A l ta i n t he l owe r v a l ley ( F igu re 1 ) . S ur face s urvey o f t hese s i tes a nd a s so c ia ted d i s turbed b ur ia ls s ugge s t s t ha t t hese s e t t lemen t s , a t l e as t i n t he ir l a tes t p hase s , w e re o f h omogenous C h i r ibaya a f f i l ia t ion . C u r ren t wo rk a t t hese s i tes u nde r t he a usp ice s o f P roye c to O smo re ( s ee C on rad a nd R ice , t h is v o lume ) s hou ld c l ar i fy t h is c u l tu ra l i d en t i ty a nd r evea l i f e ar l ie r , n on -Ch i r ibaya , s e t t lemen t i s p resen t i n t he s ub -sur face s t ra ta . E l sewhe re , f u r the r u p -va l ley , t h e s u r face s u rvey p resen t s a d i f fe ren t o ccupa t iona l p a t te rn . I ns tead o f ad om inan t ly C h i r ibaya p resence , t he l ong , l i nea r o ccupa t ion s i tes t ha t f l ank t he v a l ley b o t tom d isp lay a much mo re c omp lex p a t te rn w i th c ons is ten t m ix ing o f Ch ir ibaya a nd a pparen t n on -Ch i r ibaya c e ram ics . Howeve r , t h e n on -Ch ir ibaya s t y le s a r e d is t inc t ive i n t h em se lve s , s har ing v a r ious d e s ign e l emen t s w i th b o th " t yp ica l " C h ir ibaya a nd T iwanaku l ike h igh land p o t te ry b u t i n co rpo ra t ing t hese i n d eco ra t ive s cheme s t ha t a re q u i te d i s s im i la r f r om e i the r ( F igure 1 0a -d ) . P re l im inary e xcava t ion c onduc ted a t t h e s i te o f L a F lor ida i n t he u ppe r v a l ley ( F igure 1 ) r ep l ica te s t h is c o mp lex c e ram ic p a t tern o n as t ra t ig r aph ic p l ane . T he l im i ted t e s t s s ugge s t t h a t al a te , C h i r ibaya , o ccupa t ion o ve r l ies o ne o f q u i te d i f fe ren t c e ram ic c harac te r . I t mus t b e s t re s sed t ha t , g iven t h e l a rge s i ze o f t h e s i te a nd t h e l o ca l ized n a ture o f e xcavat ion , t he c h rono log ica l i mp l ica t ion s o f t hese d a t a r ema in t e n ta t ive . O n t he b as is o f p re l im ina ry s urvey a nd e xcava t ion i n t h e I l o V a l ley i t wou ld a ppea r t ha t ac ons ide rab le o ccupa t ion i s a s soc ia ted c e ram ica l ly w i th t h e s equence i den t i f ied i n t he A r ica r eg ion o f No r the rn C h i le , r a the r t h an w i th t h e h igh land -o r ien ted s t y le s t ha t c ha rac te r ized o ur Moquegua i nves t iga t ions . T he c l oses t p ara l le ls f o r t h e d es igns p resen ted i n F igu re 1 0 a r e t h e C h i lean L as Ma i tas a nd S an M igue l P hases . I fo u r f u ture wo rk c on f irms t h is i den t i ty i t , a dds a no the r d imens ion t o t h e p a t t e rn o f b road S ou th C en t ra l Andean c oas ta l i n te rac t ion t h a t w e h ave s e en o pe ra t ing i n t h e mar i t ime s e t t lemen t o f t h e c oas ta l s p r ing s ys tem s . I n t h e I l o V a l ley , t h e i n land l o ca t ion o f t he a ssoc ia ted s e t t lemen t s ugge s t s ap r imary e conom ic b ase o f ad i f fe ren t , a g r icu l tu ra l n a tu re , emphas iz ing t he mu l t i componen t a spe c t o f c oas t a l e co logy a nd r e la ted h uman a dap t ive p o ten t ia l . L a te C e ra m ic O ccupa t ion : D eve lopmen ta l A spe c t s T he t r ad i t iona l v i ew o f c oas t a l c hrono logy o f s ou the rn P e ru d ur ing t he p e r iod o f p o lych rome c e ram ic m anu fac ture - my l a te c e ram ic p e r iod - w as o f a p e r iod o f T iw anaku d om ina t ion , p re sumab ly o f t h e F our th o r C las s ic P e r iod ( c a . A .D . 4 00 -750 ) , f o l lowed b y ad e r ived r eg iona l C h ir ibaya C u l ture . My p re l im inary wo rk i n t h e c oas t a l s pr ing s a nd l owe r r i ve r v a l ley h as , h oweve r , i nd ica ted a d i f fe ren t s equence . F o l low ing wha t w i l l p robab ly p rove t o b e ar e la t ive ly l ong e a r ly c e ram ic t r ad i t ion , n ow d a ted t o a t l e as t 2 00 B .C . , w e f i nd a p a t tern o f c u l tu ra l c omp lex i ty . Wha t i s mo s t s urp r is ing i n t h is p a t te rn i s t he a ppa ren t a bsence o f a ny s i gn i f ican t T iwanaku o ccupa t ion . E ven i n t he s uppo sed t ype -s i te f o r c oas ta l T iwanaku p re sence - t he L o re to V ie jo c eme te ry i n t he u ppe r s e c t ion o f t he I l o r i ve r V a l ley - t he c ommon m ix o f C h i r ibaya a nd n on -h igh land p o lych rome p o t tery o ccu r s , s ugges t ing t ha t t h e l a t te r s t y le may h ave b een o r ig ina l ly m is t aken f o r T iwanaku . C on t inued s ubs cr ip t ion t o t h e t r ad i t iona l h i s to r ica l mode l , t h en , wou ld i nvo lve a ccep t ing t h e p os s ib i l i ty o f ac e ram ic a nd o ccupa t iona l h i a tus b e tween t he e nd o f t he E a r ly C e ram ic t r ad i t ion a nd t h e C h ir ibaya o c cupa t ion , u sua l ly r ega rded a s p o s t -A .D . 1 000 .
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 9
T he u n l ike ly h ia tus s c ena r io i s r e so lved b y e xam ing t he e v idence t o d a te . T he i nd igenous l o ca l c u ltu re , C h i r ibaya , l i ke i t s e a r ly c e ram ic p r edece sso r , may w e l l r ep re sen t al onge r t r ad i t ion t h an c ommon ly s upposed . C ompar ison o f k nown b u r ia l c e ram ics f r om C a r r iza l ( F igure 6 ) w i th f une rary w a re f ound i n t h e I l o V a l ley s ugge s t s s i gn i f ican t d eco ra t ive v a r iab i l i ty b e tween g rave l o t s . Mo reove r , o u r mo s t r e cen t wo rk i n t h e r e s iden t ia l C h ir ibaya a r eas o f t he P acoma s pr ing s ys t em s ugges t d i f fe rence s b e tween i t s d ome s t ic p o t te ry s t y le a nd t ha t o f t h e C ar r iza l s ys tem . Wh i le i ti sc e r ta in ly p os s ib le t h a t s uch v a r iab i l i ty i s n o t c h rono log ica l ly -de te rm ined i t i s j u s t a s l i ke ly t ha t t he d e s ign d i f fe rence s b e tween l o t s s har ing o bv ious C h i r ibaya c u l tura l i den t i ty i s d ue t o i n te rna l s t y l is t ic e vo lu t ion , t hus mark ing a s i gn i f ican t t empo r a l d ura t ion f o r t h e a s soc ia ted c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion . T h is p o s s ib i l i ty , s uppo r ted b y t he d i s cove ry o f c rude p a in ted p o t t ery i n t h e Wawak ik i c e me tery , i mp l ies t h a t al o ca l c u l tura l t r ad i t ion w i th a l ong h i s to ry o f p a in ted c e ram ics d eve loped o n t h e c oas t e a r l ie r a nd w i th f a r l e s s h igh land i n f luence t h an h as u sua l ly b een b e l ieved . T he o the r i nd ica t ion o f l a te c e ram ic c h rono log ica l d eve lopmen t o n t h e c oas t d e r ive s f r om t h e n on -Ch ir ibaya c u l tura l p resence . I fo ur i d en t i f ica t ion o f mar i t ime -spec ia l ized s i tes a nd t hose o f t he u ppe r I l o V a l ley w i th t h e L as Ma i tas a nd S an M igue l C u l ture s i s c o r re c t , t hen w e c an p o s i t at empo ra l s pan f o r t h es e a pparen t ly i n t rus ive o ccupa t ions . T he L as Ma i tas a nd S an M igue l P hase s , t hough t t o b e i nd igenous t o t h e c oas ta l a r ea a d jacen t t o t h e p resen t C h i lean -Peruv ian f r on t ier s pan a t ime p e r iod t ha t e x tends f r om a round A .D . 7 00 t o a t l e as t A .D . 1 250 ( Ko la ta 1 983 : 2 69 , F ig . 6 . 11 ) . We c an t en ta t ive ly u se t h ese d a te s a s t h e s t a r t ing p o in t f r om wh ich t o c on s t ruc t a n i n i t ia l c h rono log ica l s cheme f o r t h e I l o r eg ion w i th t h e e ar ly c e ram ic o ccupa t ion p reced ing t h is p er iod a nd t h e l a te c e ram ic p e r iod wh ich i sd om ina ted b y t h e l o ca l C h i r ibaya C u lture b e ing r ough ly c on tempo rary w i th t h e C h i lean e xp ress ions . C lea r ly t h is s cheme mus t b e r egarded a s mo s t p re l im inary a nd s ub jec t t o ma jo r f u ture r ev is ion . Howeve r , t he n a tu re o f c ur ren t e v idence d oe s i nd ica t e t h a t t he I l o c oas ta l r eg ion ma in t a ined a l ong las t ing r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e a r ea d i rec t ly t o t he s ou th d ur ing t h e f i r s t m i l len ium A .D . a s we l l a s t he s e cond i n t h e p resence o f as t rong l o ca l c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion .
C onc lus ion I n c on c lus ion , t h is wo rk , a l though a dm i t ted ly p re l im inary , h as b egun t o i lum ina te t h e n a tu re o f h uman e co log ica l a dap ta t ion t h rough t ime a l ong t he s ou the rnmos t c oas ta l r eg ion o f P e ru i n t h e v i c in i ty o f I l o . We h ave s hown t h a t c oas ta l e nv ironmen t i n co rpo ra ted a s u f f ic ien t v ar ie ty o f a d jacen t m ic ro -zones o f s u f f ic ien t s ub s is tence p o ten t ia l t o f o rm a n e co log ica l ly in teg ra ted , s e l f su f f ic ien t e conom ic r eg ion i n wh ich v e r t ica l i ty o pe ra ted o n al o ca l l e ve l w i th in t h is s ys t em . Howeve r , t h e c ommon p a t te rn o f w ide r r eg iona l i n te rac t ion d oes o ccu r o n t he c oas t b u t w i th in a mode l t h a t s t re s se s l a te ra l i ty . I n t h e I l o V a l ley a nd a l ong t he a d jacen t c oas t w e c an d emons t ra te a l ong l o ca l c u l tura l e vo lu t ion t ha t e ncompasse s e ar ly c e ram ic t r ad i t ions a nd t h e l a te r t r ad i t ion t h a t c u lm ina ted i n t h e C h i r ibaya c u l ture . T he re i s l i t t le i nd ica t ion o f d i re c t h igh land i nf luence i n e i the r o f t h e se c oas ta l p has es . Wha t i sa ppa ren t , i st h a t , a t l e a s t f o r much o f t h e l a te c e ram ic p e r iod , t h e c oas ta l m ic ro -adap ta t iona l p a t te rn s t imu la ted a n i n te rac t ive n e two rk q u i te a par t f r om t ha t u nde r s tood t h rough h igh land low land v e r t i ca l i t y mode ls . C oas ta l s ub s is tence i nvo lved v ar ious g roups o f s pec ia l is t s - f i she r s a nd f a rme r s -o f d i f fe ren t c u l tura l a nd p o ss ib ly e t hn ic i den t i ty who e ngaged i n s pec i f ic t a sks l o ca l ized i n c l ear ly d ema rca ted s e t t lemen t s l o ca ted s o a s t o b e s t e xp lo i t t h e i r p ar t icu la r
2 04
G.BA WD EN ; PR E -I N CA I C CU L TU RA L EC OLOGY O F T H E I L O RE G ION
r e sou rce z ones . T hese s epa ra te g roups w e re i n te rdependen t f o r t he i r w ider n eeds , s har ing t he f r u i t s o f t he ir s pe c ia l ized l abo r a c ro s s d emog raph ic , o ccupa t iona l a nd e thn ic b ounda r ies w i th in t he c oas t a l r eg ion . We a re t hus a r chaeo log ica l ly d emons t ra t ing t he p resen ce o f a l a te ra l a r ch ipe lago , l a rge ly i ndependen t o f h igh land i nf luence whose p rec ise s pa t ia l a nd t empo r a l p a rame t er s a nd e f fec t s o n t h e c on f igura t ions o f r eg iona l c omp lex s oc ie ty a wa i t f u r the r r e sea rch .
2 05
The E ar ly C era m ic P er iods o f Moquegua R obe r t A . F e ldman E xh ib i t D ev e l opmen t F i e ld Mu seum o fN a tur a l H i s to ry
I n t roduc t ion T he z one wes t o f L ake T i t icaca t ha t e ncompasses t he mode rn P e ruv ian D epar tmen t o f Moquegua was o ne o f t h e p r imary a reas h igh l igh ted b y Mur ra i n h i s f o rmu la t ion o f t he " ve r t ica l i ty " o r " e co log ica l c omp lemen tar i ty " mode l o f Andean i n te rzona l e conom ic i n te rac t ion ( Mur ra 1 964 , 1 968 , 1 972 ) . H is d a ta w e re d er ived f r om S pan ish d ocumen t s ( i n p ar t icu lar , f r om D iez d e S an M igue l [ 1 964 1 ) t ha t r e fe r red t o t he C o lon ia l a nd I nka p e r iods , s o q ues t ions r ema ined a bou t h ow f a r b ack i n t he p as t t he mode l c ou ld b e e x tended . T he p reh is to r ic a pp l icab i l i ty o f t h e v e r t ica l i ty mode l i s a n i mpor tan t q ues t ion f o r i n te rp re t ing t he n ature o f t h e T iwanaku a nd e a r l ie r ( Pukara a nd C h ir ipa l ike ) o ccupa t ions i n s ou thern P e ru a nd n o r the rn Ch i le . T he i n terzona l e conom ic i n te rac t ions among s e t t lemen ts o f t hese e ar ly c u l tures h ave v ar ious ly b een i n terp re ted a s s easona l move men t s o r s po rad ic a nd u no rgan ized c on tac t s v i a l ama c a ravan s ( Nuf iez 1 965 , 1 978 ; Nu t iez a nd D i l lehay 1 979 ; L ynch 1 983 ) , r egu lar me rcan t i le t r ade c on tac t s ( B rowman 1 978 , 1 984 ) , o r r ed is t r ibu t ion o f g oods b e tween a l t ip lano p o l i t ies a nd t he ir p e rmanen t ly e s tab l ished c o lon ies i n t he l ower e l eva t ions o f t he c oas ta l v a l leys ( R ive ra 1 975 , 1 976 , 1 9802 ) . P re l im inary s urveys a nd e xcava t ions i n Moquegua b y membe rs o f t h e P rog rama C on t isuyu ( i nc lud ing work b y t he a u tho r , L u is Wa tanabe , M ichae l Mose ley , G ar th B awden , Mark A ldende r fe r , a nd o the rs ) a nd i n -dep th s t ud ies ( by C har les S t an ish , D ona ld R ice , G eo f f rey C on rad , a nd P au l Go lds te in ) i nd ica te t ha t c on tac t s b e tween t he
2 07
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 1 0
r i ch a nd t empe ra te m idd le v a l ley o f t he R io O smore a nd t he a l t ip lano a nd b as in o f L ake T i t icaca h ave s ubs tan t ia l a n t iqu i ty a nd i n tens i ty . We c an t r ace a l ongs tand ing r e la t ionsh ip b e tween Moquegua a nd t he T i t icaca b as in , r unn ing a t l e as t f r om t he e ar l ies t p o t tery -us ing p hases t h rough T i wanaku t o t he L a te Ho r izon a nd h i s tor ica l p er iods . T he d egree a nd d i rec t ion o f t h is c on tac t were n o t u n i fo rm , b u t f l uc tua ted t h rough t ime . T h is p ape r w i l l p resen t s ome o f t he e v idence t h a t w e h ave f o r t he e ar ly p hases o f t h is c on tac t , u p t o t h e a r r iva l o f t he T i wanaku s t y le . B ecause we a s y e t h ave n o r ad iocarbon d a tes f r om Moquegua f o r t he e a r l ie r c e ram ic p e r iods a nd b ecause d esc r ip t ion s o f p o t tery f r om t he T i t icaca b as in a re o f ten s ke t chy , o u r c ompar isons mus t r ema in g enera l . We h ave g iven t h e Moquegua s t y le s l o ca l p hase n ames , a nd wh i le we s ugges t c onnec t ions t o s t y les e l sewhere , t h ese c onne c t ions m igh t r equ i re r e a l ignmen t a s mo re d a ta b ecome a va i lab le .
F igu re 1 . T he m idd le s e c t ion o f t he R io O smo re V a l ley , Moquegua . C on tours a re s hown e very 2 00 m . Numbe r s 1 9 a nd l e t ters " a " a r e a r chaeo log ica l s i tes . T he s t ipp led a rea s hows t he e x ten t o f modern n on ter raced a gr icu l ture . 2 08
R . FE L DMAN ; TH E EA R L Y CE R AM I C PE R IOD S O F MO QU EGUA
Hua ra cane Phase We h ave g iven t he n ame " Huaracane P hase " t o t h e e ar l ies t p o t tery -us ing o ccupa t ions i den t i f ied f o r Moquegua . E ven t hough w e l a ck r ad iocarbon d a tes , s t y l is t ic c ompar isons p o in t t oward t he Huaracane P hase o ccupa t ion s a s b e ing p ar t o f af i be r t empered p o t tery " ho r izon " ( da ted b y B rowman [ 1 980 ] a s b eg inn ing c a . 8 50 B .C . i n o the r a reas ) t ha t c over ed t h e z one f r om t h e c oas t o f Moquegua n o r theas t t o L ake T i t icaca , s ou th t o n ear L ake P oop6 i n B o l iv ia , a nd w es t b ack t o t h e c oas t s ou th o f A r ica i n C h i le . Charac te r is t ic o f t he Hua racane P hase i s t he p resence o f f i be r t empered p o t tery , wh ich r e la te s i tt o t he F a ldas d e l Mo r ro s t y le o f n o r the rn Ch i le ( Daue lsbe rg 1 969 , 1 974 , 1 985 ; Nu f iez 1 965 ) , t he m idd le L lusco P hase a t C h ir ipa ( B rowman 1 980 ) a nd t he m idd le p hase a t Wankaran i ( Ponce S ang ine s 1 970 ; B rowman 1 980 ) i n h igh land B o l iv ia . F ou r ma jor s i tes w i th f i ber t empe red p o t tery h ave b een f ound i n t he m idd le Moquegua V a l ley a t e l eva t ions b e tween 1 000 a nd 1 600 me te rs ( F igure 1 : 1 , 2 , 7 , a nd 9 ) . A n umbe r o f o the r s i tes ( F igure 1 : a ) p robab ly a l so d a te t o t h is t ime , a l though s ome o f t hese l a t ter s i tes m igh t d a te t o t he s ubsequen t P ukara re la t ed T rap iche P hase . I n i n tens i ty a nd e x tens ion , t h e Huaracane P hase o ccupa t ion a pp roaches t h e s ubs tan t ia l l e ve l o f t h e l a ter Omo a nd C hen C hen ( T iwanaku ) p hases ( D isse lho f f 1 968b ; Go lds te in 1 985 , t h is v o lume ; Go lds te in a nd F e ldman 1 986 ) . Hua racane p o t tery i n c ludes t wo d i s t inc t ive w ares , t ha t a re , o n t he b as is o f o ur c ur ren t d a ta , c on tempo raneous . T hese w ares a re d i s t ingu ished b o th b y p as te a nd b y f orm . T he mos t c ommon f o rm o f t he f i rs t w are t ha t we h ave i den t i f ied f r om s ur face s herds i sa n o l la t h a t i sp redom inan t ly n eck less o r h as a s ho r t , i r regu lar n eck ( F igure 2 : a -e ) . I ti s made o f ac oarse , o f ten f i be r t empe red , p as te . T he n ecked v ar ie ty h as t h in n eck s l e ss t han 1 cm h igh t h a t v ary c on s iderab ly i n c urve a round t h e v esse l . T he o l la s were s pher ica l o r g lobu lar , r ang ing f r om a bou t 2 0 t o 4 0 cm i n d iame te r . S im i lar v esse ls f r om F a ldas d e l Mo r ro a r e o n d isp lay i n t he A zapa Museum ( c f . D aue lsbe rg 1 985 : F igu re 4 5 ) . T he s he rds r ange i n t h ickness f r om a bou t 4 mm t o 1 2 mm ; t wo d i s t inc t mode s o f t h ickness a re p re sen t . B o th t h ick a nd t h in s he rds h ave a d ark , r educed c o re . S ur f ace s a re smoo thed o r w iped b u t n o t p o l ished a nd a re a b rown ( 7 .5YR5/4 ) c o lo r , w i th t h e i n ter io r s ur face d a rke r . T he f i be r t empe r ing i sn o t p redom inan t b u t n one the less i s c l ear ly v is ib le , mo re s o o n t he i nner s ur face o f t he s he rd t h an o n t h e o u te r . T he s econd w are - wh ich i s q u i te d is t inc t f r om t he f i be r t empe red w are - i s c omp r ised o f s ha l low , r ound b ow ls made o f ah ard , d ense , w e l l f ired p as te . T hese b ow ls , wh ich a re a bou t 1 5 -20 cm i n d i ame ter , h ave a s phe r ica l c urve , b u t u sua l ly a re s ha l low - f r om 1 /3 o f as phere t o s l igh t ly l e ss t h an h em ispher ica l ( F igure 2 : f -h ) . B o th s ur f ace s a re s l ipped a nd b urn ished . T he i n te r io r s u r face i s b e t te r p o l ished t han t he e x te r io r , wh ich s o me t imes s how s p i t s t ha t w ere n o t f i l led i n b y t he b urn ish ing . T here a re t wo c o lo rs r ef lec t ing d i f fe ren t f i r ing . I n t he o x id ized f i red v ar ie ty , s ur face c o lo rs t end t oward r edd ish y e l low ( 5YR6/5 t o 7 . 5YR6/6 ) a nd t he p as te , wh ich i s e ven ly c o lo r ed t o s l igh t ly l i gh ter i n t he m idd le , i s r ed t o p ink ( 2 .5YR5/6 t o 2 . 5YR7/4 ) . T he s econd v ar ie ty i s mo re r educed : t he s ur face i s al i gh t b rown ish g rey ( 2 .5Y6/2 ) a nd t he p as te a g rey ish b rown ( 2 .5Y5/2 ) t ha t i s more c ompac t a nd l i gh te r n ear t he s ur faces a nd h as a f ew c arbon f l ecks i n t he c ore . S he rds o f b o th wares a re a re a bou t 4 . 5 mm t o 7 mm i n t h ickness ; t he w a l l t h icknes s i s n o t c are fu l ly c on t ro l led , s o as i ng le s he rd c an c ove r t h is r ange . R im f o rm s r ange f r om s quared t o h o r izon ta l ly f l a t tened t o p o in ted .
2 09
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 0
F igu re 2 . Huaracane p hase p o t te ry r im p ro f i les . S herds a -d a re f r om t h e s ur face o f P ampa Huaracane s i te M22 , s he rd e f r om t h e u pper l e ve l o f t h e u n i t A e xcava t ion a t P ampa Huaracane s i te M25 , a nd s he rds f h f r om t he s u r face o f Y away ( M35 ) . S he rds a e a r e o f t he c oa rse , f i be r t empe red w are , wh i le s herds f g a re o f t h e f i ne p as te b ow l w are . S he rd g h as a w eak r ed l i ne p a in ted o n t he f l a t o f t he r im . T he d es ign o n s he rd h i s p a in ted o n t h e e x t er io r s ur f ace . R im d iame te rs a re a :2 8 c m , b : 1 4 cm , c :1 2 cm , d : 3 0 c m , e :2 2 cm , f :1 8 cm , g : 1 7 cm , h : 1 6 cm . 2 10
R.FE L DMAN ; TH E EA R LY CE R AM I C PE R IOD S O F MO QU EGUA
Mos t b ow ls a re u ndeco ra ted , b u t s ome h ave d es igns i n af a in t , t h in , weak r ed ( 1 0R4/4 ) p a in t o n t he r im ( F igure 2 : g ) o r o u t s ide s ur face ( F igure 2 : h ) . T he c o lo r o f t he p a in t i s s t ronge r o n t he o x id ized ware t han o n t h e r educed ware . D eco ra t ions i n c lude p a in ted r ims , s em ic irc les ( o f s i ng le o r p a ired l i nes 2 3 mm w ide ) a nd e l onga ted d iv ided o va ls p endan t f r om t he r im , a nd p a ired r ad ia l l i nes d ropp ing f r om t he r im t oward t he b o t tom o f t h e b ow l . S he rds o f t hese b ow ls we re f ound t o c o -occur w i th t he f i be r t empe red o l la s a t b o th P ampa Huaracane ( M25 ) a nd Y away , b u t b ecause o f t he d i f fe rences b e tween t h ese t wo ware s w e we re u nce r ta in o f t he ir a ssoc ia t ion , t h ink ing t he f i ne p as te b ow ls l a te r . ( They we re , a t f i rs t , t hough t t o b e M idd le o r L a te Ho r izon , a l though i ts oon w as c l ear t h a t t hey h ad d i f feren t r im s hapes , v esse l f o rms , a nd d eco ra t ion s f r om f o rms o f t hose t imes . ) S t i l l , e ven t hough t hese w ares s eem s o d i f fe ren t , t hey d o s hare a r im t r a i t : s he rds a a nd gi n F i gure 2 b o th h ave a f l a t tened b and o n t h e i nne r t op o f t he r im . Ano ther s im i lar i ty b e tween t he t wo wares i sp oo r c on t ro l o ve r t h icknes s . R ecen t work b y P au l Go lds te in ( pe rsona l c ommun ica t ion ) f ound t he t wo wares t oge the r i n a n e ar ly t omb a t Omo , c on f irm ing t h e ir a ssoc ia t ion . A s y e t w e h ave n o i nd ica t ions o f a ny s o c ia l o r t empora l d i f ferences b e tween t he f i ne p as te b ow ls a nd t he c oar se , f i ber t empe red o l la s . I n t e rms o f c or re la t ions w i th t he B o l iv ian s t y les , Huaracane o l la f o rms c ou ld f i t i n t he Ch i r ipa s equence f r om C h ir ipa 2 ( L lusco ) t h rough C h ir ipa 3 B , o r f r om c a . 8 50 -600 B .C . t h rough 3 00 B .C . -A .D . 5 0 ( Dav id B rowman , 1 980 a nd p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion ) . T he l a ck o f i n c ised d ecora t ion , o r o f a ny d eco ra t ion f o r t ha t ma t te r , a nd t he b rown c o lor f i t b e t te r w i th t h e e ar l ie r p hase t h an w i th t he l a ter . A s im i lar c a . 8 00 B .C . d a te s eems a pp rop r ia te i n c ompar ison t o Wankaran i . T he re a re n o c l ear c o r re la t ions b e tween t he f i ne p as te b ow ls a nd p o t te ry i n o the r a reas o f t he f a r s ou th . T he Huaracane P hase i s k nown p r inc ipa l ly f r om a l a rge s i te -g roup ( c ompr ised o f " s i te s " M22 - M26 , M29 , M30 ) o n P ampa Huaracane ( F igure 1 : 7 ) , wh ich i sa c ross t h e v a l ley f r om t h e c i ty o f Moquegua , a nd f r om Y away ( M35 ; F igure 1 : 9 ) , o n t he moun ta in s i des a c ro s s t he Huaracane R iver f r om P ampa Huaracane . B o th o f t hese s i tes s pread o ve r mo re t h an 1 0 h ec tares a nd h ave masonry p la t fo rm s t ruc tures . T he P a mpa Huaracane g roup c ons is t s o f s eve ra l c l us te rs o f masonry a r ch i tec ture , h ab i ta t ion a reas , c eme te r ies , c ana ls a nd f i e lds , a nd p os s ib ly a g eog lyph . T he masonry s t ruc tures a re n ow " p i t ted s t one p i les " wh ich m igh t b e e i ther d es t royed l a rge p la t fo rm s t ruc tures o r c o l lapsed c omp lexes o f c l ose ly p acked sma l l r ound s t ruc tures . ( The p reh is to r ic d es t ruc t ion o f e ar ly s i tes i n Moquegua a s i n i n te res t ing a nd c ur ious p henom e non t h a t i s s ub jec t t o c on f l ic t ing i n te rp re ta t ion s . We h ave d i scussed i t e l sewhe re [ Mo se ley , e t a l . 1 985 ] , a nd s pace d oes n o t a l low u s t o e l abo ra te h e re . ) I n e i ther c ase , s ur f ace a r t i fac ts o n t he P a mpa Huaracane p i t ted s t one p i les a re e x t reme ly r a re , b e ing l im i ted t o af ew f i ber t empe red s he rds a nd a n o ccass iona l b ead o r b one f r agmen t . T he l a t te r s ugges t t ha t t here m igh t h ave b een b ur ia ls i n t he s t ruc tures , b u t t he re i s n o e v idence o f a ny l oo t ing a f ter A .D . 1 600 . ( The v o lcano Huaynaput ina e rup ted i n A .D . 1 600 , c over ing Moquegua w i th v o lcan ic a sh [ Anonymous 1 976 ; T hompson e t a l . 1 986 ] . T h is a sh i s f ound l a yered i n t h e p i t s i n t he Huaracane s t one p i les , s how ing t h a t t he p i t s we re t h ere when t h e a sh f e l l i n A .D . 1 600 . )
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 1 0
B e tween t he p i t ted s t one p i le s a re t r aces o f d ome s t ic o ccupa t ion s . T he s ur face o f t h e se a reas i s h eav i ly wea the red a nd d e f la ted , w i th t h e r e su l t t ha t a lmo s t n o o rgan ic ma te r ia l h as b een p rese rved . T he o n ly i nd ica t ions o f t h e h ouse s a re f a in t l e ve led a r eas t h a t h ave f ewer r o ck s a nd a s l igh t ly l i gh t e r c o lo r t h an t he s ur round ing g round s ur f ace . S he rds , a l though mo re p len t i fu l t h an o n t h e r ock p i le s , a re n o t c ommon . T ho se t ha t a r e f ound a re u sua l ly b roken i n to s ma l l f r agmen t s . B e low t he p i t ted s t one p i les a nd h ab i ta t ion a r eas a re a s e r ies o f i r r iga t ion c an a l s ( Mo se ley n .d . a ) . L ike t h e h ouse s , t h e c ana ls a r e h eav i ly w ea the red a nd f a in t . W ind d e f la t ion h as b lown away mo s t o f t h e s o i l f r om t h e f i e lds , s o n o t r aces o f f u r rows e x is t . Wh i le t h ere a re s t ruc tu re s ( wh ich o n e x cava t ion y i e lded b o th f i be r t emp e red o l la a nd f i ne p as te b ow l s he rds [ B e rmann n .d . ] ) n ea r t h e c ana ls , t he re a re n o d i re c t c onnec t ion s b e tween t he c ana ls a nd t h e Huaracane o c cupa t ion s . Howeve r , t he c ons is ten t p lacemen t o f t hose o ccupa t ion s o u t s ide t he i r r iga ted a rea , a s w e l l a s t he s im i la r d egree o f w ea the r ing ( def la t ion a nd p a t ina t ion ) s ugge s t c on tempo rane i ty . Two s ma l l c eme te r ie s ( M29 a nd M30 ) w e re f ound i n t he P ampa Hua racane g roup ( Mo se ley n .d . a ;F e ldman n .d . ) . One ( M29 ) w as o n t he p ampa a nd h ad mu l t ip le b ur ia l s i n r ound s em i -sub t er ranean s t ruc ture s . T he se t omb s w e re h eav i ly d is tu rbed a nd l i t t le u se fu l d a ta c ou ld b e r e cove red f r om t h em . T he o the r ( M30 ) w as o n t he s i de o f al ow r i dge a nd t h e b ur ia ls w e re s i ng le a nd b e low g round . T he e x cava ted b u r ia ls h ad n o p o t te ry - h av ing b een l o o t ed s ome t ime b e fo re A .D . 1 600 - b u t t he d is tu rban ce was n o t a s s eve re a s a t M29 . T he b od ie s i n t wo g rave s a t M30 wo re w r is t o r a nk le b race le t s o f t ubu la r b one b eads , s ome o f wh ich h ad s i ng le o r p a ired c i r cum fe ren t ia l g roove s . S im i la r b one b eads f ound w i th F a ldas d e l Mo r ro p o t tery i n b ur ia ls a t A r ic a ( Type B i n D aue lsbe rg 1 985 ) a nd o n d i sp lay a t t h e A zapa Museum p rov ide a n a dd i t iona l c or re la t ion w i th t h e C h i lean c oas ta l c u l tur e . Y away ( F igu re 1 : 9 ) , as e cond l a rge s e t t lemen t w i th Hua racane P hase p o t t e ry , o ccup ie s t h e w es t f l ank s o f C e r ro E s tuqu i f ia , a moun ta in a c ro s s t h e Huaracane R ive r f r om P ampa Hua racane . T o r e ach Y away , o ne mus t h ike f r om t he r i ve r u p ab road a l luv ia l f an a nd c ro s s s eve ra l s pur s a nd e n t ren ched q ueb r ad a s a l ong t h e b ase o f t he moun t a in . T hus , wh i le t h e re i sn o e v iden ce o f d e fens ive w o rk s a t Y away , t h e s i te i sn o t r ead i ly a ccess ib le .
T he s e t t lemen t i s o n as e r ies o f h i l l s pur s wh ich h ave b een t e r raced f o r h ab i ta t ion . ( L ike a t P ampa Huaracane , o rgan ic p res e rva t ion i sp oo r , s o i n te rpre ta t ion o f t h e t e r ra ce s i s b ased o n t he p rese rved i no rgan ic a r t i fac t s f ound o n t he i r s ur face s . ) A s o ne move s f a r the r i n to t h e s i te f r om t he s ou th , t h e t e r races b e come mo re mass ive u n t i l o ne r eache s t h e s i t e 's " c e remon ia l h ear t , " whe re a n a pp rox ima te ly 3 0 me te r s quare p l aza h as b een c r ea ted b y l e ve l ing a nd t e r rac ing p a r t o f as pur . A t t h e u ph i l l s i de o f t h e p laza i s a mason ry mound t ha t , wh i le n o t a f u l ly p i t ted s t one p i le , d oes s how e x tens ive d e s t ruc t ion . T here i sn o e v idence o f b u r ia ls i n t h is s t ruc ture o r e l sewhere o n t h e s i te . S he rds o f f i ber t empe red Huaracane p o t te ry a r e f a i r ly c ommon o ve r t h e s ur face o f Y away . Mos t o f t he s he rds a r e f r om l a rge s ho r t n ecked o r n e ck le ss o l la s . S he rds o f f i ne p as te b ow ls , wh i le n o t a s c ommon a s o la s he rds , a re much mo re c ommon a t Y aw ay t h an a t P ampa Hua racane . S he rds o f b o th w a re s a r e l a rge r t h an t hose f ound o n P ampa Hua racane , wh ich p robab ly r e la tes b o th t o t he s i ze o f t he o la s a nd t o t h e a pparen t ly g rea te r t r amp l ing , e ro s ion , o r d i s turbance t h a t h as t a ken p l ace o n P ampa Hua racane .
2 12
R.FE L DMAN ; TH E EA R LY CE R AM I C PE R IOD S O F MO QU EGUA
Huaracane p o t tery h as a l so b een f ound a t L o s C e r r i l los ( F igu re 1 : 6 ; p oss ib ly f r om t he l oo ted M39 c e me tery ) , a t C e r ro E chen ique ( M2 , af o r t i f ied h i l ls ide s i te a t t he l owe r e nd o f t h e ma in m id -va l ley f a rm ing p o cke t ; F igure 1 : 5 ) , a nd a t t wo h i l ls ide h ab i ta t iona l s i tes i n t h e l ower p ar t o f t he m idd le v a l ley ( F igure 1 : 1 a nd 2 ) . I t was a l so f ound , a l ong w i th c harac te r is t ic b one b eads , i n ad eep t omb a t t he T iwanaku s e t t lemen t o f Omo ( M10 ) , where i tp robab ly i nd ica t es a p rev ious ly u nde tec ted e ar l ier c omponen t o f t he s i te ( Pau l Go lds te in , p er sona l c ommun ica t ion ) . A n umber o f o ther s i tes ( F igure 1 : a ) t ha t s u f fe red i n ten t iona l d amage o r d es t ruc t ion p r io r t o A .D . 1 600 m igh t p e r ta in t o t h is p hase o r t o t he s ucceed ing T rap iche P hase ( Pukara ) . T he se d es t royed s i tes t end t o h ave a lmos t n o s ur face p o t tery , b u t t he f ew s he rds f ound , a s w e l l a s af ew b eads , p o in t t oward a n e ar ly d a te . Huaracane s i tes i n t he m idd le v a l ley s how a n o r ien ta t ion t oward g ood a g r icu l tura l l ands ( e .g . , P ampa Hua racane , a t a lmos t 1 500 me te rs e l eva t ion ) o r s t ra teg ic v a l ley n eck l o ca t ions ( e .g . , Y away a nd C er ro E chen ique ) . T he i r r iga t ion c ana ls c u t t ing a cross P ampa Huaracane a ppear t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t he e ar ly o ccupa t ion . Huaracane s i tes , h owever , we re t i ed i n to a w ide r e conom ic s y s tem : f i be r t empered p o t tery h as a l so b een f ound i n a h igh land r ock s he l ter s i t e a bove Moquegua ( Mark A ldende r fe r , p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion ) , a t s i tes n ear A lgo r roba l , i n t he c oas ta l p ar t o f t he v a l ley ( E l ias Mu j ica , p ersona l c ommun ica t ion ) , a nd a t ac e me tery o n t he c oas t a bou t 3 0 km n o r th o f t he r i ve r 's mou th ( Gar th B awden , p e rsona l c o mmun ica t ion ) . T he s i ze a nd i n tens i ty o f t h e i nd iv idua l s i tes , a s w e l l a s t h e ir n umbe r a nd d is t r ibu t ion , p o in t t oward a s i gn i f ican t , s t ab le Huaracane P hase o ccupat ion i n Moquegua , o ne t ha t w as n o t s urpassed u n t i l t he T iwanaku V c o lon ies were a t t he ir p eak . T rap iche P hase T he T rap iche P hase r ep resen t s a n o ccupa t ion i n Moquegua b y p eop le mak ing v ar ian ts o f P ukara p o t tery a nd t e x t i les . T he t ype s i te i sC er ro T rap iche ( M7 ) , a mu l t i -componen t s e t t lemen t l o ca ted whe re t h e a gr icu l tura l l ands o f t he m idd le v a l ley f unne l d own i n to a n a r row a rab le s t r ip a long t he r i ve r ( F igure 1 : 4 ) . T rap iche P hase p o t te ry h as b een f ound a t ad es t royed s t one s t ruc ture a t t he b ase o f C e r ro T rap iche a nd w i th l a rge w a l led s t ruc tures h igher u p t ha t h i l l . Two o the r s i tes h ave y i e lded d eco ra ted T rap iche p o t tery : t he n ear -by C e r ro E chen ique ( M2 ; F igure 1 : 5 ) a nd M37 ( F igure 1 : 8 ) , ad es t royed s i te l o ca ted o n t he a l luv ia l f a n b e low Y away . D ecora ted T rap iche p o t tery h as t wo ma in v ar ian ts . T he f i rs t , T rap iche p o lychrome , h as a reas d emarca ted b y b road l ine i n c is ion t h a t a re d eco ra ted w i th t h ick b l ack a nd r edd ish y e l low ( 5YR6/6 ) ( o r r a re ly wh i te ) p a in t o ver a r edd ish b rown s l ip ( 2 .5YR4/4 ) . C o lo r a reas a re mos t c ommon ly s t ra igh t -edged , a l though c urv i l inear d es igns d o o ccur . T he a reas a re o u t l ined o n t he ir o u te r e dge w i th b road i n c ised g rooves , a bou t 0 . 5 mm d eep a nd 0 . 75 1 .25 mm w ide . B o th p a in t c o lo rs t end t o f l ake o f f , t h e b l ack mo re s o t han t he y e l low . T he p as te i s e ven tex tured a nd s andy , w i th a y e l low ish r ed c o lo r ( 5YR5/6 ) . S he rds r ange f r om 5 . 5 mm t o 8 . 5 mm i n t h ickness . T he d eco ra ted s herds t ha t h ave b een f ound t yp ica l ly a re f r om f l a t -bo t tomed , g lobu lar v e sse ls ( abou t 2 0 -30 cm i n d iame ter ) w i th s t ra igh t -necks ( a bou t 6 cm t a l l ) a nd e x te r io r t h ickened r ims ( F igure 3 ) . An a pp l ique b and w i th n i ck ing c an o ccur a t t he j unc ture o f t he n eck a nd b ody . D eco ra t ion i n c ludes l ow re l ie f mode led f e l ines , s o l id r hombs , a nd r hombs o r r e c tang les o f b l ack b ands .
2 13
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap ter 1 0
F igu re 3 . T rap iche p hase p o t tery . ( Top ) C ompo s i te r e cons t ruc t ion o f v esse l f o rm f r om s ur face s he rds f ound a t C e r ro T rap iche ( M7 ) . ( Bo t tom ) a -d : T rap iche p o lychrome s he rds f r om C er ro T rap iche ( M2 ) ; e : T rap iche b lack o n r ed s herd f r om C e r ro E chen ique . 2 14
R.FE L DMAN ; TH E EA R LY CE R AM IC PE R IOD S O F MO QU EGU A
T he s econd d ecora ted v a r ian t , T rap iche b lack o n r ed , u ses b lack a nd r ed p a in t s t ha t a re t h inner t han t hose u sed o n T rap iche p o lych rome , a nd a re o f ten a lmos t e n t ire ly worn away . T he p a in t was a pp l ied o n ab urn ished s ur face w i th a r edd ish b rown s l ip . T he p as te i sa l so s and ie r a nd l e ss h ard t han T rap iche p o lychrome a nd t he i nc ised l i nes a re n ar rower a nd s ha l lower . D es igns i n c lude a f e l ine w i th c an ines e x tend ing a cross t he l owe r l i p . A l l t ha t c an b e s a id a bou t v esse l f o rms i s t ha t t hey we re c l osed , a s t he i n te r io r s ur face w as n e i ther p o l ished n o r s l ipped . S he rds s im i lar t o T rap iche b lack o n r ed a re p resen t i n K idde r 's ( 1943 ) c o l lec t ion f r om P uka ra ( Pukara b lack o n r ed ) . T rap iche p o lychrome i ss im i lar t o t he P ukara p o lych rome a t t h e h igh land c en ter , a l though i td oes d i f fer s omewha t . T he ma in d i f ference i st ha t t he b lack a nd y e l low c o lo red z ones a re c omp le te ly s ur rounded b y i n c is ion a t P ukara , wh i le t hey a re b ounded o n ly o n t he o u te r e dge a t t he Moquegua s i tes s t ud ied b y t he C on t isuyu P rog ram . F our s herds o f P ukara re la ted p o lychrome p o t tery f ound b y G ary V esce l ius i n 1 959 a re h oused a t t he Amer ican Museum o f Na tura l H is to ry . T he p roven ience i s l i s ted a s Moquegua , b u t t he a va i lab le n o tes d o n o t i nd ica te t he s i te t hey c a me f r om ( Barbara C onk l in , p ersona l c ommun ica t ion ) . T hree o f t hese s herds a re r im s f r om o pen o r n eck less v ess e ls . T hey a re d eco ra ted w i th b lack a nd wh i te p a in t o ver a r ed s l ip . A l l o f t he c o lor a reas a re o u t l ined w i th i n c is ion , e xcep t f o r o ne c ase where a r ed r im b and i s n o t s epara ted f r om t he c o lo red z ones b e low i t . V es ce l ius ' s herds s eem mo re c l ose ly r e la ted t o t h e h igh land s t y le t han t he o the r Moquegua s he rds . L im i ted t e s t e xcava t ions a t C er ro T rap iche h ave a l so y i e lded f r agmen t s o f c o i led b aske t s a nd woo l t apes t ry . T he t apes t ry h as p a ired w arps , l i ke t h e Ch i lean P ukara t e x t i le s f r om t he A l to R am irez s i tes ( R ivera 1 980 ; U l loa 1 982 ) a nd t he P e ruv ian P uka ra -s ty le p i ece d escr ibed b y C onk l in ( 1 983 ) . T he p redom inan t c o lo r i sa n o l ive g reen ( app rox i ma te ly 1 0Y4/2 t o 1 0Y5/2 o r 2 . 5GY3/3 ) ; d ark r edd ish b rown ( 5YR3/4 ) a nd y e l low ish b rown ( 1 0YR5/6 ) w ere a l so u sed . A t e x t i le f r agmen t d eco ra ted w i th f e a the rs w as a l so f ound i n t he s a me e xcava t ion . Un fo r tuna te ly , n e i ther i tn o r t he t apes t ry we re l a rge e nough t o i n te rpre t a ny d es ign s . D a t ing o f t he T rap iche P hase i s n o t s ecure , a l though a r ough c onsensus i s t h a t i t d a tes t o a f te r o r a bou t 3 00 B .C . ( Karen Mohr -Chavez , Mar io R ivera , E l ias Mu j ica , a nd D av id B ro wman , p e rsona l c ommun ica t ions ) .
S ummary D iscuss ion T he n a ture o f i n te rzona l c on tac t s i n t h e s ou the rn Andes v ar ied b o th i n t ime a nd d i r ec t ion . Dur ing t he l a te r T iwanaku p er iod , Moquegua o n t he wes t ( Go lds te in 1 985 ; Go lds te in a nd F e ld man 1 986 ; Go lds te in t h is v o lume ) a nd Cochabamba o n t h e e as t ( Benne t t 1 936 ; R yden 1 947 ) h ad a who le r ange o f T iwanaku V s t y le ma ter ia l , i nd ica t ing c l ose t i es t o t h e a l t ip lano , wh i le i n Ch i le 's A tacama ( LePa ige 1 963 , 1 964 , 1 965 ; Nu i lez 1 963 ; O re l lana 1 963 , 1 964 ; T ar rago 1 968 ) a nd A r ica o ases ( B ird 1 943 ; D au lesbe rg 1 96 1 , 1 972 , 1 985 ; F ocacc i 1 969 ; L umb re ras 1 972 ; Mos tny 1 944 ; Mun izaga 1 957 ; Nu f iez 1 965 , 1 972 ; Uh le 1 9 19a , b ) , T iwanaku i nf luence a ppeared mo re i n t he f o rm o f t r ade i t ems a nd s t y l is t ic i n f luences o n t he e x is t ing l o ca l t r ad i t ions . T hus , t he c oncep t ion o f l o ca l p eop les i n c luded i n al oose s phe re o f T iwanaku i nf luence s eem s v a l id i n C h i le , p ar t icu lar ly s o i n
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E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 1 0
A tacama , whe re T iwanaku a r t i fac t s t e nd t o b e p o r tab le a nd r i tua l re la ted . I n Moquegua , a v a l ley t ha t d i re c t ly a bu t s t he T i t icaca b as in , R ive ra 's ( 1 980 :94 ) h ypo thes is o f l ong -s tand ing o c cupa t ion b y a l t ip lano c o lon ie s i s mo re c onv inc ing ( s ee G o lds te in 1 985 a nd t h is v o lume ) . F o r t he p er iods p receed ing T iwanaku , w e c an s ee a n i n tense o ccupa t ion w i th v ar ia t ions b e tween s i tes a nd a n e xp lo i ta t ion o f v a r ied a l t itud ina l a nd e nv iron men t a l z ones a s e a r ly a s t he Huaracane P hase . Du r ing t h i s p hase , w e a l so s ee s im i lar it ies i n c e ram ics a nd o ther a r t i fac t s o ve r al a rge a rea o f s ou the rn P e ru , n o r the rn C h i le , a nd h igh land B o l iv ia . Howeve r , w e s t i l l l a ck t h e d a ta n eeded t o f u l ly d esc r ibe t h e p at te rn d ur ing t he Hua racane P e r iod a nd c anno t a s y e t d i f fe ren t ia te b e tween p o l i t ica l ly i ndependen t g roups w i th a s har ed ma t er ia l c u l ture , g roup s a l l ied i n a n i n te ra c t ion s phe re ( Ca ldwe l l 1 964 ) , o r g roups l i nked i n a s c o lon ies o f ac en t ra l p o l i ty . T he d i f fe rence s w e s ee b e tween T rap iche a nd P ukara p o t tery - t he v a r ia t ions i n t h e u se o f i n c is ion f o r o u t l in ing d e s ign a reas a nd t he p reponderan ce i n Moquegua o f c losed v esse l f o rms - s ugge s t l o ca l p roduc t ion b y ap e rmanen t ly r e s iden t p opu la t ion t ha t w a s i n c on tac t w i th t he a l t ip lano c en te r . T he a s so c ia t ion o f T rap iche p o t tery w i th s o me o f t h e n ow -de s t royed monumen t a l mason ry p l a t fo rm s i nd ica te s as ubs tan t ia l d eg ree o f l abo r c on t ro l a nd p o l i t ica l p owe r . T he f i nd ing o f woo l t apes t r ies a nd f e a th e r ed t ex t i le s s uppo r t t h is v i ew o f al o ca l e l i te t h a t ma in ta ined l o ng d is tan ce c on tac t s w i th o the r g roups . T he T rap iche P hase o c cupa t ion i n Moquegua d oe s n o t a ppea r , a t t h is s t age o f o u r s t ud ies , t o h ave b een a s e x tens ive a s t h e Hua racane P hase o ne w as . T h i s d i f fe ren ce d oe s a ppear t o b e r e a l , b u t i tm igh t a l so b e d ue i n p a r t t o ap o s s ib le c on cen t ra t ion o f l a bo r a t f ewe r s e t t lemen t s . T rap iche P hase masonry a r ch i tec ture a ppears t o h ave b een mo re monumen t a l t h an t h a t o f t h e Hua racane P hase , s o t he c o rpo ra te l abo r i nves tmen t m igh t h ave b een e qu iva len t . I ft he f o r t i f ica t ions o n t op o f C er ro T rap iche d a te t o t h e T rap iche P hase , t h is e v idence o f c onf l ic t c ou ld p rov ide a r eason f o r t he c on cen t ra t ion o f p opu la t ion i n to f ewe r s e t t lemen t s . T he a ppa ren t p re -H ispan ic d e s t ruc t ion o f s i te s o f b o th p hase s c omp l ica te s t h e p ic tu re . P o t te ry o f a ny k ind i sn o t c ommon o n t h ese " p i t ted s t one p i les , " a nd d e co ra ted p ot te ry i s e ven l e s s s o . S o f a r , f i be r t empe red Hua racane p o t te ry h as b een f o und mo r e c ommon ly t h an T rap iche s he rds , b u t s ome o r a l l o f t h e d e s t royed s i tes t h a t h ave b een t e n ta t ive ly a sso c ia ted w i th t he Hua racane P has e m igh t d a te t o t he T rap iche P has e . F u r the rmo re , w e c anno t r u le o u t t h a t t h e se s i tes w e re o ccup ied d ur ing b o th p hase s : C e r ro E chen ique ( M2 ) i so ne s uch s i te . T he t i gh tne ss o f t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween e co log ica l z ones s eems t o h ave r e laxed s omewha t d ur ing t he T rap iche P hase , e ven t hough w e c an p o in t t owa rd a p opu la t ion r e s iden t i n Moquegua t ha t w as manu fac tur ing a l o ca l v a r ian t o f P uka ra p o lych rome c e ram ic s . T h is o b se rva t ion b r ing s u p a n i n teres t ing p o in t t h a t b ea rs f ur the r s t udy : i n Moquegua , t he i nf luence f r om t he s ou the rn a nd n o r thwes t ern T i t icaca z one s was n o t e qua l ly i n tense . T he s ou the rn z one , i n c lud ing t he a l t ip lano h ear t o f b o th C h i r ipa/ Wankaran i a nd T iwanaku , s eems t o h ave e xer ted mor e p e rvas ive o r d ire c t c on t ro l o ve r Moquegua t h an d id t h e n o r thwe s te rn z one . T he l a t te r , t he h ea r t land o f P uka ra , s e ems t o h ave h ad mo re i n tens ive t i e s w i th t h e r eg ions f a r ther t o t h e n o r th a nd n o r thwe s t , i n to t he D epar tmen t o f C uzco ( K . C havez 1 977 ; S . C havez 1 973 ) , t h an i td id
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w i th a ny o f t he P ac i f ic c oa s ta l v a l leys . d e te rm ined b y f u r the r f i e ld wo rk .
T he f u l l n a tu re o f t h ese c on tac t s r ema ins t o b e
S im i la r f l uc tua t ions c an b e s e en d ur ing l a te p re -H ispan ic t ime s . S t an ish ( 1 985 , 1 987 , t h is v o lume ) n o te s t ha t d ur ing t h e L a te Ho r izon P hase i n Moquegua t he re w ere c o lon ies o f t h e s ou the rn T i t icaca b as in L upaca t ha t w e re n o ted b y Mur ra , wh i le d u r ing t he p receed ing L a te I n te rmed ia te P er iod E s tuqu i t ia P hase t h e re w as mo re l o ca l a u tonomy i n Moquegua a nd e v idence o f n on -co lon ia l e conom ic i n te rac t ion b e tween Moquegua a nd S i l lus tan i , i n t he n o r the rn T i t icaca b as in .
A cknow ledgemen t s T he wo rk u pon wh ich t h is r epo r t i sb ased w as c onduc ted w i th t he a u tho r iza t ion o f t he I n s t i tu to N ac iona l d e C u l tu ra a s p a r t o f t he r e s ear ch a c t iv i t ies o f t he P rog rama C on t isuyu , aj o in t u nde r tak ing o f t he F i e ld Museum o f N a tura l H is to ry o f C h icago a nd t he Museo P e ruano d e C ienc ias d e l a S a lud o f L ima , wh ich i s p ar t o f t h e B ene f icenc ia P ub l ica d e L i ma . We wou ld l i ke t o g ra te fu l ly a cknow ledge t h e d ona t ion s a nd ma te r ia l a s s is tance r e ce ived f r om t h e S ou the rn P e ru C opper C o rpo ra t ion , t h e P r i tzke r F ounda t ion , t he F l uo r F ounda t ion , a nd i n te re s ted c i t izens o f Moquegua . We wou ld e spec ia l ly l i ke t o t h ank t h e B a ta l lon S an P ab lo o f t he 4 1s t B r igade o f t h e P e ruv ian A rmy f o r l a bo r a s s is tan ce i n c onduc t ing t e s t e xcava t ions a t an umbe r o f s i te s i n 1 983 a nd 1 984 . L as t ly , w e n o te t he wo rk d one b y D r . L u is Wa tanabe , t he r e s iden t d i rec to r o f t he P rog rama C on t isuyu , who f i r s t l o ca ted t he s i te o f Y away .
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The T iwanaku Occupa t ion o f Moquegua P au l S .G o lds te in D ep ar tmen t o fA n thropo logy T he U n iv er s i ty o fC h i cag o
I n t roduc t ion •I n r e cen t y ears , much p rog ress h as b een made t owards u nder s tand ing f o rms o f e conom ic a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l i n teg ra t ion t h a t c harac ter ize e ar ly s t a te s oc ie t ies . I n t he Andes , e thnoh is to ry a nd a r chaeo logy h ave s hed l i gh t o n t h e s t ruc ture o f t he I nka emp ire a nd o the r l a te P reh ispan ic p o l i t ies ( e .g . C o l l ie r e t a l . 1 982 ; Masuda e t a l . 1 985 ; Mur ra 1 968 , 1 980 ) . However , a t temp ts t o p ro jec t t h is k now ledge t o e ar l ie r c omp lex s o c ie t ies h ave t e nded t o r ema in s pecu la t ive . Nowhere i s t h is mo re t h e c ase t h an w i th i n te rpre ta t ions o f T iwanaku e xpans ion a nd c on t ro l i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l Andes b e tween t he 4 t h a nd 1th c en tur ies A .D . T iwanaku 's c ore o f monu men ta l e ar then a nd c u t s t one s t ruc tures i n t he B o l iv ian a l t ip l ano b as in o f L ake T i t icaca i s o n ly t he mos t v i s ib le a spec t o f a n i mpo r tan t p ro to typ ica l Andean S t a te s oc ie ty . T he magn itude o f T iwanaku 's monumen ta l p rec inc t a nd s ur round ing r e s iden t ia l a reas a nd a gr icu ltura l works , a nd t he s pec ia l is t a r t isans whose s k i l ls a re e v iden t i n T iwanaku 's t e x t i le , c e ram ic a nd s t onecarv ing i ndus t r ies , s ugge s t a h igh d ens i ty o f p opu la t ion a nd a n a dvanced l e ve l o f e conom ic a nd o rgan iza t iona l c omp lex i ty ( Benne t t 1 934 , 1 936 ; B rowman 1 978 , 1 985 ; K o la ta 1 983 ; K o la ta e t a l . 1 987 ; P once S ang ines 1 969 , 1 972 ; P osnansky 1 945 , R y &n 1 957 ) . I n t h e a l t ip lano , t he h egemony o f T iwanaku a nd i t s s a te l i te c en te r s d epended o n t he a dm in is t ra t ion o f au n ique , h igh -a lt i tude a g r icu l tura l c omp lex o f r a ised f i e lds ( Denevan 1 970 ; K o la ta 1 983 , 1 987 ) , c o mb ined w i th t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f l a cus t r ine r e sources a nd l a rge s c a le h erd ing o f c a me l ids ( Browman 1 978 , 1 980 ; L ynch 1 983a ) . T he e x tens ion o f T iwanaku 's i nf luence t o t h e e as tern a nd w e s tern s l opes o f t he Andes a nd t h e P ac i f ic c oas t h as b een s ub jec t o f c ons ide rab le d eba te , h oweve r . I n t h is p ape r , e v idence w i l l b e p resen ted o n t he n a tu re o f T iwanaku s t a te i n f luence i n o ne s uch p er iphe ra l z one : t he Moquegua V a l ley o f S ou the rn P e ru . I t w i l l b e a rgued t h a t , T iwanaku w as t he
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 1
c oo rd ina to r o f ab road p rov inc ia l n e two rk t h a t c onnec ted t he d ispara te e co log ica l z ones o f t h e s ou th Andes .
T iwanaku E xpans ion T he V e r t ica l A rch ipe lago I n t he Andes , s e cur ing e conom ic a ccess t o av ar ie ty o f a l t itud ina l ly d e f ined e co log ica l z ones i s ac ommon max im iza t ion s t ra tegy t ha t s e rves a s ar i sk -averag ing me chan ism t o m in im ize t he e f fec t s o f c a tas t roph ic c l i ma t ic e ven t s . On a l o ca l s c a le , s uch p rac t ices h ave b een o bse rved among mode rn Quechua a nd Aymara c ommun i t ies ( e .g . B rush 1 977 ; P la t t 1 980 ) . J ohn Mur ra ( 1 968 , 1 972 , 1 983 ) a nd o the rs ( F lores 1 970 ; F onseca 1 972 ; P ease 1 980 ) h ave u sed e thnoh is to r ic s ources t o d ocu men t as ys tem o f " ve r t ica l c on t ro l " p rac t iced b y t he L upaqa Aymara a nd o ther P re Inca ic k ingdoms . Mur ra d es cr ibed t he me chan ism o f t h is c on t ro l a s a n " a rch ipe lago " c ons is t ing o f s epa ra te " i s lands " o f c o lon is t s who c oex is ted i n e ach e co log ica l z one , y e t ma in ta ined d i rec t a l leg iance a nd e thn ic i d en t i ty t o t he ir v ar ious h ome land p o l i t ies . T he c ompe t i t ive a dvan tage o f s im i lar p o l ic ies may h ave b een a f a c to r i n t h e r i se o f t h e I n ca S t a te ( I sbe l l 1 977 ) a nd i t i s k nown t ha t t h e I n ca Emp ire man ipu la ted e n t ire e thn ic c ommun i t ies t o t h e ir e co log ica l , e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l a dvan tage ( Cobo 1 984 ; D iez d e S an M igue l 1 964 ) . Wh i le w e m igh t r e jec t " ver t ica l i ty " a s ac ausa l e xp lana t ion f o r t he T iwanaku s t a te , i ts eems l i ke ly t h a t T iwanaku d id c hange t he s ca le a nd i n tegra t ive f o rms o f v er t ica l c omp lemen tar i ty i n aw ay t h a t p rov ided a p a t te rn f o r s ub sequen t S ou th Andean p o l i t ies s uch a s t he L upaqa a nd t he I n ca . T iwanaku C o lon ies A ccess t o z ones o u ts ide t he l im i t s o f t he a l t ip lano wou ld h ave p erm i t ted T iwanaku t o s upp lemen t i t s a l t ip lano c a me l id h e rds , l a cus t r ine r esou rce s , c henopod g ra in s a nd t ube rs w i th t r op ica l c rops s uch a s c o ca a nd f r u i t s , mar ine r e sources f r om t he P ac i f ic c oas t , a nd c o t ton , s quash , g ourds , l egu mes a nd ma ize f r om t he t empe ra te i r r igab le v a l leys o f t he Andes ' wes te rn s l ope . S ince t h e p ionee r ing work o f Max Uh le i n t he e a r ly 2 0 th c en tury , c harac ter is t ic T iwanaku t e x t i les , c e ram ics , a nd wooden a r t i fac t s h ave b een k nown f r om t ombs a nd o the r c on tex t s o n t he c oas t s o f C h i le a nd P e ru ( Uh le 1 903 , 1 9 19a , b ; B erengue r 1 978 ; B i rd 1 943 ; D au lsbe rg 1 972 ; F ocacc i 1 969 ; L a tcham 1 938 ) . D iscover ies o f T i wanaku ma ter ia ls f r om a s f a r away a s n o r the rn A rgen t ina ( Be rber ian 1 977 ) a nd t h e e as te rn s l ope s o f t he Andes ( Benne t t 1 936 ; P once S ang ines 1 972 ; R yc 16 1 1 957 ; Wassen 1 972 ) , a s w e l l a s t h e o as is r i ver v a l leys o f t he d ese r t w es te rn s i e r ra ( D isse lho f f 1 968 ; I sh ida 1 960 ; Mu j ica , R ive ra a nd L ynch 1 983 ) i nd ica te e x ten s ive e x terna l c on t ac t ( s ee f i g . 1 ) . Two a l te rna t ive mode ls h ave b een o f fe red f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f a l t ip lano c on tac t w i th t he d ry w es te rn s l opes o f t he Andes ( Lynch 1 983a , Mu j ica 1 985 ) . T hese s chemes , d es c r ibed a s d i rec t a nd i nd irec t c omp lemen tar i ty , d i f fe r p r imar i ly i n i n terp re ta t ion o f t h e n a tur e a nd d e f ree ( r a the r t h an t h e e x ten t ) o f T iwanaku i nf luence . I nd irec t mode ls f o r T iwanaku c on t ac t w i th t he s i e r ra a r e e xemp l i f ied b y t h e a l t ip lano mode p roposed b y B rowman ( 1 980 ) . T h is emphas ize s t h e e conom ic s e l f su f f ic iency o f a l t ip lano T iwanaku , a nd s ugges t s t h a t T iwanaku w as t oo f a r f r om t he wes te rn v a l leys f o r
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P.GO LD S T E IN ; TI E TI WANAKU OC CU PAT ION O F MO QU EGUA
F igu re 1 . T he T iwanaku C u l ture o f t he C en t ra l Andes .
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d i rec t a g r icu ltura l c o lon ies , o r m i t imaqkuna t he re . T iwanaku 's b road s phe re o f i nf luence i sc ons ide red a s a n e s sen t ia l ly n on -subs is tence o r e l i te e xchange n e two rk m a in ta ined b y i tneran t t r ader s o r p r ies t s v ia marke t s a nd c a ravan t r ade . T hese c u ltura l ambassado r s c ou ld o n ly h ave moved i n l a te i n T iwanaku 's d eve lopmen t , a f te r t he c o l lapse o f t h e c ompe t ing Wan ip o l i ty ( B rowman 1 978 , 1 980 ; Mu j ica 1 978a ) . Un t i l r e cen t ly , k now ledge o f T iwanaku i nf luence i n t h e wes tern s i er ra h a s b een mo s t c omp le te f o r t wo a reas o f No r the rn C h i le . I n t he o as is o f S an P edro d e A tacama , T iwanaku i nf luence a ppears a s al im i ted p ropo r t ion o f e l i te t r ade i t e ms a nd a mode ra te s t y l is t ic i nf luence o n e x is t ing l o ca l t r ad i t ions . T iwanaku a r t i fac t s o f S an P edro t end t o b e s t a tus o r r i tua l r e la ted . I mpor ted T iwanaku I n t he o as is o f S an P edro d e A tacama , T iwanaku i nf luence a ppear s a s a l im i ted p ropo r t ion o f e l i te t r ade i t ems a nd a mode ra te s t y l is t ic i n f luence o n e x is t ing l o ca l t r ad i t ions . T iwanaku a r t ifac ts o f S an P edro d o t e nd t o b e s t a tus o r r i tua l - r e la ted . I mpor ted T iwanaku c e ram ics a re s c ar ce , a nd t h e a pparen t ly h igh i n c idence o f r epa ired v esse ls ( i n wh ich c r acks we re c l osed b y d r i l l ing a nd l a c ing a nd/or a pp l ica t ion o f a mas t ic ) c ou ld a t tes t t o t he ir h igh v a lue t he re ( Be rengue r 1 986 ; L ePa ige 1 965 ; Museo C h i leno d e A r te P reco lomb ino 1 984 ; O re l lana 1 985 ; R ive ra 1 985 ; T o r res 1 985 ) . I n t he A zapa V a l ley o f A r ica , o n t he o ther h and , t h e re i s s ome e v idence f o r d irec t c o lon iza t ion o f a l t ip lano p eop les a s e ar ly a s t h e P eruv ian P ukara a nd t he C h i lean A l to R am irez t r ad i t ions ( 1000 B .C . -A .D . 4 00 ; R ive ra 1 976 , 1 985 ; Mu j ica , R ive ra a nd L ynch 1 983 ; F e ldman t h is v o lume ) ' . T he T iwanaku re la ted " Lo re to V ie jo " p er iod i st yp if ied b y ma te r ia ls o f T iwanaku I V a nd V a nd t he l o ca l S obraya a nd C abuza s t y les , a nd i s g ene ra l ly d a ted f r om c a . 5 00 -1000 A .D . ( Fo cacc i 1 969 ; D au lsberg 1 972 ) . A cco rd ing t o t he mode l o f d i rec t c omp lemen ta r i ty , T iwanaku s e t t le men t wou ld h ave b een t h e l og ica l d eve lopmen t o f a p re -ex is t ing s ys tem t h a t moved c omod it ies , b u lk p roduce a nd p eop le c ons iderab le d i s tance s , p e rm i t t ing t he i n tend ive e conom ic e xp lo i ta t ion o f d i s tan t r eg ions . P eru 's Moquegua V a l ley wou ld h ave b een , b y v i r tue o f i t s p rox im i ty a nd e co log ica l p lacemen t , a n o ppo r tune r eg ion f o r s uch p roduc t ive T iwanaku s e t t lemen t s . T he Moquegua M id -Va l ley Z one E nv ir onmen ta l P ar ame ter s : T he m idd le e l eva t ions ( 1 000 t o 2 000 me ters , s e e f i g . 2 ) o f P e ru 's Moquegua V a l ley , l o ca ted l e ss t han 3 00 k i lome te r s f r om T iwanaku , wou ld h ave b een a k ey a rea f o r T iwanaku 's e xpans ive s t ra tegy . T h is o as is v a l ley i n t h e d eser t w es te rn s i er ra i so ne o f t he c l oses t t o t h e T iwanaku h ome land . T hough m ine ra l d epos i t s , n o tab ly c opper , a nd s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion o n t r ade r ou tes t o c oas ta l r e sources s uch a s s a l t , g uano , f i sh a nd s he l l f ish may h ave b een o f s ome i mpo r tance , t h e p r imary a t trac t ion wou ld h ave b een a g ronom ic . A s i n a l l o f t he w es te rn s l ope o ases , t he e x t reme d ryness o f P eru 's s i e r ran d eser t i s a l lev ia ted i n Moquegua b y r uno f f f r om t h e a l t ip l ano . T oday , i r r iga t ion i n t he b as in o f t h e O smo re R ive r a nd i t s t r ibu tar ies p e rm i t s t he y ear -round c u l t iva t ion o f many c rops n o t a va i lab le i n t h e a l t ip lano . Mos t o f Moquegua 's 3 , 200 i r r iga ted h ec tares a re l o ca t ed i n wha t m igh t b e c ons ide red t he m idd le v a l ley s e c t ion ( ONERN 1 976 ; s ee s haded a rea i n f i g . 2 ) . H e re , b etween t he mode rn c i ty o f Moquegua a nd t h e p o in t 4 5 k i lome ters f r om t he c oas t , where t he r i ve r d isappears u nde rg round , t h e v a l ley i s r e la t ive ly b road a nd f l a t ,
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P.GO LD S T E IN ; TH E TI WANAKU OC CUPAT ION O F MO QU EGUA
F igu re 2 . Moquegua T i wanaku S i tes .
