Theoretical Approaches to Artefacts, Settlement and Society, Parts i and ii: Studies in honour of Mats P. Malmer 9781407388571, 9781407388588, 9780860544753, 9781407346410

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Theoretical Approaches to Artefacts, Settlement and Society

Studies in honour of Mats P. Maimer

edited by Goran Burenhult, Anders Carlsson, Åke Hyenstrand and Torstein Sj�vold

Part i

BAR International Series 366(i) 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S366 (I), 1987: 'Theoretical Approaches to Artefacts, Settlement and Society' Part I © Th e Individual Authors, 1987 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388571 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388588 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544753 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346410 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544753 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Ma ts P . Ma l mer Mag lehem , S can ia

P ho to : B r i ta Ma lme r , 1 986

P ub l i shed w i th g ran t sf r om B er i t Wa l l enberg s Se te l se , Sweden . Dav id M inugh ,D epa r tmen to fE ng l i sh a tt h eU n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm ,h a sr ev i sed t h e l a nguage i n mo s to ft h ea r t ic le s .

U

CONTENTS T abu la G ra tu la to r ia G ö ran B urenhu l t ,A nd er sC a r l s son & Ä ke H yen s t rand : T heo r e t ica la pp roache st oa r te f a c t s ,s e t t lemen ta nd s o c ie ty :T he a r chaeo log i s t Ma t sP . Ma lme r T o r s t e in S j Ovo ld : D eco ra ted s ku l l sf r om H a l l s ta t t ,A u s t r ia :T he d eve lopmen to f ar e sea r ch p ro jec t .

1 5

A rne B .J ohan sen : A r te f ac t sa nd a r chaeo log i s t s

2 3

J ens P ou l sen : Why n o t a" t h i rd c r i te r ion o fc on t inu i ty "?

2 5

K la s -Gö ran S e l inge : O nt h ep r e requ i s i tes a nd n eed so fa r chaeo log ica l s ou rce c r i t ic i sm

2 7

Mär t aS t römb e r g . F a c to r so fi mpo r tance f o ri n te rp re t ing s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s

4 3

JM .C o l e s : P r e serva t ion o ft h ep a s t

5 3

N oe lD .B roadben t : Ac h rono log ica la n a ly s i so fl i chen g row th o nh ead s tone si nn o r ther nS weden

6 5

G u s taf T ro t z ig : T he i n t roduc t ion o fp ho tog r aphy i n to S wed i sh a r chaeo logy

7 3

O t to B l ehr : T he n eed f o re t hnog r aph ica la na log ie si nt h es t udy o fp r eh i s to r ic c a r ibou / w i ld r e indee rh un t ing : Ac a se s t udy f r om S um tangen ,N o rway

8 7

H an sB rowa l l : T he A lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing :i t ss oc ia la nd e conom ic b a s i s

9 5

T homa sB ar th° " Oak a nd W ilow " : A c t ive a nd p a s s ive p e r iod sa tA lva s t ra p i le d wel ing . Ar e su l to fd end roch rono log ica la nd w ood a na tom ica li nve s t iga t ion s

1 23

E bba Du r ing : A n ima lb one m a te r ia lf r om t h eA lva s t r ap i le d we l l ing — Ac l o se -up o fl i f ea nd e conomy i nS weden a bou t5 000 y ea r sa go

1 33

H an sG ö rans son : T he c u l tu ra ll a nd scape d u r ing t h et ime o ft h eA lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing L a r sL a r s son : S om ea spec t so fc u l tu ra lr e la t ion sh ip a nd e co log ica lc ond i t ion sd u r ing t h el a te Me so l i th ic a nd e a r ly N eo l i th ic

i n

. 1 53

1 65

C hr i s t ian L indq v i s t : A na log ie si nt h es p r ead o fN eo l i th ic a nd l a te ri n nova t ion so ve rE u rope a nd A f r ica

1 77

I nge rO s t e rho lm : S ea r ch f o rS tone A ge s e t t lemen t so nG o t land

1 99

Ä k eH yen s t rand : S tone A ge f r on t ie r s —a ne xamp le f r om m idd le S weden

2 09

A nd e r sC ar l s son : T h r ee S tone A ge c u l tu r e si nt h ep rov ince o fS öde rman land ,e a s te rn c en t ra l Sweden —f a c to rf i c t ion?

. 2 31

S t e f an B e rgh : C ou r tt omb s ,p a s sage t omb sa nd s o c ia lc on tex t si nn o r th c oun ty S l igo , I r e land

2 41

B i rg i tA r rhen iu s.: T he e v i le ye : as o c iob io log ica la pp roa ch t ot h ei n t e rp r e ta t ion o fr o ck c a rv ing s

2 57

E l i sabe th H e rne r &S t ig WeUnd e r : C omp lex i d ea s ,c omp lex a r t if ac t s ,c omp lex m e thod s ,c omp lex c oncep t s

2 67

O la K yh lb e r g : T owa rd sa na r chaeo log ica lt h eo ry o fp ro ce s s

2 81

J a r !N o rdb lad h : B i rd ,f i sh o rs omewhe r ei nb e tween? T he c a se o ft h er o ck p a in t ing so ft h e Swed i sh w e s tc oa s t

3 05

G ö ran B u r enhu l t : E thnoa r chaeo logy a s am e thod o fe s tab l i sh ing m id rang et h eo ry . An ew e r ai n E u ropean a r chaeo logy —o re xo t ic n on sen se?

3 21

U l fB e r t i l s son : T he r o ck c a rv ing so fB ohu s län —s pa t ia lc on tex t

3 29

R onn ie J en sen : B ronze A ge s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s —ac ho ro log ica la pp roach

3 35

G er t Magnu s son : Man a nd e nv i ronmen to nt h eS wed i sh e a s tc oa s td u r ing t h el a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge

3 59

K enne th G u s tay s son : C ha r red -s tone c a i rn so n Köka r

3 69

R icha rd B rad l ey : Ac ompa ra t ive s t udy o fh oa rd ing i nt h el a te B ronze Age a nd V ik ing e conom ie s

3 79

I nge rZ ach r i s son : L a te manuf ac tu r eo fc h ipped s t one t o o l si nn o r the rn F enno scand ia

3 89

i v

M ichae lO lau s son : H ilfo r t s ,s ub s i s tence a nd e conom ic c en t ral i sa t ion A .D . 3 00 -500 i ne a s ter n m idd le Sweden

3 99

B oP e te At h ree -decade a r chaeo log ica lp ro jec t —t h eL ovö p ro jec t

4 19

J ohan C a l lme r : I r on A ge a nd e a r ly Med ieva ls e t t lemen td eve lopm en ti ns ou ther nS cand inav ia : S ome c on tempo ra ry a nd f u tu re r e sea r ch p e r spec t ive s

4 29

P e rG .P .E r ic son : E xp lo i ta t ion o fs e ab i rd si nc en t ra lS weden d u r ing l a te I r on A ge — c onc lu s ion sd r awn f r om t h eb i rd r ema in sa tB i rka

4 45

Mon i ca Mod in & Da v id Dar n e l l : I nhuma t ion b u r ia l sa nd C h r i s t ian i ty i nV ik ing -Age m idd le Sweden

4 55

K e i th W i j kand e r : Am ap o ft h es e t t lemen td eve lopmen ti nt h ep rov ince o fS öde rman land , Sweden

4 59

N i l sR ing s t ed t : A r te f ac td i f fu s ion —e xchange ,t r ade a nd o t he re xp lana t ions

4 69

A nd er sB roberg & K enne th S ven s son : U rban a nd r u ra lc on sump t ion p a t te rn si ne a s te rn c en t ra l Sweden A .D . 1 000 1 700

4 79

Hans C h r i s t ian s son : " He tN ieuwe L and " :T he o r ig in sa nd f u r the rd eve lopmen to fs o c ia l h i s to ry r e sea r ch i n to S p i t sb e rgen

4 89

K enne th J on s son : E a r lB i rge ra nd h i sc o inage a tL ödö se c .1 260 -6

5 01

C a r lO lo fC ed e r lund : T he E r ic N ordeva l l —A ne a r ly Swed i sh p add le s t eame r

5 17

B r i ta Mahne r : Ma t sP . Ma lme r ' sp ub l i shed w o rk s . Ab i bl iog raphy 1 948 -1987

