Land and Society in Neolithic Orkney, Parts i and ii 9781407390994, 9781407391007, 9780860542193, 9781407317274

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Land and Society in Neolithic Orkney

David Fraser Part i

BAR British Series 117(i) 1983

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D .R. Walker. M.A.

B.A.R.

117 (I), 1983: 'Land and Societ y 1n Neolit hic Orkney' Part I

© David Fraser, 1983.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390994 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407391007 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860542193 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407317274 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542193 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

t o t he m emory o f N eil M cCallum

1 957-1980

S UMMARY L and a nd S ociety i n N eolithic O rkney T his r eport r epresents t he r esults o f e xtensive f ield-work i n O rkney, s upported b y b ibliographic r esearch a nd t he a pplication o f q uantitative a nalyses. I t i s a c ontribution t o o ur k nowledge o f t he r elationships b etween t he b uilders a nd u sers o f c hambered c airns, a nd t he l and o n w hich t hey l ived . P art O ne, " Evolutions", d escribes t he v arious t hemes o f p revious r esearch d etermining t he f orm a nd s ubject m atter o f t he r eport. T hroughout , t he p hilosophical s tance a dopted i s p ositivist , u sing t he s tandard m odel o f s cientific e xplanation , a nd r elativist , a ccepting t hat t he v alidity o f e xplanations c an v ary o ver t ime a nd b etween p laces. T he l and o f O rkney h as u ndergone m uch c hange a nd i s a p alimpsest o f p ast a ctivity , b ut t he c limate, c oastal c onfiguration , a nd n atural v egetation a re l argely s imilar t oday t o t hat p revailing f our m illennia a go. O rkney a nd i ts N eolithic s ites h ave a ttracted m uch a rchaeological a ttention , i ncluding e xplorations o f 3 1 c hambered c airns, a nd t here h as b een m uch r ecent r esearch o n t he l ocation o f c hambered c airns i n t he l andscape. T hus O rkney i s a n i deal p lace t o p ursue f urther r esearch i nto t he r elationship o f p rehistoric p eoples a nd t he l and. P art T Wo, " The B uildings", i s a n e xploration o f t he p hysical s tructures a nd a rtefacts l eft b ehind b y t he N eolithic O rcadians. A g roup o f 7 6 c hambered c airns i s e xamined i n d etail, w ith t he e xamination s eparating c haracteristics o f t he c airn a nd c hamber. A c luster a nalysis o f e ight v ariables p roduces a f our-part c lassification o f t he s ites w hich, u nlike p revious c lassifications, i ncorporates i nformation o n t he c airn i tself, a nd o n r elative s ize o f t he m onuments. O ther m onuments o f t he s ame a ge i n O rkney i nclude f our s ettlement s ites, t wo h enges, a nd a n umber o f s tanding s tones. T here a re t wo d ifferent m aterial c ultures e vident, o f w hich t he p rime i dentifiers a re t he p ottery s tyles o f U nstan w are a nd G rooved W are, b ut t he d istinction b etween t he t wo i s b lurred , b oth s patially a nd c hronologically. T here i s n othing t o s uggest t hat t he m aterial g oods f ound i n c hambered c airns a re o f a g rossly d ifferent n ature f rom t hose f ound a t o ther N eolithic s ites. P art T hree, " The L and", b egins w ith a l isting o f a ll t he p ossible p hysical a nd o rganic r esources w hich c ould h ave b een a vailable i n t he N eolithic p eriod . Ap ivotal c hapter l ooks, w ith t he a id o f c ase s tudies i n E day , a t t he w ays t hat t he l and o f O rkney h as c hanged s ince t hen , a nd t he w ays t hat p rehistoric p atterns c an b e d istorted . Ad etailed l ocational a nalysis o f t he c hambered c airns, c ulminating i n ap rincipal c omponents a nalysis, r eveals t wo d istinct m odels o f o riginal l ocation. T he f irst, d escribed b y C hilde i n 1 942 , i s p articularly s trong a mong s mall r ound c airns w ith s imple c hambers, a nd t ypically c onsists o f a h illslope l ocation o n m arginal a gricultural l and. T he s econd t ypically c onsists o f a l ocation o n g lacial t ill w ith w ell-developed p odzolic s oils, a nd w ith e xtensive v iews o f t he l and w ithin f ive k ilometres.

i v

P art F our, " The P eople" c oncentrates o n t he b uilders a nd u sers o f c hambered c airns. T he m ortuary e vidence, p articularly f rom t he s ites o f Q uanterness a nd I sbister, s uggests t hat p eople o f a ll a ges a nd b oth s exes w ere d eposited i n t he m onuments, b ut t hat l ife e xpectancy w as s hort. T he e ffort e xpended i n b uilding c hambered c airns i s m easured b y t he s urrogate m ethod o f e stimating t he v olume o f e ach c airn. T his r eveals t hat t he l argest c airns h ave a d ispersed d istribution . S ome o f t he m echanisms o f m anipulation i n N eolithic O rkney a re e xamined b y l ooking a t s ymbols a nd t heir m eaning . T he o rientation o f t he m onuments s uggest a n i nterest i n t he s ky a nd w ith p oints i n t he s outh-east a nd w est. T he d emarcation o f s pace w ithin c hambered c airns i s v aried: s uch c omplexity m ay m irror a n e quivalent c omplexity i n t heir u se. T he a nimal b one r eports f rom s ome e xcavated s ites r eveal a p reponderance o f t he b ones o f a s ingle s pecies, s uggesting a t otemic a ssociation b etween t he s pecies a nd t he u sers o f t he c airn . T he l ast c hapter o f t his p art e xamines t hree a lternative r econstructions o f t he s ocial o rganisation o f N eolithic O rkney. T he r eport c oncludes w ith a s peculative a ttempt t o s ynthesise a ll t he a vailable i nformation . I t i s s uggested t hat c hambered c airns w ere m eeting p laces f or t he c ommunity a nd w ere a n e ver-present a nd o rdinary p art o f t he l andscape o f e veryday e xperience. C elebrations c onnected w ith i mportant e vents i n t he f arming y ear m ay h ave b een h eld t here. I t i s a lso s uggested t hat f arming c ommunities s urvived b y p ractising e xogamy , b ut m aintained t heir i ndividual e xistence, a nd c ontrol o f r esources i ncluding l and , b y a t otemic l ink w ith t he p lace o f b irth a nd d eath i n w hich t he c hambered c airn w as a c entral f eature.

C ONTENTS V OLUME O NE S ummary C ontents A cknowledgements C onventions

i v v ii x i x ii

P ART O NE E VOLUTIONS C hapter 1 I ntroduction 1 .1

S cope a nd o bjectives

3

C hapter 2 T he N atural L andscape o f O rkney 2 .1

T he e volution o f t he n atural l andscape

.

•

1 3

T he e volution o f t he c ultural l andscape . ▪

3 1

C hapter 3 T he C ultural L andscape o f O rkney 3 .1

C hapter 4 T he A rchaeology o f N eolithic O rkney: 4 .1 4 .2 4 .3 4 .4

a H istory

I ntroduction 1 792-1901: G entlemen a nd p ioneers 1 913-1955: P rofessionals a nd a mateurs 1 958-1981: R ecent e xplorations

3 5 3 8 4 3 4 7

C hapter 5 T he L ocation o f C hambered C airns 5 .1 P ART T WO

Ar eview o f r ecent w ork

5 1

T HE B UILDINGS

C hapter 6 T he C hambered C airns 6 .1 6 .2 6 .3 6 .3.1 6 .3.2 6 .3.3 6 .4 6 .4.1 6 .4 .2 6 .4.3 6 .5 6 .6

P roblems o f d efinition C ompilation o f g azeteer a nd d ata T he C airns C onstruction S ize a nd s hape S ummary T he C hambers C onstruction S ize a nd s hape S ummary C ertainty o f c lassification C luster a nalysis

6 5 7 0 7 4 7 7 8 7 9 3 9 8 1 22 1 25 1 25

C hapter 7 T he O ther B uildings 7 .1 7 .2 7 .3 7 .4

I ntroduction T he s ettlements T he h enges T he s tanding s tones

v ii

1 39 1 39 1 47 1 52

C hapter 8 T he M aterial C ulture 8 .1 8 .2 8 .3 8 .4 8 .5 8 .6 8 .7 8 .8

I ntroduction P ottery W orked b one a nd r elated s ub tance W orked f lint a nd c hert W orked s tone U nworked a nimal r emains P lant r emains O ne o r t wo c ultures -)

1 55 1 56 1 69 1 69 1 72 1 75 1 80 1 80

C hapter 9 R elative T ypologies a nd A bsolute C hronologies 9 .1 9 .2 9 .3 9 .4 9 .5 9 .6 9 .7 9 .8 P ART T HREE

T ypology , s eriation , c hronology A nderson's t ypology C hilde 's P entland c ulture T he R oyal C ommission 's t ypology P iggott 's t ypological s eriation H enshall's t ypology R enfrew 's c hronology a nd t ypology C omparison a nd c ritique

1 85 1 85 1 88 1 89 1 91 1 95 2 01 2 17

T HE L AND

C hapter 1 0 T he R esources o f O rkney 1 0.1 1 0.2 1 0.3 1 0.3.1 1 0.3.2

I ntroduction P hysical r esources O rganic r esources P lant r esources A nimal r esources

2 23 2 24 2 27 2 29

C hapter 1 1 T he C hanging o f t he L and 1 1.1 1 1.2 1 1.3 1 1.4

T he n ature o f a rchaeological p atterns P rocesses o f r ecognition S ubsequent f ormation p rocesses P ostscript

2 35 2 40 2 46 2 61

C hapter 1 2 L ocational A nalysis 1 2.1 1 2.2 1 2.2.1 1 2.2.2 1 2.2.3 1 2.2.4 1 2.2.5 1 2.2.6 1 2.2.7 1 2.2.8 1 2.2.9 1 2.2.10 1 2.3 1 2.3.1 1 2.3.2

I ntroduction Au nivariate a pproach G eology S oils L and U se C apability T opography V egetation A ltitude V isibility D rainage A pproaches C oasts

2 63 2 63 2 69 2 79 2 87 2 89 2 91 2 98 3 03 3 04 3 06

Am ultivariate a pproach I ntroduction P rincipal C omponents A nalysis:

v iii

3 12

preliminaries ••••........... Principal Components Analysis: results .....••.............. Principal Components Analysis: cluster III .•••............. Summary ...............................

12.3.3 12.3.4 12.3.5

315 316 320 324

VOLUME TWO PART FOUR

THE PFDPLE

Chapter 13 'Ihe Burial Evidence 13.1 13.2 13.3 13. 4

Possibilities of the evidence ............. 'Ihe early excavations ..................... Q.Ianterness and Isbister .................. Evidence from sites other than chambered cairns ..........................

327 333 338 345

01apter 14 'Ihe tvEasurement of Labour 14.1 14.2 14.3

Problems in the measurement of labour ..... Cairns: volumes and worker-hours .......... SUmmary •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

34 7 349 360

Chapter 15 Sky, Space, and Spirals: the Symbols of Neolithic Orkney 15.1 15.2 15.2.1 15.2.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6

Introduction ............................. . Orientation Orientation of cairn, chamber, and passage .........•.................. Orientation of visibility .............. Intervisibility ........................... 'Ihe demarcation of space within chambered cairns .....•.................... Animal bones and totemism ....•............ Decorated stones

363 364 371 379 387 396

401

Chapter 16 Social Organisation: some Alternative Reconstructions 16.1 16.2 16.3 PART FIVE

Farmers and megalithic missionaries ....... Farmers and astronomer-priests •........... Farmers in a segmentary society ...........

409 410 413

SPECULATIONS

Cl1apter 1 7 Synthesis :md Speculation 17.1 17.2 17.3

Introduction .............................. 'Ihe cognitive basis of society ............ 'Ihe organisation of society ...............

ix

421 421 426

A ppendix A A G azeteer o f t he C hambered C airns o f O rkney

4 37

A ppendix B A L ist o f U ncertain S ites

5 39

A ppendix C A L ist o f S tanding S tones

5 47

A ppendix D O n M easurement

5 49

A ppendix E D escription o f I nexact C lasses

•

5 51

A ppendix F T he C utpoint I ndex

5 53

L IST O F R EFERENCES

5 55

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T his r eport w as o riginally s ubmitted i n 1 982 a s a P hD t hesis t o t he U niversity o f G lasgow. T he w ork w as s upported b y a S cholarship , a nd t wo R esearch A wards f or f ield-work, f rom t he C arnegie T rust f or t he U niversities o f S cotland: Ia m i ndebted t o t he T rust f or i ts f inancial a ssistance. I

w as

f ortunate

t o

h ave

t he

b enefit

o f

t wo

a cademic

s upervisors. M r A lex M orrison w as p atient a nd h elpful a t e very s tage o f t he r esearch. M r L ionel M asters g ave f reely o f h is g reat p ersonal k nowledge o f c hambered c airns, a nd was a lways e nthusiastic a nd u nstinting w ith a ssistance. B oth c ontributed t o t he i deas which f ollow, a lthough n either m ay r ecognise t he g enesis o f t hose i deas. T hree works c ontributed m ost t o t his r eport. M iss A udrey H enshall ' s T he C hambered T ombs o f S cotland p rovided a n i ndispensable b ackground. M iss H enshall a lso a llowed f ree a ccess t o a l arge q uantity o f u npublished i nformation a nd gave m e i nvaluable a ssistance i n f ield-work w hen a ccompanying h er a nd M r J ames D avidson o n v isits t o s ites i n O rkney. P rofessor C olin R enfrew's r esearch, p ublished a s I nvestigations i n O rkney , p rovided t he i nitial s timulus f or t he work a nd I a m g rahful f or h is s ubsequent a ssistance a nd c riticism. M r J ohn H edges a llowed f ree u se o f h is unpublished r eport o n I sbister a nd d iscussed i ts c ontents a t l ength. S everal

i nstitutions

g ave

a ssistance

i n

t he

c ollating

o f

i nformation. Ig ratefully a cknowledge t he h elp o f t he o fficers a nd s taff o f: t he A rchaeology D ivision o f t he O rdnance S urvey, t he N ational M onuments R ecord, t he S oil S urvey D epartment o f t he M acaulay I nstitute f or S oil S cience, K irkwall P ublic L ibrary, M useum, a nd t he O rkney H eritage S ociety.

T ankerness H ouse

I n a ddition t o t he a bove, I a m v ery g rateful t o s cholars w ho g ave m e w ritten i nformation i n a dvance p ublications, o r w ho c ontributed t o t he d evelopment

t he f ollowing o f t heir o wn o f t he i deas

c ontained h erein: P rofessor L eslie A lcock, J ohn B arrett, A ubrey B url, D r D avid V C larke, D r D onald D avidson , H olly B urton D uncan , D r N oel F ojut, A ndrew F oxon , D r B ill H anson , D r R aymond L amb , D r E uan M acKie, P rofessor D onald M einig , C hristine P erry, D r I an R alston , D r A nna R itchie, D r G rah a m R itchie, D r C live R uggles, D r R alph S anders, N iall S harples, D r E lizabeth S later, B everley S mith, a nd D r J ohn S S mith. T he f ollowing i ndividuals a nd o rganisations h ave

k indly

g iven

p ermission t o r eproduce d iagrams: D r D A D avidson , R L J ones, a nd E dinburgh U niversity P ress ( Table 2 .5), N ature C onservancy C ouncil ( Table 2 .2 a nd F igure 1 2.26),

P rofessor A

C

R enfrew

( Figure

5 .1),

P rofessor A C R enfrew a nd t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon ( Figures 5 .3, 5 .5, 7 .5, 9 .22, 9 .23, 1 1.2, a nd 1 3.9), R outledge a nd K egan P aul ( Figure 7 .1), t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland ( Figures 7 .2 a nd 7 .3), D r J N G R itchie a nd t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland ( Figure 7 .6), R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient a nd H istorical M onuments o f S cotland ( Figure 9 .2), E dinburgh U niversity P ress ( Figure 9 .7), C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology ( Figure 1 1.1), N iall S harples P ress ( Figure 1 5.25). T he p lans o f O RK 1 8,

( Figures 1 5.22

O RK T 9,

O RK T 10 ,

a nd

1 5.23),

O RK T 14,

C larendon

O RK T 16,

T 20 i n A ppendix A w ere c onstructed w ith t he a id o f unpublished b y M iss A udrey H enshall. x i

a nd O RK p lans

C ONVENTIONS 1 .

R adiocarbon d ates

A s i s n ow c ustomary i n a rchaeological w riting , a bbreviations a re u sed t o r efer t o a bsolute d ates:

t he

f ollowing

b c: u ncalibrated r adiocarbon y ears b efore C hrist b p: u ncalibrated r adiocarbon y ears b efore t he p resent

( =AD 1 950)

B C :

c alibrated r adiocarbon y ears o r c alendar y ears b efore C hrist

B P:

c alibrated r adiocarbon y ears o r c alendar p resent.

G enerally, b e o r b p.

y ears

b efore

a rguments i n t he t ext a re c ouched i n t erms o f

T he g raphical d isplay o f r adiocarbon d ates i n F igures 9 .20 i s a s r ecommended i n W arner ( 1975). 2 .

t he

y ears

9 .15

t o

S ite n umbering

T he c onvention a dopted f or m egalithic s ites i n P owell e t a l. ( 1972: 3 12-313) i s u sed t hroughout.

t he r eferencing o f B ritish ( 1969: x ix-xxi) a nd H enshall T his c onsists o f a t hree l etter

a rea c ode a nd a r unning n umber f or e very s ite: t hus, M aes H owe ( ORK 3 6). C ertain s ites h ave b een g iven a t emporar n umber: t hus, V estra F iold ( ORK T i). T hese t emporary r eferences a re n ot i ntended t o a ssume p ermanent c urrency.

x ii

P ART ONE

EVOLUTIONS

C HAPTER ONE : 1 .1.

I NTRODUCTION

S COPE A ND O BJECTIVES

T his w ork i s c oncerned w ith f urthering o ur k nowledge o f t he e arly p rehistory o f O rkney. T he p resent I sland A rea i s p olitically a nd e conomically a ffiliated t o S cotland , t he U nited K ingdom , a nd t he E uropean E conomic C ommunity , a nd i ncludes t he i sland o f S wona a nd t he P entland S kerries b ut e xcludes S troma

a nd

F air

I sle:

t he

m odern

boundaries a re u sed h ereafter t o d elimit t he i sland-group . P hysically , O rkney i s s eparated f rom t he S cottish m ainland b y t he 1 0 k m w ide P entland F irth , i s 8 0 k m s outh-west o f t he S hetland M ainland, 3 00 k m south-east o f F aroe, 4 80 k m w est o f N orway, a nd i s e quidistant f rom I celand a nd t he n orth E uropean p lain ( Figure 1 .1). W ithin O rkney , t here a re a n umber o f b uildings k nown a s c hambered c airns o r c hambered t ombs, w ith t he c ommon c haracteristics o f a s tone c airn e nclosing a r elatively s mall, a nd f ormerly a ccessible, c hamber. T hese c airns, m apped i n F igure 1 .2 a nd d escribed i n A ppendix A , a re c onventionally a ttributed t o t he N eolithic p eri o d , a nd w ere b uilt a nd u sed i n t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia b e ( uncalibrated r adiocarbon y ears b efore C hrist) b y a p eople who h ad k nowledge o f f arming b ut d id n ot h ave e xtensive u se o f m etal t ools. F igure 1 .3 s hows t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns i n S cotland. A t t he p resent t ime t here a re s omewhat l ess t han a t housand k nown: t he d istribution i s d istinct a nd a voids t he eastern l owlands s outh o f t he M oray F irth w here N eolithic m onuments m ay t ake o ther f orms. I t i s d ense c ompared w ith t he n umber o f k nown s ettlement s ites o f t he p eriod. C hambered c airns a re p art o f a h uman t radition t hat i s r epresented i n m any p arts o f E urope. U nder t he g eneric t erm " megalithic t omb" t hey a re f ound f rom S hetland t o C ornwall a nd t hroughout I reland , i n s outhern S candinavia a nd n orthern G ermany , H olland , t hroughout F rance, a round t he I berian c oast , i n p arts o f I taly , a nd i n a ll t he m ajor i slands o f t he w estern M editerranean ( Figure 1 .4). T he c hambered c airns o f O rkney w hich f orm

t he

m ajor

s ource

o f

d ata

f or

t his

work ,

a re

t hus

r epresentatives o f a t ype o f building which i s w idespread i n E urope. A s w ith a ny a rchaeological s tudy , t his w ork i s p articular s cales o f a nalysis. F igure 1 .5 s hows s ome o f o f e nquiry c overed b y a rchaeology t ogether

w ith

t he

f ocused o n t he f ields

s patial

s cale

w ith which e ach f ield i s p rimarily c oncerned. T hus s ome a rchaeologists h ave c oncentrated o n s ingle s ites a nd h ave p ublished e xcavation r eports b ased o n objects o f t he o rder o f 1 0 t o 1 03 m i n g reatest d imension. T his does n ot m ean t hat o bjects o f s maller o r g reater m agnitude d o n ot f eature i n t he r eport b ut r ather t hat t he g reatest a ttention i s p aid t o s tatements a bout t he s ingle s ite. S imilarly , s yntheses o f a rchaeological i nformation r elating t o a c ontinent d o n ot i gnore o bjects o f s maller s ize b ut d o a sk d ifferent q uestions, a nd s uggest d ifferent a nswers, a pplying t o t he s cale o f a c ontinent. T his w ork i s c oncerned w ith a s mall r egion - O rkney a nd , a s i ndicated b y t he h atched b ox i n F igure 1 .5, w ill c oncentrate o n t he d escription a nd e xplanation o f t he a rchaeological

t erritories

w ithin O rkney a nd o f t he r egion a s a w hole. I t c oncerned w ith s mall a rtefacts, s ingle s ites,

p rimarily c ontinental

3

i s

n ot o r

F igure 1 .1

T he p osition o f O rkney, K irkwall. 4

w ith 2 00km c ircles c entred on

[ ·���·,\ d=7 ·" L 1

•

Chambered Cairn

A

Settlement

Q

Henge

land I O

= ..�

�

L

~·-·

(J

i..-........_,...

THE CHAMBERED CAIRNS

Hoy

AND OTHER EARLY PREHISTORIC

OF

Figure l.2

SITES

ORKNEY

The chambered cairns and other prehistoric sites of orkney

5

F igure 1 .3

T he c hambered c airns o f S cotland.

6

C oncen tra t ions o f m ega l i th ic b u il d ing s

F igure 1 .4

T he m egalithic t ombs o f E urope.

7

F ea ture/ S truc ture

w ith h atched t his work.

( DC

L . )

• : .

• : .

p atterns. T hese s cales w ill b e c onsidered b ecause n o a rchaeological s cale f unctions i ndependently o f a ll t he o thers, b ut t he m ajor t hrust o f t he work w ill b e t o a sk q uestions a nd t o s uggest a nswers a ppropriate t o t he s cale o f O rkney a s aw hole. J ust a s a ny a rchaeological s tudy m ust c oncentrate p rimarily c ertain s patial s cales o f a nalysis, s o w ith t emporal s cales a nalysis. F igure 1 .6 s hows s ome o f t he f ields e nquiry a nd t he t ime s cales a ssociated w ith

-

o n o f

o f a rchaeological t hem . T hus s ome

a rchaeologists a re c oncerned w ith t he c onstruction o f a rtefacts , s uch a s f lint t ools, w hich m ay b e m ade i n a f ew m inutes o r h ours. O thers a re c oncerned w ith e volution o f s ocial s ystems, s uch a s t hat o f e mpires w ith a h istory o f s everal h undred y ears. A gain s uch i ndividual s tudies m ust n ot i gnore p rocesses o f s horter o r l onger d uration b ut t he p rimary f ocus o f a ttention i s d irected a t a p articular m agnitude o f t ime , a nd w ill a rrive a t c onclusions a ppropriate t o t hat m agnitude. A s i ndicated b y t he h atched b ox i n F igure 1 .6, t his w ork i s c oncerned w ith p rocesses o perating o ver a l l g reatest t ime o f a bout 1 07 t o l o seconds, o r f rom l ess t han a y ear t o m ore t han a t housand y ears. I t i s n ot s pecifically c oncerned w ith ( although d oes n ot i gnore) p rocesses o perating o ver v ery s hort t ime p eriods o r o ver m any m illennia. T hus t he m ajor objects o f s tudy i n t his work a re c hambered c airns: t hey w ill b e c onsidered a s a g roup w ithin t he r egion o f O rkney, a nd t hey w ill be c onsidered o ver t he m illennium o r m ore o f t heir u se b y a N eolithic g roup o f p eople. W ithin t hese b road b oundaries o f s pace a nd t ime , t he work f urther f ocuses o n t wo o bjects o f a rchaeological i nterest: l and a nd s ociety. L and i s, s elf-evidently , o ne o f t he m ost f undamental o f r esources u tilised b y h umans. I t i s t he m atrix o f s helter a nd s ustenance: w ithout l and h umanity w ould n ot e xist i n i ts p resent f orm. A s s uch, v ariations i n l and a nd i ts quality f or d ifferent p urposes a re a g reat c onstraint on t he p atterns o f h uman l ife. I t i s t he o bjective h ere t o d escribe a nd e xplain t he n ature o f l and i n N eolithic O rkney a nd t he p atterns o f l ife a ssociated w ith t hat

l and.

T hese patterns c annot b e e xplored w ithout r eference t o t he p eople o f N eolithic O rkney s ince t he c oncept o f l and a nd i ts u se d oes n ot e xist t o u s o utwith h uman p erception. T hus t he g roupings o f i ndividuals a nd t he t ransactions b etween g roups - i n s hort t he s ocial o rganisation - o f t he i slands i n N eolithic t imes m ay n ot b e s eparated f rom t he s tudy o f l and. A ccordingly , a s econd o bjective h ere i s t o e xplore t he o rganisation o f s ociety a nd t o s uggest w ays i n w hich t hat s ociety o perated o ver t ime. T he w ork i s a rranged i n f ive p arts. " Evolutions", c ontains i ntroductory m aterial

P art a nd

O ne, e ntitled s yntheses o f

p revious a rchaeological s tudies. I t e xplores t he e volution o f t he n atural a nd c ultural l andscapes o f O rkney , p resents a h istory o f a rchaeologists w ho h ave worked i n t he i slands,

a nd

r eviews

t he

n ew

f ield o f l ocational a nalysis o f c hambered c airns. T he n ext t hree p arts c omprise t he m ajor b ody o f w ork a nd c onsider " The B uildings", " The L and", a nd " The P eople" o f N eolithic O rkney. P art T wo d escribes a nd c lassifies t he p hysical s tructure o f t he c airns a nd e xamines t he o ther a rtefactual e vidence f rom N eolithic O rkney. P art T hree c onsiders t he p otential r esources o f t he i slands, d iscusses t he ways

9

7 : 5 ( 1 . ) , C U • 4 ) " 2 _ C

0

4 . ) H H 4 ) W ( 1 ) H H WS 1 a ) r 1 4 ) HH 3

rC

U

C. ) O 0 O

( 1 )

mm • . 0 0

M HH E

w

o

r c i u

H M M 0

0 E

r ( 54

i n w hich t he l and o f O rkney h as c hanged s ince t he e arliest s ettlers, a nd a nalyses t he s etting o f t he c hambered c airns i n t he l and. T he p eople o f t he c airns a re d iscussed i n P art F our b y m eans o f t heir p hysical r emains, t he l abour i nvested i n t heir m onuments, t heir s ymbols a nd b eliefs, a nd b y c onsidering a nd c riticising s ome a lternative r econstructions o f t he o rganisation o f t heir s ociety. F inally , P art F ive , e ntitled " Speculations", a ttempts t o s ynthesise a ll t he i nformation a nd c onclusions o f t he f irst f our p arts a nd p resent a c oherent a nd r easonable s tatement c onnecting t he c hambered c airns t o t he l and a nd s ociety o f N eolithic O rkney . A ny c ommunication b etween h umans w ill be l ess e ffective i f

t he

p hilosophical l anguage o f e ither p arty i s n ot r ecognised a nd u nderstood by t he o ther. T hroughout e very c ommunication t here a re i mplicit r eferences t o t he s ystem o f b elief h eld b y t hose t aking p art , but m ost t ransfers o f i nformation a nd i deas a re m ade m ore e ffective b y a n e xplicit s tatement o f t he p hilosophical p osition o f t he c ommunicants. W hat f ollows i s n ecessarily c ompressed a nd i ncomplete b ut i t m ay s erve a s a b ackground t o t he way k nowledge i s t reated i n t he f ollowing p ages. C entral t o t he t reatment o f k nowledge i n t his work i s a d octrine which h as r eceived m uch a ttention f rom t he p hilosophers o f t he l ast c entury - t he d octrine o f r elativism. T his would r eject t he n otion t hat t here i s a n a bsolute t ruth a nd would r eplace i t w ith t he n otion t hat t here a re m any r elative t ruths, e ach s ubsisting i n a d ifferent t ime a nd p lace. T hat i s, a ny s tatement w hich i s t hought , u ttered, o r written i s r easonable a nd s atisfactory f or o nly c ertain t imes and c ertain p laces, a nd m ay b e u nreasonable a nd unsatisfactory a t o ther t imes a nd p laces. S uch v iews a re w ell e xpressed i n t he f ollowing q uotation: " ...the i nfluential p hilosopher

( or a rchaeologist)

m ust

' be

i n t he p osition t o s upply h is g eneration w ith p recisely t he d octrine m ost c ongenial t o t hem '. W e c an o nly h ope n o f uture h istorian o f a rchaeology w ill g o o n t o s ay, t hat a ny o f u s s hare, a s W illey s aid o f t he m en o f t he e ighteenth-century E nlightenment, ' the s ense o f b eing a t l ast i n p ossession o f t he t ruth , w hich g laddened t his e nviable a ge'" ( Piggott,

c lear:

1 981:

1 89)

The a pplication o f t he d octrine o f r elativism t o h istory i s a ny s tatement a bout e vents i n t he p ast i s r elative t o , a nd

h olds t rue f or ,

t he t ime a nd p lace w here i t i s m ade.

W e

c an

n ever

h ope t o r econstruct t he p ast a s i t w as - t hat t ruth h as v anished w ith t ime - but we c an h ope t o r econstruct t he p ast i n o ur i mage, a p ast w hich i s t rue ( in t he s ense o f m eaningful, s atisfactory , a nd c omplete)

f or u s

i n

t he

h ere-and-now .

S uch

r econstructions

a re

n ecessarily s ubject t o r evision a s t he h ere-and-now c hanges p osition , b ut t heir v alidity i s u ndoubted f or a g roup o f p eople

i ts ( one

h istorian o r e very h istorian) a nd f or a l ength o f t ime ( a f ew m inutes o r m any d ecades). T he a im o f t his work i s t o a rrive a t r econstructions o f t he p atterns o f l ife i n N eolithic O rkney w hich w ill have v alidity f or a s m any p eople a s p ossible a nd f or a s l ong a t ime a s p ossible. N evertheless i t i s r ecognised t hat a ny s tatements m ade h erein a re s ubject t o r eplacement b y t he t ruth o f a nother t ime

1 1

a nd p lace. T he s econd m ajor p hilosophical

t hread

i n

t his

work

i s

t he

s earch f or g eneral l aws o f h uman b ehaviour. T wo q ualifications m ight b e m ade t o t his s tatement. I n t he f irst p lace, t he s earch i s h ere f or l ocal l aws o f h uman b ehaviour, l aws w hich a re g eneral t o t he s cale o f t he e vents u nder c onsideration. I n t his c ase i t i s t he o bjective t o m ake g eneral s tatements a bout t he N eolithic p eriod i n O rkney. I t i s n ot t he objective t o m ake g eneral s tatements a bout t he N eolithic p eriod i n E urope, o r a bout h umanity a s a w hole. I n t he s econd p lace, t he p ositivist n otions o f h ypothesis t esting a nd p robabilistic s tatements w ill b e e mployed a s a c onvenient w ay o f s tructuring a rguments a nd p rovoking c riticism. T here a re c ertainly o ther ways o f doing t his b ut t he s tandard m odel o f s cientific e xplanation i s w idely u nderstood a nd r emains a p owerful m ethod o f e xplication i n a ll d isciplines. T he f ollowing quotation d raws

t ogether

a nd

i lluminates

m odified p ositivism i n w hich t he universe o f universal s tatements d efined a s h aving l imits i n t ime a nd b oundaries i n s pace:

t his i s

" In t he n atural s ciences l aws a re s upposed t o b e u nrestricted a nd universal s tatements, c learly h istorical g eneralisations a re n ot v alid f or a ll t imes a nd a ll p laces a nd t hey a re n ot t herefore universal a nd u nrestricted s tatements...The g eneralisations w hich t he h istorian r efers t o a re t herefore m ere g eneralisations a nd c annot by t he c anons o f s cientific e xplanation b e r egarded a s l aws....The t wo r eplies t o t his c laim a re worth n oting. F irst, t he g eneralisations u sed b y h istorians m ight b e r egarded a s f irst-stage e mpirical g eneralisations which m ight , a t s ome l ater d ate, b e s ubsumed under m ore s ophisticated l aws o f u niversal v alidity. S econd , t he p roblem o f l ocalised g eneralisation i s c ommon t o m any o ther a reas o f n atural a nd s ocial s cience, a nd t here a re s igns t hat t he n otions o f universality o ften d eveloped b y p hilosophers o f s cience a re t oo r igorous f or m ost p urposes a nd t herefore r equire s ome m odification." ( Harvey , 1 969: 5 3) L ocalised g eneralisations, o r c ommonplace i n h istorical w riting.

c onditional s tatements, a re a I n t he p resent c ontext t heir

a pplication i s c lear: i t i s p ossible t o g eneralise a bout t he k nown c hambered c airns o f O rkney. B eyond t his, s uch s tatements may a lso be a pplicable t o o ther r egions o f N eolithic E urope - b ut s uch e xpanded g eneralisations a re o utwith t he s cope o f t his w ork. T b s ummarise t his

h ighly

c ompressed

e xposition ,

i t

i s

t he

o bjective i n t he f ollowing c hapters t o u se t he s tandard m odel o f s cientific e xplanation a s d eveloped i n t he l ast c entury b y p ositivist p hilosophers t o a rrive a t s tatements w hich have c onditional v alidity w ithin t he s tated l imits o f p robability , a nd w ithin t he s tated b ounds o f s pace a nd t ime.

1 2

C HAPTER TWO : 2 .1.

T HE N ATURAL L ANDSCAPE O F O RKNEY

T HE E VOLUTION O F T HE N ATURAL L ANDSCAPE

T he l andscape o f O rkney i s n ot a " natural" l andscape, i n t he s ense o f i t owing n othing t o t he h and o f h umanity , b ut t here a re e lements o f t he l andscape w hich o we m ore t o g eological, g eomorphological, a nd c limatic f actors o f f ormation t han t o a ny o ther . T his c hapter w ill d iscuss t hese e lements a nd a ttempt t o d escribe h ow t hey h ave e volved o ver t ime. P erhaps t he b est s ingle s ource f or t he t opic i s " The E nvironment o f O rkney" ( Davidson a nd J ones, f orthcoming). T he f undamental s haper o f a ny l and s urface

i s

t he

underlying

g eology. I n c omparison t o S hetland , t he g eology o f O rkney i s n ot c omplex, c onsisting l argely o f O ld R ed S andstone. T he s tratigraphical a nd s tructural o utlines a re s hown i n F igure 2 .1 t aken f rom M ykura e t a l. ( 1976: 1 0). T he f ollowing s ummary i s f rom t he s ame s ource. T he o ldest r ocks i n O rkney a re

f ound

i n

t he

W est

M ainland ,

a round Y esnaby a nd S tromness, a nd o n t he i sland o f G raemsay. T his b asement c omplex c onsists o f m etamorphic r ocks o f M oinian t ype a nd s ome i gneous g ranites o f C aledonian t ype b ut a re o nly e xposed i n s mall a reas. T he v ast m ajority o f t he i sland-group c onsists o f s edimentary r ocks w ith a n o ccasional v olcanic i ntrusion. T he s edimentary r ocks b elong e xclusively t o t he O ld R ed S andstone s equence a nd may b e d ivided i nto t hree g roups a ccording t o a ge: t he L ower , M iddle, a nd U pper O ld R ed S andstone. O f t hese, t he L ower a nd U pper g roups a re o f l imited a real e xtent. T he L ower O ld R ed S andstone i s r estricted

t o

s mall

a reas

a round

t he

e xposures

o f

b asement c omplex. T he U pper O ld R ed S andstone i s c onfined t o t he s outh i sle o f H oy b ut i s i n p laces u p t o 1 000 m t hick. T he H oy S andstones c onsist o f r ed , p ink , a nd y ellow s andstones w ith i ntermediate bands o f m arl a nd a re underlain w ith b asalt l avas a nd t uffs. T he

M iddle

O ld

R ed

S andstone

m ay

b e

s ubdivided

s tratigraphically i nto s everal l ayers. T he o ldest l ayers a re r espectively t he S tromness F lags ( found t hroughout t he W est M ainland , i n G raemsay a nd i n n orth H oy) a nd t he R ousay F lags ( widespread t hroughout t he n orth i sles, s outhern-most s outh i sles). s equences o f s andstones,

t he c entral a nd e astern M ainland , a nd t he T hese l ayers c onsist o f f inely b edded s iltstones a nd m udstones. W ithin t he

S tromness F lags i s f ound t he S andwick F ish B ed ,

w hich

h as

p roduced

m any e xamples o f f ossil f ish. T he y oungest l ayers o f M iddle O ld R ed S andstone, t he E day B eds, ( found i n E day , c entral a nd e astern M ainland a nd t he n orthern s outh i sles) m ay b e d ivided i nto L ower, M iddle,

a nd U pper E day S andstones s eparated b y

t he

E day

F lags

a nd

E day M arls. T he s edimentary s tratigraphy o f O rkney i s s ummarised i n T able 2 .2. I n a ddition t o t he s edimentary r ocks, t here a re o f v olcanic i ntrusions s pread t hroughout t he i slands.

s mall T hese

n umbers i nclude

d ykes a nd s ills o f c amptonite, m onochiquite, b ostonite, a nd d olerite. T here a re a lso s mall v olcanic v ents, p rincipally l ocated i n t he s outh

1 3

I

Hoy S ands tone [ day

B asemen t

R ousay

F lags

S tromness

F igure 2 .1

Co mp lex

B eds M idd le >O ld R ed S ands tone

F ault

F lags

T he g eology o f O rkney 1 4

( after M ykura e t a l.,

1 976).

STA GE

L IT H OST RA T I G R A PHI C UNI T

F I SH FA U N A

ET C .

HOY SA N DST O NE

r

?U .O .R S .

T op n o t e xposed

1 000+ 0 9 0 B•SAL

? )

HOY VOLCAN 1 CS

OIS T UFF

G en t le f o ld ing a nd s ome ma jor f au l ts

U PPER E DAY ST 3 2 0.

SAN DSTONE

0 0

E DAY M ARLS 1 0 0

L . L . 1 C O ) •

M IDDLE E DAY ST 1 0 0 -50 0

0

L OW ER E DAY SS T2 0250


mo m c o Ne _ 1

I

-

C J . 1 . 7

« 3

' V '

it L a

. -

C O

L C)

I I 1= 1 S N 1 .2 11N O

C 132 13HINVH ,)

1 1 1

1

_o o

F our m ethods o f c luster a nalyses w ere e mployed , e ach u sing a d ifferent m ethod o f c omputing t he s imilarity o f c lusters. T hey w ere: 1 .

s ingle l inkage.

2 .

a s t he h ighest s ingle s imilarity c oefficient cases, o ne f rom e ach c luster. c omplete l inkage. T he s imilarity o f t wo

T he s imilarity o f t wo c lusters i s

d efined

b etwocn c lusters

t wo i s

d efined a s t he l owest s ingle s imilarity c oefficient b etween t wo c ases, o ne f rom e ach c luster. 3 . a verage l inkage. T he s imilarity o f t wo c lusters i s t he a verage o f a ll t he s imilarity c oefficients f or p airs o f 4 .

i ndividuals, o ne f rom e ach c luster. median l inkage. T he s imilarity o f c luster P a nd t he c luster which r esults f rom t he f usion o f c lusters Q a nd R i s t he n -dimensional d istance b etween t he g eometric m ean) o f P a nd t he m idpoint o f t he t he c entroids o f Q a nd R .

c entroid ( or l ine j oining

T he f irst t hree o f t hese m ethods f ailed t o w ith c oherent g roup s tructures: a h igh d egree

p roduce c lusters o f c haining w as

v isible i n t he r espective d endograms. T he d endogram f or t he f ourth m ethod - m edian l inkage - i s i llustrated i n F igure 6 .46. T his d endogram e xhibits a m inimum o f c haining a nd , m oreover, s hows m ore e vidence o f g roup s tructure t han a ny o f t he o ther t hree. T he c luster a nalysis which l ies b ehind t his p articular d endogram w as s elected f or f urther d iscussion. F igure 6 .46 s hows t hat i f a c ut-off a t a s imilarity c oefficient o f 1 .000 i s e ffected , s ix c lusters a re p roduced - i ndicated b y R oman n umerals I t hrough V I. T he n umber o f c hambered c airns i n e ach c luster i s v ariable , w ith o nly a s ingle s ite i n c luster V a nd 2 8 s ites in c luster I II. W hen r eference w as m ade t o t he o riginal d ata m atrix, i t w as f ound t hat a ll s ix c lusters c ould b e i nterpreted i n s imple t erms: C luster I ( illustrated i n F igure 6 .47): l ong c airns w ith l arge, m any-compartmented , s imple c hambers. T here a re f ive c airns i n t his c luster: B igland L ong ( ORK 1 ), K nowe o f R amsay ( ORK 3 0), K nowe o f R owiegar ( ORK 3 1), M idhowe ( ORK 3 7), a nd R edland S outh ( ORK T 20). T heir m ost d istinctive c ommon f eature i s a l arge n umber o f c ompartments i n t heir c hambers: n o m onument i n t his c luster h as l ess t han t en c ompartments a nd n o o ther m onument i n t he s ample h as m ore t han s even c ompartments. T he c hambers o f c luster I a re a lso r emarkable f or t heir l arge s ize. T he s mallest c hamber a rea i s 4 0 s q m : F igure 6 .29 s hows t hat o nly o ne o ther k nown c hamber i n O rkney i s a s l arge i n a rea. T he o ther c ommon f eature s hared b y t hese f ive i s a l ow c airn r atio: B igland L ong h as t he h ighest i n t he c luster a t 0 .56 a nd F igure 6 .13 c onfirms t hat t his i s a l ow c airn r atio a mong t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney. C luster I I

( illustrated i n F igure 6 .48):

l arge

l ong

cairns w ith v arious c hambers. T his c luster c ontains f our c hambered c airns: B raeside ( ORK 5 ), H elliar H olm ( ORK 1 9), I sbister

( ORK 2 5),

a nd K nowe o f

1 31

L airo

( ORK 2 8).

T heir m ost

d istinctive f eature i s t he n ature o f t he c airn w ith a ll f our h aving l arge c airn a reas ( the s mallest b eing 4 10 s q m - c ompare w ith F igure 6 .15) a nd e longated c airns ( the h ighest c airn r atio b eing 0 .74 - c ompare w ith F igure 6 .13). T his c luster i s t he l east c oherent o f t he s ix i n t hat t he c hambers f all i nto n o p attern. T hree m onuments h ave s imple c hambers b ut I sbister h as a c omplex c hamber o f f ive c ompartments a nd t hree c ells. C luster I II ( illustrated i n s mall c airns w ith s imple c hambers.

F igures 6 .49 a nd 6 .50): T his i s b y f ar t he

l argest c luster i n n umbers, w ith 2 8 m embers. C omparison w ith F igure 6 .15 d emonstrates t hat t heir c airn a reas a re s mall i n r elation t o o ther c airns: 1 8 h ave a reas l ess t han 1 50 s q m a nd n o m ember o f c luster I II h as a c airn a rea i n e xcess o f 3 33 s q m . W ith o nly t wo e xceptions, e very c hamber i n t he c luster i s s imple, w ith t he n umber o f c ompartments r anging f rom t wo t o s even ( three b eing t he m ost c ommon n umber). T he t wo e xceptions a re U nstan 5 1) a nd t he upper c hamber o f T aversoe T uick ( ORK 4 9U) o f w hich h ave a s ingle c ell.

( ORK e ach

C luster I V ( illustrated i n F igure 6 .51): s mall r ound c airns w ith c omplex c hambers. A nother g rouping w ith f our m embers, t his c luster c ontains C uween H ill ( ORK 1 2), Q uoyness ( ORK 4 4), V inquoy H ill ( ORK 5 3), a nd W ideford H ill ( ORK 5 4). T he c airns a re u niformly r ound a nd r elatively s mall i n a rea, w ith Q uoyness h aving t he l argest c airn a rea a t 2 89 s q m . T he c hambers a re o f a c ommon p attern, e ach c onsisting o f a s ingle c ompartment s urrounded b y a n umber o f c ells. T his n umber i s v ariable, b eing f ive, a nd t hree r espectively.

s ix,

f our,

C luster V ( illustrated i n F igure 6 .51): l arge, l ong c airn w ith c omplex c hamber. H olm o f P apa W estray S outh ( ORK 2 2) i s t he s ole m ember. T his m onument c onsists o f a n e longated c airn o f 5 14 s q m w ith a v ery l arge c omplex c hamber c ontaining t hree c ompartments a nd f ourteen c ells. T he f orm o f t his m onument i s u nique b y a ny s tandards. C luster V I ( illustrated i n r ound c airns w ith c omplex c hambers.

F igure 6 .51): l arge , M äes H owe ( ORK 3 6) a nd

Q uanterness ( ORK 4 3) a re t he o nly t wo m embers of t his c luster. B oth a re r ound c airns w ith d iameters o f 2 5 m a nd 3 0 m r espectively. B oth h ave c omplex c hambers w ith t hree a nd s ix c ells r espectively. A s p redicted ,

t his c luster a nalysis o f t he

s tructures

o f

t he

c hambered c airns o f O rkney h as p roduced a c lassification w hich i s l argely b ased o n t he p hysical s ize o f t he m onuments a nd which t akes i nto c onsideration b oth t he e nclosing c airn a nd t he e nclosed c hamber. F urther d iscussion o f t he a nalysis w ill b e d eferred p revious c lassifications o f t he m onuments h ave b een e xamined. a t t he e nd o f c hapter 9 ,

t he c luster a nalysis w ill

b e

compared

c ontrasted w ith t he c lassifications s uggested b y A nderson, a nd o ther workers i n t he f ield. 1 32

until T hen , a nd

H enshall,

F igure 6 .47

C hambered c airns o f c luster I .

F igure 6 .48

C hambered c airns o f c luster I I.

3

BLACKHA M MER

-

- --4

BOOKAN

7 6

8

CALF

OF

EDAY

LONG

BURRAY

BURGAR

9

CALF

OF

EDAY 1 0

NORTH -WEST

CALF

OF

EDAY

SOUTH FAST - -

_ s ,

•

• •

• • • I "

---- _ --- --

1

COBB 1E

RO W 'S

BUR DEN

1 5

EDAY

CHURCH

----

----2 1 1 7

HOLM

OF

P APA

WESTRAY

NORTH

F ARA

0

F igure 6 .49

C hambered c airns o f c luster I II - ( i).

1 0

F igure 6 .50

C hambered c airns o f c luster I II - ( ii).

I V

1 2

CU W .EEN

H ILL

,,, . .; • • „

----

' s 5 3

„ „

V I NQUOY

H ILL

\ \ \ \ \ / / i

f I • t • 1 • r • t • • , ‘ • • \ • ,,

• \

I • I X • • • • •

• ..

•

r r /. i f

•

' s "

—V

/

, ‚

d

''' , /

5 4 4 4

1 0

WI DEFOR D

H ILL

QUOY NESS

„ ‘

1 0

2 2

HOL M

OF

P APA

WI :STRAY

SOUTH

. . . , .. /

I /

I

/

I

»

« .•

V I

,

. . l e

,

. . .

/

.,

•

1

4 3

QUANTERNESS

1 0

3 6

MAES

HO WE

F igure 6 .51

C hambered c airns o f c lusters I V ,

V ,

a nd V I.

C HAPTER S EVEN : 7 .1.

T HE O THER B UILDINGS

I NTRODUCTION

I n a ddition t o t he c hambered c airns, t here a re s everal s ites o f a rchaeological i nterest i n O rkney w hich m ay b elong t o t he N eolithic p eriod. A t t he p resent t ime w e k now o f s ix s uch m ajor s ites: t he d omestic s ettlements o f S kara B rae, R inyo , K nap o f H owar a nd L inks o f N oltland , a nd t he h enge m onumets o f t he R ing o f B rogar a nd t he S tones o f S tenness. T b t hese m ay b e a dded t he 5 0 o r s tones, m ostly f ound s ingly b ut i n s ome p laces f ound t hrees, s cattered t hroughout t he i slands.

f aced.

s o i n

s tanding t wos o r

A t o nce t he p roblem o f t his m aldistribution o f n umbers m ust b e W hy, t o o ur p resent k nowledge, a re t here o nly f our

s ettlements, a nd o ver 7 0 c airns? W hat r elationship d o t he h enges a nd s tanding s tones h ave t o t he o ther c lasses o f s ite? E ven m ore f undamentally, a re a ll o f t hese s ites c ontemporary, e ven i n t he w idest o f s enses? T hese a re a ll i mponderable questions a nd l ittle a ttempt h as b een m ade t o f rame a nswers t o t hem i n t he a rchaeological l iterature. B efore s uch questions c an b e f aced , i t i s n ecessary t o l ook a t t he n ature o f t hese s ites. A ccordingly t his c hapter w ill r eview t he a ccepted d ata o n t he s ettlements, h enges a nd s tanding s tones o f O rkney. Q uestions o f r elative c hronology , a nd d iscussions o f p ort a ble a rtefacts, a re l argely d eferred t o l ater c hapters. 7 .2.

THE S ETTLEMENTS

F our s ettlements t o w hich a d ate i n t he t hird o r s econd m illennia b c h as b een a ttributed a re k nown i n O rkney. A ll o f t hese h ave b een e xcavated. W hat i s m ore, t hree o f t hem h ave b een e xcavated i n t he l ast t en y ears. T his p artly a ccounts f or t he p aucity o f r ecognised N eolithic s ettlements: t he d ating f or a ll o f t hese s ites r ests l argely o n t he u se o f r adiocarbon a nd f ew s ites o f a ny d escription o f O rkney h ave b een d ated b y t his m ethod. T herefore, t here m ay b e m any o ther p laces i n O rkney w hich w ill b e i dentified a s b eing o f c ontemporary d ate when , a re applied t o t hem .

o r i f ,

p hysical

m ethods

o f

dating

T he f our k nown s ettlements a re l ocated o n F igure 1 .2. S kara B rae i s s ituated o n t he s outh s hore o f t he B ay o f S kaill i n t he W est M ainland. R inyo i s s ituated a t t he f oot o f F araclett H ill i n t he n orth-west o f R ousay. K nap o f H owar i s c lose t o t he w estern s hore o f t he i sland o f P apa W estray , a nd L inks o f N oltland i s s ituated o n a n orth-facing b ay i n t he n eighbouring i sland o f W estray. B ecause a ll f our s ettlements h ave b een e xcavated , w ealth o f i nformation o n t heir c onstruction a nd d esign.

t here i s a I t i s n ot

t he p lace o f t his s tudy t o a ttempt a d etailed r e-evaluation o f t he f our, n ot l east b ecause e xcavations a t t hree a re s till u npublished. I nstead , a r esume o f t he p ublished i nformation w ill b e g iven h ere, a ccompanied b y t he a ddition o f m aterial f rom i nterim e xcavation r eports k indly m ade a vailable b y R itchie.

D r

.

1 39

D avid

V

C larke

a nd

D r

A nna

S kara B rae E xcavations h ave t aken p lace a t S kara B rae o n s even o ccasions i n t he l ast 1 30 y ears. ( Table 4 .1). T he l iterature w hich h as a risen f rom t hese i nvestigations a nd s ubsequent s yntheses i s i mpressive i n q uantity w hile t he s ite i tself h as b een t aken i nto s tate g uardianship a nd a ttracts m any t housands o f v isitors e very y ear. S kara B rae i s a rguably t he b est k nown p rehistoric m onument i n B ritain a fter S tonehenge a nd m ust p lay a s ignificant p art i n t he m odern e conomy o f O rkney b y a ttracting t ourism t o t he i slands. T he s ite i tself, i n i ts m ajor p hase , o f dwelling h ouses c onnected b y p assages.

c onsisted o f a c ollection T he o utline p lan o f t he

v illage i s r eproduced i n F igure 7 .1. E ach h ouse c ontains i ndividual f eatures b ut t here a re s imilarities a s w ell. T he m ethod o f c onstruction i s uniform: d ry s tone w alling o f a h igh s tandard , u sing f lagstone f rom t he a djacent s hore. S ome o f t he o riginal walls s tand t oday t o a h eight o f 3 m . T he h ouses a re r oughly s quare i n p lan s hape , b ut h ave r ounded c orners. T here i s n o i ndication t hat t he h ouses h ad r oofs o f s tone, a nd t hey m ay h ave b een r oofed w ith m ore e phemeral m aterials. W ithin e ach h ouse i s a c entral h earth , f ormed b y f our f lagstones o n e dge. O n e ach s ide o f t he h earth, a gainst t he i nner wall, a re f ound r ectangular s tructures , w hich m ay h ave b een b eds. A bove t he b eds t here a re r ecesses b uilt i nto t he wall, p erhaps s tore-places f or p ersonal p ossessions. I n s ome o f t he h ouses a nother s tore-place, i n t he f orm o f a s eries o f s tone s helves - a d resser w as f ound. L et i nto t he f loor o f m ost o f t he h ouses w ere a n umber o f c lay l ined a nd water-tight b oxes. T hese m ight b e s een a s s torage f or s hell-fish, o r s imply a s a r eceptacles f or d rinking water. E ach h ouse h as o ne o r m ore s mall c ells o pening o ff t he m ain room: t hey a re c onstructed e ither w ith c orbelled o r l intelled r oofs. A ll o f t he h ouses w ere e ntered b y a l ow r oofed p assage t hat i ncludes a d oor d emarcated b y a s ill s tone a nd a p air o f j ambs. T hese passages l ead i nto a s eries o f c onnecting p assages o r w alkways, o ne o f w hich ( passage A ) r uns a lmost t he entire l ength o f t he k nown v illage. O ne o f t he b uildings, n umber 8 , s tands s eparate f rom t he o thers a nd d oes n ot c ontain a ny o f t he bed b oxes: t his b uilding h as b een i nterpreted a s a workshop , o r i ndustrial s tructure. A part f rom t he workshop , i t i s l ikely t hat t he v illage was c ompletely c overed o ver w ith a m ound o f m idden m aterial. T hat i s, a fterwards ( perhaps v ery s hortly

t he h ouses a fterwards)

w ere t hey

c onstructed a nd w ere b uried i n

l ayers o f d eposited d ebris t o p romote w armth a nd A lternatively , t he h ouses w ere c ut i nto a n e xtant m idden.

i nsulation.

O ne r esult o f C hilde 's i nvestigations i n t he l ate 1 920s w as h is p ostulation o f f ive A ccording t o C hilde P eriod I ,

p eriods ( 1931a:

o f o ccupation o f t he s ettlement. 9 2-95), t he f irst s ettlement , o r

o f S kara B rae was s ituated t o t he s outh-west o f t he

e xtant

b uildings a nd was r esponsible f or t he a ccumulation o f a v ast a mount o f m idden m aterial. T his m aterial p rovided t he f oundation f or t he h ouses o f P eriod I I , o ccupying r oughly t he s ame a rea a s t he l ater s ettlements. G radual d ilapidation a nd t he o nslaught o f s andblow f ollowed , u ntil h ouses 7 , 1 a nd 5 w ere r econstructed a s t he b asis o f S kara B rae's P eriod I II. T his p hase r epresents t he v illage l argely a s p resented t o t he p ublic

t oday

w ith

e ight

h ouses

c onnected

p assages a nd s urrounded b y e ncasing w alls. I n p eriod I V m ore w as d eposited a nd s ome o f t he e xternal w alls were r ebuilt. 1 40

b y

m idden A fter

c l V H

• H

6 E 0

P lan o f S kara B rae

4 1 -

i I

a )

4 I

r P

—1

t his t he v illage was a bandoned ,

p erhaps

c atastrophically.

C hilde was c onfident e nough o f t his t o w rite d escription o f t he a bandonment:

t he

f ollowing

" Definite e vidence o f a h asty f light i s, h owever, b y a t rail o f b eads....All h ad f allen f rom a

I ndeed , g raphic

a fforded n ecklace

b roken a s i ts w earer s queezed h urriedly t hrough t he n arrow g ap where s he l ost m ost b eads w hile t he r est c ontinued t o f all f rom h er a s s he s campered up t he p assage". ( 1931a: C hilde's

l ast

p hase

o f

o ccupation

i s

r egarded

4 1) a s

a

r e-occupation o f t he v illage a fter t he c atastrophe. I n house 7 , h e f ound n o l ess t han f our l evels o f r e-occupation b y p eople o f t he s ame m aterial c ulture. I t i s n ot c ertain i f t he m odern e xcavations a t S kara B rae w ill s upport t he s uggestion o f s o m any d istinct p hases o f s ettlement , b ut i ndisputably t he s ite o f t he v illage w as l ived i n f or a l ong p eriod o f t ime. C larke's e xcavations a t S kara B rae i n t he e arly 1 970s h ave been p ublished i n i nterim f orm ( Clarke , 1 976). H is u se o f m odern r ecovery t echniques i ncluding wet s ieving a nd f roth f lotation l ed t o ag reater u nderstanding o f t he e conomic l ife o f t he s ettlement. F ish bones w ere f ound i n quantity. S hell-fish s uch a s l impets m ay h ave been u sed a s b ait t o c atch f ish. C attle w ere a lways t he m ost i mportant s pecies o f domesticated a nimal, b ut c aprines m ay h ave become more i mportant i n t he l ate l ife o f t he s ettlement. T hese e xcavations a lso p roduced a s eries o f r adiocarbon dates, r anging 7 00 y ears f rom 2 500 b c t o 1 800 b c ( Figure 9 .12). D iscussion o f t hese d ates, a nd t he f ull r ange o f e conomic e vidence f rom S kara B rae, m ust a wait f ull p ublication. R inyo

t he

T he s ettlement s ite o f R inyo h as n ot f igured a s p rominently i n a rchaeological l iterature a s S kara B rae , d espite C hilde's

o riginal c laim t hat i ts " full e xcavation .. m ay b e e xpected t o p rove n o l ess r evolutionary f or B ritish p rehistory t han t hat o f K oln-Lindenthal h as b een f or C entral E uropean" ( Childe a nd G rant , 1 939: 6 ). C ertainly t he a rtefacts f rom R inyo h ave b een a s ource o f p uzzlement o f p rehistorians, b ut t he s tructure i tself h as been l argely u ndiscussed a nd u nvisited. I ndeed , t he c ontrast b etween S kara B rae,

a

w ell

d isplayed

t ourist

a ttraction ,

a nd

R inyo ,

a

c onvenient r ubbish d ump a t t he e dge o f a f ield , i s r emarkable. I t i s a ll t he m ore r emarkable i n t he l ight o f C hilde's r emark t hat R inyo i s p robably l arger i n e xtent . t han S kara B rae ( 1939: 7 ). P artial e xplanations m ay b e t hat t he s ite i s n ot s o w ell p reserved a s S kara B rae a nd t hat e xcavations t here w ere i nterrupted b y w ar. T he

published

d rawings

r eproduced h ere a s F igure 7 .2.

o f

R inyo

a re

v ery

p oor,

b ut

a re

T his r eveals a s ettlement o f a t l east

s even h ouses ( Childe's A t hrough G ), n ot a ll o f which a re n ecessarily c ontemporary. T he d etails o f t he a rchitecture c orrespond l argely t o t hose o bserved a t S kara B rae. A ll s tructures a re b uilt i n l ocal s andstone,

a nd t he t ypical h ouse i s a s quat

r ectangle

with

r ounded

c orners. I n t he c entre o f e ach h ouse i s a s quare f ire-place d emarcated b y f our upright s labs. O n e ach s ide o f t he f ire-place ,

1 42

ON

W ALLI N G

SLABS

WALL I NG

SLABS ON

1

1

( from C hilde a nd G rant,

a nd s ometimes c onstructed i nto t he h ouse wall, a re r ectangular b ed s paces. I n R inyo t here a re e xamples o f t hese s tructures being c onstructed w ith d ry s tone m asonry i nstead o f m assive s labs. T he w ater-tight t anks,

t hought t o b e s hell-fish b oxes,

a re s uggestions o f s torage t hroughout t he s ettlement a nd ,

a re

d ressers. U nderfloor a lthough i t i s n ot a s

p resent,

S kara B rae , t he h ouses a ppear t o h ave b een c onnected by p assages e nclosed b y a c ircling wall. O ne f eature p eculiar t o R inyo u ncovered i n h ouse C : a c lay-built o ven a djacent t o t he h earth. C hilde a nd G rant w ere unable s tratigraphical d evelopment f or t he

t o r elate s ettlement

a s

drains r un c lear a s a t

a o f

a nd was

c oherent R inyo.

N evertheless, a fter t he f irst e xcavations, t hey w ere sure o f t wo m ajor p hases, s eparated b y a n e pisode o f r ebuilding. R inyo I i s r epresented b y s tratified d eposits f rom b elow t he f loors o f h ouses A , B , C , a nd D . M aterial f rom t he f loor o f h ouse D r epresents a n i ndeterminate i ntermediate p hase w hile R inyo I I i ncludes t he m aterial o n o r a bove t he f loors o f h ouses A , B a nd C . ( 1939: 2 2). B y t he t ime o f t he s econd r eport o f e xcavations a t R inyo ( Childe a nd G rant, 1 947), t his s imple t wo p art d ivision h ad b een r ejected , but h ad n ot b een r eplaced by a n a lternative s cheme. A nother h ouse, G , h ad been d iscovered a nd w hile e xhibiting a f ull c omplement o f R inyo-type f urniture, n o l ess t han f ive d istinct d eposits were u ncovered b eneath t he l evel o f t his f urniture. T he s econd r eport f inishes a bruptly: t here i s a p ossibility t hat C hilde i ntended f urther s easons o f e xcavation a t R inyo w hich would h ave e xposed t he bounds o f t he s ettlement, e lucidated t he s tratigraphical s equence, a nd e nabled a n i nternally c onsistent h istory o f t he s ite t o b e c onstructed. K nap o f H owar T he d omestic s ettlement a t K nap o f H owar ( or H ower) was e xcavated b y W illiam T raill a nd W illiam K irkness i n t he m id 1 930s a nd a gain ,

b y D r A nna R itchie i n 1 973 a nd 1 975.

A t t he t ime o f t he f inal

e xplorations t he g reat a ntiquity o f t he s ite was unsuspected : a lthough a d ate c ontemporary w ith S kara B rae was d iscussed , even S kara B rae was s till t hought t o d ate f rom l ater p rehistory. D ue t o t he r ecent e xcavations, K nap o f H owar i s n ow r ecognised a s t he o ldest o ccupation s ite i n S cotland n orth o f B oghead m ound i n M oray. T he p lan o f t he

k nown

s ettlement

i s

s hown

U nlike t he t wo s ites d iscussed a bove, t here a ppear s eparate d omestic s tructures, o r i ndividual h ouses,

i n

F igure

7 .3.

t o be o nly t wo a t K nap o f H öwar.