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 1
p e rm it t ing a gr icu lture w i thou t t h e a r t i f ic ia l t e r rac ing t h a t i sn e cessary u pva l ley . I ti s h e re t h a t t he ma jo r i ty o f T iwanaku s e t t lemen t w as l o ca ted . P r ev iou s I nve s t ig a t ion i n Moquegua : Wh i le a s i gn i f ican t T iwanaku p resence i n Moquegua h as b een p os tu la ted f o r s ome t ime ( Mu j ica , R ive ra a nd L ynch 1 983 ) , u n t i l r e cen t ly , k now ledge o f T iwanaku s i tes i n t he Moquegua V a l ley h as b een l i m i ted b y t h e s po rad ic n a ture o f a r chaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion a nd p ub l ica t ion . T es t e xcava t ions w e re c onduc ted a t t h e T iwanaku s i tes o f T um i laca Mo l ina ( U4 ) a nd Chen C hen (M1) b y membe rs o f t he Un ive rs i ty o f T okyo S c ien t i f ic M iss ion t o t he Andes a s p ar t o f t h e i r s urvey o f P e ru ( I sh ida 1 960 ) . F u j i i d esc r ibed t he o ccupa t ion a nd a ssoc ia ted c e ra m ics a s E xpans ive T iwanaku ( V ) a nd p os tu la ted t h a t a n a g r icu ltura l c o lony o f t h a t p e r iod s ucceeded a n e ar l ier Wan i o ccupa t ion ( Fu j i i 1 980 ) . F ur ther wo rk was u nder taken b y a r chaeo log is ts f r om t he Un ive rs i ty o f S an Agus t in i n A requ ipa i n t he e a r ly 1 960 s . Un fo r tuna te ly , t he o n ly p ub l ished a ccoun t i s ab r ie f a ccoun t o n t he c eme te ry o f Chen C hen ( D isse lho f f 1 968 ) . I nves t iga t ions a t t he c eme tery o f L o re to V ie jo ( C33 ) a nd e l sewhere i n Moquegua c onduc ted b y G ary V es ce l ius a nd R ogge r R av ine s a t a bout t h e s ame t ime h ave n o t b een p ub l ished . C ar los P once S ang ine s S ang ines ' e xhaus t ive ly c omp i led d i s t r ibu t ion map f o r t he T iwanaku C u l ture l i s t s o n ly C hen Chen a nd L o re to V ie jo f o r t he D epar tmen t o f Moquegua ( Ponce S ang ine s 1 972 , s ee f i g . 2 ) . I n 1 983 a nd 1 984 , P rog rama C on t isuyu , ab ina t iona l a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch p ro jec t c osponso red b y t he Museo P e ruano d e C ienc ias d e l a S a lud i n L ima a nd F i e ld Museum o f N a tura l H is tory i n C h icago , b egan a p re l im inary s urvey o f t he D epar tmen t o f Moquegua t ha t r e co rded 2 0 T iwanaku h ab i ta t ion , c eme tery a nd a g r icu ltura l s i tes . Mo re i n tens ive s i te i nves t iga t ion s o f T iwanaku s i tes i n c lude t hose o f a t T um i laca ( U4 , B awden t h is v o lu me ) , i n t h e O to ra V a l ley ( P5 , S t an ish 1 985 a nd t h is v o lume ) , M3 1 ( F e ld man a nd Wa tanabe p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion ) , a nd a t t he Omo s i te g roup ( M10 , M11 a nd M12 ) i n 1 986 a nd 1 987 u nde r t h e Omo P ro jec t , d i rec ted b y t he a u tho r . S t r a t igr aph i c C on s ide r a t i on s : I n s t ark c on t ras t t o a l t ip lan o T i wanaku s i tes , t h e Moquegua V a l ley h as f ew wa te r -bo rne s ed imen tary d epos i ts o u t s ide o f t h e a c tua l r i ve r f l oodp la in . C onsequen t ly , s i tes h ave l i t t le a pprec iab le v e r t ica l s t ra t ig raphy . I n t en s ive w ind d e f la t ion h as e xace rba ted t h is p rob lem a t an umbe r o f t h e mo re e xposed s i te s . Wi th t h e e xcep t ions o f T rap iche ( M7 ) a nd T um i laca Mo l ina ( U -4 , s ee B awden t h is v o lu me ) , n o s i tes w i th c l ear s upe rpos i t ion h ave b een f ound . S i te a bandonmen t a nd e ro s ion p resen t s i n s tead a f o rm o f " ho r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy " . T he c h rono log ica l s equence h ere p roposed i s s uppo r ted b y d i f fe rences i n s i te p rese rva t ion b e tween s i tes . S i tes t ha t a re c e ram ica l ly i den t i f ied w i th t he " Omo P hase " ( M 12 , M16 a nd M-31) a l l s how t h e mos t e x t reme e f fec t s o f p ro longed w ind d ef la t ion , w i th a n ear to ta l a bsence o f s o i l , m idden o r o rgan ic d epos i t . E xposed s ur face c e ram ics a nd h ouse p l a t fo r ms a r e h eav i ly p a t ina ted b y w ind s cour ing . S i te s o f t he " Chen C hen P hase " , s uch a s C hen Chen ( M1 ) , C e r ro l o s E nr iques ( M43 ) , E chen ique ( M4 ) a nd M 10 a t Omo , s e em t o h ave s i gn i f ican t ly l e ss s cour ing a nd p a t ina t ion a nd b e t te r p rese rva t ion o f o rgan ic s , m idden d epos i ts a nd s ome p rese rved c ane w a l ls . T he " Tum i laca P hase " s i tes s uch a s Mar ia C up ina ( M9 ) , T um i laca ( U4 ) , a nd t he w a l led s i te a t Omo M11 a l l e xh ib i t s uper io r p rese rva t ion , a s d o p os t -T iwanaku s i tes s uch a s C h i r ibaya , L a Y ara l a nd E s tuqu i f ia . A bso lu te d a tes n ow i n p ro cess w i l l b e v i ta l f o r f u r the r c on f irma t ion .
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The Moquegua T iwanaku S equence B o l iv ian T i wanaku Ch rono logy E a r ly i nves t iga t ion s a t T iwanaku made l i t t le u se o f c e ram ic s t raf ig raphy f o r d a t ing , r e ly ing i n s tead o n a rch i tec ture a nd s t one c arv ing t e chn ique ( S tube l a nd Uh le 1 892 ; C requ i -Mon t for t 1 906 ; P o snan sky 1 945 ) . Wende l l B enne t t 's wo rk a t T iwanaku i n 1 932 , l a te r a ugmen ted b y t he e xcava t ions o f S t ig R y &n ( 1 947 ) , was t he f i rs t a t temp t a t s t ra t ig raph ic e xcava t ion i n t h e a l t ip l ano . A l though B enne t t 's s e lec t ion o f " C las s ic " a nd " De caden t " a s p hase d es igna t ions b e t rays s ome a s sump t ions a bou t t h e d eg rada t ion o f a r t s ty le s ( Decaden t mo t i f s a r e d esc r ibed a s s u f fe r ing a " b reakdown o f C lass ic d es ign " a nd a " gene ra l s imp l i f ica t ion o f t e chn ique " 1 934 :405 , 4 56 ) , h i s s equence h as b een t he b as is f o r a l l s ubsequen t c hrono log ie s . B enne t t 's mos t e f fec t ive t empo ra l i nd ica to r s ee m s t o b e v esse l f o rm , r a ther t han p a in ted d eco ra t ion . F o r e xamp le , L iba t ion B ow ls , W ide F l ar ing R im B ow ls a nd V ases ( s hapes B , C , a nd D ) , d e f ined b y B enne t t a s " C lass ic " f o rms a re r are i n " Decaden t " T iwanaku l e ve ls a t C h ir ipa , P ar i t i , P a j ch ir i a nd L loghe ta ( Benne t t 1 936 ) , a nd I k toman i a nd Wankan i ( Ry ckn 1 947 ) . C asanova ( 1 942 ) d escr ibed a c l ear s uperpo s i t ion o f " Decaden t " f o rms a bove a " C lass ic " s ubs t ra tum i n h i s f our me te r d eep p i t 5a t t he s i te o f Mocach i , n ear C opacabana . I n h i s i mpo r tan t T iwanaku c e ram ic s er ia t ion , Wa l lace ( 1 957 ) c on f irmed many a spec t s o f B enne t t 's v esse l f o rm s equence . I n 1 947 , C ar los P once S ang ines S ang ines p roposed a f our -par t s equence t ha t w as a n e l abo r a t ion o f B enne t t 's . T he i dea o f ag radua l C lass ic t o D ecaden t t r ans i t ion ( w i th a n " immen se d i f fus ion " o f t h e f l ar ing s i ded b ow l , " g rea te r s imp l ic i ty o f d es ign " a nd " d isappearance o f z oomo rph ic d es igns " w as r e ta ined . A mod i f ied f o rm o f t h is c l ass i f ica t ion , p roposed b y P once S ang ines i n A r ica i n 1 96 1 ( D isse lho f f 1 968 ) , h as b ecome g ene ra l ly a ccep ted , t hough t h e c e ram ics h ave n ever b een f u l ly d es c r ibed i n p r in t . P once S ang ine s ( 1972 ) c har t s as e r ies o f r ad iocarbon d a tes f o r t h e f i ve p hases a nd d e s igna tes s eve ra l i lus t ra ted v esse ls b y p hase . C e ram ics o f T iwanaku E po ca I ,k nown a s K a lasasaya , i n c lude a c oarse ly p o l ished , d eep ly i nc ised b rown w are a nd a P ukara l ike i n c ised a nd p a in ted w are . T yp ica l v esse l f o rms i n c lude j a r s w i th g lobu lar o r s l igh t ly f l at tened b od ie s , r ound b o t tom b ow ls w i th o ne h and le , a nd s ome mode led t ype s ( Ponce S ang ines 1 976 ) . D a tes f o r t h is p hase r ange f r om t h e s i x th c en tury B C t o t h e f our th c entury AD ( Ponce S ang ine s 1 972 ) . E po ca I i s n o t f u l ly d esc r ibed a nd c an b e a s sumed t o b e at r ans i t iona l p hase . E poca I I , wh ich P once S ang ines r e fer s t o a s " u rbano t emp rano " , c o r responds c eram ica l ly w i th t h e E ar ly T iahuanaco o r " Qeya " s t y le p roposed b y B enne t t . T h is s t y le w as r epresen ted b y as o f t , l i gh t b rown c e ram ic p as te a nd f o rms s uch a s l i ba t ion b ow ls a nd b u lbous b o t tom v ases w i th i n ter lock ing b l ack a nd wh i te t r iang le mo t i f s . D a t ing f r om A .D . 1 00 t o 3 75 , t he T i wanaku I I s t y le h as b een f ound o n ly i n t he i mmed ia te c i rcum -T i t icaca r eg ion ( Bande l ie r 1 9 10 :173 ; B enne t t 1 948 ; E i s leb a nd S t re low 1 980 :11 ; K o la ta 1 983 ; Mu j ica 1 978 ; P once S ang ines 1 972 ; Wa l lace 1 957 :19 ) . E po ca I V , t e rmed " u rban° maduro , " i se s sen t ia l ly t he C lass ic T iwanaku p hase . R ad iocarbon d a tes p resen ted b y P once S ang ines s ugges t a d ura t ion o f t h is p hase f r om AD 3 75 - 7 25 ( B rowman 1 980 ; K o la ta 1 983 ) t hough o the rs c ons ide r i t t o h ave b egun a s l a te a s A .D . 5 00 ( I sbe l l 1 983 ) . T iwanaku E poca V , o r " expans ivo " c o r responds t o B enne t t 's D ecaden t P hase . P once S ang ine s 's e igh t d a tes , t wo o f w h ich a re f r om C hen C hen i n Moquegua , r ange f r om t he n in th t o t h e t h ir teen th c en tu r ie s A .D .
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T he a ppearance i n Moquegua o f l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f ma ter ia l o f T i wanaku I V a nd V a f f i l ia t ion d emons t ra tes a n e x t rao rd inar i ly i n tense i n te rac t ion ma in ta ined b y T i wanaku w i th t he w es tern s i e r ra . T iwanaku An teceden t s i n Moquegua C h ir ipa a nd P ukara a f f in i t ies s ugges ted b y c e ram ics o f Moquegua 's " Huaracane " a nd " T rap iche " P hases i mp ly a l t ip lano r e la t ions a t a v ery e ar ly d a te ( s ee F e ld man t h is v o lume ) . I ndeed , ad i s t inc t ive ly P aracas s t y le embro ide red f r inge f r agmen t f ound i n a Huaracane P hase c e me te ry a t Omo c ou ld b e e v iden ce o f e xchange b e tween t he S ou th C en t ra l C oas t a nd t he S ou the rn a l t ip l ano a t t h is t ime ( Lumb re ras 1 974a ) . T he Huaracane P hase h as b een t r ea ted i n d e ta i l e l sewhere a nd w i l l h e re b e men t ioned i n t e rms o f i t s r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e s ubsequen t T iwanaku o ccupa t ion o f t h e v a l ley . Ne i the r t he n eck less o l la s o r f i ne p as te b ow ls o f t he Huaracane P hase b ear a ny r e semb lance i n f o rm o r p as te t o T iwanaku v esse ls . Mo reover , af r agmen t o f t omb r oo f ing f r om T omb 6 , l e ve l 8i n t he Hua racane P hase c eme tery a t Omo ( F igs . 3a nd 4 ) , M 10 p roduced a c o rrec ted c a rbon 1 4 d a te o f A .D . 5 0 +7 0 ( M10 = 2 197 , B e ta 2 6651 , D . R i ce p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion ) . T h is i nd ica tes t ha t t he d i s t inc t ive c e ra m ics a nd s ha f t t omb c ons t ruc t ions o f t he Huaracane P hase p reda ted T iwanaku s e t t lemen t b y s ome t ime . A p o s t loo t ing i n te rmen t i n T omb 6 a nd t he f r agmen t o f T iwanaku t apes t ry f ound n ea r a no the r t omb s ugges t c yc les o f l oo t ing a nd r euse o f t h ese t ombs d ur ing t h e T i wanaku o ccupa t ion . R e f inemen t o f t h e Huaracane s equence awa i t s e xcavat ion a nd mo re d e ta i led e xa m ina t ion o f s i te s a nd ma te r ia ls . I t d oe s a ppear t h a t t he n eck les s o l a i nven tory p e r ta ins t o t he i nd igenous p eop le o f Moquegua who w e re e ncoun tered -a nd p e rhap s d i sp laced -b y t h e f i rs t T iwanaku s e t t ler s . T he Omo P hase Omo P ha se S e t t l emen t P a t t ern : T he f i rs t a ppearance o f T iwanaku i n t h e Moquegua V a l ley i n t h e Omo P hase , wh ich c o r responds w i th m id t o l a te E poca I V o f t he B o l iv ian T iwanaku s equence . T he Omo P hase i sn amed f o r t h e Omo s i te g roup ( f ig s . 3 -6 ) , whe re i t i s r ep resen ted a t s i tes M12 a nd M16 ( f ig . 3 ) . T he o n ly p reserved Omo P hase o ccupa t ion y e t l o ca ted e l sewhere i n t he v a l ley i s L os C e r r i l los (M3 1 ) . F r ag men t s o f b l ackware k e r o s a nd p o ir t ra i t v esse ls , c ons idered d iagnos t ic f o r t h is p hase , h ave a l so b een r epo r ted i n t he C hen C hen c eme te r ies a nd i d en t i f ied a s a n a dm ix ture i n c o l lec t ions f r om t he I n ca c en te r a t T o ra ta A l ta ( T5 ) a nd o ne s i te n ear T um i laca Mo l ina ( U2 ) . ( R . F e ldman , B . V argas M .Garc ia , E . T or res a nd M .C . L ozada p e rsona l c ommun icat ion ) . I ts eems l i ke ly t h a t many Omo P hase s i tes w e re e f faced b y s ubsequen t , mo re e x tens ive , s e t t le men t a nd a g r icu l ture . S et t lemen t i n t he Omo P hase w as o r ien ted t oward v a l ley b o t tom l and i n t he m idd le v a l ley . L os C er r i l los i s a sma l l h am le t b u i l t a d jacen t t o f i e lds a t t he e nd o f ap rese rved i r r iga t ion c ana l . A t L os C e r r i l los , h ouses w e re a r rayed i nd iv idua l ly o n t e r race s a s soc ia ted w i th t he c ana l . L os C er r i l los w as a bandoned d ur ing t he s ucceed ing C hen C hen P hase , when t h e c ana l w as r e cu t o n a h ighe r l e ve l ( Fe ldman p ersona l c ommun ica t ion ) .
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F igu re 3 . T he Omo s i te g roup .
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F igure 4 . Omo M12 .
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F igu re 5 . Omo M10 .
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ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OS MORE DRA INAGE - Chapter 1
F igure 6 . M11 , S truc ture 5 .
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P.GO LD S T E IN ; TH E TI W ANAKU OC CU PAT ION O F MO QU EGUA
T he much l a rger Omo P hase s e t t lemen t a t Omo M12 i s l o cated a top a b lu f f t ha t c on t ro ls a w ide e xpanse o f f e r t i le l and a nd t he r eg ion 's mos t p roduc t ive n a tura l s pr ing s . R es iden t ia l r ema in s a t Omo M12 a nd M16 p resen t a t own p lan o f o ver 5 00 r oo m s a r ranged i n c l us te rs a round f our s epara te p ub l ic p lazas ( f ig . 4 ) . T he l ayou t a nd c on ten t o f t h e se p laza g roups a ppear t o i nd ica te s oc ia l d iv is ion s w i th in t he t own p lan . One a rea a t M 12 , f or e xamp le , d i sp lays more c onges ted a nd c omp lex a rch i tec ture a nd a d isp ropor t ionate r ep resen ta t ion o f e l abora te c e ram ics . T es t ing o f w i th in -s i te s pa t ia l s eg rega t ion i s ag oa l o f o ngo ing a na lys is o f t h e Omo P ro je c t . T hough Omo P hase s i te s a re h eav i ly d e f la ted , e xcava t ions a t L os C e rr i l los ( Fe ld man a nd Wa tanabe i n 1 984 ) a nd a t Omo ( Go lds te in i n 1 986 -87 ) f ound p reserved h ouse c l ea r ing s a nd f ounda t ions , s ubsur face f e a tures a nd i n -s i tu a r t i fac t s a nd o rgan ic ma ter ia ls . Houses o f t he Omo P hase c ons is ted o f f r om t wo t o e i gh t r e c tangu lar r ooms , u sua l ly a r ranged l i nea r ly . A s i n m id -va l ley T iwanaku s e t t lemen t s o f a l l p hases , d omes t ic s t ruc tures were b u i l t o f p er ishab le ma te r ia ls . I n c on t ras t w i th s ubsequen t w a l l t rench t e chn iques , Omo P hase h ouses s uspended c ur ta in w a l ls - p resumab ly woven ma t s o r p erhap s s k ins -f r om c l ose ly -spaced sma l l p o s t s . Non -cera m ic a r t ifac t s f ound i n Omo P hase d omes t ic c on tex t s i n c lude d i s t inc t ive n ar row , s t emmed , q uar tz i te p ro jec t i le p o in t s , s ome o bs id ian d ebr is , sma l l s he l l b eads , o rnamen t s i n b ronze a nd s i lve r , a nd wooden v esse ls a nd s poons . S ome t e x t i le r ema ins a nd f e a thers o f f l am ingos a nd o the r b i rds we re e xcava ted a nd awa i t a na lys is . F ood r e ma ins i nc lude c a me l id a nd r oden t b one , ma ize , a nd v ar ious b eans , g ourds a nd s quashes . No Omo P hase b ur ia ls h ave y e t b een l o ca ted i n Moquegua , n o r d o l o ca l p r iva te c o l le c t ions c on ta in Omo p hase c era m ics . Omo P ha se C e r am i c s : T he Omo P hase c e ram ic i nven tory c ons is t s o f U t i l i tar ian P la inwa res a nd t wo " f ine w are " c a tego r ies : R ed -s l ipped Ware a nd R educed B lackware ( Go lds te in 1 985 ) . Wh i le Moqegua T iwanaku c e ra m ics a re e xam ined i n mo re d e ta i l e l sewhere ( Go lds te in 1 985 ) , ab r ie f r ev iew o f t he c eram ic t ypo logy i s o f fered h ere f o r c or re la t ive c hrono logy a nd i n s uppor t o f t h e h i s to r ica l r e cons t ruc t ion . Omo P hase P l a inwares T iwanaku p l a inware h as b een a lmos t u n ive rsa l ly i gno red , a s i tua t ion t ha t R y &n d es c r ibed a s " dep lo rab le " ( 1 957 ) . O the r t han R y c l& i 's b as ic d es cr ip t ion , t h ere i s n o p ub l ished t ypo logy o f T iwanaku p la inware . I n Moquegua , Omo P hase P la inware i s t yp i f ied b y ar e la t ive ly f i ne - g ra ined , d ense a nd h ard f ired p as te . P as te c o lo rs t end t o r ange f r om 2 . 5YR 6 /0 t o 2 . 5YR 6 /6 l i gh t r ed , a nd g ray c o r ing i s c ommon . T empe r c ons is t s o f mode ra te q uan t i t ies o f med ium (
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3 36
20
25
S.W I L IAM S , E TA L . ; MO R TUARY SI T E EX C AVAT ION S
I n a t l e as t c e r ta in a r eas o f C eme te r ie s 1a nd 2 t he c ons t ruc t ion o f c o l la red t ombs p o s t -da t e s t he c r ea t ion o f c i s t t omb s , w i th t h e t wo c ons t ruc t ion e p isode s a pparen t ly u nre la t ed t o o ne a no the r . E v iden ce f o r t h is i n c ludes t he f a c t t ha t t he c i s t t ombs f ound b enea th t he c o l la red t omb s a r e n o t u n i fo rm ly d i s t r ibu t ed . C is t t omb s a re n o t , h owever , f ound b enea th a l l c o l la red t omb s . When p resen t , c i s t t ombs may b e f ound a t t h e c en te r o f t h e c o l lar t ombs , o r t hey may b e f ound b enea th t he w a l ls . A s much a s 2 0 c m o f s o i l may s epa ra te t h e b ase s t ones o f c o l lared t omb s f r om t h e c ap s tone s o f u nde r ly ing c i s t t omb s . I t i s l i ke ly t ha t t h e b u i lde r s o f c o l lared t ombs w ere n o t u nawa re o f t h e e xac t l o ca t ion o f t he e a r l ie r c i s t t ombs . A v ar ia t ion o f t he c o l lared t omb f o rm i s t he r i ng t omb ( Type V I ) , wh ich i s a s ub t e r ranean c i s t s ur rounded b y s t one s l y ing a t t h e l e ve l o f t he p resen t g round s u r face . T he s t one r i ng i ss ma l l , 0 . 5 t o o ne m i n d iame te r , a nd c o mposed o f med ium -s ized ( 1 0 -20 cm d i ame ter ) s t ones . S eve ra l l a rge , c y l ind r ica l s ub te r ranean s t ruc ture s c on ta in ing s ke le ta l ma te r ia l w e re e x cava t ed i n C eme te ry 2 a nd t h e D ome s t ic a r ea . T hese s t ruc tures ( Type 1 ) a re l i ned w i th f a ced s t one s a nd h ave s t ra igh t , v er t ica l s i des wh ich e x tend t o t he p resen t g round s ur f ace . T hey a re 1 . 0 1 .5 m i n d ep th a nd u sua l ly o ne me te r i n d iame te r . T he t wo c y l indr ica l s t ruc ture s e xcava ted i n C eme te ry 3 h ad b een l oo ted , b u t t wo i n t h e D ome s t ic A rea c on ta ined u nd is turbed b u r ia ls . T he l a t te r a ppea r t o h ave f unc t ioned i n i ta l ly a s s t o rage a reas t h a t w e re l a te r c onve r ted i n to t omb s . I n s eve ra l c ases , s ma l le r c i s t t ombs o r w a l led e nc losures w e re c ons t ruc ted i n s ide t h e l a rge r s t ruc ture s t o a ccommoda te t he b ur ia ls . F i na l ly , s eve ra l s ke le tons w e re e xcava ted f r om s ha l low p i t s t ha t h ad n o e v idence o f a s so c ia ted f o rma l t omb c on s t ruc t ion , i . e . , s t one l i n ings ( Type I V ) . I n t h e mo re h eav i ly d i s tu rbed a reas o f t he s i te , p ar t icu la r ly C eme tery 3 , i tw as d i f f icu l t t o d e te rm ine i ft he p i ts o r ig ina l ly h ad b een s t one l ined c i s t t ombs s ubsequen t ly d es t royed b y l o o t ing o r i f p e rhap s t hey w e re p o s s ib ly l oo te r s ' p i t s whe re d i scarded r ema ins w ere i n adve ren t ly r e in t e r red . I n C eme te r ie s 1a nd 2 , s eve ra l s eem ing ly i n tac t b ur ia ls w ere e xcava ted f r om s ha l low p i ts , a nd o ne h ad a s so c ia ted g rave g oods . G rave F u rn i ture Mo r tuary g oods w e re n ume rous , b u t f a i r ly s imp le i n d es ign . T here w e re s eve ra l t ype s o f c on ta ine r s , o f ten w i th r emnan t s o f f ood i n s ide . Wooden s poon s w e re f ound i n o r n ea r mos t o f t h e c on ta ine r s . A t l e as t f our d i f fe ren t t ype s o f c e ram ic v e s se ls w e re p res en t , w i th s ha l low E s tuqu if ia b ow ls , c ha rac t e r ized b y s ma l l , o ppos ing r im l ugs , t he mos t p reva len t . 0 1 la s , d i s t ingu ished f r om j a r r a s b y h av ing t wo , a s o ppo sed t o o ne v er t i ca l h and le u pon t h e n e ck , j a r r a s , a nd d uck o r b oo t s p o t s w e re a l so c ommon . O f fe r ing s he rds , d e f ined a s f r agmen t s a t l e as t 1 0 c m i n d iame te r , p robab ly a l so h e ld f ood . P re l im inary a na lys is s ugges t s t ha t o f fe r ing s he rds a nd d uck p o t s w e re mo re p reva len t i n t omb s o f c h i ldren a nd s ubadu l t s . A mo re d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o f t he E s tuqu i f ia c eram ics c an b e f ound i n L ozada C erna ( 1 987 ) . G ou rds w ere f ound i n m any o f t he t ombs . S ome o f t hem o bv ious ly h ad b een u sed a s c on t a iners , wh i le o the r s m ay h ave h ad o the r u se s . B aske t s o f v ary ing s i ze s w e re a l so p laced i n many o f t he t omb s t o h o ld f ood .
3 37
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 1 7
A bundan t p lan t a nd a n ima l r ema ins w e re r e cove red . Who le g u inea p ig s ( c uy ) h ad b een p laced i n many o f t he t omb s , a nd mos t s t ruc ture s c on t a ined p ha langes f r om s eve red c a me l id f e e t . F i sh a nd b i rd r ema ins w e re r e cove red f r om a f ew t ombs . Ma ize c obs a nd c o ca l e ave s w e re v e ry c o mmon t h roughou t t h e s i te . We l l -p re s e rved f r u i t s , t ube r s , a nd o the r p lan t r e s idue a r e a l so i n c luded i n t h e p a leobo t an ic s a mp le . Many i nd iv idua ls , p a r t icu lar ly a du l t s , w e re b ur ied w i th p e rsona l o b je c t s o r t o o ls . I mp lemen t s u sed i n t he p roduc t ion o f t e x t i le s , s uch a s s p ind le who r l s , w ere q u i te c ommon , u sua l ly a sso c ia ted w i th f ema le s . T he c omb s f ound i n many o f t h e t ombs a l so may h ave b een u sed f o r w eav ing . S eve ra l mus ica l i n s t rumen ts w e re r e cove red , i n c lud ing t h ree s ma l l c e ra m ic wh is t les a nd a b one f l u t e f r om C eme tery 3 . A d i st urbed t omb i n t he Domes t ic A rea c on ta ined t he r ema in s o f a wooden d rum . Sma l l wooden b oxes ( r ape t a b le t s ) t h a t may h ave o nce c on ta ined p igmen t s o r o the r s ub s tance s w ere f ound i n s eve ra l t omb s , p a r t icu la r ly t hose i n C eme tery 1 . A s ma l l b a l l made o f y a rn a nd p o s s ib ly s he l l w as r e cove red f r om a D ome s t ic A rea t omb ( #645 ) . G reen p owde r was a sso c ia ted w i th t h is f i nd . A r t ic le s o f p e rson a do rnmen t w e re a s so c ia ted w i th c e r ta in b u r ia ls . O ne l oo ted t omb ( # 162 ) f r om C eme te ry 3 c on ta ined a m idd le a ged ma le who h ad b een b u r ied w i th a l o ng b and o f me ta l w rapped a round h i s n eck . T he m e ta l b and w as i mp r in ted w i th a r ep t i l ian d es ign . R e cove red f r om t he s ame t omb w as a l a rge ( 10 15 c m d iame te r ) c i r cu la r me ta l o rnamen t t h a t h ad b een c rump led i n to a b a l l . O the r i nd iv idua ls , i n c lud ing s eve ra l c h i ldren , w e re b ur ied w ea r ing s t rands o f t i ny s he l l b eads . C oope r o b je c t s w e re a l so p laced i n t ombs . Mo s t w e re l a rge n e ed le s t ha t h ad a ppar en t ly b een p inned t o c l o th ing . C ac tus s p ines w e re , h oweve r , mo re c ommon ly u s ed t o p in c l o th ing t oge the r . A f i ne c oppe r b e l l w as a l so r e cove red f r om t h e b ur ia l o f a y oung c h i ld w i th in a n u nd is turbed t omb i n t h e D ome s t ic A rea . T ex t i le s T ex t i le s , l i ke o the r o rgan ic r ema ins a t E s tuqu ir ia , a r e r ep resen ted i n v a r ious f o rms . T he c ond i t ion o f t he ma te r ia ls g ene ra l ly r ange s f r om e xce l len t i n i n tac t , s e a led t omb s , t o g ood i n d i s turbed c on tex t s whe re t he f i be r s h ave s u f fe red m in ima l o r o n ly s ho r t t e rm e xpo sure t o t h e e l emen t s . Whe re e xposu re h a s b een i n tense o r l ong te rm , h oweve r , t h e c ond i t ion o f t e x t i le ma te r ia ls i s g ene ra l ly p oo r . Unde r c ond i t ions o f e x t reme e xpo su re , o f t en a ccompan ied b y w a te r -depo s i ted f i l l , f i ber s a nd s ome t imes w eaves may b e d e tec ted , r e co rded , a nd p ho tog raphed i n s i tu , e ven when t he ma te r ia ls c anno t b e r e covered i n tac t . A l though t he t e x t i les o f E s tuqu i f ia p robab ly h ave n o t b een t he i n t en t o f h uaque r o a c t iv i ty , l oo t ing h as r e su l ted i n t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f many t e x t i les t h rough s h redd ing a nd d ecompo s i t ion f r om e xpo sure . R are , b u t e qua l ly d amag ing t o t e x t i les , i sc on tac t w i th w a ter . T omb s n o t s ea led a nd t h e re fo re n o t p ro tec ted a ga in s t s eepage s e ldom c on ta in t e x t i le s ; t hose f a b r ics t ha t d o s urv ive a re b ad ly d amaged . S ome a reas o f t h e s i te w ere mo re v u lnu r ab le t o w a te r d amage t han o the r s d ue t o d i f fe ren t ia l d ra inage . T hus , t h e i n te rac t ion o f s e ve ra l f a c to r s h as c on t r ibu ted t o t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f a s i gn i f ican t n umbe r o f t he t e x t i les o rg ina l ly e n tombed i n E s tuqu ir i ia . S t i l l , when c ompared w i th o the r s i te s a t t h is a l t i tude o r i n o the r e nv ironmen t s , t h e p reserva t ion o f t e x t i le s mus t b e c ons ide red r e ma rkab ly g ood . O f t h e 2 44 t omb s e xcava ted i n t he c our se o f t h i s p ro je c t , a pp rox ima t e ly 6 5% p roduced t h e
3 38
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i gure
5 .C e me tery 1 .
3 39
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 1 7
mo re t han 8 00 s epa ra te t e x t i le a r t ic le s . App rox ima te ly 4 0% o f t he t e x t i le s a re n o t s u f f ic ien t ly c omp le te t o a l low i d en t i f ica t ion o f g a rmen t o r a r t ic le f un c t ion . T hese a r e s imp ly c l as s i f ied a s " c lo th " . T ab le 2 s um ma r izes t he c ur ren t l i s t ing o f c a ta logued ma te r ia ls , c l as s i f ied b y f unc t ion , g a rmen t , o r a r t ic le t ype . C ame l id f i be r f o rm s t he b as is o f t he E s tuqu ir ia t e x t i le i ndu s t ry . C o t ton h as r e cover ed i n o n ly m ino r amoun t s , mo s t ly i n t h e f o rm o f k no t ted n e t t ing , a nd b as t a r e u sed f o r c our se c o rdage . T he p redom inan t w eave f o r a l l c l o ths , i n c lud ing t un ics , p onchos , l o inc lo ths , a nd man t le s , i sw arp faced p l a in w eave . B a lanced , o r p l a in w eave a nd t w i l l w eaves a re a l so r ep resen ted .
b een f i be r s b ag s , t a bby
D e s igns o n l a rge g a rmen t s , p r imar i ly w a rp s t r ipe s , u se n a tu ra l woo l c o lo r v ar ia t ion s , e . g . , b l ack/brown/wh i te . S eve ra l b ag s a nd s ome o f t h e l a rge g armen t s a r e e l abo ra ted w i th b r igh t ly d yed y a rns o f r ed , g o ld , b lue , a nd g reen . A symme t r ica l t e x tura l d e co ra t i on , emp ly ing d is con t inuous w a rp y a rn s o f v ary ing w id th a nd t w is t , i s c o mmon t o t un ics , p onchos , a nd man t le s . T he l o inc lo th s a r e u sua l ly p rov ided w i th b ich rome emb ro ide red b o rde r s a nd t i e c o rds . Y a rn a nd u n spun f i be r b und les a r e o f ten f ound t u cked i n to t h e f o lds o f o the r f a br ic s . Woo l f i be r w ads may c on ta in s ma l l b und les o f c o ca l e ave s o r b r igh t ly -co lo red p igmen t s . T he b ags , wh ich r ange f r om f i ne ly -woven a nd d e co ra ted p ouche s t o c l o th s c rap s , w added a nd t i ed , o f t en c on ta in c oca l e aves . S l ing s a r e c ompo sed o f t w ined , b i - a nd t r i co lo red c en ter s w i th t e rm ina l p l a i ted c o rd . Ha t s a r e s t ruc tura l ly d i s t inc t , e ven v ery s ma l l f r agmen t s c an b e i d en t i f ied b y t h e c ompa c t " l oop ing -ove r founda t ion c o rd " c on s t ruc t ion . B ands a r e woven o r p la i ted , p l a in o r w i th as imp le d e s ign . S ome o f t he t e x t i le s a ppea r t o h ave b een manu fac tu red s pe c i f ica l ly f o r i n c lus ion i n t h e b ur ia ls . Mos t g a rmen t s , h oweve r , s how e v idenc e o f w ear , r epa i r , a nd r e in forcem en t a t s t re s s a r eas . S eve ra l b ag s a nd mo s t c h i ld ren 's g a rmen t s a re c l ea r ly r e con s t ruc ted f r om f r agmen t s o f t un ic s o r man t le s . Wh i le s ome o f t h e b od ie s w e re a c tua l ly c l o thed i n t un ics a nd l o inc lo ths , a s wo rn i n l i f e , mo s t b od ie s w ere a r ranged f i r s t i n a f l exed p o s i t ion a nd t hen c ove red o r w rapped i n c l o th o r c l o th ing . E ach l aye r o f f ab r ic w a s s e cured b y c o rds e i the r l a ced t h rough t h e c l o th o r w ound a round t he b ody t o f o rm a c ompac t a nd l a ye red b und le .
S ke le ta l Ma te r ia l A m in imum o f 4 11 i nd iv idua ls a re r ep resen ted i n t h e r ema in s r ecove red t hus f a r f r om t he E s tuqu i f ia s i te . N ine ty s ix w e re ma le s , 6 6 f ema le s , a nd 2 49 we re o f u nde te rm ined s ex . H a l f o f t h e s ke le ta l s amp le c ons is ted o f c h i ldren a nd s ubadu l t s l e s s t h an 2 0 y ea r s o f a ge . One h undred a nd n ine o f t h e se i nd iv idua ls wer e l e s s t han f i ve y ea r s o f a ge . A l though i t c anno t b e e s tab l i shed t h a t t he e n t ir e mo r tuary s a mp le i s r ep re sen ted among t hese r ema ins , i td oe s n o t a ppea r t h a t a ny a ge g roup o r g ende r i s b e ing s ys tema t ica l ly e xc luded f r om t he E s tuqu ir ia c eme ter ie s . T aphonom i c f a c to r s a r e n o t l i ke ly t o h ave s i gn i f ican t ly b i ased t he s amp le . I n b o th C eme te r ie s 1a nd 2 , t h e p ropor t ion o f a du l t s t o c h i ldren w as s i gn i f ican t ly g rea te r t h an f o r t he s i te a s a who le . S i x ty p e rcen t o f t h e i nd iv idua ls f r om C e me te ry 1 w e re a du l t s . F i f ty -seven p e r cen t o f t h e i nd iv idua ls f r om C eme te ry 2 w e r e a du l t s . T he
3 40
S.W I L IAM S , E TA L . ; MO RTUA RY SI T E EX C AVAT ION S
c h i ld ren b ur ied i n t hese c eme te r ie s a l so t e nded t o b e o lde r , a pp rox ima te ly s i x ty p e r cen t o f t h e c h i ldren r e cove red f r om e ach c e me t ery we re mo re t han f i ve y ear s o ld . Wh i le C eme te r ie s 1a nd 2 c on ta ined mo re a du l t s a nd s ubadu l t s , t he o ppo s i te w as t rue o f C e me tery 3 a nd t h e D omes t ic A rea . S i x ty th ree p e r cen t o f t he s amp le f r om C eme te ry 3 c ons is ted o f c h i ldren , mo re t h an h a l f o f whom w e re u nde r t he a ge o f f i ve y ear s . T he s a mp le o f b ur ia ls f r om t he D omes t ic A rea f o l lowed a s im i la r t r end . S l igh t ly more t h an 6 0% o f t hese i nd iv idua ls w e re c h i ldr en a nd 6 4 .1% o f t hose c h i ldren h ad d ied p r io r t ot h e a ge o f f i ve y ear s . T he p eop le t h a t l i ved a t t he E s tuqu i f ia s i te a ppear t o b e f o l low ing t he s ame b ur ia l p a t te rn o bserved d ur ing t h e e a r ly h i s to r ic p er iod . D is t inc t mor tuary a reas w e re ma in t a ined f o r a du l t s a nd j uven i les , wh i le i n fan t s a nd v ery y oung c h i ldren w e re r out ine ly b ur ied i n d omes t ic a reas , f r equen t ly b enea th t hose f l oo r s . A t E s tuqu if ia , C eme te r ie s 1a nd 2 a ppea r t o h ave b een u sed e x c lus ive ly a s c eme te r ie s . T he re a r e n o s t ruc ture s o r f e a ture s o the r t h an t ombs w i th in t he i r p re c inc t s . C eme te ry 3 , h ow eve r , i sd i f fe ren t . I th a s b een d i f f icu l t t o i n te rp re t t h is a rea b ecause o f d i s turbance b y l oo ter s . T he re i s e x ten s ive e v idence o f d omes t ic a c t iv i ty i n t h is r eg ion , t h a t w as i n i t ia l ly i n te rp re ted t o r ef le c t v e ry r ecen t a c t iv i ty . G iven t he d emog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f b ur ia ls f o r t he r eg ion , h oweve r , i ta ppear s t ha t t h is may s imp ly b e a no the r a nc ien t d ome s t ic a rea s uch a s t he a d jac en t r eg ion o f t he s i te t o t he n o r th . S eve ra l f o rms o f c r an ia l d e fo rma t ion h ave b een o bse rved i n t he r ema ins f r om E s tuqu i f ia . P ads u sed f o r f l a t ten ing o f t h e f r on ta l r eg ion w e re f ound i n t wo mummy b und le s . Dur ing i n i t ia l s t udy , p a t terns o f c r an ia l d e fo rmat ion h ad b een d iv ided i n to f our c a t ego r ies . F o rm Ii n c luded t hose i nd iv idua ls i n wh ich o n ly t h e f r on ta l b one w as a f fec ted . I n t he s e cond t ype , b o th t he f r on t a nd b as e o f t h e s ku l l w e re i nvo lved . T he t h ird t ype i nc luded t ho se i nd iv idua ls w i th t he f r on t , b ase , a nd p o s te r io r p or t ion s o f t he s ku l l s a f fec ted . T he f our th f o rm a pp rox ima tes c l as s ic " annu lar " c r an ia l d e fo rma t ion . Annu la r d e fo rma t ion i s a ch ieved b y w rapp ing t he i n fan t w i th c i rcum fe ren t ia l ly -app l ied p ads . F o rms 1 a nd 2 a re mo s t p reva len t a t E s tuqu if ia . E v idence f o r at ube r cu lo s is l ike p a tho logy w as o bse rved i n s eve ra l i nd iv idua ls a t E s tuqu if la . T ube rcu lo s is i s a c h ron ic i n fec t ious d i sease c aused b y My c oba c t e r ium t ube r cu l o s i s . A l l ison a nd c owo rke r s h ave p rev ious ly d es c r ibed e v idence f o r t ube r cu lo s is l ike p a tho logy i n t h is r eg ion ( A l l ison e t a l . 1 98 1 ) . S ke le ta l l e s ion s c ommon ly a t t r ibu ted t o a nem ia w e re a l so o bserved i n t he E s tuqu if ia s er ie s . P o ro t ic h ype ros to s is a nd c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia w e re o b served . T hese b ony s t ruc ture s may h ave b een c aused b y i r on d e f ic iency d ue t o p aras i t ic i n fe s ta t ion p e rhaps e xacerba ted b y m a ize c on sump t ion . Mo s t o f t h ese c ase s a re c h i ldren , wh ich i sn o t u nexpe c ted , g iven t he e l eva ted l e ve ls o f i r on r equ iremen t s i n j uven i le s .
3 4 1
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 7
F u tu re R esea rch T he f i r s t p hase o f a na lys is f o r t h e mo r tua ry c omponen t o f t he E s tuqu i f ia s i te h as f o cused u pon d es c r ib ing s ys tema t ic v a r ia t ion i n s i te s t ruc tu re a nd d e f in ing d emog raph ic e l emen t s t ha t s ys tema t ica l ly v ary a cco rd ing t o b u r ia l l o ca t ion , t omb f o rm , a nd g r ave f u rn i tu re . S amp l ing o f a l l f our mo r tua ry a reas a t t h e s i te p rov ides c onv in c ing e v iden ce f o r a ge -a t -dea th a s af a c to r a f fe c t ing g rave l o ca t ion . O ther a s soc ia t ion s ( g ender w i th s pe c i f ic g rave g oods , e . g . , women w i th s p ind le who r l s , f o r i n s tance ) , a re e v iden t a nd w i l l b e e xp lo red f u r the r i n s ubsequen t a na lys is . I n i t ia l s ke le t a l a na lys is h as f o cused u pon d emog raph ic c once rns , t o b e f o l lowed b y mo re e x tens ive a na ly s is o f i n t ra s i te v a r ia t ion i n i nhe r i ted f e a tu res , i n c r an ia l d e fo rma t i on , i n p a tho log ica l c ond i t ions s uch a s a nem ia a nd t ube rcu lo s is , a nd i n b iochem ica l i nd ica to r s o f d ie t . A s pec ia l ized s t udy o f c r an ia l d e fo rma t ion a nd g row th w i l l b e c onduc ted t h rough t he u se o f t h e f i n i te e l emen t s s c a l ing t e chn ique . T hes e a nd o the r d a ta f r om t h e E s tuqu i t ia s i te w i l l s e rve a s t he b as is f o r c o mpa r ison w i th o the r s i t es l o ca ted w i th in t h e O smo re d ra inage . P a t te rned d i f fe rences a nd s im i la r i t ies i n c u l tu ra l a nd b io log ica l v ar iab les f r om mo r tuary c omponen t s w i l l c omp r ise o ne i mpo r tan t t e s t o f v e r t ica l i ty mode ls , t hus p rov id ing a n i mpor tan t c omp lemen t t o a na lyses t ha t h ave f o cused p r ima r i ly u pon ma te r ia l c u l ture a nd s i te s t ruc tu re .
3 42
S.W I L L IAM S , E TA L . ; MO RTUARY SI T E EX C AVAT ION S
Append ix A T omb E xcava t ion F o rms
ARTEFACTOS EN LA TUMBA
1 )
C ontexto
2 )
Precedencia
3 )
Nümeros
Tejidos
( artefactos, de Especimen
( variaciones,
Creämica
cuerpo,
( cerämios
preservaci f t)
o f ragmentos)
Calabasas
Huesos
d e
Animales
Botänico
3 43
tumba,
o tros
artefactos,
misc.)
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 7
O tros
TUMBA EXCAVACION
Disturbio
Fecha
S itio
Excavador
Estructura/terraza
Forma
de
Cuatro/sector
Asociaciones
Tumba/rasgo Nümero de
Mapas:
individuos
Pianos
Procedencia
L ista d e Esp6cimenes
( Nümeros)
L ista d e Fotografias
( cämara,
r ollo,
NOTAS DE
nümero)
TUMBA EXCAVACION
Disturbio
Relleno
- cultural
Dimensiones:
o natural
E - W
Profundidad Ancho
o Elevaci f t S uperficie
d e boca
Piedras
d e
tapa
de P iso
Piedras
d e Boca
Mäximo:
Piso
Orientaci6n
Relleno
Profundidad
Construcci6n: Tapa
- Piedras
( tamaho,
mümero,
posici6n)
3 44
N - S
S.W I L L IAM S , E TA L . ; MO RTUARY SI T E EX CAVAT ION S
Mortero
( donde)
Ofrenda
( tipo,
donde)
RESTOS HUMANOS Disturbio
ArticulaciOn
PosiciOn
Profundidad: Cabeza
Sacro Mas
Grado d e FlexiOn
Rodilla
Alto I zquierda
Mas Derecha
Hombro
Cabello
Codo
Uhas
Cadera
Organos
Rodilla
O tros
Edad Sexo
3 45
Talon Bajo Piel
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 7
Preservaci6n: cräneo
c übitos
mandibula
manos
c ervical v .
pelvis
toräcica v .
sacro
l umbar v .
f emurs
costillas
t ibias
hümeros
peron6s
radios
pies
o tros Tumba Construcci6n Tipo d e
Construcci6n
T ipo d e Piedras Tamaho de Piedras Forma d e
Tumba
Forma d e Boca Forma y Material Notas
d e Piso
y Discusi6n
Muestras
( con
a sociaciones)
3 46
A spec ts o f Mor tuary D i f feren t ia t ion a t t he S i te o f E s tuqu ir ia , S ou thern P eru P e ter T .
B ürg i
D epar tmen t o fA n thopo logy U n iv er s i ty o fC h i cag o
S loan A .
Wi l l ia ms
D epar tmen t o fA n thr opo lgy N or thw e s te rn U n iv er s i ty
J ane E .
B u ik s t ra
D ep ar tmen t o fA n thr opo logy U n iv e r s i ty o fC h i cago
N ik i R .
C lark
D ep ar tmen t o fA n thropo logy W a sh ing ton U n iv er s i ty
Mar ia C ec i l ia L ozada C e rna D epar tmen t o fA n thr opo logy U n iv er s i ty o fC h i cag o
E lva T o r re s P ino P r og r ama C on t i suyu h o , P eru
I n t roduc t ion T h i s p aper d i scusses p a t te rn ing i n t h e mo r tua ry d a ta f r om t he s i te o f E s tuqu if ia , i n t he Moquegua V a l ley , s ou the rn P e ru . T he d a ta c ons is t o f t omb c on ten t s ( i . e . , g oods 3 47
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 8
i n te r red w i th t he c o rpse ) , t he l o ca t ion o f t h e t omb , a nd t he d a ta o n t h e s ex a nd a ge a t d ea th o f i n ter red i nd iv idua ls . Wh i le t h e n umber a nd v a r ie ty o f t omb c on ten ts ( c e ram ic , f auna l , l i th ic , me ta l a nd t e x t i le ) p rese rved i n t h e a r id e nv ironmen t o f s ou thern P e ru a l lows a w ide c a ta logue o f g rave f u rn ish ings t o b e i nven to r ied , t he d a ta t r ea ted i n t h is a na lys is a re c omp i led i n t e rms o f t h e p resence o r a bsence o f g rave g oods a t t r ibu tes , a nd a r e o n ly t r ea ted o n t h is g ross l e ve l . T he r e s t r ic ted d i s t r ibu t ion o f s ome o f t he a t t r ibu tes i nd ica tes t ha t ad eg ree o f s oc ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion may b e marked i n t he mo r tuary d oma in , a t t h e s ame t ime , t he w eakness o f a ny o u t r igh t d i s junc t ions i n t he d is t r ibu t ion o f t h ese a t t r ibu tes s ugges t s t ha t E s tuqu i f ia s o c ia l s t ruc ture m igh t h ave b een mo re h o mogeneous t h an d i f fe ren t ia ted . I t i s a l so a rgued t h a t p o s t -depos i t iona l p ro ce s ses may h ave d i f fe ren t ia l ly p rese rved d i f feren t t ypes o f t omb , w i th t he r e su l tan t s amp le b e ing mo re h omogenous t han t he p r is t ine s amp le .
Mo r tua ry Ana lys is ' A s ah os t o f s cho lar s h ave made c l ear , av e ry s i gn i f ican t p o r t ion o f o ur i n forma t ion o n t h e p as t c omes f r om mo r tuary c on tex ts . A cco rd ing t o O 'Shea 's c r i t ica l o verv iew , mo r tuary a na lys is i s b ased o n t he a s sump t ion t h a t a n i nd iv idua l 's t r ea tment i n d ea th b ear s s ome p red ic tab le r e la t ionsh ip t o t he i nd iv idua l 's s t a te i n l i f e a nd t o t h e o rgan iza t ion t o wh ich t h e i nd iv idua l b e longed ( 1 984 :3 ) . Much o f t he w o rk i n t h is f i e ld h as d i rec ted a t ten t ion t owards " t he d e tec t ion o f r ank ing i n p reh is to r ic s oc ie t ies b y a na lys is o f t h e ir c e me te r ies " ( Chapman 1 980 :63 ) . T he t h eo re t ica l u nde rp inn ings o f t h is c oncep tua l iza t ion we re l a id d own i n t h e wo rk o f S axe ( 1 970 ) a nd B in fo rd ( 1 971) , who se f o rmu la t ions s t i l l g u ide mo r tuary a na lys is t oday . A s S axe h as p o in ted o u t , t he o ccas ion o f ad ea th i n ac ommun ity p rec ip i ta tes t h e ma te r ia l r e cogn i t ion , e xp ressed i n mo r tuary r i tua l , o f s o c ia l i den t ity o f r e la t ion sh ips b e tween t h e l i v ing membe rs o f t he c ommun i ty , a nd t h e d eceas ed i nd iv idua ls . I mpor tan t ly , S axe a sser t s t ha t d ea th " c a l ls f o r th a f u l le r r epresen ta t ion o f [ t he d eceased 's ] v ar ious s oc ia l i d en t i t ies t h an a t a ny t ime d ur ing l i f e " ( 1 970 :6 ) . A b ur ia l , t h ere fore , i sa u n ique e ncapsu la t ion o f t h e i nd iv idua l 's s o c ia l s t a tus ; i tr epresen ts , i n e f fec t , " a c ohe ren t s o c ia l p e rsona l i ty who n o t o n ly e ngaged i n r e la t ionsh ip s w i th o ther s o c ia l p ersona l i t ies b u t d id s o a cco rd ing t o r u les a nd s t ruc tura l s l o t s d i rec ted b y t he l a rge r s oc ia l s ys tem " ( 1 970 :4 ) . I n c onco rdance w i th S axe 's f undamen ta l p rem ise , B in fo rd a sse r t s t ha t t h ere a re i ndeed " a s e t o f mu tua l d ependenc ies b e tween f o rms o f mo r tuary r i tes a nd s oc ia l o rgan iza t iona l f e a ture s " ( B in fo rd 1 97 1 :14 ) . H e t heo r izes , a dd i t iona l ly , t ha t t here i s a n " i somo rph ic r e la t ionsh ip " b e tween t he f o rma l c l ass o f mo r tuary a t tr ibu tes a nd t he s o c ia l r o les w i th wh ich t h ey a r e a sso c ia ted . I n s ho r t , f o r e very u n ique s oc ia l r o le , t here i s au n ique s e t o f mo r tuary a t t r ibu tes d es igna t ing t ha t r o le : "We wou ld t h ere fo re e xpec t t o d i scover a n ear i d en t i ty b e tween t he n umber o f s o c ia l p os i t ions w i th in a s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion a nd t h e n umber o f s y mbo ls d es igna t ing s uch u n i t s " ( B in fo rd 1 97 1 :17 ) . One o f t h e a t t r ibu tes wh ich c an i nd ica te s uch i den t i t ies a re t he t ypes o f g rave g ood i n c lus ions , whose p o ten t ia l i se xam ined i n t h e p resen t p ape r . O 'Shea 's wo rk ( 1 984 ) , wh i le c oncur r ing w i th t h ese c oncep t s , c a l ls a t ten t ion t o s ome o f t h e p rac t ica l d i f f icu l t ies i n mo r tuary a na ly s is , f o cuss ing o n t he n ecess ity o f c on tro l l ing f o r a r chaeo log ica l f o rma t ion p rocesses a nd s ys tem ic b i ases i n d e tec t ion i n mo r tuary a na ly s is .
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A s a n e t r e su l t o f t he c hara c te r is t ic s o f " depo s i t iona l p a thways " when t he mo r tua ry c on tex t i sf o rmed , a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l p ro ce sses wh ich may a l te r t he b u r ia l o r b ur ia ls , O 'Shea c on c ludes n o t o n ly t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd w i l l man i fe s t l e s s o rgan iza t ion t h an t he c u l tura l b ehav io r t h a t g ene ra ted i t ,b u t a l so t ha t l e s s o f t h is o rgan iza t ion t h a t i s p resen t w i l l a c tua l ly c ome t o b e d e te c ted a nd r e cogn ized ( 1 984 :3 1 ) . T he r am i f ica t ions f o r t h e s t udy o f s o c ia l s t ruc ture t h rough mo r tuary v a r ia t ion a re p l a in : whe rever p os s ib le , t h e i nve s t iga to r h as t o a c coun t f o r t h ese f i l te r ing p roces ses i n h i s i n terp re ta t ion , a nd h as t o r e a l ize t ha t n o t a l l o f t he i n fo rma t ion t h a t c omes u nde r h i s s c ru t iny p er ta ins t o s o c ia l s t ruc tura l f a c to r s . F a i l ing t o d o t h is , t he i nve s t iga to r r uns t he r i sk o f g ene rat ing " mean ing le s s " c onc lus ion s . O 'Shea a l so p rov ide s ac on t ro l led t e s t o f t h e c apac i ty o f mor tua ry a na lys is t o d e tec t i mpor tan t s oc ia l d imens ion s t h a t p rev ious i nve s t iga to r s h ave a s sumed t o b e a cce s s ib le . H is s t udy f ound t h a t d i s t inc t ion s b ased o n a ch ieved w ea l th s t a tus , n o tab le p re s t ige , o r c h ie f ly r ank , were i ndeed a c ce s s ib le t o t h e mo r tua ry a na lys is , a nd s uc ces s fu l ly r e cogn ized i n h i s i nve s t iga t ion ( 1 984 :250 ) , b u t h e s i ng le s o u t t h e u se o f l e ve ls o f e ne rgy e xpend i ture a s i nd ica to r s o f v e r t ica l s o c ia l r ank , s uch a s t h a t u sed b y T a in te r ( 1 977 ) , a s p a r t icu la r ly u nsucce s s fu l t oo ls . I n s tead , t h e " t ype a nd v a r ie ty o f g oods i n te r red w i th t h e d eceased " w as f a r mo re i nd ica t ive o f v e r t ica l r ank ing ( 1 984 : 2 50 ) . C ons ide rab ly l e s s a cces s ib le i n O 'Shea 's s t udy we re t he " ho r izon ta l d i s t inc t ions , " i . e . membe r sh ip i n mo ie t ie s , s oda l i t ie s , e t c . , wh ich , " we re i tn o t f o r f r equen t u se o f d i s t inc t b ur ia l a reas a s a marke r [ o f t h ese d i s t inc t ion s ] , " wou ld h ave g one u n re cogn ized ( 1 984 : 2 50 ) . On t h e b as is o f h i s o ve ra l l r e su l ts h e c l a im s t ha t " r ea l is t ic s o c ia l r e cons t ruc t ions c an b e o b ta ined u s ing f une rary e v idence " ( 1 984 " 2 50 ) , b u t c au t ions t h a t t h ese a r chaeo log ica l r e cons t ruc t ions a r e n o t e xhaus t ive a ccoun t s o f a l l t h e s o c ia l s t ruc tu ra l p henomena c ha rac te r is t ic o f t h e l i v ing s o c ie ty . I n l i ne w i th t he emphase s o f O 'Shea 's wo rk , t h e p resen t s t udy a l so s eeks p a t t erns o f d i f fe ren t ia t ion i n mo r tua ry t r ea tmen t a s i nd ica to r s o f d i f fe ren t ia l s o c ia l s t a tus . I t e xa m ine s e spec ia l ly t h e c apac i ty f o r t h e t ype o f g rave g ood i n c lus ion t o mark d i f fe ren t ia l s o c ia l s t a tus , t e s t ing a measure o f t he w idene s s o f d i s t r ibu t ion o f s pe c i f ic t ype s o f g rave g oods i n c lus ions w i th a C h i -Squa re s t e s t . T he p o ten t ia l b i ases o f t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a r e h igh l igh ted , h oweve r , s i nce i t i s f e l t t h a t t h e mo r tuary s amp le d oe s n o t i n c lude t h e f u l l r ange o f t ype s o f g rave s . F u r thermo re , s ome o f t h e r e su l t s a re f e l t t o b e a g ood e xamp le o f t he p o ten t ia l f o r i n c iden t ia l d epo s i t iona l p a thway s t o s kew a n a na lys is . A l though O 'Shea 's s t udy f ound e ne rgy e xpend i tu re t o b e d e f ic ien t a s am arke r o f mo r tua ry d i f fe ren t ia t ion , i ti s a l so e xp lo red i n t h e p resen t p ape r . T he p urpo se f o r d o ing t h i s i s n o t t o r e fu te O 'Shea 's r e su l t s , b u t s imp ly t o e xam ine t h e c apac i ty o f l a bo r e xpend i tur e i n a n Andean mo r tuary c on tex t t o i ndex s oc ia l r ank . T he p o ten t ia l o f t h is ma rke r t o i ndex d i f fe ren t ia l s o c ia l s t a tus w as e xam ined w i th e thnog r aph ic d a ta b y T a in t e r ( 1 975 ) , who f ound a s t rong c o r re la t ion b e tween l a bo r e xpend i tu re i n mo r tuary r i tua l a nd t h e r ank o f t h e d e ceased i nd iv idua l . On t h is b as is a l one , t h e e xam ina t ion o f e ne rgy e xpend i ture i n mor tuary t r ea tmen t wou ld s eem t o b e wo r thwh i le . B u t wh i le s ubsequen t w o rk o f T a in te r 's ( 1 977 , 1 978 ) b u i l t o n t h e c oncep t o f e nergy e xpend i ture a s am easu re o f t he s t ruc tu re a nd o rgan iza t ion o f s o c ia l s ys tems , u s ing t h e i n fo rma t ion s t a t is t i c a s aq uan t i ta t ive measuremen t o f s o c ia l c omp lex i ty , s uch s t a t is t ica l i n t r icacy , i s n o t r e a l ly n ece s sa ry i n d i s ce rn ing s o c ia l r ank f r om l a bo r e xpend i t u re i n mo r tuary r i tua l . I fi ndeed l a bo r e xpend i tu re i sa s f undamen ta l ad i sc r im ina to r o f
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s o c ia l r ank a s h i s wo rk s ugge s t s , t h en i ts hou ld b e a cces s ib le o n as imp le l e ve l : b y s imp ly c ompa r ing d i f fe ren t g roup s o f g rave s u s ing a T tes t o f g ross v o lume . T h is i st he a pp roach u sed i n t h e p resen t s t udy .
