Man and Environment in the Isle of Man, Parts i and ii 9781407389233, 9781407389240, 9780860540342, 9781407322230

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Man and Environment in the Isle of Man Part i Edited by

Peter Davey

BAR British Series 5 4(i) 1978

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England GE�ERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., �LA., D.Phil. D.R. \\.alker. �LA.

B.A.R. 54 (i), 1978: 'Man and Environment in the Isle of Man', Part i © The individual authors, 1978. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389233 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389240 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860540342 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407322230 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540342 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS PART i Page List of Illustrations INTRODUCTION

1 Sir H. Godwin and F. Mitchell

5

1. The Present-day Fauna and Flora of Man as Indicators of the Date of the Flandrian Severance

D. E. Allen

9

2. Flandrian Sea-level Changes and Vegetational History of the Isle of Man: a Review

M. J. Tooley

15

3. Dendrochronology for the Irish Sea Province

M. G. L. Baillie

25

4. The Structure and Vegetation History of the Manx Hill Peats

G. Russell

39

5. Plant Distribution Patterns as Potential Historical Indicators

D. E. Allen

51

6. Evidence for the History of the Vertebrate Fauna of the Isle of Man

L. S. Garrad

61

7. Genetic Studies of the Population of the Isle of Man

R. J . Mitchell and E. Sunderland

77

E. M. Megaw (nee Hardy)

8. The C. H. Cowley Archaeological L. S. Garrad Collections in the Manx Museum, Douglas

109

9. A Re-appraisal of the Manx Mesolithic

P. Woodman

119

10. Ballaharra Excavations 1971. A Summary of Work and Results

s.

Cregeen

141

11. Stone Implements and their Users in the Isle of Man

L. S. Garrad

165

12. Manx Megaliths Again; an Attempt at Structural Analysis

A. S. Henshall

171

13 . The Ronaldsway Culture: a Review

P. J. Moffat

177

14. Bronze Age Metalwork from the Isle of Man

P. J. Davey

219

15. The Iron Age

P. S. Gelling

233

PART

i

1 6. Excavat ion o f ' L in tel Grave' Ce me tery

L . S . Garrad

2 45

M. Gel l ing

2 51

B . Megaw

2 65

G . F el lows J ensen

3 15

R . L . Tho mson

3 19

2 1. The Manx ' Eary ' a nd i t s S ign if icance

E . Megaw

3 27

2 2. The ' Erg ' P lace-na mes o f N orthern

M. C . H igha m

3 47

2 3. Med ieval Pot tery i n t he I sle o f Man

L . S . Garrad

3 57

2 4. Chance F inds o f S tone Mou lds f ro m

L . S . Garrad

3 67

M. Do l ley

3 73

M. K il l ip

4 01

A . M. Cubbon

4 13

a t G len traugh S an tan , I sle o f Man 1 7.

Norse a nd Gael ic i n Med ieval Man : t he P lace-na me Ev idence

1 8.

Norse man a nd N at ive i n t he K ingdo m o f t he I sles :

a Re-assess men t o f t he

Manx e v idence 1 9. The Manx P lace-na me Debate :

aVi ew

f ro m Copenhagen 2 0. The I nterpretat ion o f s o me Manx P lace-na mes

England

t he I sle o f Man 2 5. A Paranu m is mat ic S idel ight o n S everal Cen tur ies o f Manx H istory —The Wreck o f t he L ucy ( 1702) 2 6. The Develop men t o f t he Manx N ineteen th Cen tury F ield P at tern 2 7. S o me Chance F inds o f Archaeo log ical Importance i n t he I sle o f Man 1 962-1977

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PART i Figure

Page

2.1 2.2 2.3

The bathymetry of the Irish Sea Map of Lough Cranstal The stratigraphy across Lough Cranstal

3.1

Principal centres of tree-ring research in the British Isles Approximate local areas for which chronologies exist for A .D. 1350-1550 Postulated British Isles tree-ring regions

3.2

3.3

16

18

20

27 28 31 41 42

4.1 4.2 4.3

Pollen diagram Pollen diagram Relative abundances of macroscopic components of blanket peat sample

45

6.1

Perwick Cave, Isle of Man

62

7.1 7.2

Location of Isle of Man The "Natural" Division between Northside and Southside in the Isle of Man

79

8.1

Cowley collection of flints

111

Map of major sites referred to in text Microlithic material Rea vy bladed material from Rhenwyllan Material from Lambfell Beg and Lhen Trench Ballachrink Material from Ballachrink Farm

124 129

Ballaharra Excavations: Ballaharra Excavations:

142 147

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5

10.1 10.2

General Map Plan of Tomb

80

120

130

132

11.1

Finds of Ronaldsway roughened butt axes in the Isle of Man

12.1

Map: chambered tombs

13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9

173

Principal sites Ronaldsway Occupation Site Polished Stone Axes Miniature Axes and Adzes Flint Scrapers Flint arrowheads Flint implements Class A and B pot sherds Class C pot sherds

178 180

166

185 186

187

191

193 196 198

Page

?igure 13.10 Ballateare cemetery 13.11 Ronaldsway cemetery si tes 14.1 14.2 · 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4

Bronze Age Bronze Age Bronze Age Bronze Age Bronze Age Bronze Age

metalwork find-spots on the Isle of Man Metalwork Metalwork Metalwork Metalwork Metalwork

204 210 220 223 225 227 229 230a

Map of Sites Plan of the earliest phase of Ballacagen A Plan of the latest phase of Ballacagen A Plan of the fortified site on Ballanicholas

234 236 237 240

Ballaharra Excavations Ballaharra Excavations Ballaharra Excavations Ballaharra Excavations Ballaharra Excavations Ballaharra Excavations: Flint arrowheads and Neolithic pottery

153 155 157 159 161 163

Plates 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6

I NTRODUCT ION b y P . J . D avey

Dur ing t he Easter o f 1 977 t he I nst itu te o f Ex tens ion S tud ies o f t he Un ivers ity o f L iverpoo l o rgan ised a c on ference i n Doug las e n t it led ' Man a nd Env ironmen t i nt he I sle o f Man '.

The I nst itute h as a l ong t rad i t ion o f work i nt he i s land a nd

i s r espons ib le , t hrough t he Manx Board o f Educat ion , f or a p rogra m me o f Ext ra Mural c ourses , ofered t o ap opu lat ion w ith n o ' r es iden t ' Un ivers ity .

A s p art

o ft h is work i ts ee med a ppropr iate t o t ry t o b r ing t ogether i n c on ference r es earch workers f ro m a n umber o f Un ivers it ies i nB r ita in , I reland a nd b eyond w ho were, o f ten i ndependen t ly , s tudy ing a spects o f t he I sland 's h uman a nd e nv iron men ta l h istory .

Th is wou ld p rov ide a n o pportun ity f or a cade m ics f ro m

s eparate b u t r elated d isc ip l ines t o e xchange v iews a nd f or i n terested me mbers o ft he g enera l p ubl ic t o h ear t he l atest i deas a bou t t he I sland 's p ast.

The S cot-

t i sh S oc iety f or N orthern S tud ies h ad , s eparately , d ec ided t o h o ld i t s Easter c on ference o nt he I sland a nd b egun a pproach ing s o me o f t he s a me s peakers. I tw as t herefore a greed t ha t most o f t he c on ference s hou ld b e h eld j o in t ly , w ith s pec ial l ectures o n f i sh ing a nd a gr icu l ture f or t he S co t t ish g roup a nd o n e arly e nv iron men ts f or t he L iverpoo l me mbers. As s o much n ew work w as r eported a t t he c on ference p ub l icat ion o f t he p apers was s uggested a nd B .A.1 1. v ery g enerously a greed t o u ndertake t h is. When t he s ad n ews o f t he d eath o f E leanor Megaw w as a nnounced i ts ee med o n ly f i t t ing t hat t h is v o lume s hou ld b e d ed icated t o h er me mory .

S he h ad b een

c losely i nvo lved i n many a spects o f r esearch o nt he I s le o f Man o ver a n u mber o f y ears a nd h ad g iven u nst in t ing h elp a nd e ncourage men t i n t he p reparat ions f or t he c on ference a s w el l a s p ersuad ing a n u mber o f n ew c on tr ibu tors t o w r ite p apers a nd g iv ing a l ecture h ersel f.

My s y mpathy g oes t o h er h usband Bas il

Megaw and my t hanks t o h im f or h is h elp a nd h is p er m iss ion t o d ed icate t h is v o lume t o h is w ife. T he p ages wh ich f o l low i nclude most o f t he p apers r ead a t t he c on ference a s w el l a s an umber o f i t e ms b y p eop le u nable t o a t tend o r t he r elevance o f w hose work w as o n ly r ea l ised a s t he c on ference p rogressed.

T here s ee med

n o e n t irely l og ical o rder i n wh ich t o p resen t t he mater ial s ince s o me p apers c overed a l ong t ime-span a nd o thers w ere o f i ndeter m inate c hrono log ica l r elevance.

T hus t he p apers wh ich a re c oncerned w ith e nv ironmen tal s ub jects

a ppear f irst , f o l lowed b y t hose o n a rchaeo logy , w ith t he d eba te o n pl ace-na mes i nserted a t ac onven ien t i fn o t a ccurate p o in t. L ook ing a t t he r esu l ts o f t he c on ference a s aw ho le i ti s q u ite c lear t hat f ar more e f fort n eeds t o b e p u t i n to a t te mpts t o l ink t he e nv ironmen tal a nd h uman e v idence.

On t he o ne h and p aleo-env ironmen tal s tud ies t end t o s top

a t o r j ust b efore t he p o in t a t w h ich man makes h is f i rst impact o n t he i s land. Depos its d at ing f ro m meso l ith ic t o modern t imes , w h ich a re s u itable f or s uch

1

a na lys is a l most c erta in ly o ccur i n t he L hen t rench a rea , p art icu lar ly i n t he k et t le h o les o f t he n ort h-west . Ad eta iled s tudy o f t he c hang ing e nv ironmen t o ver t he l ast s ix t o e igh t t housand y ears wou ld n o t o n ly h e lp t o e xp la in t he p a tt erns o fh uman o ccupat ion a nd i n f luence , b u t wou ld e stab l ish a n h is tor ical f ra mework f or t he s tudy o ft he d eve lop ing n ature o f t he p lan t a nd a n imal p opu lat i on . On t he o ther h and , t here i s a n u n fortunate l ack o f e nv ironmen ta l i n format i on f ro m w el l s tra t i f ied a nd d ated e xcavat ions. D esp ite t he weal th o f a rchaeol og ica l s i tes o f a l l p er iods a nd t he many s urv iv ing monumen ts a nd a rtefact g roups t here i s n o s at isfac tory r elated s equence o f e nv ironmen ta l d ata t o p rov ide t he f ra mework n ecessary f or t he ir p roper u nderstand ing. T he I s le o f Man p rov ides a u n ique f i e ld f or s uch i n ter-related s tud ies. I t i s t o b e h oped t hat t he c on ference a nd t h is p ub l icat ion w il l s t i mu late s uch d ev elop men ts. I n o rgan is ing t he c on ference a nd i n e d it ing t h is p ub l icat ion Iam h appy t o a cknow ledge t he h elp o f al arge n umber o f p eop le , n ot l east t he c on t r ibutors t hemselves.

I n p art icu lar Is hou ld l ike t o t hank t he f o l low ing :

T ed Rhodes ,

P ro fessor o f t he I nst itute o f Ex ten s ion S tud ies , w hose b ack ing made t he c onf erence p oss ible; t he c on ference;

E l izabeth Horne who s o a b ly managed t he o rgan isat ion o f J ohn Ba ldw in a nd t he S co t t ish S oc iety f or N orthern S tud ies f or

a l l t he ir h elp a nd c ooperat ion ; t he p ub l icat ion o f t h is v o lume;

t he G eneral E d i tors o f B .A.R. f or b ack ing D av id A l len a nd L arch G arrad f or Ed it ing

t he e nv ironmen tal c on tr ibu t ions;

Edward P ickup f or wrest l ing w i th s o me o f

t he more c o mp lex a rchaeo log ica l p apers;

P enny B rown f or u ndertak ing t he

mass o ft he d ay t o d ay o rgan isat ion o f t he l ater s tages o f p roduct ion ; G reen f or h elp w i th E leanor Megaw 's a r t icle; an umber o ft he i l lustrat ions; f i gures;

Er ic

K ay L ancaster f or r edraw ing

V ick i S u l l ivan f or a ss istance w ith c heck ing t he

Marsha l l Cubbon f or h is s upport a nd i n terest t hroughou t .

P . J . D avey L iverpoo l August , 1 978

2

E . M . MEGA W ( n ee HARDY ) b y S ir H arry G odw in a nd F rank M i tche l l E leanor Mary H ardy , y ounger d augh ter o f t he em inen t p ioneer b iophys ic ist , S ir Wil l iam Ba te Hardy , h erse l f c hose t o r ead A rchaeo logy a nd An thropo logy f or h er Cambr idge d egree. By t he m idd le n ineteen t h irt ies i tw as a pparen t t ha t p ol len-ana lys is h eld g rea tp o ten t ia l s ign i f icance f or a rchaeo log ists , a nd t he n ew g radua te w en t t o S tockho lm t o l earn a bou t i tf rom i t s ma jest ic o r ig inat or , L ennar t v on Post , w here s he b eca me p art o f ad evoted c irc le o f d isc ip les t hat i nc luded J . I versen , K . F aegr i, Ma j-Br it t F lor in a nd L ucy C ranwel lSm ith. S hort ly a f terwards h owever , E leanor r eturned t o C ambr idge t o t ake u p , w ith v on Post 's b less ing , s tud ies u nder my d irec t ion . S he p roved a most c ongen ia l p up il. S he h ad a ttended t he c lasses i n my own c o l lege o f t he g reat a nd l ovab le H ector Munro Chadw ick , a nd If ound h er r efresh ing ly a du l t i n c ont rast w ith most r esearch s tuden ts. E leanor d isp layed a d isconcert ing ly a ct ive t hough b en ign s ense o f h umour t hat w as more o f ten b etrayed b y at w ink le i n t he e ye t han b y a ny th ing s a id : Iwas a tt h is t ime i nvest iga t ing whether a s yste m o f p o l len-zones h omo log ous w ith t hose o f S outhern Sweden , c ou ld u sefu l ly b e d ev ised f or Eng land a nd Wa les, a nd a n otab le g ap i n t he s catter o f s i tes o f l ong p o l len-sequences e x isted i n t he s ou th-west. A ccord ing ly E leanor b egan w ork o n t he d eep p eats o f Hawks T or , Bodm in Moor a nd t he d epos its a longs ide t he l egend-haun ted Doze mary P oo l , where t races o f Meso l ith ic man d id i ndeed r e ma in . These s i tes a nd o ne o r t wo o f l e ss importance d emonstra ted p ara l lel is m o f t he ma in F landr ian f orest z ones w ith t he i nstances a lready w orked o u t.

A t Hawks T or t he p o l len

s tud ies w ere i ncorpora ted i nb roader s tud ies o f t he l oca l g eo logy a nd o f f oss il B ryophy ta , D iato maceae a nd t he h igher p lan ts. I ta dded u p t o o ne o f t he e arl iest E ng l ish d emonstrat ions o f t he l a te-g lac ia l ( Al lerg id ) c l i mat ic o sc il lat ion . T h is w ork h as b een w el l s ubstan t ia ted b y r e-exa m inat ion o f E leanor 's s amp les i n t he l i gh t o f i mproved s tandards o f p o l len i den t if icat ion a nd b y r ad io-carbon d at ing. Another p ro m is ing g ap i nt he s pread o f p o l len-ana lys is s i tes w as f ound i n t he c o mp lex o f r a ised-bogs i n a nd c lose t o Fenn 's Moss o n t he S a lop-Fl in t b order.

T here , a t What ta l l w e i nvest iga ted t he i n f il l o f ak et t leho le f rom wh ich

h ad b een r ecovered a monoxy lous b oat .

With in t he l ong p o l len s er ies E leanor

w as a ble t o p lace t he b oat c lose t o t he o pen ing o f p o l len-zone V I I I , t he e arly S ub-at lan t ic.

Bor ings a nd p o l len-ana lyses p roved t he e x tens ive r a ised-bog

o f F enn 's Moss a nd t he c on t iguous Wh ixa l l Moss t o h ave u nexpected ly s ha l low p eat o f n o g rea t a ge, b u t t hey n evertheless e xh ib ited v ery c learly t wo " recurr ence-surfaces" l ike t hose d escr ibed i n Sweden b y G ran lund , a t w h ich b ogg row th h ad b een s evere ly i n terrupted a nd r esumed , p oss ib ly u nder c l i ma t ic c ompu lsion .

There w ere a lso t hree c ons isten t h or izons o f t he g row th o f p ine-

t rees o ver t he b og-surfaces, t he o ldest o f t hem i n t he l a te p art o f p o l len-zone V I , t he l ate B oreal. A l ooped b ronze p a lstave r ecovered b y ap ea t-d igger 5

f rom o ne o f t he p ine-stub l ayers w as a tt r ibuted t o l ate i n p o l len-zone V I I.

A

l onger p o l len s equence w as r ecovered a t Bett is f ie ld , as ou th-eas twards e x tens ion o f t he moss-comp lex , a nd t here a l l t he z ones f rom t he o pen ing o f t h e Borea l w ere r ecogn isable.

Co l lect ive ly t hese s i tes h ad y ielded v a luab le p ioneer r e-

s u l ts h elp ing f orward t he r eg iona l s tudy o f c l ima t ic a nd f orest h is tory . Va luable s upp le men tat ion c a me s ubsequen t ly w ith r ad io-carbon d at ing o f t he k ey-hor izons , a nd w ith J ud ith Turner 's s tud ies o f t he i mpac t o f f orest c learance o f s urround ing u p land o n t he p o l len-catch o f t hese r a ised-bogs. Marr iage, e stab l ish men t i nt he I s le o f Man , a nd n o t l ong t herea fter, t he o u tbreak o f w ar , p u t a n e nd t o o ur j o in t f i eld a nd l aboratory s tud ies , b ut h app ily ad eep f r iendsh ip p ers isted , a nd E leanor n ever c eased t o ma in ta in h er s teady i n terest i n Qua ternary s tud ies a nd t he p eop le w ho p ursue t he m. H arry Godw in

The f i rst o utward s ign o f t he c om ing t oge ther o f Bas il Megaw a nd E leanor Hardy w as t he i mportan t p aper o n d ecora ted b ronze a xes wh ich a ppeared i n 1 938 u nder t he ir j o in t n a mes.

They w ere marr ied i n 1 939 , a nd s et u p h ouse i n

t he I s le o f Man , where Bas i l was Ass istan t D irector o f t he Manx Museum a nd L ibrary. Bas i l w as q u ick ly swep t u p i n to t he RAF, a nd E leanor f ound h erse l f n ot o n ly w ork ing i nt he museum b u t a lso e ngaged i n a ct ive e xcava t ion . Ex tensi ons t o t he a irport a t Rona ldsway r evealed a N eo l ith ic s et t le men t w ith a c haract er ist ic p o t tery t ype o f i t s own , a s E leanor d escr ibed i n aj o in t p aper i n 1 947. The i s land h eld i n ternmen t c a mps f or Ger man n a t iona ls , a nd o ne o f t he c amps h eld t ha t d ist ingu ished G er man a rchaeo log ist G erhard Bersu a nd h is w ife Mar ia. S tr ings w ere p u l led , a nd i n s o me myster ious w ay Bersu f ound i tp oss ible n o t o n ly t o e xcava te , b ut t o e xcavate i n v ery g rea t d eta i l a s t he c a mp i n mates w ere o n ly t oo a nx ious t o e scape f rom b oredom. A f ter t he w ar , a no ther G er man , Dan iel W irtz, i n troduced me t o t he l a teg lac ia l d epos its o f t he i s land , a nd i n 1 954 a v is it t o t he museum i n s earch o f L a mp lugh 's f i eld maps i n troduced me t o t he Megaws. We r ap id ly b eca me t he c losest o f f r iends; t he ir h o me w as t he b ase f or my f i e ld work , a nd E leanor w orked w ith me i n t he f i e ld . With Marsha l l C ubbon w e r einvest igated Erd tman 's k et t le-ho les a t Ba l laugh , a nd w orked i n d e ta il o n t he s p lend id c l iff-sect ions a t K irk rn ichael.

E leanor t hen d iscovered a f ur ther l a teg lacia l e xposure j ust

n orth o fG len Ba l lyre , a nd t h is h as b een a s i te o f c on t inued i nves t iga t ion s e ver s ince; t here i s ab asa l moss l ayer w ith a r ad iocarbon a ge o f 1 8 ,000 y ears a nd a bove t ha t muds a nd p ea ts w ith i n terest ing r ema ins o f b eet les a nd p lan ts.

S he

w as d eep ly i n terested i nt he a lterna t ing s equence o f f reshwater a nd e stuar ine d epos its i nt he b as in o f L ough C ransta l , a nd i n t he p eats e xposed b elow t i del evel i n t he h arbour a t Ra msey , a nd made many e f forts t o t ry t o f i nd s omeone w ho w ou ld s tudy t he m i n d e ta il. Quaternary g eo logy w as o f c ourse o n ly o ne o f h er i n terests i n t he i s land s cene. A rchaeo logy , b irds, f o lk l i fe, p lace n ames —for a l l t hese s he s hared Bas i l 's e n thus ias ms , a nd t he t ime o f Bas il 's t enure o f t he d irec torsh ip w as o ne o f r ich d evelopmen t i n Manx s tud ies.

6

I n 1 957 Bas il w as i nv ited t o b ecome D irector o f t he S choo l o f S cot t ish S tud ies i n E d inburgh , a nd a f ter much h eart-search ing t he i nv itat ion w as a ccepted. The p oss ib i l ity o f aw ider c ho ice o f s choo ls f or t he ir s on a nd d augh ter w as p robab ly o ne o f t he d ec id ing f actors.

I f Ed inburgh 's g a in w as l oss t o t he I s le

o f Man , t he i s land w as n o t f orgot ten , a nd n o y ear w en t b y w ithou t o ne o r more r eturn v is i ts. Quaternary s tud ies w ere s trong i n Ed inburgh a nd i n G lasgow , a nd t hese n ow r ece ived l ess o f E leanor's a t ten t ion .

Archaeo logy c a me more t o t he f ore ,

a nd h er c ommen ts o n t he s i tes v is ited b y t he S cot t ish Co m m iss ion f or Anc ien t Monu men ts a dded g rea t ly t o t he p rof it o f t hese e xcurs ions. sma l l i n q uan t ity u nder h er own n a me, b eca me i mportan t .

Wr it ing ,though s t il l S he a nd Bas i l h ad

a lways made a p o in t o f r unn ing c r it ica l ly t hrough a ny th ing t he o ther h ad w r itten , a nd t he c ons truct ive s ide o f h er c r it ica l p owers was g lad ly e xtended t o o thers. The p rel im inary t ypescr ip t o f my own b ook The I r ish L andscape was e nor mously i mproved af ter Ih ad s tud ied t he n u merous a lternat ive s uggest ions s he c arefu l ly p enc i l led i nb etween t he l ines.

S im i lar D r. Ma j-Br it t F lor in o f Uppsa la , a n

o ld f r iend f rom s tuden t d ays , h as g ratefu l ly a cknow ledged s im i lar h e lp when p reparing t he f ina l Eng l ish t ex t o f h er i mportan t p apers o n t he l ate g lac ia l h is tory o f Sweden .

Good w orks t oo , p r inc ipa l ly a b ursary s che me f or Ed in-

b urgh u n ivers ity s tuden ts, a lso r ece ived c arefu l—bu t a lways u nobtrus ive— a t ten t ion . K ind a nd u nobtrus ive a re p erhaps t he k ey a d ject ives.

Desp ite t he g reat

b readth o f h er k now ledge, g a in ed b o th i n t he f i eld a nd i n t he l i brary— in t he Megaw h ome b ooks f low d own t he s ta irs l ike a c ascade —Eleanor n ever p ushed h er k now ledge o n a nyone , b u t a ny e nqu iry w as a lways met e ither w ith a n i nf or ma t ive r ep ly o r w ith a n i nd icat ion o f w here t he a nswer m ight b e f ound. Even a t t he c ost o f i nconven ien ce t o h erse lf , n o o ld f r iend w as e ver n eg lected , a nd n o o ne e ver h eard a word o f ma l ice c ross h er l i ps. A lways c heerfu l , a lways f u l l o f i n for ma t ion , s he was d eserved ly p opu lar i n h er own r igh t a t t he n u merous c on ferences a nd f i eld meet ings t o wh ich Bas i l 's d u t ies c a l led h i m. S he i s s ad ly missed , a nd l eaves ab ig g ap n o t o n ly i n t he f am ily h o me a nd i n h er w ide c i rcle o f a f fect iona te f r iends, b u t a lso i n many f i elds o f Manx a nd S co t t ish s tud ies. Frank M itchel l

1 937.

' Go ld L unu lae f rom D enmark ' , P . P reh ist . S oc., 3 , 4 65 , a nd p late 3 0.

1 938.

( w ith B . R . S . Megaw ) ' Br it ish d ecorated a xes a nd t he ir d if fus ion

d ur ing t he e arl ier p art o f t he Bronze Age ' , P . P reh ist . S oc. 4 , 2 72-307. 1 939.

' The S hropsh ire a nd F l in t Maelor Mosses ' , The N ew Phy to log ist 3 8 ,

3 64-96.

Part V o f ' S tud ies o f t he Post-Glac ial H istory o f B r it ish

Vegetat ion ' , e d. H . Godw in .

7

1 941.

( w ith B . R . S . Megaw ) ' Early Manx f i sh ing c raf t ' , The Mar iners ' M irror

2 7 , 9 1-105. ' Manx f i sh ing c raf t :

ak ey t o t he v ar ious t ypes ', J . Manx Museu m n o. 6 4

( vo l. 5 ) 1 4-16. ( w ith W. S . Cow in ) ' Successfu l b reed ing o f t he Fu l mar Petrel ' , J . Manx Museu m n o. 6 5 ( vo l. 5 ) 4 6. 1 942.

( w ith B . R . S . Megaw ) ' John Qu il l ia m o f t he V ictory ,J . Manx Museu m

n o. 6 7 ( vo l. 5 ) , 7 7-81. 1 943.

( w ith W. S . Cow in ) ' Od in 's b ird :

n otes o n t he Raven p ast a nd p resen t ' ,

J . Manx Museum n o. 6 8 ( vo l. 5 ) , 1 04-06. 1 945-6.

' The Governor's s taf f o f o f f ice' , J . Manx Museu m n os. 7 2-3 ( vo l. 5 )

1 72-3. 1 947.

( wi th J . R . B ruce a nd B . R . S . Megaw ) ' A n ew N eoli th ic c u l ture i n

t he I s le o f Man ' , P . P reh is t . S oc . 1 2 , 1 39-69. ' F ive g rains o f c obweb ' , The P eregr ine n o . 4 _(vo l . 1 ) , 2 1-2 . 1 950.

( w ith Ann P . C ono l ly a nd H . G odwin ) ' La te G lac ia l d epos i ts i n C orn-

wa l l ' , Ph i losoph ica l Transact ions Royal S oc iety o f L ondon ( ser ies B ) 2 34, 3 97-469.

Part X I o f ' S tud ies i n t he Post-Glac ia l h istory o f Br it ish

v egetat ion ' , e d. H . Godw in .

( Sect ion 5 i ncorporates E . M. M.'s f ie ld

a nd l aboratory work o f 1 936-7 ) ( w ith B . R . S . Megaw ) ' The Norse h er itage i n t he I sle o f Man ' , i n The e arly c u l tures o f North- West Europe ( H. M. Chadw ick Memor ial S tud ies ), e d. S ir Cyr il Fox a nd B . G . D ick ins , 1 43-170. 1 952.

Ca mbr idge.

( w ith B . R . S . Megaw ) ' The d evelop men t o f Manx f ish ing c raf t ' ,

P .I. M. N .H.A.S. 5 , 2 50-60. 1 976.

' The c u lt o f S t L eonard a nd Manx med ieva l monasteries ' , J . Manx

Museu m n o. 8 8 ( vo l. 7 ) 2 25-31. Posthu mous 1 978.

' A Ro man i n tag l io f ro m East Wretha m , N orfo lk ' ( w ith d escr ip t ion b y

Dr. Mart in Hen ig ), i n Anc ien t Europe a nd t he Med iterranean :

s tud ies

p resen ted i n h onour o f Hugh Hencken , e d . V . Markot ic ( War m inster , Wil ts.), 1 11-4. ' The Manx Eary a nd i t s s ign if icance '.

8

S ee b elow , p p.

1 .

THE PRESENT-DAY FAUNA AND FLORA OF MAN

AS I ND ICATORS OF THE DATE OF THE FLANDR IAN S EVERANCE b y D . E . A l len

The f a l inn a nd f l ora o f t he I sle o f Man a re s t il l v ery f ar f rom f u l ly k nown— a nd i ndeed i n q u ite a n umber o f o rders h ave e ven n ow b een b arely t ouched. Y et i n s o me o thers s uf f ic ien t ly i n tens ive work h as b een d one t hat i ti s s a fe t o a ss ume t ha t a l l , o r v irtua l ly a l l , t he s pec ies h ave b een d iscovered , s o t hat i n t hese t he mere t a l ly o f wha t o ccurs i n t he I s land a nd wha t d oes n o t o ugh t t o b e c apable o ft hrow ing l i gh t o nt ha t c en tra l p rob le m : p lace f rom ma in land Br ita in .

when t he s everance t ook

Grea t c are n eeds t o b e t aken , h owever, i n mak ing d educt ions f rom e v id ence o f t h is t ype.

I th o lds n umerous p it fa l ls f or t he u nwary—and most who

h ave wr i t ten o n t he s ub ject i n t he p ast h ave a l l t oo q u ick ly f a l len i n to t he m. Perhaps most t reacherous h as b een t he a pparen t ly h ard e v idence p rov ided b y a bsen tees. That t hese e x ist t here c an b e n o d eny ing. I n more o r l ess e very b o tan ica l a nd z oo log ical o rder t hat h as b een a dequa tely worked t here h ave t urned o ut t o b e s pec ies t hat a re c on sp icuously l ack ing. t here i s ar e lat ive p auc ity :

O veral l , t oo ,

i n e ach o ft hese o rders ( excep t t hose c on f ined t o

f resh wa ter ) , w ith a s tr ik ing c ons istency Man h as p roved t o h ave o n ly a bou t t wo-th irds o ft he I r ish t o ta l a nd o n ly a bou t t wo-f if ths o f t he Br it ish ( Al len , 1 962 ).

Bu t n e ither o f t hese man i fest t ru ths , w h ich many a n a u thor h as

p ounced o na s c onc lus ive e v idence o f a n e arly s everance ( or e ven o f n o l and l i nk a t a l l w ith Br i ta in p ost-g lac ia l ly ) , i n f act t e l l u s v ery much.

N or i s t he

p resence i n Man o f as izeab le g roup o f s pec ies wh ich a re B r it ish b u t n o t I r ish t he s ign if ican t f act t ha t i tl ooks a t f i rst s igh t . For a s t art , Man wou ld f i t i n to I reland a l most a h undred a nd f i f ty t imes o ver, a nd t h is mere d if ference i n e x ten t i s a lone e nough t o a ccoun t f or much o ft he d iscrepancy .

On t op o f t h is, h owever , Man i s s er iously d ef ic ien t i n ,

o r q u ite w ithout , s evera l t ypes o fh ab ita t wh ich w ou ld b e p art icu larly p roduct ive o f e x tra s pec ies: s a lt- marshes, f ens , moun ta in r ocks , s low-f low ing r ivers , u p land meadows a nd s izeab le e xpanses o f f resh w a ter e spec ia l ly a t h igher l evels ( Al len , 1 957 ). c a lcareous s o ils.

Even more d isastrous ly , i ti s e f fect ive ly l ack ing i n

I ft he t hrow o f t he g eograph ica l d ice h ad b es towed o n i ta

C arbon iferous L i mestone b lu f fc o mparable w ith t he G reat O r me , t he Mu l l o f G a l loway o r Hu mphrey Head , t h is j ust i n i t sel f w ou ld r a ise t he s ize o f t he n at ive f l ora q u ite s ign if ican t ly . We must a lso r e me mber t hat a nother , p ot en t ia lly v ery r ich h ab itat h as b een a l most c ompletely d estroyed.

The

a bor ig ina l f orest , e spec ia l ly a tl ower l evels a nd o n t he l ess a c id s o ils , must h ave h oused a c ons iderable n umber o f s pec ies, a n i ma ls n o l ess t han p lan ts, w h ich f a iled t o a dap t t o t he more o r l ess t o ta l a bsence o f t ree-cover o ver w ha t a ppears t o h ave b een a p er iod o f s evera l c en tur ies.

9

Ana lys is o f s ub-

f oss il d epos its may b r ing t o l i gh t s o me o f t he s pec ies t ha t v an ished t hrough t h is c ause ; b u t i ti s u n l ikely t ha t w e s ha l l e ver k now t he f u l l s um o f wha t w as l ost ( Al len , 1 956 ). Before w e b eg in t o e rect h ypotheses o n t he s treng th o f p resences o r a bs ences, w e must a lso b ear w el l i n m ind t hat Man 's i nsu lar ity i s much l ess o f ab arr ier t o t rans mar ine d ispersa l t han h as c o mmon ly b een s upposed. S ixt een m i les , t he m in i ma l d istance f rom o ne o f t he o ppos ite c oasts , i s i n r ea l it y n ot p art icu larly f or m idab le a s d ispersa l b a rr iers g o.

I n s eem ingly r ecen t

y ears a d ozen o r more s pec ies h ave b een a dded t o t he f l ora b y w ha t t o a l l a ppearances h ave b een w ho l ly n atura l means : mar it i me p lan ts b rough t b y s ea c urren ts , o rch ids w ith d ust-l ike s pores b lown o ver b y w ind , a nd b err ied o r p odded s pec ies p u tat ively e xcreted b y i ncom ing b irds. T ransla te t h is mere h and fu l o f y ears i n to a s pan o f many c en tur ies a nd t he amoun t o f s uch movemen t b ecomes i mpress ive. On ly a m inor ity o f p lan t a nd a n i ma l s pec ies , o f c ourse, h ave s o p ronounced a p o ten t ia l f or l ong-d istance c arr iage, b ut t here a re s uch n u merous i nstances o f h ow e f f ic ien t a nd e x ten s ive t h is c an b e i n t h e c ase e ven o f t he l ess w el l-adap ted t hat w e n eed t o l ook t o s pec ies o f k nown i n capac ity i n t h is r espect i fw e a re t o c ome u p w ith i ron-hard e v idence f or w hen t he I s land w as c u t o f f. The b ui lder, t errestr ia l ma m ma ls p erhaps most o bv iously f a l l i nto t h is c lass.

I ti s t he more r egret tab le , t herefore , t hat t he s tatus o f t wo o r t hree o f

t hese i s s t i l l i n d oubt.

Even s o t here d o n ot s ee m a ny s o l id g rounds f or q uery-

i ng t he n at ive s tand ing o f t he S toat ( 'Wease l ' t o t he Manx ) a nd , p reh istor ica l ly , o f t he Wi ld Cat a nd Red a nd Roe D eer a s w el l .

W ith t hese s ome w ou ld a lso

r ank t he H edgehog , b u t i n t he c ase o f t hat t here i s a much more r ea l p oss ib i l ity t ha t i tw as o r ig ina l ly i mpor ted f or f ood. O f t hese, t he S toat i s o f p art icu lar i n terest , f or t he s pec ies i nvo lved i s t he o ne n ow o therw ise p ecu l iar t o I reland , Muste la h ibern ica , n ot t h e s pec ies o f Br ita in .

To e xp la in t h is , w e d o n o t o f c ourse n eed t o i nvoke s ome a nc ien t

l and-connect ion e xc lus ive ly b etween I reland a nd Man ( wh ich wou ld i n a ny c ase b e e x tre mely u n l ikely o n g eo morpho log ica l g rounds a lone ).

I ti s s u ff ic ien t t o

r ecogn ise t hat i n mam ma ls , p ecu l iar ly , t o ta l d isp lace men t o f o ne s pec ies b y a nother i s t he r u le.

I n o ther o rders s pec ies n ow who l ly c on f ined t o I reland

a nd Man h ave l ef tb eh ind p opu lat ions i n B r i ta in b etray ing a f ormer w idespread o ccurrence t here a s w el l. The h exap lo id Harebel l , Campanu la g ieseck iana , f or i nstance , wh ich r ep laces t he c om mon t e trap lo id Harebel l o f B r ita in , C . r otund ifo l ia , i n t hese a nd most o ther w estern i s lands , l i ngers o n a lso i n Cornwa l l , o n c erta in Welsh a nd S co t t ish moun ta in-tops , i n t he g rea t r efuge a rea o f T eesda le, a nd o n t he L it t le O r me ( McAl l ister, 1 973 ).

S im ilarly ,

t he b eet le Phosphuga a trata s ubrotundata h as t e l l ta le o u t l iers i n t h e w est o f S co t land , j ust a s i n ter med ia tes b etween t he I r ish a nd Manx f orm a nd t he Br it ish f or m o f t he Pod-lover mo th , Hadena p erp lexa , o ccur i n W ig townsh ire , Cu mberland , S ou th Wa les a nd e lsewhere a long t h is w es tern f r inge. The p resence o f t he I r ish S toat i n Man w ou ld t hus b e c onsonan t w ith a w ider p a ttern .

A t l east s ome o f t hese s pec ies a nd r aces a ppear t o r epresen t

a n o lder s tratum i n t he f auna a nd f l ora o f t he B r it ish I s les wh ich f a iled t o s tand u p t o t he c ompet it ion o f l a ter w aves o f more a ggress ive —or b et ter a dap te d—coun terparts.

We d o n o t k now w hether t h is p rocess o f d isp lace men t w as 1 0

c ompara t ive ly a brup t o r l ong-drawn-ou t.

Bu t t he i nvad ing w aves w ou ld s urely

h ave b een a b le t o r each t he I s le o f Man h ad i t s l and l i nk s t il l b een s urv iv ing a t t he p er iod when t hey moved i n to Br ita in ; a nd o n t ha t b as is i tc an b e a rgued t ha t t he s everance t ook p lace a t l east a t s ome t ime b e fore Br i ta in i n i t s t urn w as s undered f ro m t he Con t inen t. That f ac t i s f urther s uggested b y t he w e l l-known a bsence f rom b o th Man a nd I reland o f a l l t he t hree B r it ish s nakes a s w el l a s t he s nakel ike S low-wor m. A s t wo o f t hese t oday p enetra te i n to n orthern S cot land , e i ther Man w as c u t o f f a t ap er iod w hen i t s c l i mate w as more s evere t han p resen t ly o bta ins a t t hose S co tt ish l a t i tudes o r t hese c rea tures w ere s uch v ery l a te e n tran ts f ro m t he C on t inen t , d ue mere ly t o t he ir i n tr ins ica l ly s low r ate o f s pread , t hat t he s evera nce o f Man t ook p lace b efore t hey h ad s i mp ly h ad t ime t o work t he ir w ay u p t ha t f ar. A s D r. G . Russe l l Coope is w ork h as s hown t ha t t he c l i mate i n G a l loway b y 1, 5 00 BP w as a lready a s w ar m a s i ti s t here t oday , t he s econd o f t hese e xp lanat ions i s t he o ne t hat s ee ms p referab le. T il l v ery r ecen t ly t h is a rgumen t w ou ld h ave h ad a f a ta l f l aw. I n a dd it ion t o l ack ing s nakes I reland a nd Man , i tw as b el ieved , a lso l acked v o les —and v o les, b y c ompar ison , a re v ery r ap id s preaders.

The F ield Vo le , Micro tus

a grest is, i np art icu lar, b e ing c haracter ist ic o f o pen g rassland a nd o ccurr ing e ven o n t he n orthern t undra , w ou ld i ndeed a ppear t o b e e spec ial ly w el l s u ited t ot he c ond it ions t hat p reva iled b efore t he a rr iva l o f t he f orests.

Ma m ma l

s pec ia l ists ( e .g. Corbet , 1 961 ) o n t h is a ccoun t f ound i ti mposs ib le t o a ccep t t ha t a ny i s land f ro m w h ich t he F ield Vo le w as a bsen t c ou ld h ave h ad a ny l andc onnect ion w ith Br ita in s ince a t ime w hen c ond it ions w ere s o f eroc iously a rct ic a s t o k eep i to u t o f t he r eg ion a l together. Th is o b ject ion , t hank fu l ly , h as n ow c o l lapsed. The Bank Vo le , C lethr ion omys g lareo lus —adm it ted ly , n ot t he F ie ld Vo le , b u t av o le n onetheless—has b een f ound , t o a ll a ppearances n at ive , i n ar e mo te p art o f s ou th-west I re land. And i n Man b ones o f F ield Vo les h ave r ecen t ly b een d etec ted i n ow l p el lets f rom t hree d i f feren t s tat ion s. Au thor itat ive o p in ion i s d iv ided b u t t he p reva ili ng v iew i st hat t hese a re n o t t he mere p roduct o f f l igh ts t o a nd f rom t he r icher f eed ing-ground o f B r ita in ( a s a t f i rst s uggested ), f or o w ls a re n o t k nown t o t ravel more t han t he v ery s hortest d istances wh ile t hey h ave p el lets d ue f or d isgorg ing. The i rres ist ib le c onc lus ion , t herefore , i s t ha t d esp ite t he v ig ilance o fg enera t ion s o f Manx n a tura l ists s o me sma l l p opu lat ions o f t he F ield Vo le d o i nf act e x ist h ere. I tc an s t i l l b e o b jected t ha t c reatures a s sma l l a s v o les a re c apab le o f h av ing b een i n troduced a cc iden ta l ly . Even t hat o b ject ion , h owever , n eed n o t b e c onclus ive , f or t here i s a no ther f actor w h ich c an b e i nvoked wh ich s t il l l eaves ma t ters o pen .

Vo les, l i ke many r oden ts , a re r e markab le f or t he ir

p ronounced c yc l ica l f luctua t ion s i n n umbers a nd b ecause o f t hese must b e more t han o rd inar i ly a t r isk . A l though s o me o f t he ir u sua l p reda tors a re a bsen t f rom Man ( and may a lways h ave b een s o ), s toats a nd S hort-eared Ow ls m igh t e ach a lone h ave b een s u f f ic ien t t o e x t ingu ish t he s pec ies a t at ime w hen o ne o f i t s p er iod ic ' c rashes ' h ad c aused i tt o b e p er i lous ly r educed a lready . The e v idence p roduced b y t hese l arger c rea tures i s a l l t he more c ruc ia l b y r eason o f t he g rea ter e le men t o f u ncerta in ty a t tend ing t he s upposed i ncapa c ity f or t rans mar ine d ispersa l o f s pec ies i n o ther o rders. 1 1

I t wou ld b e

p leas ing t o b e a ble t o p o in t t o ap lan t , f or e xamp le , w h ich i s i nvar iably s t er ile a s w el l a s d evo id o f a l l v ege ta t ive r eproduct ive c apab il ity ;

o r w h ich h as

p roh ib it ively h eavy s eeds , l ike t he S pr ing S qu il l , S c il la v erna , b u t wh ich—unl ike t ha t s pec ies —canno tb e e nv isaged b e ing t ransported b y s ea. The o ne p lan t wh ich d oes meet t hese c r iter ia u namb iguously , t he l i verwort L ep idoz ia p innata , w h ich h as n ever a nywhere b een k nown t o f ru it o r e ven t o p roduce g e m mae , i s , a las , a n a rct ic-a lp ine ( co l lec ted o n S naefel l i n 1 902 ) a nd s ob y d ef in i t ion i rrelevan t t o o ur t hes is. I n d efau lt o f h elp f rom t hat q uarter w e a re f orced t o f a l l b ack o n a sma l l a nd v ar ied g roup o f i nsects a nd o ther d im inu t ive c reatures wh ich a re e ither who l ly o r e f fect ively f l igh t less a nd a lso n ot k nown t o b e a ble t o sw i m. Among t hese a re f our b eet les , t hree mo ths , ab ug a nd a c r icke t.

Un for tunately e ven

t hey h ave t he d rawback t ha t d eter m ined s cept ics c an e xp la in away t he ir p resence a s t he r esu l t o f t he ir h av ing s ecreted t he mselved i n merchand ise o r d r if ted a cross o n c onvec t ion c urren ts a s a er ia l p lank ton . For a n u l t i mate, i mpregnab le c ore , t herefore , w e h ave t o t urn t o t wo c rea tures wh ich a re n ot k nown t o o ccur o therw ise t han i n a n ts ' n ests :

t he w ing-

l ess c o l le mbo lan Cyphode irus a lb inos a nd t he b l ind wood louse P latyarthrus h of fmannsegg i. I ti s , s ure ly , i nconce ivab le t hat a c o lony o f a n ts c ou ld h ave a rr ived i n Man c omp lete w ith t hese f e l low-trave l lers e xcept o ver land. Much t he s a me p o in t w as made b y Don isthorpe ( 1927 ) i n t he c on text o f t he d iscovery o f t he J et An t , L as ius f u l ig inosus, n ear Co lby G len i n what w as t hen t he most n ortherly k nown l oca l ity i n t he B r it ish I s les ( i t h as s ince a lso b een f ound i n Man o n J urby Head ) : " Id o n ot b e l ieve i nt he f ortu itous a rr iva l o f t h is a n t , e i ther b y a ir , w a ter o r h uman a gency....The f e ma le d oes n o t f ly s trong ly , a nd g ets r id o f h er w ings a t o nce a f ter b e ing f ert il ized. I ti s v ery d oub tf u l i fs he c ou ld b e c arr ied s o f ar a s t he I s le o f Man b y t he w ind. Even i fs he w ere, i ti s e x tre me ly i mprobab le t hat s uch a f e ma le , w h ich i s u nab le t o f ound h er c o lony u na ided , w ou ld f ind a n est o f [ Acan tho myops ]u mbra tus o r m ix tus, i ft hey o ccur o n t he i s land , w h ich i s n ot k nown t o b e t he c ase.. . I am t here fore o f t he o p in ion t ha t t he p resence o f t h is a n t i n t he I s le o f Man s howed t ha t t he i s land h ad b een j o ined o n t o t he ma in land....un t il a f ter t he i ce o f t he G lac ial p er iod h ad d isappeared." A l l i n a l l , t hen , t he w e igh t o f h ard e v idence wh ich t he b iogeographer c an c a l l o n t owards a nswer ing t h is c en tra l q uest ion o f t he d a te o f t he s everance i s s ad ly u n i mpress ive. There a re v ery f ew s pec ies i ndeed whose p resence i nt he I s land c an s ee m ing ly b e t aken a s i nd isputab le i nd icat ions o f a rr iva l o ver land. And b ecause o ft he o nset s o v ery e arly o f t e mpera ture c ond it ion s c o mparab le w ith t hose o ft oday , i ti s s carce ly p oss ib le t o d raw a ny u sefu l i n ferences f rom t he k nown c l i ma t ic t o lerat ion o f t hese s pec ies a s t o t he p er iods a t w h ich t he ir a rr iva l t ook p lace. Fortunately , h owever, a l ternat ive s ources o f e v idence n ow p ro m ise t o r escue u s f rom h av ing t o r ely o n t h is i n tr ins ica l ly p recar ious b iogeograph ica l a pproach.

Recen t w ork b y T oo ley ( 1974 ) o n t he e stuar ine d epos its a t Ly tha m

h as e stab l ished t ha t b y 8 575 BP t he I r ish S ea h ad a lready f i l led s uf f ic ien t ly t o 1 2

p roduce w a ter d epths o f a t l east 2 4 m ( bear ing i n m ind s ubsequen t i sostat ic e levat ion ) b etween Cu mbr ia a nd Man , wh ich w ou ld b e more t han e nough t o e f fect t he s ever ing o f t he l and-connect ion .

A l though t h is g ives u s n o more

t han a t er m inus a n te q ue m , i ti s k nown f ro m w ork e lsewhere i n Europe t hat t he r ise i n s ea-level d ur ing t he p reced ing c en tur ies w as e x tre me ly r ap id a nd s o 9 000 BP may w e l l b e ar easonable a pprox i ma t ion t o t he a ctua l s everance d ate.

S uch a d at ing w ou ld b e f u l ly c onsonan t w ith t he f auna l a nd f l ora l e v idence

r ev iewed i n t h is p aper.

The p at tern o f t he b u ild-up o f s pec ies t hat t ook p lace

p r ior t o t he s everance r e ma in s t o b e e stab l ished f ro m m icrofoss il d ata f ro m t he f u l ler e xa m ina t ion o f t he F landr ian d epos its i n Man t hat c an n ow c on f iden t ly b e p red icted .

REFERENCES A l len , D . E . 1 956.

The v an ished f orests.

P eregr ine , 2 (4 ) :7-9.

A l len , D . E . 1 957. I reland a nd t he I sle o f Man : I r ish N at . J ., 1 2 :126-129. A l len , D . E . 1 962.

Our k now ledge o f t he Manx f auna a nd f l ora i n 1 961:

s tat ist ical s um mary. C orbet , G . B . 1 961.

af l or ist ic c o mpar ison .

P eregr ine , 3 (3 ) :93-95.

O r ig in o f t he B r it ish i nsu lar r aces o f sma l l ma m ma ls

a nd o f t he ' Lus itan ian ' f auna.

N a ture, 1 91:1037-1040.

D on isthorpe , H . S t . J . K . 1 927. Br it ish An ts : C lass i f icat ion . Ed. 2 . L ondon .

t he ir L ife-h istory a nd

McAl l ister , H . A . 1 973. Campanu la r o tund ifo l ia : S cot land. G lasgow N a t ., 1 9 :66. Too ley , M . J . 1 974. w es t E ng land.

a

al oca l r ace i n s ou thwest

S ea-leve l c hanges d ur ing t he l ast 9 000 y ears i n n orthG eogr. J ., 1 40 :18-42.

1 3

2 .

FLA NDR IAN S EA-LEVEL CHANGES AND

VEGETATIONAL H ISTORY OF THE I SLE OF MAN : A REVIE W b y M . J . Too ley

1 .

I NTRODUCT ION The I s le o f Man l i es i n t he I r ish S ea w ith in 6 4 km ( 40 m iles ) o f t he c oasts

o f North Wa les, Cu mbr ia , Ga l loway a nd N orthern I reland. a round t he i s land ( Fig. 2 .1 ) : t he East I r ish S ea Bas in ;

Water d epths v ary

t o t he e ast , t he w ater d epth i s a bout 2 0 m o ver

t o t he n orth i tl i es b e tween 2 0 a nd 4 0 m;

b u t t o t he

w est wa ter d epths i ncrease r ap id ly t o ac hanne l i n wh ich w ater d epths a re g eneral ly 1 00 m b u t e xceed 1 40 m l oca l ly ( Fig. 1 , p . 2 8 i n P an t in 1 977 ).

A l-

t hough w i th r educed w ater d ep ths t h is b athymetr ic p at tern p robab ly o b ta ined t hroughou t t he F landr ian S tage . Dur ing t he r es tora tion o f s ea-leve l i n t he L ate D evens ian S tage t he I s le o f Man wou ld h ave b een i so lated f rom I reland e ar l ier t han f ro m t he Cu mbr ian c oast.

The ma in tenance o f l and c onnect ions

w ith ma in land Br ita in f or a l onger p er iod d ur ing t he e arly F landr ian S tage t han w ith I reland , h as imp l ica t ions f or t he im m igra t ion o f p lan t a nd a n i ma l t axa t o t he i sland , t he c o mpos it ion o f t he b io ta a nd t he ir af in it ies. t he I sle o f Man w ith n orth L ancash ire ,

Godw in ( 1975 ) p laces

Cumbr ia , S ou thern S cot land a nd N orthern

I re land i nt er ms o f p lan t g eography a nd p o in ts t o t he s im ilar ity o f d evelop men t o f t he p lan t e le men ts ,

a nd i f c orrec t t h is t o s o me e x ten t r educes t he

e f fect iveness o f t he d eep w a ter c hanne l t o t he wes t o f t he I s le o f Man d ur ing t he F landr ian S tage a s ab arr ier t o p lan t m igra t ion .

H owever , l i t t le

i s k nown a bou t t he h is tory o f t he v ege ta t ion o f t he I s le o f Man d ur ing t he F landr ian S t age :

i n p ar t icu lar ,

f orest e lemen ts i s u nknown .

t he t ime o f a rr iva l o f t he d ec iduous

I n t h is n o te , s um mar ies o f t he p ubl ished a nd

u npubl ished l i terature a re g iven a nd c ons idera t ion i s g iven t o s ea-leve l c hanges a nd v ege ta t iona l h istory o f t he i s land. s tressed. 2 .

The i nadequacy o f t he a va ilable d a ta i s

L ITERATURE L a mp lugh ( 1903 ) h as d escr ibed s uperf ic ia l d epos its o f t he I s le o f Man , t hat

c an b e a ss igned t en tat ive ly t o t he F landr ian S tage.

These c o mpr ise a l luv ia l

d epos its, h i l l p eat , r a ised b each d epos its a nd b lown s and.

A l though h i l l p eat

o ccurs e x t en s ively i n t he u p lands o f t he i s lands , i ti s u sua l ly t h in .

L oca l ly ,

b e tween G len C ra m mag a nd t he e astern f ork o f t he S u lby r iver i ti s e x tens ive a nd a t ta ins t h icknesses o f 1 .8 m ( 6 f t ) ( La mp lugh 1 903 ).

O sva ld ( 1949 ) n o ted

t ha t t he mos t e xtens ive d eve lopmen t o f b lanket b og w as a t t he h ead o f t he C ra m mey V a l ley a nd t hat t he p eat w as s ha l low a t ta in ing t h icknesses o f 1m o n an orth-fac ing s lope o f P enn iforth.

The t h inness o f t he p eat i s a t tr ibu ted

b y L a mp lugh a nd O sva ld t o p ea t c ut t ing f or f uel .

The o ther s uperf ic ia l d epos its

a re w el l-deve loped a nd o ccur e x tens ively i n t he n orthern p ar t o f t he i s land , b u t a re o f l im ited e x ten t a nd o ccur d iscon t inuously e lsewhere i n t he i s land.

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A reas o f s teep g rad ients ( s i mp l if ied) The l e tters r e late t o t he r nsiornu m ( or mln I mu m) d epth ( see Key above)

The b athy me try o f t he I r ish S ea ( Reproduced f ro m Pan t in , 1 977 , w i th p er m iss ion o f t he e d i tor , G eolog ica l J ourna l ) .

L a mp lugh ( 1903 ) h as d escr ibed t he s ed i men ts o f t he Curragh a nd t he d e l tas o f G len Dhoo a nd S u lby G len t ha t h ave d iv ided t he Curragh i n to a s er ies o f b as ins.

W ith in t he b as ins , c lays, s i lts , s ands a nd g rave ls a nd p ea ts h ave

d eveloped.

The p ea ts may b e s urface f eatures o r may b e b ur ied b enea th

v eneers o f c lay a nd s i l t.

Erd tman ( 1925 ) s a mp led t he p eat o f t he Curragh ,

a nd n orth-east o f Ba l lavo l ley , r ecorded a max i mu m t h ickness o f 2 15 cm , c ompr ised o f 2 00 cm o f ' f ores t p eat ' w ith macrofossi ls o f b irch a nd a lder a nd 1 5 cm o f ' mud ' w ith w ood f rag men ts a nd s eeds o f b uckbean . t ra ted 1 00 cm o f g rey s and b enea th t he mud.

E rdtman p ene-

D r. P . Cund il l r ecorded 2 20 cm

o fb iogen ic s ed i men t f ro m t he C urragh i n 1 971:

t he s ed i men t c o mpr ised w oody

d e tr ita l p ea t w ith b irch a nd w i l low a nd w el l-hu m if ied monoco ty ledonous p eat. D r. C tmd il l a lso r ecorded Menyan thes ( buckbean ) f ro m 1 00-167 cm f ro m t he s urface a nd c harcoa l a t a bou t 1 70 cm f ro m t he s urface.

The o n ly p o l len

d iagra m f rom t he Curragh w as p ub l ished b y E rd tman i n 1 925 :

t h is s hows a

F landr ian Ip o l len a sse mblage , b u t w ith l ow h aze l f requenc ies a nd t he b eg inn ing o fA lnus a nd U lmus p o l len f requency c urves a t t he s a me l eve l.

The

Curragh v ar ies i n s urface a lt itude o f b e tween + 11 m a nd + 6 m O . D. A t l ower a l t itudes , e xposed l oca l ly a long t he c oast a nd i n t he i n tert ida l z one , p eat b eds a re e ncoun tered .

Bruce ( 1927 ) h as d escr ibed t he p ea t b ed

o n t he c oast n ear S trandha l l a nd h as r ecorded a max i mu m p ea t t h ickness o f 1 .5 m.

The p eat a ppears t o b e a woody d etr itus c o mpr is ing i np art o ak a nd

p ine ( Lanp lugh 1 903 ), a nd , o n t he b as is o f t he p o l len c on ten t o f t he p eat , Erd tman ( 1928 ) c orre lated t he S trandha l l p eat w ith t he i n tert ida l p eat a t L easowe o n t he Wirra l a nd a t H igh town i n L ancash ire.

The a ge o f t he H igh town p eat i s

e ar ly F landr ian I l ( Sub-Borea l ) ( Too ley 1 977 ), a nd Erd tman 's c orre lat ion p robab ly c anno t b e s usta ined u n t i l f urther work h as b een u nder taken o n t he S trandhal l d epos its.

I n tert ida l p eat b eds w ere r ecorded i n Ra msey Harbour

i n 1 946 ( Megaw 1 971) a nd i n t he i n tert ida l z one a t Phurt ( Megaw 1 972 ).

I n

t he c l iff a t t he h ead o f t he b each a t Phurt , Ph i l l ips ( 1967 , 1 971) h as d escr ibed as uccess ion o f b ou lder c lay , o verla id b y p ea ty c lay w ith w oody d etr itus , p ass ing u p i n to c lays a nd s ands.

Ph il l ips ( 1967 ) i n terprets t he c hange f ro m

b iogen ic t o m inerogen ic s ed i men tat ion a t a n a lt itude o f a bout + 5 m O .D. i n t er ms o f ac hange i n e nv ironmen t f ro m a f reshwa ter m i l ieu t o ab rack ish w a ter m i l ieu i n al ow c oasta l s itua t ion c haracter ised b y s and d unes.

The a ge o f

t he b iogen ic h or izon i s g iven a s Borea l ( no o lder t han V Ia ) a nd t he o verly ing c lays a nd s ands a s A t lan t ic.

L amp lugh ( 1903 ) h as d escr ibed t he r a ised b each

o f t he I sle o f Man a s ad iscon t inuous f ea ture , a t ta in ing i t s ma in d eve lop men t i n t he Ayres a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he i s land.

Here t he r a ised b each c ons ists

o f many s h ing le r idges , t he o r ien ta t ions o f wh ich c hange f ro m t he c l i f f f e roded i nb ou lder c lay b etween Phurt a nd B lue P o in t t o t he P o in t o f Ayre :

t he

s ou thern g roup o f r idges i s s ub-para l lel t o t he f or mer c l if f l ine, whereas t he n or thern g roup i s s ub-para l lel t o t he p resen t n orth-west c oast ( Tho mas 1 971 ). The s ou thern g roup o f s h ing le b anks i s s epara ted b y b as ins c on tain ing s i l ts , c lays a nd p ea ts ( Tho mas 1 971). L a mp lugh ( 1903 ) i nd icates t hat t he r a ised b each , whether c o mpr is ing s h ing le o r c lay o r c u t i n r ock s hows l i t t le v ar ia t ion i n a l t itude o f a bout + 5 t o + 6 m 0 .D. However , Ph i l l ips ( 1967 ) h as s hown t hat t he r a ised b each a t Ra msey h as a n a l t itude o f + 5.7 m 0 . D., whereas a t t he P o in t o f Ayre t he a lt itude o f t he c rest o f t he s h ing le b eaches i s

m O .D.

The a l t itude o f t he h ighest n otch o f r a ised r ock c u t p lat for m v ar ies b e tween + 9.14 m 0 .D . a nd + 6.70 m O .D. ( Ph il l ips 1 970 ). 1 7

r L c )—

s hown o n F ig . 2 .3 .

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Im med iately s ou th o f t he Ayre r a ised b each , t he g round s urface r ises t o t he Br ide H i l ls mora ine.

Depress ions w ith in t h is mora ine a re f i l led w ith

s i l ts a nd c lays a nd b iogen ic s ed i men ts.

L ough C ransta l i s s uch a d epress ion

a nd t he s ed i men ts h ave b een e xa m ined b y Mrs. E . M. Megaw , Mr. A . M. Cubbon , Pro fessor G . F . M itchel l a nd D r. M.-B. F lor in .

The r esu lts o f

t he ir e xa m ina t ions t ogether w ith a dd it iona l work c arr ied o u t b y Mr. P . A . Carter i n 1 972 a re r e levan t t o ac ons iderat ion o f s ea-level c hanges a nd a re d escr ibed i n t he s ucceed ing s ec t ion . 3 .

S EA- LEVEL CHANGES Much o f t he e v idence f or s ealeve l c hanges o n t he I sle o f Man i s f ro m

e ros iona l e v idence ( wave-cu t p lat for ms ) o r t he r esu lt o f h igh w ave e nergy ( t he Ayre r a ised b each ).

I ti s impossible t o d ate t he p er iod o r e ros ion o f t he w ave-

c u t p lat for ms a nd d if f icu l t t o e s tabl ish t he a ge o f t he s h ing le c o mp lex a t t he Po in t o f Ayre :

i ti s p robab le t hat t hey a re o f v ery d if feren t a ges.

There

w ere f ew c oasta l e nv ironmen ts o n t he I sle o f Man where c oas ta l o r n ear c oasta l s ed i men ts c on ta in a r ecord o f s ea-leve l c hanges s uch a s t he a lterna t ing b iogen ic a nd m inerogen ic s tra ta r ecorded f rom t he t i da l f lat a nd l agoona l p a laeoenv ironmen ts o f L ancash ire ( Too ley 1 974, 1 976 ) Cu mbr ia ( Huddart e t a l. 1 977 ) a nd Br idg wa ter Bay ( K idson 1 977 ). However L ough Cransta l d oes c on ta in e v idence o f a mar ine e ven t s im ilar i n a ge a nd a lt itude t o mar ine e ven ts r ecorded e lsewhere a long t he marg in o f t he East I r ish S ea b as in .

L a mp lugh ( 1903 ) d escr ibed L ough C ransta l a s a n

a l luv ia l h ol low , b ut s tra t igraph ic a na lyses s how t ha t t he l ough c on ta ins a t h ick s u i te o f b iogen ic a nd m inerogen ic d epos its , b u t q u ite u n l ike t he d epos its r ec orded f ro m t he Curragh. I n 1 956 , Mrs. Megaw a nd Mr. Cubbon c arr ied o u t ar econna issance s urvey o f t he s ed i men ts o f t he l ough a nd p roved 6 30 cm o f woody f en p eat , u nderla id i nt urn b y 1 0 cm o f c lay mud a nd 1 5 cm o f d ense , c o mpact , b lack , h igh ly h um if i ed p eat t ha t t hey w ere u nab le t o p enetrate ( Megaw 1 971).

S ubsequen t ly ,

P ro fessor G . F . Mitche l l r ecorded , a t ad ifferen t l ocat ion , 1 50 cm o f s andy f en p eat w ith Menyan thes , Phrag m ites a nd Po ta mogeton u nder la id i n t urn b y 2 57 cm o f wood p ea t , 9 3 cm o f mud w ith Cera tophy l lum a nd Po ta mogeton , 1 80 cm o f b lue g rey e stuar ine c lay w ith Na ias mar ina , Rupp ia a nd Po ta mogeton p ec t inatus, 1 0 cm o f d ark b rown mud a nd 1 0 cm o f s and p ass ing d own t o s tones ( M itchel l 1 971 ).

The b lue g rey e stuar ine c lay l ay a t a n a l t itude o f f ro m + 3.7

m O .D. t o 4 1.9 m O .D. ( ca lcu la ted f ro m d a ta f ro m Megaw 1 971). I n 1 971, t he a u thor a nd Mr. P . A . Carter c arr ied o u t as trat igraph ic s urvey o f t he s ed i men ts o f t he l ough ( Fig . 2 .2 ) , a nd f ro m s a mp l ing s i te 5 s a mp les f or p o l len , d iato m a nd r ad io me tr ic a na lyses w ere o bta ined ( Fig. 2 .2 ). The s trat igraph ic l ine r an a cross t he d ilated w estern p art o f t he l ough f ro m Ch ibbyr Breesey ( S t . Br idget 's w el l ), n or th-nor th-eas t t owards t he N eo l ith ic s ite o f Green land o n t he n orth s ide o f t he l ough. The s trat igraph ic d iagram ( Fig. 2 .3 ) s hows t wo d ist inct ive b as ins i n t he b ou lder c lay :

o ne n ear Ch ibbyr Breesey i nd icated b y s trat igraph ic c o lumns 0 -4

a nd t he o ther b y c o lumns 5 , 6a nd 1 2.

The s ed i men ts a re c haracter ised b y

woody d etrita l p eats, w oody a nd h erbaceous t urfas w ith Equ isetum a nd 1 9

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B iogen ic s ed i men tat ion i n t he d eeper ,

s teep ly-sided n orthern b as in i s i n terrup ted b y a l ternat ing l ayers o f minera l a nd b iogen ic s ed i men ts, a t s a mpl ing s i te 5 , f ro m 5 84 cm t o 8 75 cm.

L ough

C ransta l i s l i nked t o t he Ayre r a ised b each b y an arrow v a l ley c arry ing a s trea m t ha t d ischarges o n to t he Ayres n ear K ionda m.

Dur ing a n e arly s tage i n t he

d evelop men t o f t he r a ised b each i tw as p oss ib le t hat t here w as a s ea c onnect ion a nd t hat mar ine s ed i men ts w ere l a id d own w ith in t he n ortherly b as in o f t he l ough.

A lternat ively , t he a l ternat ing l ayers o f minerogen ic a nd b iogen ic s ed i-

men ts c an b e e xp la ined b y s lope move men t c onsequen t u pon i ncreased p rec ip it at ion a nd d ischarge t hrough t he b as ins o f t he l ough. To e stab l ish t he s ed i men tary e nv ironmen t o f t hese a lterna t ing l ayers , s amples w ere e xa m ined f or t he ir d ia to m c on ten t b y D r. M.-B .F lor in . A s a mp le f rom t he b asa l o rgan ic l ayer y ielded a f reshwa ter a sse mb lage o f d iat oms, whereas a s a mp le f rom t he c lay y ielded a n a sse mb lage d om ina ted b y b rack ish w a ter d iatoms ( 93% ).

Th is c onclusion i s c on f ir med b y Mr. P . A .

Carter, whose d iato m d iagra m f ro m 6 00-620 cm i n s a mpl ing s i te 5 , s hows a n a sse mb lage d om ina ted b y mar ine a nd b rack ish w ater f or ms a t 6 20 cm , a nd t he mar ine/brack ish wa ter e lemen t d ecreas ing t owards t he l i tho log ic b oundary where c lays g ive way t o a n o rgan ic d epos it.

I ft he p at tern a t 6 20 cm o bta ins

f or t he who le l ayer t hen t he i n terpretat ion t hat t h is l ayer w as l a id d own u nder s trong ly b rack ish wa ter c ond it ions , a nd , p robably i n ab rack ish w a ter l agoon , c an b e s usta ined. Dates f or t he b eg inn ing a nd e nd o f t h is mar ine e ven t a re g iven b y t wo r ad ioc arbon d a tes o f 7 825 ± 1 20 b p ( Hv. 5 226 ) a nd 7 370 + 1 10 b p ( Hv. 5 225 ) a t 8 738 75 cm a nd 5 92-600 cm a t mean a l t itudes o f 0.59 m 0 .D. a nd + 2.17 m 0 . D. r espect ive ly .