H ouse 1 , t he l arger o f t he t wo, i s s lightly l arger i n a rea t han t he l argest h ouse a t S kara B rae a nd i s m ore e longated i n s hape. B oth h ouses 1 a nd 2 d isplay t he s ame r ounded c orners a nd both c ontain c ertain i tems o f f urniture which a re c ommon a t S kara B rae. T here i s a s quare h earth i n t he c entre o f h ouse 1 a nd s everal s tructures p arallel t o t he walls w hich a re r eminiscent o f b ed spaces. S mall k eeping-places ( "aumbries") a re b uilt i nto t he s tructure o f t he w alls. I n p lace o f t he S kara B rae d ressers, t here a re complexes o f o rthostats i n t he s outh-east e nd o f h ouse 2 a nd a long t he s outh wall o f h ouse 1 . I n a ddition b edding g rooves f or w ooden benches were f ound i n h ouse 1 . A nother f eature p eculiar t o K nap o f H owar i s t he p artitioning

o f

h ouses

b y

i mpermanent

d ivisions:

house

1

i s

p artitioned i nto t wo a reas w hile h ouse 2 c ontains t hree d ifferent a reas. T hese p artitions, t ogether w ith t he o bservation t hat , a t o ne

1 44

F igure

7 .3

P lan o f K nap o f H owar

1 45

( from T raill a nd K irkness,

1 937).

p eriod , h ouse 2 c ould o nly b e e ntered f rom h ouse 1 , s uggest t hat t he e ntire c omplex was i ntended t o b e o ne f unctional e ntity w ith s paces d esignated f or d ifferent u ses. T he s tratigraphy o f K nap o f H owar w as u nclear a fter t he e xcavations i n t he 1 930s. T he l ater e xcavations d etermined t hat t he t wo h ouses a re o f d ifferent p eriods , w ith h ouse 2 p ost-dating h ouse 1 , b ut t he d ifference i n d ating m ay b e a m atter o f m onths. T he c omplex i s b uilt o n t op o f a m idden w hich r uns under b oth h ouses a nd e xtends i n a ll d irections f rom t hem. B ecause t he a rtefact a ssemblage f rom b oth h ouses a nd t he m idden i s uniform , t he i nformed s uggestion i s t hat t he m idden m ay b e r oughly c ontemporary w ith b oth h ouses. T his i mpression i s s upported b y t he r adiocarbon d ates ( Figure 9 .11) f rom upper a nd l ower c ontexts.

( 1937)

T he m ajor r eferences t o K nap o f H owar a re T raill a nd A R itchie ( 1973 a nd 1 975).

a nd

K irkness

L inks o f N oltland I n 1 866 G eorge P etrie f ound a m idden i n t he i sland

o f

W estray

w hich c ontained m aterial s imilar t o t hat e xcavated f rom S kara B rae. H e r ecorded h is f ind i n n otebooks but n o a ttention w as g iven t o t he s ite until a f ew y ears a go when D r D avid V C larke o f t he N ational M useum o f A ntiquities o f S cotland uncovered t he r eference a nd s tarted l ooking f or t he p recise l ocality ( Clarke , H ope a nd W ickham-Jones, 1 978). I t w as f ound o n t he L inks o f N oltland t o t he n orth-west o f P ierowall v illage. T he s ite i s undergoing s evere a nd i rreversible d eflation , a nd f our s easons o f r escue e xcavation h ave t aken p lace s ince 1 978: a t t he t ime o f w riting , a s ummary a ccount i s a vailable f or t hree o f t hose s easons

( Clarke,

1 980).

L inks o f N oltland w as f irst n oted b ecause o f a s pread o f m idden m aterial c ontaining a rtefacts. T he e xtent o f t his m idden h as n ot y et b een gauged , b ut i ts k nown l imits s uggest a n a rea o f o ccupation m ore t han f our t imes g reater t han S kara B rae.

O ne a rea ,

t he W est

M idden ,

h as r evealed a c lear s tratigraphical s equence b eginning w ith e arly p rehistoric p loughing. T he beginning o f m idden d eposition p redates t he i nsertion o f a wall a nd t he d eposition o f a n umber o f c ompletely a rticulated d eer s keletons. A fter t his, a p eriod o f s and-blow w a s f ollowed by a f urther e pisode o f p loughing a nd t he c onstruction o f a s econd wall. E ven i f i t e merges t hat t he l atter w all dates f rom a m uch l ater p eriod , r adiocarbon dates a nd a rtefacts a ssociated w ith t he p rimary m idden a re a s trong i ndication t hat t here were p eople i n W estray , a t t he t ime o f t he c hambered c airns, w ho c ultivated l and f or a l ong p eriod o f t ime. T he n earest c hambered c airn t o L inks o f N oltland i s I phs ( ORK 2 4) o n a p rominent t errace a bout 7 00 m t o t he s outh-east. A nother a rea u nder e xcavation,

n amed G robust,

h as

r evealed

a

c omplex o f s tructural r emains, w ith e xtant d ry s tone walling s tanding t o o ver a m etre i n h eight. T he b uilding ( or b uildings) h as a m ajor c ompartment w ith r ecessed e nclosures a nd , t o t he n orth o f t his, l inked b y a p assage , a n o val c ompartment w hich has u ndergone s tructural a lterations i n p rehistory. T he n ature o f t hese s tructures c annot b e a dequately d iscussed u ntil t heir e xcavation i s c omplete b ut t he f act t hat i t i s

n ot

e asy

t o

d raw

1 46

p arallels

w ith

a ny

o ther

s tructure o f s imilar a ge i n B ritain s uggests t hat t he e xcavations a t G robust w ill b e i nstrumental i n g reatly e nlarging o ur v iew o f t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia b c. T he s tructures a t G robust a re n ot t he o nly p otentially i mportant a spect o f t he e xcavations a t L inks o f N oltland. M eticulous t echniques o f e xcavation a t t he s ite h ave p roduced a v ast a mount o f o ccupation d ebris, i ncluding a nimal b ones, m acroa nd m icroscopic p lant r emains, a nd t he r emains o f m arine l ife. I n a ddition , t here i s av ast q uantity o f h uman a rtefacts a waiting s tudy , i ncluding f lints, w orked b one, w orked s tones, a nd p ottery. W hen p ost-excavation w ork i s c ompleted o n t his d ebris, w e w ill b e i n p ossession o f m uch i nformation o n t he e conomy o f N eolithic O rkney. 7 .3.

T HE H ENGES

H enges ( the n ame i s unsatisfactory) a re c ircular, o r n ear c ircular , b anks w ith i nternal d itches a nd o ne o r m ore c ausewayed e ntrances. T hey a re a r elatively r are p henomenon i n B ritain w ith o nly a bout 8 0 e xamples k nown ( Megaw a nd S impson , 1 979: 1 48). I n O rkney, t here a re t wo k nown e xamples, b oth o f t hem a ssociated w ith s tone c ircles. T his l atter c lass o f s tructure i s m ore c ommon: t here a re p erhaps 9 00 s uch c ircles i n t he B ritish I sles. ( Burl, 1 976: 8 ). T he R ing o f B rogar ( or B rodgar) a nd t he S tones o f S tenness a re l ocated l ess t han 1 500 m a part b etween t he L ochs o f H array a nd S tenness i n a n a rea w hich c ontains a c omplex o f p rehistoric r emains ( Figure 7 .4.). B oth s ites h ave b een r ecognised f or c enturies a s b eing o f a ncient c onstruction , a nd b oth a re p resently under t he g uardianship o f t he s tate. A s s uch, t hey p lay t heir p art i n a ttracting v isitors t o t he O rkney I slands a nd c ontribute t o t he e conomic w ell-being o f t he i nhabitants o f t he t wentieth c entury. T he R ing o f B rogar T his h enge f ails o n t he p rimary d efinition o f " henge" s ince i t h as n o c ircular b ank. A t p resent i t c onsists o f ad itch a bout 9 m a cross a nd f orming a c ircle a bout 1 20 m i n d iameter. T he d itch i s c rossed b y t wo c auseways, p lacing t he m onument i n A tkinson 's ( 1948) c lass I I g roup o f h enge m onuments. T he c auseways a re opposite e ach o ther a nd f ace n orth-west a nd s outh-east. O n t he i nner l ip o f t he d itch , f orming a c ircle a bout 1 03 m i n d iameter i s a r ing o f s tones. T here m ay have b een o riginally n o l ess t han 6 0 e venly s paced upright s tones i n t he c ircle, b ut i n 1 848 t here w ere o nly 1 4 upstanding ( J F raser, 1 926: 1 7 ). T bday , a fter r econstruction b y t he t hen O ffice o f W orks, t here a re 2 7 upright , w ith f our p rone s tones, a nd s everal o thers i ndicated b y s tumps. I n M ay 1 980 o ne o f t he s tones was h it a nd s hattered b y l ightning , a g raphic r eminder o f t he n atural p owers o f c atastrophic d estruction. F igure 7 .5 i s a p lan o f t he R ing o f B rogar f rom R enfrew

( 1979:

2 99-302).

I n 1 973 , P rofessor C olin e xcavations a t t he R ing o f B rogar.

R enfrew m ade t hree H is i ntentions w ere

t o e xplore t he n ature o f t he d itch , t o c onstruction o f t he d itch, a nd t o e xamine t he

a ttempt t o p ossibility

s mall-scale t hree-fold: d ate t he o f t here

h aving b een a b ank o utside t he d itch a t a n e arly s tage i n t he h istory o f t he m onument. T he s econd objective was n ot a chieved: n o a rtefacts w ere f ound a nd i sotopic d ating r evealed o nly t hat p eat h ad f ormed i n

1 47

S tones

o f V ia

R ing o f B ookan

I L

B oo l kan

g l I F

R ing o f B roga r

Maes Howe

S tones o f S t enness U ngan

CHA MBERE D

0

HENGE S TAND ING

F igure

CA IRN

7 .4

S TONE

M ap o f c oncentration o f p rehistoric m onuments i n B rogar/Stenness a rea. 1 48

50

1 00 M•I ' g ee

A

' Leo

1 ,1

; .

•

0 •

S outh

I I, :

We s t

North

E ast

1 4 I

•o

F igure

7 .5

P lan o f t he R ing o f B rogar

1 49

( from R enfrew ,

1 979).

t he d itch i n t he l ast c enturies o f t he f irst m illennium b c. S ections a cross t he d itch d isclosed t hat i t was o riginally o ver 3 .0 m d eep w ith a s ectional a rea o f 1 20 s q m - s uggesting t hat 4 700 c u m o f l iving r ock h ad b een quarried a way. N o p ositive t race o f a n o uter b ank w as f ound i n a ny o f t he t hree t renches, b ut R enfrew , q uoting T homas ( 1852:103), s uggests t hat a ny s uch b ank m ight h ave been r educed c ompletely b y n atural e rosion , i ncluding t he i nfilling o f t he d itch , a nd b y d eliberate r emoval a s e very n ewly-formed l ayer o f s oil w as r emoved f or u se a s o rganic e nrichment o n c ultivated l and t hroughout t he c enturies. T he p oint i s u nproven , b ut w hen i t i s c onsidered t hat t he r emoval o f t he m aterial f rom t he d itch a nd i ts t ransport a way ( even i f i t i s a llowed t hat t he s tones o f t he c ircle m ay h ave b een q uarried f rom t he d itch) w ould h ave i nvolved i mmense l abour, i t s eems r easonable t o p ostulate t he e xistence i n p rehistory o f a bank o utside t he d itch w here t hat m aterial m ight h ave b een d eposited. T hus t he R ing o f B rogar m ight f it m ore e asily s ame c ategory a s h enge m onuments f urther s outh i n B ritain.

i nto

t he

T he S tones o f S tenness . ; ^ _ f , : he o ther k nown h enge m onument i n O rkney i s v isible f rom t he R ing

o f

B rogar a nd i s s ituated t o t he s outh-east o f t he n arrow c hannel t hat c onnects t he L ochs o f H array a nd S tenness ( Figure 7 .4). T he S tones S tenness c onsist o f a n o uter b ank , a n i nternal d itch with a s ingle s panning c auseway ( making t his a C lass I h enge), a c ircle o f upright s tanding s tones, a nd s ome i nternal f eatures. T here i s n o s ign o f t he b ank a nd d itch t oday , b ut G R itchie ( 1976) i n t he c ourse o f a r eview o f t he h istorical documentation r elating t o t he s ite m akes i t c lear t hat t here h as b een m uch v isual a nd m aterial c hange s ince t he f irst , descriptions , i n t he e ighteenth c entury. N ot o nly w ere t he b ank a nd d itch v isible i nto t he n ineteenth c entury b ut t he c onfiguration o f s tones h as a ltered o ver h istorical t ime.

n umber

a nd

T he S tones i f S tenness w ere e xcavated i n 1 973 a nd 1 974 b y D r G raham R itchie. H is r eport ( 1976) i s a n e xample o f t he h ighest s tandards o f a rchaeological p ublication , a nd e nables a d escription t o b e m ade o f t he m onument a s i t s tood i n p rehistory. A p lan b ased o n t he e xcavation i s d isplayed h ere a s F igure 7 .6. T his s hows t hat t he d itch f orms a c ircle a bout 5 0 m i n d iameter a nd 4 .0 m w ide, a nd e nded i n t wo t erminals l eaving a n orth-facing c auseway f rom t he i nterior o f t he c ircle. T he c auseway i s a bout 8 .0 m a cross. T he d itch i tself w as c ut i nto t he s olid r ock t o a d epth o f a bout a m etre m aking t h o riginal d eclivity a bout t wo m etres d eep . T he e xternal bank s urvived o nly a s a t hin l ayer o f c lay. R itchie s uggests t hat t he b ank w as c onstructed f rom m aterial i n t he t op h alf o f t he d itch. T he a lmost c omplete d isappearance o f t he b ank i n t he l ast t wo h undred y ears g ives a dded s upport t o R enfrew's s uggestion t hat t he R ing o f B rogar was a lso f urnished w ith a n e xternal bank. W ithin t he d itch o f t he h enge was a c ircle

o f

s tones

w ith

a

d iameter o f a bout 3 1 m . T he n umber o f s tones w hich s urvive t oday i s f our; a nd o ne o f t hese h as b een r e-erected . T he o riginal n umber w as m ost p robably t welve: R itchie f ound s tone h oles o r s ub-surface i ndications f or a ll but o ne o f t he s even m issing s tones a nd t heir r egular s pacing i mplies t he e xistence o f o riginals. T he s ize o f t he e xisting s tones i s m assive - o ne of t hem i s n o l ess t han 5 .7 m i n h eight. I n t he c entre o f t he c ircle f ormed b y t he p ostulated t welve

1 50

t ) .

. 3 7

S 555555 35 f

--------- —14

-

- mo ue s U tl i Wniettr i ar f 5a l ow Mew l« d a tum a wva t i c a L in tav a i l m i r u i0 . 1I n _ ____ tr --

F igure

7 .6

P lan o f t he S tones o f S tenness

1 51

( from G .

R itchie,

1 976).

s tones, was f ound a s tone s etting o f f our s labs e nclosing a r ectangular s pace. A t o ne t ime t his s pace m ay h ave c ontained s ome k ind o f t imber s tructure. I n a ddition , t he i nterior o f t he c ircle c ontained o ther f eatures a nd s tructures, i ncluding s everal p ost-holes. T he i nteriors o f h enges h ave e lsewhere p roved t o c ontain c urious a nd u nexplainable f eatures, a nd t heir f unction a nd m eaning t o l ate N eolithic s ociety h as a lways b een a m ystery. T he S tones o r S tenness w ith i ts i nterior s tructures a nd t he m assive R ing o f B rogar ( whose i nterior h as n ever b een i nvestigated) a re n o e xception . 7 .4.

T HE S TANDING S TONES

U nlike s ettlements a nd h enges, i t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o i dentify a s tanding s tone o f t he t hird o r s econd m illennia b c. O n s trictly m orphological g rounds, i t i s i mpossible t o t ell a part a p rehistoric s tone f rom o ne e rected a s r ubbing s tones f or c attle o r a s s trainers f or barbed w ire f ences. I t h as b een s uggested ( RCAMS , 1 946: 1 ,27) t hat a t l east o ne s tone i n S hetland s aw u se a s a m ediaeval b oundary-mark. E ven i f t he s ocket a nd s urround o f a s tanding s tone i s e xcavated , i t m ay n ot p roduce a ny a rtefacts o r o rganic m aterial w hich m ay b e dated . I n a ny c ase, n o s uch e xcavations h ave t aken p lace i n O rkney a nd s o n o s tanding b e s ecurely a ttributed t o t he N eolithic p eriod .

s tone

c an

T his c onclusion i s u nduly p essimistic. I t i s g enerally a ccepted t hat s ingle s tanding s tones f all i nto t he s ame t radition a s c ircles o f s tanding s tones a nd o ther r itual m onuments o f t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia b c. I n O rkney t here a re e xamples s o m assive a nd e xamples f ound i n s uch a ssociations t hat i t i s s training c redulity t o i magine t hey a re a nything but m onuments o f p rehistory e rected f or s ome r eligious o r s ocial p urpose. T hus t he k nown s tanding s tones i n O rkney w ill b e t reated h ere a s b eing w orthy o f i nclusion a mong t he o ther N eolithic c onstructions. H owever, n o quantitative o r s tatistical a nalysis w ill b e c arried o ut o n t hem o r t heir l ocations b ecause o f t he r eal p ossibility t hat a f ew s tanding s tones m ay date f rom t housands o f y ears a fter t he o thers. T he c omputer f ile O SORK , c ompiled f rom t he r ecords o f t he A rchaeology D ivision o f t he O rdnance S urvey i n E dinburgh, i dentifies 4 3 s eparate l ocations i n O rkney f or s tanding s tones o f t he N eolithic a nd B ronze A ges. A t 1 2 o f t he s ites t here a re t wo o r t hree s tones m aking a t otal o f a bout 5 5 s uspected s tanding s tones. T hese s ites a re l isted i n A ppendix C a nd a re d isplayed i n F igure 7 .7 , a l ocation m ap o f s tanding s tones i n O rkney. T he d istribution o f t hese s tones s hows a m arked p reference f or l and t hat i s p resently u ncultivated s uggesting e ither t hat s uch l and w as r egarded a s b eing a f avourable l ocation o r t hat s tones o riginally e rected on l and t hat was s ubsequently c ultivated h ave boon d estroyed. I n t his p articular c ase, t he b alance o f t he a rgument m ust c ome d own o n t he s ide

o f

t he

l atter

s uggestion.

S ingle

s tanding

s tones,

p articularly t he l ess m assive e xamples, m ay n ot b e p erceived a s r emnants o f p ast s ocieties i n t he s ame w ay t hat " knowes" a nd " picts' h ouses" h ave b een , a nd h ence m ay b e d estroyed w ith i mpunity. T he v ery a ct o f p ulling d own a n e rect s tone c an b e a chieved with f ar l ess l abour t han t he d estruction o f m any o ther p rehistoric s ites. F urthermore, i n t he c ase o f t he d estroyed s tone o f O din, w e h ave a

1 52

0

km

M FEE M

t:t

Lt

10 I

��

D

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

♦

♦

Figure 7.7

STANDING STONE

Location map of standing stones in Orkney. 153

h istorical a ccount o f s uch a n i ncident t aking p lace. I n D ecember 1 814 , C aptain M ackay, t enant o f f armlands i n S tenness, c aused t he s tone t o b e f elled a nd t o b e s hattered ( Marwick , 1 976). T he s tone o f O din w as r emarkable b ecause i t h ad a cquired a h ost o f s uperstitions b ut , n evertheless, i t i s a n e xample o f a s tanding s tone l ocated o n g ood a gricultural l and w hich w as d eliberately d estroyed b y a f armer. F urther c orroborative e vidence t hat s uch e vents a re n ot u ncommon c omes f rom t he i sland o f E day. O f t he f our s ites r ecorded b y R oyal C ommission ( 1946: 1 , 5 3-4), t he s tanding s tones a t t hree

t he h ad

b een t hrown d own i n l iving m emory. T wo h ad s ince b een r e-erected , b ut t he g eneral p oint r emains t he s ame: a mong t he spectrum o f p rehistoric e rections, s tanding s tones a re r elatively i mpermanent s tructures. T he s tanding s tones o f O rkney a re n ot u niform i n s ize o r s hape. O ne o f t he l argest i s t he S tone o f S etter. T his r emarkable m onolith i s o f i rregular f orm a nd i s b adly w eathered i nto oblate m asses, p erhaps t he r esult o f w eathering o f t he r ock b efore t he s tone was e rected i n i ts p resent p osition. T he s tone i s 4 .8 m h igh a nd a m aximum o f 2 .2 m a cross. I t i s s ituated a t t he s addle p oint o f a l ow r idge b etween C alf S ound a nd t he v alley c ontaining M ill L och ( Figure 1 1.9), w ith v iews b oth t o t he n orth a nd s outh. A m ore s hapely s tanding s tone i s t he M or S tein o f S hapinsay , a nother s tone w hich has b een r e-erected. T bday i t s tands 3 .1 m h igh. L ike t he S tone o f S etter, i t c ommands e xtensive v iews a cross O rkney , a n e levated s ummit o f S hapinsay.

b eing

l ocated

o n

N ot a ll t he s tones o f O rkney a re s o m assive. T he s tanding s tone a t T renabie i n W estray i s n o h igher t han 0 .9 m . O n t he i sland o f A uskerry i s a s tone which i s a m aximum o f 1 .1 m h igh but i s 1 .6 m b road. T hus t here i s n o c onformity i n s ize o f s hape a mong s tanding s tones: a p ossible c onclusion i s t hat e ach s tone e rected w ith r aw m aterial t hat w as t o h and a nd t hat t he s hape o f s tone was o f s econdary i mportance. R ather , s tanding s tone r esides i n i ts p osition.

t he

i mportance

o f

t he was t he a

T his s uggestion w ill b e p ursued l ater b ut i t m ust b e p ointed o ut a gain t hat i t m ay n ot b e p ossible t o d erive a ny m eaningful c onclusions f rom l ooking a t t he s tanding s tones o f O rkney. I t i s c ertainly p ossible t o p ostulate a ny m anner o f s tatement b ut ( using t he t erminology o f i nferential s tatistics) t he n ature o f t he d ata-base i s i nadequate w ith t he k nown s pecimens b eing a g rossly b iassed s ample o f t he o riginal p opulation. A ccordingly , g eneralisations a bout t hat p opulation a re o pen t o r ejection.

1 54

C HAPTER E IGHT : 8 .1.

T HE M ATERIAL C ULTURE

I NTRODUCTION

F or t he p urposes o f t his c hapter, " material c ulture" i s i nterpreted n arrowly i n o ne s ense a nd w idely i n a nother. A lthough t he m onuments a nd t he l andscape i n w hich t hey r eside a re a s m uch a p art o f m aterial c ulture a s t he s mall f inds f rom e xcavation o f m onuments, t his c hapter w ill o nly c onsider t he l atter. H owever, v ariety o f f inds t o b e c onsidered w ill b e e xpanded t o i nclude

t he n ot

o nly t he p ortable a rtefacts ( such a s p ottery a nd f lint s crapers) b ut a lso t he e conomic e vidence o f r esource u tilisation ( such a s a nimal b ones a nd g rains o f d omesticated p lants). T he questions t o b e c onsidered r evolve a round t wo i ssues: t he n ature o f t he m aterial r emains, a nd t he c ontext i n w hich t hey w ere f ound. T he f irst i ssue r equires a d iscussion o f t he t ype o f a rtefacts r ecovered a nd a n a ttempt t o d iscover t he u se a nd m eaning o f t hese a rtefacts. T his i mmediately i nvolves t he s econd i ssue, a nd i n p articular t he d istinction b etween o bjects a ssociated w ith c hambered c airns a nd objects f ound i n o ther a ssociations. Ac onnected p roblem c oncerns t he p rocesses o f d eposition o f m aterial r emains w hich b e d istinguished f rom p rocesses o f s urvival a nd r ecovery.

m ust

T he s tudy o f t he m aterial c ulture o f c hambered c airns i s b eset w ith d ifficulties t hat a re n ot a lways s hared w ith o ther p rehistoric s ites. T here a re s ome c hambered c airns w hich p roduce v ery f ew o bjects o n e xcavation: t he R ousay e xcavations o f t he 1 930s c ommonly p roduced l ess t han t en a rtefacts a nd w e k now o f n o a rtefacts f rom H olm o f P apa W estray S outh ( ORK 2 2) a nd M aes H owe ( ORK 3 6). T he p ossibility t hat c hambers w ere p eriodically c leared o ut a nd t hat

a ll

f inds c onsequently d ate f rom l ate i n t he u se o f t he c airn o r t hat f inds f rom a ll p eriods a re m ixed i n a c hamber ( Henshall, 1 972: 1 65) i ntroduces a n ote o f c aution i nto a ny i nterpretation . E xperience a t s ites i n m ainland S cotland s uggest t hat, unless a c airn i s c ompletely e xcavated , t here i s a p ossibility t hat o bjects f ound " within" a c hamber m ay b elong t o a p eriod o f a ctivity b efore t he c hamber w as b uilt a nd h ence p redate t he m onument ( Masters, p ersonal c ommunication). T hese d ifficulties h ave l ed t o a n ote o f p essimism a mong w riters o n m egalithic m onuments. D aniel's a ccount o f t he g rave g oods f rom B reton m egalithic t ombs was " necessarily b rief" ( 1960: 1 05) a nd t he s ame writer, w hen d iscussing h is s ummary o f f inds f rom t he m onuments o f E ngland a nd W ales, r emarks: " The r esult

i s

a

d ismal

c atalogue,

b ut

i t

i llustrates

f orcibly t he p aucity a nd l ack o f v ariety o f t he f inds

f rom

o ur b urial c hambers". ( Daniel,

1 950:

1 22)

T he opinion o f H enshall, w hose w ork o n t he S cottish c hambered t ombs m ust b e h ighly r egarded, i s t hat " the c ontents o f t he t ombs m ake l ittle c ontribution t o t he e lucidation o f t heir h istory" ( 1972: 7 22). O ne f urther d ifficulty p eculiar

t o

t he

N eolithic

p eriod

o f

O rkney i s t hat e xcavation r eports o n t hree s ettlement s ites a re a waiting p ublication. T he m aterial r emains f rom S kara B rae, K nap o f H owar a nd L inks o f N oltland a re e xtensive a nd

1 55

w ill

c ertainly

b ring

n ew l ight t o b ear o n t he

m aterial

c ultures

c onclusions w hich c an b e d rawn n ow a re w ithin a d ecade.

o f

l iable

O rkney. t o

T hus

r adical

a ny

r evision

T hese d ifficulties w ill b e t aken i nto c onsideration b ut a n a ttempt w ill b e m ade t o p lace t he m aterial r emains o f t he c hambered c airns i nto t he c ontext o f t he r est o f t he s tudy. F or c onvenience, t he r emains w ill b e t reated a ccording t o t heir p hysical substance a nd t his c hapter w ill d escribe t hem b y t he f ollowing c ategories: p ottery , w orked b one a nd r elated s ubstances, w orked f lint a nd c hert, w orked s tone o f o ther t ypes, u nworked a nimal r emains, a nd p lant r emains. 8 .2.

P OTTERY

P ottery a ssociated w ith t he p rimary u se o f t he m onument h as b een f ound a t 2 2 c hambered c airns ( Table 8 .1), f our s ettlement s ites a nd a t t he S tones o f S tenness. M uch o f t his p ottery i s e xtremely f ragmentary a nd i n t otal t here a re p robably n ot

m any

m ore

t han

5 0

r econstructable p ots f rom t he c airns a nd f ewer f rom S kara B rae a nd R inyo. T he a mount o f p ottery r ecovered f rom m idden d eposits a t L inks o f N oltland a nd K nap o f H owar a nd f rom b urial d eposits a t I sbister w ill r adically i ncrease t his n umber. ' No i mportant s tatements a bout t he N eolithic p ottery o f O rkney a nd i ts w ider a ffinities a re a waiting p ublication. T he f irst o f t hese i s H enshall's d iscussion o f t he I sbister p ottery w hich i ncludes a m odern p olythetic d efinition o f U nstan ware, a nd t he s econd i s C larke 's d iscussion o f R inyo a nd t he O rcadian N eolithic which r eassesses t he U nstan ware - G rooved W are B eaker s equence. T he m ajority o f O rcadian p ottery f rom N eolithic c ontexts i s p resently d escribed b y o ne o f t he t wo t erms m entioned a bove " Unstan" w are a nd " Grooved W are". A s w ith m any p rehistoric p ottery s tyles, t hese wares a re n ot r igorously d efined a nd can o nly b e u nderstood b y r eference t o t he a cademic c ontext i n w hich t hey o riginated . T his r emark m ay b e s upported b y r eference t o a t ypical s ingle s herd f rom R inyo w hich h as v ariously b een described a s " Grooved W are", o f " Rinyo I " t ype, o f " Skara B rae s tyle C ", a s " Rinyo-Clacton" w are, a nd l ately a s " Grooved W are" a gain. T he s herd h as n ot changed s ince 1 938; s hifted.

o nly i ts

m odern

a cademic

context

h as

U nstan ware ( Figure 8 .2) i s c omposed o f f abrics which h ave b een v ariously d escribed a s " friable b lack-brown-buff v esicular ware, t races o f a f ine b urnished b lack s urface" ( Henshall, 1 963: 1 85); " hard b rown ware w ith b urnishing" ( 1963: 2 36); b urnishing" ( 1963: 2 40).

s ome g rits, f ine o uter s urface, s light a nd " fine h ard b lack ware w ith t races o f T here h as b een n o s uggestion t hat s uch

p ottery h as b een m ade w ith c lay f ound o utwith O rkney.

A v ery

c ommon

f eature o f t he U nstan ware o f O rkney i s t hat i t h as b een r eburnt a nd e xhibits r ed o r o range c olouration i n p art. T his r eburning h as been u nequivocally a ttributed t o 1 06).

" the r itual f ires i n t he c hambers"

( 1963:

S lab-construction s eems t o b e t he c ommon r ule i n p ottery o f U nstan t ype. T he t hickness o f t he w all s herds v aries f rom a bout 0 .2 i n ( 5 m m) t o a bout 0 .7 i n ( 18 m m). H enshall s uggests t hat t he b owls

1 56

Uns tan Type

ORK

8 M

2

Bigland

8

Calf

ORK

12

Cuween

ORK

16

Eday

ORK

17

Fara

ORK

2 1

Holm

*

Round

*

E l-g f in a i n a—

ORK

of

Grooved Ware type

Eday

*

Long

*

Hill

Manse

of

Papa Westray

North ORK

23

ORK

25

Huntersquoy Isbister

ORK

26

Kierfea

ORK

27

Knowe

ORK

28

ORK

30

ORK

*

of

Craie

Knowe

of

Lairo

Knowe

of

Ramsay

31

Knowe

of Rowiegar

ORK

32

Knowe

of Yarso

ORK

3 7

Midhowe

ORK

43

Quanterness*

ORK

4 4

Quoyness

ORK

47

Sandyhill

ORK

49

Taversoe

5 1

Unstan*

ORK

T able

8 .1

*

Hill

*

*

*

Smithy* *

Tuick

*

C hambered c airns w ith p ottery.

1 57

F igure 8 .2

S elected e xamples o f U ns t an ware.

w ere m ade i n t wo p ieces u sing a m ould f or s haping ( 1963:

1 09).

T he m ost c haracteristic f eature o f U nstan ware i s t he f orm o f t he p ots. C ommonly t hey a re r ound-bottomed a nd s hallow i n p roportion t o t heir w idth. T he c ollars a re v ertical o r n ear-vertical a nd t here i s a pronounced c arination o n t he o uter s urface, a lthough t he i nner s urface i s f requently s mooth. T he r ims a re o f v arious f orms i ncluding r ounded , p ointed, f lat , i nturned , e verted a nd e xpanded. T he c ollar b etween r im a nd c arination i s c ommonly d ecorated , w hile t he r est o f t he b owl i n u ndecorated. T he d ecoration c onsists o f i ncised o r s tab-and-drag l ines a rranged i n p arallel w ith a c ommon m otif b eing l ines a rranged t o f orm t riangles, e ach t riangle h aving t he l ines r unning a t 6 0 d egrees t o t hose i n n eighbouring t riangles. W ithin O rkney ,

p ottery o f U nstan

m inimum o f t en c hambered c airns

t ype

h as

( Table 8 .1),

w ith

b een

f ound

m ajor

a t

a

c ollections

a t C alf o f E day L ong ( ORK 8 ), I sbister ( ORK 2 5), T aversoe T hick ( ORK 4 9) a nd a t U nstan ( ORK 5 1), t he t ype-site f or t he c lass. U nstan ware h as a lso b een f ound a t K nap o f H owar ( A R itchie, 1 975: 3 7 ). I t h as b een c laimed b y R enfrew ( 1979: 2 08) t hat a t ype o f p ottery r elated t o U nstan ware was f ound i n t he l owest l evels o f R inyo b ut C hilde was b y n o m eans c onfident o f t his a ttribution. I ndeed , t o s upport t his s tatement, h e u sed o nly t wo s herds ( Childe a nd G rant, 1 947: F ig 6 , n o s 1 8 a nd 1 9) a nd c ompared t hem w ith a p ot f rom C alf o f E day L ong ( Henshall, 1 963: 2 49 , n o. 2 9). H enshall's r econstruction o f t his p ot c an b e b y n o m eans d escribed a s h aving " the s ame g eneral p rofile c lassical b owls f rom U nstan" ( Childe a nd G rant, 1 947: 3 7).

a s

O utwith O rkney , U nstan ware i s r estricted t o t he n orth o f S cotland. I t i s f ound i n t he W estern I sles, a t t he s ettlement s ites o f E ilean a n T ighe ( Scott, 1 951 ) a nd N orthton ( Simpson , 1 976). I ndeed, a t l east o ne writer ( McInnes, 1 969: 2 2) h as s uggested a H ebridean o rigin f or U nstan w are. T wo p ossible U nstan v essels h ave b een f ound a t t he O rd N orth ( SUT 4 8) ( Sharples, 1 981). R ecently , f ragments o f w ell-constructed , c arinated p ots w ith l ine d ecoration h ave been f ound a t t he t hird m illennium b c t imber h ouse o f B albridie i n G rampian ( Ralston , p ersonal c ommunication). T he G rooved W are v ariously d escribed a s

( Figure 8 .3) " exceedingly

f ound i n O rkney c oarse" ( Childe,

" coarse a nd p oorly f ired w ith l arge g rits"

( Childe a nd

h as f abrics 1 931a: 1 27 ) G rant ,

1 939:

2 3) a nd " the i nside i s d ull b rown-grey , t he o utside b rown-black w ith s ooty a ccretions, t he o utside o f t he b ase b urnt p ink" ( Renfrew , 1 979: 8 4). T he

c onstruction

o f

G rooved

W are

h as

b een

d escribed

m eticulously b y C hilde i n t hese t erms: " The f lat b ase o f t he v essels w as a d isc o f c lay

f ormed

b y

p atting o r c oiling. U pon t his t he w alls o f t he v essels w ere b uilt u p b y t he a ddition o f s uccessive r ings, e ach a c ouple o f i nches h igh i n t he c ase o f l arge v essels. T he t op o f e ach r ing w as t hinned o ut p resumably b etween

f inger

a nd t humb t o f orm a n e dge. W hen t he r ing h ad b egun t o h arden t he n ext r ing w as p ressed d own o n t his e dge s o a s t o o verlap o n e ither s ide ,

a nd t he j oin w as r ubbed

t he w et f ingers".

1 59

o ver

w ith

' v e

1 0 . NKS .

/S K A R A BR A E

I Id

_

. > ' 1N . 3 t .

Q uan terne s s 1 2

1 /3

3

F igure 8 .3

S elected e xamples o f G rooved W are.

1 60

( Childe ,

1 931a:

1 27)

C onstruction r ings o f t he t ype d escribed a re c learly s een i n i llustration o f p ots f rom Q uanterness ( Renfrew , 1 979: F ig .33).

t he

T he f orm o f t he p ots i s l ess u niform t han t hat o f U nstan w are. A t S kara B rae, t he m ost c ommon s hape w as a f lat-based c ylindrical t ub , b ut i nverted t runcated c ones w ere a lso f ound. N o p ots h ad c arinations o r h andles. R ims w ere v ariable b ut g enerally s imple i n f orm ( Childe 1 931a: 1 28-9). T he m ost c omplete p ots a t Q uanterness c onform t o t hese d escriptions , b eing " flat-based a nd t ub-shaped , w ith w alls e ither s played o r n early v ertical a nd n otably s traight i n p rofile" ( Renfrew , 1 979: 7 5). D ecoration m ay b e e ither i ncised o r a pplied , a nd c onsists o f a v ariety o f r egular g eometric p atterns. A t S kara B rae, t hree c lasses o f d ecoration w ere r ecognised ( Childe, 1 931a: 1 30): 1 . 2 . 3 .

C lass A : a pplied s trips o r p ellets C lass B : a pplied s trips s ubsequently e mbellished b y i ncision C lass C : i ncised d ecoration i n a t hick s lip.

T hese c lasses w ere a ll r ecognised a t R inyo. A t Q uanterness a nd t he S tones o f S tenness, c lasses B a nd C w ere f ound b ut c lass A w as r are a t t he c airn a nd a bsent f rom t he h enge. T he d istribution o f G rooved W are w ithin O rkney i s r estricted t o o nly a f ew s ites. T he s ettlements o f S kara B rae, R inyo, a nd L inks o f N oltland ( Clarke e t a l., 1 978), a nd t he S tones o f S tenness ( J N G R itchie, 1 976) c ertainly h ave p roduced c lassic f orms o f G rooved W are. S tray f inds h ave c ome f rom D ingieshowe i n D eerness a nd f rom E vie t here

a re

g rounds f or i ncluding c ertain t ypes o f r ound-based p ottery i n G rooved W are a ssemblage, t hen i t i s a rguable t hat G rooved W are

( Stevenson ,

1 946).

I f,

a s C larke

( forthcoming )

s uggests,

t he h as

b een f ound a t s everal c hambered c airns i n O rkney ( Table 8 .1). T his s uggestion h as t he m erit o f r emoving f rom t he U nstan w are a ssemblage c ertain p ots, s uch a s N o 1 f rom K nowe o f C raie ( ORK 2 7), N o 2 f rom S andyhill S mithy ( ORK 4 7), N o 5 f rom M idhowe ( ORK 3 7) a nd N o 2 2 f rom T aversoe T hick ( ORK 4 9), w hich h ave n ever f itted c omfortably i nto a ny d efinition o f U nstan ware. Ac orollary i s t hat t wo c hambered c airns, n amely C alf o f E day L ong ( ORK 8 )

a nd T aversoe T hick

( ORK 4 9)

m ay h ave

c ontained p ottery o f b oth t ypes. T he m ost c omprehensive d iscussion o f G rooved W are i n B ritain i s c ontained i n t he e xcavation r eport o n D urrington W alls ( Wainwright w ith L ongworth, 1 971). T here t he a uthors s uggest t hat t he p reviously u sed

t erm

" Rinyo-Clacton"

s ub-styles o f p ottery a nd

s hould t he

r eferred t o a s G rooved W are.

w hole

b e

e nlarged c eramic

A s c an b e s een

t o

e mbrace

t radition f rom

F igure

o ther

s hould 8 .4,

b e t he

t radition i s f ound f rom O rkney t o D evon , w ith v isible c oncentrations i n t he W essex p rovince, E ssex, a nd Y orkshire. I n S cotland , G rooved W are i s r are, b ut w idespread. I t h as b een f ound a t t wo c hambered t ombs: U nival ( UST 3 4)and T ormore ( ARN 4 ). E lsewhere, i t h as b een f ound i n a n umber o f s urface c ollections, s urely a n t he s tyle i s m ore c ommon t han F igure 8 .4 r eveals. A v olumetric a nalysis o f 5 2 r econstructed

1 61

p ots

i ndication

f rom

t hat

O rcadian

F igure 8 .4

D istribution o f G rooved W are i n B ritain W ainwright w ith L ongworth,

1 62

1 971).

( after

c hambered c airns i s

d isplayed

i n

F igure

8 .5.

P erhaps

t he

m ost

r emarkable o bservation a bout t he c ollection i s i ts uniformity o f s ize. T he p ots w ith t he l argest r adius i s l ess t han f our t imes t he w idth o f t he s mallest , a nd t he r ange o f d epth i s e ven l ess. V olumes r ange f rom 7 42 c c t o 1 1851 c c, a r ange w hich i s d istorted b y o ne p ot , C alf o f E day N o 2 9. W ithout e xception , t hese p ots c ould c onceivably b e u sed i n e veryday d omestic c ircumstances. T he e vidence o n t he c ircumstances o f d eposition o f p ottery w ithin c hambered c airns i s p artial. A lmost w ithout e xception , a ll t he p ot s herds w ere f ound i n t he c hambers o r p assages o f t he m onuments - b ut t his i s r eadily a ttributed t o t hese a reas b eing m ore m eticulously e xamined t han o ther p arts o f t he b uildings. I n m ost c ases, p ot s herds w ere w idely s cattered t hroughout t he c hamber , b oth h orizontally a nd v ertically. T his i s i llustrated b y t he e xample o f Q uanterness ( ORK 4 3) w here H enshall was a ble t o j oin s herds f rom d ifferent a reas o f t he m ain c ompartment a nd f rom s trata 1 t hrough 5 . P ot N o 8h ad s herds f rom g rid s quares i n t he e xtreme n orth-east a nd t he e xtreme s outh-west o f t he c ompartment , s eparated b y o ver f ive m etres l aterally a nd t hree s trata v ertically ( Renfrew , e xception t o t his r ule was a t I sbister ( ORK 2 5) w here p ottery a ppeared t o b e l ocalised i n a r estricted a rea

1 979). much o f opposite

O ne t he t he

p assage e ntrance ( Hedges, f orthcoming). T Wo s imilar e xceptions w ere M idhowe ( ORK 3 7) w here m ost o f t he p ottery w as i n a s ingle p ile i n t he s eventh c ompartment f rom t he e ntrance ( Callander a nd G rant , 1 934) a nd c alf of E day L ong ( ORK 8 ) w here m any o f t he s herds w ere i n a s ingle p ile n ear t he c entre o f t he e astern c hamber ( Calder, 1 937). T he c ondition o f t he p ots m ay b e e xamined w ith r eference t o w holeness, a nd t o t reatment w ith f ire. I t i s v ery r are t o f ind a w hole p ot a nd t he m ost c ommon s tate i s f or p ots t o b e broken u p i nto m any p ieces a nd f or s ome p ieces t o b e m issing. T hat i s, t he g eneral r ule i s t hat p ots f ound i n t he c hambered c airns a re f ragmented a nd i ncomplete. T here a re o nly t wo u nfragmented c omplete p ots k nown , a nd b oth c ome f rom a s tructure o utside t he e xternal c airn T aversoe T hick ( ORK 4 9). M any p ot f ragments s how s igns o f h aving b een h eated a fter f iring u ntil p ink o r r ed , a nd t wo S andyhill S mithy(ORK 4 7 )

w all a t b urning, p ots a t

h ave r emains o f s oot i nside t he r im .

' Mere

a re u nmistakable s igns o f f ires h aving b een l it i nside c hambers ( Henshall, 1 963: 9 3) a nd i t i s p ossible t hat r eburning o f p ottery t ook p lace i n t he c hambers, a p ossibility s trengthened b y s everal c ases w here b urnt a nd unburnt s herds f it t ogether, i ndicating t he p ot w as b roken b efore r eburning. C ontrary t o t his, t he b ases o f s ome p ots a re a braded a nd s ome h ave b urnt d eposits a dhering t o b oth i nside a nd o utside ( 1963: 9 6) s uggesting t hat t hey w ere i n n ormal d omestic u se b efore b eing b rought i nto t he c hambered c airn. T he r ange o f v olumes p ortrayed i n F igure 8 .5 i s n ot i nconsistent w ith t he s upposition t hat a ll t he p ottery f ound i n t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney w as o riginally domestic w are i ntended f or e veryday p urposes o f c ooking a nd s torage. T he f ollowing c onclusions m ight b e d rawn f rom t his

e xamination

o f t he p ottery e vidence: 1 . 2 .

i n O rkney, t here a re t wo d istinctive p ottery s tyles, G rooved W are a nd U nstan w are. t he l imited e vidence f rom s ettlements s uggests t hat t here

1 64

was l ittle m ixing o f p ottery s tyles w ithin s ettlements. 3 . 4 .

a t a s mall n umber o f c hambered s tyles was d eposited.

c airns,

p ottery

o f

b oth

p ots w ithin c hambered c airns a re c ommonly b roken p ots w hich m ay h ave f ormerly b een u sed f or d omestic p urposes, s uggesting t hat n ew c omplete p ots w ere n ot d eliberately d eposited .

8 .3.

WORKED B ONE A ND R ELATED S UBSTANCES

A t m any a rchaeological s ites i n O rkney , c onditions a re e xcellent f or t he p reservation o f b one, a ntler a nd s imilar s ubstances. T his i s e specially t rue o f t hose s ites b uried i n c alcareous s and, s uch a s S kara B rae a nd L inks o f N oltland. O bjects o f w orked b one a re c omparatively r are i n t he c hambered c airns, a nd T able 8 .6 s hows t hat o nly s even c airns h ave p roduced s uch o bjects. A gain, d espite t he v ast a mount o f w ork t hat h as t aken p lace i n t he l ast d ecade, t here i s a s y et n o p ublished s ynthesis o f t he b one m aterial a nd C hilde ( 1931a) r emains t he o nly o verview o f t he n orthern N eolithic m aterial. H e d ivided t he i mplements a t S kara B rae i nto t hree c lasses, e ach o f w hich w as f urther s ub-divided i nto v ariants:

p ins, 8 .7 .

C lass A , p iercing t ools, i ncludes t he objects v ariously c alled p oints, a wls , a nd n eedles. S ome e xamples a re s hown i n F igure I mplements o f f orm A l a re m ade b y s plitting a l ong b one

o bliquely t hrough t he m iddle o f a n a rticulation. I mplements o f f orm A 2 a re a lso s plit b ut t he e ntire a rticulation i s r etained. I mplements o f f orm A 3 a re n eedles m ade f rom b one s plinters: t hey a re v ery rare. I mplements o f f orm A 4 a re p oints m ade o f i vory a nd s ometimes h ave a p rojecting b ulb o r l oop . C lass A t ools h ave b een f ound a t a ll t he s ettlement s ites a nd a t f ive c hambered c airns. T he f orms p resent i n t he c airns a re c ommonly A l o r A 2, b ut t here i s a p olished b one p in w ith a l ateral p rojection f rom Q uoyness ( ORK 4 4) w hich i s o f f orm A 4. C lass B , c utting o r s moothing t ools, i ncludes a m otley s haped b ones w ith t he c ommon c haracteristic o f s howing w ear

o f b y

a brasion. A lternative n ames i nclude f abricators, c hisels, a nd r ubbers. F igure 8 .8 d isplays s ome e xamples a nd T able 8 .6 s hows t hat t he c lass i s r elatively r are i n O rkney. A part f rom t he s ettlements o f S kara B rae a nd R inyo, o nly o ne o ther p ublished s ite h as p roduced a n i mplement o f c lass B . T his i s K nowe o f Y arso ( ORK 3 2) a t w hich a s moothing t ool o f f orm B 3 was f ound i n o ne o f t he c entral c ompartments ( Faxon , p ersonal c ommunication). C lass C ,

h eavy t ools,

i s d ivided i nto f orm C l ,

p erforated a dzes

m ade f rom b ovine m etapodials, f orm C 2, s hovels m ade f rom b ovine s capulae, a nd v arious l arger a nalogues o f t ools f rom c lasses A a nd B . S ome e xamples a re i llustrated i n F igure 8 .8. T here a re n o a rtefacts o f c lass C f rom a ny c hambered c airn. O ther c ommon a rtefacts o f worked b one a t S kara B rae a re t he d ecorative i tems o f b eads a nd p endants. B eads w ere m ade b y n otching l ong b ones o f s mall a nimals a nd b irds b efore s napping o ff i ndividual f ragments, o r b y r emoving t he r oots o f t eeth: b oth p rocesses a re a ttested b y t he f inding o f m anufacturing d ebris.

T he n umber o f b eads

f ound a t S kara B rae

t here

r uns

i nto

t housands,

1 65

a nd

a re

s everal

3 Piercing

Chambered

cai rns

2 3

32

3 1 *

tools

*

Cutting/smoothing

4 4

*

5 1

s ites

SB

R

*

*

tools

Heavy

4 3

Other

E il *

*

tools

Tine Perforation Bead/pendant

*

* *

Unspecified _

T able

8 .6

S ites w ith objects o f w orked b one s ubstances).

1 66

( and r elated

SK A R A BR A E

C D

Al

Az

A3

A 2a

2 /3

Knowc o fY a r so a ckha rn ine r

6,

1 4 F igure 8 .7

1 /2

B one a rtefacts o f C hilde 's C lass A ( after C hilde, a nd H enshall, 1 963).

1 931a

B2

B i

SK A R A BR A E

6 4

C77)

1 3 3

3 /8

CI

2 6 9

1 , , 10 \ \ -( 2o f Yarso

1 /2

F igure 8 .8

B one a rtefacts o f C hilde's C lass B a nd C lass C ( after C hilde, 1 931a a nd H enshall 1 963).

h undred r eported f rom L inks o f N oltland. I n c ontrast , b eads h ave b een p ublished f rom c hambered c airns - o ne C ORK 2 5),

a nd a f ish b one b ead f rom Q uanterness

o nly t wo b one f rom I sbister

C ORK 4 3).

O bjects o f w orked s keletal m aterial w hich d o n ot f it i nto a ny o f t he a bove c ategories a nd y et w ere e xcavated f rom c hambered c airns i nclude w orked a ntler f rom Q uanterness C ORK 4 3), Q uoyness C ORK 4 4), a nd U nstan C ORK 5 1) a nd a p erforated o x p halange - p erhaps t he r esult o f a nimal gnawing ( Faxon , p ersonal c ommunication) - f rom K nowe o f R owiegar C ORK 3 1). V arious objects o f w hale b one w ere r ecovered f rom S kara B rae ( Childe, 1 931a: p lates L a nd L I), n o worked w hale b one f rom t he c airns.

b ut t here a ppears t o

b e

L ittle c an b e s aid a bout t he w orked b one a ssemblage f rom t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney o ther t han i t d oes n ot a ppear t o b e r adically d ifferent f rom t hat f ound a t t he c ontemporary s ettlement s ites. T his o bservation i s c onditioned b y t he v ery p aucity o f b one a rtefacts f rom t he c airns c ompared w ith t he s ettlements: t he t otal n umber o f s uch f inds f rom S kara B rae i s a m agnitude h igher

t han

t he

t otal n umber f rom a ll t he c airns a nd t he d iscrepancy w ill b e e ven m ore a pparent w hen t he f inds f rom L inks o f N oltland a re f ully e xamined. O ne p ossible c onclusion i s t hat o bjects o f w orked b one w ere n either d eliberately d eposited n or a ccidentally l ost i n q uantity i nside t he c hambers, b oth i mplying t hat s uch o bjects w ere n ot c ommonly u sed i n c onnection w ith a ctivities t aking p lace i nside c hambered c airns. 8 .4.WORKED F LINT A ND C HERT W orked objects o f f lint a nd c hert h ave b een r ecovered f rom e very r ecent e xcavation o n p rehistoric s ites i n O rkney. T able 8 .9 i ndicates t hose s ites o f i nterest h ere. A v ariety o f f orms h ave b een i solated , o f w hich s crapers a nd k nives a re b y f ar t he m ost c ommon. T hese t ools h ave b een f ound a t a ll t hree p ublished s ettlements, t he S tones o f S tenness, a nd 1 2 c hambered c airns: t ypical e xamples t hese a nd o ther f lint t ools a re i llustrated i n F igure 8 .10.

o f

L eaf-shaped p oints, o r a rrowheads , h ave b een f ound a t f our c hambered c airns , a nd a t t he K nap o f H owar. I n a ddition , b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads h ave b een r ecovered f rom K nowe o f Y arso C ORK 3 2), s tratified a bove a b eaker v essel,

a nd f rom t he p assage a t U nstan

C ORK

5 1). F lint c ores w ere f ound a t K nowe o f Y arso a nd a nother R ousay c hambered c airn , K nowe o f R owiegar C ORK 3 1) w hile f inely r eworked f abricators w ere f ound a t U nstan a nd T aversoe T hick T he n umber o f s ites

a t

w hich

f lint-making

C ORK 4 9). d ebris

h as

b een

d iscovered i n t he f orm o f c hips a nd f lakes l eads t o t he c onclusion t hat t ools o f f lint w ere ubiquitous i n N eolithic O rkney. A s C larke ( 1978: 6 5) h as p ointed o ut, f lint n eed n ot b e v ery v isible i n t he c ourse o f a n a rchaeological e xcavation a nd t he p ossibility m ust b e c onsidered t hat T able 8 .9 i s m ore o f a p artial r epresentation o f t he p rehistoric p ast t han i s t he c ase f or o ther c lasses o f a rtefact. C ertainly t hat t able d oes n ot c ontradict t he c onclusion o f t he t wo p revious s ections a nd s uggest t hat t here was n o s pecial u sage o f f lint a nd c hert t ools w hich w as d istinctive t o e ither c hambered c airns o r s ettlement s ites.

1 69

*

= * *

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

2 6

*

2 5

*

*

*

*

*

4

8

2 3

*

*

*

3

01 *

2

cairns Chambered

*

3 2

*

3 1

*

*

3 0

*

*

2 7

3 7

4 3

4 7

4 9

*

*

*

5 1

g 0 U )

S ites w ith objects o f w orked f lint a nd c hert.

s ites Other

. . * * 5 * * *

*

a ) a C 0 C O

CO

*

*

*

' 0 C a ) a ) ( + , • , 1 0

3 0

i 4 g i . , g

0

4 0

P

d 0 . , 4 , 0 0 g l

a ) 0 0

1 70

1 , , 4 , a .

0

a )

. 4 1 , ( . ) a ) P . 0

0

SK A R A BR A E

1 /1

5

6

7

9

1 0

K no v ve o fY a r so

3 7

1 /2

3 6

3 7

T ave r soe T u ick ,

1 /2

F igure 8 .10

F lint a nd c hert a rtefacts

1 71

( after H enshall,

1 963).

8 .5.

W ORKED S TONE A gain ,

n o

m ore

u seful

( excluding f lint a nd c hert)

c ategorisation f rom

O rcadian

o f

t he

N eolithic

worked

s tone

c ontexts

h as

e merged s ince C hilde's ( 1931) d escription o f t he S kara B rae m aterial. H e d ivided t he i mplements i nto t hree g roups, t o w hich t he v ery c ommon c lass o f o bjects c alled S kaill k nives m ay b e a dded. T able 8 .11 s hows t he d istribution o f s tone o bjects a nd F igure s elected e xamples.

8 .12

i llustrates

s ome

A xes, o r c elts, a re t he s econd m ost c ommon s tone a rtefact w ith a bout 1 5 b eing f ound a t S kara B rae, t hree a t R inyo, o ne a t K nap o f H owar , o ne o r t wo a t f ive d ifferent c hambered c airns, a nd a t l east t hree f rom t he c airn i tself a t I sbister ( ORK 2 5). P erforated p estle-shaped m aceheads w ere f ound a t I sbister a nd T aversoe T hick ( ORK 4 9), a nd a t S kara B rae. T here h as b een n o s uggestion t hat t hese a xes were m anufactured u sing s tone o f e xotic o rigin , a lthough i t i s t rue t hat t he l atest t reatise o n s tone a xes f ails t o p lace t he n orthern S cottish m aterial i n a B ritish c ontext ( Clough a nd C ummings, 1 979). C arved s tone b alls h ave b een a m ystery t o a rchaeologists

s ince

t hey w ere f irst d iscovered. M arshall ( 1977) l ists 1 4 o r 1 5 f rom O rkney. S kara B rae a gain f igures p rominently a s a f ind-spot w ith t wo b alls o f h er t ype 7 ( with b etween 1 0 a nd 5 5 k nobs), t wo b alls o f t ype 9 c ( decorated w ith h atchings a nd i ncised l ines), a nd t hree b alls o f t ype 1 0 ( oval). S tray f inds, a ll b ut o ne f rom t he M ainland , a ccount f or t hree m ore b alls o f t ype 7 , o ne m ore b all o f t ype 1 0 , one b all o f t ype 5 ( with s even k nobs), a nd t wo m ore d ecorated b alls o f t ype 9 . ( Marshall's t ype 1 b all f rom O rkney c annot b e t raced). T o t he c arved s tone b alls l isted b y M arshall s hould p erhaps b e a dded f our s pherical b alls f rom R inyo ( Childe a nd G rant, 1 939: 2 7 a nd 1 947: 3 9), " a r ound s andstone b all" f rom C Uween H ill ( ORK 1 2) ( Henshall, 1 963: 1 96) a nd " a b all o f q uartz" f rom K orkquoy . ( ORK 3 4) ( 1963: 2 18). T he S kaill k nife , a n a rtefact f irst d escribed b y P etrie ( 1868: 2 15) c onsists o f a b each p ebble t hrown t o t he g round , r esulting i n a c lean b reak t hat s erves a s a c utting e dge. A t S kara B rae, C hilde f ound t hem " throughout t he m idden i n s uch n umbers t hat w e c eased c ollecting t hem" ( Childe, 1 931a: 1 14). A t R inyo , n one w ere m entioned i n 1 938, b ut n o l ess t han 1 60 w ere n oted during t he s econd s eason ( Childe a nd G rant, 1 947: 3 9). T he p resence o f l arge n umbers o f S kaill k nives was i nstrumental i n P etrie's o riginal d iscovery o f L inks o f N oltland ( Clarke e t a l., 1 978: 4 5). C ompared w ith t he v ast n umbers f ound o n s ettlement s ites, o nly f ive h ave b een d iscovered i n c hambered c airns: t hree a t Q uanterness ( ORK 4 3) a nd t wo a t Q uoyness ( ORK 4 4). D ecorated s tones ,

w ith p ecked d esigns o f s pirals

a nd

d iamonds

h ave b een f ound i n a ssociation w ith s ix s ites o f e arly p rehistoric d ate i n O rkney. T hey a re f ully c onsidered i n C hapter 1 5 a nd i llustrated i n F igures 1 5.20 t hrough 1 5.24. T heir d istribution i s l imited b ut i t d oes s eem a s i f c omplex , f inely e xecuted d esigns a re r estricted t o c hambered c airns w hile t he d esigns i n s ettlement e xhibit a l esser d egree o f p lanning a nd c ontrol. " Stone i mplements o f e xceptional f orm" w as t he p hrase

1 72

s ites

u sed

b y

**

5 * = * , * P z 1

u )

*

*

* * *

**

*

*

*

*

*

*

, 4 i t \

*

c h 2 -

*

*

r — — ,

*

e " .

*

n

*

. e .

*

t n

Cairns

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

r "

Chambered

*

*

. 1-

c o

*

i-

*

( ' " ) C M

*

C M

*

*

0 2-

C U

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

C V C M

*

s z

*

*

, — I

*

C M H

0 + i

*

C O

*

C ' 1

*

o X

.

a )

' 0

0 0 + ) U )

, 0 U )

'C I 0

o U )

0 C H + i 0

. 2

U ) a ) o

P U )

0

g

a )

0 P U )

c d

V

i -

0

' 0

P

0 0 P P

o

' 0 + 1

0 0 P U ) ; 4 0

" 0

0 ( U 0 + ) U ) 4 )

0 0 + I

g i

g i

a )

0 . r 1 C H . + 1 C . )

2ro. 2u)_ 7 , 4 ' 2 , : 1 12 1 2 .+ . , o E a ) . u ) g2 2 ' 1A 24 1 > 'gz § g 4 2 'E 3 '& 2 g ( U , — I

, 0

, i

1 73

,I

1 > c d + 1

. 0 2 g i ,

( excluding f lint

I s ites Other

, J ,* .

C a l fo fE day ,Long SK A R A BR A E

3 9

/ 12

Hun te r squoy 3

3

1 /2

Quoyness

, s sz s sz

,

/ 12

F igure 8 .12

S tone a rtefacts 1 963).

( after C hilde ,

1 931a a nd H enshall,

C hilde t o d escribe a m iscellany o f s tone o bjects f ound a t S kara B rae. T ö C hilde's l ist o f t hese objects ( 1931: 1 09-112) m ight b e a dded a n e qually h eterogenous g roup o f w orked s tones f ound e lsewhere i n O rkney a nd l isted i n T able 8 .11. S ome o f f unctions s uch a s p ot l ids ( found

t hese h ave s eemingly o bvious a t f our c hambered c airns, a

s ettlement s ite a nd a h enge), h ammerstones ( also f ound a t a ll t hree c lasses o f s ite), c lubs, w hetstones, a nd b eads. O thers m ay n ot b e s o e asily c ategorised , b ut i t i s o f n ote t hat t he c arved s tone o bjects w ith s pikes f ound a t S kara B rae a nd R inyo ( an e xample b eing i llustrated i n C hilde 1 931a , p late X XXIX) h as a c ounterpart i n t he t hree-spiked o bject f rom Q uoyness ( ORK 4 4) c hambered c airn. T b c onclude,

objects o f w orked s tone s urvive i n

m any

c ontexts

i n N eolithic O rkney. T he m ajority o f t hese objects a re i tems o f d aily u se a nd w ere d eposited i n g reat q uantities i n a nd a round s ettlement s ites b ut i n l esser q uantities a t c hambered c airns a nd h enges. T his s uggests t hat a lthough t he i nteriors o f c hambered c airns ( the o nly p arts c ommonly e xamined b y a rchaeologists) w ere n ot i n c onstant d aily u se f or d omestic p urposes, t hey w ere n ot c onceptually d istinct f rom o ther p laces o f a ctivity a nd t here w ere o ccasions w hen t he o utward a ctions o f d aily l ife w ere p erformed t here. T hese i tems w hich d o n ot h ave a u se o bvious t o u s - c arved s tone balls, d ecorated s tones, a nd s piked o bjects - w ere a lso f ound a t c hambered c airns a nd s ettlements. T his ' supports t he s uggestion t hat chambered c airns w ere n ot p laces a part f rom t he c ircles o f e veryday l iving , b ut w ere i nvolved i n N eolithic O rcadians. 8 .6.

t he

d aily

e xistence

o f

t he

U NWORKED A NIMAL R EMAINS T his s ection a nd t he

n ext

s eek

t o

d iscuss

t he

r emains

o f

a nimals a nd p lants f ound i n c ontexts o f t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia b c w ithin O rkney. T he m ajor p roblem i n s uch a d iscussion i s t he v ariability o f t he e vidence. S urvival p rocesses i n O rkney t end t o b e m ore f avourable i n a reas o f c alcareous s and , b ut t here a re s everal c hambered c airns o utwith s uch a reas w here a nimal b one h as s urvived i n quantity. T he e fficacy o f r ecovery p rocesses h as i mproved s ince l ast c entury. E arly e xcavators r arely m entioned t he f inding o f a nimal b ones a nd n ever g athered e nvironmental s amples f or p ost-excavation s tudy. I n c ontrast , R enfrew 's ( 1979) r eport o f t he e xcavation a t Q uanterness c ontains a m ass o f a nalysis o f c harcoal f ragments, m ammalian a nd r odent r emains, b ird b ones a nd f ish b ones. T he p ublished e xcavations o f t he l ast d ecade h ave g enerally c ontained s ome k ind o f q uantitative a nalysis o f t he p roportions o f d ifferent s pecies p resent: i n e arly e xcavations, s uch d ata i s c ommonly r eported i n p resence/absence f orm. N evertheless, i nformation.

i t i s p ossible t o t abulate s ome o f t he

p ublished

T ables 8 .13 a nd 8 .14 d isplay t he f inds o f m ammal, b ird ,

f ish a nd m ollusc r emains t hat h ave b en f ound d uring t he e xcavation o f s tratified N eolithic d eposits a t 1 9 c hambered c airns, t hree s ettlements, a nd t he S tones o f S tenness. T hese w ill b e c onsidered s pecies b y s pecies. B ovids,

o r c attle, o r m ammals o f t he g enus B os,

a re,

a long w ith

o vicaprids a nd d eer, t he m ost w idespread o f N eolithic s pecies h aving b een f ound a t 1 6 p ublished e xcavations. L ittle i nformation c an b e

1 75

UnBos

*

ORK

3

ORK

7

ORK

8

ORK

12

ORK

17

Ovis

Cervus

Equus

specified

1 2 4 * *

2 1 22

*

*

1 3 *

*

ORK

25

ORK

27

ORK

30

ORK

31

1

ORK

32

1

3

ORK

36

ORK

3 7

*

*

*

ORK

43

4 4

3 *

2 5 .

2

ORK ORK

5 1

*

*

*

*

*

54

*

*

Skara Brae Rinyo of

Howar

1 4

*

3 5

*

"

_

*

*

I

1

*

*

4

*

5 5

Knap

Lutra

*

2 4

*

ORK

ORK

Sus

7

ORK

ORK

Canis

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

6

1

3

*

*

* *

*

*

Stones of Stenness

T able

8 .13

R emains o f m ammals ( minimum n umber o f i ndividuals, a n a sterisk i ndicating p resence).

1 76

with

Rodents

ORK

3

ORK

12

ORK

21

ORK

22

ORK

25

ORK

30

ORK

3 7

ORK

43

ORK

4 4

ORK

5 1

Skara Brae Knap

of * Howar

T able

8 .14

Fish

Birds

Molluscs

3 * * *

2

9

1

*

2

10

2

7

3 8

1 *

* *

*

*

*

*

*

R emains o f o ther f auna ( minimum n umber o f s pecies, w ith a n a sterisk i ndicating p resence).