5 43

TABULA GRATULATORIA K enne th Agehed ,J ohanne shov

A n i ta B iuw ,B romma

G ö ran Ah rne ,U ppsa la

Ma rga re ta & A rne B iö rn s tad ,S tockho lm

B jö rn Amb ro s ian i ,S tockho lm

O t to B leh r ,R odbe rg

H a ra ld And e r sen , Moe sgä rd

R oge rB l idmo ,U pp land sV ä sby

P hyl i s Ande r son ,B romma

Ma t sB lohm6 , Ma lmö

H ans A nde r s son , L und

Z a iga B lumbe rg s ,T äby

F rank And ra schko ,O e r l inghausen

W iv ianne B onde s son ,B romma

R e idun L .A nd rea s sen ,T rom s0

C h r i s t ina B ook , S tockho lm

A nde r s And r6n , L und

H a r r ie to ch H ans B o rg s t röm , S tockho lm

B i rg i tA r rhen iu s ,D ju r sho lm

R icha rd B rad ley ,R ead ing

G re ta A rw id sson , S tockho lm

B eng tB rand t ,A r i ld

E l se A smus sen , Ho lbxk

N oe lD . B roadben t , Umeä

P e rA spe l i , Mä r s ta

A nde r sB robe rg , S tockho lm

T homa sB a r tho l in ,L und

H an s &A nd rea B rowa l l , S tockho lm

E ve r tB audou , Umeä

G ö ran & Mon ica B u renhu l t ,Y ngl inga rum

C JB ecke r ,F rede r ik sbe rg

Ma t sB u r s t röm ,S tockho lm

K EB eh re ,W i lhe lm sha f en

L ou i se B äckman , S o lna

A gne ta B enne t t ,S tockho lm

J ohan C a l lme r ,L und

A nd rea sB e rg , S tockho lm

Ann ica C a rde l l -Hepp , Ma lmö

G un i l la B e rg ,V iken

A nde r s C a r lsson ,T räng sund

G ö s ta B e rg , S tockho lm

D an C a r l s son & A nn - Ma r ie P e t te r s son ,V i sby

K e r s t in & H a r ry B e rgenb lad ,H u skva rna

T homma s C a r ls son ,E n skede

S t ef an B e rgh , S tockho lm

C a r lO lof C ede r lund ,S a l t s jö -Boo

B jö rn E B e rg lund ,L und

L ou ise C ede r sch iö ld ,S tockho lm

B i rg i t ta B e rgqu is t ,U pp sa la

H an s &A n i ta C h r i s t ian sson ,U pp sa la

U lf B er t i l sson ,S tockho lm

E r ik & A nne - Mar ie C in th io ,L und

v i i

C ahn C la ra ' s ,L jung sb ro

A nneSo f ie & B oG rä s lund , U pp sa la

JM C o le s ,T ho rver ton

P e r Gu s ta f s son ,G röd inge

G ö ran D ah lbäck ,T äby

K enne th G u s tay sson , Ma r iehamn

D av id D ame 1 1 ,S tockho lm

H ans G ö ran s son ,I b sbe rga

Ma t t sD re i je r , Ma r iehamn

F oa ce H a l lbe rg ,S tockho lm

E bba & G u s tav D u r ing , Äke r sbe rga

S ö ren H a l ld6n , L und

T o r s ten E dg ren ,H e l s ingfo r s

D ag H amma r ,S tockho lm

K je l lE dv inge r ,B romma

I nge rH a rnma rbe rg ,L id ingö

S ta f fan E kbom ,T y re sö

A nde r sH ans son , S tockho lm

T oma sE kman ,J ä rf ä l la

V e ra & G e r tH a tz ,H ambu rg

B eng tE lf s t rand , S tockho lm

L o t te H edeage r , K obenhavn

A lva rE l legä rd ,G ö tebo rg

I nge rH edeng ran ,F a r s ta

L a r s -E r ik E ng lund ,B andhagen

T o ra H ed in , S tockho lm

E r ik E n s t röm ,H äge r s ten

S ven H e l le r s t röm ,T o rna -Hä l le s tad

L a r sE r ic son ,F age r s ta

S ta f f an H e lm f r id ,V a l len tuna

P e rG .P . E r icson ,U ppsa la

L a r s GH en r icson , S tockho lm

A lf E r ic s son ,S öde r tä l je

Ö r jan H ermod s son ,U ppsa la

A xe lE r ik s son ,F a r s ta

E l i sabe th H e rne r ,L und

B i rg i t ta E r ik s son ,K a lma r

S ö ren H ja lma r s son , Ö s te r skä r

O ddmunn F a rb regd ,T rondhe im

J an H jä rpe , L und

G e rha rd F l ink , S tockho lm

R u t&K u r t M Ho lm ,L id ingö

H e lena F o r shel , S tockho lm

L ena H o lmqu i s t -O lau sson ,T äby

M icae la F r i s ted t , S tockho lm

K i r s ten G ram H o lm s t röm , S to ckho lm

Ma t sF yh r ,V a l len tuna

Ake H u l tk ran tz ,L id ingö

N i l s -Gus ta f&A nnaBr i t ta G e jva l l ,F ö r s löv

E va H yen s t rand ,U ppsa la

L ar sG eze l iu s ,U ppsa la

Ake H yen s t rand ,S tockho lm

J ame sG raham -Campbe l l ,L ondon

I nge rH äkans son , S jöbo

L e if G ren , S tockho lm

B i rg i t ta H ä rdh ,L and sk rona

v i i i

E va I s eda l , S tockho lm

I nge r &B a l tza rK l ingspo r , S to ckho lm

Me t te I v e r sen ,V ibo rg

A n i ta K nape , S tockho lm

H i l le & V a lda rJ aanu s son ,T äby

E va K re tz ,T umba

H a ra ld J acob sen ,B o rgen

K r i s t ian K r is t ian sen ,K obenhavn

L a r sJ acobzon , S ka ra

A nde r sK r i tz , S o l len tuna

M ikae lJ akob s son , S tockho lm

K e r s t in K yh lbe rg ,V i sby

S ve rke rJ anson , S tockho lm

O la K yh lbe rg ,V i sby

A n i ta J an sson ,E n skede

E bba S t ina & L a r sKön ig K ön ig s son , S t jä rnhov

I ngma rJ ans son ,U ppsa la

K r i s t ina & J an P ede rL amm ,L id ingö

G unbo rg 0 J anzon ,F a r s ta

K la sH äkan L and s t röm , L ek sand

K r i s t ina J ennbe r t ,L und

L a r s &U l laKa r in L ar s son ,L und

R onn ie J en sen , S tockho lm

T homa s BL a r s son ,B i l l inge

A rne B . J ohan sen ,T rondhe im

H äkan L e ifman , S to ckho lm

B i rg i t ta J ohan sen , S tockho lm

Ma rga re ta L e i jonhufvud ,S tockho lm

E r l ing J ohan sen ,F red r ik s tad

P e r Magnu sL ekbe rg ,E nköp ing

B i rg i t ta M . J ohansson , S tockho lm

J ohanne sL ep ik saa r , VF rö lunda

i nge rJ ohans son , S tockho lm

H an s AL i &n , S pänga

I nge J on sson , S a l t s jö -Duvnä s

L enna r tL ind ,B romma

K enne th J ons son , S tockho lm

K a r in L indbe rg , S o lna

H e lena J o seph , L id ingö

E l sa & Ö r jan L indbe rge r ,B romma

H a r ry J ä rv , S tockho lm

Maud L indb lad , H udd inge

B o s se J ön s son ,V ä s terv ik

A nna -Ka r in L indqv i s t , Umeä

L i l iK ae la s , Gö tebo rg

C h r is t ian L indqv i s t ,L id ingö

A nna -S t ina K je l lbe rg ,E n skede

J ona than L ind s t röm ,S tockho lm

L enna r tK je l l son ,H e r r l junga

J an -Ake L jung , S tockho lm

H en r ik K lackenbe rg , L und

H an sL jungg ren ,U ppsa la

E l i sabe th K le t t ,S tockho lm

C a jsa SL und ,Y s tad

E l in & S t a f f an K l ing spo r ,S to ckho lm

J o rgen L und , Moe sgä rd i x

E r ik B L undbe rg ,B romma

M ikae lN i l s son ,K a lma r

O iv ind L unde ,O s lo

O la N i l s son ,S tockho lm

L a r sL undqv i s t , Gö tebo rg

P e rE r ik N i ls son ,H e jdeby

A gne ta & P e rL und s t röm , S tockho lm

G er t rud N o rdbe rg ,R inga rum

L a r sL ö thman ,J ä rf ä l la

J a r l&E l i sabe th N o rdb ladh ,G ö tebo rg

B en te Magnu s&B jorn Myh re ,O s lo

I nge la N o r l in , S tockho lm

G e r t Magnu sson , S tockho lm

E r ik Ny l6n & L ena T hunma rk -Ny l6n ,S th lm

G us tav Ma lme r ,L und

U lf N ä sman , A a rhus

I v iä r ta Ma lme r ,A rke l s to rp