T he S i te o f E s tuqu ir ia T he s i te o f E s tuqu i f ia i st h e t ype -s i te f o r ac u l tu ra l p hase i n t he S ou th C en t ra l A ndes d ur ing t h e L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod . T he s i te c on s is t s o f t he r ema in s o f a sma l l v i l lage , l o ca ted i n af l a t , t r iangu la r s pur o f l and wh ich d rops d own f r om t he f l ank s o f C e r ro L o s A nge le s , a t t he c onf luence o f t h e T o ra ta a nd T um i laca V a l ley s i n t he O smo re d ra inage . T h is t r iangu lar l and fo rm r uns n o r theas t -sou thwes t , a nd d rops o f f s harp ly o n t wo f l ank s i n to s t ream -bear ing g u l l ie s , t h a t j o in a t t h e t i p o f t h e s pur . On t he n o r th s i de o f t he s pu r t h e re a re r ough ly s haped s t a ir cases wh ich p rov ide a cces s t o t he t op f r om t h e g u l ley b e low . T he t h ird s i de o f t he s pur , wh ich j o ins i tt o t h e s l ope s o f C e r ro L os Ange les , i s ma rked b y t wo s em i -c ir cu la r , l ow , e ar thwo rk w a l ls wh ich r un t h e w id th o f t he p romon to ry , a nd c ons t ra in a c ces s o n t h is s i de . T he s i te s eem s t o b e l o ca ted d e f ens ive ly : a c ce s s o n t wo o f i t s t h ree s i des i sc u t o f f b y s t eep s l opes , wh i le t he t h i rd i s b lo cked b y w a l ls . T he d e fens ive s i tua t ion o f t he s i te i s c ha rac te r is t ic o f t he o the r v i l lage s o f t he s ame c u l tu ra l p er iod : mo s t o f t h em s i t o n h i l l top s , o r o n s ma l l p eak s l i nked b y s add les t o o the r mo re mas s ive h i l ls ; many o f t h em h ave d e fens ive w a l ls t ha t i mpede a c ce s s t o t h e v i l lage a t i t s mo s t a cce s s ib le p o in t . T he s i te o f E s tuqu i t ia c ons is t s o f ag roup o f s eve ra l a gg lu t ina ted , s t one -wa l led r oom c l us te r s , mos t ly r e c tangu la r to -square i n o ve ra l l f o rm ( s ee W i l l ia m s , e t a l . t h is v o lume ) . E ach c l us te r i ss epara ted f r om t h e o ther s b y a pparen t ly o pen , p l aza l ike s pace s , a l though s ome s ma l le r s t ruc tures b u i l t o f o rgan ic m a t er ia ls a ppa ren t ly e x tended f r om t h e r oom c l us te r s a s ho r t d i s tan ce i n to t h ese " p lazas . " Wh i le e ach r oom c l u s te r ' i s i n te rna l ly s ubd iv ided b y s t one w a l ls i n to s eve ra l a d jo in ing a r eas , e xcava t ion r e vea led t h a t t h e re w as a l so a d ense n e two rk o f c ane w a l ls wh ich f u r the r p ar t i t ioned t h e i n ter io r s pace o f e ach s epa ra te s t ruc tu re . A t t he v e ry l e as t i ts eem s c l ea r , f r om t he a bundan t h ouseho ld r e fuse f ound a t t h e s i te , t ha t t h ese w e re d ome s t ic u n i t s o f o ne f o rm o r a no ther . E s tuqu i r ia B ur ia ls B u r ia ls a r e f ound t h roughou t t h e s i te , b o th i n s ide a nd o ut s ide o f t he r e s iden t ia l s t ruc tures . T he re s e em t o b e t wo ma jo r b ur ia l z one s o u t s ide o f t he s t ructure s : o ne i s l o ca ted e x tend ing a way f r om t h e d ome s t ic a r eas i n to t h e o pen l and t owards t h e t i p o f t h e p romon to ry , a nd a no the r i s l o ca ted away f r om t h e r e s iden t ia l a r ea i n to t h e o pen l a nd t owa rds t he d e fen s ive w a l l s . B ur ia ls a r e a l so f ound u nde rnea th a nd among t he d ome s t ic s t ruc tu res , a p at tern wh ich t h is s t udy f ound t o b e o f i mpo r tance i n d i f f e ren t ia t ing among t ype s o f g rave g oods i n c lus ion s . A l though s eve ra l t ypes o f t omb s hapes w e re d e f ined b y e xcava to r s ' , ag ene r ic mode l o f ab ur ia l c an b e s ke t ched . T h is t yp ica l b ur ia l ( F igure 1 ) i s as i ng le c i s t t omb , i t s w a l ls l i ned w i th r i ve r ine c obb les a nd p ebb le s , a nd t he f l oo r g ene ra l ly f l a t , b u t u nmod i f ied b y p l as te r o r o the r l i n ing s . T he mou th o f t he t omb i sa lmos t a lway s n a r rower t h an t he b ody , s o t h a t t he t omb h as a b e l l -shape i n v e r t ica l c ro ss -sec t ion . T he " c o l lar " o f t h e t omb i sc ons t ruc ted o f ar i ng o f s ha rp ly f r agmen ted , r ough ly t r iangu lar s t ones , p l aced w i th t h e ir l ong a x is r ad ia t ing f a n l ike o u twards f r om t h e c en t ra l v e r t ica a x is o f t he t omb . T hese c o l la r s t ones s eem t o h ave b een f l ush w i th t h e s ur round ing t e r ra in . O ve r t h is " c o l la r " a re o ne o r
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F igu re 1 . S chema t ic D raw ing o f aT yp ica l B ur ia l . mo re c ap s t ones wh ich c ove r t he e n t rance t o t h e t omb , b u t d o n o t n e ce ssa r i ly s ea l i t t horough ly , s i nce g aps b e twe en t h e c aps tones may e x is t . S ome t imes t hough , t h e e n t ire s ur face o f t he t omb , i n c lud ing c aps tones , i s mo r t ared o r p l as te red o ve r , c omp le te ly s ea l ing i n t he c i s t t omb b e low . T he b u r ied i nd iv idua l i su sua l ly f l exed , w i th t h e k nee s d rawn u p t o t h e c h in , a nd t he a r ms p l aced a round t h e s h in s . T he b od ie s s how s n o o ver t e v idence o f s pe c ia l mo rtuary t r ea tmen t s , s uch a s e v is ce ra t ion , c hem ica l t r ea tmen t s o f t h e s k in , e t c . A t e x t i le c ove r ing , o f ten s eve ra l l aye r s d eep , s u r rounds t h e f l exed b ody , a nd a c o rd o r t wo i s w rapped a round t h e who le f i gu re . T he " mummy b und le " t hus c omposed i ss e a ted o n t h e f l oo r o f t he t omb , f a c ing e as t , a nd s evera l t omb o f fe r ing s a r e p l aced a round i t . T omb o f fe r ing s may i n c lude c e ram ic v es se l s o r s he rds ( o r b o th ) , c a labash v es se ls , c ac tus s p ine s ( " need le s " ) , t he r ema ins o f a n ima ls , wooden i mp lemen t s ( f requen t ly " s poons " ) , b aske t s , a nd me ta l a r t i fac t s . One o f t he mo s t i mpo r tan t t omb t ype s wh ich i s n o t a na lyzed i n t h is p ape r i s o ne c a l led a " c o l lar t omb " : t h i s m ay b e av a r ie ty o f t h e c hu l lpa , at ype o f a bove -g round mor tua ry t ower d i s cussed i n Hy s lop 's ( 1 976 ) d i s se r ta t ion . T he r ema ins o f t h is t ype o f t o mb , w h ich t h e E s tuqu ir ia e xcava t ion d i rec to r s h ave c a l led " c o l la r t omb s , " o r " pro to chu l lp a 's , w e re d e te c ted i n t h e c eme tery a reas o f E s tuqu ir ia . T hey h ad l ong s i nce b een l o o t ed , h owever : t h e a bove -g round t owe r s w e re mo s t ly d i sas semb led , a nd a l l t ha t
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r ema ined o f t h em w e re c i r c les o f s t one s , t h e f ounda t ions o f t h e t owe r s , o n t he g round s ur face . A l though s ome mo r tuary ma te r ia l w as r e cove r ed f r om b e low t hese " c o l lar t ombs " , t h is w as n o t au seab le s amp le o f c hu l lpa c on ten t s . I n t h e f i r s t p lace , t h e f ew r ema ins c o l lec ted f r om u nde rnea th t h ese f ounda t ion s d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een i n i n tac t c on tex t s . A dd i t iona l ly , s i nce i t i s l i ke ly t h a t mummy b und le s we re k ep t w i th in t he t owe r f o r p e r iod ic r emova l o r v ene ra t ion , a s h a s b een s ugges ted f r om e thnoh i s to r ic s ou rce s , t h e a bsen ce o f t he s t one s upe r s t ruc ture a nd i t s c on ten t s mean s t h a t t he b e low g round s amp le w as n o t a t a l l r ep resen t a t ive o f c h u l lp a c on ten t s . E f fe c t ive ly , t he re fo re , t h e who le c l as s o f c hu l lp a mor tuary c on tex t s h as b een d i f fe ren t ia l ly d es t royed a t E s tuqu i i ia , a nd i su nava i lab le t o u s . I t may b e , i n f a c t , t ha t t h e r emova l o f t h is c l as s o f mo r tua ry c on tex t s d e s t royed wha t may h ave b een a p ronounced , s t ep l ike s t a tus d i s t in c t ion i n mo r tuary t r ea tmen t . S ince n o a dequa te r ep res en ta t ion o f t h is c l a s s o f mo r tua ry ma te r ia l e x is t s , t he n e t r e su l t i st h a t w e a r e l e f t w i th a s kew ed s a mp le o f t he t omb s a t E s tuqu i f ia . T h is i s ac l as s ic e xamp le o f t h e p o ten t ia l f o r p o s t -depo s i t iona l p rocess e s , h igh l igh ted i n O 'Shea 's wo rk , t o s t rong ly mod i fy a mo r tua ry s a mp le . T he a na ly s is i n t h e p re sen t s t udy m ay t he re fo re b e s t rong ly b i ased b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roces se s .
A rchae log ica l D a ta : O rgan iza t ion a nd R a t iona le A t o ta l o f 2 3 1 t ombs a t E s tuqu i l la w e re r e co rded b y t h e e xcava tor s ; t h e a na lys is h e re t r ea t s o n ly t h e 5 9 t ha t c on ta ined i n tac t r ema in s . S i n ce t h e p o s s ib i l i ty f o r d i s tor t ion ( a s a r e su l t mo s t ly o f l o o t ing , o r o ther c u l tu ra l d i s turbance ) i n t h e c ompo s i t ion o f g rave a s semb lage s i s m in im ized i n i n tac t c on tex t s , t h e a na ly s is o f g rave g oods w i l l b e r e s t r ic ted o n ly t o t ho se 5 9 i n tac t t ombs . C e r ta in ly t h e re i s a lways t h e p oss ib i l i ty t h a t p rese rva t ion i n t he i n tac t t ombs w as u neven , a nd t h i s f a c to r mus t b e b o rne i n m ind . A n a t temp t w as made t o m in im ize t he i nf luence o f t h i s f a c to r i n t he p ro ce s s o f w e igh ing a nd o rgan iz ing t h e d a ta . A dd i t iona l p at te rn ing wh ich may c on f irm t h e r e su l t s o f t h is p re l im inary a na lys is w i l l b e s ough t i n av o lume t r ic a na lys is o f t h e i n tac t t ombs . F i rs t , h oweve r , i t mus t b e r emembered t h a t d a t a o n t h e " c o l lar t omb s " a re a b sen t f r om t h is a na lys is . S i nce t he o n ly t omb s o f t h is t ype a t E s tuqu i f ia h ad b een l oo ted , t h e a na ly s is c anno t a ccoun t f o r t h e ir c on ten t s , b u t c an o n ly t r ea t t h e g roup o f b e low -g round c i s t t omb s . T o r epea t , t h e r e su l t s o f t h e a na lys i s m ay t he re fo re b e ar e su l t o f b i as i nduced b y p o s t -depo s i t iona l c u l tu ra l p ro ce s ses . A no the r d i f f icu l ty i n e xecu t ing t h e a na ly s is i s t h a t t h e r aw d a ta c ons is t o f a n i nven to ry o f ma te r ia l r e cove red f r om mo r tuary c on tex t s a t E s tuqu ir ia .4 T h is i nven to ry l i s ted s pec imens f r om t omb c on tex t s b y s pec imen n umbe r , a nd r eco rded t he t ype o f ma te r ia l , i t s p roven ien ce , a nd v ar ious d i agno s t i c c harac te r is t ics whe re t hey w e re d e term ined . T h i s b ody o f d a ta w as e n te red i n to a c ompu te r d a tabas e a s p resence/absen ce d a t a , s o t h a t e ach t omb w as s co red " 1 " o r " 0 " ( p resen t o r a bsen t ) i n a s e r ie s o f 4 7 a t t r ibu tes . F o r e ach t omb , i n o the r wo rds , ar ow o f a l te rna t ing O ' s a nd l ' s w as c r ea ted , s uch t h a t e ach t omb h ad i t s own " p ro f i le " o f g rave g oods r eckoned i n p res ence/ab sen ce t e rms . T h is i sc e r ta in ly n o t t he mo s t a ccura te means o f r e cord ing a nd h and l ing d a ta , e spe c ia l ly when mo r tuary a ss emb lage s a r e i n q ue s t ion ; h oweve r , t he g rea t w ea l th o f d a ta , c omb ined w i th t h e s hor t com ing s i nhe r en t i n u s ing a n i n ven tory , c a l led
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f o r a r educ t ion o f t he d a ta t o a manageab le f o rm , w i th t he r e su l t b e ing s uch p resence/absence t omb " p ro f i les . " T h is , t hen , i s t h e d a ta a t h and , a nd i t h as b een a na lyzed d e sp i te t he s imp l i f ica t ions i nhe ren t i n i t . T he a t t r ibu te s d e f ined i n t h e a na lys is v ary i n t e rm s o f t he b roadnes s o r n a r rowne s s o f t he i r d e f in i t ion , t h is v a r ia t ion i s ar e su l t , i n p ar t , o f t h e n a ture o f t he e n t r ie s i n t he t omb i nven tory i t se l f ( t h is i s d i s cussed i n d e ta i l b e low ) . T h roughou t t he p ro ces s o f r educ ing t h e d a ta t o a na lyz ab le f o rm , Ih ave s t r iven f o r c l a r i ty a nd p rac t ica l i ty : t h i s mean t r e ta in ing g roup ing s t h a t w e re r e cogn ized i n t h e i nven to ry i t se l f , s uch a s d i f f e ren t ia t ing b e tween d eco ra ted a nd u ndeco ra ted v e s se ls , b u t a l so i gno r ing c e r ta in d i s c r im ina t ions wh ich w e re f e l t t o b e u neven ly a pp l ied , s uch a s t hose p e r ta in ing t o f auna l a nd b o tan ica l ma te r ia l s ( s ee b e low ) , o r t hose t hough t t o h ave l i t t le b ea r ing o n t he c u l tu ra l c ompo s i t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l a s semb lage , s uch a s whe the r o r n o t ac e ram ic f r agmen t w as d iagno s t ic . One p rob lem w i th t h e i nven to ry o f g rave g oods w as t ha t t he amoun t s , c oun t s , w e igh t s o r v o lume o f t h e m a ter ia l w e re n o t a lway s c on s is ten t ly r e co rded , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f n a tura l ly d i s c re t e ma ter ia l s uch a s i nd iv idua l c e ram ic v e sse ls , me ta l a r t i fac t s , e t c . T he l a ck o f c on s is tency a lmo s t d i c ta ted t h a t o n ly a p re sen ce/absence me thodo logy c ou ld b e u sed . A dd i t iona l ly , s eve ra l t ype s o f r ema ins , p r imar i ly b o tan ica l a nd f auna l , c ou ld n o t b e a na lyzed e xcep t i n av ery g ene ra l manne r . T h is means t h a t o f ten a s pe c imen ( i n a dd i t ion t o t h e f u l l p roven ien ce d a ta ) wou ld c on ta in i nd ica t ion s t h a t i tw as ab o tan ica l s pec imen ( f o r e xamp le ) , h ow i tw as s t o red , a nd a n i nd ica t ion a s t o whe the r i tw as s e eds , l e ave s , t w ig s , e t c . I n s ome c ase s , s pe c i f ic t ype s o f p l an t s w e re i den t i f ied , p ar t icu la r ly when s eeds w er e i nvo lved . S i nce i d en t i f ica t ion o f i s o la ted b o tan ica l r ema ins ( s eeds , t w igs , e t c . ) w as u neven , a nd Ic ou ld n o t b e c on f iden t t ha t i den t i f ica t ion h ad b een made e xhaus t ive ly , Id i s rega rded t h e b o tan ica l d a ta , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f a r t i fac t s made o f b o tan ica l ma te r ia l . T he i nven to ry r e cogn ized s eve ra l b o tan ica l a r t i fac t s . T hese i n c luded c a c tu s s p ine n eed le s , wood a nd g ourd s poons , c ane a nd wood c ombs . I n a dd i t ion , s eve ra l c l asses o f wooden a r t i fac t s d i s t ingu ished i n t he i nven to ry o f g oods w e re u t i l ized : c a j a , v u l c a , b a s ton , p u sk a , c amp ana , s e l lo , k e r o , r u e c a , v a s i j a , a nd wooden s t icks . T here w e re a l so s eve ra l c l as ses o f a r t i fac t s m ade f r om g ourd d i s t ingu ished i n t h e i nven tory , a nd r e ta ined i n t h e d a tabase I c omp i led : b o t e l l a , c uenc o , v a s z j a , a nd s o na j a . I n a l l t h ese c ases , t he c a tego r ies e x is ted i n t he i nven to ry , a nd w ere r e ta ined i n my a na lys is a s i f t hey r e p resen ted n uance s o f E s tuqu i i ia c l as s i f ica t ions . F auna l d a ta w e re a l so s ub jec t t o s eve ra l o f t h e s ho r t com ings t h a t c harac te r ized t he b o tanc ia l d a ta . R ev iew ing t h e f auna l d a ta , If ound t h a t t h e re w e re p o s i t ive s pec ie s ( o r a t l e as t g enus ) , i den t i f ica t ions made i n o n ly c e r ta in i n s tance s , a nd n o t i n o ther s . S ome t ime s t he d a t a i nd ica ted t he r ema ins o f al a rge o r as ma l l m amma l whe the r i tw a s f r om a g u inea p ig , al ama , e t c . W i th f a una l d a ta , t h e re fo re , s ome g ene ra l iza t ions w e re made , c o l lap s ing c a tego r ies i n t h e i nven tory i n to b roade r c l asses , wh i le s ome o f t he s ub c lasse s o f ma te r ia l r e cogn ized w i th in i tw e re r e ta ined . I n s hor t , t he f auna l d a ta I f i na l ly u sed d i s t ingu ishes t h e r ema ins o f f i sh , s he l l f ish ( t h is c a tegory a l so i n c luded mo l lu sk s he l l ) , a nd b i rd . A ny f u r the r d i s c r im ina t ion s e emed t o b e e r ra t ic , n o t b ecause o f t h e p ro ces s o f c omp i l ing t h e i nven to ry , b u t b ecause o f d i f f icu l t ie s i n i den t i f ica t ion ; f o r t he se r e asons , n o f u r the r s ub c lasses o f f auna l o r b o t an ica l d a ta w e re r e cogn ized .
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O the r a r t i fac t s w e re g rouped o r d i f fe ren t ia ted f o r r e ason s o f e xped iency , b u t o f ten t h e a na ly s is r e l ied s imp ly o n t h e c l as s i f ica t ion o f m a te r ia ls g iven i n t he i nven tory . T hus , c e ram ics w e re s co red s eve ra l d i f feren t w ays : d eco ra ted a nd u nde co ra ted f r agmen t s w e re d i s c r im ina ted ( a l though whe ther o r n o t t h e f r agmen t w as c h rno log ica l ly o r c u l tura l ly d iagno s t ic w as f e l t t o b e i r re levan t t o E s tuqu i i ian c a tego r ie s o f g rave g oods ) . Who le v esse ls w e re s co red b y v e s se l t ype , d eco ra ted o r u nde co ra ted , a nd b urn t ( i . e . u sed o ve r f i re ) o r u nburn t . S ince me ta l w as f e l t t o b e s o n a r row ly d i s t r ibu ted among t he g rave s ( s l igh t ly mo re t h an 1 /5 o f t he g raves h ad a ny m e ta l i n t h em ) , a nd h ence w as f e l t t o b e d iagno s t ic b y p resence a l one , me ta l a r t i fac t s , a l though r e cogn ized b y t ype i n t he i nven to ry i n a l l c ases whe re i d en t i f ica t ion w as p o ss ib le , w e re s co red s imp ly a s : c oppe r a r t i fac t , n on -coppe r a r t i fac t ( i . e . , s i lve r a nd/o r g o ld a l loy s ) , o r me t a l f r agmen t s , whe re n o a r t i fac t w as r e cogn ized . L i th ic a r t i fac t s w e re s co red a s c he r t f l ake , o r r i ve r ine c obb le ( mano ) . C ons ide rab le d a ta o n t e x t i les w e re r e co rded i n t he t omb i nven tory , i n c lud ing s pe c i f ica t ion o f t h e t ype o f g armen t o r p ie ce o f c l o th i n e ach c ase . T ex t i les w e re p ar t icu la r ly s ub je c t t o t he v aga r ies o f p rese rvat ion i n t h e t ombs , a nd w ere o f ten r e cove red o n ly i n f r agmen tary f o rm . D e ta i ls o f d e co ra t ion o r t e x t i le t ype c ou ld n o t a lways b e a ccu ra te ly d e te rm ined , t h e re fo re . I tw as f e l t t h a t t he u nevenes s o f t h is d a ta w as t h e re fo re p ar t icu la r ly u nsu i ted t o ab road a nd g ene ra l s t udy s uch a s t he p re sen t o ne . Add i t iona l ly , s i n ce t h e d a ta o n t h e t e x t i les f r om E s tuqu i f ia a r e b e ing c ove red i n a f o r thcom ing d i sse r ta t ion b y N . C la rk o f Wash ing ton U n iver s i ty , i t w as f e l t t ha t a ny a t temp t t o i n c lude i ti n t h e p resen t a na ly s is wou ld n o t o n ly f a i l t o d o t h e d a ta j u s t ice , b u t m igh t e ven b e r edundan t . B es ide s , much o the r d a ta c apab le o f g iv ing u s s ome i n s igh t i n to t h e s oc ia l n a tu re o f t h e mo r tua ry p opu la t ion a r e c overed i n t he p resen t a na ly s is . F o r t h ese r e ason s , t e x t i le i n fo rma t ion , a l though v i ta l i n A ndean c u l tu re , i sn o t d i s cussed h e re . A c omp rehens ive l i s t ing o f g rave g oods c a tego r ies u sed i n t h is a na ly s is i sf u rn ished i n T ab le 1 . T he g rave g oods d a ta w e re o rgan ized b y i nd iv idua l t omb , s o t h a t f o r e ach t omb a n o ve ra l l p ro f i le o f c on ten t s , w i th e ach a t t r ibu te s co r ed a s p resen t ( 1 ) o r a b sen t ( 0 ) , w as c omp i led . Add i t iona l ly , e ach t omb w as c ha rac te r ized b y i t s l o ca t ion , w i th in o ne o f t h e f ou r c eme tery a r eas , o r w i th in o ne o f t h e d ome s t ic s t ruc tu re s , a l l o f wh ich w e re s co red b y s pe c i f ic l o ca t ion : i . e . c eme te r ies 1 , 2 , 3 , o r 4 , o r s t ruc tures 1 4 , 1 9 , 3 4 , o r 3 5 . B io log ica l d a ta o n t h e s ke le ta l r ema ins , g ene rous ly f u rn ished b y S . W i l l iams , w as a l so e n te red i n to t h e d a ta b ase . T he i nd iv idua l (s ) i n e ach t omb w e re c ha rac te r ized b y a pp rox ima te a ge a nd s ex a nd t he n umbe r o f i nd iv idua ls p e r t omb w as a l so r e corded . T h is i n fo rma t ion w as a l so k eyed i n to t h e p ro f i le o f e a ch i nd iv idua l t omb , a nd c ou ld b e u t i l ized a s t h e b as is f o r t he s or t ing o r g roup ing o f t omb s a s w e l l . T he g ene ra l d imen s ion s o f t he t omb w e re u sed t o c r ea te a r ough mea sure o f t omb s i ze , c a lcu la ted a s v o lume i n t e rm s o f c ub ic c en t ime t e r s . T h is measuremen t w as a r r ived a t w i th t h e f o rmu la f o r t h e v o lume o f ac y l inde r , e h , u s ing h a l f o f t h e max imum r ad ius o f t h e t omb a s r ,a nd t h e d i f f e rence b e tween t h e me asuremen t a t t h e t op o f t he " c o l lar " s t one s a nd t h e measuremen t a t t h e f l oo r o f t h e t omb a s h . T he v o lume c a lcu la ted w i th t h is r ough measur e i sc e r ta in ly n o t i n tended t o r ep res en t a n e xac t c a lcu la t ion , b u t o n ly a wo rk ab le a pp rox ima t ion o f t h e amoun t o f e ar th moved t o c r ea te t h e t omb , a nd h ence a measure o f l a bo r e xpended o n t he t omb . A s d i s cus sed a bove , t h is c a lcu la t ion w as mo t iva ted b y t he i d ea t h a t t h e amoun t o f l a bo r e xpended o n t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f at omb may i ndex t he i mpo r tance o f t h e i nd iv idua l i n te r red i n i t . I ti su sed h e re a s o ne l i ne o f
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P.BÜ RG I , E TA L . ; AS P EC T S O F MO R TUAR Y DI FER EN T I AT ION A T ES T UQU I l eA
p o ten t ia l ly s ubs t an t ive e v idence f o r v a r ia t ion i n mo r tuary t r ea tmen t . F ina l ly , a l though a c l ass i f ica t ion o f t ype s o f t omb s w as c r ea ted b y t he e xcava to rs , i n wh ich n uance s o f s hape s a nd t ype s o f s on te a nd c ons truc t ion w e re d i sc r im ina ted , Id id n o t u t i l ize t h is d a ta . D a ta o n t omb t ype s h ad b een u neven ly c o l lec ted a s a r e su l t o f p rema ture b ack f i l l ing , a nd i tw as f e l t t ob e i n comp le te .
Me thod o f Ana ly s is T he a na lys is u t i l ized t h e c apac i ty o f ac ompu te r ized d a tabase ' managemen t p rog ram t o c l as s i fy a nd g roup d i f fe ren t a t t r ibu tes o r s e t s o f a t t r ibu tes o n s eve ra l l e ve ls . T he d a tabase was v i sua l ly i n spe c ted a nd , g u ided b y i n fe rence , i n tu i t ion , a nd t r ia l -and -e r ro r , p a t te rn s among t h e d a ta w e r e t e ased o u t b y r epea ted s o r t s , n o t ing s t rong t endenc ies o f c o -var ia t ion . Whe re t h ese s t rong p a t te rns w e re d e tec ted , t he d a ta w e re a r ranged ( a s d i s cus sed b e low ) t o a l low f o r C h i -Squa re t e s t . T h is p ape r s ome t imes u se s as ho r thand means o f r e fe r r ing t o t h is s o r t o f n ar row ly d i s t r ibu ted a t t r ibu te , p o ten t ia l ly a ma rke r o f a d i f fe ren t ia ted s o c ia l p o s i t ion o r s t a tus : t hey may b e t e rmed ' ma rke r s o f d i f feren t ia t ion . ' T he C h i -Squa re t e s t g ive s ag auge o f t h e p robab i l i ty t ha t t h e d i f fe rence b e tween t he n ume r ica l p ro f i les o f t he t wo g roups i sn o t d ue t o c hance , a nd t he d a ta w e re a r ranged i n a l l c a ses t o t e s t t he d i f fe rence b e tween p a i red s e t s o f d a ta a ga in s t t he n u l l h ypo thes is t h a t t h e re w as n o d i f fe rence b e tween t h e p a ir s . Whe re t he d i f ference p roved n o t d ue t o c hance a l one , i ti sa s sumed t h a t t h e p a t te rn i s o la ted i s ar e su l t o f c u l tura l c ho ices . I n a l l c ases , t h e a bso lu te c u t -o f f f o r t h e p robab i l is t ic l e ve l o f s i gn i f icance w as a t p < .0 1 , a l though t he v a ry ing l e ve ls o f s i gn i f icance i ndexed b y p ar t icu lar C h i -Square v a lue s a l low s ome f r eedom o f j udgemen t . E ach o f t he a t t r ibu tes t hough t t o b e i mpo r tan t a s p o ten t ia l ma rke r o f s oc ia l d i f fe ren t i a t ion , i n t he s ense d e f ined a bove , w ere u sed t o s o r t t h e d a tabase i n to t wo g roup s : t ho se w i th t he a t t r ibu te s s co red a s " 1 " , a nd t ho se w i thou t t h e a t t r ibu te , i . e , i n wh ich t he p a r t icu la r a t t r ibu te w as s co red a s " 0 " . T he p ro f i le s o f e ach g roup w e re s ummed b y c o lumn s t o p roduce a o ne l i ne " c ompos i te p ro f i le " o f t ha t g roup o n t h e b as is o f t he " marke r o f d i f fe r en t ia t ion " a t t r ibu te s t a te . F o r i n s tance , a l l t he g rave g oods p ro f i les f o r t h e p o s t ive " 1 " a t t r ibu te s t a t e f o r " deco ra ted c e ram ic f r agmen t s " w e re e x t rac ted f r om t he d a tabase ; t he c o lumns o f t h i s g roup w e re s ummed , t o p roduce a s um , i n a l l 5 0 o f t he a t t r ibu te s t a tes , o f t h e n umbe r o f t ime s e ach a t t r ibu te w as s co red a s 1 . A l though t h is p rocedu re may b e q ue s t ionab le , i t d id s e em t o c on f irm t he i n tu i t ive p o in t s o f d i f fe ren t ia t ion p o in ted t o i n t h e v i sua l i n spec t ion o f t he d a ta . A s a n e xamp le , i mag ine t h a t t h e " 1 " s t a te o f " deco ra ted c e ra m ic f r agmen t " w as u sed a s as o r t , a nd i tp u l led o u t o n ly t wo t omb s wh ich c o r responded t o t h is d es c r ip t ion : t omb R 4 0 a nd t omb R 7 8 . T omb R 4 0 w as s co red a s " 1 " i n t he " deco ra ted c e ram ic f r agmen t " c o lumn , b u t " 0 " i n t h e " wooden c omb " a nd " 1 " i n t h e " wooden s poon " c o lumn ; t omb R 7 8 , o n t h e o the r h and , w as s co red a s " 1 " i n t h e " deco ra ted c e ram ic f r agmen t " c o lumn , a nd " 0 " i n b o th o f t h e o the r c o lumn s . T he " c ompo s i te p ro f i le " f o r t h e g roup c omp i led o n t h e b as is o f t h e " 1 " s t a te i n " deco ra ted c e ram ic f r agmen t " c o lumn wou ld t he re fo re h ave a " 2 " i n t h e " deco ra ted c e ram ic f r agmen t " c o lumn , " 1 " i n t h e " wooden s poon " c o lu mn , a nd " 0 " i n t h e " wooden c omb " c o lumn . T h is c ompo s i te p ro f i le wou ld b e t e s ted f o r t he p robab i l i ty o f " d i f fe rence n o t d ue t o c hance a l one " a ga in s t ac ompos i te p ro f i le o f a l l t h e t omb s wh ich w ere n o t s co red a s " 1 " i n t h e " de co ra ted c e ram ic
3 55
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 8
Non-Ceramic Categories
Decorated B asket
cactus
s pine
\
> Baskets >Botanical Undecorated Basket
Caja
n eedles
Gourd S poons
-Vulca > Combs -Baston
1
Puska
I
Campana Sello
> Wooden Artifacts I Botella
-Rueca
Wooden
I I
a lloy) > Metal -Vasija I Stick
Wooden
S poons
/
\
Comb
Copper
cuenco
\ Gourd
Vasija
/ Artifacts
Sonaja
Cane
\
Artifact
( gol d/sil ver
/
Artifact Copper
\ > Faunal
Chert
Fragment
F lakes >Lithics
Remains Riverine C obble
( mano )/
Ceramics
-Jarrabota * decorated/unburnt +decorated/unburnt * decorated/burnt
Cuenco +decorated/unburnt +decorated/burnt
+ undecorated/unburnt * undecorated/unburnt + undecorated/burnt
Cantaro
* decorated/burnt
+ undecorated/unburnt +undecorated/burnt
* undecorated/burnt Jarra +decorated/unburnt
/
Non-Copper
/
Bird Remains Shellfish Fish
C omb
> S poons
1
-Kero
\
Chomba
Jarrapato * decorated/unburnt
*decorated/unburnt
T ab le 1 . G rave Goods C lass i f ica t ion A t t r ibu t es .
3 56
P.BO RG ! , E TA L . ; AS P EC T S O F MO R TUARY DI F ER EN T I AT ION A T ES T UQU I S IA
f r agmen t " c o lu mn . F ina l ly , i t mus t b e p o in ted o u t t ha t i n mo s t c ases d i f feren t a t t r ibu te s w e re p oo led t oge the r , a nd t h e ir j o in t p o s i t ive " 1 " s t a te u sed a s a mean s o f b reak ing u p t he d a ta . An e xamp le wou ld b e u s ing t he " 1 " s t a tes o f b o th " wooden c omb " a nd " c ane c omb " a s ab as is f o r c omp i l ing a c ompos i te p ro f i le o f ag roup o ne m igh t c a l l " any t ype o f c omb p resen t . " I n l i ke m anne r , t h is c ompo s i te p ro f i le wou ld b e t e s ted a ga ins t t he g roup " a l l t ypes o f c omb a bsen t . " I n a dd i t ion t o aC h i -Squa re t e s t o f d i f fe ren ce f o r t h e c ompo s i te g rave g oods p ro f i le s f o r t h e p a i rs o f g roup s c r ea ted a s d es c r ibed a bove , af u r the r t e s t w as u sed i n a n a t temp t t o c on f i rm t hese p re l im ina ry r e su l t s . T h is t e s t w as a T tes t , a nd i tu sed t he v o lume s o f t he t omb s i n t h e t wo g roups c r ea t ed b y e ach a t t r ibu te o r a t t r ibu t e c a tegory d i f fe ren t ia t ion . F o r e xamp le , t h e d i f fe ren t ia t ion o n t h e b as is o f " che r t f l akes " p re sen t c r ea ted t wo g roup s o f t omb v o lumes , t he v o lumes o f t hose t omb s w i th c he r t f l ake s , a nd t h e v o lumes o f t hose t ombs w i thou t c he r t f l ake s . T he d i f fe rence b e tween t h ese t wo c o lumn s o f n umbe r s w as t hen t e s ted a ga ins t t h e n u l l h ypo thes is u s ing a T te s t . T he a t t r ibu te s whose " 1 " s t a t e w e re u sed a s ap o in t o f d i f fe ren t ia t ion i n t h e d a ta s e t w e re t h e f o l low ing : * *
* * * * * * * *
* * *
T omb s w i th a ny t ype o f s poon , g ou rd o r wooden ; T omb s w i th a ny t ype o f g ourd a r t i fac t , ac ompo s i te p ro f i le wh ich c ons is t s o f t he g ou rd a r t i fac t s c uenco , s ona ja , b o te l la , a nd v as i ja ; T omb s w i th a ny t ype o f c omb , wooden o r c ane ; T omb s w i th c he r t f l ake s ; T omb s w i th mo l lusk o r s he l l f ish r ema in s ; T omb s w i th f i sh r ema ins ; T ombs w i th b i rd r ema in s ; T omb s w i th d e co ra ted b aske t s ; T omb s w i th a ny t ype o f b aske t , d eco ra ted o r u ndeco ra ted ; T omb s w i th a ny t ype o f me ta l , c oppe r a r t i fac t s , g o ld/s i lve r a l loy a r t i fac t s , o r a ny me ta l f r agmen t s ; T omb s w i th a ny e n t ire c e ram ic v e sse ls i n t hem ; T omb s w i th a ny d eco ra ted c e ram ic v e s se ls i n t h em ; a nd T omb s w i th d e co ra ted c e ram ic f r agmen t s i n t h em .
T he o n ly ma jor c a tegory u naddressed i n t h is a na ly s is i s t h a t o f t he s eve ra l t ype s o f wooden a r t i fac t s . O ne f i na l ma jo r a t t r ibu te wh ich s p l i t t h e s amp le o f t ombs q u i te e ven ly w as t omb l o ca t ion : i . e . , i n d omes t ic c on tex t , o r i n c eme te ry c on tex t . T h is a t t r ibu te , Ib e l ieve , p o in t s t o t h e mo s t f undamen ta l d i s t inc t ion w i th in t h e i n tac t t omb p opu la t ion . T he t omb s w i th a ny o r mos t o f t h e s i gn i f ican t a t t r ibu te s p o in ted t o j u s t a bove - me ta l , b i rd , d e co ra ted b aske t s , f i sh o r mo l lusk , c he r t f l ake s -a re b y f a r mo re l i ke ly t o b e i n d omes t ic c on tex t s . O ne o f t he s ho r t com ing s o f t h is a na lys is w as t h a t n o r e asonab le o r a ccu ra te p ro f i le o f g rave c on ten t s c ou ld b e c omp i led o n t h e b as i s o f s ex . A C h i -Square t e s t r un o n t he d i f fe ren t c o mpos i te p ro f i le s o f t ho se t ombs w i th d e f in i t e ly i den t i f ied ma le s i n t h em , a nd t ho se t ombs w i th d e f in i te ly i d en t i f ied f ema le s i n t hem , d id n o t y i e ld i n te l l ig ib le r e su l t s . T h i s m ay b e d ue t o t he f a c t t h a t p o s i t ive i d en t i f ica t ion o f t he g ende r o f i mma ture i nd iv idua ls , who w e re n ume rous i n t h e s amp le , w as n o t p o s s ib le , w i th t he r e su l t t h a t a
3 57
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 1 8
g ood p ar t o f t h is d a ta w as s imp ly n o t a va i lab le . s imp ly t oo s ma l l t o b e r evea l ing .
H ence , i ti sl i ke ly t ha t t h e s amp le w as
S eve ra l t ab le s h ave b een c omp i led t o p resen t a spe c t s o f t he d a ta v i sua l ly , t o i nd ica te t o t he r e ade r t he b reak -down i n t h e t o ta l d a t a s e t ; a nd , i n a l c ases , t h e r e su l t s o f t h e C h i -Squa re t e s t a re p r in ted i n c on junc t ion w i th t he s e t a b le s . A s ho r t d i s cus s ion o f t he s i gn i f icance o f t he r e su l t s f o l lows . Howeve r , b e fo re p ro ceed ing w i th t h e a na ly s is , t he r e ade r i sr e fer red t o T ab le 2 wh ich s ummar ize s a l l t h e i n t ac t t omb c on tex t s a t E s tuqu i t ia wh ich w e re a na lyzed i n t h is p ape r .
I ntact R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
2 6 3 3 4 0 7 8 2 54 3 20 3 25 4 56 4 57 4 69 4 98 5 42 5 43 5 44 5 45 5 46 5 47 5 48 5 49 5 53 5 60 5 72 5 73 5 90 6 10 6 30 6 31 6 32 6 33 6 35
R R R R R R R R R
6 61 6 84 7 44 7 86 8 00 8 04 8 34 8 35 8 36
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
8 37 8 38 8 39 8 41 8 43 8 44 8 45 8 46 9 12 9 41 1 078 1 122 1 176 1 201 1 202 1 203 1 204 1 205 1 206 1 207
T omb E xcavated a t
E stuquina U tilized
* The e ntire group o f i ntact tombs e xcavated a t n umber o f t ombs w hich w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he n othing i n t he w ay o f g rave g oods.
E stquina a nalysis
i n t he Analysis*
i ncludes a v ery small a dditional b ecause t hey c ontained l ittle t o
T ab le 2 .I n t ac t t omb e xcava ted a t E s tuqu i f ia U t i l ized i n t h e A na lys is R esu l ts o f Ana lyses S poons , made o f wood a nd o f g ourd , w e re f ound i n t h e f o l low ing c on t ex t s ( t ab le 3 ) :
3 58
P.BÜ RG I , E TA L . ; AS P EC T S O F MO R TU ARY DI F E R ENT I AT ION A T ES T UQU I SM
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C_ )
R 2 6 R 2 54 R 4 56
OR
TOMB NUMBER DESIGNATION
DOMESTIC CEMETERY
C D C
R 4 0 R 3 20 R 4 57
C C C
R 4 69
C
R 4 98
D
R 5 42
C
R 5 44
C
R 5 49 R 5 90
C D
R 5 60 R 6 10
C D
R 6 32
C
R 6 33
C
R 6 62 R 7 44
C D
R 6 84 R 8 00
D D
R 8 35 R 9 41
D D
R 8 44 R 1 122
D D
R 1 202 Note:
CONTEXT
D The
two
c olumn
tomb c ontexts i s u sed d ivision of the d ata.
R 1 203 f ormat only
which
presents
a s
space-saver
a
the
( D) ( C)
OR CONTEXT
D d ata and
h ere
does
and n ot
in
s ubsequent
c onstitute
a
groups
of
meaningful
T ab le 3 . A c h i -square v a lue w as c ompu ted t o t e s t t he n u l l h ypo the s is t ha t t he c ompo s i te p ro f i le f o r a l l t he t omb s w i th s poon s was n o t d i f fe ren t f r om t h e c ompo s i te p ro f i le f o r a l l t he o the r t omb s . A c tua l ly , wha t i s i nd ica t ed h e re i s t h e d i f fe rence i n t he c ompos i te p ro f i le f o r a l l t h e o ther a r t i fa c t t ypes ; i tw as h oped t h a t t h is me thod wou ld h e lp i den t i fy g roups o f a r t ifac t s wh ich v ary t oge the r - a l though i t w as i n fe r red t h a t t he a r t i fac t c a tego ry u sed t o d iv ide t h e d a t a s e rved i n t h e c apac i ty o f a marke r f o r t h e c ovary ing s e t . ' A s i st he c ase w i th t h e v a lue s c a lcu la ted f o r o the r p a i red p ar t s o f t h e d a ta s e t , t he v a lues g i ve a r ough i nd ica t ion o f t h e p rom inence o f t h e a t t r ibu te a s a marke r o f s oc ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion . I n t h e c ase o f t h e d iv is ion b y " spoon s " , t he c h i -squa re v a lue w as 5 6 .803 , wh ich i ss i gn i f ican t o n ly p = . 1 32 ( 4 6 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) . A t t h is l e ve l o f p robab i l i ty o ne c anno t d ism is s t h e n u l l h ypo thes is , s o i t mus t s t and : t h e c ompo s i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t he g roup o f t omb s " w i th s poons " i sn o t s i gn i f ican t ly d i f fe ren t f r om t ha t o f t he g roup o f t omb s " w i thou t s poons " . O n t h is b as is , t h e re fo re , o ne c an a s se r t t ha t t he p resen ce o f " spoon s " i n a c i s t t omb d o es n o t a ppea r t o ma rk s o c ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n mo r tuary c on tex t s a t E s tuqu ir ia . T he d a ta o n t omb v o lume s , d iv ided i n e ach c ase o n t he b as is o f t he p resence o f g iven a t t r ibu tes , w as a l so s ub jec ted t o a n u npa i red , t wo ta i led T te s t . T he o b jec t o f t h is t e s t w as t o s ee i ft h e r ough s i ze o f t h e t omb , c a lcu la ted i n t e rm s o f c y l indr ica l v o lume , e i ther c o r robo ra ted o r c onf l ic ted w i th t h e e s t ima te o f d i f fe rence s b e tween t he t wo g roup s o f t omb s c a lcu la ted o n t h e b as is o f t he c ompo s i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le d i scus sed a bove . T h is c a lcu la t ion was u sed t o t e s t t h e n u l l h ypo the s is t h a t t h e t wo g roups o f t omb v o lume s a re d rawn f r om t h e s ame h ypo the t ica l p opu la t ion , whe re a s i gn i f ican t l e ve l o f d i f fe rence i s c a lcu la ted , w i th t h e c u t -o f f p o in t f o r s i gn i f icance b e ing t he p < .0 1 l e ve l , i t c an b e i n fer red t h a t as t ep l ike d i s junc t ion b e tween t he s i ze s o f t he t wo g roup s o f t ombs i s o pe ra t ive . T hus , i n t he c a se o f t wo g roups o f t omb v o lume s -t hose w i th s poon s a nd t hose w i thou t -w e re c ompa red : t h e g roup o f t ombs w i th s poons h ad a mean v o lume o f 2 707 c a nd t ho se w i thou t am ean v o lume o f 2 145 c . T he T te s t ( unpa ired , t wo ta i led ) g enera ted a v a lue o f . 8 9 1 , w h ich i s s i gn i f ican t a t p= . 4 163 ( 5 7 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) . T h is t o o i s a n i n su f f ic ien t l e ve l o f p robab i l i ty t o d i sm is s t he n u l l h ypo the s is t h a t t he v o lume s o f t he t wo g roup s o f t ombs d i f fe r o n t h e b as is o f t he p resence o r a bsence o f " spoon s . " 3 59
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 8
T he i den t ica l p ro cedure , c ompar ison o f t wo g roups o f t omb s d i f feren t ia ted b y t he p resence o r a bsence o f a n a t t r ibu te o r g roup o f r e la ted a t t r ibu tes , u s ing i n t ia l ly a C h i -Square t e s t o f t he t wo c ompos i te a t tr ibu te p ro f i le , a nd t hen a T te s t o f t he t omb v o lumes o f b o th g roups , w as f o l lowed f o r t he s pec i f ied a t tr ibu tes a bove . T he t ombs w i th o ne o r mo re g ourd a r t i fac t s w ere t he f o l low ing ( Tab le 4 ) :
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
OR
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
TOMB NUMBER DESIGNATION
DOMESTIC C EMETERY
R 4 0
C
R 3 20
C
R 4 69 R 5 44
C C
R 5 43 R 5 45
C C
R 6 33
C
R 6 61
C
R 7 44
D
R 8 00
D
R 8 38 R 8 44
D D
R 8 43 R 8 45
D D
R 1 122
D
R 1 202
D
R 1 203
D
R 1 207
D
( D) ( C )
OR CONTEXT
T ab le 4 .
T he Ch i -Square t e s t u s ing t h e c ompos i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t he c ompos i te p ro f i le o f t he r ema in ing t ombs ( i . e . , t hose w i th n o g ourd a r t i fac t s ) g ene ra ted a v a lue o f 7 6 .904 , p=. 0 029 ( 4 6 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) . T he T te s t ( unpa ired , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t he t omb v o lu mes o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f . 9 02 , w i th p = . 3 706 ( 5 7 d eg re ss o f f r eedom ) ; t he mean v o lume f o r t he g roup w i th a g ourd a r t i fac t w as 2 035 c , a nd t h a t f o r t he g roup w i thou t g ourd a r t i fac ts w as 2 656 c . T he t omb w i th a c omb i n t hem , e i the r wooden o r c ane , w e re ( Tab le 5 ) :
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D )
OR
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D )
OR
DESIGNATION
C EMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
R 4 57
C
R 4 69
C
R 5 42
C
R 5 60
C
R 5 90
D
R 6 33
C
R 6 84
D
R 7 44
D
R 8 35
D
R 8 45
D
R 9 41
D
R 1 122
D
T ab le 5 .
T he Ch i -Square t e s t u s ing t he c ompos i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t he c ompos i te p ro f i le o f t he r ema in ing t ombs ( i . e . , t hose w i th n o c ombs ) g enera ted a v a lue o f 6 7 .358 , p . = . 0 2 17 ( 4 6 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) . T he T tes t ( unpa i red , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t he t omb v o lumes o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f 1 . 705 , w i th p = . 0 937 ( 5 7 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) ; t he mean v o lume f o r t he g roup w i th c o mbs w as 3 463 c , a nd t ha t f o r t he g roup w i thou t g ourd a r t i fac t s was 2 089 c .
3 60
P.BU RG ! , E TA L . ; AS P EC T S O F MO RTUA R Y DI F ER ENT I AT ION A T ES T UQU I I Z IA
T he t ombs w i th c her t f l ake s i n t h em w e re :
TOMB N UMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
OR
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
OR
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
R 6 10
D
R 6 84
D
R 9 12 R 1 078
D D
R 9 41 R 1 122
D D
R 1 176
D
R 1 201
D
T ab le 6 .
T he C h i square t e s t u s ing t h e c o mpos i te a t t r ibu t e p ro f i le o f t h i s g roup a nd t he c ompo s i te p ro f i le o f t he r ema in ing t ombs ( i . e . , t ho se w i th n o c her t f l akes ) g ene ra t ed a v a lue o f 8 7 .03 , p . 0 002 ( 4 6 d eg ree s o f f r eedom ) . T he T tes t ( unpa i red , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t he t omb v o lumes o f b o th g roup s p roduced a v a lue o f 4 . 126 , w i th p . 0 00 1 ( 5 7 d eg ree s o f f r eedom ) ; t h e mean v o lume f o r t he g roup w i th c he r t f l akes w a s 5 523 c , a nd t h a t f o r t he g roup w i thou t c he r t f l ake s w as 1 902 c . We may n o te , a l so , t ha t t h is g roup i s p ar t icu la r ly u nusua l i n t ha t a l t he se t omb s a r e l o ca ted i n d ome s t ic c on t ex t s . A s w e w i l l s ee , t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e t omb w i th in t h e c on f ines o f d ome s t ic s pace s e ems t o b e av ery d is t in c t ive f e a ture .
T he t ombs c on ta in ing r ema in s o f e i the r mo l lusk o r s he l l f ish w e re t h e f o l low ing ( Tab le 7 ) :
TOMB N UMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
O R
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
OR
DESIGNATION
C EMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
D ESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
R 4 0 R 2 54
c D
R 7 8 R 5 42
D C
R 6 10
D
R 6 61
C
R 6 84
D
R 8 04
D
R 8 34 R 8 36
D D
R 8 35 R 9 12
D D
R 1 078
D
R 1 122
D
R 1 202
T ab le 7 .
T he C h i -Square t e s t u s ing t h e c ompo s i t e a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t h e c ompos i te p ro f i le o f t he r ema in ing t omb s ( i . e . , t ho se w i th n o r ema ins o f e i the r mo l lusk o r s he l l f ish ) g ene ra ted a v a lue o f 6 5 .734 , p=. 0 295 ( 4 6 d eg ree s o f f r eedom ) . T he T tes t ( unpa ired , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t h e t omb v o lume s o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f 2 . 435 , w i th p = . 0 18 ( 5 7 d eg ree s o f f r eeedom ) ; t h e mean v o lume f o r t h e g roup w i th t h e se f a una l r ema in s w as 3 8 15 c , a nd t h a t f o r t h e g roup w i thou t t h em w a s 1 950 c .
3 6 1
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 8
T ombs c on ta in ing f i sh b one we re ( Tab le 8 ) :
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
OR
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
R 5 45 R 7 44
TOMB NUMBER DESIGNATION
DOMESTIC CEMETERY
C D
R 6 84 R 8 04
D D
R 8 34
D
R 8 44
D
R 9 12
D
R 1 078
D
R 1 122
D
( D) ( C)
OR CONTEXT
T ab le 8 .
T he C h i -Square t e s t u s ing t he c ompos i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t he c ompos i te p ro f i le o f t h e r ema in ing t ombs ( i . e . , t hose w i th n o f i sh b one ) g ene ra ted a v a lue o f 8 4 .73 , p . 0 004 ( 4 6 d egree s o f f r eedom ) . T he T tes t ( unpa ired , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t he t omb v o lumes o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f 3 . 063 , w i th p = . 0 033 ( 5 7 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) ; t he mean v o lume f o r t he g roup w i th f i sh r ema ins w as 4 846 c , a nd t h a t f o r t he g roup w i thou t t hem was 2 008 c . I t i s r emarkab le , h e re a ga in , t ha t w i th t he e xcep t ion o f o ne t omb , R 5 45 , a l l t he t ombs w i th f i sh r ema in s i n t hem a r e i n d ome s t ic c on tex t s .
T he n ex t d iv is ion o f t he d a ta s e t u t i l ized t h e p resence o f t he a t t r ibu te r e ma ins o f b i rds . T hose t ombs w i th t h e a t t r ibu te we re ( Tab le 9 ) :
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
OR
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
or
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
R 5 48
C
R 7 44
D
R 8 04
D
R 1 078
D
R 1 202
D
T ab le 9 .
T he C h i -Square t e s t u s ing t he c ompos i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t he c ompos i te p ro f i le o f t h e r ema in ing t ombs ( i . e . , t hose w i th n o r ema ins o f b i rds ) g ene ra ted a v a lue o f 6 4 .296 , p=. 0 385 ( 4 6 d eg ree s o f f r eedom ) . T he T tes t ( unpa ired , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t he t omb v o lumes o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f . 9 25 , w i th p = . 3 587 ( 5 7 d eg ree s o f f r eedom ) ; t he mean v o lume f o r t he g roup w i th r ema ins o f b i rds was 3 426 c , a nd t h a t f o r t h e g roup w i thou t t hem w as 2 297 c .
3 62
P.BC / R G I , E TA L . ; AS P EC T S O F MO R TUARY DI F ER EN T I AT ION A T ES ' T UQU I I Z I A
B a ske t s , b o th d e co ra ted a nd u nde co ra ted , w e re f ound i n t h e f o l low ing t omb s ( Tab le 1 0 ) :
TOMB N UMBER
DOMESTIC
( C)
OR
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
OR
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
R 4 0 R 4 69
C C
R 4 56 R 5 90
C D D
R 6 33
C
R 8 04
R 8 39
D
R 8 43
R 9 12
D
R 9 41
D
R 1 122
D
R 1 201
D
R 1 202
D
R 1 204
D
D
T ab le 1 0 .
T he C h i -Square t e s t u s ing t h e c ompo s i t e a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t he c ompos i te p ro f i le o f t he r ema in ing t omb s ( i . e . , t hose w i th n o b aske t s a t a l l ) g ene ra ted a v a lue o f 6 9 .455 , p= . 0 143 ( 4 6 d eg re s s o f f r eedom ) . T he T te s t ( unpa ired , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t he t omb v o lumes o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f 1 . 896 , w i th p = . 0 63 1 ( 5 7 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) ; t he mean v o lume f o r t h e g roup w i th b aske t s w as 3 52 1 c , a nd t h a t f o r t he g roup w i thou t t hem w as 2 042 c .
D e co ra ted b aske t s w e re f ound i n a much s ma l le r s amp le ( Tab le 1 ) :
TOMB N UMBER
DOMESTIC
( D )
OR
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
OR
DESIGNATION
C EMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
R 4 56
C
R 1 122
D
R 1 201
D
R 1 202
D
R 1 204
D
T ab le 1 .
T he C h i -Squar e t e s t u s ing t h e c ompo s i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t he c ompo s i te p ro f i le o f t he r ema in ing t omb s ( i . e . , t ho se w i th n o d eco ra ted b aske t s ) g ene ra ted a v a lue o f 6 4 .082 , p= . 0 4 ( 4 6 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) . T he T te s t ( unpa i red , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t he t omb v o lumes o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f 1 . 093 , w i th p = . 2 792 ( 5 7 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) ; t he mean v o lume f o r t h e g roup w i th d e co ra ted b aske t s w as 3 609 c , a nd t ha t f o r t h e g roup w i thou t t hem w as 2 280 c .
3 63
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 8
T he p resence o f me ta l i n a t omb , u sua l ly i n a r t i fac t f o rm , i n f r equen t ly i n a n u nrecogn izab le f o r , a nd mos t c oppe r , w as o ne o f t h e mos t s i gn i f ican t a t t r ibutes a c ro ss t he d a ta s e t . Me ta l i n t hese v ar ious f o rm s w as f ound i n t he f o l low ing t ombs ( Tab le 1 2 ) :
TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
OR
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
R 2 54 R 6 84 R 8 39 R 9 12 R 1 176
TOMB NUMBER D ESIGNATION
DOMESTIC C EMETERY
D
R 5 90
D
D D D
R 8 35 R 8 44 R 1 122
D D D
D
R 1 202
D
( D) ( C)
OR CONTEXT
T ab le 1 2 .
I t s hou ld b e n o ted , i n i t ia l ly , t ha t a l l o f t hese t ombs a re i n d omes t ic c on tex ts . T he C h i -Square t e s t u s ing t he c ompo s i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t h e c ompos i te p ro f i le o f t h e r ema in ing t ombs ( i . e . , t hose w i th n o me ta l a r t i fac ts o r f r agmen ts a t a l l ) g ene ra ted a v a lue o f 7 2 .984 , p = . 0 069 ( 4 6 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) . T he T t es t ( unpa ired , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t he t omb v o lu mes o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f 3 . 361 , w i th p =. 0 0 14 ( 5 7 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) ; t he mean v o lume f o r t he g roup o f t omb s w i th me ta l i n t hem w as 4 720 c , a nd t ha t f o r t he g roup w i thou t i tw as 1 98 1 c . C e ram ics i n t omb c on tex t s we re o ne o f t he mos t w ide ly d i s t r ibuted a t t r ibu tes , f o und , i n o ne way o r a no the r , i n a lmo s t a l l t ombs . T hey i n c luded who le v e ss e ls a s w e l l a s c e ram ic f r agmen t s , i n b o th c ases f u r ther s ubd iv ided i n to d ecora ted a nd u ndeco ra ted wa re . T hese c a tego r ies , i t mus t b e p o in ted o u t , w e re i nher i ted f r om t h e t omb i nven to ry . T he f i r s t g roup o f a t t r ibu tes u sed t o b reak d own t he d a ta s e t was t h o se w i th e n t ire c e ram ic v esse ls , b o th d eco ra ted a nd u ndeco ra ted , i n o ppos t ion t o t ho se w i th n o e n t ire c e ram ics . Who le c e ram ic v esse ls w e re f ound i n 3 9 t ombs ( Tab le 1 3 ) :
3 64
P.BÜ RG I , E TA L . ; AS P ECT S O F MO R TUARY DI FER ENT IAT ION A T ES T UQU I I Z IA
TOMB N UMBER D ESIGNATION
DOMESTIC CEMETERY
R 3 3 R 7 8
( D) ( C)
OR CONTEXT
TOMB NUMBER DESIGNATION
DOMESTIC C EMETERY
C D
R 4 0 R 2 54
C D
R 3 20
C
R 3 25
C
R 4 56 R 4 69
C C
R 4 57 R 4 98
C D
R 5 42 R 5 44 R 5 60
C C C
R 5 43 R 5 45 R 5 90
C C D
R 6 10
D
R 6 32
C
R 6 33 R 6 61
C C
R 6 35 R 6 84
C D
R 7 44
D
R 7 86
D
R 8 00
D
R 8 04
D
R 8 35
D
R 8 36
D
R 8 39 R 8 44 R 9 41
D D D
R 8 41 R 9 12 R 1 122
D D D
R 1 202
D
R 1 203
D
R 1 204 R 1 206
D D
R 1 205
D
( D) ( C)
OR CONTEXT
T ab le 1 3 .
T he C h i -Square t e s t u s ing t he c ompos i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t he c ompos i te p ro f i le o f t he r ema in ing t ombs ( i . e . , t hose w i th n o who le c e ram ic v esse ls ) , g ene ra ted a v a lue o f 5 2 .074 , p = . 2 495 ( 4 6 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) . T he T tes t ( unpa i red , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t h e t omb v o lumes o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f 1 . 064 w i th p = . 2 917 ( 57 d egree s o f f r eedom ) ; t he mean v o lu me f o r t h e g roup o f t ombs w i th t he c e ram ic s i n t hem w as 2 65 1 c , a nd t h a t f o r t h e g roup w i thou t t h em was 1 889 c . T he l i s t o f t ombs w i th e n t ire d eco ra ted c e ram ic v esse ls i n t hem i s a lmos t i den t ica l w i th t h e o ne f o r a l l t ypes o f c e ram ic v esse ls . T he re a r e o n ly t h ree t ombs wh ich mus t b e s ub t rac ted f r om t he a bove l i s t t o p roduce t h e l i s t o f t ombs w i th o n ly d eco ra ted c e ram ic v esse l s i n t he m : R4 56 , R 122 , a nd R 1 206 . A s m igh t b e e xpec ted , t he re fo re , t he v a lues f r om t h e t wo t e s t s r un o n t h ese g roups w as a lmos t i d en t ica l t o t hose j u s t a bove . T he C h i -Squa re t e s t u s ing t he c ompos i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t he c ompos i te p ro f i le o f t he o the r t ombs ( i . e . , t hose w i thou t d eco ra ted c e ram ic v esse ls ) g ene ra ted a v a lue o f 5 2 .115 , p = . 2 482 ( 4 6 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) . T he T tes t ( unpa ired , t wo t a i led ) u t i l iz ing t h e t omb v o lumes o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f 1 . 346 , w i th p = . 1 837 ( 5 7 d eg ree s o f f r eedom ) ; t h e mean v o lume f o r t he g roup o f t ombs w i th t he d eco ra ted c e ra m ics i n t hem w as 2 755 c , a nd t h a t f o r t h e g roup w i thou t t h em w as 1 825 c .
3 65
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 8
T he f i na l a t t r ibu te u sed t o d iv ide t he d a ta s e t w as t he p resence o f d e co ra ted c e ram ic f r agmen ts . T he t ombs w i th d eco ra ted c e ram ic f r agmen t s w ere ( Tab le 1 4 ) : TOMB NUMBER
DOMESTIC
( D)
OR
DESIGNATION
CEMETERY
( C)
CONTEXT
TOMB NUMBER DESIGNATION
DOMESTIC CEMETERY
R 4 0
C
R 7 8
D
R 2 54
D
R 4 69
C
R 5 43
C
R 5 49
C
R 5 60
C
R 5 90
D
R 6 32
C
R 6 33
C
R 6 61
C
R 6 84
D
R 7 44 R 8 04
D D
R 7 86 R 8 34
D D
R 8 35
D
R 8 36
D
R 8 38 R 8 41
D D
R 8 39 R 8 43
D D
R 9 12
D
R 9 26
D
R 9 41
D
R 1 078
D
R 1 122
D
R 1 176
D
R 1 201 R 1 205
D D
R 1 204 R 1 206
D D
( D) ( C)
OR CONTEXT
T ab le 1 4 . T he C h i -Square t e s t u s ing t h e c ompos i te a t t r ibu te p ro f i le o f t h is g roup a nd t he c ompos i te p ro f i le o f t he o the r t ombs ( i . e . , t hose w i thou t d eco ra ted c e ram ic f r agmen t s ) g ene ra ted a v a lue o f 6 7 .296 , p = . 0 2 19 ( 4 6 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) . T he T tes t ( unpa i red , t wo ta i led ) u t i l iz ing t he t omb v o lu mes o f b o th g roups p roduced a v a lue o f 1 . 87 1 , w i th p = . 0 664 ( 5 7 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) ; t h e mean v o lume f o r t h e g roup o f t ombs w i th t he d eco ra ted f r agmen ts i n t h em was 2 984 c , a nd t ha t f o r t h e g roup w i thou t t h e m was 1 738 c . T he t o ta l b ody o f r e su l t s i sp resen ted i n t h e f o l low ing t a b le ( Tab le 1 5 ) : Attribute
Group
Chi-Square Value and
spoon,
c alabash or wooden
. 819,
p - . 4163
p = . 0029 p = . 0217
. 902, 1 .705,
p = . 3706 p = . 0937
8 7.030, 6 5.734,
p = . 0002 p - . 0295
4 .126,
p = . 0001
2 .435,
p = . 018
8 4.730, 6 4.296,
p = . 0004 p = . 0385
3 .063, . 925,
p = . 0033 p - . 3587
b askets
6 4.082,
p = . 04
1 .093,
p = . 2792
of basket
6 9.455,
p = . 0143
1 .896,
p = . 0631
7 2.984,
p = . 0069
3 .361,
p = . 0014
p = . 2495 p = . 2482
1 .064,
p = . 2917
1 .346,
p = . 1837
p = . 0219
1 .871,
p = . 0644
chert
f lakes
c ane
mollusk or s hellfish f ish r emains b ird r emains any
type
Value
s ignificance
p
wooden or
decorated
and
5 6.803,
comb,
r emains
c eramic pots
decorated
c eramic pots
5 2.074, 5 2.115,
decorated
ceramic
6 7.296,
f ragments
. 132
T -Test l evel
7 6.904, 6 7.358,
c alabash artifact
metal entire
s ignificance
l evel
T ab le 1 5 . R esu l t s o f C h i -Squa re T es t s o n P a i r s o f C ompos i te T omb P ro f i le s A s was men t ioned a bove , t he l e ve l o f s i gn i f icance u sed i n t h is a na lys is i s p . 0 1 . G iven t h e s imp l i f ica t ion s o f t he d a ta a nd t h e a na lys is , i tw as f e l t t ha t 1c hance i n 1 00 r epresen ted a g ood c omprom ise b e tween t he u se o f a more d i sc r im ina t ing l e ve l s uch a s p. 0 05 , a nd a who l ly mean ing less a bsence o f d i scr im ina t ion . W i th t h is i n m ind , w e c an p u l l f r om t he a bove t a b le t he r e su l ts wh ich a l low u s t o d i sm iss t he n u l l h ypo the s is . A s w e h ave i nd ica ted t he v a lues wh ich me t t he p . 0 1 l e ve l may s ugges t t ha t t h e a t t r ibu te i n q ues t ion d i s t ingu ishes a p ar t icu lar s t a tus i n mo r tua ry t r ea tmen t a nd i s am arker o f s o c ia l d i s t inc t ion . T he v a lue s wh ich f i t t h is d e f in i t ion a re :
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T he C h i -Squa re v a lue f o r g ourd a r t i fac t s , b o th C h i -Squa re a nd T te s t v a lues f o r c he r t f l akes ; b o th C h i -Squa re a nd T te s t v a lues f o r f i sh r ema in s , a nd b o th C h i -Squa re a nd T te s t v a lues f o r t he p resence o f me ta l . T he mos t p rom inen t d i cho tomy i n t h e d a ta i s t he g roup ing o n t h e b as is o f t omb l o ca t ion , i . e . , i n e i the r d omes t ic o r c eme te ry c on tex t s . T he r a t iona le f o r e xam in ing t h is a t t r ibu te w as t he t endency , a s i s p o in ted o u t i n t h e d a ta p re sen ted a bove , f o r t ombs w i th mo re r a re ly d i s t r ibu ted i t ems , s uch a s me ta l a r t i fac t s , f i sh r ema in s , a nd/o r c he r t f l akes t o b e i n d omes t ic c on t ex t s r a the r t han c eme tery o nes . T he e v idence c e r ta in ly i nd ica t es t ha t t omb s i n d ome s t ic c on tex t s a re mor e l i ke ly t o h ave t h is a s semb lage o f r a re r i t em s . Howeve r , when t h e a t t r ibu te o ppo s i t ion " dome s t ic c on tex t " a nd " c eme tery c on tex t " w as u sed t o b reak d own t h e d a ta f o r aC h i -Squa re a nd a T te s t , t h e r e su l t s w e re n o t c onv inc ing . T he C h i -Square v a lue w as 6 7 .36 1 , w i th p = . 0 2 17 ( 4 6 d eg ree s o f f r eedom ) ; t he T te s t r e su l t w as 1 . 606 , w i th p = . 1 138 ( 5 7 d eg rees o f f r eedom ) . G iven t he c u to f f p o in t f o r d i sm is s ing t h e n u l l h ypo thes is o f p. 0 1 , t hese r e su l t s f a i l t o c on f irm t he i n fe ren ce t ha t t h e re i s a ma t e r ia l d i s t inc t ion b e tween t omb s i n d ome s t ic a nd c eme t ery c on tex t s . One v e ry s t rong i n te rp re t ive p o s s ib i l i ty f o r t h ese r e su l t s i s t ha t t he d ome s t ic v e r sus c eme te ry d i f fe rence i n g rave g oods c ompo s i t ion i sn o t a n i n ten t iona l o ne . A t l e as t s ome o f t he i t em s l i s ted a s h av ing s t a t is t ica l s i gn i f icance i n d ema rca t ing g roup s o f t omb s f i sh r ema ins a nd c he r t f l ake s - may b e i n c iden t ia l i n c lus ions ( i . e . , r e su l t s o f e i the r c o in c iden ta l o r a cc iden ta l d epo s i t iona l p rocesse s , i n O 'Shea 's t e rm ino logy ) i n t he g rave s . T hey a r e b o th c ommon p roduc t s o f d omes t ic a c t iv i ty , a nd t h e i r p re sence i n d ome s t ica l ly -s i tua ted g rave s m ay s imp ly b e ar e su l t o f t h e f a c t t ha t t h is s or t o f d ebr is w as mo re l i ke ly t o b e i n c luded i n t h e g rave a s ar e su l t o f l o ca t ion . T h is may b e s uppo r ted b y t he f a c t t ha t b o th a C h i -Squa re a nd a T te s t f a i led t o d i f fe ren t ia te t he t ombs g rouped o n t h e b as i s o f l o ca t ion , i . e . , d ome s t ic o r c eme tery . T he f a c t t h a t g ou rd a r t i fac t s a nd me ta l o b jec t s d o n o t c on fo rm t o t h e i n tu i t ive p a t te rn o f d ome s t ic d ebr is i n o ur t e rm s may e i the r s i gna l t ha t t h e d ome s t ic/ceme tery d i f fe rence i s s i gn i f ican t , o r h igh l igh t t h e f a c t t h a t o ur u nde r s tand ing o f t h e c a tego ry o f " t he d omes t ic " d i f fe r s f r om t h a t o f t h e E s tuqu i f ia . T he re s eems t o b e l i t t le t h a t i sc on c lus ive i n t he se r e su l t s . I n s ho r t , t h e g ene ra l iza t ion t h a t ma rke r s o f s o c ia l d i s t inc t ion a re f ound i n d ome s t ic c on tex t s m igh t b e a dvanced b u t i t wou ld n eed mo re s t a t is t ica l s uppo r t t h an i t h as h e re t o b e a ccep ted w i thou t r e se rva t ions . T he f a c t t ha t m e ta l a r t i fac t s a nd f r agmen t s a re a l so f ound e xc lus ive ly i n d omes t ic c on tex t s o f fe rs s im i la r ly w eak i n te rp re t ive p o s s ib i l i t ies . T he s e t o f o u t come s wh ich l e nds s t reng th t o t h e d omes t ic/ceme tery d i s t in c t ion , t hough , i s t he T te s t r e su l t s . I n mo s t c a se s whe re a n a r t i fac t c a tegor y C h i -squa re t e s t s ugge s ted a d i s t inc t ion i n t omb s , t h e v o lume t r ic a na ly s is s eemed t o c on f i rm t h e r e su l t s . No i n c iden ta l f o rma t ion p ro cesses s e emed l i ke ly t o a ccoun t f o r t he d i f fe ren t ia t ion , s uch a s t hose i n fe r red f o r g rave g ood i n c lus ion s . T hese r e su l t s , t h e re fo re , d o l e nd s ome s t reng th t o t he c onc lus ion t ha t s ome o f t h e t ombs f ound i n d ome s t ic c on tex t s s e em t o d i f fe r f r om t ombs i n c e me te ry c on tex t s . O n t h i s b as is , i to ne m igh t t e n t a t ive ly c onc lude t h a t t omb l o ca t ion c an i ndeed ma rk a n i mpor tan t s o c ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion i n t h e mor tua ry p opu la t ion .