These d a tes a re c orroborated b y p o l len a na lyses ( M itchel l 1 971,

C arter, u npub l ished ) wh ich i nd icate t hat t he b asa l o rgan ic l ayer w as a ccumu lat i ng d ur ing t he Borea l ( Flandr ian I )a nd t he e nd o f b rack ish w a ter , m inerogen ic s ed i men ta t ion a nd t he b eg inn ing o f b iogen ic s ed i men ta t ion c lose t o t he Borea l/ A t lant ic t rans it ion ( Flandr ian I / I I ). S lope move men t a nd s lope wash i n to t he n orth b as in o f L ough Cransta l c aused b y i ncreased p rec ip ita t ion d ur ing t he l ate Borea l a s a n e xp lanat ion f or t he p ers isten t minerogen ic s tra ta i s u n l ikely .

P enn ington ( 1970 ) h as d e mons-

t ra ted f or t he L ake D istr ict t ha t t h is p er iod was c haracter ised b y l ower p rec ip itat ion a nd l ake l evels , a nd a r ise i n f requency o f P inus a nd Cal luna p o l len c on tribu ted f ro m t he e xpan s ion o f p ine a nd l i ng o n to d r ier m ire s urfaces.

I n

t he Lough C ransta l c on tex t , a n o pen f resh w ater l ake d epos it d oes n ot b eg in t o f or m u n t i l a f ter 7 370 r ad iocarbon y ears a go , a f ter wh ich t ime p rec ip itat ion b eg ins t o i ncrease d ur ing t he r elat ively w ar mer a nd h um id A t lan t ic p er iod ( Flandr ian I ).

However, t he t rench-l ike p ro f i le o f t he n orthern b as in o f L ough

C ransta l w ith g rad ien ts i n e xcess o f 1 :6 wou ld r esu l t i n ag rea ter l ikel ihood o f s lope w ash i n to t h is b as in , t han i n to t he s ou therly b as in .

The a ccu mu la t ion

o f u nconso l idated minerogen ic d epos its i n t he f or m o f a l luv ia l f ans a nd f i l l o f ten i n e xcess o f 4 0 f t ( M itchel l 1 965 ) d ur ing t he e arly F landr ian s tage o n t he I sle o f Man i s a n u nexpec ted f eature w h ich mer its c loser e xa m inat ion . The a ge o f t he b iogen ic h or izon a t Phurt i s s im ilar t o t he a ge o f t he b asa l p eat a t L ough Cransta l , b u t t he c on tact w ith t he o verly ing c lays a nd s ands i s a t a n a l t i tude o f a bou t + 5 m O .D. ( Ph il l ips 1 967 ). 2 1

Th is p laces t he t ransgress ion

f ac ies a t Phurt i n ac o mp letely d if feren t a lt itud ina l c ategory , a nd b ecause Ph il ips ( 1967 ) n otes a d epos it iona l h iatus a bove t he b iogen ic h or izon , i ti s p ossib le t hat t h is t ransgress ion i s a more r ecen t e ven t t han t he t ransgress ion r ecorded i n L ough Cransta l. Al a te Borea l ( Flandr ian I )t ransgress ion h as b een r ecorded i n west L ancash ire w ith a ge l im its o f 7 605-7200 ( Lytha m I I ) b u t w ith a l t itud ina l l im its o f 2.51 + 0 .20 t o 1.30 ± 0 .28 m O .D. ( Too ley 1 978 ).

The d i f ferences i n

a lt itude b etween L y tha m I I a nd t he mar ine s ed i men ts i n L ough C ranstal c an b e e xp la ined i np art b y t he e nclosed n ature o ft he s ed i men tary b as in o f L ough Cransta l c o mpared w ith t he more o pen c oast s i tes i n w est L ancash ire a nd i n p art b y i sostat ic r ecovery a nd t he e levat ion o f t he mar ine f eatures o n t he I s le o f Man r e lat ive t o s im ilar f ea tures i n L ancash ire. The r elat ionsh ip o f t he s ub merged f orest n ear S trandhal l t o f or mer s eal evels i s o pen t o s pecu lat ion .

However , L amp lugh ( 1903 ) r efers t o as and

w ith mar ine s hel ls n ear Ba l ladoo le a nd t h is r a ised b each may b e o f s im ilar a ge t o t he r a ised b each immed ia tely n orth o f L ough Cransta l. These f eatures r equ ire s yste mat ic e xa m ina t ion o f t he s ed i men ts and t he s urface a l t itudes measured b efore a ny c onc lus ion c an b e r eached a bou t t he ir a ges, o r ig in a nd c orrela t ion . 4 .

VEGETAT IONAL H ISTORY There a re f ew p lan t m icro- a nd macrofoss i l r ecords r eferab le t o t he

F landr ian S tage f or t he I sle o f Man , b u t ar ich r ecord e x ists f or t he L ate Devens ian S tage ( D ickson e t a l . 1 970 ).

Godw in ( 1975 ) h as d rawn a tten t ion t o

t he s ingular ity o f t he p hy togeography o f t he n orthern I r ish S ea r eg ion , c omp r is ing t he L ake d istr ict , S ou th-west S cot land , t he I sle o f Man a nd Northern I re land.

The e arly e stab l ish men t o f t he d ec iduous f orest e le men ts a nd t he

l oca l d elayed a rr iva l o f p ine a re c harac ter ist ics o f t h is r eg ion . Whether t he I sle o f Man f i ts i n to t h is s che me f or t he F landr ian S tage i s o pen t o s pecu lat ion .

On ly f our p o l len d iagra ms f or t h is p er iod a re k nown :

t wo e ar ly d iagra ms f ro m t he Ba l laugh a nd o ne f ro m t he Curragh ( Erd t man 1 925 ) a nd o ne l ong d iagra m f rom L ough Crans ta l ( Carter , u npub l ished ).

T he

d iagra m f rom t he Curragh i s i n terest ing b ecause o f t he s i mu ltaneous a rr iva l o f A lnus w ith U lmus b u t , o n t he Ba l laugh , U lmus a nd Quercus a ppear t o h ave a rr ived b efore A lnus.

The d iagra m f ro m L ough C ransta l i nd icates t hat b y

7 370 r ad iocarbon y ears a go a l l t he d ec iduous f orest e le ments, e xcept T il ia , w ere p resen t , a nd T i l ia i s r epresen ted b y t wo g ra ins o n ly im med ia tely b e fore a nd af ter t he e lm d ec l ine.

An i n terest ing f ea ture i s t he p resence o f r udera ls ,

s uch a s P lan tago l anceo la ta a nd Taraxacu m , s porad ica l ly t hrough t he d iagra m , a nd c erea l p o l len g ra ins s hort ly a f ter t he e l m-decl ine.

The p resence o f

P . l anceo lata p o l len i s c on f ir med b y M itchel l ( 1971). C learly , t here i s an eed f or a s er ies o f c lose ly a na lysed p o l len d iagrams f rom t he b asa l o rgan ic d epos it o f L ough C rans tal a nd f rom t he s outhern b as in where b iogen ic s ed i men tat ion i s u n in terrup ted b y m inerogen ic s ed i mentat ion . I n a dd it ion , p o l len d iagra ms f ro m t he u p land a rea a nd f ro m S t randhal l wou ld e stab l ish a lt itud ina l d if ferences i n t he F landr ian v ege ta t iona l h is tory o f t he i sland .

Fur ther more , d a tes o n t he r at iona l a nd emp ir ica l l im its o f t he p o l len 2 2

frequency curves for the deciduous forest elements would provide data on the time of arrival and spread of these element.s. Such analyses would be neces­ sary to confirm the phytogeographical status of the island. Finally, a hint is given from the presence of charcoal and ruderals from the Lough Cranstal stratigraphy and pollen diagram of the early arrival of man on the island, and clearly the stages of forest clearance on the island linked to the rich archaeo­ logical record, would be worthy of close examination. A cknowledgements T he author acknowledges with gratitude and happiness the interest and enthusiasm of the late Mrs. Eleanor M. Megaw who encouraged him to work on the postglacial deposits of the Isle of Man. Aclmowledgement is made to Durham University Staff Research Fund for assistance to work on the Isle of Man in 1972 and to Dr. M. A. Geyh, N eider­ s�chsisches Landesamt flir Bodenforschung, Hannover, for carrying out the radiocarbon assays. Mr. G. Brown, Department of Geography, University of Durham, drew figures 2.2 and 2. 3. Figure 2.1 is reproduced here with permission from the editor of the Geological Journal. R EFERENCES Bruce, J. R. 1927. Animal and plant remains in the Mame post-glacial deposit.s and forest-bed. Isle of Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society 3(2) :1 54-162

e.

Dickson, A., Dickson, J. H. and Mitchell, G. F. 1970. The Late­ Weichselian flora of the Isle of Man. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 2 58: 31-75. Erdtman, O. G. E. 1925. Follen statistics from the Curragh ami Ballaugh, Isle ofMan. Proc. Lpool. geol. Soc. 14:158-163. Erdtman, G. 1928. Studies in the Postarctic history of the forests of North­ western Europe. I. Investigations in the British Isles. Geol. FcJr. Stockh. FcJrh. 50(2:373):123-192. Godwin, H. 1975. The History of the British Flora: a factual basis for Phytogeography. Cambridge University Press x + 541. Second Edition. Huddart, D., Tooley, M. J. and Carter, P. A. 1977. The coasts of north­ west England pp. 119-154, in, Kidson, C. and Tooley, M. J. eds. 1977. The Quaternary History of the Irish Sea. Geological Journal Special Issue No. 7.Liverpool: Seel House Press. 345 pp. Kidson, C. 1977. The coast of South West England. pp. 257-297 in, Kidson, C. and Tooley, M. J. eds. 1977. The Quaternary History of the Irish Sea. Geological Journal Special Issue No. 7. Liverpool: Seel House Press. 345pp. Lamplugh, G. W. 1903. The Geology of the Isle of Man. U.K. London: H.M. S.O. xiv + 620pp.

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E f fect ive l eve ls o f mar ine p lanat ion o n r a ised a nd

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3 .

DE NDROCHRONOLOGY FOR THE L R ISH S EA PROVINCE b y M. G . L . Ba il l ie

Most t ree r ing w ork i nt he B r it ish I s les h as b een c ouched i n t he f o l low ing t erms...."here i s ac hrono logy f ro m s uch a nd s uch a n a rea f or s uch a nd s uch ap er iod a nd h ow i th as b een u sed t o d a te a p art icu lar g roup o f t imbers". Th is a pproach h as b een c ond it ioned b y f actors w h ich w il l b e o u t l ined b elow .

The

q uest ion wh ich workers , d es irous o f h av ing g roups o f t imbers d a ted , migh t a sk w ou ld t end t ob e r ather d if feren t . An a rchaeo log ist m igh t s ay " Ih ave a g roup o f t imbers o fp reh istor ic o r d ark a ge o r med ieva l d a te f rom s uch a nd s uch a n a rea , wha t a re t he c hances o f t hese b e ing d a tab le d endrochrono log ica l ly?"

A t

t he p resen t t ime t h is w orker h as n o th ing t o r efer t o. He d oes n ot k now i fh is t imbers w i l lb e d a tab le a ga inst t he n earest r eference c hrono logy o r e ven i fa s u i tab le c hrono logy i s a va i lab le t o c over t he p er iod i n wh ich h e i s i n terested. To a t tempt a n a ssess men t o f t he o veral l s ituat ion i tm igh t b e u sefu l t o b reak Br it ish I s les d endrochrono logy i n to b as ic u n its o f t ime a nd a rea. S o f ar t h is h as n ot b een a t te mpted d ue t o t he l ack o f a va i lable i n for mat ion . Howe ver i t may n ow b e p oss ible t o a t te mp t ad el ineat ion o f t he b as ic t ree-r ing a reas w ith in t hese i s lands a nd o f t he mos t u sefu l p er iods wh ich t he r esu l tan t a rea c hrono log ies s hou ld c over. e ar ly p r ior i t ies.

S uch a d el ineat ion must n ow b e o ne o f t he

The u se o f t he I s le o f Man a s af orum f or t he v iews e xpressed b elow r esu l ts f rom t he f ac tt hat , wh i le t o t he p resen t n o t imbers f rom a rchaeo log ica l o r h ist or ica l c on tex ts o n Man h ave b een d a ted b y d endrochrono logy , t he a pp l icab i l ity o f t he method t o Man e xe mp l if ies a s i tua t ion f aced b y many o ther a reas. T he c urren t s i tuat ion The me thodology o f d endrochrono logy s hou ld n ow b e w el l u nderstood a nd n umerous p apers h ave d iscussed t he p ract ica l it ies o f i t s a pp l icat ion . T he method may b est b e d escr ibed , i n t he Br it ish I s les a t l east , a s o ne wh ich h o lds o u t s o me h ope o f a l low ing t he p rec ise f e l l ing d ates o f s u itab le l am l ived o ak t imbers t ob e e stabl ished. I ti s n ow p oss ib le t o s pel l o ut t he l im itat ions o f t he me thod f a ir ly e xpl ic i t ly b u t f i rs t i t may b e u sefu l t o s et t he s cene. I n a l l s tud ies o f t he p ast t he s ing le most i mpor tan t f actor i s c hrono logy. The u lt i ma te r ef ine men t o f c hrono logy i s r eso lu t ion t o c a lendar y ears. For t he p reh istor ic p er iod t h is l eve l o f r ef ine men t i s n o t n or ma l ly n ecessary a nd t he f ra mework o f p ost-g lac ia l d a t ing i s n ow f i rm ly b ased o n a ge d eter m inat i ons f ro m r ad iocarbon a ssay . However, f or s tud ies i nvo lv ing t he l ast t wo m i l lenn ia , t he p resence o f a t l east s ome h istor ica l i n format ion means t hat t he o n ly a dequa te d at ing method i s o ne wh ich y ie lds c a lendr ica l d ates.

For t hese

l a ter p er iods r ad iocarbon i s n o t y et s uf f ic ien t ly a ccura te t o s o lve r ea l c hronol og ica l p rob le ms.

Th is v iew i sb ased o n r ecen t work b y P earson e t a l. ( 1977 , 2 5

2 5-28 ) w h ich h as t ended t o c on f ir m t he i naccurac ies i nvo lved i n c onven t iona l r ad iocarbon d a t ing a nd i s c on trary t o t he r ather o p t im ist ic u se o f r ad iocarbon i n c on junct ion w ith d endrochrono logy b y F letcher a nd S wi tsur ( 1973 , 2 5-28 ) a r il o thers. For t he l ast t wo m il lenn ia d endrochrono logy d oes o f fer t he p ot en t ia l o f b e ing a b le t o r eso lve d at ing p roble ms i n t er ms f u l ly c ompat ib le w ith h istor ica l c hrono logy. L et u s l ook a t t he s i tuat ion wh ich e x isted i n t he l ate 1 960s.

A t t hat t ime

i tw as k nown t hat t he t ree-r ing d a t ing method , a f ter i t s s uccessfu l d evelopmen t i n t he U n ited S tates , h ad b een s hown t o w ork a dequa tely i n Ger many , Russ ia a nd e lsewhere.

The G er man w ork h ad s hown t ha t c hrono log ies , o ft he o rder

o f 1 000 y ears i n l eng th , c ou ld b e c on structed w i th r ead ily a va ilab le o ak t imbers. These Ger man c hrono log ies h ad b een u sed t o s o lve a n umber o f a rchaeolog ica l , a rch i tectura l a nd a rt h istor ica l p roble ms. However , a nyone c ons ider ing t he u se o f d endrochrono logy w ith in t he Br it ish I sles a t t ha t t ime w as f aced w ith a n umberof imponderables.

I fi tw as a ssumed

t hat d endrochrono logy , a s a method , r e l ied o n t he s im ilar it ies o f r ing p at terns w ith in sma l l c l i mat ic , p oss ib ly m icrocl i mat ic , a reas t hen d id t he B r it ish I s les c onst itu te a s ing le t ree-r ing a rea o r t wo o r t wen ty? N o i n for ma t ion w as a va ilable a nd w orse s t il l , n o c en tra l ised d irect ion e x isted t o l og ica l ly t est f or s uch f ac tors a s a rea l e xten t o f s im ilar it ies o r h ow b est t o g r id t he Br i t ish I sles t o a l low t he o p t i mum d endrochrono log ica l c overage i n t ime a nd s pace.

I n t h is r espect b o th

B r ita in a nd I re land h ave c ons isten t ly f a i led t o d evo te a dequate r esources t o t he e xp lo itat ion o f t h is method w ith i t s importan t a pp l icat ions i n t he f i e lds o f d a t ing a nd p oss ib le c l i mat ic r econstruct ion .

I th as b een l e f t v ery much t o t he wh im

o f i nd iv idua ls t o p ush t he method e ven a s f ar a s i th as g one t oday .

Add t o t he

s ituat ion i n t he 1 960s t he o f ten r epeated a dage o f em inen t Engl ish a nd I r ish p a laeob otan ists s uch a s Godw in a nd M itchel l , t hat d endrochrono logy c ou ld n ot b e e xp ected t o work i n t he B r it ish I s les c l i mat ic r eg ime , a nd t he s cene w as s et f or t he d evelop men t o f t he s i tua t ion w e s ee t oday . I nd iv iduals i n l ow b udget p roj ects b egan t o t est t he method , b u ild ing l oca l c hrono log ies a nd a t tempt ing t o d ate g roups o f mater ia l f requen t ly w ith s o me s pec ia l ist a i m.

F le tcher, f or

e xamp le , c hose t o e xp lo it t he s im ilar it ies b etween e stab l ished German c hrono log ies a nd t he r ing p a t terns o f Ang lo-Fle m ish p anels most ly f rom 1 5th a nd 1 6th c en tury p a in t ings ( Fletcher e t a l. 1 974, 3 1-40 ).

O ther w orkers a t Win-

c hester, Be l fast a nd e lsewhere c hose t o b u ild i ndependen t c hrono log ies f or s tr ict ly l oca l d at ing p urposes ( Barefoo t e t a l. 1 974 , Ba i l l ie 1 974, 1 -23).

I n

t he c ase o f Bel fast t he d ec is ion t o c onstruct a n i ndependen t c hrono logy was made o n t wo g rounds. F irst , b ecause t here w as n o e v idence t o s uggest t ha t n orth I r ish r ing p a t terns wou ld match w ith t hose f rom a nywhere e lse a nd n o r eason t o s uspect t hat t hey wou ld. S econd ly , i tw as f el t t ha t i t m igh tb e u sef u l t o h ave a c hrono logy wh ich c ou ld b e l ocal ised w ith s ome d egree o f c erta in ty f or s ubsequen t c omparat ive p urposes. The s itua t ion h as n ow p rogressed c ons iderably a nd F ig. 3 .1 i nd icates t he ma in c en tres a t wh ich d endrochrono logy i s p rogress ing i n 1 977. I ti s o n ly r ecen t ly t hat i th as b een p oss ib le t o b eg in a n a na lys is o f t he o vera l l s i tuat ion a nd i nev i tab ly much more i n for mat ion w il l b e n ecessary t o g ive a f u l l p icture. The r esu l ts b e low a re s i mp ly t he f i rst s teps.

2 6

SB

M•

F ig . 3 .1

Pr incipa l c en tres o f t ree-r ing r esearch i n t he Br i t ish I s les . A . A berys tyw th ; M , Maynoo th ;

B , B el fas t ;

N , N o t t ingha m ;

W, Winches ter . 2 7

L , L ondon ; 0 , Ox ford ;

L i , L iverpoo l ; S . S heff ie ld ;

F ig . 3 .2

Approx i ma te l oca l a reas f or wh ich c hrono log ies e x is t f or t he p er iod A . D. 1 350 t o 1 550 .

2 8

F irs t , l e t u s c ons ider t he l im itat ions. I n t he Br it ish I s les w e a re i n t he ma in r es tr icted t o t he u se o f o ak t imbers f or t ree-r ing s tud ies. Th is i s b ec ause o ak i s t he o n ly t imber s pec ies c ons isten t ly a va ilable f ro m most p er iods. S tud ies i nvo lv ing o ther s pec ies, w h ile e n t irely p oss ible, t end t o h ave l im ited a pp l icab i l ity . N ex t , t he s amp le , p referably s a mp les, must h ave l ong r ing r ecords t o a l low a dequa te v isual a nd s tat ist ica l c ross match ing w ith e i ther master c hrono log ies o r w i th o ther i nd iv idua l r ing p a tterns. On t h is p o in t i t w as c ustomary u n t il r ecen t ly , t o s uggest r ather a rb itrar i ly t hat a t l east 1 00 r ings w ere n ecessary t o a l low c rossda t ing. Th is c r iter ion h as b een c ons ist en t ly m isunderstood i n t ha t most i nd iv idua ls r equ ir ing d ates h ave a ssumed t ha t s a mp les w ith 1 00 r ings w ou ld p robab ly b e d a tab le.

I n t he l i gh t o f e xpe-

r ience i tc ou ld n ow b e s tated t hat 1 00 r ings i s t he a bso lute m in i mum wh ich h o lds o u t a ny h ope w hatsoever o f d a t ing a s a mp le a nd i n most c ases a w ork ing m in i mum w ou ld b e 15 0-180 r ings.

Even w ith a dequate l ong l i ved s a mp les

t here i s o n ly p erhaps a n 8 0% c hance o f p rov id ing a d ate f or a ny g iven t imber. T here i s o f c ourse a much h igher p robab il ity o f s uccessfu l d at ing w here g roups o ft imbers a re c oncerned.

Th is must b e q ua li f ied b y t he s tate men t

t ha t , d epend ing o n t he c ond it ion o f as a mp le a nd t he p resence o r a bsence o f s apwood t he d ate p roduced may b e p rec ise t o t he y ear o f f e l l ing , o r a n e st i mate w ith in a f ew y ears o r i nt he t o ta l a bsence o f s apwood a n e st i ma te o f at er m inus p ost q uem. Obv ious ly a n i mportan t f actor i s t he p resence o r a bsence o f al oca l a rea master c hrono logy w ith w h ich t o c ompare t he i nd iv idua l r ing p at tern , a nd t h is b r ings u s t o t he e ssen t ia l p o in t o f t h is a rt icle.

Un t i l r ecen t ly a n i nd iv idua l

w an t ing t o d ate t imbers f rom t he I s le o f Man wou ld p robably h ave f e lt o b l iged t o b eg in t he c onstruct ion o f ac o mp lete c hrono logy f or t he i s land , c over ing t he p er iod w ith wh ich h e w as c oncerned.

A worker i n S cot land , t he I r ish

Repub l ic o r e lsewhere w ou ld h ave b een i n as im ilar s i tuat ion . However, t he r esu lts n ow b ecom ing a va i lab le f ro m v ar ious a reas w ith in t he B r it ish I s les a re f orc ing a c hange o f v iew . I t w as r ecogn ised a s e ar ly a s 1 971 t ha t g ood a gree men t e x isted b etween t he Bewd ley c hrono logy , f rom t he England- Wa les b order a rea , a nd G er man master c hrono log ies f or t he p er iod 1 341 t o 1 630 ( Charles, 1 971, 1 4-19 ). Th is r esu lt , i n t he a bsence o f i n for mat ion t o s upport a c on t inen ta l o r ig in f or t he B ewd ley t imbers , w as t reated a s a n i n terest ing a no ma ly. When t he 5 90 y ear B el fast c hrono logy w as c omp leted b ack t o A .D. 1 380 ( Ba i l l ie 1 973, 1 5-28 ) i t w as f ound t hat i ta greed w el l w ith t he B ewd ley c hrono logy.

U s ing t he Bel fast

CROS p rogra m t o c a lcu la te S tuden ts ' t f rom a p roduct momen t c orrelat ion c oeff ic ien t , t h is ma tch g ave a v a lue t =6 .0 ( Ba i l l ie a nd P ilcher, 1 973, 7 -14 ). Th is c ompares w ith a v a lue t =5 .8 b etween Bewd ley a nd Ho l lste in 's c hronol ogy f or G er many w est o f t he Rh ine ( Ho l lse in 1 965 , 1 2-27 ). There w as h owe ver n o s ign if ican t c ross a gree men tb e tween t he Bel fast a nd Ho l lste in c hrono log ies.

Chrono log ies f or t h is s a me p er iod C . 1 350 t o C . 1 550 r ecen t ly

b eca me a va ilab le t o t he a u thor f rom s ou thern S cot land , D ub l in a nd S hef f ield a nd v isua l i nspect ion s ugges ted g ood c ross a gree men ts b etween t hese a reas s hown i nF ig . 3 .2 . T ab le 1 l i s ts t he c orrela t ion v a lues f or c o mpar ison o f e ach o f t hese c hrono log ies. These c an b est b e i n terpreted k now ing t hat t =3 . 5 r ep resen ts a .p robab i l ity o f P< . 001 a nd c an b e r ated a s s tat ist ica l ly h igh ly s ign if ican t .

The l owest v a lue, b etween Dubl in a nd S hef f ield i s s t il l s ign if i-

c an t a tP . e . . 01. 2 9

The c ross a gree men ts b etween t hese c hrono log ies f or t h is 1 350 t o 1 550 p er iod a re e x tre mely g ood.

Each o f t he c hrono log ies c ou ld h ave b een c ross -

d a ted a ga inst t he o thers h ad i t s t rue a ge n o t b een ' mown .

I t a ppears t here-

f ore , f or t h is p er iod a t l east , t hat t he I r ish S ea b as in c an b e t reated n o t a s as er ies o f s epara te a reas b u t a s as ing le t ree-r ing a rea w ith in w h ich g ood c rossdat ing b etween c hrono log ies o bta ins. A HYPOTHES IS FOR CHRONOLOGY AREAS On t he b as is o f t he a bove r esu l t l et u s n om ina te t he I r ish S ea b as in a s R eg ion ( 1 ) i nF ig. 3 .3.

We a re l ef t w ith t hree o ther b as ic r eg ions , s ou thern a nd

e astern Eng land ( 2 ) , n orthern S co t land ( 3 ) a nd s ou thern a nd western I reland ( 4 ).

For t he p er iod c ons idered a bove , 1 350 t o 1 550 ,on ly o ne o ther c hrono logy

i s a va i lable f or t he Br it ish I sles.

Th is i s t he MC18 c hrono logy c onstructed

f ro m t he b oards o f p anel p a in t ings a nd s uggested a s b e ing r elevan t t o d at ing i n s ou thern a nd e astern Eng land ( Reg ion ( 2 ) )f or t h is p er iod ( Fletcher e t a l . 1 974, 3 1-40 ).

When c o mpared w ith t he f i ve c hrono log ies a bove , n o s ign i f ican t

a gree men t w as f ound ( Table 1 , b otto m r ow ).

Th is r esul t , t aken a t f ace v a lue ,

s uggests t hat Reg ions ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 ) a re i ndeed d if feren t t ree r ing a reas.

Th is

i n t urn makes i tl ike ly t hat Reg ions ( 3 ) a nd ( 4 ) may a lso b e d ifferen t f ro m Reg ion ( 1 ) a nd i ft rue wou ld n ecess ita te t he c onstruc t ion o f n ew i ndependen t c hrono log ies f or t hese a reas. However , t here i s a t l east t he p oss ib il ity t hat t he l ack o f a greemen t b e tween MC18 a nd Reg ion ( 1 ) may b e d ue t o t he t imbers u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f MC18 h av ing a c on t inen ta l o r ig in .

Th is w ou ld h elp t o e xp la in t he l ack o f

a gree men t b etween MC18 a nd t he o ther Eng l ish c hrono log ies i n p ar t icu lar. I n o rder t o t est w hether o r n ot t here i s a gree men t b etween Reg ions ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 ) i ti s p oss ib le t o l ook a t a nother p r iod f or wh ich t here i s c ons iderab le t reer ing i n for ma t ion a va i lab le.

I f w e t ake c . 1 700 t o c . 1 970 t here a re c hrono log ies

f ro m Bel fast , S cot land , Yorksh ire, Wa les a nd s ou-d ie m. 'Eng land.

T able 2

s hows t he c ross a gree men ts b etween t hese c hrono log ies f or t h is 2 70 y ear p er iod a nd a s horter 1 823-1971 c hrono logy f ro m Beechen , S ussex ( Fletcher , 1 974 , 8 0-97 ).

Aga in w ith in Reg ion 1 , w ith t he e xcep t ion o f t he c ur iously l ow c orre la-

t ion b etween Wa les a nd Yorksh ire, t here i s i n g enera l ac lear I r ish S ea b as in a rea w ith g ood c ross a gree men ts.

Tak ing W inchester , i ti s c lear t ha t t here

i s s ign if ican t c ross a gree men t b etween t h is c hrono logy , f ro m t he F orest o f Dean , a nd e ach o f t he o ther a reas.

Th is i s c on f ir med i n t he v a lues o bta ined

f or t he s horter Beechen c hrono logy . S o f or t h is p er iod s outhern Eng land i s c learly n o t p ar t o f ad if feren t t ree r ing a rea. To t est t h is f urther Tab le 3 s hows t he c orre lat ion r esu l ts f or t he p er iod A .D. 1 000 t o 1 200 b etween c hrono log ies f ro m Be l fast , S cot land , D ub l in a nd Eng land ( Sou th East t o Yorksh ire ) ( k ind ly s upp l ied b y Dr. F letcher ).

A lthough

n ot a s h igh a s f or t he l a ter p er iods, c learly t he E ng l ish Ref 6 d oes a gree s ign if ican t ly w ith e ach o f t he o thers. These r esu lts may b e o f c ons iderab le s ign if icance f or Br it ish I s les d endroc hrono logy .

I fw e c ons ider o n ly t he p er iod 1 350 t o 1 550 , t he l ack o f a gree-

men t w ith MC18 s uggests t hat t here i s f rag men ta t ion i nto a n u mber o fb asic 3 0

t ree-r ing a reas w ith in t he B r it ish I sles.

I n t he l igh t o f t he r esu l ts f or t he

t wo p er iods 1 000-1200 a nd 1 700 t o 1 970 i ti s a t l east a p ossib il ity t ha t t he w ho le o f t hese i s lands c onst itu te a s ing le t ree-r ing a rea w ith in w h ich master c hrono log ies c an b e c ross d a ted w ith c ons iderab le c erta in ty.

I ft h is were

t he c ase , t he p rogress w ith a Br it ish I s les t ree-r ing g r id c ou ld b e a ccelera ted a nd t he h ope o f b r idg ing g aps i n o ne a rea w ith f loa t ing c hrono log ies f ro m a no ther c ou ld a l low t he r ap id c omp let ion o f b as ic c hrono log ies f or t he l ast t wo m i l lenn ia a t l east. CHRONOLOGY LENGTHS I f , o n t he b as is o f t he a bove r esu l ts , w e e rr o n t he s ide o f c au t ion a nd d iv ide t he Br it ish I sles i n to f our b as ic t ree-r ing r eg ions , t he n ex t s tep i s t o s uggest o pt i mu m c hrono logy l eng ths.

L e t u s a rb itrar ily d iv ide t ime i n to t hree

b as ic p er iods , med ieva l f rom t he p resen t t o A .D. 1 000 , t he Dark Ages f rom A .D. 1 000 t o A . D. 1 a nd t he p reh istor ic f rom 1B .C. b ack i n t ime.

The f i rst

c oncern , d ictated b y t he p r inc ip les o f d endrochrono log ica l t echn ique must b e t o c onstruct med ieva l c hrono log ies s ince t hese a re t he p r i mary b u i ld ing b lock s. I n a dd it ion , modern a rchaeo logy i s h eav ily b iased t owards t h is p er iod a nd many med ieva l s ites a re f avoured b y w a terlogged c ond it ions c onduc ive t o t he p reserv a t ion o f t imbers.

Each o f t he d el ineated a reas w il l u ndoubted ly n eed a b as ic

med ieva l c hrono logy.

I n b road t er ms t h is a pp l ies a lso t o t he s econd , d ark

a ge , p er iod where s er ious c hrono log ica l p rob le ms e x ist i n t he s tudy o f S axon , P ic t ish a nd Early Chr ist ian s et t le men t. w hat d if feren t .

The t h ird , p reh istor ic p er iod i s s o me-

S ign if ican t p rogress h as b een made t owards t he c onstruct ion

o f a6 000-8000 y ear c hrono logy i n t he n orth o fI reland ( P i lcher e t a l ., 1 977 ). The l essons l earned i n t h is work a rgue s trong ly t hat i tw ou ld b e f oo l ish t o a t te mpt t o d up l icate a c hrono logy o f t h is l eng th i n t he Br it ish I s les.

The r ea l

r easons f or s ay ing t h is i s n ot t o d iscourage c o mpet it ion b u t t o p o in t o ut t he s er iously l im ited a pp l icab i l ity o f s uch a c hrono logy.

The Bel fas t l ong c hron-

o logy w as, f ro m t he s tar t , i n tended f or t he c a l ibra t ion o f t he r ad iocarbon t imesca le.

Th is c onst itu tes t he s ing le most i mportan t c on tribu t ion o f d endro-

c hrono logy t o t he p reh istor ic p er iod.

The n umber o f p reh istor ic s i tes i n t he

Br it ish I s les t urn ing u p g ood o ak t imbers ( good f ro m a t ree-r ing v iewpo in t ) i s e xtre mely sma l l.

Wh ile i tw ou ld b e n ice t o h ave p rec ise d ates f or a f ew s uch

s i tes , i tw ou ld c onst itu te a n i rrelevance i n af i e ld where t he v as t ma jor ity o f s i tes a re d a ted b y r ad iocarbon . I ti s t he f i rm o p in ion o f t he p resen t a u thor t ha t t here i s n o n eed f or a s econd Br it ish I sles p reh istor ic c hrono logy.

I ft he i dea o f b as ic t ree-r ing

z ones , l a id o u t a bove , h as a ny r ea l b as is t hen t he g rea t h ope mus t b e t ha t s u i table g roups o f t imbers f ro m a nywhere w i th in t he ' I r ish S ea P rov ince ' may a ss ist i n t he c o mp let ion o f t he B elfast l ong c hrono logy wh ich i n t urn w i l l b e a pp l icab le t o t he s o lu t ion o f p rob le ms o ver a w ide a rea. I n c onclus ion i th as b een p oss ib le t o s uggest a n o pt i mu m l eng th f or a rea c hrono log ies.

The a rea l f actor i s n o t s o e asy t o q uan t i fy b u t w e c an b eg in t o

t h ink i n t er ms o f p erhaps o n ly 4 , o r p oss ib ly l ess, b as ic r eg ions. T he a rea l f actor i s o f c ons iderab le i mportance f or t he f o l low ing r eason .

I ft he n u mber

o f l oca l c hrono log ies n ecessary t o g r id t he Br it ish I sles i s o verest i mated t here w il l u l t i mately b e c ons iderab le w astefu l d up l ica t ion o f e f fort i n t he f i e ld .

3 2

To r e turn t o t he I sle o f Man e xa mp le , i ti s n ow p oss ible t o s uggest t hat f l oat ing master c hrono log ies f ro m t he i s land o r f ro m a ny a rea b order ing t he I r ish S ea , s hou ld b e d atab le a ga inst o ne o r o ther o f t he c hrono log ies a lready i n e x istence. i n t h is way .

Th is i s n o t t o s ay t ha t i nd iv idua l r ing p a t terns w il l b e d atab le Work o n med ieva l b oa t t imbers f rom Dub l in s uggests t ha t i nd i-

v idua l t imbers w il l a lways c orrela te most s ign i f ican t ly a ga inst a master c hrono logy f ro m t he ir a rea o f o r ig in ( Ba i l l ie , 1 977 , i n p ress ). NOTE 1 .

One o ther p oss ib i l ity w h ich m igh t e xp la in a d i f ference b etween Reg ion 1 a nd Reg ion 2 f or t he p er iod A .D . 1 350 t o 1 550 , b u t n o t f or t he p er iods A . D. 1 000 t o 1 200 a nd A .D. 1 710 t o 1 970 , c ou ld b e s o me k ind o f s h i f t ing c l i ma t ic z onat ion .

Aga inst t h is p oss ib il ity , i tc an b e s hown t hat a mean

master c hrono logy f or Reg ion 1 f or t he p er iod A . D. 1 350 t o 1 550 , made b y t he s imple e xped ien t o f an on-para metr ic ma jor ity t rend master , when c o mpared w ith a c en tra l G er many mean o f t hree c hrono log ies made b y t he s ame p rocedure , y ie lds a p ercen tage a gree men t c oef f ic ien t o f 6 5%. Th is s uggests s ign if ican t o vera l l s im ilar ity b e tween Reg ion 1 a nd Ger many f or t h is p er iod.

Th is d egree o fu n i for m ity s ee ms t o a rgue a ga inst s ou thern

Eng land b e ing c l i mat ica l ly d ifferen t f or t h is p er iod.

REFERE N CES Ba i l l ie, M . G . L ., 1 973. ' A r ecen t ly d eveloped t ree-r ing c hrono logy '. Tree-R ing Bu l let in , 3 3, 1 5-28. Ba il l ie, M. G . L ., 1 974. med ieva l t imbers '.

' A t ree-r ing c hrono logy f or t he d a t ing o f I r ish p ostU lster Fo lk l ife, 2 0 , 1 -23.

Ba i l l ie, M . G . L ., 1 977.

' The d a t ing o f s o me s h ips t imbers f ro m t he Dub l in

e xcava t ions' i n P roceed ings o f t he G reenw ich c on ference o n European Dendrochrono logy , J u ly 1 977.

B r it ish Archaeo log ica l Reports ( f orthco m ing ).

B a i l l ie, M. G . L . a nd F ilcher , J . R ., 1 973.

' A s i mp le c ross-dat ing p rogra m

f or t ree-r ing r esearch ' , T ree-R ing Bu l let in , 3 3, 7 -14. B arefoot , A . C ., Woodhouse, L . B ., H af ley , W. L . a nd Wi lson , E . M., 1 974. ' Deve lop ing a d endrochrono logy f or W inchester , Eng land '.

J ourna l o f t he

I nst itu te o f Wood S c ience, 6 , No. 5 , 3 4-40. C harles, F . W. B ., 1 971.

' The S c ience o f d a t ing b u ild ings b y t ree-r ings '.

S upp le men t t o T i mber T rades J ourna l f or O ctober 3 0 , 1 4-19. F letcher, J . M., 1 974. ' Annua l r ings i n modern a nd med ieval t imes ' i n The Br it ish O ak , e d. M. G . Morr ison a nd F . M. Perr ing , 8 0-97. F letcher, J . M. a nd S w i tsu , R .,

1 973.

' North E l mha m —The Dat ing '.

Curren t Archaeo logy , N o. 3 6 , 2 5-28. F letcher, J . M., T apper, M . C . a nd Wa lker, F . S ., 1 974.

' Dendrochron-

o logy—A r eference c urve f or s low g rown o aks , A .D. 1 230 t o 1 546 '. Archaeomet u , 1 6 , 3 1-40 .

3 3

Ho l lste in , E

1 965.

' Jahrr ing c hrono log ische d at ierung v on e ichenho lzern

o hne waldkan te ' , Bonnes J b. 1 65 , 1 2-27. Pearson , G ., P ilcher, J . R ., Ba il l ie , M. G . L . a nd H i l la m , J ., 1 977. ' Abso lu te r ad iocarbon d a t ing u s ing a l ow a l t itude European t ree-r ing c a l ibrat ion '.

N ature 2 70 , 2 5-28.

P ilcher , J . R ., Ba il l ie, M. G . L ., H il la m , J . a nd Pearson , G .W ., 1 977. ' A l ong s ub-foss il o ak t ree-r ing c hronology f ro m t he n orth o f I reland '. N ew Phy to log ist 7 9, 7 13-729.

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4 9

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1 350-1550

Cf . '

VALUES

C ross c on e la tion ' t ' v a lues b etween ' l oca l ' c hrono log ies f or t he a pprox i ma te p er iod A . D. 1 350 t o 1 550 . d a ta s uppl ied b y V . G ie tz;

Eng land- Wa les ,

S hef fie ld d a ta s upp l ied b y R . Morgan ;

MC18 d a ta , J . F le tcher e t a l .

3 5

( 1974 , 3 1-40 ).

1 : 3t .L

BELFAS T

/

L . .L . )

1 0 . 1

/

SCOTLA N D

10 ' 1

MAENT WRO 3

5 . 4

3 . 4

7 . 1

5 . 9

1 YORKSH IR W INCHESTE R

i BEECHE \ 1 823 197 1

r-

YUK

V V I IN

5 . 4

7 . 1

4 . 3

3 . 1

3 4

5 . 9

3 . 6

2 . 5 3 . 5

1 . 2* 5 . 2

b 3 . 9

. 3

3 . 6

5 . 1

4 . b /7/ 4 . 9

3 . 1

2 . 5

3 5

3 . 9

L

AD 1 7 10 -1 970

Table 2

t iLL

M AL

4 . 9 . / /»

VALUES

C ross c orrela tion ' t ' v a lues b etween ' l oca l ' c hrono log ies f or t he p er iod A . D. 1 710 t o 1 970 . L egget t e t a l ;

Maen twrog d a ta s upp l ied b y

Yorksh ire d ata s upp l ied b y R . Morgan ;

c hes ter d a ta s uppl ied b y A . C . B arefoo t ; J . F le tcher ( 1974 ,

8 0-97 ).

3 6

Win-

B eecher d a ta ,

I iLL

DUBL I F LETCHE REF6

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4 . 34

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A l le le F requenc ies

L f D L f D

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T able I .( con td. )

c r )

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A l le le Frequenc ies

A l le le Frequenc ies

b . 0

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94

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i n

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O 0

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0

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r Z N

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I

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( 1 ) g 4 c s " c s " C S U

u

C . )

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C C )

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•

c d 4 _ ,

c v z •

C q

•

e

c . 0

C D CD 0 • • •

•

c t : •

•

c e j •

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Phenotypes ( % )

A l le le Frequenc ies

C a_

1 2

•

C N I

C O

t • •

•

•

•

v e cI N C D

N o t- c s ) e c r J N c i z

c d i c . )E

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C \ I C O C q • • •

, : s ›

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•

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C D

( Z ) •

c s ) e N i n C D N ( 3 )

C d

r z r z, • • • • • c o

• c d • ; z +

L C I -I t • • N e cn c- r z

C / D

A 9 8

c ) c p o • • • • • o c r 4 N o L C ) c . 0 c m L e z

t -

3 C l )

N orths ide

i C N C C ) • • • • • C C ) 0 0 0 0 0 0

C D

•

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0

t " • •

t • •

c e z e

( 1 ) •c i )

Z u p

C l ) e

c d

c d e

t i c o

A l lele Frequenc ies

C . )

0 . +

5 : 1

Phenotypes ( % )

C

5 2 ,

G O 1 " ) G O L C ) C Z N • • • • •

o

•

•

c i c o L I Z • • •

C I

C D

• • • i

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•

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ei

•

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N E Z

C )

c j

e-

e N

L " • c . 0

' C

=I

Z

; • I 0

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0

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( Z 1

•

ln • e

e rZ a Z • • •

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• g

e • • • • • e e c m G O C D " e C Z C Z C Z N

c o

i n

E Z •

C > 7 t 4

C l ) . i e . . 4 r E l c e b n , . C 2 ; . 1 Z Z . 1 0

e. cd

C

•

• 1

•

•

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•

e i

•

O D N N • • 1 • • • • • e I N C O C D

C D • E Z C Z c o • • • • • N e c a z N e, C Z C Z C Z N

C X D

Z Z

•

•

•

•

•

-

N

4 1

0 0

C O

C . 0

C D i n

IC )

CC )

N

C C )

c o C i n

c 0

e r z

9 9

•

C Z

e i

4 , %

N

c \ I

C Z O D C ) C Z C D • • • • • • N N e i c o e e C Z I n

C N Z

5 „ ,, . ,

: C I

C f )

G O G O C Z C D • • • • • C Z C Z C . 0 t • •

e

c 2 ) c q

PG M Locus 1

• • • • 0 0 C S D e C l

Ac id Phos-

c q

Table 3 ( con td.)

E Z i n c o N c o c o c o c o c o • • • • •

N •

N

b . 0 C ) P I

e c ) C Z E l C Z C Z L C • • • • • : Q

C . 0 c v 2 , C Y Z C Z C Z C Z c o C • • • • •

•

0

▪ C . V 7 4 C D C D C D C D C D • • • • •

C l ) › , C l )

•

I

i n

c z c o

TABLE 4

AB O B lood Groups i n t he I sle o f Man a nd N e ighbour ing Popu lat ions

Phenotypes ( % ) A

Reg ion

B

0

AB

References

Manx d onors

2 19

3 6.1

5 .9

5 4.3

3 .7

P resent S tudy

Manx n on-donors

5 90

4 5.9

7 .6

4 3.6

2 .9

P resen t S tudy

Total Manx

8 09

4 3.2

7 .2

4 6.5

3 .1

P resen t S tudy

Cu mbr ia

1 312

4 0.2

8 .8

4 8.6

2 .4

M itchell ( 1 978b )

Cu mbr ia

4 446

3 9.3

8 .2

4 9.9

2 .6

K opeC ( 1970 )

Furness

2 587

4 0.7

9 .2

4 6.4

3 .7

K opeC ( 1970 )

1 8533

4 1.7

7 .4

4 8.2

2 .6

K opeC ( 1970 )

N . S cot land

9 61

3 0.1

9 .2

5 8.3

2 .4

Brown ( 1965 )

S het land I s.

1 46

3 2.2

1 4.4

5 1.4

2 .0

Brown ( 1965 )

O rkney I s.

1 54

3 3.1

1 3.6

4 5.5

7 .8

Brown ( 1965 )

S . W . S cot land

7 86

3 4.8

1 0.4

5 0.1

4 .7

M itchell e t a l.

Area 9

( 1976 ) N . Wa les

2 550

3 9.6

9 .2

4 8.0

3 .2

Roberts ( 1942 )

N . Wa les

1 132

3 5.7

1 0.2

5 1.2

2 .9

Roberts ( 1942 )

( Welsh s urna mes ) N . Wa les

3 447

3 7.9

1 0.2

4 9.0

2 .9

K oped ( 1970 )

Area 1 3

7 062

3 7.6

1 0.4

4 8.6

3 .4

K opec ( 1970 )

Northern I reland

2 9143

3 3.3

9 .7

5 4.3

2 .7

K opeC ( 1970 )

Dubl in

3 6878

3 2.3

1 0.7

5 4.2

2 .8

D awson ( 1964 )

3 198

3 5.5

1 0.6

5 0.9

3 .0

D awson ( 1964 )

7 6057

3 1.8

1 0.8

5 4.7

2 .7

D awson ( 1965 )

Co. Wick low L e inster Prov.

TABLE 5

S ecretor Groups i n t he I sle o f Man a nd N e ighbour ing Popu lat ions

Reg ion

I sle o f Man Cu mbria L iverpoo l

Pheno type ( % )

A l lele Frequency

R eferences

Non-Secretor

s e

2 8.8

. 54

9 94

2 9.7

. 55

M itchell ( 1976 )

1 118

2 2.7

. 48

Race & S anger

1 63

M itchel l ( 1976 )

( 1 968 ) L ondon

2 84

2 4.3

. 49

L inco ln & Dodd ( 1972)

Aberdeen

5 10

2 9.8

. 55

L inco ln & Dodd ( 1973)

Belfast

5 32

3 0.1

. 55

L inco ln & Dodd ( 1972 )

Dubl in

4 35

3 2.2

. 57

L inco ln & Dodd ( 1973)

1 00

TABLE 6

MN B lood Groups i n t he I sle o f Man a nd N e ighbouring Popu lat ions A l lele Phenotypes ( % )

Reg ion

Frequency

R e ferences

MM

MN

NN

6 89

2 5.8

5 4.2

2 0.0

. 53

Presen t S tudy

Cumbria

1 282

3 1.4

4 8.4

2 0.1

. 56

Mitchel l ( 1978 )

Eng lund

1 419

2 8.3

4 9.4

2 2.3

. 53

Race & S anger Mitchel l ( 1978b )

I sle o f Man

( 1968 ) S .W . S co t land

1 72

3 2.0

4 7.7

2 0.3

. 56

S co t land

5 27

2 6.9

5 3.9

1 9.2

. 54

I k in e t a l. ( 1952 )

Wa les

1 16

3 1.0

4 6.6

2 2.4

. 54

I k in e t

1 06

3 4.9

5 0.9

1 4.2

. 60

I k in e t a l. ( 1952 )

2 95

4 1.7

4 0.0

1 8.3

. 62

Pa lsson e t a l. ( 1970 )

7 . 1

( 1952 )

N orthern I reland E ire

TABLE 7

MNSs B lood Groups i n t he I sle o f Man a nd N e ighbour ing Popu lat ions Phenotypes ( % )

Reg ion

Re ferences

M MS M O V Iss

MNS

N ENss

NNS

NNss

5 93

1 3.5

1 0.5

2 9.7

2 5.8

3 .7

1 6.9

Cu mbria

1 221

2 1.3

1 0.8

2 5.2

2 2.4

4 .8

1 5.6

M itchel l ( 1978b )

Eng land

1 419

2 0.8

7 .5

2 6.7

2 2.7

7 .2

1 5.1

Race & S anger

S .W . S cot land

1 72

2 2.7

9 .3

2 7.9

1 9.8

2 .9

1 7.4

Mitchel l ( 1978b )

S co t land

5 27

1 9.9

7 .0

2 6.4

2 7.5

4 .2

1 5.0

I k in e t a l. ( 1952 )

Wa les

1 16

1 7.2

1 3.8

3 1.0

1 5.5

7 .8

1 4.7

I k inet a l. ( 1952 )

1 06

2 1.7

1 3.2

1 6.0

3 4.9

3 .8

1 0.4

I k in e t a l. ( 1952 )

3 18

2 2.0

6 .6

2 8.3

2 2.6

4 .4

1 6.1

T il ls e t a l. ( 1977 )

6 54

2 2.6

8 .4

2 7.8

2 5.1

4 .0

1 2.1

T il ls e ta l. ( 1977 )

1 698

2 1.7

9 .7

2 8.0

2 2.1

4 .3

1 4.2

T il ls e t Z. ( 1977 )

I sle o f Man

Presen t S tudy

( 1968 )

N orthern I reland N orthern I reland L e inster E ire

TABLE 8

PB lood Groups i n t he I sle o f Man a nd N e ighbouring Popu lat ions

Reg ion

Phenotype ( % )

P 1 ( + )

A l lele Frequency

R eferences

7 2.9

Pi . 48

Presen t S tudy

7 86

7 5.3

. 50

M itchel l ( 1978b )

England

1 166

7 6.6

. 52

I k in e t a l. ( 1952 )

S cot land

5 27

7 5.5

. 51

1 k m

Wa les

1 16

7 3.3

. 48

I k in e t a l. ( 1952 )

N orthern I re land

1 06

7 8.3

. 53

I k in 7 t 7 1.. ( 1952 )

N orthern I re land

3 19

6 9.3

. 45

T il ls e t a l. ( 1977 )

6 30

7 3.5

. 49

T il ls e t 7 1 .. ( 1977 )

1 540

7 3.9

. 49

T il ls e ta 1 . ( 1977 )

I s le o f Man

3 36

Cumbria

L e inster E ire

1 01

e t

7 1 .

( 1952 )

R eferences

•

•

•

7 1 ' 1 7 , 1

, 4 N

7 1 ; DI

C L ) IC D I

C : 7 3

C / )

C l )

I C l )

•I I ,

C . ) C D ( 1 )

L I Z C I C D • • •

.C S

C V C,J • •

I

C D C . ) N

C D C Y D C Y D C V • • • C )

4

c . C ) •

i . C D • C Y D

C D t f D • •

• e

CCDee

C > •

▪

•

• • • 4

00 t • • •• • • C

CO

• C Y Z

•

C V

•

C V

c C ) C \ 1 C Y D • • .

t - e 0 • • • C 5 D

C \ I

•

• • • c + z C D C V C V

c q

• C Y Z C ' r )

C V

t• C ' e l •

• 0 0

e 0 c q c z J c q

l e

O C )

•

C\ I

C \ I

C Z ) •

L I Z

• C V

0 0 C D • • • C \ I c i

C 3 ) •

C D

•

0

C Z I n C Z • • • C > C D

•

• C V

e

C D

•

C D

0

C V

▪ C V

I

C -

•

C . S D 0 C V • • •

c cddee

Phenotypes ( % )

c cDEE

c cddEe

41

•

▪

•

e

• C . 0 • 1

C S ) L . C " J • •

( x ) • e C e

•

C C )

C D C D

TABLE 1 0

L utheran B lood G roups i n t he I sle o f Man a nd N e ighbour ing Popu lat ions A l lele

Reg ion

Phenotype ( % )

F requency

Lu (a+ )

L ua

R e ferences

I sle o f Man

3 32

1 1.1

. 06

Presen t S tudy

Cu mbria

1 41

8 .5

. 04

Mitchell ( 1978b )

Ho ly I sland

1 25

1 2.8

. 07

Cartwr igh t ( 1976 )

1 23

8 .1

. 04

Cartwr igh t ( 1976 )

Eng land

1 373

7 .7

. 04

C ited b y Race & S

S co t land

5 27

5 .5

. 03

I k in e t a l. ( 1952 )

N orthu mberland

S anger ( 1968 ) Wa les

1 16

0 .9

. 004

I k in e t 7 i . ( 1952 )

Northern I re land

3 16

4 .1

. 02

T il ls e t a l. ( 1977 )

6 45

4 .2

. 02

T il ls e t a l. ( 1977 )

1 690

3 .7

. 02

T il ls 7 t7 1 . ( 1977 )

L e inster E ire

TABLE 1 1

K ell B lood Groups i n t he I sle o f Man a nd N e ighbour ing Popu lat ions A l lele

Reg ion

Pheno type ( % )

Frequency

R eferences

K + I sle o f Man

3 51

9 .7

. 05

Presen t S tudy

Cu mbria

8 90

6 .8

. 03

Mitchel l ( 1978b )

Eng land

1 108

8 .9

. 05

Race & S anger ( 1968 )

S cot land

5 27

8 .9

. 05

I k in e t a l. ( 1952 )

Wa les

1 16

8 .6

. 04

I k in e ta l. ( 1952 )

Northern I re land

3 19

9 .1

. 05

T il ls e t a l. ( 1977 )

L e inster

6 56

1 0.2

. 05

T il ls e t a l. ( 1977 )

1 701

8 .6

. 04

T il ls -e t Z. ( 1977 )

E ire

TABLE 1 2

Penney B lood Groups i n t he I sle o f Man a nd N e ighbour ing Populat ions A l le le

Reg ion

Phenotype ( % ) Kp (a+ )

I sle o f Man L ondon E ire

Frequency

R eferences

Kpa

3 31

3 .9

. 02

Presen t S tudy

1 021

2 .2

. 01

C leghorn ( 1961)

5 52

0 .9

. 005

T il ls e t a l. ( 1977 )

1 03

TABLE 1 3

Duf fy B lood Groups i n t he I sle o f Man a nd Ne ighbour ing Popu lat ions

A l lele Pheno type ( % )

Reg ion

Fy (a+ )

Frequency

Re ferences

Fya

I sle o f Man

3 53

6 4.0

. 40

Presen t S tudy

Cu mbr ia

8 92

6 5.9

. 42

Mitchel l ( 1978b )

Eng land

1 944

6 6.5

. 42

Race & S anger ( 1968 )

S cot land

5 27

6 6.8

. 42

I k in e t a l . ( 1952 )

Wales

1 16

6 9.8

. 45

I k in e t

Northern I re land

3 18

6 5.7

. 41

T il ls e t a l . ( 1977 )

L e inster

6 56

6 7.1

. 43

T il ls et -al ( 1977 )

1 694

6 4.5

. 40

T ills e t

E ire

TABLE 1 4

( 1952 )

( 1977 )

S erum Haptog lob in Groups i n t he I s le o f Man a nd N e ighbour ing Popu lat ions

Reg ion

Phenotypes ( % ) 1

2 -1

2

A l lele

References

H pi

I sle o f Man

3 54

1 2.9

4 3.8

4 2.7

Cu mbr ia

1 98

1 4.2

4 1.4

4 4.4

. 35

Mitchell ( 1978b )

N .E. Eng land

8 02

1 4.3

4 8.6

3 7.0

. 39

Pap iha & Roberts ( 1976 )

S . W . S cot land

8 74

1 6.7

4 6.5

3 6.7

. 40

Mitchell e t a l. ( 1976 )

Northern I reland

3 15

1 9.1

4 3.8

3 7.1

. 41

T il ls ( 1977 )

L e inster

6 82

1 2.9

5 0.6

3 6.5

. 38

T il ls ( 1977 )

1 766

1 3.4

4 8.7

3 7.9

. 38

T il ls ( 1977 )

E ire

TABLE 1 5

. 35

Presen t S tudy

P - L ipopro tein A l lo type Ag i n t he I s le o f Man a nd N e ighbour ing Popu lat ions A l lele Phenotype ( % )

Reg ion

Ag (x+ ) I sle o f Man

F requency

Re ferences

Agx

1 11

3 1.5

. 17

Presen t S tudy

1 222

3 6.7

. 21

Bradbrook e t a l.

Northern I re land

3 12

2 9.5

. 16

T il ls ( 1977 )

L e inster

5 41

4 0.1

. 23

T il ls ( 1977 )

1 317

3 7.1

. 21

T il ls ( 1977 )

Un ited K ingdo m

( 1971)

E ire

1 04

. . _ c d i• › ,c o r . c 2 ,. , c . z . ,t c c y 3 . ,t i c d i_ . , ) , . . . ,

A l le le F requency

.4

. . c . d . .,

C D c r ) C D

-e c . ) 4 >

e • C -- i ,

•

( 1 3 •

C I ) I N.

L u , e , „

1 .C I ) 1

c s ,

. C2 •

= 0

4 * . '

i n •

c d

0

e 0

c a

• l1

. , . .

•

• N

< c \ l c.) •


e e • • • • c e N C I C e

•

C V c e • •

•

•

• e

CD

OD

CD

•

• c o

C YD • N

•

•

C q

•

•. 1

0 1 0

L C 0 0 • • • r t4 e

C V

•


_ e

0

c e. .c 0 . 4 -,

C I )

a )

0

m

a )

•• C L ) 7 : 3

P la te 1 0 .1.

C D

Z

, . ,

.

4

C d . . .

. -

c .I

" 0 ( i ) •I 4 0 . 1

• , I

4 )

c n c d

C 2 4

c n

c u

r e , _ . _ .

4 :5

C l )

t , 1

c l )

"'

. •. ' '

1 . )

43

c e

' II r n

0

. ) 4 . ) C . ) ; I _ T 2 4 c i . ) ‘ ; 0

2` ) "> I

. 5 ' V 0

0 Z

Z

0 ;. 1

0

0

e

0

e +i

4 7 . , › V

0 4) C D

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i nd ica te p os t-ho les r ound f lank o f g rave-p i t .

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t he f oreground i s t he s ocket f or t he E as t o r thos ta t , a nd i n t he m iddle o f t he p ic ture , ab edrock s hou lder a bu ts o n ap ara l lel Wes t s ocke t .

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l e f t a re t he o b long h o l low , t he s econdary h o l low , a nd a r ugged r idge o f b edrock moun t ing t o t he Wes t b a lk , where t he b ou lder marks a pprox i ma te r oo f l eve l .

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1 1.

S TONE I MPLE MENTS AND THEIR U SERS

I N THE I SLE OF MAN : s o me p reli m inary r esu l ts f ro m r ecen t work o n t heir a na lys is a nd d is tr ibu t ion b y L arch S . Garrad , Ass is tan t K eeper , Manx Museum

T he s tone i mp le men t u sers : MESOL ITH IC .

T he e ar l ies t o ccupan ts o f t he I s le o f Man h ave b een d iscussed

b y Mr . P e ter Wood man

I t may t here fore s u f f ice t o s ay h ere t ha t

i n n o i ns tance i s a n imple men t made o f impor ted s tone u nequ ivoca l ly a ssocia ted w i th a Manx micro li th ic s i te ; a bsen t .

i ndeed ' axe ' imp le men ts a re a pparen t ly who l ly

F l in t c el ts d o a pparen t ly o ccur w i th wha t h ave t rad i t iona l ly h ere b een

c a l led ' Bann ' f inds , b u t n o h abi ta t ion s i te o f t hese p eop le h as b een e xcava ted . T here a re a c onsiderab le n umber o f p laces ( see l i s t , p 12, f or C ow ley c o l lect i on o n ly ) where t he q uan t i ty o f s ur face f inds i s s uch a s t o i nd ica te t he ir p rob ab le l oca t ion , a nd i ti s h oped t ha t t he ir i nvest iga t ion w il l n ot b e l ong d e layed. A xeheads made o f o ther s tones a re f a ir ly c o m mon ly f ound o n t he s ur face i n a ssocia t ion w i th Manx ' Bann ' f l in ts - f or e xa mple , ' by t he p ond i n t he f ie ld N .E. o f t he G lebe , G er man ' S C265839 ( Manx G er man 's s ta t ion ' S C270858 ( Manx

2 _. )-but,

a nd ' second f ie ld p as t S t . o f c ourse , t hey a re n o t c er ta in ly

c on te mporaneous . RONALDS WAY .

The war t i me e x tens ion o f R ona ldsway a irpor t l ed t o t he

d iscovery i n 1 943 o f ar ec tangu lar h ouse .

T he f inds f ro m i t s e xcava t ion made

i tp ossib le t o p lace i n c on tex t b o th t he c hance f inds f ro m G lencru tchery , n ear D oug las , a nd t hose f ro m a c re ma tion c e metery a t B a l la teare , J urby , e xcava ted b y Dr . G erhard Bersu i n 1 946 . Mr . P e ter Mo f fa t t h as g iven a p rel im inary s u m mary o f o ur p resen t k now ledge .

The o r ig ina l e xcava t ion r epor t

s ays ' One o f t he mos t c harac ter is t ic f ea tures o f t he s tone i ndus try was a s pecia l t ype o f p o l ished a xehead , o f wh ich s even e xa mp les were f ound .... T he b u t t-hal f o f t he a xe was n o t o n ly l e f t =p ol ished b u t i n s evera l c ases was e v iden t ly r oughened i n tent iona l ly .... ' T hese c harac ter is t ic a xes a re k nown i n av ar ie ty o f s tones b u t a pparen t ly n ever i n Group V I ( Grea t L angda le a rea ).

Al i s t a nd d is tr ibu t ion map h as b een c o m-

p i led o f t he k nown a xes o f t h is t ype f ro m Man .

( c f . b e low a nd f ig . 1 1.1 )

B ib liography B ruce , J .R ., Megaw , E .M. a nd Megaw , B .R .S ., 1 947 . R ona ldsway , I s l€ o f Man '.

' A n eo li th ic s i te a t

B ersu , G ., 1 947. ' A c e me tery o f t he R ona ldsway C u l ture a t B a l la teare , J urby , I s le o f Man ' PPS X II I , 1 39 f a nd 1 61 f , r espec t ively . 1 65

P o in t o f A y re

3

I SLE o fMAN

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F l in t i mple men ts .

1 0

Aw ls , b orers , s erra ted b lades , c oncave s aw .

1 -7 E x C ow ley C o l lec t ion .

1 , 3 -5 , 7 .

2 . B e l le l l is , T h is t le F ie ld ; G lencru tchery . ( A )

1 93

6 .

B a l lagyr , Th is t le F ie ld ;

B e l le l l is , L ong F ie ld ;

8 -10 .

B orers a nd Aw ls B orers a nd a w ls w ere n ot p ar t icu lar ly p ro l i f ic a t R ona ldsway , G lencru tchery o r B i l lown ( Bruce , Megaw a nd Megaw 1 947 ) . H owever , t hey f igure p ro m inen t ly i nt he C ow ley c o l lec t ion w here t hey a re c lass i f ied a s " Orna men tors" , mos t n o tab ly i nt he a sse mb lage f ro m t he s o-ca l led " Th is t le F ie ld" a t B a l lagyr . T hey a re u sua l ly made o n sma l l f l a t f lakes , o r c h ips a nd h ave o ne o r t wo b or ing p o in ts . T he p oin ts a nd s hou lders f requen t ly s how c ons iderable s igns o f wear .

( F ig . 1 3 .7 :3-5 ) .

Ac ur ious f or m o f b orer w i th f a ir ly l eng thy p oin t o ccur i n t he C owley c o l lec t ion a nd a re s im i lar i n o u t l ine t o t he h umped b ack s crapers . ( Fig . 1 3 .7: 1 -2 ) . I n a sma l l n u mber o f c ases t hey a ppear t ob e c o mpos i te t oo ls h av ing a s crap ing e dge a lso .

An u mber o f q u i te mass ive b or ing t oo ls a re a lso f ound

i n t he C ow ley c o l lec t ion . O ther S tone O b jec ts O ther l i th ic a r t i fac ts f ro m R ona ldsway s i tes i nc lude h a m mer s t ones a nd mau ls , r ough ly c h ipped c ircu lar s la te s labs , a mace-head w i th h our g lass p er fora t ion f ro m G lencru tchery a nd a p o l ished s tone g ouge f ro m t he s a me s i te . R ona ldsway p roduced a s lab o f f ine g ra ined q uar tzi t ic s ands tone w i th b urn ished h o l lows o nb o th u pper a nd l ower s ur faces , i n terpreted b y t he e xcava tors a s ag r inds tone f or p o l ished s tone a xes , ( Bruce , Megaw a nd Megaw 1 947 , P iggo t t 1 954 ). F ive s ch is tp laques were f ound a t t he R ona ldsway o ccupa tion s i te . Noth ing r ese mb l ing t he m i s k nown f ro m o ther Manx s i tes , ( t he c loses t p ara l le l i s a p laque f ro m G raig Lwyd a l though t h is d i f fers i n an umber o f r espec ts ) . The l arges t p laque i s s l igh t ly l ess t han 8 cm l ong a nd 0 .2 cm t h ick a nd i s o va l i n o u t l ine . One f ace h as a l i gh t ly i nc ised g eo me tr ic d ecora t ion o f c hevrons a nd l ozenges , t he u pper h a lf o f wh ich i s c ons iderab ly more w orn t han t he l ower p ar t , wh ich may b e al a ter a dd i t ion . A sma l ler o blong p laque a lso b ears l i gh t ly i nc ised d ecora tion , c ons is t ing o f c rude ly e xecu ted c hevrons . N one o f t he o ther p laques i s o rna men ted .

I n t wo c ases t he t i p o f t he p iece h as

b een g round t o g ive a n a l mos t s harp e dge .

S tr ia t ions c aused b y g r ind ing a re

v is ible o n s o me e xamples b u t i n o thers h ave b een a l mos t smoothed a way. A l l a re b roken , s ave a n a xe amu le t . T h is o b jec t i s t h icker a nd t he l ong s ides f la t ter t han o ther e xa mp les , a nd h as a n u nused a ppearance . I ti s d i f f icu l t t o k now h ow p ro m inen t ar ole s uch o b jec ts p layed i nd o mes t ic l i fe a t R ona ldsway s i tes , ( b e low p . 2 01) .

The ir n on-appearance a t o ther

s i tes may b e e xp la ined i n an umber o f ways . I ti sp oss ib le t ha t t hey d o n ot o ccur i n t he C ow ley c o l lec t ion b ecause f i e ld wa lkers wou ld h ave t he g reates t d i f f icu l ty i n d is t ingu ish ing t he m f ro m s tones o f n a tura l o r ig in o ccur ing i n t he p lough s o i l . On t he o ther h and t hey d id n o t o ccur a t G lencru tchery o r B i ll own a nd may b e q u i te s i mp ly u n ique . I n v iew o ft h is u ncer tain ty i ts ee ms i nappropr ia te t o r egard t he m a s t yp ica l o f t he c u l ture ( s ee P iggot t 1 954 ) . The P o t tery R ona ldsway p o t tery was d escr ibed a nd c lass i f ied b y C lark ( 1935 ) . s ubsequen t wr i ters h ave f o l lowed t h is c lass i f ica t ion .