B i rg i t ta O d6 1 1 ,L und

R agnh i ld & N i ls Ma lme r ,L und

H an s -L O h ls son , S tockho lm

A n i ta Ma lm ius ,L id ingö

D ebo rah O lau s son ,L und

P e te r Manneke ,V i sby

M ichae lO laus son ,T äby

L yde r Ma r s t rande r ,O s lo

A nde r sO le rud ,G äv le

I rme l in Ma r tens ,O s lo

S ven O le rud ,L ännaho lm

C FMe inande r ,H e l s ingfo r s

O la fO l sen ,K obenhavn

J an Me lande r ,G äv le

I ngema rO l s son , S tockho lm

E ' g i lM ikke l sen ,O s lo

I ng r id U O l s son ,U pp sa la

U rve M ile r ,D ande ryd

T o in iO ran iu s ,S tockho lm

Mon ica Mod in , S tockho lm

Ma r tha O r t iz Ma l rn ie r ca ,S tockho lm

M ichae l Mü l le r -W i l le ,K ie l

B o je P e r s son , S tockho lm

J anken My rda l , S tockho lm

T homa sP e r s son ,L und

K a r lG us taf Mäh l , B u r s

B r i t t - Ma r ie P e te r sen ,T äby

H i lkka Mä la r s ted t , S tockho lm

B oP ent , S o l len tuna

A nn -L i l iN ie l sen , S tockho lm

R o lf P e t it ,L und

P ou lO t to N ie l sen , K obenhavn

I ng - Ma r ie P e t te r s son ,E d sb ro

S vend N ie l sen , K obenhavn

S usanne P e t te r sson , B andhagen

C a tha r ina N i ls son , H e jnum

Ma r i ta P i le s tad ,S tockho lm

Ma r ie -Lou i se N i ls son , VF rö lunda

Em i l ie P le s lovä -S t ikovä , P rag

J en sP ou l sen , Moe sgä rd

Magda lena S t je rnbe rg ,F age r s ta

P e rR amqv i s t , Umeä

B e r ta S t jer nqu i s t ,L und

K lays R and sbo rg ,K obenhavn

A nn M S tou t , S a in tP au l

B ib s &G ad R au s ing ,L ondon

J an P au lS t r id ,V a l len tuna

T ayeb R 'b ib , S tockho lm .

U lf S t rucke , S tockho lm

L a r sR ed in , S pänga

Ma r ia S t röm , S a l t s jö -Boo

P e rO lof R ingqu i s t ,B anke ryd

Mä r ta S t rombe rg , L und

N i l sR ing s ted t ,B romma

S t ig S t römho lm ,U ppsa la

G en R i sp l ing ,T äby

H a ra ld S tuben & A ne t te E ng s t röm , S th lm

S t ig R oo s ,B ä s tad

J ohan S tube r t , Gunna r skog

H an sR o s tho lm ,H e rn ing

K a r in S tuben ,L ek sand

H a ra ld R ää s , Uppsa la

S ven & Anna S tuben , Ma lmö

J ohan R önnby , S öde r tä l je

L a r s S undkv i s t , S tockho lm

U n to S a lo , Abo

E va S ven s son , S pänga

A n ja & P ekka S arva s ,H e l s ing fo r s

K enne th S ven sson , S tockho lm

C ha r lo t te S che f f e r , S to ckho lm

Ake S ven sson , Ma lmö

K ä re S cho r tz , Ö reb ro

N i l sS venwa l l ,L id ingö

A nn S ege rbe rg ,U ppsa la

I ngege rd S ä r lv ik , G ö tebo rg

K la s -Gö ran S e l inge ,S tockho lm

S t en T e sch , S tockho lm

J ü r iS e l i rand ,T a l l inn

B eng tT ho rdeman ,S tockho lm

L a r sS jö svä rd ,V a l len tuna

H en r ik T h rane , Oden se

T ho r le if & A a se S jovo ld , O s lo

G u s ta fT ro tz ig , S tockho lm

T o r s te in & B i rg i t ta S jOvo ld ,S o lna

A nna U l fh ie lm , S tockho lm

Ma r i t & Ko lb jorn S kaa re ,O s lo

P e rE r ik Ulbe rg O rne 1 1 ,V äne r sbo rg

E r ik S pe rbe r ,S ödenä l je

Magnus V a l l in ,S tockhohn

U lf S po r rong ,E nebybe rg

B jö rn V a ren iu s ,J önköp ing

T hu re S t en s t röm ,U pp sa la

Ma r ia d e lR o sa r io V äzquez ,S tockho lm

P e rS t i l le ,U ppsa la

A nn V inbe rg , S o l len tuna x i

K a r in Wah lb e rg ,D ro t tn ingho lm

K e i th W i jkande r ,S pänga

G ö ran Wah lqu i s t , S tockho lm

S iv Wik s t röm , B ro

J u t ta Wa l le r ,D ro t tn ingho lm

Mä r ta -L i sa Wi lhe lm s son ,S to ckho lm

T homa s Wa l le r s t röm ,L u leä

E va & D av id Wi l son , L ondon

K u r t Webe r , Ma r iehamn

B eng tW inde lhed ,S tockho lm

V ik ing Wedbe rg ,Ö reb ro

B o AZ a ch r i s son , S tockho lm

K a tha r ina We iga r th ,S tockho lm

I nge rZ ach r is son , S tockho lm

E va We i le r ,B i l lda l

T o run Z ach r is son , S tockho lm

S t ig We l inde r ,O s lo

Agne ta Ä ke r lund ,S to ckho lm

K je l l We s te rbe rg , S ke l lef teä

Agne ta Ä ke rma rk ,S tockho lm

C h r i s te r We s te rdah l ,Ö rn skö ld sv ik

C a r ina Ö rnek l in t ,V ä l l ingby

U l la We s te rma rk ,S tockho lm

Ma jvo rÖ s te rg ren ,V i sby

Ma t s Widg ren , S tockho lm

I nge r&S ven Ö s te rho lm ,H em se

J en s Wienbe rg , L und

E ina rO s tmo ,O s lo

S on ja Wig ren , N yköp ing

B eng tÖ s tma rk ,U l r icehamn

I n s t i tu t ionen f ö rA rkeo log i ,G ö tebo rg sU n ive r s i te t I n s t i tu t ionen f ö rA rkeo log i /L und sU n ive r s i te t sH i s to r i ska Mu seum ,L und I n s t i tu t ionen f ö rA rkeo log i ,S tockho lm sU n ive r s i te t A rkeo log i ska F o r skn ing s labo ra to r ie t , S tockho lm sU n ive r s i te t N o rda rkeo log i ,S tockho lm sU n ive r s i te t O s teo log i ska F o r sk n ing s labo ra to r ie t , S tockho lm sU n ive r s i te t I n s t i tu t ionen f ö rA rkeo log i , Umeä Un ive r s i te t I n s t i tu t ionen f ö rA rkeo log i , U ppsa la U n ive r s i te t A r chäo log i sche sL ande smu seum d e rC h r i s t ian -A lb rech t s -Un ive r s i tä t ,S ch lo s sG o t to r f , S ch le sw ig A rkeo log i ska A vde ln ingen ,A bo U n ive r s i te t

x i i

A rkeo log i ska I n s t i tu t ionen v id H e l s ingfo r sU n ive r s i te t K on s tve ten skap l iga I n s t i tu t ionen , S to ckho lm sU n ive r s i te t T rom so Museum ( A rkeo log i sk A vde l ing ) ,T rom s0 U n ive r s i te te t iB e rgen , H i s to r i sk Mu seum ,B e rgen U n ive r s i te te t sO ld sak sam l ing , O s lo A a lbo rg H i s to r i ske Mu seum ,A a lbo rg B ohu s län s Mu seum ,U ddeva l la D en A n t ikva r i ske S am l ing ,R ibe E sb je rg Mu seum , E sb je rg F ö ren ingen Go t land sF o rnvänne r ,G o t land sF o rma l ,V isby G ö tebo rg sA rkeo log i ska Mu seum ,G ö tebo rg H ä l s ing land s Museum ,H ud ik sva l l L ange land s Mu seum ,R udkob ing Mu see t iH a lm s tad S ka rabo rg sL än smu seum , S ka ra S t if te l sen J äm t land sL än s Mu seum ,Ö s te r sund S t if te l sen K a lma rL än s Mu seum ,K a lma r S t i f te l sen L än smu see t —Mu rbe rge t ,H ä rnö sand S t if te l sen S ke l lef teä Mu seum ,S ke l lef teä S t if te l sen S tockho lm sL än s Mu seum ,S tockho lm S t i f te lsen V ä s te rbo t ten s Mu seum , Umeä S t if te l sen Ö s te rgö t land sL än smu seum ,L inköp ing S tockho lm sS t ad smuseum , S tockho lm S und sva l l s Mu seum , S und sva l l S yd s jx 1 land s Museum , V o rd ingbo rg S öde rman land s Mu seum ,N yköp ing Abo L and skapsmu seum ,A bo