1 77

g leaned f rom t he r emains f ound i n c hambered f rom S kara B rae b y W atson ( Childe 1 931a: r elevant c onclusions:

c airns b ut t he r eport 1 98-204) m akes s everal

1 .

c attle w ere b utchered , i n s ome c ases b y p ole-axing , a nd u sed a s m eat p roviders 2 . t here w as o ne u niform b reed o f c attle 3 . s ome b ull c alves w ere c astrated 4 . y oung a nimals w ere r egularly s laughtered a t t he b eginning o f w inter.

O vicaprids, o r s heep a nd g oats o f t he g enus O vis , w ere r eported f rom 1 5 e xcavations. A t S kara B rae, t here w ere a s m any i ndividual s heep a s c attle a nd W atson s uggests t hat t hey r esembled t he p resent d ay b reed o f " Soya" ( =Spay?) s heep a nd t hat f locks w ere l eft t o f orage f or t hemselves t hroughout t he y ear. ( Childe, 1 931a : 2 03). T Wo o f t he c hambered c airns c ontained B lackhammer ( ORK 3 ) a nd Q uanterness ( ORK l east 1 6 s heep a nd e ight s heep w ere f ound ,

l arge n umbers o f s heep: 4 3). A t B lackhammer a t r espectively , i n t he t op

a nd b ottom l ayers o f t he d eposits o f t he c hamber. F urthermore , t hese r emains w ere a ll r estricted t o j ust t wo o f t he s even c ompartments ( Callander a nd G rant, 1 937: 3 07). A t Q uanterness s even a dult s heep a nd 1 8 l ambs w ere r ecovered , a t otal w hich " greatly o utnumbered t hose o f a ny o ther s pecies o f l arge m ammals f rom t he t omb" ( Renfrew , 1 979: 1 21). D eer , a lmost a ll b eing i ndentified a s r ed d eer ( Cervus e laphus) h ave b een r ecovered f rom 1 5 a rchaeological s ites. A gain , T able 8 .13 s hows t hat a f ew s ites c ontained a l arge n umber o f i ndividuals o f t his p articular s pecies. A t H olm o f P apa W estray N orth ( ORK 2 1), P etrie a nd H ebden f ound a t l east 1 3 p airs o f " deer h orns" ( Petrie, 1 857: 6 2). A t K nowe o f R amsay ( ORK 3 0), P latt f ound t hat d eer b one was t he m ost c ommon t ype o f b one f ound i n t en c ompartments o f t he c hamber a nd t hat a m inimum o f 1 4 i ndividuals was r epresented . ( Callander a nd G rant , 1 936: 4 18). P latt h ad a lready f ound a s imilar a bundance o f d eer a t K nowe o f Y arso ( ORK 3 2) w here a m inimum n umber o f 3 5 w ere n oted , c ompared w ith j ust o ne o x a nd t hree s heep . ( Callander a nd G rant , D ogs.

1 935:

3 43).

T he o nly o ther m ammal t o a ppear i n l arge

quantities

a t

a ny s ingle c hambered c airn w as o f t he g enus C anis. A t t he e xcavation o f t he m ain c hamber o f C uween H ill ( ORK 1 2), " the d eposit h ad a s omewhat f atty , u nctuous a ppearance a nd c ontained t wo d ozen s kulls o f t he d og ( Charleson , 1 902: 7 33). D og b ones were a lso f ound a t o ther c airns, a nd a t l east t hree w olves ( Canis l upus) w ere r ecovered f rom t he d itch a round t he S tones o f S tenness ( Ritchie, 1 976: 3 4-36). T he r emains o f c ertain o ther l arge m ammals h ave b een r ecovered f rom N eolithic c ontexts i n O rkney. P igs ( or a nimals o f t he g enus S us) w ere u tilised a t t he s ettlements o f S kara B rae a nd K nap o f H owar, a nd p ig r emains w ere a lso f ound a t f ive c hambered c airns. E vidence o f w hale w as a lso r ecovered f rom t wo s ettlements - S kara B rae a nd R inyo - b ut o nly , a s a worked a rtefact, f rom o ne c hambered c airn.

O tter a nd h orse b ones h ave b een f ound i n s mall q uantities

a t

t wo a nd f ive c hambered c airns r espectively. O nce t he l arge m ammals h ave b een

1 78

c onsidered ,

t he

quality

o f

e vidence d eteriorates a nd i t i s r arely p ossible t o n umber o f i ndividuals f rom t he p ublished e xcavation

d iscern r eports.

m inimum T able

8 .14 p ortrays t he m inimum n umber o f s pecies o f r odents , f ish , b irds a nd molluscs f ound a t e xcavated s ites. R odents, w hich i nclude t he O rcadian v ole, a s pecies u nique t o O rkney , h ave o nly b een f ound a t a f ew s ites, t echnique ,

b ut w ith t he i ntroduction o f w et-sieving a s a n i t i s c ertain r odent b ones w ill b e r ecovered

p rehistoric deposits t han h itherto.

T he s ame t echnique

s uggested t hat C hilde's c omment a bout t he e conomy o f t hat " fishing s eems t o h ave p layed a v ery s mall c ommunity's e conomy"

( 1931:

9 6)

-

m ay

d uring C larke's r ecent e xcavations q uantity f rom t he s ieves ( 1976: 2 2).

f ish

b e

a

e xcavation f rom m ore h as

a lready

S kara r ole

B rae i n t he

m isinterpretation

b ones

w ere

r ecovered

a s i n

A t S kara B rae, t he m ost c ommon b ird r ecovered w as t he g annet, b ut c ertain c hambered c airns a ppear t o h ave c ontained a l arge n umber o f d ifferent s pecies o f b ird. F or i nstance , a t Q uanterness, B ramwell i dentified t he p resence o f n o l ess t han 2 8 s pecies. H e d id s uggest , h owever, t hat m any o f t he s maller b irds m ight h ave b een i ntroduced i n t he f orm o f p ellets f rom o wls l iving i n t he c hambers ( Renfrew , 1 979: 1 39). A nother o bservation o f i nterest c omes f rom t he b ird r emains a t I sbister: a m inimum n umber o f 1 4 w hite-tailed e agles, ( Haliaetus a lbicilla) w ere r ecovered. T his o bservation , a nd s everal o ther o bservations a lready n oted i n t his s ection , w ill b e f urther d iscussed i n C hapter 1 5.

f ound.

F inally, T able 8 .14 s hows t he s ites a t w hich m olluscs h ave b een E very p rehistoric m idden t hat h as b een s ampled i n t he l ast

d ecade i n O rkney h as c ontained l arge quantities o f s ea m olluscs, n ot a bly l impets, r azorshells, m ussels, a nd o ysters. T he p aucity o f c hambered c airns w ith s uch s hells m ay b e a r eflection o f p oor r ecovery - m olluscs n ot b eing d eemed w orthy o f c ollection b y a rchaeologists - b ut i t m ay e qually b e a s ign t hat t he r ationale b ehind t he d eposition o f b ones o f l arge l and m ammals a nd b irds i nside c hambered c airns d id n ot e xtend e qually t o l owly s ea c reatures. T he m ost i mportant q uestion a bout a ll t hese f aunal

r emains

i s

t he m ethod o f t heir i ntroduction i nto c hambered c airns. W hile t here i s t he p ossibility t hat s ome b ones m ay h ave b een d eposited s ince t he N eolithic p eriod , i t i s g enerally a ccepted t hat t he m ajority o f b ones d iscussed a bove a re t he r esult o f a ctivity b y t he m ost r ecent p rotagonists o f t his 1 979: 1 12-3) a nd B arker ( Hedges,

c airn-users.

v iew a re C lutton-Brock f orthcoming) w ho a rgue

T he

( Renfrew , t hat a t

Q uanterness a nd I sbister r espectively , d ue t o t he s tratigraphic i ntegrity o f t he s amples a nd t he r elative a bsence o f g nawing m arks, t he f aunal r emains a re m ost l ikely t o b e t he r esult o f d eposition d uring t he p rimary u se o f t he c hambered c airns. B eyond t his,

t he a vailable e vidence f or c ondition o f t he

b ones

a t t ime o f d eposition i s n o t s trong. A t b oth Q uanterness a nd I sbister, t here i s l ittle e vidence f or e xtensive b utchery o r c ooking o f m eat a nd i t w ould s eem t hat a nimals w ere d eposited w hole o r n early w hole i n t he c hambers, a c onclusion s upported b y t he m issing b ones o f a n a nimal g enerally b eing t he s mall b ones w hich m ay b e p oorly r epresented d ue t o d ifferential r ecovery d uring e xcavation. T his w ould t end t o r ule o ut t he p ossibility o f a nimal b ones b eing p resent a s a r esult o f f ood b eing e aten i nside t he c hamber. H owever, t he

1 79

v ery p resence o f a nimal e xplanation: b e e xplored. 8 .7 .

b ones

i nside

a

c hambered

c airn

r equires

i n C hapter 1 5 t he p ossibility o f t otemic s ymbolism w ill

P LANT R EMAINS T he p ollen a nalyses c arried o ut b y K eatinge a nd D ickson

( 1979)

r eveal t hat t he v egetation o f N eolithic O rkney w as t ypical o f a p astoral l andscape s uggesting t hat c ertain g rasses w ere encouraged t o g row. O ther c ircumstantial e vidence f or t he h uman e xploitation o f p lant l ife l ies i n t he p lough m arks o bserved a t t he b ase o f a G rooved W are m idden a t L inks o f N oltland. O rganic p lant r emains s urvive b est i n w ater-logged d eposits a nd t he r ecent e xcavations a t S kara B rae ( Clarke, 1 976) w ere p artially d esigned t o l ocate a wet m idden d iscovered b y C hilde. T his m idden w as f ound a nd p roduced a v ariety o f m acroscopic p lant r emains i ncluding a rtefacts s uch a s a w ooden h andle a nd a l ength o f h eather r ope. F rom t he wood r emains C larke c oncluded t hat t here m ay h ave b een a n a mple s upply o f l arge t imber f rom d riftwood a t S kara B rae s uggesting t hat t he c onstruction o f h ouses a nd f urniture i n s tone was a d eliberate c hoice. T he e vidence f or c ultivated g rain i n N eolithic O rkney d oes n ot r est s olely o n c ircumstantial o bservations. C arbonised b arley h as b een r ecovered f rom S kara B rae ( Clarke , p ersonal c ommunication). T wo c hambered c airns h ave p roduced s tratified p ottery w ith i mpressions o f c ereal g rain.

A r im s hard o f a c arinated b owl

( No 1 1) f rom

C alf

o f

E day L ong ( ORK 8 ) i s m arked w ith t he i mpression o f a g rain o f n aked b arley , a nd a wall s herd f rom U nstan ( ORK 5 1) h as a n i mpression o f a g rain o f h ulled b arley ( Jessen a nd H elbaek , 1 944: 1 8). U ndoubtedly t hough, t he b est e vidence f or c ultivated g rain f rom a c hambered c airn c omes f rom I sbister. T he s eed r eport b y L ynch ( in H edges, f orthcoming) a nalyses a s ample f rom t he f loor o f t he c entral c ompartment. A mong a l arge n umber o f s eeds f rom w eeds o f d isturbed a nd c ultivated p laces, i ncluding s eeds o f c hickweed a nd c urled d ock, L ynch f ound 5 6 g rains o f c ultivated b arley e mmer wheat.

a nd

a

s ingle

g rain

o f

M ore s o t han o ther o bjects d ealt w ith a bove , p lant r emains a re e phemeral a nd a re n ot l iable t o s urvive i n a rchaeological d eposits. O nly w ith m odern m ethods o f r ecovery h as e vidence b egun t o e merge t hat t he p eople o f t he c airns u sed , a s a p art o f daily l ife, o bjects o f v egetable m atter. I t i s p robable t hat o ur k nowledge o f s uch o bjects w ill e xpand r adically i n t he y ears t o c ome: o ur p resent i nformation c an o nly p oint t he w ay f or f uture r esearch. 8 .8.

O NE O R T WO C ULTURES?

T he p urpose o f t his c hapter h as b een t o e xplore t he n ature o f t he m aterial c ulture o f N eolithic O rkney a t t he s cale o f s mall p ortable o bjects i n o rder t o s ee i f a ny l ight c an b e c ast r elationships b etween l and a nd s ociety i n t he i slands i ntra-regional s cale.

o n a t

A l arge a mount o f t he i nformation a bove h as c ontributed a ssessment o f t he e conomy o f N eolithic O rkney. m ixed a griculture w ith p astured c attle a nd s heep

t o

a n

T he r egime was o ne o f p roviding

p art o f t he f ood s upply b ut w ith a rable c rops a lso b eing

1 80

t he t he

a

l arge

cultivated.

I n a ddition ,

h unting ,

f ishing a nd g athering

w ere

i mportant

i n

t he

s ubsistence e conomy. T here i s n o e vidence t hat t his p attern d iffered w ithin t he i sland-group: f or t he o bjectives u nder c onsideration h ere, t he m eans o f s ubsistence c an b e a ssumed t o b e u niform t hroughout O rkney a nd t hroughout t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia b e. A ny o ther d ifferentiation i n t he m aterial c ulture m ust b e d iscussed , b ecause o f t he p articular w ay t he a rchaeological l iterature h as e volved , i n t erms o f t he U nstan/Grooved W are d istinction. T here i s n o d oubt t hat s uch a d istinction i s v alid: t here a re a ssemblages o f objects, n ot p urely r estricted t o p ottery , w hich a re v ery d ifferent t o o ther a ssemblages o f o bjects f ound i n N eolithic c ontexts i n O rkney.

T he U nstan a ssemblage i s

t he f inds f rom K nap o f H owar w hich

c ontain

a rtefacts

t ypified o f

b one

b y a nd

s tone unparalleled e lsewhere ( A . R itchie , p ersonal c ommunication). T he G rooved W are a ssemblage i s t ypified b y t he f inds f rom S kara B rae. H aving a ffirmed t hat t here i s a v alid d istinction b etween m aterial c ultures o f U nstan t ype a nd G rooved W are t ype , t he n ature o f t he d istinction ,

a nd i ts a pplication t o t he s tudy o f c hambered c airns

c an n ow b e c onsidered . F igure 8 .15 s hows t he d istribution o f a rtefacts o f U nstan t ype a nd o f G rooved W are t ype i n O rkney. S kara B rae a nd R inyo a re a ssigned t o t he l atter a nd K nap o f H owar t o t he f ormer. L inks o f N oltland , a lthough p rimarily p roducing a rtefacts o f G rooved W are t ype , h as a lso p roduced objects s imilar t o t hose o f t he K nap o f H owar a ssemblage ( D V C larke p ersonal c ommunication). T he S tones o f S tenness a nd t wo s tray f ind s ites, t he S ands o f E vie a nd D ingieshowe, h ave p roduced G rooved W are. T he r emaining s ymbols o n F igure 8 .15 c orrespond t o t he d istribution o f p ottery o f t he t wo t ypes d isplayed i n T able 8 .1 w ith t he i nclusion o f Q uoyness ( ORK 4 4) a s a G rooved W are s ite o n t he s trength o f t he s piked s tone object a nd t he p in w ith l ateral p rojection ,

b oth p aralleled a t S kara B rae.

F igure 8 .15 s hows c learly t hat t he U nstan/Grooved W are d istinction i s b lurred a mong t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney. A lthough t here a re m onuments a t w hich a rtefacts o f j ust o ne t ype h ave b een d iscovered , t here a re a lso m onuments a t w hich a rtefacts o f b oth t ypes have b een f ound. T here i s n o d istinctive i ntra-regional p atterning o f t he t wo t ypes: G rooved W are a nd U nstan s ites a re m ixed t hroughout t he i sland-group , t he m ixing b eing t ypified b y t he i sland o f R ousay. T b p re-empt t he d iscussion o f C hapter 9 , a c hronological p erspective o n t he f inds d oes n ot h elp t o r esolve d istinctive p atterns. I n s hort, t he question p osed i n t he t itle o f t his s ection - o ne o r t wo c ultures? - i s a nswered b y t he c onclusion t hat t here a re t wo d istinctive c ultural a ssemblages b ut t hat t he b oundary b etween i s n ot d efinite, e ither i n s pace o r t ime. T he U nstan/Grooved c ontroversy w ill r e-emerge

a t

i ntervals

t hroughout

t he

t hem W are

f ollowing

c hapters, b ut t he e vidence o f t he s mall p ortable a rtefacts i s e quivocal f or a s tudy o f s ocietal r elationships i n N eolithic O rkney. P erhaps t he m ost i mportant c onclusion t o b e d rawn f rom t his c hapter i s t hat t he a rtefacts a nd o ther o bjects f ound i n c hambered c airns a re n ot p eculiar t o c hambered c airns. W ith v ery f ew e xceptions ( the f ew d ecorated s tones d iscussed i n C hapter 1 5 b eing t he major o nes) t here a re n o objects f ound i nside c hambers w hich h ave

1 81

F igure 8 .15

D istribution o f a rtefacts o f U nstan t ype a nd G rooved W are t ype. 1 82

n ot a lso b een r ecovered f rom s ettlement s ites.

T his

h olds t rue f or b oth U nstan a nd G rooved W are s ites.

g eneralisation

I t i s a lso

v alid

d espite t he s mall n umber o f s ettlement s ites e xcavated. C hambered c airns m ay b e r egarded a s p laces w hich a re n ot o utwith t he r outine o f d aily l ife,

b ut a s p laces where o rdinary a ctivities o f

s ignificance a re c arried o n - a ctivities which m anufacture a nd u se o f s pecial objects. T his c airns a s o rdinary p laces,

u nexceptional

d o n ot r equire t he t heme , o f c hambered

w ill b e d eveloped i n l ater c hapters.

1 83

C HAPTER N INE :

R ELATIVE TYPOLOGIES A ND A BSOLUTE C HRONOLOGIES

9 .1.

S ERIATION ,

TYPOLOGY ,

C HRONOLOGY

C lassification h as a lways b een a c ommon p ursuit a mong o f c hambered cairns, a nd a mong a rchaeologists i n g eneral.

s tudents T his i s

n ot the p lace t o d iscuss t he h istory o f a rchaeological c lassification b ut it m ust b e p ointed o ut t hat t he s pecialist v ocabulary u sed i n t he d iscipline h as undergone,

a nd

c ontinues

t o

undergo,

c onsiderable

d efinitional s hift o ver t he d ecades. F or i nstance, t he word " typology", w hich t o P itt R ivers i n 1 891 m eant t he s tudy o f " sequence o f t ype"

( Thompson,

1 977:

4 1) n ow a ppears t o h ave l ost t he c oncept o f

e volutional s uccession a nd t o h ave b ecome " a s ystem o f c lassification b ased on a ttributes" ( Joukowsky , 1 980: 2 81). A gain, " typology" i s n ow frequently u sed a s a n oun m eaning a p articular c lassification. H enceforth,

t he f ollowing definitions w ill b e u sed:

T ypology: a m ulti-attribute s ystem o f c lassification producing a n umber o f c lasses. T he m embers o f e ach c lass a re m ore s imilar t o e ach o ther t han t o m embers o f o ther c lasses. S eriation o r t ypological s eriation: a t ypology i n w hich t he c lasses a re a rranged i n a over t ime, f rom e arly t o l ate, p rocess i s a ssumed b etween c lasses.

a nd

s ome

s equence

e volutionary

C hronology: t he i mposition o f a n a bsolute y ears, upon a s eriation. T hese t hree t ypes o f

t ime-scale,

c lassification

a ntiquarians a nd a rchaeologists

s tudying

O rkney a nd t he n orth o f S cotland.

h ave t he

m easured

a ll

b een

c hambered

A n early t ypology

o f

i n

u sed

b y

c airns

o f

p rehistoric

m onuments i ncluding c hambered c airns was p roposed by B arry i n 1 805 ( Barry, 1 975) a nd t he i ntervening t ime up t o t he p resent h as s een t he p ublication o f a t l east t en m ore p ertinent c lassifications i ncluding t hose presented i n W ilson ( 1851), P etrie ( 1856), A nderson ( 1886), C hilde

( 1940),

R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient M onuments o f

S cotland

( 1946), P iggott ( 1954), H enshall ( 1963 a nd 1 972), R enfrew ( 1979), S harples ( 1979), a nd H edges ( forthcoming). S ome o f t hese a re d iscussed i n d etail i n t he e nsuing c hapter. F inally, t he r elationship o f t hese c lassifications t o t he c lassification

p roduced

b y c luster a nalysis i n C hapter 6 w ill b e d iscussed. 9 .2.

ANDERSON'S T YPOLOGY D uring t he c ourse

o f

t he

R hind

l ectures

f or

1 882,

J oseph

A nderson devoted h is f ourth a nd f ifth l ectures t o t he c hambered c airns of S cotland, a nd c oncentrated l argely o n t hose o f C aithness a nd O rkney. ( Anderson, 1 886). F rom t he o utset, b ased on h is o wn e xcavations i n C aithness, h e was c onfident t hat t he m onuments b een places o f c ollective b urial, a nd w as a ble t o d ate t hem t o A ge

of

S tone.

U sing

t ype

e xamples,

d ifferent t ypes o f c hambered cairn

A nderson

i dentified

( illustrated h ere i n

w hich could b e f ound i n t he n orth o f S cotland:

1 85

F igure

h ad t he e ight 9 .1)

F igure 9 .1

A nderson 's t ypology.

( after A nderson,

1 886).

5 5),

1 . l ong h orned c airns. T ypified b y S outh Y arrows t hese c airns w ere d escribed a s e longated i n f orm ,

e ast a nd w est,

w ith t he e ast e nd b eing m ore

e xtremities a re h orn-like p rojections. w hich i s c ommonly t ri-partite.

m assive.

S outh ( CAT o rientated

A t

t he

T he c airn c onceals a

f our

c hamber

2 . s hort h orned c airns. O rmiegill ( CAT 4 2) p resented m any o f t he c haracteristics o f A nderson's p revious t ype , b ut w as d istinguished b y b eing a s s hort a s i t w as w ide. T he s tyle o f c hamber a nd t he o bjects f ound t herein w ere i ndistinguishable c airns.

f rom

t he

l ong

3 . r ound c airns w ith t ri-partite c hambers. U sing C ämster R ound ( CAT 1 3) a nd t he g roup o f c airns o n W arehouse H ill a s h is e xamples , A nderson d escribed t hese c airns a s b eing c ircular w ith s ingle o r d ouble r etaining w alls, a nd c oncealing a c hamber o f s imilar d esign t o t he c hambers o f t he h orned c airns. O rcadian e xamples w ere a lso c ited. 4 . e xample,

r ound c airn w ith b ipartite c hamber a nd s ide c ell. As ingle K enny 's C airn ( CAT 3 1), w as s een b y A nderson a s " a

c onnecting l ink b etween t he C aithness f orm a nd c hambered c airn" ( 1886: 2 58).

t he

O rkney

f orm

o f

5 . m ultiple c hambered c airns. A t R hinavie i n S utherland i s a c omplex o f c hambers a nd c airns, n ow d esignated C öille n a B orgie N orth a nd S outh ( SUT 2 2 a nd 2 3). 6 . r ound c airns w ith p assages l eading t o l arge c hambers w ith s ide c ells. T his t ype , r estricted t o O rkney , w as e xemplified b y M aes H owe ( ORK 3 6), ( ORK 4 3).

H olm o f P apa W estray S outh

( ORK

2 2)

a nd

Q uanterness

7 . r ound c airn w ith a p assage l eading t o a c hamber w ith s ide c hambers d emarcated b y s ill-stones. B ookan ( ORK 4 ), t he s ole e xample, i s, l ike K enny's C airn " a c onnecting l ink b etween t he t riply d ivided c hamber o f t he C aithness g roup ( type 3 ) a nd t he c hamber s urrounded b y s ide c ells ( type 6 ), w hich i s t he p revailing v ariety i n O rkney" ( 1886: 2 91). 8 . e xample,

r ound U nstan

c airn w ith a m ulti-partite ( ORK 5 1), w as r egarded a s

i mportance b ecause o f t here.

t he

quantity

o f

c hamber. b eing o f

a rtefactual

A nderson 's p articular

r emains

f ound

I n s ummary , J oseph A nderson r ecognised a v ariety o f c airn f orms, w ith l ess u niformity i n C aithness t han i n O rkney. H e r ecognised t wo t ypes o f c hamber f orm. T he f irst , m ore c ommonly f ound i n C aithness, c onsisted o f a t ri-partite c hamber. T he s econd , s eemingly r estricted t o O rkney , c onsisted o f a c entral c hamber w ith s eparate s ide c ells. T Wo c hambered c airns, o ne i n O rkney a nd o ne i n C aithness, w ere s een a s t ransitional b etween t he t wo f orms. N o a ttempt w as m ade t o r elate t he m aterial c ulture t o t his t ypology a nd t here was n o s uggestion o f a c hronological s uccession. T he w ider b ackground o f t he c airn-builders, a s s een i n 1 886 , i s e xplicitly s tated. A fter c omparing t he t ombs o f n orthern S cotland

1 87

w ith s everal k nown e xamples f rom s outhern E ngland , A nderson c oncluded t he s imilarities o f s uch m onuments a ll o ver B ritain w ere s uch a s t o m ake i nescapable " the i nference t hat t hey a re a ll t he work o f o ne r ace o f m an" ( 1886: 2 67). 9 .3.

C HILDE 'S P ENTLAND C ULTURE

W hen G ordon C hilde t urned h is a ttention t o t he c hambered t ombs o f t he n orth, h e r egarded t hem a s t he m ost r emote e xamples o f burial c hambers u nited b y a c ommon i dea t hrough t he l ength o f E urope. T his i dea , t he " megalithic r eligion", w as s o p ervasive i n E urope t hat i t f ormed t he b asis f or a d istinctive p an-European e xisting t oday ( Childe , 1 958: 1 24). I n d ifferent c ontinent t he m egalithic r eligion f ound i ts p ermanent

s ociety s till p arts o f t he e xpression i n

t he l andscape i n d ifferent w ays, b ut h owever r are o r b izarre a p articular b uilt s tructure was, i t h ad b een e rected t o s ustain a nd c ommemorate a s ystem o f b elief w hich s tretched t hroughout E urope. T he m egalithic r eligion a s r epresented i n t he B ritish I sles l eft i ts m ost p ermanent m ark i n t he f orm o f c ollective t ombs o f t hree t ypes: g allery g raves, " unchambered" l ong b arrows, a nd p assage g raves ( Childe, 1 940: 4 7). I n t he e xtreme n orth o f B ritain , o n both s ides o f t he P entland F irth , w as a g roup o f t he l atter - a c ollection o f p assage g raves w hich C hilde f urther s ub-divided i nto t hree ( 1940: 7 0-4): 1 .

t he C aithness t ype.

T he c airns

o f

t his

t ype

a re

m ostly

r ound , b ut l ong h orned a nd s hort h orned c airns a re a lso i ncluded. T he m ost c ommon s tyle o f c hamber i s o val a nd c orbelled , a nd c ontains t hree c ompartments d ivided b y p rojecting s labs. T he f inds f rom t hese t ombs c ould b e p aralleled b y p ottery a nd f lint t ools o f t he H ill c ulture a nd b y p ottery f rom t he Faker p eriod.

W indmill

2 . t he U nstan t ype. D efined e xclusively b y t he s hape o f t he c hamber, t ombs o f U nstan t ype a re d ivided i nto c ompartments, t he c ompartment c ontaining b enches, a nd a re e ntered b y a p assage l eading i nto t he l ong s ide. T aversoe T hick ( ORK 4 9) a nd H untersquoy ( ORK 2 3) w ere c ited a s e xamples a nd t he t ype p resumably i ncluded U nstan ( ORK 5 1). ( Note t hat t he l ast t wo s entences i n C hilde's ( 1940:72) d escription o f t he U nstan t ype a re e rroneous). A d istinctive s tyle o f p ottery , U nstan ware, was s een a s h aving p arallels i n t he H ebrides, I reland ,

a nd i n B rittany.

3 . t he L ong S talled t ype. I n t hese c airns, t he c hamber i s e longated , a nd s ub-divided b y p airs o f o rthostats w ith c ompartments, n umbering f rom f our t o t welve. U sually t he p assage e nters f rom one e nd. T he K nowe o f Y arso ( ORK 3 2) a nd B lackhammer ( ORK 3 ) w ere r eferred t o a s e xamples. A gain , a ffinities w ith t he W indmill H ill c ulture ,

i n t he f orm o f a xes,

a rrowheads ,

a nd p ottery ,

were o bserved.

C hilde's P entland c ulture i s a n e xample o f a t ypology w hich was e rected t o s ustain a p articular b elief - t hat o f c ultural d iffusion f rom t he s outh a nd e ast. H is d escription o f t he v ariety o f s tructural f orms f ound a mong t he c hambered c airns o f n orthern S cotland i s u nformulated a nd i nadequate. ' No m ajor c riticisms m ay b e l evelled . T he f irst c oncerns t he d efinition o f t he U nstan t ype whose o nly d istinctive c haracteristic a ppears t o b e a p assage entering f rom

1 88

t he l ong s ide o f t he c hamber - b ut t his i s a c haracteristic w hich i s a lso f ound , a ccording t o C hilde, a mong t he L ong S talled c airns. T he s econd c riticism c oncerns t he f ailure t o g ive f ull p rominence t o t he t ombs which h ave s ide c ells o pening f rom a c orbelled c hamber, s uch a s M aes H owe. T hese t ombs a re m entioned p arenthetically , b ut o nly t o a ssert t he p ossibility o f c onnections w ith I reland. A ccording t o C hilde, M aes H owe i tself, b earing s uch a c lose r esemblance t o N ew G range i n C ounty M eath, m ust " surely h ave b een t he t omb o f a c hieftain f rom t he B oyne" ( 1940: 7 0). I n s ummary , C hilde's c lassification o f t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney w as e xplicitly d esigned t o s upport h is c oncept o f a m egalithic r eligion e xpanding i nto t he c orners o f E urope. A s s uch, i t i s f ocussed o n a s cale o f a nalysis w hich i s f ar r emoved f rom t hat w hich i s o f i nterest i n t he p resent w ork. W hile t he P entland c ulture w as u ndoubtedly o f b enefit i n t he u nderstanding o f a p an-European m ovement a s c onceived b y t he p rehistorians o f 4 0 y ears a go, i t i s o f l ittle u se i n t he understanding o f t he p eople o f p rehistoric O rkney a gainst t he a rchaeological b ackground o f t he p resent d ecade. 9 .4.

T HE R OYAL COMMISSION 'S T YPOLOGY

I n 1 946 t he R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient M onuments o f S cotland p ublished i ts t welfth r eport , a n i nventory o f t he m onuments o f O rkney a nd S hetland. T heir a ttempt a t a t ypology o f t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney ( RCAMS ,1946: 1 , 1 5-19) w as p refaced b y t his s tatement: " It w ill b e f ound .. t hat t heir v arieties a re s o a s t o d efy o rderly c lassification o n t ypological

n umerous g rounds.

T he d ifficulty i s a ccentuated b y t he f act t hat t here h as b een n othing i n t he c haracter o f t he r elics d iscovered i n t he e xcavation o f t he c airns t o d istinguish o ne v ariety f rom a nother". N evertheless,

t he

C ommission

w as

a ble

t o

d ifferent c lasses o f c hambered c airn i n O rkney. i llustrated i n F igure 9 .2, a re d escribed b elow:

i dentify T hese

s even c lasses,

1 . V ariety A , c orresponding t o A nderson 's l ong h orned c airns, i s r epresented b y t wo c airns i n t he I nventory: K nowe o f L airo ( ORK 2 8)

a nd H ead o f W ork

( ORK 1 8).

2 . V ariety B , c orresponding t o A nderson 's s hort h orned c airns, i s r epresented b y o nly o ne c airn i n t he I nventory: t he d emolished c airn o f B urray 3 .

( ORK 7 ).

V ariety C d id n ot f igure i n A nderson 's t ypology a nd h ad b een

r ecognised a s a r esult o f e xcavations o n t he i sland o f R ousay i n t he 1 930s. C orresponding t o C hilde's s talled c airns, t hese m onuments c onsist o f a l ong c hamber, c ontaining up t o 1 2 c ompartments, c ontained i n a c airn w hich c onforms t o t he s hape o f t he c hamber. T he C ommission s uggest t hat s talled c hambers a re e longated v ersions o f t ri-partite c hambers. E xamples i nclude M idhowe ( ORK 3 7 ) a nd K nowe o f R owiegar 4 .

( ORK 3 1). V ariety D ,

r epresented b y t he s ingle e xample o f H olm o f P apa

1 89

F igure

9 .2

T he R oyal C ommission 's t ypology

1 90

( from RCAMS,

1 946).

W estray S outh ( ORK 2 2) w as s een b y t he C ommission a s a d evelopment o f t ype C w here t he o rthostatic d ivisional s labs h ad b een r eplaced b y m asonry p iers a nd t he s ide s talls c onverted i nto b ee-hive c ells. T he r eaffirmation o f a t ri-partite d ivision i n t he c hamber p lan w as a lso n oted. 5 . V ariety E w as r epresented s olely b y U nstan ( ORK 5 1). I ts s ignificance t o t he C ommission w as t hat i t c ontained s ome o f t he f eatures o f v ariety C - t he s talled c hamber - a nd s ome o f v ariety G al ateral b cc-hive c ell. 6 . V ariety F w as s een a s a nother c lass i ntermediate b etween v arieties C a nd G , h aving a c hamber s ub-divided b y s labs b ut a lso p ossessing l ateral c ells. T hese l ateral c ells w ere n ot d istinct f rom t he c hamber b eing s eparated b y l ow s labs a nd n ot p assage. E xamples i nclude B ookan ( ORK 4 ), a nd C alf o f E day N orth-West ( ORK 9 ).

T aversoe

T hick

f ully b y a

( ORK

4 9)

7 . V ariety G , c orresponding t o A nderson's c lass which i ncluded M aes H owe , w as d efined b y t he C ommission a s h aving a c entral c hamber w ith l ateral c ells. T he n umber o f c ells i s e ither t hree ( as a t M aes H owe), f our ( ORK 4 3)).

( as a t C Uween H ill

( ORK 1 2)),

o r s ix

( as

a t

Q uanterness

I n s ummary , t he R oyal C ommission c onstructed a t ypology o f t omb s tructures f or O rkney w hich o nly d iffered f rom J oseph A nderson 's t ypology i n t hat i t a dmitted t he n ew c lass o f c airns f rom R ousay. T heir s cheme r ecognised t he c lose c onnections b etween C aithness a nd O rkney a nd s aw t wo e xtreme s tructural d esigns: v ariety C , t he s talled c airns, a nd v ariety G , t he c airns o f M aes H owe t ype. F urthermore, t wo d ifferent t ypes o f s tructure w ere r ecognised a s b eing i ntermediate b etween t he t wo e xtremes. A lthough n ever s tated e xplicitly , t he i mpression i s g iven t hat t he c airns o f C aithness w ere t he p rogenitors o f v arieties C a nd G . T hus a s ingle t radition i n C aithness e volved i nto t wo d istinct t raditions i n O rkney. N o u se w as m ade o f t he a rtefactual r ecord i n c onstructing t his t ypology a nd , a part f rom t he g eneral i mpression o f a C aithness t o O rkney t ransition , n o a ttempt was m ade a t a s eriated c onnection b etween t he s even v arieties. 9 .5.

P IGGOTT 'S T YPOLOGICAL S ERIATION

W ith t he p ublication o f P rofessor S tuart P iggott's T he N eolithic Cultures o f t he B ritish I sles i n 1 954 , t he N eolithic p eriod r eceived lts l ast great s ynthesis o f t he e ra b efore t he i ntroduction o f radiocarbon dating. I n r etrospect , P iggott w as f aced w ith t wo c onstraints:

t he

n ecessity

N eolithic p eriod i nto j ust f ive

f or

c ompressing

c enturies,

a nd

t he t he

e ntire

B ritish

n ecessity

f or

e xplaining e very n ew a ppearance o f a n a rtefact o r m onument b y i nvasion a nd c ontagious d iffusion. T he f ormer c onstraint l ed t o t he s uggestion t hat e very c hambered c airn i n t he O rkney-Ctomarty p rovince w as constructed a nd u sed i n a s pace o f a bout 1 50 y ears, e nding s hortly a fter 1 500 B C ( Piggott, 1 954: F igure 6 4). T he l atter c onstraint r equired t he N eolithic a ctivity o f t he n orth o f S cotland t o have e xact o r s imilar a ntecedents f urther s outh i n t he B ritish I sles: a ny a rgument w as r endered s tronger b y t he p roduction o f a rtefactual p arallels a nd t he a ssumption t hat o ne object " evolved"

1 91

f rom a nother b y a p rocess o f c ultural p rehistory , P iggott's e xposition o f

d iffusion . A s a m odel o f t he B ritish N eolithic w as

i nternally c oherent a nd c onceptually s atisfying i n 1 954,

b ut

i t

h as

s ince b een r eplaced b y m ore i nformation a nd n ew m odes o f t hought. W hen c onsidering t he c hambered t ombs o f t he n orth o f

S cotland ,

P iggott r ecognised a c oherent g rouping o f c airns s tretching f rom t he h ead o f G len Mr up t he w estern s hore o f t he M oray F irth t o C aithness a nd i nto S utherland , w ith a l arge n umber t o b e f ound i n O rkney. T his g rouping , t ermed t he " Orkney-Cromarty g roup" ( 1954: 2 32-256), w as s een a s t he r esult o f a n e pisode o f c olonisation b y s ea-faring f olk w ho t ravelled n orthwards i n s earch o f l and t o e stablish a gricultural c ommunities. I n o rder t o " clarify t he p roblem o f t he r outes c olonization" ( 1954: 2 34), P iggott i dentified t hree c lasses c hambered c airn: 1 .

C hambered l ong c airns o f t he Y arrows t ype

2 .

C hambered r ound c airns o f t he C ams t er t ype, w ith d erivatives which i nclude t he S talled C airns o f O rkney

3 .

C hambered r ound c airns o f t he M aes H owe t ype F igure

9 .3

s hows

P iggott ' s

c onception

o f o f

( 1954:234) -

t wo

d isjoint

t ypological s eriations - o f t he r elationships b etween h is t hree c lasses. T he c hambered r ound c airns w ith o val t ri-partite c hamber ( class 2 ) w ere t hought t o b e t he p recursors o f t wo d istinct s equences. O ne s equence was t he d evelopment o f e longated c airns with c rescentic f acades ( class 1 ) a s s een a t S outh Y arrows ( CAT 5 4 a nd C AT 5 5). A lthough n ot e xplicitly s tated , P iggott a lso i ncluded t he s hort c airns w ith c rescentic f acades s uch a s O rmiegill ( CAT 4 2) i n Y arrows c lass: t his c lass e quates e xactly w ith A nderson's f irst t ypes, t he l ong h orned c airns a nd t he s hort h orned c airns.

h is t wo

A s econd l ine o f d evelopment f rom t he r ound c airn with t ri-partite c hamber l ed t hrough s mall r ound c airns w ith a t ri-partite c hamber o rientated a t r ight a ngles t o t he p assage ( such a s t he l ower c hamber a t T aversoe T hick ( ORK 4 9)) a nd e longated c hambers w ith more t han t hree c ompartments e nclosed i n a s imilarly e longated c airn ( as s een a t B lackhammer ( ORK 3 )), t o e longated c hambers w ith 1 2 o r m ore c ompartments e nclosed i n a l ong r ectangular c airn ( the u ltimate e xpression o f t his s eries b eing M idhowe ( ORK 3 7)). T hese s talled c airns, t he f inal d erivatives o f t he o riginal C amster t ype, t hought t o b e r estricted t o t he i slands o f R ousay a nd E day.

were

T he r emainder o f F igure 9 .3 i s d evoted t o a s mall g roup o f c hambered r ound c airns r elated t o M aes H owe ( ORK 3 6). P iggott r egarded M aes H owe a s " a s uperlative m onument t hat b y i ts o riginality o f e xecution i s l ifted o ut o f i ts c lass i nto a u nique p osition". ( 1954: 2 44). T his m onument w as s een a s t he a rchetype o f a g roup o f t ombs w ith t he c ommon c haracteristic ( to w hich P iggott d oes n ot e xplicitly r efer) o f c orbelled c ells e ntered b y l ow p assages. O ne s equence o f d evelopment f rom t he a rchetype s aw a d egeneration o f t he s ymmetrical p lan o f t he c hamber a nd a m erging o f t he s ide c ells i nto t he c entral c ompartment,

w ith t he c airn

a t

V inquoy

H ill

( ORK

5 3)

b eing t he f inal e xpression o f t his s equence. A s econd s equence , r unning t hrough Q uoyness ( ORK 4 4) t o H olm o f P apa W estray S outh ( ORK

1 92

RELA TI O NSHIPS

OF

OR K NE Y- C RO MARTY CHA MLEP ,ED-TO MB P LA NS

, J 1 3 >C

0SA MOY MLL

i-

— \\

)

MAES

HO WE

1

: 4 Y 7 1

r uAcK n

t --

L -4 --4 -4--4 -4 - 4- 4-4 -4-

C

• •

V IN 9L JO Y

YA Rl to w3

F igure 9 .3

IL tEF01 20

M 1 D H O WE

3 0

G l

ejj' 7 5 -

HOL M

OF

7. 1,5

P APA

7 _)

wEsTR AY ME TRES

0

P iggott ' s t ypological s eriation ( from P iggott ,

1 93

1

24 SO

FEE T

1 954).

2 2),

s aw t he

r ectangular

p lan

o f

t he

c entral

c ompartment

b eing

r etained , b ut a m ultiplication o f t he n umber o f s ide c ells t o s ix a nd f ourteen r espectively , w ith a f unctional e longation o f t he e nclosing c airn o n t he H olm t o c ontain t he e longated c hamber. P iggott c ontinues w ith a d iscussion o f t he a rtefacts

f ound

i n

t he t ombs o f t he O rkney-Ctomarty g roup . H e m akes s ome o bservations o n t he d istribution o f a rtefacts: U nstan w are i s r estricted t o O rkney a nd i s p robably a ssociated w ith t he b uilders o f t he C amster t ype t ombs a nd t heir d erivatives, a nd t he M aes H owe t ype t ombs h ave a rtefacts w hich s uggest a ffinities w ith t he S econdary N eolithic s ettlement s ites o f R inyo a nd S kara B rae. T hese observations c onsider t he m aterial culture o f t he t omb-builders i n t he c ontext o f t he t ypological s eriation d eveloped p reviously a nd d emonstrate t hat t hat c lassification h as s ome u tility a nalysis o f t he c hambers a nd c airns.

o utwith

N evertheless, i t i s p ossible t o c lassification o f t he O rkney-Ctomarty c airns

a

p urely

s tructural

c riticise P iggott's o n s everal g rounds.

P iggott k new o f a bout 1 30 s uch m onuments i n t he t hree d iagrams o f t ypical c hambered c airns ( 1954:

p rovince , y et F igures 3 7 , 3 8

h is a nd

3 9) c oncentrate e xclusively o n t he t ombs o f t he n orthern h alf: t he t omb f urthest t o t he s outh i llustrated i s O rmiegill O ne ( CAT 4 2). T his c oncentration o n t he n orthern r egion i s e mphasised i n F igure 9 .3 w here 1 1 o f t he 1 4 i llustrated t ype-examples a re i n O rkney. T he l ack o f e vidence i n 1 954 f rom t he t ombs o f C tomarty a nd I nverness i s a c ontributory f actor t o t his b ias,

b ut

t he

c lassification

o utlined

a bove s hould b e r egarded a s b eing a t ypology o f t he t ombs o f O rkney a nd C aithness a nd n ot o f t he O rkney-Ctomarty p rovince a s aw hole. F urther, t he s tructural c onnections n oted b y P iggott h ad , a lmost w ithout e xception , a ppeared i n t he t ext o f t he R oyal C ommission R eport a nd I nventory ( RCAMS , 1 946): h is w ork i s o ne o f s ynthesis r ather t han o riginal s urvey. I n o ne c ase, t hat o f h is a cceptance o f t he R ing o f B ookan a s a M aes H owe t ype t omb ( Piggott, 1 954: 2 44 , f ootnote), h e m akes a s tatement w hich i s n ot s ubstantiated w ith a n a ccount o f h is f ield-work. I n a nother c ase, h is s equence o f d egeneration f rom M aes H owe t o V inquoy H ill i s n ot s upported b y f ield o bservation: C Uween H ill i s o ne o f t he m ost r egular a nd w ell-constructed t ombs i n O rkney. T he M aes H owe t ype t ombs a nd t heir t wo s equences of d evelopment a re t he s ubject o f a nother f undamental c riticism. T hese s equences d epend o n t he c hronological p rimacy o f M aes H owe i tself. P iggott's a ttempt t o s uggest t his p rimacy i s u nsupported b y a rgument: h e u ses 1 1 w ords o f e xcellence ( such a s " accomplished", " magnificent" a nd " sophisticated") w ithin a s hort p assage o f t ext a nd c ontinues w ith t he unwritten a ssumption t hat M aes H owe i s t hereby f irst i n t he s equence. H e g ives n o e xplanation a s t o w hy s tructural e xcellence s hould i mply c hronological p rimacy a nd , i ndeed , h is s equence f or t he Ca ms t er t ype t ombs i n O rkney b egins w ith a v ery s imple, s mall, t omb ( Sandyhill S mithy) w hich c onstruction.

i s

u nremarkable

i n

t erms

o f

s tyle

a nd

P iggott's c ontribution t o t he c lassification o f t he c hambered c airns o f t he n orth i s t hus s een t o b e o f m arginal s ignificance t o t he p resent s tudy. H is t ypological s eriation w as e xplicitly d esigned

1 94

t o i nvestigate t he p athways b y w hich t he N eolithic i nhabitants o f t he n orth a rrived i n C aithness a nd O rkney , a n o bjective w hich i s n ot a p rime c oncern o f t his v olume. I n s ummary t he N eolithic C ultures o f t he B ritish I sles a ttempted t o r elate t he t omb-builders o f O rkney t o t he t omb-builders o f B ritain: t he e mphasis h ere i s t o r elate t he c airn-builders o f O rkney t o t he l and o f O rkney. 9 .6.

H ENSHALL 'S T YPOLOGY

V olume O ne o f T he C hambered T bmbs o f S cotland , b y A udrey H enshall, w as p ublished i n 1 963 a nd i s t he s ingle m ost i mportant i nfluence upon t he p resent w ork. H enshall a ccepted P iggott's r egional g rouping o f t he O rkney-Cromarty c airns, b ut r egarded t he s ub-group o f M aes H owe c airns a s a s eparate e ntity w orthy o f c onsideration i n t heir o wn r ight. T he r emaining O rkney-Cromarty c airns ( the g roup w as l ater e xpanded t o i nclude c ertain H ebridean m onuments) w ere d ivided i nto t hree s ub-groups p urely o n t he b asis o f t heir c hamber p lans: 1 .

cairns w ith r ectangular c hambers. T his t ype , o f w hich t here a re f ew e xamples, i s a lmost r estricted t o E aster R oss. F igure 9 .4 s hows t he d istribution o f t he n ine k nown e xamples.

2 .

c airns w ith p olygonal c hambers. T his t ype , w idespread i n S utherland a nd R oss-shire, c ommonly c onsists o f a n a ntechamber a nd a n i nner c hamber w ith t he l atter c onstructed o ut o f l arge o rthostatic s labs, f orm ( in p lan v iew) a p olygon o f m ore t han H enshall d istinguishes t hree s ub-varieties:

a rranged t o f our s ides.

A . w ith b oth a ntechamber p olygonal

c ircular

a nd

c hamber

b eing

o r

B . w ith t he c hamber b eing p olygonal, a nd t he a ntechamber b eing a s imple r ectangle. C . w ith a l arge p olygonal c hamber, a nd n o a ntechamber. F igure 9 .5 s hows t he d istribution o f c airns w ith c hambers. 3 .

p olygonal

c airns w ith C amster t ype c hambers. T ypified b y C amster R ound ( CAT 1 3), t he c hambers a re c ommonly o val i n p lan a nd a re d ivided i nto t hree c ompartments b y t wo p airs o f p rojecting o rthostats. T Wo p ortal s tones a nd a b ackslab c omplete t he c ommon p lan o f s even o rthostats. R oofing d esigns a re v ariable, w ith a c ommon a rrangement c onsisting o f t he t wo i nnermost c ompartments h aving c orbelled r oofs a nd t he o utermost c ompartment b eing l intelled o ver. C amster t ype c hambers a re w idespread S utherland, a s i s s hown b y F igure 9 .6.

i n

C aithness

a nd

W ithin O rkney , H enshall d id n ot r ecognise a ny c airns r ectangular o r p olygonal c hambers. H er t ypology c ontained g roups, t hree o f w hich belong t o t he O rkney-Cromarty t radition , t he M aes H owe t ype t ombs f orming a s eparate g roup . a re:

1 95

w ith f our w ith

T hese f our g roups

F igure 9 .4

H enshall's t ypology: r ectangular c hambers.

1 96

t he d istribution o f c airns w ith

F igure 9 .5

H enshall's t ypology: p olygonal c hambers.

1 97

t he d istribution o f c airns w ith

F igure 9 .6

H enshall's t ypology:

t he d istribution o f c airns with

C ams t er t ype c hambers.

1 98

1 .

c airns w ith t ri-partite ( Cämster) c hambers. A s mall n umber o f c hambers, o f w hich B igland R ound ( ORK 2 ) a nd S andyhill S mithy ( ORK 4 7) a re e xamples, a ppear t o b e v ery s imilar t o t he t ri-partite c hambers o f C aithness.

2 .

c airns w ith s talled c hambers. D erived , b y a p rocess o f e longation , f rom t he t ri-partite c hambers, t he s talled c hambered c airns o f O rkney h ave , a s t heir e xtreme e xamples, M idhowe ( ORK 3 7) a nd K nowe o f R amsay ( ORK 3 0). T he b asic d esign i s a l ong r ectangular c hamber, s ubdivided b y m eans o f p airs o f o rthostats, i nto a n umber o f c ompartments w hich c an v ary f rom f our t o f ourteen.

3 .

c airns w ith B ookan t ype c hambers. N amed a fter t he t ype-site o f B ookan ( ORK 4 ), a s mall n umber o f c hambers i n O rkney c onsist o f a n o val s pace d ivided i nto c ompartments b y s labs p rojecting r adially f rom t he walls o f t he c hamber. C ommon f eatures o f B ookan t ype c hambers i nclude a s ubterranean p osition a nd a s mall r ound c airn .

4 .

c airns w ith M aes H owe

t ype

c hambers.

H enshall

a ccepted

P iggott's t ypology o f t he t en m onuments o f t his t ype, a lthough s he d id n ot e xplicitly a ccept t he d etails o f h is s eriation. T he t ypology w as e xpressed a s t wo g roups, o ne w ith t hree o r f our c orbelled c ells l eading f rom a r ectangular c hamber, a nd t he o ther w ith s ix o r m ore c orbelled c ells. M aes H owe ( ORK 3 6) i tself w as n ot s een a s b elonging t o e ither o f t hese g roups b ut w as r egarded p rototype o f b oth. F igure 9 .7 s hows t he d istribution e xamples o f H enshall's f our g roups.

w ithin

O rkney

o f

a s

t he

a

c ertain

T he objects f ound w ithin t he m onuments a nd t he r itual a ssociated w ith t heir u se w ere a lso c onsidered b y M iss H enshall. S he w as u nable t o d ifferentiate b etween t he c hambered c airns o f h er f irst t hree g roups o n t hese g rounds - " there a ppears t o b e a r emarkable u niformity i n b oth t he g rave g oods a nd r itual" ( 1963: 7 7) o f t he O rkney-Cromarty t ombs - b ut o n t he b asis o f t he f inds f rom a s ingle e xample o f t he M aes H owe g roup s uggested t hat t here was s ome c lose c onnection b etween t he M aes H owe t ombs a nd t he R inyo c ulture. T hus a d istinction w as m ade b etween t wo c ultural g roupings o f t omb-builders: t he b uilders o f t he M aes H owe t ombs who l ived i n s ettlements l ike R inyo a nd S kara B rae, a nd t he b uilders o f t he O rkney-Cromarty t ombs w hose s ettlements h ad n ot b een f ound. T his d istinction w as n ot m ade w ith g reat c onviction ( 1963: 1 63), l argely b ecause o f t he p aucity o f f inds f rom t he M aes H owe t ype t ombs a nd s pecifically b ecause o f t he u ncertain c ontexts o f t hose f ew f inds. I n 1 972, H enshall was e qually c autious a nd b eyond p ostulating t he e xistence o f s ome r elationship b etween M aes H owe t ype t ombs, S kara B rae, R inyo a nd t he G rooved W are c ultures ( and , i ndeed , t he p assage g raves o f I reland), s he w as u nable t o s pecify t he n ature o f t he c onnection ( 1972: 2 64, 2 86). T he p ossibility t hat t he M aes H owe t ype t omb-builders a nd t he O rkney-Cromarty t ype t omb-builders m ay h ave e xisted c ontemporaneously w ithin O rkney was s uggested e xplicitly f or t he f irst t ime ( 1972: 2 65): t his s uggestion was m ade b efore t he a ppearance o f m any i sotopic d ates, b ut was t o f ind s upport i n t he s ucceeding d ecade.

1 99

P APA W ES TRAY

N O RT H RO NALDSAY ,

— 74 s

A IL 1 . 7

FARA V ' eer . : ?. 9

jr.i 3-

' ces ,

JU . 4 7 .U .I

. L LL

_1 1137 2 7 .11 . " I II , A:32 * S ,

V

3 1

zn , 6

s

I L=

EDAY

SHAP1 N SAY

S tro mness

4 11

'BU RRAY H OY 'SOUTH RO N A1DSAY

0 RK N EY-CRO MAR .TY GROUP . 1 . T r ipar t it e m i • S ta lled B ookan Unc la s s i t iab le ,round L ong c a irn J = 3 .L ong c airn ,t r ipart it ec hamber M AES HO WE GROUP

4 - C e r ta in U nc erta in 0

F igure

9 .7

H enshall's t ypology: c airns w ithin O rkney. 2 00

1 0 M i l e s

t he d istribution o f c hambered ( from H enshall,

1 963).

T he C hambered T bmbs o f S cotland i s a b rilliant s ynthesis o f a l arge mass o f i nformation. P erhaps i ts s trongest p oint o f a ll i s t hat i t i s b ased o n a n e ncyclopedic k nowledge o f t he p rimary e vidence a nd i n particular o n a n e fficient a nd m eticulous c ommand o f f ield s urvey. N o i ndividual, b efore o r s ince, h as v isited t he s ites o f s o m any c hambered c airns i n S cotland , a nd n obody h as a cquired s uch a n u nderstanding o f t he m onuments i n t he f ield. T his, c ombined w ith a n e qual understanding o f t he a rtefactual e vidence, m eans t hat H enshall's c onclusions m ust b e

t reated

w ith

t he

h ighest

r espect.

T here a re t hree u nderlying t hemes i n h er c onclusions ( themes a pplying t o a ll t he S cottish c airns a nd n ot o nly t he n orthern p rovince): 1 .

t he c ontents o f t he t ombs a re o f l ittle u tility i n d iscussing t heir h istory. T his i s l argely d ue t o t he s uspicion t hat o bjects f ound i n a t omb a re v ery d ate f rom i ts f inal p eriod o f u se.

2 .

l ikely

t o

t he s hape o f t he c airn i s n ot h elpful i n p roducing a u seful t ypology. T he s hape o f t he c hamber, w ithout r eference t o t he enclosing c airn , m ay b e o f u se i n d efining a s tructural t ypology a nd r egional g roupings.

3 .

i t i s v ery d ifficult t o

u se

t he

s tructural

e vidence

t o

s uggest a s eriation o f c hambered c airns, e specially w ithin o ne o f t he r egional g roups. R egarding O rkney , I -nshall c ould o nly p ostulate t hat t he m ajority o f t ombs w ere c onstructed d uring h er f ourth, c onstruction.

a nd

f inal,

p hase

o f

t omb

I n e ssence, H enshall's d ivision o f t he O rcadian t ombs i nto t wo m ajor groups, t he M aes H owe t ype a nd t he O rkney-Cromarty t ype , w ith t he l atter g roup b eing s ub-divided i nto t hree, e choed t he s tructural t ypologies which h ad b een e rected b y p revious w riters f rom A nderson t o P iggott. J oseph A nderson's t ypology , w ith t he a ddition o f m onument t ypes u ndiscovered i n t he 1 880s, h as r emained t he b asis o f H enshall's t ypology. T his i s a s atisfactory s tate o f a ffairs s ince i t i mplies t he e xistence o f a n o rder i n t he data w hich h as b een r ecognised d espite c hanges i n a rchaeological f ashion a nd t he d iscovery a nd e xcavation o f m any s ites. T here i s a f undamental p attern i n t he s tructures o f c hambered c airns w hich i s h ighly v isible a nd m ight b e e xpected , i n s ome w ay , t o m irror a p attern i n t he l ives o f t heir o riginal b uilders. 9 .7.

R ENFREW 'S C HRONOLOGY A ND T YPOLOGY

I n 1 972 t here w as n o a bsolute d ating e vidence a vailable f or N eolithic O rkney. T en y ears l ater, r adiocarbon d ates h ave b een p ublished ( or h ave b een k indly m ade a vailable i n a dvance o f p ublication) f or s even c hambered c airns, a h enge m onument a nd f our s ettlements. I n a ddition , t here i s a s mall n umber o f t hermoluminescent d ates f rom Q uanterness. I n a ll, s omewhat m ore t han 6 0 a bsolute d ates h ave b een p rocured , f rom a v ariety o f m onuments a nd f rom a g reat v ariety o f c ontexts. T hese d ates a re t abulated i n T ables 9 .8 t o 9 .14,

d isplayed i n F igures 9 .15 t o 9 .20 ,

i n F igure 9 .21.

2 01

a nd s ummarised

QUANTERNESS Q - 1294

Main

compartment,

Organically Q - 1363

Main

( ORK

rich

43)

s tratum

1

2640

bc

s tratum

3

2590

bc

•75

soil

compartment,

2 -

1 10

Human bone SRR-754

Main compartment, Human bone

s tratum

2

2410 bc

I 50

Pta-1626

Main compartment, Human bone

s tratum

2

2350

bc

± 60

Q - 1479

Main compartment, Human bone

s tratum

2

2220

bc

±•75

Main

s tratum

5

2 180

bc

• 60

bc

± 100

Pta-1606

compartment,

Human

T able

bone

Q - 1451

Main compartment, Human bone

stratum

3

2 160

Q - 1480

Main compartment, Human bone

stratum

5

1 955 bc ± 70

SRR-755

Main compartment, Human bone

stratum

5

1920 bc

9 .8

± 5 5

R adiocarbon d ates f or c hambered c airns - I Q uanterness

ISBISTER GU-1182 GU-1179

Stall 5 , use Human bone

of

25)

chamber

Foundation deposit Human

GU-1185

( ORK

Cell

2 530 bc

±• 80

2 480 bc ± 5 5

bone

3 ,

use

of

chamber

2 470 bc 2 : 9 5

Human bone GU-1180

4 ,

of

chamber

2 470 be

±• 90

Stall 4 , use Human bone

of

chamber

2 460 be

f 130

5 , use bone

of

chamber

2 425

be

±• 50

Stall

use

Human bone GU-1181

- 3013

Stall Human

Cell 3 , use Human bone

of

chamber

2 415 be

± 90

- 3016

Cell 3 , use Human bone

of

chamber

2 410 be

f 5 5

- 3018

Horn work Deer bone

of

cairn

2 335 be ± 45

Horn work

of

cairn

2 310

GU-1184

GU-1190

be

± 3 3

2 310 be

I 5 5

Deer bone - 3015

Cexl 3 , use Human bone

of

chamber

GU-1178

Foundation deposit Human bone

2 295

be

±• 100

GU-1186

Infilling of Human bone

chamber

2 090 be

1 :• 100

Infilling

chamber

2 080 be ± 50

5 , use bone

of

chamber

1960 be

± 8 0

Stall 5 , use Human bone

of

chamber

1880 be

± 50

- 3017

of

Human bone GU-1183

- 3014

T able

9 .9

Stall Human

R adiocarbon d ates f or c hambered c airns - 2 I sbister.

KNOWE OF RAMSAY (ORK JO) Q - 1223

No 'rOntext Animal bone

2390 be :!: 65

Q - 1224

No context Deer bone

2350 be :!: 60

Q - 1222

No context Animal bone

2060 be :!: 60

QUOYNESS (ORK 44) SRR-753

No context Human bone

2315 be :!: 50

SRR-752

No context Human bone

2240 be :!: 50

KNOWE OF ROWIEGAR (ORK Jl) Q - 1221

No context Cattle bone

2355 be :!: 60

Q - 1227

No context Deer bone

2055 be :!: 60

KNOWE OF YARSO (ORK 32) Q - 1225

No context Animal bone

2275 be :!: 60

MAES HOWE (ORK J6)

Table

SRR-505

Base of ditch Silty peat

2185 be :!: 65

Q - 1482

Base of ditch Silty peat

2020 be :!: 70

9.10

Radiocarbon dates for chambered cairns - 3 Knowe of Ramsay, Qloyness, Knowe of Rowiegar, Knowe of Yarso, Maes Howe. KNAP OF HOWAR

:!:

180

Lower midden pre-dating houses 1 and 2 Mixed animal bone

SRR-J48

Upper midden contemporary with houses 1 and � Mixed animal bone

2815 be :!: 70

Occupation deposit on floor of house 2

2740 be :!: 130

Occupation deposit on floor of house 1

2582 be :!: 70

Uppe"t;" midden contemporary with houses 1 and 2 Mixed animal bone

2501 be :!: 70

Lower midden pre-dating houses 1 and 2

2472 be :!: 70

SRR-345

Occupation deposit on floor of house 1 Mixed animal bone

2398 be :!: 70

Birm-813

Midden filling wall of house 2 Mixed animal bone

2320 be :!: 100

Birm-815

Upper midden contemporary with houses and 2 Mixed animal bone

SRR-452

Midden filling wall of house 1 Mixed animal bone

Birm-814 SRR-J46 SRR-344

SRR-349

Table

2820 be

Birm-816

9.11

Mixed animal bone

Mixed animal bone

Mixed animal bone

2300 be :!: 130 2131 be :!: 65

Radiocarbon dates for settlements - l Knap of Howar.

SKARA BRAE Birm-6J8

Trench I, earliest midden Mixed animal bone

2480 be :!: 120

Birm-6J7

Trench I, earliest midden Mixed animal bone

2480 be

Birm-6J9

Trench I, earliest midden Mixed animal bone

2450 be :!: 100

Birm-6J6

Trench I, earliest midden Mixed animal bone

2400 be

Birm-480

Trench II, occupation on old land surface Mixed animal bone

2J70 be :!: 100

Birm-4J8

Trench II, top of midden Mixed animal bone

2190 be :!: 120

Birm-4J6

Trench I, midden under passage Mixed animal bone

2090 be :!: 110

Birm-4J4

Trench I, midden over passage Mixed animal bone

2070 be :!: 110

Birm-477

Table

-+

-+

100

lJ0

Trench II, bottom of midden 2000 be :!: 100

Mixed animal bone

1920 be

-+

100

Birm-4J5

Trench I, midden under passage Mixed animal bone

Birm-478

Trench II, bottom of midden 1900 be :!: 140 Mixed animal bone

Birm-4JJ

Trench I, midden over passage Mixed animal bone

1880 be :!: 110

Birm-4J7

Trench II, top of midden Mixed animal bone

18J0 be :!:

9.12

no

Radiocarbon dates for settlements - 2 Skara Brae.

204

LINKS OF NOLTLAND GU-1429

West midden, square FR 88, layer 5 Animal bone

2265 be ! 65

GU-1428

West midden, square FQ 89, layer 8 Animal bone

2190 be ! 65

GU-1431

West midden, square FR 89, layer 3 Animal bone

2000 be ! 65

GU-1430

West midden, square FQ 83, layer 2 Animal bone

1910 be ! 60

GU-1433

Structure at Grobust, square HP 90, layer 29 Animal bone

1890 be ! 60

GU-14J2

Central midden, square GZ69, layer 7 Animal bone

1772 be ! 60

RINYO 1900 be

No context Animal bone

Q-1226

!

70

STONES OF STENNESS

Table

SRR-350

Base of main ditch, organic layer Animal bone

2356 be ! 65

SRR-351

Central feature Wood charcoal

2238 be

9.13

!

70

Radiocarbon dates for settlements - 3 Links of Noltland, Rinyo Radiocarbon dates for henge Stones of Stenness. Lab, Ref,

Burial Location

Date BC

Random Error (years)

Average date for context and reference

Main chamber

SF 540 (III square N2, layer 67, stratum 3)

al

2410

306

SF 550 (III square L2, layer 73, stratum 2)

a5

2435

308

a6

3260

410

a7

2490

225

alJ

1725

440

al4

2015

340

al6

2010

200

SF 574 (III stratum 5/6)

layer 65,

SF 574 (III layer 65, stratum 5/6) SF 4611 (V layer 58, stratum 5b)

SF 287 (II, layer 25, stratum 2) Entrance Eassa�e

SF 5025 (ZA, layer 4)

Table

9.14

2370 BC (! 185 ! 250) OxTL 189a)

'Ihermoluminescent dates for Qlanterness 205

I

0 0 IO N

0 0 0 N

0 0 l!)