A ll

Af a ir ly c o mp le te

d escr ipt ion c an b e f ound i n C lark ( 1 935 ) w i th a dd i t iona l ma ter ia l i n B ruce , 1 94

Megaw a nd Megaw ( 1947 ) a nd B ersu ( 1947) .

C lark d iv ided t he p ot tery i n to

t hree c lasses a ccord ing t o r im f or m . C lass A C lass A v essels a re c haracter ised b y ab eve l led r im u sua l ly a t as harp a ng le , bu t s ome ti mes a t as l igh ter a ng le w i th a s ha l low g roove b e low t he r im , ar ound b ase a nd more o r l ess v er t ica l s ides , Th is p o t tery i s v ery b ad ly made . t o c onvey i t s c rud i ty .

( F ig . 1 3 . 8 :3 ,7 -5 ) .

The t er m , " very c oarse p o t tery" f a i ls .

The f abr ic h as a " p lu m p udd ing" t ex ture c on ta in ing

r ock f ragmen ts , s o me t i mes g rea ter t han 0 .5 cm a cross .

T he c ore o f t he

p o t i s d ark i n c olour , b u t t he s ur faces a re c oa ted w i th a t h ick " s l ip" .

Very

l arge g r i ts s o met i mes p ro trude t hrough t he s l ip a nd i n ter fere w i th t he d ecorat i on , g iv ing t he s ur face a b u mpy a ppearance . u neven .

I ti s b ad ly f ired , t h ick a nd

D ecora t ion o f C lass A v esse ls i s c on f ined t o t he r im a nd c ons is ts

o f r ows o f s hor t i nc is ions , o bl ique , h aphazard s tabs , o r c ircu lar p unc tures a rranged i nt hree h or izon ta l l i nes .

T he d ecora t ion o f a l l c lasses o f R ona lds-

way migh t b e d escr ibed a s f eeb le . The ma jor i ty o f C lass A p o ts a re l arge s torage t ype v esse ls , a l though f our s herds f ro m R ona ldsway w ere o f t he h arder , t h inner ware d escr ibed b e low a nd c a me f ro m sma l ler v esse ls .

Th is c lass o f p ot tery o ccurred a t

R ona ldsway , a s we l l a s a t t he Knocksharry , B a l la teare a nd K i l leaba c e me tery s i tes a nd among t he f inds o f i so la ted u rns . S o me t imes a t h in c arbonaceous l ayer i s v is ib le o n t he i nner s ur face o f t he b ase o f t hese l arge v esse ls .

One s uch s a mple f ro m a C lass A j ar f ound

a t Ba l lagawne i n 1 938 was a na lysed .

The ma ter ia l a ppeared t o c ons is t o f

t he d r ied a nd c arbon ised ( n ot b urn t ) r e ma ins o f f ood , ( Bruce , Megaw a nd Megaw 1 947) . A t R ona ldsway a nd K i l leaba a nd s o me o f t he i sola ted f inds a s lab o f s la te , r ough ly c h ipped t o ac ircu lar s hape h as b een f ound n ear t he mou th o f t he j ar o r n earby .

( An e xa mple f ro m K i l leaba was p er fora ted ) .

Megaw ( 1947) s ug-

g es ts t ha t t he b eve l led r im o f C lass A j ars r epresen ts a means b y wh ich a s k in c over ing c ou ld b e s ecured , t hus k eeping t he s tone s lab i np lace . C lass B C lass B v esse ls a re much l ess c o m mon .

Two s herds f ro m G lencru tchery

o ne f ro m R ona ldsway a nd a j ar f ro m t he Knocksharry c e me tery b e longed t o t h is C lass ,

( Clark 1 935 , B ruce , Megaw a nd Megaw 1 947) .

h ave d eep t h ickened , v ert ica l r i ms .

These v esse ls

The s ides a re more o r l ess s tra igh t .

W. Cubbon r econs truc ted t he Knocksharry C lass B j ar w i th a f la t b ase , b u t t here s ee ms t o b e n o j us t i f ica t ion f or t h is ( C lark 1 935 ) .

The f abr ic o f t hese

v esse ls i s i den t ica l t o C lass A a nd t hey s ee m a lso t o h ave b een s torage t ype j ars , ( F ig . 1 3 .8 :4 ). I so la ted j ars a nd j ars f ro m c e me tery s i tes o f C lass A a nd B w ere c o m mon ly p laced i n i nd iv idua l p i ts w i th t he mou th o f t he v esse l c lose t o t he modern g round s ur face , a nd s o me t i mes w i th a s tone a t t he b ase t o k eep t he j ar u pr igh t , ( C lark 1 935 , B ersu 1 947 ).

1 95

2

4

5

7

1 0

cm .

8

F ig . 1 3.8

C lass A a nd B p o t s herds . 4 .

G lencru tchery ;

6 . 1 96

1 -3 , 5 , 7 -8 .

R a msey B rooghs .

R onaldsway ;

C lass C C lass C v essels a re t he mos t c o m mon c lass a t d o mes t ic s i tes .

T he f or m

o f t hese v esse ls i s marked ly d i f feren t f ro m t he C lass A a nd B v esse ls .

R i ms

a re s i mple , b e ing o g iva l i n s ec t ion , t he s ides a re more o r l ess s tra igh t a nd t he b ases r ound , a lthough t here a re a lso a n u mber o f f la t b ased e xa mp les . The v esse ls a re much sma l ler a nd s ha l lower t han C lass A a nd B j ars . C lark d iv ided t h is c lass i n to t hree s ub-groups . C .1 Vesse ls h ave o g iva l r i ms p roduced b y g radua l t aper ing o f t he s ides . The v esse ls a re p la in e xcep t f or e x terna l d ecora t ion 2 .5 cm o r s o b e low t he t op o f t he r im , d ecora tion .

( F ig . 1 3 .9 :1-3 , 5 -6 ) .

C lark ( 1 935 ) d escr ibed s ix t ypes o f

These c ons is ted o f i nc ised mu l t ip le l i near c hevrons a rranged

b e tween t wo b ands ;

c rude ly i nc ised l ozenges o r d ia monds i n h or izon ta l b ands ;

s tabs made b y as o f t i mp le men t a rranged i n t wo r ows p ass ing r ound h or izont a l ly;

t wo r ows o f s tabs a s a bove , b u t s epara ted b y a wavy l ine , f eebly s cored

b y ab lun t i ns tru men t ;

c unei for m impress ions made b y ah ard i mp le men t im-

p ressed o b l iquely , l i kew ise a rranged i n t wo r ows ;

a nd i rregu lar l i nes f eebly

s cored r ound t he p o t b y ap l ian t s ta lk . One o f t he f ive f l a t b ased v essels o f t h is c lass f ro m Rona ldsway h ad a f eeb ly e xecu ted l a t t ice d ecora t ion s cored b y ap l ian t s ta lk , e x tend ing a bou t 2 .5 cms b elow t he r im . The r i ms o f C 2 v esse ls a re c harac ter ised b y t he ir p rof i les h av ing a s l igh t h or izon ta l r ib p inched u p f ro m t he b ody o f t he p o t a bou t 2 .5 cm b e low t he r im . ( F ig . 1 3 .9 :7 ) . They a re s o me t i mes d ecora ted b y v er t ica l g ashes o r i nc is ions . On o ne s herd f ro m G lencru tchery impress ions made b y a n o b jec t o f h orse s hoe s haped s ec t ion w ere v is ib le im med ia te ly a bove t he r ib . C3 i s s im i lar i n a l l r espec ts t o C 2 s ave t ha t t he r ib i s a pp l ied , n o t worked u p f ro m t he b ody o f t he p o t a nd o ccurs n ear t he r im . f abr ic c an b e d iscerned among C lass C v esse ls .

Two t ypes o f

I n a dd i t ion t o av ery c oarse

f abr ic i den t ica l t o t ha t i n C lasses A a nd B , t he f abr ic o f many C lass C s herds i s t h inner a nd h arder w i th a smoo ther s ur face a nd l ess g r i t ty t ex ture . I n s o me i ns tances where t he c oarser f abr ic h as b een u sed t he v essels h ad b een b e t ter f ired .

Decora t ion i n a l l c ases i s r es tra ined , c ons is t ing o f i nc is ions ,

s tabs a nd impress ions . N o t race o f c ord o rna men t h as b een f ound i n t he I s le o f Man ( C lark 1 935 ) . Two s herds f ro m R ona ldsway v ar ied f ro m G lencru tchery f or ms .

One

h ad an e ver ted r im a bove a r ib a nd was d ecora ted b y p unc tures o nt he t op o f t he r im a nd a t t he t op a ng le o f t he r ib . v arian t o f C lass A .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t i tr epresen ts a

A s im i lar s herd i s r epor ted t o h ave b een f ound a t S card

Rushen , ( Bruce , Megaw a nd Megaw 1 947 ).

The o ther u nusua l s herd h ad a

s l igh t ly e ver ted r im a nd a p la in a pp l ied r ib a bou t 5 cms b e low i t . Min ia ture V essels S ince C lark 's c lass i f ica t ion was p ub l ished t hree min ia ture v esse ls h ave b een f ound a t c e me tery s i tes .

Two o f t hese a re r ound b ased .

T hey a re o f

t h ick s ec t ion a nd t he f abr ic i s c oarse c on ta in ing l arge a ngu lar g r i ts .

The

e xa mp le f ro m B a l la teare h ad a C lass A r im , d ecora ted b y more o r l ess v ert ica l i nc is ions . T he r im o f t he B a l laharra e xa mple h ad b een d es troyed . The r e ma in ing min ia ture v esse l f ro m Ba l la teare was o f as im i lar f abr ic , h ad aC lass A r im a lso d ecora ted w i th v ert ica l i nc is ions , b u t h ad a n arrow f la t b ase w i th p edes ta l f oo t , ( Bersu 1 947 ) . 1 97

4

6

1 0

cm

7

F ig . 1 3.9

C lass C p o t s herds .

1 -6.

1 98

G lencru tehery ;

7 .

B i llown .

I n s ummary t here a ppear t o h ave b een t wo ma in c a tegor ies o f v esse l r epresen ted a t Rona ldsway s i tes ; l arge s torage j ars , c rude ly f ired a nd o f v ery c oarse f abr ics w i th C lass A o r Br i ms ; a nd a v ar ie ty o f sma l ler v esse ls , s ome w i th f l a tb ases a nd s o me made o f af iner , h arder f abr ic h av ing r i ms o f C lasses A a nd C . T he l a t ter s ee m t o h ave b een o f al argely d o mes t ic c harac ter . Ap rob le m p ar t icu lar t o t he Manx l a ter N eo l i th ic a nd e ar ly Bronze Age i s t he a l mos t c o mplete a bsence o f B eaker p o t tery ( C lark 1 935 ). I ti s t e mp t ing t ob e lieve t ha t af u l ler u nders tand ing o f t he R ona ldsway ma ter ia l migh t h e lp e xp lain t h is c ur ious om iss ion . D iscuss ion I n t he t h ir ty y ears wh ich h ave p assed s ince t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t he R ona ldsw ay Cu l ture a n umber o f impor tan t a dvances h ave b een made i n o ur u nders tanding o f t he B r i t ish N eo l i th ic . The mos t impor tan t c hange a r ises f ro m t he d eve lopmen t o f r ad io-carbon d a t ing t echn iques . I ti s n ow r ecogn ised t ha t t he N eo l i th ic i nt he B r i t ish I s les e x tends o ver a p er iod o f a t l eas t t wen tythree c en tur ies ( Renfrew 1 974 ). Th is makes a n onsense o f e ar l ier mode ls o f N eo l i th ic B r i ta in wh ich e nv isaged a P r i mary c o lon isa t ion b y waves o f migran t f ar mers , e ach g roup i n troducing i t s own c u l tura l t ra i ts , r ep laced w i th in a r e la t ive ly s hor t t ime b y ag roup o f s econdary N eo l i th ic C u l tures , h ybr ids o f a bor ig ina l mesol i th ic t rad i t ions a nd t hose o f t he P r imary c o lon ies . R ecen t wr i ters h ave a bandoned t he c oncep ts o f ap r i mary "W ind m i l l H i l l C u l ture" a nd o f t he " SevernC o tswo ld" , " C lyde-Car ling ford" a nd s im i lar " Cu l tures" . Sm i th , ( 1974 ) , h as p o in ted o u t t he u nder lying u n i ty o f t he N eo l i th ic p er iod a s r epresen ted b y i t s f l in t a nd s t one work ing t rad i t ions a nd i n terpre ts t he c u l tura l d e ter m inan ts emphas ised b y a n e ar l ier g enera t ion o f s cholars a s r eg iona l v ar ia t ions o f a n e ssen t ia l ly h o mogenous t rad i t ion . Th is s h i f t i n emphas is p oses t he q ues t ion a s t o whe ther i ti s s t i l l v a l id t o r egard t he R ona ldsway ma ter ia l i n t er ms o f ad is tinc t c u l ture . The i mpor tance a t tached t op o t tery e v idence h as a lso c hanged .

The p os-

s ibi li ty t ha t s pecia l is t p o t ters may h ave b een d is tr ibu t ing t heir wares o ver c onsiderab le d is tances a s e ar ly a s t he N eo l i th ic h as b een r a ised b y Dr . P eacock 's work o nt he p e tro log ica l i den t i f ica t ion o f c lays u sed i n H embury s ty le a sse mb lages ( Peacock 1 969 ) .

T here i s n o e v idence t ha t s pec ia l is t p o t ters were

t he r u le t hroughou t t he Br i t ish I s les , d ur ing t he e n t ire N eo l i th ic , b u t t heir e xis tence w ou ld c ons t i tu te a r easonab le e xp lana t ion o f t he c ons iderable o ver lap n oted b e tween many s ty les ( e .g ., G rooved Ware a nd B eaker s ty les ). Dr . Sm i th n o tes t ha t N eo l i th ic f l in twork s hows a u n i ty o f t rad i t ion u nder lying a l l s uch v ar iables a s p o t tery s t y les a nd b ur ia l r i tes , ( Sm i th 1 974 ). F ur ther more , p o t tery i sb e ing r e-c lass i f ied . O ld t ype-s i te n o menc la tures a re b e ing a bandoned a s i nves t iga t ion r evea ls w ide ly d ispersed p o t tery s ty les w i th l oca l v ar ia t ions a nd s ubs ty les ( e .g ., G rooved Ware ( Wainwr igh t a nd Longwor th 1 971) , a nd S andh i l ls Ware , ( Case 1 961 ) ) . The R ona ldsway d o mes t ic e v idence a ccords t o lerab ly we l l w i th t he n ew u nders tanding o f t he n eo l i th ic o u t l ined a bove . T he s truc ture a t R ona ldsway i s o ne o fo n ly t wen ty o r s o d o mes t ic b u i ld ings f ro m t he N eo l i th ic k nown i n Br i ta in ( McInnes 1 971 ).

T he c loses t p ara l le l i s Moun t P leasan t , G la morgan .

1 99

B o th s truc tures were r ec tangu lar , t he wa l ls f or med o f p os ts w i th s tone f oo t ings a nd t he r oo f s uppor ted b y c en tra l l i nes o f p os ts , ad oub le r ow a t R ona ldsway , as ing le r ow a t Moun t P leasan t , as ing le e n trance s ee ms t o h ave e x is ted .

( McInnes 1 971).

A t e ach s i te

S ing le e n tranced , r ec tangu lar

h ouses w i th c en tra l p os ts a nd s tone f oot ings c lose ly s im i lar t o Moun t P leasan t a nd R ona ldsway a re l i s ted b y P iggo t a t H a ldon , ( Devon ) , a nd C legyr Boia , ( Pe mbroke ) a s b e long ing t o t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic ( P iggo t t 1 954 ) .

H ouse s i tes

f ro m t he H ebr ides a nd a t S kara B rae s how ap reference f or a r ec tangu lar i nt erna l p lan , c en tra l h earth a nd s ing le e n trance ( McInnes 1 971 ).

An o va l

dwe l l ing a t N ess o f Grun tr ig , S he t land h ad b een d ug i n to t he o ld g round s urf ace a s a t R ona ldsway . The R ona ldsway s truc ture wou ld a ppear t o a ccord we l l w i th a c on t inu ing t rad i t ion o f t imber b u i l t r ec tangu lar , i so la ted f ar ms teads f ound o ver a w ide a rea o f wes tern B r i ta in .

I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t R ona ldsway d o mes t ic

s i tes r e f lec t ap a t tern o f i so la ted f ar ms teads l y ing b elow t h 4 00 f oo t c on tour , ( Bruce , Megaw a nd Megaw 1 947 ) . c au t ion . O .D.

S uch a n i n terpreta t ion mus t b e v iewed w i th

The max i mu m l im i t o f modern a rab le f ar m ing l i es a t a bou t 6 00 f t

As mos t o f t he s i tes h ave b een i den ti f ied b y f inds made i np lough s o i l t h

t he d is tr ibu t ion p a t tern o f s i tes may we l l r e f lec t modern a gr icu l tura l p rac t ice r a ther t han a nc ien t s e t t le men t .

Tha t t he s i tes r epresen t s ing le i sola ted

f ar ms teads may a lso b e o pen t o q ues t ion . I n a reas where f ie ld w a lk ing h as b een mos t i n tens ive , n o tab ly a round P ee l , t he d is tr ibu t ion o f s i tes s ee ms f a ir ly d ense .

Moreover t he s ize o f s pread a nd n umber o f f inds a t s o me s i tes ,

C ubbon 's F ie ld , Knocksharry a nd B a l lagyr f or e xa mple , s ee ms u ndu ly l arge f or s uch a n i n terpre ta t ion .

T h is may b e t he r esu l t o f p ro longed o ccupa tion a nd

c en tur ies o f p lough ing , o f c ourse , b u t i t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t he I ron Age a nd V ik ing V i l lage s i te a d jacen t t o t he R ona ldsway o ccupa t ion s i te ( Nee ly 1 940 ) a ppears t o h ave p roduced s o me n eo l i th ic R ona ldsway ma ter ia l a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he R ona ldsway o ccupa t ion s i te was p ar t o f a more c o mp lex s e t t le men t .

Wh i ls t we mus t r e ly o n t he l im i ted e vidence p resen t ly a t o ur

d isposa l , q ues t ions s uch a s t hese c anno t b e s a t is fac tor i ly r esolved . I n s o me r espec ts R ona ldsway f l in t work a lso d e mons tra tes t he u n i ty o f t rad i t ion wh ich c on t inued t hroughou t t he n eo l i th ic i n Br i ta in ( S mi th 1 974 ). C oncave s aws o ccur i n t he I s le o f Man i n t he p resu mably e ar l ier mega l i th ic monu men ts a t Meayl l , C ash ta l-yn-Ard a nd B a l laharra . They a re r e la tively c o m mon i n U ls ter where t hey a re s im i lar ly a ssoc ia ted w i th megal i th ic c ha mbered t o mbs ( F lanagan 1 965 , P iggo t t 1 954 ) .

Rho mbo ida l a rrowheads

o f t he t ype f ound a t R ona ldsway a nd B a l laharra c an b e p ara l lel led t hroughou t t he a rea o f t he C lyde-Car l ing ford t o mbs a nd a re c lose ly s im i lar i n s hape i f n o t i n work mansh ip t o a rrowheads f ound i n Manx mega l i th ic monumen ts . Rho mboida l a rrowheads o f s im i lar f or m o ccur i n N or thern Eng land a lso . ( P iggo t t 1 954 ).

A s im i lar w idespread d is tr ibu t ion c an b e f ound f or t he

p o lished-edge k n ives . T hese o ccur i n C lyde-Car l ing ford t o mbs , a t R inyo a nd S kara B rae , a t Dugg leby , ( E. R . Y orks ) , a t S ea mer Moor ( N .R . Y orks ) a nd a t t he G op C ave ( C lwyd ) ( P iggo t t 1 954 ).

F l in t b lades w i th s erra ted e dges

f or med p ar t o f t he N eo l i th ic t oo l k i t t hroughou t t he B r i t ish I s les ( P iggo t t 1 954 , Sm i th 1 974 ) . Apar t f ro m t he ir sma l l s ize , p robab ly a ccoun ted f or b y t he a va i lab le f l in t s upp ly , sma l l n odu les o ccur ing i n g rave ls a nd o n t he s ea-shore , t he 2 00

minature axes and adzes are not markedly different from flint tools of this type found elsewhere in the British Isles. The triangular outline and the practice of polishing only the cutting edge is by no means uncommon, (Piggott 1954, Smith 1974). This leaves three artifact types which have some claim to be unique to the Ronaldsway culture, truncated and roughened butt axes, humped backed scrapers and Ronaldsway pottery. (The schist plaques are excluded from this list on the grounds that whilst they have no close parallels elsewhere they cannot be regarded as typical of the Ronaldsway culture (above p. 194 ). Their significance within the culture cannot be determined by one isolated find). In the case of the truncated and roughened butt axes, as has been argued above (p.184), we appear to be dealing with a class of object of insular manu­ facture. Apart from the isolated finds, (above p. 184) there is no evidence that these constituted an important type outside the Isle of Man. ( I do not find the references in Bruce, Megaw and Megaw ( 1947) convincing. The examples mentioned in Evans (1872) bear little resemblance to the Ronaldsway form and Kendrick and Hawkes (1932) cannot be interpreted as indicating that this is a particularly significant form. Judgment on the quest!on of the dis­ tribution of such axes and their origins must await completion of the polished stone implement survey for the Northern parts of Britain.) Humped back scrapers do not appear to occur elsewhere. The fact that pebbles were sometimes selected for their humped shape and split in such a way as to utilise that feature (above p.187) seems to indicate that the shape held some particular significance for the manufacturers. On the other hand the presence of other scraper forms at most Ronaldsway sites bas been noted, and at a number the humped back scraper does not appear to have been the most favoured form. It is possible that humped back scrapers merely reflect a reluctance to spoil a workable pebble by the more sophisticated treatment which would be necessary to produce a blank with a flat top facet. The impor­ tant criterion for making scrapers is the production of a convex scraping edge on a dipping flake. Humped back scrapers fulfil this criterion. Indications of wear seem entirely consistent with their being used in the same manner as other scrapers. In view of the preference not�d above, (p. 187) for a rec­ tangular or trapezoid in all scrapers belonging to the Ronaldsway assemblages, it is tempting to regard hwnped-back scrapers as a local adaptation of the convex scraper tradition, wide spread in Neolithic Britain. The Ronaldsway pottery presents a similar problem. No precise para­ llels afford themselves from elswhere in Britain. However a number of bevelled rim forms occur elsewhere in the British Isles and considerable efforts have been made to relate these types. (Piggott, 1954, Case, 1961, Henshall 1972, etc.). It seems that large, thick walled, round based, more or less straight sided, bevelled rimmed vessels were widely distributed throughout Britain, occurring as Peterborough ware over much of Southern England, Towthorpe Ware in Yorkshire, Beacharra A in Western Scotland and Case's Dundrum sub-style of Sandhills Ware in Ireland. These styles bear a generic resemblance to Ronaldsway Class A storage jars. Occasional examples of each of these styles bear a more striking resemblance to 201

Ronaldsway examples. The Peterborough vessel from Icklingham is similar in form to Ronaldsway Class A storage jars, and its bevelled rim bears de­ coration consisting of rows of punctulations (Piggott 1954). Both Piggott (1954) and Henshall (1972) relate these styles to Irish Dundrum bowls. These vessels have massive decorated rims or collars and decoration consisting of jabs or grooves or twisted cord impressions is usually confined to the rim, a feature they share with Ronaldsway Class A (Case 1961). A Towthorpe Ware Vessel from Carnaby Top site 14 (Yorks) has a deep collar like rim, decorated by oblique incisions and its globular form is reminiscent with Ronaldsway Class A pottery. (Manby 1965). The simple rimmed flat based ve�els of Class C have been compared to Grooved Ware and Lough Gur vessels (Piggott 1954, Bruce, Megaw and Megaw 1947). Case (1961) noted that the Knockad�on style of Lough Gur Class II vessels were made of an unprepossessing fabric, thick, rough and blotchy containing prominent grits and with careless treatment of the surface. The form of these pots is tubby with slightly curved walls and flat bases with protruding foot. Decoration is almost always confined to a zone near the rim, incised lines being most frequent. Lattice or angular motives are most common, sometimes appearing as regular patterns, but are generally haphazard. Cord impressions are rare. In these respects this substyle of Lough Gur II resembles Ronaldsway Class C vessels. Round bases probably occur in this class of vessels (Case 1961) and may provide a parallel for some of the class C round based pots from Ronaldsway and Glencrutchery. Rims however differ, being flat or slightly rounded and internal bevels are frequent (Case 1961). In form, if not in texture or decoration the flat based Ronaldsway vessels resemble certain Grooved Ware forms. Longworth's rim forms from Durrington Walls (Nos. 1, 2 and 7) (Wainwright and Longworth 1971), have their echoes in the simple rim forms of Ronaldsway Class C. The three forms of base angle, simple, concave and protruding (Wainwright and Longworth 1971) are all represented among Ronaldsway sherds. Furthermore the prac­ tice of applying a horizontal cordon, sometimes decorated, on Class C vessels is reminiscent of certain Grooved Ware techniques. The chronological overlap of both Peterborough and Grooved Wares (Smith 1974) and the Dundrum sub­ style of Sandhills ware and the Knockadoon sub-style of Lough Gur Class II ware (Case 1961), would accord well with the co-existence of Ronaldsway Classes A and C. Both Piggott and Megaw were at pains to stress that the Ronaldsway Culture could be placed securely within the family of late Neolithic cultures of the British Isles. (Piggott 1954, Bruce, Megaw and Megaw 1947). However they were also at pains to establish that the Ronaldsway Culture had elements which were unique to it, and that differentiated it from other late Neolithic Cultures. In the foregoing discussion an attempt has been made to show that the Ronalds­ way Culture � be interpreted in accordance with the view that the British Neolithic was essentially homogenous and that the "cultural traits" emphasised by earlier scholars are variations on a common theme (Smith 1974). It would be foolish to pretend that this case has been proven beyond reasonable doubt. Humped back scrapers, roughened and truncated butt axes, and Ronaldsway pottery styles may be local variations of forms found throughout the British 202

I s les .

Whe ther t hey a re t o b e r egarded a s a ny th ing more d epends l arge ly o n

whe ther s uch v ar ia t ions o f f orm s hou ld b e i n terpre ted a s c u l tura l d e ter m inan ts , aq ues t ion b eyond t he s cope o f t h is r ev iew t o d ec ide . I ti s a lso p rob le ma t ica l whe ther t he R ona ldsway s i tes r epresen t ac oheren t c u l ture .

T o av ery l arge e x ten t t h is d i f f icu l ty a r ises o u t o f t he s hor tco m ings

o f t he e v idence a t o ur d isposa l .

Much o f t he f l in t work a scr ibed t o t he

R ona ldsway c u l ture i s a lso f ound a t a n e ar l ier p er iod .

Th is p oses t he q ues t ion

a s t o whe ther r oughened a nd t run ca ted b u t t a xes a nd h u mped b ack s crapers a re a lways c on te mporary w i th o ne a nother o r a lways c on te mporary w i th a l l R ona ldsway p o t tery s tyles . a nswer .

A t p resen t t h is i s aq ues t ion i ncapable o f a n

T hese t hree c lasses o f a r ti fac t were c er ta in ly c on te mporary a t

R ona ldsway a nd i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he o ther R ona ldsway t ypes ; p robab ly c on te mporary a t G lencru tchery a nd B i l lown .

t hey were

Were t hey c on te mporary

a t t he u nexcava ted s i tes? The e v idence e i ther way i n i nconc lus ive . R ona ldsway d i f fered i n an u mber o f r espec ts f ro m b o th B i l lown a nd G lencru tchery a nd f ro m t he c ol lec t ions f ro m u nexcava ted s i tes . was u nusua l ly h igh .

The p ercen tage o f h umped b ack s crapers

There w as a n u nusua l ly h igh n u mber o f a xes , b oth p o l ished

a nd o f t he f l in t min ia ture t ype .

S ch is t p laques h ave n ot o ccurred a t o ther s i tes .

Does t h is mean t ha t R ona ldsway i s n o t t yp ica l o f t he c u l ture o r d oes i t mean t ha t t here h as b een c on ta mina t ion o r d i f feren t ia l c o l lec t ion a t o ther o ther s i tes? The f ac t t ha t R ona ldsway p ot tery n ever o ccurs a s as ur face f ind ( presumab ly b ecause t he b ad ly f ired f abr ic c anno t w i ths tand wea ther ing ) f ur ther c o mpl ica tes t he i ssue , b ecause i tp rec ludes c o mpar ing t he o ccurrence o f t he d i f feren t c lasses o f p o t tery w i th t he f requency o f o ccurrence o f o ther a r ti fac t f or ms . A ma jor p roble m i s r a ised b y o ur t o ta l i gnorance o f when t he d i f feren t c lasses o f R ona ldsway p ot tery o r t he r oughened a nd t runca ted b u t t a xes a nd h umped b ack s crapers c a me i n to o r w en t o u t o f u se , wh ich mus t a f fec t t he ir v a lue a s i nd ica tors o f R ona ldsway C u l ture s e t t le men t . I ndeed t he d a t ing o f t he c u l ture , a s a who le , i s b y n o means s a t is fac tor i ly d e ter m ined . R ona ldsway was u nusua l ly r ich , Dr . G arrad h as d rawn my a t ten t ion t o t he s ource o f c opper a t L angness a s hor t d is tance f ro m i ta nd s ugges ts t ha t t he h ouse may b e long i n t he E ar ly B ronze Age r a ther t han N eo l i th ic p er iod . S uch a c onc lus ion migh t b e i n k eep ing w i th s o me o f t he e v idence f ro m K i l leaba C e me tery S i tes D irec t e v idence f or t he d a t ing o f t he R ona ldsway C u l ture d er ives f ro m r ad io-carbon d e ter m ina t ions f ro m t wo c e me tery s i tes .

E va lua t ion o f t h is

e v idence r equ ires t ha t t he o ther ma jor e le men t i n t he R ona ldsway C u l ture , i t s f unerary monumen ts , n ow b e c ons idered . F our c e metery s i tes h ave b een e xcava ted . e xcava ted d ur ing t he 1 930s ( Cubbon , W . 1 934 ) .

Knocksharry , G er man was As w i th t he d o mes t ic s i te

i nves t iga ted b y t he s a me e xcava tor , p ub l ica t ion o f t h is s i te l eaves much t o b e d es ired .

T he p lans a nd s ect ions i np ar t icu lar a re v i tua l ly mean ing less .

B a l la teare , J urby ( Bersu 1 947 ) was f ound p ar t ia l ly c overed b y aV ik ing b ur ia l mound i n 1 946.

B a l la teare w as c are fu l ly e xcava ted a nd we l l p ub l ished a s i s

t o b e e xpec ted f ro m s o f ine a n e xcava tor a s B ersu .

Un for tunate ly e xcava t ion

t ook p lace b e fore t he a va i lab i l i ty o f r ad io-carbon d a t ing .

I n 1 968-69 a mound

wh ich p roved t o b e o f g lac ia l o r ig in , b u t r epu ted ly o f a rchaeo log ica l s ign i f icance was i nves t igated b y Mr . A .M . C ubbon a t K i l leaba n ear R a msey . At wo p hase 2 03

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f ounda t ion t rench

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modern d is turbances

b urn ing p i t --- l im i t o f e xcava tion X

c re ma t ion d epos i t

F ig . 1 3 .10

B a l la teare c e me tery .

2 04

( a f ter B ersu )

c eme tery , t he l a ter p hase p roducing E ar ly Bronze Age f ood v essels , t he e ar l ier aR ona ldsway c e metery , was r evea led .

R ad io-carbon d e ter m ina t ions were

o b ta ined f or s o me o f t he R ona ldsway f ea tures .

Miss S . C regeen e xcava t ing

a n u nsuspec ted Mega l i th ic c is t r evea led b y s and q uarry ing a t B a l laharra , G erman i n 1 971 , f ound e v idence o f r i tes wh ich h ave b een a scr ibed t o t he R ona ldsway C u l ture o n t he b as is o f p o t tery f ound i n a ssocia t ion w i th t he m . R ad io-carbon d ates were o b ta ined f or R ona ldsway f ea tures . Av ar ie ty o f f ea tures was r evea led a t t hese c e me tery s i tes .

For t he s ake o f c lar i ty , t he

mos t c o mprehens ive s i te , B a l la teare , w i l l b e d escr ibed f irs t . As h as b een i ndica ted a bove , p ar t o f t he B a l la teare c e me tery was s ea led b enea th a V ik ing Age b arrow .

I tl ay i n af ar myard o n al ow r idge o f g lac ia l

o r ig in i n t he p arish o f J urby o n t he I s le o f Man 's

N or thern p la in .

I n t he a rea s ea led b y t he V ik ing b arrow t he s i te h ad b een p rotected . E lsewhere t he g round s ur face h ad b een e roded b y a gr icu l tura l a c t iv i t ies a nd d is turbed b y t he d igg ing o f p o ta to c la mps .

Approx i ma tely 1 0 cm o f o ld h u mus

h ad b een r emoved b y t hese a c t iv i t ies . ( F ig . 1 3 .10 ) I n a n e xcava ted a rea o f a bou t 1 5 x1 0 m ad ivers i ty o f f ea tures was r evea led . Abou t t h ir ty c ircu lar o r o va l h o l lows 1 -2 m i n d ia meter a nd n o t more t han 6 0 cm d eep w ere s ca t tered o ver t he a rea e xcava ted . T he b ot to ms t ended t o b e f la t a nd t he s ides were n o t s teep ly i nc l ined . e ach o ther .

I n s o me c ases t hey c u t i n to

They were f i l led w i th l i gh t s andy s oi l c on tain ing s cat tered f rag-

men ts o f c harcoa l a nd c a lc ined b one , a nd s o me c ores a nd f l in t f lakes .

F our

h o l lows f i l led w i th d ark s o i l were d is tr ibu ted w ide ly o ver t he e xcava ted a rea . T hey were f i l led w i th wh i te a nd b rown s ands , wh ich c on tained b ands o f b lack s ooty e ar th c on tain ing c harcoa l a nd l ayers o f r ed a sh i n wh ich c re ma ted b one o ccurred , s o me ti mes i n l ayers .

F ragmen ts o f R ona ldsway p o t tery f lakes

a nd c ores a nd a h umped b ack s craper a re r epor ted a s c om ing f ro m t hese h o llows . Ten d epos i ts o f c re ma ted b one were f ound d irec t ly u nder t he modern h umus . ( I n o ne c ase where p rotec ted b y t he b arrow , i tl ay b eanea th t he o ld g round s urface ) .

T he a bsence o f c harcoa l a nd t he c o mpac t n a ture o f t hese d epos i ts

s ugges ts t ha t t hey h ad b een p laced i n c on ta iners o f s o me p er ishab le ma ter ia l s uch a s l ea ther b ags .

A t l eas t f ive o f t hese d epos i ts were r epor ted t o b e t he

c re ma t ions o f c h i ldren . ( Assoc ia ted w i th o ne c re ma t ion was t he sma l l v esse l w i th C lass A r im a nd p edes ta l f oo t d escr ibed a bove ( p . 1 97 ) ) .

The d eposi ts w ere f ound i n a l l p ar ts o f t he c e me tery s i te w i th a g rea ter d ens i ty i nt he e as tern p ar t . ' Quan t i t ies o f c re ma ted b one were r epor ted a s h aving b een d is turbed d ur ing t he d igg ing o f t he p o ta to c la mps , wh ich n o d oubt r epresen ted f ur ther c o mpac t c re ma t ions o f t h is t ype . S ix l arge s torage j ars , a l l w i th C lass A r i ms , were f ound s e t v er t ica l ly i n sma l l p i ts . I n o ne l ay t he b ase o f a sma l l v esse l . I n a no ther c ase t he v esse l l ay h or izon ta l ly w i th in a l arger f l a t ter p i t t han u sua l .

The u pper p ar t

o f t h is j ar h ad b een d es troyed , b u t t he l ower p ar t , s t i l l l y ing i n s i tu h ad b een f i l led w i th c re ma ted b one , s o me o f wh ich h ad s pi l led o u t i n to t he p i t .

I ns ide

t he j ar w as a min ia ture v esse l w i th r ound b ase a nd C lass A r im , ( above , p . 1 97 ) a lso f i l led w i th c re ma ted b one , ap o lished e dge k n i fe ( above , p . 1 92 ) a nd 2 05

t he u pper p ar t o f ac a lcined b one p in . F ive o f t hese s ix j ars a nd t he r e ma ins o f t wo o ther e xa mp les , d es troyed i n modern t imes l ay i n a n a rea c . 3x 4 m i n e x ten t c lose b y a nd t o t he e as t o f o ne o f t he h o l lows c on ta in ing s t ra ti f ied c rema ted b one . I nt he n or thern p ar t o f t he e xcava ted a rea a d i tch , p robab ly p enannu lar , w i th a V-shaped s ec t ion , h ad b een c u t t o ad ep th o f 7 0 cm i n to t he s ubsoi l . I t was o n ly p ar t ly e xcava ted a nd o n ly o ne t erm ina l was e xposed . s ee med t o b e o va l w i th a n e as t-wes t a x is .

T he d i tch

T he g ap was t o t he n or th-wes t .

B ersu ( 1 947 ) i n ferred a no ther g ap t o t he s ou th-wes t .

T he c u t t ing o f t he d i tch

p os t d a ted a t l eas t o ne c re ma t ion , wh ich h ad s l ipped i n to t he d i tch f i l l . E lsewhere were f our r ows o f p os t-ho les .

T hese c ons is ted o f c y l indr ica l

h o les , 4 0-50 cm i n d ia me ter , c u t t o ad ep th o f 7 0-80 cm f ro m t he o ld g round s ur face i n to t he s ubsoi l ( where t he s ur face h ad b een s ea led b y t he V ik ing b arrow ; s tones .

s ha l lower e lsewhere ) .

The e dges w ere c are fu l ly l ined w i th p ack ing

P os t-pipes , where r ecovered , were c . 3 0 cm i n d ia me ter .

Two g roups o f t hree p os t-ho les ( 3 .8 a nd 3 .5 m l ong ) r an i n s tra igh t l ines , n or th-sou th , 2m a par t f ro m e ach o ther a t t he s ou th e nd a nd 4 m a par t a t t he n or thern e nd .

At h ird g roup o f t hree p os ts r an i n as tra igh t l ine ( 3 .2 m l ong )

e as t-wes t , s o me 5 m n or th o f t he f irs t t wo g roups .

The f our th g roup a lso i n

as tra igh t l ine r an 1 6 m e as t-wes t , c ross ing g roups o ne a nd t wo , a nd c ons is ted o f e leven p os ts . i n terva ls .

The p os ts o f a l l g roups were e ven ly s paced a t a bou t 1m

A s l igh t ly l arger g ap t han u sua l

b e tween t he s ix th a nd s even th

p os ts o f g roup f our may i nd ica te t ha t t h is was i n f ac t t wo s epara te g roups . The p os t-ho les p os t-da ted t he h o l lows f i l led w i th l igh t s and a nd p re-date t he V ik ing mound . B ersu ( 1 947) a rgued t ha t t he c re ma t ion f ea tures a t B a l la teare b e longed t o t he s a me a rchaeo log ica l p er iod .

The s torage j ars were a l l a like i nf or m a nd

t echn ique a nd were i den t ica l t o t he j ar c on ta in ing c re ma ted b one .

T h is j ar

c on ta ined t he r ound b ased min ia ture s im i lar , i n a l l r espec ts s ave s i ze , t o t he s torage j ars .

H e a lso ma in ta ined t ha t t he o ther sma l l v esse l , f ound i n

a ssoc ia t ion w i th a c o mpac t c re ma t ion , was c lose ly s im i lar t o t he o ther v esse ls o n t he s i te s ave i n i t s s ize a nd c ur ious p edes ta l f oo t a nd t ha t t here fore , s torage j ars , t he min ia ture a nd sma l l v esse ls a nd c o mpac t c re ma t ions , b e longed t o t he s a me a rchaeo log ica l p er iod . I n t he a bsence o f s tra t igraphy a t B a l la teare i t was imposs ible t o e s tabl ish c on te mporane i ty s ave i n t h is manner . Bersu 's a rgu men ts f or r egard ing t he p i ts w i th s tra t i f ied c re mated b one a s c on te mporary w i th b o th s torage j ars a nd c o mpac t c re ma t ions r es ted o nt wo a ssu mpt ions .

F irs t , t ha t t he R ona ld s way p ot tery i nt he f i l l o f t hese p i ts was

c on te mporary w i th t heir u se , a nd n o t t he r e ma ins o f p o ts d es troyed d ur ing t he ir d igg ing .

S econd ly , t ha t t hese p i ts , wh ich h e d escr ibed a s " Us tr inae" , h ad

h ad f unera l p yres b u i l t o ver t he m .

T he a shes a nd c re ma ted b one o f t he c orpses

h ad f a l len i n to t he p i ts a nd h ad s ubsequen t ly b een c o l lec ted a nd b ur ied e lsewhere . H ence h e c onc luded t ha t t he c o mpac t c re ma t ions a nd b urn ing p i ts b elonged t o t he s a me a rchaeo log ica l p er iod .

2 06

The hollows containing Light sandy soil were interpreted as temporary occupation. These nollows filled rapidly with wind blown sand after use and the presence of charcoal fragments and calcineá bone indicated that the filling had occurred whilst the site was used as a cemetery. Thus, the pottery forms, the polished-edge knife and the humped back scraper, suggested contemporaneity with the Ronaldsway domestic site. Bersu kept an open mind about the post-holes and hollows filled with light sand. The post-holes predated the Viking barrow. The ditch appeared to be a foundation trench but the absence of occupation material seemed to exclude its use as a habitation. The ditch post-dated at least one cremation deposit, but could have been dug at almost any date. Bersu seemed to have established a distinct burial rite associated with the Ronaldsway culture. It was now possible to re-interpret Knocksharry in the light of the Balla­ teare cemetery, (above p. 179 ). The Knocksharry cemetery seems to have lain 6n a natural glacial mound. In two areas the gravel had been scraped away and the cavities filled with dark loam. Elsewhere pockets of dark soil were noted. A p latform of water worn stones 1. 5 m square containing ashes, fragments of human bone and a quantity of charcoal was discovered. A similar feature described as an "incineration platform" covered with ash, charcoal fragments and cremated bones is also recorded at this site. Two 'fburial areas" appear to have been pits containing dark loam and cremated bone. Sherds of "coarse pottery" were numerous and sorne 50 sherds of "dark thinner" ware were recovered. Five Ronaldsway storage jars, four with class A rims and one with Class B rim were found at Knocksharry. (Cubbon, W. 1934). In the absence of meaningful plans it is difficult to interpret Knocksharry. It is possible that the two 'fburial" areas were pits like Bersu' s "Ustrinae". There is no mention of compact cremations, hollows filled with light sandy soil, or post-holes. However, in view of the techniques adopted at this site, this does not preclude their presence. The incineration platforms are diffi­ cult to understand because they are inadequately described. Whether they were contemporary with the rest of the site is impossible to ascertain. Discovery of two further cremation sites, which produced Ronaldsway pottery did little to establish a coherent burial rite. Killeaba was a two period cemetery set in a prominent mound of natural origin (above ). The features belonging to the earlier period were grouped around an ova1 hollow 2. 5 m long and O. 7 m wide, which contained evidence of prolonged and repeated burning. No cremated bone was found in this pit, although it was sought assiduously by the excavators (A. M. Cubbon, pers. comm. ). Two compact cremation deposits were found in shallow oval pits, the larger lying to the north of the burning pit, the smaller to the west. Both were approxi­ mately 1. 5 m from the edge of the burning pit. Scattered cremated bone in a disturbed area 3 m north-west of the burning pit may represent a third such deposit. North-east, south-east and south-west of the burning pit, at a distance of between �- O. 5 m and O. 7 5 m were three roughly oval pits. A fourth lay just beyond the south-eastern pit. They varied between 1 m and 3. 5 m across and contained evidence of timber staining in the soil. This staining, in all

207

cases, was roughly rectangular, up to 1. 6 O m long and le ss than O. 5 m in width. Two pits contained scattered cremated bone, in one instance both inside and outside the area of timber staining. The further pit contained a compact cremation. The pit to the north east appeared not to have held cremated bone. This pit had a Ronaldsway Class A jar inserted into the fill of the pit, above the edge of the timber staining. Most of these pits contained stones which may have been used to hold the timbers in place. A second Class A storage jar was found roughly equidistant from the burning pit and the compact cremation north of it and appeared to post-date the earliest use of the burning pit. The later period burials also appeared to be arranged around the burning pit, generally just beyond the period one features. Of three typical Early Bronze Age stone cists attributed to this phase, two are known to have con­ tained food vessels of Irish Bowl form. Two more Food Vessels were found, one in association with a scattered cremation deposit in a pit, the other in isolation close by. Three small stone cists were found near the larger cists, two of which could be demonstrated stratigraphically to be later than them. Burial rites varied in the second period at Killeaba. One of the large cists produced a soil stain indicating a flexed inhumation. Two of the three small cists produced compact cremations. A stone ''platform" consisting of a roughly circular pile of stones 2 m x 2. 5 m which lay about 8. 5 m north of the burning pit, could not be assigned with confidence to any period, nor could two scattered cremations deposits, which lay on the periphery of the main south-east concentration of burial features, be assigned to either period. Interpretation of Killeaba has proved unexpectedly difficult. At first sight, it seems apparent that all features were positioned with respect to the burning pit. The compact cremations are closely similar to those at Ba.llateare and are probably late Neolithic. The Ronaldsway pottery clearly post-dates one of the timber lined pits. Hence Mr. Cubbon believes that they represent an additional element in Ronaldsway funerary practice (pers. comm.). The stone cists were e lose to, but did not disturb, the period one f eatures. Considering that they were placed within a fairly restricted area, it seems possible that they were virtually contemporary with period one features. The stone cists are of typical Early Bronze Age form and two contained food vessels. There seems no reason why they cannot be assigned to the Early Bronze Age. The small cists can be demonstrated stratigraphically to post­ date the larger cists. It is tempting to argue continuous use of the site and see timber lined pits as the fore-runner of stone cists. The mixture of cremation and inhumation in the second period features might be taken as confirming such a view. The radio-carbon determinations however seriously upset such an inter­ pretation. Radio-carbon dates from Killeaba were as follows: Burning pit:

4,310±72b.c.

208

(BM 838)

Timber lined pit Tl:

2,431: 58 b.c.

(BM 839)

Timber lined pit Tll:

2,350:: 52 b.c.

(BM 840)

If taken at its face value the first date would place the burning pit which seems to be the focal point of the cemetery, in the Mesolithic. In the absence of any other evidence of mesolithic occupation Mr. Cubbon inclines towards the view that the sample is incorrect, attributing the ea�ly date to the use as a fuel of bog oak which was already old when burned. Such an interpretation might equally apply to the timber lined pits far, if the second and third dates are correct they would preclude any possibility of cultural contact. Evidence from the fourth cemetery site, Ballaharra, casts sorne doubt on such an explanation. This site consisted of a megalithic structure, revealed by sand quarrying in the winter of 1971. Miss Cregeen and a group of volun­ teers mounted a rescue excavation, which recovered the plan of this structure, and found pottery comparable to that from Meayll circle and other remains from within the damaged chamber. Adjacent to the megalithic structure we e two oval pits containing compacted cremated bone and charcoal. The larger of the two pits contained the remains of 4 broken flint arrowheads, (above p. 190) exhibiting evidence of delicate and controlled pressure flaking and a minature pottery vessel, which iacked its rim, but was similar in all other respects to the round based miniature found at Ballateare (above p. 197). Miss Cregeen believes that there is sorne evidence to show that these pits post-d.....�ed the building of the megalith. In the larger of the two pits the compact cremated remains of at least 36 individuals were found. The smaller pit contained the remains of 3-4 indi­ viduals. Radio-carbon dates were obtained for the Ronaldsway features at Ballaharra as follows: Sample 1:

2,275:67b.c.

(BM 768)

Sample 2:

2,283 � 59 b. c.

(BM 769)

The clase correlation between the dates of these samples and Tl and Tll at Killeaba constitutes the majar objection to acceptance of Mr. Cubbon's old bog oak argument. The following explanations might be put forward to explain the Killeaba and Ballaharra radio-carbon determinations. l. The dates are correct (with the possible exception of the burning pit). 2. The Killeaba dates are biased by the use of old wood as fue 1, but the Ballaharra dates are accurate. 3. Both Ballaharra and Killeaba dates are biased by the use of old wood as fuel. On present evidence there seems to be little to choose between these possi­ bilities. The second and third arguments have not been established by direct observation only by speculation, although it must be pointed out that both sites lie adjacent to places which could have supplied old bog oak. It has not yet been established that old bog oak would have constituted a fuel preferable to 209

T imber l i ned p i t s t

B urn ing p i t w i thout c rema ted b one

K i l leaba

C 14

B u rn ing p i t w i t h s t ra t i f i ed c r ema ted b o n e

Mu l t ip le

c ompac t c remat ions

B a l lahc irra

Da tes

C n 2ma 1 1° nT e m p o r a rn y o cc u p a t i o i p— , i _ h o l lows

1

P os t - s e t t ings 1

C omp ac t C r ema t io ns

M in iar ure V esse ls

B o l lat ear e R ona ldswa y

R ona ldsw ay

6 r ora c le V esse ls

S torage V esse ls

C o rrpac t.

C ompac t 1 C rZ i r r ä t tons

? C rema t io—r i t ?

B u rn ing p i t w i t h s t ri t if i e c i c r ema t ed b one ? K nocksharry

R o na ld sway S to rage V es se ls

I so la ted V psse ls

P l a tf orms F ig . 1 3 .11

A t temp ted r econci l ia t ion o f t he d ivers i ty o f f eature a t R ona ldsway c e me tery s i tes . 2 10

wood , wh ich c ou ld h ave b een o bta ined e lsewhere , o r t ha t t he c arbon d a tes c o inc ide w i th ap er iod o f o pt i mum g row th o f b og o ak , b o th o f wh ich wou ld c ons iderably s treng then t he c ase .

On t he o ther h and a ccep tance o f t he K i l leaba

d a tes wou ld p resen t f or m id ible d i f f icu l t ies i n i n terpre t ing t he s i te . a rgumen t f or a ccep t ing t he d a te i s n o t e n t irely s a t is fac tory .

T he

One r e me mbers

t ha t r ad io-carbon d a tes were f requen t ly r e jec ted i n t he 1 950s , mos t n o tably a t D urr ing ton Wa l ls , a s a rchaeo log ica l ly u naccep tab le , y e t t hey l a ter p roved t o b e c orrec t , ( Wa inwr igh t a nd L ongwor th 1 971) .

C onsequen t ly o ne f ee ls

d is inc l ined t o r e ject C 14 d a tes o u t o f h and . D iscussion B a l laharra a nd K i l leaba a dded o ther p rob le ms t o i n terpre ta t ion o f c e me tery s i tes a par t f ro m t he d i f f icu l t ies o u t l ined a bove . m ises .

These a re b ased o n t wo p re-

F irs t , t ha t t hey a dded n ew e le men ts t o a n a lready c o mp lex a rray o f

b ur ia l prac t ices a nd s econd ly t ha t a t n o s i te was i tp oss ib le t o d e mons tra te s tra t igraph ica l ly t ha t a l l t he f ea tures were c lose ly c on te mporary .

B ersu

( 1 947) , was a b le t o a rgue o n ly t ha t t he d i f feren t c re ma t ion f ea tures b e longed t o t he s a me a rchaeo log ica l p er iod . I th as b een p oin ted o u t ( above p . 2 06 ) t ha t we h ave n o i dea h ow l ong t ha t p er iod may h ave b een . I fi ti s a ccep ted t ha t Rona ldsway C lass A s torage j ars a re g ener ica l ly s im i lar t o P e terborough , a nd c er ta in S andh i l ls Wares ( a bove p . 2 01 ) a nd t ha t t hey may h ave b een s im il ar ly l ong l i ved ( Sm i th 1 975 a nd C ase 1 961 ) , t hen t here i s ac ons iderab le t ime b racket i n to wh ich t he c e me ter ies c ou ld b e f i t ted . F ig . 1 3 .11 a t te mp ts t o s how d iagra ma t ica l ly t he d i f f icu l t ies o f r econc i l ing t he d ivers i ty o f f ea tures a t R ona ldsway c e me tery s i tes .

I ti s a pparen t t ha t

c orrela t ion b etween t he s i tes r es ts o n t he p resence o f R ona ldsway p o t tery s ty les , c o mpac t c re ma t ions , a nd C 14 d a t ing . T hus B a l la teare i s r e la ted t o K i l leaba , Knocksharry a nd t he i so la ted v esse ls b y t he p resence o f R ona ldsway s torage v esse ls , a nd t o B a llaharra b y s im i lar i t ies b e tween min ia ture v esse ls wh ich b o th s i tes p roduced .

P ara l le ls b e tween B a l la teare a nd K i l leaba a re s treng thened

b y t he p resence o f c o mpac t c re ma t ion d epos i ts a t b o th s i tes .

( I t i s p oss ible

t ha t t he i so la ted v esse ls a nd t he Knocksharry c e me tery s hou ld b e i ncluded amongs t t he s i tes wh ich h ave p roduced c o mpac t c re ma t ions ) .

K i l leaba a nd

B a llaharra may b e r ela ted t o e ach o ther b y t he c lose a gree men t b e tween t he r adio-carbon d e ter m ina t ions b o th s i tes p roduced , a l though t here may b e r eason t o q ues t ion t h is ( above p . 2 09 ) . H owever f ig . 1 3 .11 a lso makes c lear t ha t i ti s o n ly R ona ldsway p o t tery a nd a p redi lic t ion f or c re ma t ion wh ich p rov ides a s ecure l ink b e tween a l l t he c e me tery s i tes .

E ach s i te p roduced u n ique f ea tures , B a l la teare was t he o n ly

s i te a t w h ich h o l lows c on ta in ing l i gh t s o i l , a nd a c re ma t ion i n ap o t tery v essel o ccurred .

There i s n o e v idence t ha t B ersu 's " Us tr inae" ( i .e . p i ts c on ta in ing

e vidence o f r epea ted b urn ing a nd s tra t i f ied c re ma ted b one ) o ccur e lsewhere , a lthough i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t hey were p resen t a t Knocksharry . The B urn ing P i t a t K i l leaba p roduced n o s tra ti f ied c re ma ted b one a nd c anno t b e r egarded a s a na logous t o t he B ersu 's " Us tr inae" .

The p os t-ho les a nd f ounda t ion t rench

a t B a l la teare a re n o t r epea ted e lsewhere b u t may n o t b e c on te mporary w i th t he c eme tery . I ti s d i f ficu l t t o b e c er ta in wha t f ea tures were p resen t a t Knocksharry . The o n ly c lear r e ferences a re t o R ona ldsway p o t tery wh ich was p resen t i n a bundance a nd t o c re ma t ion p la t for ms , wh ich i fc orrec t ly i n terpre ted a re

2 11

u n ique t o t ha t s i te .

As i n t he c ase o f t he s truc tura l f ea tures a t B a l lateare

t hey may n o t b e c on te mporary w i th t he r es t o f t he s i te . A t K i l leaba t he t imber l ined p i ts a re u n ique a s i s t he b urn ing p i t c on ta in ing n o c re ma ted b one .

B a l laharra i s i nc luded among t he R ona ldsway c e me tery

s i tes o n t he b as is o f i t s min ia ture v esse ls a nd ( r a ther s uspect ) C 14 d ates . T he o ther B a l laharra f ea tures , t he c o mpact c re ma t ion o f l arge n umbers o f i nd iv idua ls i s n ot r epea ted e lsewhere . I ndeed i ti s n o t imposs ib le t ha t t hese c re ma t ions a re o f b ones c leared o u t o f t he mega l i th ic s tructure a nd h ave n o r ea l c onnec t ion w i th t he R ona ld s way c e me ter ies a t a l l . The i so la ted f inds o f R ona ldsway s torage j ars h ave b een i nc luded i n f ig . 1 3 .11 b ecause t hey w ere o f ten i n a ssocia t ion w i th c re ma ted h u man b one .

Megaw

( Bruce , Megaw a nd Megaw 1 947 ) empha t ica l ly r e jec ts t he v iew t ha t t hey h e ld c re ma ted b one a nd t he t er m c inerary u rn o f ten u sed t o d escr ibe t he m ( C lark 1 935 ) .

H owever t he p oor r ecord ing o f s uch f inds makes i td i ff icu l t t o b e

c er ta in t ha t t h is was t he c ase .

T hey were c lear ly b e l ieved t o h ave c on ta ined

c re ma ted h uman b one r e ma ins b y t he ir d iscoverers a nd t hose t o w ho m t hey were r epor ted .

T he p resence o f av esse l a t B a l la teare c on ta in ing c re ma ted

b one may c ons t i tu te r easons f or n o t r e jec t ing s uch r epor ts o f h and . Three p oss ible e xp lana t ions c an b e a dvanced f or t he d ivers i ty o f b uria l p ract ices a t R ona ldsway s i tes : 1 .

The d i f feren t f ea tures - c o mpac t s ing le c re ma t ions , c o mpact

mu l t ip le c re ma t ions , t imber l ined p i ts , c re ma t ions w ith in s torage j ars min ia ture v essels , a nd j us t p oss ib ly , p la t for ms a nd p os t-holes were i n u se t hroughou t t he p er iod a nd t heir a ppearance o r n ona ppearance a t ap ar t icu lar s i te r e flec ts t he f unerary t as tes o f t he c o m mun i t ies , wh ich u sed t he s i te . 2 .

Tha t t he d i f feren t f ea tures a re n o t c on te mporary b u t r e f lec t

c hang ing p rac t ice o ver a p er iod o f t ime , h ence t he g rouping o f f ea tures a t B a l la teare ( above p . 2 05 ) . 3 .

Tha t s o me o f t he f ea tures a re n o t c on te mporary b u t o thers -

p erhaps t he u se o f s torage v esse ls , c o mpac t c re ma t ions a nd c re mat ion/ b urn ing p i ts - were i n v ogue t hrough much o f t he p er iod .

I ft he i ndi-

v idua l c e me ter ies w ere n o t c on te mporary , t h is wou ld e xp la in t he f requency o f t hese f ea tures a t c er ta in s i tes , a nd t he r ar i ty o f o thers .

A s t he

e v idence s tands a t p resen t t here s ee ms l i t tle t o c hoose b etween t hese v iews . The p oss ib i l i ty o f t he c e me ter ies b eing b road ly c on te mporary r es ts o n t he n o t u nreasonab le a ssump tion t ha t R ona ldsway C lass A a nd B j ars b e longed t o t he s a me p er iod o f t ime . I t migh t a lso b e p oin ted o u t t ha t aw ide v ar ie ty o f f unerary p ract ices c an c o-ex is t q u i te h appi ly i n modern s oc ie t ies .

T he

e v idence h owever w i l l n o t p er m i t ad e f in i t ion o f t he l eng th o f t ime s uch a p er iod c ou ld o ccupy .

T he f a ir ly l im i ted e x ten t o f t he c e me tery s i tes wou ld s ee m t o

i nd ica te t ha t t hey were v ir tua l ly c on te mporary , s ince i nd iv idua l f eatures d o n o t d is turb e ach o ther . I ft he s econd p oss ibi l i ty t ha t f ea tures a t R ona ldsway s i tes a re n ot c on te mp orary i s t o b e b e l ieved t hen t he e v idence f ro m K i l leaba i s o f t he g rea tes t impor tance . I n terpreta t ion o f t h is s i te d epends u pon whe ther we a ccep t t he C 14 d a tes a s c orrec t . I ft hey a re c orrec t t hen t he b urn ing p i t h as t o b e long 2 12

i n t he mesol i th ic a nd mus t b e u nconnec ted w i th t he o ther f ea tures .

T he p ro m i-

n en t c en tral p os i t ion o f t he b urn ing p i t a nd t he manner i n wh ich o ther f ea tures r espec t i t mus t b e e n t ire ly f or tu i tous .

I ti s p oss ible t ha t i t s c en tra l p os i t ion

a nd i t s r ela t ionsh ip t o o ther f ea tures i s ar e f lec t ion o f t he c on f igura t ion o f t he g lac ia l mound r a ther t han a r e f lec t ion o f t he impor tance o f t he p i t .

The marked

d i f ference b e tween t h is p i t wh ich c on ta ined n o s tra ti f ied c re ma ted b ones a nd B ersu 's " Us tr inae" a t B a l la teare may a lso b e o f s o me s ign i f icance , i n t h is r espec t . I ti s d i f ficu l t t o b e l ieve t ha t t he t ype o f r i te p os tu la ted b y B ersu c an h ave t aken p lace a t K i l leaba w i thou t l eav ing s o me t race o f b one i n t he p i t . T he d is tr ibu t ion o f f ea tures a t Ba l la teare c an a lso b e i n terpre ted a s i nd ic a t ing t ha t t hey a re n o t c on te mporary , i th as b een n o ted t ha t p ar t icu lar t ypes o f f ea ture a re l ocated i n s l igh t ly d i f fer ing l oca l i t ies , ( f ig . 1 3 .10 ) t hus t here i s ac oncen tra t ion o f s torage j ars t o t he s ou th-eas t a nd a c oncen tra t ion o f c o mpact c re ma t ions a s l igh t d is tance f rom i t .

F ur ther more a s s tra t igraphy i s l ack ing

t here i s n o e v idence t ha t t hey were c on te mporary .

On t he o ther h and t hese

f ea tures o ccup ied a l im i ted a rea , a s a t t he o ther s i tes , a nd t h is c an b e t aken a s e v idence t ha t t hose who d epos i ted t he m were a ware o f o ther f ea tures a t t he s i te. At h ird e xp lana t ion mus t b e c ons idered , t ha t i s t ha t s o me f ea tures may h ave b een l ong l ived a nd o thers c a me i n to v ogue d ur ing t he p er iod i n q ues t ion . Among t he l ong l ived t rad i t ions were t he d epos i t ing o f s torage j ars a nd t he r i te o f c re ma t ion .

Those t hat c a me i n to u se d ur ing t he R ona ldsway p eriod migh t

i nc lude r i tes s uch a s b ur ia l i n t imber l ined p i ts .

J us t i f ica t ion o f t h is a rgu men t

c an b e f ound i n t he d eve lop men t o f t he r i te o f c re ma t ion , i fo ne i s p repared t o a ccep t t ha t t he e v idence w i l l b ear s uch a c ons truc t ion . A t Ba l laharra t he l arger p i t , wh ich c on ta ined t he c re ma ted r e ma ins o f t h ir ty-six i nd iv idua ls , c an b e i n terpre ted a s af or m o f c o l lec t ive b ur ia l . f ea ture

T h is

may we l l h ave b een a ssoc ia ted w i th c o l lec t ive b ur ia l w i th in t he mega l-

i t h ic s truc ture .

S o me we igh t i s g iven t o s uch a c on jec ture b y t he a rrowheads

wh ich were f ound w e l l s tra t i f ied among t he c re ma ted b one a nd wh ich were s im i lar i n an u mber o f r espec ts , p ar t icu lar ly t he ir d e l ica te p ressure f lak ing t o a rrowheads f ound w i th in t he s truc ture . A t B a l la teare t he p i ts wh ich b ore e v idence o f r epea ted b urn ing a nd c on ta ined s tra ti f ied c re ma ted b one h ad b een u sed o n n umerous o ccas ions a nd t heir u se may b e i n terpre ted a s p ar t o f ac o l lec t ive r i te .

T he b ur ia l o f t he d ead i n c o m-

p ac t d epos i ts i n sma l l p i ts f o l lowed c re ma t ion i n t hese l arger p i ts , a ccord ing t o B ersu . There fore b one c o l lec t ive a nd i nd iv idua l e le men ts a re p resen t i n t he Ba lla teare c e me tery . A t K i l leaba t he c en tra l b urn ing p i t c on ta ined n o c a lc ined b one wha tsoever . A l though i th ad b een u sed r epea ted ly l i ke t hose a t Ba l la teare , i t s ee ms u n l ike ly t o h ave p layed a p ar t i n as im i lar r i tua l .

T he i nd iv idua l e le men t t he d epos i t ing

o f t he d ead i n c o mpac t c re ma tions i n sma l l p i ts , was p resen t . C re ma t ion was a lso t he method o f d isposa l f avoured i n t hree o f t he f our t imber b ur ia l p i ts , a nd c on tinued t o b e u sed i n t he s econd p er iod .

C re ma t ions were f ourd

i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th a f ood v esse l a nd i n t wo o f t he sma l l s tone c is ts . I t i s p oss ible t ha t t he f i rs t a nd s econd p er iod a t K i l leaba were t o s o me e x ten t c on te mporaneous .

I nhuma t ion wh ich was u sed w i th in t he E ar ly Bronze

2 13

Age s tone c is ts may a lso h ave b een t he r i te a dop ted i n t he t imber l ined p i t p os t-da ted b y t he R ona ldsway s torage j ar a s n o c re ma ted b one w as f ound i n t h is f ea ture .

I ft h is i s t he c ase t hen t he r i tes i n t he t wo p er iods i ncluded b oth

i nhuma t ion a nd c re ma t ion .

Fur ther e v idence f or s uch a c onc lus ion may b e

f urn ished b y o ne o f t he c o mpac t c re ma t ions wh ich a pparen t ly p os t-da tes a s tone c is t . The c e me tery s i tes may c over a l eng thy p er iod o f t ime .

I ti sp oss ib le

a t o ne e x tre me t o r e la te t he c o llec t ive c re ma t ions a t B a l la teare t o t he u se o f t he mega l i th ic s tructure .

B a l la teare c ou ld r epresen t a n i n ter im s tage w i th

b o th c o l lec t ive a nd i nd iv idua l f ea tures r epresen ted .

A t t he o ther e x tre me a t

K i l leaba o n ly i nd iv idua l c re ma t ions a ppear t o b e p resen t a nd t he R ona ldsway b ur ia ls may b e c lose c hrono log ica l ly t o t he E ar ly Bronze Age f ea tures .

S uch

a n a rgumen t wou ld r equ ire t ha t t he C 14 d a tes f or t he t imber b ur ia l p i ts a t K i l leaba s hou ld b e r e jec ted a s mis lead ing . Qu i te c lear ly t he B a l laharra a nd K i l leaba r ad io-carbon d a tes c annot b e a ccep ted a s d a t ing t he R ona ldsway p er iod . g arded a s s uspec t .

T he K i l leaba d a tes mus t b e r e-

E ven i ft hey a re a ccep ted t he f ea tures t hey d a te a re

a no ma lous ( s ee f ig . 1 3 .11) a nd p rov ide o n ly a t er m inus p os t q ue m f or R ona lds way p o t tery .

A t B a l laharra t oo , t hey d a te a n a no ma ly ( mu l tiple c re mat ion

d epos i ts ) wh ich d a tes b y t he a ssocia t ion o f min ia ture v essels a no ther a no ma ly ( a c re ma t ion d epos i t i n as torage j ar ) .

Un t i l f ur ther e v idence i s f or thco m ing

i n t he f or m o f as equence o f r ad io-carbon d a tes f or d o mes t ic s i tes a nd v ar ious f ea tures a t c e me tery s i tes , a nd u n t i l t he b og-oak c on troversy i s i nves tiga ted t he e v idence mus t r e ma in c on trad ic tory a nd p oss ib ly mis lead ing . A t ten t ion s hou ld n ow b e t urned f ro m t he i n terna l c on trad ict ions o f t he R ona ldsway c e me tery s i tes t o i n terpre ta t ion o f t he m w i th in t he w ider c on tex t o f n eo l i th ic f unerary p rac t ice . C re ma t ion , t he r i te p rac t iced a t t he R ona ldsway s i tes , h as a f a ir ly l ong a nces try i n t he n eo l i th ic i n n or th-wes t B r i ta in .

E lsewhere i n t h is v o lu me

M iss H ensha l l h as d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he d o minance o f t h is r i te i n t he Manx Mega l i th ic a nd p o in ted t o a ssoc ia t ions i n I re land , S co t land a nd N or thern Eng land .