Ä land s Museum , Ma r iehamn Ö s te r lens Mu seum ,S im r i shamn D e tN o r ske V iden skaps -Akadem i ,O s lo J e rnkon to re t sB e rg sh i s to r iska u t sko t t , S tockho lm K a t r ineho lm sk ommun L and sa r ldve t iV ad s tena R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t , UV M i t t ,S to ckho lm R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t , UV S yd ,L und S ven ska I n s t i tu te t iR om

*

A dd i t ion s : J .M . A lonso -Ne f i ez , Mad r id U lf E r ik H agbe rg , S to ckho lm Ma l in & S venO lo fL indqu i s t ,V i sby B eng tS a lomon s son , Ma lmö P ov l S imon sen ,T rom s0

x iv

THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO ARTEFACTS , S ETTLE MENT AND SOCIETY : THE ARCHAEOLOGIST MATS P . MAL MER B y Göran B urenhu l t , Anders C ar lsson a nd Ake Hyens trand D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S 106 9 1 S tockho lm , S weden . O nD ecembe r3 1 , 1 987 , Ma t sP . Ma lme r , P rof e sso ro fA rchaeo logy a tt h eU n ive r s i ty o f S to ckho lm ,w i l lr e t i re f r om h i sa cadem ic c ha i r ,b ecom ing p ro f es so r eme r i tu s . T he t i t le o f t h e p re sen tF es t schr if t i nh onou ro ft h is e ven ti nd ica te s Ma t s P . Ma lme r 's t h ree ma in a r ea so fr e sea r ch :o b je c t ive a nd r a t iona la na ly s i so fv a s ta r te f ac tm a te r ia l s ;d eve lopmen to f s pa t ia l me thod s i n s e t t lemen t s t ud ie s ; a nd , r e sea rch i n to p reh is tor ic s oc ie ty t h rough o b jec t ive ly r e co rdab le d a ta . Mo re t han a ny o the r S cand inav ian a r chaeo log i s t Ma t s P . Ma lme rh a s g i ven a r chaeo logy s ha rp a nd e f f ec t ive t oo ls f o rc l a s s if ica t ion a nd a na lys i s , n o t l e a s t c once rn ing t y po log ica l s e r ia t ion . As t r ic t a nd l og ica l t r ea tmen t o ft h e s ou rce m a te r ia li sa lway sc onne c ted w i th ah uman d imen s ion a nd as en se f o rh i s to r ica lr e a l i ty .

Ma t s P . Ma lme r w a s b orn 1 921 i n Höganä s , S can ia . I n 1 962 h e w a s g ran ted h i s d oc to ra te a tL und f o rt h e t h e s is J ungneo l i th ische S tud ien . D u r ing 1 959 -1970 Ma lme r w as h ead o f t h e S tone a nd B ronze Age D epa r tmen t a t t he Museum f o r N a t iona l A n t iqu i t ie si nS tockho lm .I n 1 970 h eb ecame P rof e s so ro fA r chaeo logy a tt h eU n ive r s i ty o f L und a nd i n 1 973 h e w a s r eques ted t o a s sume t h e c ha ir a t t he U n ive r s i ty o f S tockho lm . S ince 1 946 o nwa rd s h eh a sc onduc ted v a r iou s a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ions , f o r i n s tance t h e w e l l -known A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing i n ö s te rgö t land ( 1976 -1980 ) . A no the ra c t iv i ty w h ich m u s tb e men t ioned i sh i sa im t oe ncou rage c oope ra t ion b e tween t h e u n ive r s i t ies a nd t h e a n t iqua r ian a u tho r i t ie s . T h i s h a sl e dt o av e ry p o s i t ive a r chaeo l o g ica lr e sea r ch c l ima te i nS tockho lm . T he c o re o ft h i sf a vou rab le e nv i ronmen ti s Ma t sP . Ma lme r ' ss em ina ra tt h eU n ive r s i ty a nd i ti st h rough h i st e a ch ing a nd h i sp ubl ica t ion st h a t w h i le w i thou ti nt h el e a s tt r y ing t oi mpo se h i si d ea so na nyone ,h eh a s g a ined n ume rou s f o l lowe r sa nd f r iend s . T he f i r s tp ub l i shed w o rk b y Ma t sP . Ma lme ra ppea red i n1 948 ,e x ten s ive ly d ea l ing w i th h i s own e xcava t ion o f al e pe r h o sp i ta l f r om t h e 1 3 th t o 1 6 th c en tury , s i tua ted o u t s ide A lms , S can ia . A l ready h e re w e may n o t ice t h e me thodo log ica l a wa rene ss a nd t h e c apab i l i ty t og ene ra te a nd t e s tn ew i d ea s t h a th a sb ecome ah a l lma rk o f Ma t s Ma lme r 's r e sea r ch .Th i sA ims -pape rh a sb ecome ac l a s s ic i nS cand inav ian m ed ieva la r chaeo logy . S ome o f Ma t s Ma lme r ' se a r ly a r t ic le sd ea lw i th t h eS tone a nd B ronze A ge ,a nd r epo r to n e xcava t ions c a r r ied o u t b y h im se lf . I n t hem t h e re i sa n a b i l i ty t o ma in ta in c lo se c oope ra t ion w i th v a r iou s s pec ia l is t s wh ich h a s b een a no the r ma in c ha rac ter is t ic o f Ma lme r 's r e sea rch u p t ot h is v e ry d ay . O ne a r t ic le ( 1951 ) d ea ls w i th t wo Meso l i th ic wooden a r rows , wh ich f o r t he f i r s t t ime c ou ld b e s hown t o h ave m ic ro l i ths a s a r row -head s a nd b a rb s . A no the ra r t ic le ( 1952 ) t r ea t s af i nd o f af i sh t rap o fb i rch t w ig s f r om t h e E r te l* le c u l tu re . I n b o th t h ese c a ses Ma lme r wo rked t oge the r w i th p a leo b o tan is t s . I n 1 957 Ma lme r p ub l ished ap ape r o n c ho ro log ica l ( s pa t ia l ) a na ly s is i na r chaeo logy . Ma lme r i n t roduced n ew t e chn iques f o r p roduc ing a r chaeo log ica l maps , b y u s ing i s ar i thm s , a sw e l l a s a dvanc ing t h e c oncep t o ft h ep le ion , i . e . p o s i t ive a noma ly . T h is 1