0 0 0 C"')

,-j

U)

.,.,ru H

u

'O Q) H

ru ..c::

u

H 0 4-l

909� l?ld

U)

Q)

ru

C/J C/J u.J

'O

c::

z

0::: u.J

H

ru

u

f­

z

� :J

898�

0 V6G� Q

0

.,.,0 11)

,-j O'I Q)

.,.,kl

0 0 IO

0 0 I.() N

0 0 0 (\J

:,q

SclV3A

206

0 0 0 C")

o q o 0 i n —

s pii ii

o 0 0 c v

II

I

1

1

I

0 0 I n N

I

I

1

I

I

1

1

1

1

1

£ 91 . 1 . n o

L I -OE Ö

9 9 11

n o

L . L . i H CA C7 1 CA

I o o I n —

i

1

I

1 0 0 i n

0 0 o c v

N

p q

S I 1V3A

2 07

1

1

1

1

1 0 o o c o

0 . _

3

. . . c ,

I C )

I I

I

C A

I

I

S 2 1V3A

C 1

o o I C ) c v

I

I 1 1 1

L W

QUOYNESS

L I . ] < 0 2 i

I o o i n

I

I

I

I o o

I

I

I

o

I

I o o L i )

N

C \ I 3 (

1

SUV3A

2 08

I I

I

I

I o o o C I D

I

09

S 2 IV3A o o % t

o o 0 r )

N

I

1

I

1

I

1

I

I I 1 I1

I

I

0 81 7 Will

I

I

I

I

I

I U )

3 q

s uy3A

2 09

I

I

I

1 500

V _

1 500

2000

2 000

KNAP

OF

HO WAR

2 500

2 500

t o E r b

3000

3000

c

F igure 9 .19

R adiocarbon d ates f or s ettlements - 2 .

2 10

x i o o i n

s ivgA

o o o c v

-

1

1

1

1

1

1

1 1 1 I 1 1 1

O gC UUS

9 Z3 1 . Ö

I

1

I

1

1

1

1

1

1 o o i n c m

N I

suv3A

2 11

1

1

1

1

3 1: 1

S 2 IV1A

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

I

I

sauuais

1

I

J o

s aucus 4 1 O

1)

s aei n i

2MO H

sauXonö

X ( 1 . )

CHA MBERED

OSJ EA

JO

C d

Je 8a !mou

X estueu

J O

a N tOU

J o

4 1

r c i o 4 )4 ) •0 -H E

3M OU N

a moul

W C d rH

0 H

U ) H

M H >

•

J a ls Ns i

2 >


S 4 ( C 1 n 9 P ( 1 ) 0

-e 0 r c 5c ) % ( ,Q . , 1 4 C d

S ETTLE MENTS

E E p ue il loN

J o

s lu n

3C .4 1

( 1 4 )

E JEIS

J er no il J o d eum

I . I C D 0 I n

I

I

I

I

I

I I

0 0 0 C M

I I I o 0 t i l C M

3 q

SAVAA

2 12

1 1 1I 0 0 0 C I

•7 : 5 g

rn C 5 i

a )

« P U ) 'MU

T he s even c hambered c airns w ith r adiocarbon d ates ( Tables 9 .8 t o 9 .10) a re I sbister ( ORK 2 4), K nowe o f R amsay ( ORK 3 0), K nowe o f R owiegar ( ORK 3 1), K nowe o f Y arso ( ORK 3 2), M aes H owe ( ORK 3 6), Q uanterness ( ORK 4 3), a nd Q uoyness ( ORK 4 4). O f t hese , o nly t wo h ave a s equence o f d ates r elating t o s ecure c ontexts i n t he t omb . Q uanterness h as a s equence r anging f rom 2 640 b e + 7 5 ( Q - 1 294) f or a n e arly s tratum o f t he m ain c hamber i nfill t o 1 920 b c + 5 5 ( SRR 7 55) f or a l ate s tratum o f t he s ame i nfill ( Renfre7 1 979: 7 0). I sbister h as a s equence r anging f rom 2 530 b e + 8 0 ( GU - 1 182) d ating t he u se o f t he t omb , t o 2 080 b e + 5 0 ( Q - 36 17) d ating t he f inal i nfilling o f t he c hamber. ( Hedg s, f orthcoming). T wo d ates f rom M aes H owe r elate t o t he b ottom o f t he d itch s urrounding t he c airn a nd n ot c ertainly t o a ny p eriod o f a rchaeological a ctivity ( Renfrew , 1 979: 3 6). D ates f or t he o ther f our c hambered c airns w ere o btained b y R enfrew ( 1979:72) u sing b one m aterial p reserved i n m useums f rom e xcavations b y C allander , G rant, a nd C hilde e arlier t his c entury. T he b ones u sed w ere h uman i n t he c ase o f Q uoyness, a nd a m ixture o f B os a nd C ervus r emains i n t he c ase o f t he R ousay c airns. T hey r ange f rom 2 355 b e + 6 0 ( Q - 1 221) t o 2 055 b e + 6 0 ( Q - 1 227 ), b oth o f t hese dates - O riginating f rom K nowe o f R owiegar. D espite s uch c onsistency , t his l ast g roup o f r adiocarbon d ates m ust b e t reated w ith c aution f or t wo r easons. T he b one m aterial w as n ot c ollected s pecifically f or i sotopic d ating a nd h ad b een s tored f or m ore t han 3 0 y ears: t here i s t hus a d istinct p ossibility o f s ample c ontamination. S econdly , n one o f t he dates f rom t hese f our c airns r elate t o m aterial w hose s tratification i s s ecurely d ocumented: t he a rchaeological c ontexts o f t he b one a re i n d oubt. U sing a ll t he a vailable e vidence, o ld a nd n ew , c onstructed a n a ccount w hich h e b elieved w as a r easonable

R enfrew f ramework

f or d iscussing t he N eolithic p eriod i n O rkney. T his a ccount w as l argely b ased o n t he a cceptance o f P iggott ' s ( 1954) p ottery s equence w ith U nstan w are b eing e arlier i n d ate t han G rooved W are. I t a lso a ccepted H enshall's s tructural t ypology o f t he c hambered c airns ( outlined i n t he p revious s ection) w ith one m inor e xception. T his e xception w as t he e xclusion o f M aes H owe i tself f rom t he M aes H owe g roup o f t ombs o n t he g rounds t hat t he m onument i s v astly d ifferent f orm t he o ther t ombs o f t he g roup . T he f ormer M aes H owe g roup was r elabelled t he Q uanterness-Quoyness g roup a fter i ts t wo m ost e xplored m embers. R enfrew 's a ccount o f t he p hases s eparated b y a t ransition

O rcadian N eolithic e nvisages t wo p eriod o f a bout 2 00 r adiocarbon

y ears. T he f irst p hase, l asting f rom a bout 3 000 b e t o 2 550 b e , s ee O rkney p opulated b y a n " Unstan W are P eople" w ho i nterred

w ould t heir

d ead i n s talled t ombs , s uch a s t he K nowes o f R owiegar a nd R amsay. T he s ettlement s ite o f K nap o f H owar w hich h as p roduced U nstan w are , a nd f rom w hich c ome t he e arliest r adiocarbon dates f or a n O rcadian s ettlement , w ould a lso h ave b een b uilt b y t hese p eople. T here t hen f ollowed a p eriod o f t ransition d uring w hich G rooved W are g radually r eplaced U nstan w are a s t he m ain c eramic t ype. F rom a bout 2 350 b e t o 1 850 be t he " Grooved W are P eople" l ived i n O rkney i n s ettlements a kin t o S kara B rae a nd R inyo. T hese p eople e volved a l ocal s tyle o f c hambered c airn o f w hich Q uanterness a nd Q uoyness a re e xamples. T he t wo a nomalous c hambered c airns o f H olm o f P apa W estray S outh a nd M aes H owe were t he l ast t ombs t o b e b uilt, f ollowed c losely b y t he t wo g reat h enges o f B rogar a nd S tenness. T he m ajority o f t he t ombs

2 13

continued in use throughout and some may have still been in use after the floruit of the "Grooved Ware People". Figure 9.22 illustrates the Unstan ware to Grooved Ware transition as seen by Renfrew (1979: 209). 'Ihis account by Renfrew was accompanied by an evolutionary sequence for the Orcadian chambered cairns, illustrated here in Figure 9.23. The first cairns in Orkney were those with small simple tri-partite chambers, suggesting that the first Neolithic colonisers of Orkney were people from Caithness or perhaps the Hebrides. About 2700 be three distinct styles of cairn-building had emerged. 'Ihe first change would be the elongation of the simple chamber by the addition of compartments. 'Ihis led, through the four-compartment Knowe of Yarso, to the long stalled cairns such as Midhowe and Knowe of Ramsay. A second evolutionary path led towards the chambers of Eookan type, with a small central chamber divided radially into compartments. Renfrew's major departure from Piggott's (1954) evolutionary sequence is the suggestion that the tombs of Maes Howe (or Quanterness-0.loyness) type are derived from tombs of the Orkney-Cromarty tradition. 'Ihis idea is not new, having been promulgated by Joseph Anderson, but has not received attention this century. Renfrew envisaged chambers like that of Unstan ( ORK 51) , with an elongated stalled central compartment and a single side cell, as being representative of an intermediary stage of this derivation. Hedges (forthcoming) agrees with this view and has instituted another class of chamber form. 'Ihis class is a "hybrid" between the stalled cairns and the Maes Howe type cairns and would include Unstan and Isbister (ORK 25) which has a central compartment of five stalls with three corbelled side cells. Renfrew's evolutionary sequence continues from these hybrids to tombs, such as Wideford Hill (ORK 54), with three corbelled side cells grouped around a central compartment, through Q.Ianterness and Q.Ioyness to the final two large cairns. According to this scheme, I-blm of Papa Westray South was built around 2350 be, at the very end of the Unstan ware/Grooved Ware transitional period. Maes Howe was one of the last chambered cairns to be constructed, a century or two into the Grooved Ware period. An important element of Renfrew's evolutionary sequence is the realisation that most chambered cairns. may have been in use, for burial or other purposes, for several centuries. 'Ihis is a recognition of the possibility that all four, or five, major classes of chambered cairn in Orkney may have been in operation at the same time. Indeed, the period of pottery transition from 2550 be to 2350 be (which represents amut three centuries in calendar years) may have seen all the known types of Orcadian chambered cairns in active use. This important statement on the chronology and typology of the chambered cairns of Orkney is open to many criticisms simply because of the breadth of its synthesis. Some of these criticisms have been aired elsewhere (Fraser, 1980b). Briefly, there are three major items of contention. Firstly, there is some doubt about the archaeological evidence for an Unstan ware/Grooved Ware Sequence. Secondly, there is no evidence at all that the simple tri-partite tombs of underived Orkney-Cromarty origin are early in date. 214

SETTLEMENTS C

....0

0

.D � � .D

...

ea 0. � ea o C:r:

«)

(.)

G)

Q)

0 ....

·- C'O

�c

:i.i::

a:

ea C0

... ea

ea

� en

CHAMBERED CAIRNS a:

0

> C:

a:

"'C C:

...

m

:::,

.! .2>

C

nJ

en C

... ea

0) G)

> ea

cc

co cc

'i

1800 -

G)

C

co :I 0

.,�

en en

en

0

I) C:

:r:

0

co �

>

en G> C: C: Cl)

en I)

::,

0

I I

r

-t , I

ea

0) 0 ...

... cc

I. .·. tI :

1900 -

'­

l!lil: : :: (I)

r ... �,

G

2100

41)

G) C:

:,

1700 -

2000 -

.,.,

I

>

t I

...

I

. I

I

f 1 1

I

I t

: ; - 2300 ·I I I 1 -

·. f I I f I • 1

l

2400

l - 2soo

I

- 2600 - 2700 - 2800

2200 -

- 2900

2300 -

- 3000

\:

3100

�� 3200 ", \:,�, -�::�� � ' \,.��� ��- 3300

2600 2700 .2800 -

u

u

- 3400 - 3500

u

- 3600

2900 -

- 3700

3000 -

- 3800

Figure 9.22 Renfrew's Unstan ware/Grooved Ware transition. U indicates the occurrence of Unstan ware, G of Grooved Ware and B of a Beaker sherd. (from Renfrew, 1979).

215

Y arso B ookan

C t uoyness \ •\ .\ \F lo im o f P a ri a Westray S . \\ \ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \ .\\\

F igure 9 .23

R enfrew 's s uggested e volutionary s equence,

w ith t he

U nstan w are/Grooved W are t ransition i ndicated b y h atching. ( from R enfrew , 1 979).

2 16

T hirdly ,

s ince t he p ublication o f

R enfrew 's

w ork ,

t he

r adiocarbon

d ates f rom t he c hambered c airn o f I sbister h ave s hown t hat U nstan w are m ay h ave b een i n u se f or s everal c enturies a fter t he e nd o f t he p ostulated p ottery t ransition p eriod ( Hedges, f orthcoming). T hese c riticisms a re e nough t o q uestion s eriously t he c hronological d istinctiveness o f U nstan w are a nd G rooved W are, b ut R enfrew's g eneral e volutionary s equence o f c hamber f orms i s s till, i ncorporating a s i t d oes t he w ork o f p revious w riters, a r easonable a nd c oherent d escriptive

e xplanation

o f

t he

d iffering

s tructural

d esigns t o b e f ound a mong t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney. 9 .8.

COMPARISON A ND C RITIQUE

A t t he c onclusion o f t his d iscourse o n t he c lassification o f t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney , i t i s i nstructive t o c ompare t he t ypologies w hich h ave b een p ublished b y a rchaeologists w ith t he c luster a nalysis o f n umerical d ata d escribed i n C hapter 6 o f t his w ork. T Wo g roups o f c omparisons w ill b e m ade. I n t he f irst p lace, t he c riteria u sed t o c onstruct c lassifications w ill b e c ompared. I n t he s econd p lace, t he d etails o f t he c onstructed c lassifications w ill b e e xamined. A ll t he c lassifications u nder d iscussion h ere s hare a c ommon c haracteristic. F rom t he n ineteenth c entury t o t he p resent, e very t ypology a nd s eriation h as d epended o n t he p hysical s tructure o f t he c hambered c airn. T hat p hysical s tructure h as b een e xpressed i n t erms o f t he r elationship o f t he b uilding s tones o f t he m onument t o e ach o ther - t he s hape a nd s ize o f ,

a nd

t he

p attern

f ormed

b y ,

t hose

b uilding s tones. O ther i tems o f i nformation h ave a lways b een s econdary. T his e mphasis o n a s ingle g roup o f a ttributes o f t he m onuments i nevitably m eans t hat a ny c lassification i s l imited i n i ts a pplicability. W ithout f urther j ustification , s tatements s hould s trictly b e m ade o nly a bout t he s tructural d esign o f t he c hambered c airns. i gnored.

T his i s a t ruism ,

b ut o ne

w hich

h as

n ot

u ncommonly

b een

T he c riteria u sed t o c onstruct t he t ypologies o utlined i n t his c hapter a re r arely s tated f rom t he b eginning i n e xplicit t erms. R ather , t he t ypology i s f irst d escribed a nd t hen j ustified . T his h as t he a dvantage o f l eading t o v ery f lexible c lassifications i n w hich n ewly d iscovered m onuments m ay b e e asily f itted a nd i n w hich m onuments s howing l ittle d etail t o t he f ield s urveyor m ay b e p rovisionally a ttributed t o a s pecific c lass. I n c ontrast, t he c luster a nalysis r equired a n e xplicit s tatement o f e ight n umerical p arameters f or e ach m onument. T he r esulting c lassification i s t otally i nflexible: i f a n a dditional s ite i s d iscovered , a nalysis m ust b e r e-run f rom t he b eginning , a nd t here p ossibility t hat i ndividual s ites m ay m ove f rom c luster

t he c luster i s a r eal t o c luster

u nder t he n ew a nalysis. M oreover , t he c luster a nalysis a s p erformed r equired a r elatively h igh l evel o f i nformation f rom e ach m onument, s uch t hat a bout h alf o f t he m onuments i n O rkney c ommonly s uspected t o b e c hambered c airns w ere e xcluded f rom t he a nalysis. I n o ther w ords t he t raditional t ypological a pproach , f rom A nderson t o R enfrew , i s m ore r obust t han t he c luster a nalysis, b eing m ore c apable o f c onstructing a c lassification w ith i ncomplete i nformation. A f inal c omparison

o f

c riteria

2 17

s elected

f or

c lassification

i nvolves t he s election o f p articular a ttributes. A s m entioned a bove , t he t raditional i ntuitive t ypologies d o n ot e xplicitly s pecify w hich a ttributes a re t o b e u sed i n c lassification. H owever , i t i s p ossible t o i dentify i mplicitly , f rom t he w ritten d escription o f t raditional t ypologies,

t hose c haracteristics o f c hambered c airns t hought

t o

b e

o f i mportance. F or i nstance, w hile t he o rientation o f t he p assage h as n ot b een c onsidered , t he l ayout o f t he i nternal c hamber h as a lways f igured p rominently i n c lassifications. S uch p riorities a re r arely d iscussed . A s a g eneralisation , m ost o f t he e arlier t ypologies , a nd t he c lassification b y c luster a nalysis, c onsider a ttributes o f t he c airn a nd c hamber , w hile t he l ater t ypologies, i ncluding t hose o f H enshall a nd R enfrew , c onsider o nly a ttributes o f t he c hamber. T hus, i n s trict t erms, t he l ater t ypologies a re n ot c omparable w ith o ther c lassifications, b ecause t hey a re c lassifications o f d ifferent s ets o f d ata. I n p ractical t erms, t here a re m any s imilarities b etween t he g roupings o f c hambered c airns p roduced b y a ll m ethods. T he t raditional i ntuitive t ypologies h ave b een c ompared e arlier i n t his c hapter a nd t he c onclusion r eached t hat e ach o f t hem h as a rrived a t s imilar g roupings, a nd t hat t he m ost r ecent, R enfrew ( 1979), i s t he m ost s atisfactory b ecause i t i ncorporates t he w ork o f p revious w riters. I n p articular t he w ork o f R enfrew h as f ollowed c losely t he w ork o f H enshall

( 1963 a nd 1 972).

T he n ext question t o b e c onsidered i s t he r elationship

b etween

g roupings p roduced b y t he t raditional t ypologies a nd t hose p roduced b y t he c luster a nalysis i n t his w ork. T he b est w ay t o a nswer t his q uestion i s t o t ake e ach c luster i n t urn a nd c ompare i ts m embers i n t erms o f t heir c lassification a ccording t o o ther t ypologies. C luster

I ,

l ong c airns w ith m any-compartmented s imple chambers,

c ontains c hambered c airns o f t he s talled v ariety a nd n o other. N ot a ll s talled c airns a re i ncluded i n c luster I , b ut o nly t hose w hich c ontain t en o r m ore c ompartments. H enshall i ncludes i n h er c lass o f s talled cairns s ome , s uch a s K nowe o f Y arso ( ORK 3 2) a nd H olm o f P apa W estray N orth ( ORK 2 1), w hich h ave a s f ew a s f our c ompartments. A s w ith t he s talled c airns, t he m embers o f C luster I a re c oncentrated o n t he i sland o f R ousay. C luster I I,

c airns c ontaining a v ariety

o f

c hambers,

i s,

a s

p reviously n oted , ag rouping w ith l ess c oherency t han t he o ther c lusters. I n t erms o f H enshall's t ypology , a ll f our m onuments f all i nto t he O rkney-Cromarty g roup a ccording t o t he d esign o f t heir c hambers, b ut t he a ssociated c airns i nclude a n e longated a nd a l ong h orned c airn.

o val

c airn

C luster I II, s mall c airns w ith s imple c hambers, c orresponds c losely t o H enshall's O rkney-Cromarty g roup. I t c ontains m onuments w ith t ri-partite c hambers, w ith B ookan t ype c hambers, a nd w ith s talled c hambers o f s even o r f ewer c ompartments. T his c luster f ails t o d istinguish b etween t he t hree s ub-classes o f t he O rkney-Cromarty g roup b ut t he s mall g round a rea o f t he c airns i n c luster I II c an b e a dded t o t he a ttributes w hich d istinguish t he t ypological g roup g roup o f O rkney-Cromarty c hambered c airns. T here a re n o c hambered c airns i n c luster I II w hich d o n ot b elong t o t he O rkney-Cromarty g roup. C lusters I V , V a nd V I c ontain a ll t he m onuments o f H enshall's M aes H owe t ype a nd n o o ther. T his c orresponds t o t he m embers o f

2 18

R enfrew 's Q uanterness-Quoyness g roup w ith M aes H owe. I n a ddition , t he c luster a nalysis h as d escribed t hree c lusters w ithin t he M aes-Howe g roup. C lusters I V a nd V I a re d istinguished b y r elative s ize , w ith t he c airns o f c luster I V b eing r elatively s mall i n a rea a nd t he c airns o f c luster V I ( Maes H owe a nd Q uanterness) b eing r elatively l arge i n a rea. C luster V c ontains o nly H olm o f P apa W estray

S outh ,

a n a nomalous m onument.

B ecause o f t he g eneral uniformity b etween c lusters

I V ,

V ,

a nd

V I n oted b y m ost o f t he t ypologies e xamined a bove , t hese t hree c lusters w ill b e t reated a s a c omposite a nd l abelled c luster I V-VI i n e very a nalysis h ereafter. T his t reatment i s a ntithetical t o a s trict i ntrepretation o f t he d endogram i n F igure 6 .46: i t i s j ustified t he c onsideration o f m ore i nformation t han o riginally d ealt w ith t he c luster a nalysis.

b y b y

T he r elationship o f t he c luster a nalysis o f c airn a nd c hamber s tructure t o t he t raditional t ypologies m ay b e s ummarised a s f ollows: 1 .

T he m ajor d ivision b etween O rkney-Cromarty t ype c hambered c airns a nd M aes H owe t ype c hambered c airns i s s upported a nd e mphasised b y t he c luster a nalysis.

2 .

I n t erms o f t he a ttributes u sed

i n

t he

c luster

a nalysis

( which p laced e mphasis o n p hysical s ize a nd i ncluded a ttributes o f b oth c airn a nd c hamber), t here i s c omparative uniformity a mong t he m onuments o f O rkney-Cromarty t ype. 3 .

A gain , i n t erms o f t he a ttributes u sed i n t he c luster a nalysis, t he M aes H owe g roup o f m onuments i s r elatively d iverse.

4 .

T he c luster a nalysis i dentified a n umber o f m embers o f

t he

c lass o f s talled c airns a s b eing d istinct. T hese m onuments a re d istinguished b y c ontaining t en o r m ore c ompartments o r s talls.

2 19

P ART THREE

THE L AND

C HAPTER 1 0: 1 0.1.

T HE R ESOURCES O F O RKNEY

I NTRODUCTION

T here i s a n i ntimate r elationship b etween p eople a nd t he s urface o f t his p lanet. T his h as l ong b een r ecognised: f or e xample t he J udaeo-Christian B ible p roclaims t hat A dam w as f ashioned f rom t he d ust o f t he e arth. E verything t hat w e h ave d one f rom t he m aking o f t he f irst t ool t o t he c omposition o f a s ymphony h as b een

c onditioned

b y t he c ircumstances t hat s urround u s - b y t he m aterials t hat a vailable a nd by t he way t hey h ave b een u sed. E arlier i n t wentieth c entury t his v iew r eached e xtreme p roportions i n d octrine o f e nvironmental d eterminism , p ersonalities a s E llsworth H untingdon E nvironmental d eterminists w ere a ble t o m ake a s: " ...give m e a m ap

o f

a

c ountry ,

i ts

a re t he t he

p romulgated b y s uch a nd E llen S emple. s uch s tartling c laims

c onfiguration ,

i ts

c limate, i ts w aters, i ts w inds a nd a ll i ts p hysical g eography , g ive m e i ts n atural p roducts, i ts f lora, i ts z oology, a nd I w ill p ledge m yself t o t ell y ou , a p riori, what t he m an i n t his c ountry w ill b e, a nd w hat p art t his c ountry w ill p lay i n h istory, n ot b y a ccident b ut o f n ecessity, n ot a t o ne e poch b ut a t a ll e pochs" ( V C ousin ,

c ited b y W ooldridge a nd E ast ,

1 966:62,

e mphasis a dded)

T his r adical v iew h as s ince b een m odified i n r eceived o pinion p erhaps p artly b ecause i t i s m anifestly n ot t rue f or t he s tuff o f a rchaeology. I t h as b een r eplaced b y a v ariety o f s tances i ncluding t he possibilism o f P aul V idal d e l a B lache , t he l andscape a ppreciation o f C arl S auer a nd K arl B utzer, a nd t he t opophilia o f Y i-fu T h a n . A ll o f t hese a pproaches s hare one p recept, h owever d isguised t he e xpression o f i t m ay b e o r w hatever f ashionable p hilosophical s tance i s b eing a dopted: t hey r ecognise t hat h umans a nd t heir environment a re i nextricably b onded. A ccordingly t his c hapter w ill e xamine t he e nvironment O rkney. T he p rocedure w ill b e t o g ather t ogether a ll t hat e xists

o f i n

O rkney o f w hich h umanity h as m ade u se, o r c ould c onceivably m ake u se. T he objective w ill b e t o c ompile a l ist o f a ll t he p roperties o f t he n atural e nvironment w hich w ere a vailable o r p otentially a vailable, t o t he N eolithic i nhabitants o f O rkney. A n e clectic a pproach w ill b e a dopted, u sing i nformation f rom m ore t han one s ource, i ncluding a rchaeological r eports, h istorical writings, s tatistical a ccounts, m odern p ublished r eports, a nd o bservation i n t he f ield. I t i s only b y c onsidering a w ide s pectrum o f p ossibilities t hat t he r elationship o f N eolithic m en a nd w omen t o t heir s urroundings m ay b e d iscerned. T b s upport t his a rgument, s uppose t hat f or s ome r eason, t he p ossibility t hat p rehistoric O rcadians w ere c ultivators o f t he l and h ad n ever b een c onsidered b y a rchaeologists. I t w ould t hen b e a s taggering c onceptual l eap t o a ssimilate t he e vidence f or t he g rowing o f crops i n t he i slands t hat h as a ccumulated o ver t he l ast t wo d ecades.

I n o rder t o r educe t he n umber o f c onceptual l eaps t hat

b e n ecessary,

a s m any p otential l inks a s

a nd i ts e nvironment w ill b e c onsidered.

2 23

p ossible

b etween

m ay

h umanity

F or c onvenience t hese p otential l inks w ill b e d ivided i nto t wo c ategories: p hysical r esources o f t he n atural l andscape, a nd o rganic r esources o f t he l iving l andscape. 1 0.2.

P HYSICAL R ESOURCES

P hysical r esources o f t he n atural l andscape a re t hose w hich e xist w ithout t he i ntervention o f l iving o rganisms. T he d ividing l ine i s n ot a bsolute: s oils, f or e xample, a re l iving e ntities a nd c ould n ot d evelop w ithout l ife. I ndeed , i t i s o nly i n c ombination w ith o ther r esources t hat p hysical r esources t ake o n m eaning f or h umanity. N evertheless, i t i s p ossible t o i dentify c ertain a spects o f t he e nvironment o f O rkney w hich a re n ot p redominantly o rganic. S ome o f t hese h ave b een d iscussed i n C hapter 2 , a nd s o t he e xposition h ere w ill b e b rief. A n e xcellent r eview o f t he n atural environment o f O rkney, t he r esult o f a N ature C onservancy C ouncil S ymposium , r ecently p ublished ( Goodier, 1 975).

was

L and . T he O rcadian a rchipelago ( Figure 1 .2) c ontains s omewhere b etween 3 0 a nd 7 0 i slands, d epending o n t he d efinition o f a n i sland. T ogether t he a rea o f t hese i slands i s a bout 9 63 s q k m o r 9 6300 h a. T here i s o ne m ajor i sland , t he M ainland , w hich d ivides t he i sland-group i nto t wo - t he n orth i sles a nd t he s outh i sles. M ost o f t he n orth i sles a re l ow-lying: t here i s n o p oint o n t he i slands o f N orth R onaldsay, P apa W estray , S anday , S tronsay o r S hapinsay h igher t han 6 5 m . T hree o f t he n orth i sles - W estray, E day a nd R ousay h ave h ills o ver 1 00 m w ith B lotchnie F iold o n R ousay r ising t o 2 50 m . T he h ighest p oint o n t he M ainland i s t he W ard H ill o f O rphir a t a n a ltitude o f 2 68 m . T he s outh i sles h ave m ore r elief a mplitude t han t he n orth i sles: i n p articular t he i sland o f H oy i s a n a nomaly w ith i ts W ard H ill r ising t o 4 79 m a nd o ver h alf t he a rea b eing o ver 1 00 m .

o f

t he

i sland

S ea. T he n atural c orollary o f O rkney b eing a g roup o f i slands i s t he p resence o f t he s ea a nd i ts e ffects. B eing a t t he j unction o f t he N orth S ea a nd t he n orth A tlantic O cean ( Figure 1 .1) t he s ea i s a c onstant, u nforgettable p resence i n t he i slands. T he t idal c urrents b etween S cotland a nd O rkney a re c omplex a nd f ierce ( Jones 1 975: 8 6) a nd t he P entland S kerries e xperience f our h igh t ides i n a d ay. B etween t he i slands t hemselves t he d irection o f c urrent r apidly a nd s ailing b etween i slands - i s a t ask f or s ailors. T his p ronounced o ceanicity i s a f undamental, n eglected ,

c an c hange e xperienced a nd o ften

a spect o f t he n atural e nvironment o f O rkney.

C oast. B etween t he s ea a nd t he l and i s t he c oastal f ringe, a n a rea, a s w ill b e s een , o f r ich o rganic r esources. A s urvey i n t he e arly 1 970s s ponsored b y t he C ountryside C ommission f or S cotland ( Mather e t a l.,

1 974)

i s a v aluable s ource o n t he b eaches

a nd

o ther

c oastlines o f O rkney. T he a uthors o f t hat s urvey i dentified t hree d ifferent t ypes o f c oastal m orphology: h igh c liffs, l ow r ocky s hores, a nd s andy b eaches. O f t hese, l ow r ocky s hores a ccount f or a bout 5 61 k m ( 71% ) o f t he l ength o f t he c oastline w ith h igh c liffs a nd s andy b eaches a ccounting f or 1 42 k m ( 18% ) a nd 9 0 k m ( 11% ) r espectively. F igure 1 2.26 i s a m ap o f t he d ifferent c oastline t ypes,

b ased o n M ather e t a l S tone.

( 1975).

T he s tone f ound i n O rkney

2 24

i s,

p redominantly

O ld

R ed

S andstone o f v arious a ges ( Figure 2 .1). T his s tone, a lso f ound i n C aithness, i s r enowned f or i ts b uilding q ualities. I t c an b e q uarried v ery e asily: l arge f oliated s labs c an b e p rised a way f rom b edrock w ith r emarkably l ittle e ffort. A p ractical a d h oc e xperiment a t P ierowall Q uarry , W estray i n M arch 1 981 s howed t hat b locks o f s andstone o ver a m etre l ong c ould b e s eparated f rom t he l iving r ock u sing o nly w ooden w edges a nd u nshaped s tone p ounders. T hroughout O rkney b edrock i s a vailable a t o r v ery n ear t he s urface o f t he g round. E ven w hen s uperficial d eposits e xist ( Figure 2 .4) b edrock i s l iable t o b e o nly a m atter o f a f ew m etres b elow t he s urface. T he q uarried s labs c an t hereafter b e b roken i nto b uilding b locks o f a ny c onvenient s ize b y u sing t he s ubsidiary l ines o f w eakness i n t he s tone. T his r esults i n r ectangular o r r homboidal b locks w hich a re i deal f or t he c onstruction o f d rystone w alling. T hroughout O rkney t he p resence o f quarry p its, w idely d ispersed i n t he l andscape, i s m ute e vidence t hat b uilders h ave quarried s tone f rom t he c losest c onvenient o utcrop o r h ollow. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he q uarry s ituated o n t he s lopes o f V estra F iold a nd 2 50 m a way f rom t he e ponymous c hambered c airn ( ORK T i) h as b een u sed t o p rovide b uilding s tones f or p rehistoric m onuments ( RCAMS , 1 946: 1 , 2 69). T here i s l ittle d oubt t hat s ome O rcadian q uarries d ate f rom v ery e arly i n h istory o f t he i slands.

t he

F lint . A nother t ype o f s tone h as b een c onsidered a v aluable r esource i n t imes p ast. F lint, a v ery h ard c oncretion o f s ilica w ith p roperties o f c onchoidal f racture w hich m ay b e s truck t o p roduce h ard c utting e dges, h as b een f ound o n m any p rehistoric s ites, i ncluding t hose of t he N eolithic p eriod ( Table 8 .11). W ickham-Jones a nd C ollins ( 1978) l ist t wo s ources o f f lint a nd t hree s ources o f c hert ( another i nferior f orm o f f lint) w ithin t he i slands. I f g lacial e rratics a re i ncluded , t hen t he n umber o f p laces w here f lint h as b een f ound j umps t o a bout 1 5, t he m ajority o f t he e xtra s ites h aving b een f ound by R ae ( 1976) d uring h is d octoral r esearch o n t he g laciation o f O rkney. F igure 1 0.1 i s a n a malgamation o f t he w ork o f t hese t hree a uthors a nd p ortrays a ll t he k nown s ources o f f lint a nd c hert i n O rkney. T Wo p oints m ay b e a dded. F irstly , i f t he a rchaeological s ites which h ave p roduced f lint w ere a dded t o t his f igure, t here w ould be m any m ore s ymbols o n t he m aps. T his i mplies t hat , h owever u ncommon t he m aterial i s, i t h as b een w idely d isseminated i n p rehistory. S econdly , W ickham-Jones a nd C ollins' c onclusion t hat " on ag eneral s cale ( flint a nd c hert) s ources a re m ore a bundant t han p reviously t hought" ( 1978: 8 ) h as t he r ing o f t ruth: a rchaeologists h ave n ot y et l ooked f or f lint a s a ssiduously a s t he p rehistoric i nhabitants o f S cotland e vidently d id . S oil. T he m ost w idespread s oils i n O rkney a re p odzols, p eaty p odzols, n on-calcareous g leys, a nd p eaty g leys ( Macaulay I nstitute f or S oil S cience, 1 978). T he e xtent o f t hese v arious s oils i s s hown i n F igure 1 2.6. A s a r esource e xploited b y h umanity, s oil i s o ne t he m ost p recious i n t he w orld: i t m ay h ave b een t he p erception s oil a s a r esource w hich s et t he h uman r ace o n t he p ath

o f o f t o

a griculture a nd u rbanisation. T he s oils o f O rkney h ave l ong b een p art of t he i ntimate r elationship a nd t he p laggensols r ecently m apped b y t he S oil S urvey f or S cotland ( see C hapter 2 ) a re t estimony t o t hat l ong r elationship. S oil a nd m atters c onnected w ith s oil a re c onsidered i n d etail i n C hapter 1 2 w hen t he i mportance o f t he r esource t o t he N eolithic i nhabitants o f O rkney w ill b e f ully

2 25

F igure 1 0.1

F lint a nd c hert s ources ( after W ickham-Jones a nd C ollins, 1 978 a nd R ae, 1 976). 2 26

o utlined. W eather.

I n C hapter 2 ,

t he c onclusion

w as

r eached

t hat

t he

c limate o f O rkney i n N eolithic t imes w as n ot d issimilar t o t hat e xperienced t oday. T he d ay t o d ay e xpression o f a c limatic r egime i s t he w eather o f a p articular p lace. W eather c an b e a p ositive r esource - g rowing c rops b enefit f rom s un a nd r ain - o r c an h ave n egative e ffects - t he s ame c rops c an b e f lattened b y a f ierce s torm. F igures 2 .6 t o 2 .9 i llustrate s ome a spects o f t he c limate o f O rkney b ut t hese f igures d o n ot p ortray t he t imes " whan l ood s waps g ouster a t t he d oor A n'

t he n ort'

w ind t in s t he s neck" ( from " Salt i t he b luid" b y R obert R endall)

T he w eather o f O rkney i s d istinctive. A v isitor t o t he i slands i s s truck by t hree o verwhelming i mpressions. T he w eather c an c hange r adically a nd r apidly: G eorge M ackay B rown 's " chequer-board" l andscape i s t he r esult o f d ifferent w eather p atterns s weeping a cross t he i slands. I n s ummer t he d ays a re v ery l ong a nd s ometimes i t d oes n ot g et dark: i n w inter t he s ky s ometimes n ever l ightens. L astly , t he l ongest l asting i mpression t hat a v isitor t akes a way f rom O rkney i s t he w ind c onstantly b lowing: s o m uch s o t hat t he s ound o f t he O rcadian w ind i s a s ignificant i nfluence o n c omposer P eter M axwell D avies ( Radio O rkney , 2 4 A ugust 1 981). A s a c orollary o f t he f irst t wo i mpressions, t he q uality o f l ight i n t he i slands i s r emarkable. T he l andscape o f O rkney i s m any-faceted: i t i s p ossible t o b e i n t he s ame p lace f or w eeks a nd s till t o b e a stonished , f amiliar s cene d isplayed i n a n ew l ight.

o n a n ew d ay ,

b y

a

1 0.3 ORGANIC R ESOURCES T he o rganic r esources c ontained i n a l andscape a re t hose l iving o rganisms which m ay b e u sed b y h umanity. S ome o f t hese m ay b e e ncouraged t o e xist b y f ostering o r c ultivation , o thers m ay b e s imply h arvested o r h unted w ithout a ny p revious h uman i ntervention. T hus s ome o rganic e lements w ould b e p resent i n t he l andscape w ithout h umanity w hile s ome r equire a ctive n urture b y m en a nd w omen. A gain , t his d istinction i s n ot r igid: t he q uantity o r q uality o f a r esource o r p otential r esource m ay b e a ffected b y t he a rrival o f h uman l ife o r b y t he c hanging a ctions o f h umans. A s w ith p hysical r esources, t he p rocedure h ere w ill b e t o l ist a s m any p otential o rganic r esources a s p ossible, e ven i f t here i s n o d irect e vidence f or t he e xploitation o f a r esource b y t he N eolithic i nhabitants o f O rkney. 1 0 .3.1.

P LANT R ESOURCES

T tees. A l ist o f v ascular p lants f ound i n t he i sland-group h as b een published b y E laine R B ullard ( n d ), a l ocal b otanist. T his l ist i s c omplemented b y B ullard a nd G ood ( 1975), a d escription o f t he s emi-natural v egetation o f O rkney. A t t he p resent t ime t he t ree s pecies f ound i n t he i slands i nclude a sh ( Fraximus), b eech ( Fagus), e lm ( Ulmus),

p lum ( Prunus),

l arch

( Larix),

( Alnus), h azel ( Corylus), a spen a nd m ountain-ash ( Sorbus), s ycamore ( Acer), 2 27

b irch

p oplar j uniper

( Betula),

a lder

( Populus), r owan o r ( Juniperus), a nd m ore

t han t wenty v arieties o f w illow ( Salix). I t i s t rue t hat s ome o f t hese a re m odern e scapees f rom p lantations a nd t hat m any o f t hem d o n ot t hrive m ightily d ue t o e xposure. N evertheless t he p opular n otion t hat O rkney i s c ompletely t ree-less i s a f allacy a nd " it i s c lear t hat m any t ree s pecies c an g row a nd p roduce f ruit i n O rkney" ( 1975: 3 5). I n a ddition , s upplies o f w ood m ay h ave d rifted f rom S cotland o r a cross t he A tlantic o cean f rom N orth A merica: a t t he e xcavation o f S taneydale " temple" i n S hetland , C alder ( 1950: 1 91) f ound s pruce ( Picea) a nd p ine ( Pinus). T he c onclusion m ust b e t hat , a lthough t imber m ay h ave b een r are o r f ound o nly i n s tunted l engths, i t i s b y n o m eans i mpossible t o obtain i n O rkney. F ood p lants. A lthough g rass i s t he m ost p roductive c rop o f t he i slands t oday , aw ide v ariety o f f ood c rops i s s till g rown a nd h ave b een g rown i n t he p ast. T he c ereals w hich t hrive b est o f a ll a re o ats ( Avena ) a nd b arley ( Hordeum ) i ncluding a p rimitive v ariety w hich m ay w ell b e n ow r estricted t o O rkney c alled " bere". O ther c ereals w hich h ave b een g rown i n s mall quantities i nclude r ye ( Secale) a nd w heat ( Ttiticum). O ther f ood p lants a re r eported i n t he L and U tilisation S urvey o f O rkney ( O 'Dell, 1 939) a nd i nclude p eas ( Pisum), b eans ( Vicia a nd P haseolus), p otatoes ( Solanum), c abbage, s wedes a nd t urnips ( Brassica) a nd b eets ( Beta). F ruits r eported a s g rowing t oday b y B ullard ( n d ) i nclude b ramble a nd r aspberry ( Rubus), g ooseberry ( Ribes), a nd s trawberry ( Fragaria ). B ullard a lso n otes t he f ollowing v ascular p lants which m ay h ave c ontributed t o d iets i n t he p ast: w ild c arrot ( Daucus), p arsley ( Sison), r adish ( Raphanus), n ettle ( Urtica ), r hubarb ( Rheum), m int ( Mentha ) a nd c hives a nd g arlic ( Alluim). O bviously s ome o f t hese d id n ot g row i n O rkney i n t he t hird m illennium b c but t he f act t hat t hey a re e cologically v iable s uggests t hat s imilar f ood p lants m ay h ave o ccupied t he s ame n iches i n p ast t imes. O ther p lants.

T here a re u ses f or p lants o ther

t han

a s

f ood .

N atural h erbs a nd s pices m ay b e u sed m edicinally, a homeopathic d octor t oday w ould s urely r ecognise m any o f t he s pecies i n B ullard 's c hecklist. J ohn F irth, w hile d iscussing d isease i n h is m id-nineteenth c entury O rkney p arish, c ompounded f rom s uch c ommon p lants a s

m entions c hickweed ,

" strange m ixtures d andelion , d ock ,

t hrift, t ansy , t ormentil, a nd w ormwood". ( 1974: 9 6). F irth a lso d escribes t he m aking o f r ope o ut o f h eather a nd s traw , a nd t he c onstruction o f t hatch, c lothing , b oots, b askets, m ats, a nd m any o ther a rticles o ut o f p laited s traw ( 1974: 3 0-37). C onceivably, t here m ay h ave b een p lants i n N eolithic O rkney w hich were u sed a s i ntoxicants: B ullard ( n d ) m entions s uch i nteresting p lants g rowing t oday a s o pium p oppy ( Papaver s ominferum), h emp ( Cannabis s ativa), h op

( Humulus l upulus) P eat.

a nd f oxglove

( Digitalis p urpurea).

T his v aluable s ource o f f uel i s f ound i n q uantity i n t he

i slands, b ut i ts d istribution i s l ocalised ,with s ome o f t he i slands h aving n o s ources. T he d istribution o f p eat i n m odern t imes i s s hown i n F igure 2 .3. M uch o f t his m ay b e t he r esult o f b lanket b og f ormation i n t he t hird m illennium b p b ut i t i s p robable t hat a ny p ost-glacial p eat e xisting a t t he t ime o f t he N eolithic o ccupation w ould h ave b een r estricted

t o

c ommenting i n 1 777 o n

a bsence

R onaldsay ,

t he

t he

r emarks

2 28

s ame o f

l ocalities. p eat

i n

S anday

G eorge a nd

L ow , N orth

" ...there i s n o m oss i n e ither o f t hese i slands, b ut t he i nhabitants a re obliged t o b ring t heir p eats f rom E da ( =Eday), t he p rincipal f uel h ere a mong t he c ommons b eing t he d ung o f s ea-weeds".

t heir

c attle,

d ried

t angle,

a nd

( Low,

o ther

1 978:

1 97)

T his h istorical e vidence f rom p eat-less S anday , a dded D avidson's s uggestion t hat t he f arm-mounds o f t he i sland m ay h ave

t o a n

e lement o f p eat a sh i n t heir c omposition ( personal c ommunication) i s a dequate s upport f or t he p ossibility o f t here h aving b een a s ea-borne t rade i n p eat a mong t he i slands o f O rkney. 1 0.3.2.

A NIMAL R ESOURCES

L and m ammals. L arge l and a nimals c an a dapt t o a w ide v ariety o f h abitats: t here a re p robably f ew m ammals w hich c ould n ot s urvive a nd t hrive i n O rkney. H owever, t he a ctual r ange o f m ammals f ound i n t he i slands i s r estricted. T he m ost c ommon , d omesticated t oday a nd f ound on a rchaeological s ites o f a ll p eriods, a re c attle ( Bos), s heep a nd g oats ( C o lvis), d og ( Canis), p ig ( Sus) a nd h orse ( Equus). I n a ddition , o tter ( Lutra) i s p resent t oday ( although i n d ecreasing n umbers) a nd d eer— ( Egi-v us) h as c ertainly b een n ative t o t he i slands a t o ne o r m ore p eriod.

O ther a nimals which a re n ative t oday

i nclude

f ox ( Vulpes), c at ( Felis), r abbit a nd h are ( Lepus), a nd s everal s pecies o f R odentia . A mong t hese r odents a re m ice ( Mus) a nd r at ( Rattus), v arieties o f s hrew a nd a s pecies o f v ole, t he O rcadian v ole ( Microtus a rvalis o rcadensis) n ot f ound e lsewhere i n B ritain. O rcadian v ole h as a lso b een f ound i n p rehistoric c ontexts r epresents a p ost-glacial r elict d istribution o f a m ore w idespread. B irds.

I n c omparison

t o

t he

m ammals,

t he

s pecies

T he a nd

f ormerly

n umber

o f

b ird

s pecies w hich a re s een i n O rkney i s l arge. A ccording t o L ea a nd B ourne ( 1975) t here a re o ver 9 0 s pecies w hich b reed r egularly i n O rkney,

r anging f rom

t he

v ery

n umerous

s eabirds

s uch

a s

f ulmar

( Fulmarus g lacialis), k ittiwake ( Rissa t ridoctyla), a rctic t ern ( Sterna p aradisea ), g uillemot ( Uria a alge), c ommon g ull ( Larus c anus) a nd h erring g ull ( Larus a rgentatus), t hrough t he c ommon b irds o f m oor a nd f armland s uch a s t he h en h arrier ( Circus c yaneus), l apwing ( Vanellus v anellus), c urlew ( Numenius a rquata) a nd s tarling ( Sturnus v ulgaris), t o r arer b reeding s pecies i ncluding t he g rey h eron ( Andea c inera ), c uckoo ( Cuculus c anorus), y ellowhammer ( Emberiza c itrinella) m ute swan ( Cygnus o lor), a nd g olden e agle ( Aquila c hrysaetos). I n a ddition t o t hese b reeding b irds G roundwater ( 1974) l ists a n umber o f r are vagrants a nd r esilents. H e a lso t ells t he t ale o f t he g reat a uk ( Pinguinis i mpennis), d riven t o e xtinction b y n ineteenth c entury p lunderers ( 1974: 1 69). O f a ll t hese b irds, t he s eabirds h ave b een f ully u tilised i n h istoric t imes i n S cotland: t he f ulmar a lone w as a m ajor i tem i n t he e conomy o f S t. K ilda a nd n o p art o f t he b ird w as w asted ( Steel, 1 975). T he m ost e conomical way t o e xploit s ea b irds i s t o c ollect t he b irds a nd e ggs d uring t heir b reeding s eason: F igure 1 0 .2 s hows t he m ajor s ea b ird c olonies o f O rkney r anked b y n umbers o f b reeding p airs. B y f ar t he l argest c olony i s a t N oup H ead i n W estray ,

a s pectacular c liff

S ea m ammals.

7 6 m i n h eight.

T his c ategory o f o rganic r esource i ncludes 2 29

s eals

F igure 1 0.2

M ajor s ea-bird c olonies

2 30

( after L ea a nd B ourne,

1 975).

a nd w hales. c ommon seal

T here a re t wo s pecies o f s eal f ound i n O rkney: t he ( Phoca v itulina) a nd t he g rey s eal ( Halichoerus g rypus).

T he g rey s eal p opulation h as f luctuated w ildly i n t he l ast t wo c enturies ( Vaughan , 1 975: 9 5) b ut a t t he p resent t ime t here m ay b e e ight or n ine t housand b reeding a nimals i n O rkney , n o l ess t han o ne-seventh o f t he e ntire w orld p opulation ( Groundwater, 1 974: 2 87). T he c ommon s eal p opulation h as r emained m ore c onstant: i n 1 972 t here w ere b etween t wo a nd t hree t housand i n O rkney ( Vaughan , 1 975: 9 6). F igure 1 0.3 s hows t he d istribution o f b reeding s ites o f g rey s eals a nd h aul o ut s ites o f c ommon s eals. I t i s a pparent t hat t hese d istributions a void a reas o f h igh h uman c oncentration. O ff s hore s kerries a nd uninhabited i slands s uch a s t he M uckle G reen H olm a nd t he P entland S kerries a re f avoured . I t i s p ossible t hat i n t he p ast , w hen human p opulations w ere l ower , s eals w ere n ot r estricted t o s uch a s mall r ange o f h abitats. E ven t oday , a s i s s hown b y t he d istribution o f p laces w here s eals w ere o bserved ( during a n u nsystematic s eries o f v isits t o t he O rcadian c oast-line c onnected w ith t he m ain object o f t his r esearch), a lso d isplayed i n F igure 1 0.3 , s eals r ange o ver t he b reeding.

w hole

i sland-group

when

t hey

a re

n ot

A s s eals h ave o nly o ne n atural p redator, a nd a re s low a nd p onderous w hile r esting o n t he s hore, t hey a re e asy t o h unt f or f ood a nd f ur. T he r ecognised m ethod o f k illing t hem t oday i s t o w alk u p t o t hem a nd c lub t hem t o d eath. I t i s n ot s o s imple t o d eal w ith w hales s ince t hese s ea m ammals a re n ot a mphibious. H owever, w hales d o s ometimes beach t hemselves a ccidentally o r s wim c lose e nough t o t he s hore s o t hat t hey c an b e d riven i nto s hallow water b y s mall b oats. S uch a n e vent i s v ery v aluable t o a s mall c ommunity b ecause a w hale c ontains m assive q uantities o f m eat , o il a nd b one. H istorical r ecords r elating t o t he i slands o f t he N orth A tlantic r elate m any i nstances o f a n e ntire c ommunity a ssisting a t t he d eath o f a w hale o r s chool of w hales. T he l argest n umber r eported f rom O rkney w as i n 1 839 when 1 95 p ilot whales were d riven a shore o n t he i sland o f F lotta. (G roundwater, 1 974: 2 91). I n a ddition t o t he p ilot w hale ( Globicephala m elaena), G roundwater r eports o ther s pecies o f w hale a s h aving b een k illed i n O rkney. T hese i nclude t he c ommon r orqual ( Balaenoptera m usculus), l esser r orqual ( Balaenoptera a cutorostrata), b eluga ( Delphinapterus l eucas), C Uvier's w hale ( Ziphius c avirostris), a nd S owerby's whale ( Mesoplodon b idens). T he c lass o f c etaceans i ncludes p orpoises a nd d olphins b oth o f w hich a re c ommonly s een i n t he s eas a round O rkney: G roundwater's l ist o f s tranded s pecies c ontains t he c ommon p orpoise ( Phocaena p hocaena), t he c ommon d olphin ( Delphinus d elphis), t he w hite-sided d olphin ( Lagenorhynchus a cutus), t he white-beaked d olphin ( Lagenorhynchus a lbirotris) a nd R isso's d olphin

( Grampus g riseus).

F ish.

I t s eems r easonable t o s uppose

t hat

f ish

h ave

p layed o n i mportant r ole i n t he e conomic l ife o f O rkney G eorge M ackay B rown's c haracterisation o f t he O rcadians a s w ith p loughs" i s a t rue r epresentation.

I n r ecent y ears,

a lways

a nd t hat " fishermen b igger

a nd

m ore sophisticated b oats h ave f ished deeper a nd d eeper w aters b ut i t i s p erhaps w ith i nshore f ishing t hat w e s hould b e c oncerned h ere. T Wo methods a re s till u sed: f ishing f rom t he s hore ( using b aited l ines) o r f ishing f rom s mall b oats

( using t he

b aited

l ong

l ine

s everal v arieties o f n et). T he m ost c ommon f ish c aught i n n ineteenth c entury , b efore m odern o ver-fishing radically a ltered 2 31

o r t he t he

U

k m

1 0

1 1 1 1- w i

c t 46 1 7*

GREY S EAL B REED ING S ITE COM MON S EAL HAUL OUT S I TE

e • ' F igure 1 0.3

•

B reeding s ites o f g rey s eals, s eals

( after V aughan,

1 975),

a nd 1 981. 2 32

S EALS S I GHTED I N 1 980 & 1 9 8 1

h aul o ut s ites of c ommon a nd s eals s ighted i n 1 980

e cological b alance , w ere h erring ( Clupea h arengus), c od m orrhua), l ing ( Mblva m olva), h addock ( Gädus a eglifinus) a nd

( Gädus s aithe

( Cädus v irens). T bday , t he s aithe, k nown l ocally a s m ost n umerous f ish i n t he waters a round O rkney.

i s t he

C reatures o f t he c oastal f ringe.

T he

" cuithe",

i nterface

b etween

l and

a nd s ea i s o ne o f t he r ichest e nvironments i n t erms o f o rganic r esources. A ll o f t he a rchaeological e vidence t o d ate s uggests t hat t he f irst o ccupation o f S cotland i n M esolithic t imes r elied l argely o n h abitats o f t he s hore f or s urvival. A rchaeological, h istorical, a nd f ieldwork s ources a ll c onfirm t hat a v ariety o f c oastal r esources h ave b een e xploited i n O rkney. O f t hese , t he p hylum M ollusca h as p rovided f ood f or h umanity i n g reat q uantities. T he m ost c ommonly e xploited s pecies a ccording t o J ones ( 1975: 9 0) h ave b een t he g reat s callop o r " clam" ( Pecten m aximus) a nd t he q ueen s callop o r " queen" ( Chlamys o percularis). I n a ddition , r azor s hells o r " spoots" ( Ehsis e nsis a nd E nsis a rcuatus), l impets ( Patella v ulgata ) a nd o yster ( Ostrea e dulis) h ave b een , a nd i n s ome c ases s till a re, e aten i n t he i slands. T Wo m ore t ypes o f s hellfish a re p resent i n s uch l arge q uantities t oday t hat t hey c an b e e xploited c ommercially: t hese a re t he e dible c rab o r " partan" ( Cancer p agurus) a nd t he c ommon l obster ( Homarus v ulgaris). T he v ariety o f m olluscs, c rustaceans a nd o ther m arine i nvertebrates i s l arge, a nd m any, a part f rom t hose c ited h ere, a re e dible. R obert R endall ' s O rkney S hore ( 1973) s hould b e r eferred t o f or a c omplete l ist. T he s ame R obert

R endall

w ill

h ave

t he

l ast

w ord

i n

t his

c hapter. A n aturalist, p oet, t heologian a nd a rchaeologist, R endall's g reat l ove was f or t he c oastal f ringes. A lthough h e e mphasised t he r ole o f t he s hore, h e was w ell a ware t hat O rkney p ossessed t he p hysical a nd o rganic r esources t o w eave t he h uman l ife:

f abric

" Sea-fishing , t aking o f l obsters, gathering d ulse a nd w helks a nd m ussels, b ait-gathering f or c od-fishing , c arting s and a nd s eaweed f or t he l and , o r s hingle f or r oad-making , t he b leaching o f f lax, k elp m aking , q uarrying f lagstone f or h ouse r oofs o r f or p aving, b eachcombing f or d riftwood t here was n o e nd t o t he r esources o f t he s hore f or t he maintenance o f t hat o ld way o f l ife.

L ittle

w onder

t hat

t he O rkney s ystem o f l and t enure s tyles p ossession a s b eing ' from t he l owest s tone i n t he e bb t o t he h ighest s tone o n t he h ill'. F or a m ode o f l ife t hat was m ore o r s elf-subsisting e verything t hat n ature c ould p rovide,

l ess f rom

h ill o r s hore, was n eeded". ( Rendall,

2 33

1 973:

8 5-6)

o f

C HAPTER 1 1: 1 1.1.

T HE C HANGING O F T HE L AND

THE N ATURE O F A RCHAEOLOGICAL P ATTERNS

I n p revious c hapters t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney h ave b een d escribed i n d etail, a nd t he l andscape i n w hich t hey a re l ocated h as b een d escribed. I n t he n ext c hapter (lapter 1 2) i t i s t he i ntention t o l ink t hese t wo d escriptions: t he c airns w ill b e r elated t o t he l andscape.

I n r ecent y ears m uch u seful i nformation ,

d oes n ot f it i nto p reconceived i deas,

a nd

h as e merged f rom

s ome

w hich

s tudying

t he

r elationship o f c airns t o t he l and a round t hem. I deally , s uch a nalysis d epends o n a t horough k nowledge o f t he N eolithic l andscape a nd a k nowledge o f t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns t herein. T he f irst of t hese i s t he p rovince o f p alaeo-environmentalists w hose c raft i s c ontinually e xpanding a nd w hose r esults h ave b een s ummarised i n C hapters 2 a nd 1 0. T he s econd h as r arely b een t ackled i n a ny b ut t he m ost c ursory w ay . I t i s t he t ask o f t his c hapter t o d iscuss o ur k nowledge o f t he p rehistoric d istribution o f t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney. A rchaeologists f requently u se d istribution m aps t o d emonstrate p atterns o f s ites o f a rtefacts, a nd h ave b een d oing s o s ince t he b eginning o f t he c entury - G ordon C hilde h imself was o ne o f t he g reatest e xponents o f t he d istribution m ap. I t h as a lways b een r ecognised t hat a ny a rchaeological d istribution i s n ot a n a ccurate r epresentation o f t he p atterns l aid d own i n p rehistory ; b ut n evertheless, s tatements a bout t he p rehistoric d istribution o f s ites a nd a rtefacts have a lways b een m ade. T he i ntention h ere i s t o i nvestigate t he t rajectory t hrough t ime f rom a n o riginal d istribution p attern t o a m odern d istribution m ap .

I n

t his

way ,

i t

m ight

b e

p ossible t o q ualify a ny s tatement based o n a n o bserved d istribution a nd m ake t hat s tatement m ore a pplicable t o t he o riginal d istribution. T here a re s ome i ndications i n t he l iterature t hat w riters i n a rchaeology h ave b een e xploring t he p rocesses l eading t o a m odern d istribution o f a rchaeological s ites. S tevenson ( 1975) d iscusses t he d egree o f r eliability w hich m ay b e p laced o n a rchaeological d istributions a nd p oints o ut t hat " survival v alue" a nd " discovery p otential" h ave a s m uch o f a n e ffect u pon d istribution p atterns a s t he d estruction o f s ites. H e u ses a n e xample f rom T ummelside, P erthshire ( Figure 1 1.1) w here r ing-forts h ave a particular r elationship t o t he e xtent o f m odern-day i mproved l and a nd s uggests t hat other r ing-forts h ave n ot s urvived b ecause t hey f orm t he b asis o f l ater s ettlement p atterns. H e c oncludes t hat t he r ing-forts " that s urvive a re t hose

w hich

w ere

l east

s uccessful

s hould n ot b e s een a s t ypical; d eductions a bout g eneral e conomy o f r ing-forts s hould n ot b e m ade f rom

a nd t he t he

s urviving e vidence". ( Stevenson ,

1 975:

1 06)

W orking a t a l arger s cale, R enfrew ( 1979), i n t he c ourse o f a d iscussion o n t he u se o f Q uanterness c hambered c airn , w as a ble t o d iscern t hree t ypes o f " formation p rocesses" w hich a ffected t he a rchaeological d ata e merging f rom h is e xcavation. T hese p rocesses, w hich a re p resented i n a d iagram i n F igure 1 1.2 a re:

2 35

•

R ing-Fort

•

O ther

S ites f t

III E nclosed L and

m i les

F igure 1 1.1

S urviving m onuments a nd i mproved l and i n T ümmelside ( from S tevenson, 1 975).

2 36

DATA

L o s s o fi n f orma t ion i n r e cove ry a nd a na ly s i s D amage /d i s turban ce d ur ing e xcava t ion A c t ion o f : 1 " * " " . . .‘ , . . . . .

D amage a nd d i s tu rban ce C . A. D. 1800

C a rn ivo re s B i rd s R oden t s Wa s te d i spo sa l ( r ubb i sh )

Human i n t ru s ion s b e tween jr. . "' 2000 B .C . a nd A.D 18o0

A c t ion o f : C a rn ivo re s B i rd s

D ecay p roce s s

R oden t s A c t ion o f ' :

A c t iv i t ie s l a te r a s soc . w i th s ub sequen t b u r ia l s

C a rn ivore s

B i rd s R oden t s

A c t iv i t ie s l a te r a s soc .. . . . • • °3 1 w i th d ecea sed A c t iv i t ie s t h en a s soc . w i th d ecea sed I n se r t ion i n to c hambe r 1 .••• ••• •• •••• 1 1 . 1• 1 1•

4

P ro-c e s se s o u t s ide t omb

HU MAN BODY F igure 1 1.2

FAUNA

ARTEFACTS

F ormation p rocesses f or a rchaeological r emains R enfrew , 1 979).

2 37

( from

A .

D eposition p rocesses ( in w hich a spects o f t he a ctivities a re r ecorded i n t he m aterial r emains, t he b asic o riginal a rchaeological r ecord)

B .

P reservation/decay p rocesses ( in w hich t he a rchaeological r emains a re d ifferentially p reserved b etween t he t ime o f o riginal d eposition a nd t he a rchaeological e xcavation).

C .

R ecovery p rocesses

( in

w hich

a spects

a rchaeological e vidence a re r ecovered d ata , w hile o ther a spects a re n ot)"

o f a nd

t he

p rimary f orming

p rocessed

p resented

( Renfrew ,

1 979:

a s 1 52)

T hus R enfrew i s a ware t hat d uring t he e xcavation o f Q uanterness, t he m aterial r ecovered w as v ery m uch a b iassed s ample o f t he m aterial o riginally d eposited . O f c ourse , t his h as a lways been r ecognised b y a rchaeologists w hose s tudy o f m aterial c ulture h as a lways b een b ased o n t he a ccidentally d urable r emnants o f a f unctioning s ociety. B ut i n o rder t o t ake s uch b ias i nto c onsideration , i t m ust s urely b e n ecessary t o f ormalise , o r d iscuss i n d etail,the n ature o f t he b ias: R enfrew i s o ne o f t he f irst t o d o s o a t t he s cale o f a n e xcavation , a nd i n t he f ollowing p aragraphs a n e quivalent f ormalisation w ill b e a ttempted f or t he g eneralised d istribution m ap . T he a rguments t hat f ollow i n t his c hapter a re b ased o n , a lthough c onsiderably a dapted f rom , F ojut a nd F raser 1 981. A rchaeological d istributions a re t he r esult o f m any d ifferent p rocesses. F igure 1 1.3 a ttempts t o d escribe t he n ature o f t he d istribution p atterns w hich a re d iscussed b y a rchaeologists, a nd t he p rocesses w hich l ead t o t hem . I n t he f irst p lace , a rchaeological p atterns a re d etermined b y t he o riginal l ocation p rocesses - t he d ecisions t aken b y t he b uilders i n p rehistory a nd t he e xpression o f t hose d ecisions i n t he l andscape. T hese d ecisions l ead t o a n o riginal d istribution p attern - t he d istribution o f m onuments o r a rtefacts a s a f unctioning w hole i n p rehistory. I n t he s econd p lace, a rchaeological p atterns a re a ffected b y s ubsequent f ormation p rocesses - t he c hanges u ndergone b y t he l andscape a nd a ll i t c ontains, o ver t he y ears t hat s tretch b etween p rehistory a nd t he p resent. S uch c hanges, m any o f w hich a re d estructive, w ill r esult i n a p otentially d iscoverable p attern - c onsisting o f a ll t he m onuments o r a rtefacts w hich a re t heoretically o pen t o d iscovery by a rchaeologists, g iven t otal f ield-work c overage a nd p erfect r ecovery o f i nformation. T his p attern i s, p erhaps u nattainable b ecause our p rocesses o f r ecognition - t echniques o f f ield-work a nd t he e xperience o f f ield-workers a mong t hem - w ill n ever b e p erfect . A s a r esult t he o bserved d istribution p attern - t he p attern a lways p resented b y a rchaeologists i n d istribution m aps - c an o nly b e a n i mperfect c opy o f t he p otentially d iscoverable p attern. M ost a rchaeologists a re i nterested i n d escribing o r e xplaining t he o riginal l ocation p rocesses o f a p rehistoric d istribution , a nd t his m ust b e a ccomplished u sing t he o bserved d istribution p attern. I t f ollows t hat a k nowledge o f s ubsequent f ormation p rocesses a nd p rocesses o f r ecognition i s n ecessary. A n o riginal d istribution p attern m ay b e a ltered r adically b y c hanges o perating s ubsequent t o t he e stablishment o f t hat p attern. S ince s uch a n a ltered p attern g ives u s a n i ncomplete k nowledge o f t he p rehistoric p attern , w e m ust

2 38

o r ig ina l l o ca t ion p rocesses

1

OR IG INAL

D ISTRIBUT ION P ATTERN

I

s ubsequent f orma t ion p rocesses

POTENT IALLY

I

D ISCOVERABLE

P ATTERN

p rocesses o f r ecogn i t ion

I

OBSERVED ,

F igure 1 1.3

D ISTRIBUTION

P ATTERN

T he n ature o f a rchaeological d istribution p atterns.