I tw i l l a lso b e r eca l led t ha t t he f l in t w ork wh ich t hese s i tes p roduced

i s a lso r e f lec ted a t Manx Mega l i th ic s i tes a nd i th as b een p o in ted o u t t ha t i n s o me r espec ts R ona ldsway f l in t d er ives f ro m t h is p er iod . C re ma t ions i n ap i t o ccurred a t t he B a l la fay lA c a irn a nd i s r e la ted t o t he Yorksh ire c re ma t ion p i t t rad i t ion , wh ich h as o u t l iers i n s ou th-wes tern S cot land a nd a t Dun loy i n I re land .

L a ter i n t he n eo l i th ic t he p rac t ice o f c re-

ma t ing t he d ead o f f unera l p yres i n p i ts c an b e p ara l le led a t t he Bryn C el li Dhu ( He mp 1 930 ) a nd L landega i ( Hou lder 1 968 ) " henges" . C re ma t ion c e me ter ies a lso o ccur a t many " henge" s i tes .

C re ma t ions

were d epos i ted i np i ts a t D orches ter , 1 , i v-v i a nd x i ( A tk inson , P iggo t t a nd S anders , 1 951) i n t he Aubrey H o les a t S tonehenge ( A tk inson 1 969 ) a nd a t C a irnpapp le ( P iggo t t 1 950 ) . I f we c hoose t o r egard K i l leaba a s a n " ersa tz" r ound b arrow a f ur ther p ara l le l c an b e d rawn .

A t H owe H i l l , Dugg leby ( E .R . Y orks ) f i f ty c re ma tions

h ad b een i nser ted a s s econdary b ur ia ls i n to a l arge r ound b arrow o f N eo li th ic d a te ( Mor t i mer 1 905 ) . a nd L i t t 's L ow , B igg in ,

S im i lar r ound b arrows a re k nown f ro m S ea mer Moor ( Derby ) ,

( P iggo t t 1 954 ) . 2 14

H owever i t mus t b e a pprec ia ted t ha t t he R ona ldsway c e me ter ies p roduced n o o ther f ea tures c o mparab le t o t he h enge t rad i t ion o f Grea t B r i ta in . E ven t he l a ter i nser t ions i n to l arge r ound b arrows c an b e s een a s o n ly r ese mb l ing i n g enera l t erms t hose o f t he r es t o f B r i ta in . A s f ar a s c an b e a scer tained R ona ldsway c e me ter ies were f requen t ly n o t i nser ted i n to p ro m inen t f ea tures , n a tura l o r o therwise , a nd d o n ot s ee m t o h ave t he b anks a nd d i tches wh ich s o s pectacu lar ly d e l inea ted t he h enge s i tes . The c e me tery s i tes c an b e c o mpared i n o n ly g enera l t er ms w i th t hose o f t he r es t o f t he Br i t ish I s les .

H owever t hey a ppear t o a ccord w i th o bserva t ions

made a bou t t he c u l ture i n g enera l .

T here i s e v idence t ha t i td er ives f ro m

e ar l ier t rad i t ions p reva len t i nt he N or th Wes tern B r i t ish I s les . S um mary The a rgumen ts p resen t i nt h is p aper may b e s um mar ised b ear ing t hese t he mes i n m ind .

Mos t o f t he R ona ldsway f l in t s ee ms t o d er ive f ro m e ar l ier

s ources ( a bove , p . 2 00 ) a nd i s c o mparab le t o f l in t i ndus tr ies i n N or thern I re land ( a bove , p . 2 01) a nd N or thern B r i ta in .

A t p resen t , h owever , i ta ppears t ha t

r oughened a nd t runca ted b u t t p o lished s tone a xes a nd h u mped b ack s crapers a re a Manx v ar ia t ion o n ag enera l t he me p reva len t t hroughou t t he B r i t ish I s les ( a bove , p . 2 01). p a t tern .

E v idence f ro m d o mes t ic s i tes s ee m t o c on f ir m t h is g enera l

T he Rona ldsway N eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s i te ( a bove , p . 1 82 ) c an b e

c o mpared t o t he sma l l n umber o f s i tes f ro m t he Wes tern B r i t ish I s les wh ich a re s im i lar morpho log ica l ly ( a bove , p . 2 00 ) . may b e r e f lec ted i n t h is e v idence

Ap a t tern o f i so la ted f ar m ing

( a bove , p . 2 00 ) ( a l though c ons ider ing t he t iny

p ropor t ion o f Manx s i tes wh ich h ave b een a dequa tely e xcava ted t here i s s o me r eason f or c au t ion ( a bove , p . 2 00 ) ).

I ft h is i s t he c ase t hen d o mes t ic a spec ts

o f t he R ona ldsway c u l ture may a lso b e c ons idered t o d er ive f ro m a n e ar l ier p er iod . Po t tery e vidence s ee ms t o p oin t t o s o me c on tac t w i th t he t rad i t ions wh ich p roduced b o th t he f a ir ly l ong l i ved b eve l led r im f or ms ( a bove , p . 2 01 ) a nd t he f l a t based f or ms , wh ich wou ld a rgue a l a ter N eo l i th ic d a te .

( above , p . 2 02 ).

T he p o t tery s ee ms t o h ave b een o f i nsu lar manu fac ture . ( a bove , p . 2 02 ) . The c en tra l p rob le m r e ma ins t ha t o f e v idence . F irs t , t here i s o n ly l im i ted v a lue t o b e p laced o n t he e v idence f ro m t he d o mes t ic s i tes p ar t icu lar ly i n v iew o f t he f ac t t ha t t here i s o n ly o ne a dequa te ly r ecorded e xcava t ion . t o e s tab l ish a c oheren t p ic ture o f t he f unerary r i tes .

I ti s d i f f icu l t

Prob le ms o f i n terpreta t ion

o f t he e xcava ted e xa mples o f c e me tery s i tes a re p ar t icu lar ly i n trac tab le ( above p . 2 14 ) .

S econd ly , t he i n terpre ta t ion o f s ur face a nd c asua l f inds i s b ese t b y

c ircu lar a rgu men ts .

B ecause RTB a xes , h u mped b ack s crapers a nd R ona ldsway

p ot tery o ccurred t oge ther a t Rona ldsway , t hey a re t here fore r egarded a s d iagnos t ic o f t he c u l ture .

A t B i l lown a nd G lencru tchery t he e v idence f or t he

a ssoc ia t ion o f RTB a xes w i th p o t tery i s s can t ( above , p . 1 84 ) a nd h u mped b ack s crapers a ppear t o o ccur a t ad i f feren t f requency ( a bove , p . 1 87 ) . I ti s imposs ib le t o a scer ta in whe ther t h is d i fference i s r ea l o ra ppears t o b e t rue mere ly b ec ause o f t he i nadequa te n a ture o f t he r ecords .

H owever i ti s s t i l l n o t k nown

whether t hese t hree a r ti fac t f or ms o ver lap c hrono log ica l ly ( a bove , p . 2 03 ) . S i tes a re a ttr ibu ted t o t he R ona ldsway p hase o n t he b as is o f t he p resence o f o ne o f t hese t ypes a nd t h is p roduces t he c ircu lar a rgumen t t ha t a l l R ona ldsway s i tes p roduce o ne o r more o f t hese f or ms . 2 15

The e f fec t o f d eve lop men ts wh ich h ave t aken p lace i n t he l as t t h ir ty y ears h as b een t o c on fuse r a ther t han c lar i fy t he R ona ldsway c u l ture .

I n an umber

o f r espec ts d oubt h as b een c as t o n Megaw 's h ypo thes is o f 1 947.

The r ecen t

e xcava t ions o f R ona ldsway c e me ter ies h ave f a i led t o p roduce a c oheren t p a t tern o f b ur ia l w i th in t ha t p er iod .

S evera l a l terna t ive e xp lana t ions c an b e

a dvanced t o e xp la in t he d iverse e le men ts me t w i th a t t hese s i tes , n one o f wh ich c an b e a ccep ted w i thou t s er ious r eserva t ions .

T he r ad io-carbon d eter m ina t ions

o bta ined i n r ecen t e xcava t ions s erve t o c o mp lica te r a ther t han c lar i fy r i tes a t t he c e me ter ies . Modern a rchaeo log ica l t hough t

l arge ly r e jec ts t he c oncep ts o n wh ich t he

h ypo thes is o f aR ona ldsway c u l ture was b ased .

I n many r espec ts t he ma ter ia l

a t tr ibu ted t o t he R ona ldsway c u l ture a ccords w e l l w i th t he n ew c on f igura t ions wh ich a re emerg ing b u t b ecause o f t he l im i ta t ions o f t he e v idence n ew p a t terns a re d i f f icu l t t o d iscern .

I ti s t e mp t ing t o p ropo se t ha t t he t er m " Rona ldsway

C u l ture" b e a bandoned i n f avour o f s o me e xpress ion more i n k eep ing w i th c urren t t h ink ing b u t o ne c anno t b e c er ta in wha t s hou ld b e s ubs t i tu ted f or i t . T he p hrase l a ter Manx N eo l i th ic h as much t o r eco m men t i t , s ave t ha t we c annot b e c er ta in i n v iew o f t he e v idence o f K i l leaba , t ha t t he p er iod i s e xc lus ive ly N eo l i th ic .

Wi th r egard t o d a t ing a l l t ha t c an b e r easonab ly i n ferred i s t ha t

t he R ona ldsway c e me ter ies s ee m t o p os t d a te t he b ui ld ing o f t he Mega li th ic a t Ba l laharra a nd p re-da te o r may b e c on te mporaneous w i th t he E ar ly Bronze Age c is ts a t K i l leaba .

Un t i l more p rec ise d a t ing e v idence c an b e o bta ined

i tw ou ld b e p re ma ture t o a bandon t he t er m .

A cknow ledge men ts Iw ish t o r ecord my g ra te fu l t hanks t o t he s ta f f o f t he Manx Museu m .

I n

p ar t icu lar Iw ou ld l i ke t o t hank i t s D irec tor Mr . A . M. C ubbon who g ave me i n for ma t ion a bou t h is e xcava t ions a t K i l leaba i n a dvance o f p ub lica t ion a nd whose c o m men ts s aved me f ro m n u merous e rrors o f f act . Dr . L arch Garrad , i t s A ss is tan t D irec tor made t he C ow ley C o l lec t ion a va i lab le t o me a nd g ave me t he b ene f i t o f h er a dv ice a nd k now ledge .

Iw ish t o t hank M iss S hei la

C regeen who a lso g ave me i n for ma t ion i n a dvance o f p ub l ica t ion .

My w i fe ,

Mary Mo f fa t t d rew a l l t he i l lus tra t ions a nd Mr . P .J . D avey g ave me much e ncourage men t a nd c orrec ted t he t ype s cr ip t .

B ib l iography A tk inson , R .J .C ., P iggo t t , C . M. a nd S andars , N ., 1 951. D orches ter , Oxon , P ar t I . A tk inson , R .J .C ., 1 960 . B ersu , G ., 1 947.

E xcava t ions a t

A sh mo lean Museum , Ox ford .

S tonehenge ,

( Pe l ican E d i t ion ) L ondon .

A C e me tery o f t he R ona ldsway C u l ture a t B a l lateare ,

J urby , I s le o f Man , P .P .S ., X I I . Bruce , J .R ., Megaw , E .M . a nd Megaw , B .R .S ., 1 947.

A N eo li th ic S i te a t

R ona ldsway I s le o f Man , P .P.S . X I I . C ase , H ., 1 961.

I r ish n eo l i th ic p o t tery :

XXVI I . 2 16

d is tr ibu t ion a nd s equence , P .P.S .

C lark , J . G.D., 1 935 . C ubbon , W., 1 934.

T he Preh is tory o f t he I s le o f Man , P .P.S . I .

C e metery a t Knocksharry , I .O. M. N .H . A.S . Proc.,

5 . C ubbon , W., 1 945 . Evans , J ., 1 872.

S tone C ircle a t B i l lown , I .O. M. N .H .A .S . P roc ., i v , 4 . The Ancien t S tone Imple men ts , Weapons a nd Orna men ts o f

Grea t B r i tain , L ondon . F lanagan , L .N . W., 1 965 .

F l in t H ol low S crapers a nd t he I r ish N eo li th ic

Es tra t to d ag lo A t ti d e V I C ongresso I n ternaziona le d e l le S cience Pre is tor iche V o l . I ., R o me . F leure , H .J . a nd Nee ly , G .J .H., 1 936.

C ash ta l y n Ard , Maughold , I s le o f

Man , An t. J . XV I . H e mp , W.J ., 1 930 .

The C ha mbered C a irn a t Bryn C e l l i Ddu , Arch LXXX .

H ensha ll , A .S . 1 963 , 1 972.

C ha mbered T o mbs o f S co t land , 2 Vo ls ., Ed inburgh .

H erd man a nd Ker mode , 1 914. H ou lder , C ., 1 968 .

Manx An t iqu i t ies , L iverpoo l .

T he h enge monu men t a t L landega i , An t . 4 2.

K endrick , T . D. a nd H awkes , C . F. C., 1 932 . Wa les .

Archaeology i n E ng land a nd

L ondon .

McInnes , I .J ., 1 971.

S et t le men ts i n l a te N eo li th ic Br i ta in , i n S i mpson , D . D. A.,

( e d .) , Econo my a nd s et t le men ts i n N eol i th ic a nd Ear ly Bronze Age B r i ta in a nd E urope , L e ices ter . Manby , T .G ., 1 975 .

N eo l i th ic Occupa t ion s i tes o n t he Y orksh ire Wolds ,

Y orksh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , V o l . 4 7. Mor ti mer , J .R ., 1 905 .

F or ty Years R esearches i n B r i ta in a nd S axon Bur ia l

G rounds o f E as t Yorksh ire , L ondon . N eely , G .J . H., 1 940 .

Excavat ions a t R ona ldsway , I s le o f Man , An t . J ., XX , I .

P eacock , D . P.S ., 1 969 . P iggo t t , S ., 1 948 .

N eo li th ic p ot tery p roduct ion i n C ornwal l , An t . 4 3.

The E xcava tions a t C a irnpapp le H i l l , Wes t Lo thian ,

P .S. A.S . 8 2. P iggo t t , S ., 1 954 . Ren frew , C .,

N eo li th ic Cu l tures i n t he Br i t ish I s les , London .

( ed .) , 1 974 .

Smi th , I .F., 1 974 .

B r i t ish P reh is tory , A N ew C u lture , London .

The N eo li th ic , i n R en frew , C .,

( ed .) , Br i tish Preh is tory

a New Ou t l ine , L ondon . Swinner ton , F ., 1 884.

The Ear ly C is ts a nd R efuse H eaps a t P or t S t . Mary ,

I. 0 .M .N .H . A.S .J . Wainwr igh t , G .J ., a nd L ongwor th , I .H ., 1 971. 1 966-68 , L ondon .

2 17

Durr ing ton Wa lls :

E xcava tions

1 4.

BRONZE AGE METALWORK FROM THE I SLE OF MA N b y P . J . Davey

Recen t s tud ies i n Br ita in a nd I reland h ave e stabl ished t he c haracter a nd c hrono logy o f Bronze Age me ta l lurgy i n s o me d egree o f d eta il . B ronze Age metal lurgy i n s ome d egree o f d eta il.

A n u mber o f

A n u mber o f i n ter-related

t he mes h ave o ccup ied t he a rchaeo log ists i nvo lved. The most i mportan t o f t hese a re t he e stabl ish men t o f t ypo log ies , t hrough r e la ted a ssoc iat ions , t he p roduct ion o f a bso lu te c hrono log ies b y t he e stab l ish men t o f l inks w ith t he more s ecurely d a ted European s equences, t he s c ien t if ic s tudy o f d eve lop ing t echn o log ies b y e le men ta l a na lys is a nd t he a t te mpt t o w iderstand t he mechan is ms i nvo lved i n t he d ispers ion o f n ew s ty les a nd t echn iques.

The p os it ion o f Man

i n t he I r ish S ea , p o ised b etween S cot land , I reland a nd Eng land , makes i ta n i dea l s amp l ing p o in t f or s tudy ing t he c ross-curren ts o f a rt ifacts, i deas a nd p eop le a f fect ing t he w ho le a rea.

The a im o f t he p resen t p aper i s , b y b r ing ing

t ogether a l l t he r ecorded meta lwork f rom t he i s land , t o a ssess t he p os it ion o f Man i n t he o vera l l p icture s o f ar e stabl ished a nd t o c ons ider h ow f ar t hese t he mes may b e i l lum ina ted b y as tudy o f t he Manx ma ter ia l . The most importan t e arly s tudy o f t he b ronzes f ro m t he i s land w as t hat p ubl ished b y K er mode i n 1 923 , i n wh ich h e p resen ted t he r esu lts o f a n e le ment a l a na lys is c arr ied o u t b y Mr . W. A . Fy f fe , t he Manx Publ ic Ana lyst , o n t he 2 2 b ronzes t hen i n t he Manx Museum.

A l l o f t hese o b ject s n ow b ear t he i n i-

t i a l ly m is lead ing ' d ecora t ion ' o f 6 smal l h o les b ored i n to t he s urface ,i n s o me c ases r igh t t hrough t he me ta l .

Th is s tudy w as w e l l i n a dvance o f i t s t ime a nd

f orshadows c urren t r esearch i n many p arts o f Europe. r estated h ere a s Append ix O ne;

Fy f fe 's r esu l ts a re

t he o b jects h ave b een r e-ordered t o c on for m

t o t he c hrono log ica l s equence s uggested b elow .

2 3 b ronzes a re i ncluded i n

al i st o fB ronze Age s i tes i nt he I sle o f Man c on ta ined i n C lark 's s em ina l a rt icle o n Manx p re-h istory p ubl ished i n 1 935.

A f urther 1 3 o b jects a re c on s idered

h ere , mak ing 3 6 i n a l l , f rom 2 9 more o r l ess i den t if iab le s ites —far t oo f ew t o a l low o f a ny r igorous s ta t ist ica l o r d istr ibu t iona l a na lys is. I n s p ite o f t h is r ela t ive p auc ity o f f inds a t ypo log ica l ly b ased c hrono log ica l s equence , b ased o n a na log ies w ith o ther p arts o f t he Br it ish I s les , may b e a tte mp ted. THE EARLY BRONZE AGE T he Early Bronze Age i s r epresen ted b y 7f l at a xes , o ne f l anged a xe a nd s o me b ur ial a ssoc iat ion s. t ype a nd i s o f c opper.

One o f t he f l at a xes ( 1 ) i s o f t he b road , t h ick-bu tted

T h is i s a rguably t he e arl iest f ind o f t he p er iod f ro m t he

i sland a nd p robab ly d a tes f ro m c . 1 750-1650 B .C.

I ti s o f Harb ison 's L ough

Rave l Type o f t he I r ish Early Bronze Age , b u t c an b e p ara l le led i n Br ita in b y s uch f i nds a s t he g roup f ro m Moe l Arthur , F l in tsh ire ( Forde-Johnston 1 964 ). The o ther f lat a xes ( 2-7 ) a re o f t he much more c o m mon n arrow , t h in-bu t ted v ar iety a nd a re o f as tandard t in-bronze. 2 19

As a g roup t hey f a l l c learly i n to

F ig . 1 4.1

Bronze Age me talwork f ind-spo ts o n t he I s le o f Man ( Nu mbers a s i n c ata logue )

2 20

B r it ton 's M igda le- Marnoch t rad it ion o f t he Br it ish Early Bronze Age ( Br itton 1 963 , 2 63-270 ) a nd , a l though a w ide r ange o f s izes i s p resen t , a l l p robably b e long t o H arb ison 's Types K i l laha a nd Ba l lyva l ly a nd d ate f rom c . 1 650-1500 B .C. ( Harb ison 1 969 , 8 2-83 ).

T he f l anged a xe ( 8 ), b y c on trast , r epresen t

s t rong l ink s w ith s ou thern Br ita in .

I ti s o f t he Arreton Down t ype d escr ibed

b y Megaw a nd Hardy ( 1938 , Type 1b 2 a nd n o. 4 1) a nd Br itton ( 1963 , 2 84-286 ). I ti s e qu iva len t t o Harb ison 's T ype Derryn igg in a nd , o n h is d a t ing , s hou ld b e long t o t he p er iod 1 500-1400 B .C. A n umber o f a ssoc ia t ions f ro m b ur ia ls h ave b een r ecovered , b u t i nvar iab ly a ny b ronze o b ject i nc luded w as i n u nrecogn isable c ond it ion w hen f ound a nd n ow l o st a ltoge ther.

The a ccoun t o f t he f inds f rom P eel d ur ing e xcava t ions i n 1 878

i s ap art icu larly t an ta l ising e xamp le o f t h is. " Ic a me a cross t he f ragmen ts o f w hat h ad b een a l arge , t h ick u rn , made o f av ery c oarse c lay a nd g ravel . A l i t t le l ower w as a l arger p ort ion o f i ti nverted o ver t he c re ma ted r e ma ins , wh ich h ad e v iden t ly n o tb een d isturbed , a nd h ad a f ter c remat ion b een c arefu l ly g a thered t ogether a nd d epos ited o n t he l evel o f r ock .

Undernea th t hese r e ma ins

w as a p or t ion o f af i ne b ronze s pear , a bou t t wo i nches l ong a nd

1 1

i nches b road , s o t horough ly c orroded t hat i tf e l l i np ieces." T h is o b jec t may w el l h ave p rov ided a Manx c ompar ison f or t he o ne r ecogn isable o b ject w h ich s urv ives wh ich i s t he r azor ( 9 ) f ro m P ort-y-Shee f ound i n 1 885. T h is f ine e xa mple i s o f aw e l l-known t ype ( P iggo t 1 946 , C lass 1 ) , c ommon t hroughou t t he Br it ish I s les a nd , t ogether w ith t he p ieces o f b ronze s tr ip f ro m Bal lako ig Brooghs ( 10 ), c onst itu tes t he r e ma inder o f t he Early B ronze Age mater ia l f ro m t he i s land. THE M IDDLE BRONZE AGE O n ly 6 o b jec ts a re r ecorded f rom t he M idd le Bronze Age. S uch a sma l l n umber , i nclud ing 5 d i fferen t t ypes o f a rt ifact , p recludes t he p oss ib i l ity o f d ef in ing a ny Manx t ypo log ica l i den t ity d ur ing t h is p er iod , s uch a s i s p oss ible i n o ther r eg ions o f Br ita in a nd Europe.

The h af t-f langed a xe ( 1 1) i s o f a

t yp ica l ly n orthern Br it ish f or m , w h i le t he p a lstaves ( 1 2 &1 3 ) s ee m c loser t o I r ish e xa mples.

N one c an b e d a ted w ith a ny d egree o f c on f idence.

i s t rue o f t he s ocketlooped s pearhead , n ow l ost , f rom P eel . ( 14 )

The s a me Th is b e-

l ongs t o t he Midd le B ronze Age o nt ypo log ica l g rounds o n ly . T he n o tchedb u t t r ap ier f rom Doug las ( 1 5 ) may b e a n e xcep t ion a s t hese o b jects n or ma l ly o ccupy t he v ery e nd o f t he Midd le Bronze Age i n Br ita in ( c f . T rump 1 963; Burgess 1 968b ).

The s ick le ( 1 6 ) f ro m C ronk y n Howe , L ezayre, t hough o f

ar e la t ively r are f or m , i s a lso f ound t hroughou t t he r eg ion ( Fox 1 941). Thus, a par t f ro m a n impress ion o f o vera l l p overty , t hese o b jects p resen t n o c ohere n tp icture o f t he Midd le Bronze Age i n Man . THE L ATE BRONZE AGE 2 0 o b jec ts s urv ive f rom t he L a te B ronze Age , i nclud ing a t l east t wo h oards.

The f i rst g roup , c hrono log ica l ly , i nc luded t he t rans it iona l p a lstave

a nd mu lt iple mouth mou lded a xe f ro m C lose L ake ( 30-31) a nd t he p a lstave f rom O rrysda le Brooghs ( 17 ) —the l a t ter s o s im i lar t o ( 30 ) t hat t hey m ight w e l lb e f rom t he s ame mou ld.

These o b jec ts b elong u nm istakab ly t o t he 2 21

Wi lburton Co mp lex o f s ou thern a nd e astern Br i ta in ( Burgess 1 968a ).

They

a re i mportan t i n e stab l ish ing t hat Man c a me w ith in t he g enera l c urren t o f Br it ish d evelop men ts a nd h e lp t o e xp la in t he sma l l s cat ter o f W i lburton o b jects wh ich r eached I re land. Even more s ign i f ican t , p erhaps , i s t ha t t he O rrysdale Brooghs p a lstave p roved , o n a na lys is, t o b e o f l eaded-bronze ( c f . Append ix One ).

Thus t he meta l lurg ica l c hange w h ich marks t he s tart o f t he L ate B ronze

Age i n s ou thern Br ita in , w ith t he Wilburton g roup o f h oards, a lso t ook p lace o n Man , a nd a t a bout t he s a me t ime.

There i s n o s ign o f ap ersisten t t in-bronz ing

i ndustry s urv iv ing i n to t he L a te Bronze Age t o c o mpare w ith t he Wa l l ing ton t rad it ion o f Burgess ( 1968a ). The f u l ly d eve loped L a te B ronze Age i s w e l l i l lust ra ted by a r ange o f s ocketed a xes ( 18-24 ), wh ich a re o f n orthern B rit ish r ather t han I r ish f or ms , swords o f Ew art P ark t ype ( Cowen 1 933 ) , t he r e ma ins o f as ocketed k n ife o r d agger ( 28 ) a nd a p ort ion o f s heet b ronze f rom a b ucket o r c au ldron ( 29 ). T h is p er iod i s , p erhaps , b est r epresented b y t he h oard f ound i n 1 940 a t B a l lagawne a nd p ub l ished s ubsequen t ly b y Megaw ( 1941).

I ti ncludes f rag men ts o f b ronze

swords ( 32-33 ) , as ick le b lade ( 35 ), a b ronze r ing ( 34 ) a nd , most s i gn i f ican t ly , p art o f al ump o f c opper c ake ( 36 ).

Th is f ind , t oge ther w ith t he sma l l f rag-

men t o f c lay mou ld f or a l eaf-shaped sword f ound a t Crawyn Brooghs i n 1 890 , a rgues s trong ly f or t he i nd igenous p roduct ion o f b ronze me ta lwork , a nd , a s Megaw s uggested , t he c opper o res o f Bradda o r L angness w ere p robab ly u sed. S UM MARY The Manx f inds o f Bronze Age me ta lwork p rov ide a u sefu l s a mp le o f n orthern I rish S ea a ct iv ity i n t he p er iod.

A l though t o ta l n umbers a re f ew , p ar t icu lar ly

f or t he M idd le Bronze Age, most o f t he t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l c hanges w h ich o ccurred i n t he r est o f t he Br it ish I s les a re r epresen ted.

There i s n o

s ign t ha t t he i s land was e ver s uf f ic ien t ly c u t o f f f ro m t he ma instream o f c on te mp orary c u lture t o h ave d eveloped i t s own i nsu lar f or ms.

On t he o ther h and , i t

i s n ow c lear t ha t l oca l b ronze p roduct ion t ook p lace a t l east b y t he L a te Bronze Age.

A l though f ro m a t ypo log ica l p o in t o f v iew i ti s n o teworthy t hat o b jects o f

c learly I r ish c haracter a re r are a nd t hat a s ign i f ican t n u mber o f f inds s ee m t o s how c lose l inks w ith ma in land Br ita in , f urther s tudy o f t he meta l u sed , p art i cu larly t he c onstruct ion o f t race e le men t p rof iles , s hou ld a l low t hese r elat i onsh ips t o b e e xa m ined f rom a l ess s ub ject ive s tandpo in t .

P erhaps t he most

o u tstand ing n eed i s t he i den t if icat ion a nd e xcavat ion o f s et t le ment s ites i n o rder t o p rov ide c u l tura l a ssoc iat ions f or t he f inds w h ich a lready e x ist. EARLY BRONZE AGE F la t Axes 1 .

Andreas S C 4 15993 ( near t he p ar ish c hurch ). 2 77 ;

2 .

C lark 1 935 , n o. 2 7 ) . Copper.

B r ide S C 4 43999 ( Cronk y Vow lan , 1 , i , 1 84;

C lark 1 935 , n o. 2 9 ).

Ma lew S C 2 98699 ( Ba l lawoods ).

East K i m meragh ).

1 870-75 ( YLM ,

B lade p ort ion o n ly s urv ives;

e n t ly c as t i n ab ipart ite mou ld ; 3 .

B efore 1 897 ( YL M

MM 7 92.

t in b ronze.

a ppar-

MM 7 95.

B efore 1 877 ( First Report o f t he A rchae-

o log ica l Co mm iss ioners o n t he P re-h istor ic Monumen ts a nd o ther

2 22

3

1

2

4

6

7

9 1 0

F ig . 1 4.2

( S ca le 1 :3 )

An t iqu it ies o f t he I sle o f Man , 1 878 , 3 5;

Manx Museu m ... . Trustees ,

S ix teen th Annua l Report , 1 920-21, 9 , f ig. 3 .4 , where i ti sw rong ly d escr ibed a s f rom ' t he N orth o f t he I s land ' ; C lark 1 935 , n o . 7 ). n arrow , t h in-bu t ted a xe; t in b ronze. M M 7 96. 4 .

Ma lew S C 2 77677 Mango H i l l/ Moun t S trange , Cast letown ). L iberal

2 4th Apr il 1 847 , 3 , c o lu mn 4 , wh ich r eports

l arge ,

1 847 ( Manx

' An a nc ien t b ronze

c el t , f ound a t Hang° H i l l , n ear Cast letown , a f ter t he l ate i n curs ion o f t he s ea , h as b een p resen ted b y Mr. J ohn N icGh ie , b rass f ounder , t o J . R . Wa l lace , f or t he Cu mberland Museu m ' ; n o. 6 ).

t in

MM 7 94.

Maugho ld S C 4 68891 ( Ba l lachr ink ).

B efore 1 903 ( YL M , i v , 1 901-2, 8 2;

Ca ta logue o f t he Manx Museum , 1 905 , 8 ; t h in-bu t ted a xe; 6 .

C lark 1 935 ,

N arrow , t h in-bu t ted a xe w ith s l igh t ly h a m mered f l anges;

b ronze. 5 .

Evans 1 881, 4 3;

t in b ronze.

C lark 1 935 , n o. 1 6 ).

Narrow ,

MM 7 93.

Rushen S C 2 25713 ( Ba l lak i lpher ic, a f i e ld n ear Ba l lakel ly c o t tage ) ( Cubbon b elow p p . 4 19-422 ) .

N arrow , t h in-bu t ted a xe , c ons iderably

c orroded a nd a pparen t ly a ssy m me tr ica l . 7 .

MM 7 6-105 .

Rushen S C 2 09709 ( Surbey-beg , n ear a f i e ld c al led ' The Rhu l l ick ' a t East S urby ).

Before 1 877

( First Report o f t he Archaeo log ica l Co m m is-

s ioners..., 1 878 , 3 2, 3 5 , 3 8-39 , p late i v , f ig. 2 ; C lark 1 935 , n o. 1 ) . o ne f ace;

Evans 1 881, 4 4;

Ha m mered f langes; a t race o f ' ra in ' p a t tern o n

t in b ronze.

MM 7 97.

F langed Axe 8 .

N o L ocal ity .

1 922 o r b efore ( Manx Museum Trustees...Eigh teen th

Annua l Report , 1 923, 1 4 a nd p late o pp. p . 7—fro m t he c o l lect ion o f Rev. Tho mas Howard , V icar o f Conchan ).

Cast f langes a nd l ow s top-

r idge;

p unched ' ra in ' p a ttern o n t he f ace a nd c able o rna men t o n t he

s ides;

t in b ronze.

MM 9 45.

Razor 9 .

Braddan S C 3 71771 ( Port-y-Shee ).

1 2th J anuary 1 885 , f ound i np lough-

i ng a t ap o in t 2 00 y ards n orth-north-west o f Port-y-Shee House , i n a n i nverted u rn ( MM 5 67 ) w ith ' m inu te f rag men ts o f p art ia l ly c a lc ined b one ' ( The Manx N o te Book , 1 , 1 885 , 6 8 , p la te o pp. p . 6 5; n o. 1 1). b ronze.

Ovo id f or m w ith s i mp le t ang ; MM 8 11.

C lark 1 935 ,

c u tt ing e dge d a maged ;

t i n

Bronze S tr ip 1 0.

M ichael S C 3 34958 ( Corva l ley , Ba l lako ig Brooghs, Ba l laugh ). August 1 881, a ssoc ia ted w ith a b one n eed le a nd a n u rn. men ts o f a n i nco mp lete l eng th o fb ronze s tr ip.

3 1st

Three f rag-

MM 6 40.

MIDDLE BRONZE AGE Haf t f l anged a xe 1 1.

Maugho ld C . S C 4 692 ( The Crongans , L ewa igue ).

Rece ived b y t he

Museum , 3 -0 th Apr il , 1 902 ( YLM, i v , 1 902-3 , 7 7 ; C lark 1 935 , n o. 1 9 ). 2 24

1 2

1

1 3 1 4

1 5

F ig . 1 4.3

( Sca le 1 :3 )

H igh , c ast , c onvex f l anges; t in b ronze.

v ery c orroded ;

s l igh t med ia l t h icken ing ;

MM 7 98.

P a lstaves 1 2.

L ezayre S C 4 41950 ( 'On t he g ravel b ank a f ew f eet f ro m t he S u lby r iver o nt he n orth s ide , n ear Wh ite Br idge Ford , Ba l lachr ink ).

1 3.

R ece ived b y

t he Museum , 1 2th J une 1 937.

S top-r idge a nd a ng led f l anges c ast a s o ne

u n it ;

MM 3 805.

n o l oop ;

b eaten b lade.

I sle o f Man—prec ise l oca l ity u nknown .

B efore 1 930 ( Manx Museum T rus-

t ees —Twen ty-f if th Annua l Report , 1 930 , 1 0 , p late xxxv i i i ; n o. 2 ).

H igh , c ast f langes a nd p ronounced c en tra l r ib;

C lark 1 935 ,

h af t e nd d a maged.

MM L .21267. S pearhead 1 4.

G er man c . S c 2 484 ( Peel , p rec ise l oca l ity u nknown ). J ., i , 1 846 , 1 87 a nd f i g.; Worsaae 1 849 , &f ig.; JM M , i , n o . 3 7 , Dece mber 1 933, 1 52 & f i g.;

Before 1 834 ( Arch.

Evans 1 881, 3 26 ;

C lark 1 935 , n o. 4 5 ).

S ocket-looped s pearhead , f ive i nches i nl eng th.

L ost.

Rap ier 1 5.

Conchan S C 3 80754 ( I n t he wa l ls o f t he o ld Post Of f ice , Doug las ). Nove mber 1 894 ( YLM, i , 2 34; Manx Museum T rus tees.. . Twen ty-f if th Annua l Report , 1 930 , p late x xxv i i i; t in b ronze.

C lark 1 935 , n o. 1 0 ).

Notched b u tt r ap ier ;

MM 8 08.

S ick le 1 6.

L ezayre S C 4 35954 ( Fro m b ur ia l g round a t C ronk y n Howe n ear Bal l ie , A lkest ). Before 1 897 ( YLM , i i , 2 77 ; C lark 1 935 , n o. 2 3). T anged s ick le w ith s ing le r ivet h o le a nd f l at b lade ;

t in b ronze.

MM 8 10.

LATE BRONZE AGE P a lstave 1 7.

Michael c . S C 3 293 ( Orrysdale Brooghs —p icked u p a t t he f oo t o ft he Brooghs ).

C . 1 916 ( Manx Museu m T rustees...T wel f th Annua l R eport ,

1 917 , 4 -5 , r i gs. 1 4 & 1 5;

C lark 1 935 , n o. 4 0 ).

' decayed ' f l anges a nd t h ick s ep tu m ;

l ead b ronze.

L ooped p alstave w ith MM 7 99.

S ocketed Axes 1 8.

Andreas S C 4 15993 ( Near Andreas Church ). C lark 1 935 , n o. 2 4 ).

Before 1 897 ( YLM , i i , 2 77 ;

L ooped a nd s ocketed a xe w ith t hree v ert ica l r ibs

o n e ach f ace a nd a v ert ica l r ib o n o ne i nner f ace; 1 9.

Andreas c . S C 4 200 ( Braust ).

l ead b ronze MM 8 01.

Before 1 977 ( First Report o f t he A rchaeo-

l og ica l Co m m iss ioners..., 1 878 , 3 2, p late i v , f ig. 1 ;

Evans 1 881, 1 20 ;

Ca ta logue o f I ndus tr ial a nd L oan Exh ib it ion , C ast letown . i t em 2 18;

1 883 , 1 5 ,

Manx Museum T rustees ..Eigh teen th Annua l Report , 1 923,

p late x xxv i i i ;

C lark 1 935, n o. 3 1).

L ooped a nd s ocketed a xe w ith f our

v ert ica l r ibs o n e ach f ace a nd a s ing le i n terna l r ib o n t he t wo b road f aces; l ead b ronze.

MM 1 221. 2 26

2 0.

Br ide C . S C 4 400. 2 77 ;

Probably b efore 1 843 ( Evans 1 881, 1 20 ;

YLM ,

C lark 1 9 : 15 , n o. 3 0—A MS n o te b y P . M. C . K er mode i n a n i n ter-

l eaved c opy o f t he Cata logue r eads " Co l lect ion o f J . R. Wa l lace? I s t h is t he o ne f ound b y ' Ja mes Brown—fro m t he n orth o f t he I s land ' ( one o f t hree ) ' so me t int a go ' —and g iven t o Wal lace i n 1 843 — Manx L ibera l?"

L ooped

a nd s ock eted a xe w ith f ive v ert ica l r ibs , l inked b y s em i-c ircu lar mou ldi ngs, o ne e ach f ace a nd a n i n terna l v ert ica l r ib , l ow d own , o n e ach b road f ace; 2 1.

l ead b ronze.

MM 8 05.

Br ide S C 4 43003 ( East K i m meragh ). Evans 1 881, 1 20 ;

C lark 1 935 , n o. 2 8 ).

t hree v ert ica l r ibs o n e ach f ace; 2 `. %

B efore 1 890 ( YL M , 1 , i , 1 84? L ooped a nd s ocke ted a xe w i th

l ead b ronze.

G er man S C 2 37874 ( Ba l laka ighen ).

MM 8 03.

F ebruary 1 884, s a id t o h ave b een

f ound w ith a d ug-ou t c anoe ( YLM, i , 3 6-38 ; i i , 7 8-79; C lark 1 935 , n o. 4 3 ). L ooped a nd s ocketed a xe w ith t races o f t hree v er t ica l r ibs o n e ach f ace ; 2 :

c u tt ing e dge d amaged ;

Maugho ld S C 4 88909 ( Port Mooar ).

? lead b ronze.

MM 8 02.

7 th O ctober 19 21 , ' under t he s h ing le '

( Manx Museu m Trustees...Seven teen th Annua l Report , 1 922 , 7 , 1 0 & f i g.;

C lark 1 935 , n o. 1 7 ).

v ert ica l r ibs o ne ach f ace;

L ooped a nd s ocke ted a xe w ith t races o f t hree p art o f t he s ocket i s missing a nd t he f aces

h ave b een mu t ila ted b y f i l ing ; 2 4.

l ead b ronze.

Patr ick—prec ise l oca l ity u nknown .

Before 1 881, p urchased f ro m t he

Wa l lace Co l lect ion ( Evans 1 881, 1 20 ; 4 6 ).

MM 8 04.

YLM , i i , 2 77 ;

C lark 1 935 , n o .

L ooped a nd s ocketed a xe w ith f acet ted b ody a nd d ouble mou th

mou ld ing ;

s em i-c ircu lar c u tt ing e dge;

l ead b ronze.

MM 8 00.

Swords e tc. 2 5.

J urby S C 3 75978 ( Berrag ).

' I n Governor L och 's t ime ' i .e. b etween

1 863 a nd 1 882 ( T IOMNHAS , i , 1 879-84, 9 1-95 ;

Manx Museum T rustees..

.Twen ty-f if th Annua l Report , 1 930 , 1 0 , p late x xxv i i i;

C lark , n o. 3 4 ).

A n ote b y P . M. C . K er mode o n t he 6 in . map i n t he Manx Museum s ugg ests t ha t t he sword w as f ound w ith p ot tery . h o les f or s even r ivets; •

l ead b ronze.

S an tan S C 3 35728 ( Crogga ).

L eaf s haped sword w ith

MM 8 06.

May 1 929, f ound b y workmen wh i le l ay ing

f i e ld d ra ins ( J MM, i , n o. 1 9 , J une 1 929, 1 45 ; .Twen ty-f if th Annua l Report , 1 930 , 1 0 , p la te 8 ).

h i lt , s hou lders a nd t ip d amaged.

P atr ick c . S C 2 878 ( Foxda le ).

MM 2 809.

1 885 ( Manx Museum Trustees ..Twen ty-

f i f th Annual Report , 1 230 , 1 0 , p late x xxv i i i; o f t he b lade o f al eaf s haped sword ; 2 8.

C lark 1 935 , n o.

L eaf s haped sword w ith f our h o les f or r ivets a nd ' ghosts ' f or t hree

more: 2 7.

Manx Museu m T rustees.. XXXV iii;

C lark 1 935 , n o. 4 7 ). Part

l ead b ronze.

MM 8 07.

German 1 9 ,71, f ound w h ile c lear ing t he d ebr is i n t he c athedral c han cel ( YLM , i i , 2 82;

Manx Museu m Trustees...Twen ty-f if th Annua l R eport ,

1 930 , p late x xxv ii i ).

B lade o f ? socketed k n i fe;

2 28

l ead b ronze.

MM 8 09.

26

Fl

,

LI.

27

(7 I J

I

(

{

( I

\

I

j

I

\ 1

28

1

I

j

I

1

\

'1

l

;

I

I f

I

1

\

I l \

\

I

f

\

) \

\

!

\uI

bent

29 0--�

µt J

outofline

I

'.=)

� f 0) 6---"'l

I

I

(,

r,I

'i

\J

,' !(

0

I

I

\ uI \ i

Fig. 14.5 (Scale 1 :3)

0 ',

)I

�

ru

0�

_-A o: @

}t

S heet b ronze 2 9.

Rushen c . S C 2 368 ( Strandha l l ).

Found i n at ida l p oo l o n t he b each i n

May 1 973 ( c f . C ubbon b e low p p . 4 22-4 ) . Sma l l f rag men t o f s heet b ronze f ro m a b ucket o r c au ldron , w ith t wo o verlapp ing i n terna l p a tches. MM 7 3-126. ( Draw ing b y c our tesy o fA . M. Cubbon ) Hoards 3 0-31

L ezayre S C 4 17957 ( Close L ake , Abbey lands I n tack ).

Early 1 936 ,

f ound i np lough ing t he e astern c orner o f f i eld 8 52, c . 3 00 y ards E .S .E. o fC lose L ake Far mhouse , w ith in a f ew y ards o f e ach o ther a nd a no ther a xe , n ow l ost ( J MM , 4 7 , J une 1 936 , 1 13 & f ig.). 3 0.

L ooped p alstave w ith p la in f aces a nd h igh f langes.

3 1.

L ooped a nd s ocketed a xe w ith s lender b ody , e xpanded b lade a nd mu lt ip le mou th mou ld ing.

3 2-36

MM 3 621.

MM 3 622.

L onan S C 4 28818 ( Ba l lagawne ).

Abou t March 1 940 , a l l f ive o b jects

w ere f ound w ith in a n a rea l im ited b y t wo f urrows , i n h arrow ing a f ie ld ( no . 2 564 ) s lop ing d own t o t he n orth b ank o f G len G awne s trea m , n ear t he ' cash ta l ' ( JM M, 6 4 , J une 1 941, 1 7 &f i g.). 3 2.

P art o f t he b lade o f al eaf s haped sword ;

h ilt b roken away a t t he

3 3.

Part o f t he b lade o f al eaf s haped sword .

3 4.

P la in , s o l id , b ronze r ing.

3 5.

T ip o f af l at , c urved , b ronze s ick le b lade.

3 6.

Meta l l iferous ' cake ' , p robab ly c opper.

s hou lder , l ower p art o f t he b lade miss ing.

MM 5 339b, MM 5 339a.

MM 5 339d .

2 30

MM 5 339 c .

MM 5 339e.

3 0

3 1

3 2 3 4

33 3 5

3 6




( Sca le 1 :3 )

APPEND IX ONE METALLURGICA L ANALYS IS ( Af ter K er mode 1 923 )

N o . .

S ite

Cu%

s n%

P b%

F e%

9 9.10

0 .35

0 .20

1 .

Andreas

2 .

East l a mmeragh

8 8.20

1.50

0 .22

3 .

Ba l l a woods

8 9.00

1 0.75

0 .20

z n%

S %

Total

0 .18

9 9.83 9 9.92 9 9.95

Trace

4 .

Ha ig ( ) H il l

8 7.65

1 1.50

0 .80

1 00.10

5 .

Bal lachrink

9 0.29

9 .60

0 .20

1 00.09

7 .

S urby-beg

8 6.84

1 2.90

0 .23

9 9.97

8 .

No l ocal ity

8 5. .59

1 4.38

T race

Port-y-Shee 8 6.85

1 2.67

0 .38

1 1.

L ewa igue

8 3.90

1 5.76

1 5.

Doug las

8 8.90

1 0.60 Trace

1 6.

C ronk yn 8 5.40

1 3.90

8 3.70

1 0.40

5 .00

0 .18

8 3.70

9 .49

6 .06

0 .60

9 .

Howe 1 7.

9 9.97

Trace

9 9.90

0 .28

Trace

Trace

0 .25

0 .53

9 9.94 0 .15

9 9.90

0 .10

9 9.93

C erysdale Brooghs

1 8.

0 .16

Andreas

9 9.85 1 00.03

1 9.

Braust

8 9.00

8 .37

2 .52

0 .14

2 0.

Br ide

8 2.90

9 .22

6 .12

0 .28

1 .25

2 1.

East F äm 8 3.50

1 0.25

4 .75

0 .42

1 .00

2 2.

Ba l laka ighen 8 6.20

1 1.20

1 .46

1 .05

2 3.

Port Mooar

8 4.10

1 1.95

3 .57

Trace

Trace

2 4.

Patrick

8 0.50

1 3.50

3 .62

0 .77

1 .70

2 5.

Berrag

8 1.70

1 1.20

6 .15

0 .17

0 .50

2 7.

Foxdale

8 4.40

1 0.50

4 .90

0 .10

Trace

2 8.

P eel

8 6.10

9 .96

3 .65

0 .25

Trace

n mh mgh

2 31

1 00.10

0 .82

0 .10

9 9.87 9 9.92 9 9.91

0 .20

9 9.82 1 00.09

0 .20

1 _

9 9.92 9 9.90 9 9.96

B IB L IOGRAPHY

Br itton , D ., 1 963.

' Trad it ions o f Meta lwork ing i nt he L ater N eo l i th ic a nd

Early Bronze Age i n Br ita in ' , P .P.S. x x ix , 2 58-325. Burgess, C ., 1 968a.

Bronze Age Meta lwork i n Northern Eng land , Newcast le

u pon Tyne. Burgess , C

1 968b.

' Bronze Age d irks a nd r ap iers a s i lustra ted by e xa mp les

f rom Durha m a nd N orthumberland '. C lark , J . G . D ., 1 935. Cowen , J . D ., 1 933.

T .A.A.S.D. N . n .s. i , 3 -26.

' The P reh istory o f t he I sle o f Man ' , P .P .S., i , 7 0-92. ' T wo Bronze Swords f rom Ewart Park , Woo ler ', Arch.

Ael . x , 1 85-198. Forde-Johnston , J ., 1 964.

' A Hoard o f F lat Axes f ro m Moel Arthur , F l in t-

s h ire ' , F l in tsh ire H istor ica l S oc iety Pub l icat ions 2 1, 9 9-100 a nd P late x v i i. Fox , S ir. C ., 1 941. x cv i , 1 36-162.

' The N on-Socketed S ick les o f Br i ta in ' , Arch . C a mb.

Harb ison , P ., 1 969.

' The Axes o f t he Early Bronze Age i nI reland ' , Prf f l-

h istor ische Bronzefunde , Abte ilung i x , Band 1 , Mun ich. K er mode , P . M. C ., 1 923. An t. J ., i i , 2 28-230.

' Bronze Imp le men ts i n t he Manx Museum ' ,

Megaw , B . R . S . a nd Hardy , E . M., 1 938.

' Br it ish Decorated Axes a nd t he ir

D if fus ion d ur ing t he Earl ier Part o f t he Bronze Age ' , P .P . S. i v , 2 723 07. P iggo t , C . M., 1 946.

' The L ate Bronze Age Razors o ft he B ri t ish I s les '.

P .P.S., x i i , 1 21-141. Trump , B ., 1 963. Rap iers '.

' The O r ig in a nd Develop men t o f Midd le B ronze Age

P .P.S. x xv i i i , 8 0-102.

AC KNOWLEDGE MENTS Iam g ratefu l t o t he D irector o f t he Manx Museum f or a l low ing me t o s tudy t h is mater ia l , t o Dr. Garrad a nd t o s taf f o f t he Manx Record Of f ice f or much a ss istance , a nd t o my w i fe , E l izabeth , f or d raw ing u p a l l t he f inds f or p ubl icat ion f ro m my o r ig ina l s ketches a nd p hotographs.

2 32

15.

THE IRON AGE

by P. S. Gelling About eight years ago I wrote a short survey of the Iron Age in the Isle of Man for the volume of essays presented to Miss Lily Chitty entitled "Prehis- -­ toric Man in Wales and the West" (Adams and Dart, 1972). It is quite unsatis­ factory today, not because the facts are greatly changed or because there have been major new discoveries, but because everything must now be seen in a new light since the publication by Dr. Radford of the report written by the late Dr. Gerhard Bersu on his excavation of three Iron Age round houses on the farms of Ballaca gen and Ballanorris in the south of the island (Bersu, 1977). The hill-fort on South Barrule still stands at the beginning of the Manx Iron Age. It is a small fort situated 484 m above sea level on a most bleak mountain­ top. In its earlier phase ( its apparently later on� is completely undated) it c0nslstu.: a g;roup of some 80 huts surrounded by a modest rampart built of turf with an outer facing of slabs laid as headers. In. the only area investigated immediately outside this rampart the thin peaty humus lay on a deep deposit of white powdery material, formed by the decomposition of the underlying rock, in which it was virtually impossible to make a ditch, and the principal outer defence consisted of a sort of timber chevaux de frise, a belt of 4-5 lines of posts some 2 m wide in which the inner and stoutest U.ne was upright, and the outer lines inclined progressively outwards. Pottery, mainly of a plain bucket or barrel shape, was relatively abundant. A radiocarbon date of 523 + 84 be was given for material from a secondary hearth in one of the huts, which suggests that the occupation was at least as early as the sixth century B . C. The purist will say that this tells us nothing about when the rampart was built, but as only circumstances of extreme danger can have driven a community to live on this intolerably bleak spot, it is very hard to imagine that the settle­ ment was ever undefended (Gelling, 1963). h.

After South Barrule there is a gap in the archaeological record which pro­ bably spans some 250 years, and then the story is resumed with Dr. Bersu's discoveries, which form perhaps the most distinguished aspect of his many contributions to Manx archaeology. He excavated three rath-like sites which lay in the wet and marshy ground beside the Dumb RiveT, a small stream which flows into the sea about 1 ½ km west of Castletown. Two of the sites, which liE immediate,y side by side, are just over-1 km from the sea at the nearest point, and about 1½ km from the mouth of the Dumb River. They are known, after the farm on which they lie, as Ballacagen A and B.. The other, Ballanorris, lies 1 km upstream. Three clearly defined phases were recorded on Ba:lacagen A, two on Ballacagen B, and four on Balla.norris. The variations between the nine buildings were much less than the similari­ ties, and :it is possible to give a generalised description of the type of dwelling, with the reservation that the Ballanorris houses were rather less well preserved., and the remains are to some extent interpreted in terms of the other two sites. The outer walls of the houses normally consisted of solid oak posts supported 233

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Fig. 15.1

Map of sites in the Isle of Man mentioned in chapter 15. 234

on the outside by a massive bank. They enclose sub-e· "'�ular ? reas up to 27 m in diameter, and Bersu argties convincingly that these areas were com­ pletely roofed over. Amongst many other things he points out that the floor of Ballacagen B is slightly saucer-shaped and would have turned into a pond in wet weather had any substantial portian of it been unroofed. Somewhere uear the centre of the house (but towards the entrance on Ballanorris) there was a hearth, around which a domestic area is usually clearly demarcated by a closely set ring of posts. The main exception to this is the third phase of Ballacagen A, in which the single hear.th was originally replaced by two, partially surrounded by horse-shoes of posts, and set more or less sym­ metrically at the end of the entrance passage. There was also a third hearth, apparently a later addition. Immediately outside the inner domestic circle Ballacagen B has on its north-west side two squarish timber rooms, about 3½ and 3 m square, but generally the zone around the domestic area has only rather widely spaced roof-supports arranged in rough circles. A strip immediately inside the outer wall tends to be more clearly demarcated, and sometimes has extra paving. The people who lived in these massive houses were mixed farmers, growing corn and breeding livestock. Bersu believed that the latter predominated, and this may be thought inherently likely, but the published evidence is incon­ clusive. There is good arable land, where drainage would have presented no problem, within easy reach of both sites. The situations chosen far these houses are inconvenient for either kind of farming, and life would have been easier, and water as readily available far cattle, had the houses been built on the dry ground immediately adjacent to the flood plain of the river. Bersu believed that the siting was not determined by defensive considerations, but one can only agree to the extent that he faund no evidence that the wet con­ ditions were specially adapted far defensive purposes. Their mere existence must have been a considerable protection, as anyone will believe who has visited a closely comparable site on Ballanicholas in Kirk Marown (SC :308757). Whatever the exact nature of their farming it must have been substa.ntially sufficient for their needs; otherwise, with the sea so near, they would surely have collected shellfish, of which there was no trace, in spite of condrdons favourable to their preservation. For the relative dating of the Ballacagen sites Bersu argues convincingly that B was built befare A, and that after the abandonment of A the site was deserted. As the occupation of A was apparently longer than that of B, the end of B must have occurred appreciably befare the overall end of occupation. �J it were thought to have occurred at the end of phase 2 of A it might explain why phase 3 saw a remodelling with two, later three, hearths. A radiocarbon date of 285 ± 45 b. c. has been obtained from wood belonging to phase 1 of B, and another of 215 ± 85 b. c. from wood which very probably belonged to an early phase of A. Both suggest clearly that the sites existed in the third century B .C., and the ring-headed pin from the earliest phase of A bears this out. Among the finds from phase 2 of B was a LT III brooch, and if we accept Bersu's statement that there was no break in the occupation we have to increase the 50 years which he ascribes to each building phase. 235

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• f r -

H e may h ave b een t h ink ing i ns t inc t ive ly o f t he l i fe o f p os ts i nt he o pen a ir , where a t g round l eve l t hey s uccumb t o a l terna te p rocesses o f w e t t ing a nd d rying .

These w i l l n o t h ave o ccurred w i th in o ne o f t he r ound h ouses , where

t he f loor , a nd p erhaps e ven a l i t t le o f t he u nder ly ing ma ter ia l , w i l l p res umab ly h ave d r ied o u t s o mewha t , a nd i t i s n o t imposs ible t ha t i n s uch c ircu ms tances s o l id o ak p os ts wou ld h ave l as ted a g ood d eal l onger t han 5 0 y ears .

B ersu i s empha t ic t ha t t he t o ta l o ccupa t ion o f Bc anno t h ave l as ted

more t han 1 00 y ears , b u t i n t h is h e s ee ms t o h ave b een ma in ly i n f luenced b y h is e s t i ma te o f t he l i fe o f t he t imbers . The d a te s ugges ted b y t he LT I I b rooch i s b orne o u t b y o ther f i nds wh ich h ave l ed Dr . R ad ford t o s ugges t c . 5 0 B .C. a s ac en tra l d a te f or t he o ccupa t ion . Th is c onc lus ion was r eached b e fore r ad iocarbon d a tes w ere a va i lab le , b u t e ven i fi t were n ow s l igh t ly modi f ied , o ccupa t ion i n t he f irst c en tury B .C. c anno t b e d oub ted . T he o n ly o ther LT I Ib rooch t ha t h as b een f ound o n t he i s land c o mes f ro m t he n earby c oas ta l f or t o f C lose n y c ho l lagh . I ti s o f a k ind c o m mon a t C o lches ter , a nd p robab ly b e longs t o t he f irs t h a l f o f t he f irs t c en tury A .D. One i st e mp ted t o c onnec t i t s a ppearance i n t he I s le o f Man w i th t he e ven ts o f A .D. 4 3 , a nd i ft he LT I I b rooch f ro m B a l lacagen B c ou ld b e a scr ibed t o t he s a me o ccas ion , i t wou ld i nd ica te t he s urv iva l o f t ha t s i te t o c . A .D. 5 0 , a nd t he s urv iva l o f Ai n to t he s econd h a l f o f t he c en tury .

T h is i s p ure s pecu la t ion , b u t e ven i fi t were c orrec t , i ts t i l l s eems imp oss ib le t o p ro long t he o ccupa t ion s o f ar a s t o a cco mmoda te t he l a te s econd c en tury R o man b rooch wh ich was f ound i n t he c lay b ank b e long ing t o p hase 2 o f s i te B , a nd wh ich B ersu u sed a s t he ma in f ixed p oin t f or h is d a t ing . d oes i ndeed p ose a p rob le m .

Th is

I t s s tra t igraph ica l p os i t ion may h ave b een d ue

t o i t s h av ing f a l len d own a f issure i n d r ied-ou t c lay , b u t t he f act t ha t i ti s t here a t a l l i s r e markable .

Dr . R ad ford r em inds u s o f t he d iscrepancy b e-

t ween t he r ad iocarbon d a tes f or t he M i l ton L och c rannog a nd t he s econd c en tury A .D. d ress-fas tener f ound t here ( Gu ido , 1 974 ) . b u t t he s i tes a re p erhaps n o t s tr ic t ly c o mparab le .

T h is i s av a l id p o in t ,

M i l ton L och i s i n a n a rea

where s tray R o man f inds , a l though n o t s o v ery c o m mon , d o n o t o ccas ion a ny p ar t icu lar s urpr ise ( Rober tson , 1 970 ) .

T he I s le o f Man i s d i fferen t .

I n

s p i te o f c ons iderab le e xcava t ion o f I ron Age s i tes t here a re n o o ther R o man f i nds f ro m t he i s land a t a l l a par t f ro m a f ew sma l l s herds o f p o t tery f ound a t K iondroghad i n K irk Andreas i n as even th t o e igh th c en tury A . D. c on tex t ( Ge l l ing , 1 969 ) .

We h ave t o i nvoke a mos t e x traord inary c o inc idence t o s up-

p ose t ha t + . 1 r. 2b rooch was d ropped i n c ircu ms tances u nconnec ted w i th t he o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te , a nd t he s usp ic ion c anno t b e e n t ire ly a l layed t ha t s o me k ind o f a c t iv i ty l ingered o n t here much l onger t han o ne wou ld o therwise h ave s upposed . Th is d iscuss ion o f d a te h as r e la ted o n ly t o t he t wo B a l lacagen s i tes , b u t b o th t he h ousetype , a nd c er ta in o f t he f inds , l eave l i t t le d oub t t ha t t he f our B a l lanorr is h ouses were r ough ly c on te mporary . I ti s v ery h ard t o j udge h ow many o ther s i tes o f t h is k ind t here may h ave b een i n t he i s land .

P erhaps a d ozen a re , o r a ppear o nce t o h ave b een , s uper-

f i c ia l ly s im i lar , a nd h ave u sua l ly b een c lassi f ied a s b e long ing t o t h is g roup . Two o f t he m h ave b een e xcava ted , a nd o ne o f t he m . K iondroghad ( N IX 3 96002 ) , 2 38

h as t urned o u t t o b elong t o t he s even th t o e igh th c en tur ies A . D., t he o n ly b u i ld ing b e ing a sma l l o b long h u t .

E xcava t ion i s s t i l l i n p rogress a t t he

o ther , Por t yc andas ( SC 2 84816 ) , b u t i ta ppears t o b e long t o r ough ly t he s ame p er iod a s K iondroghad , a nd c er tain ly d id n o t h ave a l arge h ouse o f t he B a l lacagen t ype .

The v ery v arying s et t ings o f t hese s i tes a lso s ugges t t ha t

t hey d o n o t f orm a c oheren t g roup .

K iondroghad a nd P or t yc andas b oth l i e

o nt he e dge o f v ery marshy g round , wh ich s ugges ted , f a lse ly , t ha t t hey wou ld r ese mble B a l lacagen , b u t o thers a re i n q u i te d i fferen t s i tua t ions . Manannan 's C ha ir ( SC 2 93857) l i es o n t he t op o f ar idge , a nd C ash ta l L a jer ( SC 3 59931 ) i s h igh u p o n a moun ta in-s ide .

A t t he mo men t t he e v idence s ugges ts t ha t we

s hou ld n o l onger b el ieve t ha t t he i s land h ad a c oheren t g roup o f s i tes o f Ba l lac agen t ype , c onven ien t a s t h is b e l ie f h as b een f or c ar tograph ica l p urposes . The o n ly t imber h ouse o f b road ly t he s a me d a te i n t he I s le o f Man i s o n B a l lan iche las ( SC 3 04758 ) , a bou t 1 km t o t he wes t o f t he B a l lan icho las s i te a lready men t ioned ( above ) .

H ere a s teep mot te l ike s i te was c rea ted

b y d igg ing a d i tch t o c u t o f f ap ro jec t ing p oin t o f al ow c l i f f wh ich o ver looked as trea m a nd a b el t o f g round w h ich i s s t i l l v ery marshy t oday .

A l mos t t he

w ho le o f t he t op o f t he mound was o ccup ied b y ac ircu lar t imber b u i ld ing a bou t 9m i n d iame ter , s o t ha t t here was a t mos t ap a th 1 1-2 m w ide b e tween t he wa l l o f t he h ouse , wh ich was made o f u pr igh t t imbers s et i n ac on t inuous f ounda t ion t rench , a nd t he t op o f av ery s teep s lope ( Ge l l ing , 1 968 ).

On t he

s ide f ac ing t he f a ir ly l eve l a d jacen t g round t he s pace b e tween t he wa l l a nd t he s lope w as o ccup ied b y as o l id e ar th b ank . I th ad b een b acked u p a ga ins t t he wa l l , r a ther l i ke t he s urround ing b anks a t B a l lacagen a nd B a l lanorr is , b u t a s i to n ly e x is ted o n t he l andward s ide i t was p robab ly r egarded a s a n a dd i t ion t o t he d e fence r a ther t han a s a n e ssen t ia l p ar t o f t he s truc ture . A t al a ter s tage t he h ouse s ee ms t o h ave b een r e model led o n a sma l ler s ca le , u s ing p ar t o f t he o r ig ina l wa l l , b u t r ep lacing mos t o f t he c ircu mference b y a n ew wa l l made o f p os ts s e t i n s epara te p os t-ho les wh ich e nc losed a much sma l ler a rea t han t he o r ig ina l h ouse .

As b e fore , t he h ear th was im med ia tely

t o t he r igh t o f t he d oor a s o ne e n tered , a nd a p enannu lar b rooch f ro m t he l a ter h ear th s ugges ted a d a te i n t he l a te f irs t o r e ar ly s econd c en tury A . D. I t s eems l ike ly , t here fore , t ha t t h is h ouse was o ccup ied n o t s o v ery l ong a f ter t he o ccupat ion o f B a l lacagen a nd B a l lanorr is , wh ich l ay 8 1 " km away t o t he s ou th-wes t . P ro mon tory f or ts f orm t he o ther l arge g roup o f s i tes wh ich mus t b e c ons idered . Twen tytwo a re k nown , a nd w i th o ne o r t wo e xcep t ions t hey a re v ery sma l l , l arge e nough o n ly f or a s ing le f am i ly . A l l t he f our wh ich h ave b een e xcava ted were r e-occup ied i n med ieval t imes , a nd o n ly a t C lose n y c ho l lagh ( SC 2 46671) c an t he I ron Age o ccupa t ion b e c lear ly p erceived ( Ge l l ing , 1 958 ) .

T he s i te l i es j us t t o t he s ou th o f t he mou th o f t he D u mb

R iver , a nd t he B a l lacagen s i tes a re 2 km away t o t he n or th-eas t . I th as a s ubs tan t ia l d ump r a mpar t o n t he l andward s ide , a nd a s tone wa l l , f aced w i th e xce l len t d ry masonry , o nt he o ther t hree .

F our h u ts , wh ich f i l led mos t o f

t he e nc losed a rea , w ere p robab ly o ccupied c onsecu t ive ly ;

a t t he v ery l eas t ,

o ne o ft he m was o ccup ied l a ter t han t he o thers , wh ich were c overed b y t he midden ma ter ia l t hrown o u t f ro m i t . N ear t he t op o f t he midden ma ter ia l was t he LT I Ib rooch wh ich h as b een r e ferred t o e ar l ier ( above ) . T h is w ou ld s ee m t o p lace t he l a tes t o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te t owards t he midd le

2 39

F ig . 1 5 .4

P lan o f t he f or ti f ied s i te o n Ba l lan icho las , c on toured i n f ee t .

2 40

o f t he f irs t c en tury A .D., wh ich means t ha t i t s o ccupa t ion a l mos t c er ta in ly o ver lapped w i th t ha t o f t he B a l lacagen a nd B a l lanorr is h ouses , a nd s ince t he d is tance b e tween t he s i tes i s s o sma l l , t he o ccupan ts mus t h ave b een b road ly me mbers o f t he s a me c o m mun i ty .

The i n ter ior o f t he f or t was c o mp lete ly

e xcava ted , a nd n oth ing was f ound w h ich c ou ld h ave s erved a s aq uern , n or w as t here a ny s ign o f p o t tery . l arge q uan t i t ies .

On t he o ther h and , s he l l f ish were e a ten i n

One c an o n ly g uess a t t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he c oas ta l

f or t a nd t he r ound h ouses , b u t s o me r e la t ionsh ip t here mus t h ave b een . P erhaps C lose n y c ho l lagh was a k ind o f c i tade l , n or ma l ly o ccup ied b y j us t af ew p eop le , b u t ap o ten tia l p lace o f r esor t f or o thers i n mo men ts o f e specia l d anger .

T he i nhabi tan ts , whoever t hey were , l e f t a bundan t o ccupa t ion ma ter ia l ,

i nc luding e v idence f or b ronze-work ing .

P oss ib ly t he f or t was n o l onger n eeded

w hen a R oman f lee t a rr ived i n t he I r ish S ea . The p rob le m o f r e la t ionsh ip i s c o mp l ica ted b y t he f or t i f ied s i te o n C hape l H i l l , wh ich i s a bou t 1 1 km f ro m B a l lacagen , a nd 1 km f ro m C lose n y c ho l lagh , a nd i s c lear ly v is ible f ro m b o th ( SC 2 46582 ) .

T h is i s al ow h i l l d e fended b y

av ery modes t r a mpar t o f c on tour t ype wh ich e nc loses a pprox i ma te ly 4 ,500 s quare me ters .

Dr . B ersu e xcava ted a c ons iderable a rea a t t he e as t e nd o f

t he f or t ( where h e f ound a V ik ing s h ip-bur ia l ) a nd a r a ther sma l ler a rea n ear i t s c en tre ( Bruce , 1 974 ) .