c oncep t wou ld b e u sed i n an ume rous d i f f e ren t w ay s . H e s ucceeded , a mong o the r t h ings , i n s how ing t ha t t h e N eo l i th ic B a t t le A xe C u l tu re d id n o t , a s w a s c ommon ly b e l ieved ,o ccupy d i f f e ren ta r ea st h an t h eF unne lB eak e rC u l tu re . I n s tead ,t h ey w e re b o th c onnec ted w i th t h e b es t a gr icu l tu ra l a r ea s i n S can ia , t h us s ha r ing t h e s ame e conomy . Much o f wha t w a s i n t roduced i n t h is p ape r o f 1 957 , w a s t ob e d eve loped f u r the r i n J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien ( 1962 ) . I n 1 962 a nd 1 963 t wo mo s t i mpo r tan t wo rk s i n S cand inav ian a r chaeo logy w e re p ub l i shed .J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien a nd Me todprob l em i n om j ärnä lderns k on s th i s tor ia ( Me thodo log ica lP rob lem s i nt h eH i s to ry o fA r td ur ing t h eS cand inav ian I r on A ge )h ad a nd s t i l lh ave at r emendou se f f ec to na r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch .T he r e a li mpo r tance o ft h e me thodo log ica lf r ame -wo rk p re sen ted i nt ho se t wo b ook s , h oweve r , h a s y e tt ob ef u l ly u nde r s tood a nd e xp lo red . Ma lme r s t re sses t h e n ece s s i ty o f l og ica l ly c or rec t , v e rba l d ef in i t ion so ft h ee n t i t ie s w eu se i no u rr e sea rch . W i thou t s uch d e f in i t ion s , n oe f f ec t ive r e sea r ch c an b ec a r r ied o u t . I ns ho r t , Ma lme rw an ted t ot u rn a r chaeo logy i n to amode rn h uman i s t ic s c ience . Ma t s Ma lme r h a s h im se lf g iven a n E ng l i sh s umma ry f o r s o me o fh i s me thodo log ica l r e sea rch u pt o1 963 i n Me thodo log ica lP rob lem s ( p .2 48 f ) . T he d i scuss ion c en te r so n t h ec oncep t so fs im i lar i ty a nd d i s s im i lar i ty , a nd i tg i ve sa ne n t i re ly n ew m ean ing t ot h e t h eo ry o ft y pe s , t h a ti st ot y po logy . T he k ey -wo rd i nt h i s n ew t h eo ry i st h ei ndependen t t y po log ica le l emen t . At y po log ica le l emen t mus tb ed e l im i ted b y al o g ica l ly c o r r ec tv e rba l d ef in i t ion . T he t ypo log ica le l emen td oe s n o te x i s tw i thou ts uch ad ef in i t ion —n e i the ro f c ou r se ,d oe st h et y pe . At y pe i sd e f ined b yo ne o r mo r et y po log ica le l emen t s .T h is t h eo ry i sn o t r e s t r ic ted t oa r tefac t s . I tc ompr i se s t ype s o f , f o r i n s tance , a nc ien t monumen t s , s e t t lemen t s ,d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s ,s oc ie ta lf o rm sa nd s of o r th . I ta pp l ie st ot h ee n t i re f i e ld o fa r chaeo log ica li n ve s t iga t ion . A l l t h e e s sen t ia l i n fo rma t ion t h a ti sn o ti n c luded i nt h ed ef in i t ions , s hou ld b e b rough t t o ge the ri n ad e scr ip t ion. T he d e sc r ip t ion sc an b eu sed t oc on s t ruc th ypo the se s .T he re i s n od emand f o ra ny s pec if ic r u le s w ha t s oe ve rw hen c on s t ruc t ing h ypo these s —y ou c an d o a s y ou p l ea se . B u t w hen i tc omes t ot e s t ing y ou rh ypo the ses , t h en s t r ic t s c ien t if ic b ehav iou ri sn ece s sa ry —y ou n eed d ef in i t ion s s ot h a to t he r sc an r epea ty ou rp rocedur ei n e ve ry d e ta i l . A l l t oo o f ten t h is c r i ter ion o f t r ue s c ience i sn o t f u lf i l led i nh uman i s t ic r e sea rch —p a s ta nd p re sen t . T he i mpor tance o f Ma t sP . Ma lme r 's t h eo re t ica la nd m e thodo log ica l wo rk h a sn o tb een r e cogn ized i nS cand inav ia a l one . D av id L .C la rke w a so bv ious ly i n f luenced b y Ma lme r w hen h e w ro te A na ly t ica lA rchaeo logy 1 968 , i nw h ich h e t r ied t og ive a r chaeo logy a t h eo ry o fi t so wn . I n ar ev iew 1 977 S . J . D eL ae tp o in t so u tt h a tt h eJ ungneo l i th i sche S tu d i en " . .devan on tl e se x igence sd e l a N ew A rchaeo logy t ou te ne ni • v i tan tl e se x c .& " ( He l in iu rn XVI I ,p .9 1 ) .L eo S .K le jn w r i te si nh i sP anorama o fT heore t ica lA rchaeo logy ( i n C ur ren tA n thropo logy 1 977 )t h a tt h et h ree l e ad ing m en i nt h ea t tack a ga ins tt r ad i t iona l a r chaeo logy i nt h e 1 960 sw e r e Ma t sP . Ma lme r ,L ew i sR . B info rd a nd D av id L .C la rke . K le jn n o t ices t h e d i f f icu l t ies t h a t t h ese men w e re u p a ga ins t ( p . 1) . C once rn ing Ma lme r ' st h eo re t ica lw o rk s ,K le jn w r i te s : " I tf e l li n to w o r ld a r chaeo logy l i ke amu l t i ton b omb i n to ap eacefu l s wamp a nd e i the r d id n o t e xp lode o r , i fi td id e xp lode , d id n o t p rovoke aw a rb ecause o ft h ee nemy 's u np repa red s t a te " ( p . 6 ) . H ec on t inue s : " t h i s w a s aw o rk i nw h ich s ome o ft h e mo s ti mpor tan tp r inc ip le so ft h e ' n ew a r chaeo logy ' w e re s e t f o r th a nd d eve loped : t h e me thodo log ica la u tonomy o fa r chaeo logy ; t h er e cogn it ion o ft h e p resence o fr egu la r i t ies i nt h e c u l tura l p roces s a nd t h e i r r ef lec t ion i n a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls ; t h e s t r iv ing t owa rds f o rma l iza t ion ( and h ence t h e r e so r t t o l og ic a nd ma thema t ica l me thod s ) ; t h e p e rcep t ion o f t h e ma te r ia l a s ac on t inuum a nd n o t a s a c onge r ie so fd i sc re te e l emen t s ; t h ed i sc red i t ing o fm ig ra t ion i s te xp lana t ion sf o rc hange i n c u l tu re si nf a vo ro fi n te rna lt r an sfo rma t ion s " ( p . 6 ) . 2

I nJ ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien Ma lme r d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h e i d ea h e ld b y a lmo s t e ve ry r e sea rche ro ft h a tt ime —i . e . t h ea ppea rance o ft h eB a t t le A xe C u l tu re w a s ar e su l to fa n i mm ig ra t ion o f an ew p eop le , ap eop le w i th ad i f f e ren te conomy ( e .g . n omad s ) t h an t h e F unne lB eake rC u l tu re ( who w e re p ea san t s ) —w a st o ta ly w rong .I n s tead ,h es howed t h a t t h et wo c u l tu re so ccup ied t h e s ame a r ea s a nd t h a tt h ey f o l lowed e ach o the ri nt ime ; t h e B a t t le Axe C u l tu re w a s ac on t inua t ion o ft h eF unne lB eake rC u l tu re . T h i sh a sl a te rb een v er if ied b y C 1 4 t e s t s . T he t wo c u l tu res h ad mo re o r l e ss t h e s ame e conomy . T he d i f f e rence b e tween t h em c ou ld b ee xp la ined a s ac hange i nt h es o c ia ls y s tem , mo s tc l ea r ly v i s ib le a s ac hange i nt h er e l ig ious s y s tem .T he mo s ti mpo r tan tf a c to rb eh ind t h ec hange w a ss e en b y Ma lme ra st h ea ppea rance o fm e ta l ,w h ich made i tp o s s ib le f o ri nd iv idua l st o e xpress w ea l th i n aw ay wh ich p rev ious ly wa s n o t p oss ib le . T he c hange f r om c o l lec t iv i s t ic b u r ia l s ( mega l i th s ) t os i ng le g rave sf o rt h eu ppe rs t ra tum o fs oc ie ty c an b e s e en i nt h is l i gh t . Ma lme r a l so c onduc ted i n tens ive r e sea rch c once rn ing t h e n eo l i th ic m a te r ia li nE u rope . T he e xp lana t ions o f f e red f o rS cand inav ia t u rned o u tt ob ea pp l icab le f o rE u ropean c u l tu re s a sw e l l . T h is r e sea r ch i sb ad ly i nn eed o fc on t inua t ion a l ong t h e l i ne sd rawn u pb y Ma lm e r . Ma lme r 's g rea ti n te re s ti nt h eN o rd ic r ock a r tt r ad i t ion ( 1981) i s ma in ly c onnec ted w i th t h ew ide p e r spec t ive a nd t h ep rob lem s c once rn ing i n te rp re ta t ion , i nnova t ion p roces se s a nd c h rono logy .I nt h es ame w ay a si nh i so the rm e thodo log ica lr e sea r ch h et r ie st op l ace r ock a r t i ni t s e co log ica l , e conom ica l a nd s oc ia l c on tex t a nd h a s t h e reby s ucce ssfu l ly a vo ided ao ne -s ided a pp roach o fr e l ig iou s o r my tho log ica l i n te rpre ta t ion . I n s tead h e l o ok s a tr ock a r t a s ar ef lec t ion o ft h e c on tempo ra ry c u l tu ra l c on tex t i n wh ich i tw a s p roduced . Ma lme r 's e conom ica la nd e co log ica la pp roach t ot h eS cand inav ian r ock a r ti se spec ia l ly c l ea ri nh i sp ape rT he R ock C arv ings a tN ämf or sen ,S weden , a s aP rob lem o f Mar i t ime A dap ta t ion a nd C ircumpo lar I n t er re la t ion s ( 1975 ) .H e re , t h el ong d i s tance t r ade r ou te s b e tween t h es ou th S cand inav ian B ronze A ge f a rme r sa nd t h en o r ther nh un te r -ga the re r si s s hown a st h e d i rec t e xp lana t ion o ft h e d eve lonpmen t o ft h e f amou s , a nd i nt h is c on tex t w e l l s i tua ted , r ock a r t s i te a tN äm fo r sen i n Ange rman land , w i th i t s m ixed c on ten t o f g ame mo t if s a nd s t y l ized b oa t f i gu res . Mos t l i ke ly , i n tens ive f u r t r ade w a s av e ry i mpo r tan tp a r to ft h i sn o r th -sou th e xchange s y s tem .