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C onc lud ing R ema rks D esp i te t h e f ew s t rong p a t te rns wh ich eme rg e f r om t he a r chaeo log i ca l d a ta , t he o vera l l s amp le s eem s t o b e n o t s t rong ly d i f fe ren t ia t ed . Wh i le a n e xhaus t ive a nd t ho rough s t a t is t ica l p rog ram s uch a s mono the t ic -subd iv is ive a na lys is may b r ing o u t o the r c o r re la t ions o r g roup ing s w i th in t h e d a ta , t h e p res en t s t udy h as n o t i s o la ted a ny o the r g ro s s l e ve ls o f d i f fe rence o r s im i lar i ty among t h e a t t r ibu tes wh ich w e re s c rut in ized . On t h e b as is o f t h e se r e su l t s i tm igh t b e c onc luded t ha t E s tuqu i i ia c u lture w as a s t ruc tura l ly h omogeneous o ne , w i th r e la t ive ly l i t t le s t a tus d i f f er en t ia t ion , o r , a t l e as t , ar e la t ive ly w eak a pp l ica t ion o f p res cr ip t ive b ur ia l p rac t ices . O n t he o the r h and , h oweve r , e i the r d i f fe rence s i n p rese rva t ion , o r a spec t s o f t h e d a ta u n te s ted i n t h is s t udy ( s uch a s t e x t i le , f auna l o r b o tan ica l d a ta ) m igh t mod i fy t h e r e su l t s o f as im i lar a na ly s is . F o r t he t ime b e ing , w e n o te t ha t n o s t r ik ing ly s t rong p a t te rn h as eme rged . T h i s r e s t s o n t h e c r i t ica l a s sump t ion p o in t ed t o i n t h e t e x t a bove ; n ame ly t ha t a l l v a r ie t ies o f t omb c on tex t s a re r ep resen ted i n t h e s amp le , a nd t h a t t h e s o ca l led " c o l lar t omb s " wh ich w e re s o t ho rough ly l oo ted d id n o t c on ta in a c l as s o f mo r tuary ma te r ia l s t rong ly d i f f e ren t ia ted f r om t he r e s t . I ta l so r e s t s o n t he c apac i ty o f p re s ence/absen ce d a ta t o r evea l p a t te rns i n t omb a ssemb lages . F ina l ly , i t may b e c onc luded , t h e re fore , t ha t wh i le t he d eg ree o f d i f fe ren t ia t ion i n t h e b e low -g round c i s t t ombs i s r a the r w eak , t h is s t udy h as b een h ampe red b y at yp ica l c ase o f d i f fe ren t ia l p rese rva t ion , wh ich , a s O 'Shea h as p o in ted o u t , may b e s o c r i t ica l i n s hap ing t h e s amp le wh ich c omes u nde rnea th t he a r chaeo log is t 's s c ru t iny . A no the r c ons ide rab le s our ce f o r t h e s kew ing o f t h e d a ta , o r t he a l te ra t ion s i n b ur ia l p rac t ice s r ep resen ted i n t h e mo r tuary c on tex t s d i s cuss ed h e re , i st he t empo ra l f a c to r . I t w i l l b e r e ca l led t ha t O 'Shea c au t ioned t ha t b ur ia l p rac t ice s may v ary g rea t ly e ven o ver a s ho r t p e r iod o f t ime , w i th l i t t le n o t iceab le t r end ing i n t h e c hanges , a l though t h e c hange s may b e c o r re la ted w i th " chang ing c ond i t ions o r p e r cep t ions w i th in t h e l i v ing s o c ie ty " ( O 'Shea 1 984 : 2 84 ) . T he L a t e I n te rmed ia te P e r iod i n t h is p a r t o f t he Ande s , f r om wha t i s k nown o f i t , s eem s t o b e c ha rac te r ized b y t h e d e fen s ive l o ca t ion o f v i l lage s i te s a nd t he s p read o f t h e u se o f t h e mo r tuary c hu l lp a t owe r . T h is p er iod a l so s aw t h e f i r s t s t ir r ing s o f t he s ma l l g roup a round C uzco , t h e I n ca , l a te r t o g a in h egemony o ve r t h is s e c to r o f t h e wo r ld . I n s ho r t , i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t t h is w as a t ime o f f e rmen t , p roduc ing t he " c hang ing c ond i t ions o r p e r cep t ion s w i th in t he l i v ing s o c ie ty " wh ich O 'Shea s ugges t s may s t rong ly mod i fy b ur ia l p rac t ices . H ence , c hange s i n p re sc r ip t ive f une ra ry b ehav io r d ur ing t he p er iod b racke t ed b y t h e b u r ia ls a t E s tuqu i r ia c anno t b e r u led o u t a s as ource o f t h e mo r tuary v a r ia t ion t he re . F ur thermo re , t he mean ing o f t h e p a t te rns n o ted i n t h e a na lys is o f t h e d a ta i su nc lear . T hese a t t r ibu tes may b e s t a tus marke r s , r o le ma rke r s , g ende r marke r s , o r m arke r s o f h o r izon ta l r ank ing . T he u se o f c he r t f l akes a nd m e ta l a r t i fac t s a s m a rke r s o f s o c ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion may b e mo re c l ea r ly d e f ined a s s ymbo l ic c oo rd ina tes w i th i n tens ive s t udy o f t h e e thnoh is to r ica l l i t erature , o r w i th a mo re c omp le t e p i c ture o f t h e s ymbo l ic a spec t s o f r u ra l h igh land Andean c u l ture s . F o r t h e t ime b e ing , h oweve r , t h is s t udy w i l l v en ture n o mo re t h an t o n o te t h e ir s i gn i f ican ce a s ma rke r s , a nd w i l l n o t d raw a dd i t iona l c onc lus ions o n t he ma t te r .
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No te s
1 . T h i s d iscus s ion o f a pp roaches t o mo r tuary p rac t ice a nd v ar ia t ion i s f a r f r om e xhaus t ive . T h is d is cu ss ion i s n o t i n tended t o b e c omp le te , b u t o n ly t o d e f ine s ome i mpo r tan t p o in t s i n t h is f i e ld . 2 . T he se " c lus te r s " s e em r ema rkab ly c l o se t o wha t Murdock i den t i f ies a s t yp ica l Aym a ra r e s iden t ia l u n i t , n ame ly " e x tended f am i ly c ompounds s ur rounded b y a w a l l " ( 1974 : 2 6 ) . 3 . N . C la rk a nd S . W i l l iams , who w e re l a rge ly r e spons ib le f o r t he e xcava t ion , c ura t ion , a nd a n a lys is o f much o f t he mo r tuary ma te r ia l , c r ea ted a t ypo logy o f n ine d i f fe ren t t ype s o f t omb , b ased o n t omb s hape a nd c ons t ruc t ion . T h is t ypo logy w as n o t u t i l ized i n t he p re s en t s tudy f o r r e asons g iven b e low . 4 . T h is i nven to ry w as c omp i led l a rge ly b y N . C la rk a nd S . W i l l iams , a nd v ery g ene rous ly o f fe red b y t h em , a nd b y t he d i re c to r s o f P roye c to O smor e , who r an t he e xcava t ions a t E s tuqu ina , f o r a n a na ly s is h e re . 5 . Ac opy o f t h e p rog ram " Exce l , " made a va i lab le f o r my u se t h rough t he Un ive r s i ty o f C h icago , s e rved f o r d a ta e n t ry a nd o rgan iza t ion , a nd a s a d a tabase p rog ram . A l l s t a t is t ic a l o pe ra t ion s w e re p e r fo rmed w i th t he s t a t is t ica l p ackage " S ta tv iew , " a l so made a va i lab le f o r my u se t h rough t he Un iver s i ty o f C h icago . 6 . A s a t l e as t o ne h e lp fu l r ev iewe r o f t h is p aper p o in ted o u t , t he re i s ab u i l t in p rob lem o f a u tocor re la t ion i n t h is me thod . Wh i le t h is i s p o ss ib le , i ti s f e l t t ha t t he r e su l t s a r r ived a t a re o n ag ro s s e nough l e ve l t o o bv ia te t he u se o f a no the r , mo re s oph i s t i ca ted s t a t is t ica l me thod .
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Ana ly s i s o f E xposed A rch i tec tu re a t S an An ton io : F ounda t ion f or a n E xcava t ion S t ra tegy Chr i so tphe r L . B or s te ! D ep ar tm en t o fA n thr opo logy I nd i ana U n iv e r s i ty
G eo f f rey W .
C on rad
W i l l i am H ammond Ma the r s Mu seum I nd i ana U n iv e r s i ty
K e i th P . J a cob i D ep ar tm en t o fA n thr opo l ogy I nd i ana U n iv e r s i ty
I n t rodu c t ion S an A n ton io ( T6 ) i so ne o f t he e i gh t s i te s s e lec ted f o r e xcava t ion b y P royec to O smo re . S i tua t ed i n t he m idd le p o r t ion o f t he T o ra ta V a l ley ( S tan ish a nd R ice , t h is v o lume , F igu r e 3 ) , t he s i t e l i es a t a n e l eva t ion o f a bou t 2 500 m .a .s . 1 . , d i re c t ly a bove t he u ppe r l im i t o f a nc ien t a nd mode rn c u l t iva t ion i n i t s i mmed ia te v i c in i ty ( F igure 1 ) . S ur face c e r am ic s d a te t h e s i te t o t h e E s tuqu ir ia p hase o f t he L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod . ( Ex cava t ions s ub sequen t ly r evea led t h a t o ccupa t ion e x tended i n to t h e L a te Ho r izon a s w e l l . ) T he o vera l l p rese rva t ion o f t he s i te i s v e ry g ood , w i th s ome w a l ls s t i l l s t and ing mo re t h an t wo m h igh ( F igu re 2 ) . T he re i s r e la t ive ly l i t t le e v idence o f p o s t -abandonmen t r euse . E ven l oo t ing h as b een s l igh t b y l o ca l s t andards .
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F igu re 1 . S an An ton io ( a r row ) s een f r om t he r i dge t o t he n or theas t .
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F igu re 2 . Two - Me te r h igh w a l l s egmen t , S t ruc ture 6 4 .
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F igu re 3 . S an An ton io r e l ie f map .
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E x cava t ions a t S an An ton io a re i n tended t o p rov ide i n s igh t s i n to s eve ra l a spec t s o f L a t e I n te rmed ia te P e r iod l i f eways . T he se q ue s t ion s i n c lude t he e thn ic a f f i l ia t ion o f S an An ton io 's r e s iden t s , t he i r e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s a nd o rgan iza t ion , t he i n te rna l s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion o f t h e c ommun i ty , a nd i t s e x te rna l p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic r e la t ions . S uch t op ic s a r e t o b e a ddressed t h rough a na lyse s o f s i te a r ch i tec ture ( househo ld a nd c ommu n i ty p a t te rns ) , a r t i fac t a nd e co fac t a s semb lages , a nd b ur ia ls ( Con rad a nd R ice , t h is v o lume ) . S an An ton io i st oo l a rge t o b e e xcava ted i n i t s e n t ire ty , s o t ha t a na lyses mus t b e b a sed u pon a s amp le o f m a te r ia l f r om t he s i te . I ti sa n a x iom o f a r chaeo log ica l s a mp l ing t ha t t h e mo re i n forma t ion a n i nve s t iga to r h as a bou t a s i t e wh i le d e s ign ing a s amp l ing s t ra tegy , t he b e t te r t he r e su l t s o f t he e xcava t ion a re l i ke ly t o b e . A s i n fo rma t ion a bou t as i te i n c reases , t he a r chcaeo log is t c an make f u l ler a nd mo re e f f ic ien t u se o f t he a va i lab le r e sou r ce s f o r a nswe r ing s pec i f ic r e s ea r ch q ues t ions ( Redman , 1 987 ) . A t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e i nves t iga t ion , i n forma t ion c ome s f r om t wo s ources . F i r s t , i n fe rence s a bou t s t ruc ture a nd c on ten t s w i l l b e b ased u pon p a t te rns o bse rved a t p rev ious ly i nve s t iga ted s i te s i n t he r eg ion . T he a r chaeo log is t u se s e xpe r t j udgmen t t o i n f e r s t ruc ture a nd c on ten t s f r om l o ca l t opog raphy , g eomo r p ho logy , g ross c u l tura l f e atures , a nd s o o n . S econd , t he p rec is ion a nd a ccuracy o f i n fo rma t ion a bou t a s i te c an b e g rea t ly i n c reased t h rough c a re fu l mapp ing , s ur face c o l lec t ions , g eophys ica l p ro sp ec t ing , t e s t p i t t ing , a nd t he l i ke . T h is i n i t ia l wo rk g ive s t he a rchaeo log is t i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e c harac ter is t ics a nd l o ca t ions o f r ema ins a t t he s pec i f ic s i te u nde r i nves t iga t ion . T he l a te p reh is tor ic a r chaeo logy o f t h e O smo re d ra inage i s s t i l l n o t k nown i n s uf f ic ien t d e ta i l . Mo reove r , t he r e su l t s o f p re l im inary s urveys s ugge s t c on s ide rab le h e te rogene i ty i n s pa t ia l a r rangemen t a nd c on ten t among t he s i tes o f t h is p e r iod . A s a r e su l t , r eg iona l a r chaeo logy p rov ided l i t t le g u idance f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f as pe c i f ic s t ra tegy f o r S an A n ton io . H ence , t he d es ign o f a n e xcava t ion s t ra tegy f o r S an An ton io h ad t o r e ly h eav i ly o n s i te spe c i f ic i n fo rma t ion o f t he s e cond t ype d es c r ibed a bove . A l though membe r s o f P rog rama C on t isuyu h ad e x cava ted t h ree s ma l l t e s t p i t s a t t h e s i te i n 1 983 , t h e p r imary s our ce o f g u idance i n t he d es ign o f t h e s t ra tegy w as a d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f S an An ton io 's e xposed a r ch i tec ture , wh ich t he a u tho r s c a r r ied o u t d ur ing J u ly a nd A ugus t o f 1 986 . T h i s a pproach a rose f r om s eve ra l c ons idera t ions . A s C ra ig Mo r r is ( 1 975 : 2 07 ) h as o bse rved , when s ub s tan t ia l a r ch i tec tura l r ema ins a re p rese rved , a s t h ey a re a t S an An ton io , t h ey s hou ld b e " a ccu ra te ly mapped a nd c a re fu l ly s t ud ied p r io r t o d es ign ing t he s amp l ing s t ra tegy f o r e xcava t ion . " A t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 1 986 f i e ld s eason w e h ad o n ly ap re l im inary map o f t he s i te p repa red b y C ha r le s S t an ish i n 1 982 . T h is map a nd t he 1 983 t e s t e xcava t ions s ugge s ted t ha t t he a r ch i te c ture a t S an An ton io w as r e la t ive ly h omogeneous . T he s i te s eemed t o c ons is t o f ac o re o f 1 32 r oom s , s ur rounded b y s evera l d ozen t e r races . However , i tb e came c l ea r d ur ing o ur i n i t ia l e xam ina t ion i n 1 986 t h a t t he s i te w as mo re c omp lex a nd t h a t a na ly s is o f t he a r ch i t ec ture wou ld a l low u s t o d eve lop a mo re r e f ined e xcava t ion s t ra tegy . F u r the rmo re , t h e e rup t ion o f t h e v o lcano Huynapu t ina i n A .D . 1 600 c ove red much o f t h e s i te w i th a b l anke t o f a sh 5 15 c m t h ick . T h is a sh c ove r ing s eve re ly l im i t s wha t s ur f ace c o l lec t ion c an t e l l a bou t t he s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing o f s ma l l a r t i fac t s o n t he s i te , s o t ha t t h e s ur face d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r t i fac t s was a n u n sa t is fac to ry b as is f o r d er iv ing a n
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e xcava t ion s t ra tegy . F ina l ly , u n fo reseen d e lays l e f t t he i nves t iga to r s w i thou t a n e xcava t ion p e rm i t d ur ing t he 1 986 f i e ld s eason . L ack o f a p e rm i t m ean t t ha t n o e x cava t ions a nd n o s ur face c o l le c t ing c ou ld b e c onduc ted a t t he s i te . T hese c ons ide ra t ion s l ed t h e a u tho r s t o make a c a re fu l s t udy o f t h e a r ch i tec tura l r ema ins e xposed o n t h e s ur face , wh ich C on rad l a te r u sed t o d eve lop a s p ec i f ic e xcava t i on s t ra tegy f o r t h e s i te . I n a dd i t ion , b ecause o f t h e v a lue o f t h e s tudy a nd b ecause i t t ook c ompara t ive ly l i t t le t ime t o c omp le te , t he s o r t o f a na lys i s o f e xpos ed a r ch i tec ture d es c r ibed i n t h is p ape r h as b ecome a s t andard p a r t o f P roye c to O smo re ' s i n i t ia l i n v es t iga t ion s a t o the r s i te s , s uch a s T o ra ta A l ta a nd t h e C ama ta s i tes ( s ee Ma thews , t h is v o lume a nd R ice a nd R uh l , t h is v o lume ) . T he f i e ld s t udy o f t he e xpo sed a r ch i tec tu re a t S an A n ton io i nvo lved f ou r s t eps . F i r s t , w e c hecked t he 1 982 p re l im inary s i te map a nd r ev ised i t a s n ecessa ry . S e cond , w e c l as s i f ied e ach a r ch i te c tura l u n i t a s a" s t ruc ture , " " t e r race , " o r " c o r r ido r " ( d e f ined b e low ) a nd a s s igned i t ar e ference n umbe r ( s t ruc tures ) o r l e t te r d es igna t ion ( t e r race s , c o r r ido r s ) . T h i rd , w e p repa red w r i t ten d es c r ip t ions o f e ach a r ch i te c tura l u n i t , measu r ing t h e l e ng ths a nd w id ths o f t ho se u n i t s c l as s i f ied a s s t ruc tures a nd r e co rd ing c ommen t s o n i n te rna l f e a tu re s s uch a s d oo r s , b enche s , b ins , a nd l oo ted t omb s . F our th , we e xam ined e ve ry c o rne r t o i den t i fy t he t ype s o f b onds a nd a bu tmen t s b e tween w a l l s , i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand t he s equence o f c ons t ruc t ion . I n t he c our se o f t he s t udy w e e xam ined e ach a r ch i tec tura l u n i t i n d e t a i l a tl e as t t h r ee t ime s ( S tep 1 ; S t ep s 2a nd 3 t oge the r ; S t ep 4 ) . P rob lema t ica l a reas , mo s t n o tab ly t h e e as te rn s e c t ion o f t he s i te , w e re r e checked s eve ra l a dd i t iona l t imes . T he f i r s t s weep o f t h e s i te r e su l ted i n t h e mos t c o r re c t ions t o t h e p re l im inary s i te m ap . Howeve r , s ubsequen t p asses y i e lded s ome a dd i t iona l c o r rec t ion s a nd a l lowed u s t o r e check a nd amend o ur own wo rk . I n a dd i t ion t o i mp rov ing t h e q ua l i ty o f t he s t udy , r epea ted s weeps a c ro s s t he s i te g ave u s af a r b e t te r s ense o f t h e a r ch i tec ture a nd i t s o rgan iza t ion t han w e wou ld h ave a ch ieved w i th a s i ng le p as s .
S i te S e t t ing a nd D esc r ip t ion S an An ton io i s ac omp lex o f mason ry w a l ls a nd t e r race s l o ca ted o n as pur t h a t p ro je c t s f r om t h e n or th -no r theas t t owa rd t he s ou th sou thwes t i n to t he v a l ley o f t he R io T o ra ta ( F igure 1 ) . T he s pur l i es n ea r t h e e nd o f ag en t ly s l op ing b en ch o n t he s ou th s i de o f t he v a l ley . T h is b ench i si n te rmed ia te i n e l eva t ion b e tween t he d eep v a l ley f l oo r , whe re t he mode rn t own o f T o ra ta i s s i tua ted , a nd h ighe r r i dge ( i n te r f luve ) o n wh ich S ou the rn P eru C oppe r C o rpo ra t ion 's C ua jone m ine i sl o ca ted . T he s pu r r i s es a b rup t ly a bou t 2 0 m a bove t h e s ur face o f t h e b ench t o t h e n or theas t ( F igure 3 ) . T he s ou theas tern s i de o f t h e s pur d rop s a b rup t ly i n to a q u eb r ad a i n c ised i n to t h e e as te rn e nd o f t he b ench . T he n o r thwes te rn s i de d rops e ven f u r the r , t owa rd t h e v a l ley f l oor . T hu s , e x cep t a t t h e n o r theas te rn e nd , a cce s s t o t h e s pu r i s d i f f icu l t b ecause o f h igh , s t eep s l ope s . T h i s l o ca t ion made t he p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t o f S an A n ton io h igh ly d e fens ib le . T he s i te c ons is t s o f o ve r 1 80 a r ch i tec tu ra l u n i t s c ons t ruc ted a l ong t he c r e s t o f t h e s pu r a nd d raped d own i t s s i de s . T he o u t e r p e r ime te r i s ma rked b y s evera l l i ne s o f b ou lde r s , wh ich s e rved a s o penwo rk w a l ls a nd p robab ly e nhanced t h e d e fens ib i l i ty o f t he s i te . C obb le s a nd b ou lde r s f r om t h e p ar t ia l c o l lapse o f w a l ls l i t te r t he s ur face . I n g ene ra l ,
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F igure 4 .S an An ton io s t ruc ture a nd t e r race d es igna t ions .
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f r ees tand ing w a l ls p ro jec t 2 0 t o 6 0 cm a bove t he p resen t g round s ur face , a l though t h e re a re a f ew s e c t ions a s much a s t wo m h igh ( F igure 2 ) . T e r race r e ta in ing w a l ls , b anked a ga in s t t h e s l ope s o f t he s pur , r i se t o h e igh t s o f a s much a s t h ree m . A l l o f t hese w a l l s a r e c on s t ruc ted o f med ium s ized , w a ter rounded s t ones s e t i n mud mo r t ar . T hough mo s t o f t h e mason ry c ons is t s o f u ndressed s t one , s ome o f t he c obb les h ave b een r ough ly wo rked i n to i r regu la r ly s haped a ngu lar b lo cks . T he s ur face o f t h e s i te i sc ove red b y at h in g row th o f g ras ses a nd b y t a l l c lump s o f c ac t i . C e ram ic s , l i th ic s , a nd b one a re r e la t ive ly s pa rse o n t he s u r f a ce w i th in t h e p e r ime te r w a l l s , b e cause o f t h e b l anke t o f a sh f r om t h e e rup t ion o f Huaynapu t ina n ea r ly f our c en tu r ies a go . T here i s a n e x tens ive s hee t m idden o u t s ide t he s e t t lemen t w a l ls , whe re s he rds a nd l i th ics a re f ound o n t he s u r face i n g rea te r a bundance . C is t t omb s , a s w e l l a s s eve ra l c o l lar t ombs ( s ee W i l l iam s , e t a l . t h i s v o lume ) , o ccur a t t h e s i te . T he e xposed g rave s h ave b een d i s turbed b y l oo te rs , a l though s ur face e xa m ina t ion s ugge s ted , a nd e xcava t ions l a te r c on f irmed , t ha t t h e re a r e n ume rous u nd is turbed g rave s b u r ied i n t e r race a nd s t ruc tu re f l oo r s . T he s i te i s c ur ren t ly u no ccup ied , b u t i th as b een u sed o ccas iona l ly b y l o ca l r e s iden t s , a s i se v idenced b y s eve ra l mode m h ear th s n ear t h e c r e s t o f t he s pu r a nd t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f as t one -wa l led c o r ra l a top t h e wa l l s t ubs o f o ne o f t he p reh i s to r ic b u i ld ing s ( S t ruc tu re 3 9 ) . A rch i tec tu ra l Un i t s T he t yp ica l a r ch i te cura l u n i t s a t S an A n ton io a r e s ma l l q uadr i la tera l s paces e nc lo sed b y w a l ls . B ased o n t he ir f l oo r p lans , c ro s s -sec t ion s , a nd t he r ema ins o f e n c los ing w a l ls , t hese u n i t s c an b e c l as s i f ied i n to t h ree p r inc ipa l t ype s ( F igure 4 ) . S t ruc tu re s a re b ounded o n a l l f ou r s i des b y f r ees tand ing w a l ls ; c u r ren t h e igh t a nd/o r a d jacen t r ubb le i nd ica te t ha t s uch w a l ls o r ig ina l ly s t ood a t l e as t o ne me te r t a l l i n mo s t c ases . T he ma jo r i ty o f t he t e r race s a t S an A n ton io a r e man -made b enches c on s t ruc ted o n t he s i de s o f t he s pu r b y c u t t ing a nd f i l l ing t o c r ea te l e ve l s u r face s . T e r race s t e nd t o o ccur i n l o ng s t r ing s t h a t may b e s een a s l a rge r " t e r race s " s ubd iv ided b y t r ansve rse w a l ls . T h i s s ubd iv is ion d i f fe ren t ia tes t he " a r ch i te c tura l " ( i . e . , p re sumab ly n on -ag r icu l tu ra l ) t e r races a tS an A n ton io f r om t h e a g r icu l tura l t e r race s t ha t o ccur w ide ly o n h i l ls lopes a round t he s i te . A r ch i te c tu ra l t e r race s a t S an A n ton io a re b ounded o n t h ree s i des b y l ow , f r ees tand ing w a l ls ; o n t h e f our th s i de t h e re i su sua l ly a r e ta in ing w a l l o ne t o t hree m e te rs h igh t h a t h o lds t he f i l l o f ah ighe r t e r race . ( Some o f t h e s paces a t t he e dge o f t he s i te a r e e x cep t ions t o t h is d e sc r ip t ion . F o r e xamp le , T e r races A , H , 0 , S , B U , a nd B V a r e e nc losed b y w a l ls , b u t t he i r s ur faces d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een l e ve led ) . C o r r ido r s a r e l ong , n ar row s pace s r unn ing b e tween s t ruc tures o r t e r races . S t ructure a nd t e r race w a l ls c ommon ly h ave d oo rways o pen ing o n to c or r idor s . I n t h e s t r ic t s ense t hese c a tego r ies a re f o rma l r a the r t han f unc t iona l : t h e f unc t ion s o f t hese a r ch tec tu ra l u n i t s c anno t b e d e te rm ined f r om t h e 1 986 s u r face d a ta a l one . No t a l l s t ruc tures w e re n ece s sar i ly d omes t ic b u i ld ings . S t ruc tu re 8 7 , aw e l l p re se rved , U shaped b u i ld ing a t t he s umm i t o f t he s pur may h ave b een a n a dm in is t ra t ive " o f f ice " f o r a p o l i t ica l ly i mpo r tan t p e r son . S t ruc tu re s 8 6 a nd 8 9 sma l l , r e la t ive ly i s o la t ed u n i t s n ea r t he n o r the rn p e r ime te r o f S an A n ton io -a re o f u nde te rm ined f unc t ion b u t m ay h ave h ad s ome th ing t o d o w i th t h e d e fense o f t he s i te . S ome o f t h e s t ruc tures m ay a ctua l ly h ave b een u n roo fed p l azas o r c our tya rds ( e .g . , S t ruc tur e 6 4 ) . S im i la r ly , s ome o f t he t e r races may h ave b een d ome s t ic s pace s , a nd o ther s may h ave b een u sed a s w o rkshops , b u r ia l a reas , o r e ven s ma l l g ardens . T he f unc t ion o f c o r r ido r s s eems c l ea re s t , b u t t h e s i te
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r equ ir e s amore t ho rough e xam ina t ion b e fo re t r a f f ic p a t te rns w i th in t he s e t t lemen t c an b e c omp le te ly mapped o u t . T he p re c ise f unc t ions o f t h e d i f fe ren t t ypes o f a r ch i tec tura l u n i ts c an b es t b e d e te rm ined t hrough e xcava t ion . E x cava t ion may a l so c hange t he f r equenc ie s o f t he a r ch i te c tu ra l t ypes , b y u ncove r ing b ur ied w a l ls o r b y d emons t ra t ing t ha t s ome i nd iv idua l u n i t s a r e m isc lass i f ied . I n f a c t , e xcava t ion s a nd f u r the r s ur face s u rvey i n 1 987 s ugge s ted t ha t a n umbe r o f u n i t s o r ig ina l ly i d en t i f ied a s s epara te s t ruc tures a r e i n te rna l s ubd iv is ions o f l a rge r s t ruc tu re s ( e .g . , S t ruc tures 2 8 a nd 2 9 w e re c omb ined i n to S t ruc ture 2 8/29 ) . Howeve r , t he re i s o n ly o ne k nown c ase ( S t ruc tu re s 2 1 a nd 2 1A ) whe re t he d is cove ry o f ab ur ied wa l l i nd ica ted t h a t au n i t o r ig ina l ly t r ea ted a s as i ng le s t ruc ture a c tua l ly c ons is ted o f mo re t h an o ne ( Con rad , t h is v o lume ; Web s te r a nd C on rad , t h is v o lume ) . A cco rd ing ly , t h e n umbe r o f d i s c re te s t ruc tu re s i d en t i f ied d u r ing t h e 1 986 s urvey w a s p robab ly t oo h igh . B e t h a t a s i t may , t he f o l low ing o bse rva t ions a bou t t h e a r ch i te c tu ra l u n i t s w e re made a t t he e nd o f t he 1 086 s urvey . N ine ty two u n i t s w e re d es igna ted a s s t ruc tu re s ; t hey r ange i n f l oo r a rea f r om 8 m2 t o 1 60 m2. Med ian f l oo r a rea i s3 4 m2 a nd 8 9% ( 8 2 ) o f t he s t ruc tu res h ave f l oo r a r ea s o f l e s s t han 7 0 m2. S t ruc tu re s a r e l o ca ted p r ima r i ly o n t he c ompa ra t ive ly l e ve l s ou the rn e nd o f t h e s pur a nd a l ong i t s c r e s t ( F igure 4 ) . We r e cogn ized 7 4 t e r race s a t t he s i te . O f t h e 6 8 whose s ur face s h ave b een a r t i f ica l ly l e ve led , s u r face a r eas r ange f r om 1 0 m2 t o o ve r 3 00 m2. Med ian f l oo r a rea f o r t he t e r race s i sa bou t 8 0 r n2,o ve r t w ice t h a t o f t he s t ruc ture s . T er races a re l o ca ted o n t he s l opes o f t h e s pur , p a r t icu lar ly i n t h e n o r the rn h a l f o f t he s i t e ( F igu re 5 ) . T he 1 3 c or r ido r s a t S an A n ton io r ange f r om 8 0 t o 1 00 c m i n w id th a nd i n l e ng th f r om 4 t o o ver 6 0 m . A l though t h e re a re a f ew c omp le te ly i n te rna l c o r r ido r s , mo s t e x tend f r om t he p e r ime te r o f t he d ense ly b u i l t -up a rea i n to t h e i n te r io r o f t h e s i te ( F igure 6 ) . Hence many c o r r ido r s r un p e rpend icu lar t o t h e c on tou r s o f t h e s pur . Wa l l B onds T he n a ture o f t h e j o in t b e tween t wo w a l ls r ef le c t s t he s equence i n wh ich t he w a l ls w ere c on s t ruc ted , wh ich c an i n t u rn r ef lec t t h e p a t te rn s o f as t ruc ture 's g row th a nd o f s ubsequen t c hanges i n t he i n t e rna l d iv is ion o f s pace ( Con rad 1 977 : 9 10 ) . We e xam ined t he c o rne r s o f a l l w a l ls a t S an A n ton io , a l though i n s ome c ases t h e t ype o f b ond c ou ld n o t b e d e term ined b ecause o f i n adequa t e p rese rva t ion o r e xposu re o f t he c orne r mason ry . We e s t ima te t ha t w e w e re a b le t o d e t erm ine t h e t ype o f b ond f o r 7 0% -80% o f t he c o rne r s ( F igu re 7 ) . T he re a r e t hree ma jo r t yp e s o f j o in t s . I n c on t inuous j o in t s ( F igure 8 a ) t he s t ones o f t he i n te r se c t ing w a l ls a re c omp le te ly i n te rd ig i ta ted , s o t h a t i n t h e c o rne r t h e t wo w a l ls a re a n cho red t o o ne a no the r . T h is k ind o f j o in t i nd ica tes t ha t t wo w a l ls w e r e c ons t ruc t e d s imu l taneous ly a nd c on s t i tu ted p ar t s o f as i ng le t a sk u n i t . I n a bu t t ing j o in t s ( F igure 8 h ) t h e s t ones o f t he t wo w a l ls a re c omp le te ly s epara te , a nd c ommon ly t he re i s af l a t p lane o f mud mor ta r b e tween t h e e nd o f o ne w a l l a nd t h e f a ce o f t h e o the r . T h is t ype o f j o in t i n d ica tes t h a t o ne w a l l p reda te s t h e o the r . T he amoun t o f t empo ra l d i f fe rence b e tween t h e wa l ls i sn o t k nown , b u t t hey w er e c l ea r ly b u i l t a s p ar t s o f d i f feren t t a sk
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F igu re 5 .S an An ton io s t ruc tures a nd t e r races .
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F igu re 6 .S an An ton io c o r r ido r d es igna t ion s .
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u n i t s . F ina l ly , i n i nde te rm ina te j o in t s p oo r p reserva t ion , l a ck o f c l ean e xpo sure , o r t h e b u i lde r s ' u se o f an a tu ra l r o ck o u t c rop a s ac o rner m ake i ti mpo s s ib le t o i d en t ify a j o in t a s c on t inuous o r a bu t t ing . S i te S ubd iv is ions S t ruc ture a nd T er race B lo cks T he p a t te rn o f w a l l b onds d emons t ra tes t ha t m any s t ruc tures a nd t e r races a t S an A n ton io r ep resen t i n te rna l s ubd iv i s ion s o f l a rge r u n i t s t h a t w e re c ons t ruc t ed f i rs t ( F igure 9 ) . T ha t i s , al a rge r s pace w as b locked o u t a nd s ur rounded b y p er ime t e r w a l ls whose c o rne r s s how c on t inuous j o in t s . S ubsequen t ly t h is l a rge r s pace was s ubd iv ided b y t h e e r ec t ion o f i n te rna l w a l ls who se e nds mee t t h e p e r ime t e r w a l ls i n a bu t t ing j o in ts . S pa ce s t h a t a ppeared t o b e d ome s t ic w e re u sua l ly t r ea ted i n t h is manne r . Howeve r , i n 1 986 i t w as u nce r ta in whe the r t h e i n te rna l s ubd iv is ions r ep re sen ted d i f f er en t f un c t iona l p a r t s o f a s i ng le h ouseho ld c l us te r o r t h e p ar t i t ion ing o f t h e l a rge r s pace a mong s eve ra l h ouseho lds . ( Our 1 987 e xcava t ion s r evea led t ha t b o th o f t he se a l te rna t ives o c cu r red w i th in t h e s i te ) . S pace s f o r o the r a c t iv i t ie s ( adm in is t ra t ion , c r a f t p roduc t ion , e t c . ) m ay a l so h ave b een c r ea ted i n at wo s tep s equence . L a rge -S ca le S ec to rs S an A n ton io c an a l so b e d iv ided t en ta t ive ly i n to t h ree ma in s e c to r s o n t he b as is o f w a l l b onds , l o ca t ions o f c o r r ido r s ( i . e . , a cce s s a nd t r a f f ic p a t te rn s ) , a nd s i t e t opog r aphy . Wh i le t h e 1 986 s ur face s urvey r evea led t h e e x is tence o f t h ese s ubd iv is ion s , i tc ou ld o n ly s ugge s t t h a t t hey m igh t h ave h ad f unc t iona l o r s o c ia l s i gn i f icance o r t h a t t hey m igh t r e f lec t as equence o f c ons t ruc t ion w i th in t h e s i te . S ur face d a ta a l one a r e n o t e nough t o p rove a ny o f t hese p o in t s . S ec to r s I , I , a nd I I ( F ig ure 1 0 ) a re s epa ra ted f r om o ne a no the r b y a f ew l o ng , c on t inuous w a l ls . C o rner j o in t s d emon s t ra te t h a t t h ese w a l ls we re b u i l t b e fo re t h e a bu t t ing w a l ls , s ugges t ing t ha t t h e l ong w a l ls o u t l ine s ec t ion s o f t he s i te b u i l t d ur ing s epa ra te c ons t ruc t ion e p isodes . C o r r ido r s a l so h e lp t o d e l im i t t he s e c to r s : C or r ido r s E a nd F s epara te p or t ion s o f S e c to r s Ia nd I , wh i le C o r r ido r s H a nd Id o t he s ame f o r l a rge p o r t ions o f S e c to r s Ia nd I . F ina l ly , t h e t opog raphy o f S ec to r Id i f f e rs f r om t h a t o f t he o the r s . S ec to r Ii sr e la t ive ly b road a nd f l a t , wh i le S ec tor s Ia nd I i n c lude much l a rge r p ropor t ions o f s t eep h i l ls lope s . E ach o f t h e s e c to r s i sc ha rac te r ized b y ad i f fe ren t o ve ra l l a r ch i tec tu ra l c on f igu ra t ion . Ma jo r d i f fe rences i n c lude t he r a t io o f s t ruc tures t o t e r r aces w i th in e ach s e c to r , a s w e l l a s t h e r ange a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e s i ze s o f t h e s t ruc tu re s . S ec to r Ic ons is t s l a rge ly o f s t ruc ture s : t h e 1 986 s urvey i d en t i f ied 4 9 o f i t s i n te rna l s ubd iv is ions a s s t ruc tures a nd o n ly f i ve a s t e r race s ( F igure 1 ) . F ur the rmo re , t he re i sa p reponde rance o f s ma l l s t ruc tures : r ough ly t wo th i rds h ave f l oo r a rea o f 4 0 m2 o r l e s s . T he o vera l l d i s t r ibu t ion o f f l oo r a reas i s u n imoda l , w i th t h e mode i n t h e 2 0 -40 m2 c a tego ry ( F igure 1 2a ) . T he re i s at e nden cy f o r t he s ma l l s t ruc tu re ( 4 0 r n2 o r l e ss ) t o b e g rouped a round s omewha t l a rge r s t ruc tu re s ( i n t h e 4 0 -80 s quare me t e r r ange ) . T h is d i s t r ibu t ion may r ep re sen t ap a t te rn o f s ma l l h ouse s g roup ed a round r e la t ive ly s ma l l o pen p l azas . I f s o , S ec to r Ia ppear s t o h ave b een t he mo s t d ens e ly b u i l t -up a nd p opu la t ed a rea o f S an An ton io .
3 82
C.BO R S T E L , E TA L . ; AN A LY S I S O F EX P O S ED AR CH IT ECTUR E A T
F igu re 7 .S an An ton io wa l l c o rner j o in t s .
3 83
S i
AN TON IO
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OS MORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 9
F igu re 8 a . C on t inuous j o in t .
3 84
C.BO R S T E L , E T A L . ; AN A LY S I S O F EX P O SED AR CH IT ECTUR E A T SA N AN TON IO
F igu re 8 b . Abut t ing j o in t .
3 85
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F igu re 9 . S an An ton io s t ruc ture a nd t e r race b locks .
3 86
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S e c to r Ia l so c ons is t s l a rge ly o f s t ruc ture s , b u t t h e re i s al a rge r p ropo r t ion o f t e r race s t han i n S ec tor I . S e c to r I h as 3 4 s t ruc tu re s a nd n ine t e r race s ( F igure 1 0 ) . L arge r s t ruc tu res a re mo re c o r runon i n S e c to r It han i n S e c to r I :t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f f l oo r a reas i s b imoda l , w i th mode s i n t h e 2 0 -40 a nd 6 0 -80 m2 c a tego r ies ( F igure 1 2b ) . T he o ve ra l l p a t te rn i ss im i lar t o S e c to r I ,t hough , w i th s t ruc tu re o f ag iven s i ze t end ing t o o ccu r i n g roup s a round l a rge r s t ruc tures . Aga in , t h is p a t te rn may r ep resen t h ouses g rouped a round o pen p lazas . I fs o , S ec to r I wou ld h ave b een a r e s iden t ia l a rea , l i ke S ec to r I . Howeve r , t he g rea te r f r equency o f ( p resumab ly o pen ) t e r races a nd l a rge r s t ruc ture s wou ld h ave made S e c to r I mo re o pen a nd s pac ious , l e s s d ense ly p opu la t ed , a nd p robab ly o f h ighe r s t atus t h an S e c to r I . S ec to r I I c on t ras t s s ha rp ly w i th t h e o the r s . F o r o ne t h ing , i tc on ta ins mo s t ly t e r races , o f wh ich t he re a re 6 0 , c ompared t o o n ly n ine s t ruc tu re s ( F igu re 1 0 ) . Wh i le many o f t he t e r race s a re q u i te l a rge , a l l o f t he s t ruc ture a re s ma l l -t o med ium s ized : t he re a re n o s t ruc tur es w i th f l oo r a reas o ve r 6 0 n e ( F igure 1 2c ) . We s uspec t t h a t S e c to r I I may h ave c ons is t ed l a rge ly o f o pen s pace w i th o n ly a f ew , s c a t te red , a nd p robab ly s pec ia l -purpose s t ruc tu res . S ubse c to r s E ach o f t he t h ree s e c to r s c an i t se l f b e d iv ided i n to ( r ough ly ) e as te rn a nd w e s tern s ub sec to r s ( IA , I B , IA , I B , IA , a nd IB i n F igure 1 0 ) . T h is s ubd iv is ion i sc l ea re s t i n S ec to r I , whe re d i f fe rence s i n e l eva t ion a nd p a r t icu la r ly w e l l c ons t ruc ted wa l ls inc lud ing a n u nu sua l d oub le w a l l s egmen t fo rm a n o r th sou th a x is . F o l low ing w a l ls a nd c o r r ido r s s ou th e x tends t h is a x is i n S e c to r I . T he e xpo sed a r ch i tec ture i n S ec to r I i s mo re p rob lema t ica l , a nd a n o r th -sou th a x is i s h arder t o d e f ine . Howeve r , t h e l o ca t ion s o f d oo rway s a nd n ar row t e r race s ( po s s ib le c o r r ido r s ) , a l ong w i th w a l l b onds , s ugge s t t ha t t he re m igh t b e a ma jo r n or th sou th a x is r ough ly a l ong t he c r e s t o f t h e s pur . W i th in e ach s e c to r , t h e re a re s l igh t d i f fe rence s b e tween s ubsec to rs i n t e rms o f t he f r equenc ie s o f s t ruc ture s v e r sus t e r race s a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f s t ruc ture f l oo r a rea s i zes ( F igure 1 0 , 1 , 1 2 ) . Howeve r , s amp le s i ze s a re s ma l l , a nd t h e s t a t is t ica l s i gn i f icance o f t hese d i s t inc t ion s i s d ub ious ( Tab le s 1 , 2 ) . I n g ene ra l , t h e re i s much g rea te r s im i lar i ty b e tween t h e s ubse c to rs o f ag iven s e c to r t han t h e re i s among s e c to r s . I n s u mmary , t h e h eav i ly b u i l t -up p o r t ion o f S an An ton io c an b e d iv ided i n to t h ree s ec to r s a nd s i x s ubsec to r s . ( A f ew l a rge t e r races a nd w a l l -enc losed s paces a round t he p er ime te r o f t he s i te m igh t b e s a id t o make u p a n a dd i t iona l f our th s e c to r . ) Mo s t o f t he s t ruc tu r es a t S an An ton io a r e l o ca ted i n S ub se c to r s I A , I B , a nd IA , whe re t hey c on s t i tu te 8 0% o r mo re o f t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l u n i t s i n e ach s ubsec to r . N ea r ly a l l o f t he r ema in ing s t ruc tur e s a re l o ca ted i n S ubs e c to r I B . On ly 1 0% o f t h e s t ruc ture s a t S an An ton io o ccu r i n S ec to r I I . W i th in e ach s e c to r a nd s ubsec to r , s t ruc tu re s a nd t e r races t end t o o ccu r i n d isc re te g roups c r ea ted b y s ubd iv id ing l a rge r , p re -ex is t ing w a l led " b lo ck s . "
3 87
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap ter 1 9
F igu re 1 0 . S an An ton io s ec tor s a nd s ubsec tors .
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F igu re 1 . S an An ton io s t ruc tures a nd t e r races b y s e c to r a nd s ubsec to r .
3 89
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap ter 1 9
S an Antonio: S ector S tructures S ubsector
S tructures
T erraces
v s.
T erraces by
S ector a nd
I A
4 9 2 1
9 1 8 4
5 4
9 1 6
5 4 2 5
1 00 1 00
I B
2 8
9 7
1
3
2 9
1 00
I IA I IB
3 4 2 5 9
7 9 8 6 6 4
9 4 5
2 1 1 4 3 6
4 3 2 9 1 4
1 00 1 00 1 00
I I
I II I IIA I IIB
9
e 1
TOTAL
9 2
S ubsector
T otal
1 3 1 8 4
6 0 3 6 2 4
8 7 8 2 9 6
6 9 4 4 2 5
1 00 1 00 1 00
5 5
7 4
4 5
1 66
1 00
T ab le 1 .
S amp l ing S t ra tegy T he b as ic q ue s t ion b e ing a sked i n P royec to O smo re 's s t udy o f v e r t ica l c on t ro l i s : Wha t w as t he n a ture o f e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l r e la t ionsh ips among l a t e p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t s i n d i f fe ren t e co log ica l z ones o f t h e O smor e d ra inage? T h is q ue s t ion w i l l b e a nswe red i n p a r t t h rough a n u nde r s t and ing o f t he e conom ic f unc t ions a nd p o l i t ica l c onne c t ion o f i nd iv idua l s t ie s , a ch ieved t h rough a n a l ay s is o f t h e f u l l r ange o f t h e o rgan iza t ion a nd a c t iv i t ies o f v a r ious p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t s . A t a m in imu m t h is a pp roach d emands t h a t s i te s l i ke S an A n ton io b e s amp led u s ing a r ch i tec tu ra l u n i ts a s t h e f undamen t a l a na ly t ica l u n i t s , b ecause t h e se s pace s w e re c e r t a in ly s i gn i f ic an t i n t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f t h e i r p reh is to r ic r e s iden t s ( Mo r r is 1 975 : 1 97 -20 1 ) . E thnoh is to r ic a nd e thnog raph ic e v iden ce s ugge s t t h a t t he h ouseho ld w a s t he b as i c u n i t o f e conom ic p roduc t ion i n p reh is to r ic A ndean s o c ie t ies . H ence , f o r t he p urposes o f
S an Antonio: Numbers of
F loor A reas o f
s tructures w ith
S tructures b y
f loor a reas
S ector a nd
i n g iven r anges
S ubsector
( percentages
t hesis) S ector/ S ubsector
I A I B I I II A I IB I II I IIA I IIB TOTAL
0 -20m2
2 0-40m 2
4 0-60m 2
6 0-80m 2
1 1 ( 22) 3 ( 14) 8 ( 21)
2 2 1 1 1 1
( 45) ( 52) ( 39)
1 0 ( 20) 3 ( 14) 7 ( 25)
4 ( 8) 2 ( 10) 2 ( 7)
2 ( 4) 2 ( 10) 0 ( 0)
0 ( 0) 2 ( 10) 0 ( 0)
4 9 2 1 2 8
1 0 ( 29) 8 ( 32) 2 ( 22)
4 ( 12) 2 ( 8) 2 ( 22)
5 ( 15) 4 ( 16) 1 ( 11)
4 ( 12) 2 ( 8) 2 ( 22)
2 ( 6) 1 ( 4) 1 ( 11)
3 4 2 5 9
3 ( 33) 3 ( 38) 0 ( 0)
0 ( 0) 0 ( 0) 0 ( 0)
0 ( 0) 0 ( 0) 0 ( 0)
0 ( 0) 0 ( 0) 0 ( 0)
9 ( 10)
6 ( 7)
9 ( 26) 8 ( 32) 1 ( 11) 3 ( 33) 3 ( 38) 0 ( 0) 2 3
( 25)
3 ( 33) 2 ( 25) 1 ( 100) 3 5
( 38)
1 9
( 19)
T ab le 2 . 3 90
8 0-100m2 1 00+m 2
2 ( 2)
T otal
9
8
1 9 2
i n
pa re n -
C.BO R S T E L , E TA L . ; AN A L Y S I S O F EX P O S ED AR CH IT ECTU R E A T SA N AN TON IO
t he s t udy o f e conom ic c omp lemen ta r i ty , t he f undamen ta l a na ly t ica l u n i t o ugh t t o b e t he h ouseho ld , a nd a r chaeo log ica l s amp l ing o ugh t t o a t temp t t o r e cover d a ta f r om s uch u n i t s . T he a na lys is o f t h e w a l l b onds a t S an A n ton io r evea ls t he p resence o f a r ch i te c t ura l u n i t s o f d imen s ions q u i te s u i t ab le f o r o ccupa t ion b y h ouseho lds . T he e xcava t ion s t ra tegy f o r t he s i te s hou ld t ake s uch u n i t s , a s w e l l a s t he h ypo thes is t ha t t hey w e re s pace s o ccup ied b y h ouseho lds , i n to a ccoun t . T he i n i t ia l p lan t o wo rk a t S an An ton io c a l led f o r t h e e xcava t ion o f as a mp le o f 1 0% o f t he d omes t ic u n i t s a t t he s i te . I fo ne a s sume s t ha t s t ruc tures r ep resen t d ome s t ic u n i t s , wh i le t e r races a re n on -dome s t ic , t h en o ne c ou ld s imp ly s e le c t ar andom s a mp le o f n ine o f t h e 9 2 s t ruc tures f o r e xcava t ion . S uch w as , i n f a c t , t he f i r s t s a mp l ing s t ra tegy p lanned f o r t he s i te , when w e a n t ic ipa t ed b e ing a b le t o e xcava te i n 1 986 . N ine s t ruc tu r es we re t o b e c l ea red , wh i le a s amp le o f t e r race s ( wh ich h ad d e f in i te ly b een u sed f o r b u r ia ls , i f n o th ing e l se ) wou ld b e e xcava ted l a te r a s p a r t o f t he c eme te ry i nves t iga t ions n eeded t o p rov ide a n a dequa te s ke le ta l s amp le . Howeve r , t he 1 986 s ur face s t udy s ugge s ted t ha t a n u n s t ra t i f ied r andom s amp le o f n ine s t ruc tures wou ld h ave b een u nsa t is fac tory f o r s eve ra l r e ason s . F i r s t , s t ruc ture s o ccur red i n ar ange o f s i ze s ; d i f fe ren ces i n f l oo r a rea m igh t h ave f un c t iona l o r s o c ia l s ign i f ican ce . S econd , s t ruc ture s a re n o t u n i fo rm ly d i s t r ibu ted a c ro ss t he s e c to r s a nd s ubsec to r s o f t he s i te . O ve r 9 0% a re l o ca ted i n t h ree s ub sec to r s : I A , I B , a nd IA . A s a mp le o f n ine i nd iv idua l s t ruc tures c ho sen t o r ef le c t t ho se f a c to r s s hou ld p robab ly c ons is t o f t h ree s t ruc ture s a p iece f r om S ubsec to r s I A , I B , a nd IA ( wh ich c on ta in 2 1 , 2 8 , a nd 2 5 s t ruc tures r e spec t ive ly ) . T he s a mp le wou ld b e f u r ther s t ra t i f ied i n a cco rdance w i th t h e v ar ia t ion i n f l oo r a r eas ( Tab les 1 ,2 ) . Wh i le s uch a s t ra tegy wou ld b e p re fe rab le t o c hoos ing a n u ns t ra t i f ied r andom s amp le o f n ine i nd iv idua l s t ruc ture s , t h e re a re s t i l l p rob lems . S an An ton io i s c omposed o f b lo ck s o f s t ruc ture s a nd t e r races . T he b lo ck s a re t he mo re f undamen t a l u n i t s i n t he s ense t h a t t hey w e re c r ea ted b e fo re t he i nd iv idua l s t ruc ture s a nd t e r races . F u r the rmo re , i n t he c a se o f s t ruc ture s , b e fo re e xcava t ion i tw as u n ce r ta in whe the r i nd iv idua l s t ruc ture s o r i nd iv idua l b locks o f s t ruc ture s w e re t h e a r ch i tec tura l u n i t s mo s t l i ke ly t o r ep re sen t h ouseho lds . F o r t h ese r e asons i ts eemed b e s t t o u se t h e b lock , r a the r t han t h e s t ruc tu re , a s t h e b as ic s a mp l ing u n i t . S eve ra l a dd i t iona l c ons ide ra t ion s w e re i nvo lved i n t h e s e lec t ion o f t h e s amp le . We n eeded t o k now s ome th ing a bou t a cces s f r om t h e e x te r io r o f t he s i t e t o t he i n te r io r . Hence w e wan ted t o e xcava te a t l e as t o n b lo ck o n t he ma rg in o f t he b u i l t -up a rea o f t he s i te . L ikew ise , q ue s t ions o f a cce ss b e tween d i f fe ren t s e c to r s o r s ubsec to r s w e re i mpo r tan t . ( Fo r e xamp le , r e s t r ic ted a cce ss f r om o ne s e c to r o r s ubsec to r t o a no the r m igh t i mp ly t h a t t hose a r ch i tec tu ra l u n i t s h ad f un c t iona l o r s o c ia l s i gn i f icance . T he re fo re , i t wou ld b e d es irab le t o h ave a t l e as t o ne b lo ck o n t h e i n t e r io r ma rg in o f as ubse c to r , a d jacen t t o a no the r s e c to r o r s ubse c to r . A c ces s p a t te rns w i th in i nd iv idua l s ubsec to r s n eeded t o b e e xam ined , a nd i t wou ld p rove u se fu l t o c hoose a t l e as t o ne b lock a d jacen t t o ac o r r ido r . A lso , i tm igh t b e h e lp fu l i n d e te rm in ing a c ce s s b e tween b lo ck s i ft he t wo b lo cks t ob e e xcava ted i n S ub sec to r I B w ere a d jacen t t o o ne a no the r . P r ese rva t ion w as a l so a c once rn . Wh i le t h e a r ch i t ec ture a t S an An ton io i sg ene ra l ly we l l p r ese rved , l oo te r s l ook ing f o r s ubf loo r b u r ia ls h ave d i s turbed s ome s t ruc ture s mo re t han o ther s . P rog rama C on t isuyu 's 1 983 t e s t p i t s w e re l i ke ly t o h ave a f fe c ted f l oo r
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E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 1 9
d epo s i t s . We w ished t o a vo id s t ruc tu re s who se f l oor s m igh t h ave b een e x ten s ive ly d i s turbed . F ina l ly , i n c hoo s ing b locks f o r e xcava t ion , i tw a s d eemed a dv isab le t o c ons ide r t he n umber o f s t ruc ture s p e r s ubsec to r a nd t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f d i f fe ren t f l oo r a r ea s i ze s , a s a bove ( Tab le 2 ) . L ikew ise , i t w as t hough b es t t o t a ke t h e n umbe r o f b locks p e r s ubsec to r a nd t he n umbe r o f s t ruc ture s p e r b lo ck i n to a ccoun t . T he re a re a pp rox ima te ly 4 1 b lo ck s o f s t ruc ture s a t S an An ton io , o f wh ich 3 6 a r e f ound i n S ubse c to r s I A , I B , a nd IA . T he re a re 1 2 b lo ck s o f s t ruc ture s i n e ach o f t hose s ubsec to r s a nd mos t b lo ck s a re c ompo sed o f o ne t o f our s t ruc ture s . A c co rd ing ly , i tw as d e c ided t ha t t he 1 0% s amp le s hou ld c ons is t o f f ou r b lo cks c on ta in ing a t o ta l o f n ine s t ruc tur es , w i th c ons ide ra t ion a l so b e ing g iven t o f l oo r a r eas . One b l ock o f t h ree s t ruc tures wou ld b e s e lec ted f r om S ub se c to r I A . I dea l ly , t wo o f t hose s t ru c tu res wou ld h ave f l oo r a reas i n t h e 2 0 -60 m2 c a tego ry , o r b o th . I fo ne o f t hose l a t te r t wo c a t ego r ie s w as n o t r ep resen ted i n t h e s amp le f r om S ubse c to r I B , t h en t he re wou ld b e ap re fe rence f o r s e lec t ing a s t ruc ture i n t h e m is s ing s i ze r ange f r om S ubse c to r I A . A b lock o f t wo s t ruc tures wou ld b e c hosen f r om S ubsec to r IA ; t h e r e wou ld b e al a rge r s t ruc ture i n t h e 6 0 -80 m 2 o r 8 0 100 m2 r ange a nd a s ma l le r o ne i n t h e 0 20 m2 o r 2 0 -40 m 2 r ange . A dd i t iona l u n i t s c ou ld b e c l ea red i f t ime p e rm i t ted , b u t t h e p r ima ry g oa l o f t h e e x cava t ions wou ld b e t o o b ta in t h is s amp le o f f our b lo cks a nd n ine s t ruc tu re s . F ina l S amp le A t t he b eg inn ing o f t h e 1 987 s e ason , a l l o f t h ese c ons idera t ions t aken t o ge ther l e d t o t h e s e lec t ion o f t he f o l low ing s amp le f o r e x cava t ion ( F igu re 4 , 8 ) . F rom S ubsec to r I A , w e c ho se t he b lo ck c on ta in ing S t ruc ture s 2 0 , 2 1 , a nd 2 . I n S ubsec to r I B t wo a d jacen t b lo cks w e re s e lec ted , o ne c ons is t ing o f S t ruc ture s 2 6 a nd 2 7 a nd t he o the r c ons is t ing o f S t ruc ture s 2 8 a nd 2 9 . I n S ubsec to r IA t h e b lo ck c omposed o f S t ruc tures 7 5 a nd 7 6 w as c ho sen . S ub s e c t or I A . I n 1 986 w e c a lcu la ted t h e f l oo r a reas o f S t ruc tu re s 2 0 , 2 1 , a nd 2 2 a t 4 5 .6 m2,3 8 .8 r n2 a nd 2 6 .0 m2 r e spec t ive ly . S e lec t ion o f t h is b lo ck h e lped t o g i ve t he d e s i red d i s t r ibu t ion o f f l oo r a reas f o r S e c to r I ,a s n o s t ruc ture s w i th f l oo r a reas i n t h e 4 0 -60 m2 r ange w e re c hosen f r om S ubse c to r I B . T h is b lo ck i sa l so a d jacen t t o C o r r ido r s A a nd D , a nd i t l i e s a l ong t h e i n te r io r m arg in o f S ubsec to r I A , a d jacen t t o S ubsec to r I B . T he re fo re , e xcava t ion s m igh t y i e ld d a ta a bou t a cce s s p a t te rns w i th in S ubs ec to r I A a nd b e tween S ub se c to r s I A a nd I B . T he f l oo r a reas o f S t ruc tu res 2 6 , 2 7 , 2 8 , a nd 2 9 w e re c a lcu la ted a t 3 1 .5 m 2,3 3 .0 m2, 1 6 .0 m 2 a nd 1 5 .9 m2 r e spe c t ive ly . S e le c t ion o f t he t wo b lo cks c on ta in ing t h ese s t ruc tu res , c omb ined w i th t h e s amp le f r om S ubsec to r I A , g ave t he d e s ired r ange o f f l oo r a reas f o r S e c to r I . F u r the rmo re , t he t wo b lo ck s a re a d jacen t t oo ne a no the r , s o t h a t t h ey wou ld b e u se fu l i n d e term in ing a c ce s s b e tween b lo cks . F ina l ly b o th b lock s l i e a l ong t h e marg in o f t h e b u i l t -up a rea , a nd t h e b lo ck c on t a in ing S t ruc ture s 2 8 a nd 2 9 i sb o rde red o n o ne s i de b y C o r r ido r C , wh ich r uns i nwa rd f r om t he ma rg in . We h oped t h a t e xcava t ion o f t h ese t wo b lo ck s wou ld y i e ld d a ta o n a c ces s f r om t h e e x te r io r t o t h e i n ter io r o f t h e s i te . S ub s e c tor IA . T he f l oo r a reas o f S t ruc tu re s 7 5 a nd 7 6 w e re c a lcu la ted a t8 4 .2 m 2 a nd 1 7 .8 m2 r e spe c t ive ly , f i t t ing t h e d e s i red d i s t r ibu t ion a nd g e t t ing o ne l a rge s t ruc ture i n to t h e s amp le . I n a dd i t ion , t h e b lock c on ta in ing t h ese s t ruc ture s l i es a l ong t he i n te r io r
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marg in o f S ubsec to r IA , a nd e xcava t ions m igh t y i e ld d a ta o n a cce s s b e tween S ubse c to r s IA a nd I B .
R esu l t s o f S ubsequen t Wo rk T he s amp le d i cussed a bove w as e xcava ted i n 1 987 , a nd f u r the r s ur face s urvey was u nde r t aken . T he p r e l im inary r e su l t s o f t ha t wo rk a r e d es cr ibed i n t he f o l low ing p ape r s ( Con rad , t h is v o lume ; Web s te r a nd C on rad , t h is v o lume ) . Howeve r , s i nce t h e 1 987 e xcava t ions r evea led t ha t o u r s amp le d id n o t c ons is t o f e xac t ly wha t w e t hough t i td id when w e c hose i t , w e s hou ld s ay s ome th ing a bou t t he d i f fe rence h e re . T he s amp le f r om S ubsec to r I A a c tua l ly t u rned o u t t o c ons is t o f ab lock c on ta in ing f our s t ruc tu res , r a the r t han t h ree . ( Ou r o r ig ina l S t ruc ture 2 1 i s i n f a c t t wo s t ruc tu re s , n ow d e s igna ted 2 1 a nd 2 1A ) . T hese f ou r s t ruc ture s f o rmed t wo d i s t inc t a r ch i te c tura l u n i t s , ah ouseho ld c l us te r ( S t ruc ture 2 1 , 2 1A , a nd 2 2 ) a nd a n on -dome s t ic u n i t ( S t ruc ture 2 0 ) . I n S ubsec to r I B , S t ruc tu re s 2 8 a nd 2 9 t u rned o u t t o b e t wo p ar t s o f as i ng le s t ruc tur e , r edes igna ted 2 8/29 . H ence t h e s amp le f r om S ub sec to r c on t a ined o ne b lo ck o f t wo s t ruc tures ( 2 6 a nd 2 7 ) a nd o ne b lo ck o f o ne ( 2 8/29 ) . E ach o f t h e t h ree s t ruc ture s i n S ubse c to r I B r ep re sen ted a s i ng le h ouseho ld c l us te r . I n t he b lo ck s e lec ted f r om S ubse c to r IA , S t ruc tures 7 5 a nd 7 6 f o rmed a s i ng le , l a rge h ouseho ld c l us te r . D e sp i te t hese d i f fe rences , w e b e l ieve t ha t t h e e xcava ted s amp le f r om S an A n ton io w i l l a nswe r a l o f t he q ues t ions w e o rg ina l ly w an ted t o a sk o f i t . F ur the rmo re , i tw i l l y i e ld f a r mo re u s e fu l i n fo rma t ion t h an c ou ld h ave b een o b ta ined f r om a s imp le , u n s t ra t i f ied r andom s amp le o f 1 0% o f t h e s i te 's s t ruc tu re s . S uch a s t ra tegy wou ld h ave i gno red t he e x is tence o f s e c to r s , s ubse c to r s , a nd b lo cks . A s ac onsequence , i t wou ld h ave o f fe red l i t t le o r n o b as is f o r a s se s s ing t he s i gn i f icance o f t ho se s ubd iv is ion s . S ur face a na ly s is o f t he e xpo s ed a rch i te c tu re p erm i t ted a mo re a ccura te u nde r s tand ing o f S an A n ton io 's c ons t i tuen t a r ch i tec tura l u n i t s , a nd t hus a much mo re p roduc t ive e xcava t ion s t ra t egy t han t h e o ne o r ig ina l ly p lanned .
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F igu re 1 2 . P e rcen tages o f s t ruc tures w ith g iven f l oo r a reas b y s ec tor a nd s ubsec tor .
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Househo ld Un i t P a t tern ing a t S an An ton io G eo f f rey W . C on rad W i l l i am H ammond Ma the r s Mu seum I nd i ana U n iv e r s i ty
Ann D . Webs te r D ep ar tm en t o fA n thr opo l ogy U n iv e r s i ty o fC h i c ag o
I n t rodu c t ion T he n a ture o f t h e p os t -T iwanaku , p reI nka p er iod ( c a . A .D . 1 000 1500 ) i n s ou the rn mo s t P e ru i s p rob lema t ica l . Many i mpo r tan t q ue s t ions r ema in p a r t ia l ly o r c omp le te ly u nan swe red . F o r e xamp le , wha t w as t h e s o c iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion o f i nd iv idua l s e t t lemen t s ? We re t he re a ny l a rge r , mu l t i -commun i ty p o l i t ica l u n i t s ? Wha t w e re t he e thn ic o r ig ins o f t h e p eop le o r p eop le s who b u i l t t h e f o r t i f ied h i l l top s i tes t yp ica l o f t he p e r iod ? Wha t w as t h e n a tu re a nd d eg ree o f i n t e rac t ion among t h e se g roups ? T o h e lp a ch ieve t h e g oa ls o f P roye c to O smo re , i nves t iga t ions a t S an A n ton io a re d e s igned t o a ddre s s t h ese a nd o the r q ue s t ions w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a ta ( Con rad a nd R ice , t h is v o lume ) . T h i s p ape r g ive s ab r ie f s u mmary o f t h e e xcava t ion s a t S an An ton io , c a r r ied o u t i n J u ly a nd A ugus t o f 1 987 , a nd d i s cusse s t h e s e cond o f t wo s ur face s urvey o f t h e s i te . B y l a te J u ly e xcava t ions i n S ubs e c to r s I A a nd I B h ad b egun t o c l a r i fy t h e d e ta i ls o f t he r epe t i t ive a r ch i te c tu ra l u n i t s f i r s t r e cogn ized d ur ing a 1 986 s urvey ( Bor s te l e t a l . , t h is v o lume ) . A s a r e su l t , w e r e a l ized t h a t a r e -exam ina t ion o f S an An ton io 's s ur face a rch i te c tu re c ou ld p rov ide i n fo rma t ion u nava i lab le i n 1 986 . Web s te r u nde r took t he r e s tudy , c ons tan t ly c he ck ing t h e o ngo ing e xcava t ions t o r e f ine h e r wo rk .