H is r econs truct ion o f t he r a mpar t s ugges ts t ha t i t

w as r a ther l ike t he o ne o n S ou th B arru le , i n t ha t i tc ons is ted o f av er t ica l s tone f ace b acked b y ab ank . W i th in t he f or t t here were n u merous p os t-ho les f or s ubs tan t ial p os ts , w i th e v idence f or r ep lace men ts , b u t t he a reas u ncovered were n o t s u f f icien t t o r evea l h ouse-p lans . T he f ew p ieces o f p ot tery wh ich w ere f ound o n t he s i te h ave b een a scr ibed t o p re-Iron Age o ccupa t ion , f or wh ich t here was o ther e v idence , a nd t he o ccupa t ion a ssoc ia ted w i th t he r a mp ar t c an o n ly v ery g enera l ly b e d escr ibed a s I ron Age .

The a bsence o f a ny

p ot tery a ssocia ted w i th t he p os t-ho les makes i tv ery u n l ike ly t ha t t h is i s a s e ar ly af or ti f ied s i te a s S ou th B arru le , a nd a s t he o ccupa t ion l as ted , i n B ersu 's o pin ion , q u i te a l ong t ime , t he p oss ibi li ty a r ises t ha t i t may h ave o ver lapped w i th t ha t o f Ba l lacagen a nd B a l lanorr is , wh ich wou ld o n ly make t he r e la t ive r oles o f t hese s i tes t he more d i f f icu l t t o u nders tand . I ti sp oss ib le t ha t f ur ther e xcava t ion may s how t ha t t he f or t o n C hape l H i l l c an b e p laced i n t he g ap o f p erhaps 2 50 y ears wh ich s epara tes S ou th B arru le f ro m t he r ound h ouses , b u t a t t he mo men t o ne c an o n ly r e fer t o t he e ar ly p hases o f t he p ro mon tory f or ts , wh ich may p oss ib ly b e long t o t h is p er iod . A t C lose n y c ho l lagh a n e ar ly p hase o f t he r a mpar t o n t he l andward s ide h ad f or a l ong t i me b een t o ta l ly r u inous when t he l a ter r a mpar t was b u i l t .

A t

C ronk n y merr iu ( SC 3 17704 ) t he e ar l ies t d e fence s ee ms t o h ave b een a s tockade , j us t p oss ib ly a d oub le s tockade , wh ich wou ld s ugges t ar a ther e ar ly d a te i n t he I ron Age . T he r a mpar t wh ich i s v is ible t oday was r eve t ted o n t he i ns ide b y al ine o f p os ts s e t i n ac on t inuous f ounda t ion t rench , im med ia te ly i ns ide wh ich t here was a l ine o f p os t-ho les s o me 2 m a par t , wh ich s ugges ted t ha t t here h ad b een s o me k ind o f r a ised wa lk o n t he i ns ide o f t he r a mpar t . T here was n o e v idence f or d a te ( excep t t ha t t he r eve t men t h ad c o l lapsed b y t he t ime a h ouse o f N orse t ype was b u i l t ) , b u t t he l av ish u se o f t imber , a l though n o t c ons t i tu t ing a n o r thodox k ind o f t imbered r a mpar t , a ga in p oss ib ly p o in ts t o a n e ar ly d a te i n t he I ron Age ( Ge l l ing , 1 952 ) . A t C ass n y h awin ( SC 2 98693 ) t he r a mpar t was c lear ly o f t wo p er iods , a nd t he f irs t h ad b een

2 41

r u inous when t he s econd was b u i l t , b u t t here was n o e vidence t o s ugges t t he d a te o f e i ther ( Ge l l ing , 1 959 ) .

A l l o ne c an s ay i s t ha t t here may h ave b een

t wo p hases o f b u i ld ing p ro mon tory f or ts , a nd t ha t a t l eas t a t C lose n y c ho l lagh a nd C ass n y h aw in t hey were p robab ly w ide ly s epara ted . T here i s o ne o ther s i te — t he n or thern h i l l-for t o f Cronk S umark ( SC 3 92942 ) — wh ich may o ne d ay b e s hown t o f i l l ag ap i n t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he I ron Age .

T he i nner o f i t s t wo ma in r ampar ts i s v i tri f ied , w h ich c ou ld c on-

c e ivab ly i nd ica te a n e ven e ar l ier d a te t han t ha t o f ' S ou th B arru le . The ma in c hange wh ich h as o ver taken t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he Manx I ron Age i s t ha t we c an n o l onger s ay t ha t B a l lacagen was l a ter i n d a te t han C lose n y c ho l lagh , s o t he t heory p u t f orward e igh t y ears a go , t ha t t he o ne t ype o f s i te s ucceeded t he o ther , mus t b e a bandoned .

I ns tead i t h as t o b e a ccep ted

t ha t t hey a t l eas t o ver lapped a nd may h ave b een l argely c on temporary .

T he

o n ly s i te wh ich c an n ow b e a scr ibed w i th f a ir c er ta in ty t o ad a te r ound a bou t A .D. 1 00 i s t he f or t i f ied s i te o n B a l lan icho las .

A f ter t hat t here i s ag ap o f

s evera l c en tur ies i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . The c loses t a f f in i t ies o f t he Manx I ron A ge a ppear , n ot u nexpec tedly , t o b e w i th s ou th-wes t S cot land . The B a l lacagen a nd Ba l lanorris s i tes a re n o t c rannogs , b u t t hey s ee m t o r epresen t ac ho ice o f s i te c o mparab le t o t ha t o f t he S co t t ish c rannog-bu i lders ,

a nd t he t ype o f h ouse i s p ossib ly a r eg iona l

d eve lop men t w i th in t he b road g roup o f I ron A ge t imber h ouses w h ich h as a w ide d is tr ibu t ion f ro m D orse t t o F i fe .

T he sma l l Manx p ro mon tory f or ts

h ave c lose p ara l le ls o n t he c oas t o f t he R h inns o f Ga l loway , a nd t he e nor mous p ro mon tory f or t wh ich was c rea ted b y f or ti fying t he i s thmus l ead ing t o t he Mu l l o f G a l loway h as a p ar t ia l p ara l le l i n t he p en insu la o f L angness .

Th is

c ou ld n ot b e f or t i f ied a cross i t s i s th mus b ecause o f t he v ery s ha l low s hores o n e i ther s ide , b u t al arge p ar t o f t he s ou thern e nd o f t he p en insu la was c u t o f f b y ar a mpar t wh ich r an f ro m c oas t t o c oas t a pprox i ma tely e as t o f Dresw ick P oin t .

km n or th-

T here i s av ery s im i lar r a mpar t o n t he Mu l l o f

G a l loway , where i tf or ms a n i nner l ine b eh ind t he i s th mus d efences . P erhaps n o t e very th ing s hou ld b e d er ived f ro m s ou th-wes t S co t land . Many o f t he f inds f ro m t he r ound h ouses c ou ld b e a ccoun ted f or b y t rad ing c on tac ts , b u t t he i nhabi tan ts h ad a r a ther i nexper t t rad i t ion o f mak ing p ot tery , a nd t he ir s hapes i ncluded t he p edes ta l f oo t .

A s t h is o ccurs i n p hase 1 o f

s i te A i tc an h ard ly b e r e la ted t o a ny B e lg ic p ro to type , a nd i f ap ro to type mus t b e f ound i tc an o n ly b e i n s ou thern Eng land a t ad a te p robab ly n o t l a ter t han t he t h ird c en tury B .C . ( e .g . i n C un li f fe 's A l l C ann ings C ross — Meon H i l l g roup ) .

T here i s n o c hrono log ica l d i f f icu l ty a bou t t h is , a nd , s l igh t a s

i ti s , i ti s p erhaps t he c leares t h in t we h ave o f as ou thern s tra in i n t he Manx I ron Age .

2 42

REFERENCES

B ersu , 1 977 .

G . Bersu , Three I ron Age r ound h ouses i n t he I s le o f Man .

Manx Museu m a nd Na t iona l Trus t . B ruce , 1 974 .

J . R . Bruce , ' Chape l H i l l — ap reh is tor ic , e ar ly C hr is t ian

a nd V ik ing s i te a t Ba l ladoo le , K irk Arbory , I s le o f Man '.

P roc . o f

t he I . 0 . M. N a t . H is t . a nd An t . S oc . v i i , 4 , 6 32-665 . G e l l ing , 1 952 .

P . S . G el l ing , ' Excava t ion o f ap ro mon tory f or t a t P or t

Grenaugh , I s le o f Man '.

Proc . o f t he I . 0 . M. N a t . H is t . a nd An t .

S oc . v , 3 , 3 07-317. G e l l ing , 1 958 .

P . S . Ge l ling , ' C lose n y c hol lagh :

l e t t , I s le o f Man '. G e l l ing ,

1 959.

a n I ron Age f or t a t S car-

P roc . Preh is t . S oc . x x iv , 8 5-100 .

P . S . G el l ing , ' Excava t ion o f ap ro mon tory f or t a t C ass n y

h aw in , Ma lew , I s le o f Man '.

P roc . o f t he I . 0 . M. N a t . H is t . a nd

An t . S oc . v i , 1 , 2 8-38 . G e ll ing , 1 963.

P . S . Gel l ing , ' Excava t ions a t t he h i l l-for t o n S ou th B arru le '.

P roc . o f t he I . 0 . M. N at . H is t . a nd An t . S oc . v i , 3 , 3 13-323 . G e l ling , 1 968 .

P . S . G el l ing , ' Excava tion o f ap ro mon tory f or t o n Bal la-

n icholas , K irk Marown , I s le o f Man '.

Proc . o f t he I . 0 . M. N a t . H is t .

S oc . v i i , 2 , 1 81-191. G el ling , 1 969.

P . S . G el l ing , ' A me ta lwork ing s i te a t K iondroghad , K irk

A ndreas , I s le o f Man ' . G elling , 1 972.

P . S . G el l ing ,

l ' Ted . Arch . x i i i , 6 7-83. ' The h i l l-for t o n S ou th B arru le a nd i t s

t i on i n t he Manx I ron Age ' , i n , L ynch , F . a nd B urgess ,

p os i-

C . e ds . 1 972 .

P reh is tor ic Man i n Wales a nd t he Wes t , E ssays i n h onour o f L i ly F . Ch i t ty . Gu ido , 1 974.

p p. 2 85-292.

Ada ms a nd D ar t :

B a th .

M. Gu ido , ' A S co t t ish c rannog r eda ted '.

An t iqu i ty x lv i i i , n o .

1 89, 5 4-55 . Rober tson , 1 970 . S cot land '.

A . S . R ober tson , ' Ro man f inds f ro m n on-Ro man s i tes i n Br i tann ia I , 1 98-226.

2 43

Man and Environment in the Isle of Man Part ii Edited by

Peter Davey

BAR British Series I 4(ii) 1978

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122 Banbury

Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GE�ERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., :\I.A., D.Phil. D. R. \\.alke r. :\I..--\.

B.A.R. 54 (ii), 1978:

'Man and Environment in the Isle of Man', Part ii

© The individual authors, 1978. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389233 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389240 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860540342 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407322230 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540342 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTE NTS PART i

Page L ist o f I l lustrat ions 1

I NTR ODUCT ION S ir H . Godw in a nd

E . M. Megaw ( nee Hardy )

5

F . Mitchel l 1 . The P resen t-day F auna a nd F lora o f

D . E . A l len

9

Man a s I nd icators o f t he Date o f t he F landr ian S everance 2 . F landr ian S ealevel Changes a nd

M. J . Too ley

1 5

M. G . L . Ba il l ie

2 5

G . Russel l

3 9

D . E . A l len

5 1

L . S . Garrad

6 1

R . J . Mitchel l a nd

7 7

Vegetat ional H istory o f t he I sle o f Man : a Rev iew 3 . Dendrochrono logy f or t he I r ish S ea Prov ince 4 . The

S tructure a nd Vegetat ion H istory

o f t he Manx H il l P eats 5 . P lan t D istribu t ion Pat terns a s Poten t ial H istor ical I nd icators 6 . Ev idence f or t he H istory o f t he Vertebrate Fauna o f t he I sle o f Man 7 . Genet ic S tud ies o f t he Popu lat ion o f t he I s le o f Man

E . S underland

8 . The C . H . Cow ley Archaeo log ical

L . S . Garrad

1 09

P . Wood man

19

S . C regeen

1 41

L . S . Garrad

1 65

A . S . Henshal l

1 71

P . J . Mof fa t

1 77

P . J . Davey

2 19

P . S . Gel l ing

2 33

Col lect ions i n t he Manx Museu m , Douglas 9 . A Re-appra isal o f t he Manx Meso l ith ic 1 0. Bal laharra Excavat ion s 1 971.

A

S u m mary o f Work a nd Resu lts 1 1. S tone Imp le men ts a nd t he ir U sers i n t he I s le o f Man 1 2. Manx Megal iths Aga in ;

a n At te mpt

a t S tructural Analys is 1 3. The Ronaldsway Cu l ture :

a Rev iew

1 4. Bronze Age Metalwork f ro m t he I sle o f Man 1 5.

The I ron Age

PART

i

1 6. Excavat ion o f ' L in tel Grave ' Ce metery

L . S . Garrad

2 45

M. Gel l ing

2 51

B . Megaw

2 65

G . F el lows J ensen

3 15

R . L . Tho mson

3 19

2 1. The Manx ' Eary ' a nd i t s S ign if icance

E . Megaw

3 27

2 2. The ' Erg ' P lace-na mes o f N orthern

M. C . H igha m

3 47

2 3. Med ieval Pot tery i n t he I sle o f Man

L . S . Garrad

3 57

2 4. Chance F inds o f S tone Mou lds f ro m

L . S . Garrad

3 67

M. Do l ley

3 73

M. K il l ip

4 01

A . M. Cubbon

4 13

a t G len traugh S an tan , I sle o f Man 1 7.

N orse a nd Gael ic i n Med ieval Man : t he P lace-na me Ev idence

1 8. N orse man a nd N at ive i n t he K ingdo m o f t he I sles :

a Re-assess men t o f t he

Manx e v idence 1 9. The Manx P lace-na me Debate :

aView

f ro m Copenhagen 2 0. The I n terpretat ion o f s o me Manx P lace-na mes

England

t he I sle o f Man 2 5. A Paranu m is mat ic S idel ight o n S everal C en tur ies o f Manx H istory —The Wreck o f t he L ucy ( 1702) 2 6. T he Develop men t o f t he Manx N ineteen th Cen tury F ield P at tern 2 7. S o me Chance F inds o f Archaeo log ical Importance i n t he I sle o f Man 1 962-1977

L IST OF I LLUSTRAT IONS PART i

F IGURES

P age

1 6.1

G len traugh , S an tan :

l in te l g rave c e metery

1 7.1

A reas d escr ibed i n t he Monast ic Bounds

2 62

1 8.1

T he Manx l üngdo m o f t he I sles

2 67

1 8.2

S t . Patr ick 's I sle , P eel

2 68

1 8.3

P agan g rave- mounds o n t he J urby c oas tal r idge

2 82

1 8.4

T he med ieval a dm in istrat ive d iv is ions o f t he I sle o f Man

2 85

1 8.5

S eal o f Harald , k ing o f Man a nd t he I sles

2 91

2 1.1

A l t itude o f l ocated E ary f ar ms

3 28

2 1.2

D istr ibu t ion o f l ocated E arys

3 30

2 1.3

T reens a nd q uar terland f ar ms

3 32

2 1.4

D is tr ibu t ion o f d irge p lace-na mes

3 34

2 1.5

N orse p lace-na mes i n ary , e r (gh ) a nd saetr/-shader

3 36

2 2.1

T he d istr ibu t ion o f erg p lace-na mes i n N orthern Eng land

3 48

2 2.2

T he d istr ibu t ion o f Med ieval f orests i n N or thern Eng land

3 51

2 3.1

F inds o f Med ieval p o t tery i n t he I sle o f Man

3 58

2 3.2

P ot tery f ro m Cast le Rushen

3 63

2 4.1

S ketch o f t he Broogh ja irg Mou ld

3 68

2 6.1

Quarterlands.

4 09

2 6.2

Quarterlands.

L onan Par ish

4 10

2 6.3

F ield p at tern .

Moaney Mooar Malew

4 11

2 7.1

S i tes o f most impor tan t c hance f inds 1 962-1977

4 14

2 7.2

N eo l ith ic b ow lf ro m t he L henTrench locat ion p lan

4 15

P ar ish o f l ark Br ide

2 46

2 7.3

perspect ive s ketch o fs ite

4 15

2 7.4

cross-sect ion o f s ite

4 15

2 7.5

elevat ion a nd c ross-sect ion

4 15

2 7.6

F ood v esse l f ro m l ark Michael locat ion p lan

4 17

F IGURES 2 7.7

P age

Food v essel f ro m K irk Michael cross-sec t ion t hrough s ite

2 7.8 2 7.9

elevat ion a nd c ross-sect ion Bronze a xe f ro m Bal lak ilpher ic locat ion p lan

2 7.10

draw ing

4 17 4 18 4 20 4 21

2 7.11

Frag men t o fb ronze v essel f ro m S trandhal l , Rushen

4 23

2 7.12

Bal lyelse h oard locat ion p lan

4 25

2 7.13

perspect ive s ketch

4 25

PLATES 1 8.1

Cast le Rushen

2 86

2 4.1

S andstone mou ld f ro m Peel

3 70

1 6.

EXCAVATION OF A ' LINTEL GRAVE ' CE METERY AT GLENTRAUGH , S ANTAN , I SLE OF MAN

b y Larch S . G arrad , Ass is tan t K eeper , Manx Museum

On March 3 1s t , 1 976 , Mr . I an P arker , t he o wner o f G len traugh f ar m , S an tan , w as p lough ing t he ' M idd le F ie ld ' ( 0 .S . XVI I/ 1 , p lot 8 66, SC31187095) , a d jacen t t o ' t he C ronk ' a nd o n t he o ppos i te s ide o f t he r oad t o t he p ar ish c hurch .

H is p lough c augh t i n al arge s lab o f Manx s la te .

H e e xcava ted t he

r esu l tan t h ole , t h ink ing i tm igh t b e mere ly a p or t ion o f as tonel ined b ox d ra in , a nd f ound a p iece o f s ku l l .

T h is h e t ook t o t he v icar , t he R ev . J . M . C ot ter ,

who n ot i f ied t he Manx Museum . An emergency e xcava t ion was c arr ied o u t b y t he a u thor a nd a t o ta l o f e igh teen g raves w as u ncovered .

I ti s p robab le t ha t t he c e me tery c on ta ined

more , b u t work was d el ibera te ly c on f ined t o t he v icin i ty o f t he i n i t ia l d isc overy a nd g raves l ike ly t o b e d a maged b y p resen t p lough ing .

The Manx

Museum T rus tees a re g ra te fu l t o t he V icar f or s o p ro mp t ly c a l l ing a t ten t ion t o t he f ind , t o Mr . I an P arker f or h is a ss is tance a t t he e xcava t ion a nd t o Mr . J . T . Ches ter man f or t he s peed w i th wh ich h e p roduced a c o mprehens ive r epor t o nt he b ones .

The a u thor wou ld l ike t o a dd h er t hanks t o t he e xcava-

t i on t eam . PART I— THE S ITE The c e metery a ppears t o o ccupy a l ow k no l l wh ich i s n ow c u t a cross b y a s tone wa l l .

Arguab ly t he ' break i n s lope ' i nd ica tes t he p os i t ion o f t he e nc losure

t ha t o ne w ou ld e xpec t r ound ab ur ia l g round .

C is ts were a pparen t ly f ound

when t h is wa l l was b ui l t ( t he Ordnance S urvey r ecords ' S tone c is ts f ound ' ) , a nd i ti s more t han l ike ly t ha t t here a re more g raves i n t he a rea .

The e xca-

v a ted g raves , f or t he mos t p ar t , were c lose ly g rouped i n to r ough ly p ara l le l r ows . T he g rave p i ts h ad b een c u t i n to t he v ery f r iab le s la te r ock a nd s ubs equen t ly l i ned w i th s la te s labs . A f ter t he b ur ia l t he g rave was c overed w i th s la te ' l in te ls ', whence t he u sua l n a me f or t h is t ype wh ich i s c o m mon i n Man . I n t his c eme tery t here were r a ther f ew i ns tances o f ag rave b e ing c overed w i th as ing le s lab .

H ere s ix o r s even s labs were c o m mon ly f ound .

The ma ter ia l

e xcava ted f ro m t he g rave p i t h ad b een f i l led b ack , a nd a f ter c en tur ies h ad b eco me a l mos t i nd is t ingu ishab le f ro m ' t he n a tura l ' a nd e x tre me ly d i f f icu l t t o p robe t hrough . The e xcava t ion The g raves were ma in ly r evea led when a l in te l was d isplaced b y t he we igh t o f o ne ( or more ) o f t he e xcava tors , o r when r e mova l o f t he o ver-burden r ev ea led t he d ark c av i ty t hrough a g ap i n t he c over ing s tones .

Mos t o f t he

g raves h ad p reserved a t l eas t ap ar t ia l a ir s pace b enea th t he s labs a nd i t a ppears t ha t t he b od ies h ad d ecayed i n ar ock-wa l led c ha mber .

C are fu l

a t ten t ion w as p a id t o t he p oss ibi l i ty o f t here b eing a ny s igns o f c o f f in , s hroud 2 45

F ig . 16 . 1

e x ends 2 5 f e e t

/ t\

t of i e ld w a ll

I

GLENTRAUGH ,San tan L I NTEL GRAVE CE METERY

g 9p os it ion o fs ku l l

0

5 f ee t

8 0 ? Q

r ock f l oor 1 8 " h igher t han t ha t o fL -7L

1

n _

q uern

P loughed t r ia 8 ° E

J

?

F c d . A pprox ima te l im i ts o f i nve s t iga t ion ,

. 1 1 • H 11 1 1 1 » " 1 ,H

Y

o r o ther e nc losure o f t he b ody , b u t n o t races were n o ted .

The a bsence o f

a ny s or t o f b rooch o r f as ten ing r a ther s ugges ts a s i mp le f abr ic s hroud a s t he mos t l i kely mode o f p repar ing t he b ody f or b ur ia l . No te w as a lso t aken o f t he p os i t ion o f t he h ands , where t h is was d e ter m ina ble , a s i t was t hough t p oss ib le t ha t t here was a s ex d i f ference i n t h is .

V ery

s l igh t s uppor t f or t h is c on jec ture was f ound , i n a s much a s t wo f e ma les , g raves Aa nd E , h ad t he ir h ands c rossed o ver t he p e lv is a nd o ne man , g rave H , h ad h is a t h is s ides .

The h eads o f t he b odies were s i tua ted a t t he wes ter ly e nds

o f t he g raves , a nd t he o r ien ta t ion o f mos t o f t he m was s im i lar , w i th t he l ong a x is a pprox i ma te ly wes t-eas t .

T r ia ls were e x tended i n a l l d irec t ions f ro m

t he ma in g roup , n or thwards a s f ar a s t he f ie ld wa l l a nd i n o ther d irect ions u n ti l n o f ur ther g rave was d iscovered w i th in t wo me tres o f t ha t l as t l oca ted . N o s ign o f a ny s tructure o r e nc losure was s een , b u t i ti s n o t imposs ib le t ha t t here w as a k ee i l l i n t he g ap b e tween g raves Q a nd R — many c e me ter ies a re a ssoc ia ted w i th sma l l C e l t ic c hape ls , k nown a s k eei l ls i n t he I s le o f Man . I ft here w as s uch a c hape l h ere i tp resu mab ly p re-da tes t he o ldes t b u i lding o n t he s i te o f t he p ar ish c hurch , i t se l f l ikely t o b e e ar ly i n v iew o f t he p res ence o f t he p robably 6 th c en tury Av i tus s tone ( cross 2 9 ).

T he ' ce me tery

c hape l ' may h ave g one o u t o f u se when t he p ar ish c hurch a cqu ired t ha t s ta tus . There i s n o way o f d a t ing t he c e me tery s i te . PART I — THE SKELETAL RE MA INS The Manx Museu m i s mos t g ra te fu l t o Mr . J . T . C hes ter man , Un ivers i ty o f S he f f ie ld , who e xa m ined t he r ema ins a nd p repared a d eta i led r epor t o n wh ich — w i th h is a gree men t — t h is d iscuss ion i s b ased .

The o ppor tun i ty was

t aken a lso t o g e t h is o pin ion o nb ones f ro m t wo o ther ' rescue d igs ' o f ' l in te l g raves ' c arr ied o u t b y t he Museu m s ta f f — S peke , R ichmond H i l l SC334746 BRADDAN X I I I/ 10 , p lot 2 301 ( a s i te v is ible f ro m t ha t a t G len traugh ) , b y t he a u thor , 1 967 ( Med ieva l Archaeo logy X II , 1 968 , 1 63 — k ee i l l s i te l i s ted i n Manx A rchaeolog ica l R epor ts , V , 1 8 ) ;

a nd B a l lachurry Park S C394784 ON

CHANby t he D irec tor , Mr . A . M. C ubbon , 1 971 ( Med ieva l Archaeo logy , XVI , 1 972 , 1 68 ) .

H is c o m men ts h ave b een i ncorpora ted i n t h is r epor t .

As h as b een men tioned f i f teen o f t he e igh teen g raves p roduced a t l eas t s o me s ke le ta l r e mains . Man .

T h is i s a n a bove-average n u mber f or t he I s le o f

I nt he ma jor i ty o f c ases t here was s u f f icien t e v idence t o a l low d e ter-

mina t ion , w i th a r easonab le d egree o f a ccuracy , o f s ex a nd a ge g roup . S ince o n ly a s ec t ion o f t he c e me tery was c leared i ti s p robab ly d angerous t o d raw c onc lus ions f ro m t he s ta t is t ics . made.

H owever o ne o r t wo p o in ts s hou ld b e

T here were r e ma ins o f t we lve a du l ts .

i nstances , f our ma le a nd s ix f e ma le .

S ex was d e ter m inable i n t en

On ly o ne man ( grave B ) c ou ld b e d es-

c r ibed a s h av ing l i ved i n to o ld a ge , i .e . t o a bou t 6 0 , wh i le t wo o f t he wo men ( grave N - 3 0-35 y ears o ld a nd g rave P - 3 0-40 y ears o ld ) were a pprec iably o lder t han t he a verage o f 2 0 .7 y ears .

The ma jor i ty o f t he a du l ts were i n

f act i nt he 2 0-30 y ear a ge g roup when t hey d ied .

There were n o t eenagers ,

( 13-19 a ge g roup ) , a nd t hree c h i ldren , a ged a bou t 3, 4 -5 a nd 1 1-12 y ears r espec t ive ly ( G , La nd D ) .

N o i n fan t r e ma ins were f ound b u t i t may b e

a ssu med t ha t t he much sma l ler g rave ( M ) o nce h e ld o ne .

The s ing le b ur ia l

f ro m S peke was t ha t o f a man o f a bou t 5 5 , wh i le t he f ragmen tary s ku l l f ro m Ba l lachurry Park was t ha t o f ay oung man a bou t 2 0 . 2 47

On t he e v idence o f t hese s ke le tons t hey s ee m t o h ave b een a r e la t ively h ea l thy g roup , w i th o n ly o ne , ag ir l o f a bou t 2 5 , s howing s igns o f o s teophytes i n t he s p ine .

T he s p ine o f t he much o lder man f ro m S peke a lso s howed t races

o f s im i lar o u tgrow ths .

A t t he t ime o f e xcava t ion i ts ee med t ha t where t he

t ee th were p reserved t hey were g enera l ly i n ag ood s ta te .

Mr . C hes ter man 's

f ind ings a ppear t o s uppor t t h is , a l though h e p o in ted o u t t ha t t he d egree o f a t tr i t ion o n t he t ee th o f t he 2 5 y ear o ld g ir l f ro m g rave A i s a n i nd ica t ion o f a' coarse , ma in ly v ege table/cerea l d ie t '.

T he u se o f q uerns made f ro m l oca l

g ran i te — o ne was f ound i ncorpora ted i n g rave I— p resumably c on tr ibu ted i t s q uo ta o f g r i t t o t he mea l . Perhaps n o t s urpr is ing ly t he o ld man ( B ) h ad s u ff ered f ro m c ar ies a nd p yorrhea a nd h ad h ad a t l eas t o ne a bscess . o f t h is was marked b y t he s ocke t f i l led w i th r egnera ted b one . S peke h ad f a ir ly g ood t ee th w i th a s ing le l arge c av i ty .

T he s i te

The man f ro m

Three p eop le ( t he c h i ld

i n Da nd t wo wo men , Pa nd Q ) h ad c ongen i ta l ly o ne l ess t han t he n orma l n umber o f a du l t t ee th , wh i le t he l as t a lso h ad ' shove l ' t ee th ( l ess t han 1 m m d eep ) , i n p lace o f n or ma l u pper s econd i nc isors .

T hese d e fec ts a re l ikely t o h ave b een

h ered i tary , a nd t heir f requency i s p erhaps a s ign o f t he i nbreed ing t o b e e xp ec ted i n a sma l l c o m mun i ty . Mr . C hes ter man was p ar t icu lar ly a sked t o l ook f or a ny i nd ica t ions o f o bv ious f am i ly r e la t ionsh ips .

The mos t t e l l ing o f t hese was t he r e la t ive

f requency o f Wor m ian b ones .

O f t he s ix i ns tances where t he l a mbdo id s u ture

was p reserved , f our — A , E , Ha nd N — c on ta ined a l l t he Wor m ian b ones f ound , a nd o n ly t wo — G , a ged 3 -L a nd K , a ged 2 5 — d id n o t s how a ny s uch c ond i t ion .

T he d eve lop men t o f Wor m ian b ones c an r esu l t f ro m p a tho logy , o r

t rauma , o r c an b e t he n or ma l r e f lec t ion o f t he g ene t ica l ly c on tro l led l eng th o f t he b as i-occipu t .

I ft he l a t ter i s s hor t , more s tress i s a ppl ied t o t he

l a mbdo id s u ture t o i ncrease c ran ia l c apac i ty , w i th t he a dded c hance o f t he f or ma t ion o f Wor m ian b ones .

Dr . Don B ro thwe l l h as p roduced a verage f igures

f or t he p resence o f Wor m ian b ones o f 7 1% f or I ron Age R o mano-Br i t ish and a mere 5 6% f or Ang lo-Saxons .

( Quoted i n B enne t t , K . A . 1 965 Am . J our .

Phys ica l An thropo logy V o l . 2 3 , p ages 2 55-60 ) . R egre t tably t he b ones were t oo i l l-preserved t o make a ccura te h e igh t e s t i ma tes e asy , b u t t here was s u f f ic ien t e v idence f or i tt o b e p oss ib le t o s ay t ha t t he l ad ies were o f g raci le b u i ld , a nd t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f t he a du l ts were r a ther s hor t : A

F e ma le

a bou t 2 5 y ears

g rac i le b u i ld

5 f t 1 1-i n ( 1556 m m )

E

F e ma le

a bou t 2 5 y ears

g rac i le b u i ld

N

F e ma le

a bou t 3 0-35 y ears

g rac i le b u i ld

5 f t l in ( 1545 m m )

Q

F e ma le

a bou t 2 4 y ears

g rac i le b u i ld

5 f t 3 1 in ( 1 606 m m )

H

Ma le

a bou t 2 5-30 y ears

we l l b u i l t

5 f t 2 in ( 1 571 m m )

c .5 f t

B y c on tras t t he o ld ish man f ro m S peke , e ven w i th h is d a maged s p ine , was a bou t 5 f t 6 1 in t a l l , wh ich a ccords b e t ter w i th t he S an tan a verage f or ma le r ec ru i ts i n t he e ar ly 1 9th c en tury c i ted b y B eddoe .

We may p erhaps a ssu me

t ha t t he o ccupan ts o f t h is b ur ia l g round w ere t he sma l l , d ark C e l t ic t ype o f Manx man r a ther t han t a l l V ik ings .

2 48

I n r esponse t o l oca l f ee l ing t he b ones w i l l b e r ein terred n ear t he s i te . B eddoe , J . a nd Moore , A . W ., 1 897 .

' Phys ica l An thropo logy o f t he I s le o f

Man ' J ourna l o f t he An thropo log ica l I ns t i tu te V o l . V II I .

2 49

1 7.

NORSE AND GAELIC I N MED IEVAL MAN : THE PLACE-NAME EV IDENCE b y Margare t G e l l ing

The p lace-na mes o f t he I s le o f Man were s tud ied i n g rea t d e ta i l b y t wo a u thors , al oca l s cho lar , J . J . Kneen ( Kneen 1 925-9 ) , a nd P ro fessor C . J . S . Mars trander ,

o f Os lo Un ivers i ty ( Mars trander 1 932 , 1 934 ).

There i n t he

ma in t he s ub jec t r es ted u n t i l 1 963 , when t here was a s che me a foot f or a b ook o f e ssays o n Manx h is tory a nd a rchaeo logy .

Iwas a sked t o c on tr ibu te a c hap-

t er o n t he p lace-na mes b ecause o f t he t rag ic d ea th o f F . T . Wainwr igh t , who was t o h ave wr i t ten t ha t s ec t ion a nd t o h ave e d i ted t he b ook .

The b ook f a i led

t o ma ter ia l ise , a nd my c hap ter l ay i n c o ld s torage t i l l 1 970 , when Mr . M . C ubbon s ugges ted t ha t Is hou ld p ub l ish i ti n The J ourna l o f t he Manx Museu m , where i ta ppeared i n t wo p ar ts ( Ge l ling , M ., 1 970-1 ) . I nt hese a r t ic les Ie choed t he c onc lus ions o f Kneen a nd Mars trander t ha t t he p lace-na me e v idence wou ld s uppor t t he v iew t ha t t he Gae l ic l anguage d ied o u t i n Man f or a p er iod a f ter t he N orse s e t t le men ts , a nd t ha t t he I s land was p robab ly who l ly N orse-speak ing f or a t ime .

B ecause Ir e jec ted t he e v idence

o f t wo d ocumen ts wh ich Kneen a nd Mars trander h ad c ons idered g enu ine , I f e l t a b le t o s ta te t he c ase f or a N orse-speak ing p er iod i n Man e ven more s trong ly t han t hey h ad d one . The c onc lus ions o f Kneen a nd Mars trander were n ever g enera l ly a ccep ted , e i ther a t ap opu lar o r a t a n a cade m ic l eve l , a nd i n my s ta te men ts i n 1 963 I was c o mba t ing t wo a ssu mp t ions .

One was t he p opu lar Manx b e l ie f t ha t t he

Manx G ae l ic l anguage a nd t he p lace-na mes i n i ta re o f im me mor ia l a n t iqu i ty . T he o ther was t he more p rec ise b e l ie f , h e ld t hen a nd n ow b y s o me em inen t s cholars , t ha t t he N orse k ingdo m o f Man a nd t he I s les was e s tab l ished a nd ma in ta ined b y a sma l l N orse a r is tocracy who r u led a main ly C e l t ic p opu la t ion w i thou t c aus ing a r ad ica l modi f ica t ion o f t he ir s peech a nd c us to ms .

The

f irs t a ssump t ion , t hough c er ta in ly u nsound a s r egards many o f t he p lacen a mes , i s ah ar m less p a tr io t ic b e l ie f o f many Manx p eople , a nd n o th ing p ubl i shed i n l earned j ourna ls i s l ikely t o i n ter fere w i th i t .

The s econd a ssu mp-

t i on h as more h ar m fu l r esu l ts , b ecause i td iscourages s cholars f ro m l ook ing c lose ly a t t he e v idence f or N orse i n f luence a t o ther t han t he mos t a r is tocra t ic l eve ls .

O ne o f t he modern s cho lars who d oes n o t a ccep t t he v iew t ha t N orse

i n f luence w as d om inan t i n Man a t a l l l eve ls o f s oc ie ty i s Mr . B . R . S . Megaw , whose r ecen t p aper ( Megaw 1 976 ) , i s l arge ly d evoted t o c r i t ic is m a nd r ej ec t ion o f my t wo a r t icles .

One o f Mr . Megaw 's p oin ts i s t ha t i ti s n ecessary

t o t ake a ccoun t o f aw ider r ange o f e v idence , b u t h is d iscuss ion , t hough t ak ing i n to a ccoun t more a spec ts t han my l im i ted p lace-na me s tudy , i s n o t c o mp le tely c o mprehens ive , a s i td oes n o t i nc lude t he mos t r ecen t e xcava tion o f aN orse d we l l ing h ouse i n t he I s le o f Man o r t he a r t o f t he Manx c rosses .

F or a d is-

c ussion o f b o th t hese a spects , a nd a n a ssess men t o f t he q ues t ion a s a who le ,

2 51

Ir e fer t hose i n teres ted t o my h usband 's r ecen t a r t ic le ( Ge l l ing , P . S ., 1 977 ) . B o th o f u s f ee l t ha t t he e v idence o f p lace-na mes , a r t h is tory , a nd s e t t le men ta rchaeo logy t e l l i n f avour o f s us tan t ia l p easan t s e t t le men t b y N orse f ar mers a nd t he u se o f N orse s peech i n a l l l eve ls o f Manx s oc ie ty . As r egards t he me thod o f my s tudy i n 1 963 , t h is d i f fered r ad ica l ly f ro m e ar l ier s tud ies o f Manx p lace-na mes , wh ich h ad a dop ted a t opograph ica l a rrange men t , w i th s ect ions d evoted t o t he n a mes o f e ach p ar ish , t he e ar ly s pe l l ings where a va i lab le b e ing c i ted u nder t he modern n a mes t o wh ich t hey r e la ted .

The sma l l c orpus o f t wel f th- a nd t h ir teen th-cen tury s pe l l ings , a nd

t he l arger b ody o f s upposed ly f our teen th-cen tury o nes , h ad n ot b een l ooked a t a s a whole , b u t h ad b een t rea ted p iece mea l , mos t ly a s d ocu men ta t ion f or s urv iv ing n a mes .

S ince o n ly a t iny p ropor t ion o f Manx n a mes h as e ar ly d ocu-

men ta t ion , t h is mean t t ha t t he e ar ly s pe l l ings were w idely s epara ted f ro m e ach o ther i n t he p ages o f Kneen a nd Mars trander .

The me thod f o l lowed i n

my a r t ic les was t o a sse mble t he e ar ly n a mes i n c hrono log ica l g roups a ccord ing t o t he d a te a t wh ich t hey were r ecorded .

T he f irs t b ene f i t t o r esu l t f ro m t h is

was t ha t i tb eca me immed ia te ly a pparen t t ha t t here was s o meth ing s er ious ly am iss w i th t he Manx p lace-na me s pe l l ings f ro m a p apa l b u l l , p urpor t ing t o d a te f ro m 1 231, a l a te-s ix teen th-cen tury c opy o f wh ich was d iscovered a t B ishopscour t i n 1 888 .

The p lace-na mes f ro m t he s ec t ion o f t h is d ocu men t

wh ich d ea ls w i th Manx p roper t ies w i l l b e f ound a t t he e nd o f t he A ppendix , a nd Is tress t ha t u n t i l Iwro te t he m d own l ike t ha t i n 1 963 , h av ing a sse mbled t he m f ro m s ca t tered p ages i n Mars trander 's work , t he t rus twor th iness o f t h is d ocu men t h ad n ever b een q ues t ioned s ince i t s d iscovery i n 1 888 . d e ta i l a t s o me o f t he n a mes :

T o l ook i n

H erbery i s p erhaps t he mos t imposs ib le .

The p ar ish c hurch o f K irk Arbory h ad t wo d ed ica t ions , t o S a in ts C a irpre a nd C o lumba , a nd i ti s f ro m S a in t C a irpre t ha t t he modern n a me d er ives , t he i n i t ia l C - h av ing c oa lesced w i th t he f ina l k o f K irk .

I n t he s even teen th c en-

t ury , when t he n a me h ad b eco me K irk Arbory , a n i norgan ic H - was o ccas iona l ly p re fixed t o t he s econd e le men t , a nd t he H erbery o f t he b u l l i s as pe l l ing o f t ha t t ype .

Bu t t h is d eve lop men t was a l ong way o f f i n 1 231.

P ro fessor Mars trander

managed t o c onv ince h i mse l f t ha t t he f ina l e le men t o f H o l me towen w as O ld N orse t ün , t hough t ha t word i s n ot c er ta in ly e v idenced i n Manx n ames , a nd i s v ery r are i ndeed o u ts ide S cand inav ia . I ti s c er ta in ly t he Eng l ish w ord t own , a nd t h is n a me f or t he s e t t le men t a d jacen t t o P ee l i s land i s ap ara l le l t o C as t le town , o n t he o ther s ide o f t he i s land .

P ee l i s a n Eng l ish n ame , a nd

t he u se o f t he F rench d ef in i te a r t ic le i n L eayre ( modern L ezayre ) i s aN or thC oun try Eng l ish u sage .

N one o f t hese E ng l ish e le men ts i s l ike ly t o h ave

a ppeared i n Man b e fore t he e nd o f t he t h irteen th c en tury .

J urby i s D ureby i n

1 291, s o h ow c ou ld i th ave d eve loped t o J ourbye i n 1 231?

S odor i s f or ma l ly

p oss ib le i n 1 231 a s t he n a me o f t he d iocese , b u t t he misunders tand ing whereby i ti s a pp l ied t o ap lace i n t he I s le o f Man i s a n a nachron is m .

Mr . Megaw

p os tu la tes a s u i tab le h is tor ica l c on tex t f or t he f org ing o f t h is b u l l i n a bou t 1 380 , b u t h e c oncedes t ha t t he Manx p lace-na me s pe l l ings may h ave b een f urt her modern ised b y as ubsequen t c opy is t .

They l ook t o me more a ppropr ia te

t o t he f i f teen th t han t o t he f our teen th c en tury . ( S ince t h is p aper was wr i t ten t he p apa l b u l l h as b een s tud ied b y D r . C . A . R . R ad ford , a nd h is c onc lus ions a re t o b e p ubl ished a s A ppendix A t o h is f or thco m ing r epor t o n t he e xcava t ions o f 1 947 a nd 1 962 o n S t . Pa tr ick 's I s le , 2 52

P ee l .

D r . Rad ford e s tab l ishes t he e x is tence o f ag enu ine b u l l o f 1 231 , b u t

p oin ts o u t t ha t t h is wou ld b e c opied i n to a r eg is ter b e long ing t o t he d iocese o f S odor a t al a ter d a te , a nd t ha t i n s uch c opies t he l is ts o f p ossess ions were o f ten ' modern ised ' , b oth b y t he a l tera t ion o f p lace-na me s pe l l ings a nd b y t he i nclus ion o f l a ter a cqu is i t ions .

A f ter t he r eg is ter was c o mp i led t he t ex t o f

t he b u l l w ou ld b e c opied f ro m i t , n ot f ro m t he o r ig ina l .

S uch a c opy wou ld

h ave b een p rov ided f or t he c lerks who d rew u p t he c on f ir ma t ion g ran ted b y t he L ord o f Man t o t he B ishop i n 1 505 , a nd t h is e xp la ins t he c lose c orrespond ence o f t he s pe l l ings i n t ha t a nd i n t he s urv iv ing c opy o f t he b u l l .

Dr .

R ad ford a lso makes t he p o in t t ha t t he s pe l l ings i n t he Wh i thorn d ocumen ts , d iscussed b elow , a re f ro m s uch a r eg is ter , n ot f ro m t he o r ig ina l c har ters ). Ap o in t t o b e n ot iced i s t ha t t h is l is t c on ta ins f ive n a mes b eg inn ing w i th B a l l i.

U n t i l t h is d ocu men t w as c r i t ic ised i t s ee med t o b e a n e s tab l ished

f act t ha t t he f am i l iar Manx s e t t le men t-na mes i n B a l la- wen t b ack a t l eas t t o t he e ar ly t h ir teen th c en tury .

Whe ther t h is i s s t i l l t o b e r egarded a s a n e s tab-

l i shed f ac t i s t he s econd p o in t t o b e d iscussed .

My f irs t ma in p oin t i s t ha t

where d ocu men ta t ion f or p lace-na mes i s v ery s parse , t he t opograph ica l a rr ange men t n eeds t o b e s upp le men ted b y ac hrono log ica l a rrange men t o f t he e ar ly f orms .

Mars trander j us t managed t o s wa l low t he n a mes f ro m t he b u l l

b y t ak ing t he m o ne a t at ime .

H e c anno t h ave c ons idered t he m a s ag roup ,

o r c o mpared t he m w i th o ther n a mes r ecorded i n t he t we l f th a nd t h ir teen th c en tur ies . I n my 1 970 a r t icle Ir e jec ted t he e v idence o f a no ther t h ir teen th-cen tury d ocu men t b esides t he p apa l b u l l o f 1 231.

Th is i s ac opy made i n 1 504 f ro m

t he l os t c ar tu lary o f Wh i thorn P r iory o f ac har ter o f O la f I , whose r e ign b egan i n 1 226.

I tc on tains t wo p lace-na mes , b a l lacgn iba a nd b a lha mer .

T he f irs t n a me a ppears i n t he s a me s pe l l ing i n c op ies o f l a ter c har ters i n t he s a me d ocumen t .

B u t t he s econd b eco me d a lha mer , s o i t s t rue f or m i s n o t

c lear e nough t o warran t a ny c onclus ions , e xcep t t ha t t h is c opy is t was u ncer ta in i n h is r ead ing o f med ieva l i n i t ia l l et ters .

My o b jec t ion t o b a l lacgn iba i s t ha t

B a l la- ( as o pposed t o e ar l ier B a le, B a l i) i s o ne o f t he n or ma l s ix teen tha nd s even teen th-cen tury s pe l l ings f or Manx n a mes i nb a i le, a nd t h is makes i tv ir tua l ly c er ta in t ha t t he n ame h as b een t a mpered w i th , l eas t i n d eta i l , b y t he s ix teen th-cen tury c opyis t .

Mr . Megaw w ishes t o g ive b a l lacgn iba " the

b ene fi t o f t he d oub t" a s ag enu ine n a me i n b a i le- i n u se i n 1 226 , b u t i t s ee ms t o me a t l eas t a s l i ke ly t ha t t he c opyis t s aw * V i l lacgn iba i n h is o r ig ina l a s t ha t h e s aw * Ba lecgn iba .

The u se o f La t in v i l la i s ac o m mon c harac ter is t ic o f

t wel f th, t h ir teen th- a nd f our teen th-cen tury s ources f or Manx p lace-na me s pe l l ings .

I ti s n o more l i ke ly t o r epresen t o ne v ernacu lar h ab i ta t ive t er m

t han a no ther , a nd o ne c an n ever s ay wha t v ernacu lar n a me i s o bscured b y i t s u se .

I ti sp oss ib le t ha t i n t h is i ns tance t here was n o h abi ta t ive t er m i n c o m-

mon u se .

C gn iba ( modern G reeba , t he N orse n a me o f t he moun ta in u nder

wh ich t he e s ta te l ay ) may we l l h ave b een u sed a s t he e s ta te n a me i n a dd i t ion t o b eing u sed o f t he moun ta in . Th is s ing le d oubt fu l n a me d oes n ot much a f fec t t he s i tua t ion a s r egards t he n u mbers o f Norse a nd G ae l ic n a mes i n med ieva l r ecords . I ti s n o t , e ven i fg enu ine , a who l ly G ae l ic n ame . The p r incip le i nvo lved i n i t s a ccep tance o r r e ject ion i s , h owever , o f s o me g enera l s ign i f icance . C ha mpions o f t he c on t inu i ty o f Gae l ic n o menc la ture i n I re land , S co t land a nd Man o f ten a rgue 2 53

t ha t t he d ocu men ts g ive a f a lse impress ion o f N orse a nd E ng l ish p redo m inance b ecause n a mes i n t hese l anguages were wr i t ten d own i n p re ference t o Gae lic a l terna t ives c urren t among t he mass o f t he p opu la t ion . Ib e l ieve t h is a rgu men t t o b e w i thou t f ounda t ion , a nd w i l l s ay more o f i tp resen t ly . Bu t wha tever t he l i kely t ru th a s r egards t he wr i t ing d own o f ' o f f ic ia l ' r a ther t han l oca l ly c urren t p lace-na mes i n med ieva l d ocumen ts , i t s ee ms w or th wh i le t o d raw a t ten t ion t o t he p oss ibi l i ty o f a no ther s or t o f b ias o pera t ing f ro m 1 500 t o t he p resen t d ay .

Af a lse impress ion o f t he e ar ly c urrency o f s o me G ae l ic n a mes may b e

p roduced b y f orgers a nd i n terpo la tors work ing i n t he s ix teen th a nd s even teen th c en tur ies , whose work i s a ccep ted b y modern c o m men ta tors b ecause t hey t he mse lves h ave a b ias i nf avour o f Gae l ic .

Pre jud ice i nf avour o f s o me Gae l ic

n a mes , p ar t icu lar ly t hose i n Ba l la, h as t o b e a l lowed f or f ro m 1 500 o nwards . Manx s e t t le men t-na mes i n B a l la- a re t he d om inan t f ea ture o f t he modern n o menc la ture o f t he I s le o f Man , a nd o ur d iscuss ions wou ld h ave a s ounder b as is i f we c ou ld a scer ta in t he l i ke ly d a te a t wh ich s uch n a mes b egan t o b e c o ined . I n my a r t icle

o f 1 970 Ig ave e v idence f or t he f or ma t ion o f many o f t hese n a mes

i n t he p os t- med ieva l p er iod .

Th is c an b e d educed f ro m t he n a ture o f t he

f am i ly n a mes w i th wh ich t hey a re c o mpounded .

S o me o f t he s urnames , a s i n

B a llanorr is , B a l laoa tes , B a l lahugga l , a re Eng l ish o r Ang lo- Nor man , a nd wou ld n o t b e c urren t i n Man b e fore t he f our teen th c en tury .

I n n umerous i n-

s tances o f t h is t ype o f n a me t he f am i ly c oncerned was h o ld ing t he e s ta te i n t he e ar ly s ix teen th c en tury.

I n t he p ar ish o f K irk C hr is t Rushen , f or e xa mp le ,

t he f ar ms o f B a l lacork ish , B a l la fesson , B a l laga le a nd B a l lagawne b e longed r espec t ive ly t o H enry McQuerkus , H enry McPerson , P e ter Ga l l a nd H enry McGawne a t t he t ime when t he Manor ia l R o l l o f 1 511 was c o mpi led . n o t s ee m l ike ly t ha t t he n a mes a re much e ar l ier .

I td oes

E v idence o f t h is t ype f or a

l a te d a te o f c oinage a pp l ies t o ag ood d ea l o f t he ma ter ia l , b u t n o t t o a l l o f i t . S o me n a mes i n wh ich b ane- i s c o mpounded w i th a d escr ipt ive t er m , a s i n B a l lasa l la , o r aG ae lic p ersona l n a me , a s i n B a l lag i l ley , a re a t l eas t o f med ieva l d a te , a nd i ti s a n o pen q ues t ion whe ther a ny o f t he m c ou ld d a te f ro m b e fore t he N orse p er iod . I n my a r t ic le o f 1 970 Ia ccep ted L ia m P r ice 's s ta te men t t ha t i n I reland t here was n o e v idence o f t he u se o f b a i le i n p lace-na me f or ma tion b e fore t he midd le o f t he t wel f th c en tury . S ubsequen t d iscuss ions a t c on ferences o f t he C ounci l f or N a me S tudies i n Grea t B r i ta in a nd I re land h ave made i tc lear t ha t o ther I r ish s cho lars d o n o t a gree w i th Dr . P r ice 's l a te d a te f or t he u se o f b ane i np lace-na mes ; b u t , s o f ar a s Ik now , n o o ne b e l ieves t he t erm t o h ave b een u sed f or t h is p urpose i np reh is tor ic t imes . F or t he l ingu is t ic h is tory o f Man t he impor tan t q ues t ion i s whe ther a s ubs tan t ia l n umber o f B a l la- n a mes c ou ld d a te f ro m t he p er iod b e fore t he N orse s e t t le men ts , wh ich a re b e l ieved , o n a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , t o h ave b egun b efore t he e nd o f t he n in th c en tury . I t mus t b e l e f t t o e xper ts o n G ae l ic n a mes t o a nswer t h is ;

b u t e ven i fs o me

o f t hese s e t t le men t-na mes c ou ld h ave b een i n u se when t he f irs t N orse s et t lers a rr ived i t s ee ms v ery u n l ike ly t ha t a ny o f t he m c ou ld b e long t o as tra tu m o f n o mencla ture w h ich i s o f i m me mor ia l a n t iqu i ty , a nd t h is l eads t o c ons idera t ion o f my t h ird p o in t . P ro fessor Mars trander s ta ted i n 1 932 t ha t n one o f t he C e l tic p lace-na mes o f Man mus t b e c ons idered p re-Norse o n f or ma l g rounds .

P ossib le e xcep t ions

a re D oug las a nd D o l lagh , o n t he g rounds t ha t t he a d jec t ive i s p laced f i rs t i n 2 54

t hese n ames , whereas t he s a me word c o mes s econd i n many Manx n a mes , s uch a s S l ieau Dhoo , b u t Ih ave n o t n o ted a ny o ther n a mes wh ich s hou ld b e e xe mp ted f ro m Mars trander 's s ta te men t . P rehis tor ic Manx n a mes c ou ld h ave b een i den t i f ied b y s evera l c r i ter ia , t he s i mples t b eing t he o ccurrence o f s peci f ica l ly Br i t ton ic words . T here i s e v idence f ro m a n Oga m i nscr ip t ion t ha t i nt he p re-Norse p er iod b o th t he B r i t ton ic a nd t he G o idel ic v ar ie t ies o f C e l t ic w ere s poken i n t he I s land .

S o me s cho lars c ons ider t ha t B r i t ton ic may

h ave b een t he p redo m inan t t ype , b u t t here i s n o e v idence f or t he u se o f B r i t ton ic l a ter t han t h is , a nd i fa ny B r i t ton ic p lace-na mes c ou ld b e c er ta in ly i den ti f ied t here w ou ld b e as trong c ase f or c la im ing t ha t t hese were p re-Norse , h owever l a te t he d a te a t wh ich t hey w ere r ecorded .

S uch n a mes a re a n o tab le f ea ture

o f s ou thern S cot t ish n o menc la ture , e xa mples b e ing Abercorn , L anark , Och i l tree , P enpon t .

I th as b een s ugges ted t o me r ecen t ly t ha t D oug las a nd

Rushen , t he o n ly t wo C e l t ic n a mes t o b e r ecorded b e fore t he e nd o f t he N orse p er iod , may b e B r i t ton ic r a ther t han G ae l ic ( t hough s ub jec ted t o G ae l ic i nf luence ) , a nd t h is i s a n i n teres t ing p oss ibi l i ty , b u t s o f ar n o o ther p oss ible Br i t ton ic n a mes h ave b een n o ted . Mr . Megaw f eels t ha t t h is i s n o t o f g rea t s ign i f icance b ecause o f t he sma l l s ize o f t he I s land , b u t a t l eas t i ti s af ea ture wh ich c anno t b e a scr ibed t o t he i n f luence o f aN orse o r Eng l ish a r is tocracy . Even i fh is tor ians c on t inue t o b e l ieve t hat t he l ingu is t ic p references o f t he a r is tocracy p reven ted Gae l ic n a mes a ppear ing i n r ecords , a nd c aused N orse n a mes t o s urv ive i ns tead o f t he ir Gae l ic e qu iva len ts , t h is h ypo the t ica l p re jud ice s hou ld n o t h ave o pera ted more s trong ly a ga ins t We lsh n a mes t han a ga ins t G aelic o nes .

I ti s n o tewor thy t ha t a par t f rom D oug las t here d o n o t a ppear t o

b e a ny a nc ien t C e l t ic r iver-na mes i n Man wh ich c an b e a ssocia ted w i th t he a nc ien t r iver-na mes o f t he r es t o f B r i ta in .

There a re s o me c ons iderable

s trea ms i n t he I s land wh ich m igh t , e ven i n t he mos t =favourab le p o l i t ica l c ircu ms tances , h ave b een e xpec ted t o r e ta in t heir p reh is tor ic n a mes .

A

s trea m c a l led Tha mes , L ear n , Avon , C am , S h in o r S hannon , f or i ns tance , wou ld b e g lad ly a ccep ted a s ap re-Norse f oss i l n a me , e ven i fi t were o n ly k nown f ro m n ineteen th-cen tury o ra l t rad i t ion . I ti s n ecessary i n t h is c onnec t ion t o men t ion t he p rob le m o f s l ieau a nd c arr ick , t he t wo w es tern G ae l ic t er ms wh ich o ccur i n Manx p lace-na mes . Gae lic h as t wo b ranches , t he wes tern G ae l ic o f I re land a nd t he e as tern Gaelic o f S cot land . Manx G ae l ic i s v ery c lose ly a ssocia ted w i th S co t t ish Gaelic , s o b elongs t o t he e as tern b ranch , a nd t he p resence o f t hese t wo words i n Manx p lace-na mes r equ ires e xp lana t ion . I ti s p oss ib le t o t ake t he v iew t ha t a l l n ames c on ta in ing s l ieau a nd c arr ick d a te f ro m b efore t he d iv is ion o f G ae lic i n to t hese t wo b ranches , a nd s o a re p re-Norse .

I ti s e qua l ly p oss ib le

t o t ake t he v iew t ha t t hese w ords c o me i n a t a much l a ter d a te f ro m s ou th-wes t S cot land , where t hey a re f irm ly e s tabl ished i n t he p lace-na mes o f s o me a reas , a nd a re b e l ieved t o b e d ue t o im m igra t ion f ro m I re land d ur ing t he f i f th a nd s ix th c en tur ies .

The map o f s l iabh n a mes i n t he n ew H is tor ica l A t las o f

S co t land s hows t he t er m t o b e we l l-represen ted i n I s lay , a s wel l a s i n Ga l loway . The u sua l e as tern G ael ic t erm f or a moun ta in i s b einn , wh ich i s v ery p oor ly r epresen ted ( i f i ta ppears a t a l l ) i n Man .

My h usband s ugges ts t ha t t he u se

o f s l ieau i ns tead o f b e inn may b e d ue t o t he s hape o f t he Manx moun ta ins . t hese n ames a re p os t-Norse , G ae l ic s peakers f ro m wes t S co t land a nd t he

I f

I s les w ou ld b e f am i l iar w i th b o th t he c raggy B ens o f t he H igh lands a nd t he l ow h i l ls o f G a l loway a nd I s lay , s o me o f wh ich a re c a l led S l iabh . 2 55

I n s pi te o f t he

h e igh t o f t he Manx moun tains , t he ir smooth o u t l ine may h ave made t he word s l ieau s ee m more a ppropr ia te t o t he m t han b e inn . Another p iece o f e v idence wh ich s ugges ts l ack o f l ingu is t ic c on t inu i ty i s t he n a ture o f Manx n a mes f or p reh is tor ic monu men ts .

I n I re land t he G ae l ic n a mes

f or p reh is tor ic f or ts make f a ir ly c ons is ten t u se o f ap rec ise v ocabu lary : r ä th i s u sed o f as i te s urrounded b y ad i tch a nd b ank , d ün a nd d a ingean a re a pp l ied t o more s trong ly b u i l t s truc tures , u sua l ly h av ing s tone o r s tone-faced r a mpar ts , c a isea l a nd c a tha ir t o s truc tures b u i l t e n t ire ly o f s tone .

N a mes

c on ta in ing t hese words s how k now ledge o f t he n a ture o f t he s tructure a nd t he p urpose o f t he s i te . n a mes .

There i s n o t race o f s uch u nders tand ing i n Manx p lace-

I ron Age f or ts , e ven t hose r e-occup ied i n t he V ik ing p er iod , h ave

f anci fu l n a mes l ike C ronk n y Merr iu ( ' h i l l o f t he d ead ' , p resu mably i nd ica ting t ha t t he r a mpar t o f t he p ro mon tory f or t was mis taken f or a t u mu lus ) a nd C lose n y C ho l lagh ( enc losure o f t he s ta l l ion ' ).

The w ord c ash ta l i s u sed i nd iscr im in-

a tely f or mega l i th ic t o mbs a nd s truc tures o f t he I ron Age , a nd t here i s n o th ing c orrespond ing t o t he S co t t ish u se o f d ün .

Ih ave n o ted n o i ns tance o f a Manx

I ron Age s i te w i th a G ae l ic n a me wh ich s ugges t a ny c on t inuous t rad i t ion f ro m t he t ime o f i t s o ccupa t ion , a nd t h is c ou ld b e u sed a s a n a rgu men t f or t he Gae l ic n a mes b e ing med ieva l o r p os t- med ieva l f or ma t ions , c o ined a f ter a l i ngu is t ic b reak . Under ly ing much o f wha t h as b een s a id s o f ar i s t he d i f f icu l ty , f am i l iar t o t hose who w ork i n G ae l ic-speak ing a reas , o f k now ing h ow o ld a G ae l ic p lacen a me may b e . The f ac t t ha t i ti s e as i ly i n te l l ig ib le , o r h as a s truc ture c hara c ter is t ic o f al a te s tage o f t he l anguage , d oes n o t n ecessar i ly mean t ha t i ti s at o ta l ly n ew c o inage o f t he p os t-Norse p er iod .

I n I reland , C ornwa l l a nd Wa les ,

where C e l t ic l anguages were s poken c on t inuous ly f ro m p reh is tor ic t imes , t he p lace-na mes were k ept u p t o d a te i n a manner wh ich d i f fers s harp ly f ro m t he t rea t men t o f O ld E ng l ish a nd O ld N orse p lace-names i n o ther p ar ts o f B r i ta in . I re land , C ornwa l l a nd Wa les a bound i n ' modern 'look ing p lace-na mes . S o me t i mes , when a word i s i nvo lved wh ich i s ab orrow ing f ro m L a t in , a s i n Pur t-ny-H inchey , t he Manx n a me f or P eel , o ne c an s ay t ha t t he n a me i s a t a ny r a te n o t e ar l ier t han R o mano-Br i t ish t imes ; p re-Norse s ta tus o f a l l t he Manx n a mes i n B a l la;

o ne c an f a ir ly q ues t ion t he o ne c an s ay t ha t C ronk

n y Merr iu a nd C ash te l y n Ard r e f lec t ab reak i n t rad i t ion .

Bu t i tw i l l n ever

b e p oss ib le t o p rove t ha t t he g rea t mass o f G ae l ic t opograph ica l n a mes o n t he map o f t he I s le o f Man d o n o t g o b ack i n e ssence , i fn o t i n e xac t f or m , t o t he p re-Norse p er iod . For t he N orse n a mes , o n t he o ther h and , t here a re wel l-def ined c hronol og ica l l im i ts .

N one c an h ave b een f or med b e fore t he n in th c en tury , a nd i ti s

u n l ike ly t ha t a ny were c oined a f ter 1 250 .

A l l t he e x is t ing N orse p lace-na mes

i n t he I s land g o b ack a t l eas t t o t he t h ir teen th c en tury , e ven i ft here i s n o e ar ly d ocumen ta t ion f or t he m .

These e x is t ing N orse n a mes c ons t i tu te a c ons iderab le

b ody o f ma ter ia l f or s uch a sma l l a rea .

S o me o f t he more impor tan t e le men ts

a re : ä , ' r iver ' :

t en e xa mp les

b rekka , ' s lope ' : b g (r , ' f ar m ' : d a lr , ' va l ley ': f ia l l

g ar3r , ' enc losure ' :

s ix

s ix

h augr , ' mound ':

s even

o ver t wen ty

n es , ' head land ' :

s ix

t wen tytwo

' moun ta in ':

f i f teen

s tair , ' f ar m ' : p robab ly t en IA , ' bay ' : t wen ty-eigh t 2 56

T here a re a n umber o f e lemen ts wh ich o ccur t hree o r f our t imes , l i ke b ekkr , ' s trea m ' , b erg , ' h i l l ' , h ofu3 ' headland ' , s ker , ' skerry ' , a nd v a5 ' f ord ' , a nd a c onsiderab le n u mber o f ' one-o f f ' c oinages .

I ti s n ot a dv isab le t o b e p recise

a bou t n umbers b ecause t he d ocumen ta t ion v ar ies f ro m n ame t o n ame , a nd a ny c r i t ic c ou ld g o t hrough Mars trander 's l i s ts , wh ich Ih ave u sed f or t h is s u mmary , a nd d e le te s o me e xa mples a s n ot s u f f ic ien t ly c er ta in . Bu t s uch emenda t ion w ou ld n o t a l ter t he f act t ha t t here a re a g rea t many s urv iv ing N orse p lace-na mes i n Man . T he t o ta l r uns we l l i n to t hree f igures , a nd i f we a re a sked t o a ccep t t ha t t he r ar i ty o f i den ti f iab le ' f oss i l ' C e l t ic n a mes i s o f n o s ign i f icance i n a n a rea o f t h is s ize , we may f a ir ly c laim t ha t t here i s ar e markab le c oncen tra t ion o f Norse n a mes i nt he s a me sma l l a rea .

T he N orse n a mes a re f oss i ls , s ince

t he Norse l anguage d ied o u t s o me t ime a f ter 1 300 . I ti s impor tan t t o n o te t ha t t h is l arge c orpus o f N orse p lace-na mes i s s pread t hroughou t t he I s land , f ro m t he Poin t o f Ayre a t t he n or th t i p t o t he C a l f a t t he s ou thern t i p .

T here i s n o

q ues tion o f al im i ted c oas ta l d is tr ibu t ion , a s f or N orse n a mes i n Wa les , o r o f a marked c lus ter ing n ear c en tres o f N orse a dm in is tra t ion . Mars trander 's map , ' Man i nt he N orse P er iod ' , wh ich a cco mpan ied h is a r t ic le o f 1 932 , i s i n s o me r espec ts r a ther f anci fu l , b u t i tg ives a v a l id i nd ica t ion o f t he e ven d ist r ibu tion o ft he N orse n a mes . The g enera l mass o f s urv iv ing N orse ma ter ia l i s n o t a lways u sed when a t te mp ts a re made t o e va lua te t he l ingu is t ic s i tua t ion i n t he N orse p er iod b ecause w e h ave n o means o f k now ing h ow many o f t he e x is t ing Gae l ic n a mes w ere i n u se t hen , s o we c anno t make f a ir c o mpar isons b e tween t hese t wo l i nguis t ic s trains i n t he Midd le Ages b y u s ing ma ter ia l r ecorded i n t he p os tMed ieva l c en tur ies . For t h is r eason t he a rgumen t i s f ocused o n t he sma l l n umber o f n a mes r ecorded b e tween 1 100 a nd t he e nd o f t he N orse p er iod , a nd t he p ropor t ions o f N orse t o G ae l ic n a mes i n t he r ecords o f t hese t wo c en tur ies c onst i tu tes my n ex t t opic . Leav ing a s ide t he p apa l b u l l o f 1 231 a nd t he t wo n a mes f ro m t he s uspec t c opy o f t he c har ters f ro m Wh i thorn P r iory , t he n umber o f p lace-names r ec orded b e fore t he e nd o f t he p er iod o f N orse r u le i n 1 265 i s t wen ty-three . T h is i s a sma l l s a mp le , b u t n o t n eg l ig ib le , g iven t he s ize o f t he I s land . N o ma t ter wh ich way t hese a re a na lysed , t he k ey p o in t s ee ms t o me t o b e t ha t o n ly t hree n ames - Doug las , Rushen a nd Man i t se l f -a re c er ta in ly C el t ic o r p reC e l t ic , a nd Id o n o t c ons ider t ha t t he n a me Man c oun ts f or t he p urpose o f t h is a rgu men t . F i fteen o f t he n ames a re c er ta in ly N orse , b u t o ne o f t he p laces i s n o t c er ta in ly i n t he I s le o f Man , a nd T ynwa ld may n o t c oun t a s ap lace-na me , s o t he s core i s s o me th ing l i ke t h ir teen N orse t o t wo C e l t ic among t he n a mes w h ich c an b e c lass i f ied . V ar ious a rgumen ts a re r egu lar ly b rough t f orward t o s uppor t t he c la im t ha t t hese f igures d o n o t c ons t i tu te e v idence f or t he p red om inance o f Norse o ver G ae l ic n a mes i n med ieva l Man . One a rgumen t i s t ha t t he n ames r e fer t o t he more impor tan t s et t le men ts , where t he l anguage o ft he r u l ing c lass may h ave b een e xcep t iona l ly i n f luen t ia l .