Ma t s P . Ma lme r ' si n te re s ti nm e thod a nd t h eo ry h a sn o tw eakened . T oday , a sa lway s , i t r ema ins ama in c once rn i ne ve ry th ing h e w r i te s , i ndependen t o ft h e t op ic a th and . I n r e cen ty ea r s h e h a s w r i t ten as e r ie s o fa r t ic le s e xp re ss ing h i s t hough ts o np r inc ip le s o f m e thod a nd t h eo ry , a mong t h em A rkeo log isk p os i t iv i sm ( Archaeo log ica l P os i t iv i sm , 1 985 ) , wh ich i sa n a na ly s i s o ft e ndenc ie s w i th in a r chaeo logy i nt h e l i gh to ft h eor ies o f k now ledge f r om p h i lo sophy . A rchaeo logy mu s t a im a t o b jec t iv i ty ; f a c ts w h ich a r e c on t rad ic to ry t o o ur p o l i t ica l v iew o r t o o u r a r chaeo log ica l h ypo the ses mus t n o t b e s upp ressed . We a l l wou ld l i ke t ot a ke t h is o ppo r tun i ty t o w i sh Ma t s g rea t s uccess i n h i s f u tu re r e sea rch w o rk .

3

DECORATED SKULLS FRO M HALLSTATT , AUSTRIA : THE DEVELOP MENT OF A RESEARCH PROJECT B y T ors te in S jOvo ld O s teo log ica lR esea r ch L abo ra to ry . U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S 171 7 1 S o lna , Sweden . When t h ink ing a bou t as u i tab le s ub jec t t op repa re i nc onnec t ion w i th aF e s t sch r if t t o P rof e sso r Ma t s P . Ma lme r , i tc ro s sed my m ind t h a t h e w a s a ppo in ted P rof esso r a tt h e D epar tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,N o r th -Eu ropean ,f r om J u ly 1 s t , 1 973 . A bou tt h e s ame t ime , b e ing t h en s t uden t , Iw a sp l ann ing w ha ts hou ld d eve lop i n to t h eg r ea tes tr e sea rch p ro jec t o f my own , s o lv ing a n thropo log ica l q ues t ions b y m ean s o f av e ry u n ique c o l lec t ion o f d eco ra ted a nd n amed s ku l ls f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l ly r enowned v i l lage o fH a l l s ta t ti n A u s t r ia . I no the rw o rd s ,t h et ime Ih ave b een w o rk ing o nd i f f e ren ta spec t so ft h i sp ro jec t h appen s t oc o inc ide w i th t h ep e r iod d ur ing w h ich P rof e sso r Ma lme rh a s o ccup ied t h e p rof es so r sh ip i na r chaeo logy a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . Wh i le i th a s b een f a i r ly e a sy f o rm et of o l low t h ed eve lopmen to ft h er e sea rch p ro jec tc once rned w i th t h eA lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing , wh ich h a sb een t h e ma in p ro jec to fP ro f e s so r Ma lme rd u r ing t h i sp e r iod ,I t h ink t h a t my own w o rk i nA u s t r ia may n o th ave b een s oe a sy t of o l low .I ng ene ra l , a l so , w ha ti sp ub l i shed f r om r e sea rch p ro jec t si sg ene ra l ly t e r se r e su l t so b ta ined a cco rd ing t o s ome g i ven me thod , amo re o rl e s sp rope rd i scus s ion , a sw e l l a ss ome c onc lus ion s , b u t v e ry r a re ly t h ec i rcum s tance sl e ad ing t ot h er e su l t sa r et ouched u pon .T he p rob lem sa nd o b s tac les e ncoun te red o n t h e w ay a r e f r equen t ly om i t ted , o r r e la ted i n t e rm s o f u nde r s ta temen t s . T he p r e sen ta ccoun ti st h e r efo re mean tt og i ve s ome s o r to fb ackg round t o t he r e sea rch o n t h e d eco ra ted H a l ls ta t t s ku l ls , a nd a d e scr ip t ion o f t he g radua l d eve lopmen to ft h er e sea r ch .I nt h i sw ay i td oe sn o tc l a im t ob es c ien t if ic ,p r e sen t ing n ew r e su l t si n ap rope rw ay ,b u ti si n tended t ob e a n a ccoun to ft h ew ay t h ep ro jec ta c tua l ly d eve loped ,p re sen t ing o dd s a nd e nd sw h ich i nd i f f e ren tw ay s a f f ec ted t h ed eve lopmen t o ft h ep ro jec t . H a l ls ta t t ( F ig . 1 )i sp r ima r i ly r enowned a mong a r chaeo log i s t s f o rt h e g ravef ie ld g iv ing t h en ame o ft h eH a l l s ta t tc u l tu re .T he g rave -f ie ld a sw e l la st h ee n t rance st ot h e mode rn s a l t m ine s a r e s i tua ted i n ah ang ing v a l ley a bou t 1 50 -200 m a bove t h e s hore o f t h e H a l ls ta t t l a ke , o n w h ich ap a r t o f H a l l s ta t t i sl y ing , t h e r e s t k l ing ing o n to t h e s t eep h i l ls ide . T he l a ke i s8 . 2 km l o ng , e x tend ing a pp rox ima te ly No r th -Sou th , a nd g ene ra l ly a bou t 1km b road ,w i th amax imum b rea th o f1 . 2 km ,a nd amax imum d ep th o f1 25 .2 m ( Mor ton 1 954 ) . T he o u t le ti st ot h eN o r th . H a l l s ta t ti ss i tua ted a tt h e We s to ft h ef a re nd o ft h el a ke ,a nd w a sf a i r ly i s o la ted u n t i l 1 878 ,w hen ar a i l road w a sb u i l to nt h eo the rs i de o ft h e l a ke , a nd t h e i nhab i tan t s t h e refo re s t i l l h ave t ot a ke ab oa t t og e t t ot h er a i lway s t a t ion . E ven tua l ly , ar oad w a s b u i l t o n t h e s ame s i de o ft h e l a ke a s H a l l s ta t t , w h ich r ep laced ap rev ious , n a r row p a th a l ong t h e s i de o f t h e moun ta in . T he r oad l e ad ing t h rough H a l ls ta t tw a sv e ry n a r row , b u ti n1 968 an ew d ua lc a r r iageway t u nne l w a sb u i l t t h rough t h e moun ta in , m ak ing t h e a cce s s t o H a l ls ta t t mo re e a sy . T he i nhab i tan t s o f H a l l s ta t ts t i l l make u se o ft h eo ld v i l lage r oad d r iv ing b ack a nd f o r th ,w h ich i sr egu la ted b y at r a f f ic l i gh tw i th l o ng p e r iod s , s i nce t wo c a r s may h a rd ly p a s se ach o the r .A sf a ra sI c an r emember , t h e r oad a c tua l ly i s ao ne -way r oad , a nd s hou ld n o t b e u sed b y d r ive r s w ho d on o tk now h ow i tw o rk si np rac t ise . T he Ha l ls ta t tl a ke i sf o rmed b y g l ac ia l a c t iv i ty , a nd b ecause i ti sv e ry d eep i tt h erefo re r a re ly f r eeze s . Ip a r t icu la r ly n o ted t h e p re sence d u r ing w in te r o f g rebes w h ich w e re p resen t i n g rea t n umbe r s . Wonde r ing w hy t h ey h ad n o t m ig ra ted S ou th , a s Iw a s 5