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P u rpose O f T he 1 987 S u r face S urvey B u i ld ing o n i t s 1 986 c oun te rpar t , t he 1 987 s ur face s urvey t r ied t o f i nd o the r e xamp les o f t he s pec i f ic a r ch i tectura l f o rms r evea led b y e xcava t ion . T he ir d is t r ibu t ions wou ld p rov ide d a ta o n t he v ar ia t ion o f a r ch i tec tura l u n i t s w i th in t h e s i te -d i f fe rences i n s i ze , c ons t ruc t ion ma te r ia ls , q ua l i ty o f c ons t ruc t ion , o rgan iza t ion o f i n terna l s pace , e t c . L ike t he c oncur ren t e xcava t ions , t h e 1 987 s ur face s urvey w as d e s igned i n p ar t t o r evea l s pec i f ic d i f ferences among t he s e c to rs a nd s ubsec to r s i den t i f ied i n 1 986 . We b e l ieved t hese d i f fe rence s wou ld t e l l u s s ome th ing a bou t t he s o c ia l a nd p o l i t ica l r e la t ions among t he i nhab i tan t s o f S an An ton io . T ha t i s , p a t terned v ar ia t ion s i n a r ch i tec ture s hou ld r e f lec t h ow S an An ton io was o rgan ized a nd h ow i tf unc t ioned when i t was a l i v ing c ommun i ty . A r ch i te c tura l p a t te rn ing m igh t s ugges t t ha t t h e s ec tor s w e re o ccup ied b y p ar t icu lar s o c ia l u n i t s , b y g roups w i th d i f fe ren t s o c ia l s t atuses , b y e conom ica l ly s pec ia l ized g roups , o r t he l i ke . A s a l onge r te rm g oa l , w e h oped t o r e f ine t h e a pproach t o s u r face a rch i tec ture d eve loped i n 1 986 , s o t ha t w e c ou ld a pp ly i t mo re p roduc t ive ly t o o ther s i tes i nves t iga ted b y P royec to O smo re ( c f . B o rs te l e t a l . , t h is v o lume ) . A s a p reh is to r ic c ommun i ty , S an An ton io e x is ted i n an e two rk o f o the r c on temporaneous c o mmun i t ies , a nd i n ah i s tor ica l ma t r ix f o rmed b y t h e c ommun i t ie s t ha t p receded i ta nd t hose t h a t wou ld f o l low i t . T he re fo re , k now ledge o f i n t ras i te p at te rns a t S an A n ton io c ou ld u l t ima te ly h e lp u s t o u nde r s tand t h e n a ture o f t h e s ynchron ic a nd d iach ron ic r e la t ionsh ips among p reh is tor ic s e t t lemen t s i n t he Moquegua r eg ion .
T he Househo ld A s a n Ana ly t ica l Un i t Unde r ly ing t he u se o f s ur face a r ch i tec tura l d a ta f o r t he p urposes d i s cussed a bove i s t he c oncep t o f t he h ouseho ld u n i t ( F lannery a nd Ma rcus 1 983 ) , wh ich s e rve s a s t he b as ic a na ly t ica l u n i t f o r t h is s t udy . K en t F l anne ry ( 1 983 :45 ) d e f ines t h e h ouseho ld u n i t a s " t he c omp lex o f s t ruc tures a nd f e a ture s r e su l t ing f r om a t yp ica l . . .househo ld . . . " T ha t i s , t he t e rm " househo ld u n i t " r e fer s t o t he a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins o f as upposed h ouseho ld o f t he p as t . A l though a r chaeo log is t s a g ree t h a t p reh is to r ic h ouseho lds were i mpor tan t s o c ia l g roup ing s , t hey h ave t a ken v ar ious a pproaches t o t h e h ouseho ld u n i t a s a b as is o f a na ly s is . S cho lars h o ld d i f fe ren t i deas a bou t wha t t h e h ouseho ld u n i t r epresen t s a nd wha t t he s t udy o f h ouseho ld u n i ts c an t e l l u s a bou t ap ar t icu lar s o c ie ty o r s oc ie t ies . T he h ouseho ld u n i t h as b een t r ea ted a s al o cus o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty ( S t an ish 1 985 ) ; a s a mode l o f t h e c osmos ( E l iade 1 960 ; P a lac io s -R io s 1 982 ) ; a nd a s a n i nd ica tor o f s oc ia l g roups ( Dean 1 970 ; F erguson a nd M i l ls 1 987 ; H i l l 1 970a , b ; L ongacre 1 970 ; L yne is 1 986 ; Mar t in e t a l . 1 967 ; R ohn 1 965 ) , s t a tus ( Dav id 1 97 1 ; F l anne ry 1 976 ; H i l l 1 970 ; Hodde r 1 982c , d ; O swa ld 1 987 ; T r igge r 1 978 ) , o r p o l i t ica l h egemony ( Bawden 1 982 ) . S ome r e searcher s h ave c ons idered t he h ouseho ld u n i t n o t a s a n i nd ica tor o f as i ng le a spec t o f s oc ie ty , b u t a s r e f lec t ing a n umbe r o f s o c ie ta l f a c to rs . A s F l annery ( 1 976 :16 ) e xp la ins : " The v ar ia t ion b etween h ouses w i th in a v i l lage c an b e o ne o f o ur b es t s ou rces o f i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e v ar ia t ion b e tween f am i l ie s -var ia t ion i n s ubs is ten ce , d iv is ion o f l a bo r , c r a f t a c t iv i ty , s oc ia l s t a tus , a nd s o o n . " D av id ( 1 97 1 ) , K en t ( 1 984 , 1 987 ) , M i lner
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( 1 98 1 , 1 983 ) , Ne t t ing e t a l . ( 1 984 ) , O swa ld ( 1 987 ) , S t an ish ( n .d . b ) , W i lk a nd R a th je ( 1 984 ) , a nd W in t e r ( 1 976 ) a l so t ake a mu l t i face ted v i ew o f t he u t i l i ty o f t h e h ouseho ld u n i t i n a r chaeo log ica l s tud ies . We w i l l f o l low t h is b roade r c oncep t o f t he h ouseho ld u n i t i n a na lyz ing t h e r esu l t s o f t he 1 987 s ur face s urvey .
S um mary o f P rev ious R esea rch a t S an An ton io T he 1 986 S u r face S urvey T he 1 986 s ur face s urvey d i s t ingu ished t h ree ma in a r ch i te c tura l s e c to r s a t S an A n ton io ( Bo rs te l e ta l . , t h is v o lume , F igure 1 0 ) . S ec to r Ii st h e mo s t d ense ly c on s t ruc ted a rea o f t he s i t e , w i th mo s t ly s ma l l s t ruc tu res a nd f ew o pen t e r race s . S e c to r I h as a g rea te r p ropo r t ion o f l a rge r s t ruc tu re s , mo r e t e r race s , a nd a ppea r s t o h ave b een much mo re o pen a nd s pac ious t h an S ec to r I . S e c to r I I i sq u i te d i f fe ren t f r om t h e o the r t wo . T h is a r ea o f t h e s i te i sc harac te r ized b y t e r race s , a nd mo s t o f i t s f ew s t ruc tur es s eem t o h ave b een n on re s iden t ia l . A t l e as t t wo o f t he t h ree ma jo r s e c to r s w e re s ubd iv ided i n to t wo s ubse c to r s b y t r ansve r se w a l ls ( Bo r s te l e t a l . , t h is v o lume , F igure 1 0 ) . I n g ene ra l , t h e t wo s ubsec to r s o f a ny g iven s e c to r w e re a r ch i tec tu ra l ly s im i la r t o o ne a no the r . P a r t i t ion ing i n to s ubsec to r s w as mo s t o bv ious i n S ec to r s Ia nd I . I tw as much l e s s c l ea r i n S ec to r I I a nd may n o t h ave e x i s ted t he re . T he 1 987 E x cava t ions I n 1 987 we e xcava ted e i gh t i nd iv idua l s t ruc ture s a t S an A n ton io ( F igu re s 1 5 ) ; d e ta i led a na lys is o f t he e xcava ted ma te r ia ls h as y e t t o b e c ar r ied o u t . I n t e rms o f a r ch i te c tu re , h oweve r , c l ea r ing r evea led t ha t t h e e i gh t s t ruc ture s a c tua l ly c ons t i tu t ed f i ve h ouseho ld u n i ts , p lus o ne n on -dome s t ic b u i ld ing . F ou r d i f feren t a r ch i tec tu ra l t ype s w e re r epresen ted i n t he e xcava ted s amp le : t wo v ar ian t s o f t h e s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t , t he c o mpo s i t e h ouseho ld u n i t , a nd a s pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing . T he s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t c ons is t s o f at wo room h ouse w i th a ma in r oom a t t he f r on t a nd a k i tchen a t t h e b ack . I n i t s p l a ine s t f o rm , t h e s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t h as a ma in r oom w i th a s i ng le f l oo r l e ve l a nd a k i tchen whose f l oo r l e ve l l i es a bove t h a t o f t he ma in r oom . T he l ong i tud ina l p ro f i le o f t h e f l oo r s r e s emb les a s e t o f t wo s t eps r i s ing t oward t h e r ear o f t he h ouse , a nd t h is f o rm i sc a l led t h e t wo t ie red v ar ian t o f t h e s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t . T he e xcava ted e xamp le s w e re S t ruc ture s 2 7 a nd 7 5/76 ( F igure s 3 ,5 ) . T he re i s as l igh t ly mo re c omp l ica ted f o rm i n wh ich t he ma in r oom h as t wo f l oo r l e ve ls , al owe r o ne i n f r on t a nd a h ighe r o ne i n b ack . T he t wo l e ve ls a r e s epara ted b y a l ow s t one w a l l . S ince t h e f l oo r i n t h e k i t chen i sh ighe r t han e i the r o f t he f l oo r s i n t he ma in r oom , t he l ong i tud ina l p ro f i le r e semb le s as e t o f t h ree s t eps r i s ing t owa rd t h e r e a r o f t he h ou se . T h is f o rm i sc a l led t h e t h ree t ie red v ar ian t o f t he s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t ; t h e e xcava ted e xamp le s w e re S t ruc ture s 2 6 a nd 2 8/29 ( F igure 3 ) . I n t h e c ompos i te h ouseho ld u n i t , t h e b as ic t wo room h ouse a ppea r s a s o ne o f s evera l s t ructur e s f o rm ing a n a r ch i tec tu ra l b lo ck a s d e f ined b y t h e 1 986 w a l l b ond s t udy ( Bo r s te l e t a l . , t h is v o lume ) . One o f t h e o the r s t ruc tures i sa n e n t ry c ou r t g iv ing a cce s s t o t he e n t ire h ou s eho ld u n i t . T he s i ng le e xcava ted e xamp le o f ac ompo s i te h ouseho ld u n i t w as t he b lo ck c o mposed o f S t ruc tu res 2 1 , 2 1A , a nd 2 2 ( F igur es 1 ,2 ) .1 S t ruc ture 2 1 w as t he
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e n t ry c our t , S t ruc tu re 2 1A t h e h ouse , a nd S t ruc tu re 2 2 a n a nnex , c o r ra l , o r o the r a ux i l iary b u i ld ing . S pe c ia l -purpo se b u i ld ing s c on s is t o f o ne o r mo re a r ch i tec tura l u n i t s t h a t f i t t he f o rma l d e f in i t ion o f s t ruc ture s r a the r t han t e r race s ( Bo r s te l e t a l . , t h is v o lume ) b u t l a ck a k i t chen . I n a dd i t ion , t he s t ruc tu re o r s t ruc tu re s c ompo s ing a s pec ia l -pu rpose b u i ld ing mus t f o rm a n a r ch i te c tu ra l b lo ck ; o the rw ise t h ey m igh t b e s imp ly p ar t s o f ac ompos i te h ouseho ld u n i t . T he o n ly e xcava t ed e xamp le o f as pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing was S t ruc ture 2 0 ( F igu re 1 ) . I t s f unc t ion r ema in s u nde te rm ined , p end ing t h e a na ly s i s o f t he e xcava ted ma te r ia ls .
T he 1 987 S u r face S urvey Me thods T he 1 987 s ur face s u rvey a t temp ted t o i d en t i fy u nexcava ted e xamp le s o f h ous eho ld u n i t s a nd s p ec ia l -purpo se b u i ld ing s . T he p r imary c r i t er ion f o r d is t ingu ish ing b e tween t h e t wo c l as se s o f a r ch i tec ture w as t h e p resence o r a bsence o f ak i t chen . A r ch i te c tura l g roup ing s t h a t c on ta ined k i t chen a reas w er e d e s igna ted a s h ouseho ld u n i t s , wh i le t hose t h a t l a cked k i t chens w er e i d en t i f ied a s s pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing s . A s ar e su l t o f t he o ngo ing e xcava t ion s , k i t chen s w e re r e la t ive ly e asy t o i den t i fy f r om s ur face e v iden ce . K i t chens h ad h ighe r f l oo r l e ve l s t h an a d jacen t ma in r ooms ; t h ey a l so h ad s ma l le r f l oo r a reas t han ma in r ooms . C ons equen t ly , k i t chens f i l led more q u ick ly a nd c omp le te ly w i th n a tura l s o i l d epo s i t s a nd s l ump f r om c o l laps ing w a l ls . T he ir mode rn s u r faces s t and n o t iceab ly h ighe r t h an t h e s ur face s o f a d jacen t m a in r oom s . A lso , b ecause k i t chens f i l led mo re q u ick ly a nd c omp le te ly , t hey r ap id ly d eve loped s ma l l t a lus s l ope s t ha t p ro te c ted t h e s urv iv ing p o r t ions o f t he ir w a l l s , a nd t h e w a l ls a round k i t chens t e nd t o b e p reserved t o g rea te r h e igh t s t h an t he w a l ls a round ma in r ooms . H ence u nexcava ted k i t chen s a ppea r a s s ma l l s t ruc tures o r s t ruc tura l s ubd iv i s ions w i th mo re c omp le te ly f i l led i n t e r io r s , h ighe r s ur face e l eva t ions , a nd b e t ter p r ese rved w a l ls t h an a d jacen t ma in r ooms . T h is w as , i n f a c t , h ow t he k i t chen a reas o f t he e x cava t ed s t ruc tu re s a ppea red b e fo re c l ea r ing . Once t h e p a t te rns h ad b een r evea led b y e xcava t ion , t h e p resence o r a bsence o f e n t ry c our t s a nd a ux i l iary s t ruc tu re s c ou ld b e d e te rm ined f r om s ur face e v idence , a s c ou ld t he p resence o r a bsence o f l ow w a l ls s ubd iv id ing ma in r ooms . A cco rd ing ly , b o th s imp le a nd c ompo s i te h ouseho ld u n i t s c ou ld b e r e cogn ized , a nd t h e t wo - a nd t h ree t ie red v a r ian t s o f t he s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t c ou ld b e d i s t ingu ished f r om o ne a no the r . A ga in , s pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing s w e re d e f ined b y t h e l a ck o f ak i t chen a rea . F rom t h e s ur face mo s t s pe c ia l -purpo se b u i ld ings r e s emb led S t ruct ure 2 0 , t he e x cava ted e xamp le , o r S t ruc ture 2 1 , t he e n t ry c our t o f t h e t h e e xcava t ed c o mpo s i te h ouseho ld u n i t . T ha t i s , mo s t u nexcava ted s pe c ia l -purpo se b u i ld ing s h ad r ough ly r e c tangu lar p l ans , r e la t ive ly l a rge f l oo r a r eas , a nd c ompara t ive ly l e ve l f l oo r s u r faces . L i ke S truc tu re 2 1 , many may h ave s e rved a s c our t s o r p l azas . Two o the r p oss ib le s pec ia l -pu rpose b u i ld ings c on s is ted o f u nusua l g roup ing s o f s t ruc tu re s ; t h ey a r e d iscus s ed l a te r .
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F igu re 1 . E xcava ted s t ruc tures i n S ubsec to r I A. S t ruc tures 2 1 , 2 1 A, a nd 2 2 f o rm a c ompo s i te h ouseho ld u n i t w i th a n e n t ry c our t ( 2 1 ) , t wo room h ouse ( 2 1 A) ,a nd a ux i l iary b u i ld ing ( 2 2 ) . T he h ouse c ons is t s o f a ma in r oom a t t he f r on t ( s ou theas t ) a nd a k i tchen a t t he r e ar ( nor thwes t ; t he w a l led a rea c on ta in ing F eatures 2 2 , 2 4 , a nd 2 8 ) . S t ruc ture 2 0 i s as pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing o f s t i l l u nde term ined f unc t ion .
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F igu re 2 . Wa l l j o in t s o f e xcava ted s t ruc tu re s i n S ubsec tor 1 A . S t ruc ture s 2 1 , 2 1A , a nd 2 2 f o rm a n a rch i tec tura l b lo ck . S t ruc ture 2 0 i s a l a te r a dd i t ion c ons t i tu t ing a s epara te b lock .
4 00
G.CO NRAD A ND A.W E B S T ER ; HO U SEHO LD UN I T PA T T ERN ING A T SA N AN TON IO
F igu re 3 . E xcava ted s t ruc tu res i n S ubsec to r I B . S t ruc tures 2 6 , 2 7 , a nd 2 8/29 a re a l l e xa mp le s o f t he s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t . S t ruc ture 2 7 r ep resen t s t he t wo t ie red v ar ian t ; t he o the r s a re t h ree t ie red . T he k i tchens a re t h e w a l led a reas c on ta in ing F eature 1 i n S t ruc tu re 2 6 ; F ea tures 2A, 2 8 , a nd 3 i n S t ruc ture 2 7 ; a nd F ea tures 7 10 i n S t ruc ture 2 8/29 .
4 01
S TR . 2 8/29
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2 0
l än
o w
T6 SAN ANTON IO
•
F igu re 4 . Wa l l j o in t s o f e xcava ted s t ruc tures i n S ubs ec tor I B . S t ruc tures 2 6 a nd 2 7 f o rm a n a r ch i tec tura l b lo ck . S t ruc ture 2 8/29 i s al a te r a dd i t ion c ons t itu t ing a s epara te b lock .
4 02
G.CO NRAD A ND A.W E B S T ER ; HO U S EHO LD UN I T PA T T ERN ING A T SA N AN TON IO
F igu re 5 . E xcava ted s t ructure s i n S ubsec to r IA . S t ructures 7 5 a nd 7 6 f o rm a l a rge e xa mp le o f t he s imp le , t wo t ie red h ouseho ld u n i t . S t ruc ture 7 5 i s t he ma in r oom ; S t ruc ture 7 6 , t he k i t chen .
4 03
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2 0
F o l low ing t he c r i te r ia g iven a bove , Webs te r u nde r took a p re l im inary c l ass i f ica t ion o f S an An ton io 's u nexcava ted a r ch i tec ture . H er i n i t ia l r e su l ts we re t hen c ompared t o t h e a r ch i te c tura l b locks d e f ined b y t he 1 986 w a l l b ond s t udy , t o make c e r t a in t ha t n o a r t i f ic ia l g roup ings we re c r ea ted f r om s ubd iv is ions b e long ing t o d i f fe ren t a r ch i tec tura l u n i t s . T h is c heck e l im ina ted o ne p o ten t ia l h ouseho ld u n i t g roup ing ( S t ruc tures 8 4 a nd 8 8 ) a nd o ne p o ten t ia l s pec ia l -purpose g roup ing ( S t ruc tures 8 3 , 8 4 , a nd 8 5 ) . I t a l so r evea led t ha t f our u n i ts o r ig ina l ly i den t i f ied a s t e r races we re a c tua l ly c omponen t s o f h ouseho ld u n i t s o r s pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing s ( s ee T ab le 1 ) . O the rw ise , t h e r e su lts o f t h e 1 986 s t ruc ture/ ter race s t udy , t he 1 986 w a l l b ond s t udy , a nd t he 1 987 s urvey w e re r emarkab ly c ons is ten t w i th o ne a no the r .
S ubsector
S tructure/Grouping
Type
I A
3 9 4 0,
s imple, s imple,
4 1
C omments 2 -tiered 3 -tiered
k itchen k itchen o f
I B
I IA
2 3 2 4,
2 5
3 2, 3 7,
3 3, 3 8
5 0 5 5, 5 7,
5 6 5 8
4 4, 4 5, T errace
3 4
4 6, D
a t E e nd a t W e nd
4 1
s imple, s imple,
2 -tiered 2 -tiered
k itchen k itchen
a t N e nd = 2 5
s imple, s imple,
3 -tiered 2 -tiered
k itchen k itchen
- 3 2 = 3 8
s imple, s imple, s imple,
2 -tiered 2 -tiered 2 -tiered
k itchen k itchen k itchen
a t W e nd = 5 5 = 5 8
c omposite
k itchen - 4 6, main r oom = 4 5, e ntry c ourt - D , o utbuilding - 4 4
4 7 7 2
I IIA
s imple, s imple,
9 0,
9 1,
9 5,
T errace
T errace
9 3,
9 4
BE
B F
2 -tiered 2 -tiered
k itchen k itchen
a t S e nd a t S e nd
s imple,
3 -tiered
k itchen
= 9 0
s imple,
2 -tiered
k itchen
- 9 5
s imple,
3 -tiered
k itchen o f 9 4
a t N e nd
T ab le 1 . Househo ld Un i t s I den t i f ied b y t he 1 987 S urvey .
R esu l ts Househo ld Un i t s T he 1 987 s ur face s urvey i den t i f ied 1 5 h ouseho ld u n i ts ( F igure 6 , T ab le 1 ) , c omp r is ing 2 6 s t ruc tures a nd t h ree t e r races p rev ious ly d es igna ted a s s epara te a rch i te c tura l e n t i t ies . C oup led w i th t he f i ve e xcava ted e xamp les , t he s urvey b rough t t he t o t a l n u mbe r o f r e cogn ized h ouseho ld u n i t s a t S an An ton io t o 2 0 . T hese u n i t s we re l a be led w i th t he n umbe rs a nd l e t te rs o f t h e c or respond ing s t ruc ture s a nd t e r races . F o r e xamp le , t h e u n i t c omposed o f S t ruc tures 2 1 , 2 1A , a nd 2 2 w i l l b e r e fer red t o h e rea f ter a s Househo ld Un i t 2 1/2 1A/22 . 4 04
G.CO NRAD A ND A.W E B STER ; HO U SEHO LD UN I T PA T T ERN ING A T SA N AN TON IO
F igure 6 . Househo ld Un i ts b y S ec to rs a nd S ubsec tor s .
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2 0
O f t he 1 5 u nexcava ted u n i ts , 1 4 we re o f t he s imp le t ype . T here we re t wo s uch u n i t s i n S ubsec to r I A , s even i n I B , f our i n IA , a nd o ne i n I IA . T en o f t h e se 1 4 s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t s we re o f t he t wo t ie red v ar ian t : o ne i n S ubsec to r I A , s i x i n I B , a nd t h ree i n IA . T he o ther f our b e longed t o t he t h ree t ie red v ar ian t -one a p iece i n S ubsec to rs I A , I B , IA , a nd I IA ( F igure 6 ,T ab le 1 ) . T he s i ng le e xa mp le o f a n u nexcava ted c ompos i te h ouseho ld u n i t l ay i n S ubsec to r IA ( Househo ld Un i t 4 4/45/46/D ) . L ike t he e xcava ted e xamp le , i t c ons is ted o f a n e n t ry c our t ( Ter race D ) , ah ouse w i th a ma in r oom ( S t ruc tu re 4 5 ) a nd a k i tchen ( S t ruc tu re 4 6 ) , p lus a n a ux i l iary o u tbu i ld ing o f u nknown f unc t ion ( S t ruc ture 4 4 ) . S pec ia l -Purpose B u i ld ings T he s urvey i den t i f ied f i ve a dd i t iona l s pe c ia l -purpose b u i ld ings ( F igure 7 , T ab le 2 ) , c omp r is ing s even s t ruc tures a nd o ne t e r race p rev ious ly t r ea ted a s s epa ra te a rch i tec tura l e n t i t ies . T hree o f t he b u i ld ing s , a l l i n S ubsec to r I A , w ere r e c tangu lar s t ruc tures w i th l e ve l f l oor s , l i ke S t ruc ture 2 1 , a nd may h ave b een u nroo fed p lazas o r c our t s . ' T he r ema in ing t wo s pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing s w e re f ound i n S ubsec to r HA . E ach r epresen ted a d i s t inc t ive t ype o f a r ch i tec tura l c omp lex : n e i the r r e semb led t h e o the r , a nd n o o the r e xamp les o f e i the r t ype w ere f ound a t S an An ton io . E ach may h ave s e rved a u n ique f unc t ion a t t he s i te . T he f i rs t o f t hese b u i ld ings , c omposed o f S t ruc tures 6 5 , 6 6 , a nd 6 7 , w as d es igna ted t he " pa ired -an teroom " t ype ( F igure 7 ) . I tc ons is ts o f al a rge ma in r oom ( S t ructure 6 5 ) w i th a n e n t ryway f l anked b y t wo s ma l l a n te rooms ( 6 6 , 6 7 ) . A s hor t b ranch o f C o r r ido r H a l so f o rm s p ar t o f t he c omp lex . T he f unc t ion o f t h is s pe c ia l -purpos e b u i ld ing i s u nknown . T he s e cond s pec ia l -pu rpose b u i ld ing i n S ubsec tor IA c ons is ts o f S t ruc ture 8 7 a nd T er race AS ( F igure 7 ) ; t he f o rme r s i t s i n s ide t h e l a t ter . S t ruc ture 8 7 i so pen o n t he w es t s i de a nd r e semb les t he l e t ter " U , " a nd t h e b u i ld ing a s a who le h as b een l abe led t h e " U -shaped " t ype . E l sewhe re i n t he Andean a rea t he U -shape i sa n a nc ien t a r ch i tectura l f o rm f i rs t u sed i n e ar ly c e remon ia l c en te rs ( Donnan 1 985 ) . L a te p reh is tor ic U -shaped b u i ld ings , wh ich a re b es t k nown f r om t he n o r the rn c oas t o f P e ru , p robab ly s e rved a s " o f f ice s " f o r h igh rank ing membe rs o f a dm in is t ra t ive h i e ra rch ies ( Andrews 1 974 ; K ea t inge a nd C on rad 1 983 ) . I ti s p oss ib le , t hough b y n o means c e r ta in , t h a t S pec ia l -Purpose B u i ld ing 8 7/AS
S ubsector I A
I IA
S tructure/Grouping 1 5
T ype r ectangular
C omments p laza/court?
1 9
r ectangular
p laza/court?
4 3
r ectangular
p laza/court?
6 5,
6 6,
6 7,
branch o f 8 7,
p lus
Corridor
T errace AS
p aired-anteroom
f unction u nknown
H U -shaped
a dministrative u nit?
T ab le 2 .S pec ia l -Purpose B u i ld ings I dent i f ied b y t h e 1 987 S urvey . 4 06
G.CO NRAD A ND A.W E B S T ER ; HO U S EHO LD UN I T PA T T ERN IN G A T SA N AN TON IO
F igu re 7 .S pec ia l -purpose B u i ld ing s b y S ec to rs a nd S ubsec to rs .
4 07
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2 0
w as t he o f f ice o f a p a ramoun t l o ca l l o rd , t he mo s t i mpo r tan t a dm in i s t ra to r a t S an An ton io .
I n te rp re ta t ions Househo ld C ompos i t ion T he e xac t c ompo s i t ion o f S an An ton io 's p reh is to r ic h ouseho lds the s o c ia l g roup s t h a t c r ea ted a nd o ccup ied t he s i te 's h ouseho ld u n i t s is u nce r ta in . I n ar e cen t d iscus s ion o f t he p reh is to r ic C en t ra l Andean h ouseho ld S t an ish ( n .d . b ) emphas izes t h e i mpor tan ce o f t he n uc lea r a nd mod i f ied n uc lea r f am i ly , c ha r ac te r ized b y b i la te r a l d escen t a nd i nhe r i tance , a s t he b as ic s o c ia l u n i t o f c on sump t ion a nd e xchange . T h i s p a t te rn i sw e l l d o cumen ted i n e thnog raph ic s t ud ie s o f t r ad i t iona l A ndean s o c ie t ies ( f o r e xamp le , I s be l l 1 977 ; L ausen t 1 983 ; Maye r 1 977 ; S pa ld ing 1 984 ; L amb e r t 1 977 ; Web s t e r 1 977 ; C u s t red 1 977 ; B rush 1 977 ) . Howeve r , a s S t an ish i sc a re fu l t o p o in t o u t , C o lon ia l a nd R epub l i can p o l i t ica l , e conom ic , a nd s oc ia l i n s t i tu t ions may h ave i nf luenced n a t ive f o rm s o f c o rpo ra te g roups . Andean a r chaeo log is t s mus t b e awa re o f t h e p os s ib i l i ty t ha t " t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd w i l l p rov ide e xamp les o f c ons ide rab ly mo re c omp lex h ouseho ld o rgan iza t ion s " ( S t an ish n .d . b ) . D e sp i te t h is c avea t , i t i s t emp t ing t o s ee S an A n ton io 's h ouseho ld u n i t s a s t h e r e s idences o f n uc lea r f am i l ies . I nd iv idua l h ouses a t S an An ton io a re s ma l l , p ar t icu la r ly i n t e rms o f g ene ra l ized l i v ing/wo rk ing/s leep ing a r eas ( t he ma in r oom s ) , a nd a t yp ica l h ouse c ou ld n o t h ave s he l te red many p eop le . A t t he s ame t ime , a r ch i tec tura l b lo ck s a t S an A n ton io may c on ta in mo re t h an o ne h ouseho ld u n i t . F o r e xamp le , t he t wo Househo ld U n i t s 2 6 a nd 2 7 a re s ubd iv is ion s o f a s i ng le b lo ck ( F igure 4 ) a nd may h ave b een o ccup ied b y t wo r e la ted f am i l ies . A s a wo rk ing h ypo the s is , t hen , w e s ugges t t ha t S an An ton io 's h ouseho lds w e r e c ompo sed o f n uc lea r f am i l ie s l i nked s t ruc tura l ly ( i n b o th t h e s o c ia l a nd a r ch i tec tura l s en ses ) t o l a rge r e x tended f am i l ies . T h is s oc ia l a nd s pa t ia l p a t te rn i s w e l l k nown among c on tempo rary A ndean s o c ie t ie s a nd h as b een d i s cus sed b y e thnog raphe r s , i n c lud ing T s chop ik ( 1 946 ) , L amber t ( 1 977 ) , a nd B rush ( 1 977 ) . D emog raphy Wh i le mo re p rec ise d emog raph ic e s t ima tes mus t a wa i t t he e xcava t ion a nd a na ly s i s o f s ke le ta l p opu la t ion s , i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t S an An ton io w as e ve r o ccup ied b y mo re t h an a f ew h undred p eop le , w i th 4 00 -500 a s a n u ppe r l im i t . A s ar ough g u ide , t h e 1 987 s u rvey a nd e xcava t ion s d e f ined 2 0 h ouseho ld u n i t s , c omp r i s ing 3 4 s t ruc tures ( a nd t h ree t e r race s ) f r om t he 1 986 s urvey . H ence t h e a ve rage f o r k nown c ase s i s 1 . 7 s t ruc ture s p e r h ous eho ld u n i t . App ly ing t h is f i gure t o t h e 9 2 s t ruc tures i d en t i f ied i n 1 9 86 , w e d e r ive a n e s t ima te o f 5 4 h ouseho ld u n i t s f o r t he s i te . T h is e s t ima te c an b e q ue s t ioned , a nd t h e re a r e o the r c omp l ica t ing f a c to rs . S ome s t ruc tures may h ave b een m is iden t i f ied a s t e r races ( a l though t h e c onve r se i s a l so t r ue ) . F u the rmo re , n o t a l l h ouseho ld u n i t s w ere o ccup ied c on t inuous ly t h roughou t t he h i s to ry o f t h e s i te? S ome w e re b u i l t a top wha t h ad b een o pen s pace f o r a n u nde t e rm ined s pan o f t ime , a nd a t l e as t o ne h ouseho ld u n i t ( 2 1/2 1A/22 ) may h ave b een a bandoned w h i le t h e s i te w as s t i l l i nhab i ted .4 F ina l ly , h ous eho ld c ompo s i t ion , a nd t he re fo re h ouseho ld s i ze , a re s t i l l u nce r ta in .
4 08
G.CO NR AD A ND A.W E B S T E R ; HO U S EHO LD UN I T PA T T E RN IN G A T SA N AN TON IO
None the less , s e t t ing t hes e p rob lems a s ide a nd u s ing 5 4 h ouseho lds c omposed o f 4 8 i nd iv idua l s ( 2 -3 a du l t s ) a p iece , w e a r r ive a t a n e s t ima ted s i te p opu la t ion o f 2 16 -432 p eop le , w i th s ome th ing l i ke 1 00 150 a du l t s . Aga in , t he se f i gure s a re r ough a nd w i l l n eed t o b e c ompa red t o s ke le t a l d a ta , b u t t hey d o s ugge s t t ha t S an An ton io 's max i mu m p opu la t ion w as o n t h e o rde r o f af ew h undred p eop le . E conom ic S pec ia l iza t ion Ana ly s i s o f e xcava ted ma te r ia ls w i l l b e t h e b e s t s ou rce o f i n fo rma t ion o n e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s a t S an A n ton io . Howeve r , d ome s t ic a r ch i tec tu re d oes s ugges t t ha t e v idence o f e conom ic s pec ia l iza t ion among t he s i te 's h ouseho lds s hou ld b e e xpec ted . T he re i s p robab ly a f un c t iona l , a s w e l l a s f o rma l , d i f fe rence b e tween s imp le a nd c ompo s i t e h ouseho ld u n i t s . C ompo s i t e h ouseho ld u n i t s , w i th t he i r e n t ry c our t s a nd a pparen t ly u nroo fed a ux i l iary b u i ld ing s , wou ld h ave p rov ided o pen -a i r , s un l i t work s paces f o r av ar ie ty o f a c t iv i t ie s . I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t c ompo s i te h ouseho ld u n i t s w e re a s soc ia ted w i th f u l l - o r p ar t t ime c r a f t s pe c ia l iza t ion . I n c on t ras t , s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t s wou ld h ave b een c rowded , d im ly l i t wo rk q uar te r s -e spec ia l ly i ft he i r ma in r ooms w e re c omp le t e ly r oo fed . S imp le h ouseho ld u n i t s t ha t w e re b o rdered b y o the r s uch u n i t s a nd l a cked a d jacen t o pen -a i r wo rk s pace s ( f o r e xa mp le , H ouseho ld Un i t 2 7 , wh ich i s s u r rounded b y o the r h ouseho ld u n i t s o n t h ree s i des a nd a s t eep s l ope o n t h e f our th ) w e re p oo r ly s u i ted t o c r a f t p roduc t ion . T hey may h ave b een t he h ouses o f p eop le whose p r inc ipa l e conom ic a c t iv i ty w as c u l t iva t ing t he a g r icu l tu ra l t e r race s a round t h e s i te . S t i l l , i ti sp os s ib le t ha t a l l s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t s w e re n o t e qu iva len t , a nd t ha t s ome o f t hem m ay h ave b een u s ed f o r s pec ia l ized p roduc t ion . Househo ld Un i t 7 5/76 , t he l a rges t e x cava ted s imp le h ouseho ld u n i t , c on ta ined a u n ique d oub le -b in c ons t ruc t ion t ha t h ad s e en r epea ted e p isodes o f b urn ing ( F igure 5 , F ea tu re 3 3A -B ) . A l a ck o f b urn t f ood r ema in s i mp l ies t ha t t h is f e a tur e w as n o t ac ook ing o ven , a nd i t may h ave b een u sed f o r f i r ing p o t te ry . P e rhaps s o me o f t h e o ccupan t s o f Househo ld U n i t 7 5/76 w e re e ngaged i n s pe c ia l ized c e ram ic p roduc t ion . S t at us Ano the r way t o e xam ine S an A n ton io 's a r ch i tec ture i si n t e rm s o f s t atus d i f fe rences . S eve ra l l i ne s o f e v idence a rgue t h a t t he o ccupan t s o f S e c to r Iw e re o f h ighe r s t a tus t h an t h e i nhab i tan ts o f S e c to r I . L ikew ise , w i th in e ach s e c to r , t h e i nhab i tan t s o f t he w e s tern ( o r n or the rn ) s ubsec to r , I A o r IA , may h ave b een o f h ighe r s t atus t han t he o ccupan t s o f t h e c o r re spond ing e as te rn ( o r s ou the rn ) s ubsec to r , I B o r I B . I ft h e a b i l i ty t o a pp rop r ia te s pace i n ac ons t r ic ted s e t t ing i s a measu re o f s t a tus , t hen t h e i nhab i tan ts o f S e c to r I c l ea r ly o u t ranked t hose o f S ec to r I . T he 1 986 s urvey h ad i nd ica t ed t h a t S ec to r I w as mo re " spac ious " t h an S ec to r I ,i n t h e s ense t h a t S ec to r I c on ta ined mo re l a rge s t ruc tur es a nd mo re o pen t e r race s ( Bo r s te l e ta l . , t h is v o lume ) . T he 1 987 e x cava t ions a nd s urvey c on f irmed t h is i n terp re ta t ion . T ab le 3 l i s ts t he f l oo r a reas o f t he h ouseho ld u n i t s d e f ined i n 1 987 . Househo ld u n i t s i n S ec to r I r ange f r om 5 4 t o 1 40 m 2;o n ly o ne o f t h e s i x ( 1 7% ) h as h as a f l oo r a rea u nde r 6 0 m2. T he r ange f o r S e c to r Ii s3 1 -86 m2;n ine o f t he t h i r teen h ouseho ld u n i t s
4 09
ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2 0
( 6 9% ) h ave f l oo r a reas o f 6 0 r n2 o r l e ss . T he m ean f l oor a r ea o f h ouseho ld u n i t s i n S ec tor I i s8 4 m2. T he c o r respond ing f i gure f o r S e c to r Ii s5 9 m 2,f u l ly 2 5 r n2 l e ss . E xcava ted d a ta r e in fo rce t h e p robab i l i ty t h a t S ec to r I w as o f h ighe r s t atus t h an S ec tor I . I n g ene ra l , t he e xcava ted h ouseho ld u n i t i n S ec to r I , Househo ld Un i t 7 5/76 , s howed b e t te r q ua l i ty c ons t ruc t ion t han e xcava ted h ouseho ld u n i ts i n S e c to r I . T he w a l ls o f Househo ld Un i t 7 5/76 h ad a g rea te r p ropo r t ion o f a r t i f ica l ly s haped s t ones a nd mo re t i gh t ly f i t ted masonry t han t he ir c oun terpar ts i n S e c to r I . F ur thermo re , H ouseho ld U n i t 7 5/76 h ad t h e d enses t c oncen t ra t ion s o f h igh -s ta tus g oods a nd e xo t ic i t ems -deco ra ted s he rds , me ta l f o i ls , j a spe r f l akes , p e r fo ra ted mar ine s he l ls , a nd t he l i ke -encoun te red d ur ing t he e xcava t ions .
S ubsector
Household Unit
I A
2 1/21A/22 3 9 4 0/41
I B
2 3
F loor Area 8 6 5 9 7 6
2 4/25 2 6 2 7
5 7 6 0 3 1 3 3
2 8/29
3 2
3 2/33/34 3 7/38 5 0
8 5 8 5 5 8 5 2 4 8
5 5/56 5 7/58 I IA
I IIA
4 4/45/46/D 4 7 7 2 7 5/76 9 0/91/BF 9 5/BE
( m 2)
1 40 6 8 6 8 1 02 7 3 5 4
9 3/94
7 9
T ab le 3 . F loo r A reas o f Househo ld Un i ts .
F ina l ly , S ec to r Is pans t he c en t ra l a nd h ighes t p ar t o f S an An ton io . I ta l so c on ta ins as pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing ( 8 7/AS ) t e n ta t ive ly i den t i f ied a s t h e o f f ice o f t h e s et t lemen t 's c h ie f a dm in is t ra to r . B y a l l o f t hese measures—mo re o pen s pace , l a rge r h ouseho ld u n i t s , h ighe r q ua l i ty o f c ons t ruc t ion , g rea ter a ccess t o p re s t ig ious g oods , c ommand ing l o ca t ion , a nd p oss ib le a dm in is t ra t ive f a c i l i t ies -Sec to r Io u t ranked S ec to r I . S im i lar l i nes o f e v idence a rgue t ha t w i th in e ach s e c to r , o ne s ubsec to r ( A ) o u t ranked t he o ther ( B ) . Aga in , h ouseho ld u n i t f l oo r a reas a r e i nd ica t ive ( Tab le 3 ) . No d e f in i te h ouseho ld u n i t s w e re i den t i f ied i n S ubsec to r I B , a nd c ompar isons w i th IA a r e n o t p oss ib le . However , t he f l oor a reas o f h ouseho ld u n i t s i n S ubsec tor I A r ange f r om 5 9 t o 8 6 m 2; o n ly o ne h ouseho ld u n i t ( 3 3% ) h as a f l oo r a r ea u nde r 6 0 m2. T he r ange f o r 4 10
G.CO N RAD A ND A . WE B S T E R ; HO U S EHO LD UN I T PA T T E RN IN G A T SA N AN TON IO
S ubse c to r I B i s3 1 -85 r n2,w i th e i gh t o f t he 1 0 h ouseho ld u n i t s ( 8 0% ) h av ing f l oo r a reas o f 6 0 m2 o r l e s s . T he mean f l oor a r ea o f h ouseho ld u n i t s i n I A i s7 4 m2;t h e mean f o r I B i s5 4 m2,o r 2 0 m2 l e s s . F ur thermo re , a l l k nown c ompo s i te h ouseho ld u n i t s a nd s pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing s l i e i n S ubsec to r s I A a nd IA . No e xamp les o f e i the r a r ch i te c tu ra l c l as s w e re f ound i n I B o r I B . A ga in , i f f l oo r a reas , c ompo s i te h ouseho lds , a nd s pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing s a re i nd ica to r s o f s t a tus , t hen i n b o th S e c to r s Ia nd I t h e i nhab i tan t s o f S ubse c to r A w ere o f h ighe r s t a tus t h an t hose o f S ubsec to r B . S ec to r I I s t ands a pa r t f r om t h is d i s cus s ion . I t c ons is t s l a rge ly o f o pen t e r races , c on ta ins o n ly o ne k nown h ouseho ld u n i t , a nd h as a d iv is ion i n to s ubsec tor s t h a t i s f a r l e s s c e r ta in t han t h a t o f S e c to r s Ia nd I . S e c to r I I w as p robab ly b o th f o rma l ly a nd f unc t iona l ly d i s t inc t f r om Ia nd I , a nd i t may n o t h ave b een a r e s iden t ia l z one . T he a va i lab le d a ta d o n o t a l low S e c to r I t o b e r anked i n r e la t ion t o t h e o the r s , a nd t he q ue s t ion i t se l f may w e l l b e i r r e levan t o r mean ing le ss . I n s u mmary , t h e e v iden ce a t h and a rgue s t ha t t he i nhab i tan t s o f S ec to r I w e re o f h ighe r s t a tus t h an t ho se o f S e c to r I , wh i le i n e ach c ase t h e o ccupan t s o f S ubsec to r A w e re o f h ighe r s t a tus t han t hose o f S ubse c to r B . T ha t i s , s u r face a r ch i tec tura l d a ta , s uppo r ted b y e xcava t ion r e su l t s , t e n ta t ive ly i d en t i fy f our s t a tus g roups a t S an A n ton io . R anked i n d es cend ing o rde r , t hose g roup s w e re t h e i nhab i tan t s o f S ubse c to r s HA , I B , I A , a nd I B . D ua l O rgan iza t ion T he f our -par t r ank ing d i scus sed a bove i sc ong ruen t w i th l a te p reh is to r ic a nd h i s to r ic C en t ra l A ndean s o c iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion . A d om inan t t h eme i n r e cen t e thnoh is tor ica l s t ud ies o f Andean s o c ie t ie s i st h e p reva lence o f d ua l o rgan iza t ion . T h roughou t t h e a r ea c on tac t -pe r iod s o c ie t ie s w e re d iv ided i n to mo ie t ie s , w i th o ne mo ie ty r ank ing a bove t he o the r . F ur the rmo re , e ach mo ie ty w as i t se l f d iv ided i n to r anked mo ie t ie s ; i n t heo ry t h is d ua l d iv is ion p e rmea ted a l l l e ve ls o f o rgan iza t ion . T he r e su l t w as a s o c ia l a nd p o l i t ica l h i e ra r chy o f n e s ted d ua l i t ie s : .po l i t ie s a t a l l l e ve ls w e re c harac te r ized b y wha t may b e c a l led a d ua l c o rpo ra te o rgan iza t ion i n wh ich b ounded , n amed s o c ia l g roup s a t l owe r l e ve ls o f o rgan iza t ion w ere i n teg ra ted i n to h igher l e ve ls b y mean s o f a s e r ies o f r anked mo ie t ie s , h eaded b y p e rsonage s w e may t e rm h eadmen , l o rds , o r p aramoun t r u ler s a cco rd ing t o t h e ir h i erarch ica l p o s i t ion . A t e ve ry l e ve l i n t h is o rgan iza t iona l s t ruc ture , e ach u n i t c an i dea l ly b e s ubd iv ided i n to t wo u nequa l , s ubo rd ina te g roup s ( Ne the r ly 1 984 :230 ) .5
S an A n ton io 's a r ch i te c tu re c an b e r e ad i ly i n te rpre ted a s r ef le c t ing a p a t te rn o f n e s ted d ua l i t ie s . T he r e s iden t ia l z one o f t h e s i te i sc harac te r ized b y aq uadr ipa r t i t ion i n wh ich t wo m a jo r s ec to r s a re e ach s ubd iv ided i n to t wo s ubsec to r s . A r ch i tec tura l a nd a r t i fac tua l d i f fe rences a rgue t ha t t h ese d iv is ions a re h i e rar ch ica l , i mp ly ing a s o c iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion c omposed o f t wo r anked g roup s , e ach o f wh ich w as i t se l f d iv ided i n to t wo s ma l le r r anked s ubg roup s . S pe c i f ica l ly , S e c to r s Ia nd I wou ld c o r re spond t o mo ie t ies o f S an A n ton io 's p opu la t ion a s a who le . S ec to r I wou ld r epres en t t he u ppe r ( s upe ro rd ina te ) mo ie ty a nd S e c to r It he l owe r ( s ubo rd ina te ) mo ie ty . S ubse c to r d iv is ions wou ld c o r respond t o mo ie t ie s o f mo ie t ie s . I n e ach c ase , t he i nhab i tan t s o f S ubsec to r A wou ld b e a n u pper , 4 11
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 2 0
s uperord ina te mo ie ty o f t he l a rge r mo ie ty , wh i le t hose o f S ubsec to r B wou ld b e al ower , s ubo rd ina te mo ie ty w i th in t he l a rge r mo ie ty . I n d escend ing o rde r , t he o ve ra l l h i erar chy wou ld b e S ubsec to r IA ( uppe r mo ie ty o f t he u ppe r mo ie ty ) , I B ( l owe r mo ie ty o f t he u ppe r mo ie ty ) , I A ( uppe r mo ie ty o f t he l owe r mo ie ty ) , a nd I B ( l ower mo ie ty o f t h e l owe r mo ie ty ) .6 L owe r leve l d ua l d iv is ions w i th in t hese g roups a re t heo re t ica l ly p oss ib le b u t n o t i mmed ia te ly r e cogn izab le f r om S an An ton io 's a r ch i tec ture , a t l e as t a t p resen t . E ach o f t h ese f our g roups wou ld h ave b een s upe rv ised b y al o rd o r h eadman , a nd i t may b e p os s ib le t o a s so c ia te s pe c i f ic h ouseho ld u n i t s a nd s pec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing s w i th s ome o f t h ese i nd iv idua ls . I n S ubsec to r IA t he l a rge s t h ouseho ld u n i t , a nd t h e o n ly c ompos i te o ne , i s 4 4/45/46/D . S ubsec to r IA a l so c on ta ins S pec ia l -Purpose B u i ld ing 8 7/AS , wh ich may h ave h ad a n a dm in is t ra t ive f un c t ion . T hese a r ch i tec tura l c omp lexes may h ave b een t he h ome a nd o f f ice , r e spec t ive ly , o f t he p aramoun t l e ader o f S an An ton io , t he l o rd o f t he u ppe r mo ie ty . L ikew ise , t he l a rges t h ouseho ld u n i t i n S ubsec to r I A , Househo ld Un i t 2 1/2 1A/22 , i s a l so t ha t s ubsec to r 's o n ly k nown c ompos i te h ouseho ld u n i t . I t may h ave b een t he r e s idence o f t he l o rd o f t h e l owe r mo ie ty . R es idence s o f t he l o rds o r h eadmen o f e ach mo ie ty 's l owe r mo ie ty a r e h arde r t o i den t ify . S ince h ouseho ld u n i t s c ou ld n o t b e d e f ined f o r S ubsec to r I B f r om s ur face e v idence , t he re i sn o o bv ious c and ida te f o r t he h ouse o f al e ade r . S ubsec tor I B c on ta ins t wo c and ida tes , Househo ld Un i t s 3 2/33/34 a nd 3 7/38 , wh ich a re t i ed f o r t he p os i t ion o f u n i t w i th t h e l a rges t f l oo r a rea i n t he s ubsec to r ( a t 8 5 m2 a p iece ) . Househo ld Un i t 3 2/33/34 i st h ree t iered , wh i le 3 7/38 i s t wo t ie red , b u t i ti sn o t c l ear t ha t t h is d i s t inc t ion h as a ny s oc ia l s i gn i f icance . I ti s , o f c our se , p oss ib le t o q ues t ion t he i n terpre ta t ion o f S an An ton io 's a r ch i tec ture a s ar ef lec t ion o f n es ted d ua l d iv is ion s . I n f a c t , t he f i t b e tween a r ch i tec tura l p a t te rn a nd e thnoh is to r ica l ly r e cons t ruc ted s o c iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion i ss o n ea t a s t o b e i mmed ia te ly s usp ic ious . One c omp l ica t ion i s t he p resence o f S ec to r I I a nd i t s own amb iguous d iv is ion i n to s ubsec to rs . S ec tor I I a ppears t o b e p r imar i ly n on res iden t ia l ; p erhaps , a s i n t he c ase o f s t a tus , i ts hou ld b e l e f t o u t o f d i scuss ion s o f s o c iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion . A l te rna t ive ly , t r ipar t i t ion d id c o -occur w i th d ua l d iv is ion i n s ome e thnoh is to r ica l ly d ocu men ted Andean s o c ie t ies ( Ne the r ly 1 984 :230 ; Z u idema 1 964 ) . Howeve r , u n t i l S ec to r I I i sb e t te r u nders tood , n es ted d ua l d iv is ion a t S an An ton io s hou ld n o t b e c ons ide red p roven . I t i s a l so p oss ib le t o c l a im t h a t S an An ton io 's s e c to rs a nd s ubsec to r s a re b e t te r i n te rpre ted a s e v idence o f s t a tus d i f fe rences a nd e conom ic s pec ia l iza t ion , r a the r t h an d ua l o rgan iza t ion . T h is o b jec t ion i s l e ss t r oub l ing , b ecause i n t he Andes d ua l d iv is ion c omb ines s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l , e conom ic , a nd r e l ig ious f unc t ions ( Ne ther ly 1 984 :231 ) . S t a tus d i f fe rences , e conom ic s pec ia l izat ion , a nd n es ted d ua l o rgan izat ion a re n o t n ecessar i ly c ompe t ing a l te rna t ives : t hey c ou ld h ave r e in fo rced o ne a no the r . P e rhaps mo re s i gn i f ican t ly , w e n eed t o make a d i s t inc t ion b e tween i d ea l a nd r e a l r e s idence p a t terns . S an An ton io 's s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion may h ave b een
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C.CO N RAD A ND A . WE B S T E R ; HO U S EHO LD UN I T PA T T E RN IN G A T SA N AN TON IO
c ha ra c te r ized b y mu l t ip le , h i e rar ch ica l d ua l d iv is ions , a nd t he s i te 's o r ig ina l l a you t may h ave r ef lec ted t hose d iv is ions . E ven s o , t he re i sn o g ua ran tee t ha t mo ie t ie s a nd mo ie t ie s o f mo ie t ies wou ld h ave r ema ined s pa t ia l ly s eg r ega ted t h roughou t t h e s i te 's o c cupa t iona l h i s to ry . A s w e d iscus sed p rev iou s ly , d es cen t a nd i nhe r i tance a t S an A n ton io may h ave b een r e ckoned b i la tera l ly . L ee Home 's ( 1 982 ) .s t udy o f a mode rn I r an ian v i l lage s how s h ow b i la te ra l d es cen t a nd i nhe r i tance c an l e ad t o ar ap id d i sper sa l o f o nce loca l ized g roups w i th in a s e t t lemen t . I n f a c t , u n i l inea l d es cen t a nd i nher i tance c an h ave t h e s ame e f fe c t ( Adam s 1 983 ; M inde le f f 1 900 ) . E ven i f S an A n ton io w as o r ig ina l ly p l anned t o a ccomoda te l o ca l ized mo ie t ie s a nd mo ie t ies o f mo ie t ie s , a nd e ven i fs pa t ia l s eg rega t ion o f s ubg roups was ma in ta ined a s a n i dea l , a t a ny g iven t ime t h e a c tua l p a t te r n s o f owne r sh ip a nd r e s idence may h ave b een c ons ide rab ly mo re c omp lex . ' We a r e l e f t , t h en , w i th a no the r wo rk ing h ypo the s is . S an An ton io 's r e s iden t ia l a r ch i te c tu re may e xpres s a n i d ea l o f n es t ed d ua l o rgan iza t ion , c omp l ica ted b y s h i f t ing p a t te rn s o f owne r sh ip a nd r e s idence . T h is h ypo the s is s t i l l n eeds t o b e t e s ted a ga in s t a r ch i te c tu ra l , a r t i fac tua l , a nd s ke le t a l d a ta , b u t i td oe s p rov ide a f r amewo rk f o r f u ture r e s ear ch q ues t ions .
C on c lus ion T he h ouseho ld u n i t h as p roven t o b e au se fu l a na ly t ica l t o o l f o r i d en t i fy ing p o s s ib le s o c iopo l i t ica l r e la t ion s w i th in t h e s i te o f S an A n ton io . T he r e cogn i t ion o f h ouseho ld u n i t s h a s e nab led u s t o make t e n ta t ive i n te rp re ta t ion s o f h ouseho ld c ompo s i t ion a nd e s t ima tes o f t he s i te 's p opu la t ion . C on s idera t ion o f p a t te rned v ar ia t ion among h ouseho ld u n i t s h as g ene ra ted h ypo thes es a bou t e conom ic s pe c ia l iz a t ion , s t a tus d i f fe rence s , a nd d ua l o rgan iza t ion . A l l o f t h ese p re l im inary a na lyse s c an g u ide f u ture r e search a t t he s i te . Mo reove r , t h is i n t ras i te i n fo rma t ion c an l e ad t o u se fu l c ompa ra t ive a na ly ses o f o the r s i tes i n t h e Moquegua r eg ion . D e ta i led k now ledge o f S an A n ton io 's a r ch i tec tura l p a t te rn ing o f fer s ab ase l ine f o r s pec i f ic c ompar isons w i th o the r E s tuqu i i ia -phase s i tes . D iach ron ic t r ends c an a l so b e r e cogn ized , d es c r ibed , a nd i n te rpre ted . W i th mo re c ompa ra t ive , h ous eho ld u n i t -based d a t a , t h e r e la t ions w i th in a nd b e tween s i te s c an b e f u r the r e xp lo red , a nd i n t u rn , b e t te r u nde r s tood .
No tes 1 . T he 1 986 s urvey a s s igned S t ruc ture s 2 0 , 2 1 , a nd 2 t o as i ng le b lo ck . S t ruc ture 2 1A w as d i s cove red d ur ing t he 1 987 e xcava t ion s , a s w as t h e f a c t t h a t S t ruc ture 2 0 w as a l a te r c ons t ruc t ion f o rm ing a s epa ra te b lo ck ( F igure 2 ) . 2 . S i x o the r i nd iv idua l s t ruc tu re s -59 , 6 3 , 6 4 , 6 9 , 7 0 , a nd 7 1 re semb led S t ruc ture 2 1 a nd may h ave b een p lazas o r c ou r t s . However , n one o f t h ese s t ruc tu res , e i the r i nd iv idua l ly o r i n c omb ina t ion , f o rmed a n a r ch i tec tura l b lo ck a s d e term ined b y t he 1 986 w a l l b ond
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 2 0
s t udy . h e re .
Hence t hey d o n o t f i t t h e f o rma l d e f in i t ion o f " spec ia l -purpose b u i ld ing " u sed
3 . S an An ton io 's o ccupa t ion s panned t he L a te I n termed ia te P er iod E s tuqu if ia p hase a nd t he L a te Hor izon E s tuqu if ia Inka p hase , c a . A .D . 1 200 1540 . I nka a nd I nka r e la ted s he rds w e re f ound i n t he e xcava ted s pe c ia l -purpose b u i ld ing , S t ruc ture 2 0 . C ur ren t ly t here a re t wo C 14 d a tes f o r t h e s i te . A s a mp le f r om Househo ld U n i t 2 8/29 y i e lded a r ad iocarbon a ge o f 6 50 + 5 0 y ear s : A .D . 1 300 ( Be ta -22438 ; c a l ib ra ted d a te A .D . 1 3 15 ) . A s a mp le f r om S t ruc ture 2 0 , f ound i n t he s a me c on tex t a s s o me I nka s he rds , h ad a r ad io carbon a ge o f 3 70 + 8 0 y ears : A .D . 1 580 ( Be ta -22437 ; c a l ib ra ted d a te A .D . 1 470 1500 ) . T he re i s a l so o ne c l ear s t ra t ig raph ic t ime -marke r a t S an An ton io : al a yer o f f i ne v o lcan ic a sh p resumab ly d epo s i ted b y t he e rup t ion o f Huaynapu t ina i n A .D . 1 600 . I n a l l e xcava ted a reas o f t he s i te t he re w as c ons ide rab ly mo re r ubb le f r om t he c o l lap se o f w a l ls b e low t he Huaynaput ina a sh l a ye r t han a bove i t . H ence i ts eems t ha t S an A n ton io h ad b een a bandoned a nd was a l ready i n r u ins b y A .D . 1 600 . 4 . Househo ld Un i t s 2 1/21A/22 , 2 7 , a nd 2 8/29 w e re b u i l t o ve r p re -ex is t ing E s tuqu i t ia -phase t ombs ( F igure 1 ,T ombs 5 ,7 ,9 , 1 0 ; F igure 3 ,T ombs 2 ,3 ) . A t s ome p o in t t he d oo r t o t h e h ouse ( S truc ture 2 1A ) i n Househo ld U n i t 2 1/21A/22 w as s ea led ( F igure 1 ) . T h is s ea l ing may h ave t a ken p lace when t h e s i te i t se l f w as a bandoned , o r i t may h ave h appened e ar l ie r . 5 . T he l i te ra ture o n d ua l o rgan iza t ion i n Andean s o c ie t ies i s e x tens ive . F o r ar e cen t r ev iew s ee Ne the r ly ( 1 984 :229 -234 ) . T he q uo ta t ion c i ted h e re r e fe r s t o t he n or thern c oas t o f P eru , b u t e xp l ic i t ly d es c r ibes n o r th c oas t s oc ie t ies a s s pec i f ic e xamp les o f a g ene ra l Andean p a t t ern ( Ne the r ly 1 984 :230 ) . 6 . T h is 1 2 -3 -4 r ank ing may o ver s imp l i fy t h e r ea l s i tua t ion . I n t heo ry , a l l membe rs o f t he u ppe r mo ie ty wou ld o u t rank a l l membe rs o f t h e l ower mo ie ty s o c ia l ly ; t he l ower mo ie ty o f t he u ppe r mo ie ty ( Subsec to r I B ) wou ld o u t rank t he u pper mo ie ty o f t he l ower mo ie ty ( Subsec to r I A ) . Howeve r , i n s t ra t if ied Andean s o c ie t ie s mo ie ty d iv is ions w ere c ross -cu t b y c l ass d is t inc t ions , wh ich made t he a c tua l s o c ia l r ank ing o f i nd iv idua ls c ons ide rab ly mo re c omp lex . F ur thermo re , mo ie t ies a nd mo ie t ies o f mo ie t ie s r ep resen ted d i f fe ren t l e ve ls o f t he p o l it ica l d ec is ion -mak ing h ie rarchy a nd d ea l t w i th d i f fe ren t s e t s o f i s sues . H ence i t wou ld b e m is lead ing t o s ay t ha t t h e l ower mo ie ty o f t he u ppe r mo ie ty ( Subsec to r I B ) was s upe r io r t o t he u ppe r mo ie ty o f t he l ower mo ie ty ( Subsec to r I A ) , a t l e as t i n t e rms o f t he p o l i t ica l p owe r h e ld b y s pe c i f ic i nd iv idua ls . I n C o lon ia l t imes t he mo s t i mpo r tan t d ec is ions a f fec t ing t h e p o l i ty a s a who le r equ ired t h e p aramoun t l o rds o f t h e u ppe r a nd l ower mo ie t ies t o a c t i n c once r t ( c f . Ne the r ly 1 984 :23 1) . I n t h a t s ense t h e p aramoun t l o rd o f t he l owe r mo ie ty was t he s econd mos t p owe r fu l member o f t he p o l i ty . 7 . We w an t t o t hank R ichard W i lk f o r p o in t ing o u t t he n eed t o d i s t ingu ish b e tween i dea l a nd r e a l r e s idence p a t te rns , e spec ia l ly i n as i te l i ke S an A n ton io , whose o ccupa t ion s panned t h ree c en tur ies o r mo re . T heo re t ica l ly , b y t he t ime S an A n ton io h ad b een e s tab l ished f o r s eve ra l h undred y ear s , e ve ry r e s iden t c ou ld h ave h ad s ome l e ga l c l a im t o e very h ouse i n t h e s i te .