2 39

a ttempt t o k now t he n ature o f t he i ncompleteness b efore w e c an t ry t o e xplain t he p rehistoric p attern. T he r emainder o f t his c hapter w ill d eal w ith t he t wo s ets o f p rocesses w hich i ntervene b etween t he o riginal d istribution p attern a nd t he o bserved d istribution p attern . p p t o n ow , t he d iscussion h as b een o f a t heoretical n ature: i n t he r emaining s ections o f t his c hapter , t he d iscussion w ill b e o f a m ore p articular n ature. S ubsequent f ormation p rocesses a nd p rocesses o f r ecognition w ill be o utlined i n f rameworks s uitable f or a pplication t o t he p roblems o f t his s tudy , a nd t hen t hose f rameworks w ill b e u sed t o d iscuss t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns i n O rkney. 1 1.2.

P ROCESSES O F R ECOGNITION

T he r ecognition o f as ite i s t he f irst s tep i n t he i nclusion o f t hat s ite i n t he s et o f i nformation u sed b y a rchaeologists. U ntil a s ite i s r ecognised a s s uch , i t d oes n ot e nter i nto a ny d iscussion o f a rchaeology. P erceptually , B roxmouth h ill-fort d id n ot e xist i n 1 970: t en y ears l ater a ny d iscussion o f t he s outhern S cottish I ron A ge m ust c ontain r eference t o B roxmouth. T hus, t he n ature of r ecognition i n a rchaeology i s a v ery i mportant a nd n ecessary p rerequisite i n t he s ynthesis o f i nformation: a ny a nd e very s tatement w hich p urports t o c oncern i tself w ith m ore t han a s ingle i ndividual m onument m ust t ake i nto c onsideration t he n umber a nd t ype o f s ites w hich h ave b een r ecognised . B efore g oing f urther, t he t erm " recognition" m ust b e e xamined. M any d ifferent m eanings c ould b e g iven t o t he w ord. T b t ake t he h ypothetical e xample o f a m ound i n ap astoral f ield o n a n O rcadian f arm , i t i s p ossible t o c hart a c ontinuum o f r ecognition r elating t o t he m ound . F rom e arliest t imes , t he c ultivator o f t he f ield i s a ware t hat t here i s a n u pswelling o n h is f arm w hich m ay n ot b e a n atural f eature. D uring p loughing i t m ay s how s igns o f b eing d ifferent f rom t he r est o f t he f ield , w ith b lackened e arth o r l arge s tones a ppearing o n t he s urface o f t he s oil. T here m ay b e a f olk m emory o f t he p lace b eing u sed a s ab urial g round , o r a s ah ouse f or p ast i nhabitants. T here m ay e ven b e a p lace n ame a ssociated w ith t he m ound , s uch a s " Fairy K nowe" o r " Howe". T he i nhabitants o f t he f arm a ccept t he m ound a nd a re n ot c urious a bout i t: a lthough i t i s s een a s b eing t he w ork o f p ast h umans, i t i s p art o f t he e veryday l andscape o f e xperience. I n t he n ineteenth c entury , a l ocal m inister o r d octor, r eading s ome l earned j ournal , m ay b egin t o s uspect t hat t he m ound b elongs t o ac lass o f a ncient m onuments s uch a s t he " picts' h ouses" o r " broughs". H e m ay w rite t o a n E dinburgh a ntiquarian a nd t he m ound m ay e nter i nto t he v erbal k nowledge o f l ocal a nd a mateur a rchaeology. L ater i n t he c entury , t he m ound m ay a ppear o n a n O rdnance S urvey m ap w ith t he d esignation " TUmulus" o r " Brough". S ome t ime i n t his c entury t he s ite m ay b e v isited b y ap rofessional a rchaeologist , s uch a s a n o fficer o f t he R oyal C ommission o n A ncient M onuments, a nd b e p ositively i dentified f rom s urface r emains, a s a t ypical broch . A d escription o f t he m ound i s p ublished i n t he C ommission 's I nventory f or O rkney. L ater o n , t he s ite m ay c ome u nder t hreat o f destruction a nd b e e xcavated b y as tate o rganisation , r evealing a m ulti-period s uccession o f r ound-house u nder b roch u nder M ediaeval s ettlement . A f ew y ears a fter t he e xcavation , af ull a cademic r eport i s p ublished , a nd t he g eneral c onclusions a re w idely d isseminated i n m ore p opular 2 40

l iterature. I mmediately i t b ecomes a pparent t hat t here a re t wo e lements o f r ecognition. T he f irst i s r ecognition a s a m ember o f a p articular c lass o f m onument. O ur m ound w as v ariously r ecognised a s a " howe" , a " picts' h ouse", a " brough", a " broch", a nd a s a " multi-period s ettlement", a nd , e mphatically , t hese w ere a ll c orrect c ontemporary d esignations. T hus, w henever t he r ecognition o f a m onument i s b eing d iscussed , i t i s n ecessary t o s pecify a t erm , s uch a s I croch", w hich c onveys a c ommonly u nderstood m eaning t o t he r eader o f t he t ime. T he s econd e lement o f r ecognition i s d egree o f d issemination. C ur m ound w ent t hrough v arious s tages, f rom b eing k nown b y a f armer a nd h is f amily , t hrough b eing a n o bject o f l ocal a ntiquarian i nterest, t hrough b eing p rinted o n a m ap o r i n a n I nventory , t o t he f inal s tage o f f ull-scale e xcavation a nd i nto t he d omain o f p ublic a nd a cademic k nowledge. W here t hroughout t his s equence c an a s ite b e s aid t o b e " recognised"? L ike r ecognition a s a m ember o f a p articular c lass o f m onument , t he a nswer t o t his q uestion i s am atter o f d efinition , a nd w ill d epend t o w hat u se t he c oncept o f r ecognition i s t o b e p ut. O ne p ossible d efinition i s t hat a s ite i s r ecognised w hen i t f irst a ppears i n p rint i n ap ublication w hich i s s pecifically a vailable t o t he a rchaeological p rofession . T his d efinition w ill b e u sed h ereafter , w ith t he m odification t hat a s ite a ppearing i n a l ocal o r n ational m onuments r ecord i s a lso s aid t o b e r ecognised . T his m odification i s d esigned t o i nclude t he i ndex c ards o f t he A rchaeology D ivision o f t he O rdnance S urvey , t he N ational M onuments R ecord , a nd t he O rkney H eritage S ociety , a ll o f w hich m ust b e r egarded a s b eing p ublished m aterial a vailable t o t he f ield-worker i n O rkney. G iven t hese t wo q ualifications o f t he t erm " recognition", i t i s p ossible t o i dentify a c onsistent p attern i n h ow a c lass o f a rchaeological m onument b ecomes r ecognised b y t he a rchaeological w orld . F igure 1 1.4 p lots t he g rowth c urve o f r ecognition o f ac lass o f a rchaeological s ite f rom t he t ime w hen t he s ite t ype i s u nsuspected ( no e xamples o f t he t ype a re r ecognised) t o t he t ime w hen a ll s ites o f t he p otentially d iscoverable d istribution a re k nown ( all e xamples o f t he t ype a re r ecognised). T he d iagram h as m ore a pplicability w hen t here h as b een n o r adical c hange i n f ield-work m ethodology o r i mprovement i n f ield-work t echniques o ver t he t ime p eriod u nder s tudy. T his l ast a ssumption h olds t rue f or m uch o f t he a rchaeological f ield-work i n n orthern S cotland o ver t he l ast c entury b ut h olds l ess v alidity f or t hose a reas o f l owland B ritain w here t he i ntroduction o f a erial p hotography a s a f ield-work t echnique h as r adically a ltered t he p attern o f k nown s ites s ince t he 1 940s. T hree d istinct p eriods c an b e s een i n t he c urve o f r ecognition: P eriod I : O nly a f ew s ites a re k nown a nd t he c lass i s n ot f irmly e stablished a s ad istinct e ntity. T he n umber o f r ecognised s ites ( N ) g rows s lowly o ver t ime ( t), w ith n ew s ites b eing d iscovered o nly a t l engthy i ntervals. P eriod 2 :

T he c lass-type b ecomes 2 41

f irmly

e stablished

i n

t he

N umbe r o f R ecogn ised S i tes ( N)

1 T HE G RO WTH

D a te

CURVE O F

F igure 1 1.4

O F

R ECOGN IT I ON

A RCHAEOLOG ICAL S ITES

T he g rowth c urve o f r ecognition o f a rchaeological s ites ( after F ojut a nd F raser, 1 981).

2 42

( t )

a rchaeological l iterature. T he n umber o f r ecognised s ites g rows v ery rapidly o ver a s hort l ength o f t ime w ith n ew s ites b eing d iscovered every y ear.

l imit

P eriod 3 : T he n umber o f r ecognised s ites i s n earing t he upper ( L ) o f p otentially r ecognisable s ites. N ew s ites a re b ecoming

h arder a nd h arder t o f ind a nd a re only d iscovered r arely. A n a pplication o f t he c urve o f r ecognition w ill b e d emonstrated h ere o n a c lass o f m onument w hich i s v ery d issimilar t o t he c hambered c airns of O rkney. F igure 1 1.5 s hows t he h istory o f d iscovery o f f orts a nd f ortlets o n t he R oman W all i n S cotland. P eriod I s tretches f rom a ntiquity s ince s everal s ites h ave a lways b een r ecognised a s being R oman f orts, a nd a ppear i n v ery e arly d ocumentary s ources. P eriod 2 b egins a bout 1 900 w ith t he e xcavations a nd f ield s urvey o f S ir G eorge M acDonald . I n t he l ast f ew d ecades P eriod 3 h as b een r eached w ith f ew n ew f orts b eing f ound d espite e xtensive f ield-work. T he s uggestion i s t hat w e a re v ery c lose t o t he l imit o f p otentially d iscoverable f orts o n t he R oman w all, a nd p erhaps v ery c lose t o h aving k nowledge o f t he o riginal c omplete d istribution. T his d oes n ot m ean t hat t here m ay n ot b e o ther R oman s tructures o n t he l ine o f t he W all. I ndeed , i t w ould s eem t hat r ecently d iscovered " extensions" ( Hanson , p ersonal c ommunication) r epresent t he P eriod I o f an ew c lass o f s ite. I t d oes i mply t hat t he p otential s ite m ap o f f orts on t he A ntonine W all i s n earing c ompletion . T his s uggestion i s n ot c ontradicted b y c urrent t heory a mong R omanists. M oving o n n ow t o a t opic m ore c entral t o t his w ork , F igure 1 1.6 s hows t he c urve o f r ecognition o f c hambered c airns i n O rkney. ( This i ncludes a ll c airns o f c ategories A lpha, B eta a nd G amma). I n O rkney t he a ssumption o f u nchanging f ield-work t echniques h olds t rue: a rchaeologists h ave b een u sing t he s ame f ield-working m ethods i n O rkney s ince t he e arly y ears o f l ast c entury. U p u ntil n ow , a erial p hotography h as a dded v ery l ittle t o o ur k nowledge o f p eriod in t he n orthern i sles.

t he

N eolithic

A n a nalysis o f t his c urve o f r ecognition h as c lear i mplications f or a ny s tudy o f t he l ocation o f t he m onuments. P eriod I c learly d id n ot e nd until t he m id-nineteenth c entury w hen P etrie, F arrer, a nd H ebden b egan a s eries o f e xplorations. T he t erm " chambered c airn" w as f irst u sed , r eferring t o s ites i n O rkney , s ome t ime i n t he 1 850s. P eriod 2 c ontinued i nto t his c entury w ith t he o fficers o f t he R oyal C ommission on A ncient M onuments r ecognising m any s ites i n O rkney d uring t he 1 930s a nd 1 940s. T he l ast t wo d ecades h ave s een t he a ddition o f s till m ore c hambered c airns t o t he l ist o f t hose r ecognised , m ainly t he w ork o f t he O rdnance S urvey a nd t he O rkney H eritage S ociety. T he i mplication i s t hat t his p articular d istribution - c hambered c airns i n O rkney - h as n ot y et r eached P eriod 3 o f t he c urve o f r ecognition. T here m ay b e m ore, p erhaps m any more, s ites t o b e d iscovered a nd s o i t m ust b e e xplicitly a cknowledged t hat a ny s tatement a bout t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns in O rkney i s b ased o n a p attern w hich m ay a lter i n t he f uture. T his c onclusion i s b ased o n a r elatively a bstruse t heory .

H ow

d oes i t c onform t o p opular opinion i n t he a rchaeological p rofession? T he s ad a nswer i s t hat f ew a rchaeologists h ave c onsidered t he q uestions r aised i n t his c hapter.

T here i s n o a ccepted o pinion a mong

2 43

N umbe r o f R ecogn ised

N

=

+ 1 5

/( 1 +

e 3 2 -044(t

-

1 855i10 )) N

1

S i tes

( N )

2

2

c ,

D a te ( t )

F ORTS AND F ORTLETS o n t he ANTON INE WALL

F igure 1 1.5

G rowth c urve o f r ecognition: f orts a nd f ortlets o n t he A ntonine W all ( after F ojut a nd F raser, 1 981).

2 44

N umbe r o t

8 0

7 6

R ecogn ised

7 2

S i tes

6 8

( N)

6 4

N =

1 50

/(

1

e

795/10 )) 4 2-0 2 4 t— 1

6 0

5 6

5 2

4 8

4 4

4 0

3 6

3 2

2 8

2 4

2 0

1 6

1 2

o 0

0

c ' z

0

0

c o c o

0

0

0

0

9

D ate ( t )

C HA MBERED

F igure 1 1.6

CA IRNS

G rowth c urve o f r ecognition: ( after F ojut a nd F raser,

2 45

I N

ORKNEY

c hambered c airns o f O rkney

1 981).

a rchaeologists a s t o t he n ature o f n umber o f a ny o riginal p rehistoric d istribution. M uch w ork h as b een d one o n s ampling m ethods ( for e xample, c herry e t a l., 1 978), b ut m ost o f t his h as b een d irected a t e nsuring t hat a s ample o f t he o bserved d istribution p attern i s r epresentative o f t hat o bserved d istribution p attern , a nd l ittle t hought h as b een g iven t o t he c onsideration o f a s ample o f t he o bserved d istribution p attern b eing r epresentative o f t he o riginal d istribution p attern. F or t he c hambered c airns o f S cotland , e ven H enshall's C hambered T ombs o f S cotland o ffers n o e stimate , o r s peculation , o n t he e xtent t o w hich t he t ombs c atalogued t herein a re at rue r epresentation o f t he o riginal d istribution p attern. O ne o f t he f ew r eferences t o t he t opic c omes f rom G ördon C hilde, i n T he P rehistory o f S cotland . C hambered c airns a re " ...conspicuous m onuments n ot l ikely t o b e o verlooked i n a c areful f ield s urvey. A t l east i n G alloway , A rran a nd B ute , C ä ithness a nd E astern S utherland t he a vailable r ecords p robably g ive a n a ccurate p icture o f t he p resent d istribution a nd n umbers o f t ombs...There s eem n o a dequate g rounds f or p ostulating a ny s weeping d estruction o f v aults, a t l east i n t he f ar n orth , p erhaps t he f igures m ight b e d oubled t o a llow f or t he d amage d one i n t hree t housand y ears." ( Childe , 1 935: 5 3) N ote t hat i n t his q uotation C hilde m akes t he d istinction b etween " available r ecords" a nd " present d istribution" w hich i s e quivalent t o t he d istinction m ade i n F igure 1 1.3 b etween o bserved d istribution p attern a nd p otentially d iscoverable p attern. T he m ap w hich a ccompanied t his p assage ( 1935: 2 68-9) s hows s ome 2 50 c airns i n S cotland , i ncluding p erhaps 2 1 i n O rkney. S ince 1 935 t he n umber o f r ecognised s ites i n S cotland h as r isen t o w ell o ver 6 00 , i ncluding 7 6 i n O rkney. T hus C hilde's e stimate i s s oon t o b e a n u nderestimate , a nd p erhaps a g ross u nderestimate. I f t here h as b een v ery l ittle s peculation i n r ecent y ears on t he r elationship o f o bserved d istribution t o o riginal d istribution t hen i t b ecomes i mpossible t o c heck i f t he c onclusion o utlined a bove - t hat t here m ay b e m ore c hambered c airns t o b e f ound i n O rkney - i s i n a greement w ith e stablished o pinion . o r n ot. T he c onclusion m ust b e t reated a s a t heory w hich w ill s tand o r f all i n t he l ight o f f urther a ccumulation o f d ata a nd f urther s peculation. 1 1.3 S UBSEQUENT F ORMATION P ROCESSES S ubsequent f ormation p rocesses ( Figure 1 1.3) a re t hose p rocesses w hich t ransform a n o riginal d istribution p attern i nto a p otentially d iscoverable p attern . I n t he d iscussion t hat f ollows i t h as n ot b een t hought p ractical t o c onstruct a m odel o f w ide-spread a pplicability a nd u se i t o n O rcadian d ata , a s wa s t he p rocedure f or p rocesses o f r ecognition . I nstead , t he d ata w ill b e e xamined a nd t he r esults o f t hat e xamination w ill b e u sed t o c onstruct a m odel w hich h as s ome v alidity f or t he O rcadian N eolithic l andscape a nd m ay p erhaps b e u sed a s ab asis f or s imilar m odels r eferring t o o ther p rehistoric p eriods a nd t o o ther a reas o f t he H ighland Z one. T his i s l argely a m atter o f p resentation: i n t he m ind o f t he w riter t here

2 46

was p ossibly l ittle d ifference b etween t he a malgamation o f e mpirical e vidence a nd t heory f or t he t wo s ets o f p rocesses. N evertheless t he t wo a rguments c an b e b est p resented t o t he r eader i n d ifferent ways. I n t he f irst p lace i t i s i nstructive t o e xamine t he s ubsequent f ormation p rocesses i n c reating s patial

a ction b ias

o f i n

d istribution p atterns. T his a ction h as b een w ell d ocumented e ven i f t he p rocesses r esponsible h ave r eceived l ittle a ttention. H amond ( 1978) p oints o ut t hat s ubsequent s ettlement , e rosion a nd d eposition, a nd m odern l and-use m ay r adically a lter a p rehistoric s ettlement p attern. As imilar s et o f p rocesses, i ncluding s ome r ecognition , h as b een d escribed b y M artlew ( 1981: 1 1a).

p rocesses o f H is d iagram

i s r eproduced h ere a s F igure 1 1.7 s howing a h ypothetical p attern o f e venly spaced s ettlements ( a). C oastal e rosion ( b) a nd s ubsequent s ettlement ( c) r emove s ome o f t he s ites f rom t he l andscape. D ifferential l anduse ( d) i s r esponsible f or d ifferent d egrees o f s ite s urvival. F inally ( and t hese a re p rocesses o f r ecognition), s urvey , r ecovery a nd r ecording ( e) m ay b e u nevenly d istributed o r r esult i n m is-interpretation o f s ites. T he f inal a rchaeological d istribution m ap ( f) b ears l ittle r esemblance t o t he o riginal d istribution a nd c onclusions d rawn f rom i t m ay n ot b e a n a ccurate p ortrayal o f t he e conomic o r p olitical l ife o f t he o riginal g roup o f s ettlements. H amond a nd M artlew h ave b oth e xpounded h ypothetical m odels. o rder t o a pply t hese m odels t o a p articular p lace, i t w ould n ecessary t o h ave a n i ntimate k nowledge o f t he l andscape h istory, o f t hat p lace. T his c ould b e

I n b e

l andscape, a nd a chieved a t a

v ariety o f d ifferent s cales b ut t he o bjectives o f t he n ext c hapter o f t his work r equire a k nowledge o f t he l andscape o f O rkney w hich c an o nly b e a cquired a t a v ery l arge s cale. T he i deal w ould b e f or o ne f ield-worker t o walk o ver e very i sland i n O rkney, n ot o nce, b ut m any t imes. I t i s o nly b y c onstantly r evisiting a l ocality , i n d ifferent s easons a nd i n d ifferent c onditions, t hat t he f ield-worker c an b ecome i mmersed i n f or a n a rea c oncentrate e xtrapolate

t he m eaning o f a p lace. S uch a p rocedure i s i mpractical a s l arge a s O rkney a nd h ere i t h as b een n ecessary t o i nstead o n m uch s maller a reas - s amples o f O rkney - a nd f rom t hem t o t he i sland-group a s a w hole.

T he i sland o f E day(Figure 1 1.8) w as c hosen a s o ne o f

t he

b est

p laces t o l ook a t s ubsequent f ormation p rocesses i n d etail. E day i s l ocated i n t he c entre o f t he n orth i sles, n orth o f S hapinsay , n orth-west o f S tronsay , s outh-west o f S anday , s outh-east o f W estray , a nd e ast o f R ousay. I t i s a bout 1 3 k m l ong n orth-south a nd a m aximum o f 4 km w ide e ast-west, a nd r ises t o a n a ltitude o f 1 01 m a t W ard H ill n ear t he s outh e nd. T he i sland c ontains a g reat v ariety o f t errain a nd i s v ery c lose t o b eing a m icrocosm o f t he O rkney l andscape. T here i s a c hain o f l ow h ills d own t he w est s ide o f B day , a nd m uch o f t he e ast s ide i s u ndulating c oastal l owland. T he w est s ide a nd R ed H ead t o t he n orth a re h igh c liff c oast-lines w hile m uch o f t he east s ide i s a l ow r ock c oastline. I n a ddition t here a re a reas of b each c oast-line on b oth s ides o f t he i sland , w ith t he c ombined l ength o f t he S ands o f M ussetter a nd D oomy o n F ersness B ay b eing over 2 k m. T he waist o f E day i s c rossed b y a l arge a rea o f w ind b lown s and a nd a ctive s and d unes. T here i s o ne m ajor i sland l och , M ill L och, a nd a f ew i ntermittent a nd s maller b odies o f s tanding w ater.

2 47

p rehistoric s ettlement p attern

( 4 1

0

2 48

CALF OF EDAY

F AR AY

EDAY

E day M id

0

•

k m

2

C hamb e red c a irns

F igure 1 1.8

T he i sland o f E day ,

s howing a reas o f s tudy.

T he v egetation o f E day t oday i s l argely c onditioned b y m odern h usbandry p ractice. M uch o f t he a rea o f C alfsound a nd m ost o f S outhside a nd W estside i s c lass 3 ( land-use c apability c lassification) l and u sed t oday f or h igh q uality c attle p asture, f or g rowing f odder, a nd f or t he g rowing o f b arley a nd o ats. T here i s a b elt o f m arginal l and , m ostly b elow t he a ltitude o f 3 0 m , w hich i s u sed f or p asture f or c attle a nd s heep . T he u pland p arts o f t he i sland a re r eserved e xclusively f or s heep g razing , a lthough t he l and w ould b e u sed e lsewhere i n S cotland f or t he s hooting o f grouse a nd d eer. T hus t he l and-use o f E day i s a c lose e cho o f t hat o f O rkney a s a w hole, a lthough o verrepresented .

t he

p roportion

o f

u pland

m ay

b e

s lightly

T he h uman s ettlement o f E day h as f ollowed , w ith a s ingle o bvious h iatus, t he c ourse o f h uman s ettlement i n O rkney. T he e arliest s ites a re t he c hambered c airns, o f w hich t here a re n ine ( with a f urther t hree o n t he o ff s hore h olm o f C alf o f E day). T here a re a t l east t hree s tanding s tones, i ncluding t he m assive S tone of S etter s ituated a t t he f ocus o f a d ense p attern o f p rehistoric a ctivity. T here a re c ists a nd b urnt m ounds d ating A ge. A n unexplained gap i n t he s ettlement r ecord

f rom t he B ronze i s t he c omplete

a bsence o f b rochs f rom t he i sland. B rochless E day m ay well b e a r esult o f d ifferential p reservation: t here s eems n o r eason w hy E day s hould b e t he e xception a mong a ll t he O rcadian i slands o f s imilar a nd l arger a rea. T he f irst m illennium A D i s a s d estitute o f m aterial r emains a s e lsewhere i n O rkney b ut t he s ettlement r ecord p icks up a gain i n t he M ediaeval p eriod w ith t he c astle o f S tackel B rae a nd s everal o ld c hapels a nd c hurches. T he i sland r eached i ts m aximum p opulation o f 9 47 i n 1 851 s ince w hen i t h as s hown a g radual p rocess o f p opulation d ecline t o t he p resent l evel o f a bout 1 80 i nhabitants, o ne t hird o f w hom a re s outhern i ncomers. T he p rocedure

a dopted

i n

E day

e volved

a fter

e xperimentation. T hree a reas o f l and , e ach o ne w ere c hosen t o r eflect t he d iversity o f t errain.

a

p eriod

o f

k ilometre s quare, T he t hree a reas

w ere d esignated E day N orth , E day M id , a nd E day S outh, a nd a re d emarcated o n F igure 1 1.8. E ach a rea was walked o ver i n a b oustrophedonic p attern ( "as t he o x p loughs") s uch t hat e very p oint o n ah undred m etre g rid i mposed o n t he s quare k ilometre was v isited i n a r egular p attern. T he objective was t o p roduce a p lan b ased on t he O rdnance S urvey 1 :10000 p lan w hich w ould s how t he f ormation p rocesses o f t he human l andscape. A ny m anifestation o f t he f ollowing s ets o f p rocesses w ere l ooked f or: 1 .

p rocesses o f e volution o f t he p hysical l andscape

2 .

p rocesses o f c hange i n t he p hysical l andscape d ue t o i nterference

3 .

i nstances o f h uman i mposition i n t he l andscape

human

T hus r elict p eriglacial l andforms a nd m odern c oastal e rosion w ould b e i ncluded i n t he f irst c ategory. A n e xample o f t he s econd t ype o f p rocess i s s een i n t he r esultant p attern o f v egetation d ue t o d omestication a nd c ultivation. T he t hird c ategory i ncludes t he e ntire s pectrum o f h uman s ettlement f rom t he e arliest m idden t o t he l atest a irport.

2 50

W here p ossible , t he e xtent o f s patial a ction o f e ach p rocess w as m apped o n t he 1 :10000 p lan. T he a ccuracy o f s urveying h ere i s n ot e specially i mportant , s ince t he p lans a re s imply g oing t o b e u sed f or a q ualitative d escription o f s ubsequent f ormation p rocesses. T hus s ome a real a nd p oint d ata w ere p lotted b y e ye o r b y p acing . T he i mportant r esult i s t hat t he p lans c ontain d ata w hich i s n ot r etrievable f rom p ublished m aps o r a erial p hotographs. P erhaps a n e ven m ore i mportant r esult i s t hat t he p roducer o f t he p lan c omes t o k now s mall a reas o f t errain i n i ntimate d etail. T here n ow f ollows a d escription o f e ach o f t he t hree p lans: 1 .Eday N orth T he p lan o f E day N orth i s d isplayed i n F igure 1 1.9. T he s quare k ilometre i s b ounded b y m ap r eferences H Y 5 60370 , H Y 5 60380 , H Y 5 70370, a nd H Y 5 70380 , i s l ocated i n t he m iddle o f n orthern E day , a nd c onsists o f t he s outhern h alf o f t he m odern h ome f arm o f C arrick w ith s urrounding g razing. T he a rea i s c rossed b y t he r oad t o C arrick H ouse a nd b y t he r oad t o C Usbay. T he t opography o f t he a rea i s r elatively s imple, c onsisting o f an orth-facing v alley r ising t o a s addle i n t he s outh-west. T he n orth-facing v alley o verlooks t he n orthern m outh o f C alf S ound , t hat s heltered s ea p assage b etween E day a nd C alf o f E day. T he v alley i s b ordered t o t he w est b y ad ip s lope w hich r ises t o t he s ummit o f V inquoy H ill o utside t he a rea , w ith a m aximum a ltitude o f 6 0 m i n t he e xtreme n orth-west o f t he s quare. T b t he e ast , t he v alley i s b ordered b y ag entle s carp s lope w hich r ises t o a n a ltitude o f 3 0 m . T he l owest p oint i n t he v alley i s a round C arrick F arm , a t a bout 1 0 m a bove s ea l evel. T he h eight o f t he s addle i n t he s outh-west i s 2 4 m a nd i n t he e xtreme s outh-west t here i s t he s ummit o f t he H ill o f C älfsound a t a n a ltitude o f 4 3m. T he e xtreme s outh o f t he a rea c onsists o f l ow-lying g round a bout 1 5 m a bove s ea l evel a t t he h ead o f M ill L och. T he v egetation o f E day N orth c an b e d ivided i nto t wo p arts: i mproved l and a nd u nimproved l and . T he i mproved l and i s m ainly u nder g rass a nd i s u sed f or p asturing b eef c attle a nd s heep . B arley i s a lso g rown . T he u nimproved l and c onsists o f a reas o f s parse C alluna h eathland a nd a reas o f t hin b lanket p eat c over. ( Note t hat a t t his s cale t he p ublished m aps o f p eat c over a re o f l imited u se). T he d ivision b etween i mproved a nd u nimproved l and i s n ot s olely c onditioned b y a ltitude: t he H ill o f C alfsound i s a ll u nder g rass.

N orth .

T he e ffects o f h uman s ettlement T Wo c hambered c airns - B raeside

a re f ound t hroughout ( ORK 5 ) a nd H untersquoy

E day ( ORK

2 3) - a re l ocated l ess t han 2 00 m a part i n t he n orthern v alley. T he S tone o f S etter i n a ssociation w ith s ome a s y et u nexplained s tone s ettings i s l ocated c lose t o t he s addle-point. T here a re t wo i ndeterminate b ut l arge c airns w ithin t he a rea , t he o ne i n t he s outh-west b eing h itherto u ndiscovered. A lso u nreported w ere t wo m ounds w ith p rominent c ists i n t he s ame f ield a s t he S tone o f S etter. C hronologically t he n ext s igns o f h uman i nterference i n t he l andscape m ust b e t ermed m odern. M uch o f t he i mproved l and h as b een d rained: t he s urface t races o f d rainage c hannels a re ubiquitous. T here a re 2 51

5 7

3 8

5 7

R oad

i m.

"

C a irns

S tone w a l1

S tand in g

P ea t c u tt ing

Mounds

s tone

7 1 1

Quarr ies

F igure 1 1.9

0

3 7

0

S ubsequent f ormation p rocesses:

2 52

500

E day N orth.

t hree a reas o f p eat c utting o n t he f loor o f t he v alley a nd p eat h as b een c ut i ntermittently o n t he s lopes o f V inquoy H ill. F our q uarry s coops

( for b uilding s tone) a re a pparent a round H untersquoy c hambered

c airn a nd a nother i s l ocated o n a s outh-eastern s houlder o f V inquoy H ill. I t i s n ot i mpossible t hat t hese d ate f rom a n e arly p eriod. S everal of t he f ields o f C arrick F arm h ave d ry s tone d ykes a s b oundary m arkers. T hese d ykes r arely e xceed 1 .5 m i n h eight o r 0 .4 m i n w idth. I n a ddition , t here i s a d enuded f ield wall p aralleling t he c ontours o f V inquoy H ill a nd a b roken-down wall a round a n o ld s chool b uilding. I n t otal t here w ere p erhaps 1 950 m o f s tone b uilt wall w ithin t he s quare k ilometre. T he F old o f S etter, o f w hich t here i s l ittle t race o n t he g round d espite b eing s hown o n t he O rdnance S urvey m ap , m ay h ave b een a n a nimal e nclosure a nd , i f i t w ere c onstructed o f s tone , would a dd a bout 3 00 m t o t his d istance. M ost o f t he o ther f ield b oundaries a re n ow barbed w ire f ences b ut i n t he p ast m ay h ave b een of m ore s olid c onstruction. T here a re t hree upstanding b uildings, t wo o f t hem b eing o ut-buildings o f C arrick f arm a nd t he t hird a n o ld s chool.

T his l atter b uilding

m ay

d ate

f rom

t he

m id

n ineteenth c entury b ut i s n ow d erelict. T Wo s urfaced r oads c ross t he a rea f ollowing l ines w hich m ay h ave b een e stablished f or c enturies. B oth r oads a re n ow t armacadamed. 2 .

E day M id

T he p lan o f E day M id i s d isplayed i n F igure 1 1.10. T he s quare k ilometre i s b ounded b y m ap r eferences H Y 5 55330, H Y 5 55340, H Y565330, a nd H Y 5 65340. I t i s l ocated j ust s outh o f t he w aist o f E day f ormed b y t he L och o f D oomy a nd t he B ay o f L ondon. m ostly open h eathland a nd i s c rossed b y t wo r oads.

T he a rea

i s

T he g eneral a spect o f E day M id i s n orth f acing. T he a rea c onsists o f t wo s purs o f F laughton H ill w ith a ltitudes o f 5 0 m a nd 3 6 m i n t he s outh r unning n orthwards d own t o v ery n early s ea l evel i n t he n orth o f t he s quare k ilometre. T he r elative h eight d ifference o f E day M id i s t hus n ot d issimilar t o t hat o f E day N orth. T he o nly s tanding water i s t he i ntermittent L och o f D oomy , a s hallow s andy b asin cut o ff f rom F ersness B ay b y a l ine o f u nstable s and d unes. T he t errain i s a rchetypical o f a g laciated l andscape: t he h ill s lopes a re g ently u ndulating a nd t here m ay b e t he r emains o f a m elt-water c hannel b etween t he t wo s purs. I n t he n orth-west o f t he a rea t here i s a l arge p atch o f w ind blown s and: t here i s, h owever, n o a ppreciable m achair d evelopment. T he v egetation o f E day M id i s a lmost e ntirely h eathland w ith a t hin c overing o f p eat. I n p laces i mpeded d rainage h as e ncouraged t he f ormation o f p eat o ver a m etre d eep , e specially i n t he v alley b etween t he t wo s purs o f F laughton H ill. I n t he e xtreme s ome effort h as b een m ade t o i mprove t he l and b y

e ast o f d rainage

t he a nd

a rea s ome

e ffort h as b een m ade t o c ultivate g rass, b ut t his s trip e ast o f t he m ain r oad h as n ot b een w ell managed , a s i s s een b y t he a bund a nce o f r ag-wort. S heep a re p astured o n t his t hin s trip , b ut a t t he t ime o f t hree v isits t o E day M id ( in t he m onths o f M ay , J une, a nd A ugust), n o a nimals were b eing g razed o n t he r est o f t he l and. T hat i s, o ver 8 0% o f E day M id w ould s eem t o b e c ompletely u nproductive t o

t he

f armers

o f E day. D espite t his,

E day M id h as b een, 2 53

a nd

i s

b eing,

u sed

b y

t he

5 6

3 4

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P y lons

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S tate w a l l

P ipe l ine

1

A rea

P ea t c u t t ing

Quarry

0

0

n i

o f

Ca irn

5 00

F igure 1 1.10 S ubsequent f ormation p rocesses:

2 54

m ounds

E day M id .

p eople o f E day.

T he e arliest e vidence o f h uman a ctivity m ay

b e

t he

c hambered c airn o f E day C hurch ( ORK 1 5). J ust o utside t he s outhern b oundary o f t he a rea i s a s tanding s tone, a nd a nother c hambered c airn , S andyhill S mithy ( ORK 4 7). I n t he n orth o f E day M id t here i s a n i rregular a rea, p erhaps 9 00 m l ong e ast-west a nd c overing s ome 1 300 s q m , w hich c ontains m any s mall m ounds. T he e xact n umber o f t hese mounds i s d ifficult t o e stimate, b ecause t he v egetation i s s o d ense , but t here a re a t l east 2 0 w ell d efined m ounds. T hey a re c ircular a nd h ave d iameters o f up t o e ight m etres. S ome o f t hem s how e vidence o f b eing c onstructed o f s tone a nd t he f act t hat t hey a re o bscured b y p eat g rowth s uggest t hey m ay b e o f p rehistoric d ate. T he e ntire complex h as n ot b een r ecorded b efore. M oving o n t o h istoric o ccupation o f t he l and , t he m ost o bvious f eatures a re t he t wo r oads, o ne ( the B 9 063) b eing t he m ain n orth-south r oute a long t he l ength o f E day a nd t he o ther b eing t he b ranch road t o F ersness a nd t he W est s ide. T bgether t hey c omprise a bout 1 900 m o f t armacadamed r oad b etween 3 a nd 4 m w ide a nd b ordered b y d rains. T here a re t wo s tanding b uildings, S andhill f arm w ith o uthouses, a nd t he o ld C hurch o f S cotland , n ow u sed a s a v isitors' h ostel. T he c hurch i s s urrounded b y a s ubstantial s tone w all. I n t he s outh-west o f E day M id a n e xtensive a rea h as b een u sed f or t he c utting o f p eats: s ome o f t he b anks a re s till a ctive t oday. T he h ill s lope n orth o f t he W est s ide r oad h as b een d rained b y d eep p loughing. J ust w est o f t he j unction o f t he t wo r oads i s a d eep s andstone q uarry: t he h ole i s t oday t he c entral r ubbish d ump f or t he e ntire i sland. T hree v ery r ecent i nnovations i n t he e conomic l ife o f E day h ave a ll h ad t heir e ffects o n t he l andscape. T he b uilding o f L ondon a irport i n t he 1 960s m ay h ave b een a c ause o f m uch o f t he d rainage w ork. T oday , t he e nds o f t wo r unways, g rass-sown f lattened f ields a bout 8 0 m a cross, p rotrude i nto t he n orth o f t he a rea. I n t he l ast f ew y ears, a c entral p iped water s upply h as b een i ntroduced t o E day. T here i s a p umping s tation j ust t o t he w est o f E day M id , b ut a p ipeline r uns a cross t he s outh-west c orner o f o ur a rea

r unning

f rom

t he s tation t o a s torage t ank o n t he t op o f F laughton H ill. T he p ipeline i s c ompletely b uried b ut t he r emains o f t he t rench d ug t o a ccommodate i t a re v isible a s a s car up t o 5 m a cross. T he t hird i nnovation w as t he i ntroduction o f m ains e lectricity t o E day i n 1 980. T his i s m anifested i n t he l andscape b y a n e lectricity s ub-station s urrounded b y a f ence, l ocated j ust b y t he r oad j unction , a nd b y t wo l ines o f p oles c arrying t ransmission w ires. 3 . E day S outh T he p lan o f

E day S outh

i s

d isplayed

i n

F igure

s quare k ilometre i s b ounded b y map r eferences H Y 5 50300,

1 1.11. H Y

T he

5 50310,

H Y560300, a nd H Y 5 60310. I t i s l ocated i n t he c entre o f s outhern E day a nd i ncludes t he s ummit o f W ard H ill, a t 1 01 m t he h ighest p oint i n t he i sland. T he t opography o f t he a rea c onsists o f a s ingle u nit.

F rom t he

t op of W ard H ill a r idge r uns t o t he n orth-north-east w ith t he l and f alling a way t o t he e ast a nd w est t o a m inimum o f 5 0 m i n t he e ast a nd 4 0 m i n t he w est. T he c rest o f t he r idge i s n ot u niform, b ut c ontains f our h ummocks. T here i s a c onvex b reak o f s lope a t a n

2 55

3 1

5 6

5 5 X\ \ \ \. . . . . . .. ,

3 1

. .. . . . . . . ,. . . . .. . .. . . . . ,

\ \ \ \\ x

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/ / / /

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\'‚ / \ ( . \ ‘ ‘ ‘ il il i l I t it i g/ i t t ‘

30 5 6

3 0 5 5

S tone

T rack

r n

0

5 00

F igure 1 1.11 S ubsequent f ormation p rocesses:

2 56

w a l l

E day S outh .

a ltitude o f a bout 6 5 mo n t he e astern s lope , a nd t he e ast-most s trip o f l and i n t he s quare k ilometre i s a n i nclined p lain s loping t owards t he c oast. A gain , t here a re t wo u nits o f v egetational l andscape. W ard H ill a nd i ts s urrounding s lopes a re c overed w ith s parse C älluna h eathland. I n p laces o n t he s ummit r idge t here a re b are p atches o f g round. G bing d own s lope t he v egetation b ecomes m ore l uxuriant a nd i n t he e xtreme n orth-west o f t he a rea i s a s mall p atch o f t hin p eat. T b t he e ast o f t he b reak o f s lope t he l and h as b een i mproved b y d rainage a nd i s n ow u sed f or t he p asturing o f c attle a nd s heep , b eing m ostly u nder c ultivated g rass. I n c omparison t o E day N orth a nd E day M id , t here i s l ittle t race o f h uman o ccupation. T here a re n o s igns o f a ny o f t he c ommon p rehistoric m onuments. M odern o ccupation o f t he l and i s c oncentrated i n t he e ast a nd s outh o f t he a rea: m uch o f t his l and i s c ultivated a nd f enced. T here a re t wo d erelict b uildings a nd a n O rdnance S urvey t rigonometrical s urvey p oint. A t rack m eanders a cross t he a rea f rom s outh-east t o n orth-west a nd t here a re o ther t racks a long t he c rest o f t he r idge.

C an a ny c onclusions b e d rawn f rom t his s tudy o f t hree s quare k ilometres o f E day? T he f irst i mportant p oint i s t hat a ny s tatements m ade a bout t hese a reas s hould n ot b e e xtended w ith i mpunity t o t he r est o f E day , t o O rkney , o r t o A tlantic S cotland . H aving s aid t his, t he r esults o f t hese d escriptive e xercises c an s uggest g eneral s tatements a bout s ubsequent f ormation p rocesses i n o ther a reas. I t i s p ossible, w ith s ome v alidity , t o e xtend s tatements a bout s ample a reas t o l arger a reas a s l ong a s t wo c onditions a re u pheld . T he f irst i s t hat s tatements a bout t he l arger a reas s hould b e l ess s pecific ( more g eneral) t han s tatements a bout t he s ample a reas. T he s econd i s t hat a ll a p riori k nowledge a bout t he n ature o f t he s ample m ust b e t aken i nto a ccount w hen m aking a ny s tatement. O bviously t hese c onditions a re n ot w ell d efined o r r igorous: t his i s a n i ntuitive a nd p reliminary a pproach. W ith t hese t wo c onditions i n m ind , s everal g eneral s tatements m ay b e m ade a bout t he l andscape o f O rkney a nd t he c hanges i t h as u ndergone s ince e arly p rehistory: 1 . t he e ntire l andscape h as b een a ffected i n o ne w ay o r a nother b y h uman a ctivity 2 . i n t erms o f d ifference i n t errain , t he d istinction w hich i s m ost o bvious i s t hat b etween i mproved l and a nd u nimproved l and. 3 . e very f ormation p rocess a cts o n t he l and u nevenly: t here i s s patial b ias i n t he o bserved r esults o f e ach p rocess. 4 . i t w ould s eem t hat t here a re m any m ore p rehistoric s ites t o b e d iscovered a nd r ecognised ( over 2 0 s ites i n t hree d ifferent c ategories w ere f ound i n t he E day s urvey). T his i s p erhaps t he e xtent o f g eneral s tatements w hich m ay b e m ade a s ar esult o f t he E day s urvey. H Owever , t he e xperience g ained d uring t he s urvey , t ogether w ith l ess f ormalised e xperience g ained f rom walking a pproximately a t housand k ilometres o ver t he l and o f 2 57

O rkney , i s e nough t o b e a ble t o c onstruct a d escriptive m odel f ormation p rocesses l iable t o h ave a ffected t he d istribution p rehistoric s ites i n t he i sland-group .

o f o f

T his d escriptive m odel f or O rkney i s o utlined i n T able 1 1.12. ( A g eneralised v ersion o f t his t able w ith a pplication t o H ighland S cotland a ppears i n F ojut a nd F raser 1 981)). T hese f ormation p rocesses a re d ivided i nto t wo c ategories: n atural p rocesses a nd c ultural p rocesses. T he i ntermediate c ategory u sed i n t he E day s urvey i s d ropped a s b eing i nsufficiently d istinct. T he t wo c ategories l eft c orrespond t o S chiffer's ( 1976) d istinction b etween n -transforms ( noncultural f ormation p rocesses) a nd c -transforms ( cultural f ormation p rocesses). N atural p rocesses a re t hose w hich b ring a bout p hysical c hanges o f t he l andscape t hrough t he a gency o f t he e lements - h eat , w ater , w ind , f ire , a nd g ravity. T he p articular p rocesses w hich m ay b e o f i nterest t o t he a rchaeologist a re t hose m orphological p rocesses w hich o perate o ver a r elatively s hort t ime s cale o f t housands o f y ears o r l ess. I n O rkney o nly t wo g roups o f t hese p rocesses h ave b een o f a ny s ignificance i n t he l ast t en t housand y ears. T he f irst o f t hese a re c hanges a t t he c oastal f ringe. I n C hapter 2 , t hese c hanges were d ivided i nto h orizontal m ovements o f t he l and-sea b oundary, a nd l ocal c hanges i n t he c onfiguration o f t he c oastline c aused b y e rosion a nd d eposition. I n O rkney t here a re, a s y et, f ew s igns t hat t he f ormer h as b een a s ignificant f ormation p rocess o f p rehistoric p atterns. E rosion a nd d eposition a re, h owever , p rocesses w hich m ay h ave c aused s ome d isruption i n t hose p atterns. A s c oncrete e xamples, t he c hambered c airn a t P oint o f C ott ( ORK 4 1) i s u ndergoing a ctive c oastal e rosion , a nd t he s ettlement s ite o f L inks o f N öltland h as u ndergone p eriods o f b oth d eposition a nd e rosion . T he s econd n atural p rocess o f r elevance t o t his d iscussion o f O rkney i s t he c hange d ue t o v egetational a nd c limatic v ariation . T he g rowth o f p eat , t he m aximum o f w hich h as b een d ated t o t he l ater p eriods o f p rehistory ( see C hapter 2 ), i s o ne m anifestation o f t his t ype o f c hange. T here a re s everal c hambered c airns i n O rkney w hich h ave b een c overed b y a l ayer o f p eat: t wo c airns o n C alf o f E day ( ORK 9 a nd 1 0) a re e xamples. A lthough n o o ther p rocess o f t his t ype i s p otentially a s i mportant a s p eat g rowth , o ther c hanges w hich m ay h ave h ad s ome e ffect i nclude t he e stablishment o f m achair l and ( associated w ith w ind b lown s and) a nd t he i ndirect c hanges i n v egetation c aused b y t he c ultivation o f l and i n t he v icinity. C ultural p rocesses a ffecting a rchaeological s ite

d istributions

i nclude a ny c hanges b röught a bout b y t he a ctions o f h umans. T he m ost i mmediate o f t hose w ere b rought a bout b y t he i ntroduction o f a griculture. T he d omestication o f p lants i nstituted a c hange i n t he v egetational r egime o r O rkney w hich w as r eflected i n t he c omplete p ollen s pectra o f t he i slands a nd w as n ot j ust r estricted t o l ocalised a reas. S imilarly , t he d omestication o f a nimals c an b e r esponsible f or v egetational c hanges, e ither d irectly o r i ndirectly , a nd m ay a lso h ave h ad s ome e ffects o n t he f aunal b alance o f O rkney. A nother p rocess o f i mportance i s t he w ay i n w hich r oads a nd b uildings a nd o ther a rtefacts o f t he b uilt e nvironment t end t o o bscure t he l andscape, i f n ot a ctually d estroying p rehistoric s ites i n t he c ourse o f t heir c onstruction. T his p rocess o f o bscuration i s c losely l inked 2 58

Natural

1 .

2 .

Coastal

s ea-level

b .

erosion

c .

deposition

Climatic

T able

1 .

changes

a .

a .

Cultural

processes

and vegetational

growth

Agricultural

changes

2 .

processes activity

a .

plant

b .

animal

domestication domestication

Obscuration

changes

of peat

a .

roads

b .

buildings

3 .

Supply

of building materials

4 .

Cultural

attitudes

1 1.12 L ist o f s ubsequent f ormation p rocesses a pplying i n O rkney.

2 59

t o t he s upply o f b uilding m aterial: s tructures b uilt o f s tone , s uch a s d ykes a nd c airns , r equire a n a mount o f m aterial t hat m ust b e q uarried o r c ollected . A s w ell a s t he o bvious c hange i n t he l andscape c aused b y t he r emoval o f b edrock f or s tone, b uilding m aterial h as b ccn r e-used. T hat i s, a n o ld s tructure o r b uilding h as b een t orn d own a nd i ts c onstituent s tones u sed f or t he c onstruction o f a nother s tructure, e ither o n t he s ame s ite o r c lose t o t he f irst s tructure. E xamples o f t his a re l egion i n O rkney: Q uanterness c hambered c airn ( ORK 4 3) h as a n I ron A ge r ound h ouse b uilt a bove i t a nd t he c airn a t E day M anse ( CRK 1 6) l ies w ithin t he p erimeter w all o f ac hurch c onstructed i n t he n ineteenth c entury. P erhaps t he f undamental p arameter w hich i nfluences a ll o ther c ultural p rocesses o f f ormation i s t he a ttitude o f s uccessive c ultures t o t he m aterial r emains o f t he p ast . B y t his i s m eant t he b ehaviour a dopted b y a n i ndividual o r b y s ociety a s a w hole t owards p rehistoric ( and h istoric) r emains. S uch a ttitudes r un t hrough a p otential s pectrum f rom p ositive f eelings o f r everence, t hrough i ndifference o r i gnorance, t o n egative f eelings o f d isrespect . T b m ake t he d isentanglement o f s uch a ttitudes m ore d ifficult , t he s ame s ociety m ay a ct i n a v ariety o f d ifferent w ays t owards i ts p rehistoric h eritage. A s a n e xample, C rcadian a nd S cottish s ociety o f t he 1 980s h olds t he s ite o f S kara B rae i n r everence a nd e ncourages i ts p reservation f or t he b enefit o f v isitors t o t he i slands. C onversely , am ember o f t hat s ociety i n 1 981 , w ith k nowledge a nd i ntent , d emolished t he r emains o f ab roch " remarkable f or t he e xtent a nd c omplex c haracter o f t he o utbuildings" w hich h ad p roduced " unusually i nteresting" f inds ( RCAMS , 1 946: 2 , 1 52-3). E ven m ore r evealing , t he c onsensus o f s ocietal o pinion , a s e xpressed i n l egal p roceedings a gainst t he d emolisher, w as t o c ondemn t he a ction d e j ure b ut, b y t he l evy o f ap altry f ine, t o c ondone t he a ction d e f acto ( various r eports i n T he C rcadian , M arch-July 1 981). N either n atural p rocesses o r c ultural p rocesses o perate u niformly i n t ime o r s pace, a s w as a bundantly c lear i n t he s urvey o f E day. T hat i s, t here i s b ias i n t he a ction o f e ach p rocess: b ias i n t he o peration o ver t ime, a nd b ias i n t he o peration o ver s pace , o f e ach p rocess. W ith r espect t o t ime , s ome g eomorphological p rocesses o perate v ery s lowly o ver p eriods o f t ime t hat s eem v ery l ong t o a rchaeologists ( down-wasting b y f luvial a ction m ight b e o ne e xample) w hile o thers m ay o perate a lmost i nstantaneously ( floods, l andslides a nd o ther c atastrophic e vents a re e xamples). S imilarly , c ultural p rocesses o f l andscape c hange m ay o perate o ver l ong p eriods ( for e xample, t he g radual d ilapidation o f a n a rtificial m ound b y c ontinuous p loughing) o r c an o ccur o ver v ery s hort t ime p eriods ( as w hen a s ite i s b ull-dozed a way t o m ake r oom f or a n ew b uilding). W ith r espect t o s pace, t he s ame t ype o f b iases c ould b e e xemplified. I t s hould n ow b e t ime t o a ttempt t o d raw c onclusions f rom t his s ection o n s ubsequent f ormation p rocesses. T hese c onclusions s hould i deally r estrict t hemselves t o t he o bject o f t his s tudy a nd n ot a ttempt t o e xtend o utwith t hat l imited p rovince. T hat i s, w e a re h ere c oncerned o nly w ith s tatements w hich w ill b e o f u se i n t he n ext c hapter c onsidering t he l ocation o f N eolithic m onuments w ith r espect t o t he l andscape o f O rkney. U nfortunately , t his d igression i nto a m ore t heoretical l ook a t l andscape h as n ot p roduced a ny m eaningful r esults w hich c ould n ot h ave b een d educed a t t he c onclusion o f t he

2 60

E day s urvey. T hus t he s tatements o utlined a fter t hat e xercise s tand a s t hey a re, a nd m ust b e a pplied t o O rkney a s aw hole. 1 1.4.

m ust

POSTCRIPT A t t he b eginning o f t his c hapter i t was k nown t hat t he

p resent

l andscape o f O rkney w as d issimilar t o t hat w hich p revailed i n N eolithic t imes. I t was a lso k nown t hat c hanges i n t he l andscape s ince t hen h ad d istorted t he d istribution p attern o f p rehistoric s ites and i n p articular, t hat o f c hambered c airns. T he o bject o f t his c hapter was t o e xplore t he n ature o f t hat d istortion a nd t o t ry a nd

r ecreate

t he

o riginal

d istribution

p attern.

T his

o riginal

d istribution p attern w ould t hen b e u sed t o e xplore t he l ocational d esires o f t he N eolithic i nhabitants o f O rkney a nd t o t ake o ne s tep t owards a d escription o f t heir s ociety. I deally , t he r esults o f t his c hapter w ould b e a l ist o f t ransformations u ndergone b y t he o riginal d istribution p attern o n i ts t rajectory t hrough t o t he p resent day. w ould be a ppended a d escription o f l andscape,

T b e ach e lement i n t he l ist i ts b iassed e ffect o n t he

b oth s patially a nd t emporally.

W ith s ufficient

t ime

a nd

e ffort s pent o n f ield-work , b ecoming a t o ne w ith t he O rcadian l andscape, t hese a ims m ight h ave b een a chieved. T he e ffects o f e ach p rocess i n t he l ist w ould b ecome b etter understood a nd t he s patial a nd t emporal b iases o f e ach m ight b e e xpressed , ap robabilistic f orm.

m ost c onveniently

B ut a ll i s n ot l ost. T he l imited f ield-work c hapter i s b ased ( most o f w hich was a b y-product o f

i n

o n w hich t his v isiting e very

c hambered c airn b ut o ne) h as p ointed t he way , h owever d imly , a n a ppreciation o f t he O rcadian N eolithid l andscape.

t owards S ome

c onclusions h ave b een r eached . T hey a re v ery g eneral c onclusions a nd m ight conceivably h ave b een a rrived a t w ithout r ecourse t o t he s omewhat t ortuous a rgument o f t his c hapter , b ut h ave been c onfirmed b y t hat a rgument. H enceforth ,

n evertheless t hey a nd i n p articular

d uring t he c ourse o f t he n ext c hapter, t hey c annot b e i gnored during a ny d iscussion o f t he l ocation o f p rehistoric m onuments i n O rkney.

2 61

C HAPTER TWELVE : 1 2.1.

L OCATIONAL A NALYSIS

I NTRODUCTION

T hus f ar, t his r eport h as d escribed a nd c lassified a g roup o f p rehistoric b uildings a nd h as d escribed a nd c lassified t he l andscapes i n w hich t hey a re l ocated . T he o bjective o f t his c hapter i s t o e xplore t he r elationships b etween buildings a nd l andscapes, b etween c hambered c airns a nd t he l and o f O rkney. T he m ethod o f o peration w ill b e d ual a nd c omplementary. T he f irst a pproach w ill b e u nivariate: t he d istribution p attern o f c hambered c airns w ill b e e xamined i n r elation t o s ingle a spects o f t he l andscape. T he s econd a pproach w ill b e m ultivariate: t he d istribution p attern o f c hambered c airns w ill b e e xamined i n r elation t o t he l andscape a s aw hole. A s o utlined e arlier, t he s tatements o f t he b ehaviour o f t o i nfer f rom t hese t heir P robabilistic s tatements o f

i ntention i s t o m ake p robabilistic t he c airn-builders a nd c airn-users a nd l ocational objectives a nd d esires. b ehaviour a re n ot s een a s r igid ,

m echanistic r ules b ut r ather a s g eneral p rinciples,

o riginated b y t he

p eople t hemselves a nd c onfirmed b y c ontinual r estatement a s a c airn i s u sed a nd a s n ew c airns a re c onstructed. T he p hysical l ocation o f a m onument i s a n e xpression o f t he p rinciples h eld i n c ommon b y a p articular s ociety. T he l ocation o f t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney i s o ne way o f e xamining t he f orces which d efined t he s ociety o f N eolithic O rkney. N bwhere i n t his c hapter i s i t a ssumed t hat a ny o f t he m onuments u nder d iscussion w ere c ontemporary , e ither i n t ime o f b uilding o r i n p eriod o f u se. T he a ssociations under s tudy a re a ssociations b etween c airn a nd l and , a nd n ot b etween c airn a nd c airn. T he o ne a ssumption w hich i s m ade i s t hat t he q ualities o f l and d iscussed h ere w ere r elatively unchanging f or t he d uration o f t he c airns' u se. I t i s s ometimes n ecessary t o q ualify t his a ssumption , b ut o n t he w hole t he q ualities o f l and a re d iscussed a t a g eneral l evel w hich i s n ot r efined enough t o d iscern l andscape c hange o ver s hort p eriods o f t he o rder o f a m illennium. T he c hanges i n t he

l and

o f

O rkney

c airn-builders h ave b een d iscussed e arlier. s tudy a re r espected a ppropriate.

a nd

w ill

b e

s ince

t he

t ime

o f

T he c onclusions o f

i ntroduced

a s

t hey

t he t hat

b ecome

A ppendix D d escribes t he m ethod u sed t o m easure a reas t hroughout t his c hapter a nd A ppendix E d escribes t he m ethod u sed t o d escribe t he m easurement o f i nexact c lasses. 1 2.2.

A UNIVARIATE A PPROACH

1 2.2.1.

G EOLOGY

he g eology o f O rkney r emains T he m ajor p ublished s ource f or t aps a t a s cale o f 1 :66360 , t he G eological S urvey c olour-printed m s upplemented b y M ykura e t a l. f irst i ssued i n t he 1 880s. T his i s or O rkney a nd S hetland. ( 1976), t he B ritish R egional G eology f

2 63

A s d escribed i n C hapter 2 ,

t he s olid g eology

i s

d ominated

b y

M iddle a nd U pper O ld R ed S andstone. ( Figure 2 .1.). T here a re t hree m ajor c omponents o f t he s uperficial g eology - b oulder c lay o r g lacial t ill, p eat, a nd b lown s and ( Figures 2 .3 a nd 2 .4). T able 1 2.1 s hows t he d istribution o f t he d ifferent g eological i slands. ( In t his, a nd i n f ollowing t ables,

t ypes o ver t he " Westray g roup"

m ajor m eans

W estray a nd i ts i mmediate o ffshore i slands. T hus N orth R onaldsay i s i ncluded i n t he S anday g roup , F lotta i n t he H oy g roup , B urray i n t he S outh R onaldsay g roup , a nd s o o n). T able 1 2.1 d emonstrates t hat S tronsay , S hapinsay, t he M ainland , a nd S outh R onaldsay have l arger a reas c overed b y b oulder c lay t han b y o ther g eological t ypes, a nd t hat i n f our i sland g roups, t he g reatest a rea o f l and i s n ot b y s uperficial d eposits. T he l argest c oncentrations o f p eat t he w est M ainland a nd i n H oy. U sing t he G eological S urvey m ap , c hambered c airn was n oted.

c overed a re i n

t he underlying g eology o f e ach

T able 1 2.2 s hows

t he

d istribution

w ith

r espect t o g eological t ype o f c hambered c airns b y c luster ( "clusters" b eing d efined a s i n C hapters 6 a nd 9 ). T here i s a n o bvious p reponderance o f m onuments l ocated o n s andstone w ith n o s uperficial d eposits. N o l ess t hat 6 5 o f t he 7 6 c airns a re l ocated d irectly o n s andstone. ( Of t hese 4 3 a re l ocated o n t he R ousay F lags, b ut s ince i t r equires c areful o bservation t o d istinguish b etween R ousay F lags, S tromness F lags, t he E day B eds a nd t he H oy B eds, n o d istinction was m ade b etween a ny d eposits o f O ld R ed S andstone). O nly s even c airns a re l ocated i n a reas o f b oulder c lay a nd o nly t wo c airns, L inkertaing ( ORK 3 5) a nd W ideford H ill ( ORT < 5 4) a re l ocated , a ccording t o t he G eological S urvey m ap , d irectly o n a reas o f p eat. T Wo n eighbouring c airns f all i nto t he " miscellaneous" c ategory, w ith R edland N orth ( ORT < 5 7) a nd R edland S outh h ummocky m oraine.

( ORT < T 20)

b eing

l ocated

o n

a n

a rea

o f

T b t est i f t his d istribution c ould b e r andom, a s imple s tatistical t est - t he c hi-square o ne s ample t est ( Siegal, 1 956: 4 7) -w as e mployed. T he n ull h ypothesis t o b e t ested i s t hat t here i s n o a ssociation b etween t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns i n O rkney a nd t he d istribution o f g eological t ypes. T he s ignificance l evel was s et a t 0 .05. T he c ontingency t able f or t he t est, c ompiled f rom t he r ight-hand c olumns o f T ables 1 2.1 a nd 1 2.2 i s a s f ollows: C ategory

E xpected F requency

S andstone

2 9.7

P eat

1 3.6

2

B oulder C lay

2 8.2

7

4 .5

2

M iscellaneous

7 6.0

T otals

F or t his c ontingency t able, Y ates,

O bserved F requency

1 963:

4 7)

J r 2 >7 .82

: r 2 =69.2.

6 5

7 6 F rom t ables

( Fisher a nd

f or t hree d egrees o f f reedom a nd l evel 2 64

o f

0 0 . . 1 . . . . • C-1 VD CT

OD N

C h

OD

N

, -I N

0, N 7

, -4

7 N

N

0

N , 4

N • — •I

N

—7

0

7 • i

1\

c 0

C 0

N

i n

—7 C-1

. .

VD

N

. , \ D

. , 0 ,

. . . . •

N

0 \ . . . . •

. . ..

N

0 \ 0 \ . . ..

I n

N

N

N

,0

0 0 N

• -i

. r ,

• i

a n r 1

k r ,

, -i

. -I

0

N-

7

0

, i

0

i n

0

0

0

7

N

t * -

N

0\

V1

II

e .

• •

I A C" \

NJ

r i

N

OD

0

0

( 1 )

I t \

Sandstone

, —. 1

Totals

0

Miscellaneous

0 7

0

7

, -1

Miscellaneous

0

Clay

-7

Boulder

—7

0

Peat

N N

Cluster

1

N

Cluster

1

, — i

Clay

group group

0 \

, 4

Boulder

Eday

group

group

F A

Wes tray

Sanday

Stronsay

0

C \ ,. 1

Peat

group

Shap.

> , 0 I D . w Z 0

C\

Sandstone

C 0 z , —I 4 b l )

c e0

Totals

(%) C 1 VD , • -I

, .

u \ c o . . . •

,r )

Unclustered

s • D

0 VD

IV-VI

, -1 N

• — i

Clusters

c-\ VD

—7 —7

III

c n C. —

0

Cluster

i r , . —I

I • , -1

, . u l

d istribution o f c hambered c airns b y c luster.

( 5.9) 5 7

) 1

( 37. 3 57

( 17.9) 1 72

( 39.1)

0

a real s ummary b y i sland g roup

a .

0 0 = S A 4 0

3 77

(%) Totals group

South Ronald say

› .