a ccus tomed t of r om Sweden , Ig o tt h er ep ly t h a tt h ey a c tua l ly o n ly w e re p re sen td u r ing w in te r ,l e av ing f o rt h en or ther nc oun t r ie si ns p r ing . If ound i tq u i te o dd t h a tt h eb i rd sd i d n o tm ig ra te s t i l lf u r the rt ot h eS ou th t o ap l ace w he r et h ew in te rw a sf r ee f r om s now a nd i c e . T he r e a son w hy Ig o tt ot h ink a bou tt h es ku l ls a ta l lg oe sb ack t o my c h i ldhood .A s Iw a s i n te re s ted i ns ke le ton s ,i th appened t h a t my f a the r ,b e ing a na r chaeo log is t , s t opped b yi n H a l l s ta t t i n 1 955 t os ee t h e g rave -f ie ld a nd t ol o ok a tt h e o b jec t s f r om i ti nt h e l o ca l mu seum . Ob serv ing t h eb one -house a nd t h ep ecu l ia rs ku l ls , h e s en t me ap o s t ca rd o fi t ( F ig . 2 ) . When s t a r t ing t os t udy o s teo logy , Ir e ca l led t h ep i c tu re a nd i nqu i red a bou tt h e s kul s ,t h ink ing t h a ti d en t if ied r e la t ive sf r om s e ve ra lf am i l ie se x i s ted i nt h ec olec t ion . T he t r ad i t ion o fd eco ra t ing s ku l l si nt h i sm anne rw a sp rev ious ly mo re w ide sp read i nt h e E a s te rn A lps ,i n c lud ing S a l zkammergu t ,I nnv ier te la nd T i ro li nA u s t r ia ,a nd B avar ia i n t h e G e rman F edera l R epub l ic . I ts eem s t oh ave d eve loped d ur ing t h e 1 8 th c en tu ry , r e ach ing i t sh ighe s tp opu la r i ty d u r ing t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry . A tt h et u rn o f t h e l a s t c en tury , h oweve r , many p r ies t s s eem t o h ave c ons ide red t h e p rac t ice o f d eco ra t ing t h e s ku l ls d e te s tab le , a nd mo s tc o l lec t ion sw e re r ebur ied d u r ing t h a tt ime a nd e ven d ur ing t h is c en tu ry , o f ten i n c onnec t ion w i th s o me k ind o f f une ra l s e rv ice ( Bu rgs ta l le r 1 961) . A pa r t f r om t h e c o l lec t ion f r om H a l l s ta t t , w h ich o n t h e o the r h and s e em st oh ave b een t h el a rge s tc o l lec t ion o ft h em a l l , h a rd ly a ny c omp le te c o l lec t ion o f d eco ra ted s ku l ls f r om t h e a r ea i sp re se rved , a l though s ome s ca t te red s pec imens f r om o t he rc o l lec t ion s a r ef ound i nd i f f e ren t mu seum o ru n ive r s i ty c o l lec t ions . T he l a rge s to f t h e se o the r c o l lec t ion s s eem s t o b e o ne f r om B ava r ia b e ing s t o red i n t h e Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s tory i nN ew Y o rk ,c on s i s t ing o fs ome d ozen s ku l l s a tm o s t . T he s ku l l s f r om H a l l s ta t t h ave b een s t ud ied t w ice b efo re , t h e f i r s t t ime b y P rof e sso r Z ucke rkand l f r om t h e U n ive r s i ty o fG raz i na bou t 1 875 ( Zucke rkand l 1 878 ) , a nd b y P rof e sso rG u s tav S au se rf r om t h eU n ive r s i ty o fI nn sb ruck 1 947 -50 ( Sau se r 1 952 ) . T he f i r s tn amed w a s me re ly i n te re s ted i nc r an ia lm ea su remen t st oc ompa re w i th o t he rc ran ia l s e r ie s , a nd s t ud ied 1 05 s ku l l s , mo s to fw h ich c ou ld b ei nden t if ied i nH a l ls ta t tb ym ean s o fn i ce ly d rawn n umbe r s o n t h e t emp le o ft h e s ku l l s . T he n umbe r s u sed b y P rof e sso r S au se rw e re f ound o nt h eo cc ipu to ft h e s ku l l si nt h ec ha rne lh ou se , made b yp enc i l ,b u t w e re i n an umbe r o fc a ses n o t v e ry w e l l p re se rved . P rof e sso r S ause r d i ed , h oweve r , b efo re t h es t udy w a sp ub l i shed .T he s t udy ,c omp r is ing e ven mea su remen t so nt h el i v ing v i l lage r s , s e em st oh ave b een d e scr ip t ive r a the rt h an g ene t ica l ,j udg ing f r om h i sp rev iou s s t udy o ft h ep opu la t ion o ft h eO tz v a l ley i nT i ro l( Sau se r 1 938 ) . O n ly o ne b r ief r e por to n t h e a n th rop log ica l i mpor tance o ft h e s ku l l s s e em s t oh ave b een p rev ious ly p ub l ished ( O lb r ich 1 963 ) . Ap ho tog raph o fK ar l T rausner ( one o ft h e f ew s ku l lp a in te r sk nown ) w a sg iven b yH en schen ( 1966 ) ; o n ly o ne o ft h es ku l l sd i sp layed o nt h a tp ho tog raph w a s , h oweve r ,p a in ted b yh im . My f i r s tv i s i tt oH a l l s ta t tw a si nN ovemb e r , 1 973 . If l ew t oS a lzbu rg f r om w he re Ir en ted ac a r t o d r ive t o H a l ls ta t t . I tw a s e a r ly w in te r i n t h e A lps a nd Id rove a c ross t h e moun ta ins i n aV o lk swagen , n o t ing t h a t t h er oad w a sd ry b u tt h e s now w a l l sa tt h e s i de o ft h er oad w e re a bou t 1 . 5 me t res h igh . A r r iv ing i nt h ee ven ing i nH a l ls ta t t , Im e tw i th t h eh ead o ft h el o ca l Museum A s soc ia t ion K a r lH öp l inge r ,w ho h ad made a na ppo in tmen t f o rm ew i th t h ec a tho l ic p r ie s tb efo re n oon t h ef o l low ing d ay . D u r ing o u rc onve r sa t ion ,I a sked h im i ft h e re m igh tb es ome a n imo s i ty a ga in s tf o re igne r ss t udy ing t h es ku l l so ft h e i r p a s tr e la t ive s . T o my g rea ts u rpr ise Is udden ly f ound my h o s ta rgu ing w i th h i sd augh te r a bou tw hom o ft h e i rr e la t ive sw e re a c tua l ly r ep re sen ted b ys ku l l si nt h eb one h ouse , my a c tua lq ue s t ion i ns ome w ay b e ing c on s ide red a sc omp le te ly i r re levan t . Il a te rf ound o u t t h a tt h ev i l lage r s a t t i tude t ot h e s ku l ls i nt h eo s sua ry w a sc omp le te ly d i f f e ren tt o wha tI h ad e xpec ted , t h ee x is tence o ft h eb one h ou se w i th t h e s ku l ls o fa nc ien tr e la t ive s b e ing 6