B u t D oug las a nd

R ushen a re among t he more i mpor tan t p laces men t ioned , a nd t hey k ep t t heir p re- Norse n a mes . One o f t he N orse n a mes , S an twa t ( ' sand f ord ' ) , i s t ha t o f ab a tt le-s i te ; i ti s n ever h eard o f a ga in , a nd i s n o t a ma jor p lace-name . Ano ther a rgumen t i s t ha t t here w ere t wo n a mes f or t hese p laces , aG ae l ic o ne u sed b y t he mass o f t he p eop le , a nd a N orse o ne u sed o n ly b y t he r u l ing c lass , a nd o n ly t he N orse n a me i s p u t i nt he r ecords . I ft h is was s o , t h ings were o rdered d i f feren t ly i n Man f rom t he way t hey h appened i n s ou thern S co t land 2 57

a nd n or th-wes t Eng land a t t he s a me d a te .

The b es t way t o e va lua te t h is

p oss ib i l i ty i s t o l ook a t d ocu men ts f or o ther a reas wh ich were c er ta in ly b il ingua l o r t r i l ingua l a nd s ee whe ther t he n a mes i n t hose r ese mble t he o nes f ro m Manx

s ources i nb e ing p redo m inan t ly o f o ne l anguage .

Id id t h is i n

1 963 , a nd i n my a r t ic le o f 1 970 Ic i ted a f ew e xa mp les , c hösen f ro m many p oss ib le o nes , o f s ou thern S cot t ish a nd n or thern E ng l ish d ocu men ts i n wh ich a much more e ven b a lance i s e v idenced b e tween We lsh , G ael ic , N orse a nd Eng l ish p lace-na mes . Ic anno t s ee why c lerks i n t he I s le o f Man s hou ld h ave a much g rea ter b ias t owards p lace-na mes i n t he l anguage o f t heir r u lers t han c lerks e lsewhere .

T he n a tura l i n terpre ta t ion o f t he e v idence i s t ha t t here

were more N orse t han C e l t ic p lace-na mes i n u se i n Man b e fore 1 265 . The e v idence f or t he p er iod a f ter 1 265 i s n o t a s Is ta ted i n my a r t icle o f 1 971.

H ere Mr . Megaw h as i n troduced a n impor tan t n ew f actor b y r eda ting

t he k ey d ocu men t .

I th ad f or a l ong t ime b een a ssu med t ha t t he b oundar ies

o f t he monas t ic l ands i n t he I s land , wh ich a re p r in ted i nt he Append ix , were wr i t ten i n ah and o f t he f our teen th c en tury ;

a nd t he p a laeographer Ic onsu l ted

i n 1 963 g ave i ta s h is o pin ion t ha t t he wr i t ing s hou ld b e d a ted t o t he t h ird q uar ter o f t ha t c en tury .

T he b ounds a re wr i t ten a t t he e nd o f t he c o mpi la t ion

k nown a s t he Manx C hron ic le .

Mr . Megaw f e l t t ha t t he h and o f t he b ounds w as

t he s a me a s t ha t o f t he f ina l s ec t ion o f t he C hron ic le , wh ich c ons is ts o f e n tr ies made n o t l a ter t han 1 275 . Dr . N e i l Ker , who s ays t ha t t he

Th is importan t d iscovery i s c on f ir med b y b ounds l ook a s i ft hey were wr i t ten r a ther

l a ter , a lthough b y t he s a me h and .

T here i s a n a dd i t ion i n ac urs ive h and

wh ich Dr . K er s ays i s t o b e d a ted a f ter 1 300 b u t b efore 1 350 . Th is r eda t ing o f t he b ounds means t ha t n ear ly e very th ing I s a id i n t he s econd o f my t wo a r t ic les n eeds p ush ing b ack a h undred y ears . b e t ter s ense i n an umber o f ways .

T h is makes

There a re t races o f N orse g ram mat ica l

i n f lec t ions i n t he b ounds , wh ich s ee med a b i t t oo g ood t o b e t rue f or 1 380 , a nd t he r esurgence o f G ae l ic wh ich Ib e l ieve t o b e e v idenced i n t he t ex t i s more c on for tab ly d a ted t o t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury , b ecause t his g ives more t ime f or Manx G ae l ic t o b eco me d i f feren t ia ted f ro m S co tt ish G aelic , ad i f feren t ia t ion wh ich h ad h appened b y t he e ar ly s ix teen th c en tury .

Iam v ery

h appy w i th t he r eda t ing , b u t l ess h appy a bou t s o me a spec ts o f Mr . Megaw 's d e ta i led a na lys is o f t he t ex t . T here a re t hree s e ts o f b oundar ies , a nd t he map i n t he Append ix ( Fig . 1 7 .1) g ives a g enera l i dea o f t he l oca t ion .

An umber o f n a mes a re o bscure o r h ave

b een L a t in ised , s o t ha t t he ir v ernacu lar f or m c anno t b e r ecovered .

There

i s n o d oub t , h owever , t ha t N orse p lace-na mes p redo m ina te o ver G ae lic n ames i n t he f irs t a nd l as t s ets , a nd t ha t G ae lic n a mes a re i n t he ma jor i ty i n t he s econd . The t wo s e ts o f b ounds where N orse n a mes p redo m ina te a re b o th i n t he " Sou th S ide" o f t he I s land .

( The d iv is ion i n to N or th a nd S ou th S ides , s epara ted

b y t he moun ta in c ha in wh ich a c tua l ly r uns f ro m N or th E as t t o S ou th Wes t , i s a n impor tan t f ea ture i n t he I s land 's h is tory ) .

T he f irs t s e t i s o f a n a rea r ound

C as t le town , t he s ea t o f N orse g overnmen t , a nd i th as b een s aid t ha t N orse n a mes p redo m ina te b ecause o f t h is .

Bu t t h is i s n o t c onv incing , a s t he t hree

n a mes i n B a l la- a re v ery c lose t o C as t le town , a nd s o me t o t he N orse n a mes i n t h is s urvey l i e o n t he p er iphery , o u t o n t he moun ta in s lopes .

2 58

Mr . Megaw

a lso s ays t ha t t here a re more N orse n a mes i n t h is s urvey b ecause many o f t he b oundary marks a re s et t le men ts r a ther t han n a tura l f ea tures , b u t a s t he s urvey g ives u s t hree G ae l ic s e t t lemen t-na mes , a nd a s s o me o f t he N orse n ames a re t hose o f h i l ls , f ords a nd r ivers , Id o n o t f o llow t he l og ic o f t ha t a rgumen t . The t h ird s et o f b ounds , f or a n a rea n ear L axey , c on ta ins s ix n ames , o f wh ich o ne i s G ae l ic a nd f i ve a re N orse . The s econd s e t o f b ounds , o f ap roper ty i n t he a rea i mmed ia tely n or th o f t he moun ta ins , d i f fers f ro m t he o ther t wo a s i th as ma in ly G ae l ic n a mes . Mr . Megaw r esor ts t o i ngen ious a rgu men ts t o s uppor t h is c on ten t ion t ha t h ere a t l as t w e h ave a r epresen ta t ive s a mp le o f t he n a mes i n u se among t he f ar m ing p opu la t ion , whereas i n t he o ther t wo s ets o f b ounds w e h ave a h igh p ropor t ion o f ' o f f ic ia l ' n a mes u sed ma in ly b y t he r u l ing c lass .

T h is i s u nconv inc ing .

These b ounds p rov ide g ood e v idence t ha t i n t h is l im i ted a rea , wh ich i s g eog raph ica l ly a s pec ia l c ase , t here were more G ae lic t han N orse n a mes i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury ; b u t t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t s uch n ames were i n u se i n o ther a reas a nd were n ot r ecorded b ecause o f p rej udice b y t he s cr ibes .

Myrosco , ' marsh w ood ' , i s t he N orse n ame o f t h is

marshy a rea n ow c a lled T he C urraghs .

Mr . Megaw a sser ts t ha t Myrosco a nd

C urragh e x is ted s ide b y s ide , t he N orse n a me b e ing wr i t ten d own i np re ference t o t he G ae l ic o ne , b u t whoever p u t t hese b ounds t ogether was n ot p re jud iced a ga ins t t he wr i t ing d own o f G ae l ic n ames , a nd Ib el ieve h e wou ld h ave g iven C urragh , a t l eas t a s a na l terna t ive t o Myrosco , i fi th ad b een g enera l ly c urren t i n h is t ime . I ti s l i ke ly t ha t t he b ounds wou ld h ave c on ta ined a n umber o f i ns tances o f t he f or mu la " qu i a l io n om ine v oca tur" ( wh ich o ccurs o nce i n t he C as t letown s et ) i ft here h ad r ea l ly b een t wo n a mes f or many o f t he p laces . I ti s much more p robab le t ha t t h is d is tr ict r ound t he C urraghs i s al im i ted a rea i n w h ich Gae l ic s peech e i ther p ers is ted f ro m p re-Norse t imes o r was r e-in troduced a t ac o mpara t ive ly e ar ly d a te . Mars trander 's map , r e ferred t o a bove , s hows a r e la t ive s carci ty o f N orse n a mes i n t h is r eg ion , b u t e ven h ere i ti s n otewor thy t ha t t he t wo ma in n a tura l f ea tures , The C urraghs a nd t he S u lby r iver , w ere k nown b y N orse n a mes , a nd t ha t t here i s n o mean ing fu l G ae lic n ame f or t he h i l lfor t o n C ronk S umark wh ich o ver looks S u lby G len . Professor Michae l D o l ley ( Jo l ley 1 976 ) s ugges t t ha t t he p reponderance o f G ae lic n ames ( so me o f t he m h av ing c lose I r ish a f f in i t ies ) i n t h is a rea s hou ld b e c onnec ted w i th t he e v idence o f c oin h oards , wh ich h e c ons iders t o i nd ica te a n i ncurs ion h ere o f s e t t lers f ro m t he Dub l in r eg ion i n t he e leven th c en tury . H e s ays " The Manx p ar ishes w here Midd le I r ish i n f luence i np lace-na mes i s s trong t ake i n t he l arge ly mora in ic b e l t t ha t s preads n or th f ro m a l i ne c urv ing a cross f ro m K irk M ichael t o R a msey , a nd i ti s a n a rea amenab le t o a gr icu l ture o nce i ti s d rained . I s i tt oo f an tas t ic t o s ugges t t ha t D ubl in c api ta l made p ossib le s o me o f t he r ec la ma t ion , a nd t ha t t he r es iden t e xplo i ters w ere ' em igrgs ' f ro m t he D ub l in h in ter land?" . The n ames i n t hese t hree s e ts o f b ounds p resen t many p rob le ms wh ich r ema in u nso lved a s y e t . Mars trander 's t rea t men t o f t he m was v i t ia ted t o s o me e x ten t b y h is f a i lure t o c ons ider t he m a s ac on te mporary g roup , s o t ha t h e makes s ugges t ions f or s o me w h ich a re n ot c ons is ten t w i th h is p roposed s o lu t ions f or o thers . The u se o f y ogh ( t ranscr ibed a s zi n t he A ppendix ) t o r epresen t N orse i s an o tewor thy c haracter is t ic o f t he o r thography , a nd t h is may b e s igni f ican t o f G ae l ic i n f luence o nt he p ronuncia t ion o f N orse n ames ; b u t many 2 59

o f t he N orse n a mes a re i n as urpr is ing ly g ood s ta te o f p reserva t ion , a nd s o me s how t races o f N orse i n f lec t ions . One o f t he n ew p o in ts made i n Mr . Megaw 's p aper i s t ha t t here i s e v idence f or t he u se o f G ae l ic s peech a t t he c our t o f t he K ings o f Man a nd t he I s les i n t he t wel f th c en tury .

Th is i s c onv incing , b u t my c oncern i s l ess w i th t he l an-

g uage o f t he c our t t han w i th t ha t o f t he p easan t f ar mers i n t he c oun trys ide . A t t h is s a me p er iod F rench was b e ing s poken a t t he E ng l ish c our t , b u t t he Eng l ish p eop le w en t o n s peak ing Eng l ish a nd u s ing E ng l ish p lace-na mes . The u se o f F rench b y t he r u l ing c lass i np os t-Conques t Eng land d id n o t l ead t o t he r ep lace men t o f E ng l ish n a mes b y F rench o nes , o r t o t he wr i t ing d own o f F rench a l terna t ives i n t he r ecords .

The K ings o f Man a nd t he I s les wou ld

h ave n eed o f more t ongues t han t heir a nces tra l N orse .

T hey p robably u nder-

s tood G ae l ic o r h ad i n terpre ters i np er manen t a t tendance , a nd O la f I , whose y ou th was s pen t a t t he c our t o f H enry Io f Eng land , may h ave b een p rof icien t i n F rench a s we l l a s i n N orse a nd G ae l ic . t he l anguage o f t he f ar m ing p opu la t ion .

Bu t t h is d oes n ot n ecessar i ly a f fec t

The men who s pen t t heir l i ves f ar m-

i ng a t p laces w i th n a mes l ike J urby , G re tch , G reeba , C a m ma ll , a nd t he f am i ly who l i ved i n t he t iny N orse h ouse e xcava ted r ecen t ly a t Dooar l ish C ashen , wou ld h ave l ess n eed t o b e b i l ingua l t han t he ir r u lers . Ano ther p ar t icu lar ly i n teres t ing s ec t ion o f Mr . Megaw 's p aper c oncerns Manx a dm in is tra t ive u n i ts a nd t he c us to ms g overn ing t axa t ion a nd p opu lar a sse mb l ies .

H ere h e a ppl ies t o t he I s le o f Man t he t ype o f r eason ing wh ich

h as b eco me f am i l iar i n t he l as t t wo d ecades a s a pp l ied t o t he a dm in is tra t ive u n i ts a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion o f Eng land a nd S cot land i n t he e ar ly M idd le Ages .

An umber o f h is tor ians f ee l t ha t i n s ome a reas o f Eng land t he a dm in i-

s tra t ive u n i ts o f p re-Ro man t imes s urv ived t he R o man p er iod a nd t he u ph eava ls wh ich f o l lowed i t , s o t ha t t hey c an b e d iscerned i n med ieva l a nd e ven i n modern a dm in is tra t ive a rrange men ts .

I n E ng land , h owever , t he a pparen t

s urv iva l o f s o me l arge p reh is tor ic e s ta tes h appened w i thou t b ene f i t o f l ing u is t ic c on t inu i ty , s ince P r im i t ive We lsh , t he l anguage o f t he p eop le who w ere t here when t he Eng l ish a rr ived , was r ep laced b y E ng l ish .

The a rgu men t f or

a dm in is tra t ive c on t inu i ty i n Man s hou ld p robab ly b e k ep t s epara te f ro m t he d iscuss ion a bou t t he l i ngu is t ic s i tua t ion . The e f fec t o f t he N orse l anguage o n Manx p lace-na mes , a s s een i n t he med ieva l r ecords a nd i n t he s urv iv ing n o menc la ture , i s n o t , i n my v iew , c o mpa t ib le w i th t he t heory t ha t t he N orse s e t t lers were a sma l l r u l ing c as te o r ag roup o f mercenary s o ld iers . As Ih ave s a id e lsewhere a bou t t he Engl i sh s e t t le men t o f Eng land , t o b r ing a bou t ac hange o f l anguage i n as ubs tan t ia l p ropor t ion o f t he p lace-na mes , t he n umber o f t he n ewco mers mus t b e r el a t ive ly h igh a nd t he s oc ia l s ta tus o f t he ma jor i ty o f t he m r e la t ive ly l ow . S uch a n i ncurs ion i s n o t , h owever , i nco mpa t ib le w i th a c ons iderab le d egree o f c on t inu i ty i n t he o u t l ines , a nd e ven i n t he o rgan isa t ion , o f f arm ing a nd a dm in is tra t ive u n i ts .

2 60

REFERENCES

D o lley , 1 976 .

M. Do lley , S o me I r ish D i mens ions t o Manx H is tory , I naugura l

L ec ture , The Queen 's Un ivers i ty o f B e lfas t . G e l l ing , M ., 1 970-1.

' The P lace-Na mes o f t he I s le o f Man '.

Manx Museu m 7 , n o . 8 6 , 1 30-9 ; G e l l ing , P . S ., 1 977.

J ourna l o f t he

a nd 7 , n o . 8 7, 1 68-75 .

Doug las .

' Ce l t ic C on t inu i ty i n t he I s le o f Man ' , i n S tud ies i n

C e l t ic S urv iva l , e d ., L loyd La ing , Br i t ish Archaeo log ica l R epor ts 3 7 , 7 7-81. Kneen , 1 925-9.

J . J . Kneen , The P lace-Na mes o f t he I s le o f Man w i th t heir

Or ig in a nd H is tory , 6v o ls . Doug las . Mars trander , 1 932 .

C . J . S . Mars trander , ' Det N orske Landng .m f l Man ',

N orsk T idsskri f t f or S progv idenskap V I , 4 0-386. Marstrander , 1 934 .

Os lo .

C . J . S . Mars trander , ' Re marks o n t he P lace-Na mes

o f t he I s le o f Man ' , i b id . V II , 2 87-334 . Megaw , 1 976 .

B . R . S . Megaw , ' Norse man a nd Na tive i n t he K ingdo m o f t he

I s les :

A R e-assess men t o f t he Manx Ev idence ' , S co tt ish S tud ies 2 0 ,

1 -44.

Ed inburgh .

2 61

The Cu rragh Do l t -age %

—Dhoon G len

Sk inscoe Laxey

South Barru te Co rde man

G rea t Meado w . B i t to wn . Ba l lake igan

O r r isda te Ba l lasa l ta

I Ba l lag i l ley

Cas t le t own

and w ick

A rea s d e sc r ibed i n t h e Mona s t ic B ound s D hoon G len i sn o t m en t ioned , b u t h a s b een p u t o n t h e map a s ap o in te r t o t he p o s i t ion o f O rum souz . F ig. 1 7.1

2 62

APPENDIX L im i tes s eu d iu is iones t erraru m monachorum . BM C o t ton J u l ius Av i i . D a ted b y Mr . B . R . S . Megaw t o C . 1 280 .

Hec e s t d iu isa i n ter t erra m r eg is e t monachoru m d e R ussyn muro e t f ouea q ue e s t i n ter v i l la m c as tel l i e t t erra m monachoru m e t c ircui t p er a us tru m i n ter p ra tu m monachorum e t u i l la m Macakoen e t a scend i t p er r iuu lu m i n ter B y lozen e tt erra m e orunde m monachoru m e t i nc l ina t u sque a d H en tre .

e t

c ircu i t e ande m t erra m H en trae e t t ro l la to f thar p er murum e t f ouea m e t d esc endi t p er e unde m muru m e t f ouea m i n amne m p rope Oxwa th e t a scend i t p er e ande m amne m i n r iuu m i n ter Aryeuzryn e t s taynarhea e t a scend i t u sque a d v a l le m q ue u oca tur F anc .

e t a scend i t p er c l iuu m mon t is q u i d ici tur Worze fe l

e t d escend i t i n r iuu lum q u i d ic i tur Mouro . p er R oze fe l .

a scend i t d e r iuu lo Mouro .

e t d escend i t p er e unde m muru m i n ter C orna ma e t t o t manby e t

d escend i t p er e unde m murum o b l ique i n ter Oxrayzer . amne m q ue u oca tur C o ma .

e t t o t manby u sque a d

C o ma q u ide m e s t c on f in iu m t erre r eg is e t mona-

c horum e x i l la p ar te u sque v adu m p er q uod t rans i tur p up l ica u ia .

i n ter u i l la m

t horke l q u i a lio n om ine u oca tur k yrke myche l e t H eryns taze e t a scend i t p er murum q u i e s t c on f in iu m i n ter e ande m u i l la m t horke l e t b a lesa lazc . e t d esc endi t o b l ique p er e unde m murum i n ter c rosyuor .

B yu l than e t s ic c ircu i t

Ba lesa lazc e t d escend i t d e B a lesa lach p er muru m e t f ouea m i n amne m d e Russyn s i c n otu m e s t p rou inc ia l ibus e t d escend i t p er r ipa m amn is e iusc le m d iue rs i mode ( d i f feren t wr i t ing , p robab ly e ar ly 1 4 th c en tury ) e t p er r euo lu m q ue e s t i n ter b a l ig i l e t c on isaker .

u sque i n mare i n med io s andewyk e t p er mare u sque i n

d im id iu m amn i c as tel li c um w reke e t way l i e t t o l l is u t c on t ine tur i n c ar ta ( ma in wr i t ing ) u sque a d p red ic ta m f ouea m e t muru m q u i e s t i n ter t err i tor iu m monachoru m e t e iusde m c as te l l i d e r ussyn . Hec e s t d iu isa i n ter t erram d e k yrkecr is t e t t erra m monachorum d e Myrosco l acu q u i d ic i tur H escana a ppayze e t a scend i t p er s icsce tu m d irecte al oco q u i d ici tur Munenyrza .na p er B oscu m q u i d ic i tur K or .

e t p er l ocu m

q u i d ic i tur L eabba Aukona lkay . e t a scend i t i ux ta R oze lean u sque i n r iuu lum q u i d ic i tur B ryse th e t a scend i t i t a p er g lennadro man . e t a scend i t i nde p er r eg ia m u ia m e t p er s axu m q uod d ic i tur K arrayc lue th e t i ux ta l ea thkos tray e t s ic u sque a d l ocu m q u i d ic i tur Duppo l la e t d escend i t i nde p er r yuu lum e t H a th Ary(g )egor mane e t i t a d escend i t p er e unde m r iuu lu m i n amne m d e S u laby e t s ic d escend i t p er amne m d e S u laby i n B oscum d e Myrosco e t c ircu i t t res i ns u las i nb osco d e Myrosco e t d escend i t p er u e tere m s icca m i n Du f loch .

e t

s ic c ircu i t e t c onc lud i tur i n l oco q u i d ic i tur H escanakeppage . H ec e s t d iu isa i n ter t erram r eg is . e t monachoru m a pud S kynnescor a b i nt roi tu p or tus

2 63

( i n marg in ) a scendes p er e ande m amne m q u i d ic i tur L axa e t a scend i t l unar i ter s ub tus mo lend inum u sque i n V a l l icu la m s i ta m i n ter c ape l la m s anc t i n icha la i e t u i l la m q ue u oca tur Gre tas taz.

e t

a scend i t i nde p er u e tere m muru m n o tu m p rou inc ia l ibus p er d euexa l a tera mon t ium e t d escend i t i n r iuu lum q u i e s t i n ter T o f thar As mund e t R ynkur lyn . e t d escendi t i nde u sque a d c on f in ium t erre q ue u oca tur Oru msouz e t To f tha As mud e t d escend i t i nde s ic n o tum e s t p rou inc ia l ibus u sque i n mare .

Manx p lace-na mes f ro m a p apa l b u l l p urpor t ing t o d a te f ro m 1 231 , s urv iv ing i n ac opy o f c . 1 600 : H o l me , S odor o r P i le ( i n wh ich t he C a thedra l i s s i tua ted ) , H o l metowen . G len faba , F o tysdeyn , B a l ly more , B ro t tby , Knokcroker , B a ll icure , Ba l l ibrushe , J ourbye , Ba l l ica i me 2 R a msey ,

L eay(re ) , B a l la laughe , K yrkbye , K yrke marona ,

C o lussh i l l , t he l and o f S t . C o lumba c a l led H erbery . J urby i s Dureby i n 1 291. C . 1 257 .

G len faba i s G len faban i n 1 37 6 /7 . R a msey i s R a msa

K irk Arbory i s T erra S anc t i C arebrec 1 152/3 , K irk K erebery 1 595 ,

K irk Arbery , H arberey o r K irberry 1 648 .

2 64

1 8.

NORSE MAN AND NAT IVE 1 N THE K INGDOM OF THE I SLES A Re-assess men t o f t he Manx Ev idence * b y Bas il Megaw

A v a luab le s tudy o f p lace-na mes i n d ocumen ts o f t he t wel f th t o f ourteen th c en tury r ecen t ly l ed D r. Margaret Gel l ing t o c onc lude t hat , f o l low ing V ik ing s et t le men t i n t he n in th c en tury, Gae l ic h ad c eased t o b e s poken i n Man u n t i l r e in troduced f rom o u ts ide t he i s land ( ?Ga l loway ) af t er 1 300. By r e-dat ing a k ey d ocumen t , a nd b y t ak ing w ider e v idence i n to c ons iderat ion , t he f o l low ing s tudy s hows t hat , d esp ite t he g enera l p redom inance o f N orse p lace- a nd p ers ona l-names, Gae l ic must h ave h eld i t s own i n t he t ime o f t he Manx k ings o f t he I sles d ur ing t he t welf th a nd t h irteen th c en tur ies.

I ti s s uggested t ha t t he

u ndocu men ted V ik ing s ett le men t may h ave b egun w ith a S cand inav ian mercena ry f orce i n it ia l ly u nder n a t ive r u le , t hus a l low ing f or s ubstan t ia l c on t inu ity. Two a ppend ices i nvest iga te ( A) t he s tatus a nd b ackground o f t he p apa l b u l l o f 1 231 t o t he b ishop o f t he I s les , w ith i t s i n terest ing l i st o f t he i s lands i n t he d iocese o f ' Sodor I ,a nd ( B ), i n as er ies o f n o tes , t he t reen a nd q uarterland s yste m , a nd t he r elated p rob le m o f t he a ge o f t he ' k ee il ls '. I .

THE PROBLE M

The Western I s les, f or u s t he l ast s trongho ld o f Gael ic s peech i n Br ita in , w ere k nown p aradox ica l ly t o t he med iaeva l Gaels t he mse lves a s I nnse Ga l l , ' t he I sles o f t he Fore igners ' , ( i .e. N orse man ). The e v idence o f p lace-na mes r ecen t ly d iscussed b y P ro fessor N ico la isen ( 1969 ) , t hough u n fortuna tely n ot c losely d a table , s hows h ow w idespread a nd l onglast ing w ere t he e f fects o f a ctua l S cand inav ian s et t lemen t t here. I n t he a bsence o f c on te mporary e v id ence , h owever, w e c an o n ly g uess t o what e xten t Gael ic may h ave s urv ived g eneral ly , o r i n p art icu lar l oca l it ies , d ur ing t he ' Norse ' c en tur ies , o r i ndeed h ow i tc ame t o s upersede t he l anguage o f t he Fore igners. O ra l t rad it ion i s i n t h is ma t ter l argely i rre levan t , s ince t a les o f t he ‚L och lanna ich i g enera l ly h ave a l egendary o r l i terary o r ig in a nd a re u nh istor ica l. To t urn t o t he I s le o f Man f or h e lp i n t h is p rob lem may a t f i rst s igh t s ee m a l i t t le e ccen tr ic b u t i s h istor ica l ly s ound , s ince t o t he S candinav ians

* The f i rst p art o f t h is a r t ic le ( sect ions It o I V) i s b ased o n ap aper r ead a t t he V I I Ith c on ference o f t he C ounc il f or N a me S tud ies i n G reat B r ita in a nd I reland , i n Ed inburgh , 2 -5 Apr i l 1 976. With t he k ind p er m ission o f t he Ed itor , t he p resen t v ers ion i s r epr in ted ( w ith r ev is ions ) f rom S cott ish S tud ies 2 0 ( 1976 ) :1-44.

2 65

F ig. 1 8.1 ( oppos ite )

The Manx K ingdo m o f t he I s les

The d iocese o f t he I s les ( shaded ) e stabl ished c . 135 , c orresponds t o t he g reatest e x ten t o f t he Manx k ingdom , u nder t he o f ten n om ina l s uzera in ty o f t he k ing o f N orway f rom c . 1 098. The p art it ion o f 156 b etween Godred I o f Man a nd S omerled o fA rgy l l i s p erhaps r ef lected b y t he l ate t rad it ion o f a ma jor d iv is ion c ompris ing t hose I sles n orthward o f Ardnamurchan ( t he ' Skye a nd L ew is g roups ' ) a nd t hose s ou thward ( t he ' Mu l l a nd I slay g roups ' ) —the Argyl l i s lands. A c orrespond ing d iv is ion o f t he a d jo in ing ma in land i n to N orth a nd S ou th Argy l l , a lso marked b y Ardna murchan a nd t he r iver S h ie l—though t h is p robab ly h ad a n e ar l ier e x istence ( c f . t he ' ha l fS kot-land ' o f O rkney inga S aga ) —perhaps r ef lects t he t rad it ion o f ab oundary o nt he S h ie l b etween S omer led 's f ather a nd t he ' Northmen ' e ar ly i nt he t we lf th c en tury .

The i nclus ion o f ' Argy l l o f Moray ' ( w ith

what b eca me t he l ordsh ip o f Gar moran ) i n t he n ew d iocese o f Argy l l f or med u nder S omerled 's s ons c . 1 183, d oubt less i mp l ies a n e n large men t o f S o merled 's ma in land k ingdom ; t he u ndocu men ted a nnexat ion b y S o mer led o r h is s ons o f t he U ists a nd o ther i s les ( subsequen t ly a ssoc iated w ith Gar moran )— in a dd it ion t o t he Argy l l i s les o f t he s ou thern Hebr ides —may b e a ss igned t o t he s ame p er iod ( broad s had ing ). A l l t he I sles , n orth a nd s ou th , c on t inued t o b e h eld u nder t he o f ten n om ina l s uzera in ty o f N orway u n t i l 1 266 when , w ith Man , t hey w ere b ough t b yA lexander I I.

Ma in land t err itor ies w ith in wh ich t he Manx k ings ( G lene lg a t l east ) a nd

t he O rkney e arls h eld v ary ing l ordsh ips ( s t ipp led ) , i n N orth Argy l l a nd Ca ithness r espect ively , w ere af ter t he l ost t rea ty o f c . 1 098 e v iden t ly s ub ject t ot he o verl ordsh ip o f t he k ing o f S cots. The c h ief s trongho ld o f t he Manx k ingdom f rom t he l a te t wel fth c en tury w as Cast le Rushen ( Plate I ) . Though t he c athedra l a t P ee l i n Man was t he e ffect ive s ee o f t he I s les ( Sodorens is ), t he c hurch o f S n izort i nS kye s eems a t t imes t o h ave c la i med t hat p os it ion , p erhaps i n it ia l ly f rom t he t ime o fb ishop Wymund i n c . 135.

2 66

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S t P a tr ick 's I sle, Pee l :

t he s ee o f t he med iaeva l d iocese o f

t he I s les The o nce t i da l i s let n ow k nown a s P eel Cast le b u t f or merly Ho lmepatr ick o r I nsu la Pa tr ic i i ( t ranslat ing t he v ernacu lar ) , i s s a id b y J oce l in o f Furness , C . 1 190 , t o h ave b een c hosen b y S t Patr ick ( t hough t hat i s u nh istor ica l ) a s t he s eat o fh is d isc ip le S t Ger man , who m h e p laced a s b ishop o ver t he Manx. Poss ib ly f rom c . 1 135 , when t he r egu lar d iocese o f t he I s les ( Sodorensis, i .e. ' o f t he S u 3rey jar . ' ) w as e stabl ished u nder k ing O la f o f Man , t he p arish c hurch o f K irk Ger man h ere b eca me t he c athedra l o f t he I s les :

t he p resen t

b u i ld ing was e rec ted o r r ebu i lt b y b ishop S i mon ' o f Argy l l ' ( 1226-48 ): J oce l in 's r eference e v iden t ly i mp l ies a t wel f th-cen tury p redecessor o n S t Pa tr ick 's I sle. Fro m 1 153 u n t i l t he f ourteen th c en tury , t he I sles f or med p art o f t he v ast N orweg ian a rchd iocese o f N idaros ( Trondhe im ). The i s let i s n a med f rom t he a bandoned p ar ish c hurch o f K irkpat r ick , o r ' S t Patr ick o f t he I sle ' , o f t en th- o r e leven th-cen tury I r ish t ype , w ith a ssoc iat ed r ound t ower ( bo th a ltered l ater ), w h ich c rown t he h ighest p o in t :

t h is may

h ave b een t he f i rst Manx c a thedra l i n t he d ays o fb ishop ' Roo lwer ' ( ON . Ro l fr ) , c . m id e leven th c en tury . I t may p rev iously h ave s erved a s t he s ea t o f a n a bbot o fI r ish t ype , s ince w hat s ee m t o h ave b een t he o r ig ina l e ndowmen t l ands i n t he a d jo in ing s head ing o f G len faba a re r ecorded a s t he ' manor o f Appyn ' ( 1377 ). Wi th in t he s a me p ar ish , a t ac en tra l c ross-roads t hree mi les e ast o f t he c athedra l , l i es Tynwa ld H il l ; a nd w ith in t he s he l ter o f t he i s let i t sel f l ay t he e n trance t o o ne o f t he p r inc ipa l Manx h arbours. ( Block b y c ourtesy o f t he Manx Museum.)

2 68

Man f or med a n e ssen t ia l p ar t o f t he S u 3rey jar ( 'S outhern I sles ' , i .e. a s o pposed t o t he ' Northern I sles ' o f O rkn ey a nd S het land ), a nd i ndeed w as a c h ie f s eat o f t he k ingdo m o ft he I s les ( Fig. 1 8.1) p robab ly f rom t he t en th c en tury. The c a thed ra l o f t he I s les s t i l l s tands , r oof less, o n S t P a tr ick 's I sle a t P eel ( F ig. 1 8.2 ); a nd e ven a s l a te a s 1 422 a p ronounce men t i n t he Manx s tatu te b ook c ou ld l ook b ack t o t he t ime when e igh t me mbers o f t he c our t o f T ynwa ld—a t h ird o f t he ' Twen ty-Four K eys '—had c ome f ro m ' t he Ou t I s les ' o f S cot land. Though n ot c ons idered b y Professor N ico la isen , Man a lso h as t he a dvan tage o f h av ing a s er ies o f t we l f th- a nd t h irteen th-cen tury d ocumen ts, p rov id ing a k ey t o c on te mp orary n a me-for ms , a nd t hus a t l east p art ia l ly t o t he l anguages s poken d ur ing t he r u le o ft he n at ive-born k ings u nder N orweg ian s uzera in ty.

Th is ma ter ia l

h as n ow b een a sse mb led a nd d iscussed b y a n u nusua l s uccess ion o f e xperts: J . J . K neen f or Manx , P ro fessor Carl Marstrander f or I r ish a nd N orse, a nd n ow Dr G el l ing , ap lace-name s cho lar o f w ide e xper ience;

s o t he e v idence i s

u n ique ly a va i lable, a l though t he h istor ica l i n terpreter w ithou t t he ir q ua l i f icat i ons —such a s t he p resen t w r i ter — must n eeds t read w ar ily a nd w ith h um il ity. A lthough i n w hat f o l lows Io ccas iona l ly make b o ld t o d isagree w ith o ne o r o ther o f t hese s cho lars, Ic oun t myse l f f ortunate i ndeed i n h av ing h ad t he o pportun ity o f f r iend ly d iscuss ion o f t hese a nd r elated t op ics w ith al t hree o ver many y ears, a nd Io ffer my c o mmen ts a s at r ibu te t o t he ir i nva luab le a nd s t i mu lat ing w ork : i nt he c ase o f Kneen a nd Marstrander t he ir c omp le men tary monographs e ach e xtend t o more t han 6 00 p r in ted p ages; a p art icu larly u sefu l f eature o f Marstrander ' s work t hat i s o f ten o verlooked b e ing a c arefu l p honet ic r ender ing o f many o f t he n a mes t ha t a ppear i n Kneen 's c orpus n oted d own f rom n at ive s peakers o f Manx i n 1 929 a nd 1 930. 1 A lthough r u led b efore t he V ik ing Age b y k ings o f B r it ish2 d escen t ( MacQueen 1 961:8-12 ) , i n scr ip t ions s how c onc lus ively t hat b il ingua l I r ish c ommun it ies w ere a lready s et t led amongst t he Br it ish i n Man b y t he f i f th o r s ix th c entury ( Jackson 1 953:173 ).

The b ackground may w el l h ave b een s im ilar t o t hat o f

c on te mporary Gal loway a nd S cot t ish Dalr iada , t hough Bede —no l over o f t he B r itons —s t i l l r eports Man a s Br it ish c .730.

How—or e ven h ow d irect ly—a

N orse d ynas ty c a me t o s ucceed t he e arl ier n at ive k ings i s u nknown , b u t d ur ing t he t hree c en tur ies p r ior t o 1 266 n o t o ne o f t he k nown k ings b ore a C e lt ic n ame. The u nrecorded s et t lemen t-phase i s marked a rchaeo log ica l ly b y many p agan ' Norse ' g raves , ma in ly o f t he n in th c en tury ( Bersu a nd Wi lson 1 966 : x i i ;

W ilson 1 974:19 , 4 4-5 ) —bu t , most s ign if ican t ly , n one o f t he m a re w omen 's

g raves.

A t l east e leven N orse p lace-na mes i n stair may a lso b e a ss ignab le

t o t h is p hase (Marstrander 1 932:330 , 3 55 ;

c f . N ico la isen 1 969 :9-11) — more

t han i n a ny o f t he H ebr ides e xcept L ew is. Stair n a mes a re d istribu ted e qua l ly i nb oth t he o ld Sou ths ide ' a nd ' Norths ide ' d istr icts o f t he i s land ( Marstrander t hough t more l ay i n t he N orth ), t hough t here s ee m t o b e b lank a reas i n w est a nd s ou th-west. C ross-s labs o f e ssen t ia l ly n at ive t ype r eappear f rom a bou t 9 30 ( W i lson 1 971:1-18 ), b u t t hose i nscr ibed w ere t hen i nvar iab ly i n O ld N orse : n o C e lt ic ( o r e ven L at in ) i nscr ip t ions a re k nown f rom t h is t ime o nwards. I ndeed t here a re i n Man more N orse i nscr ip t ions o f t he V ik ing p er iod ( i .e. b efore 100 ) t han e ven i n t he N orthern I sles, o r f or t hat mat ter i n a ny o ther r eg ion o f B r ita in o r I reland. A l l t h is s uggests t hat N orse s peech may w el l h ave o ccup ied a s d om inan t ap os it ion i n Man a s i n a ny o f t he Western I s les 2 69

t hough w hether t he e v idence r ea l ly r ef lec ts t h e s i tuat ion i n t he r u l ing c irc le a nd among t he c h ie f l andowners r a ther t han t he p opu lat ion a t l arge i s t he c rux o f t he mat ter. I .

THE PLACE-NA ME EV IDENCE I n t wo u sefu l a rt icles D r G el l ing ( 1970-1 ) h as l ate ly r eassessed a l l t he

p lace-name e v idence p reserved i n c on te mporary Manx d ocu men ts o f t he t wel f th t o t he f ourteen th c en tury , who l ly d iscard ing i nt he p rocess o n a ccoun t o f i t s ' modern ised ' s pel l ing t he c opy o f t he p apa l b u l l o f 1 231 t o t he b ishop o f t he I sles ( see f urther , Append ix A ). Her b o ld , i fp rov is iona l , c onc lus ions may b e s um mar ised t hus ( c f . a bove ) . 1 .

E lsewhere i n a reas o f m ixed s peech p lace-na mes i n c on te mporary

d ocumen ts a ccurately r ef lect t he l i ngu ist ic s i tuat ion o f t he t ime , s ince t hey s erved a p urely p ract ica l p urpose.

On t hat a ssumpt ion t he Manx e v idence

imp l ies t hat O ld N orse h ad v irtua l ly d r iven o u t G ael ic s peech l ong b efore 1 266. 2 .

Had t he i s land 's p opu lat ion c on t inued t ob e b i l ingua l a f ter t he V ik ing

s et t le men t , o ne wou ld e xpect s ome i nstances o fb o th Gae l ic a nd N orse n ames f or t he s ame p lace t o h ave s urv ived. 3 . The v ery f ew Celt ic p lace-names r ecorded i n t he t wel fth a nd t h irteen th c en tur ies ( e .g. t he r iver-na me 1 D ru fg las ' ) a re b est r egarded a s ' f oss il ' n ames — i. e. merely b orrowed f ro m t he e arl ier n a t ives b y t he o r ig ina l V ik ing s et t lers i n t he n in th c en tury—and t herefore aford n o c lue t o t he l i ngu is t ic s i tuat ion i n t he t h irteen th c en tury. 4 .

Consequen t ly i tw ou ld s ee m t ha t Manx G ael ic must h ave b een i n troduced

f ro m s o me a rea o u ts ide t he i sland a f ter 1 266 , t hat i s f o l low ing t he e nd o f t he p er iod o f n a t ive r u ler u nder N orweg ian s uzera in ty. ( I nc iden ta l ly t h is was a lso t he v iew o f t he n a t ive Manx s cho lar, J . J . Kneen ( 1925 :xv i ), a l though Marst rander r eached a d if feren t c onclus ion , i np ar t d epend ing o n t he u nrel iab le p apa l b u l l.) 5 . The u nda ted a bbey land b ounds, a t tr ibu ted b y Mrs Gel l ing a nd o thers t o a bou t 1 370—and t hus o ft he r elevan tp er iod—appear t o s how a s ign if ican t i ncrease a t t ha t t ime i n t he p roport ion o f Gael ic p lace-na mes, i nc lud ing f or t he f i rst t ime s evera l c harac ter ist ics o f Manx n omenclature, s uch a s n ames i n Ba l la, a nd t he s o-ca l led ' i nvers ion c ompounds '.

For Mrs G el l ing t h is

d ocumen t i s c ruc ia l , a nd i n h er v iew r ef lects t he impact o f t he n ew lyin trod uced Gae l ic, a nd t he a pproach ing d em ise o f N orse s peech i n t he i s land—an e ven t w h ich s he t herefore a t tr ibu tes t o t he f i f teen th c en tury , when t he n orthern Eng l ish S tan ley r e g i me b eca me e f fect ive. I nva luab le t hough h er s urvey i s , a nd t he d iscuss ion o f t he p rob le ms i s master ly , t he more Ih ave t hought a bou t t he h istor ica l c onclus ions t he l ess am If u l ly c onv inced b y t he m. The ma in d efect i n t he a rgumen t ( as i ts ee ms t o me ) s te ms f rom a c hrono log ica l e rror f or wh ich Mrs Gel l ing i s n o t r esponsi b le —the d ate o f t he k ey d ocu men t—and f or t he r est , p erhaps f rom r ely ing t oo e xc lus ively o n ar ela t ive ly sma l l c o l lect ion o f p lace-na mes t o r eso lve t h is t ype o f p rob le m.

Whether o r n o my v iew s a re a ny more c onv inc ing ,

w ha t f o l lows s hou ld h ave a n i n terest c ons iderab ly w ider t han t he p art icu lar s ub ject . •

2 70

On Mrs Gelling's main arguments I offer the following comments: (a) Of the place-na.mes recorded before 1266-mostly 'lost' settlement­ names for which we have no othe� forms-more than half (17 out of 32) are either ambiguous (generally Latin translations) or obscure: of the rest 3 are Celtic, 3 12 are Norse. At most 20 per cent of the usable na.mes are Celtic, but a high proportion of this numerically poor sample evidently refers to the area of the island near the k:ing's stronghold, and is thus not necessarily representati. ve. (b) After Mrs Gelling's papers had appeared, I remembered sorne notes I made long ago on the probable date of the abbeyland bounds, whi.ch everyone else had attributed to the late fourteenth century. 1:y + P te tative conclusion was that the document was probably written by a particular continuator of the Manx chronicle whose brief additions were evidently made no later than 1275, i.e. only ten years after the end of native rule. Internal evidence as to the date of the entries by this first continuator of both chronicle and list of bishops suggests that. he ceased these labours very soon after the ouríal of Richard, bishop of the Isles, which (as he notes) took place at Furness, and which the annals of Furness assign to 25 March 1275 (Anderson 1908:381, n. 7). These entries and completion of earlier gaps, perhaps the first additions for nearly eighteen years, may well refl.ect a short-lived wave of Pnthusiasm at Rushen consequent upon the events surrounding the election of abbot Gilbert as next bishop of the Isles. E ven if the writer was already aware of Alexander III's repudiation of Gilbert, his entries can hardly have been made after 8 October 1275, when the Manx rising under their self-appointed king of the old line was destroyed at the battle of Ronaldsway, and his own abbey despoiled by the Scottish army. Of these dire events he gives no hint, presumably because they had not yet occurred when he laid down his pen. The same clerk, it seems, without adding anything further to the sad history of his times, did what he might to secure his abbey's rights by recording in a bold hand, on the blank pages at the end of the chronicle, the bounds of its landed properties. From another source we know that the abbey's title to at least one part of those lands was in fact assailed by St Bees priory in a local court held in the time of Alexander III's governor, Maurice Acarsan, whose rule evidently lay within the period 1275 x 1286 (Wilson 1915:489). These are the sort of circumstances which would explain the anxiety to record the monastic bounds at that time. That Rushen was finally obliged in 1302 to surrender Tofthar Asmund to St Bees (Wilson 1915 :75-7) is important evidence-since it can be shown 5 that this place belonged to Rushen when the bounds were compiledfor dating our document in the thirteenth century. Finally, my belief that the writer of the bounds was probably the chronicle's first conti.nuator of �. 1275 has now been confirmed by the distinguished palaeographer Dr Neil Ker. Having kindly inspected the original in the B ritish Museum again for the purpose, Dr Ker informed me (letter of 6.1 •73) that the writer was 'almost certainly' the same person: 'the Bounds look as if they might have been written rather later •••, although by the same hand. ,4 As this important group of forty-six place-names may now be dated -c. 1280 ' and certainly before �· 1300, it reveals the kind of names current about the close of the Norse regime (Table 1). Only eleven are Latinised or of un271

certain origin. Of the rest, Gaelic forms comprise 40 per cent of the names assignable to one language or the other. In addition there are also four 'in­ version compounds' which equally imply a Gaelic-speaki.ng background, and, if included, would leave genuinely Norse names in an actual minority. If the revised dating is accepted, the case for supposing the native language to have been wholly superseded by the Norse tongue in Man becomes untenable. (c) More than two centuries la ter the much larger series of 'treen' names listed in the lord's rent-books of 1511-15, so assiduously studied by Professor M arstrander (1932 and 1937), shows little difference in the propor­ tion: there, in my revised count, Gaelic forros comprise 43 per cent. I have excluded duplicated 'Alia' names, which probably reflect interna! colon­ isation; and others such as the inversion compounds which l\larstrander classed as Norse, but of which the linguistic status is manifestly ambiguous.

A comparable figure, 40 per cent Gaelic, is indicated by the fewer, but mostly identical or very similar forms which occur a century earher in an im­ portant unpublished source, the sheading court roll of 1417-18. This (see Table 2) is especially significant as it shows for the first time that the treen and sheading names were already for the most part fully est.ablished in their final form at the beginning of the Stanley era. A number of treen­ names-Gaelic as well as Norse-are already found, usually in a rather earlier spelling-form, as adjoining various abbey farms mentíoned in the bounds of �. 1280, and only one of these was later apparently superseded as a treen-name. Where the evidence is sufficient, therefore, we find that the proportion of Gaelic to Norse place-names in the records tends to remain more or less const ant from the thirteenth to sixteenth centuries. C onse­ quently, it would seem, the post-1266 'Gaelic colonisation' disaopears, and we can hardly doubt that most of the settlement names were already long­ established, at least from the time when continuing land-records were first kept, probably no later than the twelfth century. Sorne may well have origina­ ted during the Norse settlement itself, and would thus reflect the speech­ situati.on amongst the original land-takers, rather than in the p eriod, cen­ turíes later, of the records in which they first appear. (d) It is now worth looki.ng at the abbeyland document (Table 1) more closely. This usually tends to define boundaries less by topographic al features (as, for instance, in Anglo-Saxon charters) than by reference to ad­ joining farms or esta tes, i.e. by what were perhaps already es1:ablished 'record-names '-and those, as we have seen, often were ... o se names. There is one interesting exception, however, where the property at Myres­ cogh (Sulby), a grange of Rushen, had been acquired recently (i.e. before c. 1257) from a previous owner-the Yorkshire abbey of Rievaulx. Here the proportion of Gaelic names (66 per cent) is far higher than in the other properties, and M rs Gelling accounts for this by suggesting that a colony of Gaelic speakers had recently settled here. Had this been so one would have expected them to use Gaelicised Norse place-names. F or my part I think the difference is more convincingly explained by a noticeable difference in descriptive method, involving.. sorne attempt to define the boundaries by topo­ graphical features, and those might well involve local names used by the country-folk. Only two out of the fourteen relevant names in this section

272

s ee m t o b e p r inc ipa l s et t le men t-na mes , a s a ga inst f i fteen o u t o f t wen ty-one i n t he r e ma inder. That t he Myrescogh b ounds h ad a d if feren t o r ig in f ro m t he r est i s It h ink c on f ir med b y af ur ther p ecu l iar ity.

Though i n t he s a me h and , t he s ec t ion-

h ead ing i nd icates t he p urpose a s d ef in ing t he b oundary w ith ' t he l and o f K irk C hr ist ' n o t ( a s i n t he o ther s ect ions ) w ith ' t he l and o f t he k ing '.

Th is p hrase

h as h itherto b een t hough t t o r efer t o t he a d jo in ing ( k ing 's ) l ands o f t he p ar ish o f K irk Chr ist , L ezayre , t hough t hat wou ld n ot i n i t sel f e xp la in t he n eed f or t he d if feren t word ing.

I ndeed t he monks ' b oundary wou ld h ere a lso c oncern

t he n eighbour ing p ar ishes o f B a l laugh , J urby a nd Andreas , a nd i fc o mp iled a t t he s ame t ime a nd w ith t he s a me p urpose a s t he o thers, why s hou ld t hese b ounds e xcep t iona l ly r efer t o a ny p ar ish?

S urely t h is s ec t ion , w ith i t s h ead-

i ng , d er ives f ro m a n o lder t ex t w hose p urpose was f i rst r estr icted t o d ef in ing t he e astern b oundary o ft he monks ' l and w ith a s ing le a d jo in ing p roperty , t hat k nown a s K irkchr ist j uxta Ramsa , a round t he p ar ish c hurch , a nd w h ich s oon a f ter 1 252 w as g ran ted t o t he b ishop—together w ith ' ha l f t he f i shery i n Myrescogh ' ( O l iver 1 861-2 :3-15, 3 0 ).

Whether t he o lder t ex t was w r it ten

a f t er 1 252 , t o r ecord t he r espect ive s hares o f t he b ishop a nd t he Rushen monks ma in ly i nt he u nenclosed e astern Curragh a nd t he e qua l ly u n fenced h i l lg razings , o r r elated t o as im ilar d e marca t ion b etween t he p rev ious owners , t he s ubsequen t a dd it ion ( as It h ink ) o f t he r est o f t he monk s ' b oundar ies e v id en t ly f o l lowed t he d escr ip t ive method o f t he o r ig ina l t ext , w ithout c hang ing t he h ead ing.

That t he t ext i ni t s e ar l ier f or m may h ave b een w r it ten b efore

Rushen 's a cqu is it ion o f t he p roperty i s i ndeed s uggested b y t he r eference i n t he h ead ing t o ' t he l and o f t he monks o f Myrosco ' , f or t he p lace h ad o r ig ina l ly b een a smal l monastery o fR ievau lx monks. Tha t t here r ea l ly w ere t wo l i ngu ist ic l evels c o-ex ist ing i n t he p lace-na mes o ft he S u lby a rea—and p resumably o ther a reas — is s upported b y t he f act t ha t , i n a pparen t c on trad ict ion o f t he Gae l ic t endency i n t he n a mes i nt hat s ect ion o f t he a bbey b ounds, t he t reens o f t he s head ing-d istr ict c oncerned s how a s l igh t ly a bove-average p roport ion o f N orse n a mes.

One o f t he r eason s f or t he smal l

p roport ion o f Gael ic n a mes i n t he t wel f th- a nd t h ir teen th-cen tury c harters may , h owever, b e r ela ted t o t he f act t hat a l l t he p laces t hey r efer t o l ay o n t he S ou ths ide , many o f t he m i nt he n e ighbourhood o f t he r oya l s trongho ld :

t h is i s

af eature a lso o f t he S ouths ide s ect ions o f t he a bbey land b ounds a s aw ho le , a s o n ly 2 6 p er c en t o f a l l t he u sab le n a mes t here a re Gael ic. I nc iden ta l ly , t he a ppearance o f A smundertof t (es ), a n or ma l ON. c ompound , i n o ur f our teen th-cen tury d ocu ment s h as b een t aken t o i mp ly c urrency o f t he N orse word-order a nd i n f lex ion f or t h is n ame u n t i l t ha t t ime ( Gel l ing 1 971:1723 )—and t hus t he s urv iva l o f N orse s peech. Th is i s s ure ly u n l ikely , a s t he t wo i nstances r eferred t o p robab ly o n ly r epresen t c opy ing i n t he l ater c on f ir ma t ions o f t he n ame a s f ound i nt he o r ig ina l t we l fth-cen tury g ran ts. The r e-da t ing o f t he Gael ic ised f or m , To f thar As mund ( Tab le 1 , s ec . ( c ) ) , t o c . 1 280 s upp orts t h is c onc lus ion :

e ven t hat d ate d oes n ot e stab l ish t he t ime a t wh ich t he

G ael ic ised f or m f i rst c a me i n to u se i n s peech. I t may , h owever, i nd icate t he p oss ib il ity t hat t he Norse p lura lin f lex ion s t trv ived i n t he s poken l anguage , t hough t o w ha t e x ten t i s u ncerta in , u n t i l c . 1 280 ( 2 f . T ro l lato f thar , T ab le 1 , s ect ion ( a ) ) .

2 73

( e )

' I f ' , a sked Mrs Gel l ing , ' Gael ic n a mes e x isted f or Barru le , Ramsey ,

a nd a l l t he o ther n ames i nt h is c a tegory , why d id t hese h ypothe t ica l Gae l ic e qu iva len ts n ot emerge i n to g enera l u se ? '— i.e. f o l low ing t he d em ise o f N orse s peech. The p o in t i s v ery importan t , b u t al i st o f p oss ib le e qu iva len ts c an , i nf act , b e p roduced . Many o ft hese w ere most ly w el l-known w h i le Manx w as s t i l l w idely s poken . F irst , t he p ar ish c hurches, n or ma l ly r eferred t o a s ' K irk Pa tr ick ' , ' K irk Maugho ld ', e tc. ( t hough n ow o f ten w ithou t t he ' K irk ' ), a l l h ad t he ir v ernacu lar Gae l ic f or m :

K ee il l Phar ick , K ee il l Maghal , e tc., o r more

s pec if ica l ly S ky 1 1 o r S k 'ee il (ey ) Phar ick , S k 'ee il (ey ) Magha l , e tc., r epresen ti ng s keerey-k i l ley ..., ' par ish-church o f '. A ctua l ly , t he ' o ff ic ia l ' f or ms t he mselves migh t t heoret ica l ly r epresen t a ng l ic ised Gael ic o nes i n wh ich t he N orse l oanword k irk, b orrowed i n to Midd le Eng l ish , h as r ep laced Gael ic c i l l( 21 . N ico la isen 1 960 :61-7;

t he e arl iest e v idence f or t he t ype i n Manx s ources

i s K yrke myche l , Kyrkecr ist , c . 1 280 ).

Tynwa ld H i l l w as a lways Cronk K ee il l

Eo in ( ' the moun t o f [ S t ] J ohn 's c hurch ' ) t o Manx s peakers —and w ho , a f ter a l l , c an s ay wh ich o f t hose a lternat ive, u nrela ted n ames i s r ea l ly t he o lder ? T he c hurch n a me h as t he o lder ( I r ish ) f or m o f J ohn , n o t t he Eastern G ael ic Ean , a nd i s d oubt less p re-th irteen th c en tury a t t he l east . The N orse n ame o f Peel h arbour, w ith i t s i s le t , i s r epresen ted b y ' Ho lm(e ) ' , ' Ho l me p atr ik ' ( 1377 ), ' Pa tr ikysho lm ' ( 1392, C a l. P apa l L et ters ), l ater ' Ho lmetown ' , b u t t he v ernacu lar was Purt ( or Ba l ley ) n yH inchey : h ere t he f or mer c urrency o f * in is

6

aw ord u nknown t o t he Manx d ict ionar ies, i s i mp l ied ,

w ith n o d oub t patra ic u nderstood ( 2 1..t he L a t in f or m i n t he c hron icle ), a nd t h is Gael ic i s land-na me i s a lso l ikely t o b e e arl ier t han t he t h ir teen th c en tury. I ndeed a n o r ig in i nt he e leven th c en tury wou ld s ee m t o b e t he l a tes t p er iod l i kely f or t he e stab l ish men t o f t he imp l ied n a me * In ispatra ic , t o j udge b y t he I r isht ype c hurch o fS t Pa tr ick o f t he I sle a nd i t s a ssoc ia ted r ound t ower. ( The s upposed ,r eference t o t he i s let i nI r ish a nna ls , c . 7 97 , r elates t oI n ispa tra ic/ Ho l mpatr ick o f ft he Dub l in c oast.)

' The Myres ' , t he n or mal l a te- med iaeva l

n a me o ft he n orthern marshes , i s a lways ' The Curragh (s ) ' n ow ;

a nd t he s ame

Gael ic word o ccurs i n a Manx p lace-na me a lready r ecorded i n 1 315.

The

a bbey f ar m c a l led ' Oxrayzer ' ( ON. ' ox-ca irns ' ) c . 1 280 , h as a pparen t ly s urv ived u nder t he a l ternat ive n a me S henva l ley ( Manx , ' o ld f ar m ' ) . Marstrander ( 1 932 : 2 07-8 ) p a ired E lby P o in t ( ON . h a le-b0r, ' t a il f ar m ' ) a nd The N iarby l (Manx a rby l , ' t he t a il ' ), a t a il-l ike s er ies o f p art ly-t ida l r ocks.

K neen a nd

Marstrander a lso n oted t ha t i n L onan t he o bso lete t reen-na me o fR ig ( ON . h ryggr , ' r idge ' ) h ad embraced t he t wo q uarter land f ar ms o f Ba ldro m ma , Manx ' r idge f ar m ‚( Marstrander 1 932 :180 ). Among t he h il ls S art fel l a nd S l ieau D hoo a re n earby ( t hough n ot i m med ia tely a d jacen t ), i n M ichael p ar ish ; a s a re Barru le ( ON . v arguf jal l , ' watch o r b eacon h i l l ' )7 a nd Cron .k n yA rrey L haa ( Manx , ' day- w a tch moun t ' ) i n Rushen p ar ish : t he f orgot ten Norse n a me o ft he l at ter p eak i s f ound i n s even teen th- a nd e igh teen th-cen tury s ources a s 1 Ec hew le

' ,a nd ' Ad ju le

( ON. ' edge-h il l ' ) . And t here a re o ther , more t en ta t ive,

p a irs. Wh ile, i n t he a bsence o f e arly d ocumen ta t ion , i ti s i mposs ib le t o p rove t hat a ny o ft hese v ernacu lar e qu iva len ts i s a s o ld a s t he N orse p er iod , t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t s o me a re c annot s i mp ly b e d isregarded—espec ia l ly s ince w e n ow h ave g ood e v idence t ha t many Gael ic p lace-na mes w ere c urren t a t t he c lose o f t he N orse 2 74

r eg i me.

T here i s a lso t he p o in t made b y Marstrander ( e .g. 1 934:291) t hat t he

s urv iv ing N orse n ames o f s o me o f t he h i l ls a nd s treams may af ter a l l r epresen t t ranslat ions o f t he l ost p re-Norse n ames ( e.g. S naefel l , ? >*sl iabh s neach ta : c f . ah ill s o n a med i n Donega l ). An i nstance where t he o ld n at ive n a me may i n p art b e r epresen ted i s S truan yCraue , f or a sma l l s tream n ear t he S u lby r iver- mou th , f or merly ' Ram s a ' ( ON. ' w i ld-garl ic r iver ' ;

c f. Gae l ic c rea mh ).

Argu men ts a ga inst t h is d er iva t ion , t hough worthy o f n o t ice , a re n o t p erhaps c onc lus ive ( Cra ine 1 955 :171 ). On t he o ther h and n a mes l ike Fo l ieu ( ' below t he moun ta in ' ), u nknown i nI r ish t o Marstrander ( 1934 :315 ), p robab ly o r ig ina ted i n Man a s h e s a id f rom t he N orse, i n w h ich t he t ype w as c o m mon , b u t e ven s o wou ld e qua l ly imp ly b i l ingu al is m. On t he t endency o f S cand inav ian p lace-na mes t o o ut l ive v ernacu lar Gael ic n ames, t he l a te Ea monn d e h -b ir o bserved t hat n umerous I r ish p lace-na mes, ma in ly u nconnected a lterna t ives t o n a mes o f S cand inav ian o r ig in , o f ten n ever a ppeared i n w r it ing a t a ny p er iod b u t s urv ived i nI r ish l anguage c on texts :

' i t

w as t he S cand inav ian n a me t ha t was t aken o ver b y t he i ncom ing Eng l ish , a nd t ha t p ers isted i n u se b y Eng l ish s peakers s ince ' ( de h -6 ir 1 972-3:197-200 ). T here may b e l i t t le f i rm e v idence t ha t Eng l ish w as much s poken i n Man b efore t he f ourteen th c en tury , y et l ong b efore t hat , a nd wh ile N orse was d om inan t , Eng l ish merchan ts , s a i lors a nd of ic ia ls must h ave b een f am il iar w ith Manx l and marks , r ivers , h ead lands , h il ls a nd h arbours. Moreover, s ome Eng l ish monks a nd c lergy ( and n o d oub t o thers ) e v iden t ly s et t led t here a nd b eca me a dm in istrat ively i nf luen t ia l j u st a s e arly a s t hey d id i n I re land.

Both t hese

c ons idera t ions s uggest h ow N orse n a mes c ou ld h ave b ecome ' e stab l ished ', a s i nI reland , i np reference t o l oca l Gae l ic n a mes l ong b efore t he S tan ley e ra. I ts hou ld a lso b e r e me mbered t hat t here was i n Man a n importan t t rad it ion o f w r it ing i n N orse u p t o t he t ime when l and-records ( o f Eng l ish t ype ) w ere f i rst k ept . On t he o ther h and Manx Gael ic was , f or r easons d iscussed b y R . L . T ho mson ( 1 969 :177 , 1 79-80 ) , v ery much l ess o f aw r it ten l anguage t han I r ish . There i s , moreover, o ne p os it ive c haracter ist ic o f Manx Gael ic n ames wh ich s hou ld b e e arly , t hough Mrs G e l l ing h as r eservat ions : t he p resence o f n a mes i nS l ieau- a nd Carr ick .

P ro fessors MacQueen a nd N ico la isen b oth r egard

S cot t ish n ames i nS l iabh- ( S lew, e tc. ' h il l ' ) a nd Carra ig- ( ' rock , c l iff ' ), w h ich h ave a r estr icted d istr ibut ion , a s p re-Vik ing—as i ndeed t hey d o t he n a mes i n ( ' church o r c hapel ' ) a lso c om mon i n Man . The p rob le m i s t o k now h ow l ong s uch n ames c ont inued t ob e g iven i np ar t icu lar s ituat ions. The s tud ies o n wh ich t hese c onclus ions a re b ased ( c.1 . McNe il l a nd N icho lson 1 975 :4-5 ) w ere n ot a va i lable a t t he t ime when Marstrander w ro te , b u t i ts hou ld i n a ny c ase b e r eme mbered t hat w hen Marstrander emphas ised t he ' r ecen t ' a ppeara nce o f t he Manx Gae l ic p lace-na mes , h e s ee ms t o h ave mean t t ha t f ew i fa ny g ener ic n ames o f p reh istor ic t ype o ccur — i.e. n one e ar l ier t han s uch a s m igh t b e e xpected t o h ave a ccompan ied t he c om ing o f Chr ist ian ity , o r s et t le men ts o f f i f th t o e igh th c en tur ies.

Most , o f c ourse, w il l b e l a ter.

Before l eav ing t he s ub jec t o f Manx p lace-na mes, o ne may a sk a more g enera l q uest ion. Do t hey i nf act d isp lay c haracter ist ics w h ich wou ld s upport t he s uggest ion t ha t Gael ic s peakers w ere i n troduced a f ter 1 266 i n n umbers s u f f ic ien t t o c ause a l anguage c hange?

A c omp lete a nswer wou ld , t o b eg in w i th ,

i nvo lve a n e xhaust ive c ompara t ive s tudy o f t he n ames o f Man a nd Ga l loway :

2 75

a t t he n earest t he t wo a reas a re s eparated b y o n ly 1 8 m i les o f s ea a nd , i n t heory , a n h istor ica l b as is c ou ld b e f ound f or a s ett le men t—bu t o f u nknown s ize —from Ga l loway i n o r a bou t 1 275. Th is i s n o t t he p lace t o a t te mpt s uch a s urvey b u t , t hanks t o Kneen 's w ork o n t he Manx n a mes a nd t o P ro fess or

N ico la isen 's r ecen t s tud ies o f p art icu lar s outh-west S cot t ish n a mes , o ne

s ign if ican t p o in t o f d ifference i s a lready a pparen t.

Whatever r ese mb lances

t here may b e , t he a pparen t ly c o mp lete a bsen ce i n Man o f n a mes i n a chadh( ' enclosed f i eld ' ), s o c om mon i n s ou th-west S co t land ( and i ndeed i n t he r est o f Gae l ic S co t land a nd I re land ), p resen ts a r ea l o bstac le t o t he t heory o f a ny n ew Gael ic s et t le men t i n Man i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury. And t here a re o ther n o tab le a bsen tees s uch a s b lär a nd t he c hurch-ter m c lachan , t o g o n o f urther i n t he a lphabet . Th is , a dm it ted ly , i s n ega t ive e v idence , b u t t he a bsence o f a chadh- n a mes i s p art icu larly s ign if ican t a s t h is s et t le men t t erm was i n s uch c om mon u se i n s ou th-west S cot land i n a ct ive n ame-for mat ion d ur ing t he v ery p er iod w e a re c ons ider ing ( N ico la isen 1 975a :173-4; 1 975b :4-5 ; 1 970 :19-23, 3 3 ).

Even t he w ord a chadh i t sel f f inds n o p lace i n t he Manx d ict ionar ies. With

t he r esu l ts w e h ave a lready o bta ined , t h is n egat ive p lace-na me e v idence s ee ms t o me f a irly c onclus ive. I I.

EPITHETS AND PATRONY M ICS

Th is s ub ject , a nd t he t wo f o l low ibg s ect ions , l ay o u ts ide t he s cope o f Mrs Gel l ing 's s tudy o ft he p lace-na mes, b u t t hey a re v i ta l t o t he s o lut ion o f h er p rob le m. The d eter m ined w ay i n wh ich t he Manx k ings a dhered e xc lus ively t o t he p ersona l n a mes o f t he ir S cand inav ian a ncestors h as a lready b een men t ioned. Though 2 5 p er c en t o f t he p ersons n a med i n t he l oca l N orse i nscr ipt ions o f t he t en th a nd e leven th c en tur ies b ore n a mes o f Gael ic o r ig in , a nd Marstrander ( 1932 : 3 37 ) c onv inc ing ly ma in ta ins t ha t t hese must i mp ly a f ree p opu lat ion o f e qua ls — n ot s laves o r b ondmen—no s im ilar h in t a ppears i n t he r oya l l ine a t a ny s tage d ur ing t he n ex t t wo c en tur ies.

Cons iderat ion s o f s tate may e xp la in t h is;

f or ,

b y c on trast , t he ir c ous ins o f Argyl l , w ho b egan e f fect ively t o e ncroach u pon t he I sles k ingdom f rom S o merled 's d ay ( d . 164 ), made n o s uch e f fort t o c oncea l t he ir m ixed , l argely Gael ic o r ig ins.