, ,

t \

8 CN

0 , 1

0

• P 0

s ignificance 0 .05. I n f act , J r2 i s g reater t han t he c ritical v alue f or t hree d egrees o f f reedom a nd l evel o f s ignificance 0 .001. T hus t he n ull h ypothesis c an b e r ejected a nd i t c an b e s tated t hat t here i s av ery h igh p robability t hat t he 7 6 k nown c airns a re n ot s ituated r andomly w ith r espect t o u nderlying g eological t ype. T o s ee i f t he s ame r esult w as o btained f rom t he m easurement o f i nexact c lasses ( Appendix E ), t he t otal a rea o f e ach g eological t ype w ithin o ne k ilometre o f e ach c hambered c airn w as m easured . T he r esults a re s ummarised i n T able 1 2.3. ( This t able d oes n ot s um t o 7 600 b ecause s urface w ater i n t he f orm o f s ea a nd l ochs i s e xcluded). A s imilar n ull h ypothesis w as t ested , n amely t hat t here i s n o a ssociation b etween t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns b y i nexact c lasses a nd t he d istribution o f g eological t ypes. T he s ignificance l evel w as a gain s et a t 0 .05. T he c ontingency t able f or t he c hi-square t est, c ompiled f rom t he r ight h and c olumns o f T ables 1 2.1 a nd 1 2.3 , i s a s f ollows: C ategory

S andstone P eat B oulder C lay M iscellaneous

T otals

E xpected F requency

O bserved F requency

1 866

3 079

8 52

4 17

1 767

1 095

2 82

1 76

4 767

4 767

F or t his c ontingency t able , x2 = 1306. F rom p ublished t ables ( Fisher a nd Y ates, 1 963: 4 7) J r2 > 7 .82 f or t hree d egrees o f f reedom a nd l evel o f s ignificance 0 .05. T he J r2 s tatistic f or t his c ontingency t able i s m assively l arger t han t he c ritical v alue f or r ejection o f t he n ull h ypothesis a t as ignificance l evel o f 0 .001. T he n ull h ypothesis i s t hus r ejected c onclusively a nd t he a lternative h ypothesis a ccepted t hat t here i s a v ery h igh p robability t hat t he 7 6 k nown c hambered c airns a re n ot s ituated r andomly w ith r espect t o g eological t ype. O ne f urther t est r emains b efore t hese r esults c an b e i nterpreted. I t i s p ossible t hat t he o bservations n oted a bove a pply u nevenly t o c airns b elonging t o d ifferent t ypological c lasses , o r c lusters. T o e xamine t his p ossibility , an onparametric a nalysis o f v ariance t est, t he F riedman t wo-way a nalysis o f v ariance b y r anks ( Siegal, 1 956: 1 66), w as c arried o ut. T he n ull h ypothesis i s t hat t he s amples r epresented b y t he d ifferent c lusters w ere d rawn f rom t he s ame p opulation o r t hat t here i s n o d ifference b etween c lusters a s f ar a s t heir d istribution w ith r espect t o g eological t ype i s c oncerned. T he l evel o f s ignificance w as s et a t 0 .05. T he r anked t able f or t he t est, c ompiled f rom T able 1 2.3 w ith s cores s tandardised w ith r espect t o c luster s ize ( or m ore s trictly w ith r espect t o a rea o f l and w ithin o ne k ilometre o f e ach s ite) i s a s f ollows:

2 66

C ategory

C luster I

C luster I I

S andstone

1

2

3

4

P eat

4

3

2

1

B oulder C lay

4

2

3

1

M iscellaneous

1 .5

3 .5

1 .5

3 .5

1 0 .5

1 0.5

9 .5

9 .5

I btals

C luster I II

C lusters I V-VI

F or t his t able X 2 = 0 .15 w hich f rom p ublished t ables f or a f our-by-four m atrix ( Siegal, 1 976: 2 81) h as a n a ssociated p robability o f g reater t han 0 .992. T he n ull h ypothesis i s t hus a ccepted a nd i t c an b e s tated t hat t here i s n o d ifference b etween t ypological c lasses a s f ar a s d istribution w ith r espect t o g eologic t ypes i s c oncerned . A s eries o f s tatistical c orrelations h aving b een e stablished , i t i s n ow n ecessary t o e xplain h ow s uch c orrelations h ave a risen. E xamination o f t he p rimary d ata l eads t o t he o bservations t hat t he s tatistical c orrelations a re a ssociated w ith t he u nder-representation o f a ll c hambered c airns o n t he g eologic t ypes o f p eat a nd b oulder c lay , a nd t heir o ver-representation o n t he g eologic t ype o f s andstone w ith n o m assive o verburden . T he f irst o bservation ,

t hat

l and

c overed

i n

p eat

d oes

n ot

c ontain a n e quitable n umber o f c hambered c airns, h as b een p resaged b y t he c onclusions o f C hapter 1 1. T here, p eat w as i ndentified a s a n a gent o f o bscuration o f t he c ultural l andscape. S ince t he p alaeoenvironmental e vidence s uggests t hat m uch o f t he p eat g rowth i n O rkney h as o ccurred s ince N eolithic t imes, i t s ccms r easonable t o s uppose t hat s ome c hambered c airns h ave n ot b een r ecognised a s a rchaeological f eatures. I n S hetland , W hittle ( 1980) h as r ecognised e xtensive f ield s ystems p reserved u nder b lanket p eat , a nd i n C o. M ayo, I reland , C aulfield ( 1978) h as u ncovered a c omplex o f w alls, e nclosures a nd a c ourt-cairn a t B ehy/Clenulra c oncealed u nder p eat. T hese e xamples, a nd o thers c ited i n B owen a nd F owler ( 1978) a re c lear e vidence f rom e lsewhere i n B ritain a nd I reland o f p rehistoric m onuments b eing o bscured b y s ubsequent p eat g rowth. F urthermore, t here a re e xamples f rom O rkney i tself: o n t he i sland o f E day t here a re a t l east t hree i nstances o f s tone w alls e merging f rom p eat a nd C aulfield ( 1978: 1 37) ( motes T homas a s o bserving d efinite e vidence o f p re-peat l and b oundaries i n S outh R onaldsay i n 1 852. T he s econd a nd t hird o bservations, t hat c hambered c airns a re u nder-represented o n l and c overed i n b oulder c lay a nd o ver-represented o n l and w ith n o s uperficial d eposits, m ay b e i nterpreted t ogether. T he m ost r easonable e xplanation f or t he s tatistical c orrelation r elates t o t he s upply o f b uilding m aterial. W here t here i s a c overing o f b oulder c lay i n O rkney , i ts d epth a ppears t o r ange i n t hickness f rom t hree t o t en m etres ( Mykura e t a l. 1 976: 1 13). I t i s r are t o f ind l arge s tones w ithin t he c layey m atrix o f b oulder c lay . C onversely , w here t here a re n o s uperficial 2 67

Cluster I

Cluster II

Cluster

Clusters

III

Unclustered

Total

( 90

IV-VI

• Sandstone

319

Peat Boulder

7 Clay

42

Miscellaneous

1 2.3

204

1359

3079

(64. 6)

7

2 45

88

70

417

( 8.7)

279

200

520

1095

(23. 0)

71

0

90

176

( 3. 7)

2039

4767

( 1 00. 0

0

231

38 3

T able

1027

54

15

Totals

170

1622

492

G eology: d istribution b y i nexact c lasses o f c hambered c airns b y c luster.

Class

Soil

PODZOLS

Podzols

Type

S eries/Complex Bilbster Ocklester Boyndie

Oroarctic

Knitchen

podzols

Trowieglen

Peaty

podzols

Stromness Millfield Camster Warth Flaughton Dunnet Rackwick

PODZOLIC

Croval

COMPLEXES

Sordale Ulbster Frotoft Warehouse Cuilags S carsa Whitefowl Hill Vow Randie Ford

GLEYS

Noncalcareous gleys

of

Hoy

Midgarth Thurso Ness Tresdale Hunster Gaira Whitelinks

Calcareous gley Saline gleys

Fletts Mousland Gessan

Peaty

Lynedardy

gleys

Olrig Canisbay Dalespot GLEYIC

Eskishold

COMPLEXES

Huntis Aglath Heilen Basin

PEAT

and

Blanket MISCELLANEOUS

valley

peat

Brown

calcareous

Peaty

brown

Skeletal

peat

soil

Fraserburgh Tomtain Thurso

soil

soils

Dunnet Fraserburgh Alluvial

Innes

soils

Lochside Peat-alluvium _ Li nks

Alluvium Dornoch Eigie Morrich

T able

1 2.4

S oils o f O rkney: d istribution o f s oil g roups.

d eposits, t he s andstone o f O rkney i s e xtremely e asy t o q uarry , b eing f oliated a nd e asily s plit. T he a bundance o f q uarries t hroughout O rkney , w hich a re i mpossible t o d ate b ut m ust c ertainly r ange f rom p rehistoric t imes t o t he m odern p eriod , t estify t o t he e ase w ith w hich b uilding s tone c an b e o btained f rom t he b eds o f t he O ld R ed S andstone s uccession . A ccordingly , t he i nterpretation p laced o n t hese o bservations i s t hat t he b uilders o f c hambered c airns l ocated t heir m onuments w ith r egard t o t he a ccessibility o f b uilding s tone. T his i nterpretation i s s upported b y r eference t o s ome o f t he c hambered c airns w hich a re l ocated d irectly o n b oulder c lay. H olm o f H uip ( ORK 2 0) i s a t t he c entre o f av ery s mall i sland a nd t he r ock s hore w here i t i s e asy t o q uarry s tone i n O rkney i s o nly 1 40 m a way. L ikewise P oint o f C ott ( ORK 4 1) a nd K elsbir ( ORK T 10) a re d irectly o n t he s hore. F urther s upport i s a dded b y t he f act t hat n o c airn i n O rkney i s m ore t han o ne k ilometre a way f rom a n a rea o f s andstone w ith n o s uperficial d eposits. T o s ummarise t his s ection o n t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns i n O rkney w ith r espect t o g eologic t ype, t hree c onclusions h ave b een d rawn: 1 . w here t here i s a m antle o f p eat , t here m ay b e s ome c hambered c airns w hich h ave b een o bscured. 2 . t he a ccessibility o f b uilding s tone m ay h ave c onstrained t he c airn-builders t o p refer l and w ith n o s uperficial d eposits o ver l and w ith s uch g eologic d eposits. 3 . t he p revious t wo c onclusions a pply i rrespective o f t he s tructural d esign o f t he c hambered c airn. 1 2.2 .2.

S OILS

T he p rincipal p ublish e d s ource f or t he s oils o f O rkney i s t he S oil S urvey c olour-printed m ap o f s oils a t as cale o f 1 :50000 , f irst i ssued i n 1 981. T his i s s upplemented b y ab rief d escription o f t he s oils o f O rkney i n a n a nnual r eport o f t he M acaulay I nstitute f or S oil S cience ( 1978). T he p ublished m ap i dentifies o ver 5 0 d ifferent v arieties o f s oil i n O rkney , m any o f w hich a re v ery s imilar i n a ppearance a nd a re d istinguished o nly b y t he c onstituents o f t heir p arent m aterials. F or t he p urposes o f t his s ection , t he s oils w ere c lassified a s o utlined i n T able 1 2.4 i nto s ix d ifferent g roups: 1 . P odzols: a cidic s oils c haracterised b y a n o rganic h orizon a bove a l ight g rey l eache f l h orizon c aused b y t he d ecomposition a nd d ownwards t ranslocation o f m inerals. I ons o f c alcium , p otassium a nd i ron f rom t hese m inerals a re r edeposited i n a h orizon o f m aterial.

s esquioxide

a ccumulation

a bove

t he

p arent

2 .

P l odzolic c omplexes: a reas o f m ixed s oils d ominated b y p odzolic s eries

3 .

G leys: s oils c haracterised b y a t hick o rganic h orizon a bove h orizon o f m ottled o live o r g rey m aterial, t he m ottles 2 69

a a

r esult o f p artial a naerobism c aused b y a lternating w et a nd d ry p eriods. T he l owest h orizon i s c onstantly a naerobic w ith t he r esultant r educing c onditions p roducing a u niform o live c olour. 4 .

C leyic c omplexes: a reas o f m ixed s oils d ominated b y g leyic s eries.

5 .

P eat: b asin p eat , v alley p eat , a nd b lanket p eat, a ll c haracterised b y t he a ccumulation o f o rganic m atter u nder w et a naerobic c onditions.

6 .

M iscellaneous: t he r emainder o f t he s oils a nd s urface m aterials t o b e f ound i n O rkney . T his g roup , a bout 6 .6% o f t he l and a rea , i ncludes a lluvial s oils, l inks, a nd o ther u ndifferentiated s oils. O nly i n t he i sland o f S anday d oes t his g roup f igure l argely i n t he a real d istribution: o n t hat i sland t here i s a n e xpanse o f b rown c alcareous s oils d eveloped o n s helly s and.

A s o utlined i n C hapter 2 , t he s ingle m ost i mportant i nfluence t hat d etermines d ifferential s oil d evelopment i n O rkney i s m oisture s tatus: t here i s ah ydrologic s equence f rom p odzol t o g ley t o p eat. F urthermore, m any s oils i n O rkney h ave b een i mproved b y c ultivation a nd i n p articular b y d raining. N evertheless, t he p attern o f s oils f ound t oday i s r epresentative o f as imilar d ifferentiated p attern i n t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia b c. F igure 1 2.5 s hows t he d istribution o f t hese s oil g roups o ver t he i slands o f O rkney , a nd t he s ame i nformation i s s ummarised i n T able 1 2.6. G leys p redominate i n t he i sland g roups o f W estray , S tronsay , S hapinsay , t he M ainland , a nd S outh R onaldsay. P odzols a nd p odzolic c omplexes p redominate i n S anday , R ousay , a nd H oy. O n t he i sland o f E day , t here a re s imilar p roportions o f p odzols, g leys , a nd p eat. T he M ainland a nd H oy h ave l arge e xpanses o f p eat. ( Note t hat t he G eological S urvey a nd t he S oil S urvey h ave d ifferent d efinitions o f p eat - c ompare t he a real m easurements f or p eat i n T ables 1 2.1 a nd 1 2.6. F or e ach s urvey t hese d efinitions have b een a ccepted a s e xpressed b ecause c omparisons a re m ade w ith o ther e lements o f t he s ame s urvey). U sing t he S oil S urvey m ap c hambered c airn w as n oted. d istribution b y c luster. T here l ocated o n p odzols a nd p odzolic

t he u nderlying s oil g roup o f e ach T able 1 2.7 s hows t he r esultant i s an otable p reponderance o f c airns c omplexes. D espite 3 6 .3% o f t he l and

s urface o f O rkney b eing o ccupied b y g leys , o nly 2 3.7% o f t he c airns a re l ocated o n t his t ype o f l and. O nly t wo c airns a re l ocated o n p eat , a nd n one h ave b een f ound o n a ny o f t he m iscellaneous s oils. T b t est i f t his d istribution c ould h ave o ccurred b y c hance , t he c hi-square o ne s ample t est w as e mployed ( Siegal, 1 956: 4 7). T he n ull h ypothesis t o b e t ested i s t hat t here i s n o a ssociation b etween t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns i n O rkney a nd t he d istribution o f s oil g roups. T he s ignificance l evel was s et a t 0 .05 . T he 2 70

P ODZOLS

F igure

GLEYIC COMPLEXES

P ODZOL IC CO MPLEXES

P EAT

GLEYS

M ISCELLANEOUS

1 2.5

S oils o f O rkney: d istribution o f s oil g roups.

N ---1 N

12.6

Table

l

0

0

0

5

Gleys

Gleyic complexes

Peat

Miscellaneous

Totals

12. 7

J

Podzolic complexes

Table

l

Podzols

I

35

58

2

34

17 55 479

60

163

24

55

l

25

0

0

l

0

41

2

15

South

Ronaldsay group

11

51

67

8 0

0

J

2

JO

173

13

15 Jl

25

37

146

8

44

group

19

J

10

Hoy group

Mainland

4

0

0

0

2

l

l

II

Cluster

25

0

l

0

5

7

12

III

Cluster

7

0

0

0

l

l

5

IV-VI

Clusters

35

0

l

l

9

6

18

Unclustered

963

0

2

l

18

18

37

Totals

(14.4) (6.6)

139 64

(o.o)

(2.6)

(1.J)

(23.7)

(23.7)

(48.7)

(%)

963 (100.0)

(3.7)

(36.J)

(10.4)

(28.6)

(%)

36

J49

100

275

Totals

(100.0)

Soils of Orkney: areal summary by island group ( in sq km).

J

0

22

0

0

0

11

l

Shap. group

Rousay group

Soils: distribution of chambered cairns by cluster.

Cluster

2

6

Miscellaneous

Totals

9

0

Peat

0

12

0

0

32

8

7

26

12

12

Complexes

Gleyic

Gleys

Podzolic Complexes

Podzols

group

group

Stronsay

Sanday

Eday group

Westray group

/

c ontingency t able f or t he t est , c ompiled f rom t he r ight-hand o f T ables 1 2.6 a nd 1 2.7 i s a s f ollows: S oil g roup

E xpected F requency

P odzols E bdzolic c omplexes G leys G leyic c omplexes P eat M iscellaneous

O bserved F requency

2 1.7

3 7

7 .9

1 8

2 7 .5

1 8

2 .8

1

1 1.0

2

5 .1

0

7 6.0

T otals

c olumns

7 6

F or t his c ontingency t able, A L 1 2= 4 0.6. F rom t ables ( Fisher a nd Y ates, 1 963: 4 7) J r2> 1 1.07 f or f ive d egrees o f f reedom a nd l evel o f s ignificance 0 .05. T his f igure o f ) (2w ould a lso b e g reater t han t he c ritical v alue h ad t he l evel o f s ignificance b een s et a t 0 .001. T hus t he n ull h ypothesis c an b e r ejected a nd i t c an b e s tated t hat t here i s a v ery h igh p robability t hat t he 7 6 k nown c airns a re n ot s ituated r andomly w ith r espect t o s oil g roup . T he m easurement o f i nexact c lasses, b y i ts n ature, s hould t end t o c onfirm s uch a r esult , b ut t o a dd f urther s trength t o t he a lternative h ypothesis, t he a rea o f e ach s oil g roup w ithin o ne k ilometre o f e ach c hambered c airn w as m easured. T he r esults a re s ummarised i n T able 1 2.8. ( Again , t his t able d oes n ot s um t o 7 600 b ecause s urface w ater i s e xcluded. I t d oes n ot s um t o e xactly 4 767 , a s i n T able 1 2.3 , d ue t o m easurement e rror c ompounded b y t wo d ifferent m ap s eries a t t wo d ifferent s cales b eing u sed i n t he c ompilation o f T ables 1 2.3 a nd 1 2.8). As imilar n ull h ypothesis was t ested , n amely t hat t here i s n o a ssociation b etween t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns b y i nexact c lasses a nd t he d istribution o f s oil g roups. T he s ignificance l evel w as a gain s et a t 0 .05. T he c ontingency t able f or t he c hi-square t est, c ompiled f rom t he r ight h and c olumns o f T ables 1 2.6 a nd 1 2.8 , i s a s f ollows:

2 73

S oil g roup

P odzols

E xpected F requency

O bserved F requency

1 366.1

1 574

4 96.8

1 059

1 733.8

1 345

G leyic c omplexes

1 78.9

2 36

P eat

6 90.5

4 47

M iscellaneous

3 17 .9

1 23

4 784.0

4 784

P odzolic c omplexes G leys

T otals

J r 2=

F or t his c ontingency t able 9 78.6. F rom p ublished s ummaries o f t he c hi-square d istribution ( Fisher a nd Y ates 1 963: 4 7) 1 1.07 f or f ive d egrees o f f reedom a nd l evel o f s ignificance 0 .05. T he . X2 s tatistic f or t his c ontingency t able i s m assively l arger t han t he c ritical v alue f or r ejection o f t he n ull h ypothesis a t a s ignificance l evel o f 0 .001. T he n ull h ypothesis i s t hus r ejected c onclusively a nd t he a lternative h ypothesis a ccepted t hat t here i s av ery h igh p robability t hat t he 7 6 k nown c hambered c airns a re n ot s ituated r andomly w ith r espect t o s oil t ype.

" 2 >

A gain , i t i s o f i nterest t o l earn w hether t his r esult a pplies f or e very c hambered c airn o r i f c ertain g roups o f c airns a re d istributed a ccording t o s oil t ype i n d ifferent ways. U sing t he F riedman t wo-way a nalysis o f v ariance b y r anks t est ( Siegal , 1 956: 1 66), t he n ull h ypothesis t hat t here i s n o d ifference b etween c lusters w ith r espect t o d istribution o f s oil t ype w as e xamined. T his n ull h ypothesis s tates t hat t he s amples r epresented b y e ach c luster o f c hambered c airns w ere d rawn f rom t he s ame p opulation . T he r anked t able f or t he t est w as c ompiled f rom T able 1 2 .8 w ith s cores s tandardised a ccording t o a rea o f l and w ithin o ne k ilometre o f e ach s ite.

T he t able i s a s f ollows:

2 74

C luster I

C luster I I

C luster I II

C lusters I V-VI

D i odzols

4

2

3

1

P o Ddzolic c omplexes

1

2

3

4

G leys

4

1

2

3

c omplexes

2

3

1

4

P eat

4

3

1

2

M iscellaneous

2

3 .5

1

3 .5

G leyic

T otal

1 7

1 4.5

1 1

1 7 .5

) r 2 =

F or t his t able, 2 .65. F or a s ix-by-four t able t he s ampling d istribution o f A2 a pproximates t o t hat o f t he c hi-square d istribution w ith d egrees o f f reedom o ne l ess t han t he n umber o f c olumns i n t he t able. F or t hree d egrees o f f reedom , t he a ssociated p robability o f a s tatistic o f 2 .65 i s a bout 0 .4. T he n ull h ypothesis i s t hus a ccepted a nd i t c an b e s tated t hat t here i s n o d ifference b etween t ypological c lusters a s f ar a s d istribution w ith r espect t o s oil t ype i s c oncerned .

J r 2

T hese s tatistical c orrelations h ave a risen b ecause r ecognised c hambered c airns a re o ver-represented o n p odzols p odzolic c omplexes, a nd u nder-represented o n g leys a nd p eat.

t he a nd

A s b efore, t he u nder-representation o f c airns o n l and t hat i s c overed b y p eat c an b e i nterpreted a s b eing p artly d ue t o o bscuration . T here m ay b e s ome c hambered c airns w hich h ave n ot b ecome k nown t o a rchaeologists b ecause t hey h ave b een o verwhelmed b y p eat. T his i s i n a greement w ith t he c onclusions d rawn f rom t he s tudy o f g eological t ypes. T he r emaining t hree o bservations a re b est i nterpreted a s b elonging t o t he r ealm o f o riginal l ocational p rocesses - t o b e t he r esult o f t he c airn-builders' d ecisions t o l ocate t he m onuments i n p articular p laces. I mmediately w e a re f aced w ith t he q uestion o f w hy c ertain s oil t ypes s hould b e p referred o ver o ther s oil t ypes. T Wo p ossibilities p resent t hemselves. T he f irst i s t hat t here i s s ome q uality i ntrinsic t o s oil w hich i s n ecessary i n t he c onstruction o r u se o f a c hambered c airn. T he s econd i s t hat t he o bserved d istribution w ith r espect t o s oil i s a n a ttributed o r t ransferred r esult d ue t o c hambered c airns b eing l ocated o n o r n ear l and w hich w as d eliberately c hosen b y t he p eople o f t he c airns f or a p urpose u nconnected , o r n ot d irectly c onnected , w ith t he c airns t hemselves. T he f irst p ossibility f inds l ittle s upport. T here i s i ntrinsic q uality o f s oil w hich w ould m ake i t v ery m uch e asier q uicker t o b uild a c hambered c airn o n p articular t ypes o f s oil 2 75

n o o r i n

. . --,

. . . ,

. . . . .. . .

• • • • ••

C T ,

, I

C ` l . .

. . ,

. , , . . . • .

0 H , . .

n C V

7 . 7

t -

c n

2

Unclustered

. , 0

c m 0 \ , c )

) . , \ i O 7 \ r ) c n ,

7 . 7 , t

C \ H 1

C O C -

C V 7 o c m

Clusters IV-VI

. . . . V D

c n i n C ' )

c y . , c r ,

. e . ( 9 , 4

0

C V . ,

0

C O o k . n

Cluster III

. . . 7

, . o

o

i r , C V

c t , C S \

o C O

c r , \ C D C V

C O 7

, 1 C O \ 1 0 H

C luster II

V C V C . . , • . .

. , C r ,

_ / . -

c o

C O

. e .

C

o

, i c • \ C O

Cluster

0 H P

. . , i

( 7 \

c o C c v

\ o , c

c o

e -

C . 1

C O c o n

P a s 0

a l 0 a ) d H H 0 0 « ) H

0

C I \ H

E .

N

. 0 H 0 N V 0 P .

c h

t r , 0 H

i n

v ) c )a ) 1X H0 0H NP r T I E 00 1 4 o

L A

7 r l P I

c r ,

0 › , a ) H 2

, . o

( i ) a ) g 00 • PH › ,P 4 a ) E r I0 C o

1 2 .

C V H

X

C O I " _ / . -

0 H « 1 P 0 ( .

2 76

O rkney. O nly i f i t w ere n ecessary t o r emove a d epth o f s oil, s uch a s d uring t he d igging o f ad itch , w ould t he q uality o f t hat s oil b ecome i mportant. H owever , t here a re v ery f ew c hambered c airns i n O rkney w hich h ave a ny p art o f t heir s tructure b elow t he N eolithic g round s urface ( the e xceptions b eing t hree s urrounding d itches a nd t wo o r t hree s ubterranean c hambers). A lso, b y p ractical e xperiment, t here i s l ittle d ifference i n d ifficulty b etween d igging a n O rcadian p odzol a nd a n O rcadian g ley s oil. T he f irst p ossibility a lso a llows f or t he q uality o f t he s oil t o b e o f i mportance d uring t he p eriod o f u se o f t he m onument. T hat i s, t here m ay b e s ome f unction o f ac hambered c airn w hich r equires i t t o b e l ocated o n s oil o f ap articular t ype. T he o nly s uggestion o f t his s ort w hich h as b een c ontemplated i n m odern t imes i s t hat o f A shbee ( 1978: 8 1) w ho r egards t he l ong b arrows o f s outhern B ritain a s f ana o r " ritual e difices w ith f oundation d eposits d edicated t o s oil o r a nimal f ertility". A shbee c ites t he m any i nstances w here o ccupation d ebris h as b een f ound i n t he c hambers o f m egalithic t ombs t o s upport t his s uggestion. O ccupation d ebris i s n ot e xactly t he s ame a s u ndisturbed s oil, b ut t he p rinciple , t hat o f a m onument t o f ertility m anifested b y p roximity t o a f avoured t ype o f s oil m aterial, i s t he s ame. H owever , i n t he l ack o f a ny e vidence t o s upport o r c onfirm t he i dea o f t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney b eing m onuments t o f ertility , c onsideration o f t his p ossibility w ill b e d eferred. C ne m ore l ikely e xplanation i s a fforded b y t he s econd p ossibility m entioned a bove , t hat o f t he s ignificant d istribution o f c airns w ith r espect t o s oil t ype b eing a t ransferred r esult d ue t o c airns b eing l ocated o n o r n ear l and c hosen b y t he b uilders f or a p urpose n ot d irectly c onnected w ith t he c airns. T he m ost o bvious s uch p urpose i s a griculture. I t h as b een e stablished t hat t he p eople o f t he c airns e ngaged i n p astoral a nd a rable a griculture. T he s cale o f a grarianism i s a m atter f or d ebate b ut i t i s p robable t hat d omesticated a nimals w ere r elatively m ore i mportant t han d omesticated p lants a nd t hat a griculture w as c omplemented b y h unting a nd f ishing . L ittle i s k nown a bout t he r equirements o f l and u sed e xclusively f or g razing a nimals b ut n ecessarily a ssociated w ith a rable c ultivation i s s ome m ethod o f t illing t he g round , a nd , a s p ointed o ut i n C hapter 7 , e vidence o f p loughing b y a rd h as b een f ound a ssociated w ith a t l east o ne e arly p rehistoric s ettlement s ite i n O rkney. F ertility i s ar equisite f or c ultivation: a c ertain m inimum l evel o f f ertility , p erhaps s ustainable b y m anuring o r p eriodic a bandonment, i s r equired b efore s oil c an b e u sed t o g row c rops. T hus i t m ight b e e xpected t hat N eolithic a griculture w ould t ake p lace o n s oils w hich a re n ot i ntrinsically i nfertile a nd w hich a re e asy t o t ill. T he m ost f ertile s oils o f O rkney t oday a re t he g ley s oils, c ommonly d eveloped o n g lacial t ill a nd c ommonly f ound o n l ow-lying g round. T here i s n o d oubt , h owever , t hat t hese s oils ( chief a mong t hem b eing t he T hurso, M busland , G essan a nd C lrig s eries) h ave o nly b ecome u sable t o f armers i n r ecent c enturies w ith t he i ntroduction o f e ffective m eans o f d rainage. M oisture s upply , w hich h as b een t he s ingle m ost i nfluential f actor o n p edogenesis i n O rkney , a lmost c ertainly r endered t he g ley s oils u ncultivable t o t he p eople o f t he 2 77

c airns b ecause t hese s oils w ould h ave b een p ermanently w atpr-logged a nd p hysically d ifficult t o p lough. T he n ext m ost f ertile s oils o f O rkney a re t he p odzols a nd p eaty p odzols. A lthough s uch s oils a re n ow r eckoned t o b e c omparatively i nfertile f or a rable c rops ( F itzpatrick , 1 974: 1 14), t hey h ave s hown t hemselves i n t he p ast t o b e p erfectly c apable o f s ustaining l arge n umbers o f p eople: t he i sland o f E gilsay i s d ominated b y p odzols o f t he B ilbster s eries a nd b y t he U lbster c omplex, w hose m ain c omponent i s a lso B ilbster p odzols, b ut i n 1 791 t he m inister b elieved " the s oil i s v ery good , a nd f it f or c ulture" a nd t he i sland , i n a rea l ess t han s ix s quare k ilometres, s upported n o l ess t han 2 10 i ndividuals ( OSA , 1 978: 1 98). D espite b eing l ess f ertile t han t he g ley s oils, t he p odzols a nd p eaty p odzols o f O rkney a re a dequate f or g rowing a rable c rops a nd a re v ery c apable o f s ustaining t he g razing o f d omesticated a nimals. T he a rgument b eing d eveloped h ere i s t hat t he N eolithic i nhabitants o f O rkney w ere f armers a nd t hat t he m ost s uitable s oil f or t hem t o c ultivate, r epresenting a c ompromise b etween e ase o f t illage a nd i nherent f ertility , w ould b e t he p eaty p odzols a nd p odzols - t he f reely d rained s oils o f t he h ydrologic s equence d iscussed i n C hapter 2 . P oorly d rained s oils, p rimarily g leys , were a voided . T he d istribution o f c hambered c airns w ith r espect t o s oils n ow t akes o n ag reater s ignificance. I t h as b een n oted t hat , i n t he v icinity o f c hambered c airns, p odzols a nd p odzolic c omplexes a re o ver-represented w hile g leys a re u nder-represented. O ne w ay o f l inking t hese o bservations w ith t he p revious a rgument i s t o c onclude t hat c hambered c airns w ere p referentially l ocated o n o r n ear t he c ultivated f ields ( be t hey e nclosed o r u nenclosed) o f t he c airn-builders. A s ac onclusion , t his s tatement m ight b e c hallenged . T he p rimary o bjection c ould c ome f rom o ur i nexact k nowledge o f t he r elationship b etween a rable f arming a nd p astoral f arming. I t i s s uspected t hat t he g rowing o f c rops w as o f l ess i mportance t han t he p asturing o f a nimals i n t he e conomic c ycle o f t he c airn-builders ( Clarke , 1 976), a nd y et t he e vidence s eems t o s uggest a c orrelation b etween s oils s uitable f or a rable c ultivation a nd c hambered c airns. I t i s p ossible t hat l and f avourable t o t he g rowth o f c rops m ight a lso b e b est f or g razing a nimals a nd t hus t he c onclusion m ight b e t hat c hambered c airns w ere l ocated o n o r n ear t he f arming l and o f t he c airn-builders. T his d oes n ot s eem a n u nreasonable e xtrapolation but i t w ould b e s trengthened b y am ore e xact k nowledge o f t he q ualities o f s oil a nd h ence t he p articular s oil-types w hich w ould b e f avoured b y N eolithic p astoralists. T he

i mplications

o f

c hambered

c airns

b eing

p referentially

l ocated i n t he m idst o f t heir c ontemporary f arm l ands a re t wo-fold . F irstly i t a rgues f or e ach c airn b eing a ssociated w ith a p articular p atch o f f arming l and a nd p erhaps a lso f or e ach p atch o f f arming l and t o b e a ssociated w ith a c hambered c airn. S econdly , i t a rgues f or s ome s ymbolic l ink b etween t he m onument a nd t he l and: t he b ehaviour o f t he c airn-builders s howed t hat t hey w ere a ble t o c lassify l and a nd t hey d esired t o c ommemorate t heir c lassification b y e recting a p ermanent b uilding o n f avoured l and.

2 78

T he r amifications o f t hese t wo i mplications a re a nd r equire m ore d iscussion: t hey w ill b e c onsidered

w ide-ranging f ully i n a

l ater chapter. T he m ore d escriptive c onclusions o f t his s ection b e s ummarised a s f ollows: 1 . w here t here

i s

a

m antle

o f

p eat,

t here

m ay

b e

s ome

t he f armers o f N eolithic O rkney p referred s oils w hich

w ere

m ay

c hambered c airns which h ave b een o bscured . 2 .

e asy t o w ork a nd f reely d rained: w ere f avoured o ver g ley s oils.

p eaty p odzols a nd p odzols

3 . g iven t his l ast c onclusion , t here i s a v ery h igh p robability t hat c hambered c airns w ere p referentially l ocated o n o r n ear t he f arming l and o f t he c airn-builders. 4 .

t he f irst a nd t hird c onclusions h ere a pply i rrespective t he s tructural d esign o f t he c hambered c airn.

1 2.2.3.

o f

L AND U SE C APABILITY

A m odern m easure o f t he q uality o f l and i s p rovided b y t he S oil S urvey's c lassification o f l and , l argely b ased o n a c lose e xamination o f t he s oils, w hich a ttempts t o d efine t he m aximum p otential u sefulness o f l and t o a griculture. I t i s f ully d escribed a nd M ackney ( 1977). F or t he p urposes o f t his w ork , i t i s

i n B ibby i mportant

t hat t he L and U se C apability c lassification i s a ssessed o n t he p otential o f l and a nd n ot n ecessarily o n i ts p resent , m odern u se. T he g rading d epends o n p hysical l imitations w hich r estrict t he c hoice o f c rops o r d emand e xtra m anagement. T hese l imitations a re i ntended t o b e i nvariable w ith r espect t o a gricultural s ystem ( for i nstance, t he d egree o f m echanised a ssistance a vailable s hould n ot a ffect g rading ) a nd t o e conomic s ystem ( f or i nstance, t he a vailability o f m odern t ransport a nd n earby m arkets s hould n ot a ffect t he g rading). T he p rincipal p hysical l imitations o n l and u se e ncountered i n O rkney a re w etness, s oil l imitations ( described a s s hallowness, s toniness, t exture a nd s tructure, a nd f ertility), g radient, l iability t o e rosion , a nd c limatic l imitations. O f t hese, o nly l imitations o f g radient a re c ouched i n e xplicitly m odern t erms, w ith v arious d egrees o f l imitation b eing e xpressed b y B ibby a nd M ackney ( 1977:6) i n o f t he d ifficulty e xperienced b y w heeled f arm v ehicles.

1 981.

t erms

T he L and U se C apability m aps o f O rkney w ere p ublished l ate i n O f t he s even c lasses o f l and r ecognised i n B ritain , c lasses 1

a nd 2 , t he m ost f avoured c lasses f or a gricultural p otential, d o n ot o ccur i n t he n orth o f S cotland. T he r emaining c lasses, a ll f ound i n O rkney, f orm a c ontinuum o f l and w ith p rogressively m ore s erious l imitations. C lass

T he c lasses a re d escribed a s f ollows

( 1977:

3 -4):

3 : l and w ith m oderate l imitations t hat r estrict t he c hoice o f c rops a nd/or d emand c areful m anagement.

C lass 4 : l and w ith m oderately r estrict t he c hoice c areful m anagement.

2 79

s evere l imitations t hat o f c rops a nd/or d emand

C lass 5 : l and w ith s evere l imitations t hat r estrict u se t o p asture, f orestry , a nd r ecreation. C lass 6 :

C lass

i ts

l and w ith v ery s evere l imitations t hat r estrict u se t o r ough g razing , f orestry, a nd r ecreation .

7 : l and w ith e xtremely c annot b e r ectified.

s evere

l imitations

t hat

F igure 1 2.9 i llustrates t he d istribution o f t he f ive l and u se c apability c lasses i n O rkney. A s c an b e s een , t he l and o f c lasses 3 a nd 4 i s l argely r estricted t o l owland b asins a nd c oastal p lains, w hile l and o f c lasses 5 a nd 6 i s m ore l ikely t o b e f ound i n upland a reas. T able 1 2.10 d isplays t he a rea o f e ach l and t ype t o b e f ound i n e ach i sland g roup. O f t he 9 63 s q k m i n O rkney, one t hird i s o ccupied b y c lass 4 l and w ith c lass 6 a nd c lass 3 l and e ach o ccupying a f urther quarter o f t he l and s urface. T he M ainland a nd S tronsay a re t he t wo i slands p otentially m ost u seful t o a griculture a nd H oy c ontains t he m ost a rea o f l and w ith v ery s evere l imitations. T able 1 2.11 s hows t he d istribution w ith r espect

t o

u nderlying

l and u se c lass b y c luster. C lasses 4 a nd 5 p redominate t ogether a ccounting f or 4 9 c hambered c airns. O nly 1 1 a re l ocated on c lass 3 l and a nd 1 6 o n c lass 6 l and. T o t est i f t his d istribution c ould have o ccurred w ith n o d esign , t he c hi-square o ne s ample t est ( Siegal, 1 956: 4 7) w as e mployed. T he n ull h ypothesis i s t hat t here i s n o a ssociation b etween t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns i n O rkney a nd t he d istribution o f l and o f d ifferent L and U se C ap a bility c lasses. T he s ignificance l evel was s et a t 0 .05. T he c ontingency t able f or t he t est , c ompiled f rom t he r ight h and c olumns o f T ables 1 2.10 a nd 1 2.11 i s: C lass

E xpected

O bserved

F requency

F requency

C lass 3

1 7.7

1 1

C lass 4

2 5.2

2 5

C lass 5

1 1.4

2 4

C lass 6

1 8.7

1 6

C lass N .I .

T otals

7

1 .9

0

1 .1

0

7 6.0

F or t his c ontingency t able, . X2 = 17 .3. Y ates,

1 963:

4 7)

" 2>

7 6 F rom t ables

( Fisher

1 1.07 f or f ive d egrees o f f reedom a nd l evel

s ignificance 0 .05. I n f act, t here i s l ess t han h undred t hat t he o bserved d istribution c ould h ave

a nd o f

o ne c hance i n a o ccurred h ad t he

c airns b een l ocated a t r andom. T hus t he n ull h ypothesis i s r ejected a nd i t c an b e s tated t hat t here i s a h igh p robability t hat t he 7 6

2 80

k m

F igure 1 2.9

L and U se C apability o f O rkney: d istribution o f c lasses.

. . . . -

7 N

C O H I

k r \ 7

c k . 1

V D

C I \

H k r \ H

N

4

N C-1 N

H

. . k r , •

N . . . . ,

H . . -

7 N

k f l H

0

H

c n

, . 0

C N

0

7 . 0 H

H H

7

H N

r-1 C O

7

H H

N

0

0 H • . -

,C

N H

H

, . . . 0

C " 1

,. 0

H

0

0 , N 7

0

,

. . . 0

. t r \

. -, C Y ,

. ,

. -. . 0

, . . 0

. . . 0

7 H , ,

N r " 1 . . . . . ,

H C I . . ..

H N . ,

0 • — •

0 , '

, !

. . \ N

7 N

,. 0

0

0

1 r \

N H

0 H

C O

0

0

t r 1 C ' )

H

N

( " 1

H

0

0

N

k r \

, C

C O

V D

0

0

0

H (

r " 1

0

0

0

0

7 .

0

H

0

0

•

0 0 H , . .

M

1 U ) 1 ) 0

7 .

c " , 4

. I

2 " H

1 r ) H

0 N

N

0

k r 1 k r ,

0

V D

k r 1

c n

0

0

e

Sanday

group

0

group

N

group

c v

Eday

group

\ . 0 N

H H I

, . . -

, k r , •

H i

H

\ . ° N

0 1

Westray

Stronsay

, i

O' \ N

C O H

C Y \ k r \ H

0 ; • 4 G4 4 0

n

. . . , c , . . . e . ( , 4

, . 0

N

0 H

r 1 ( ' )

, 4 H

H H

C O

n

H H

0 H

7

H

H

0

0

0

0 I , U ) C H C . )

H > I > H

k n

k r \

C U

4 U )

k r 1 k r ,

4, ( M H C H H C . )

k r \

7

I n

C O k r 1 0 H 4,

U )

0 0 H 4 , C r I C '-' ) 0 1 U )

7

i f ,

,. 0

I " -

e l u )

u ) C O

t i l U )

o l U )

U ) r e c 1 , 1 , , C . )

C . )

( . )

c ,H C . . )

e

H C . )

E H

E 4

0 C H H 0 Z

M M

e

H C . )

2 82

M m

e

H C )

k r \

\ 0

M M

M M

e

H C . . )

e

H C . )

N

E t .

M M

0 c r 4 0 H

H C . )

0 Z

e

M H C 4 , 0 E .

d istribution o f c hambered c airns

. _ . ,

0 4 C 0 i i 4 0

> , « I Z t k l o

, -1 . k n 4

-•

group

Shap.

I 0 V • ,1 0 0 3 M I X H

c n n

, .. . . . .

Unclustered

0 4 › , Z 0 0 X g i b . 0

0

Cluster III

group

Ronaldsay

E South

E i

c n c v

. ...,

Cluster

( 0 H I C 1 ) 0

( • • \

a real s ummary b y i sland

-

, .. ,

Totals

. ,

k nown c hambered c airns a re n ot s ituated r andomly w ith r espect t o L and U se C apability. T b s ee i f t he s ame r esult w as o btained f rom t he m easurement o f i nexact c lasses, t he t otal a rea o f e ach L and U se C apability c lass w ithin o ne k ilometre o f e ach c hambered c airn w as m easured. T he r esults a re s ummarised i n T able 1 2.12. As imilar n ull h ypothesis was t ested , n amely t hat t here i s n o a ssociation b etween t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns b y i nexact c lasses a nd t he d istribution o f l and u se c lasses. T he s ignificance l evel w as a gain s et a t 0 .05. T he c ontingency t able f or t he c hi-square t est , c ompiled f rom t he r ight h and c olumns o f T ables 1 2.10 a nd 1 2.12 i s a s f ollows: C lass

E xpected F requency

O bserved F requency

C lass 3

1 113

8 42

C lass 4

1 580

1 529

C lass 5

7 20

1 170

C lass 6

1 177

1 220

C lass 7

1 19

2 3

N .I .

7 5

4 784

0

4 784

) ( 2 =

F or t his c ontingency t able , 5 03.0 . F rom t ables ( Fisher a nd Y ates, 1 963: 4 7) 1 1.07 f or f ive d egrees o f f reedom a nd l evel o f s ignificance 0 .05. T he n ull h ypothesis i s m assively r ejected a nd i t c an b e s tated , i n s upport o f t he p revious c onclusion , t hat t here i s a v ery h igh p robability t hat t he 7 6 c hambered c airns a re n ot s ituated r andomly w ith r espect t o L and U se C apability.

) r 2 >

O ne f urther t est r emains b efore t hese r esults c an b e i nterpreted - t he a nalysis o f v ariance b y r anks ( Siegal, 1 956: 1 66) t o d etermine i f t he t wo c onclusions a bove a pply e qually t o e very t ypological c luster. T he n ull h ypothesis i s t hat t he s amples r epresented b y t he d ifferent c lusters w ere d rawn f rom t he s ame p opulation o r t hat t here i s n o d ifference b etween c lusters a s f ar a s t heir d istribution w ith r espect t o L and U se C apability i s c oncerned. T he l evel o f s ignific2nce w as s et a t 0 .05. T he r anked t able f or t he t est , c ompiled f rom T able 1 2.12 w ith s cores s tandardised w ith r espect t o a rea o f l and w ithin o ne k ilometre o f t he m embers o f e ach i s a s f ollows:

2 83

c luster,

C lass

C luster I

C luster I I

C lass 3

4

3

2

1

C lass 4

1

2

4

3

C lass 5

3

2

4

1

C lass 6

2

3

1

4

C lass

3 .5

2

1

3 .5

T btals

7

1 3.5

1 2

C luster I II

1 2

C lusters I V-VI

1 2.5

( Note t hat t he c lass " no i nformation" h as b een e xcluded f rom t he t est s ince i t s cores z ero f or e very c luster , r anks e qually f or e ach c luster , a nd h as n o e ffect o n t he j r2s tatistic). F or t his t able, X 2 = 0 .18. F or t hree d egrees o f f reedom a nd l evel o f s ignificance 0 .05, t he c ritical v alue f or t he r ejection o f t he n ull h ypothesis i s 7 .82 ( Fisher a nd Y ates, 1 963: 4 7 ). T he n ull h ypothesis i s t hus a ccepted , a nd i t c an b e s tated t hat t here i s n o d ifference b etween t ypological c lasses a s f ar a s d istribution w ith r espect t o L and U se C apability i s c oncerned. T he o bservations l eading t o t he s tatistical c orrelations n oted a bove a re a n u nder-representation o f c hambered c airns o n l and c lass 3 a nd a n o ver-representation o f c airns o n l and o f c lass 5 . I mmediately t he c lose c onnection b etween t he s oil m aps a nd t he L and U se C apability m aps i s a pparent: l and o f c lass 3 i s c ommonly a ssociated w ith g ley s oils a nd l and o f c lass 5 i s c ommonly a ssociated w ith p odzolic s oils a nd s o t hese o bservations m irror t he c onclusions a lready c ited w ith r espect t o s oil. B ut t hose c onclusions a re n ot j ust c onfirmed: t hey a re c omplemented b y f urther e xamination o f t he m eaning o f t he L and U se C apability c lassification. C lass 3 l and i s d escribed a s h aving " moderate l imitations t hat r estrict t he c hoice o f c rops a nd/or d emand c areful m anagement" ( Bibby a nd M äckney , 1 977: 3 ). I n O rkney b y f ar t he m ost c ommon o f t hese l imitations i s w etness. T he s oils o f c lass 3 l and a re o nly s lowly p ermeable a nd t he r esultant w ater-logging l eads t o s low g ermination o f p lants, r estricts t he d epth o f r ooting a nd r esults i n p oorly-developed a nd s low-growing c rops. I t i s o nly b y t he i nstallation a nd m ainten a nce o f d rainage ( such a s h as t aken p lace o n a l arge s cale s ince t he e ighteenth c entury i n O rkney) t hat s uch l and b ecomes h ighly p roductive. I t i s i nteresting t o s peculate w hether t he t hird m illennium b e i nhabitants o f O rkney w ere a ware o f t he b enefits o f d rainage a nd i t i s n ot i mpossible t hat s ome a reas o f g ley s oil w ere i mproved e arly i n p rehistory. B ut e vidence o f s uch i mprovement w ill b e v ery d ifficult t o r ecognise f or t wo r easons. F irstly , t he a rea o f l and s o t reated w ill c ertainly b e s mall, a nd i t i s u nlikely t o b e f ound b y a ccident b ut o nly b y as pecific r esearch p roject d esigned t o l ocate N eolithic l and i mprovement. S econdly , f ield d rainage a s a s tructural f eature i s p articularly u ndateäble: 2 84

7

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01

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Z > 4 - H C . )

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4 U ) 4 , I nH e H C . )

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d istribution o f c hambered c airns b y

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2 85

. 1

s lab-built d rains a t S kara B rae a re i ndistinguishable f rom f ield d rains s till i n u se t oday. U ntil p ositive e vidence t o t he c ontrary i s f orthcoming t he c onclusion m ust b e t hat t he p eople o f t he c airns d id n ot u tilise c lass 3 l and b ecause s uch l and h as w etness l imitations t o c ultivation a nd t hey d id n ot t ake a dvantage o f t he i mprovements a fforded b y d rainage. C lass 5 l and i s d escribed a s h aving " severe l imitations t hat r estrict i ts u se t o p asture, f orestry , a nd r ecreation". ( 1977: 4 ). T he t wo m ost c ommon l imitations s hown o n c lass 5 l and a re l imitations o f s oil a nd g radient. I n O rkney s oil l imitations t end t o b e s hallowness a nd i nherent f ertility: t he p odzolic s oils a re n ot d eeply d eveloped a nd a re l ess f ertile, d ue t o l eaching o f m inerals, t han o ther s oils. A s h as b een d emonstrated , t his d oes n ot i mply t hat a ll m anner o f c rops h ave n ot b een g rown o n O rcadian p odzols, b ut r ather t hat t here a re s oils i n t he i sland-group w hich a re i nherently m ore f ertile. L imitations o f g radient o n c lass 5 l and h ave l ikewise b een u nable t o h inder t he g rowth o f aw ide r ange o f c rops i n t he h istoric p ast. L and i s n ot a dmitted t o c lass 5 u nless i t h as g radients l argely b elow 2 0° ( 1977: 1 0). B efore t he a ge o f m echanical p loughing , t his r ange o f g radient w ould n ot h ave s eriously a ffected t he e ase w ith w hich c ultivation c ould h ave b een c arried o ut: a f oot-plough o r a nimal-drawn p lough i s n ot h indered b y as lope o f 2 0°. I t m ust a lso b e b orne i n m ind t hat t he L and U se C apability m ap i s p ublished a t a s cale o f 1 :50000 a nd t hat g radient l imitations a re g eneralised: w ithin e very a rea o f c lass 5 l and t here w ill c ertainly b e s mall p atches o f r elatively l evel g round l arge e nough t o s upport i ntensively c ultivated f ields. T his s ection o n L and U se C apability h as s upported a s tatement m ade b y G ordon C hilde i n 1 942 a bout 1 4 c hambered c airns o n t he i sland o f R ousay , a nd h as s hown i t t o b e t rue f or a ll 7 6 c airns i n O rkney. T hat s tatement, i n t he o riginal p aper , w as " All t he c airns m entioned s tand o n l and n ow o r r ecently c ultivated , o r o n t he b order b etween a rable a nd h eath". ( Childe, 1 942: 1 41) b ut h as b een c onsistently i nterpreted a s s aying t hat t he c hambered c airns o f R ousay s tand o n l and t hat i s m arginal. T he w ord " marginal" h as, i n a ddition t o C hilde's m eaning o f " close t o" , a cquired t he m eaning o f " barely s ufficient t o s ustain c ultivation". I n t his s ense, c lass 5 l and i s c ertainly m arginal a ccording t o t he n eeds o f m odern a griculture: C hilde , i n h is s eminal p aper , a nticipated t he i mportant r esults o f t he p resent d iscussions o n s oil a nd l and u se. T b s ummarise t he d iscussion o f f ollowing c onclusions h ave b een r eached 1 .

L and

U se

f rom o ur k nowledge o f N eolithic a griculture , i t t hat t he p eople o f t he c airns p referred n ot t o w hose m ajor l imitation i s w etness: i n O rkney t hey w ould a void c lass 3 l and i n f avour o f l and 5 a nd 6 , w here t he m ajor l imitations t end t o b e g radient. 2 86

C apability ,

i s p robable f arm l and t his m eans o f c lasses o f s oil a nd

t he

2 . g iven

t he

f irst

c onclusion ,

t here

i s

a

v ery

p robability t hat c hambered c airns w ere l ocated o n t he f arming l and o f t he c airn-builders. 3 .

t he l ast c onclusion a pplies i rrespective o f t he

h igh

o r

n ear

s tructural

d esign o f t he c hambered c airn. 1 2.2.4.

TOPOGRAPHY

T he t opographic c onfiguration o f a p lace i s t he s hape o f t he l and s urrounding t he p lace. A s a l ocational f actor f or h uman a ctivity i t i s r arely i mportant i n i ts own r ight , b ut t he t opography o f ap lace f requently d etermines o ther a ttributes o f t he l and s urface w hich can b e i mportant i n t he s patial p atterning o f h uman a ctivity , s uch a s d efensibility , A s

w ith

a ll

v isibility ,

o ther

a nd d rainage.

a ttributes

o f

l ocation ,

t opography

i s

s cale-specific, o n t he g lobal s cale a ll t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney a re l ocated o n t he E uropean c ontinental f ringe. H ere t he i nterest i s i n d iscerning d ifferences a nd s imilarities o f t he t opographic c onfiguration o f t he l and i mmediately a round e ach c airn. T his scale o f i nterest m ight b e d esignated " site-comparative" s ince t he s iting o f e ach c hambered c airn i s t o b e c ompared w ith t he s iting o f e very o ther c airn. T he r ecording o f t opography i s p erhaps

b est

t he u se o f a c ontour m ap: t he b est s ources a re 1 :10000 O rdnance S urvey maps r eferenced i n A ppendix c ourse o f f ield-work , i t b ecame a pparent t hat

a chieved t he A . t he

t hrough

a ppropriate D uring t he t opographic

i nformation i nherent i n t his m ap s eries was t oo s pecialised t o m ake u se o f, a nd i t w as n ecessary t o r educe t he a mount o f i nformation - t o g eneralise t opographic d etail - b efore t he l ocation o f t he c airns c ould b e d iscussed. A ccordingly ,

t he s ite o f e ach c hambered c airn w as a ssigned t o a

t opographic unit. T he u nits w ere c hosen a nd n amed i n t he c ourse o f f ield-work a s t he l andscape o f O rkney b ecame m ore f amiliar t o t he w riter a nd e ach c airn w as a ssigned t o a t opographic u nit e ither r etrospectively ( with t he a id o f p hotographs, f ield-notes, a nd m aps) o r w hile i n t he f ield. T here a re a l arge e lement o f s ubjectivity i n l andscape a ppreciation - t his i s o ne e xperiment w hich would n ot y ield e xactly t he s ame r esults w hen c arried o ut T he t opographic u nits r ecognised w ere: 1 . 2 . 3 .

V alley b ottom C oastal P lain T errace e dge

4 . 5 . 6 .

S mall i sland/peninsula H ill s lope H ill t op

7 . 8 .

R idge t op P romontory e nd.

b y

a nother

f ield-worker.

O nly t wo o f t hese u nits r equire e xplanation. I n O rkney , p articularly i n t he i slands o f R ousay , W estray , a nd H oy, u nderlying g eological s tructure h as r esulted i n s tepped 2 87

a nd t he

h ill-slopes,

c onsisting o f a s eries o f t erraces. T hese t erraces m ay b e l evel o r m ay s lope i nto t he h ill-side b ut b etween s uccessive t erraces t here i s i nvariably a s teep , s ometimes c raggy, i ncline. S uch t erraces ( the N örse-derived m odern O rcadian w ord f or t he f eature b eing " hamar") a re ad istinctive p art o f t he O rkney c airns, e xamples b eing B igland R ound

l andscape. S everal c hambered ( ORK 2 ) a nd F itty H ill ( ORK T 5),

a re l ocated o n t he e dge o f t hese t erraces, c lose t o t he s teep i ncline a nd f requently a ppearing o n a s ky-line w hen v iewed f rom b elow . L ocation o n a s mall i sland w as c lassified l ocation o n a p eninsula u sing e conomic g rounds. T he

t ogether c riteria

w ith u sed

w ere t he s ize a nd a gricultural v iability o f t he l and unit: i f t he s mall i sland o r p eninsula c ould n ot s upport a n umber o f p re-Enclosure f arms t hen t here i s a p ossibility t hat t he p eople o f t he c airns t ravelled t o t he i sland o r p eninsula f rom t heir s ettlement e lsewhere. T hus t he t hree c airns o n H olm o f P apa W estray ( ORK 2 1 , 2 2, a nd T 9), a nd M aesry

( ORK 3 8) o n t he t idal p eninsula o f S tart P oint

f all

i nto

t his c ategory , b ut t he c hambered c airns o n S wona ( ORK T 14) a nd F ara ( ORK 1 7) d o n ot s ince b oth i slands s upported s ubstantial p opulations i nto t he p resent c entury. T he l argest a nd m ost p roductive l and units i ncluded i n t his c ategory a re t he p eninsula o f c airn o f Q uoyness ( ORK 4 4)) a nd t he i sland o f t hree c airns ( ORK 8 , 9 , a nd 1 0)).

E is N ess C alf o f

( with t he E day ( with

T he r esults o f t his e xercise a re d isplayed i n Table 1 2.13. T his s hows t hat t he m ost c ommon s ituation f or t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney i s o n a c oastal p lain , f ollowed i n d escending o rder o f f requency b y h ill s lope, s mall i sland o r p eninsula , v alley b ottom a nd t errace e dge. P erhaps t he m ost s ignificant c onclusion t o b e d rawn f rom t his t able i s v ariety: c hambered c airns w ere p ositioned i n m any d ifferent t opographic units. W hen t he e mpirical data i s p lotted o n a m ap o r O rkney , t he o nly s trong p attern t o e merge i s t he l ack o f p attern. I n s ome r estricted a reas, c airns i n c lose p roximity a re l ocated o n d ifferent t opographic u nits. F or e xample, i n t he n orth o f E day , t here a re f ive c airns l ocated o n a c oastal p lain , a h ill s lope, a nd a h ill t op w ith t wo e xamples i n a v alley b ottom. T he s outh c oast o f R ousay i s e qually h eterogeneous, w ith t wo c airns o n t he c oastal p lain , f our o n t errace edges, a nd o ne e ach o n a p romontory e nd a nd a h ill s lope. T able 1 2.13 a lso s hows t he d istribution b y c luster o f t he e ight t opographic units. T he data a re i nsufficient t o a ttempt a nalysis v ariance b ut t he t wo g roups w ith a c omparatively l arge n umber

o f o f

c airns a re n ot d iscernibly d ifferent f rom t he d istribution o f a ll t he c airns t aken a s a g roup . C lusters I , I I , a nd I V-VI d o n ot c ontain m any c airns, b ut a gain t he i mpression i s o f v ariety. T he o nly o bservation w hich m ight t entatively b e m ade i s t hat t he c airns o f c luster I V-VI w ere n ot s ited o n c oastal p lains o r t errace edges. T he l atter m ight c onceivably b e d ue t o t he l imited s patial e xtent o f t erraces,

t hey a re m ore c ommon i n i slands w here t here a re n o

c airns

b elonging t o c luster I V-VI. T he a bsence o f s uch c airns o n c oastal p lains i s p erhaps m ore s ignificant a nd i s a ccentuated b y t heir p reponderance o n h igh g round. I t m ight a lso b e n oted t hat t he t wo c airns o f t hese c lusters s ituated o n a s mall i sland o r p eninsula ( Holm o f P apa W estray S outh a ssociated w ith t wo i slands,

( ORK

2 2)

a nd

P apa W estray 2 88

C goyness a nd

S anday

( ORK

4 4))

a re

r espectively ,

n otable f or t heir l ow-lying t errain a nd a bsence o f h igh g round. T hus i t i s possible t hat c airns o f c luster I V-VI ( the M aes H owe t ype c airns) w ere p referentially l ocated i n c ertain s ingular p ositions. B ecause o f t he s mall n umber o f s uch c airns, t his c onclusion w ill n ot b e s tated f irmly , b ut i t m ay b e c onsidered i n t he c ontext o f l ater d iscussions. T herefore, o nly o ne s tatement m ay e xamination o f t opographic c onfiguration: 1 .

b e

d rawn

f rom

t his

t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney w ere l ocated i n a v ariety o f t opographic p ositions.

1 2.2.5.

V EGETATION

T he l and o f O rkney h as b een f ashioned b y t he h and o f h umanity, t his i s p articularly s o i n t he c ase o f v egetation. A s o utlined i n C hapter 2 , i t i s l ikely t hat O rkney's v egetation e xperienced p rofound c hange a t t he c oming o f p astoralism , c onstrained b y t he a ctivities o f f arming.

a nd

h as

s ince

t hen

b een

A lthough s tatistics f or i ndividual c rops d o e xist , t here h as b een n o g eneral s urvey o f t he f arming r egime o f O rkney s ince t he L and U tilisation S urvey o f B ritain p ublished i ts r eport o n t he i slands o ver 4 0 y ears a go ( O 'Dell, 1 939). T heir s ummary m ap i s r eproduced h ere a s F igure 1 2.14 a nd s hows t he t errain d ivided i nto a rable l and, p ermanent g rass, a nd h eathland , m oorland , a nd r ough p asture. T he d istribution o f a rable l and a nd g rassland i s l argely c onditioned b y a ltitude, w ith l ittle b eing f ound o ver 2 50ft ( 76 m ). F igure 1 2.14 i s i ncluded t o s how t hat t he f arming l and o f t he p resent c entury h as a p eripheral l ocation e xcept i n t he western M ainland w here t he c entral b asin i s a lso l ow-lying a nd i n s ome o f t he n orth i sles w here t he e ntire i sland i s g iven o ver t o a griculture. T he L and U tilisation S urvey was n ot u sed i n t he b ecause i t i s p articular t o t he l and u se o f t he 1 930s

p resent s tudy a nd m akes n o

a ttempt t o a ssess i nherent l and p otential, u nlike t he L and U se C apability c lassification. H owever, a n a ttempt w a s m ade t o a ssess t he modern v egetation i n t he i mmediate

v icinity

o f

e ach

c hambered

c airn. A s imple f our-part c lassification was d evised b ased o n v isible i ndicators o f p resent-day l and u se, a nd t he l and a round e ach c hambered c airn w as p laced i nto o ne o f t hese c ategories a ccording t o t he v egetation a t t he t ime o f i nspection i n t he s ummers o f 1 981. T he f our c ategories a re: H eathland: s parsely c ommonly

v egetated a ssociated

1 980

C alluna h eath , w ith h igh a nd

e xposed g round. U nimproved p asture:

l and w hose m ajor p lant s pecies g rasses b ut s howing n o s igns e nclosure,

I mproved p asture:

d rainage,

a re o f

o r p loughing.

e nclosed l and w ith v isible s igns o f i mprovement i n t he f orm o f d rainage o r r ecent p loughing , c urrently u nder c ultivated g rass. 2 89

a nd

( 1 .

Arab t . . 2 P c Ir rnanant Gram ,

[ Ti

H za t l t tand Moor land a nd R . ou0 1 1 P asturQ L Lakzs

F igure 1 2.14 I mproved l and i n O rkney ( after O 'Dell ,

2 90

1 939).

A rable: e nclosed , i mproved , a n a rable c rop .

l and c urrently u nder

B ecause c ereal a nd r oot c rops a re g rown i n r otation i n O rkney , t he l ast t wo c ategories a re n ot d istinct: a f ield m ay b e u nder g rass o ne y ear a nd under a n a rable c rop i n t he n ext. T he a gricultural e conomy o f O rkney i s l argely b ased o n t he p roduction o f b eef c attle a nd t hus t he a rea o f l and u nder a n a rable c rop i n a ny y ear i s s mall i n p roportion t o t he a rea o f i mproved p asture. T he d istribution o f t he

7 6

c hambered

c airns

i n

r elation

t o

t hese f our c ategories o f m odern v egetation i s s hown i n T able 1 2.15. T he m ajority a re l ocated o n u nimproved a nd i mproved p asture. O nly 1 6 c airns a re l ocated o n h eathland a nd o nly t hree o n a rable l and. T he h eathland c airns i nclude K ierfea H ill ( ORK 2 6) a nd B igland R ound ( ORK 2 ) o n t he i sland o f R ousay , a nd H ead o f W ork ( ORK 1 8) a nd W ideford H ill ( ORK 5 4) o n t he M ainland. T he t hree c airns o n a rable l and a re t he s ite o f H urray ( ORK 7 ), R ing o f B ookan ( ORK 4 5) a nd W art o f K i±bister ( ORK T 11). T here a ppears t o b e n o d istinctive f eature c ommon t o t he h eathland c airns o r t o t he c airns o f a rable l and. W ith n o c ertain k nowledge o f t he a rea c overed b y e ach v egetation t ype, i t i s n ot p ossible t o c omment w ith c ertainty o n t he n umber o f c airns o n e ach t ype, b ut t he g eneral i mpression i s t hat t here i s l ittle c orrelation b etween t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns a nd t he v egetation o f t he p resent c entury. W hen t he c airns a re c onsidered a ccording t o c luster, l ittle f urther i nformation c an b e d iscerned. T able 1 2.15 s hows t hat i n e ach c luster t he m ajority o f c airns a re s ituated o n p asture l and , a nd t hat n o v egetation t ype h as a g reater n umber o f c airns t han t he n umber i mproved p asture. T herefore, t he o nly f irm c onclusion e xamination o f v egetation t ype i s: 1 .