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Dua l S ys te ms o f I nka Agr icu l tura l P roduc t ion : E v idence f ro m t he Os more Dra inage , S ou thern P eru J ame s E . Ma thew s D ep ar tm en t o fA n thr opo logy U n iv e r s i ty o fC h i c ag o
I nt roduc t ion
Ag r icu l tura l t e r rac ing i s a n i mpo r tan t c ha rac te r is t ic o f p reh ispan ic c u l ture s i n t he A ndean m id -s ie r ra . Ag r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion i n t h e a r id v a l leys o f t h e r eg ion , e spec ia l ly i n t he s ou th -cen t ra l Andes , wou ld b e i mpo s s ib le w i thou t a r t i f ic ia l i r r iga t ion . E x ten s ive i r r iga t ion p ro jec t s h i s to r ica l ly h ave b e en p e r ce ived a s i nd ica to r s o f a h igh l e ve l o f s o c io -po l i t ica l d eve lopmen t d ue t o t h e n eed f o r c omp lex managemen t o f s uch f a c to r s a s p l ann ing , c ons t ruc t ion , o pe ra t ion , ma in tenance , a nd h arves t ing o f t e r rac ing s ys tems , a s w e l l a s t h e s ubsequen t d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e ir p roduc t s . T he a s sump t ion i s t h a t o n ly a c omp lex s oc ie ty w i th a h igh ly -deve loped a dm in is t ra t ive c l as s wou ld b e c apab le o f p rov id ing i n tens ive s uppo r t t o s uch p ro je c t s . E a r ly s cho la r s o f i r r iga t ion s o c ie t ie s p o s tu la ted s pec i f ic c ourse s o f c u ltura l e vo lu t ion wou ld t a ke p lace i n ai r r iga t ion s o c ie t ie s b ased o n t h is n eed f o r managemen t o f i r r iga t ion s ys tem s ( e .g . W i t t foge l 1 957 ) . T ha t t h e I nka i mpe r ia l s t a te p o s se s sed a n e l abo ra te b ur eauc ra t ic a dm in is t ra t ive n e two rk i sw e l l -do cumen ted b y t he S pan ish c hron ic le r s , i n e thnoh is tor ica l s our ces , a nd i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . C omp lex b ureauc racy i so f ten c i ted a s o ne o f t h e d iagno s t ic c harac t e r i s t ics o f t h e I nka s t a te , mo re s o t h an t h e i r Mesoamer ican c on tempo rar ies . Y e t t h e I nk a w ere h a rd ly t h e f i r s t i mpe r ia l p o l i ty t o e me rge i n t h e Andes . R ecen t r e sea r ch h as d emon s tra ted t he e x i s ten ce o f r equ is i te a g r icu l tura l managemen t s ys tem s a t T iwanaku d ur ing t h e M idd le H o r izon , a nd p e rhaps e ven e ar l ie r ( Ko la ta 1 986 ) . T he re i s a l so p l en t i fu l e v idence f o r t h e s urv iva l o f m any a spe c t s o f t h e se o rgan iza t iona l s y s tem s
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E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRAINAGE - C hap t e r 2 1
i n t he i mper ia l h i a tus o f t he L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod . A dd i t iona l ly , much h as b een made o f t he f a c t t h a t d ur ing t h e p er iod o f I nka e xpans ion , t h e I nka o f ten i n co rpo ra ted a spe c t s o f t he s oc io -po l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion o f c onque red s o c ie t ies i n to t h e i r own b u reauc ra t ic s ys tem , i n p ar t o r i n f u l l ( e .g . Hy s lop 1 976 ; Menze l 1 959 ; Mu r ra 1 986 ; P ea se 1 979 , 1 985 ; Wach te l 1 982 ) . I n p ar t , a s ar e su l t o f s uch i n co rpo ra t ive p rac t ices , i t may b e p o s tu la ted t ha t I nka s ys tem s o f a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion , e spec ia l ly a dm in i s t ra t ive c omponen t s , m ay m an i fe s t t wo o r mo re d is t inc t y e t c o -ex is t ing o rgan iza t iona l p r inc ip le s wh ich r ef lec t mu l t ip le f unc t iona l r equ iremen t s b rough t a bou t a s ar e su l t o f I nka i mpe r ia l e xpan s ion . S u ch a d ua l s ys tem o f a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion i si mp l ic i t ly p o s tu la ted b y Mur r a ( 1 960 ) , b u t t h e i dea i s i n comp le te ly d eve loped . Mo re r e cen t ly , L a L one a nd L a L one ( 1 987 ) h ave o f fe red a mo re s pe c i f ic h ypo the s is a s t o t h e e xac t n a ture o f d ua l I nka a dm in is t r a t ive s ys tems , i n t h e i r t r ea tmen t o f I nka a dm in is t ra t ive a nd p roduc t ion " enc lave s . " T h is p ape r w i l l r ev iew s ome o f t he e ar ly S pan ish o bse rva t ion s o f t h e I nka a g r icu l tu r a l p rodu c t ion s ys tem s , i n t e rm s o f b o th t e chno logy a nd s o c io -po l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion , a nd e xa m ine h ow t he se c h ron ic le s a f fec ted s ubsequen t i n t erp re ta t ions . T he v i ab i l i ty o f t he h ypo thes i s o f a d ua l s y s tem o f o rgan iza t ion , s uch a s t h e mode l p u t f o r th b y L a L one a nd L a L one , w i l l t hen b e e xam ined i n c on junc t ion w i th d a ta o n t h e I nka r e la t ion s w i th c on tempo ra ry p o l i t ie s eme rg ing f r om d i s t in c t L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod t r ad i t ion s i n O smo re . S pec i f ica l ly , t hese d a ta d e r ive f r om p re l im ina ry a na lyse s o f i r r iga ted t e r race s y s t em s a s soc ia ted w i th a L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod/ Ink a s e t t lemen t s ys tem l o ca ted i n t h e C hu ju lay a nd T o ra t a V a l ley s i n t h e Uppe r Moquegua r eg ion . Two S ubsys tems o f t he I nka Ag r icu l tu ra l P roduc t ion S ys tem T he i d ea p roposed b y Mur ra t h a t t wo s ys tem s o f a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion e x i s ted u nde r t h e I nka i mpe r ia l s t a te ( 1 960 :40 1 ) i sa n i n t r igu ing o ne , a nd o ne wh ich may a s s is t i n t he c l a r i f ica t ion o f s eve ra l l i t t le inves t iga ted p henomena r egard ing t h e a g r icu l tur a l / e conom ic d ynam ic s o f I nka e xpans ion . Wh i le Mu r ra d oe s n o t g o i n to d e ta i l r ega rd ing t h is p ropo s i t ion , t h e u nde r ly ing p r inc ip le s s e em t o b e a s f o l low s . T he f i r s t s ub -sy s tem i sc ompr ised o f t h a t s e t o f e xchange s wh ich f o rmed t he b a s i s o f t r ad i t iona l s ys tems o f r e c ip ro c i ty d a t ing t o v e ry e a r ly t ime s i n Andean c u l ture h i s to ry ( Mur ra 1 964 , 1 980 ) . I n t h is s ub -sy s tem , c ommun it ie s o b t a in n on lo ca l p roduc t s i n e xchange f o r l o ca l p roduc t s u nob ta inab le e l sewhe re . T he s y s tem i s p red ica ted o n t he e x is tence o f d i s t in c t e nv ironmen ta l z one s s paced w i th in v e ry s ho r t h o r izon ta l d i s t ance s wh ich c ha rac te r ize s t he w e s te rn s l ope o f t h e A ndean c o rd i l le ra . A l though i t i s mo s t w ide ly a ccep ted t h a t e co log ica l c o lon iza t ion i s t h e d om inan t mechan i sm f o r s e cur ing v er t ica l c on t ro l ( e conom ic c omp lemen ta r i ty ) , a l te rn a te s y s tems o f e xchange s hou ld n o t b e r u led o u t . T h is t ype o f e xchange n e two rk a lowed f o r i n c reased c ommun i ty r e s i l iency t o a dver se o r f l uc tua t ing e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s , i n t h a t i n adequa te y i e lds o f o ne z one c ou ld b e c ompensa ted b y p roduc t s f r om a no the r u na f fe c ted b y m ic ro c l ima t ic c hange s i nf luen c ing t he f i r s t r eg ion , a t l e as t o n as e asona l b as is , a nd p o ss ib ly f o r l onge r p e r iods o f t ime . R ecen t r e sear ch h as s ugge s ted t ha t s uch t r ad i t iona l o rgan izat iona l s y s tem s w e re i n c reas ing ly u nab le t o mee t t h e r equ iremen t s o f t h e I nka e xpans ion is t s t a te d ur ing t he l a te r y ear s o f t he emp ire . F o r e xamp le , Mur ra h imse l f h as r e cen t ly s ugge s ted t h a t t he d ynam ics o f I nka e xpans ion o u t s t r ipped t h e a b i l i ty o f t r ad i t iona l s y s tems t o p rov ide
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J . MA TH EW S ; DU A L SY S T EM S O FI N K A AG R I CU L TU RA L PR ODUC T ION
s o ld ie r s f o r t he I nka a rm ie s ( Mur ra 1 986 :53 ) . A s t he s y s tem o f o b l iga to ry m i t 'a l abo r b ecame i n adequa te f o r f u l f i l lm en t o f t hese p e rsonne l r equ i remen t s , t he I nka p romo ted a n ew o rg an iza t iona l s ys tem i n wh ich c e r ta in e thn ic g roup s w e re a s s igned t o p rov ide s o ld ie r s f o r t he I nka o n ap e rmanen t b as is , a nd w e re e xcused f r om o the r o b l iga t ions ( Mu rra 1 9 86 :53 -4 ) . T he d emands i mp l ic i t i n t he ma in tenance o f a n a rmy o f c onque s t may h ave c on t r ibu ted t o ac o r re spond ing f a i lure o f t he t r ad i t iona l s ys tem s o f a gr icu l tu ra l t r ibu te , a nd t hus h e lped t o i mp lemen t t he s e cond s ub -sy s tem o f I nka a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion . " Mob i l iz a t ion o f a mas s ive a rmy c r ea ted f o rm idab le f ood d emands , wh i le s imu l taneous ly r emov ing t r ibu te p aye r s f r om f ood p roduc t ion " ( La L one a nd L a L one 1 987 :47 -48 ) . T h is f a c t , c omb ined w i th t ha t o f t h e s e l f ma in t a inence o f t he s t a te d ependen t o n t he r egu la r p rodu c t ion o f al a rge s urp lu s ( e .g . Mu r ra 1 960 :399 ) , s eems t o h ave b rough t a bou t a s econd s ub sys tem o f a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion d evo ted who l ly t o p rov id ing t h is s urp lus ( La L one a nd L a L one 1 987 :48 ) . T h is s urp lus w as u sed f o r av a r ie ty o f s t a te p urpo ses , n o t t he l e as t o f wh ich w as t h e ma in tenance o f t he a rmy . B o th s y s tems o f p roduc t ion i nvo lved t h e u se o f l o ca l a nd r e lo ca ted p opu la t ions a s m i t ima e s . Howeve r , i n t h a t t h is u se w as s l igh t ly d i f fe ren t i n e ach o f t h e t wo s ub s ys tem s , t h e d is cus s ion o f m i t ima e s w i l l b e r e se rved f o r t he s e c t ion o f t h is p ape r wh ich d ea ls w i th o rgan iza t iona l p r inc ip le s . Due t o e nv i ronmen ta l c on s t ra in t s , h oweve r , b o th s ub -sy s t ems u t i l ized t h e s ame ma te r ia l t e chno logy o f a g r icu l tura l i n tens i f ica t ion a nd p rodu c t ion . A ma jo r c ons t i tuen t o f t h is t e chno logy w as i r r iga ted t e r rac ing .
I r r iga ted T er race Ag r icu l tu ra l T echno logy i n t he Andes T he d eg ree t o wh ich t h e f i r s t S pan ia rds t o r e ach t h e I nka emp ire w ere i mpressed w i th t h e i nd igenous i r r iga ted t e r rac ing s y s tems i s e v idenced i n t he n ame t h ey g ave t o t he moun ta in r ange o ccup ied b y t he I nka , t he A nde s , f r om a nd en e s , mean ing p la t fo rm s ( Donk in 1 979 :19 ) . A n a l te rna t ive t heo ry h o lds t h a t t he n ame c ome s f r om " Andesuyu , " t he e as t e rn q ua r te r o f t he e mp ire o f T awan t in suyu . Mur ra w r i te s t ha t t oge the r w i th t he I nka m onu men t s a nd r o ad n e two rk , " t he s ys tem o f i r r iga t ion w as o ne o f t he t e chno log ica l ma rve ls o f t h e N ew Wo r ld wh ich w as d es c r ibed b y t he E uropean s i n t he Ande s " ( Mur ra 1 978 :52 ) . ' C ieza r e cogn ized t ha t t e r rac ing s ys tems w e re c l o se ly c or re la ted w i th t h e l a ck o f r a in fa l l i n t h e r eg ion , e spe c ia l ly i n t h e s ou the rn a r eas ; " f o r t h is r e ason t hose w ho l i ve t h e re d epend c omp le te ly o n i r r iga t ion , a nd c u l t iva te o n ly s uch l ands a s c an b e i r iga ted b y t h e r i ve r s " ( C ieza d e L eon 1 959 [ 1 553 1 :304 ) . T ha t t h e t e chno logy f o r t e r race b u i ld ing a nd i r r iga t ion e x is ted p r io r t o I nka e xpans ion t h roughou t t he A ndean r eg ion i sb eyond d i spu te . T he re i ss ome s o l id e v idence t ha t i n c e r ta in c a ses i ti sp o s s ib le t o d i s t ingu ish I nka t e r race s f r om p reI nka c ons t ruc t ions i n t he s a me h ydro log ica l r eg ion b ased o n c ons t ruc t ion t e chn ique s . ( Kee ley 1 985 ; s ee a l so R owe 1 946 :2 10 11 ) , i n m arked c on t ras t t o e a r l ier p o s i t ions t ha t i nd igenous t e r rac ing a nd i r r iga t ion s ys tem s w e re l i t t le c hanged w i th t h e a dven t o f I nka o ccupa t ion ( Benne t t a nd B i rd 1 9 49 :221 ) . O f c our se , t h e re a re n o S pan ish e yew i tnes s a ccoun t s o f p reI nka t e r race c ons t ruc t ion , a nd w e mus t r e ly o n a r chaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s f o r t h is i n fo rma t ion . K ee ley , i n h e r s t udy o f t e r r ace s y s tems i n t he C us ichaca V a l ley i n P e ru , o bse rved t h a t " apa r t f r om b u i ld ing t h e w a l ls , t he c on s t ruc t ion o f p reI nka t e r race s o n t h e Hu i l lca R acc ay p ampa a nd a t Qu ishua rpa t a d id n o t i nvo lve mas s ive s o i l d i s turbance a nd t ha t
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRAINAGE - Chap te r 2 1
t he t e r races p robab ly f i l led b y d ownwa rd s l ope movemen t " ( Kee ley 1 9 85 :558 ) . I t i s i n te re s t ing t o c on t ras t t he c ross -se c t ion d iag ram s o f p reI nka a nd I nka a g r icu l tura l t e r race s e xcava ted b y K ee ley , i n t h a t t h ey s ugges t t h a t wh i le s ome f o rm o f t e r r ac ing t e chno logy p re -ex is ted t h e I nka e xpans ion i n mo s t r eg ion s , t he t wo s ys tem s a r e f unc t iona l ly c ompa rab le o n ly a t ar a the r g ros s l e ve l ; f r om a n o pe ra t iona l p e rspec t ive , t h e s ucces s ive t e chno log ies may h ave d i f fered d rama t ica l ly i n t e rms o f l a bo r i npu t a nd s ub sequen t a g r icu ltura l y i e lds . T he q ue s t ion o f whe the r t e r rac ing s ys tem s w e re i nd igenou s r e sponse s t o e nv ironmen ta l c ons t ra in t s o r i mpos i t ions o f t he I nka i mpe r ia l s t a te i n m any a reas i s a d eba te wh ich h as p roduced w ide ly v ary ing o p in ion s d u r ing t he h i s to ry o f A ndean s t ud ie s ( s ee S ch re iber 1 984 ; S t an ish 1 987a ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s e ems t o i nd ica te t ha t ad e f in i t ive a nswer t o t h is q ue s t ion c anno t c ome f r om g ene ra l iza t ion s , b u t mus t b e i nves t iga ted o n ac ase -by case b as is . L abo r i npu t , i n fe r red f r om t he t e chn iques u sed t o c ons t ruc t t e r race s , may b e o ne me thod o f d e te rm in ing t h e c u l tura l a f f i l ia t ion o f t e r race s ys tem s whe re t h e re i s s ome q ues t ion a s t o t he o r ig ina l c ons t ruc t ion . T he h ypo thes is t ha t I nka t e r race t e chno logy may h ave a l lowed i n c reased y i e lds ( due t o f a c tor s s uch a s b e t te r d ra inage , e t c . ) i s , a t p resen t , o n ly p rov is iona l , a nd r equ ires e xpe r imen t a l t e s t ing . A s e cond t e chn ica l a spe c t wh ich s hou ld b e d ea l t w i th h ere i s t h e p resen ce o f s t o rehouse s ( q o l lqa ) , a nd r oya l l odg ing/s to rage c en te r s ( t ambo s , o r a l te rn a t ive ly , t ampu ) . T hese s t ruc ture s , l i ke t he t e r race s , h ad a ma jo r i mpac t o n t h e S pan ia rds who f i r s t s aw t hem ; " t he h undreds o f q o l lqa b u i l t n ea r t he i nhab i ted c en t er s i mp ressed t h e c hron ic le r s mo re t han d id t h e r oads " ( Gaspa r in i a nd Ma rgo l ies 1 980 :30 1 ) . T hese s t o rehouses w e re b u i l t t o s t o re t he p roduc t s o f t h e I nka a g r icu l tura l s y s tem s , a s w e l l a s o the r c ommod i t ies . C e r ta in S pan ish o bserva t ion s o f t he I nka s t o rage s y s t em wou ld s t rong ly i nf luence l a te r i nves t iga t ions a nd i n te rp re ta t ions , a nd i t i s t hus t h a t w e may b eg in t h is b r ie f e xam ina t ion w i th s ome S pan ish r epo r t s . A mo re d e ta i led d i s cus s ion o f t h e t ampu w i l l b e p resen ted i n t h e s e c t ion o n o rgan iza t iona l p r inc ip le s . C ieza s t a te s t h a t t he I nka p o sse ssed t h roughou t t he ir emp ire " g rea t s t o rehouse s f i l led w i th a l l n e c e ss ary s upp l ies . T h is w as t o p rov ide f o r t h e ir s o ld ier s " ( C ieza d e L eon 1 959 [ 1 553 1 :68 , 3 05 ) . G a r c i laso wou ld l a te r b e mo re s pec i f ic i n h i s d es cr ip t ion s o f t h e s t o rehouses , n o t ing t ha t t h e re w e re t h ree t ypes , o ne wh ich w as b u i l t f o r t h e v i l lage s i n t imes o f s c a r c i ty , a nd t wo o the r s , " wh ich c on ta ined t h e h a rves t s a nd t he t r ibu t e p a id t o t h e k ing a nd t o t he S un " ( Ga rc i laso d e l a V ega 1 96 1 [ 1 609 1 :163 ) . B o th a g ree t h a t t h e s t o r ehouse s w e re g ene ra l ly b u i l t a l ong t he I nka h ighway s ( C ieza d e L eon 1 959 [ 1 553 1 :68 ; G a rc i laso d e l a V ega 1 96 1 [ 1 609 1 :163 ) , b u t t h e re i ss ome d i sag reemen t a s t o h ow f a r a par t t hey w e r e s paced a l ong t he r oads ' . P e rhap s t he b e s t t e chn ica l d esc r ip t ion o f t h e q o l lqa a nd t ambo s c ome s f r om C obo 's t r ea tmen t o f t h e I nka i n h i s H i s t or i a d e l N uev o Mund o , c omp le ted i n 1 653 , d e sp i te t h e f a c t t ha t t h is d o cumen t w as l a rge ly c omp i led f r om e a r l ie r m a te r ia l o f o ther c h ron ic ler s , a nd c on ta ined l i t t le f i r s t -hand o bse rva t ion . H e w r i te s t h a t t h e s t o rehouses w e re b u i l t o u t s ide o f t own , " on a h igh , c oo l , a nd w indy p l ace n ea r t h e r oya l r oad , " a nd w e r e l a id o u t i n a " ve ry o rder ly a nd s ymme t r ica l w ay " ( Cobo 1 979 :2 18 ) . T he s t ruc tures w e re s quare , a nd t h e r ows i n wh ich t hey w e re l a id o u t s o me t ime s h ad " twen ty , t h ir ty , f i ty , a nd mo re h ouse s " ( Cobo 1 979 : ib id . ) . L ike G a r c i laso d e l a V ega , h e d i s t ingu i shes t h e s t o rehouse s o f t he s t a te f r om t hose o f t he S un ( i . e . t he I nka r e l ig ious b ureauc racy ) :
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J . MA TH EW S ; DU A L SY S T EM S O F I N K A AG R I CU L TU RA L PR ODUC T ION
T he s t o rehouses o f t h e c rown a nd o f R e l ig ion w e re d ife ren t , a l though t h ey w ere a lway s t oge the r , l i ke t he owne r s o f wha t w as s t o red i n t h em a nd t he u ses t o wh ich i t was p u t . T he s t o rehouses o f t h e I n ca w e re much b igge r a nd l onge r t han , t ho se o f R e l ig ion ; t h is i mp l ies t ha t t he I nca 's s hare o f l ands a nd a n im a ls was g rea te r t han t ha t wh ich was g iven t o t h e g ods . ( Cobo 1 979 :2 18 )
C ompa red t o s t ud ies o f o the r a spec t s o f t he I nka s t a te , modern s t ud ie s o f I nka a g r icu l tu ra l t e chno logy a nd r e la ted s ub -sys tems a re r e la t ive ly f ew . I n p a r t , t h is may b e ar e su l t o f t he d i f f icu l ty i n t r ea t ing t hese f a c to r s a s p ure ly t e chn ica l p henomena , d evo id o f t he i r s oc io -cu l tu ra l c on tex t . Howeve r , s uch s t ud ies a re u se fu l , b o th i n p rov id ing c l as s i f ica to ry s ys tem s o f t h ese p henomena , a nd i n p rov id ing t he c on tex t f o r emp ir ica l j u s t i f ica t ion o f n on -ar chaeo log ica l d a ta r ega rd ing s y s tem s o f a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion . A t an on -cu l tu ra l ly s pe c i f ic l e ve l , D onk in ( 1 979 :32 ) o f fe r s as ys tem o f mo rpho func t i ona l t ype s o f t e r races , a s w e l l a s ad e sc r ip t ion o f d i f fe ren t e nv i ronmen ta l c on tex t s i n wh ich p re -h is to r ic t e r race s y s tem s may b e f ound ( Donk in 1 979 :22 -32 ) . S t an ish ( 1 987a ) p resen t s at ypo logy o f c ana l s , a l so b ased o n f unc t iona l a t t r ibu tes . P erhaps t he mo s t c omp rehens ive s t udy o f t e chno log ica l a spec t s o f p re -h ispan ic a g r icu l tura l s y s tem s i s t ha t b y D enevan ( 1980 ) , i n wh ich h e o u t l ine s v ary ing t ypes o f t e r race s , i r r iga t ion c ana ls , a nd r a ised f i e lds , p rov id ing c or re la t ions b e tween e nv i ronmen t , f unc t iona l t ype , a nd c rop s s uppo r ted b y e ach s y s tem . L i t t le wo rk h as b een d one t o a t temp t t o c o r re la te c ons t ruc t i on t e chn ique s w i th t empo r a l p hase s , a l though K ee ley ( 1 985 ) h as o f fe red c onv inc ing e v idence f o r t he r e la t ive d a t ing o f a g r icu l tura l t e r race s ( i . e . L a te I n te rmed ia te o r L a te Ho r izon ) i n t he C us ichaca V a l ley t h rough c ons t ruc t ion t e chno logy r evea led i n c ro s s s ec t ion e xcava t ions . S t an ish ( 1 987a ) h as s ugges ted t h a t i n t h e O to ra V a l ley , a r ch i tec tura l t e chn iques u sed i n c ons t ruc t ion o f t e r race s d o n o t d i f fe r s i gn i f ican t ly f r om t e chn ique s u sed i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f f r ee s tand ing o ccupa t ion a r ch i tec ture . I n c on t ras t t o r e cen t s t ud ie s o f Andean r a ised f i e lds , ( E r ickson 1 985 ; K o la ta , S tan ish , a nd R ive ra S . 1 987 ) , f ew s t ud ie s o f p re -h ispan ic t e r rac ing h as b een c a r r ied o u t . G ran ted , s uch s t ud ies a r e l i ke ly t o b e h inde red b y h ydro log ica l c ons t ra in t s i n sur moun tab le u nde r t he r e sou r ces o f mo s t r e search p ro jec t s ( s ee O r t lo f f , F e ldman , a nd Mose ley 1 985 f o r e xamp le ) . Howeve r , i ti s n o t i n conce ivab le t h a t a reas o f p reh is to r ic t e r rac ing d o e x is t i n t h e A nde s wh ich a re amenab le t o e xper imen ta l t e s t ing . C ur ren t d e sc r ip t ions o f q o l lqa t e chno logy a re mo re r e ad i ly f ound , p robab ly d ue t o t h e f a c t t ha t a r ch i te c tu ra l a na lys is , e spe c ia l ly o f u t i l i tar ian s t ruc ture s , i s n o t c omp l ica ted b y s uch my r iad f a c to rs a s t hose wh ich mus t b e t a ken i n to a ccoun t o f a na lys is o f f unc t ion ing h ydro -ag r icu l tura l s ys tem s . C ons t ruc t iona l a na lys is i s f a ir ly s t ra igh t fo rwa rd : a s t he a r ch i te c tu re i s p r ima r i ly u t i l i tar ian , f o rm a nd ma te r ia l a re among t h e k ey a na ly t ica l c a tego r ie s . I nka q o l lq a a r ch i te c tu ra l f o rm may b e e i the r c i rcu lar o r q uadr i la te ra l ; c i r cu la r c ons t ruc t ions a re g ene ra l ly t hough t t o b e mo re o f ten a sso c ia ted w i th ma ize s t o rage ( Gaspar in i a nd Ma rgo l ies 1 980 :303 ) . Mo s t I nka q o l lqa i n co rpo ra ted s ome f o rm o f v en t i la t ion s ys tem wh ich a i ded i n p rese rva t ion o f t h e c on ten t s ( Gaspar in i a nd Ma rgo l ie s 1 980 ) . Q o l lqa a re g ene ra l ly c ons t ruc t ed o f as em i -dre ss ed s t one , n o t a s w e l l - wo rked a s i mpe r ia l C uzco a r ch i te c ture ( Hy s lop 1 984 :284 ) , b u t d e f in i te ly d i s t ingu ishab le f r om L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod c on s t ru c t ion s i n mo s t c ases . T he s ec t ion o n t ampu s y s tem i n Hys lop 's 1 984 s t udy o f t h e I nka r oad s ys t em , d esp i te h i s mode s t d i s c la ime r , i sc ur ren t ly t he mo s t c o mp rehen s ive s ummary o f emp ir ica l o bse rva t ion a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sear ch d ea l ing w i th c ons t ruc t iona l a spe c t s o f t he I nka s t o rage s ys tem .
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O the r s t ud ie s ( e .g . Mo r r is 1 972 , 1 982 ) h ave d ea l t w i th v o lume t r ic a na lyse s o f t ampu a nd q o l lq a . Howeve r , i n t ha t s uch c harac ter is t ic s a r e much mo re d i f f icu l t t o e x t rac t f r om t he i r c oncom i tan t i mp l ica t ions f o r t h e o rgan iza t iona l s y s tems i n wh ich t h e t ampu s y s tem f unc t ioned , a mo re c omp le te d i s cus s ion w i l l b e r e s e rved f o r t h e s ec t ion o n o rgan iza t iona l p r inc ip le s . A c onven ien t i n te r face b e tween s t r ic t t e chn ica l a spec t s o f I nka t e r ra ce s ys tem s a nd t h e i r c o r re spond ing o rgan iza t iona l p r inc ip le s i s t h e c rops wh ich we re p roduced . T he p roduc t ion o f s pec i f ic c rops w as i n t r in s ica l ly d ependen t o n b o th t he t e chno logy w h ich c ou ld b e u t i l ized f o r p roduc t ion o f c e r ta in c rops i n g iven e nv i ronmen ta l c i rcum s tances , a nd t h e d emand f o r p a r t icu la r c rop s g iven v ary ing s oc io -po l i t ica l c ond i t ion s . B o th f a c to r s p layed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n I nka s y s tems o f a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion .
C rops We may f i r s t b r ief ly e xam ine S pan ish a ccoun t s r egard ing t he c rops wh ich w e re g rown u nde r I nka s y s tems . O f p ar t icu la r i mpo r tance t o t h is s t udy i s m a ize . I n a r ev iew o f S pan ish s ources wh ich men t ion g oods s t o red i n t h e I nka q o l l q a s , Mur ra f i nds o n ly o ne r e fe rence s pe c i f ica l ly t o p o ta toe s a nd s even r e fe rence s t o c hunu , c o mpa red w i th t wen ty -n ine r e fe rences t o ma ize a nd s even a dd i t iona l r e ference s t o c h i cha ( Mur ra 1 978 : 4 8 ). C obo c on f i rms t ha t ma ize f o rmed a ma jo r p a r t o f t h e p roduc ts s t o red i n t h e q o l lq a ( Cobo 1 979 :22 1 ) . G a rc i laso d e l a V ega s t a te s t h a t t h e p r imary o b jec t ive o f t he I nka i n i n s ta l l ing m i t ima e s i n an ew ly inco rpo ra ted t e r r i to ry w as t o i n c rease t he a c reage o f m a ize i n t h e r eg ion ( Ga rc i laso d e l a V ega 1 961 [ 1 609 1 : 156 ) . C ieza o bse rved t h a t I nka t a xed t he p rov inces i n wha teve r p roduc t s w e re mo s t s u i tab le f o r t h e r eg ion ( C ieza d e L eon 1 959 [ 1 553 1 :164 ) , b u t s eems t o i mp ly t h a t f o r t h e I nka , m a ize w as t h e p re fe r red c r op whe re i t w a s p o s s ib le t o g row i t( i b id : 3 17 ) . An e x t reme o b se rva t ion c omes f r om P edro P i zar ro , who o bse rved t he I nka t e r race s ys tems i n o pe ra t ion ; " a l l w e re p l an ted t o m a ize " ( P iza r ro 1 844 [ 1 570 1 :29 1-2 ) . Mode rn s cho lar s ( e .g . Mu r ra 1 960 ) h ave c onc luded t h a t ma ize p osse ssed a s i gn i f i cance f o r t h e I nka t ha t w en t b eyond i t s u t i l i ty a s am e re f oods tu f f . A t o ne l e ve l , ma ize h ad g rea t s y mbo l ic v a lue ; a t a no the r , i tw as i nd ispensab le f o r t he l og is t ica l s uppo r t o f t he I nka a rm ie s o f c onque s t . T he mu l t i leve l i mpo r tance o f m a ize w as n o t ap u re ly I nka p henomenon , h oweve r H a s to r f ( 1 985 , 1 986 ) d o cumen t s c hange s i n t h e s ubs i s tence p at terns wh ich o ccu r red w i th t he I nka a nnexa t ion o f Wanka t e r r i to ry i n t h e c en t ra l P e ruv ian h igh lands . H e r e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t wh i le t h e I nka c onques t o f t he r eg ion e n t a i led a s ubsequen t i n crease i n t h e p ropo r t ion o f ma ize p roduc t ion a nd c onsump t ion among t h e i nd igenous p opu la t ion a s a who le ( a s w e l l a s ac o r re spond ing f o rced c hange i n s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s , wh ich w i l l b e d i s cussed b e low ) , t he i n c rease i su nde r la in b y p ropo r t iona l i n equa l i t ies i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f ma ize w i th in t he Wanka p opu la t ion i t se l f . S pe c i f ica l ly , a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i nd ica t es t ha t e ven b e fo re t h e I nka e n te red t h e Wanka r eg ion , t h e l o ca l e l i t e d e l ibe ra te ly c on t ro l led wha t l i t t le a gr icu l tura l l a nd s u i ted t o m a ize p roduc t ion t ha t e x is ted i n t h ese v a l leys , f o r t h e e xpres s p urpose o f o b ta in ing d i sp ropo r t iona te q uan t i t ies o f m a ize ( Has to r f 1 985 :5 , 1 986 :178 ) . No r i st h e Wanka c ase t h e o n ly e xamp le o f l o ca l p re f e rence s f o r m a ize i n b o th d omes t ic a nd r i tua l c on tex t s . I n t h e e a r ly 1 960 's Mu r ra ( 1 964 :428 ) p o s tu la ted t he e x is tence o f c o lon ie s o f t h e L ake T i t icaca L upaqa p o l i ty i n t h e m id s ie r ra ;
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t h e m a in o b jec t ive o f t hese c o lon ie s w as t o g row ma ize ( Lumb re ras 1 974b :20 1 ) 4. Hy s lop , i n d i s cus s ing t h e L upaqa a t t i tude s t owa rds ma ize , p onde r s " One m igh t a sk i f t he v ener a t ion o f t he i s lands o f T i t icaca b y b o th t he L upaca a nd I ncas d id n o t h ave a s much t o d o w i th t he s pe c ia l e co logy a nd a b i l i ty t o p roduce a h igh ly p r ized ( and s a c red ) f ood wh ich c ou ld b e g rown n o -whe re e l se i n t he h igh p l a teau o f t he Ande s a s i td id w i th t he my tho logy a nd o ra l t r ad i t ion s o f c onques t s a nd t r iba l o r ig ins " ( Hys lop 1 976 :65 ) . T he L upaqa e xamp le i s p a r t icu la r ly r e levan t t o t he d i s cus s ion o f t he s i te o f C ama ta , wh ich w i l l c omp r ise t he f i na l s e c t ion o f t h is p ape r . I ti s d i f f icu l t t o s pe cu la te o n wha t g ave r i se t o t he r egard f o r ma ize h e ld b y t he Wank a , L upaqa , I nka , a nd u ndoub ted ly o the r g roup s ' . Howeve r , b y t he b eg inn ing o f t h e I nka e xpan s ion , t he s t a tus o f ma ize w as s uch t h a t i t w as a ma jo r f a c to r i n t he d ynam ic s o f I nka i mpe r ia l e xpans ion . Mu r ra ( 1 960 ) p rov ide s a s ynop s is o f I nka a t t i tude s t oward ma ize , a nd n o te s t h a t Andean r oo t c rop s we re r egarded a s l ow -s ta tus f oods ( 1 960 :397 ) , a nd t ha t t h e a rmy " pre fe r red " ma ize t o o the r r a t ion s ( 1 960 :400 ) 6. Ma ize w as a s so c ia ted a lmos t e xc lus ive ly w i th i r r iga ted t e r race s ys tem s ( Mur ra 1 960 :395 ) , wh ich e f fe c t ive ly e nsured a s t a te monopo ly o n i t s p roduc t ion ( Mu r ra 1 960 :40 1 ) . On t h e b as is o f t h is e v idence , Mu r ra g oe s o n t o p o s tu la te t ha t u nder t he I nka a dm in is t ra t ion o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion , " we f i nd n o t o n ly t wo s e t s o f c rop s g rown i n d i f fe ren t c l ima t ic z ones , b u t a l so a c tua l ly t wo s y s tem s o f a g r icu l tu re " ( Mur ra 1 960 :40 1 , emphas is m ine ) T h i s l a s t i s e x t reme ly i mpor tan t f o r t h e a rgumen t p resen ted i n t h is p aper , t ha t S pan i sh o bse rve r s may h ave f a i led t o d i s t ingu ish t h e p resence o f t wo d i s c re te s ub s ys tem s e ncompassed b y t h e I nka s t a t e s y s tem o f a g r icu ltura l p roduc t ion . T he re a re c l ue s w i th in t he d o cumen t s o f t h e e a r ly c h ron ic le r s wh ich i nd ica te t ha t t h ey d id v a r iou s ly o bse rve t h ese d i f fe ren t s ub sys tems , b u t w i thou t a ny a t temp t t o c on f irm t he ir o bs e rva t ions w i th o ther w r i te r s o f t h e p e r iod . W i th n o s ys tema t ic means o f c he ck ing o bs e rva t ions , i ti sp robab le t h a t ag iven S pan ish o bse rve r s imp ly a s sumed t h a t t he p ar t o f t h e s ys te m h e o bse rved r ep resen ted a l o ca l man i fe s ta t ion o f t he e n t ire f unc t ion ing s ys tem . Ana lys is o f o rgan iza t iona l p r inc ip le s , h oweve r , s ugge s t s t he p resence o f t wo s ub -sy s tems i mp lemen ted b y t h e I nka s t a te . O rgan iza t iona l P r inc ip les T he S pan ish w e re a b le t o r e co rd k ey a spe c t s o f t he o rgan iza t iona l s ys tem u sed b y t he I nka i n t h e managemen t o f a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion , t h rough d i rec t o bse rva t ion o r t he u se o f n a t ive i n fo rman t s . Mo s t o f t hese a ccoun t s a re r a the r g ene ra l , y e t c ons is ten t t heme s o f t en e me rge w i th in t hese g ene ra l iza t ion s t ha t s e rve a s as o l id b as is f r om wh ich t o make f u r the r i nqu i r ie s . S uch g ene ra l iza t ion s f o rm t h e b as is o f much o f o ur p resen t u nde r s tand ings o f h ow t h ese s ys tems f unc t ioned u nde r t h e I nka s t a te . B eyond a c e r ta in l e ve l o f a na ly s is , h oweve r , t h ese g enera l iza t ions l o se t h e ir u t i l i ty , s i n ce t h e d i f fe ren t S pan ish a c coun t s a re o f ten c on t rad ic tory , o r a t b es t u nc lea r , i n t h e i r t r ea tmen t o f s pe c i f ic d e ta i ls o f t h e o pe ra t ion o f t h e se s y s tem s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h ese d i s c repanc ies may l eg i t ima te ly b e a t t r ibu ted me re ly t o d i f fe ren t b i ase s h e ld b y d i f fe ren t i nd iv idua l o bserver s . I ti st h e c on t en t ion o f t h is p ape r , h oweve r , t h a t t h e d i f fe rences i n t h e o bs e rvat ions a re b e t te r a c coun ted f o r b y t he p os s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e S pan ish w e re i ndeed r e co rd ing d isc re te a nd d i s t inc t u n i t s o f t he s ys tem i n o pe ra t ion . I n o the r wo rds , t h e d i f fe rence s may b e n o t s o much a n i n ab i l i ty t o o bse rve c a re fu l ly , a s a n i n ab i l i ty t o d i s t ingu ish r e la ted b u t v e ry d i f f eren t a spec t s o f t h e I nka s y s tem o f a g r icu ltura l
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p roduc t ion . I n t h is s c enar io , t h e S pan ish s imp ly c o l lapsed t wo c o -ex i s t ing f unc t iona l s ub -sys tems i n to o ne g ene ra l ized s ys tem c on ta in ing a l l o f t h e c ha rac te r is t ic s o f e ach o f t he c o mponen t o pe ra t ions . T h is p ropo s i t ion w i l l h ope fu l ly b e come c l e are r t h rough s ubsequen t e xpos i t ion . We may b eg in w i th a b r ie f r ev iew o f t he o bse rva t ions o f t h e c h ron ic le rs . T he re i ss ome g ene ra l a g reemen t among t he f i r s t c h ron ic ler s o f t he I nka r egard ing t he r e -o rgan iza t ion o f s oc ia l s y s tems i n p rov ince s c onque red b y t h e I nka ; t h es e r e s t ruc t u r ings w e re f o r t he mo s t p a r t c ar r ied o u t t o f a c i l i ta te I nka a dm in is t ra t ion o f t he p rov inces , b u t a l so w i th t h e i n ten t o f c on fo rm ing a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion t o I nka s t andards o f u se . B o th C ieza d e L eon ( 1 959 [ 1 553 1 :56 -7 ) a nd C obo ( 1 979 :189 ) s t a te t h a t t h e f i rs t s t ep i n t h is r e -o rgan iza t ion o f c onque red t e r r i to r ie s w as t he i n t roduc t ion o f m i t imae c o lon is t s i n to t h e t e r r i to ry , who r ep laced a n e qu iva len t n u mbe r o f t h e o r ig ina l i nhab i tan t s who h ad b een d epo r ted ' . G a rc i laso d e l a V ega ( 1% 1 [ 1 609 1 : 156 ) i n c lude s a g ro -hydrau l ic e ng inee r s among t h e m i t ima e s who w e re r e se t t led i n c onque red a r eas , who w e re s en t s pe c i f ica l ly t o " i nc reas e t h e c o rn a c reage ; " as im i lar o bs e rva t ion i s made b y C ieza d e L eon a s w e l l ( C ieza d e L eon 1 959 [ 1 553 1 :6 1 ) . L o ca l p opu la t ions who w e re n o t r emoved f r om t h e ir t e r r i to r ie s w ere t a ugh t t o p roduce ma ize ; C ieza d e L eon c ommen t s o n v a r iou s p lace s " whe re t h ere h ad b een n o c o rn t h a t l a te r h ad mo re t h an t hey c ou ld u se " ( C ieza d e L eon 1 959 1 553 1 :160 ) . C ieza d e L eon p o in t s o u t as omewha t a noma lous c a se o f t he u se o f m i t ima e s a nd t h e r e se t t l ing o f p opu la t ion s : T he o ther u se o f t he m i t ima e s w as s t range r . . .. Wha t t hey [ t he I nka ] d id w as t ha t i f , p e rchance , t hey h ad c onque red t e r r i to ry i n t he h igh lands o r p la in s o r o n as l ope s u i tab le f o r p low ing a nd s ow ing , wh ich was f e r t i le a nd h ad a g ood c l i ma te , a nd w a s emp ty o f p eop le , t hey q u ick ly o rde red t ha t f r om n ear -by p rov ince s . . . e nough p eop le c o me i n t o s e t t le i t , a nd t o t h ese l ands w e re g iven , a nd f l o cks , a nd a l l t he p rov is ions t hey n eeded u n t i l t hey c ou ld h a rves t wha t t hey p lan ted . F o r an umbe r o f y ear s n o t r ibu te w a s e xac ted o f t he se n ew s e t t le r s , b u t o n t he c on t rary , t hey w e re g iven women , c oca , a nd f ood s o t ha t t hey wou ld c ar ry o u t t he wo rk o f s e t t lemen t w i th b e t te r w i l l . ( C ieza d e L eon d e L eon 1 959 [ 1 553 ] :62 )
T h is d es c r ip t ion i mp l ie s t h a t i n s uch c ase s , t h e m i t ima e s w e re u sed p r im a r i ly a s t r ue c o lon is t s , r a the r t han a s p eace -keep ing o pe ra t ive s o f t h e I nka s t a te , a s C obo s ugge s t s ( 1 979 :190 ) . On t he s u r face t h e d i f fe rence a ppea r s t o b e o ne o f s imp le r e spon se t o l o ca l d emog raph ic s i tua t ion s , b u t c l oser c ons ide ra t ion r evea ls s ubs t an t ia l i mp l ica t ion s f o r t he e conom ic r equ iremen t s o f t h e d ynam ics o f I nka i mpe r ia l e xpans ion . U n inhab i ted o r s pa rse ly p opu la ted a r eas a pp rop r ia ted b y t he I nka w e re p u t i n to i n tens ive a gr icu l tura l p roduc t ion , a t n o i n cons ide rab le e xpen se , i fC ieza d e L eon i s t o b e t aken a t h i s wo rd . G rea te r e xpense w as r equ i red when marg ina l l a nds w e re p u t u nde r i n ten s ive c u l t iva t ion , wh ich w as p robab ly mo re o f ten t he c ase t h an t h e i dy l l ic l a nds cape o u t l ined b y C ieza d e L eon ( Con rad a nd D emares t 1 984 :130 ) . C lea r ly , t h e i nves tmen t o f c ap i ta l a nd e ne rgy i s f a r b eyond t h a t r equ i red t o s ubsume a n e x is t ing s ys tem i n a p opu la ted a r ea , a nd r e -s t ruc tur ing i tt o mee t c er ta in d emands o f t h e s t a te , f o r e xamp le , t r ibu te i n t he f o rm o f m i t 'a l a bo r . T he e xpend i ture i se ven mo re n o tewo r thy when o ne c ons ide r s t h a t i n t h e a nnexa t ion o f l o ca l p opu la t ions , t he e xchange me chan ism s t h a t s uppo r ted n e two rk s o f r eg iona l g roups w e re a l ready i n p l ace a nd f un c t ion ing ( s ee Menze l 1 959 ; Mo r r is 1 986 ; Mur ra 1 986 ) , f a c i l i ta t ing t he I nka e x t rac t ion o f t h e s t ipu la ted f o rm o f t r ibu t e . C ieza d e L eon 's e xamp le o f I nka a g r icu l tura l c o lon ia l ism , h oweve r , i nd ica tes t h a t i n c e r ta in 4 22
J . MA TH EW S ; DU A L SY S T EM S O FI N K A AG R I CU L TU RA L PR ODUC T ION
s i tua t ion s , s uch e x i s t ing s t ruc tu res w e re i n adequa te t o mee t p ar t icu la r r equ iremen t s o f t h e I nka s t a te . O n ce a r eg ion h ad b een e xp rop r ia ted b y t he I nka , a nd m i t im ae s i n s ta l led , a cco rd ing t o S pan i sh a ccoun t s , t he a rab le l a nd w as d iv ided i n to t h ree s e c t ions , o ne f o r t he I nka ( t he s t a te ) , o ne f o r t he S un ( t he r e l ig ious b ureauc racy ) , a nd t he f i na l f o r t he l o ca l c ommun i ty ( Cobo 1 979 :2 11 ; G a r c i laso d e l a V ega 1% 1 [ 1 609 1 : 156 ) . A l l l and was wo rked c o l lec t ive ly b y m i t ' a l a bo r . G a rc i laso d e l a V ega w r i t es t ha t i t w as t he l a bo r o f f a rm ing a nd h arve s t ing t he l ands b e long ing t o t h e I nka a nd t he S un wh ich was " t he p r inc ipa l t r ibu te r e ce ived b y t he I n ca , s i nce h i s s ub je c t s k ep t t he who le o f t he ir h a rve s t s f o r t hem se lve s " ( Ga rc i laso d e l a V ega 1 96 1 [ 1 609 1 :160 ; s ee a l so C obo 1 979 :209 , 2 11 ; a nd P o lo d e Ondeg a rdo 1 916 17 [ 1 57 1 1 :67 ) . L and w as r ed is t r ibu ted a nnua l ly a ccord ing t o t he c hang ing n eeds o f t he c ommun i ty , a s man i fes ted b y n umbe rs o f h eads o f h ouseho lds , n umbe r s o f d ependen t c h i ldren i n e ach h ouseho ld , a nd s o o n . P roduce o f t h e l ands o f t h e s t a te a nd o f t h e S un w er e s t o red i n q o l lqa s a dm in is te red b y t h e I nka a s p ar t o f t h e t ambo s ys tem . A ccoun t s v ary i n d ea l ing w i th t he q o l l qa s ; t h is v a r ia t ion s uppo r t s t he t he s is p u t f o r th i n t h is p ape r , t h a t t he S pan ish f a i led t o r e cogn ize t h a t t h ey w ere o b se rv ing t wo d i s t inc t s ys tems o f p roduc t ion i n s imu l taneous o pe ra t ion , a s p o s tu la ted a bove . F o r e xamp le , w e may e xam ine a ccoun t s o f t he l o ca t ions o f s t o rehouse s . C ieza d e L eon s e em s t o c on t rad ic t h imse l f i n n o t ing t h a t c e r ta in s t o rehouse s we re f ound a l ong t h e I nka r oads e very t en t o t wen ty l e agues ( C ieza d e L eon 1 959 [ 1 553 1 :68 ) , b u t l a te r s t a t ing t ha t s t o rehous es a nd l odg ings o ccur red a pp rox ima te ly e ve ry f our l e agues ( i b id . :105 ) . I t i s i mpo r tan t t o k eep i n m ind , h oweve r , t ha t i n d i s cus s ing t he f o rme r , C ieza d e L eon c l ear ly s t a te s o f t h e s upp l ies i n t he s t o rehouse s t h a t " t h i s was t o p rov ide f o r t h e ir s o ld ie r s " ( i b id . :68 ) , wh i le t he l a t te r , s paced a t much s ho r te r i n te rva ls , w e re u sed t o s uppo r t t r ave l l ing c on t ingen t s o f I nka o f f ic ia ls , n ob les , a nd o the r d ign i ta r ies , who t r ave l led w i th " g rea t p omp a nd f i ne s t y le " ( i b id . : 105 ) . A no ther i nd ica t ion t h a t v a r ia t ion i n d es c r ip t ions o f t he p lacemen t o f q o l lqa s may b e t i ed t o f unc t ion c o mes f r om G ar c i laso d e l a V ega . H e s t a tes t ha t t he I nka p os sessed t h ree t ypes o f s t o rehouse s . One w as b u i l t w i th in t he c on f ine s o f l o ca l v i l lage s t h ems e lve s , a nd p rov ided r e l ie f i n t imes o f s c ar c i ty : " t he o the r s , wh ich c on ta ined t he h a rve s t s a nd t he t r ibu te p a id t o t h e k ing a nd t o t h e S un , w e re l o ca ted b o th i n t he v i l lage s a nd a long t he r oya l h igh roads , t he w a rehouses s paced t h ree l e agues a par t " ( Ga rc i la so d e l a V ega 1 96 1 [ 1 609 1 :163 ) . " I n t h is d e sc r ip t ion , t hese a re c l ear ly a na logous t o t h e s t o rehouses u sed t o s uppo r t t h e m i l i ta ry d es c r ibed b y C ieza d e L eon . C obo , h oweve r , u s ing s e condary s ou rce s , wou ld l a te r a r r ive a t ad i f fe ren t s e t o f l o ca t iona l d a ta f o r t h e r oya l a nd r e l ig ious s t o rehouse s H e c i te s t h ree d i f fe ren t s i te s f o r s uch q o l lq a : 1 ) F i r s t , t h e re we re s t o rehouses i n e ach p rov ince , " whe re t he p roduc t s a nd t r ibu te s w e re s t o red i mmed ia te ly a s t h ey w e re c o l le c ted , " 2 ) i n c ap i ta l c i t ies whe re t he v i ce roys r e s ided , a nd 3 ) i n t h e c i ty o f C uzco i t se l f ( Cobo 1 979 :2 18 ) L a te r s cho lar s t e nded t o c o l lapse v ar ia t ions r epo r t ed i n t he c h ron ic le s s uch a s t hese i n to a s i ng le s ys tem wh ich s ubsumed a l l f unc t iona l a spe c t s o f t he d i s t inc t c omponen t s , b u t w i thou t c l ea r o rgan iza t iona l d i s t inc t ions m ade b e tween t hem ( s ee B rundage 1 963 , 1 967 ; H emm ing 1 970 ; Means 1 973 ; Me t raux 1 969 ; P res co t t 1 873 ) . T he d i f fe rence s r e co rded b y t he S pan ish s imp ly d o n o t s e em h igh ly s i gn i f ican t when c on t ras ted o ne w i th a no the r , b u t r a the r a s a be r ra t ion s wh ich m igh t b e e xp la ined b y I nka a dap ta t ions t o l o ca l/reg iona l c i r cums tance s . T hus , s uch t a sks a s p rov id ing f o r l o ca l p opu la t ions i n
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 2 1
t ime s o f s ca rc i ty , s uppo r t o f t he a rmy , s uppo r t o f c r a f t s pec ia l is t s , b ureauc r a t s , a nd o the r n on -subs is tence p roduc ing e l emen t s o f t h e p opu la t ion , a nd e xac t ing t r ibu te a l l w e re s ub sumed b y wha t c a me t o b e ar a the r u nc lea r ly -de f ined I nka a g r icu ltura l p roduc t ion s ys tem . Mechan ism s f o r c a r ry ing o u t t hese t a sk s w e re h igh ly f o rma l ized , b u t t h e i r e xac t o pe ra t ions w i th in t he s y s tem r ema ined e n igma t ic . Mo r r is s pe cu la tes t h a t i n o rde r t o d ea l w i th s uch p rob lems , mode rn i n te rpr e ta t ion o f wha t h e c a l ls t he " i n f ra s t ruc tura l n e twork " o f I nka a dm in is t ra t ive s ys tems " has f o l lowed t h e t endency b egun b y t h e e a r ly S pan ish w r i te r s a nd h as r e cons t ruc ted a s ys tem w i th b as ica l ly E u ropean u t i l i ta r ian p r inc ip les " ( Mo r r is 1 982 :154 ) . T h is s i tua t ion h as b egun t o c hange a s ar e su l t o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r che s c a r r ied o u t i n t h e Andes d u r ing t he l a s t t wo d ecades . New d a ta o n t he I nka h ave eme rged , p rov id ing a n e ve r f ine r p e rcep t ion o f t he wo rk ings o f t h e I nka i mper ia l s t a t e . W i th t h e a id o f t hese d a ta , i t i s l og ica l ly p o ss ib le t o f a c to r o u t s ome d is c repanc ie s i n t he c h ron ic le s i n o rder t o a r r ive a t i n i t ia l c r i t e r ia w i th wh ich t o d e te rm ine t amb o f unc t ion . One e xamp le o f t h is wou ld b e l o ca t iona l a na lys is , u s ing t he d a ta p re s en ted b y t he c h ron ic le r s a bove . G arc i laso d e l aV ega ( 1 96 1 [ 1 609 1 :163 , c i ted a bove ) n o t e s t h e p resence o f q o l lqa w i th in l o ca l s e t t lemen t s , o s tens ib ly t o p rov ide r e l ie f i n t ime s o f s hor tage . Mor r is ( 1 982 ; Mo r r is a nd T hompson 1 985 :108 ) , a t t r ibu te s s uch a f unc t ion t oa t l e as t s ome o f t h e s t o rehouses f ound a t t he I nka a dm in is t ra t ive c en te r o f Huanuco P ampa . Y e t t h is " we l fa re h ypo thes is , " a s i th as c ome t o b e c a l led i n t he l i te ra tu re , i so n ly o ne a spe c t o f t he l a rger s y s tem , a p an -Andean p henomenon wh ich p re -da t es t h e I nka o ccupa t ion i n mos t a reas ( Mor r is 1 986 :6 1-62 ; Mur ra 1 978 , C hap te r 5 ) . Q o l l qa l o ca ted w i th in l o ca l t owns a nd v i l lage s m igh t b e d e s cr ibed a s r e ce iv ing o r c onsump t ive q o l lqa , i n t h a t t hey s e rved p r imar i ly a s d epo t s t o r e ce ive f oods tu f f s a nd o the r ma te r ia l t o b e u sed a t t h e l o ca l s i te i n wh ich t h ey w e re b u i l t ' . T he se g oods m igh t b e u sed f o r t he we l fa re o f t he c ommun i ty , o r t h ey m igh t b e p rov ided s pe c i f ica l ly f o r c onsump t ion b y al o ca l e l i te , i n f u l f i l lmen t o f c e r ta in r e c ip roca l o b l iga t ion s ; i n e i the r c ase , t hese q o l lq a e x is t p r imar i ly t o d i s t r ibu te n on lo ca l g oods t o ag iven p opu la t ion o r s pec i f ic membe rs o f t ha t p opu la t ion . B o th f unc t iona l t ype s may h ave e x is ted w i th in t h e s ame c ommun i ty . T hese l o ca l ly -con ta ined t ambo s a ppea r t o b e d i s t inc t f r om t h os e d i s cus sed b y C obo , wh ich h ave a p r ima r i ly s t ag ing f unc t ion ; t h a t i s , t hose l o ca ted i n p roduc t ion z ones , f r om wh ich p ro cessed o r r aw ma te r ia l w a s c o l lec ted f o r r ed is t r ibu t ion t o o the r l o ca le s w i th in t he I nka s t a t e . O f c ou rse , i t i s n o t u n l ike ly t ha t t h e se f unc t iona l c ha rac te r is t ics w ere i n t er changeab le , d epend ing o n t h e i mpor t a nd e xpo r t o f p roduce wh ich may h ave v a r ied s easona l ly a nd e nv i ronmen ta l ly , o r i n r e ac t ion t o s o c io -po l i t ica l f a c to rs . A t t h is p o in t , i ti s r e asonab le t o s ugge s t t h a t t wo s epara te s ys tem s o f a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion a nd c oncom i tan t a dm in is t ra t ion p ro cedur es w e re e x tan t w i th in t h e I nka s t a te . One w as t h e l o ca l s uppo r t s y s tem , l a rge ly s e l f con t a ined , wh ich w as b as ed o n p r inc ip le s o f e xchange wh ich d eve loped o u t o f l o ca l t r ad i t ion s wh ich l ong p re -da ted t h e I nka e xpans ion . T he re i s ag ood d ea l o f e v iden ce t h a t wh i le t h is s ub -sys tem w as t h eo re t ica l ly r egu la ted b y t he I nka , a c tua l d ay to -day a dm in is t ra t ion w as c ar r ied o u t b y t h e l o ca l e l i te who r e ta ined t he ir t r ad i t iona l p owe r s u nde r t he s upe r s t ruc ture o f t he I nka s t a te ( s ee Hy s lop 1 984 :293 ; Mo r r is 1 982 :163 -5 ) . I n t h e c ase o f t h e L upaqa , n o t o n ly w e re t h ese o f f ic ia ls a l lowed t o r e ta in a dm in is t ra t ive p owe r o ve r l o ca l c once rns , b u t a c tua l ly h ad
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MA THEW S ; DU A L SY S T EM S O FI N K A AG R I CU L TU RA L PR ODUC T ION
t h e i r p o s i t ions s ubs tan t ia l ly r e in fo r ced b y t he i r a sso c ia t ions w i th 1 976 :200 -20 1 ; J u l ien 1 983 :4 1 ) .
t h e
I nka
( Hys lop
S uch l o ca l n e two rk s a ppea r t o b e f unc t iona l ly a nd o rgan iza t iona l ly d i s t inc t f r om t hose a s soc ia ted w i th t he I nka r oad s ys tem . T hese t ambo s c omp r ise a s y s tem d evo ted s o le ly t o t h e n eeds o f t he i mper ia l s t a te , f o r e xamp le , t o p rov ide s us tenance f o r t he t r ave l ing c on t ingen t s o f I nka s t a te a nd r e l ig ious o f f ic ia ls ( C ieza d e L eon 1 959 [ 1 553 1 :105 ) , o r s upp ly f o r m i l i tary u n i t s ( La L one a nd L a L one 1 987 :47 -8 ; Mo r r is 1 972 ) . A t o ne l e ve l , i t c an b e a rgued t ha t a l l t ambo s i te s a re a ssoc ia ted w i th t he r oad s y s tem ; t he r oads f a c i l i ta ted t h e movemen t o f g oods b e tween t amb o s . Howeve r , i n mak ing t h e d i s t inc t ion , i t s eem s n e cessary t o t a ke i n to a c coun t t ho se q o l lqa c l ea r ly w i th in t he c on tex t o f a s pec i f ic o c cupa t ion , a nd t ho se b eyond i t . A k ey d i agno s t ic o f t h e s t a te s ys tem c on s is t ed o f l a rge -s ca le p roduc t ion z one s wh ich w e re d is t in c t f r om a reas o ccup ied b y p opu la t ion s c onque red b y t h e I nka t h a t b ecame s ub jec t t o t h e mo re f am i l ia r t r i -pa r t i te s ys t em o f l and t e nu re i mposed b y t he I nka ( e .g . B enne t t a nd B ird 1 949 :222 ) . L a L one a nd L a L one ( 1 987 ) e xpand o n Mur ra 's ( 1 960 :401 ) i d ea o f " two s ys tems o f a g r icu l tu re " i n t h e i r d i s cus s ion o f p roduc t ion " enc lave s . " T he eme rgence o f p roduc t ion e nc laves a s as t a te i n s t i tu t ion i s p os tu la ted a s ar e sponse t o e conom ic d emands i mpo sed b y I nka m i l i tary e xpan s ion , t he c o s t o f wh ich b egan t o g rea t ly e x ceed t he c apac i ty o f t h e t r ad i t iona l t r ibu te s ys tem , wh i le s imu l taneous ly r emov ing s ub jec t s f r om a c t ive f ood p roduc t ion ( La L one a nd L a L one 1 987 :47 -8 ) . T h is h ypo the s i s i s p ar t icu la r ly i n te re s t ing i n l i gh t o f t h e e v iden ce p re sen ted b y Mur ra t ha t o the r ma jo r c hanges i n I nka s t a t e s t ruc ture t ook p l ace d ur ing t h e l a te r p e r iod o f I nka e xpans ion wh ich w e re a l so d i rec t ly a t t r ibu tab le t o t h e i mp l ic i t d emands o n t h e s t a te e conomy i mposed b y t h e ma in tenan ce o f a n a rmy o f e xpans ion ( Mu r ra 1 986 :52 , f . ) . I nka s t a te e nc lave s a re c ha rac t er ized b y t wo f e a tu re s : " ( 1 ) t he e xp rop r ia t ion o f l a rge t r ac t s o f l a nd f o r s t a te p u rpos es ; a nd ( 2 ) t he mob i l iza t ion o f s ubs t an t ia l amoun t s o f m i tmaq l a bo r t o s e rv ice t h e e n c lave s " ( La L one a nd L a L one 1 987 :49 ) . T he C o chabamba V a l ley i s p resen ted a s t h e l a rge s t k nown e xamp le o f a n I nka p roduc t ion e nc lave . D o cu men t a ry work b y Wach te l c l ea r ly i nd ica te s t h a t t h e l a nd w as n o t h e ld wo rked w i th t r ad i t iona l s ys te m s o f l and t e nu re : " A l l t h e w i tnes se s s t re ssed t h e f a c t t ha t t he l a nd o f C o chabamba b e longed t o t h e I n ca ; a l l t h e ma ize r a ised t h e re w as s t o red i n h i s g ranar ie s ( p i rua ) , t h en c o l le c ted a t t h e t ambo o f P a r ia , a nd f r om t h ere t r an spo r ted t o C us co " ( Wach te l 1 9 82 :2 14 ) . T he p roduce o f t h is l a nd , ma ize , w as f o r t h e e xp re s s p u rpose o f s upp ly ing t h e I nka a rmy . T he r eg ion w as f a rmed b y 1 4 ,000 m i t imae s r e se t t led i n t he v a l ley , who i n e xchange f o r t h e ir s e rv ices w e re a lowed t o c u l t iva t e t e n p e r cen t o f i tf o r t h e i r own p urposes ( Wach te l 1 982 :2 16 ) . A s e cond e xamp le o f a n I nka a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion e nc lave i sf ound i n al e ga l t e x t d a t ing t o 1 575 a nd p resen ted b y E sp inoza S or iano ( 1 973 :267 -95 ) . T he t e x t c once rns l a nd u nder c u l t iva t ion i n t he A bancay V a l ley , a t a bou t 2 300 m .a .s . l . T he a g r icu l tura l s i tua t ion h e re i ss im i lar t o t h a t i n t h e C o chabamba r eg ion , b u t c o ca , a j i , a nd c o t ton w e re t h e ma in c r op s ( La L one a nd L a L one 1 987 :52 ) . T hese l ands , l i ke t hose i n C o chabamba , w e re w o rked b y l a rge n umbe r s o f m i t ima e s f r om s eve ra l d i f fe ren t r eg ions t h roughou t t he emp ire ( E sp inoza S o r iano ( 1 973 :289 ) . Un l ike t h e m i t ima e s r e -se t t led i n C o chabamba , h oweve r , t h e Abancay o ne s w e re n o t p erm i t ted t o u se t h e I nka l a nds d evo ted t o s t a te p roduc t ion , b u t w e re a l lo t ted s epa ra te p a rce ls o f l a nd n ea rby .
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T he C o chabamba a nd A bancay e xamp les t oge the r d e f ine s eve ra l c r i te r ia wh ich m ay b e u sed i n t he i den t i f ica t ion o f o the r I nka a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion e nc laves . F i r s t , i st he a pp rop r ia t ion o f l a rge a reas o f l a nd b y t h e I nka f o r t h e p roduc t ion o f g oods t o s uppo r t s t a te f unc t ions . S econd , i s t he p resence o f l a rge n umbe rs o f m i t imae s r e se t t led i n t h ese e n c lave s . T h ird , i st he d epa r ture f r om t h e u sua l l a nd t e nure a nd t r ibu t e s ys tems w h ich t h e I nka i mpo sed o n i nd igenous p opu la t ions , i n f a vo r o f as y s tem s pe c i f ica l ly g ea red t o t h e p roduc t ion o f s urp luse s f o r s t a te p u rpose s . F ina l ly i s t h e p resen ce o f s t o rehou se s . O f p a r t icu la r i mpo r tance a re c omp lexe s wh ich a re n o t l o ca ted n ear m a jo r s e t t lemen t s , i n t ha t t hese a re c l ea r ly a p a r t o f t he s t a te p roduc t ion s y s tem ( de f ined a bove , c on t ra s ted w i th l o ca l e xchange a nd s t o rage n e two rks ) , wher eas t h e d e f in i t ion o f s t o rehouse s i n a c en te r s uch a s Huanuco P ampa i s amb iguous ' . I ti s wo r th r e i t era t ing wha t h as b een p u t f o r th i n t h is p ape r u p t o t h is p o in t . I th as b een p roposed t ha t t he I nka a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion s ys tem a c tua l ly c on ta ined t wo d i s t inc t s ub -sy s te m s , e ach o f wh ich w as c ha rged w i th c e r ta in f unc t ion s r e la t ing t o t he n eeds o f t he I nka s t a te a nd i t s s ub s id iary p opu la t ions . E ach o f t h ese s ub sy s t em s e n ta i led s pec i f ic ma ter ia l c o r re la te s ( i . e . t he q o l lqa ) wh ich may b e i n t e rp re ted a r chaeo l og ica l ly a s w e l l a s t h rough d o cumen ta ry s our ces . Ih ave a t temp ted t o o f fe r e v idence f o r t h is p ropos i t ion i n t he f o rm o f r e fe rence s f r om t h e S pan ish c h ron ic le r s , wh ich i nd ica t es t h a t i nd iv idua l o bserver s may h ave r e co rded d i f fe ren t a spec t s o f t hese d i s c re te s y s tem s . N ex t , Ih ave g iven a b r ie f d i s cus s ion o f r e cen t r e sear ch wh ich s e em s t o c on f irm t h is h ypo the s is , p a r t icu la r ly w i th r e spec t t o Huanuco P a mpa , C o chabamba , a nd A bancay . T he s e cond p ar t o f t h is p ape r w i l l d emon s t ra te t h e u t i l i ty o f t he c r i t e r ia d eve loped i n t h is p ape r f o r c on f irm ing o r d i sp rov ing t h is h ypo the s is b y a pp ly ing t hem t o a n a r chaeo log ica l s i te i n t h e O smo re d ra inage k nown a s C ama ta , a l ong w i th a b r ie f c ons ide ra t ion o f s ome a spec t s o f t h e s e t t lemen t p a t t ern o f t he p e r iod . D iscuss ion a nd Ana ly s is U n t i l v ery r e cen t ly , l i t t le w as k nown o f t h e I nka o ccupa t ion o f t h e s ou thern p a r t o f t h e emp ire , wh ich e x tended a s f a r s ou th a s p re sen t -day S an t iago i n C h i le . C ur ren t r e sea rch b e ing c onduc ted i n t h e O smo re d ra inage u nde r t h e a usp ice s o f t he P roye c to O smo re i sc on t r ibu t ing t o t h is b ody o f k now ledge . T he b road t empo ra l a nd e co log ica l f o cus o f t he p ro jec t h as r e su l ted i n i n t r igu ing i n i t ia l d a ta o n t h e c u l tu ra l o ccupa t ion o f t he r eg ion , f r om t he M idd le Hor izon t o t he C o lon ia l p e r iod . T he Moquegua V a l ley , t he ma jo r g eog raph ica l c omponen t o f t h e O smo re d ra inage , h as r ece ived b u t s po rad ic a t ten t ion i n t he a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re , d e sp i te s eve ra l i nd ica t ion s t h a t t he r eg ion p l ayed a s i gn i f ican t p a r t i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f b o th t he L upaqa a nd I nka p o l i t ies . Mur ra ( 1 964 , 1 966 ) p roposed a c o lon iza t ion o f t h e Moquegua V a l ley b y t he L upaqa i n t h e l o ca l s ys tem o f " ve r t ica l c on t ro l , " a n h ypo the s is wh ich h as s i nce b een r e i te ra ted b y L umb re ras ( 1 974b :20 1-2 ) , a nd Hy s lop ( 1 976 :2 12 ) . Among t h e s i te s s u rveyed b y P rog rama C on t isuyo a r e t he C ama t a s i tes" , l o ca ted a t a pp rox ima te ly 2 800 m .a .s . l . i n t h e C hu ju lay V a l ley , as ma l l t r ibu tary o f t h e O smo re d ra inage a pp rox ima t e ly 1 00 km f r om t he c oas t . T he c l i ma t e a nd e co logy a re t yp ica l ly s ou th Andean , w i th l i t t le r a in fa l l a nd a nd mode ra te d iu rna l a nd s e asona l t empe r a ture f l uc tua t ions . E nv ironmen ta l c on s ide ra t ions o f t h e a r ea h ave b een mo re f u l ly d i s cussed e l sewhere ( e .g . R ice t h is v o lume ; R owe 1 946 ) ; o ne f a c to r wh ich s hou ld b e n o ted h e re ,
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h oweve r , i s t ha t t he c l ima te o f t h e r eg ion i s e x t reme ly w e l l -su i ted f o r c u l t iva t ion o f ma ize , p rov ided p roper i r r iga t ion i se n sured ( s ee G o lds te in 1 985 :15 16 , 1 7 1 ) . T he C ama ta s i tes w e re f i rs t r epo r ted b y S t an ish a nd P r i tzke r i n 1 983 . Wh i le i th as b een e s t ima ted t h a t t h e O smo re d ra inage c on ta in s o ve r 3 00 a r chaeo log ica l s i tes , t he C ama t as a re p a r t icu la r ly i n te re s t ing f o r r e a sons d is cussed b e low . Two d i s t inc t c omponen t s m ake u p t h e C ama t as ( F igure 1 ) . T he f i r s t i sa n E s tuqu if ia P hase f o r t i f ied h i l l top s e t t lemen t c a l led C ama ta P ueb lo , al o ca l o ccupa t ion d a t ing t o t he L a te I n t e rmed ia te P e r iod . A r ch i tec tura l ly , t he s i te i ss im i la r i n l ayou t a nd c ons t ruc t ion t o o the r E s tuqu if ia P hase s i t es i n t he m id -s ier ra o f t he d ra inage , s uch a s t he s i te o f S an A n ton io ( s ee C on rad a nd Webs ter t h is v o lume ) , P o robaya i n t he O to ra V a l ley ( S tan ish 1 985 , 1 987b ) , a nd a n umbe r o f s i tes wh ich a r e a s o f y e t u n repo r ted . T h is c omponen t c ons is t s o f a pp rox ima te ly 1 50 s t ruc tu re s , c on t a ined v a r ious ly w i th in a s e r ie s o f s even c oncen t r ic wa l ls , h ypo the s ized t o b e d e fens ive f o r t i f ica t ions ( Be rmann a nd E ssenpre is 1 983 ) Two p e r iod - c on tempo ra ry c eme te r ie s h ave b een i den t i f ied i n c l ose p rox im i ty t o t h e s i te wh ich c on ta in s ma l l c hu lpa s c ha rac te r is t ic o f s i te s o f t h is p hase . A s ubs tan t ia l amoun t o f l oo t ing h as t a ken p l ace a t t h e s i te , d ue t o i t s p rox im i ty t o t he ma in h ighway l e ad ing t o P uno , a nd s ur face r e conna is sance i nd ica tes t h a t t he re a re n o u n loo ted c hu lp a s r ema in ing . T he s e cond c omponen t c on s is t s o f as e r ies o f I nka s t o rehouses , l o ca ted a pp rox ima te ly 1 60 me te r s t o t h e s ou theas t o f t he p ueb lo s i te" . T h is c omp lex i s c ompr ised o f t h ree d i s t in c t , l ong r e c tangu lar s t ruc tu re s , e ach i n te rna l ly s ubd iv ided i n to t e n t o t we lve r oom s ; s eve ra l s ma l ler i nd iv idua l s t ru c tu res a r e a l so l o ca ted w i th in t h is c omponen t . T he re a re a t o ta l o f 4 3 r oom s i n t he s t o rage c omp lex wh ich c an b e c l ea r ly i den t i f ied a s b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th t h e I nka c omponen t o f t he s i te . T he t h ree s t o rehouse u n i t s a re g rouped a round a l a rge p laza , a pp rox ima te ly 5 0 x1 20 m i n s i ze , o pen t o t he e as t . C o lon ia l c e ram i c s , mos t ly o l ive j a r s he rds , a r e f ound i n s ome q uan t i ty i n t h is p o r t ion o f t he s i te . T he re i sn o s ur face e v idence f o r d i s t inc t ive I nka l a rge -sca le d ome s t ic o ccupa t ion . S eve ra l o ther s i gn i f ican t a spec t s r e levan t t o t h e s i te s hou ld b e d is cussed , a s t hey b ea r d i rec t ly o n a ny i n te rp re ta t ion . F i r s t i s t he l o ca t ion o f a n I nka r oad wh ich i s d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s t o rehous e c omp lex , l y ing t o t he s ou th -sou thwes t . P rese rva t ion o f t h e r oad n ear C ama ta i s r e asonab ly g ood , a l though much o f t h is r oad h as b een d e s t royed b y c ons t ruc t ion o f t h e mode rn r o ad t o P uno i n t he P e ruv ian a l t ip lano n ear . L ake T i t i caca , men t ioned a bove . T he re i sr e ason t o b e l ieve t h a t t he mode rn r oad f o l low s t h e r ou te o f t he o r ig ina l I nka r o ad ( S tan ish , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion 1 987 ) . Ano the r i mpo r tan t f e a ture i s t h e p resence o f al a rge r e s ervo ir l o ca t ed a pp rox ima te ly o ne km t o t he s ou thwe s t o f t h e s i te . T h is r e se rvo ir i sr ough ly 4 0 x6 0 m i n s i ze , b u t o f r e la t ive ly l ow d ep th . E x is t ing r ema ins o f r e ta in ing w a l ls a re g ene ra l ly l e s s t han o ne m e te r h igh . A s ma l l p ar t o f t he r e se rvo ir h as b een d es t royed b y r oad c ons t ruc t ion i n 1 985 a nd 1 986 . A s so c ia t ed w i th t h e r e se rvo ir , o n t h e s ou th s i de , a re t wo ( pe rhap s mo re ) s ma l l , p oo r ly -prese rved r e c t i l inea r s t ruc tu re s . T he se s t ruc ture s a re t en ta t ive ly i den t i f ied a s I nka , b ased o n s u r face a r ch i te c tura l i nd ica t ion s , b u t t h is i den t i f icat ion mus t b e c on f irmed b y e xcava t ion . T he f unc t ion o f t hese s t ruc tures i su nde te rm ined . T he C ama tas a nd t h is r e s e rvo ir a r e a s so c ia ted w i th a v as t s ys tem o f a g r icu l tura l t e r rac ing . A er ia l p ho tog raphy c l ear ly s hows t he a s so c ia t ion o f t h e r e servo ir w i th a ma jo r f e ede r c ana l wh ich s upp l ied a l a rge p ar t o f t he t e r race s ys tem , a nd t e r race e xcava t ions
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E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 2 1
y i e ld b o th E s tuqu ir ia a nd I nka c e ram ics i n p low -zone c on tex t s . T h is t e r race s y s tem i sb y f a r t h e l a rge s t k nown i n t he O smo re d ra inage ( Mo se ley , p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion 1 987 ) ; a e r ia l p ho tog raphs p rov ide a r ough e s t ima te o f t he t o ta l a rea h ab i l i ta ted f o r c u l t iva t ion o f a pp rox ima te ly 2 5 km ' ( R ice 1 985 :14 ) . I n c on t ra s t w i th o the r a reas o f P e ru , n one o f t h e p reh is to r ic t e r races d i re c t ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e C ama tas a re c ur ren t ly u nde r c u l t iva t ion , f o r r e asons p robab ly r e la ted t o w a te r t a b le , c ana l d owncu t t ing , a nd o the r h yd ro log ica l f a c tor s . F ina l ly , h a l fway b e tween t h e s i te a nd t h e r e se rvo i r l i e s eve ra l s ma l l c hu lp a s a s soc ia ted w i th p e rhap s h a l f ad ozen s ma l l r e c t angu la r s t ruc ture s . T hese c hu lpa s a r e much l a rge r t han t hose f ound i n t h e c eme te ry a reas n o ted a bove , a nd l i ke t he o the r s a ppear t o b e c omp le te ly l oo ted . T empo ra l a s so c ia t ion o f t h e n on -mo r tuary s t ruc ture s c ou ld n o t b e d e term ined o n t he b as is o f a r ch i tec ture o r s u r face i nd ica t ions , a nd mus t b e t e s t ed b y e x cava t ion . T he C ama ta s i te s p resen t s eve ra l i n ter es t ing p rob lems , a na lys is o f wh ich d raw s h eav i ly o n t he ma t e r ia l p resen ted i n t he f i r s t p ar t o f t h is p ape r . A t av e ry g ene ra l l e ve l , w e c an s ay w i th s ome c e r t a in ty t h a t w e a r e p resen ted w i th a L a te I n te rmed ia te P er iod s i te w i th a n I nkaimposed s t o rage c omp lex , i n d i re c t a sso c ia t ion w i th t h e I nka r oad . T h is t ype o f a r ch i tec tura l a s semb lage i s n o t u nusua l i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o f t he T awan t insuyu s t a te , e spe c ia l ly i n t h e r eg ion s ou th o f L ake T i t icaca ( Hy s lop 1 984 :280 ) . On t h is b as is , w e c an t a ke t h e i n terp re ta t ion o ne s t ep f u r ther a nd d e f ine t h e s i te ( a t l e as t t h e I nka c omponen t o f i t ) a s at ambo . A t t h is p o in t , i n te rp re ta t ion b e come s s omewha t mo re c omp lex . S eve ra l q ue s t ions p r esen t t h emse lve s : ( 1 ) Wha t w as t he f unc t ion o f t h e C ama ta t ampu? Was i t p r imar i ly a d epo t f o r a g r icu l tura l p roduce t o b e r ed is t r ibu ted t o t h e l o ca l p rov in c ia l c en te r a nd C uz co ? Was i tp r ima r i ly a w ay s t a t ion f o r t r ave le r s , o r w as i t ac en te r f o r l og is t ica l s uppo r t o f t he m i l i tary c a mpa ign s d u r ing t he I nka c onques t o f t h e s ou the rn r eg ion s? O r d id i t p r ima r i ly s uppor t al o ca l p opu la t ion , s im i lar t o t h e t ampu a t Huänuco P ampa , b u t o n a much s ma l le r s c a le? ( 2 ) Wha t , i fa ny , i st he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e t ampu a nd t he e a r l ie r L a te I n te rme d ia te p ueb lo s i te ? Was t h e s i te o ccup ied c on tempo raneous ly w i th t he o pera t ion o f t he t ampu? I fs o , wha t d oe s t h is i mp ly v i s av i s t h e r e la t ionsh ip b etween t h e I nka s t a te a nd t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion? I f t h e s i te w as n o t o ccup ied c on tempo raneous ly , wha t i s t he s i gn i f icance o f t he I nka p ropens i ty t ob u i ld s t o rehouse s n ear u n inhab i ted r u ins ? ( 3 ) P rov ided a nswe r s t o t h ese q ues t ions , wha t g ene ra l c onc lus ion s c an b e m ade r ega rd ing t h e e conom ic i mp l ica t ions o f t h e I nka i mpe r ia l e xpans ion i n t he s ou thern p rov inces?