For t he Manx k ings, o n t he o ther h and ,

t he ' Norweg ian d i mens ion ' must h ave s ee med a n i nd ispensab le p o l it ical s h ield a ga inst t he i ncreas ing ly p owerfu l n e ighbours w ho t hrea tened Man a nd t he I sles d ur ing t he t wel f th a nd t h irteen th c en tur ies. A s urer g u ide t o t he e veryday s peech o f t he Manx c our t-c irc le e x ists i n t he c hron icle —a w ork e xp l ic it ly c oncerned w ith t he k ings t he mse lves, a nd c omp iled u nder t he ir sway. The o n ly e p ithets a pp l ied t here t o p ar t icu lar k ings a re n o t N orse b u t G ae l ic words . T hus G odred I ( 1 079-95 ) i s s tyled Godred ' Crovan ' , a pparen t ly Gae l ic * crobh-bh4n , ' wh ite-handed ' , at er m d isc ussed b y 0 Cu iv ( 1957 :284 ) , w ho c o mpares i tw ith Catha l Cro ibhdearg. T he i n terpreta tion i s p rov is iona l , b u t n o r ecen t c ommen tator h as d oubted t hat t he e p ithet i s Gael ic.

Y et i ti s n o t o ne t hat c an b e d is m issed a s a n I r ish e p ithet ,

s ince Godred f i gures i n I r ish s ources a s Gofra idh Mearach , o r Me rdnach ( f rom me ar , ' f inger ' ). A l a ter Godred ( Reg ina ld 's s on ), w ho a f ter b r ie f r u le i n t he I s les was k i l led i n L ew is i n 1 231, i s n amed a s Godred ' Don ' —Gae l ic d onn , ' b rown , 2 76

b rown-ha ired ';

t hough a g ood , a l most c on te mporary N orweg ian s ource ,

p erhaps momen tar i ly c on fused w ith t he i s land k ing lets , o r j ust m istak ing d onn f or d ubh , c a l ls h im ' t he B lack ' ( Hakon 's S aga , c h . 1 67 ). The u se o f Gael ic e p ithets i n t he n at ive d ynasty o f Man i s d ec is ively c on f ir med i nt he c ase o f O la f I( d . 1 237 ), t o who m t he c hron ic le a ss igns n o s uch d ist inc t ion :

y et h e w as p osthumously r eferred t o i n t he Eng l ish C lose

Ro l ls o f 1 251 —doub t less q uo t ing a c on te mporary l et ter f rom Man—as ' O lav i Du f ' ( C.R . 1 927:p. 1 77 ; c f . H äkon 's S aga , c h. 1 66 a nd 1 67 : O la fr s vart i.). L ong af terwards O la f w as s t il l r e me mbered i nH igh land t rad it ion a s ' A mh la mh D ubh ' ( Skene 1 876-80 :3, 4 01); a nd h is g randfa ther a s ' A mh la mh D earg ' ( d . 153 ). Ik now o f n o l i terary s ource a va ilable t o t he MacVurich s eanacha idh f ro m w h ich t hese e p it hets c ou ld h ave b een d er ived. The c ompan ions a nd o f f ic ia ls o f t he k ings , a s r epresen ted ma in ly b y w itness-l ist s o f t he t welf th a nd t h irteen th c en tur ies, p rov ide e v idence f u l ly c ons isten t w ith t hat o f t he r oya l e p ithets.

Om it t ing r oya l ty , a nd t he o ccas iona l

o u tsiders , e leven n ames o fG ae l ic o r ig in a ppear t here a s a ga inst f i f teen N orse n ames. Fash ion i n s uch mat ters i s n o s ure g u ide t o c on te mporary s peech , b u tt he o ccurrence o f s ome p a tronym ics i n v ernacu lar f orm ( most a re o f c ourse c oncea led i n L a t in ) i s d ec is ive. An e arly i nstance i s ' MacMaras ' , a Manx l eader s la in i nb a t t le i n 1 098 ( Chron . c . 1 257 : t he o ppos ing l eader o ft he o ther p art o f Man i s d escr ibed a s a n e ar l , c o mes ). The imp l ied Gael ic f or m i s s upported b y t he r ecurrence o f t he n ame i n a n importan t w itnessl ist o f c . 135 , where t he s econd o f t he s ecu lar w itnesses i s n a med a s t he s on o f ' Ma cMars ' ( O l iver 1 861 : 3 ), t he f a ther p oss ib ly b e ing t he s a me l eader. ' Foga l McHaska l l ' , s enescha l o f Magnus, l ast n at ive k ing o f Man , w itnessed a c harter b etween 1 254 a nd 1 265 ( t ext o f 1 329 ; O l iver 1 861:92 ) , a nd h e may h ave b een a r elat ive o f S ir G ilbert MacAsky l , w ho h eld t he s ame a ppo in tmen t u nder t he t hen Eng l ish l ord o f Man t wo g enerat ions l ater ( 1 311).

Between t hese d ates, Duncan MacGof fry

w as j ust ic iar o f Man i n 1 290 ap atronym ic i ncorpora t ing Gur r i n a Gael ic f or m t hat c ou ld we l l i mply a l i nk w ith t he f ormer n at ive d ynasty . Another n ame i n t he s a me c ategory i s k nown f rom t he a bbey land b ounds , c . 1 280 , a nd a s i ti s t here i ncorpora ted i n a n e stabl ished p lace-name , t h is i s d oubt less a lso r eferab le i n o r ig in t o t he r ecen t ly-ended p er iod o f n a t ive r u le : v i l la Mac Akoen , ' Mac Häcon 's e state ' , i s i den t if iab le w ith t he q uarterland f ar m o f Ba l lake igan ( earl ier Ba l lacagen ). P lace-na mes o f t he Sa le- Mac' t ype a re f ound amongst t he e arl iest l and-gran ts i n S cot land , a nd t he p atronym ic i n s uch c ases i st hough t t o r efer t o ap erson o f i mportance , f ounder o f ab ranch o f a f am i ly o r c lan . Though l im ited , s uch e v idence a s s urv ives f or t he p er iod b efore 1 266 t hus r eveals t ha t t he p recursors o ft he c haracter ist ic Manx Gae l ic s urnames i n Mac-, s ubsequen t ly r educed t o C , K - a nd Qu, w ere a lready i nb e ing d ur ing t he ' Norse ' r eg ime . On t he o ther h and t here i s n o t as ing le i nstance i n t he Manx d ocumen tary s ources o ft he u sua l N orse t ype o f n a me-forma t ion , w ith t he e nd ing son ( or dot ter ) , t o s et a ga inst t he p os it ive e v idence o f p a tronym ics a nd e p ithets i n Gae l ic f or m.

I tc an h ard ly b e d oubted t ha t t hese i mp ly ab ack-

g round o f s poken Gae l ic f rom t he e leven th t o t he t h irteen th c en tur ies. I th as e ven b een s uggested t hat t he o ccurrence i n r uneinscr ipt ions o f N orse n a mes 2 77

i n w ha t a ppears t ob e Gae l ic word-order ( A s unr B ) c ou ld r epresen t t ranslat ion o f Gae l ic p atronym ics i n Mac- a s f ar b ack a s t he t en th c en tury ( O lsen 1 954 : 2 25-6 ;

c f . G el l ing 1 970-1:138-9 ).

I n v iew o f t he o ther e v idence n ow a ssemb led ,

t he s uggest ion s ee ms f ar f ro m improbab le. I V.

THE L ITERARY EV IDE NCE One o f t he o ldest b ard ic p oe ms i nI r ish w as c omposed i n h onour o f Reg ina ld ,

k ing o f Man , n ot l a ter t han c . 1 200 ( Ö &iv 1 957 ).

The e x istence o f t h is p ane-

g yr ic, l aud ing t he Ga l l k ing; s upposed d escen t f ro m n at ive I r ish monarchs o f t he p ast , a nd e ven h in t ing a t h is p oss ible ( i f f ar-fetched ) c la i ms t o t he h ighk ingsh ip o fI reland , s urely imp l ies a r eady c omprehens ion o f Gae l ic s peech a nd t hough t i n Manx c ourt-c irc les a t t he c lose o f t he t welf th c en tury . We k now t oo t hat Reg ina ld 's f a ther was b ur ied a t I ona ( 1188 ) , a s Godred Crovan ( d . I slay 1 095 ) p robab ly h ad b een a lso.

Reg ina ld 's f a ther h ad l at terly marr ied a n I r ish

p r incess , b u t Reg ina ld w as n ot h er s on a nd , a s w e s ha l l s ee, t he C e lt ic a spec ts o f Manx l i fe a t t h is p er iod a re l ike ly t o h ave h ad d eeper r oo ts t han c ou ld b e a ccoun ted f or b y o ccas iona l d ynast ic marr iages. That Gae l ic , a nd n o t N orse, w as t hen p os it ively c haracter ist ic o f Man s ee ms t ob e i n ferred b y ap hrase p reserved b y al ater med iaeva l Welsh h istorian i n a l lus ion t o t he y ear 193, when Reg ina ld o f Man t e mporar i ly o verran Ang lesey i n s upport o fh is b rotherin-law o f Gwynedd : b y t he We lshmen t h is e p isode w as r eferred t o a s ' t he Gael ic s u m mer ' —haf/ gwydy l ( L loyd 1 911:2.588 ). Though c on ta ined i n al a te c ompos it ion , 0o es Gwyrthyrn , t he o r ig ina l s ource o f t he p hrase i s a l most c erta in ly e arl ier t han 1 284 ( i n for mat ion f ro m Dr B . G . Owens , p er Mr D . M . L loyd ) : t he Manx r eference b e ing o f n o i mportance a t al ater p er iod , i tp robab ly d er ives f rom a l ost c on te mporary p oe m o n t he a ch ieve men ts o f t he s uccessfu lb ro ther who s oon d rove o u t Rhodr i , Reg ina ld 's a l ly. S ince t he p r inces o f N orth Wa les w ere n ot o n ly d escended f rom t he e ar l ier Manx d ynasty , b u t h ad o n a t l east o ne o ther o ccas ion ( 1094 ) i nvoked t he a id o f t he Manx f l eet t o h elp t he m i n t he ir s trugg les i n Ang lesey , t h is Welsh e v idence o n t he s ub ject i s u n l ike ly t o b e mis in for med. Moreover , a s we n ow s ee , i t i s c ons isten t w ith s ubstan t ia l e v idence f rom Man i t sel f. I t must h ave b een e i ther d ur ing Reg ina ld 's r e ign o r t ha t o f h is f a ther t ha t J ohn t he p r iest o f Maugho ld , w r it ing i n O ld N orse , i nvoked t he a id o f ' Chr ist , Ma lachy , Pa tr ick a nd Ada mnan ' , w h ile a no ther o f h is i nscr ip t ions e nds w ith t he o ld n at ive O ga m a lphabet ( O lsen 1 954:202-5 )—as n eat a r evelat ion o f t he t horough ly Gael ic m il ieu o f t h is o stens ibly ' Norse ' p r iest a s o ne c ou ld h ope f or.

Though Ma lachy , t he r efor m ing n at ive a rchb ishop o f Ar magh , w as n o t

o ff ic ia l ly c anon ised u n t i l 1 190 , h e w as a ccep ted a s as a in t s oon a f ter h is d ea th i n t he a r ms o f S t Bernard o fC la irvaux i n 148. J ohn 's i nscr ipt ions a re p robab ly t he l atest e v idence a va ilab le f or t he u se o f N orse r unes i n Man— a nd p oss ib ly , a par t f ro m O rkney , i n a l l Br ita in a nd I reland. Why r unes w ere s o c om mon ly u sed i n Man h as y et t o b e e xp la ined ( Page 1 971:167 ) :

p erhaps

e lsewhere t he Church r es isted e arl ier a nd more s trong ly s uch e choes o f o ld i do latry? C ross-slabs a lso c eased t o b e e rect ed a bou t t he s a me t ime a s Manx r unes d isappeared , p erhaps ow ing t o t he i n f luence o f t he r efor m ing c hurch men o f t he d ay .

2 78

As t here a re a pparen t ly n o N orse i nscr ip t ions l a ter t han t he t wel fth c entury , w hen Gae l ic was e v iden t ly a lready w ide ly s poken , i ti s p oss ible t ha t N orse s peech d ied o u t i n Man w ith in a g enera t ion o r t wo o f t he e nd o f t he n a t ive d ynasty—tha t i s , s oon a f ter 1 300. The s uggest ion t ha t s o me d oughty Norse-speakers may h ave s tood t he ir g round u n t i l f orced t o em igra te b y t he r igours o f S tan ley r u le i n t he e arly f i f teen th c en tury ( Ge l l ing 1 971:174 ) s ee ms t o me t oo l ate:

s uch a n

e xodus — though h ard ly a l arge o ne —d id , i ts ee ms , o ccur i n 1 275 , a f ter t he b a t t le o f Rona ldsway a nd t he t o ta l c o l lapse o f t he Manx r is ing a ga inst t he S co ts. By t he c lose o f t he f i f teen th c en tury t he N orse n ame o f * Con isacre t reen [ Con isa ld .r 1 4th c4 , ' t he k ing 's d e mesne ' , o nce s urely o ne o f t he b est-known p laces i nt he who le i s land a s i ti nc luded Rona lds w ay w ith i t s s pac ious h arbour, w as e v iden t ly n ot o n ly f orgo tt en b ut a lso ( part ly t hrough p oor t ranscr ip t ion ) a lready mean ing less t o t he l ord 's c lerks : t he mang led ' Conyssare ' o f 1 506 ( f or * Conysacre ) t hus s urv ived t o o ur own d ay i nt he r en ta ls a s ' Com issary ' , a n i nco mprehens ible g host-name. V .

AD M IN ISTRAT IVE OR IG INS I n t he l i ght s hed b y o ur r eassess men t o f t he o no mast ic a nd l i terary e v i-

d ence, i ti s n ecessary t o r ev iew s ome o ther a spec ts o f t he N orse h er itage i n Man . The %men ' , t he f ar mland u n it ( a l most a d im inut ive p ro to-par ish ) u pon w h ich t axes were b ased , h as b een e quated b y Marw ick a nd Marstrander w ith t he Hebr idean ' ounceland ' , G ael ic t i r-u inge. 8

The o unce-land , w ith i t s

t wen ty-penny land s ubd iv is ions, h as o f ten b een c la i med a s c harac ter ist ica l ly N orse ( e .g. McKerral l 1 944 :54f f.); b u t , a l though c erta in ly k nown i n O rkney i n a Norse v ers ion o f t he w ord , e yr island ( vernacu lar ' u rsland ' ), t h is u n it i s f ound n owhere e lse i nt he o ld N orweg ian c o lon ies ( p l . Marw ick 1 952 :210 ). By c ontrast t he u rge, o r o unce, a s av a lue o f s i lver o r ( l ess u sua l ly ) o f g o ld , w as e v iden t ly i ng enera lu se i nI reland , p oss ibly e ven b efore t he V ik ing p er iod— s o met i mes q u ite s pec if ica l ly a s t he amoun t imposed a s a n a nnua l l and-tax d ue t o ak ing o r o verlord. Wh i le t he ' p enny land ' h as n ot b een t raced i n Manx s ources ( apparen t i nstances i n n a mes o f s ome m inor p ost- med ieva l e nc losures r efer o n ly t o r en ts t hen p a id ) , t h is d eno m ina t ion h as r ecen t ly b een r ecogn ised a s e x tend ing a s f ar s ou th a s G a l loway ( MacQueen 1 976 ) :

t hat i n i t se lf m igh t

r a ise d oubts a s t o t he s upposed N orse o r ig in o f t h is s yste m o f a ssess men t . McKerra l 's d ictum , b ased o n n ineteen th-cen tury t heor ies , n ow s ee ms a nyt h ing b u t s ure:

' Wherever w e e ncoun ter p enny lands , h a l f-penny l ands a nd

f arth inglands w e may b e s ure t ha t w e a re i n t he f oot steps o f t he N orse ' ( McKerra l 1 951:174 ).

T he c ase f or a Gael ic o r ig in f or t he p enny land h as

b een a rgued by D r Banner man ( 1974 :141), i n c onnect ion w ith t he p re-V ik ing Da lr iadan s h ip-levy .

A t l east f ro m t he t h irteen th c en tury t he Argy l l p enny-

l and , o stensibly a t wen t ieth o f at i r-u inge , i s met w ith a s ar ea l work ing u n it w i th a t opograph ica l n ame, w h ich m igh t p rov ide o ne man a nd h is v ictua ls f or t he p rov inc ia l a r my .

L a ter e v idence f rom Man s uggests t hat t he q uarter-

l and w as t he c orrespond ing u n it t here , p erhaps b ecause o f s ome d i f ference b etween t he gr-u inge , whether i n s ize o r a ssess men t , i n t he t wo r eg ions. Meanwh i le t he b el ief t hat t he 2 0-penny land t h-u inge w as a p ure ly N orse impos it ion , b ased o n t he a dop t ion o f t he Ang lo-Saxon o unce ( ora ) o f 2 0 p enn ies , h as s uf fered a f ur ther b low s ince D r S a l ly Harvey ( 1967 :228 ) h as 2 79

e stabl ished t ha t ' t here w as o n ly o ne o ra , t ha t o f 1 6d. There w as h owever a n I r ish u nga mor o f2 0 p enn ies, p resu mab ly r e lated t o t he Hebr idean p enny land s yste m. The most n a tura l e xp lanat ion m igh t s eem t o b e t hat t he Gae l ic t i r-u inge c orresponded , a t l east i n t he I s les , t o t he t f r- mb6 ( ' cowland ' ) o ft he s even thc en tury I r ish l aws. I nI re land t he t r i •- mbd w as e v iden t ly r egarded a s t he n or ma l h o ld ing o f af reeho lder, f or wh ich h e p a id h is l ord a n a nnua l t r ibu te o f ' ac ow w ith i t s a cco mpan i men t ' , e lsewhere e qua ted i n v a lue w ith a n o unce o f s i lver i nt he e arly e igh th c en tury ( Binchy 1 941:8 , 6 8, 7 7 ).

I t i s o f i n terest

t ha t t he t f r- mb6 h as a lso b een d iscussed r ecen t ly a s t he I r ish e qu iva len t o f t he S axon h ide, o r l and o f as ing le f am ily ( Char les-Edwards 1 972 :14 ). Un fortunately f or a s i mp le s o lut ion , t he t reen a nd o unce-land a s we k now t he m d o n ot s ee m t o f i t t he f ree man 's h o ld ing , a t l east i n med ieva l t imes. I n Man , t he q uarter land ( Manx , l erroo , k erroo-ba l ley ;

S c. Gael ic , c eathramh )

w as t he c harac ter ist ic h o ld ing , wh ich p assed ' f rom a ncestor t o h e ir '. The t reen , o n t he c on trary , w as e v iden t ly a n ot iona l g roup ing f or t ax a nd o ther p urposes o f an umber o f—nor ma l ly f our —quar ter land f arms.

S o f ar a s Iam

aware , t he o r ig in o f t he I r ish a nd S cot t ish q uarter lands, u sual ly r egarded a s s ubd iv is ions o f at own land o r b a i le , h as n ot h i therto b een e xp la ined , o r e ven c losely d a ted. 9

The Manx d ocumen tary e v idence i s t oo l a te t o e luc idate t he

p rob le m b u t , a s a n e n t irely t en ta t ive s uggest ion t o s t i mu late d iscuss ion , t he f our-quar terland u n i t m igh tb e c o mpared t o t he Caro l ing ian s yste m whereby f our manses ( l ater f ive ) c omb ined t o p rov ide a nd s upport o ne f i gh t ing man— o ne manse ( t he f ar m ing e n t ity o f wh ich t he h omestead w as t he c en tre ) p rov id ing t he man , t he o ther t hree h is e qu ip men t a nd u pkeep ( Ho l l ister 1 962:43-3 ).

That

s yste m w as a ssoc ia ted w ith t he e stab l ishmen t o f ap rofess iona l m i l itary o r n ava l f orce , a nd m ight t hus b e d irect ly r elevan t t o at ime when N orse mercena r ies w ere b e ing i n troduced i nto t he Gael ic s oc ia l o rder.

Th is w ou ld n o t

e xclude t he p oss ib i l ity t hat t he t i r-u inge was b ased o n a n e x ist ing l and-un i t , wh ich p erhaps a lready c omb ined f our f ar ms f or p rov id ing d ues a nd s erv ices. I tw ou ld i ndeed b e n atura l i n t ime o f d anger t o b ase l ev ies o n a n e stab l ished o rgan isat ion . S o me l ate e v idence f rom s even teen th-cen tury T iree , y et f rom at ime w hen t he c lan was s t i l l ar ea l ity , m igh t s uggest a r e moter o r ig in , a t l east f or t he t reen .

Mr C regeen i n for ms me t ha t ' t he T iree q uarter land w as

ac om mon h o ld ing f or o ne o ft he u pper t enan ts , a nd was e v iden t ly a lso c omp arab le w ith t he Manx k erroo i n g eograph ica l e xten t , b u t c o-ex isted w ith a d ivers ity o f h o ld ings , s o me l arger a nd s ome sma l ler , a l l w ith in t he l im its o f t he t ownsh ip o r b a i le. I ts ee ms p robab le , t oo , t ha t t he T iree q uarterland b elonged w ith in ab ane b ased o n ad uodec i ma l s yste m o f l and-un i ts wh ich a n tedated t he t i rung a nd i t s t wen ty-penny land u n its , b ut a t s o me s tage was a ccom modated t o i t . I n T iree t he b a i le s urv ived v igorously , a nd o vershadowed t he q uarterland , w hereas i n Man i t may b e c on jectured t ha t , wh i lst t he q uarterland b eca me t he d om inan t h o ld ing , t he a nc ien t b a ile a troph ied , s urv iv ing l ongest i n i t s f i sca l a spect a s t he t reen .' As a w ork ing h ypo thes is b ased o n l im ited e v idence t h is i s c lear ly a r easonab le v iew . Cou ld t here, a f ter a l l , b e s ome r e mote l ink b etween t h is Hebr idean b a i le , w ith i t s q uarters a nd d uod ec i ma l s ystem o f 4 8 l and-un its , a nd t he 1 36 1 ( 1 1th c entury L a t in mansus ), o f wh ich t he o ldest s yste m o f s ubd iv is ion i n Sweden s ee ms t o h ave b een b ased o n t we lve ( l a ter e igh t ) f ar m-un its ? Wh ile a n e tymo log ica l c onnect ion b etween 2 80

b61 and baile seems unlikely, it has recently been argued that the Welsh tref (with its four-fold subdivisions) and the earliest Swedish bol comprised a.bout the same area of arable-though the tref included meadow and pasture in additi.on-perhaos reflecting a common origin in early kinship territories (Hannerberg 197 6) • Such thoughts would suit Marstrander's final view of the Manx evidence, as published in his monograph sub-titled The pre-Norse syst.em of land-di vi.sion in the British Isles (Marstrander 1937 , that each treen originally had an 'Early Crristian' keeill (cr?.�l) and rhullick (family ur·a1-gro11nd).. The ,:i1Jbject merit.s further investigati0n, and n�t only in Man: at present all that is certain is that the keeill burial-ground sit.es are pre-parochial, and a number-but by no means a.11-bave produced evidence of use before the ninth century (Kermode and Bruce 1968:;71-3) 0tb.ers were certainly in use in the 1:Pnth a.nd elPventb. centuries if not lat.er, and (though this is not conclusive) la.ck signs of ea""lier origin.. Dedications where they survive include a number of ob cur .int'"' 11 likely to be early, but many others, including Patrick 8.nd Bridget, are cer­ tainlv later (Apoenclix B, sec. 2). The fully-developed treen aud quRrtrrfan.d 'syst.em' doubtless incorporat.ed pre-existing native, or 'Early Christian.' foundations, and extended these to serve the cha�ed conditions of the Norse period. Whatever may have been the precise role of the treen in the period of the Norse settlement, there is some archaeological evidence which seems t.o att.est the exist.ence of the quarterland farm at that time. In the Jurby dis­ trict a series of six prominently-sired pagan burial-mounds, two of them proved by excavation t:o be those of ninth-century Norse settlers, are distribut.ed individually over as many quarterland farms: this might suggest that those quarterland farms may then have been the principal holdings in that area, as they remain today(Fig. 18.3). Whether they were already grouped into treens for administr2.ti ve purposes in the ;.Jnth century is of course not known, but it does seem likely that the holdings that came to be kn.own as quart.erlands represent in general elements in a very early land syst.em (see Appendix B). The hypothesis that the treen developed in a Gaelic milieu, whethPr nndP-r Carolingian influence or not, is support.ed by a previ.ously-une:xnlained teru, in a Manx land-grant by God.red TI (11 53-87) .. which Professor Barrow has lately elucidated. Now for the first time we have the clear implication that the dues paid to the twPlfth-century kings from Manx estates normally comprised, ·n addition to 'secular [military] service', what the grant calls pecunia (i .. e .. 'moveable wealth; cattle') and '(a)conveth':10 clea.rly these are the fa.miliar c�in and coinmheadh, that is tribute and 'hospitality' or billeting (Barrow 1969:22). Thus under the rule of the native-born kings of the Isles .. of the so­ called 'Norse' dynasty, the provision of hospitality to the king or his men was known officially by the old Gaelic term invariably used in the same sense in Scotland and Ireland. It was !at.er assert.ed in the Manx Chronicle that the tributa. regalia were imposed by Godred Crovan aft.er gaining power (_£. 1 079) when he claimed outright ownership of all the lands in the island; such renders are likely to have a much earlier origin, however, though the dispute as to the legal status of the occupiers of the treens and quarterlands was not finally resolved-in their favour-until 1 703. That the Manx official concerned with collecting the dues from the treens was known as the moar, a variant of the term borrowed into all the branches 281

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Fig. 18 .3

Pagan grave-mounds on the Jurby coastal ridge

The small p arish of Jurby, between sea (left) and marsh (south), showing boundaries of treens (bold, pecked lines) and quarterland farms (dotted lines). Though the coastal quarterlands have been reduced by erosion, the surviving glacial ridge flanking the shore was probably always the highest point. The eastern part of the parish comprised ecclesiastical p roperties (glebe, 'particles', and bishop's barony), apparently associat.ed with (4), the early church-site of 'Kirk Ooslan" ( ?St Cons1antine), where stood a rune-inscribed cross-slab of the tenth century. Here according to local belief was the first parish church, and perhaps the unlocat.ed estate of *Dyra-b�r (Jurby). All burial-mounds so far examined in the parish have yielded Viking grave­?;Oods of the ninth century (Bersu and Wilson 1966) • Open circles denote unex­cavated burial-mounds. Proved Viking Graves: 1• 2•

Ballateare Cronk Moar

3. Jurby churchyard (not from the mound there) 5. B allachrink

Six out of eight quarterland farms on the coastal ridge each appear to have been distinguished by a p rominently-sited grave-mound, perhaps the burial­places of the first generation of Norse settlers • This distribution would seem to support the identification of the farm-units of land farms.

the ninth century with the traditional quarter

283

of in.�ular ~ eltic, ·ltiTllately from Romano-Br·tish Latin maior, 'steward' (Jack ·on 1953 :299), ·s in full agreement with the belief that it was an indi­ ge ous system a n t of NorQe or· in, that maintained the kings of the Isles a d hei household ·n the twelfth cen y and earlier, and also g ave them their plies of fighting men and ships. 1 ha � ., o a , in this section, tried to show that the quarterland farm, which has been the traditional basis of Manx land-t:enure, probably had its beginnings in a pre-Viking, Celtic land system; and further that the treen organisation with which it was associat.ed in medieval and later times has feature� who e terminology (moar, L. pecunia/can, conveth *� suggests close parallels with practices in the Irish 7 Dalriadic and British kingdoms, rather than the Norse world. One could go further and argue indeed that the period of orse dominance, so far from introduci� totally new administra­ tive a d political organs in Man, adopted the pre-feudal machinery of govP.rnment that a�ready lay to hand and ·was familiar also in the surrounding Celtic kingdoms.

Even the widely-held view that the 'sheadings ', six court-districts into which Man has been divi�ed since the middle ages, are characteristically Norse may be questioned. The Scandinavian hypothesis, first seriously argued by Vigfusson (following E. W. Robertson's lead in 1872), had support from the redoubtable Horace Round (1895:76, .!!·). Yet Round seems to have depended on the assertion that in such matters thirds and sixths were Scandinavian, conveniently ignoring the six 'commotes' of nearby Anglesey, the heartland of the native British kingdom of Gwyneda, with which Man had significant early links. (Round also overlooked in this context the six 'lathes' of seventh­ century Kent; and the probability (Thomas 1964) that Brythonic Cornwall also originally comprised six divisions (later increased to nine), subsequently called 'hundreds'.) Vigfusson (1887:1888) depended on his derivation of sheading (shedyng, 15th c.; sheetin, Manx) from a supposed ON. *sceg c­ �' 'ship-division'. But the term is not found, and Marstrander therefore finally discarded it-and also the Oxford Dictionary's Middle English proposal -i fovot.r of ON. s�ttungr, 'a sixth part' fMarstrander 1937:410,431). What.ever the origin of the word, however, the thing itself seems likely to be pre-feudal, and comparable to the Welsh commote (cwmwd, 'neighbour­ hood'), which was also a court-district (Lloyd 1939:1. 300; Jones 1972:299302). Like the commotes, the sheadings were also grouped together in larger primary divisions, two in Man, three in less hilly Anglesey. It has not heen reMa1"kfld previously that the names of all the individual sheadings imply that each had formerly been administered from a treen-esta.te (or perhaps from a particular quarterland within the treen) within the district that bore the same name: Glenfaba(n), Kirk Michael, (le) Ayre, Grauff (now Garff, but cf. the Grawe quarterlands), Midell (Middle), and Russin (Rushen). Four of these are identifiable with virtual certainty, the other two provision�.lly (Fig. t8 .4). These former sheading-centres all seem to have been farms, not primarily defensive sites (with the possible exception of Ru�her and would thus e directly comoarable to the maerdref, 'the (royal) steward's demesne-farm or township', of the Welsh commotes, where the pre-feudal renders and services were paid from the surrounding farms 284

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T he med iaeva l a dm in istrat ive d iv is ions o f t he I s le o f Man , s how ing t he l ocat ion o f t he t reens f rom w h ich t he s ix s head ings ( court-d istr icts ) w ere e v iden t ly n amed.

1* G len faba (n ) ( ?Glenaspet );

2K irk Michae l o f Ba lL achurry ( now B ishopscourt );

3* Le Ayre ( ?Th ird C ransta l l ) ; ( M idd le );

4G rau f f ( c f. t he Grawe q uarterlands );

5M ide l l

6 Rushen ( now S car le t t , i nclud ing Knock Rushen q uarterland a nd

Cast le Rushen ).

Aster isk i nd ica tes ' l ost ' t reen-name, l ocat ion t en tat ive.

S head ing n a mes i n c ap ita ls , p ar ish n a mes l ower c ase. The S .W . -N .E. w a tershed d iv ides t he ' Norths ide ' a nd Souths ide ' d istr icts, e ach w ith t hree s head ings , a dm in istered f rom C ast le Rushen a nd Peel Cast le r espect ively. Parish c hurches a re marked b y ac ross , t wo o f t hese b e ing s i tua ted o n t he i s let o f S t P atr ick , a t P eel : t ha to f S t Ger man s erved a s t he c athedra l o f t he I s les ( Sodorens is ). I ti s b el ieved t ha t t here w ere o r ig ina l ly s ix teen p ar ishes, Marown a nd S an ta .n h av ing p robab ly b een s epara ted b efore 1 291.

P la te 1 8.I

Cast le Rushen :

t he t wel f th-cen tury h eadquarters o f t he Manx

K ings o f t he I sles, a nd s ea t o f aS cot t ish a dm in istrat ion u nder A lexander I I a nd Robert I . ( Photograph b y c ourtesy o f t he Manx Museu m.)

t o t he p er ipa tet ic k ing o r p r ince.

They wou ld a lso c orrespond t o t he ' p r im it ive

s h ire ' c en tresil i np arts o f England a nd S cot land d iscussed b y P rofessor Barrow ( 1973 :7-68 ). I n r ecen t c en tur ies t he moar was a p ar ish o f f ic ia l , s o t ha t t here w ere t wo o r t hree i ne ach s head ing , 1 7 moars i n a l l ; n if ican tt hat t he e arl iest ( f if t een th c en tury ) s tatutes

b u t i ti s s ig-

r efer t o t he s ix moars,

o ne f or e ach s head ing , l ike t he maer o f ac ommote. The c oroner o f t he s head ing ( Manx , t osh iagh iorrey ; c f. S cots t oshachd era [ D ick inson 1 941] ), was o f s uper ior s tatus, a s t he f ine f or r es ist ing h im w as £ 3 c ompared w ith 6 s. 8 d. i n t he c ase o f t he p ar ish moar. I th as b een s uggested t ha tt he e arly ' moar o f t he s head ing ' , a s d ist inct f rom t he p ar ish moar , was i nf act t he c oroner ( Cra ine 1 955 :57 ).

The c oroner 's o vera l l r es-

p ons ib il ity w ith in t he s head ing f or ma in tenance o f t he c oasta l wa tch a nd w ard s uggests t ha t h is p recursor may o nce h ave h ad w ider p owers t han t hose s uggest ed b y t he f eudal t i t le.

Was t here s ome c onnect ion w ith t he t hree c oroners

w ho a dm in istered t he t hree ' wards ' o f I slay , e ach ward ( i t s ee ms ) o nce c omp r ising t wo med iaeva l p ar ishes ( La mon t 1 966: iv , 3 , 7 6 ) ? Th is t er m , d er ived f rom Ang lo-Saxon w eard , o r ig ina l ly s ign if ied a d efence-d istr ict , wh ich was d oubt less a lso a n e arly a spect o f t he s head ing. The n a t ive t er m i nI slay s ee ms t o h ave b een t he Gael ic r ann , ' d iv ision ' ( Watson 1 926 :496 ), w h ich i s a lso t he mean ing o f s head ing a ccord ing t o t he Ox ford D ict ionnry. O ther d iv is ions o f w ha t h ad b een S cot t ish Da lr iada w ere a dm in istered b y of f ic ia ls l at terly c a l led c oroners ( a s Dr Banner man h as r em inded me ) a nd , i ft here i s ar ea l c onnect ion w ith t he Manx o f f ic ia l o f t he s a me n a me, t h is wou ld s treng then t he b el ief t hat t he s head ings may u l t i ma tely b e t raced t o t he i nd igenous k ingdoms o f t he Dark Age. Even t he Tynwa ld a ssemb ly n eed n ot b e r egarded a s e xc lus ively o f S cand inav ian o r ig in. The n a me r efers t o t he u n t il led f ield o r p la in o n wh ich t he m idsu mmer a ssembly g a thered , a nd i ndeed s t il l d oes s o ;

b ut t here i s , a f ter

a l l , p erhaps l i tt le e lse n ecessar ily ' Norse ' a bou t t he a sse mb ly i t se l f , a nd t he p lace-name migh tb e at ranslat ion o f a ne arl ier n a t ive o ne. I n r ecen t t imes o ld p eop le s imp ly r eferred t o t he o ccas ion a s ' t he Fa ir ' ( c f. I r ish d enach , w h ich a lso h ad b o th mean ings ), a nd t he p lace i t self a s S t J ohns , af ter t he c hapel i n w h ich t he c ourt meet s b efore a nd af ter t he o pen-a ir p roceed ings . The c ore o f t he o r ig ina l c ere mony s eems t o h ave c oncerned t he a cknow ledge men t o f t he k ing b y h is ' barons a nd a l l o ther ' , a nd t he t ak ing o f o a ths u pon t he ' Three R e l ics o f Man '.

I t was a t ' The H i l l ' ( Manx Cronk K ee i l l Eo in ) t hat t he r ecogn i-

t i on o f t he h e ir-apparen tt ook p lace ( Megaw 1 950 :116 , 1 69 n ) ; a lso t he i naugurat ion o f t he n ew k in g .

a nd d oubt less

The i nsta l lat ion o f t he k ing 's d epu ty

( now l i eu tenan t-governor ) , i s s t il l marked b y t he p resen tat ion o f t he s taf f o f g overnmen t , f or merly a ' l ong wh ite r od ' , b y o ne o f t he t wo d ee msters ( Manx b r iw ; Gae l. b re ithea mh , ' j udge ' ) , t hough n owadays p erfor med a t Cast le Rushen ( Megaw , E . M. 1 945-6 );

a nd t h is p robab ly d er ives f rom t he med iaeva l

i naugura t ion c ere mony , h av ing I r ish a nd H ebr idean p ara l lels ( 0 Corri l in 1 972:35-7;

D il lon 1 973 ).

Even t he p av il ion e rected o n t he H il l , d ocumen ted

f rom t he s even teen th c en tury , c ou ld p erhaps b e s een a s t he l ast r epresen ta tt i ve o f t he t ype o ft e mporary r itua l h ouse, woven o f wh ite p ee led r ods , where t he I r ish k ings u sed t o r ece ive t he a cknow ledgemen t o f t he ir v assa ls. Aga in l ike t he I r ish i naugura t ion- mounds a nd p laces o f a nnua l a sse mb ly , t he Manx ' T ingva l la ' i s l ocated a t ap reh istor ic b ur ia l-p lace , a nd i ts ee ms q u ite p oss ible

2 87

t ha t t he a rt i f ic ia l mound o f t he H i l l i t se l f may b e o lder t han t he A ge o f t he V ik ings. I l lum inat ing r eferences t o t he c oncept o f t he r oya l h e ir f or ma l ly s eated u pon h is f orebear 's g rave- mound i n o rder t o e stab l ish h is c la im t o h is r igh tfu l i nher i tance c an b e f ound i n N orse l i terary s ources ( c f. E l l is 1 943 :105-11) , a nd t hese d oub tl ess h ave ab ear ing o n e ar ly i nsu lar c ustom : y et , w ithou tp ro long ing t he d isc uss ion , Is ugges t t ha t t hey a re p erhaps more l i ke ly t o h ave a c ommon o r ig in i n r e mo ter p ract ices r a ther t han t he r esu l t o f d irec t c u l tura l b orrow ing. V I .

CONCLUS ION

D esp ite t he i n it ia l a ppearance o f a mono l i th ic N orse s tate p ers ist ing b e tween B r ita in a nd I re land t hroughou t f our c en tur ies, t he r ea l s it uat ion w as c lear ly d i f feren t. The s et t lers h ad b ecome Chr is t ian w ith in a c en tury , a t most , o f t he ir a rr iva l : t h is a lone r evea ls t he efect ive i n f luence o f t he n at ive c u l ture o nt he i ncomers. F rom t he o u tset , c . 9 30 , l ong b efore t he e leven th-cen tury Dub l in k ings s ecured t e mporary c on t ro l , p eop le w ith C e lt ic n ames f igure p rom inen t ly i nt he e arl iest r un ic i nscr ip t ions. These i n P ro fessor S hetel ig 's v iew r epresen t , n o t t he k ings a nd t he ir c irc le , b u t t he f reeho ld f ar mers o ft he d ay : o ne o ft he e arl iest , f or i nstance , c arved b y Gau t h i mse l f , i s o n a monu men t e rected b y a Md e lbr ig te , s on o f Aedha an t he sm ith . However t he N orse s et t le men t o f Man h ad c ome a bou t i n t he f i rst p lace ( and t he s aga-wr iters, N orse o r I r ish , t e l l u s n o th ing r el iab le a bou t t h is ), t here i s n o h istor ica l e v idence t ha t t he r u lers o f N orway e ver a t te mp ted t o c on tro l , o r t ax— let a lone v is it—Man u n t i l t he V ik ing Age w as p ast ( Shete l ig 1 940 :1. 2 4-5 ; J ohnsen 1 969 ). Even a f ter t he i n trus ion o f k ing Magnus Bareleg a nd h is d ea th i nI reland f i ve y ears l a ter i n 103 , t he S udrey s— thereaf ter n om ina l ly u nder N orweg ian s uzera in ty—were g enera l ly l e f t t o f end f or t he mselves u n t i l t he t h irt een th c en tury . The f euda l r ender o f 1 0 g o ld marks p a id b yt he Manx k ing t o an ew k ing o f N orway d ur ing t he l ast c en tury o ft he r eg i me may i n i t ia l ly h ave b een a n a rrange men t a c t ive ly s ough tb y t he f ormer t o e nsure p ro tect ion f rom more i m med iate t hrea ts. S t i l l i n the t h ir teen th c en tury t he i sland 's t axes w ere d ue o n ly t o t he k ing o f Man ( Johnsen 1 969 :20-2 ). A t rue e st i ma te o f c ond it ions i n Man , Is ugges t , h as t o b a lance s ubstan t ia l e v idence o f ap owerfu l a nd p ers isten t S cand inav ian e le men t i n t he r u l ing c irc le a nd t he c h ie f l and-owners a ga inst ab ackground o f n at ive c on t inu i ty , p resumab ly w i th w idespread b il ingua l a b i l ity i n much o ft he p opu lat ion . On c ond i t ion s i n t he n in th c en tury t he a bsence o f N orse w omen 's g raves amongst t hose o f t he s et t lers a rgues f or c on t inu ity o n t he d ista f f s ide a t t he c rucia l s e t t le men t-s tage . L ack ing h istor ica l s ources f or Man a t t ha tp er iod 1 2 s uch e v idence a s w e h ave w ou ld a l low u s t o e nv isage t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t t he f i rst S cand inav ian s et t lers may h ave b een i nv i ted b y t he t hen r u lers o ft he i s land t o a ss ist t hem a s a l l ies o r mercenar ies, a nd t hat t hey s et t led v irtua l ly a s s o ld ier-co lon ists— much l i ke t he f i rst Eng l ish i n Br ita in . A c loser p ara l lel m igh t b e t he f i rs tA ng lo-Norman a dven turers i nI re land , whose l eader S trongbow o b ta ined t he k ingdom o f L e inster i l lega l ly b y marry ing h is a l ly 's d augh ter. S ometh ing v ery l i ke t h is , t hough o n a sma l ler s ca le , may w el l h ave o ccurred i n Man t hree c en tur ies e ar l ier. P erhaps t he s et t le men t i n Argy l l o f S omer led 's p art ly-Norse a ncest or f rom U lster , God frey s on o f F ergus ( S el lar 1 966 ) , a t t he b ehest o f t he k ing o f S co ts i n t he n in th c en tury , m igh t a lso b e s een i n t h is k ind o f c on tex t :

2 88

t ha t

A rgy l l s et t lemen t h as t he a dded i n terest f or o ur p resen t p urpose o f b e ing a more o r l ess c onte mporary move men t , a nd a lso l ong l ast ing i n i t s e f fects. Wh i le t he i n it ia l s et t lers may h ave b een a c omparat ively sma l l g roup , t he n umber a nd w ide d istr ibu t ion o f N orse p lace-names s uggests t hat f urther a dven turers—perhaps s uccess ive g roups o f v ar ied o r ig ins —fo l lowed t he m , a s h appened i nt he Ang lo-Nor man s et t le men t i n t wel fth-cen tury I re land. Certa in ly t h is k ind o f e xp lanat ion w ou ld s ee m c ons isten t w ith t he c ons idera b le amoun to f l ater e v idence f or t he i mage o f t he k ing o f t he I sles a s l eader , o r p rov ider , o f war f l eets —e.g. t o Dub l in i n 1 091, c . 1 155 , a nd 1 171; t o Ang lesey i n 1 094 a nd 1 193;

t o U lster i n 1 154 a nd 1 205;

o nb eha l f o ft he k ing o f S cots.

t o Ca ithness i n 1 199 ,

Thereaf ter K ing J ohn a nd Henry I I e ngaged

s uccess ive k ings o f Man t o ' guard t he c oasts ' t owards Eng land a nd I re land r espect ive ly , a nd i n o ne c ase t he s ize o f t he f l eet n ormal ly t o b e p rov ided i s g iven a s f i f ty g a l leys. ( Earl ier t he Argy l l f l eet , ap oten t ia l r iva l , h ad a pp aren t ly b een l im ited b y Godred Crovan , a ccord ing t o t he Manx c hron ic le — t hough u nder S o mer led i te ven tua l ly g ot t he b et ter o f h is g randson .) S uch n ava l mercenar ies w ere t he f orerunners, c learly , o f t he West H igh land ' ga l log la ich ' b ands , u sua l ly t hough t t o h ave o r ig inated o n ly i n t he t h irteen th c en tury ( MacNei l l 1 919;

McKerra l 1 951), b u t s urely a c onstan t e le men t i n S udreyan

l i fe f rom t he e arly V ik ing p er iod—and p erhaps e ven e arl ier. T hat t hey m igh t s omet i mes b e r ecompensed i nl ands , b es ides p ortab le weal th , may w el l h ave b een a s t rue o f t he n in th c en tury i n Man a s o ft he f ourteen th i n I re land. I ndeed t he J urby e v idence ( Fig. 1 8.3 ) m igh t r epresen t ap lan ta t ion o f Norse s et t lers t here t o p rov ide f or c oasta l d efence a t as tra teg ica l ly s ens i t ive p o in t. As P ro fessor 6 C tuiv ( 1975 ) h as r ecen t ly s uggested , i ts ee ms a s i ft he I r ish —and h e migh t h ave a dded , t he Welsh a lso—genera l ly e xpected f ore igners s et t led i nt he ir l and , b e t hey ' Gau ls ' , Norse men , o r ( s t il l l ater ) NormanE ng l ish , t o a dopt t he r o le o f mercenar ies, h ired t roops, s o t ha t ' Gal l ' c ame e ar ly t o a cqu ire t h is s econdary mean ing. Hence , p erhaps , t he u nch ivalrous r epu tat ion o f t he t welf th-cen tury Gael ic-speak ing Ga l loweg ians ( MacQueen 1 973:27 ) w hose n ame , Ga l lghAdh il , p erhaps imp l ies t he ir e ar l ier l eaders ' o ccupat ion a nd t ra in ing i nt he manner o ft he h ired warr iors r ather t han s ubst an t ia l N orse d escen t—of w h ich ( un l ike t he Manx ) t he ir p lace- a nd p ersona ln ames s how s can t t race. I nt h is r espec t t he c on trast w ith t he Gal loweg ians ' c lose n e ighbours , t he k ings o f Man , i s i ndeed s o s tr ik ing t hat i tc ou ld h ave j ust if ied a n a l l-ou t c la im b y t he l at ter t o t he q ua l it ies a nd l ineage o ft he o ld warr ior s ea-k ings o f t he Nor th. Th is i s p rec isely t he image a ccorded t o Reg ina ld o f Man , b oth i n t he I r ish b ard ic p oe m a nd t he Orkney inga S aga ; a nd i ti s e qua l ly r ef lected i n W i l l ia m o f Mal mesbury 's r eference t o Maccus, a t en th-cen tury k ing o f t he I s les, a s a rch ip ira ta , l i tera l ly ' ch ief s ea-warr ior '. Th is , t oo , w as t he i mage p romo ted i n v isua l f orm b y t he t we l f th- a nd t h irteen th-cen tury s ea ls o ft he k ings o f t he I s les t he mse lves : o n o ne s ide t he l i on o f v alour o r a moun ted w arr ior , o nt he o ther ( Fig. 1 8.5 ) as a il ing warsh ip f u l l o f a r med men ( Megaw 1 959-60 ). The w arsh ip , w h ich i s n ot h ere d isp layed a s a n h erald ic c harge o n as h ield , w as e v iden t ly t he emble m o f t he k ings o f t he I s les:

h era ld ica l ly t he Manx k ings b ore , a t l east f rom t he t h irteen th c en tury ,

t he f a mous ' t hree l egs ' c lad i n c ha in ma il o n ar ed f i e ld , a nd t ha t p oss ibly

2 89

d er ived f rom a n o ld n at ive emb le m o f t he i s land s ince i n Manx t rad it ion t he d ev ice i s s upposed t o h ave a ssoc ia t ions w ith t he e ponymous d e i ty Manannän mac L f r—to w hom i n t he s even teen th c en tury t he med iaeva l s word o f s tate ( wh ich d isp lays t he ' l egs ' i nf our p laces ) w as a lso a t t r ibu ted.

( The e ar l iest o ccur-

r ence o f t he w arsh ip , a par t f rom a s ketch a t Maugho ld , i s o n t he b roken e leven th-century c ross-s lab a t I ona , c arved i n a Manx s ty le f rom a s lab o f Manx s la te —con te mporary , o r n early s o , w ith Godred C rovan w ho , d y ing i n I s lay , w as d oub t less b ur ied i nt he c hurchyard o nI ona. ) F ina l ly , t he t enor o f t h is r eassess men t s eems t o s u it t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or o rd inary l i fe r ecen t ly o bta ined f rom e xcava t ions e ven i nt he N orthern I s les. There s urv iv ing p lace-names a re a l most e n t ire ly N orse— y et a t Buckquoy t here w ere s igns t ha t ' t here w as a g rea ter d egree o f o ver lap t han h i therto s uspected b e tween t he l oca l i nhab itan ts a nd t he e ar ly N orse s et t lers w h ich p o in ts t o c ons iderab le i n tegra t ion , a ided b yb as ic s im i lar i t ies b etween t he t wo p eop les ' ( R i tch ie 1 974 :34 ). More l i gh t o n t he w ider f i e ld w i l l i n d ue c ourse b e s hed a s ar esul t o f e xcava t ions s uch a s t hose o f Mr C raw ford a t U da l i n N orth U ist , a nd o f c omp ara t ive s tudy o n l i nes o f wh ich Ih ave a t te mp ted h ard ly more t han a s ke tch . Meanwh i le i tc an b e s een a lready—for e xamp le , f rom P ro fessor D uncan 's s p lend id s urvey ( 1975 ) —that i deas a bou t t he n ature o f Dark Age a nd e arly med iaeva l c om mun it ies , e spec ia l ly i n S cot land w here d ocumen ta t ion i s o f ten s o i nadequate , h ave u sua l ly b een f ar t oo s i mp le. Even i nI reland t he w ea l th o f a pparen t ly r elevan tb u t o f ten , p erhaps , u nrepresen ta t ive ma ter ia l , b o th s ecu lar a nd r e l ig ious — to s ay n oth ing o f t he p ropaganda a nd f i ct iona l ma ter ia l o ft he t wel f th c en tury masquerad ing a s h istory ( c f . Hughes 1 972 :284-300 )— h as f ostered t he i mpress ion o f ah igh ly i mprobab le ' na t iona l ' h omogene ity . We h ave imag ined t ha t t he a rr iva l o f t he N orse s et t lers must h ave h ad a c a tac lys m ic e f fect o n t he smoo th p at tern o f Chr ist ian n at ive s oc iety w hereas , i f w e b u t k new , t hey may h ave s eemed ( t hough w e n eed n o t p ursue t h is p eren n ia l c on troversy ) h ard ly more t han j ust a no ther p laguey g roup much l i k e t he o ld u nru ly n e ighbours. The b arr ier b etween n a t ive g roups o fb ond a nd f ree, f or w h ich Manx e v idence i s e n t irely d efect ive , i s l i k ely t o h ave b een a tl east a s , i fn o t more , i mpor tan t . I n t he I s les , w here s et t led c om mun it ies h ad d eep r oots i np reh istory , Gae l ic w as s t i l l ac ompara t ive n ewcomer w hen t he N orse s et t lers a rr ived , t he t imein terva l b etween t he Da lr iadan a nd V ik ing s et t le men ts b e ing c o mparab le merely t o t ha t w h ich s epara tes u s f rom , s ay , t he P rotestan tp lan ta t ion o f U lster. I ti s q u ite p oss ib le t hat i np art s o f S kye a nd t he O u ter I s les , f or i ns tance , Gael ic s peakers h ad n o t f u l ly a ss im i lated Bry thon ic, P ic t ish , o r i ndeed ( conce ivab ly ) e ven s ome p re-Ce lt ic s peech-groups , when t h eV ik ings a rr ived. Even i n s o sma l l a n a rea a s Man w e h ave c onclus ive e v idence t ha t

•

n o f ewer t han f our l anguages —Br it ish , I r ish , E ng l ish , a nd t he c hurchman 's L a t in—were i nu se b e tween t he f i f th a nd t he e igh th c en tury . Be fore t he d ays o f o ther means o f c ommun ica t ion o ra l a b i l ity w as o f c ourse g en era l , a nd a n ew l anguage , h owever d i f feren t f rom o ne 's own ( c f . J ackson 1 962:5-6 ) , w as—when n ecessary—s i mp ly c oped w ith . N o d oubt t h is w as h appen ing a l l t he t ime , a nd a t v ar ious l evels , n ot merely i n t he more c osmopo l itan w orld o f r oya l c our t a nd c hurch.

I n t hese c ircums tances s uch p a tchy e v idence a s w e p ossess

c annot b e u nderstood ( i f a t a l l ) i n i so lated c ompar tmen ts , o r i n r ig id ly l ingu ist ic 2 90

F ig. 1 8.5

S ea l o f Hara ld , k ing o f Man a nd t he I sles, 1 246. A f ter a f acs im ile d rawn a bou t 1 641 f or S ir Chr istopher et ton 's [ MS ] Book o f S ea ls.

The o r ig ina l was d estroyed i n t he

Co t ton ian L ibrary f i re o f 1 731. F rom t he t wel f th c en tury t he Manx k ings a nd t he ir r iva l c ous ins, t he Argy l l k ings o f I nns iga l l , b o th d isp layed o n t he ir s ea ls a s a il ing warsh ip ! f u l l o f a r med men '.

The i nscr ip t ion s urround ing t he emble m o n

t h is Manx s ea l i s n ot r ecorded b u t was p robab ly : S ig i l lum Hara ld i r eg is Mann iae e tI nsu larum ; p r ior t o t he t h irteen th c en tury t he ir s ty le w as s i mp ly r ex I nsu larum. ( By c ourtesy o f Northamptonsh ire Record O ff ice.)

2 91

o r r ac ia l t erms.

S uch a n a nachron ist ic a nd u nrea l a pproach w ou ld o bscure t he

e ssen t ia l n a ture a nd u nderly ing r ese mb lances t hat d oubt less c haracter ised o ur p o lyglo t i nsu lar c om mun it ies a s t hey emerged t ogether f ro m wha t s ee m t o u s t he m ists o f t he Hero ic Age a nd t he o ld I ndo-European world. I fi nt he l at ter a nd more s pecu lat ive p art o f t h is p aper Ih ave s tressed t he l ike l ihood o f s ubstan t ia l c u ltura l c on t inu ity b e tween t he Manx p opu lat ion o f t he e igh th c ent ury a nd t he ir s uccessors o f t he t h ir teen th , Ih ope t ha t t he i dea o f a t ota lb reak n ow s ee ms l ess c erta in t han i td id .

A t t he l east , Manx Gael ic must

b e c ons iderably o lder t han Mrs Gel l ing h ad t hough t.

The q uest ions r a ised

a re much w ider t han t he g eograph ica l l im its m igh t s uggest , a nd t he d iscuss ion n eeds t o b e k ept o pen a nd f ed b y f urther r esearch i n o ther a reas—and i n more t han p lace-names — if o n ly b ecause t he e arl ier p art o f t h is v ery l ong p eriod w hen , c learly , N orse man a nd n a t ive b oth w ere c hanged , s t il l r e ma ins h istor ical ly s o d ark . I n af urther p aper Mrs G el l ing , wh i le a ccept ing p art o f my a rgu men t , w il l i nd ica te a no ther way o f i n terpret ing t he r est o f t he e v idence, ma in ta in ing h er b el ief i na n e n t ire ly N orse-speak ing p opu lat ion , w hose r u lers b ecame b il ingua l i n c onsequence o f c onnec t ions o u ts ide t he i sland c om mun ity. myse l f , many y ears a go , s trong ly u rged a c omparab le v iew ,

Ic on fess t ha tI 1 3

b efore t he =-

h istor ic c harac ter o f most o f t he l a te l i terary s ources was s o f ul ly r eal ised . Even n ow , i n t he a bsence o f d ec is ive c on te mporary e v idence f or t he n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies , o ne must a l low t ha t i tr e ma ins a p ossib le , o r a t l east a p ar t ia l , e xp lana t ion o f o ur n ew p aradox . For , i fw e h ave l earn t n oth ing e lse f rom t h is i nvest iga t ion , w e n ow s ee t hat e ven o ur ' S cand inav ian ' k ings were c haracter ist i ca l ly Gae l ic s peakers. AC KNOW LEDGE ME NTS To t he s taffs o f t he Br it ish L ibrary , Publ ic Record O f f ice, N a t iona l L ibrary o f S cot land , Ed inburgh Un ivers ity L ibrary , a nd t he Manx Museum L ibrary , Io f fer my t hanks f or t he ir c ourtesy a nd p er m iss ion t o s tudy t he manuscr ip t s ources l i sted b elow . Iam g ra tefu l t o Mons ignor Dav id McRoberts, S TL , FSA, o f t he S co t t ish Ca tho l ic Arch ives, w ho made a va i lab le t o me i n t he N at iona l L ibrary o f S co t land t he manuscr ip t o f F ordun 's S cot ichron icon i n h is c harge. Iam a lso much i ndebted t o D r N e il K er, FBA, f or h is g reat k indness i n s cru t in is ing t he o r ig ina l manuscr ip t o f t he Manx Chron icle i n t he B r it ish L ibrary b efore g iv ing me h is a dv ice o n t he d ate a nd r ead ings o f t he Abbey land Bounds , a nd t o Mr Myrdd in L loyd , l a tely K eeper o f Pr in ted Books i n t he N a t iona l L ibrary o f S cot land , f or h is h elp a nd a dv ice c oncern ing t he p assage q uo ted f rom 0 o es Gwrthyryn . The l a te Mr K enneth Povey , L ibrar ian o f L iverpoo l U n ivers ity , k ind ly h elped me i n t he p re l im inary s tages o f my s tudy o f t he b u l l o f G regory I X t ob ishop S i mon , 1 231.

P ro fessor K enneth J ackson ,

FBA, g enerously h elped me w ith s evera l p roblems , a nd s aved me f rom a n umber o f e rrors, t hough h e i s n o t ( o f c ourse ) r espons ible f or t hose t hat r ema in . F ina l ly Io f fer my w ar m t hanks t o D r Margaret Gel l ing f or t he s t i mu lus p rov ided b y h er a dm irab le a rt icles o n t he med iaeva l p lace-na mes o ft he I s le

2 92

o f Man , w ith o n ly o ne —though a c ruc ia l—part o f wh ich Ih ave c ome t o d isagree. Ih ave b enef ited f rom h er i n it ia l c o mmen ts o n ad raf t o f t h is a rt icle , a nd l ook f orward t o h er r ev iew o f t he d ebate b etween u s. N ote o n t he Rev is ion My c o l league Mr E r ic C regeen h as most k ind ly h elped me t o r ev ise t he t ex t f or t h is r epr in t , a nd h as a l lowed me t o i nc lude u npub l ished i n for mat ion c oncern ing T iree.

Ih ave a lso b enef ited f rom t he v ery h elpfu l c o mmen ts o f

D r G i l l ian Fel lows J ensen ( Copenhagen ). For more t han t h irty y ears my l ate w ife a nd Ih ave s hared o ur e n thus ias m f or t he s ub ject o f t h is p aper , a nd t o h er e ncourage men t a nd s upport i t owes a l l i th as o f v a lue.

— B . M.

APPEND IX A THE BULL OF 3 0 JULY 1 231 TO S I MON , B ISHOP OF MAN AND THE I SLES ( A. W. Moore 1 890 ;

R . L ane Poo le 1 911)

Though t w ice p ubl ished s ince i t s d iscovery i n 1 888 i nt he l i brary o f t he Manx b ishop , a nd t he t ex t s cru t in ised b y many l ead ing S cot t ish h istor ians — n ot e xc lud ing t he c r it ica l L awr ie — it i s s t range t ha t , Mrs Ge l l ing a part , n o o ne h as a sked i ft h is i s af orgery .

N o l ess r e markab le, d esp ite a l l t he e ffor t

d evo ted t o i den t ify ing t he v ar ious Western I sles l i sted i nt he b u l l ( i t i s ap art lyd a maged p aper c opy o f c . 1 600 ) , t he c lear s igns o f ac onnect ion w ith Fordun 's l i st o f t he I s les ( 2 . 1 380 ) s ee m t o h ave b een e n t irely o verlooked. I n v iew o f t he c urren t i n terest i n Fordun 's s ources, i ff or n o o ther r eason , t h is merits i nvest iga t ion. S kene was s urpr ised t hat , h av ing s o l i t t le t o s ay a bou t t he ma in land d ist r icts o f S co t land , Fordun s hou ld b e a ble t o g ive ' ad eta iled a ccoun t o f t he i s lands w ith t he ir e ccles ias t ica l f oundat ions

( more e spec ia l ly p erhaps o f t he

Argy l l a nd C lyde I s les ), a nd s uggested t ha t h e h ad t ravel led t here i n s earch o f ma teria l ( Skene 1 871-2 :2. 3 86-8 ). Wh i le t h is i s p oss ible , i ts ee ms a t l east a s l ike ly t hat h is l i st o f i s lands i s b ased o n mater ia l s uch a s m igh t b e s en t h im f rom I ona , i n a nswer t o ar equest f or h istor ica l i nfor ma t ion . That t he s horter l i st i nt he Manx b u l l w as s ubsequen t ly a bstracted f rom a c opy o f Fordun 's c hron icle wou ld a ppear t o b e ar at iona l way t o a ccoun t f or t he r es e mblances b etween t hem; y et , s urpr ising ly , t here a re s ome i nd icat ions t hat t he b orrow ing may h ave b een i nt he r everse d irect ion .

Fordun , o r

p erhaps a nI ona c orresponden t a ct ing o n h is b eha l f , may w el l h ave e x tended h is e nqu ir ies t o t he e xperienced Manxman , b ishop J ohn Duncan , r u ler a t l eas t u n t i l 1 387 o f t he d iocese t ha t s t il l embraced a l l t he Western I sles o ther t han I ona a nd L is more. o f r evenues i n I re land.)

( He h ad p rev iously b een p apa l n unc io a nd c o l lector Even af ter b e ing s uperseded i n t he S cot t ish I sles b y

t he n om inee o f t he r iva l p ope, Duncan 's Hebr idean l inks c on t inued , a s n egot i ator w ith t he L ords o ft he I s les o nb eha l f o f t he Eng l ish c rown b etween 1 388 a nd 1 405 ( f or n o tes o nh is c areer s ee Cradock 1 930 ; Wat t 1 969 :202 ). Desp ite t he p robab le l oss o f r ecords d ur ing t he r ecen t w ars , t he Manx b ishop wou ld c erta in ly h ave b een a b le t o s upp ly a l i st o f t he i s lands f ro m wh ich h e c la i med r evenue ( t hose w ith p aroch ia l c hurches ), a nd t he l i st i n t he ' bu l l o f

2 93

1 231' m igh t c orrespond w ith f ew v ar ia t ions t o s uch a l i st c on tr ibu ted b y h im t o Fordun 's S cot iehron icon .

Both l i sts a re e qua l ly ' d iocesan ' i n f or m —that i s ,

t hey b eg in w ith Man a nd t he c athedra l , a nd p roceed n orthwards b y way o f t he C lyde a nd Argy l l i s lands, e nd ing w ith S kye a nd t he Ou ter I sles. Wh i le Fordun 's l i st h as s ome t h ir ty n ames , w ith o thers n ot i nt he I sles d iocese ( and a lso s ome d escr ipt ive d eta i l ), c ompared t o t wen ty n a mes i n t he Manx o ne , what e stabl ishes t he c onnect ion b etween t he l i sts i s t he a n t iquar ian o pen ing p hrase , ' t he i s land c a l led Eubon ia , n ow Man ' , c o m mon t o b o th o f t he m. Th is e ar ly l i terary g hostn a me h ad r ecen t ly g a ined r enewed c urrency t hrough t he w idely-ava ilable Po lychron ica o f Ranu lf H igden , t he Chester monk ( d. 1 363 ). F rom t h is s ource t he ' r ed iscovery ' o ft he a nc ien t n ame f or Man w ou ld s oon b ecome k nown t o t he b ishop , t he more r ead ily b ecause Chester w as a p r inc ipal p ort f or t he i sland . Fordun c erta in ly u sed H igden , b u t t h is morsel wou ld h ard ly h ave t he s a me a ppeal f or h im a s f or a Manxman . There a re i ndeed o ther s pec if ic h in ts t hat t he s hort Manx l i st may h ave p rov ided t he i n it ia l mode l f or Fordun 's l i st o f i slands —though we must a lways r eme mber i n mak ing o ur c o mpar isons ( Tab le 1 8.3 ) t hat i n n e ither c ase d o w e h ave t he o r ig ina l t ex t .

I n n one o ft he manuscr ipt v ers ions o f Fordun t ha t Ih ave s een14

d oes E igg a ppear, t hough i ti s v ery p roper ly i ncluded i n t he Manx l i st .

I np lace

o f Fordun 's He lan t L eneow t he Manx l i st h as t he f i rst p ar t o f t h is n a me i n t he s uper ior f or m E la th ( probab ly f or o r ig ina l * Elach ), c orrespond ing t o Monro 's E l lach N anaobh ( Munro 1 961:51).

That t he Manx l i st i s n ot b ased o n Fordun i s

a lso s uggested b y i t s f or ms f or J ura a nd T iree , w h ich c ou ld h ard ly b e c op ied f rom t hose o f Fordun .

There i s s upport ing e v idence t hat Manx f or ms i n Dur -

h ad a lready b egun t o c hange t o J ur- i nt he c ourse o f t he f ourteen th c en tury , a nd t he Manx f or m I urye i s p robab ly i ndependen t o f " Fordun 's Dura . l ess l ikely t hat Fordun 's Tyree c ou ld h ave b een c op ied a s Chorhye ;

I ti s e ven b u t i n it ia l

Ch- f or T - w as a c o mmon Manx p ronunc iat ion -spel l ing a nd , i ft he word i s r eg arded e i ther a s a s i mp le m isread ing o f * Cherhye , o r a metathet ic s huf f le f or * Chyrhee , t h is c ou ld a lso b e a ccep ted a s a n i ndependen t Manx r ender ing o f t he n a me s ubsequen t ly c orrected f or t he S cot iehron icon ( whether b y Fordun h i mse l f o r a Hebr idean h e lper ) t o t he more u sua l S co ts f or m. O ther c o mpari sons, t hough l ess c onv inc ing , may p o in t t o t he s ame c onclus ion . Whereas t he Fordun l i st o f t he S cott ish i s les b eg ins w ith Arran , t he most s outherly a nd o ne o ft he l argest , t he Manx o ne s tarts w ith Bu te , wh ich w as p o l it ical ly a nd e cc les iast ica l ly t he c h ie f o ft hose i n t he F ir th o fC lyde. Fordun 's Gya , a n o dd f or m f or t he f ourteen th c en tury , c ou ld s uggest a n imperfect c orrect ion o f t he d efec t ive Manx * (G leya ;

Co le , t he Manx l i st 's f or m f or Co l l , i s f or t he

p er iod more r egu lar t han Fordun 's Coel , wh ich c ou ld d er ive f rom i t by metat hes is.

( Fur ther p o in ts a re d iscussed i n Tab le 1 8.3 ).