1 2.2.6.

t o

b e

d rawn

f rom

o n

t his

t he d istribution o f p resent-day v egetation d oes n ot a ppear t o b e c orrelated w ith t he d istribution o f r ecognised c hambered c airns. A LTITUDE

T he l and o f O rkney r ises f rom s ea l evel t o a

m aximum

a ltitude

o f 4 79 m a t t he s ummit o f W ard H ill i n H oy. T he h ighest p oint o n t he M ainland i s 2 68 m a t t he W ard H ill o f O rphir. I n t he n orth i sles, B lotchnie F iold o n R ousay r ises t o 2 50 m b ut m ost o f t he i slands a re r elatively l ow-lying w ith S tronsay , S anday a nd N orth R onaldsay b etween t hem h aving n o p oint h igher t han 5 0 m a bove s ea l evel. T able 1 2.16 d isplays t he d istribution o f l and b y h eight c lasses having a v ertical i nterval o f 4 5 o r 4 6 m ( 150

c lasses, f t) a nd

t he t he

m easurement o f a reas b eing based o n t he O rdnance S urvey 1 :50000 F irst S eries. T his t able s hows t hat 5 98 s q k m ( 62.1%) o f t he l and o f O rkney i s b elow t he 4 6 m c ontour, a nd t hat 8 73 s q k m ( 90.4% ) i s b elow t he 1 37 m c ontour. T his i nformation i s a lso d isplayed i n h istogram o f F igure 1 2.17 .

t he

f irst

T he h eight a bove s ea l evel o f e very c hambered c airn

w as

n oted

2 91

, I

C . 1 . 2 . .. •

C-1 ` .* •

0 0 H . . . . ,

C f l . . . . .

\ O H

7 c m

C I c n

C 1

( %)

. . . . 0

‘ 0 t -

South Ronal dsay group

1 c o

i n

o , I

t

c \ t

a > , 0 o o = $ . 1 t i l )

i n

c n

c m

c 9

c n

o

•P . P . 0 a i 0 4 4

r -

c o

> k

c l c r ) 0 0

4 a )

e-

Sanday group

0

7

0

› , C Z 00

I t \

' 0 W

1 : 1 0

c d I . 0 4 )

a i

( 1 )

C O

' 0 0 >

00 4 4 P . O E 4,

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t s

C V

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C O

1 • . . -

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, i . . -

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0

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C O

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C V

c m ,1 . . - • . -

0

c v

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7

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0 . . -

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C V

H

0

0

0

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r 4

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C M

c n \ J O H

c h

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c n ‘ . 0

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C \ I

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v-%

C ›

0

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7

, 4

0

0

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i n

N C V

c m

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t u )

Stronsay group

c \ c

e I

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, 4

c m

k n

C V

c 9

0

0 . 0 o k

' 0

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t a .0 Ea t

H

o 4 4 1 3

We stray group

c . 4 o 4 , 0 1 I . i 0 H C )

=

ON

\ • 0

Z.

a )

1

a l 4 < 4

4 . )

J O

e c n

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

. e . c n

k n

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

0

' i n

C O

t • -

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

O f r l

0 1 7

\ O

c v

t

o

o

o

o

o

C O 1 1

\ I D 7 m o

r 1 C : ›

N C 1 H

t 7

c v 0 1

c n C O H i c o c n H

c r , C V C V t

I " t " c \ t t

0 C V cn I

\ O \ O c n I

c o ri

c n C \ 1

r C V

c v C I

C 1 1

L c %

q )

, I

Altitude

Cluster II

4 , g ) H 0H H H C . )

t o

c r i

0 E .

2 92

(m)

Clusters IV-VI

t

land group

Unclus tered

,

E .

Main-

0 ) H M I + , o

. . . . . 0 1

7

0

k s '

H

+ r -

‘ O

C ` l

Totals

H C V . . .

. . . . 7

Total s

r I

. . . . \ O

,

. .. ,

F igure 1 2.17 A hsolute a ltitude: d istribution o f a ltitude c lasses a nd d istribution o f c hambered c airns.

u sing t he O rdnance S urvey 1 :10000 o r 1 :10560 m ap s eries. T here a re n o l ess t han 1 4 c ases w here c airns a re s ituated a t a n a ltitude o f 5 m , w hich , g iven t he a ccuracy o f m easurement p ossible, m ay b e t aken t o m ean t hat t he c airns a re a t o r v ery n ear t o t he a ltitude a ttained b y t he h ighest t ides. T he m ajority o f c airns l ie b elow t he 4 6 mc ontour a nd t here a re o nly s ix e xamples o f c airns a bove t he 9 1 m c ontour , f our o f t hem o n t he i sland o f R ousay. T he h ighest c airn i s K ierfea H ill ( ORK 2 6) a t a n a ltitude o f 1 80 m . T he s econd h istogram o f F igure 1 2.17 s hows t his i nformation v isually a nd c omparison w ith t he h istogram o f a reas w ithin e ach h eight c lass s uggests t hat t he c hambered c airns a ppear t o b e s ituated r andomly w ith r espect t o a ltitude. T b t est t his l ast h ypothesis, a s tatistical t est , t he K olmogorov-Smirnov o ne-sample t est ( Siegal, 1 956: 4 7 ) w as s elected . T his t est i s m ore p owerful t han t he c hi-square t est b ut was n ot u sed b efore b ecause i t r equires c ontinuous r anked d ata. T he d ata o btained f rom r anking o f a ltitude c lasses i s i deally s uited f or s uch a t est. T he n ull h ypothesis u nder e xamination i s t hat t he k nown c hambered c airns o f O rkney a re l ocated r andomly w ith r espect t o a bsolute a ltitude a bove s ea l evel. T he l evel o f r ejection w as s et a t 0 .05. U sing t he i nformation b ehind t he c onstruction o f F igure 1 2.17 t he d ata f or t he K olmogorov-Smirnov t est i s a s f ollows: A ltitude X

4 6 9 1 1 37 1 83 4 79

A rea ( % ) u nder X

6 2.1 8 1.8 9 0.4 9 5.1 1 00.0

E xpected c umulative f requency

O bserved c umulative f requency

E (X )

0 (X )

0 .621 0 .818 0 .904 0 .951 1 .000

0 .671 0 .921 0 .987 1 .000 1 .000

I E (X )-0 (X )I

0 .050 0 .103 0 .083 0 .049 0 .000

T he t est s tatistic f or s uch a t able i s D=m ax 1 E(X)-0 (X) I . I n t his c ase D = 0 .103. F or a s ample o f 7 6 t he c ritical v alue a t a s ignificance l evel o f 0 .05 i s 0 .156 ( Siegal, 1 956: 2 51). T he n ull h ypothesis i s t hus a ccepted , a nd t he c onclusion i s t hat , t aking t he 7 6 c airns a s ag roup , t hat a bsolute h eight a bove s ea l evel w as n ot a s ignificant l ocational f actor. B efore c onsidering a s econd m easure o f a ltitude , t he d ifferences b etween c lusters m ight b e n oted. T he f irst s ection o f T able 1 2.18 d emonstrates t hat c airns o f c luster I II a re a ltitudinally d istributed i n a s imilar m anner t o t he 7 6 c airns a s ag roup. I t a lso d emonstrates t hat c airns o f c lusters I a nd I I a re l ocated a t a l ow a ltitude , w ith t heir m ean h eights a bove s ea-level b eing r espectively 2 5.0 m a nd 1 8.3 m ( compared w ith 3 7 .6 m f or a ll 7 6 c airns). F inally , t he c airns o f c lusters I V-VI a re g enerally l ocated a t a h igh a ltitude , w ith a m ean h eight a bove s ea-level o f 5 0.9 m . A bsolute a ltitude, a s c onsidered a bove , i s n ot a c ompletely s atisfactory m easure o f a ltitude s ince i t d oes n ot t ake i nto a ccount d ifferences i n t opography: t he a nalysis a bove i ncluded H oy , a n i sland w ith a n a ltitude r ange o f 4 79 m , a nd S tronsay , a n i sland w ith 2 94

ar ange o f 4 6 m . A nother m easure o f a ltitude, a ltitude, i s n eeded t o m inimise t his d ifficulty.

o ne

o f

r elative

T he s olution a dopted w as t o e xpress t he h eight o f e ach c airn i n r elation t o t he h eight o f t he g round i n a c ircle a round t he c airn. T he r adius o f t he c ircle was s et a t o ne k ilometre, t his d istance r epresenting a c ompromise b etween a m acro-scale a pproach ( of w hich t he a nalysis o f a bsolute a ltitude i s o ne e xtreme) a nd a m icro-scale a pproach ( of s tudying t he g round w ithin a f ew m etres o f t he c airns, i n w hich c ase t here i s s een t o b e n o d ifferentiation b etween T hus t he a nalysis o f r elative a ltitude i s a m eso-scale s tudy t he c airn t o t he n eighbourhood w ithin a f ew m inutes w alk.

s ites). l inking

T he o perational p rocedure was t o n ote t he e xtreme h igh p oint ( H) a nd t he e xtreme l ow p oint ( L ) w ithin o ne k ilometre o f t he c airn. T he a bsolute a ltitude o f t he c airn ( A) w as t hen e xpressed a s a p ercentage o f t he r ange b etween e xtremes. T hus t he r elative a ltitude ( R ) o f a c airn i s c alculated: R = (A - L ) ( H - L )

x

1 00

T he i ndex R h as a p otential r ange f rom 0 ( where t he c airn i s s ituated o n t he l owest g round f or a k ilometre a round - o ften a pproached i n c oastal l ocations) t o 1 00 ( where t he c airn i s o n t he s ummit o f a h ill w hich i s t he h ighest g round w ithin o ne k ilometre). R esults a re d isplayed i n F igure 1 2.19. T he p otential r ange o f R i s l argely e xploited w ith e xtremes o f 3 a nd 1 00. T he c airns w ith t he l owest r elative a ltitudes a re n ear n eighbours: K nowe o f R owiegar ( ORK 3 1) a nd M idhowe ( ORK 3 7) w ith r elative a ltitudes o f 3 a nd 6 r espectively. T here a re 1 1 c airns w ith r elative a ltitudes o f 1 00 , a nd a f ull r ange o f a bsolute a ltitudes i s r epresented a mong t hem. T Wo cairns a re s ituated o n t he s ummits o f p rominent h ills: t he e ponymous K nucker H ill ( ORK 3 3) i n W estray a nd t he W art ( ORK T 17) o n H oxa H ill i n S outh R onaldsay. An umber o f c airns a re s ituated o n t he h ighest p oints o f l ow-lying s mall i slands o r p eninsulas: t hese i nclude M aesry ( ORK 3 8) a nd T res N ess ( ORK 5 0) i n S anday , a nd t he e ponymous H olm o f H uip ( ORK 2 0) a nd H ead o f W ork ( ORK 1 8). T he h istogram o f F igure 1 2.19 h as t wo p rominent p eaks.

O ne

i s

b etween 2 0 a nd 4 0 a nd t he o ther i s b etween 9 0 a nd 1 00. T hese c ould b e i nterpreted a s i ndicating a p reference o n t he p art o f t he c airn-builders f or s ites t hat w ere s ituated e ither a t l ow r elative a ltitudes o r a t v ery h igh r elative a ltitudes. T his i mpression i s f urther e lucidated i f t he r elative a ltitudes a re a nalysed b y c luster. T he second s ection o f T able 1 2.18 s hows c onsiderable d ifferences b etween c lusters.

T he 7 6 c airns a s a

w hole

h ave

a

m ean

r elative

a ltitude o f 5 0.5, c lose t o t he c entre o f t he p otential r ange. C ompared w ith t his, c airns o f c luster I h ave a m ean o f 1 5.6, i ndicating a v ery l ow r elative a ltitude, a nd c airns o f c lusters I V-VI h ave a m ean o f 6 1.1, i ndicating a h igh r elative a ltitude. T he c airns o f c lusters I I a nd I II a ppear t o h ave l ow r elative a ltitudes, b ut t he h ighly s kewed d istribution o f t he s tatistics f or c luster I I s how t hat i n t his, g rouping.

a s

i n

o ther

r espects,

c luster

2 95

I I

i s

a

h eterogeneous

Maximum m

Mean m

5

1 80

3 7.6

3 5.3

1 .49

Minimum m

All

cairns

Skewness

Cluster

I

5

6 0

2 5.0

2 1.8

1 .27

Cluster

II

5

28

18. 3

9 .6

-1. 05

Cluster

III

5

180

41. 2

43. 2

1 . 02

5

120

50. 9

42. 0

0 . 61

Clusters

IV-VI

Absolute

Minimum m All

cairns

altitude

Maximum Mean m m

Standard deviation

Skewness

3

100

50. 5

3 0.0

0 .40

3

29

15. 6

12. 2

0 . 32

Cluster

I

Cluster

II

12

100

37. 8

42. 0

1 . 87

Cluster

III

10

100

39. 0

2 3.6

0 .62

23

100

61.1

25. 5

-0. 03

Clusters

IV-VI

Relative

T able

S tandard deviation

altitude

1 2.18 A bsolute a ltitude a nd r elative a ltitude: s tatistics b y c luster.

2 96

F igure 1 2.19 R elative a ltitude: d istribution o f c hambered c airns.

2 97

W hen t he r esults f or b oth a bsolute a nd r elative a ltitude c onsidered t ogether, t he f ollowing c onclusions m ight b e m ade: 1 .

C hambered c airns w ere l ocated o ver t he f ull a bsolute a ltitude a nd , t aking t he 7 6 c airns a s a bsolute h eight a bove l ocational f actor.

2 .

C a irns

were

l ocated

s ea-level

o ver

t he

w as

f ull

n ot

a

r ange

a re

range o f a g roup , s ignificant

o f

a ltitude, b ut w ithin t his r ange, p reference w as p ositions o f l ow o r v ery h igh r elative a ltitude.

r elative g iven

t o

3 .

T he c airns o f c luster I w ere l ocated a t v ery l ow r elative a ltitudes, t hese l ocations a re n ecessarily a t l ow a bsolute a ltitudes.

4 .

T he c airns o f c luster I I w ere l ocated a t l ow a bsolute r elative a ltitudes, b ut t he p attern o f d istribution

a nd f or

t hese c airns i s n ot c onsistent. 5 .

A ltitude Was n ot a s ignificant

l ocational

f actor

i n

t he

p ositioning o f t he c airns o f c luster I II. 6 .

T he c airns o f c lusters

I V-VI w ere l ocated a t h igh

r elative

a ltitudes. T he m eaning o f t hese r esults,

a s w ill b e s een ,

m ay b e l inked t o

t wo c onflicting objectives o n t he p art o f t he c airn-builders. T he f irst objective i s t wo-fold: t he d esire t o b uild t he cairn i n a p lace w here b uilding s tone was r eadily a ccessible, a nd t he d esire t o p osition t he m onument w here i t c ould e asily b e r eached d uring i ts p eriod o f u se. B oth o f t hese c ould r esult i n t he c airn b eing l ocated a t a l ow r elative a nd a bsolute a ltitude, w ithin e asy r each o f s tone f rom t he rocky s hore a nd o n a n a ccessible c oastal p lain. T he s econd o bjective i s t he d esire t o b uild t he c airn i n a v isually i mpressive l ocation , e ither t o e nsure t he m onument i s i mmediately a pparent f rom a ll a round , o r t o e nsure t he v iew f rom t he m onument i s s pectacular a nd a ll-encompassing. T his s econd d esire w ill obviously b e b etter e xamined b y s tudying t he l ines o f s ight a round e ach c airn but i t w ill s imply b e n oted h ere t hat h igh a bsolute a nd r elative a ltitudes w ill g enerally e nsure a h igh d egree o f v isual i mpact o n t he l andscape. 1 2.2.7.

V ISIBILITY

T he v iew f rom d ifferent p oints i n t he

O rcadian

l andscape

can

v ary c onsiderably. F rom t he h ighest p oint o f a n o ffshore h olm i t may b e p ossible t o s ee f or m any k ilometres i n e very d irection. F rom t he t op o f W ideford H ill,

g iven g ood c onditions,

i t i s

p ossible

t o

see

b oth S hetland a nd S cotland. C onversely , t here a re s ecluded v alleys a nd d eep g eos w here v isibility i s r estricted t o a f ew m etres i n e very d irection. F or a p ermanent m onument,

a n i ntuitive i mpression m ight b e t hat

v isibility f rom t he s ite s hould b e r estricted a s l ittle a s

p ossible.

T b c heck t his i mpression f or t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney a m easure w as t aken a t e ach l ocation o f t he e xtent o f v isibility. ( These m easures w ere a lso u sed

i n t he d iscussion o f s ymbolic o rientation i n

2 98

C hapter 1 5).

T he p rocedure a dopted was t o a ssign e ach s ector o f

c ompass t o o ne o f t hree v isibility c lasses d efined b y a way o f t he m ost d istant v isible p oint. T he t hree d esignated a s f ollows:

t he

t he d istance c lasses w ere

1 . d istant = v isibility e xceeding f ive k ilometres 2 . i ntermediate = v isibility b etween f ive k ilometres a nd h undred m etres

f ive

3 . r estricted: v isibility l ess t han f ive h undred m etres. T hese c lasses were c hosen b y e xperiment d uring f ield-work i n C aithness a nd O rkney a nd w ere d esigned t o p artition t he v isible h orizon i nto s ections which a re d istinctive c onsistently r ecognisable t hroughout O rkney.

f rom

e ach

o ther

A t t his s tage, t he c onclusion r eached b y p ollen a nalysts t he a bsence o f t all v egetation i n t he O rkney o f f ive t housand a go m ust b e r epeated:

v isibility r eadings t aken

t oday

a re

a nd

a bout y ears a

g ood

a pproximation t o c onditions a t t he t ime o f t he c airns. T he o perational p rocedure c arried o ut i n t he f ield w as t o s tand o n t he ground s urface n ear t o t he e ntrance p assage o f e ach c airn ( or o n t he c airn i tself i f t he m ound m aterial o bscured t he v iew) a nd s can t he h orizon w ith a p rismatic c ompass. T he i maginary c ircle c entred o n t he c airn w as d ivided i n p lan i nto s ectors o f d istant, i ntermediate, a nd r estricted v isibility. T he n umber o f t hese s ectors v aried f rom o ne t o n ine. F or t he p urposes o f t his d iscussion , a ll s ectors o f d istant v isibility w ere a dded t ogether t o a rrive a t a s um t otal o f d egrees o f d istant v isibility f or e ach c airn. L ikewise, s um t otals o f d egrees o f i ntermediate v isibility a nd d egrees o f r estricted v isibility w ere c omputed f or e ach c airn. N aturally, f or e very i ndividual c airn, t he t hree s um t otals a dd up t o 3 60 d egrees. T he r aw d ata f or t hese c omputations m ay b e f ound i n F raser ( 1982 b ). T he r esults a re d isplayed i n F igure 1 2.20 w here, f or i nstance, 1 0 o f t he 7 6 c airns h ave b etween 1 60 a nd 1 79 d egrees o f d istant v isibility ( or s lightly l ess t han h alf t he h orizon i s g reater t han f ive k ilometres d istant). F or d istant a nd i ntermediate v isibility , t he d istribution o f s um t otals e xtends t hroughout t he p otential r ange, f rom 0 t o 3 60 d egrees. T here a re f our c airns w hich h ave n o s ectors o f d istant v isibility: B ookan ( ORK 4 ), M aes H owe ( ORK 3 6), S tones o f V ia ( ORK 4 8) a nd U nstan ( ORK 5 1). T hese f our a re a ll l ocated i n t he c entral b asin o f t he west M ainland. A t t he other e xtreme, a f ew c airns h ave d istant v isibility i n a lmost e very d irection: t hese i nclude t he c airns on t he s ummits o f K nucker H ill ( ORK 3 3) a nd V inquoy H ill ( ORK 5 3). S even c airns h ave n o s ectors o f i ntermediate v isibility i ncluding t wo o n t he t erraces o f s outh R ousay b ut o nly M aes H owe a nd U nstan h ave 3 60 d egrees o f i ntermediate v isibility. T he h istogram f or d istant v isibility i n F igure 1 2.20 s hows n o d istinctive p attern b ut t he h istogram f or i ntermediate v isibility e xhibits a p eak c entred o n 1 50 d egrees i ndicating t he i nclusion o f a n e xtensive s ector o f i ntermediate v isibility ( between a t hird a nd a quarter o f t he h orizontal p anorama) i n t he v iew f rom a l arge n umber o f c hambered c airns.

2 99

F igure 1 2.20 V isibility: s um t otal o f d egrees o f v isibility b y c lass.

T he d istribution o f d egrees o f r estricted v isibility i s m arkedly d ifferent. T he r ange i s s maller v arying f rom 0 t o 1 99 d egrees. N o l ess t han 2 3 c airns h ave n o s ector o f r estricted v isibility. T able 1 2.21 s hows t he m ean n umber o f d egrees o f r estricted v isibility i s 8 9, c ompared w ith 1 37 a nd 1 32 r espectively f or d istant a nd i ntermediate v isibility . T he c onclusion m ay b e t hat l ocations w ith r estricted v isibility w ere l ess d esirable t o t he c airn-builders. T able 1 2.21 a lso d isplays r elevant s tatistics f or t he c airns d ivided i nto c lusters. T he o nly p oint t o n ote h ere i s t hat t he l ow a bsolute a ltitude o f t he c airns i n c luster I i s a ssociated w ith a l ow m ean o f d istant v isibility. T he r emaining p anorama f rom t hese c airns i s n ot e qually d istributed , b ut r ather c ontains l arge s ectors o f i ntermediate v isibility s uch t hat t he m ean n umber o f d egrees o f i ntermediate v isibility f rom c luster I c airns i s 2 17 . A gain t his e mphasises t hat l ocations w ith m uch r estricted v isibility w ere l ess f avoured . T Wo c onclusions m ight b e m ade f rom t his s ection: 1 .

t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney w ere n ot l ocated i n w ith e xtensive s ectors o f r estricted v isibility.

2 . c airns w ere l ocated i n p laces i ntermediate v isibility.

w ith

e xtensive

p laces

a reas

o f

T he i nterpretation o f t hese c onclusions l eads t o o ne p ositive s tatement , o ne t entative s tatement , a nd a n a mbiguity. T he p ositive s tatement i s t hat t he c airn-builders f avoured v isually i mpressive p laces - s ingular p ositions - a nd a voided p laces w ith u nimpressive v iews o r p anoramas. T he t entative s tatement i s t hat t he c airn-builders m ade a n a ssociation b etween e ach c airn a nd e xtensive a reas o f l and l ess t han f ive k ilometres d istant. T hat i s , t here w as s ome c lose c onnection b etween e ach c airn a nd i ts i mmediate h interland . T he o bvious c onnection i s t hat t he c airn-builders l ived o n , o r u sed , t he l and w ithin e asy w alking d istance o f t he c airn . T his s upports s tatements m ade a bove a bout c hambered c airns b eing l ocated o n o r c lose t o t he f arming l and o f t he c airn-builders. T he a mbiguity a rises b ecause o f t he u nformed n ature o f t he c oncept " visibility" a s u sed h ere. T here a re t wo f acets c ontained i n t he c oncept , f acets w hich m ight b e d escribed a s " visibility f rom" a nd " visibility t o". T he t echnique u sed h ere h as d escribed " visibility f rom" e ach c airn t o t he s urrounding l andscape a nd m ight b e j ustified a s a l ocational f actor w orthy o f s tudy b ecause o f t he p ossibility o f a ctivities a t t he c airn r equiring a w ider b ack-cloth. S uch a ctivities m ight i nclude o bservation o f t he s ky o r c ontemplation o f t he l andscape. T he s ame t echnique i s a n i nadequate m easure o f " visibility t o" t he c airn f rom t he s urrounding l andscape b ecause i t a ssumes c omplete r eprocity o f v ision ( if A i s v isible f rom B t hen B i s v isible f rom A ). C riticism h as a lready b een m ade i n C hapter 5 o f D avidson a nd R enfrew 's a ttempt t o m easure " visibility t o" - b ut n o b etter m ethod i s s uggested h ere w hich w ould n ot i nvolve a n i nordinate a mount o f l abour. N evertheless, " visibility t o" i s c learly a p roper a venue o f e nquiry b ecause o f t he p ossibility t hat i t was n ecessary t o v iew t he c airn f rom a d efined a nd l imited a rea o f l and. A ll t hat c an 3 01

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D RAINAGE

T he r esults o f l ocational e nquiry i nto s oil a nd L and U se C apability h ave a lready s trongly s uggested t hat c airns w ere l ocated i n c lose p roximity t o f reely d rained l and. T O , t est i f t his c orrelation c an e qually b e a pplied t o t he a ctual s ites o f c hambered c airns, a n a ttempt w as m ade t o a ssess t he d rainage c onditions i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f e ach s ite. " Immediate v icinity" i s i nterpreted a s w ithin o ne h undred m etres o f t he c airn: t his i s a m icro-scale a nalysis o f c airn l ocation. T hree qualitative c ategories w ere p ropounded: 1 .

G ood d rainage: l ocation o n ac oncave, m oderate , s lope w ith n o i ndication o f i nundation i n t he p ast o r p resent.

2 .

F air d rainage: l ocation o n a m oderate s lope o r l evel g round w ith s ome i ndication o f p otential i nundation. S ites c lose t o t he s hore i n d anger o f b eing s wept b y t he w aves o r s pray w ere a lso i ncluded i n t his c ategory.

3 .

P oor d rainage: l ocation p otential o f i nundation.

o n

l evel

g round

w ith

h igh

T he r esults o f t his a nalysis a re o utlined i n T able 1 2.22. T his t able c learly i ndicates t hat a l arge m ajority o f c airns a re s ited o n a reas o f g ood d rainage. O nly 1 2 c airns a re s ited o n a reas o f f air d rainage a nd h alf o f t hese f all i nto t his c ategory b ecause o f p roximity t o t he s ea-coast. S ix s ites, i ncluding M aes H owe ( ORK 3 6), a re o n a reas o f f lat g round n ow u sed f or i ntensive a griculture. O nly o ne c airn i s s ited i n a n a rea o f p oor d rainage a nd t here a re s ome s igns t hat t he d rainage r egime o f t his a rea h as b een a ltered i n m odern t imes. T his s ingle c airn i s H untersquoy ( ORK 2 3) i n t he c entral v alley o f n orthern E day. T he c airn s tands i n a n a rea o f m arshy p eat v egetation a nd a t t he t ime o f e xcavation i n 1 937 ( Calder , 1 938: 1 98) a nd a lso a t t he t ime o f t wo v isits i n J une 1 980 a nd M ay 1 981 , t he l ower c hamber o f H untersquoy w as f looded . I t i s u nreasonable t o s uppose t hat t he c hamber w as c onstantly f looded d uring i ts p rehistoric u se, a nd e xamination o f t he s urrounding t errain ( part o f w hich i s d escribed a s " Eday N orth" i n C hapter 1 1) s uggest t hat t he s u l-lurface w ater t able h as b een a rtificially a ltered i n t he m odern p ast. S pecifically , ad am h as b een c onstructed t o t he w est o f C arrick H ouse 8 50 m t o t he n orth-north-west o f H untersquoy , p resumably t o d rive a c orn-mill. T his w ould h ave h ad t he e ffect o f r aising t he l ocal w ater-table , p erhaps e nough t o p ermanently f lood t he s ubterranean c hamber. T hus t he s ingle i nstance o f a n O rcadian c hambered c airn i n a n a rea o f p oor d rainage i s s een t o b e t he r esult o f l andscape c hange s ince t he t ime o f t he c airns. D ifference b etween c lusters a re n ot g reat. T he o nly p oint w orthy o f n ote i n T able 1 2.22 i s t hat t hree o f t he f ive c airns i n c luster I a re s ited o n a reas o f f air d rainage. A lthough t his 3 03

o bservation i s n ot s ignificant e nough o n i ts o wn t o m erit a p ositive c onclusion , i t i s c learly a ssociated w ith t he l ow r elative a ltitude o f t hese c airns a nd c onfirms t hat t heir l ocation d oes n ot c onform t o t he s ame p attern a s t he c airns o f o ther c lusters. I n s ummary , o nly o ne c onclusion c an b e d rawn f rom t his d iscussion o f d rainage i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f c hambered c airns: 1 .

t he c airns o f O rkney w ere p referentially l ocated o f g ood d rainage.

1 2.2.9.

i n

a reas

A PPROACHES

A lthough i t h as n ever b een s uggested t hat c hambered cairns l ocated i n p ositions which a re d ifficult t o a pproach o n f oot , e xistence o f t wo o r p erhaps t hree s ites w ith e arth-works ( Maes H owe ( ORK 3 6), R ing o f B ookan W art,

H oxa H ill

( ORK T 17))

s igns o f ( ORK 4 5)

a re t he

e xternal a nd t he

i s e nough t o t est f or t he p ossibility t hat

s ome c airns m ay h ave been b uilt i n p ositions w hich were d eliberately i naccessible. C onceptually , t wo m eanings c ould b e a ttributed t o such l ocations: t he d esire t o a ttain a s trong d efensive p osition a gainst p hysical a ttack , o r t he d esire t o r each t he c airn only a fter c ompleting a n a rduous j ourney. A s e ach c airn w as v isited , t he a pproaches t o e ach s ite f rom s everal h undred m etres i n e very d irection w ere a ssessed a nd p laced i nto o ne o f t hree c ategories: 1 .

e asy: t he a pproach f rom e very p oint o f t he c ompass i nvolves n o p hysical e xertion - i t i s a c omfortable t he c airn f rom e very d irection.

2 .

r estricted:

a lthough t he

a pproaches

t here i s o ne d irection w here s ome r equired - b arriers which r estrict s teep s lopes o r r ocky o utcrops. 3 .

d ifficult: a pproach f rom a ll p oints r estricted a nd s ome p hysical e xertion

a re

walk

t o

r each

g enerally

e asy ,

p hysical e xertion i s a ccess a re g enerally

o f i s

t he c ompass a n ecessity

i s i n

o rder t o r each t he c airn. T he r esults o f t his e xercise f or t he 7 6

c airns

a re

s hown

i n

T able 1 2.23. V ery c learly , c airns a re p referentially l ocated i n p ositions which h ave e asy a pproaches. T here a re n o e xamples of m onuments which a re d ifficult t o a pproach a nd o nly n ine e xamples with r estricted a pproaches. T he m ajority o f c airns, 6 7 l ocated i n p ositions w hich a re e asy t o a pproach.

o f

t he

7 6 ,

a re

T he n ine m onuments w ith r estricted a pproaches a ll f all i nto one o f t hree t opographic s ituations. F ive c airns - B igland R ound ( ORK 2 ), B lackhammer ( ORK 3 ), I phs ( ORK 2 4), K nowe o f R amsay ( ORK 3 0), a nd K nowe o f Y arso ( ORK 3 2) - a re s ited o n t errace e dges w ith a p recipitous s lope w ithin a f ew m etres. T wo c airns - K nucker H ill ( ORK 3 3) a nd W ithebeir ( ORK 5 5) - a re s ited o n h ill t ops, a nd t wo C Uween H ill ( ORK 1 2) a nd K ierfea H ill ( ORK 2 6) - a re s ited o n s teep h ill s lopes. I n n one o f t hese e xamples, e xcept p ossibly t he t wo on h ill t ops,

a re t he c airns i n l ocations which c ould b e t ermed

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i n t he c onventional d efensive s ense. T able 1 2.23 a lso s hows t he d istribution o f t ypes o f a pproaches a ccording t o c luster. N o d ifference i s d iscernible b etween c lusters a nd t he t wo c airns w ith r estricted a pproaches o n h ill t ops d o n ot f all i nto t he s ame c luster. I n s ummary , a pproaches: 1 .

o ne c onclusion c an b e d rawn f rom t his

t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney w ere g enerally p ositions w hich a re e asy t o a pproach.

a nalysis

l ocated

o f

i n

1 2 .2 .10 C OASTS T b b e a n O rcadian i s t o l ive i n c lose c ommunion w ith t he s ea a nd t he c oast , a nd t his c ommunion m ay h ave b earing , e ven t oday , o n a ny a ctivity. A ccordingly , t he r elationship b etween t he l ocation o f t he 7 6 c hambered c airns a nd t heir n eighbouring c oast-lines w as e xamined . T he d istance i n as traight l ine t o t he n earest s hore was m easured , a nd t he n ature o f t hat s hore w as d escribed. T hese o bservations a re m ade a pplicable t o N eolithic O rkney b y t he c onclusion o f C hapter 2 t hat o nly l ocal c hanges i n l and a nd s ea r elationships h ave t aken p lace s ince t he t hird m illennium b c . T he f irst o bservation t o b e d iscussed i s t he d istance i n a s traight l ine t o t he n earest s hore. T hese m easurements w ere m ade t o t he n earest t en m etres f rom t he O rdnance S urvey 1 :10560 a nd 1 :10000 m ap s eries. ( The l arge i nland l ochs o f S tenness a nd H array were r egarded a s b eing e quivalent t o s ea a reas f or t his p urpose). S lightly l ess t han h alf o f t he c airns ( 34 o ut o f t he 7 6) a re s ituated w ithin 2 00 m o f t he n earest s hore a nd o nly f ive c airns a re m ore t han 1 200 m f rom t he s hore. T he c omplete r ange i s f rom 0 m ( in t he c ase o f t hree c airns w hich a re a ctively e roding i nto t he s ea) t o 2 220 m ( in t he c ase o f H oly K irk ( ORK T 2) i n t he p arish o f S andwick). T his d istribution i s h ighly c oastal, a n o bservation s upported b y u se o f F ojut's " curve o f l ittorality" ( Fojut , 1 980: v olume 2 , 3 9 a nd 5 0-51). Ac urve o f l ittorality w as c onstructed f or O rkney b y t aking a 2 00-point r andomly s tratified s ample o f l ocations w ithin t he i sland-group a nd m easuring t he d istance f rom e ach l ocation t o t he c oast. F igure 1 2.24 s hows t his cu rve o f l ittorality w ith t he n umber o f p oints s tandardised t o 7 6. B y p lotting t he d ata o n l og-normal p aper , t he c urve a pproximates t o as traight l ine. F igure 1 2.24 a lso s hows t he d istribution o f t he 7 6 c hambered c airns w ith r espect t o d istance t o t he n earest c oast. V isual i nspection s hows t hat t he m odular g radient o f t he s traight l ine o f b est f it t hrough t he r andom p oints i s l ess t han t he m odular g radient o f t he s traight l ine o f b est f it t hrough t he p oints r epresenting c hambered c airns. T hus c hambered c airns h ave a m ore c oastal d istribution t han w ould b e e xpected were t hey r andomly d istributed o ver O rkney. T he i nterpretaion o f t his r esult i s n ot p rofound. I n a ny i sland-group , t he s hore i s a f ocus o f a ctivity f or a lmost e very h uman p ursuit. A lmost c ertainly , t he s ame r esult w ould h ave b een o btained f or t he d istribution o f a ny h uman a rtefact i n O rkney , f rom f ields t o t elephone b oxes. I nland l ocations a re a voided b ecause t hey t end t o 3 06

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D is tance

F igure 1 2.24 D istance t o n earest c oast:

5

t o

C oas t km

c urve o f l ittorality.

b e h igh , b arren, a nd i naccessible i n c omparison t o t he c oastal f ringe. T hus t he c oastal l ocation o f c hambered c airns i s s imply a r eflection o f t he c oastal l ocation o f h uman a ctivity , a nd s uggests t hat t he c airns w ere i nvolved i n e very-day l ife. T able 1 2.25 s hows t he s tatistics f or d istance t o n earest

c oast

b roken d own b y c luster. T he o nly o bservation o f n ote f rom t his t able i s t hat t he c airns o f c lusters T V-VI a re , o n a verage , l ocated f urther a way f rom t he c oast t han o ther c airns , w ith a m ean d istance o f 6 84 m c ompared w ith 4 65 m . T his o bservation i s u ndoubtedly a ssociated w ith t he h igh v alues o f a bsolute a nd r elative a ltitude f or t hese c airns. T he s econd a ttribute o f t he c oast t o b e d iscussed h ere n ature o f t he n earest s hore t o e ach c hambered c airn. R itchie, a nd S mith ( 1975), i n a n a rticle b ased o n t he w ork B each S urvey o f O rkney , i dentified t hree d istinct e lements c oastline: 1 . h igh c liffs: c oastlines w ith c liffs i n e xcess o f a ccounting f or 1 42 k m o r 1 8% o f t he O rkney l ittoral. 2 . b eaches: s and o r s hingle c oastlines, o r 1 1% o f t he s hore. 3 .

i s t he M ather , o f t he i n t he

1 5

m ,

a ccounting f or 9 0

k m

l ow r ock s hores: l ow c liffs o r c liff l ess r ocky c oastlines , b eing b y f ar t he m ost c ommon c oastal t ype w ith 5 61 k m o r 7 1% o f t he l ittoral.

T he d istribution o f t hese t hree t ypes i s s hown i n F igure 1 2.26. I t i s a pparent t hat h igh c liff c oastlines a re c oncentrated o n t he w estern s ea-board o f O rkney a nd t hat t he n orth i sles, a nd i n p articular S anday a nd S tronsay , h ave a c oncentration o f b each c oastlines. T he n ature o f t he n earest c oast t o e ach o f t he 7 6 c hambered c airns w as n oted ( Figure 1 2.27). O nly o ne c airn , O nziebist ( ORK T 3) i n E gilsay , i s n earest t o ab each. H igh c liffs a re t he s econd m ost c ommon c oastal t ype w ith 2 2 e xamples b ut t he g reat m ajority o f c airns a re l ocated c losest t o l ow r ock c oasts. T b e xplore t he p ossibility t hat o ne o f t he t hree c oastal t ypes w as p referred b y t he c airn-builders, a c hi-square o ne s ample t est w as e mployed. T he n ull h ypothesis i s t hat t here i s n o a ssociation b etween t he d istribution o f c hambered c airns i n O rkney a nd t he d istribution o f c oastal t ypes. T he s ignificance l evel w as s et a t 0 .05. T he c ontingency t able f or t he t est i s:

3 08

C oast

L ength ( % )

E xpected

H igh c liff

1 8

1 3.6

B each

1 1

8 .4

L ow r ock

7 1

5 4.0

5 3

1 00

7 6.0

7 6

T otals

F or t his t able,

) r 2>

) (2 = 1 1.73.

F rom

O bserved

t ables

2 2 1

( Fisher

a nd

Y ates,

1 963: 4 7) 5 .99 f or t wo d egrees o f f reedom a nd l evel o f s ignificance 0 .05. I n f act, t he n ull h ypothesis c ould b e r ejected e ven a t t he 0 .01 l evel o f s ignificance. T hus i t i s s tated t hat t here i s ah igh p robability t hat t he k nown c hambered c airns o f O rkney a re n ot d istributed r andomly w ith r espect t o n earest c oastal t ype. F urthermore, e xamination o f t he c ontingency t able r eveals t hat h igh c liff l ocations a re o ver-represented , a nd b each l ocations a re u nder-represented. T his l atter o bservation d oes n ot s upport D avidson's c onclusion t hat i t w as i mportant f or t he c airns o f R ousay t o h ave a ccess t o ab each ( Renfrew , 1 979: 1 8), b ut a c omparison o f h is map o f c oastal t ypes ( Figure 2 .5) w ith t hat o f t he B each S urvey ( Figure 1 2.26) r eveals a d ifferent d efinition o f " beach". D avidson's " beaches" a ll f all i n t he B each S urvey's c lass o f " low r ock" s hores. T he " beaches" o f t he B each S urvey a re m ajor , l arge-scale, b each s ystems: t he p resent c onclusion m ust b e a ltered t o s ay t hat c hambered c airns a re n ot l ocated i n c oast-line i s a m ajor b each s ystem.

p ositions

w here

t he

n earest

A p ossible e xplanation a s t o t he n ature o f t he n earest c oast b eing o f i mportance t o t he c airn-builders i s t hat a ccess b y s ea t o e ach cairn w as c onsidered d uring t he l ocation d ecision. T hat i s, i f e asy a ccess b y s ea was d esirable, t hen t he n earest c oast w ould b e o ne o n which a l anding b y s mall s ea c raft c ould b e e asily e ffected. C onversely , i f i t w as d esirable t o m ake a ccess b y s ea d ifficult , t hen t he n earest c oast m ight b e a d ifficult l anding p lace. I n O rkney , i t b ecame a pparent b y p ractical e xperience d uring t he c ourse o f f ield-work ,

t hat t here a re f ew p laces w here i t i s i mpossible t o

l and

as mall b oat, a nd t hat t he o rder o f d ifficulty i s m ore o ften d ecided b y t he s tate o f t ide a nd c urrent t han b y n ature o f c oast. T he o nly p laces w here a ccess t o t he l and f rom t he s ea m ight b e d ifficult a re t hose d esignated b y t he B each S urvey a s h aving c liffs i n e xcess o f 1 5 m . A s n oted a bove , t here a re 2 2 c hambered c airns w ith h igh c liffs a s t heir n earest c oastal t ype a nd t his n umber i s l arger t han w ould b e e xpected b y c hance. I t i s t hus c onceivable t hat t he c airn-builders p referentially l ocated t heir m onuments s o a s t o e nsure t hat a ccess b y s ea would b e d ifficult. T his r esult a llows f or n o s imple i nterpretation a nd i s e ntered h ere with n o e xplanation. A s a lways i t s hould b e b orne i n m ind t hat a ny s tatistical c orrelation b etween v ariables a llows f or e xplanations t han a c ausal c onnection b etween t he v ariates.

3 09

o ther

Minimum m

All

cai rns

Mean

Maximum

m

m

Standard deviation

0

2220

465

504

Cluster

I

4 0

1200

4 84

431

Cluster

II

2 4 0

9 80

3 60

213

Cluster

III

20

1210

391

78

30

1900

6 84

2 43

Clusters IV

IV-

_

T able

1 2.25 D istance t o n earest c oast: s tatistics b y c luster.

3 10

H ead

P PA WESTRAY Noup H ead; - -

S AN DAY

ROUSAY

! STRONSAY

S HAP INSAY

WEST MA INLAND

Mu l l H ead

EAST

D ee rnes s

MA INLAND

S CAPA F LO W

B URRAY

• -• C l iffs > 15m - - L ow c oas t l ines ( e xcep t b eaches ) B eaches ( i nc lud ing s h ing le b eaches ) -- 1 0 f athom s ubmar ine c ontour L and o ver 1 50 m L and 7 5-150 m

F igure 1 2.26 C oastal t ypes o f O rkney R itchie,

1 975).

( from M ather,

S mith a nd

T able 1 2.27 a lso s hows t he d istribution b y c luster o f t he n ature o f t he n earest c oast t o e ach c airn. T his d emonstrates t hat , f or e very c luster, t he d istribution i f s imilar w ith l ow r ock being t he m ost c ommon n earest c oast, c oasts.

f ollowed

b y

h igh

c liff

a nd

beach

I n s ummary, t he f ollowing c onclusions c an b e m ade c oncerning t he l ocation o f c hambered c airns w ith r espect t o t he c oast: 1 .

2 .

A s a g roup , t he c airns o f O rkney h ave a p ronounced t endency t o b e c lose t o t he c oast: t his i s s een a s a r eflection o f t he c oastal l ocation o f t he h uman a ctivity i n a n i sland-group. H igh c liff

c oastlines

w ere

p referred

o ver

m ajor

b each

s ystems a s t he n earest c oastal t ype. 3 .

T hese c onclusions

a pply

i rrespective

o f

t he

s tructural

d esign o f t he c hambered c airn. 1 2.3.

A M ULTIVARIATE A PPROACH

1 2.3.1.

I NTRODUCTION

H uman d ecisions a re r arely m ade o n t he b asis of a s ingle f actor: w e a rrive a t d ecisions t hrough t he o rdering o f many a cknowledged , a nd u nacknowledged , i nfluences. W e i mpose order on a c omplex n et o f c onnected i deas, b eliefs, a nd s tructures. T o a ttempt , t hen , t o i solate s ingle f actors i s t o i nvent s ingle f actors. T his i s t he w eakness o f t he univariate a pproach. A s p ractised a bove , a univariate a nalysis h as i solated f actors o f l ocation e ach o f w hich h as b een i nterpreted

s everal w ithout

r eference t o a ny o ther. S uch m ultiple i nterpretations a re a u seful w ay o f e ncompassing v ast a mounts o f i nformation b ut c an n ever p retend t o b e a c opy o f t he i nterpretation p laced o n t he l andscape b y t he c airn-builders. O ne way t o a pproach t his i nterpretation - t o r econstruct t he a ctions o f t he c airn-builders i n t heir l andscape - i s t o c onsider a ll t he i solated f actors o f l ocation t ogether a nd t o r educe t heir c omplexity i nto a v ery f ew c omposite f actors. F actor a nalysis i s o ne m ethod o f d oing t his.

T his t echnique i s

a n umerical p rocedure f or t ransforming a v ery l arge i nto a s mall a mount o f d ata while r etaining m ost o f c ontained

i n

t he

o riginal

d ata.

a mount o f data t he i nformation

C omputationally

c omplicated a nd i s u sually p erformed c onceptually i t i s s if f iple a nd e legant.

u sing

a

i t

i s

m achine ,

v ery but

I n r eality , t here a re a n umber o f t echniques, k nown b y t he g eneric n ame o f " factor a nalysis", o f w hich P rincipal C omponents A nalysis i s o ne e xample. I t w as c hosen f or u se h ere b ecause i t i s e ssentially a h ypothesis-seeking m ethod - i n t he i nitial s tages i t i ncludes a ll t he v ariance i n e ach v ariable a nd d oes n ot d iscard s ome v ariance f or t he s ake o f g reater c larity a ccording t o s ome i mmediately a pparent p attern. S ince w e h ave i mperfect k nowledge of t he c omposition o f t he d ata i n t his p roblem ( in c ommon w ith m ost h istorical p roblems),

P rincipal C omponents A nalysis w as t hought t o be

3 12

C luster I II

C lusters I V-VI

U nclustered

T otals

6

2 2

5 3

( 70

C luster I

C luster I I

L ow r ock

3

4

B each

0

0

0

0

2

o

7

1

1 2

2 2

( 28.9)

5

1 4

7

3 5

7 6

( 99.9)

H igh c liff

1 8

1

1

( 69.7) ( 1.3)

, T otals

T able 1 2.27

T able

2 5

N ature o f n earest c oast: d istribution b y c luster.

V ariable

M ean

W ATER

3 7.05

3 1.69

G EOSS

4 0.51

2 7.13

G EOPT

5 .48

1 1.95

G EOBC

1 4.40

1 8.05

G EOMI

2 .31

1 4 .80

S OIPZ

2 0 .73

2 0 .10

S OIPC

1 3.93

2 3.76

S OIGL

1 7.69

1 4.81

S OIGC

3 .10

1 2.30

S OIPT

5 .88

1 2.44

S tandard d eviation

S OIMI

1 .60

3 .85

L ucc3

1 1.11

1 5.23

L ucc4

2 0.05

1 5.23

L ucc5

1 5.31

1 5.99

L ucc6

1 5.84

1 9.14

L ucc7

0 .30

1 .07

A LTAB

3 7.61

3 5.29

A LTRE

5 0.47

3 0.02

C OAST

4 64.60

5 03.84

V ISID

1 36 .93

9 1.43

V ISII

1 32.67

8 6 .61

V ISIR

8 9.31

7 4.67

1 2.28 P rincipal C omponents A nalysis: s tatistics f or a ll v ariables.

3 13

t he m ost a ppropriate f orm o f f actor a nalysis. C ertain f ormal a ssumptions m ust b e s atisfied b efore t he P rincipal C omponents A nalysis c an p roceed . T he f irst o f t hese i s t hat t he p opulation d istribution o f e ach v ariable m ust n ot b e v ery d ifferent f rom a s tatistically n ormal d istribution. I n t he c ase o f l ocation , s ome v ariables ( such a s a bsolute a ltitude a nd d istance t o c oast) a re s kewed , b ut t here a re n o t heoretical r easons w hy t he u nderlying p opulation o f e ach v ariable s hould b e e xcessively s kewed , m ulti-modal, o r t runcated. A m ore i mportant a ssumption i s t he l inearity o f t he c orrelation b etween a ny t wo v ariables . T he a pplicability o f t he g eneral l inear m odel i s ac omplex i ssue a nd o ne w hich h as p rofound i mplications i n t he p hilosophy a nd i deology o f e xplanation ( Johnston , 1 978). R ather t han b ecoming e xcessively i nvolved i n t his i ssue, i t i s h ere a ssumed t hat P rincipal C omponents A nalysis i s a pplicable t o t he g iven a rchaeological d ata. I n t he s equel i t w ill b e s hown t hat t he u se o f t he p rocedure a ids o ur u nderstanding o f t he l ocation o f c hambered c airns: t his i s p erhaps s ignificant j ustification i n i tself f or u sing P rincipal C omponents A nalysis. Ab rief d escription o f P rincipal C omponents A nalysis w ill i nevitably b e i ncomplete a nd i naccurate, b ut b efore d iscussing t he r esults o f s uch a nalyses, i t i s e ssential t o o utline t he m echanics o f c omputation. T his o utline i s b est c ouched i n g eometric t erms. W e b egin w ith a d ata m atrix c ontaining n v ariables a nd m o bservations. T he v ariables a re c onsidered a s v ectors ( directed l ine s egments) i n n -dimensional s pace. T hese v ectors a re a rranged s o t hat t he c orrelation b etween e very t wo v ariables e quals t he c osine o f t he a ngle b etween t he e quivalent v ectors. B y av ariety o f c omputational d evices, t he v ectors a re r eplaced b y a nother s et o f n v ectors , c alled f actors , w hich c ontain a ll t he i nformation c ontained i n t he o riginal v ectors. T he f actors a re a ll p erpendicular t o e ach o ther w hich m eans t hat t hey a re a ll i ndependent o f e ach o ther ( since c os 9 0° = 0 ). T his g eometric r epresentation i s u nderstood t o h ave a n x n data m atrix b ehind i t , w ith e ach v ariable h aving a l oading f or e ach f actor. T he s um o f t he n s quared l oadings f or e ach v ariable i s t he c ommunality o f t hat v ariable a nd s tates t he a mount o f v ariance i n t he v ariable c ontained i n t he f actor s olution . T his i s a lways e qual t o 1 .0 f or a P rincipal C om p onents A nalysis b ecause n o i nformation h as b een d iscarded. T he s um o f t he n s quared l oadings f or e ach f actor i s t he e igenvalue o f t hat f actor a nd s tates t he a mount o f v ariance i n t he o riginal d ata c ontained i n t he f actor. T hus a ny f actor w ith a n e igenvalue g reater t han 1 .0 c ontains m ore o f t he p roblem v ariance t han a ny s ingle o ne o f t he o riginal v ariables. I t i s t hese f actors w e a re i nterested i n , md o ther f actors a re n ot c onsidered f urther. T hus t he o riginal n v ariables a re r educed t o av ery f ew f actors w hich c ontain a l arge p roportion o f t he i nformation c ontained i n t hose o riginal v ariables. T he i mportant f actors a re t hen t ranslated i nto v erbal s tatements b y m eans o f t he l oadings o f e ach v ariable. I t i s i mportant t o r ealise t hat P rincipal C omponents A nalysis i s o nly a m echanical o rdering d evice, a nd i t s hould n ot b e u sed w ithout a n u nderstanding o f t he d erivation o f t he o riginal d ata m atrix. T b b e e xplicit, a rchaeological k nowledge a nd e xperience a re n eeded i n t hree s tages o f t he p rocedure: 3 14

1 .

t he s election o f o bservations c airns)

2 .

t he s election o f v ariables

3 .

t he i nterpretation o f f actors

1 2.3.2.

( choosing

t he

7 6

c hambered

( choosing v ariables o f l ocation) ( writing a bout t he r esults).

P RINCIPAL C OMPONENTS A NALYSIS:

P RELIMINARIES

T he objective i s t o l ook f or c ommon p atterns i n t he l ocation o f t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney. T he c hoice o f s ites t o c onsider h as b een c omprehensively d iscussed: t he n umber o f c hambered c airns i s 7 6. T he v ariables o f l ocation t o b e u sed w ill b e t he s ame v ariables d iscussed i n t he u nivariate a nalysis w ith t he s ingle c onstraint t hat t hey m ust b e m easured i n c ontinuous r ather t han c ategoric f orm. T his c onstraint c an b e l argely m itigated b y t he c onstruction o f d ummy v ariables, f or w hich m easurement b y i nexact c lasses ( Appendix E ), i s i deally s uited. T wenty-two v ariables w ere e ntered i nto t he a nalysis. T hey a re h ere t abulated w ith t heir f ive-letter l abels a nd s hort d escriptions ( in e very c ase " area" i s u nderstood t o m ean " the p ercentage a rea w ithin a c airn"): 1 . 2 .

W ATER ( Water a rea): G EOSS

r adius

o f

o ne

s quare

k ilometre

o f

t he a rea o f s ea a nd l ochs

( Geology - s andstone):

t he a rea o f O ld R ed S andstone

n ot c overed b y s uperficial d eposits 3 .

G EOPT

( Geology - p eat):

t he a rea o f p eat a s d efined b y t he

p ublished g eological m aps 4 . 5 .

G EOBC G eology - b oulder c lay: G EOMI

t he a rea o f b oulder c lay

( Geology - m iscellaneous):

t he a rea o f m iscellaneous

g eological d eposits 6 .

S OIPZ

7 .

S OIPC ( Soil - p odzolic c omplexes): c omplexes

8 .

S OIGL ( Soil - g leys):

9 .

S OIGC

( Soil - p odzols):

( Soil

-

g leyic

t he a rea o f p odzols t he

a rea

o f

p odzolic

t he a rea o f g ley s oils c omplexes):

t he

a rea

o f

g leyic

c omplexes 1 0.

S OIPT ( Soil - p eat):

t he a rea o f p eat a s

d efined

b y

t he

p ublished s oil m aps 1 1.

S OIMI

( Soil - m iscellaneous):

t he

a rea

o f

m iscellaneous

s oil d eposits 1 2.

L UCC3

( Land U se C apability C lass

3 ):

t he a rea o f

c lass

3

( Land U se C apability C lass 4 ):

t he a rea o f

c lass

4

l and 1 3.

L UCC4

3 15

t he

land 14.

wccs

(Land Use Capability Class 5):

the area of class

5

15. WCC6 (Land Use Capability Class 6): land

the area of

class

6

16. WCC7 (Land Use Capability Class 7): land

the area of

class

7

land

17. ALTAB (Altitude - absolute): level of the cairn

the absolute height above sea

18. ALTRE (Altitude - relative): cairn

the relative altitude of the

19. mAST (Distance to coast): the nearest coast

the distance from the cairn

20. VISID (Visibility - distant): the distant visibility from the cairn

number

of

21. VISII (Visibility - intermediate): the number of intermediate visibility from the cairn

degrees of

to of

degrees

22. VISIR (Visibility - restricted): the number of degrees restricted visibility from the cairn.

of

Of the 22 variables, four are concerned with geology, six with soil, five with land use capability, two with altitude, three with visibility and aspect, and two (WATER and COAST) with relationships to water. In the final data matrix, there were no missing values. Of the 1672 entries, only three - the visibility figures for the unvisited site of Cnziebist (ORK T3) - were estimated. 'Ihe Principal Components Analysis was performed at the University of Glasgow on an ICL 2976 using the program package SPSS, Version 4.2 (IBM Release 8.1). 'Ihis suite of programs is documented in Nie et al. (1975) and Hull and Nie (1979). 12.3.3. PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS ANALYSIS: RESULTS 'Ihe means and standard deviations of each of the 22 are displayed in Table 12.28. Many of these have been during the course of the univariate analysis.

variables discussed

'Ihe procedure begins with the production of a table of correlation coefficients showing the degree of association between each pair of variables. 'Ihis table was checked for high correlations. OE the 231 pair-wise correlations, only three were numerically greater than 0. 70, and these three associations are readily explained. 'Ihe correlation between GEOPT and SOIPT is 0.82: roth variables are measuring area of peat and any difference is due to the different definitions of peat used by the Geological Survey in 316

the 1880s and by the Soil SUrvey in the 1970s. 'Ihese definitions are very similar and it is to be expected that the two peat variables should be highly correlated. The correlation between WATER and COAST is -0.77 indicating that area of open water within one kilometre of the cairns decreases as distance from the shore increases. Again, this is an expected result. Finally, the correlation between WATER and GEOSS is -0.75 indicating that the area of open water and the area of sandstone with no overlying deposits within one kilometre of the cairns vary in inverse proportion. Since sandstone is by far the most common geological type (as indicated in Table 12.28), this result is not a surprise. 'Iwenty-two orthogonal factors were imposed on the matrix of correlation coefficients and its inverse, with the communality of each variable assumed to be unity. Thus no information is discarded at this stage of the procedure. 'Ihe eigenvalues and the amount of variance "explained" (in the statistical sense) by each factor are displayed in Table 12.29. Eigenvalues range from 5.16 downwards but only seven of the 22 factors have eigenvalues in excess of 1.00. These seven factors, each explaining more of the variance in the data than any single one of the variables, together account for 78.2% of the total variance. 'Ihus by considering just these seven factors, the complexity of the problem has been reduced by two-thirds while only discarding one-fifth of the variance. Table 12.30 shows exactly which variance has been discarded: variable LUCC7, a very minor variable, has lost half its variance, but every other variable has retained greater than 60% of its original variance. Table 12.31, the loadings matrix for the seven factors, is the crux of this analysis. Each factor will be interpreted separately. t'bte that the eigenvalues for each factor are a measure of that factor's relative importance. 'Ihis factor has a very high Factor I (Eigenvalue 5.16): negative loading on WATER and very high positive loadings on COAST, ALTAB, and GEOSS. It also has high positive loadings on LUCCS, WCC6, and VISIR. In descriptive terms, the single most important combination of variables which determines the location of the known chambered cairns of Orkney is: small area of water within one kilometre; high distance from the coast; high absolute altitude; large area of sand stone lacking superficial deposits within one kilometre; and restricted visibility. Thus a typical chambered cairn might be situated some distance from the shore, near the top of a hill but with the slope blocking an all-round panorama, with ruilding stone easily accessible, and on or very close to, land not now considered suitable for agriculture. Many of these characteristics were included in G:>rdon Cllilde's model of chambered cairn location for the island of Rousay published in 1942. The first factor adds to this model the importance of restricted visibility and accessible building stone and extends its validity from a single island to the island-group in its entirety. Should validation of the use of factor analysis be needed, the loadings on this primary factor are adequate proof that the technique is as powerful (and indeed much more powerful since we still have six factors to interpret) as methods which have been used in the past. Factor II (Eigenvalue 3.07):

This

factor

has

a

very

high

Eigenvalue

1

5.155 3.073 2.330 1.966 1.772

23.4 14.o 10.6 8.9 8.1

0.798

3.6

2 3 4

5

6 7 8

1.651 1.244 0.964

9 10 12

3.1

o.457

2.1

o.430

13

14

0.279

0.205

15

0.183

16

86.2 89.2

91.6 93.7

o.8

97.8 98.7

20 21

0.004 0.001

o.o o.o

96.9

99.5

99.9

100.0 100.0 100.0

0.1

100.0

o.o

12.29 Principal Components Analysis: eigenvalues and variance.

Variable

Communality

GEOSS

0.974 o.868

GEOBC

0.782

WATER GEOPT

GEOMI SOIPZ SOIPC

SOIGL

SOIGC SOIPT

0.870 0.776

o.639 0.813

0.609 0.816

0.904

LUCC3

0.772 0.690

LUCC5

0.797

SOIMI

LUCC4

LUCC6

0.798 0.876

LUCC7

o.491

ALTRE

0.633

ALTAB COAST

VISID VISII VISIR

Table

82.5

95.6

0.095

0.000

72.5 78.2

1.3 0.9

o.8 o.4

22

56.9 65.0

2.0

0.176

0.013

23.4 37.4 48.o

2.4

17 18

19

Cunrulative variance

7.5 5.7 4.4

0.675 0.517

11

Table

Percentage of variance

Factor

0.830

0.776 0.875

0.781 0.813

12.30 Principal Components Analysis: communalities for seven-factor solution.

Factor 7 Factor Factor 5

0 \00 \ J D , . 1 77 0 t r \ , 4 • i nc k tc , / r-w . ) o\ o\, 4 ni t-N F0 -1, n-7 7 0 . 7 c n\ O , I 0 4 0 0 0 t • • O N , 1 0 C O c n-7 , I 0, . 4 , . 1 , 1 ‘ 4 0 C V 0 0 C \C O 0 0 C M , . 1 0 C \ 1 , 1 0 , 1 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I I 1 11 1 1 1

Factor 4

, 1 0 1 -7 C- ON V.\0 . 1 1 " -O D 0 P i r I\ ID ,1 1 " - I r \Cl O e C - C r,7 . b r % . I 2 C V C ' 0 . 1 c o 0 ,. 0 C 9 t . - NC :C O N N 1 . . C T 0 V D 0 C M ( I N 4 ' n. . . 1 .. , 1 0 C V . 1 C , 1, 1 0 0 0 C . " \VD , 1 7 C I c v • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0 o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 1 I 11 1 1 1 1 I 1

Factor 3

V \ i n r 1 uq 1) 1 L \ ,0 7 C 1 O % . 0 1 . e ncm O r " ).n r- C h7 0 ' 1 0 C V 0 C I C O 7 C h , . 1 \ . 0 ,C, , 4 o N c nc o c v 4 ' c n. 1 C O O N 0 0 e N t C . - 0 N 0 O cn,4 ‚ i 0C \ /,i ncn.4 e1,4 7 C . 1,1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 I 1 I 1

C O C M \ D . e c o ‘ . 0 ,. o k r , , I 0 \7 , . 11 r 1C0 C h C -,1 ( N V ) C O C 0 O 1\ D C r , 0 \' . 0 01 -0 O N u-1C f l f 1 U 1 Hel a , C V e 0 C \ 1 , 1 , 1 C O 0 , I e 1C \ I,1 0 , 1 7 1 0 , 1 7 N H 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 II I I II I 11 1 1 1 I I

, Factor 1

\ 0 C \ / \ C, ‘ .0 ON 0 n u-Nr - c r , 0 1. . 1 H 1 - r I i n 0 \O C O N CO N CO CV OO N ry .o C V ( \ I 0 C . - ,17 , . 1 C-10 , 1 C -\ O 0 0 . I 0 , i 0, s n r-, 4 0 C m c n7 7 c n 0 0 , i n,4 , 1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 1 I I 1 I 1 II

Factor 2

6

0 1C0 \ O 7 7 r - c v c n C A 0 C V O D , . 1 k r 1C \ 1 0 0 C Y , 1 0 \‘ . 0 C . - 0 . 4 a \ n co r - c o , 1 . i ,. o 0 i-Nu " ‘ i t-% -/ . • r - , 1 c • %c o , 1 0 r - , . 1 , I N 0 ,1 0 0 1 , 1 -7 0 0 , 1 0 . 1 n 0 0 C , 10 . I 0 , . 1 V W ) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 II I I I I I

\ C 9 7 C h m c n I A H c o c o r - r ) i A-e. c m \V J 0 C I 1 --I 0 0 r 10 0 C . - C \ 1 , 4 C r ,c o c • % c m o N e H 0 0 7 , 1 \ O . 1 ' 1 , 1 k c . " 1c v c m 0 c o ( c e % C A C . - r 1,1 , 1 C M. . .? c , / n c n c m . 1 c v ,. o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I i I

= c i )

. c . . )11 N C . ) . 1 0E 4 H e l7 u-N vz r - p l f4 ( + A HIZ X X c . ) c . ) or . . ) U S a % P I 1 - H H E . 0 0 0 0 H H H H H H C) c . ) 0 0c . . ) 1“ .n rn S f r . 1 (4 rA f i l 0 0 0 0 0 0 4, 1 0 H H H

3 19

p ositive l oadings o n G EOBC a nd L UCC3, a nd h igh p ositive l oadings o n L UCC4 , S OIPZ , a nd V ISII. I n d escriptive t erms, t he s econd m ost i mportant c ombination o f l ocation v ariables i s: l arge a reas o f b oulder c lay w ithin o ne k ilometre, l arge a reas o f c lass 3 a nd c lass 4 l and, l arge a reas o f p odzols, a nd e xtensive s ectors o f i ntermediate v isibility. T hus a nother t ypical s ituation f or a n O rcadian c hambered c airn m ight b e o n g ood f arming l and o f t he p resent d ay w ith p odzolic s oils d eveloped o n g lacial t ill, a nd e xtensive v iews o f l and w ithin f ive k ilometres. T his i s a f ormulation w hich c ontrasts i n s ome ways w ith t he C hildean m odel, b ut m any c airns ( the m ost obvious b eing M aes H owe a nd Q uanterness) a re i ndeed i n t his k ind o f s ituation: t he f ormulation i s i ntuitively s atisfactory. F actor I II ( Eigenvalue 2 .33): T wo v ery h igh n egative l oadings c ontribute t o t he h igh e igenvalue o f t his f actor a nd b oth , o n t he v ariables S OIPT a nd G EOPT , a re m easures o f p eat c over. T his i ndicates t hat a n i mportant p art o f t he v ariance n oted i n t he l ocation o f t he 7 6 c hambered c airns i s i s a ccounted f or by l ow a reas o f p eat c over w ithin r ange o f t he c airn: a t ypical l ocation i s a way f rom t he p eat a reas o f O rkney. A s d iscussed i n a nalysis, t his i s m ost r easonably a ttributed t o t he

t he u nivariate o bscuration o f

c hambered cairns by t he g rowth o f p eat i n l ater p rehistoric T he s ingularity o f t his o bscuration e lement i s e mphasised b y I II w hich has v ery h igh l oadings on b oth p eat v ariables, a nd

t imes. f actor o n n o

o ther v ariable. F actor I V ( Eigenvalue 1 .97):

T he f ourth m ost i mportant

h as h igh p ositive l oadings o n A LTRE a nd V ISID :

f actor

i n d escriptive t erms,

i t e mphasises t he d esirability o f h igh r elative a ltitude a nd l arge s ectors o f d istant v isibility. T hus a nother e lement o f t he l ocation o f t he c airns o f O rkney i s t o p anoramas.

f avour

h igh

p ositions

w ith

d istant

F actor V ( Eigenvalue 1 .77): T his f actor h as a v ery h igh p ositive l oading on S OIMI a nd a h igh p ositive l oading o n G EOMI w ith a h igh n egative l oading o n S OIPC , i ndicating l arge a reas o f m iscellaneous s oils a nd g eological t ypes w ithin o ne k ilometre o f t he c airn , a ssociated w ith s mall a reas o f p odzolic c omplexes. T he s ingle m ost c ommon t errain t ype w hich f alls i nto t he m iscellaneous c ategories i s b lown s and w ith s keletal m achair s oils, a nd f actor V i s p erhaps b est i nterpreted a s i ndicating a p reference f or cairns t o b e s ituated c lose t o t he r ich p asture o f t hese m achair a reas. F actor V I

( Eigenvalue 1 .65):

O nly o ne v ariable,

S OIGC ,

h as

a

s ignificant l oading o n t his f actor, a nd t hat l oading i s n egative. T his c onfirms t hat c airns w ere p referentially l ocated a way f rom g leyic c omplexes. F actor V II ( Eigenvalue 1 .24): L ike f actor V I , ah igh n egative l oading o n j ust o ne v ariable, V ISIR . g eneral p reference f or l ocation

i n

p ositions

w here

t his f actor h as T his i mplies a t here

a re

n o

e xtensive s ectors o f r estricted v isibility. 1 2.3.4.