T he mos t l og ica l p l ace t o b eg in s uch a n a na ly s is i st h e L a te I n te rmed ia te c omponen t o f t h e s i te , C ama ta P ueb lo . A s men t ioned e a r l ie r , t h e s i te i s n o t d i s s im i lar t o s eve ra l o the r E s tuqu ir ia a nd E s tuqu i t ia/ Inka p hase s i te s i n t h e r eg ion ( s ee S t an ish 1 985 ; B o r s te l , e t a l . t h is v o lume ; C on rad a nd Webs te r , t h is v o lume ) . T aken a s a who le , t h e se s i te s c on fo rm t o aT i t icaca B as in s e t t lemen t p a t te rn d e f ined b y Hys lop ( 1 976 ) , w h ich h e t e rm s t h e " a l t ip lano mac ro -pa t te rn . " T h is t ype o f s e t t lemen t p at tern , c harac te r ized b y f o r t i f ied v i l lage s ( p uc ar a s ) , o f ten l o ca ted o n h i l l top s , i s ad i s t inc t ly L a te I n termed ia t e p henomenon
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MA TH EW S ; DU A L SY S T EM S O FI N K A AG R I CU L TU RA L PR ODUC T ION
( Lann ing 1 967 ) , o f ten d es c r ib ed b y t h e c h ron ic le r s a s t h e d om inan t p a t tern b e fo re t he I nka c onques t i n m any r eg ion s ( C ieza d e L eon 1 959 [ 1 553 ] : 159 , 1 68 ; C obo 1 979 :194 ) . Hy s lop 's p red ic t ions o f C huqu i to c e ram ic s a nd c hu lpas ( Hy s lop 1 976 :2 12 ) wh ich s hou ld a ppear i n L upaqa c o lon ie s h ave b een c on f irmed i n t h e Moquegua r eg ion ( P . R ice , t h is v o lume ; S t an ish 1 985 ) . Howeve r , S t an ish s ubs tan t ia l ly mod i f ie s t hese e ar l ie r c oncep t ions o f L upaqa i nf luence b y a s ser t ing t ha t t he E s tuqu i t ia s e t t lemen t s a re n o t L upaqa i n o r ig in , b u t i n s tead s how g r ea te r e v idence o f c on tac t w i th c oas t a l g roup s o r mo re n o r the r ly C hu ra jon g roups ( b ased o n u t i l i tar ian p la inwa re c e ram ic f o rm s ) , a nd mo re i mpo r tan t ly , i nf luence f r om t h e L ake T i t icaca C o I la p o l i ty ( t h is v o lume , 1 989 ) . T h is p ropo s i t ion i s b ased f i r s t o n t he a sse r t ion t h a t t h e a r ch i te c tu re a nd t h e c hu lpa s c harac t e r i s t ic o f t he Moquegua L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod s e t t lemen t s a re c l ear ly C o I la r e la ted c ha rac te r is t ic s , a nd s e cond , o n t he p re sence o f S i l lus tan i re la ted c e ram ics wh ich a n teda te t he L upaqa c e r am ic s ( i . e . C huqu i to ) a t s i te s i n t he Moquegua r eg ion . I n s ho r t , i tc anno t b e s a id t h a t t h e Moquegua E s tuqu if ia s i te s a re L upaqa c o lon ie s , b u t r a the r t h a t t hese s i te s e xpe r ienced i nf luence f r om s eve ra l d i s t inc t g eo -po l i t ica l z ones , t he L upaqa b e ing t he l a tes t o f a tl e as t t h ree f o r wh ich w e c an d e f ine s o me e v idence . T he r e levance o f t h is d i s cus s ion t o t he i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e C ama t a s i tes i st h a t i n t he a l t ip l an o , t h e L upaqa p o l i ty e me rged a s d om inan t o ve r t h e n e ighbo r ing C o I la o n ly a f te r t he I nk a h ad a l l ied t h emse lve s w i th t h e L upaqa ( C ieza d e L eon 1 959 [ 1 553 ] ; G a rc i laso d e l a V ega 1 96 1 [ 1 609 ] ; S t an ish , t h is v o lume ; s ee a l so Hys lop 1 976 a nd J u l ien 1 983 ) . D i re c t I nka i n te rven t ion i n t he T i t ica ca p o l i ty f e uds i sg ener a l ly h e ld t o b e a n h i s to r ica l r e a l i ty o f s ome p ropo r t ion ; J u l ien w r i tes t h a t " t he I n cas may h ave b een r e spons ib le f o r l eg i t im iz ing Qar i [ t he L upaqa l o rd ] a nd t he t e r r i tory h e u surped [ f rom t h e C o l lar ( J u l ien 1 983 :4 1 ) . Mo re i mpo r tan t , h oweve r , a r e t h e c hange s wh ich t ook p l ace a f te r t he L upaqa v i c to ry o ve r t he C o I la , p a r t icu la r ly t hose wh ich o ccur red i n t h e o u t ly ing a reas wh ich may h ave s uppo r ted a l t ip l ano c o lon ies . Hy s lop men t ions t wo p henomena wh ich may b e p e r t inen t t o t he s i tua t ion a t C ama ta f i r s t , t h a t w i th o ne e xcep t ion , a l l L upaqa c a b e c e r a s i n t h e h igh lands a re l o ca t ed d i re c t ly o n t h e I nka r oad , a nd s e cond , t ha t " t he c h ie f L upaqa t own s c o r re spond t o t he t ampu o r w ay s t a t ions t h a t w e re p resen t a t t he e nd o f e very d ay 's w a lk a long t h e I n ca r o ad " ( Hy s lop 1 976 :167 , 1 68 ) . T ha t t h e re i s s ome c ausa l p roces s a t work h e re i so bv ious , y e t t h e d i rec t ion o f t h e p ro ce s s i sn o t e xp l ic i t ly s t a ted . T he re a r e t wo p os s ib i l i t ie s : F i r s t , t h a t t h e L upaqa s e t t lemen t s w e re b u i l t a f te r t h e I nka o ccupa t ion o f t he r eg ion , a nd c o r re sponded t o t he I nka r oad a nd t ampu a t t he d i rec t ive o f t he I nka . T he s e cond p os s ib i l i ty i st h a t t he I nka c ons t ruc ted t he r o ad ( o r u t i l ized a n e x is t ing r oad , ac ommon p rac t ice t h roughou t t h e I nka c onque s t o f c omp lex p o l i t ie s who c ons t ruc ted r oads ; s ee Hy s lop 1 984 :270 -274 ; S chre iber 1 984 :89 -9 1) a nd c o r re spond ing t ampu s t a t ions b ased o n t he l o ca t ion o f L upaqa s e t t lemen t s a l ready e x is t ing i n t he r eg ion . T h is wou ld i nd ica te t ha t t h e L upaqa p l ayed s o me d e t e rm in is t ic r o le i n t h e i mpo s i t ion o f I nka s t a te f a c i l i t ie s i n t he r eg ion . T ha t t h e L upaqa may h ave i nf luen ced I nka s e t t lemen t i n t h e r eg ion i s a l so e v idenced b y t h e e x is tence o f wha t may b e t e rmed a r eg iona l v ar ia t ion o f t he I nka s t a te a r ch i te c ture i n t he a rea . Hys lop d es c r ibes a n a noma lous t ype o f I nka q o l l qa : " S ing le s t ruc ture s f o rmed b y ar ow o f n ear ly s quare o r r e c t angu la r r oom s a re a l so f ound a s so c ia ted w i th t he I nka r oad o r I nka s i te s i n n or thwes t A rgen t ina . T hes e t ypes o f c ons t ruc t ion a r e s omewha t u n ique , s i nce h igh land I nka a r ch i t ec ture i s k nown f o r i ndependen t o r i s o la ted r ooms r a the r t h an j o ined o nes " ( Hys lop 1 984 :290 ) . T h is t ype o f c ons t ruc t ion i s i d en t ica l t o t ha t f ound a t C ama ta . O f c ourse , t h e re a r e a n u mbe r o f f a c to r s wh ich m igh t a f fec t t h e d eve lopmen t o f s uch s t y l is t ic v ar ia t ions b u t o ne o f t h e mos t o bv ious wh ich s hou ld b e c ons idered i st h e i nf luence o f l o ca l t r ad i t ions ,
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2 1
wh ich a re p ar t icu lar ly mean ing fu l i fl o ca l p opu la t ions a re p e r fo rm ing c ons t ruc t ion t a sk s . S uch m igh t b e t he c ase i fI nka f a c i l i t ies we re c ons t ruc ted u s ing L upaqa m i t 'a l abo r" . T h is a rgumen t p resupposes a n o ccupa t ion o f t h e p ueb lo s i te c on tempo rary w i th t h e o pera t ion o f t he I nka t ambo . S t an ish ( pe rsona l c ommun ica t ion 1 987 ) p resen t s t h e p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t he p ueb lo s i te w as a bandoned b y t h e t ime o f t h e I nka a nnexa t ion o f t h e a rea , b ased o n t he a bsence o f C huqu i to re la ted c e ram ics i n v i s ib le s ur face c on tex t . Wh i le t h is p o ss ib i l i ty c anno t b e i gnored , Ib e l ieve t ha t i t i s f a r o u twe ighed b y a dd i t iona l e v idence , s uch a s t h e s i te 's j ux tapos i t ion w i th t h e I nka r oad ( s ee d iscuss ion a bove ) , a nd t he p resence o f E s tuqu it ia p la inware c e ram ics , wh ich s pan t he E s tuqu i i ia a nd E s tuqu i f ia/ Inka p hase t r ans i t ion , i n d i rec t a ssoc ia t ion w i th I nka c era m ics i n a gr icu l tura l t e r race c on tex ts . Add i t iona l e v idence f o r t h e c on temporary o ccupa t ion o f t he t wo c omponen t s i s i mp l ic i t i n t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween a s econd p a ir o f s i te s i n t he r eg ion s pann ing t h e s a me t ime p e r iod , t he E s tuqu i i ia s i te o f S an An ton io , a nd t h e I nka c o lon ia l s i te o f T o ra ta A l ta . T h is e v idence w i l l b e d i scussed i n s o mewha t more d e ta i l b e low . P os tu la t ing t he c on tempo ra ry o ccupa t ion o f t he t wo c omponen ts o f C ama t a , we mus t n ow t a ke i n to c ons ide ra t ion t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he L upaqa a nd t h e I nka c on q ue ro rs . B o th Hys lop ( 1 976 ) a nd J u l ien ( 1 983 ) c oncur t ha t t he L upaqa ( a t l e as t t h e L upaqa e l i te ) b ene f i ted f r om t he ir a l l iance w i th t h e I nka : " I t i s l i ke ly t ha t t he I n cas r e in for ced t he p owe r o f t he L upaca e l i te i n r e turn f o r L upaca l oya l ty t o t h e I nca s t a te a nd f o r t he p aymen t o f t r ibu te i n t e rm s o f c l o th ing a nd men , p ar t icu lar ly when t he I n ca s t a te w as e ngaged i n c onques t " ( Hys lop 1 976 :200 1 ) . We h ave a l ready r ev iewed e v idence t ha t t he E s tuqu i r la s i tes i n t he Moquegua V a l ley a nd i t s s ubs id iary d ra inages s how s t rong a l t ip l ano i n f luences ( t he t ypes i te , E s tuqu i r la , s hows s o me e v idence o f c oas ta l i n f luence a s w e l l , b u t mos t o f t he s o -ca l led a l t ip l an o f e a tures a re p resen t ) . B ased o n a r ch i tec tura l a nd mo r tuary i nd ica t ion s , a nd t he p resence o f S i l lus tan i re la ted c e ram ics wh ich p robab ly a n t eda te L upaqa/Chuqu i to p o t tery , t h ese s e t t lemen t s a re i n i t ia l ly mos t l i ke ly a ssoc ia ted i n s ome w ay w i th t he C o I la p o l i t ies , r a the r t h an t h e L upaqa . Y e t l a ter L upaqa o ccupa t ion o f t h e a rea i sw e l l -documen ted : " t he f i r s t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o f L upaqa i nf luence i n t h e Moquegua D ra inage t h ere fo re c o r re lates t o t he e s tab l ishmen t o f I n ca a dm in is t ra t ive s e t t lemen ts i n t h e l owe r v a l ley s " ( S tan ish , t h is v o lu me ) . Add i t iona l ly , i n t h e a l t ip l ano , C huqu i to c eram ic s a r e p resen t i n q uan t i ty o n t he s ur face o f C o I la s i tes , y e t " S i l lus tan i c e ra m ic s t y les a re r a re ly f ound o n L upaqa s i tes " ( Hys lop 1 976 ; s ee a l so S t an ish , t h is v o lume ) . T he e nd r e su l t o f t h ese d a ta s ugges t t ha t " t he p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic e xchange r e la t ionsh ips c on t ro l led b y t he p re Inca C o I la w e re c o -op ted b y t h e L upaqa e l i te i n c on junc t ion w i th I n ca i mpe r ia l p o l icy " ( S tan ish , t h is v o lume ) . T he d e ta i ls o f t h is p ro ce ss a r e f a ir ly w e l l u nde rs tood f o r t h e h igh lands , d ue i n p a r t t o r e cords s uch a s t he V is i ta o f G arc i D iez , b u t l i t t le i s k nown r egard ing t he e f fe c t s o f t h e r e s truc tur ing o f p o l i t ica l a l l iances o n t he m id -s ie r ra . Mor r is s ugges t s t h a t e ven u nde r I nka r u le , s uch r eg iona l g roups a s t he L upaqa we re a u tonomous t o al a rge d eg ree , a nd c ou ld b e t hough t o f a s " v iab le p o l i t ica l a nd a l so e conom ic u n i t s " ( Mo r r is 1 986 :64 ) . E l sewhere , Mo r r is ( 1 982 :163 -65 ) s t a tes t ha t t he I nka o f ten u t i l ized a s ys tem o f " i nd irec t r u le " i n t h e g ove rn ing o f i nd igenous s ub jec t p opu la t ions , wh ich wou ld a l so s uppo r t t h e n o t ion o f a h igh d egree o f L upaqa a u tonomy u nde r t h e I nka .
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J . MA TH EW S ; DU A L SY S T EM S O FI N K A AG R I CU L TURA L PR ODUC T ION
I n ar e la ted p o in t , Hys lop a s ser t s t ha t l o ca l a dm in is t ra t ion was a l so a n a c t iv i ty t h a t t ook p l ace a t t ampu . S ince l a rge I nka a dm in i s t ra t ive c en te rs a re n o t f ound i n m any p ar t s o f t h e emp i re , i ti sp robab le t h a t much o f t h e emp ire w as g ove rned f r om t ampu , o r s i tes t h a t w e re n o l a rge r t han s o me t ampu . T h i s i s t he c ase i n r eg ion s s ou th o f c en t ra l B o l iv ia , a nd o n much o f t he P ac i f ic c oas t . ( Hy s lop 1 984 :293 )
G iven a n h ypo the s ized h igh d eg ree o f L upaqa a u tonomy u nde r t he I nka , a nd t he p r esen ce o f t he I nka t amb o a nd r oad a t t he L a te I n termed ia te s i t e o f C ama ta , i ti s n o t b eyond c r edu l i ty t o s pecu la t e t h a t t h ere w as a c l o se i n te rac t ion b e tween t he L upaqa a nd t h e I nk a a t C ama ta , i n b o th l o ca l a dm in is t ra t ive a f fa i r s a nd s t a te f un c t ions r e la t ing t o t he t ampu s y s tem . S uch a p ropo s i t ion i s s i gn i f ican t , e spec ia l ly r egard ing t h is s i te , s i nce C ama ta c om mands t h e l a rges t s ys tem o f i r r iga ted t e r rac ing i n t h e O smo re d ra inage , a s men t ioned a bove . Whe the r a l l o f t h ese t e r races w e re i n u se a t a ny g iven t ime i s d eba tab le" . T e r r ace e xcava t ions y i e lded b o th E s tuqu it ia a nd I nka c e ram ics , a l though d e te rm ina t ion o f t h e p r e sen ce o f C huqu i to ma te r ia l c ou ld n o t b e made a t t he t ime o f i n i t ia l a na ly s is . U n fo r tuna te ly , o n ly a s ma l l s amp le o f t h e t e r race s w ere t e s ted , a nd t he se w e re i n c l ose p rox im i ty t o t he s i te i t se l f , a nd t h e q ue s t ion r ema in s a s t o whe the r a l l o f t h e t e r races i n t h e s y s tem c on ta in b ic u l tura l c e ram ic ma te r ia l . A g a in , t hese h ypo the ses a r e d rawn mo re f r om s i tua t iona l f a c to r s t han f r om r e su l t s o f e x cava t ion , y e t t h ey a re i n t r igu ing . We a r e g iven t h e t wo c omponen t s o f t he s i te o f C ama t a a s ab ase f r om wh ich t o s t a r t . T hey a re l o ca ted i n t he c on tex t o f t h e ma jo r a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion s ys tem o f t h e Moquegua V a l ley , t he r ema in s o f wh ich p rov ide a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e a s soc ia t ion o f I nka a nd i nd igenous u sage o f t he s ame s y s tem . N ex t , t he re i st h e s uppo s i t ion o f t h e s em i -au tonomous L upaqa o ccupa t ion i n t he a r ea , w h ich may h ave b een i n t he f o rm o f p e rmanen t m i t ima e a g r icu l tura l l abo re rs / co lon i s t s , who r ep laced t h e i nd igenous p opu la t ion o f t he r eg ion , who may h ave h ad a s o f y e t u nde f ined c onnec t ions w i th t h e C o l la . T aken t oge ther , t h e se f a c to r s p rov ide a c a se f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t he C ama ta s i te s a s a n I nka a g r icu l tura l e nc lave ( s ee L a L one a nd L a L one 1 987 ) i n t h e s ou the rn Andean m id s ier ra . T h i s c l a im i sj u s t i f ied b y much o f t he d iscus s ion p re sen ted i n t h is p ape r , b o th i n t he l i t e ra tu re r ev iew a nd t h e s i t e d es c r ip t ion . T he c oncom i tan t p resence o f a ma jo r a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion z one , a n I nka t amb o , a nd t h e I nka r oad , t oge the r w i th t he i mpos i t ion o f an on lo ca l p opu la t ion w i th t he a dven t o f I nka c on t ro l o f t he r eg ion , a l l i nd ica t e as t a te s y s tem o f p roduc t ion s im i la r t o t ha t f ound a t C o chabamba a nd A bancay . T he t amb o a t C ama t a , h oweve r , i s ag ood d ea l s ma l le r t h an t hose o f C o chabamba a nd A banc ay , d esp i te t h e f a c t t h a t t he a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion s ys t em i st h e l a rges t k nown i n t h e Moquegua V a l ley . One e xp lana t ion f o r t h is p henomenon may b e t he h ypo the s ized m i l i ta ry r o le o f c e r ta in I nka t ampu ( e .g . Mo r r is 1 982 :154 ) . Among t h e f unc t ions o f I nka t ampu i ss upp ly o f i mpe r ia l t r oop s d ur ing m i l i tary c ampa igns . R ega rd ing t he O smo re d ra inage , h oweve r , s uch a f un c t ion may b e am ino r o ne a t b e s t . R ice ( 1 985 :5 ) o f fe r s a t e n ta t ive c on jec ture t ha t d ue t o t h e I nka -Lupaqa r e la t ionsh ip , t h e r eg ion may h ave b een i n i t ia l ly a nnexed b y " i nd i re c t c onque s t , " an o t ion b o rne o u t i n t h is p ape r . T he a s ser t ion t h a t C ama t a i s a n a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion e nc lave , wh ich e n ta i ls a r ad ica l ly d i f feren t a dm in is t ra t ive s ys tem t h an t h a t wh ich h as t r ad i t iona l ly b een t hough t 4 3 1
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 2 1
t o h ave b een o pe ran t i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Ande s , c an o n ly b e p roven b y i n ten s ive a r chaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion . S uch a n i nves t iga t ion mus t a l so i nc lude s ynch ronous a na lys is o f t he s i tes o f S an An ton io a nd T o ra ta A l ta , n o ted a bove . S an An ton io i s a L a te I n termed ia te p e r iod s e t t lemen t l o ca ted a t a n e l eva t ion o f a pp rox i ma te ly 2 300 m .a .s . l . n ear t h e c onve rgence o f t he T um i laca a nd T o ra ta R ive r v a l leys . I ti sv e ry c omparab le t o C ama ta P ueb lo i n t e rms o f s i ze , n u mbe r o f s t ruc tures , a r ch i tec tura l t e chno logy , a nd f o r t i f ica t ions . I ti sl o ca ted l e ss t han o ne km f r om t h e s i te o f T o ra ta A l ta , wh ich i s t hough t v ar ious ly t o b e a n I nka a dm in is t ra t ive c en ter o r a p os tI nka S pan ish r e duc c i on ( R ice 1 985 :14 ) ; i fi ti si ndeed a n I nka s i te , T o ra ta A l ta wou ld b e t h e l a rges t k nown i n t he O smo re d ra inage . E xcava t ions b y P rog rama C on t isuyo 's P royec to O smo re i n 1 987 a t S an An ton io r evea led i nd ica t ion s o f s t rong I nka i nf luence w i th in t he c on f ines o f t he L a te I n termed ia te s i te i n t he f o rm o f t h e r e sur fac ing o f o ccupa t ion f l oor s i n S t ruc ture 2 0 . Add i t iona l ly , t h e l a ter o ccupa t ion c on t a ined a s ma l l q uan t i ty o f d e co ra ted c e ram ic s he rds t en ta t ive ly i den t i f ied a s I nka , a l though e xac t i den t i f ica t ion h as n o t b een c omp le ted ( s ee B o rs te l , e t a l . , t h is v o lu me ; C on rad a nd R ice , t h is v o lume ; C on rad a nd Webs ter , t h is v o lume ) . I n a ny e ven t , t he e v idence f o r I nka i n f luence a t S an An ton io i s f a ir ly c ompe l l ing . B o th S an An ton io a nd T o r a ta A l ta mus t b e c ons idered i n c on junc t ion i n a ny f unc t iona l a na lys is o f t he t ampu s i te a tC ama ta 1 4.
C onc lus ions T h is p ape r h as a t temp ted t o s u mmar ize t he a rgumen t f o r ad ua l s y s tem o f a g r icu l t u ra l p roduc t ion wh ich e x is ted u nder t he I nka s t a te , b rough t a bou t b y t h e i n adequacy o f t h e e x is t ing t r ad i t iona l . Andean s ys tems o f r e c iproc i ty a nd e xchange t o s upp ly t he n eeds o f a n e xpans ion is t i mpe r ia l s t a te . One s ys tem w as d evo ted t o l o ca l a dm in is t ra t ive n eeds , a nd w as l i t t le c hanged f r om p re -ex is t ing s ys tems ; t he o the r w as g eared t o mass ive s urp lus p roduc t ion f o r t he r u l ing p o l i ty . I th as a l so t r ied , i n av e ry p re l im inary way , t o o f fe r s o me o bse rva t ions o n t he s i tua t ion e ncoun te red b y t he I nka wh ich m igh t h ave f a c i l i ta ted t he i n s t i tu t ion o f as t a te s urp lus s y s tem , t h rough a d iscus s ion o f p os s ib le L upaqa a c t iv i ty a t t he s i te o f C ama ta . A l though t h e i deas p resen ted i n t h e s e cond h a l f o f t h is p ape r awa i t f u r the r t e s t ing , t hey d o r a ise a n umber o f i n tere s t ing q ue s t ions f o r f u ture r e sea rch o n L a te p reh ispan ic a g r icu l ture a nd I nka i mpe r ia l e xpans ion i n t he S ou th C en t ra l Andes .
A cknow ledgemen ts T he f i e ld work f o r t h is p ape r w as made p oss ib le b y t he g enerous s uppo r t o f D on R ice ( Un iver s i ty o f V irg in ia ) a nd G eo f f rey C onrad ( I nd iana Un ivers ity ) o f t h e P rog rama C on t isuyo , P royec to O smo re , a nd a t r ave l g ran t p rov ided b y t he Me l lon F ounda t ion t h rough t h e C en te r f o r L a t in Ame r ican S tud ies o f t h e Un ive rs i ty o f Ch icago . I wou ld l i ke t o t hank Don R ice , G eo f f rey C on rad , J ane B u iks t ra , A lan K o la ta , a nd L u is Wa tanabe f o r t he ir s uppo r t a nd i npu t d ur ing t h e p re l im inary s t ages o f my r e search . Iam e spec ia l ly i ndeb ted t o C har les S t an ish o f t h e F i e ld Museum o f N a tu ra l H is tory i n C h icago f o r h i s c r i t ic ism a nd e ncouragemen t . Ia l so g ive g rac ious t h ank s t o my c o l leagues i n t he f i e ld , who k ep t me i n s upp ly o f s t imu la t ing d iscuss ion t h rough t he c ourse o f my r e search . E r ro rs c on ta ined i n t h is p aper , h oweve r , a re o f c ou rse my own .
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J . MA THEW S ; DU A L SY S T EM S O F I N KA AG R ICU LTURA L PR ODU CT ION
No tes
1 . " . .. e l s i s tema d e r egad io f ue u na d e l a s marav i l las Mundo q ue d escubr ie ron l o s e uropeos e n l o s Andes . "
t e cno log ias d e l Nuevo
2 . P a r t o f t h is c on fus ion may b e ar e su l t o f C ieza 's f a i lure t o p rope r ly d i s t ingu ish c en ter s wh ich p e r fo rmed b o th a dm in is t ra t ive a nd s t orage f unc t ions , f r om t he t ambo s wh ich s e rved more l im i ted s t o rage p urposes . T he d i s t inc t ion i sn o t h ard a nd f a s t , a nd r ema ins s ub jec t t o i n terpre ta t ion e ven i n t h is c en tury ( s ee Hys lop 1 984 ; Mor r is 1 972 ) . ( 1 943 [ 1 553 1 :21 ; Hy s lop 1 984 :294 ) . 3 . " D e l a s r es tan tes 7 7 , v e in t inueve a luden a l ma iz y s i e te a l a c h icha , h ac iendo u n t o ta l d e 3 6 . O t ras s i e te men c ionan e l c hunu . . . .Hay u na s o la r e fe renc ia e spec i f ica a l a p apa c uando s e d esc r iben d epos i tos . .. " 4 . Ma ize c ou ld a pparen t ly b e g rown i n t he v i c in i ty o f L ake T i t icaca i t se l f ( s ee Hy s lop 1 976 :65 ) , y e t e v iden t ly n o t i n t he q uan t i ty r equ ired b y t he L upaqa . Murra b ases h i s t h eory o f " ver t ica l c on t ro l " o n s eve ra l p assages i n t he V is i ta ( Gard D iez d e S an M igue l 1 964 [ 1 567 ] ) wh ich s t a te c l ea r ly t ha t t he L upaqa ma in ta ined c o lon ies d evo ted t o t he p roduc t ion o f ma ize i n t he m id -s ier ra o f t he wes te rn s l opes o f t he Andes . 5 . One m igh t s pecu la te t h a t t h ere e x is ted a c l ose c onnec t ion b e tween t he s acred c harac te r o f ma ize a nd t h e f a c t t ha t i tg rew i n t he L ake T i t icaca r eg ion ( par t icu lar ly o n t he i s lands i n t he l ake ) , a nd t h e f a c t t ha t L ake T i t icaca w as t he my th ica l p lace o f o r ig in o f t he I nka . 6 . S ee a l so Mur ra 1 978 :48 : " S in embargo , p or s u f a c i l idad d e c on servac ion e l ma iz e s s uper io r a l c hunu , y e n t odas p ar tes l a a cu mu lac ion d e r e se rvas h a s i do u na p re o cupac ion b as ica d e l e s tado . . . .Su p os ic ion mas e l evada , s em iceremon ia l , h izo d e e l u n c u l t ivo p re fer ido e n l a s i er ra . " 7 . C obo w r ites t h a t t he I nka r emoved " s ix o r s even t housand f am i l ies ( mo re o r l e ss , a cco rd ing t o wha t s eemed f i t t ing t o t hem , j udg ing b y t he n umbe r a nd d i spos i t ion o f t he p eop le t h ey f ound ) " ( Cobo 1 979 1 89 ) . C ieza ( 1 959 [ 1 553 1 :56 -7 ) s t a tes t ha t " As s oon a s o ne o f t h ese l a rge p rov inces w as c onque red , t en o r t we lve t housand o f t he men a nd t h e ir w ives , o r s i x t housand , o r t he n umber d ec ided u pon , w e re o rde red t o r emove t h emse lves f r om i t . " Wach te l ( 1 982 :216 ) r epor t s t ha t 1 4 ,000 m i t imaes w ere r e loca ted f r om v ary ing p ar t s o f t he emp ire i n to t he C ochabamba V a l ley f o r p urposes o f a g r icu l t u ra l p roduc t ion . T he a c tua l n umbe r a ppears t o h ave b een v ar iab le u nder t he c i rcum s t ance s ; a t a ny r a te , t he magn i tude o f t h e o pe ra t ion c anno t b e d en ied . 8 . Mo rr is ( 1982 :196 ) d iscusses mo re c omp le te ly t he c onsump t ion o f g oods b y l o ca l e l i te s i n r e ference t o Huanuco P ampa , s t a t ing t ha t " eno rmous r e sources w ere b e ing p u t i n to t he i n f ras t ruc tura l a nd c e remon ia l a ppara tus , wh ich was ma in ly c once rned w i th t he p e rpe tua t ion a nd g row th o f p ower i t se l f . T he emphas is w as o n d i s t r ibut ion a nd c onsump t ion , n o t p roduc t ion . " I n t h is e xamp le , g oods a re b e ing c hanne led i n to t he s ys tem i n o rder t o ma in ta in c e r ta in o b l iga to ry r e la t ionsh ips b e tween t h e s t a te a nd t he l o ca l e l i te , n o t t he b as ic s ub s is tence o f t he p opu lat ion a s a who le . On ly i n t ime s o f s t re ss m igh t t he s t a te loca l e l i te s ub -sys tem h ave t r anscended t hese o rgan izat iona l p r inc ip les .
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 2 1
9 . T he s t o rehouse s a t C o tapach i , i n t h e C ochabamba V a l ley , a re a n e xamp le o f t h is c as e . G aspar in i a nd Ma rgo l ie s i den t i fy 2 , 400 q o l lq a a t C o tapach i , i n t h e a bs ence o f a ma jo r r e s iden t ia l/adm in is t ra t ive c en te r ( Gaspa r in i a nd Margo l ie s 1 980 :302 ) . 1 0 .
A lso k nown l o ca l ly a s P ampa C o lo rada .
1 . T he d e s igna t ion a s I nka s t o rehouse s i s made u s ing Hys lop 's ( 1 984 :288 , 2 90 ) c r i t er ia f o r d e f in ing s uch c on s t ruc t ion s , e spe c ia l ly r e levan t i n t h e s ou thern p a r t s o f t h e I nka emp i re , a nd s ur face c e ram ic i nd ica t ion s . O the r e v iden ce w i l l b e d iscus sed b e low . 1 2 . " I n f luence , " a s t he t e rm i su sed h ere , c an h ave e f fe c t s i n b o th d ire c t ions . T ha t t h e L upaqa d i re c t ly i nf luenced a r ch i te c tura l f o rm i su n l ike ly , g iven t ha t L upaqa a r ch i t ec ture i n t he h igh lands i s g ene ra l ly c harac te r ized b y r ound s t ruc tu re s . ( Hys lop 1 976 ) , r a the r t han q uadr i la te ra l , wh ich a re g ene ra l ly a sso c ia ted w i th C o I la h igh land o ccupa t ion I ti s p o s s ib le , h oweve r , t ha t t he I nka d i re c ted t he c on s t ruc t ion o f t h is f o rm i n o rde r t o e s tab l ish a h igh ly -v is ib le d i s t inc t ion o f i nd igenous i n s ta l la t ion s s t a te s t ruc ture s f r om i nd igenous i n s ta l la t ions . 1 3 . F o r e xamp le , Mose ley ( pe r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) a sse r t s t ha t much o f t h is l a nd w as a bandoned d ur ing t he l a t te r p ar t o f t h e I nka o c cupa t ion , a nd s t a te s t h a t t h e h igh ly v i s ib le t ambo o n t h e r oad w as a n e xamp le o f I nka p ropaganda . 1 4 . T o ra ta A l ta i se as i ly " one d ay 's w a lk " f r om t he C ama ta t ambo .
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Agr icu l tu ra l Dyna m ics i n t he Andes Ch r i s tophe r 0 . C lemen t D ep ar tmen t o f An thr opo logy U n iv e r s i ty o fF l or id a
M ichae l E . Mo se ley D epar tmen t o f An thr opo logy U n iv er s i ty o fF l or ida
I n t rodu c t ion A long t he a r id P ac i f ic w a te rshed o f t he c en t ra l Andes where mos t a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion d epends u pon i r r iga t ion , ag rea t d ea l o f l and t ha t w as f a rmed i n t he p as t i s n o t i n p roduc t ion t oday ( e .g . B us tos 1 978 ; Donnan 1 973 ; E l ing 1 984 , 1 986 ; F lo res O choa a nd P az F lores 1 983 ; K ea t inge 1 980 ; K o la ta 1 982 ; K osok 1 942 , 1 965 ; K us 1 972 ; P arsons a nd P su ty 1 975 ; S h i mada 1 98 1 ; S t an ish 1 985 ; Wes t 1 98 1 ; W i l ley 1 953 ) . T he amoun t o f a bandoned f a rm l a nd v ar ies : Mose ley e t a l . ( 1 98 1 ) e s t ima te t ha t 3 5% o f l and f o rme r ly s uppo r t ing a gr icu l ture i n t h e Mo che V a l ley i s o u t o f p roduc t ion ; i n t he C o lca V a l ley , D enevan a nd H ar tw ig ( 1 986 ) c a lcu la te t ha t 6 1% h as d ropped f r om u se ; a nd Wr igh t ( 1 963 ) n o tes a more t han 8 0% r educ t ion i n f a rm l and i n n or the rn Ch i le . B ecause a bandoned a gr icu l tura l wo rk s a re t he l a rges t o f a l l a r chaeo log ica l monumen t s i n t he A nde s a nd e ncompass t e ns o f t housands o f h ec tares , t hey h ave p roven t o b e b o th d i f f icu l t a nd e xpens ive t o s t udy . A s ar e su l t , t he c auses o f a g rar ian a bandonmen t a re l i t t le u nde rs tood . A f r equen t m isconcep t ion i s t ha t a bandonmen t o ccur red a s ar e su l t o f d epopu la t ion a ccompany ing S pan ish c onques t . C e r ta in ly s oc io -po l it ica l a nd d emograph ic c hange b rough t a bou t b y t he c onques t h ad a dverse e f fec t s o n n a t ive s ubs is tence p rac t ices . Howeve r , t o s eek e xp lana t ion o f a l l a g rar ian c o l lapse t h roughou t t h e Andean c o rd i l le ra e xc lus ive ly i n t e rms o f s uch h u man f a c to rs o b fusca tes t he e f fec t s o f p o ten t ia l a l te rna t ive c on t r ibu to rs , a nd makes mo re d i f f icu l t t he t a sk o f d i f feren t ia t ing c u l tura l f r om n a tura l 4 35
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 2
p rocesse s . B e fo re a dop t ing a s t r ic t ly c u l tura l e xp lana to ry f r amework , i ti si mpo r tan t t o u nde r s tand t ha t p ar t o f a ny p roces s wh ich d oes n o t r equ i re a c u l tu ra l e xp lana t ion . When e co log ica l a gen t s a re w e l l -de f ined a nd e xp l ic i t ly s t a ted , c u l tura l f a c to r s a r e e as ie r t o d e te rm ine -behav io r c an b e mo re e f fec t ive ly e l uc ida ted w i th in t he c on tex t o f t h e b roade r , n atura l s e t t ing i n wh ich i to ccur s . I f a bandoned f i e lds w e re p ure ly t he r e su l t o f n on recur ren t h is to r ica l e ven t s , t h e e f fec t s o n mode rn p opu la t ion s wou ld b e mode ra te . Howeve r , whe re d isused a g r icu l tura l wo rk s h ave b een d a ted , i ti s a pparen t t h a t t h ey w e re b u i l t a nd a bandoned a t d i f fe ren t t ime s a nd i n d i f fe ren t p lace s . Nume rous e xamp le s o ccu r i n t he a rea o f P rog rama C on t isuyu o pe ra t ions a l one : i n t h e h eadwa te r s o f t h e O smo re d ra inage , a bove T o ra ta , v as t t r ac t s o f t e r race s w ere c on s t ruc ted a s e a r ly a s A .D . 9 00 ( S tan ish 1 985 ) , b u t h ad l a rge ly d ropped f r om u se b y t he t ime o f t h e I n cas ; i n m id -va l ley , n ea r t h e c i ty o f Moquegua , a re a nc ien t c ana l s ys tem s wh ich w e re u sed a nd a bandoned b y T iwanaku p eop les ( S tan ish 1 985 ) ; i n t h e l ower v a l ley , b eh ind I l o , a n i mp re s s ive c ana l -much l onge r t han a ny i n l o ca l u se c ur ren t ly -p robab ly d a te s t o c a . A .D . 1 200 1300 . T oday , i t i s s t randed mo re t h an 3 0 m a bove t he v a l ley f l oo r . A p rob lem a r ises w hen mode rn r e c lama t ion wo rks a re b u i l t w i th in t he r u ins o f a n c ien t i r r iga t ion s ys tem s w i thou t a ny u nde rs tand ing o f why t h e o lde r , l a rge r s ys tem s c o l laps ed i n t h e f i r s t p lace . B y i gno r ing t h e l e s sons o f t he p as t , a g ra r ian p lanner s l e ave t h em se lve s o pen t o f u ture c o l lapse , wh ich may s pe l l d isas te r f o r a n a l ready u n s tab le P eruv ian e conomy . F o r s eve ra l y ea rs p e r sonne l o f t he P rog rama C on t isuyu h ave s tud ied a g r icu l tura l c on t rac t ion b y i nve s t iga t ing o l ive g rove s s c a t te red a l ong t he d e se r t c oas t n o r th o f I l o a t 1 7 ° Sl a t i tude . I r r iga ted f r om s pr ings , t he mode rn g roves a re s ma l l a nd h ave v ary ing amoun t s o f l and n o l onger i n p roduc t ion . F o r r e sea r ch p urposes t h ey r ep resen t i n m ic ro co sm t he a g ra r ian c on t rac t ion t ha t o ccu r red a l ong t h e e n t ire Andean c oas t . T he s t udy o f t h e g roves h as t wo e nds . F i r s t , t o d eve lop a ccura te , e conom ic m ean s f o r mapp ing a nd q uan t i fy ing b road a reas o f a bandoned f a rm l a nd . S econd , t o e va lua te a t heo ry t h a t s eek s t o e xp la in a g rar ian c on t rac t ion a s a n o ngo ing p rocess . T h is t h eo ry , t h e " Hypo the s is o f A g rar ian C o l lapse , " o r HAC , w as i n i t ia l ly d eve loped d ur ing i nve s t iga t ions o f a nc ien t C h imu c ana l s ys tem s s ur round ing C han C han ( Mo se ley 1 978 ; Mo se ley e t a l . 1 983 ) , b u t may b e mo re w ide ly a pp l icab le t o much o f w es tern P eru . T he t h eory make s t h ree p ropo s i t ions a bou t i r r iga ted l a nd . F i r s t , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a bandoned l a nd i s p a t te rned . S econd , t he p a t te rn i s ap roduc t o f d e c l in ing w a te r l e ve ls a t t h e mou th s o f c ana ls . T h ird , r i ve r s a r e c ut t ing d eepe r c ou rses a nd p h rea t ic l e ve ls a re l owe r ing a l ong t he e n t ire l e ng th o f t he P ac i f ic w a te rshed . A l though many f a c to rs may b e i nvo lved , t he p r imary c on t r ibu to r t o r i ve r d own c u t t ing a nd d e c l in ing p h rea t i c l e ve ls i sp robab ly g radua l , o ngon ing t e c ton ic u p l i f t o f t h e A ndean c o rd i l le ra . D rama t ic e v idence t ha t t e c ton ic a c t iv i ty o ccurs a r e t h e f r equen t e a r thquake s f e l t i n s ou the rn P eru a nd n or the rn C h i le , t h e mo s t r e cen t b e ing t h e t r emo r t h a t s hook A r ica , C h i le i n Augus t o f 1 987 , a nd c au sed t h e c o l lap se o f s eve ra l d own town b u i ld ings . A s ar e su l t o f c rus ta l d ynam ic s , h ydro log ica l c ond i t ions i n t he A nde s a re n o t s t a t ic . T e c ton ic a c t iv i ty c on s tan t ly d es tab l ize s e x is t ing h ydro lg ica l c ond i t ion s b ecause t he p roces s o f o rogen ic u p l i f t a c t s i n o ppo s i t ion t o h yd ro log ica l d ynam ics wh ich d i c ta te t h a t w a te r c on t inua l ly s eek t he l e ve l o f t h e s ea . T hu s , a s t he l a nd s ur face r i se s , p hr ea t ic l e ve ls d ec l ine a nd r i ver s c u t e ve r d eepe r c hanne ls t o ma in ta in e qu i l ibr ium w i th s e a l e ve l .
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F igu re l a .
A s r i ve r d owncu ts , c ana l i n take m ig ra tes u ps lope , a nd e f fec t ive t r anspo r t d i s tance i n c reases .
F igu re l b .
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A E 3ANDONED L AND
F u r the r d owncu t t ing c auses f i na l a bandonmen t o fo r ig ina l c ana l .
R ep lacemen to ccu r s d own s lope . F igure 1 c .
D owncu t t ing c on t inues , a nd p a t te rn i sr epea ted . E f fec t ive t r anspor t d i s tance d ec reases a s c ana ls m ig ra te u ps lope .
F igure i d .
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A s w a t e r b ecomes l e s s a cces s ib le i r r iga t ion p l anne r s r e ac t i n ap red ic tab le manne r , a nd t he r e su l t ing l and l o s s i sp a t t e rned . When p h rea t ic l e ve ls f a l l r e la t ive t o t he s ur face o f t he l and , c ana l i n take s mus t b e r eworked l e s t t hey b e s t randed a bove t he ir w a te r s ou rce . I n take s m ay b e moved u p -s t ream t o a cce s s w a te r f l ow a t h igher e l eva t ions , l e ng then ing t he e n t i re c ana l a nd r e su l t ing i n t he a bandonemen t o f d i s ta l f i e lds wh ich n o l onge r r e ce ive a dequa te w a te r s upp l ies f o r v i ab le a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion . A l terna t ive ly , n ew c ana l s y s t em s may b e b u i l t d owns t ream a nd d own s lope c l ose r t o t he o cean whe re w a te r l e ve ls a r e h ighe r , i n wh ich c ase a bandoned l a nds a re l o ca t ed a bove t h e n ew ly c ons t ruc ted d e l ive ry s y s tem . T o t he d eg ree t ha t t e c ton ic u p l i f t i s o ngo ing , t h ese p roces se s c on t inua l ly r eoccur ( F igure l a -d ) . T h i s mode l o f a g ra r ian c o l lapse w as r e cen t ly a pp l ied t o r i ve r fed i r r iga t ion s y s tem s i n t he m id -va l ley a rea o f t he O smo re d ra inage ( S tan ish 1 985 ) . An i n te rpre ta t ive p rob lem was e n coun tered h e re b ecause t h e p ropo s i t ions HAC make s a bou t a bandoned f a rm l a nd r evo lve a r ound t he n a tu re , f o rm , a nd d ynam ics o f c ana l i n take s t ruc tu res . A t r i ve r fed s ys tem s t h e v as t ma jo r i ty o f p r ev ious i n take c omp lexe s a re d e s t royed b y l a te r c ons t ruc t i on , a nd b y t he v e ry p ro ce ss es o f p h rea t ic s ubs idence a nd e ro s ion t ha t make t h em i nope r ab le i n t he f i r s t p lace . T hus , a l though S t an ish e ncoun te red t he e xpec ted p a t te rned l and l o s s , d ue t o p oo r p re se rva t ion o f c ana l mou ths t he d a ta d id n o t a dequa te ly i mp l ica te s t rand ing o f i n take s o r s t ream d own -cu t t ing a s t h e p r imary c asua l a gen t . I n t he a b sen ce o f a n c ien t i n take s t ruc tu res , o the r v a r iab le s s uch a s a g r icu l tura l i n tens i f ica t i on , p opu la t ion i n c rease , o r c hang ing p re fe rences i n s e t t lemen t p a t te rn c ou ld n o t b e d i scarded a s p o ten t ia l c on t r ibu t ing f a c to rs ( S tan ish 1 985 :103 111 ) . One g oa l o f t he c oas ta l r e sear ch n ear I l o w as t o a vo id t h is p rob lem b y f o cus ing u pon s p r ing fed i r r iga t ion s y te m s w he re i n take p rese rva t ion i sg ene ra l ly f a r b e t t e r t h an a r i ve r fed s y s tems . T he C oa s ta l O l ive G roves T he R io O smo re f o l low s a ma jo r f au l t , t h e C ho lo lo F au l t , f o r much o f i t s c ou rse . T he p resen ce o f t he f au l t c ause s s i gn i f ican t ly d i f fe ren t c oas ta l g eo log ica l h ydro log ica l c ond i t ion s n or th a nd s ou th o f t h e r i ve r , wh ich h as r e su l ted i n d i cho tomous h uman a dap ta t ions i n t h e t wo a r eas . T he s ou the rn s e c to r i s l a rge ly b a r ren o f w a te r s ou rce s , a nd h a s s e en a c oncen t ra t ion o n h un t ing , f i sh ing a nd g a the r ing f o r s ub s is tence . I n c on t ra s t , c ond i t ions n o r th o f t h e r i ve r 's c ourse s uppo r t as e r ies o f s p r ing s t h a t a l lowed t he a dd i t ion o f f a rm ing a nd h e rd ing a c t iv i t ies t o t he s ub s is ten ce b ase ( Mose ley e t a l . 1 987 ) . Hydro logy a nd S p r ing O ccurence Qu e br ad a s a nd d ry d ra inage s n or th o f t he r i ve r a r e s t ruc tu ra l ly s im i la r , e xh ib i t t he s a me l i t hos t ra t ig raphy , a nd s ha re a c ommon a qu i fe r , t hus f a l l ing w i th in a s i ng le g eo log ica l a nd h ydro log ica l p rov ince . A t e l eva t ions b e low 1 50 m , s pr ing s a nd s e eps a re p resen t i n an u mbe r o f q u eb r ad a s . T hese w a te r s ources o ccur a l ong a h o r izon ta l c on tac t b e tween a n u nde r ly ing C re taceous g ne iss a nd o ve r ly ing mo re p e rmeab le s ed imen t s , a nd a t p o in t s b e low t h e c on tac t whe re b edro ck o u t c rop s f o rm " chokes " t ha t c ro ss t he d ra inage s a nd f o rce g round w a te r t o t h e s ur face s . I n a t l e as t t wo c ase s , s p r ing s a r ise i n g eo log ica l f au l t s o n h i l ls ide s . E igh t een s p r ings s ur f ac ing n o r th o f t he R io O smo re f o rm t h e c o re o f at r iangu la r s t udy a r ea b ounded b y t h e P ac i f ic o n i t s w es t e rn f l ank , t he r i ve r t o t he s ou th , a nd t he l ow C oas t a l Co rd i l le ra r i s ing a pp rox ima te ly 5 km i n land f r om t h e r i ve r mou th , a ng l ing
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t o t he n o r thwes t , a nd p lung ing i n to t he s ea 2 2 km t o t h e n o r th ( F igure 2 ) . T h is a r ea i s b roken b y as e r ie s o f e che lon f au l t s , wh ich c hanne l e ros ive r uno f f d ur ing r a re p e r iods o f p rec ip i ta t ion , a nd a s d ry q u ebr ad a s d ur ing t h e much more f r equen t d ry s pe l ls . L o ca l f au l t s s e rve n o t o n ly t o d ive r t s u r face r uno f f , t hey a l so i n te rd ic t t he a qu i f e r a nd s t ruc ture t h e o ccur ren ce o f s pr ing s . E igh t c u r ren t ly a c t ive o r e x t inc t i r r iga t ion s ys tems f ed b y s p r ing s a r e p resen t i n t h e s t udy a rea . F rom s ou th t o n o r th , t hey a re L i cona , C huza/Chuz i ta , C a rr iza l , Y a ra l , A las taya , M iraf lo re s , P acoma , a nd Wawak ik i . T he d i s t r ibu t ion a nd amoun t o f l a nd i n a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion a t t h e c oas ta l o ase s i s s t ruc tured b y whe re s p r ing s o ccu r a nd h ow much w a te r t hey p roduce ; wh i le s o me g rove s a r e s uppo r ted b y s e ve ra l s p r ing s , o the r s u t i l ize b u t o ne . A l l s p r ings s uppo r t ing i r r iga t ion a re c ha rac ter ized b y l ow v o lume a nd s l ow f l ow . T he max imum r e co rded f l ow f r om a s i ng le s p r ing , a t P a coma , i so ne c ub ic l i t e r p e r s econd . O the r s p r ing s p roduce l e s s ; t h e f l ow a t C arr iza l , f o r e xamp le , i s o ne l i t e r p er t en s e conds . L o ca l f a rme r s who wo rk a t t he o l ive g roves s t a te t ha t s p r ing f l ow v a r ie s a nnua l ly , a nd t h a t " good " y ear s c o inc ide w i th y ear s o f i nc reas ed p rec ip i ta t ion i n t h e ma in c o rd i l le ra a bove 2 000 m . B e cause t he s p r ings u nde r i nves t ig a t ion a re l o ca ted 1 5 t o 2 2 kms n o r th o f I l o , a nd b e low t he C leme s i D ese r t wh ich s t re t che s b e tween t h e R io T ambo t o n o r th a nd R io O smo re t o t h e s ou th , t h ere a r e n o i n land w e l ls o r w a te r p ump s t h a t m igh t a f fec t t h e i r f l ow ( F igure 2 ) . T renche s a nd T anks T o ma in ta in o r i n c rease f l ow , s p r ing s a re s ys t ema t ica l ly c l ea red o f a c cumu la ted w i ld v ege ta t ion , a nd t r enche s a r e e xcava ted b ack t o p rev ious w a te r s ou rce s . T renches r ange u p t o 1 0 m i n d ep th a nd 5 0 m i n l e ng th , a nd mo s t s pr ing s e xh ib i t mu l t ip le t r en che s f l anked b y s ub s tan t ia l a ccumu la t ion s o f d i r t r emoved f r om t he c u t s . F rom a n e ng inee r i ng p o in t o f v i ew , e ven w i th t r ench ing , s pr ing p roduc t ion i ss imp ly t oo l ow a nd s l ow t o t r anspo r t mo is ture t h roughou t t h e a c t ive d e l ive ry s y s tem . D ire c t f l ow w ou ld d i s s ipa te w e l l b e fo re r e ach ing d i s ta l f i e lds . P rob le m s w i th l ow v o lume a nd s l ow f l ow a r e o ve r come b y i mpound ing s p r ing w a te r i n t ank s o r r e se rvo ir s a d jacen t t o t he s upp ly s our ce . E ach t ank h as a g a te o pen ing t o a ma jo r c ana l , a nd a low s f o r t h e a ccumu la t ion o f al a rge s upp ly o f w a te r . Upon g a te r e lease , t h e a c cumu la ted w a te r p re s sure p roduce s as u f f ic ien t ly h igh h ydrau l ic h ead w i th e nough momen tum t o c a r ry w a t e r d own a c ana l s ys tem a nd i r r iga te d i s ta l f i e lds . B y a r t i f ic ia l ly r a i s ing t h e w a te r h ead a t c ana l i n t ake s , t a nk i mpoundmen t a l low s as i gn i f ican t ly l a rge r a r ea o f t e r ra in t o b e c u lt iva ted t h an c ou ld b e i r r iga ted b y n a tu ra l ly l ow s p r ing f l ow . B e cause t h ey a re b u i l t t o i mpound s ubs tan t ia l amoun t s o f w a ter , t a nk s a re m a s s ive s t ruc tures . Ope ra t ive e xamp le s h o ld wa te r o ne t o t wo m i n d ep th , a nd h ave i n t e r io r d imens ions r ang ing f r om f our t o 2 0 m . O f o va l a nd r e c t i l inear p l an , 3 2 u sed a nd a bandoned t ank s h ave b een d e s t royed . T he a ve rage d imens ions o f t h e 1 6 measu red e xamp le s a re 1 0 .38 x 5 . 38 x 1 . 14 m . T he l a rge s t t o ta l n umbe r o f t ank s ( a bandoned a nd o pe ra t iona l ) f ound a t o ne i r r iga t ion s y s tem a re t h e n ine l o ca ted a t C ar r iza l , r e f lec t ing t h e s uper io r p rese rva t ion e n coun te red a t t h is s i t e . F ou r t ank s a r e p resen t ly i n c on cur ren t u se a t t he M i ra f lo re s g rove , wh ich a l so a ch ieves t h e l a rges t a nnua l o l ive h arve s t o n a r egu lar b as is . T he mos t c ommon t a nk , p res en t i n p reh ispanc t o mode rn c on tex t s , i so va l i n f o rm a nd b u i l t o f e a r then embankmen t s w i th masonry o u t le t s . P robab ly t empo ra l a ssoc ia t ions i n c lude r e c tangu lar t a nks o f C o lon ia l o r ig in , wh ich a re l i ned w i th c u t a nd f i t ted
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F igu re 2 .C lemes i D ese r t a nd S tudy A rea .
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 2
masonry . R ec tangu la r c emen t t anks a re o f 2 0 th c en tury o r ig in , a nd a t l e as t t h ree h ave c ons truc t ion d a te s i mp re ssed i n t h e c e men t . B e cause t ank s a nd t r enche s a re l a rge s t ruc tur es t ha t c an s urv ive f o r l ong p e r iods o f t ime , t h ey a re u se fu l i n i den t i fy ing t h e l o ca t ion o f s p r ings t h a t f o rme r ly s uppo r ted f a rm ing , b u t a re n ow d ry . D ry s pr ing s a r e p r esen t i n many q ue br ad a s , a nd a t s eve ra l o pera t ive g rove s . A t P acoma , al a rge c emen t t a nk w i th a c ons t ruc t ion d a te o f J une 4 , 1 932 w as f e d f r om a s pr ing t h a t p roduce s n o w a te r t oday . C ana ls T ank s r e lease w a te r t o o ne o r mo re c ana ls t h a t p ur sue c on tour c ourse s d ive rg ing f r om t he s p r ing s our ce a t l ow g rad ien t s o f 1 3 ° . T he se c on s t i tu te " P r imary Max imum E l eva t ion C ana ls " ( P MECs ) ( S t an ish 1 985 ) , wh ich h ave t h e h ighe s t e l eva t ion c ourses i n a n i r r iga t ion s ys tem , a nd d e l im i t t he a rea o f d own s lope f a rm ing . S ub jec t t o t opog raph ic c ons t ra in t s , s uch c ana ls w i l l p u r sue a l a te ra l c ou r se c l ose ly f o l low ing c on tou r l i ne s . I n s ome i n s tance s t he c ouse may r e ach t o a d es cend ing r i dge . T he c ana l may t h en a bandon a c on tour c ou rse t o b e come a " R idge T op C ana l " ( RTC ) ( S t an ish 1 985 ) t h a t t r ace s t h e c r e s t o f t he d es cend ing r i dge t o i r r iga te l a nd a l ong b o th f l ank s . PMECs a nd R TC s may s upp ly w a ter d i re c t ly t o p lan t ing s u r face s , o r d e l ive r i t t h rough s ma l le r s e condary a nd t e r t ia ry c hanne ls . D u r ing t he C o lon ia l p e r iod , " T raver se C ana ls " w e re c u t a t t he d i s t a l e nds o f s o me i r r iga t ion s y s tems t o c o l lec t r uno f f f r om u p s lope p lan t ing s ur face s . T rad i t iona l ly , a l l c ana ls w e re o f s imp le e a r th b ank c ons t ruc t ion ( a l though s ome mo re e l abo ra te , s t one l ined e xamp le s e x is t f r om t h e C o lon ia l p er iod ) . T hey t end t o b e b o th n ar row ( l e s s t han o ne me te r ) a nd s ha l low ( l es s t h an 0 . 75 m ) . S ub s ida ry c hanne ls a r e e ven s ma l ler . D ue t o t he i r s ma l ler a nd s imp le c ons t ruc t ion , t he c ana ls a re " f lex ib le " a nd s ub je c t t o s ubs tan t ia l r ewo rk ing . T he re fo re , a bandoned c hanne ls p rese rve o n ly t h e i r l a s t -use c on f igu ra t ion . P l an t ing S ur face s T oday mo re t h an 9 0% o f t he o pera t ive p l an t ing s ur face s i n t he s t udy s uppo r t o l ive c u l t iva t ion . B enea th e ach t r ee , a nd r e la t ive t o i t s a t t a ined s i ze , a n o va l embankmen t r e ce ive s a nd h o lds w a te r t o a l low g radua l s eepag e d own t o t he r oo t s . O l ive t r ee s n o t o n ly monopo l ize t h e i r r iga t ion s ys tems , b u t i nva r iab ly t hey o ccupy l a nds c l oses t t o t he s p r ing s w i th t he b e s t -as su red w a te r s upp l ies . L a rge t r unk d iame te r , i nd ica t ive o f t r ee s mo re t han t h ree c en tur ie s o ld , a re c ommon , a nd t h e i r r iga t ion s ys tems h ave a ppa ren t ly b een d evo t ed t o o l ive c u l t iva t ion s i nce t he m idd le o f t h e s i x teen th c en tury . A t t h e d i s ta l e nds o f d e l ive ry s ys tem s , l a nd w i th i n te rm it ten t o r i n secure w a te r s upp ly i so f ten g iven o ve r t o p lo t s f o r s ub s is tence c rops , s uch a s ma ize , s wee t p o ta toe s , p eppe r s , a nd b eans . S uch p lo t s a re h and t i l led , emp loyed t r ad i t iona l " s e rpen t ine " f u r row ing ( Kus 1 972 ) , a nd t oday s uppor t t h e r e s iden t f am i ly ma in ta in ing e ach o l ive g rove . S e rpen t ine f u r row ing i sp r ima r i ly f o r s ub s is tence c rop s , a nd i sa l so c ha rac t e r is t ic o f t e r ra in f a rmed i n p reh ispan ic c on tex t s ( We ir a nd E l ing 1 986 ) . T he p e rs is ten t u se o f t h is f u r row ing i n t h e s t udy a rea may r e la t e t o t h e s ma l l s c a le o f s ubs is t ence f a rm ing a nd t h e a bsence o f mechan ized o r a n ima l -dra f t p lows . A t s ome s p r ings , i n c lud ing C a r r iza l , p l an t ing s u r face s t h a t o nce s uppo r ted o l ive t r ees h ad d ied a nd b een u p roo ted . T he t o ta l a rea o f a bandoned p lan t ing s ur face v a r ies b e tween i r r iga t ion s ys tem s , r ang ing , f r om c a . 1 0% t o 1 00% . I ti s s i gn i f ican t t h a t l a rge t r ac ts o f l a nd , c omp r is ing mo re t h an 3 0% o f s ome s ys tem s , h ave u nequ ivo ca l C o lon ia l t h rough n ine teen th c en tury a bandonmen t d a tes , a nd t ha t a dd i t iona l a bandonmen t c an b e d o cumen ted f o r t h e
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C.CL E 3 . 4ENT A ND M .MO S L EY ; AG R I CU LTURA L DY NAM I C S I NT H E AN D E S
F i r . 77 7 7 1 = Quebreda c ourse -- =Ma jor b oundary c ana ls • — •— = F ie lds n o t d e f in ed b y c ana ls
F igu re 3 .C arr iza l t opog raphy ( 1 0m c on tour s ) a nd o u t l ine o f ma jor f i l ed a r eas .