One i s t here fore i ncl ined t o b el ieve t ha t F ordun 's i n it ia l s ource was a Manx l i st o f t he S co t t ish i s les i n t he S odor d iocese, e ither i n av ers ion o f t he ' b u l l o f 1 231' ( i f i tw as t hen a va i lable ) o r s ome c orrespond ing ' d iocesan ' l i st , i n e ither c ase e n larged b y s o meone w ith more p art icu lar k now ledge e spec ia l ly o f t he Argy l l a nd C lyde i s les. I n terna l e v idence s hows t hat t he b u l l c an h ard ly d a te f ro m t he p er iod o f b ishop S i mon ( 2..1 226-48 ) , h owever , a s t wo o f t he p ropert ies i tp urports t o c on f ir m t o t he b ishop w ere n o t g ran ted u n t il a f ter h is d eath. 15 r ed t o i n t he b u l l a s ' t he p lace i t se l f , c a l led Ho lme

2 94

One i s r efer-

S odor o r P i le

where t he

s a id c a thedra l c hurch i s s ituat ed ' , w ith i t s l i ber t ies, a ppurtenances , e tc. I n t he t h irteen th c en tury o ne w ou ld e xpect t he f u l l n a me Ho lmpa tr ick a nd , a s Mrs G e l l ing h as p o in ted o ut , t he o ccurrence o f t he n ame P ee l ( P i le ) a lso s uggests ad ate n o te arl ier t han c . 1 300. K ing Magnus's g ran t t o S i mon 's s uccessor , b etween 1 252 a nd 1 265 , n ames t he p lace s i mp ly a s ' t he i s land o f S t P atr ick e n t ire w i th i t s a ppurtenances ' , e tc. Another p roperty o stens ib ly c on f ir med b y t he b u l l i n 1 231, d escr ibed a s t he l ands o f ' Ra msey ' , i s p robably i den t ica l w ith t he v i i i o f ' kyrcrest i ux ta Ra msay ' ( ev iden t ly t he l and k nown a s t he L ezayre ' p art icles ' ) , wh ich w as a lso n o tg ran ted u n t i l a f ter 1 252. Moreover , t wo p ar ish c hurches a re w rong ly d escr ibed i n t he b u l l a s ( t he l ands o f ) ' S t Maugho ld a nd S t. M ichael a d jo in ing ' , w hereas t hese a re o n o ppos ite s ides o f t he i sland . T hey were n a med b yb ishop Mark i n 1 299 merely a s ' t he c hurches o f S S M ichael a nd Micha ld [ read *Macha ld ] i n Man ' , wh ich h e h ad g ran ted t o Furness a bbey : p erhaps i nt he s ource f rom w h ich t he b u l l 's p hrase d er ived a p lace-na me h ad f o l lowed t he word a d iacen te , a s t he e arl ier c hurch o f K irk M ichael e v iden t ly a d jo ined t he b ishop 's mans ion a t Ba l lachurry .

The mistake a lso a ppears i n

ac onf ir ma t ion o f t he b ishop 's r igh ts d ated 1 505 , t o wh ich Mrs Gel l ing h as r igh t ly d rawn a t ten t ion o n a ccoun t o f t he s usp ic ious r esemblance o f t he s pel l ing o ft he p lace-na mes t o t hose i nt he ' bu l l o f 1 231'.

Those s ingu larly c lose

r ese mb lances migh t s uggest t hat b o th t he c opy o f t he b u l l ' o f 1 231' a nd , i n p art , t he b ishop 's c on f ir ma t ion c harter o f 1 505 d er ive n ot f ro m t he o r ig ina l f abr icat ion b ut f rom a n i n ter med ia te c opy o f t he b u l l i n wh ich t he p lace-na me s pel l ings h ad a lready b een ' modern ised ' , p erhaps a bou t 1 500. Rather t han b e l ieve t hat t he 1 505 c on f ir ma t ion w as o ne s ource f or t he b u l l , Is uggest t hat t he f abr ica t ion o ccurred d ur ing t he g enera t ion o r s o a f ter c . 1 360 ( H igden ) —a p er iod , i nc iden ta l ly , w hen t he Manx c hurch must h ave b een s trugg l ing d espera tely , f i rst t o r ep lace t he l osses ( no d oubt i nclud ing d iocesan r ecords ) c aused b y i ncessan t w arfare , a nd s econd , t o h o ld t ogether t he f arf l ung i slands o f t he d iocese t hen s pl it t ing p o l it ica l ly b etween t he c ompet ing s pheres o f England a nd S co t land.

Further more, t he c athedra l was i n r u ins,

a nd S t P a tr ick 's I sle o ccup ied a s af ortress b y t he g arr ison o f t he Engl ish l ord. The l ast c hap ter a dded t o t he c hron ic le a tt h is t ime, p oss ibly i n t he b ishop 's own h and 1 6 t est if ies t o t he ' v ery many o f fer ings ' made t o b ishop Duncan a t h is i nstal lat ion i n h is own c a thedra l i n 1 377 :

a nd , i fw e may n ot c harge h im ( or

h is o f f ic ia ls ) d irec t ly w ith f abr ica t ing t he b u l l o f 1 231, h e wou ld a t l east h ave h ad a p ress ing i ncen t ive.

S o h ad o ther b ishops , n o d oubt , b u t t he I s les w ere

n o l onger t he c oncern o fh is s uccessors :

a nd , moreover, Duncan 's e p iscopa te

c o inc ided w ith t he p ass ing r ev iva l o f i n terest i n ' Eubon ia '.

However t hat may

b e, i f Fordun d id s eek i n format ion f rom Man , a s w el l h e migh t , b ishop Duncan w ou ld c er ta in ly b e h is l ike l iest c orresponden t , a nd s ome s uch l i st o f t he I sles m ight r esu l t. Had Fordun merely l im ited h is e nqu ir ies t o I ona , h owever, t he a bbot w ou ld s t il l b e l ike ly t o h ave r ece ived f rom b ishop Duncan a c opy o f t he l i st—or t he ‚ bul l ' , i fi tt hen e x isted—as a s afeguard f or t he b ishop 's c la im u pon t he I sles.

2 95

APPENDIX B TREENS AND QUARTERLANDS, AND THE AGE OF THE KEEILLS I. The earliest comprehensive lists (none of which are complete for the whole island in a qing e year) show that by about the year 1500 the farmland of the Isle of Man comprised sorne 73 O quart.erlands, corresponding to holdings which in their modern, improved state vary widely but are commonly between 50 and 180 acres, the majority being around 90 acres (Davi.es 1956 :109), exclusive of the former common grazings. Although 'intacks', i.e. rent.ed enclosures of common land (refrrred to rechnically as 'waste'), were authorised from the fifteenth century and doubtless earlier, their different status was carefully rnainra.ined, so that, in effect, the metliaeval tenure-pattern is well recorded, and has been accurately mapped by Dr Elwyn Davies (1956). There may once have been as many as about 220 treens: 179 treens of lord's-land are recorded �. 1500, comprising about 594 quart:erlands, and there were in addition about 147 quarterlands of monks' and bishop's la where no treen organisation had survived. However, as sorne earlier inta.ks may have come to be reckoned as quarterlands (and even occasionally perhaps as treens), the twelfth or thirteenth century total is unknown. and ahout 200 treens seems a safer estimate. As already mentioned, a series of names of lord's-land treens are found �- 1280 for lands bordering the abbey properties, while on rr onastic lands others no longer known evidently occur earlier-e.g. those designated Villa in Latinised form, including no doubt severa! lost names Usted in the Rushen Abbey confirmation grant, 1153. Thus, whatever the social and economic effects of war, famine and plague in the fourteenth century, the names of the land -uni.ts of the preceding era seem to have survived substa.ntially in the treen system under the Stanleys • The population has been estimated a t about 12,000 at the beginning of the sixteenth century (A. W. Moore 1900:1. 302). It is often assumed that the treen represents the 'original' holding, equi­ valent to the Saxon hide, and that it was subsequently sub-divided (normally, though by no meaos invariably) into four quarterlands. That is not my view, though the matter requires further consideration. Only the lord's-land treens are named in the early rent (or tax) lists, but these (I suggest) may in fact preserve the name of one of the constituent quarterlands in each case, much as the na.me of each sheading repeated that of a particular holding within its district. As the quarterland na.mes were not normally otherwise noted before the seventeenth century, such designations as thev may havf' borne would tend to be forgotten and replaced by the name of the family in occupation �.g_. Ballagawne, Ballaconley; or, on the abbey demesne, Christian's Ground, etc.). Hence the (mistaken ?) idea that quarterlands are recent. The valuable geographical description of the treens and quarterlands pub­ lished by Davies (1956; cf. also Flatres 1957 :passim; 213-7), is based on a comprehensive mid-nineteenth-century survey (Woods [1867]), itself ultimately founded as regards the holdings on the early rent-books (cf. Talbot 1924). My own interpretation of the possible origins and relationship of treens and quar­ terlands differs in sorne respects from Davies' provisional suggestions-which it was not his purpose to pursue. The two monographs by Marstrander (1932; 296

1937) are complementary, and in sorne respects conflict with each other, fol­ lowing Marwick's reactions to the first. Despite occasional signs of haste, these contain a wealth of information and perceptive ideas. Though in Nor- , wegian, generous E nglish summaries and many tables and maps are provided • A recent discovery (Crellin 1969) has confirmed the existence of earlier rent-books than those previously known, similarly arranged under treen­ names. In the 1490s the individual amounts of lord's rent differed (being usually somewhat lower) from those established about 1505-which (except for doubling after the 'Act of Settlement', 1703) continued virtually unchanged until abolished by Tynwald in 1913. Marstrander 's discussion of the rent-totals for the treens and parishes must therefore be scrutinised afresh. The name­ forms in the 1506 (Southside) book from the Earl of Derby's muniments, and in the incomplete '1490s' (Northside) book in the Mame registry, occasionally show significant variation from the published 'Manorial Roll 1511-15' (Talbot 1924), and reconsideration of sorne of the interpretations offered by Kneen and Marstrander is now desirable-not least because silent alterations have been noticed in Talbot 's posthumous edition As regards Scottish parallels, the late Dr Hugh Marwiclr and the late Andrew McKerral both assured me that in their opinion maps of 'urslands' and 'tirungs' could not be produced for any of the Northern and Western Isles to compare with those of Man. In a literal sense this is probably correct, but much scattered evidence does exist which should be worth mapping, though unexpected 'breaks' in the continuity of land-units may be encountered as seems to be the case inislay (Lamont 1957-8). Already during the period of Norwegian suzerainty in the Isles, pennylands apoear to have existed in Argyll as individually-named holdings, so these also would merit cartographic study if reliable evidence can be found. 2 For recent thinking on the age of the keeills the Mame Archaeological Survey (Kermode and Bruce 1968), especially J. R. Bruce's conclusions in the sixth report, should be consulted. A convenient, if tentative, list of dedica­ tions of the keeills and of the parish churches-which probably occupied sites of former keeílls-appears in Marstrander (1937 :335-7), followed by this conclusion: 'no keeill can be shown to ha ve been dedicated to any saint later than Adamnán who died three generations before the coming of the Norwegians'. Curiously Marstrander here omits Kirk Maloney, found in 1585 as the name of a keeill (since destroyed) on Ballelby (Patrick), apparently associated with a local family of 'MacLoney' and thought to commemorate Mael Domhnaigh, abbot of Tamhlacht, d. 937 (Marstrander 1934 :327). Here the prefix Kirkfor a chapel, instead of the normal Kil- (Keeill-), might also be consistent with an origin in or after the tenth century. A cross-slab from the site has been supposed to be pre-Viking, but its simplicity is notably sophisticated and, as with many Scottish and Irish monuments, might well suit a late sur­ vival of an early tradition. On the assumption that it would not be 'a normal keeill', Marstrander also disregarded the lost church of St Olaf (d. 1030) on the unidentified villula of Euastad (possibly in Maughold) named in a twelfth century charter. Sorne keeills overlie graves with different orientation, and are therefore not as old as the associated cemetery. In several other cases keeills are sited 297

on what look remarkably like pagan burial-mounds, not only the notable 'Cronk yn Howe', Lezayre (Bruce and Cubbon 1930). After study of Mr Bruce's careful field-notes, plans and sections, and discussion with the excavator, the late Professor Bersu was convinced that at this site a keeill, with timber­ lined and other graves, had here been superimposed on a Viking boat-grave, destroying in the process all but a few definite indications-chiefly groups of clencn-nails (Bersu:unpublished lecture). Surely another indication of the lateness of sorne keeills is the siting of several on farms bearing names in Eary-, and on sorne others similarly located on the upper margins of the old cultivated land between 500 and 750 feet O. D. Presumably s�veral of these permanent enclosures from the moor­ land followed earlier use as shielings and, as the keeills are unlikely to be much later than the twelfth century, these instances may be related to an expansion of farmland after the Norse settlement. C are should be exercised in regard to the supposed dating-evidence of carvings and other finds from the keeills. Marstrander naturally followed Kermode's pioneer reports m this, but the age of the cross-slabs and frag­ ments encountered is of�n quite uncertain, and usually doubtless later than Kermode thought. Kermode also reported finding fragments of 'urns ', but in at least two instances the fragments he preserved are certainly not pottery but lumps of burnt e lay, possibly from earlier wooden structures. One site (Ballahimmin, German) did produce a sherd, but i ts relation to tbe keeill is unknown; a prehistoric cremation-burial was, however, found in an inverted urn beneath the floor of the very odd keeill on Corrody farm (Lezayre), which stands within a small circular kerb or enclosure: despite it.s interest, how­ ever, this juxtaposition has no bearing on the age of the supposed keeill. Equally, where fragments of Viking Age carvings have been found reused as building-material in keeill wa.11s, these may well represent only later repair­ work. The altar-slabs recognised by Professor Thomas (1971), e.g. those from destroyed keeills on the Calf of Man and Ballavarkish (Bride), are pre­ sumably good evidence that sorne at lea.st of the chapels pre-date the convers­ ion of the Norse settlers. Clearly comparative research in other areas where similar chapels and cemeteries are found (e.g .Islay) should yield valuable results, particularly if supported by skilled excavation of carefully-selected si tes. NOTES 1.

In 1951 Professor Marstrander 's original notebooks cont.aining much other unpublished material were presented to the Manx Museum by the Norwegian government, and are now available for study there.

2.

This British dynasty is accepted generally or in part in most recent Irish studies �.g. Byrne 1968:398; MacNiocaill 1972:112); but only Profes­ sor MacQueen's interpretation seems to fit the various strands of evidence satisfactorily. On the supposed but unlikely connection with Rheged, and its location, cf. Hughes (1973 :191).

298

3 .

Ih ave g iven Sa l lacgn iba ' ( 2..1 220 ) t he b enef i t o f t he d oubt .

Mrs G el l ing 's

s tr ic tures o n t he f or ms i nt he t ranscr ipt a re l argely j ust if ied , b u t n ow t hat w e h ave o ther e v idence f or n a mes i n Ba le, Ba l i-, i n t he 1 3th c en tury t h is o ne s ee ms l ess improbab le , a l low ing f or mod if ica t ion o f s pe l l ing a t t he t ime o f t he c opy o f 1 504. [ Mrs G e l l ing n ow c o mmen ts t ha t my w il l ingn ess t o a ccep t ' Ba l lacgn ibe i s u nscho larly ;

b u t i n a ny c ase t he s a mp le

i s t oo sma l l t o b ase much u pon .] 4 .

Dr N e i l K er h ad f i rst o bserved t hat i ti s d if f icu lt t o d ate t he t extura o f t he a bbey land b ounds [ f os. 5 3 , 5 4 ]; h u t , h av ing s cru t in ised t he o r ig ina l , h e a greed t hat t h is i s ' p robab ly—I t h ink a l most c erta in ly—by t he s a me h and a s t he e n tr ies f or 1 263 t o 1 274 o n f o. 4 9 [ i .e. t he f irst c on t inuat ion o f t he ma in c hron ic le ], a nd t he s ix l ines Post s yn ione m...furnes o n f o. 5 1 [ i .e. e n tr ies f or c . 1 253-74 , t he f i rst c on t inuat ion o f t he l i st o fb ishops ]. And Iw ou ld a gree t hat t he w r i t ing b y t h is h and o n f os. 4 9v , 5 1, i s c on te mpo rary w ith t he 1 274 e n tr ies o r n ot much l a ter.

Bu t t he b ounds l ook a s i f

t hey m igh t h ave b een w r i t ten r a ther l ater t han t h is, a lthough b y t he s a me h and .

The a dd i t ion i nt he l ower marg in o f f o. 5 3v [ concern ing Ba l lag i l ley ,

e tc. ] i s af ter 1 300 '. 5 .

The s et t le men t-na me To f thar As mund i s ' l ost ' , b ut t he l ocat ion o f t he p roperty c an b e e stabl ished w ith c onf idence.

The b ounds i n for m u s t hat

i t marched w ith Rynkurlyn , n ow c al led Rencu l len o r Ba l l ig , af ar m o f l ord 's l and , t hat i s , n ot c hurch o r monks ' l and. As t he s trea m b etween t hem i s n a med a s t he d iv is ion b etween t he l and o f Rushen Abbey a nd t ha t o f t he k ing ( or l ord ), i ti s c lear t hat Tof thar As mund was a bbey land when t he d ocu men t w as c omp i led.

O f t he t wo , o r a t most t hree , f ar ms w ith t he

t opograph ica l q ua l if icat ion , o n ly Ba l le l l in i s k nown t o h ave b e longed t o monks o f a ny k ind b efore t he Refor mat ion—those o f S t Bees p r iory (Woods [ 1867 ] : Maugho ld p lan ). Thus Ba l lel l in q uarterland was Tof thar As mund , p ossessed b y Rushen Abbey u n t il s urrendered t o S t Bees b y q u itcla im o f 1 302 ( W ilson 1 915 :75-7 ). 6 .

The s tate men t t hat i n is w as u nknown t o t he c omp ilers o ft he Manx d ict iona r ies n eeds q ua l if icat ion .

N e ither K el ly n or C regeen i nc lude t h is i n t he ir

a lphabet ica l l i sts o f Manx w ords , b u t Cregeen ( 1835 ) d oes men t ion ' i nch , o r i nnys ', i n e xp la in ing t he n a me Purt

H inshey .

The c on tex t s uggests

t ha th e h ad i n ferred t he f or mer e x istence o f t he word i n Manx i n t he l i gh t o f t h is p lace-na me a nd h is k now ledge o f I r ish a nd S cot t ish Gae l ic. A s a n a l terna t ive t o t he u sua l w ord , elan , ' an i s land ' , i nnys a lso a ppears i n t he Eng l ish-Manx s ect ion o f K el ly 's d ict ionary ( 1866 );

b u t

t h is s ect ion w as c o mp iled p osthumously , a nd o n ly i np art f rom K e l ly 's MSS o f 1 795 a nd c . 1 805 , much ma ter ia l f rom l ater s ources — inc lud ing Cregeen—be ing i ncorporated b y h is e d itors.

Wh i le n ot i nd ica ted a s a

' borrow ing ' f ro m Cregeen , Is uggest t h is a s i t s p robab le s ource. 7 .

Because ' no s ign o ft he c haracter ist ic [ Gael ic ] t ransfor mat ions s uch a s Barru le f or Worthefe l ' a ppears i nt he a bbey land b ounds, Mrs G el l ing c onc luded t ha t s uch c hanges h ad n o t o ccurred a t t he t ime o f t hat r ecord ; a nd s he a rgues f urther t hat t he s pel l ing Gnebe ( 1515 ), f or modern Greeba moun ta in , ' makes i tc lear t hat t he c hange o f n- t o r, ..a Gae l ic

2 99

p heno menon , h ad n o t o ccurred i n Manx p lace-names i n t he e ar ly s ix teen th c en tury '. Bo th s ure ly a re u nwarran ted a ssumpt ions , h owever , b ecause o bso let e s pel l ings t end t o p ers ist t hrough t he i n f luence o f o lder wr it ten f or ms ( as w e h ave n ot iced a lready i n t he c ase o f As munderto f tes, a bove ). S pel l ing may b e av ery m islead ing g u ide t o c on te mporary o r , a t l east , v ernacu lar p ronunc ia t ion .

I t must b e many c en tur ies s ince most Manx

n a mes i n Knock- w ere p ronounced o ther t han k ro (n )k- b y most c oun try p eop le; a nd , d esp ite t he u sua l s ix teen th-cen tury r ecord f orms f or s uch p ersona l n a mes a s MacNyven ( Kneen ) a nd MacNele ( Knea le ), o ccas iona l v ar ian ts s uch a s McRe le s how t hat p ronunc iat ions u sed un t i l o ur own d ay b y s peakers o f Manx Gael ic , e .g., ' c reen a nd ' c ra i l , w ere a lready g enera l. 8 . Mars trander ( 1937 :389-90 ; Eng l ish s ummary , 4 24 ) d e monstra ted p honol og ica l ly t he l ink f i rst s uggested b y Marw ick o n o ther g rounds. 9 . I n c ons ider ing t h is p rob le m i ts hou ld b e r eme mbered t hatin t he Engl ish m id lands t he q uarter-h ide ( v irga te ) w as t he c harac ter ist ic h o ld ing.

The

t er m migh t s uggest a p hys ica l s ubd iv is ion o f t he h ide , y et t here i s n o n eed t o a ssume t h is h ad o ccurred a ny more t han t hat t he Manx t reen h ad b een a t enur ia l e n t ity s ubsequen t ly p art it ioned.

A s w ith d avach i n S co t land , h ide

a nd v irga te w ere e v iden t ly t er ms wh ich c ame t o b e a ppl ied i n n ew a reas t o v ar ious p re-ex ist ing e n t it ies. 1 0. I nt he med iaeva l t ranscr ipt o f t he l ost g ran t , a nd s ubsequen t c on f ir mat ions, t h is word I cj a il i ez , e tc., h as a s uperf luous a , p erhaps f rom a nt icipa t ion o f what f o l lowed i t ( ' et aer ), o r i n f luenced b y t he c ommon p hrase, e .g . l iberas...a c an e t [a l c oneueth ( PSAS 9 0 ( 1 959 ) :219 ). i n t he Reg ister o f S t Bees ( B. L . Harley MS 4 35 ).

The t ex ts s urv ive

1. I n S cand inav ia , a nd a lso i n O rkney , t he p lace-name Husaby i sf ound t o i nd ica te t he l ocat ion o f ' ar oya l a dm in istrat ive f ar m o f a mil itary c haracter ' ( S te innes 1 955 ), e v iden t ly c orrespond ing t o t he f or mer s head ing-cent res i n Man .

However , t he a t te mpt t o d er ive t he Manx s yste m f rom t he S can-

d inav ian i gnores n o t o n ly o ther a nd g eograph ica l ly c loser p ara l le ls, b u t a lso t he s pec if ica l ly n at ive t er m ino logy a ssoc ia ted w ith t he d ues a nd o f f ic ia ls c oncerned. 1 2. Though u nab le t o a dd a ny th ing c oncern ing t he s ituat ion i n t he I s le o f Man , t he e v idence f or n in th-century S cand inav ian s et t le men t i n I reland a nd t he S cot t ish i s les i s i nt erest ing ly d iscussed i n Smy th ( 1977 :101-53 ). 1 3. ' The s trong I r ish , o r S co t t ish , f eatures o f Manx-Vik ing c u l ture may b es t b e e xp la ined b y t he m ing l ing o f t he imm igran ts w ith t he Celt ic p eop les , p art ly t hrough t rade a nd c on stan t c a mpa ign ing , b u t more e spec ia l ly t hrough t he f osterage s yste m a nd i n ter marr iage w i th p owerfu l n at ive f am il ies, a s w e r ead o f i n I r ish a nna ls a nd N orse s agas. I n t h is p rocess t he s urv ivors o f t he p rev ious i nhab itan ts o f t he I s le o f Man may h ave p layed o n ly a m inor p art ' ( Megaw 1 950 :155-6 ). 1 4. Bes ide S kene 's p r in ted t ext ( Skene 1 871-2 ), Ih ave c onsu lted t he manus cr ip ts o f Fordun s et o u t i n t he References.

A l l t he s urv iv ing g roups ,

S kene 's It o I V , a re c overed i n t he d iscuss ion , a s S kene 's p r in ted t ext r epresen ts h is G roup I I.

3 00

1 5. Moreover t he p apa l r eg isters s how t hat d ocumen ts o f J une, J u ly a nd Augus t 1 231 a re d ated a tR iet i , n ot Rome;

Roman d ocumen ts a re d ated

' La teran i ' , n ot ' Ro mae ' ( Auvray 1 890). 1 6. Th is s uggest ion i s n ot o n ly b ased o n t he n ear-au tob iograph ica l c haracter o f t he e n try , t he l onges t o f a ny i n t he e p iscopa l l i st , b u t a lso o n t he a dd it ions i nt he s a me h and t o e arl ier e n tr ies, o therw ise u n ique i n t h is d ocumen t . I nt hree c ases t he n umber o f y ears f or w h ich t he o f f ice was h eld i s a dded ;

wh ile t he a dd it iona l n ote t hat b ishop Tho mas , aS cot ( d . 1 348 ),

was ' t he f i rst t o e xact p rocurat ions o f 2 0 s h i l l ings f rom t he Manx c hurches , a nd f i rst t o e xact f ro m t he i s land 's r ec tors a t en th o f t he ir d ues f rom s trangers e ngaged i nt he h err ing f i shery ' , i s p rec ise ly t he k ind o f i n for mat ion t ha tb ishop Duncan , w ith h is p rev ious e xper ience i n e cc les iast ica l f inance a nd c anon l aw , w ould b e l ikely t o r ecord.

That t he b ishop s hou ld

v is it Rushen i s o n ly t ob e e xpected ( i ndeed , a s a Manxman , i ti s p robab le t hat h e w as a f or mer me mber o ft hat h ouse ), a nd a l ikely o ccas ion i s s ugg ested b y h is p resence a t ag enera l c hap ter o f t he d iocese h eld a t t he n earby p ar ish c hurch o f K irk Ma lew o n 5 February 1 376-7 , j ust e leven d ays a f ter h i s i nsta l lat ion i nh is r u ined c athedra l. REFERENCES Manuscr ip t S ources B r it ish L ibrary C ron ica R egu m Mann iae e tI nsu larum ( 'The Manx Chron ic le ) , Cot ton MS J u l ius A v i i, s ec t ion 3 . L im ites...terrarum monachorum d e Russyn ( 'The Abbey lan c l Bounds ' ), s ect ion 4 ( see P r in ted S ources : Chron ic le 1 924 ). Reg ister o f t he Pr iory o fS tB ees. 1 915 ).

Harley MS 4 34 ( Pr in ted S ources :

Wilson

N a t iona l L ibrary o f S co t land Advocates L ibrary MS 3 5.1.7.

Abr idge men t c . 1 447-9 o f Bower 's e d it ion o f

Fordun 's S cot ichron icon ( 'The Book o f Cup — ar i ) [ Skenes Group I ]. Advocates L ibrary MS 3 5.6.7.

A f urther a br idge men t o f Bower 's Fordun

d a ted b y S kene ' b efore 1 451'. ( 'The Book o f Perth ' , o therw ise ' t he Cart hus ian MS 1) . [ Skene 's G roup I .] Ed inburgh U n ivers ity L ibrary MS D . b. 1 ,18. Bower's e d it ion o f Fordun 's S co t ichron icon . Gooda l l 's p r in ted e d it ion , 1 759. [ Skene 's G roup I . ]

U sed f or Wa lter

S cot t ish C a tho l ic Arch ives , Ed inburgh J ohn o f F ordun , S cot ichron icon .

Ex S cots Co l lege , Par is.

[ Skenes Group

T V, r epresen t ing Fordun 's u nco mpleted w ork , c oncluded c . 1 384-1387.]

3 01

Manx Museum L ibrary Bu l l o f Pope Gregory I X t o S i mon , b ishop o f S odor , 3 0 J u ly 1 231. c . 1 600.

( Pr in ted S ources :

Poo le 1 911;

Paper c opy ,

a lso Moore 1 890.)

S head ing Court Ro l l , A .D. 1 417-18. Garr ison I nquest Ro l l , A .D. 1 428. N otar ia l e xt racts f rom t he l ost Reg ister o f t he P r iory o f Wh ithorn , 1 505 ( photos ta t o f o r ig ina l i nE l les mere Papers, Hun t ington L ibrary , U .S .A.) P r in ted S ources Anderson , A lan 0 . 1 908. 1 286.

S cot t ish Anna ls f rom Eng l ish Chron ic lers, A .D . 5 00-

L ondon .

Auvray , L uc ien ( ed.) 1 890-1955.

L es

r eg is t r es

d e Grego ire I X.

4v o ls.

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1 974.

S tud ies i nt he H istory o f Dalr iada.

Ed inburgh

a nd L ondon . Barrow , Geo f frey W. S . 1 969. Th irteen th Cen tur ies '.

' Northern Eng l ish S oc iety i n t he Twelf th a nd

N orthern H istory 4 ( 1969 ) :1-28.

Barrow , Geof frey W. S . 1 973.

The K ingdo m o f t he S cots.

Bersu , G erhard , a nd W ilson , Dav id M. 1 966. I s le o f Man .

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S oc iety f or Med ieva l Archaeo logy , Monograph S eries N o. 1 .

L ondon . B inchy , Dan iel A . 1 941.

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Dub l in .

Broder ick , George ( ed.) 1 973. Chron ic le o f t he K ings o f Man a nd t he I sles , I . [ Transcr ipt ion a nd Eng l ish t ranslat ion b y G . B . ( I ncludes a modern Manx t ransla t ion b y Br ian S towe l l ).

Vo l . 2 , f orthcom ing , t o i nclude

n o tes a nd d iscuss ion .] Bruce , J . R . a nd Cubbon , W. 1 930. I Cr onk y n Howe : a n Early Chr ist ian a nd V ik ing S ite , a t L ezayr e. Archaeo log ia C ambrens is :267-308. Byrne , Franc is J . 1 968.

' H istor ica l N o te o n Cnogba ( Know th )'.

Append ix t o

Eogan ( George ), ' Excavat ions a t Know th t , P roceed ings o f t he Roya l I r ish Acade my 6 6 ( 1967-8 ) :383-400. Charles-Edwards , T . M. 1 972. ' K insh ip , s ta tus a nd t he o rig ins o f t he H ide '. Past a nd P resen t n o. 5 6 ( Aug.) :3-33. Chron icle , The Manx 1 924.

The Chron ic le o f Man a nd t he I sles :

[ sect ions 3 a nd 4 o f ] t he Manuscr ip t Codex J u l ius A v i i. t he Manx Museum. 1 860 .] C raddock , H . C . 1 931.

Doug las.

[ See a lso B roder ick 1 973;

af acs im ile

O x ford U .P . f or a nd Munch

' The P re-Refor mat ion B ishops o f S odor '.

Proceed-

i ngs o ft he I sle o f Man ...An t iquar ian S oc iety , n ew s er. 3 :321-46. Doug las.

[ S t il l u sefu l , d esp ite p r in ter 's e rrors.

3 02

N ow s ee Wat t 1 969. ]

C ra ine, Dav id 1 955.

Manannan 's I s le.

C rel l in , M ichael 1 969. 7 , n o. 8 5 :98-9 ;

Manx Museum , Doug las.

' An e ar ly manor ia l r o l l '.

a nd p la tes 2 8-9.

J ourna l o f t he Manx Museum

Douglas.

Dav ies, E lwyn 1 956. greens a nd Quarterlands : aS tudy o f t he L and S yste m o f t he I s le o f Man '. I nst itu te o f Br it ish Geographers T ransact ions : 97-116. D e H -6 ir , amonn 1 972-3. 1 7 :192-204. L ouva in .

' The Ang l ic isa t ion o f I r ish P lace-Na mes.' Ono ma ,

D ick inson , W. Cro f t 1 941. D i l lon , My les 1 973.

' The Toscherderach.'

J ud ic ial Rev iew 5 3 :85-109.

' The Con secrat ion o f I r ish k ings.'

Ce lt ica 1 0 :85-109.

Duncan , A . A . M. a nd Brown , A . L . 1 959. ' Argy l lsh ire a nd t he I s les i n t he Earl ier M idd le Ages.' P roceed ings o f t he S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f S cot land 9 0 :192-220.

Ed inburgh .

Duncan , A . A . M. 1 975. S cot land : t he Mak ing o f t he K ingdo m ( Ed inburgh H istory o fS co t land I ) . Ed inburgh . E l l is , H ilda R . [ Mrs Dav idson ] 1 943. The Road t o Hel : aS tudy o f t he Conc ep t ion o ft he Dead i n O ld N orse L iterature. Ca mbr idge. F la tres , P ierre 1 957. Man . R ennes.

Geograph ie Rura le...Irlande , Ga l les, Cornwa l l e t

G e l l ing , Margaret 1 970-1.

' The P lace-Na mes o f t he I sle o f Man .' J ourna l

o f t he Manx Museum 7 , n o . 8 6 :130-9;

a nd 7 , n o. 8 7 :168-75.

Doug las.

G el l ing , P eter S . 1 962-3. Sh ie l ings i nt he I s le o f Man .' Med ieva l Archaeo logy 6 -7 :156-72. L ondon. Hannerberg , Dav id 1 976. o rgan isa t ion '.

' Mode ls o f med ieval a nd p re- med ieva l t err itor ia l

J ourna l o fH istor ica l Geography . 2 (1976 ):21-34.

L ondon ,

New Y ork , S an Franc isco . Harvey , S a l ly P . J . 1 967. ' Roya l Revenue a nd Do mesday Ter m ino logy.' Econom ic H istory Rev iew ( 2nd s er.) 2 0 :221-8. Ho l l ister , C . Warren 1 962. Hughes , K a th leen 1 972. L ondon .

Ang lo-Saxon M i l itary I nst itut ions.

Ear ly Chr ist ian I re land :

Ox ford.

I n troduct ion t o t he S ources.

H ughes , K a th leen 1 973. Rev iew [ o f MacN ioca i l l ( Gear6 id ), I re land b efore t he V ik ings ] , S tud ia H ibern ica :190-3. Dubl in . J ackson , K enneth H . 1 953. b urgh.

L anguage a nd H istory i n Early Brita in .

Ed in-

J ackson , K enneth H . 1 962. ' The Ce lt ic L anguages Dur ing t he V ik ing P er iod .' Proceed ings o ft he I n ternat iona l Congress o f Cel t ic S tud ies...1959 , 3 -11. Dubl in . J ohnsen , Arne Odd 1 969. ' The P ay men ts f rom t he Hebr ides a nd t he I sle o f Man t o t he Crown o f N orway , 153-1263. S cot t ish H istor ica l Rev iew 4 8 :18-34.

3 03

J ones , G lanv il le R . J . 1 964. West Wa les.'

' The D istr ibu t ion o f Bond S ett le men ts i n N orth-

The Welsh H istory Rev iew 2 :19-36.

J ones , G lanv i l le R . J . 1 972.

' Post-Roman Wa les ' i nH . P . R . F inberg ( ed.),

The Agrar ian H istory o f Eng land a nd Wa les 1 (2 ) ( 1972 ):283-382. K er mode, Ph il ip M. C . a nd Bruce, J . Rona ld 1 968. S urvey , Reports 1 -6.

2v o ls. Doug las.

f irst p ub l ished 1 909-36 ; Kneen , J . J . 1 925-9. Doug las.

w ith f ina l r epor tb y Bruce , 1 968 ].

The P lace-Na mes o f t he I sle o f Man .

[ Repr in ted 1 973.

L a mon t , W. D . 1 957-8. Ia nd I .

The Manx Archaeo log ica l

[ Reissue 1 968 o f 1 -5 b y K er mode ,

' O ld L and Deno m inat ions a nd " O ld Ex ten t" i n I s lay ' ,

S co t t ish S tud ies I : 183-203;

L a mon t , W. D . 1 966.

6p arts ( or 2 v o ls.)

Menston .]

2: 86-1 0 6 . Ed inburgh.

The Early H istory o f I slay .

L loyd , S ir J ohn E . 1 939.

Dundee.

H istory o f Wa les , 3 rd e dn . ( ist e dn . 1 911), 2 v o ls.

L ondon . McKerra l , A. 1 944.

' Anc ien t D eno m inat ions o f Agr icu l tura l L and i nS co t land.'

Proceed ings o f t he S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f S cot land ( 1944 ) :39-80. Ed inburgh. McKerra l , A . 1 951(a ).

' West H igh land Mercenar ies i n I reland .'

S co tt ish

H istor ica l Rev iew 3 0 ( 1951) :1-14. McKerra l , A. 1 951 ( b ).

Rev iew o f C . M. MacDona ld , H istory o f Argy l l .

S cot t ish H ist .Rev. 3 0 :172-79. MacNe il l , J ohn [ Eo ir i 1 919.

Phases o f I r ish H istory .

Reprin ted 1 968.

Dub l in . McNe il l , Peter a nd N icho lson , Rana ld ( edd.) 1 975. S cot land , c . 4 00-c . 1600.

An H istor ica lA t las o f

S t Andrews.

MacQueen , J ohn 1 961. Ed inburgh.

S t . Nyn ia :

MacQueen , J ohn 1 973.

' The Gael ic S peakers o f Ga l loway a nd C arr ick .'

S cot t ish S tud ies 1 7 :17-33.

aS tudy o f L iterary a nd L ingu ist ic Ev idence.

Ed inburgh .

MacQueen , J ohn 1 976. ' Pen .ny land a nd Davoch i n S outh- Western S cot land : ap re l im inary n o te '. ( Typescr ip t.) P apers p resen ted t o P rofessor K . H . J ackson , J une 1 976. Mars trander , Car l J . S . 1 932.

' Det Norsk L andnä m p ä . Man .'

N orsk T ids-

s kr if t f or S progv idenskap 6 :40-386 , O slo [ w ith f u l l Eng l ish s um mary ]. Marstrander , Car l J . S . 1 934. o f Man .'

' Re marks o n t he P lace-Na mes o f t he I sle

N orsk T idsskr if t f or S progv iden skap 7 :287-334.

Marstrander , Carl J . S . 1 937.

‚ T reen

o g K ee il l .'

N orsk T idss la s if t f or

S progv idensk :ap 8 :287-500 , O slo [ w ith f u l l E ng l ish s u m mary ]. Marw ick , Hugh 1 952.

O rkney Far m-Na mes.

Megaw , Bas il a nd E leanor 1 950.

K irkwa l l.

' The Norse H er itage i n t he I s le o f Man .'

The E arly Cu ltures o f North- West Europe. 3 04

H . M. Chadw ick Me mor ia l

S tud ies , e d ited b y S ir Cyr i l Fox a nd Bruce D ic ld .n .s : 1 43-70. Megaw , Bas i l 1 959-60.

' The S h ip S ea ls o f t he K ings o f Man .'

t he Manx Museu m 6 , n o . 7 6 :78-80. Megaw , E leanor M. 1 945-6.

3 0 J u ly 1 231.'

J ourna l o f

Douglas.

' The Governor 's S taf f o f Of f ice.'

t he Manx Museum 5 , n os. 7 2-3:172-3. Moore , Arthur W. 1 890.

Ca mbr idge.

J ourna l o f

Doug las.

' Bu l l o f Pope Gregory I X t o t he B ishop o f S odor ,

Eng l ish H istor ica l Rev iew 5 :101-7.

[ Text p rov ided b y

R . L ane P oo le ( q .v.) a nd W . H . S tevenson .] Moore, Arthur W. 1 900.

AH istory o f t he I sle o f Man . 2v o ls. L ondon .

Munch , P [e ter ] A[ ndreas ] ( ed. ) 1 860.

The Chron icle o f Man a nd t he S udreys

e d ited f rom t he manuscr ip t c odex i n t he Br it ish Museum. [ Ano ther e dn., Manx S oc iety 2 2-3 ( ed . Goss ). 1 874. N ico la isen , W. F. H . 1 960.

Ed inburgh .

N ico la isen , W. F. H . 1 969.

' Norse S et t le men t i n t he Northern a nd Western

S cott ish H istor ica l Rev iew 4 8 :6-17.

N ico la isen , W. F

H . 1 970.

S tud ia C e lt ica 5 :15-35.

Doug las.]

' Norse P lace-Na mes i n S ou th- West S cot land.'

S cot t ish S tud ies 4 :49-70.

I sles

Chr ist ian ia.

Aberdeen .

' Gael ic P lace-Na mes i n S outhern S cot land.' Card if f .

N ico la isen , W. F . H . 1 975 (a ). ' P lace-Na mes i nB i l ingua l Co m mun it ies.' J ourna l o f t he Amer ican Na me S oc iety 2 3:167-74. Potsda m , N .Y . N ico la isen , W. F. H . 1 975(b ). Na mes ' ;

' Gael ic P lace-Na mes ' ;

i n McNei l l a nd N icho lson 1 975 :4-5 ;

Corrä in , Donncha 1 972.

' Scand inav ian P lace-

6 -7.

I re land b efore t he Nor mans.

( The G i l l H istory

o fI reland , e d. J a mes L ydon a nd Margare t MacCurta in .) Dubl in a nd London . Cu fv , Br ian 1 957. ' A P oem i n Pra ise o f Radhnal l , K ing o f Man .' E igse 8 :283-301 Dub l in . Curv , Br ian 1 975.

' Two n o tes ..D iar ma id n a n Ga l l.' E igse , 1 6 :135-44.

Dub l in . O lsen , Magnus 1 954.

' Run ic I nscr ip t ions i n Grea t Br ita in , I re land a nd t he

I s le o f Man ' , i n Haakon S hetel ig ( ed.) ' Vik ing An t iqu it ies i n Great Br ita in a nd I re land , p art 6 : 151-233. O l iver , J . R . 1 861-2. v o l. 7 ( 1 861); P age, R . I . 1 971. England?

O slo.

Monumen ta d e I nsu la Mann iae ..I I.

2 2.c it. I l v o l. 9 ( 1862 [ 1864 ] ).

Manx S oc iety ,

Doug las.

' How l ong d id t heScand inav ian l anguage s urv ive i n

The e p igraph ica l e v idence.'

e d. P . C le moes a nd K . H ughes : 1 65-81. Poo le , R . L ane 1 911.

Eng land b efore t he Conquest , Ca mbr idge.

' The S cot t ish I slands i n t he D iocese o f S odor

S cot t ish H istor ica l Rev iew 8 :258-63.

3 05

R itch ie , Anna 1 974.

' P ict a nd N orse man i n N orthern S cot land .'

Archaeo log ica l Forum 6 :23-36. Round , J . Horace 1 895. Saar , Dav id 1 966.

S cot t ish

Ed inburgh.

Feuda l Eng land.

L ondon .

' The o r ig in a nd a ncestry o f S omerled.'

S cot t ish H is-

t or ica l Rev iew 4 5 :123-42. S hete l ig , Haakon 1 940.

V ik ing An t iqu it ies i nG reat Br ita in a nd I re land I .

O slo. S kene , Wi l l ia m F . ( ed.) 1 871-2.

J ohann is d e For c tun c hron ica g en t is S co torum.

The H istor ians o fS cot land I( 1871), t ex t e d . W. F . S kene. 2 ( 1872 ), t ransl ated b yF . J . H . S kene , n otes b y W. F . S kene. Ed inburgh . S kene , Wi l l iam F . ( ed.) 1 876-80. 1 886 ). 3v o ls. Ed inburgh. Smy th , A l fred P . 1 977.

Celt ic S co t land [ A s econd e dn . a ppeared i n

S cand inav ian k ings i n t he Br it ish I sles , 8 50-880.

Ox ford. T a lbo t , Theoph ilus ( ed.) 1 924.

T he Manor ia l Ro l l o f t he I sle o f Man , 1 511-15.

Ox ford . Tho mas , Charles 1 964. ' S et t le men t-H istory i n Early Cornwa l l—I : t he a n t iqu ity o ft he Hundreds.' Corn ish Archaeo logy 3 :70-79. [ Penzance ? ]. Tho mas , Char les 1 971. The Ear ly Chr ist ian Archaeo logy o f N orth Br ita in . Hun ter Marsha l l l ec tures 1 968. L ondon . Tho mson , Robert L . 1 969. The S tudy o f Manx Gae l ic. r ia l L ecture. Br it ish Acade my , L ondon .

S ir J ohn Rhys Me mo-

V ig fusson , Gudbrand 1 887. ' Notes o nT inwa ld a nd s head ing.' Book 3: 1 74-5 . Doug las.

Manx N o te

V ig fusson , Gudbrand 1 888. ' Northerners i n t he I sle o f Man.' H istor ica l Rev iew 3 :498-501. L ondon .

Eng l ish •

Wa tson , Wi l l ia m J . 1 926.

The C elt ic P lace-Names o f S cot land .

Ed inburgh .

Wat t , Dona ld E . R . 1 969. Fast i E cc les iae S co t icanae Med i i Aev i. Record S oc iety ). S econd d raf t . Ed inburgh . Wi lson , Dav id M. 1 971.

( Sco t t ish

' Manx Me mor ia l S tones o f t he V ik ing P er iod.'

S aga

Book o f t he V ik ing S oc iety f or Northern R esearch 1 8 ( 1970-1 ) :1-18. L ondon . Wi lson , Dav id M. 1 974. The V ik ing Age i n t he I s le o f Man—the Archaeo log ica l Ev idence. C . C . Ra fn L ecture n o. 3 . O dense. Wi lson , J ohn 1 915.

The Reg ister o fS t Bees.

Woods , J a mes [ 1867 ].

S urtees S ociety , 1 26.

A t las a nd Gazetteer o ft he I sle o f Man .

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Peel (town)

Knokhauley: The identification with Knockaloe is tentative, but virtually certain, and would seem to confirm the derivation of Knockaloe from *Cnoc-Amhlaimh, 'Olaf's hill or mound' (but see Marstrander (1932:214), who was unaware of this early form).

The unpublished 1428 roll also includes the following in addition to the names indicated by that dat.e in col. C: Klrksayntronyan' (St Trinian's chapel, Marown), and the parish churches of Kirkbride, Kirkarbory and Klrkmalew; with Mirescogh (the northern Curragh), longnese (Langess point) and Raynold(es)way (Ronaldsway harbour, now Derbyha ven) •

Note 2

Note 3

the Pele (1428); Peel Castle ?Port Mooar (Maughold) [cf. Latin marus = Manx�]

the holmeton (1428);

(C)

Final syllables omitted in the M S are supplied in italic.

Halmtoun [mill] (Patrick) [for Holmtoun]

(B)

Note 1

Portu' mars [harbour]

Pele [castle]

le Holme [town?]

OTHER NAMES (ENGLlSH OR HYBRID)

(A)

Table 2 (contd • )

TABLE 3 The I s les a s l i sted i n ( A ) t he Manx ' bu l l o f 1 231', a nd ( B ) Fordun , c . 1 380. The s equence o f n ames i s t hat i n t he r espect ive d ocumen ts : ab roken l ine l i nks c orrespond ing n a mes w here t he s equence d ifers. N ames i n i t a l ics o cc ur o n ly i nl i st ( B ):

t hose i nr ound b rackets l acked p ar ish c hurches ( or, i n

s ome c ases , w ere n o tp art o ft he S odor d iocese ) a nd m igh t t herefore n ot b e e xpected i n l i st ( A ).

I n e ach c ase t he o r ig ina l t ex ts a re i n L a t in ( B )

( A) The Manx ' bu l l o f 1 231 '

( t ext o f f i f teen th c en tury )

( copy o f c . 1 600 ) I a

' The I s les o f S cot ia b etween S cot ia a nd

' The c athedra l c hurch o f S t Gar man o fS odor i n t he

H ibern ia...Beg inn ing f i rst f rom t he s outh i s t he i s land f or merly c a l led

i sland c al led EUBONLA n ow I b

EUBON IA, n ow MANN IA ..in wh ich i s

MANN IA ' The p lace i t sel f , c a l led Ho lme , S odor, o r P ile

Fordun ( bk . I ,c hap. 1 0 ) c . 1 380

t he e p iscopa l s ee o f S odor w here

t he c a thedra l c hurch i s s i tuated : a nd t he c hurch o f S t P atr ick o f I

t he I s le.' ' One t h ird o f a l l t en ths o fa l l c hurches i n t he i sland o f Eubon ia o r Mann ia.'

I I

One t h ird o f a l l t en ths o fa l l t he c hurches o f : -

_ ARANE ( HE LANT I NLAYSCHE) ROTHYSAY o r BOTHE

-

BOTHE ARAN

( C COMBR OMBRA AY YE M MAJO INOR R ) ) ( ( BLADAY ) I NCHE MERNOC K

[ Not i n S odor ]

( A WERYNE ) ( RACHRYNE ) [ Not i nS odor ] GYA

EYA [ ? f or GE YA ]

( HE LA NT MA CARMYK ) I LE

I LE ( HE L A NT TEXA ) , COLOUNSY

I URYE

DURA

S CARPEY

( SCARBAY ) ( LYNGAY ) ( LUYNG ) ( SUNAY ) ( SE LEC MAJOR )

ELA TH 7

( HE LA NT LE NE OW )

COL. ' . [The o rder, a nd l a ter i nclus ion o f Co l l ,

( GARVE L EA NE )

i mp l ies Co lonsay ]

Table c on t inued 3 13

Table 3 (contd.) (A)

(B)

MULEY

UI @IC LUMB KILLE) [Inc P, ,ndent of ,.. rfo-r] SA� C II KE ·. ,THY (KERNERA Y) [Var. Kerm=�r·�l (LlSMORE) [The R f Argyll bishopric: in.Jepe devt ()f Sodor] , c)

CHORHYE - -- __ _ C ) L COLE - - --- ... -- ___ _ REF, (HELAJ. I\ 0 0 [Fordun omit .. E1gg) EGE BARRAY .,'}!YST

/, 'c;: � JVf

I I

I

SKEY ?// CARREY [? for *BARREY] ?� / R ••• [tear] [? for *IVYST] - - ... ' HOWAS A LNE islands SWOSTERSEY 'H••• [tear] OF THE BISHOPS'

I

FUI J

0

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4 20

i

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—

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-„

1 /

N ote b y M. D . Wr igh t : The f l at b ronze a xehead ( f ig. 2 7.10 ), n ow c onsiderably c orroded , m easures 4 7/8 i ns i n l ength.

I ti s a l most 3 i ns a cross t he c utt ing e dge , b u t h ere i t

wou ld o r ig ina l ly h ave b een w ider , a s i ti s e v iden t t hat t he o u ter e dges h ave b een c orroded o r worn away .

I ti s o f t he t h in-bu t ted v ar iety w ith n arrow b u t t a nd

f lar ing b lade c lass i f ied b y C o les i a s t ype B b a nd c omparable t o Harb ison 's 2 K il laha t ype , d a ted t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he s econd m il lenn iu m B .C., a nd p roba bly e arl ier r a ther t han l ater i n t h is p er iod .

O f i n terest i s i t s a ssy metr ica l

s hape ( one s ide b e ing a l most s t ra igh t f or most o f i t s l eng th ,t he o ther d ist inct ly c oncave ), t hough t h is i s n ot u nknown i n o ther a xes o f t h is t ype. 3 There i s a v ery c lose r ese mblance b etween t h is a xe a nd a no ther t hat was f ound n ear t he Ba l lag lass s trea m b e low Cash ta l y n Ard , Maugho ld a nd c a me i n to t he Museum c o l lect ion i n 1 903 4

( Mus. Reg. 7 93 );

t he l a t ter, t hough o f g rea ter t h ickness,

i s a l most i den t ica l i n s ize a nd s hape, b u t s ince a l i tt le more o f t he o uter e nds o f t he c u tt ing e dge i s p reserved t he a ssyme try i s n o t s o marked .

I t i s p os-

s ib le t hat t hese t wo a xes a re p roducts o f t he s a me mou ld.

1 .

Co les, J . M.

S co t t ish Early Bronze Age Meta lwork ;

P roc. S oc. Ant iq.

S cot land , 1 01 ( 1968-69 ), 1 0. 2 .

Harb ison , P .

The Axes o f t he Ear ly B ronze Age i n I reland ( Präh istor-

i sche Bronzefunde I X , 1 ) , 1 969 , 2 4. Harb ison , P . Age i n I reland ; 3 .

The e ar l ier Bronze

i n J . Roy. S oc. An t iq. I re land , 1 03 ( 1973 ) , 1 05.

Co les, J . M. 2 2 .c it., f ig. 5 n o. 4 , f i g. 6 n o. 5 f ro m s outhwest S cot land , b u t a lso f ig. 7 n os. 4 , 5a nd 7 f rom n or theast S cot land.

4 .

Yn L ioar Mann inagh I V ( l ater , P roceed ings o f t he I s le o f Man N . H.A.S.), [ 1901-1905 ], 8 2. K er mode , P . M. C .

Bronze Imp le men t s i n t he Manx Museum;

An t .

J ourn . I I ( 1923 ), 2 30.

FRAG MENT OF A BRONZE VESSEL FROM S TRANDHALL , RUSHEN Wh i le w a lk ing a long t he b each a t S trandha l l ( f ig. 2 7.1) i n l a te May 1 973 M iss J . Dav ie c a me u pon t h is b ronze f rag men t i n at ida l p oo l a nd , f ol low ing s ub m iss ion f or o p in ion ( t hrough Mr. J . K . B arra t t ), k ind ly p resen ted i tt o t he Manx Museum ( Mus. Reg. 7 3-126 ). at h ickness v ary ing f ro m l ess t han

I t measures 4 1 x 3 1 i n s o veral l w ith

1/3 2 i n .

t o a s much a s

1 /8

i n . ( f ig. 2 7.11).

Th is v ar ia t ion i s c aused b y t he o verlapp ing p a tches o f s heet b ronze a t tached b y r ivets t o t he o r ig ina l c urved s urface, wh ich i s a lso o f s heet b ronze.

I n

f act i ti s t he e xt ra t h ickness o f ma ter ia l a t t h is p o in t t ha t h as e n sured t he s urv iva l o f t h is p art o f t he v essel . t he o r ig ina l b ronze r e ma ins.

Beyond t he p atched a rea h ard ly a ny o f

The f rag men t c urves b o th l a tera l ly a nd l ong i-

t ud ina l ly a nd a ppears t o h ave c ome f rom a f a irly l arge c on ta iner ( a t l east 1 2-13 i ns d ia meter ) a t e ither s hou lder l eve l o r a t ap o in t where i tc urved i n t o ar ounded o r sma l l f lat b ase. The e x terna l s urface i s i n g ood c ond it ion w ith a d ark g reen t o b rown p a t ina ; t he i nner s urface i s more c orroded b u t t he r ivet h eads a re s t i l l v ery c learly d ef ined. The s urv iv ing p ort ion o f t he wa l l o f t he v essel i s o f o ne p iece ;

n one o f t he r ivets b e long t o t he o r ig ina l

4 22

0

0

,o

b en t o u t o f l i ne cm .

F ig. 2 7.11

4 23

i n s .

0

0

manu facture.

S ome o f t he c racks, a nd p ar t icu larly t hose a ssoc iated w ith t he

h o le t owards t he l ef t-hand s ide, may b e t he e arly d a mage t ha t n ecess itated t he p atch ing.

The w eakness a nd v u lnerab il ity o f t he meta l o n s uch a c urved s ur-

f ace i s d e monstrated i n ab ron ze b ucke t , p robably f rom I reland , i n t he Hun teri an Museum i n t he Un ivers i ty o f G lasgow , w here t he s hou lder h as b een t w ice p a tched i n o ne a rea , It hough t he me ta l makes a s harper a ngle t han i n o ur f ragmen t. The f i rst p atch a pp l ied i n terna l ly t o t he S trandhal lv esse l w as t he l arger, a t l east 43 2 -i ns, l ong a nd o va l i n s hape ; h o le w as t aken o ver s ubsequen t ly .

f i f teen o fi t s r ivets s urv ive a nd o ne r ivet One o f t he r ivets h as an e x terna l washer . 2

The s econd p atch i s a lso i n terna l b u t sma l ler , b e ing o n ly 3 i ns, l ong o f o va l o r s ub-rectangu lar s hape, a nd i to verlaps t he e ar l ier p a tch b y s t il l r e ma in .

i n .;

t en r ive ts

There i s at race o f a n e x tra p iece o f b ronze wh ich w as i nser ted

f or s treng th b etween t he o ld p atch a nd t he n ew o n t he i ns ide when t he l ater r epa ir w as e xecu ted.

Th is c an b e s een i n t he b ot to m r igh t-hand c orner;

a re t hus f our t h icknesses o fb ronze s heet a t t h is p o in t .

t here

A l l t he r ivets a re o f

s im i lar t ype w ith f lat h eads

k in . i n d ia meter w h ich , o n s o me o f t he e ar l ier

r ivets, a re r ather a ngu lar;

o n t he l a ter s er ies t hey t end t o b e o va l.

Due t o

t he a bsence o f a ny s ign if ican t d eta il o n t he b ron ze f rag men t i t se l f i ti s n ot p oss ib le t o d a te i tw ith a ny a ccuracy , t hough i ts hou ld p robab ly b e p laced i n t he p er iod 7 00 B .C.-500 A .D .

1 .

Corcoran , J . X . W. P ., " A Bronze Bucke t i n t he Hun ter ian Museu m , Un ivers ity o f G lasgow" , An t . J ourn . XLV ( 1965 ), 1 2-17.

T he n ature a nd

t ype o f r epa irs u ndertaken i n a n t iqu ity o nc on ta iners made f rom s hee t b ronze a re w e l l i l lustra ted i n t h is a rt icle .

I t must b e p o in ted o u t t hat

t here i s n o s uggest ion t hat t he S trandha l l v essel c lose ly r ese mbles t h is b ucket e ither i n s hape o r d ate. 2 .

C f . o p.c it ., 1 5 a nd P l. X IV c .

SMALL HOARD OF S ILVER PE NN IES OF ED WARD IFROM BALLAYE L SE KEEILL , ARBORY On 7 th March 1 977 t he Manx Museum w as n o t if ied b y Mrs. P . F inch , o f F r iary P ark , Ba l labeg , t hat o n t he p rev ious d ay , S unday , 6 th March , h er s choo lboy s on Robert , a nd h is f r iend Andrew T inn ion o f Ba l lag i lber t f ar m , r eturn ing f ro m a f i sh ing e xped it ion a t C r ing le r eservo ir , h ad v is ited " the o ld monks ' h ouse" n ear Ba l lag i lbert f ar m , " wh ich h as a Manx Museum p laque o n i t ".

There t hey h ad f ound t hree t h in c o ins, i n as pread o f s o il w h ich h ad b een

s cooped o u t f ro m t he e arth f i l l ing o f t he d ry-stone wa l l ing o f t he b u i ld ing a s a r esu l t o f t he b urrow ing o f ar abb it.

A v is it t o Mrs. F inch 's h ouse e nabled

t he t wo c o ins t hat h er s on h ad b rough t h o me t ob e p rov is iona l ly i den t if ied a s med iaeva l Eng l ish s i lver p enn ies.

A f ter Robert r eturned f ro m s choo l h e w en t

t o t he s i te w ith t he D irector o f t he Manx Museum , t he r u ined k ee i l l ( Celt ic c hapel ) o n Ba l laye lse f ar m , A rbory ( nat . g r id r ef . S C 2 51739 fi gs. 2 7.1 a nd 2 7.12 ) n ow f or m ing p art o f t he e n larged Ba l lag i lbert f ar m.

The s i te o f t he

k ee il l h as f or many y ears b een f enced , a nd i s p er iod ica l ly t r i m med b y t he Manx Museu m.

The c o ins h ad b een f ound o n t he t urf f loor i nside t he n orth-

4 24

0

1 00

2 00

3 00 y a rd s F ig. 2 7.12

0 m m in

1 c

2 =am mm

4 25

3f t . s

F ig. 2 7.13

w est c orner o f t he k ee il l ( f ig . 2 7.13 ).

A v is it t o Ba l lag ilber t f ar m c on f ir med

t ha t t he c o in w h ich h ad b een k ep t b y Andrew T inn ion w as o f t he s a me t ype. A l l t hree c o ins were f ree ly h anded o ver t o b e h e ld a t t he Manx Museum. The f o l low ing d ay t he Manx Museum c onducted a l im ited e xcava t ion o f t he n orth-west c orner o f t he k ee i l l ,

1

c lear ing t he i n terna l f loor a rea , t ak ing d own

t he d ry-stonework f or m ing t he i n terna l f ac ing o f t he w a l ls, a nd c arefu l ly r emov ing t he e arth i n f il l o f t he w a l l t o b eyond t he l im its o f t he c omplex o f r abb it b urrows i n t he a rea where t he s coop o f s o il h ad b een t hrown o u t f ro m t he wal li ng , a t ah e igh t o f s o me s ix i nches a bove t he i n terna l f l oor s urface , n ear t he n or thern e nd o f t he w est w a l l o f t he k ee il l.

Two f urther c o ins , a pparen t ly o f

s im i lar t ype , w ere r ecovered i n t he c ourse o f c lear ing t he f l oor.

A t t he

c onclus ion o f t he e xcava t ion t he w a l l ing was c arefu l ly r ebu il t ( f resh e arth b e ing u sed i n t he i n f il l ) a nd t he f l oor r eturfed.

A l l t he s o i l r e moved f ro m t he f l oor

a nd w a l ls was c arefu l ly b agged a nd r e moved t o t he Manx Museum , where i t was s i f ted manua l ly , a nd s pread a nd t es ted b y a meta l d etector.

T h is d id n o t

h owever l ead t o a ny f urther d iscover ies, n or d id a l a ter c arefu l r eexa m inat ion o f t he k ee il l s i te u s ing a meta l d etector. The Manx Governmen t a u thor it ies w ere i m med iate ly n ot i f ied o f t he f i nds , a nd o n 2 nd J une, 1 977 , H igh Ba i l i ff H . W. C a l low , t he Manx C oroner o f I nquests, h e ld a T reasure T rove i nquest i n C ast le Rushen , a t w h ich t he f i ve c o ins w ere d eclared b y aj ury t o b e " treasure t rove a nd t he p roperty o f o ur L ady t he Queen , L ord o f Man ."

The h oard p assed i n to t he c o l lect ions o f t he

Manx Museu m , t he t wo s choo lboys who ( w ith t he s upport o f t he ir f am il ies ) h ad a cted s o c orrect ly r ece iv ing a r eward o ft he f u l l v a lue o f t he c o ins t hey h ad f ound , wh ich r eward i n t he u nusua l a nd s pec ial c ircu mstances o f t h is d isc overy was s ign if ican t ly i ncreased b y ag enerous g if t f ro m t he F r iends o f t he Manx Museu m. The c o ins a s d iscovered w ere h eav ily p a t ina ted , a nd e ncrusted w ith s urf ace d irt a nd , i n p laces, c orros ion .

As i n t he p ast , t he Manx Museum w as

i ndebted t o P rofessor M ichael Do l ley o f t he Q ueen 's Un ivers ity B el fast , a nd M iss Mar ion Arch iba ld o f t he Br it ish Museum , f or e xpert n um is mat ic a dv ice a nd a ss istance.

P rofessor Do l ley , w hen v is it ing t he I s land f or t he "Man

a nd Env ironmen t i n t he I s le o f Man" S y mpos ium i n Apr i l 1 977 , c on f ir med t he i den t if ica t ion o f t he c o ins a s s terl ing s i lver p enn ies o f Edward Io r Edward I , a nd s ubsequen t ly r eported o n t he c o ins i n d e ta i l. N o c he m ical c lean ing o f t he c o ins c ou ld b e u ndertaken p r ior t o t he T reasure Trove i nquest r eso lv ing t he ir l ega l s tatus.

F o l low ing t he I nques t h owever t he

D epartmen t o f Co ins a nd Meda ls o f t he Br it ish Museum u ndertook t he ir c leani ng a nd c onservat ion , t hough t he ir c ond it ion w as p oor , a nd s ubsequen t ly M iss Arch ibald g ave h er o p in ion o n t he ir p rec ise i den t if icat ion , w ith t he ir m in ts , a s f o l lows : Edward I , t ype Ib 2 , 1 280 , L ondon Edward I , t ype Mc , 1 280-81, Br isto l Edward I , t ype I Vd , 1 281-88 , Can terbury Edward I , t ype D (b , 1 299-1301, Durha m ( K 's R3 ) Edward Io r p oss ib ly I , t ype Xc-e , 1 302-07 , Can terbury

4 26

Fro m t he d ate o ft hese c o ins a nd t he ir p os it ion when f ound i ta ppears v ery l i ke ly t hat t hey w ere h idden i nt he w a l ls o f t he o ld k ee il l ( wh ich b y t hen w ou ld h ave p assed o ut o f u se ) a bou t t he s econd d ecade o f t he 1 4th c en tury . Th is w as av ery t roub led p er iod i n Manx h istory , w hen c on tro l o f t he I s le o f Man w as p ass ing b ackwards a nd f orwards b e tween Eng land a nd S cot land d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he Ang lo-Scott ish w ars, a nd when i nhab itants o f t he I s land w ou ld b e l ikely t ob e h id ing p ersona l t reasure f or s afety. I ti s n ot imposs ib le t o s uggest t hat t he h oard m igh t h ave b een h idden i n 1 316 w hen , o n t he e v idence o f t he Chron ic le k ep t b y t he monks o f Rushen A bbey , t he s ou th o f t he I s le o f Man w as s evere ly p lundered. The C hron ic le 4 s tates t ha t " R ichard d e Mandev il le ...and a b ody o f ma lef actors f rom I reland p u t i n to....Rona ldsway w ith a l arge n u mber o f s h ips, a nd ...demanded e ither a g ran t o f l and , o r as upp ly o f p rov is ions , c a t t le a nd money ....The p eop le r ep l ied t hey wou ld g ive n oth ing , b u t w ere p repared t o meet t he m i nt he o pen f i e ld ....The I r ish a dvanced....aga inst t he Manxmen t i l l t hey c a me a long t he s ide o f Wardfel [ Sou th Barru le ] ...Here t he h ost ile p art ies met a nd f ough t. A t t he f i rst o nset t he Manxmen t urned a nd f l ed , l eav ing n early f orty men d ead o n t he f i eld .

The I r ish p ursued. ..k il l ing a nd wound ing g rea t

n umbers , p lunder ing t he c oun try o f i t s v a luables , a nd d iscover ing a t l e isure much money t hat h ad b een l ong c oncea led i n v ar ious p laces. They c a me a f terw ards t o t he a bbey o f Rushen w h ich t hey p lundered....leav ing a bso lute ly n o th ing.

When t hey h ad s pen t a mon th i n t h is f ash ion t hey l oaded t he ir s h ips

w ith t he c ho ice p lunder o f t he c oun try a nd r eturned h ome." Th is g raph ic, a l most c on te mporary a ccoun t i l lustrates c ond it ions i n t he I s le o f Man a t t he t ime when i ta ppears t hat t h is sma l l h oard o f c o ins w as c oncea led i nt he w a l l o f t he k ee il l a t Ba l layelse.

The Chron ic le a ccoun t r efers

s pec if ica l ly t o t he " d iscover ing a t l e isure" o f much money t ha t h ad b een l ong c oncea led , w ith i t s c lear i mp l ica t ion o f t orture.

The l i t t le h oard a t Bal layelse

w as , h owever, n ot r ecovered e i ther t hen o r s ubsequen t ly ; c ou ld i tb e t ha t i t s owner w as o ne o f t he n early f orty Manxmen l e f t d ead o n t he b att le f i eld?

1 .

The k ee i l l h ad p rev iously b een r estored , a nd t he w a l ls a re s ta ted t o h ave b een r ebu ilt ( J . R . Bruce, K ee il ls a nd Bur ia l G rounds i n t he S head ing o f Rushen , Manx Archaeo log ica l S urvey , V I , 1 968, p . 3 4 ); h owever i ts ee ms c lear t hat t h is must r e la te o n ly t o t he u pper p arts o f t he w a l ls , a nd i n t h is c onnect ion i ts hou ld b e n oted t hat t he f l oor l evel o f t he i n ter ior , p art icu larly a t t he w estern e nd , i s marked ly b elow g round l evel o u ts ide t he k ee i l l.

2 .

Types o f c o in , a nd d a tes o f t ype , b ased o n E arle Fox , H . B . a nd S h irleyFox , J . S . " Num is ma t ic h istory o f t he r e igns o f Edward I , Ia nd I I" ; The B r it ish N um is ma t ic J ourna l , V I ( 1909 ), 1 97-212; V I I ( 1910 ), 9 11 42; V I II ( 1911 ), 1 37-148 ; I X ( 1912 ), 1 81-206 ; X ( 1913 ), 9 5-123. The s ub-d iv isions o f t ype a nd m in t i den t if icat ions a re b ased o n al e t ter f rom M iss M . Arch iba ld , o f 1 5.7.1977.

3 .

" K ing 's Rece iver" :

Dur ing a v acancy o r as e izure t he t e mpora l it ies o f a

b ishop r everted t o t he k ing a nd t he r evenues o f t he s ee w ere a dm in istered b y ar ece iver a ppo in ted b y t he k ing.

4 27

4 .

The Chron icle o f Man a nd t he S udreys , XX I I, 1 874, p p. 1 10-113.

4 28

Vo l. I , The Manx S oc iety Vo l.