P RINCIPAL COMPONENTS A NALYSIS:

C LUSTER T HREE

H aving p erformed a f actor a nalysis o n t he c omplete data m atrix, t he n ext m ost obvious s tep i s t o f ollow t he s ame p rocedure f or t he

3 20

s maller data m atrices r epresenting e ach c luster o f c airns. U nfortunately, t he s mall n umber o f o bservations c ontained i n c luster I m eans t hat t he a ppropriate d ata m atrix would c ontain f ive o bservations b y 2 2 v ariables. A m achine w ill p erform a f actor a nalysis o n a m atrix o f t hese d imensions b ut i t i s c onceptually u nsound t o p erform a n R -mode a nalysis o f t his t ype w hen t he n umber o f v ariables e xceeds t he n umber o f o bservations ( Johnston , 1 978: 1 81). T hus, P rincipal C omponents A nalysis i s p recluded f or t he c airns o f c luster I , a nd a lso f or t he c airns o f c luster I I a nd c lusters I V-VI. I n a ny c ase, b ecause c ertain v ariables s core z ero f or e very m ember o f s ome c lusters ( for e xample, t he v alue o f L UCC7 f or a ll f ive c airns o f c luster I i s z ero),

t he c orrelation m atrix c annot b e i nverted a nd t he

f actor a nalysis w ill n ot b e c ompleted. S uch v ariables c ould b e o mitted f rom t he a nalysis, b ut t he r esults w ould n ot b e s trictly c omparable b etween c lusters. C luster I II , w ith 2 5 o bservations b y 2 2 w ell-formed v ariables, i s t he o nly c luster o n w hich a P rincipal C omponents A nalysis i s a v alid o peration. T Wenty-two o rthogonal f actors w ere i mposed o n t he d ata w ith t he r esults o utlined i n T able 1 2.32. S ix f actors h ave e igenvalues i n e xcess o f 1 .00, t ogether a ccounting f or 8 1.7% o f t he o riginal v ariance. T able 1 2.33 s hows t hat t he s ix-factor s olution a ccounts f or only 5 2% o f t he v ariance o f G EOMI a nd 6 5% o f t hat o f A LTRE , b ut f or g reater t han 7 0% o f t he v ariance c ontained i n e very o ther v ariable. T able 1 2.34 i s t he m atrix o f f actor l oadings f or t he s ix-factor s olution. A s t he f ollowing i nterpretations s how , t here i s a h igh d egree o f s imilarity b etween t he f actors p resent i n t he l ocation o f a ll c airns a nd H owever,

i n

t he

l ocation

o f

t he

t he r elative i mportance o f t he

c airns

f actors

o f

c luster

r eveal

a

I II.

c ritical

d ifference b etween t he c airns o f c luster I II a nd o ther c airns. T he i nterpretations o f t he f actors s hown i n T able 1 2.34 i s a s f ollows: F actor I ( Eigenvalue 6 .17): T his f actor h as a n egative l oading o n W ATER , v ery h igh p ositive l oadings

v ery h igh o n G EOSS ,

C OAST , A LTAB , L UCC6 , L UCC7 , a nd S OIPC , a nd a h igh p ositive l oading o n L UCC5. C ertainly , t his c orresponds t o f actor I o f t he a ll-cairn s olution a nd s hows t hat t he m ajor t hrust o f l ocation a mong t he c luster I II c airns, a ccounting f or o ver v ariance, i s t owards t he C hildean m odel.

a

quarter

o f

t he

t otal

F actor I I ( Eigenvalue 3 .14): W ith v ery h igh n egative l oadings o n S OIPT a nd G EOPT , t his f actor c orresponds t o f actor I II o f t he a ll-cairn s olution , a nd m ay b e a ttributed t o obscuration o f c hambered c airns by p eat g rowth. F actor I II ( Eigenvalue 2 .91):

T his

f actor

h as

a

v ery

h igh

p ositive l oading o n G EOBC a nd h igh p ositive l oadings o n S OIPZ a nd L UCC5. I nasmuch a s a ny o f t he c luster I II f actors c orrespond t o f actor I I o f t he a ll-cairn s olution , t hen t his f actor s hould b e r egarded a s s uch. T he f actor i s, h owever, m ore d iffuse, v ariable l oadings c ontributing t o i ts h igh e igenvalue.

w ith

m any

F actor I V ( Eigenvalue 2 .40): c orresponding t o f actor V o f t he a ll-cairn s olution , t his f actor h as h igh p ositive l oadings o n S OIMI a nd G EOMI, a nd m ay b e due t o a p reference f or l ocation c lose t o

1

6 .174

2

3 .142

3

2 .912

4

2 .400

5

1 .815

6

1 .537

7

0 .959

8

0 .826

9

0 .753

1 0

0 .1 483

1 1

0 .290

1 2

0 .196

1 3

0 .179

1 4

0 .135

1 5

0 .090

1 6

0 .062

1 7

0 .035

1 8

0 .001

1 9

0 .000

2 0

0 .000

2 1

0 .000

2 2

0.000

P ercentage o f v ariance

2 8.1 4 2.3

1 2.32 P rincipal C omponents A nalysis, a nd v ariance.

V ariable

T able

C umulative v ariance

C • 1 n 0 \ c n 0 2 C O 2 C r C o C \ I 0 0 0 0 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • C " 1 0 C O C c n n n H 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E igenvalue

• 0

T able

F actor

5 5.6 6 6 .5 7 4.8 8 1.7 8 6.1 8 9 -9 9 3-3 9 5-5 9 6.8 9 7-7 9 8-5 9 9 .1 9 9-5 9 9.8 1 00 .0 1 00.0 1 00 .0 1 00.0 1 00 .0 1 00.0

c luster I II:

e igenvalues

C ommunality

W ATER

0 .976

G EOSS

0 .887

G EOPT

0 .894

G EOBC

0 .897

G EOMI

0 .522

S OIPZ

0 .750

S OIPC

0 .762

S OIGL

0 .731

S OIGC

0 .767

S OIPT

0 .972

S OIMI

0 .841

L UCC3

0 .849

L UCC4

0 .922

L UCC5

0 .829

L UCC6

0 .945

L UCC7

0 .780

A LTAB

0 .843

A LTRE

0 .649

C OAST

0 .866

V ISID

0 .795

V ISIT

0 .764

V ISIR

0 .732

1 2.33 P rincipal C omponents A nalysis, c luster I II: c ommunalities f or s ix-factor s olution.

'W N' w

Table

WATER GEOSS GEOPT GEOBC GE0MI SOIPZ SOIPC SOIGL SOIGC SOIPT SOIMI LUCC3 LUCC4 LUCC5 LUCC6 LUCC7 ALTAB ALTRE COAST VISID VISII VISIR -� 9 -0.80 � -0.32 0.248 o.516 -0.095 -o.467 0.330 0.081 0.372 0.108 0.288 -0.158 -0.226

o. 90 -0.083 0.212 0.019

�

-0.058

o. 35 -�

-0.217 -0.108 0.188 0.386

-�

-0.292 0.166 -o.453 o.436 o.413 0.359 0.232

-o.422 0.030 0.215 0.689 0.070

Factor 3 0.129 -0.132 -0.326 0.064 o.666 -0.324 -0.155 0.245 -0.224 0.014 o.684 -o.s1t 0.09 o.439 -0.195 0.042 -0.309 -0.350 0.129 0.213 -0.428 0.372

Factor 4

-0.083 0.019 0.201 0.215 0.113 -0.307 0.035 o.432

--0.052 � �

0.112 -0.202 -0.288 o.421 0.160 -0.361 0.174 -0.115 o.418 -0.179 0.233

Factor 5 0.117 -0.209 0.132 0.034 -0.165 -0.354 -0.324 o.420 -0.239 0.256 0.193 -0.033 -o.489 0.013 0.131 0.209 0.142 o.433 0.004 0.381 0.073 -o.454

Factor 6

12.34 Principal Components Analysis, cluster III: factor loadings for six-factor solution. (Loadings in excess of 10.501 are underlined).

0.761 0.818 0.345 0.821 0.342. -0.600 0.383

0 8 �

o.467 0.171 0.067 -0.275 0.147

0 l 5 �

0.030 -0.121 -0.056

-�

0.049 0.204

-0.868 0.862

o':2'64

Factor 2

Factor l

machair land. Factor V and Factor VI contain no high loadings which allow of reasonable explanation and are here left with no interpretation. 12.3.5. SUMMARY The multivariate approach has revealed certain patterns and associations in the collected data on location which were not readily apparent using a univariate approach. The most significant pattern is the identification of two different types of location. 'Ihe first two conclusions from this section are thus: 1. Some of the chambered cairns of Orkney, and the trend is particularly strong among the small round cairns with simple chaml:ers of cluster III, were preferentially located some distance from the shore on a hillslope, on land now considered marginal for agriculture, and close to stone suitable for building. This is the classic Olildean model, with some eml:ellishment, and extended beyond the bounds of a single island. 2. Some of the chambered cairns of Orkney, and the trend is weak among the cairns of cluster III, suggesting that it is particularly strong among cairns of other sizes and shape, were preferentially located on land now reckoned to be good for agriculture with podzolic soils developed on glacial till, and with extensive views of the land within· five kilometres. In addition to these two major elements, the analysis has suggested three other conclusions about the location of the Orcadian cairns: 3. The cair s of which we have knowledge are generally located away frc areas of peat: it is suggested that this pattern is due to peat growth since the Neolithic period obscuring cairns from the view of the modern archaeologist. 4. Many cairns are preferentially located with distant panoramas.

in

high positions

5. Many cairns are preferentially located close to the pasture-land of machair.

324

rich

Land and Society in Neolithic Orkney

David Fraser Part ii

BAR British Series 117(ii)

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A . R • Hands , B • Sc . , M.A . , D • Phil. D .R • Walker, M .A •

B.A.R. 117 (II), 1983: 'Land and Society 1n Neolithic Orkney' Part II

© David Fraser, 1983.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390994 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407391007 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860542193 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407317274 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542193 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS VOWME TWO PART FOUR THE PEOPLE Chapter 13 The Burial Evidence 13.1 13.2 13 .3 13.4

Possibilities of the evidence ............. '!he early excavations ..................... Q.Ianterness and Isbister .................. Evidence from sites other than chambered cairns ..........................

327 333 338 345

Olapter 14 '!he Measurement of Labour 14.1 14.2 14.3

Problems in the measurement of labour ..... Cairns: volumes and worker-hours .......... SUmmary •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

34 7 349 360

Chapter 15 Sky, Space, and Spirals: the Symbols of Neolithic Orkney 15.1 15.2 15.2.1 15.2.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6

Introduction ............•................. Orientation Orientation of cairn, chamber, and passage ........................... . Orientation of visibility .............. Intervisibility .....................•..... '!he demarcation of space within chambered cairns .......................... Animal bones and totemism ................. D=corated stones

363 364 371 379 387 396 401

Chapter 16 Social Organisation: some Alternative Reconstructions 16.1 16.2 16.3 PART FIVE

Farmers and megalithic missionaries ....... Farmers and astronomer-priests ............ Farmers in a segmentary society ...........

409 410 413

SPECULATIONS

Olapter 1 7 Synthesis and Speculation Introduction ·..... ..· .. ....................... The cognitive basis.of society ............ 'Ihe organisation of .society .....•.........

421 421 426

Appendix A A Gazeteer of the Cl1ambered Cairns of Orkney ........

437

Appendix B A List of Uncertain Sites ...........................

539

17.1 17.2 17.3

iii

A ppendix C A L ist o f S tanding S tones

5 47

A ppendix D O n M easurement

5 49

A ppendix E D escription o f I nexact C lasses

5 51

A ppendix F T he C Utpoint

I ndex

5 53

L IST O F R EFERENCES

5 55

i v

P ART FOUR

THE P EOPLE

C HAPTER T HIRTEEN : 1 3.1.

T HE B URIAL E VIDENCE

P OSSIBILITIES O F T HE E VIDENCE

W hen s tudying t he p eople o f O rkney i n t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia b c, t he f irst p oint o f a ttack m ust b e t he p hysical r emains o f t hose p eople. A ny a rgument c oncerning t heir e xtrasomatic a ctivities o r t he n ature o f t heir s ociety w ill b e s trengthened i f i t i s s upported b y t he e vidence o f t heir b ones. T he a rchaeology o f d eath h as r eceived m uch a ttention i n t he a rchaeological l iterature o ver t he l ast t wo d ecades. T he l atest m anifestation i s t he p ublication o f a n e dited v olume e ntitled T he A rchaeology o f D eath ( Chapman e t a l., 1 981). M any a dvances h ave b een m ade i n t he t wo d ecades, e specially i n t he f ields o f p hysical e xamination a nd i nterpretation o f f unerary r emains, a nd i n t he r econstruction o f s ocial s tructure i n d eath a nd l ife. I t i s n ot t he p urpose h ere t o r eview a dvances i n t hese f ields, a t ask v ery a dequately h andled b y C hapman a nd R andsborg ( 1981) i n t he i ntroductory c hapter t o t he a bove v olume. R ather, i t i s t he a im o f t his s ection t o e xamine t he p ossibilities w hich h ave b een s uggested b y t he r ecent r esearch a nd t o d iscuss t heir a pplication t o t he e vidence a vailable f rom N eolithic O rkney. T he s tudy o f m ortuary p ractices l argely o wes i ts r ecent e xpression t o t he w ork o f B inford ( 1971)and t o adissertation b y S axe ( 1970). T hese t wo r ecognised s everal " dimensions" o f m ortuary p ractice, o r s everal w ays i n w hich t he p hysical r emains o f d ead p eople c ould b e u sed t o d escribe o r e xplain t he s ociety o f t heir l iving d ays. M ost o f t hese d imensions c ould b e e xplored u sing e vidence w hich h as b een g athered c oncerning N eolithic O rkney , a nd t he r ationale b ehind e ach d imension w ill b e e xplored h ere. P erhaps t he m ost o bvious d imension o f m ortuary p ractice i s t he n umber o f p eople w ho a re p laced i n t he h ouses o f t he d ead. R aw n umbers c an o nly e ver s uggest a m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals w ho w ere p laced i n a n a rea e xcavated b y a rchaeologists, a nd t hat a rea i s i nevitably a v ery s mall p art o f t he p otential a rea i n w hich a s ocial g roup m ay h ave p laced t heir d ead. N evertheless, i f i t i s p ossible t o m ake a ssumptions a bout t he m eaning o f a n a rchaeological s ite t o t he p ast s ociety ( and w e s hall s ee l ater t hat t hese k inds o f a ssumptions h ave b een m ade b y R enfrew a nd o thers) t hen i t m ay b e p ossible t o m ake s tatements a bout t hat s ociety o n t he b asis o f r aw n umbers. T he t echniques f or m aking a n e stimate o f t he m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals i n a ny c ontext a re w ell e stablished: f or e xample, t he n umber o f i ndividuals c annot b e l ess t han t he n umber o f e xamples o f a s pecific b one, s uch a s t he m andible, f ound i n t he c ontext. T he s econd d imension i s a ge . P hysical a nthropologists h ave l ong b een a ble t o d etermine t he a ge a t d eath o f h umans f rom s tudy o f t heir s keletons. A n e arly p aper b y G enoves ( 1963b) s et o ut f our a natomical m ethods o f d etermining b iological a ge, m ethods w hich r emain t he f irst p oints o f a ttack b y p alaeoanatomists: 1 . b y d ental e ruption

( the a ge a t w hich t eeth e merge)

2 . b y s ynostosis o f t he b ones

( the a ge a t w hich c omplete u nion

3 27

o f t he b ones o f p elvis,

s acrum a nd s kull t akes p lace)

3 . b y e piphysial u nion o f t he b ones ( the a ge a t w hich o ssification o f c ertain n eighbouring b ones t akes p lace) 4 . b y c hanges a t t he a rticular s urface o f t he p ubic s ymphysis ( the a ge a t w hich c ertain c haracteristics o f t he p elvis b ecome a pparent). Ar elated d imension i s s ex . T his, a s w ith a ge, i s r elatively w ell u nderstood b y a natomists, a nd G enoves ( 1963a) a gain w as o ne o f t he f irst t o d isseminate t he r elevant t echniques t o a rchaeology. S ex d etermination c annot b e b ased o n as ingle o bservation o n m easurement, b ut a c ombination o f o bservations o r m ore t han o ne b one m ay b e s ufficient t o d etermine i f t he i ndividual w as m ale o r f emale. T he s ignificant b ones s uggested b y G enoves a re t he p elvis, t he s kull a nd f ace, a nd t he a rticular s urfaces o f t he l ong b ones. A n ote o f w arning m ust b e s ounded a bout a ge a nd s ex d etermination. A ll s uch o bservations a re n ecessarily b ased o n c omparison w ith t he a natomical d etails o f k nown ( and u sually m odern) p opulations. G enoves, i n b oth o f t he a rticles c ited a bove, p oints o ut t hat t here i s w ide v ariation i n a natomical c haracteristics w ithin p opulations ( two i ndividuals o f t he s ame g roup m ay d isplay d ifferent c haracteristics) a nd b etween p opulations ( the a verage c haracteristics o f o ne g roup m ay b e d ifferent f rom t hose o f a nother g roup). W hen w e a re d ealing w ith a p opulation a bout w hich w e h ave n o k nowledge, s uch a s a p rehistoric g roup , t hen o ur a ssumptions a bout a natomical d eterminants o f a ge a nd s ex m ay n ot b e a ppropriate. Af L durth d imension i s p athology , o r i n t he c ase o f p rehistoric p opulations, p alaeopathology. B y t his i s m eant t he s tudy o f d isease o r a bnormalities w hich l eave t heir p hysical t races i n t he b ones o f t he d ead . I n s ome c ases, s uch a s t rauma o f t he s kull, t he c ause o f d eath m ay b e d iscerned. M S G oldstein ( 1963) l ists s ome o f t he c onditions w hich h ave b een n oted i n a ncient s keletons: t hese i nclude c ongenital m alformations a nd d islocations, s coliosis, m ongolism , o steomyelitis, a rthritis, t uberculosis o f b one, s yphilis, l eprosy , a nd t umours o f b one. A l arge l iterature a lso e xists o n t he p alaeopathology o f t eeth a nd j aws. T he f ifth a nd s ixth d imensions o f m ortuary p ractice t o b e d iscussed h ere r elate t o t he c ondition a nd a rrangement o f h uman b one. T he c ondition o f b one d eposited i n b urial p laces m ay b e s et o ut i n a s eries o f o ppositions: 1 . b urnt/unburnt 2 . b leached/unbleached 3 . b roken/unbroken 4 . a rticulated/disarticulated. T he a rrangement o f h uman b one c an v ary i n t wo w ays. T here m ay b e s patial d ifferentiation w ithin a n a rchaeological s ite, s uch a s a h orizontal c emetery o r c hambered t omb , w hich l eads t o c ertain a reas b eing p referred o ver o thers f orm t he d eposition o f r emains. T here m ay b e s patial d ifferentiation b etween a rchaeological s ites o f t he s ame p eriod. T hese t wo s patial d ifferentiations m ay b e e xpressed ,

3 28

n ot s imply i n n umbers, b ut a lso i n a ge a nd s ex d ifferentiation . T hus, f or e xample, f emale i nfants m ay b e p laced i n a s pecific c ompartment w hile a ged m ales m ay b e e xcluded f or i nternment a ltogether. O ne f urther s patial d ifferentiation i s p ossible: t he b ones b elonging t o o ne i ndividual m ay b e d eposited i n d ifferent p laces a ccording t o s ome s cheme. A n e xample o f t his i ntrasomatic d ifferentiation w ould b e t he d exter b ones b eing s eparated f rom t he s inister b ones. T he c ondition a nd a rrangement o f h uman b one m ay e nable a rchaeologists t o m ake c ertain s tatements a bout t he s ociety o f w hich t he b ones a re a m aterial l egacy. F irstly , a nd m ost i mmediately, i t m ay b e p ossible t o i nfer s ome o f t he d etails o f f uneral a ctivity. T hat i s, i t m ay b e p ossible t o d etail t he s uccessive s tages o f p hysical c ondition t hat a b ody i s s ubject t o d uring t he t ransition f rom d eath t o f inal d isposal. T his i n t urn m ight e nable s tatements t o b e m ade a bout t he w ay i n w hich t he r elatives a nd f riends o f t he d eceased r egarded t hat t ransition, a nd h ence a bout t heir i deas o n t he r elationship b etween l ife a nd d eath. S econdly , t he c ondition a nd a rrangement o f d eposited b one m ay i n s ome c ases e nable i nferences t o b e m ade a bout s ocial o rganisation . F or i nstance , t he s ocial p osition o f a n i ndividual i n ah ierarchical s ociety m ay b e r eflected i n t he e ffort e xpended i n h is o r h er d isposal. A gain , i t m ay b e p ossible t o m ake s ome d eductions a bout t he s ocial a ffiliations o f i ndividuals a nd i nfer t heir m embership o f f amilies, k inship g roups o r c lans. T hese, a nd o ther , p ossibilities a re d iscussed i n d etail w ith r eference t o a ctual e xamples f rom f ive t housand y ears o f p rea nd p roto- h istory i n T he A rchaeology o f D eath a nd i ts p recursors. J ust o ne e xample o f p articular r elevance t o t he O rcadian e vidence w ill b e d iscussed h ere: C hesterman 's ( 1977) a rticle i n M an o n t he b urial r ites i n a C otswold l ong b arrow . rapezoidal l ong b arrow a bout 5 0 m A scott-under-Wychwood i s a t nd C heltenham i n s outhern E ngland i n l ength l ocated b etween O xford a ppears t o d ate f rom t he b eginning ( Figure 1 3.1). I ts c onstruction a rea o f h uman b urial c onsists o f t wo o f t he t hird m illennium b c . T he a ith t hree c ompartments, a bout 1 5 m l aterally-entered c hambers, e ach w f rom t he w estern o r n arrow e nd o f t he b arrow . R ecovered f rom t he e xcavation b y B enson w ere f ragments o f 4 311 b ones a nd 2 36 t eeth. C hesterman w as a ble t o d iscern a m inimum t otal n umber o f 4 9 i ndividuals w ith s ome d etails o f a ge a nd s ex a s l aid o ut i n T able 1 3.2. R oughly e qual n umbers o f m ales a nd f emales w ere f ound , m any m ore a dults w ere f ound t han t eenagers, c hildren o r i nfants. T he b one r eport o n A scott-under-Wychwood i s o f e special i nterest b ecause C hesterman w as a ble t o s uggest a s equence o f b urial r ites a ssociated w ith t he d eposition o f h uman s keletal m aterial i n t he l ong b arrow. H e p ostulates a s equence o f f our t ransformations u ndergone b y t he b ones b efore t he f inal s ealing o f t he l ong b arrow. T hese f our t ransformations a re: 1 .

e xcarnation . T he b ody w as d eliberately l aid a side a nd a llowed t o r educe b y t he n atural p rocesses o f d issolution a nd d ecay u ntil n o f lesh r emained . T he e xcarnation s ite w as p hysically u nconnected w ith t he l ong b arrow.

3 29

F igure 1 3.1

A scott-under-Wychwood l ong b arrow

3 30

( from C hesterman,

1 977

) -

2 .

e xposure t o s unlight. T he e xcarnated b ones w ere e xposed t o d irect s unlight f or s ome m onths. T he e ffect w as t o b leach t he b ones.

3 .

f ragmentation. A lmost a ll t he l ong , f lat , a nd i rregular b ones w ere b roken , f requently i nto m ore t han t wo f ragments. B y t he a bsence o f s plinters a nd v ery s mall f ragments w ithin t he b arrow , t his p robably d id n ot o ccur i nside t he c hambers.

4 .

c ollection a nd t ransfer. S ome, b ut n ot n ecessarily a ll, o f t he b ones f rom e ach b ody w ere g athered t ogether a nd f inally l aid t o r est w ithin t he c hambers o f t he l ong b arrow .

M any q uestions a re r aised b y t he r eport o n A scott-under-Wychwood , n ot l east o f w hich i s t he p ossibility t hat m egalithic t ombs m ay n ot h ave b een t he p rimary f ocus o f N eolithic b urial r itual. T his b rief r eview o f t he s ite h as d isguised m uch c omplexity a nd i t i s o nly f air t o p oint o ut t hat t he e xcavators o f t he b arrow d isagree s trongly w ith C hesterman o n p oints o f d etail a nd i nterpretation. I n ar eply t o t he a rticle B enson a nd C legg a rgue t hat C hesterman 's a rchaeological i nterpretation o f t he s ite i s f ar f rom a ccurate a nd t hat h e " moved o utside h is n ormal a rea o f c ompetence" ( 1978: 1 37) a s a n a natomist. I n p articular , B enson b elieves t hat t here w as a mple e vidence o f a rticulated b one w ithin t he c hambers, a b elief i n c onflict w ith C hesterman 's s equence o f b urial r ites. B enson a nd C legg's c riticism o f a p articular e xample c onclusions d rawn f rom a s tudy o f h uman r emains c an b e e xtended

o f t o

b ecome a c riticism o f t he e ntire t heory o f m ortuary p ractices. T he g eneral a rgument i s t hat i t i s i mpossible t o m ake i nferences f rom b urial r itual a bout t he n ature o f s ociety b ecause t here i s t oo m uch v ariation i n t he b urial r itual o f k nown s ocieties. U cko ( 1969) g ave m any e xamples o f i nter-society a nd i ntra-society v ariation i n f uneral p ractices, m ostly d rawn f rom e thnographic p arallels. T Wo i mportant c onclusions e merged: 1 .

t he p ractice o f b urial r ites d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply t he e xistence o f r eligious b eliefs

2 .

t here i s n ot n ecessarily a c orrelation b etween e xpended i n b urial a nd a chieved s ocial s tatus. T his a rgument ,

a nd i ts v ariants,

a re n ot

u ncommon

e ffort

i n

c ertain

e mpiricist a nd h istoricist s chools o f a rchaeology. B riefly , a nd i n e xtremis , t hese s chools w ould d eny t he p ossibility o f m aking m eaningful s tatements a bout t he n ature o f a ny s ociety w hich i s k nown o nly b y i ts m aterial r emains. T hey w ould r egard t he p roper s tudy o f a rchaeology a s b eing m aterial r emains i n v acuuo. S uch a n a rgument i s p essimistic a nd s tultifying , a nd i s r ejected h ere. T hus, w hile a ll p ossible c aveats a nd o bjections s hould b e h eeded , e very o pportunity s hould b e t aken t o m ake s ocial i nferences f rom b urial e vidence. I n t he w ords o f E dmund L each ( one o f t he p rotagonists w ho h as r eacted a gainst s ome o f t he r ecent w ork i n m ortuary p ractices, a nd t he w ay i t i s e xpressed) s peculation s hould b e e ncouraged

3 31

Minimum Total

Number

Adults

41

Teenager

1

Children

6

Infant

1

Total

49

Males

13

Females

15

Sex

Age Range

T able

1 3.2

, ' 1 to

45+

Average

age

of

4 6 bodies

23

Average

age

of

13

males

26 years

Average

age

of

15

females

2 7

4

ORK

7

Burray

ORK

8

Calf

ORK

12

Cuween

T able

14

yrs

Female

Uncertain

9

Blackhammer

ORK

ORK

1/2

Bookan

22 Long 2

Hill

Earl's

Knoll

ORK

2 1

Holm

of

P . W.

ORK

27

Knowe

of

Craie

ORK

28

Knowe

of

Lairo

ORK

30

Knowe

of Ramsay

ORK

31

Knowe

of Rowiegar

ORK

32

Knowe

of Yarso

ORK

34

Korkquoy

ORK

36

Macs

Total

2

*

of Eday

( after

1 977).

Male

3

years

H uman b urials a t A scott-under-Wychwood C hesterman ,

ORK

years

North

2

1

1

6

8

*

*

6

6

1

1

3

3

1

3 .

. 29

29

6 0

60

1

Howe

* 22

1

ORK

3 7

Midhowe

25

25

ORK

4 4

Quoyness

15

15

ORK

49

Taversoe

ORK

5 1

Unstan

ORK

5 5

Withebeir

1 3.3

1

Thick

4 .

5 .

*

*

T he e arly e xcavations: m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals a nd s ex d istribution o f b urials.

3 32

" ...in t he h ope t hat a n a rchaeologist m ight

s omewhere

h ave

a n i nspiration a nd s ay: ' Why y es, I h ad n ever t hought o f t hat; t hat i s a p ossibility., I f t hat h appens e ven o nce , m y e ffort w ill h ave b een w orth-while". ( Leach , 1 3.2.

1 977:

1 70)

T HE E ARLY E XCAVATIONS

H uman b one h as b een f ound a t 2 1 o f t he 7 6 c hambered c airns i n O rkney. ( That o nly 2 8% o f t hese m onuments h ave p roduced h uman r emains i s a s g ood a r eason a s a ny f or p referring t he t erm " chambered c airn" t o " chambered t omb"). T hese 2 1 s ites w ill b e t reated i n t wo g roups: t his s ection w ill c onsider t he n ineteen e arly e xcavations w hile t he n ext s ection w ill c onsider t he e vidence f rom Q uanterness ( ORK 4 3) a nd I sbister ( ORK 2 5), t wo c airns e xcavated d uring t he l ast t en y ears. T he m inimum n umber t abulated i n T able 1 3.3.

o f i ndividuals f ound a t e ach c airn i s T here i s n o p attern i n t hese r esults; f or

t he 1 9 e arly e xcavations t he n umber r anges f rom 6 0 t o 7 0 i n t he c ase o f K orkquoy ( ORK 3 4) d own t o a s ingle i ndividual i n t hree c ases. S ome e xcavations r eport a n u nspecified a mount o f h uman b one, a nd t he m ajority o f e xcavators r eported n o h uman b one a t a ll. T able 1 3.3 a lso s hows t he l imited i nformation a vailable o n t he r atio b etween m ales a nd f emales. A t B lackhammer ( ORK 3 ) b oth i ndividuals w ere m ale ( Callander a nd G rant , 1 937: 3 03) a nd a t a lween H ill ( ORK 1 2), t wo o f t he e ight i nternments w ere p ositively i dentified a s m ale ( Charleson , 1 902: 7 37). A t t he K nowe o f R amsay ( ORK 3 0), t wo o f t he t hree i ndividuals w ere i dentified a s m ale ( Callander a nd G rant, 1 936: 4 14). T he o nly p robable f emale i dentification i n t he l iterature i s a t T aversoe T hick ( ORK 4 9) w here o ne o f t he s keletons i n t he l ower c hamber w as f emale ( Turner , 1 903: 8 0). T his m eans t hat o nly s even o ut o f o ver 1 80 i ndividuals i dentified i n t he e arly e xcavations h ave b een s exed. S imilarly , t here i s l ittle i nformation a vailable o n t he d istribution o f a ges a mong t he s keletal r emains o f t he 1 9 e arly e xcavations. I n T able 1 3.4, t he s even c airns f or w hich s ome i nformation c an b e c ulled f rom t he e xcavation r eports a re s hown. E very c airn c ontained a t l east o ne a dult; t hose c airns w hich c ontained a n umber o f a dults a lso t ended t o c ontain s maller n umbers o f a dolescents a nd c hildren. T he s ignificance o f t his t able i s s omewhat d iminished b y t here b eing n o s tandardisation o f t erms: t he n umber o f"adults", " adolescents" a nd " children" a re i nterpretations f rom t he t erminology a dopted b y s everal d ifferent e xcavators a nd t heir s pecialists. T he c ondition o f t he e xcavated h uman b one i s t abulated i n T able 1 3.5 a ccording t o t hree o f t he f our o ppositions s uggested a bove. A gain , a c ertain a mount o f i nterpretation w as n ecessary: f or i nstance, b ones f rom B lackhammer ( ORK 3 ) d escribed a s " fragmentary" b y t he a natomist ( Callander a nd G rant , 1 937: 3 08) a re h ere i nterpreted a s b eing b roken. T he o nly c onclusions w hich m ay b e d rawn f rom t his t able a re t hat a v ariety o f b one c onditions w as o bserved b y t he e xcavators. T his v ariety w as n oted w ithin t he s ame c airn ( both b urnt a nd u nburnt b one w as f ound i n T aversoe T hick ( ORK 4 9) a nd

3 33

Adults

3

ORK ORK

12

Uncertamn

Total

2

2

Cuween Hill

8

8

2

30

Knowe say

of Ram-

ORK

32

Knowe

of Yarso

ORK

3 7

ORK ORK

3

1

28

1

Midhowe

17

6

2

25

4 4

Quoyness

1 0

3

2

15

49

Taversoe

1 3.4

Thick

1

3

5

T he e arly e xcavations: a ge d istribution o f b urials.

Burnt/ unburnt

Broken/ unbroken broken

3

Blackhammer

unburnt

ORK

7

Burray

unburnt

ORK

8

Calf Long

ORK

12

Cuween Hill

burnt

ORK

21

Holm of Papa Westray North

unburnt

ORK

30

Knowe of Ramsay

unburnt

ORK

32

Knowe Yarso

ORK

34

Korkquoy

ORK

3 7

Midhowe

ORK

4 4

Quoyness

ORK

49

Taversoe Thick

both

ORK

51

Unstan

both

1 3.5

29

1

ORK

T able

Children

Blackhammer

ORK

T able

Adolescents

Articulated/ disarticulated

broken

of Eday

unbroken

broken

of

articulated

disarticulated

articulated

unburnt

both unbroken both

articulated

T he e arly e xcavations: c ondition o f h uman b one .

3 34

U nstan ( ORK 5 1), a nd b oth a rticulated a nd s cattered b one w as f ound a t t he f ormer s ite a nd M idhowe ( ORK 3 7)). V ariety w as a lso n oted b etween c airns ( burnt a nd u nburnt b one , b roken a nd u nbroken b one, a nd a rticulated a nd u narticulated b one h ave a ll b een f ound). I t i s n ot e asy t o d escribe s ystematically t he a rrangement o f b one i n t he c hambers o f t he e arly e xcavations. W here l ess t han t en i ndividuals w ere f ound , t here i s n o d iscernible p attern i n a ny o f t he t ombs. F ive c airns o f t he e arly e xcavations c ontained m ore t han t en i ndividuals: B urray ( ORK 7 ), K nowe o f Y arso ( ORK 3 2), K orkquoy ( ORK 3 4), M idhowe ( ORK 3 7), a nd Q uoyness ( ORK 4 4). A t B urray t he i ndividuals w ere e venly d istributed w ith a t l east t en i n t he s ide c ell o r p assage a nd t wo i n e ach o f t he s ix d ivisions o f t he c hamber ( Henshall, 1 963: 1 88). A t K nowe o f Y arso , t here a re f our s talled c ompartments, b ut t he p assage a nd o uter t wo c ompartments c ontained o nly f our o f t he 2 9 i nternments. F igure 1 3.6 s hows t hat t he m ajority o f t he s kulls observed b y C allander a nd G rant ( 1935: 3 33) w ere l ined u p a gainst t he walls o f t he t wo i nnermost c ompartments. M oreover , n ot o ne o f t he s kulls r etained i ts l ower j aw , a s trong i ndication t hat t hey w ere p laced i n t hat p osition w hen n o f lesh r emained. T he e vidence f rom K orkquoy i s n ot s trong , s ince t he o nly r ecord w e h ave f or t he 6 0 o r 7 0 s keletons f ound t here i s f rom a s econd-hand a ccount s ummarised i n a n otebook o f G eorge P etrie ( Henshall, 1 963: 2 18). T here, i t a ppears t hat c omplete s keletons w ere s tacked i n t iers s ix h igh, w ith a lternate t iers l ying i n o pposite d irections. T he e vidence f rom M idhowe i s m ore s ecure. A ccording t o C allander a nd G rant ( 1934: 3 30-34) t he 2 5 i ndividuals f ound i n t he t omb w ere, w ith o nly o ne e xception , d eposited o n o r b elow a l ow s helf t hat r uns a long t he n orth-west w all o f t he c hamber. T his m arkedly p eculiar d istribution i s p ortrayed i n F igure 1 3.7 . T he d iagram a lso s hows t hat o nly t he e ight i nnermost c ompartments c ontained s keletal m aterial. T here a ppears t o h ave b een n o p attern i n t he d eposits a ccording t o a ge o r s ex. O ne m ore c airn p roduced m ore t han t en i ndividuals, b ut u nfortunately n ot i n e xcavations t his c entury. A t Q uoyness a bout 1 5 i ndividuals w ere f ound b y F arrer i n 1 867 ( Orkney H erald , 6 A ugust 1 867: 3 ). S everal s kulls w ere l ying i n t he , p assage. F our o f t he s ix s ide c ells c ontained s ome e vidence o f h uman b one, a s d id a c orner c ist i n t he c entral c ompartment. I s i t p ossible t o d raw a ny c onclusions a bout t his g reat v ariety o f e vidence f rom t he e arly e xcavations? T here a re t wo p ossibilities: t hat t he e xcavation r eports e xamined a bove c ontain a t rue r epresentation o f t he s keletal m aterial d eposited i n t he c airns, a nd t his i mplies t hat m any m onuments c ontained n o b urials, o r t hat d ifferent s tandards o f e xcavation f rom t he m iddle o f t he n ineteenth c entury o nwards r esulted i n u neven r eporting o f t he b urial e vidence. S everal f actors s trongly s uggest t hat t he l atter p ossibility i s m ore p lausible. F or i nstance, r eports o f t he e arly e xcavations a re o ften u nclear a s t o t he s tratigraphical c ontext o f t he h uman r emains: a t l east t wo o f t he b urials o f T aversoe T hick a re a lmost c ertainly s econdary i nternments i n c ists, p ossibly o f a l ater p rehistoric p eriod ( Turner , 1 903: 7 9). A gain , t he e arly e xcavators c ertainly d id n ot c ollect e very p iece o f b one b ut c oncentrated l ong b ones. F arrer a t Q uoyness w rote:

3 35

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A PPENDIX D O N M EASUREMENT

1 .A CCURACY O F M EASUREMENT T here a re m any d ifferent l evels o f a ccuracy p ossible i n t he m easurement o f t he l inear d ata w hich p lay s uch a m ajor p art i n t his w ork. I n a ll c ases, t here i s a f ine d ividing l ine b etween u nder-accuracy , w here t he f ull p otential o f t he d ata i s n ot r ealised , a nd o ver-accuracy , w here s purious c redibility m ay b e g iven t o m easurements w hich a re i n r eality n ot s o a ssured. T hroughout , s tandard c onventions h ave b een u sed t o i ndicate t he l evel o f a ccuracy a t w hich m easurements w ere r ecorded. T hese r ely o n t he n umber o f s ignificant f igures s hown. T hus a m easurement o f 8 m h as b een t aken t o t he n earest m etre, a m easurement o f 8 .7 m h as b een t aken t o : t he n earest d ecimetre, a nd a m easurement o f 8 .76 m h as b een t aken t o t he n earest c entimetre. I t i s t hus p ossible t o d educe f rom a ny g iven m easurement t he a ccuracy w ith w hich i t wa s m easured f rom t he f ield , m ap , o r p lan. 2 .

C ONVENTIONS I N H ISTOGRAMS

M any o f t he i llustrations a re h istograms: b ar-charts w ith h eights p roportional t o t he q uantities t hey r epresent. E ach b ar i s a ssociated w ith a c lass o f m easurements c ommonly i ndicated b y l abelling o f t he h orizontal a xis a t t he i ntersections o f b ars. T he c onvention a dopted t hroughout i s t hat t he c lass i s i nclusive o f t he l ower m easurement, b ut e xclusive o f t he h igher m easurement. T hus a n a xis l abelled ... 4 , 5 , 6 i s d ivided i n c lasses ( 4 .0 - 4 .9), ( 5.0 - 5 .9) ... 3 .

M EASUREMENT O F A REA

M onkhouse a nd W ilkinson m ethods o f m easuring a reas. e xperiments w ere d one o n t he

( 1971: 7 3-80) m ention s even d ifferent E ach o f . t hese w as c onsidered a nd t ype o f m aterial w hich w a s t o b e

m easured. I n a ll c ases, a ccuracy o f m easurement i s d ependent o n t he s cale a t w hich t he m easurement i s m ade. T he m ethod f inally c hosen w as t he b est c ompromise b etween f ine m easurement a t t he a vailable s cales, a nd t he e ffort e xpended i n m aking t hat m easurement. T he m ethod u sed t hroughout i s s imple t o o perate a nd r equires n o s pecial e quipment. I t i s a v ariant o f t he d ot p lanimeter a nd w orks b y o verlaying t he a rea o r a reas t o b e m easured w ith a r egular g rid o f d ots s paced s o t hat e ach d ot i s a t t he c entre o f a n i maginary s quare o f k nown a rea. .T he n umber o f d ots w hich f all w ithin t he a rea t o b e m easured i s t hen c ounted a nd t aken a s a n a pproximation o f t he t rue a rea. T he f ineness o f m easurement i s d ependent o n t he d ensity o f t he d ot g rid b ut e xperiments w ith g rids o f v arying d ensity s howed t hat a c oarse g rid , i n m any c ases, g ave r esults w hich c ould d istinguished ( taking i nto a ccount t he u ltimate p urpose m easurements) f rom g rids o f c losely s paced d ots. T Wo t ypes o f a real m easurement w ere m ade:

5 49

o f c hambered

n ot b e o f t he

c airns

a nd o f p arts o f c hambered c airns,

a nd o f t he l and o f O rkney

a nd

o f

p arts o f t he l and o f O rkney. F or t he f irst t ype , a g rid o f d ots o ne m etre a part a t a s cale o f 1 :50 , 1 :100 , 1 :200 , o r 1 :360 ( according t o t he v arious s cales o f t he p lans f rom w hich m easurements w ere t aken) w as u sed. F or t he s econd t ype, a g rid o f d ots o ne k ilometre a part a t a s cale o f 1 :50000 o r 1 :63360 w as u sed. F or c onvenience, t he k ilometre s quares o f t he N ational G rid w ere e mployed a nd m easurements t aken d irectly f rom t he p ublished O rdnance S urvey , S oil S urvey , a nd G eological S urvey m aps.

5 50

A PPENDIX E D ESCRIPTION O F I NEXACT C LASSES M ore o ften t han n ot, t he c lasses o f o bjects e ncountered i n a rchaeological r esearch d o n ot h ave e xplicit c riteria o f m embership . F or e xample, t he c lass o f " Grooved W are p ottery" c learly i ncludes c ertain p ots f rom Q uanterness a nd L inks o f N oltland a nd c learly e xcludes t he f ood-vessel f rom K nowe o f Y arso. H owever, a s i s a pparent f rom C hapter 8 , t here a re m any p ieces o f p ottery w hich h ave a n a mbiguous s tatus w ith r espect t o G rooved W are. S uch i mprecisely d efined t erms ( the p hrase h aving n o d erogatory c onnotations) p lay a n i mportant p art i n h uman t hinking , a nd , i n t his c ase , c an l ead t o a g reater u nderstanding o f t wentieth c entury a rchaeologists a nd o f t hird m illennium O rcadians. I n t he r eal w orld o f h uman d ecisions i t i s r are t han a ny a ction h as a n u nambiguous o utcome: t here a re m any s hades o f g ray , b ut n ever p ure b lack o r w hite. T he c oncept o f f uzziness, a s f irst i ntroduced b y Z adeh ( 1965), i s a n a ttempt t o d eal w ith s uch p roblems w here a s ource o f i mprecision i s t he l ack o f p recisely d efined c riteria f or m embership o f a p articular c lass. B eyond a b rief d iscussion b y O rton ( 1980: 2 20-22), t he c oncept h as n ot y et b een e xplicitly a pplied t o a rchaeology d espite a s uperficial c ompatibility b etween t he t wo. T he m easurement o f i nexact c lasses, u sed t hroughout C hapter 1 2 , i s a p reliminary a ttempt t o a pply t he t heory o f f uzzy s ets t o t he d ata-base o f a rchaeology. I t i s b est e xplained i n t erms o f a s pecific e xample. K nowe o f C taie ( ORK 2 7) i s l ocated a t t he h ead o f t he S uso v alley i n n orth-east R ousay. T he S oil S urvey m ap s hows t hat t he s oil i mmediately u nderlying t he c airn i s a B ilbster s eries p odzol. T hus, i n ac onventional a nalysis o f t he l ocation o f c hambered c airns a ccording t o s oil t ype K nowe o f C raie w ould b e a ssigned t o t he c lass o f c airns l ocated o n p odzols. E xpressed i n a t able , K nowe o f C raie i s 1 00% l ocated o n p odzolic s oils: P odzols 1 00 P odzolic c omplexes 0 G leys 0 G leyic c omplexes 0 P eat 0 M iscellaneous 0 H owever , i f t he s oil m ap i s e xamined m ore c losely , i t i s s oon a pparent t hat t his t able i s a n i nadequate r epresentation o f t he s oils a round K nowe o f C raie. T he b oundary o f t he B ilbster p odzol ( as m apped) i s l ess t han a h undred m etres d istant t o t he n orth a nd t o t he w est. W ithin a k ilometre o f K nowe o f C raie t here a re e xtensive a reas o f p eat a nd l arge a reas o f s even o ther s oil s eries. I ndeed , t he p atch o f B ilbster p odzol i s n ot a m ajor c onstituent o f t he p edological m ake-up o f t he S uso v alley. N aturally , t he p urpose o f t he a nalysis m ust b e k ept i n f ocus b ut s ince t he a im o f e xamining s oil d istributions i n C hapter 1 2 i s t o d iscuss t he c hambered c airns o f O rkney i n t heir e nvironmental s etting , i t i s t herefore r ealistic

5 51

t o c onsider t he K nowe o f C raie a s b eing a t t he c entre o f ac ircle o f r adius o ne k ilometre ( the d istance b eing c hosen b y e xperiental k nowledge o f t he C rcadian l andscape a nd b eing c onsistently a dhered t o f or a ll 7 6 c airns) a nd t o m easure t he a rea o f e ach s oil t ype w ithin t hat c ircle. T he t able g iven a bove i s t ransformed i nto a v ery d ifferent t able: P odzols P odzolic c omplexes G leys G leyic c omplexes P eat M iscellaneous

1 5 2 1 1 5 1 0 3 9 0

T his m easurement b y i nexact c lasses m ay b e c onceptualised b y c onsidering t he l ocation o f t he K nowe o f C raie a s h aving a " podzol-ness" o f 1 5% , a " peat-ness" o f 3 9% , a nd s o o n , r ather t han t he p revious f ormulation w hich g ave t he l ocation a " podzol-ness" o f 1 00% a nd i gnored i ts t rue c omplexity . T hus t he a ct o f l ocating t he c hambered c airn , w hich m ay h ave p artly d epended o n t he i mprecise r ecognition b y h uman b eings o f t he n ature o f s oils i n t he S uso v alley ( the S oil S urvey m ap b eing a nother s uch i mprecise r ecognition), i s m ore c losely a pproached t hrough m easurement b y i nexact c lasses. S uch a p rocedure h as b een c arried o ut f or g eology , s oil, a nd l and u se c apability. T he r esults f or e ach o f t he 7 6 c hambered c airns a re t abulated i n T able A 3 .

5 52

A PPENDIX F T HE C UTPOINT I NDEX

F raser

( This a ppendix i s as hortened ,and s lightly a dapted , v ersion ( 1980a)).

o f

T he m athematical t heory o f g raphs, a nd i ts a pplied c ounterpart, n etwork a nalysis, h ave m any a pplications i n g eography a nd o ther d isciplines. F or i nstance, t he b eta i ndex a nd t he c onnectivity i ndex a re b oth m easures o f t he d egree t o w hich t he n odes o f a n etwork a re d irectly c onnected t o e ach o ther w hile t he n odality o f ap oint i s a m easure o f i ts a ccessibility ( Hamond a nd M cCUllagh , 1 974). N one o f t hese i ndices i s a ble t o a ccount f or t he p art p layed b y e ach p oint o f a n etwork i n c onnecting t ogether t he n etwork. T hat i s, t here i s n o m easure o f t he d egree o f d isruption t o a n etwork c aused b y t he r emoval, i n t urn o f e ach o f i ts c onstituent p oints. H ere t he c oncept o f t he " cutpoint", a s d efined i n e lementary g raph t heory , i s u sed t o c onstruct a n i ndex w hich a dequately f ulfils t his t ask .

G I

G 2

•

O nly a f ew i ntuitive d efinitions i n g raph t heory a re n eeded h ere. ( Those i nterested i n m ore r igorous d efinitions a re r eferred t o H arary , 1 969). Ag raph G i s as tructure c omposed o f p oints w hich a re j oined b y l ines. G 1 i s a n e xample o f ag raph c ontaining e ight p oints a nd n ine l ines. As ubgraph o f G i s ag raph w ith a ll i ts p oints a nd l ines c ontained i n G . T he t riangle o f l ines c ontaining p oints A , B , a nd C i s as ubgraph o f G l. Ap ath i s a s equence o f l ines b eginning a t o ne p oint a nd e nding a t a nother i n w hich n o p oint i s v isited m ore t han o nce a nd n o l ine i s u sed m ore t han o nce. O ne o f t he p aths f rom p oint X t o p oint Z c ontains t wo l ines a nd p asses t hrough p oint Y . A g raph i s c onnected i f t here i s a p ath b etween e very p air o f p oints. Ag raph c onsisting o f as ingle p oint i s a lso d efined a s c onnected . G 1 i s c onnected w hile G 2 i s n ot c onnected. A s ubgraph w hich i s m aximally c onnected i s t ermed a c omponent . G raph G 2 c onsists o f t hree c omponents - t wo t riangles a nd a s ingle p oint. Ac utpoint o f a g raph i s a p oint w hose r emoval c reates a dditional c omponents w hich d o n ot f eature i n t he o riginal g raph. T he c utpoint i ndex o f ap oint i s t he n umber o f t hese c omponents. Ap oint w hich i s n ot a c utpoint i s d efined a s h aving a c utpoint i ndex o f o ne. A p oint w hich h as n o l ines c onnecting i t t o o ther p oints i s d efined a s h aving a c utpoint i ndex o f z ero. P oint Z i s a c utpoint o f G 1 w hich t ransforms G 1 i nto G 2. T he c utpoint i ndex o f Z i s t herefore t hree. T he c utpoint i ndices o f p oints X a nd Y i n G 2 a re r espectively o ne a nd t wo.

5 53

I t h as b een f ound e asy t o c alculate, b y h and , c utpoint i ndices f or e very p oint i n g raphs w hich c ontain u p t o a bout f ifty p oints a nd o ne h undred l ines. F or g raphs o f h igher o rder , a n a lgorithm e xists, i n t he f orm o f a F ortran s ubroutine n amed S PANFO ( Nijenhuis a nd W ilf, 1 975: 1 02) f or c alculating t he n umber o f c onnected c omponents o f a g raph. T his p rogramme c an b e s imply m odified t o p rovide c utpoint i ndices f or e ach p oint o f t he g raph, s ince t he c utpoint i ndex o f a p oint A i s o ne m ore t han t he d ifference b etween t he n umber o f c onnected c omponents i n t he o riginal g raph a nd t he n umber o f c onnected c omponents i n t he g raph f ormed b y t he r emoval o f Af rom t he o riginal g raph.

5 54

L IST OF R EFERENCES T his a lphabetical l ist o f w orks c ited i n t he t ext u ses t he S tandard L ist o f A bbreviated T itles o f C urrent P eriodicals a nd S eries c ontained i n A ppendix B o f t he C ouncil f or B ritish A rchaeology's S ignposts f or A rchaeological P ublication , L ondon: C B A , 1 976. A csadi,

G a nd N emeskeri,

J 1 970

H istory o f H uman L ifespan a nd M ortality. A kademiai A nderson,

B udapest:

K iado.

J 1 868 " On t he h orned c airns o f C aithness: t heir s tructural a rrangement, c ontents o f c hambers e tc" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 7 ( 1866-68): 4 80-512 1 883 S cotland i n P agan T imes:

t he I ron A ge.

E dinburgh:

D avid D ouglas. 1 886 S cotland i n P agan T imes: t he B ronze a nd S tone A ges. E dinburgh: D avid D ouglas. A shbee,

P 1 970 T he E arthen L ong B arrow i n B ritain.

L ondon:

D ent.

1 978 T he A ncient B ritish: a S ocio-Archaeological N arrative. N orwich: G eo A bstracts. A shbee,

P a nd S mith, I F 1 960 " The W indmill ( 1960):

A tkinson,

H ill l ong b arrow" A ntiquity 3 2

2 97-299.

R J C 1 970 " Old m ortality: s ome a spects o f b urial a nd p opulation i n N eolithic E ngland" P p 8 3-94 i n S tudies i n A ncient E urope: E ssays p resented t o S tuart P iggott edited b y J M C oles a nd D D A S impson.

A tkinson ,

B alikci,

R J C ,

L eicester:

L eicester U niversity P ress.

P iggott, C M a nd S anders, N K 1 951 E xcavations a t D orchester , O xon. O xford: M useum.

A shmolean

A 1 970 T he N etsilik E skimo .

G arden C ity:

N atural H istory

P ress. B arclay,

R S 1 966 " Population s tatistics" p p 4 5-52 i n T he N ew O rkney B ook e dited by J S hearer , M ackay. L ondon: N elson.

5 55

W G roundwater,

a nd J D

B arrett,

J C 1 980 " The p ottery o f t he l ater B ronze A ge i n l owland E ngland" P roc P rehist S oc 4 6 ( 1980): 2 97-320

B arry ,

G 1 975 T he H istory o f t he O rkney I slands. R eprint e dition . E dinburgh: T he M ercat P ress.

B enson ,

D G a nd C legg ,

IN I1 978

" Cotswold b urial r ites" M an 1 3 B erge,

1 34-37 .

C 1 973 G raphs a nd H ypergraphs.

B ibby ,

( 1978):

J S a nd M ackney ,

A msterdam: N orth-Holland .

D 1 977

" Land u se c apability c lassification" T he S oil S urvey T echnical M onograph 1 . B inford ,

L 1 971 " Mortuary p ractices: t heir s tudy a nd t heir p otential" P p 6 -29 i n " Approaches t o t he s ocial d imensions o f m ortuary p ractices" e dited b y J A B rown . S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology M emoir 2 5.

B ourdieu ,

P1 977 " Sur l e p ouvoir s ymbolique" A nnales E conomies S ocietes C ivilisations 3 2 ( 1977): 4 05-11

B owen ,

HC a nd F owler,

PJ ( eds)

1 978

" Early l and a llotment i n t he B ritish I sles: a s urvey o f r ecent w ork" B rit A rchaeol R ep 4 8. B radley ,

R 1 978 T he P rehistoric S ettlement o f B ritain . R outledge a nd K egan P aul.

L ondon:

1 981 " Various s tyles o f u rn ' -c emeteries a nd s ettlement i n s outhern E ngland c 1 400-1000 b c" P p 9 3-104 i n T he A rchaeology o f D eath e dited b y RW C hapman , K innes, a nd K R andsborg . C ambridge: C ambridge U niversity P ress. B radley ,

R a nd H odder I 1 979 " British p rehistory: a n i ntegrated v iew" M an 1 4 ( 1979): 9 3-104.

B rothwell,

D a nd D imbleby ,

G ( eds) 1 981

" Environmental a spects o f c oasts a nd i slands ( Symposia o f t he A ssociation f or E nvironmental A rchaeology N o.1)" B rit A rchaeol R ep S 94. B rown ,

J. A 1 981 " The s earch f or r ank i n p rehistoric b urials"

p p

2 5-38 i n T he A rchaeology o f D eath e dited b y R W C hapman , I K innes, a nd K R andsborg . C ambridge: C ambridge U niversity P ress.

5 56

I

B ullard ,

E Rn d O rkney: a C hecklist o f V ascular P lants; P lants a nd H erbs.

B ullard ,

S tromness: W R

F lowering

R endall.

E R a nd G oode, D A 1 975 " The v egetation o f O rkney" p p 3 1-46 i n T he N atural E nvironment o f O rkney e dited b y R G oodier. E dinburgh: N ature C onservancy C ouncil.

B uikstra ,

J E 1 981 " Mortuary p ractices, p alaeodemography a nd p alaeopathology: a c ase s tudy f rom t he K oster s ite ( Illinois)" P p 1 23-132 i n T he A rchaeology o f D eath e dited b y R W C hapman , I K innes, a nd K R andsborg . C ambridge: C ambridge U niversity P ress.

B urenhult ,

G 1 980 " The a rchaeological e xcavation a t C arrowmore, C O. S ligo , I reland , E xcavation S easons 1 977-79" T heses a nd P apers i n N orth-European A rchaeology 9 .

B urgess,

C 1 980 T he A ge o f S tonehenge.

B urgess,

B url,

L ondon: D ent.

C a nd M iket , R ( eds) 1 976 " Settlement a nd e conomy i n t he t hird a nd s econd m illennia B C" B rit A rchaeol R ep 3 3.

A 1 976 T he S tone C ircles o f t he B ritish I sles. a nd L ondon: Y ale U niversity P ress.

N ewhaven

1 981 R ites o f t he G ods. B utzer ,

L ondon:

D ent.

K W 1 964 E nvironment a nd A rchaeology: a n I ntroduction t o P leistocene G eography. L ondon: M ethuen.

C alder,

C S T 1 936 " The D warfie S tane, -H oy , O rkney: i ts p eriod a nd p urpose" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 7 0 ( 1935-36): 2 17-29. 1 937 " A N eolithic d ouble-chambered c airn o f t he s talled t ype a nd l ater s tructures o n t he C alf o f E day , O rkney" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 7 1 ( 1936-37): 1 15-154. 1 938 " Excavations o f t hree N eolithic c hambered c airns o ne w ith a n u pper a nd l ower c hamber - i n t he i slands o f E day a nd t he C alf o f E day i n O rkney" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 7 2 ( 1937-38): 1 93-216.

5 57

1 950 " Report o n t he e xcavation o f a N eolithic t emple a t S tanydale i n t he p arish o f S andsting , S hetland" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 8 4 ( 1949-50): 1 85-205. C allander ,

J G 1 929 " Scottish N eolithic p ottery" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 6 3 ( 1928-29): 2 9-98. 1 931a " Notes o n ( 1) c ertain p rehistoric r elics f rom O rkney a nd ( 2) S kara B rae: i ts c ulture a nd i ts p eriod" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 6 5 ( 1930-31):

7 8-114.

1 931b " Some O rkney a ntiquities" P roc O rkney A ntiq S oc 9 ( 1930-31): 1 7-20 . 1 934 " The B ronze A ge p ottery o f O rkney a nd S hetland" P roc O rkney A ntiq S oc 1 2 ( 1933-34): 9 -12. 1 936 " Bronze A ge u rns o f c lay f rom O rkney a nd S hetland , w ith a n ote o n v itreous m aterial c alled ' cramp '" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 7 0(1935-36): 4 41-52. C allander ,

J Ga nd G rant, W G 1 934 " A l ong s talled c hambered c airn o r m ausoleum ( Rousay T ype) n ear M idhowe, R ousay , O rkney" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 6 3 ( 1933-34): 3 20-50. 1 935 " A l ong s talled c airn , t he K nowe o f Y arso, i n R ousay , O rkney" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 6 9 ( 1934-35): 3 25-51. 1 936 " A s talled c hambered c airn , t he K nowe o f R amsay , H ullion , R ousay , O rkney" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 7 0 ( 1935-36): 4 07-19. 1 937 " Long s talled c airn a t B lackhammer, R ousay , P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 7 1 ( 1936-37): 2 97-308.

C aulfield ,

a t

O rkney"

S 1 978 " Neolithic f ields: t he I rish e vidence" P p 1 37-143 i n " Early l and a llotment i n t he B ritish I sles: a s urvey o f r ecent w ork" e dited b y HC B owen a nd P J F owler. B rit A rchaeol R ep 4 8 .

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R W 1 977 " Burial p ractices: a n a rea o f m utual i nterest" P p 1 9-33 i n " Archaeology a nd a nthropology: a reas o f m utual i nterest" e dited b y MS priggs. B rit A rchaeol R ep S 19. 5 58

C hapman ,

R W ,

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R W a nd R andsborg ,

C ambridge:

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K1 981

" Approaches t o t he a rchaeology o f d eath" P p 1 -24 i n T he A rchaeology o f D eath e dited b y R W C hapman , I K innes a nd K R andsborg . C ambridge: C ambridge U niversity P ress. C äseldine,

CJ a nd W hittington ,

G 1 976

" Pollen a nalysis o f m aterial f rom t he S tones o f S tenness, O rkney" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 1 07 ( 1975-76): 3 7-40. C harleson ,

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MM 1 902 " Notice o f ac hambered c airn a t K ewing H ill i n t he p arish o f F irth , O rkney" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 3 6 ( 1901-1902): 7 33-8. G amble, C a nd S hennan , S ( eds) 1 978 " Sampling i n c ontemporary B ritish a rchaeology" B rit A rchaeol R ep 5 0. J T 1 977 " Burial r ites i n a C otswold l ong b arrow" M an 1 2 ( 1977): 2 2-32.

D 1 970 T he E ssentials o f F actor A nalysis. R inehart a nd W inston.

C hilde,

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V G 1 930a " Operations a t S kara B rae d uring 1 929" P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 6 4 ( 1929-30): 1 58-190. 1 930b " The e arly c olonization o f N orth-eastern S cotland" P roc R oyal S oc E dinburgh 5 0

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a P ictish V illage i n O rkney. T rench , T rübner a nd C o.

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( 1932):

1 91.

1 934 " Neolithic s ettlement i n t he w est o f S cotland" S cot G eogr M ag 5 0 ( 1934): 1 8-25.

5 59

1 935 T he P rehistory o f S cotland . T rench , T rubner a nd C o.

L ondon:

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1 940 P rehistoric C ommunities o f t he B ritish I sles. L ondon: C hambers. 1 942 " The c hambered c airns o f R ousay" A ntiq J 2 2 1 39-42.

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