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2 2
t wen t ie th c entury . D a t ing Agr icu l tura l Wo rks When t hey c an b e d a ted , a c t ive a nd a bandoned a gr icu l tura l wo rk s p rov ide a n e xce l len t p hys ica l r e co rd o f l ong t e rm a g rar ian d ynam ics . I nves t iga t ion o f t he c oas ta l o l ive g roves u t i l izes b o rh l ong a nd s ho r t t e rm t empo ra l c on t ro ls c apab le o f g aug ing a g r icu l tura l l a nd loss a s a n o ngo ing p rocess o f e nv ironmen ta l o r ig in . A n u mbe r o f c ond i t ions a nd e ven t s i n t he s t udy a rea a f fec t t h e d a t ing o f a grar ian c hange i n b o th a r chaeo log ica l a nd r e cen t c on tex t s . A r cha eo log i ca l C on tex t . A l l s urveyed i r r iga t ion s ys tems w ere e xpanded t o t h e ir max imum a rea l im i t d ur ing t h e p reh ispan ic C h ir ibaya o ccupa t ion . T h is o ccupa t ion i s t hough t t o h ave b egun a t l e as t b y A .D . 1 200 a nd t o h ave e nded w i th t he S pan ish C onques t . I nd igenous a g r icu l tura l p rac t ices i n c lude t he i n corpo ra t ion o f d omes t ic r e fuse i n to p la in t ing a reas f o r f e r t i l iz ing p urposes . R es idua l c arbon , s he l l , a nd o ther o rgan ic ma t te r d i rec t ly a ssoc ia ted w i th f i e ld u se c an b e d a ted b y c arbon -14 a ssay s . A t C ar r iza l , r e fuse i n ap reh is to r ic f i e ld a t t he d i s ta l e nd o f t h e i r r iga t ion s ys tem i n t he s ou the rn s e c to r ( Area 5 ,s ee F igure 4 ) p roduced a d a te o f c a . A .D . 3 50 ( Be ta 15654 ) , p rov id ing a t e rm inus p os t q uem f o r f i e ld u se . However , b ecause much o f t he r e fuse may h ave b een m ined f r om a n e ar l ie r o ccupa t ion s pec i f ica l ly f o r t h e p urpose o f i n i t ia l f i e ld c ons t ruc t ion , t h e f i e ld may b e s i gn i f ican t ly y ounge r . On F ebruary 1 9 , 1 600 , v io len t e rup t ion o f t he v o lcano Huayna P u t ina p roduced a r eg iona l a sh fa l l a l ong t he P ac i f ic w a te rshed r ough ly b e tween 1 5 a nd 1 9 d egrees s ou th l a t i tude . T he a sh c ons t i tu tes a ma jo r , d a te -spec i f ic h o r izon marker t ha t a lows i mmed ia te c hrono lg ica l s o r t ing o f a gr icu l tura l f e a tures a bandoned b e fo re a nd a f te r A .D . 1 600 . A l though a sh d epos i t s may b e l e ss t han o ne c en t ime t er t h ick i n t he s t udy a rea , t h ey a re p resen t i n c ana ls t ha t d id n o t s ubsequen t ly c arrywa te r , a nd t h ey a re p r eserved a c ross l a rge f i e ld t r ac ts t ha t s aw n o l a te r u se . Howeve r , a sh i sn o t p resen t a s ad i s t inc t d epo s i t o n s ur faces where p os t -e rup t ion p l an t g row th , wa te r f l ow , o r h uman a c t iv i ty t ook p l ace . O l ive t r ees , i mpo r ted t o P eru f r om S pa in i n 1 550 ( F lore s C o s i 1 96 1 ) , w e re i n t roduced t o t h e l ower R io O smo re v a l ley a nd t h e s pr ing fed i r r iga t ion s ys tems s ome t i me w i th in t h e f o l low ing 5 0 y ears the o ldes t f i e lds a t C ar r iza l d ed ica ted t o o l ive p roduc t ion a re c overed b y v o lcan ic a sh f r om t he 1 600 Huayna P u t ina e rup t ion . P lan t ing s ur face s t h a t s uppo r ted o l ive c u l t iva t ion a t a bandonmen t a re d i ss t ingu ished b y c ha rac ter is t ic o va l embankmen t s t ha t i r r iga ted i nd iv idua l t r ees . I n mos t c ases t h ere i s s ub sur face p rese rva t i on o f t r ee r oo t s a nd d a t ing b y c a rbon -14 a s says i sf e as ib le . R e c en t C on tex t . T he f i rs t s y tema t ic a e r ia l p ho tog raph ic c ove rage o f t he c oas ta l i r r iga t ion s ys tems w as f l own i n 1 95 1 , o pen ing a 3 6 -year w indow f o r h igh ly a c cura te mon i tor ing o f s hor t t e rm a g rar ian d ynam ics . T he c oas ta l r esearch h as d eve loped me thods f o r a dap t ing t h is o ld c ove rage t o n ew s t ereo -comp i la t ion t e chn iques t ha t a low p rec ise q uan t i f ica t ion o f c hange i n amoun t o f f a rm l and , n u mbe r s o f o l ive t r ees , o pe ra t ive c ana ls a nd t a nks , a nd p roduc ing s p r ings . T he 3 6 -year w indow c an b e s ub iv ided b y s ubsequen t p ho tog raph ic m iss ions f l own i n l a ter y ear s . I n t urn , t h ese r e feren t s c an b e q uan t i ta t ive ly c ompared a nd c on t ras ted a ga ins t e ach o t her a nd a ga ins t 1 987 p ho to c ove rage . T hus , s ma l l -sca le l o ss o f a r ab le l and c an b e p r ec ise ly measured d ur ing r e cen t d ecades .
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C.CL EMENT A ND M .MO S L EY ; AG R I CU L TURA L DY NAM I C S I NT H E AN D E S
F igu re 4 .C arr iza l a gr icu l tura l a r eas .
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E COLOGY , S ETTLEMENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE O SMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2
L and L oss a t C a r r iza l A l l s p r ing fed i r r iga t ion s ys tem s n o r th o f I l o e xh ib i t a g rar ian c on t ra c t ion t o v a ry ing d eg ree s . S ome i r r iga t ion s ys tem s u sed d u r ing h i s to r ica l a nd r e cen t t ime s a r e n ow t o t a l ly a bandoned . I n o the r d ra inages t h ere i sp a r t ia l a bandonmen t . T he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween d ec l in ing p h rea t ic l e ve ls a nd a g rar ian c on t rac t ion i sp ar t icu lar ly g raph ic a t t he C a r r iza l q u ebr ad a ( F igure 3 ) , wh ich h ouses a s imp le i r r iga t ion s y s tem s uppor t ed b y a s i ng le s pr ing w i th a c ur ren t f l ow o f o ne c ub ic l i t e r p e r t e n s e conds . T he re i s as i ng le o p e r a t ive t a nk a nd i n take c omp lex , a nd e i gh t i nope ra t ive o nes ( F igure 5 ) . I r r iga t ion r eached i t s max imum a r ea l e xpanse a t a n e s t ima t ed d a te o f A .D . 1 300 , d ur ing t h e Ch ir ibaya o ccupa t ion , a nd b y 1 951 h ad c on t rac ted 9 4% , p rov id ing a n e x tens ive d a ta b as e o f a bandoned p l an t ing s ur face s a nd d e l ive ry c hanne ls . R esear ch P ro cedures Two l e ve ls o f d a ta r e co rd ing a nd a na ly s is w e re d eve loped a t C a r r iza l . L eve l 1 : F o l low ing i n i t ia l r e conna is sance , 1 95 1 a e r ia l p ho tog r aph ic e n la rgemen t s o f t he C a r r iza l s ys tem w e re made a t a n u nco r rec ted s c a le o f a pp rox ima te ly 1 : 2000 t o s e rve a s t he b as is f o r i n tens ive " g round t r u th " s u rvey . S urvey i n c luded c harac te r iza t ion o f t a nks ( ma t e r ia ls , f o rms , d imen s ion ) a nd p lan t ing s ur face s ( ma t r ix , f u r row ing , t e r rac ing ) , r e cord ing o f t r ench a nd c ana l i n te rsec t ion a nd b lo ckage p a t t e rn s , a nd d i s t r ibut ion o f v o lcan i c a sh d epos i t s f o r p urpose s o f r e la t ive d a t ing . L eve l 2 :F ea tures s u i tab le f o r p ho tog ramme t r ic g round c on t ro l p o in t s w ere i d en t i f ied o n t h e l a nds cape a nd o n t he a e r ie l e n largemen t s , a nd h o r izon ta l a nd v e r t ica l c oo rd ina tes w e re s u rveyd w i th a T opcon E T 1 T o ta l S t a t ion " E lec t ron ic D i s tance Measuremen t " i n s t rumen t . A dd i t iona l r e ad ing s o n t a nk s a nd m a jo r c ana ls w e re t aken i n a n e f fo r t t o i n c rease l o ca t iona l a ccu racy d ur ing mapp ing p ro c edure s . On t h e b as is o f c on t ro ls i mp lemen ted f o r 1 95 1 a e r ia l c ove rage , aK ern D SR 1 a na ly t ica l s t e reop lo t te r w as emp loyed t o g ene ra te a 1 : 3000 c on tour m ap o f C a r r iza l ( F igu re 3 ) , d i s t r ibu t iona l p lans o f a g r icu l tu ra l f e a tu re s ( F igure s 4 , 5 a nd 6 a -e ) , p ro f i le s o f c ana l c our ses a nd t opog raph ic c ons t ra in t s , a nd c ou rse p ro jec t ions f o r r emnan t c ana ls , a s w e l l a s f i gure s q uan t i fy ing a g r icu l tura l c on t rac t ion ( F igures 7 a nd 8 ) . C on t rac t ion P a t te rn s Two p a t te rns o f l a nd l o s s a re e v iden t i n t he i r r iga t ion s ys tem ( F igu r es 1 a -d ) . T he f i r s t i s " v e r t ica l " c on t rac t ion i n wh ich c ana ls a t h ighe r e l eva t ions h ave b e en r ep laced b y l owe r o ne s . T h is i s ap roduc t o f d ec l in ing p h rea t ic l e ve ls . T he s e cond p at te rn i s " ho r izon ta l " c on t rac t ion i n wh ich f a rm l a nd h as c on t rac ted b ack t oward t h e wa te r s ou r ce . T h is i s ap roduc t o f d ec reas ing s pr ing f l ow . T ank s a nd V e r t i c a l C on t r ac t ion . T oday i r r iga t ion a t C a r r iza l i ss our ced f r om a c emen t t a nk ( Tank 1 ,s ee F igure s 5a nd 6 e ) a t t h e b o t tom o f t h e q ueb r ada . A t h i ghe r e l eva t ions a r e r emnan t s o f a t l e as t e i gh t e a r l ie r t ank s -ano the r c emen t t a nk , T ank 2 ,i so n t h e s i de o f t h e q ue br ad a i t se l f , wh i le s even s ucce s s ive ly o lde r a nd h ighe r t anks o f e ar th b ank o r masonry c ons t ruc t ion a re a bove a nd o u t s ide t h e a c t ive q ue b r ada c hanne l . S equen t ia l o pe ra t ion a nd a bandonmen t i s d o cumen t ed b y a s so c ia ted t r enches . T ank 3 t r en ch ing c u t s i n to T ank 4 . T ank 4 t r enche s c u t a nd r ob t h o se o f T ank 5 , wh ich o nce t r an se c ted T ank 6 ,t h a t r obbed T ank 7 , wh ich p i ra ted s upp l ie s f r om 8 a nd 9 . T ank 9 w as s upp l ied b y t he c hanne l , d e s igna ted N6 ( F igure 5 ) , wh ich i se i ther a f i l led in t r ench o r c ana l w i th as our ce t o t h e n o r th a t t h e b ase o f as ma l l r i se c apped b y p rece ram ic m idden . T he n ine p rese rved t anks a re a S pan ish t o r e cen t o r ig in . A r rang ing t ank s b y r e la t ive a ge
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C.CL EMEN T A ND M .M O S L EY ; AG R I CU L TURA L DY NAM I C S I NT H E AN D E S
F igu re 5 .C a r r iza l c ana ls a nd b rush wa l ls .
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2
a nd a bso lu te e l eva t ion i nd ica tes t h a t t h e C ar r iza l w a te r s our ce h as moved d ownh i l l t h rough t ime ( F igure 7 ) . T he d a ta i nd ica te t ha t t h e l o ca l p hrea t ic l eve l h as d ropped a t l e as t 2 5 m s i nce t he f i rs t s urv iv ing t ank s w ere b u i l t . T h is p roduces a p a t te rn o f v e r t ica l a g rar ian c on t rac t ion i n wh ich t anks a nd c ana ls a t h igher e l eva t ions w e re s equen t ia l ly r ep laced b y d ownh i l l c oun te rpar t s a t l owe r e l eva t ion s . F i e ld s a nd H or izon ta l C on tr ac t ion . Ho r izon ta l c on t rac t ion i s d emons t ra ted b y t he a bandonmen t o f d i s ta l f i e lds f a r thes t away f r om t h e s pr ing . T h rough t ime f i e lds i n c reas ing ly c l ose t o t he s p r ing h ave d ropped f r om u se . A rea 5 : L and t ha t w as a bandoned i n C h ir ibaya t imes , a nd n o t s ubsequen t ly r eused , i s c ha rac te r ized b y t he p resence o f l ow , s t one faced t e r rac ing a pprox ima te ly 3 0 -50 c m i n h e igh t . T h is f o rmer f a rm l a nd i s c overed b y u nd is turbed a sh fa l l f r om t he 1 600 e rup t ion o f t he v o lcano Huayna P u t ina . T hese f i e lds make u p 3 8% ( 1 5 .75 a c res ) o f t he max imum a gr icu l tura l e x ten t ( F igure 4 ) . A rea 4 : T he max imu m e x ten t o f e ar ly h i s to r ic/Co lon ia l P e r iod a g r icu l ture i s d e f ined b y T ran sve rse C ana l 1( ST 1 , s ee F igure 5 ) . No t d es igned f o r wa te r t r anspor t , t h is s t ruc ture a nd o ther t r ansve rse c ana ls p resen t i n t h e s t udy a rea , a ppa ren t ly s e rved a s b oundary d emar ca tor s . T hese mose d i s tan t c o lon ia l f i e lds w e re t he f i r s t t o b e a ban d oned u nde r t he t he S pan ish a g r icu l tura l r eg ime , a nd c ompr ise 1 0% ( 4 .33 a c res ) o f t he a g r icu l tura l max i mum ( F igure 4 ) . T hey a re c harac te r ized b y s ma l l t e r race s , i den t ica l t o t hose i n p reh ispan ic a reas , wh ich r epresen t r eused C h ir ibaya t e r races . S uper i mposed o n t h em a r e f u r rows f o r s eed l ing o l ive s , i den t i f ied b y s ma l l c i rcu la r d epress ions f o r i r r iga t ing t he y oung t r ees . V o lcan ic a sh i s p resen t i n t h is a rea i n t h ree c on tex t s : 1 ) a t t h e b ase o f s o me t e r races ; 2 ) i n f e eder f u r row s ; a nd 3 ) i n t h e d epres s ions t hemse lves . T h is i nd ica tes t ha t n o w a te r r e ached t h ese f i e lds a f te r t he 1 600 Huayna P u t ina e rup t ion , b u t t ha t t he re w as s o me t r a f f ic i n t he a rea wh ich d i s turbed t h e a sh d epo s i ts o n t h e f l a t e xpanses o f t he f i e lds t hemse lves . A rea 3 : F o l low ing t h is e p isode o f a bandonmen t e ar ly i n t h e Co lon ia l P e r iod , an ew a g r icu ltura l b oundary w as e s tab l ished b y t he b u i ld ing o f S ou th T ransve rse C ana l 2( ST2 , s ee F igu re 5 ) a nd a n a ccompany ing b rush w a l l . T h is a rea d i f fe r s f r om t he e a r l ier a bandoned h i span ic f i e lds i n t ha t i ti sd om ina ted b y l a rge t e r races 1 . 5 m h igh . T he re i s n o t r ace o f v o lcan ic a sh d ue t o r ewo rk ing o f t h e p lan t ing s ur f aces d ur ing t he ir p os t -e rup t ion u se , a nd e v idence i n t h e f o rm o f l a rge p i ts i nd ica tes t h a t o l ive t r ee s g rew t o ma tur i ty b e fo re t he a rea w as a bandoned . On t h e b as is o f t hese d a ta , al a te h i s to r ic / repub l ican p er iod d a te i s a s s igned t o t hese f i e lds . T he a bandoned f i e lds d e f ined b y S T2 c ompr ise 8 . 08 a c res , o r 1 9% o f a bandoned a gr icu l tura l l a nd ( F igure 4 ) . A rea 2 : T he f o l low ing p hase o f a bandonmen t i n c luded l and t o t h e n or th o f t he q uebr ada c hanne l wh ich i se nc losed b y t h e mos t r e cen t a nd b es t p rese rved b rush w a l l a t t h e s i te ( B W1 , s ee F igure 5 ) , b u i l t o f c onc re te . B ecause o the r c oncre te t a nks i n t h e a rea d a te t o t h e 1 930 's , t he l a nd s ur rounded b y t h is b rush w a l l i s a ssumed t o h ave b een u nder c u l t iva t ion a t t ha t t ime . A rea 2 c ons is ts o f 1 . 93 a c res , 5% o f t he a gr icu l tura l max imum ( F igure 4 ) .
4 48
C.CL EMENT A ND M .M O S L EY ; AG R I CU LTURA L DY NAM I C S I NT H E AN D E S
F igu re 6 a . A rea o f p reh ispan ic a gr icu l ture .
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ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2
F igu re 6 b . A rea o f e ar ly h i s to r ic a g r icu l ture .
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C.CL EM ENT A ND M .M O S L EY ; AG R I CU L TU RA L DY NAM I C S I NT H E AN D E S
F igu re 6 c . A rea o f l a te h i s to r ic a g r icu l ture .
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ECOLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - C hap te r 2
F igu re 6 d . A rea o f e a r ly modern a g r icu l ture ( c a .
4 52
1 930 ) .
C.CL EM ENT A ND M .M O S L EY ; AG R I CU LTU RA L DY NAM IC S I NT H E AN D E S
F igu re 6 e . A rea o f l a te modern a g r icu l ture ( 1 95 1) .
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A rea 1 : B y 1 951 , T ank 2 a nd t h e n or th s i de o f t h e q uebr ad a b ad b een c omp le te ly a bandoned . B ecause t he a rea s ou th o f t he q uebr ad a i s f l a t te r a nd mo re amenab le t o a gr icu lture , f a rme rs o p ted t o c on t inue i r r iga t ing t h is a r ea r a ther t han t he n or th . A t t h e t ime t he 1 95 1 p ho to s w e re f l own , t he a rea u nder c u l t iva t ion h ad s hrunk t o 2 . 46 a c res , o n ly 6 % o f t he o r ig ina l a gr icu ltura l max imum ( F igure 4 ) . A t p resen t , T ank 1 ( F igure 5 ) h ug s t he s ou th s i de o f t he q ueb rada , a nd i sd e s igned t o i r r iga te o n ly t h e s ou th s i de o f t he C ar r iza l d ra inage . S ome o l ive t r ee s f a r r emoved f r om t he wa ter s ource h ave d ied s i nce 1 95 1 , l e av ing o n ly 9 1 t r ees a s ar em inde r t ha t a g rar ian c on t rac t ion i s as l ow b u t o ngo ing p rocess . B y measur ing t he amoun t o f l and i n p roduc t ion b e low t he l owes t t a nk ( Tank 1 ) , i ti s p oss ib le t o a ssess t he e f fec t s o f h o r izon ta l c on t rac t ion . F igures 6 a -e a nd F i gure 8 p resen t t h is i n fo rma t ion i n a l terna t ive f o rms : F igu re 6 a d ep ic t s t he l a nd i n p roduc t ion b e low T ank 1 d ur ing t he p reh is to r ic Ch ir ibaya o ccupa t ion ; F igure 6 b s how s t he a rea o f p roduc t ive l and d ur ing t he C o lon ia l p e r iod , a t t he t ime o l ive s were i n t roduced t o t he s i te p r io r t o A .D . 1 600 ; F igu re 6 c d esc r ibes t he l a te h i s to r ic/Repub l ican P er iod a rea o f a g r icu l ture ; F igu re 6 d h igh l igh t s l and f a rmed d ur ing l a te h i s to r ic t ime s ; a nd F igure 6 e s hows t he l and i n p roduc t ion i n 1 951 , when t he f i rs t f l igh t a e r ia l p ho tog raph s f o r t he s i te we re t aken . F igure 8 p resen ts t he s ame i n fo rma t ion i n b ar g raph f o rm . B r ie f e xam ina t ion o f F igures 6 a -e a nd F igu re 8 i nd ica tes t h a t t he amoun t o f p roduc t ive l a nd h ad b een p rogress ive ly d ecreas ing , a nd t ha t , a s p roposed b y HAC , t h is s t eady d ec l ine r e su l ts i n ap red ic tab le p a t tern o f a bandoned l a nd .
C onc lus ion Agrar ian c on t rac t ion a t C ar r iza l i sc l ear ly a n o ngo ing p ro ces s . I th a s b een o ccur r ing s i nce t he i r r iga t ion s ys tem was e xpanded t o i t s m ax imu m l im i ts i n p reh ispan ic t imes , a nd l o ss o f l and i s d rama t ica l ly e v iden t f o l low ing t h e i n t roduc t ion o f o l ive t r ees b y t he
1 00 -
9 9 .86
9 4 .57
a ,A A
7e •,—
9 1.75
9 1.43
8 9 .2 4
8 8 .50
7 8 .20
8 0 -
7 0 .40
7 0 .66
T 2
T 1
6 0 E l eva t ion
( m e t ers ) 4 0 -
2 0
0
N 6
1 9
1 8
T 7
1 6
1 5
T ank D es igna t ion
F igu re 7 .T ank e l eva t ions ( Ve r t ica l c on t rac t ion ) . 4 54
1 4
T 3
C.CL E MEN T A ND M .MO S L EY ; AG R I CU L TU RA L DY NAM I C S I NT H E AN D E S
S pan i sh a round A .D . 1 550 . Two t ype s o f c on t rac t ion a re a ppa ren t . T he f i r s t , v er t ica l c on t r a c t ion , i s r ep resen ted b y d own s lope m ig ra t ion o f t ank s a nd c ana l i n t akes , a nd i s a sso c ia ted w i th a g radua l 2 5 m l owe r ing o f p hrea t ic l e ve ls . T he s e cond , h o r izon ta l c on t r ac t ion , i s r ep resen ted b y t he p rog res s ive a bandonmen t o f d i s ta l f i e lds t h rough t ime , a nd i sb es t e xp la ined b y ag radua l d e c rease i n t h e v o lume o f s p r ing f l ow wh ich may o ccu r d ue t o t e c ton ic t i l t ing o f s our ce a qu i fe r s . T he o ve ra l l r e su l t h as b een a 9 4% l o s s o f i r r iga ted f i e lds . I tc anno t b e p roven t h a t t h e l owe r ing o f p h rea t ic l e ve ls a nd d ec l ine i n s p r ing f l ow a re n e ce ssar i ly t h e r e su l t o f g radua l t e c ton ic u p l i f t o f t he c oas t . I ts eem s u n l ike ly , b u t o the r p hys ica l f a c tor s c ou ld b e i nvo lved . None the le s s , t he C a r r iza l r e sea rch r e su l t s c on fo rm we l l w i th " Hypo the s is o f Ag ra r ian C o l lapse " p red ic t ions a bou t l and l o s s b e ing p a t te rned , a nd a bou t i tb e ing t h e p roduc t o f al owe r ing l e ve l o f n a tu ra l w a te r f l ow . T he i mpo r t ance o f t he h ypo the s is i st ha t i tp o ten t ia l ly d es c r ibe s h ow a nd why i r r iga ted l and i s l o s t t o p roduc t ion a l ong t h e e n t i re P ac i f ic w a ter shed . I fe ng inee r s a nd a g r icu l t u ra l p lanne r s u nde rs tand t he h yd ro log ica l p rob lems t h a t b r ing a bou t l o s s o f l a nd t hen t hey may u se t ha t k now ledge t o i mp rove i r r iga t ion d e s ign . Howeve r , when modern r ec lama t ion wo rks a re b u i l t w i th in t h e r u ins o f a nc ien t i r r iga t ion s ys tems w i thou t i nves t ig a t ion o r k now ledge o f why t he o lde r wo rk s c o l lapsed , t hen t h e p re sen t i s r epea t ing p as t m is takes a nd t he f u ture w i l l s ee t he s ame d ec reas ing a g r icu l tura l p rodu c t ion t ha t i sg raph ica l ly e v iden t a t C a r r iza l t oday .
1 00 P e r c en tage
8 0 -
o f L a n d U nder
6 0 -
C u l t iv a t io n 4 0 -, 2 0 ' 0A gr icu l tura l P reH ispan ic M ax imum
E ar ly H istor ic/ C o lon ia l
L ate H istor ic/ R epub l ican
T emp ora l P er io d F igu re 8 .L and l o s t t o h o r izon ta l c on t rac t ion . 4 55
E ar ly M odern
L ate M odern ( 195 1)
A Ma the ma t ica l Mode l o f t he Dynam ics o f Hyd rau l ic S oc ie t ies i n Anc ien t P eru Char le s R . O r t lo f f FMC C orp o r a t i on C en t r a l E ng ine er ing L ab or a to r i e s
I n t rodu c t ion a nd Ana lys is C iv i l iza t ions o f a nc ien t P e ru h ave r e l ied u pon i ngen ious s o lu t ions t o p rob lem s a ssoc ia t ed w i th i r r iga t ion -based a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion u nde r d i f f icu l t c ond i t ion s . I n a dd i t ion t o s ho r t a nd l ong t e rm c l i ma t ic c y c le s a f fe c t ing w a te r s upp ly , t he re a re l onge r t e rm p rob lems r e la ted t o g eomo rph ic c hange s a f fec t ing t h e g round a nd a qu i fe r s ur face l e ve l t o pog raphy , t oge the r w i th a s soc ia ted w a te r s upp ly p rob lem s . S ome g eomo rph ic c hange s m ay d er ive f r om d e s tab i l iza t ion o f t h e l a nds cape i nduced b y t e c ton ica l ly i nduced u p l i f t p r eva len t o n t h e P e ruv ian c oas ta l ma rg ins . S e ism ic e f fec t s may a l so c r ea te l o ca l e l eva t ion/sub s iden ce g round l e ve l c hange s a f fec t ing w a te r s upp ly d ynam ic s . A s c oa s t a l u p l i f t e f fec t s p reva i l ( Or t lo f f i n p re s s ; O r t lo f f e t a l . 1 982 , 1 983 , 1 985 ; Wh i t ten a nd B rooks 1 982 ) , r i ve r d owncu t t ing o ccur s ; p e r iod ic l a rge -s ca le E l N if io r a ins a nd f l oods e xacerb a t e t he d owncu t t ing p ro ce s s , l e ad ing t o d eep r i ve r e n t rench ing , l a rge -s ca le s o i l e ros ion/ r edepo s i t ion , a nd m a r ine a nd r i ve r t e r r ace f o rma t ion . D epend ing o n t he p e r iod ic i ty a nd magn i tude o f t h e E I N if io e ven t s , a nd t h e u p l i f t r a te , e n t ire a g r icu l tura l s ys tem s d ependen t u pon l ow s l ope i r r iga t ion c ana ls f ed b y r i ve r s ys tem s may b e come d is func t iona l o ve r t ime . T he e n t rench ing c oas ta l r i ve r s , a nd t h e ir r e la t ion t o e x is t ing f i e ld s y s t em a nd c ana l i n t ake h e igh t s , mus t t he re fo re l e ad t o ac on t inua l p roces s o f c ana l mod i f ic a t ion t h rough t ime t o a d jus t t o n ew h ydro log ica l c ond i t ions . I fh ydro log ica l a nd t e c ton ica l ly induced g eomo rph ic c hanges a re g radua l , t h en a s o c ie ty c an c on t inua l ly d eve lop d e fens ive e ng inee r ing measur es t o p ro te c t e x is t ing i r r iga t ion s ys tems , a nd c ons t ruc t mod i f ied c ana l s ys tem s i n a n t ic ipa t ion o f p rob lem s t o c ome . T h is p ro ce ss l e ads t o c ana l a bandonmen t , mod i f ica t ion , a nd r ebu i ld ing c yc le s , a l l d i re c ted t owa rd
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ma in ta in ing a nd i mprov ing a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion t o s uppo r t g row ing p opu la t ion s . P rov ided t he r a te o f g row th o f t e chn ica l s oph is t ica t ion a nd i nnova t ion i s s u f f ic ien t ly r ap id t o o ve rcome p rob lems i n c ana l s upp ly d ynam ic s , t h en p opu la t ion s t ab i l i ty c an b e ma in ta ined o ve r l ong p er iods o f t ime . On t he o the r h and , i f wa te r s upp ly p rob lem s b e come i n surmoun tab le a nd t he e x is t ing a g r icu l tura l b ase c on t rac t s , t h en p opu la t ion d e c l ine i s i mm inen t a nd may l e ad t o m ig ra t ion t o o the r a reas whe re mo re s t ab le c ond i t ion s e x is t . F rom t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a t ime -sequence o f c ana l r e cons t ru c t ion e ven t s i s a va i lab le . T i me -d is t r ibu ted c ana l a bandonmen t s equence s a nd p hase s , r e cons t ruc t ion s equence s , s h i f t s f r om v a l ley -p la in t o v a l ley -ne ck t e r race a g r icu l ture , a nd a b andonmen t o f f i e ld s y s tems a re t yp ica l d a ta b ase s c on ta in ing i n fo rma t ion a s t o h ow s uccess fu l t h e s t rugg le h as b een t o i nven t a g r icu l tu ra l s urv iva l s t r a teg ie s t o ma in t a in p opu la t ion s t ab i l i ty . P re sumab ly , s t ra teg ie s a dop ted b y p re -Co lumb ian h ydrau l ic s o c ie t ies r ep re sen t s ome f o rm o f o p t im iza t ion o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion b y man ipu la t ing l a nd , wa te r , l a bo r a nd t e chno logy r e sour ce s . T h is p ape r p resen t s a ma thema t ica l mode l o f s uch h ydrau l ic s o c ie t ie s i n a n a t t emp t t o p rov ide a s t ruc tu ra l mode l u se fu l t o t h e u nde rs tand ing o f t hese s o c ie t ies a nd t h e ir " i nne r wo rk ing s . " S uch a na lyses , a s p roposed b y t h i s p aper , p l ay a r o le i n i n te rp re t ing t h e e conom ic a nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu re o f s o c ie t ies , a nd t h e i r m echan ism s a nd mean s o f a ch iev ing p opu la t ion s urv iva l a nd g row th . S o c ie t ies b ased o n a g rar ian e conom ie s a r e g ove rned b y g ene ra l " l aw s " o f max im iza t i on o f a g ro -e conom ic o u tpu t f o r t he a va i lab le r e source b ase . Once t h ese " l aw s " a re made e xp l ic i t , t he i n terp lay b e tween t h e v ar iab le s o f a va i lab le wa te r , l a nd , p opu la t ion a nd t e chno logy , a nd t h e s t ra teg ie s t o i n c rease a g r icu l tur a l o u tpu t u nde r t h e c ons t ra in t s o f t h e c ur ren t t e chno logy b ase , b ecome p red ic tab le . T h is i sp ar t icu lar ly t r ue i n a g r icu l tura l s ys tem s b ased u pon c ana l/ te r race t e chno logy , whe re h ydrau l ic e ng inee r ing v ar iab le s m ay b e e xp l ic i t ly d e f ined . T o a t temp t t o f i nd t h e f o rm o f t h ese l aw s , r e cou r se i s m ade t o D imens iona l Ana lys is t e chn iques ( Buck ingham 1 9 15 ) . T h is me thod i sb ased o n t h e f a c t t h a t i fk nown l aw s g ove rn t he r e la t ionsh ips b e tween v ar iab le s , t h en e qua t ions c an b e c ons truc ted t o mode l o ve ra l l p hy s i ca l p henomena . T hese e qua t ions c an b e r e cas t i n n ond imens iona l f o rm b y d e f in ing s epa r a te d i men s iona l q uan t i t ie s t o d iv ide i n to e ach o f t h e d imen s iona l v ar iab le s t o r ende r t h em i nd iv idua l ly n ond imens iona l . A f ter s ome a l geb ra , n ond imens iona l c oe f f ic ien ts a ppear t o mu l t ip ly ( nond imens iona l ) g roup ings o f t e rm s i n t h e e qua t ions . T hese c oe f f ic ien t s d e term ine t he r e la t ive c on t r ibu t ion o f g roup ing s o f v a r iab les i n t h e e f fec t s d esc r ib ed b y t he b as ic e qua t ions . I n t h e a bsence o f a n e xp l ic i t k nown f o rm f o r ag overn ing e qua t ion ( s ) , t he c oe f f ic ien t s i mpo r tan t t o ap hy s ica l p ro ce s s n eve r the le s s c an b e f ound i n dependen t ly b y D imens iona l Ana lys is t e chn ique s . W i th t he se c oe f f ic ien t s , a" gove rn ing e qua t ion " c an b e c ons t ruc ted b y " i nven t ing " a r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e c oe f f ic ien t s . T h is " gove rn ing e qua t ion " mos t l i ke ly w i l l c on ta in u nknown c on s tan t s a nd a s sump t ion s a s t o s t ru c tura l f o rm t o r e la te t he c oe f f ic ien t s . T he f i na l p roo f o f t h e " c on s t ruc ted " g ove rn ing e qua t ion i s t ha t i t makes s ense w i th r e spe c t t o f i e ld o r t e s t d a ta a nd r ep resen t s t r ends c o r rec t ly . I f t h e " govern ing e qua t ion " c o r re la tes t he t e s t d a ta , t h en a n emp i r ica l " gove rn ing e qua t ion " h as b een c r ea ted wh ich may s e rve a s a" p red ic t ive t oo l " t o e xa m ine o t he r t r ends a nd p rov ide a n e xp lana t ion o f o bse rved d a ta .
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C.OR T LO F F ; DY NAM I C S O F HY D RAU L I C SO C I ET I E S I N AN C I EN T PE R U
eve lop a " gove rn ing e qua t ion " t ha t I n t h e f o l low ing p age s , a n a t temp t i s made t o d h e i r c ana l s ys tems f r om e a r ly t o l a te g ove rn s h ydrau l ic s oc ie t ies a nd h ow t hey s t ruc tu re t p hases o f t h e ir d eve lopmen t . t i s f i r s t n e ces sary t o d e f ine t he I n o rde r t o c on s t ruc t a m a thema t ica l mode l , i ydrau l ic s oc ie ty . T hese v ar iab le s v ar iab le s t h a t a re i mpo r tan t t o t he f unc t ion ing o f ah a re d e f ined a s :
A Lc
VA
q z •
T o ta l p opu la t ion a t t i me T o f a s oc ie ty d raw ing a g r icu l tu ra l r e sou rces f r om a l a nd a rea A ( Deno ted AIf o r l a te r u se ) T o ta l v o lume f l ow r a te o f t he c ana l s ys tems a va i lab le t o p rov ide w a te r t o t he a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd a rea ; t he c ana l s ys tems may b e s ou rced b y e i the r r i ve rs o r s p r ings . ( Deno ted A , f o r l a te r u se ) L and a rea i nc u l t iva t ion ( Deno ted A f o r l a te r u se ) Ma in c ana l l e ng th u sed t o s upp ly l a nd a rea A ( Deno ted A , f o r l a te r u se ) R a te o f c hange o f p opu la t ion P w i th t i me T ( Deno ted A , f o r l a te r u se ) V o lume o ft e r ra in m oved o r a l te red t o p roduce a g r icu l tu ra l t e r races ( Deno ted A , f o r l a te r u se ) T ime ( Deno ted A , f o r l a te r u se ) E ng inee r ing s oph is t ica t ion i n dex ; d eno tes t h e l e ve l o f t e chno logy a pp l ied t os o lve i r iga t ion a g r icu l tu re t e chn ica l p rob lems 3
I t i s a s su med t h a t t h e s o c ie ty i n q ues t ion i s n o t d ependen t u pon e x ten s ive i mpo r t/expo r t o f b as ic a g r icu l tura l p roduc t s , a nd t h a t t he m a jo r s us tenance i s d rawn f r om l o ca l l a nd a nd w a te r s upp l ie s b y t he l o ca l p opu la t ion . I ti sf ur the r a s sumed t ha t e x terna l p o l i t ica l/m i l i tary i n te r ference d oe s n o t o ccu r t o d i s rup t t h e f undamen ta l e conom ic a u tonomy o f t h e s e t t lemen t . F ur the r , i ti sa s sumed t h a t m ax imum s ( deno ted b y t he *s upe rscr ip t ) e x is t f o r c e r ta in p arame te r s ; f o r e xamp le , c ana l l e ng th c an o n ly b e e x tended t o a v a lue Lc* d ue t o t opog raph ic o r s u rvey ing a ccuracy c ons t ra in t s , t he v o lume o f t e rrac ing a dd i t ions p o ss ib le o n s t eep t e r ra in i s l im i ted b y V , * a nd t he max imum p oss ib le l a nd a rea a va i lab le f o r a g r icu l ture i sd eno ted a s A * . H e re A * may i n c lude l a nd b eyond t he r e ach o f Lc* ( a nd t he l im i t o f l ow s l ope s u rvey ing a c curacy ) . No te t h a t A
Lc* . T he Lc*t e rm i si n te rpre ted a s t he max imum c ana l l eng th b u i l t w i th in " s a fe " t e chno log ica l l im i t s wh ich c an r e l iab ly c a r ry a w a te r s upp ly Q t o al and a rea A . F o r t h is c a se , e ven p os i t ive c hange s i n w a te r s upp ly c anno t b e e f fec t ive ly u t i l ized b eyond a c e r ta in v a lue b y p oo r ly d es igned Lc> Lc*c ana ls . A n i n c rease i n A , b ased o n Lc> Lc* ,i sl i kew ise n o t as t ab le p roduc ing a g r icu l tu ra l a r ea , a s i t i s o n ly a s d ependab le a s t h e ( undependab le ) Lc> Lc* c ana l s upp ly ing i t . T hus p opu la t ion c an d e c l ine u n t i l s t ab le c ond i t ion s a re r e ached f o r wh ich w e l l -des igned c ana ls s e rv ice l and a reas c ons is ten t ly . S ince a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion p re sumab ly i st o b e i n c reased a nd d rawn f r om t h e l a bo r r e source s a va i lab le f o r ag iven p opu la t ion s i ze , i tm ay b e d e s irab le t o s w i t ch s t ra t eg ie s f r om , f o r e xamp le , l ong c ana ls w a te r ing f l a t a r ab le a reas , t o v a l ley n eck t e r race a g r icu l ture ( i f more a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion r e su l t s a nd t h e t opog raphy p e rm i t s o f t h is s t ra tegy sw i t ch o p t ion ) . C lear ly t h e r e ason s f o r t h is s w i t ch ( wh ich m ay b e g radua l ) i nvo lve a s e t o f p a rame te r s wh ich , when r e ach ing c r i t ica l v a lues , i nf luen ce t he d ec is ion
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t o a l t e r a gr icu l tu ra l s t ra t egy t o i n c rease p roduc t ion . d is cu s sed .
T hese c ond i t ions a re s ubsequen t ly
S i n ce c ons tan t l a bo r r e sour ces e x is t , t he re i s a c ons t ra in t o n u sage o f l a bo r t o i mp lemen t e ach , o r b o th s t ra teg ies ; c onsequen t ly , a n e xp re s s ion f o r t he n umber o f wo rk e r s t ha t c an b e emp loyed i n a c t iv i t ie s r e la ted t o S t ra tegy Ia nd/or S t ra tegy I i s
AcL c
( VA AT
i t2
4t i
c onstant
ep
o r , f o r l a te r u se , z7 i r
(3b3 r
4 -
= Const2nt
eP
wher e R i s t he r a te o f wo rk t h a t c an b e p er formed b y a n i nd iv idua l p e r u n i t t ime ( vo lume o f f i l l moved p e r wo rker p e r u n i t t ime ) , A T i s a g iven t ime i n te rva l , Ac r ep re s en t s a mean c ana l c ro s s -sec t iona l a rea a nd k , l c , a re c ons tan t s t ha t r e la t e t o t he n e ce s s a ry p e r iphe ra l a c t iv i t ie s t h a t mod i fy t he r a te o f wo rk f o r e ach t ype o f b u i ld ing a c t iv i ty . S ince l a bo r r e se rve s a re f i n i te , p opu la t ion p re ssure f o rce s t he mos t e f f ic ien t u se o f l a nd a nd w a t er r e se rves t o d ec ide a " new " o p t imum s t ra t egy i f a n " o ld " s t ra tegy a ppea r s t o b e f a i l ing t o k eep u p w i th d emand f o r a s t eady s upp ly o f a g r icu l tura l r esou r ce s .
G ene ra l c harac te r is t ics o f t he Mode l E qua t ion E xam inat ion o f t he g ene ra l f o rm o f E qua t ion 2 i nd ica te s t ha t p opu la t ion c hange ( I '/P ) i nc re a se s w i th t ime ( T ) p rov ided t he q uan t i ty c on ta ined w i th in t he b racke t s i s p os i t ive . T h i s i mp l ies t ha t amp le s upp l ie s o f i r r iga t ion w a te r ( Q ) a nd t e chno log ica l l e ve l ( 0 ) a re a va i lab le t o c on t inue p opu la t ion g row th . F ur the r , f o r s c enar io s i nvo lv ing S t ra tegy I ( Lc > L c* ,V , , « VA* ) o r S t ra tegy I ( Lc< Lc* , V , -> VA* ) , p opu la t ion g row th c an s t i l l i nc reas e ( a l though a pproach ing a symp to t ic v a lue s ) a s t he max imum c a r ry ing c apac i ty o f e i the r c ana I fed f i e ld s ys tems o r t e r race s i sr e ached i . e . a s A -> A * . I n c ase s f o r wh ich Lc> Lc* , V,«V A* , Lc< Lc* , VA>VA* ,p opu la t ion u l t ima te ly d ec l ine s a s t h e i r r iga t ion s y s tem i n q ue s t ion i s o ve rex tended b eyond i t s a b i l i ty t o b e s upp l ied w i th a dequa te w a te r r esou r ce s . I n c ase s f o r wh ich S t ra tegy I i s i n i t ia ted ( i . e . , n ear l e ve l f i e ld a reas e as i ly s ou rc ed b y s ho r t c ana ls l e d o f f ar i ve r w i th a r ab le l and a rea e x ten s ion b y mean s o f l onge r , l ower s l ope c ana ls ) , i t i s c l ear f r om E qua t ion 2 t h a t u n les s ( Lc* 1 _ ,c) / (A * -A ) 1/ 2 a c tua l ly i n crease s f o l low ing t h is s t ra tegy , n o n e t g a in i s p os s ib le . A s Lc -> Lc* , p a pp ro aches a c ons tan t v a lue ; c l ea r ly f o r f u r the r i n c rease s i n p opu la t ion , l and a rea i n c u l t iva t ion mus t i n c rease , ( i . e . , A -> A * ) a nd s upp ly c ana l f l ow r a t e ( Q ) a nd/o r t e chno logy l eve l ( 4 3 ) mus t a l so i n c rease . E qua t ion 2 i nd ica te s t h a t e i ther t e r race a g r icu l ture ( S t ra tegy 1 ) o r l ong s upp ly c ana ls ( S t ra t egy I )c an b e p ur sued d ue t o w a t er s upp ly a nd l a bo r s upp ly l im i t s . R e fe rence t o E qua t ion s 2a nd 4 t h ere fo re i mp l ie s t ha t e i the r s t ra tegy o r at r an s i t iona l c omb ina t ion o f b o th c an o b ta in f o r ag iven w a te r s upp ly a nd t e chno logy b ase t o p rov ide max imum a gr i cu l tu ra l o u tpu t . When a p a r t icu la r s t ra t egy r e aches i t s l im i t s , i . e . , Lc ->Lc* o r V ,
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-> VA* ,t h en t h e r ema in ing s t ra tegy o b ta ins t o f u r the r a ugmen t a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion a nd t hus p erm i t ap opu la t ion i n c rease ( wh ich i n c reases t h e s i ze o f t he b ra cke t t e rm i n E qua t ion 2 ) . No te t ha t a s A ->A * , t h e p opu la t ion ( P ) c an a pp ro ach a " l o ca l " max imum f o r e ach p a r t icu la r s t ra tegy , a nd t h a t wh icheve r s t ra tegy p roduce s t he l a rge r b racke ted t e rm i n E qua t ion 2 mo s t l i ke ly w i l l d e c ide t h e n ex t t r ans i t ion i n a g r icu l tu r a l d eve lopmen t . A lso n o te t ha t u nde r S t ra tegy Ic ond i t ions , ( Lc* L , )/ (A * -A ) 1/ 2i s max imum f o r s ho r t c ana ls t o a reas A -> A * . A s p rev ious ly r ema rked , t h is i s ab e t te r s t ra tegy t h an l ong c ana ls t o t h e s ame a rea A a s i ti n c reases t he s i ze o f t he b racke ted t e rm i n E qua t ion 2 a nd t hus p e rm i t s ap o s i t ive p opu la t ion c hange . T he l ong , l ow s l ope c ana l s y s t em i s i nhe ren t ly mo r e s ub je c t t o ma l func t ion , d ue t o g eo log ica l ly induced d i s tor t ion s a l ong i t s l e ng th , t h an t he mo re e as i ly s urveyed s hor te r -bu t -h ighe r s lope c ana ls . No te a l so t ha t a s wa te r r e source s ( Q ) d e c rease , p opu la t ion mus t d ec rease c ommen sura te ly a c co rd ing t o E qua t ion 2 . T h is m ay man i fe s t i t se l f a s ar educ t ion o r a bandonmen t o f a r ab le l a nd o r ac on t r a c t ion/par t ia l a bandonmen t o f e x is t ing t e r races ( Gu i l le t n .d . ) o r c ana l s ys tems ( O r t lo f f e t a l . 1 985 ) . R e fe r r ing t o E qua t ion 2 ,a s Q d ec rease s , A i sa l so e f fec t ive ly l owe red b y r emova l o f l a nd r e achab le b y s upp ly c ana ls a b le t o t r an spo r t w a te r e f fec t ive ly . An i nc reas e i n t e chn ica l l e ve l t o i mp rove l im i ted w a te r d e l ivery e f f ic iency a l so s u f f ices t o ma in ta in t h e v a lue o f t h e b racke ted q uan t i ty a nd k eep p opu la t ion l e ve ls s t ab le . A s n o ted i n O r t lo f f e t a l . ( 1 985 ) , t h is s t ra tegy w as e f fec t ive i n i n c reas ing t he l i f e t ime o f C h imu a g r icu l ture s y s tem s i n t h e P ampas Huanchaco a nd E spe ranza a reas s u r round ing C han C han , d e sp i te d e c l in ing w a te r s upp l ie s . I f p opu la t ion c on t inue s t o i n c rease b eyond t he m ax imum s uppo r tab le b y l and a nd w a te r r e sour ce s , t hus t a x ing t he a g r icu l tura l r e sour ce b ase s us ta inab le w i th a p ar t icu la r s t ra tegy , t h en c l ea r ly a s w i t ch , e i the r g radua l o r i mmed ia te , i sr equ ired t o i n su re s urv iva l a nd c on t inued p opu la t ion g row th . T h is " sw i t ch -ove r " f e a ture i s i nco rpo ra ted w i th in E qua t ion 2 . F o r c ase s whe re p opu la t ion i sr e la t ive ly c ons tan t , E qua t ion 2 i nd ica tes t h a t u nde r t h e s t re s s o f aw a ter s upp ly d ec l ine , at e chno logy l e ve l i n c rease i sn e cessary t os o lve w a t e r s upp ly p rob lem s . T h is t e chno logy l e ve l i n c rease t r ans la tes i n to a c t ion s n e cessa ry t o p rov ide n ew e ng inee r ing s o lu t ions t o c ana l d e s ign t o i n c rease t he wa te r s upp ly t o f i e ld s ys tem s . S uch s o lu t ion s may e n ta i l b u i ld ing n ew a queduc t s y s tems w i th a s so c ia ted n ew t e chno logy r e la ted t o c ons t ruc t ion t e chn iques , n ew o pen c hanne l f l ow d e s igns a nd h ydrau l ic c on t ro l s t ruc tures , t oge ther w i th a dvance s i n s u rvey ing a nd s y s t em s a na ly s i s t e chno logy . I fu nde r t h ese c ond it ions , 4 : 1 )d oe s n o t i n c rease , E qua t ion 2 i n d ica tes t h a t a p opu la t ion d ec l ine i s i n ev i tab le . I f t h is w a te r s upp ly d ec l ine o ccurs a t t h e max imum c a r ry ing c apac i ty p o in t o f a g r icu l tura l d eve lopmen t a s so c ia ted w i th l a rg e p opu la t ion l e ve ls , i . e , L > Lc* ,A -> A * o r V , -> VA* ,t h en t h e re i sl i t t le r oom t oi n c rease ( o r t o e ven ma in ta in p roduc t ion ) a nd p opu la t ion d e c l ine f o l low s . A s h i f t f r om s t ra tegy It o Im ay p roduce s ome b ene f i t s d epend ing u pon t h e r e la t ive magn i tude o f t e rm s c on t a ined w i th in t he b racke t o f E qua t ion 2 . An a l terna te s t ra tegy o f p ar t ia l p opu la t ion movemen t t o ad i f feren t a rea ( w i th a n ew A * a nd l a rge Q ) m ay a l so b e t r ied b y s o c ie t ie s a t l im i t s o f t h e i r l and a nd w a te r r e sou rce s . F rom E qua t ion 2 i t may b e n o ted t ha t t h e max imum p opu la t ion o ccu r s whe re =0a nd r equ ire s t h e b racke t t e rm t o v an i sh f o r A Lc* a nd V , -> VA* . T he max imum r a te o f p opu la t ion i n c rease , o n t he o the r h and , o c cur s a s L , « Lc* , V,« VA* f o r A -A * , VA= 0 f o r e a r ly i r r iga t ion s ys tems c on s is t ing o f s ma l l l e ad -o f f c ana ls f r om t h e s p r ing fed r i ve r -channe ls . T he t e chn ica l s oph is t ica t ion v a lue i s l ow , c on s i s ten t w i th e ar ly a g r icu l tu ra l s o lu t ions , i . e . , t he mos t s t ra igh t forwa rd e asy to c ons t ru c t c ana ls a re u sed i n i t ia l ly . L abo r i npu t f o r c ons truc t ion i sl ow , c on s is t en t w i th i n i t ia l ly l ow p opu la t ion s i ze . P opu la t ion s t ab i l ize s a s Lc -> Lc* ,A A * , V , -> V ,* f i na l ly , a nd t he max imum p opu la t ion d en s i ty i s mo s t l i ke ly a ch ieved w i th S t ra tegy I me thods . S t ra tegy Ii sp hased o u t a s e ar l ie r c ana ls a re s t randed b y t he d owncu t t ing c hanne l a nd a bandoned . W i th f u r the r w a te r s upp ly d ec reases , a nd w i th t he max imu m ( I ) v a lue r e ached ( no f u r ther t e chn ica l s o lu t ions a va i lab le ) , t h e l a rge l a bo r s upp ly o b ta in ing f r om t h e s t ab le p opu la t ion s i ze i s o f n o h e lp t o f u r the r i mp lemen t me thods t o i nc reas e a gr icu l tura l p roduc t ion , t o p e rm i t f u r the r p opu la t ion i n c rease . T he d ec l ine i n s upp ly f l ow r a te t h en r e su l t s i n t h e i n ev i tab le p opu la t ion d ec l ine . F ur the r s upp ly f l ow d e c reases f o rce y e t mo re p opu la t ion d ec l ine , a s c hanne l d owncu t t ing p roceeds a nd o ld c ana l i n le t s a re s t randed . Mo re l a bo r i nves tmen t i s n eeded i n r ework ing l e ad -o f f c ana ls t o s upp ly t h e t e r race s y s tems , l e ad ing t o ag rea te r f r ac t ion o f t he p opu la t ion e n l is ted i n to m a in tenan ce a nd c ons t ruc t ion o f t h e t e r race s ys tem s . A t t h is p o in t , t h e re may b e a n emphas is o n a l te rna t ive , n onagr icu l tura l e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s , s uch a s e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he ma r ine r e sou rce b ase t o p rov ide s us tenance . A s b e fo re , when w a te r s upp ly d ec l ine o ccu r s a t t he p o in t o f max imum d eve lopmen t o f f i e ld s ys tem a rea
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E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap te r 2 3
A -> A * , VA -> VA*f o r S t ra tegy I , t h en p opu la t ion mus t d ec l ine t o a c commoda te t h e s t ead i ly r educ ing a g r icu l tu ra l r e sour ce b ase . T he a dven t o f t h e C o lon ia l e r a i nvo lve s a r ad ica l c hange i n t h e l o ca l r eg iona l e conomy a nd i nvo lve s al a rge c ap t ive l a bo r p oo l t o i mp lemen t a gr icu l tu ra l s t r a t eg ies u nde r S pan ish c on t ro l ( w i th p e rhaps l i t t le e conom ic p ayo f f f o r t h e n a t ive l a bo r i nve s ted ) . T he i mpor ta t ion o f n on -na t ive t oo ls a nd t e chno log ies , c u l t iva t ion o f s e lec t ive c rop s n o t d e s igned t o p rov ide a b road v ar ie ty o f f oods tu f f s ( i . e . , e xpo r t , i ndus t r ia l , l uxury c r op s ) , a nd n on -na t ive , H ispan ic p opu la t ions t h en l e ads t o ar e cove ry c yc le i n C o lon ia l t imes . T he s ubs is tence b ase o f t h e i nd igenous p opu la t ion i s n ow d ependen t u pon a r ad ica l ly t r ans fo rmed e conomy wh ich i n c lude s m in ing , c omme r c ia l a gr icu l ture , w ine a nd o l ive o i l p roduc t ion , a l l u nde r l o ca l ized e n com i en c i a s . T he l a s t mode rn s t age s o f u se o f t h ese s ys tem s c on s is t o f c rops ( p redom ina te ly o l ive s ) a nd l o ca l s ubs is ten ce a gr icu l tu re o n f am i ly p lo t s c l ose t o t he s pr ing wa te r s our ce . S uch c rop s u t i l ize t h e s ma l l a va i lab le s eepage w a te r s upp ly , i n c on jun c t ion w i th d ammed p oo ls t o c o l le c t t h e s e epage . L and a r ea f o r a g r icu l ture h as c on t rac ted a cco rd ing ly , a nd mo s t p robab ly o ve r l ie s af r ac t ion o f t h e l and p rev ious ly f a rmed b y e a r l ie r i nhab i tan t s . P e rhap s o n ly 1 0 -20% o f t o ta l l a nd a r ea i n t e n c oas ta l s p r ing fed v a l leys r ema in s i n p roduc t ion f r om p rev ious p reh i s to r ic h ighs ( Mose ley 1 986a ; C lemen t s a nd Mo se ley t h is v o lume ) . A t p re sen t , o n ly ma rg ina l a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion o f s pe c ia l ty , n on - w a ter in t en s ive c rop s i sp os s ib le . An a t temp t t o c ons t ruc t al o ca l ized a r ea o f f a r u ps t ream t e r race s n ea r t h e s p r ing s ources w as i mp lemen ted w i th in t h e p as t 6 0 y ea rs . T hese s y s t ems c on s is t o f w a l led t e r race s l o ca ted o n v e ry s t e ep -s ided c anyon w a l ls , l o ca ted w i th in a k i lome te r o f t h e s pr ing s ource . V e ry s ho r t l e ad o f f c ana ls , o r ig ina t ing f r om p oo ls b acked u p b eh ind d ams , f e ed t he t e r race s . T hese s y s tem s a l so h ave b een a bandoned , a f i na l a cknow ledgmen t t ha t n o t e chn ica l s o lu t ions a r e p o s s ib le t o i n c rease a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion i n t he f a ce o f d e c l in ing w a te r s upp ly , r egard le s s o f t he a va i lab le l a bor , t e chno logy o r l a nd a rea a va i lab le . A ga in , t h e mode l r epresen ted b y E qua t ion 2 a pp l ies t o e xp la in t he o bse rved s i tua t ion . A s u mma ry o f t r ends men t ioned a bove i s s hown i n F igure 3 i n q uan t i ta t ive t e rm s . I n t h is f i gu re , t he h i s to r ica l t r ends i n l a nd a rea i n p roduc t ion , w a te r s upp ly f l ow r a te , l a bo r emp loyed f o r c ons t ruc t ion a nd t e chn ica l s oph is t ica t ion i ndex a re g i ven . T he t r end o f d e c reas ing f l ow r a te i s s o mewha t c oun te red b y a s h i f t t o h i gher t e chn ica l s oph is t ica t ion b y S t ra tegy I me thods s upp lan t ing S t ra tegy Ime thods . A s A ->A * a nd t h e f l ow r a te Q c on t inues t o d ec l ine , E qua t ion 2 i nd ica t es a d e c r ea s ing t r end i n p opu la t ion . T h is t r end i s c ons is ten t w i th t he d e c l in ing a g r icu l tura l r e sou rce b ase b rough t a bou t b y w a te r s upp ly d ec rease s t h roughou t t ime . A f te r t h e m in i mum s a r e r e ached i n F igu re 3 ,n ew C o lon ia l s ys t em s b ased o n ad i f feren t s e t o f a s su mp t ion s u s ed t o d er ive E qua t ion 3 a pp ly . Moquegua C ana l S y s tem s T he a g r icu l tura l s ys tems l o ca ted i n t he O to ra V a l ley o f t h e Moquegua d ra inage h ave b een a na lyzed b y S t an ish ( 1 985 , 1 987a ) . S i te s a nd c ana l fed a g r icu ltu ra l t e r races l o ca ted i n t h e S a jena , P o robaya a nd O to ra r i ve r d ra inage s ( s ee S t an ish a nd R ice t h is v o lume ) a t 2 700 m .a .s . l . w e re e xp lo red a nd a na lyzed . S i x o ccupa t ion p has e s w e re d e f ined : T um i laca , O to ra , E s tuqu i t ia , E s tuqu i t ia Inka , I nka a nd C o lon ia l d a t ing f r om t he c a . 1 th t o 1 8 th c en tur ies . i n T iwanaku P e r iod 5 ,i n t h e l owe r Moquegua V a l ley ( l ess t han 2 000 m .a .s . 1 . ) , p opu la t ions e xp lo i t a va i lab le l ow s l ope l and u sua l ly w i th in v a l ley marg in s .
4 72
C.OR T LO F F ; DY NAM I C S O F HY D RAU L I C SO C I ET I E S I N AN C I ENT PE R U
A =LAND A REA U NDER C ULTIVATION(KM 2 -)
0 .05 -
Q = S PRING F LOW R ATE ( M 3/ SEC) =T ECHNICAL S OPHISTICATION I NDEX ( f ) .-L ABOR I NPUT ( MAN-HOURS)
1 0
t i )
0 .04- 3 -
A
0 .03-
2
t o 0 .02 -
-
1 0
0 .01 -
S TRATEGY I ---› -STRATEGY I L ONG C ANALS ------->TERRACES
› -DROUGHT
C QASTAL U PLIFT--ACQUIFER,LAND S URFACE C HANGE E ARLY P ERIOD-CHIP .IEAYA
C OLONIAL P ERIOD
F igu re 3 . G row th - D ec l ine C urves - C arr iza l S pr ing S ys tem - S ou th P eruv ian C oas t ( Ho ) -( 1 7 ° S ou th L a t i tude )
4 73
E COLOGY , S ETTLE MENT , AND H ISTORY I N THE OSMORE DRA INAGE - Chap t e r 2 3
L a te r i n t he f i na l p hase o f t h e T iwanaku o ccupa t ion , a n e xpan s ion o f p opu la t ion a ppears t o o c cur f r om t h e Moquegua V a l ley p rope r i n to t h e m id a nd u ppe r s i e r r a . L ong c ana ls t o c u l t iva te n ea r f l a t l and w i th l ow t e r races a re a ppa ren t ly p r e fe r red o ve r s hor t c an a ls t o u p land , h igh a nd c l ose ly s paced t e r race s . T ha t t h is i s ap re fe rab le s t ra t egy f r om a l a bo r i npu t p o in t o f v i ew c an b e a s ce r ta ined b y r e fe ren ce t o E qua t ion 2 . T he q ues t ions t o b e e xa m ined a re : Wh ich t e rm w i th in t he b racke t s o f E qua t ion 2 max im ize s p opu la t ion s i ze , g iven t h a t w a te r s upp l ie s a re a dequa te f o r i mp lemen t a t ion o f e i the r S t ra t egy Io r I , i . e . , i s( L c * -L )/ A 1 1 1 2 ) < .( vA * _v A )A , 3 / 2 f o r g iven Q a nd 4 1 3 0v a lue s ? I s t he c o r re spond ing l a bo r i nvo lved i n S t ra tegy I more o r l e s s t h an t ha t o f S t ra tegy I , g iven t h e c ons t ra in t o f a f i n i te amoun t o f l a bo r a va i lab le ( Equa t ion 4 ) ? I n t e rms o f p rev ious ly d e f ined v a r iab les , t he l abo r i nvo lved i n c on s t ruc t ing a c ana l o f l e ng th L ct o A rea A i s :
A T AcL c
( men)
, A i J k
wh i le f o r at e r race a g r icu l tura l s ys tem w i th t he s ame f a rmed a r ea A ( =HL c tn 0 ) i s :
AT
1 L I 11 c tn 2t \ " 4 2_
AI A — 2 N A , _
wher e ATi s ag iven t ime i n te rva l a nd A , =A * -A . T o f a c i l i ta te l a bo r c a lcu la t ions , n o te t ha t VAA T14 / „4 = k J ' whe re l c , i s ac ons tan t a nd r ep resen t s t he f r ac t ion o f t he p opu la t ion a va i lab le f o r c on s t ruc t ion l abo r . No te t ha t f o r a t e r raced h i l l o f s l ope 0 , t he max imum s ur face a r ea f o r f a rm ing i s Sm= LHc tnj , whe re H i st h e h i l l h e igh t . S ince t h e t e r race r e ta in ing w a l l c an h ave a max i mum h e igh t hm , t h en t h e v o lume o f as i ng le t e r race w i l l b e LH 2c t n0/2N 2 v he re L i s t he l e ng th o f t he t e r race a nd N= 1 1/hm. S ince t h ere a re N t e r race s o n t he s l ope , a nd s i nce t he w o rk r a te p e r m an i s R , t hen V l = LH 2c tn6 /2N 2 a nd k3= 2V ANR/PATLH 2 c t n. H ere a s 0 ->0 , N ->0 . F o r c ana l s ys tem s , k3= V A/ ATPw , , whe re P i st he p opu la t ion s i ze . No te t h a t t he amoun t o f l a bo r t o d ig c ana l s y s tems i sg ene ra l ly much l e s s t h an t ha t t o b u i ld e l abora te t e r race s y s tem s . F i r s t , i t i s c l ea r t ha t , f o r d imens iona l a reas i n km2, t ha t A13 1 2 > A11/ 2 ;s econd , t he v o lume ( V A)o f ma te r ia l ( km ' ) moved i n t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f a g r icu ltura l t e r races i sc l ea r ly l e s s t h an a f r ac t ion o f ac ub ic k i lome te r , b u t i s much mo re t h an t ha t i n vo lved i n c ana l e x cava t ion . T h is i mp l ies t ha t S t ra tegy I i s t he q u ickes t a nd e as ie s t w ay t o a ch ieve s u f f ic ien t a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion t o s uppo r t a n i n c reas ing p opu la t ion . S ince c ana l e x cava t ion v o lume i s much l e s s t h an t e r race v o lume moved , < i y1 f o r t he s ame A T v a lue . T he a bove d i s cus s ion i sb ased o n t h e a s sump t ion o f a dequa te w a t e r s upp ly a nd t e chno logy l e ve l t o e xe rc ise e i the r o p t ion . T he re fo re , S t an ish 's ( 1 985 ) r emark , " i n t e rms o f l a bo r r equ i remen t s , i ti s much mo re e f f ic ien t t o b u i ld l ong c ana ls t o c u l t iva te f l a t l a nd w i th l ow t e r race s t h an i ti st o b u i ld s ho r t c ana ls t o s t eep l a nd wh ich r e qu ires h igh a nd c l ose ly s paced t e r races . . . , " i s i ndeed c ons is ten t w i th t he e quat ion 2 mode l . I n t h e p resence o f l ow 4 1 3 v a lue s , E qua t ion 2 c l ea r ly i nd ica te s S t ra tegy I i s o p t imu m p rov ided t opog raph ic c ons t ra in t s p e rm i t s o lu t ions . S t an ish 's r emark , t h en , i s c on s i s ten t w i th t he s t ra tegy t ha t max im ize s t h e b racke t t e rm i n E qua t ion 2 ( t o p e rm i t p opu la t ion i n c rease s ) wh i le r equ ir ing l e s s l a bo r t o i mp lemen t .
4 74
C.OR T LO F F ; DY NAM I C S O F HY D RAU L I C SO C I E T I E S I N AN C I EN T PE R U
Movemen t i n t h e s ubsequen t O to ra P er iod t o e x tens ive t e r race a g r icu l tur e ( S tan ish 1 985 , 1 987 ) , p robab ly i n t he f a ce o f d e c l in ing w a te r s upp ly ( c f . T hompson e t a l . 1 985 ) , i s t he n ex t l o g ica l o p t ion . S ho r t c ana ls t o l a rge V» A z ones a re c l ea r ly t he o n ly o p t ion l e f t , a s t h is i st he o n ly w ay a va i lab le t o make A -> A * . T he s h i f t t o t e r race s y s tems i s l a bor i n ten s ive . A p opu la t ion r e spond ing t o g rea te r o u tpu t f r om t e r race f i e ld s ys tem s p e rm i ts p opu lat ion e xpan s ion , a l ong w i th t e r race s y s tem e xpan s ion . S t an ish a l so n o te s ( 1 985 , 1 987 ) t ha t as h i f t i n s e t t lemen t a nd f i e ld s y s tem l o ca t ion o c cu r s t o s hor ten c ana l l e ng ths t o f i e ld s y s tems . T h is S t ra t egy I move i sc ons is ten t w i th E qua t ion 2 p red ic t ions a nd l e t s A -> A * . L osses b y e vapo ra t ion a nd s eepage , wh ich a re f unc t ions o f c ana l w e t ted s u r face a rea , l e ng th a nd a l t i tude , a re a l so r educed b y t h is s t ra tegy . U se o f r i dge top c ana ls p e rm i t s t he max imum V , * t o b e e xp lo i ted ( i . e . , V,-> VA* ) , a s a l l o f t he l ower h i l l s l opes c an b e i r r ig a ted f r om a bove . U se o f s i nuous r i dge top c ana ls t h a t a l ternat e ly d rop f e ede r c ana ls t o e ach s i de o f t he h i l l , wh i le ma in ta in ing a c on s tan t s l ope , f a c i l i ta te t h is p ro ces s a nd c ons t i tu te a n o p t imum d e s ign . T he E s tuqu i f ia P e r iod c on t inue s t r ends c ons is ten t w i th A