r e g a rded a sq u i te n a tu ra l .T he i n hab i tan t so fH a l l s ta t tt h em se lve sh a rd ly e ve re n te red t h e b one h ou se , a l though f r equen t ly v i s i t ing t h eg r ave si nt h ec hu r chya rd . T he f o l low ing mo rn ing Iv i s i ted t h ec a tho l ic p r ies t , J ohann We id inge r , i nqu i r ing a bou t t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fs t udy ing t h es ku l l s . Ia l so g o t my f i r s tl o ok a tt h es ku l l si nt h eo s sua ry , w h ich s e emed mo re u se f u lt h an e xpec ted .T he p r ie s tw a sv e ry o pen -m inded a nd d ec la red t h a ti ft h ec hu r ch c ou ld d o s ome th ing f o rs c ience ,t h ey w ou ld b e g l ad t oh e lp . W i th t h i s h appy n ew si nm ind , Ip r epa red t or e tu rn t oS weden o nt h ef o l low ing d ay . I nt h e mo rn ing i tt u rned o u tt oh ave b een s now ing t h roughou t t h e n igh t , a nd t h e r oad f r om H a l l s ta t tw a s c ove red w i th s ome 1 5 c m s o fw e t , h eavy s now . T he r en ted c a rh ad s umme rt i re st h a tw e re f a rf r om n ew , a nd Id rove c a re fu l ly i nt h ed i rec t ion o fS a lzbu rg a pp rox ima te ly 7 0 km sa way . H oweve r ,i n ab end ,t h e s p eed h av ing n o tb een a l l too f a s t , t h ec a rb egan t os l ide ,a nd a f te rs ome h aza rdou s manouv re s , e nded w i th t h ec a rf r on ti n t h e s now w a l l a tt h e s i de o ft h e r oad . Ic a re fu l ly c on t inued t h e d r ive u n t i l Ig o t t ot h e p a s sage o ve rt h e moun ta in st oS a lzbu rg ,w he re t h ec a ra b so lu te ly r e fu sed t oc l imb u ph il . Ir e ca l lt h a t It h ough ta bou t ac e r ta in H ann iba lt r y ing t od o as im i la rt h ing w i th e l ephan t s i nt h eA lp s mo re t h an 2 000 y ea r sb e fo r e . E ven tua l ly , If ound o u tt h a tt h e re w a s a no the r r o ad t oS a lzbu rg a round t h e moun ta in s ,j u s tl e ad ing o n to t h eA u tobahn . S now ing h eav i ly a l t h et ime , Iw a sh appy t ok eep t h e s ame s peed a st h eo t he r so nt h eA u tobahn , t h a ti s a bou t4 0k rn sa nh ou ra t mo s t . A f t e rr e tu rn ing t oS wed en , Is c r eened t h el i t e ra tu r ea bou tn on -me t r ica lt r a i t s , mo s t ly 1 500 p age si nF rench . T h i s w a s at o ugh t h ing t od o f o rm e b ecau se o f my s omewha tl im i ted e xpe r ience w i th t h eF rench l a nguage ,b u ti tw a sn eve r the le s sn ece s sa ry . C on su l t ing a l so s ome r e f e rence si nE ng l i sh , Imade u p as y s tem o fr e f e rence st ot r a i t sd e sc r ib ed b ye ach p a r t icu la ra u tho r , a nd a l so made as co re s hee tf o r al a rge n umb e ro ft r a i t s , s e lec t ing t h e c l ea re s t d esc r ip t ion w hen t h e re w a s a n a l te rna t ive . Il a te rf ound o u t t h a t s ome among s e ve ra lh und r ed d e sc r ip t ion s Ih ad o n my s h ee t sw e re a c tua l ly d up l i ca t ing e a ch o t he r ,a nd i tt o ok m es ome w eek sd u r ing my f i r s tr e a lr e sea r ch t r ip t oH a l l s ta t tt or ea l ly s o r to u tt h e d oub le s . T ha tt r ip w a sm ade i nF eb rua ry , 1 974 . F u l lo fo p t im i sm Is e to u tt os t udy t h ec omp le te c o l lec t ion ,i g no r ing t h ef a c tt h a t Iw a sa lmo s tc e r ta in ly d oomed t of a i li nt h a te f fo r t . Ih ad , h oweve r , g o tt wo N ikkonna tc am e ra sa nd p l en ty o ff i lm t h rough ag r an tf r om t h eN a tu ra l S c ience R e sea rch C ounc i l i n Sweden , my f i r s t g ran t e ve r f r om ar e sea r ch c ounc i l , a p r ev iou s a pp l ica t ion h av ing b een t u rned d own b yt h eR e sea rch C ounc i lo fH uman i t ie s , o nt h eg round t h a tt h ey f e a red t h a tt h es t udy w ou ld r e su l ti n ad o c to ra lt h e s i s . A si tt u rned o u t , t h e t h e s i s w a s o n a no the r s ub jec t , d ea l ing w i th s ku l l s o f t h e R ed f ox , a nd o n ly t h eo r e t ica l ly w i th h uman s . O n t h e w ay f r om Sweden t oH a l ls ta t t Imade ab r ief s t op i nZ ü r ich w he re Ib ough t a s ma l l c oo rd ina te c a l iphe r a nd ap a la tome te r d i rec t ly f r om t h e manufac tu re r S i ebe r H egene r , a nd g o t as ma l l d i scoun t , w h ich w a s a pp rec ia ted b y as t uden t . I tt ur ned o u t , h oweve r , t h a t mo s to ft h e s ku l l sw e re c omp le te ly t oo th le s s , s ot h a tt h ep a la tome te rw a s u se le s sf o r my p u rpo se . I tf u r the rmo re t u rned o u tt h a tt h ea rm so ft h ec oo rd ina te c a l iphe r w e re a bou t2 0m rn t o os ho r tf o r my f a c ia lm ea su r emen t s . Mo s ts ku l l sc ou ld b em ea su r ed w i thou t p rob lem s , b u t f o r s ome o ft h e s ku l l s as l igh t a pp rox ima t ion h ad t ob e made . L a te r , Ip o in ted t h i s o u tt oS i ebe rH egene r , b u t g o t t h er ep ly t h a tt h e i n s t rumen t w a s a p r e s ic ion i n s t rumen t ,m ade i ns ma l ln umbe r s ,a nd i tw ou ld h ave b een t oo g rea t ac o s tt o m ake t h ep rope r mod i f ica t ion .W i th r e spec tt ot h ea c tua lc o s to ft h ei n s t rumen tb yS i eb e r H egene r ,h oweve r , Is t i l lf i nd i tmo s ti mpo r tan tt h a tt h ey s hou ld s upp ly i n s t rumen t st h a t c ou ld b e u sed i n 1 00% o f t h e c a se s , a nd n o t i n 9 5% . Ia l so a m n o t s u re w hy t h e i n s t rumen t i sc ur ren t ly s upp l ied o n ly w i th a 1mm g rad ing , a nd w hy i t may n o t b e e qu ipped w i th a0 . 1 mm g r ad ing o n b o th f i rm a nd moveab le a rm s . Al a s t mod i f ica t ion 7

s hou ld b et h ec onve r s ion o ft h ei n s t rumen tt o at r ue s imome te r ,w i th i nwa rd c u rved e nd s a nd a 0 . 1 mm g rad ing . A s i tw a s , t h e c oo rd ina te c a l iphe r c ou ld o n ly b e u sed f o r d i s tances g rea te r t h an 2 0 mm , b ecause t h i s w a s t h e t h ickness o f t h e c huck o f t h e moveab le b a r . I n t h is w ay i tw a s p reven ted f r om m ea sur ing t h e s imo t ic c ho rd a nd s ub ten se ( t he s ma l le s tb r ead th a nd c o r re spond ing h e igh to ft h en a sa lb one s ) . T he t r ip t o H a l l s ta t t f r om S a lzburg t h is t ime w a s made b y b us . M idway b e tween S a lzbu rg a nd H a l l s ta t t , a tt h e Wo lfgang S ee , t h er oad w a sb locked f o rs ome 1 00 me ter s b y a n a va lanche o fb ou lde r s , a n e ven t t h a t h ad o ccur red s ome h our s b efo re . S uch a n e xpe r ience may i nduce al i f e long r e spec t f o r s now a nd b ou lde r a va lanche s . I nf a c t , I t ook ap ho tog raph o f as t ree t w a rn ing s i gn w i th at e x tu nde rnea th e xp l ic i te ly w a rn ing a ga ins t a va lanches , ap i c ture t h a t Ik eep o n ad oo r t o my o f f ice , a tt imes n o t w i thou t r ea l i ty , h oweve r . T he c ha rne l h ou se f o rm s t h e g round f l oo ro fS t . M ichae l 's c hape l ( F ig . 3 ) wh ich d a te s b ack t ot h e 1 3 th c en tury w i th r e spec tt oi t so lde s tp a r t s . I ti ss i tua ted t ot h eN or th o ft h e C a tho l ic c hu rch , b e ing , l i ke t h ec hu rch , b u i l td i rec t ly o n to t h e s o l id b ed rock . S ta i r s o n t h eS ou the rn s i de o ft h ec hape ll e ad st ot h ec hape li t se l fo nt h ef i r s tf l oo r ,w he rea so nt h e E a s te rn w a l l t h e re i s al a rge g a te w i th av au l ted c e i l ing a tt h e l e ve l o ft h ec hu rchya rd , n orma l ly c l o sed b y ah uge , r e c tangu la r d oub le o ak d oo r , d eco ra ted w i th r e c tangu la r p la te s o fb r ick w i th t h eo rnamen to f as ku l l a bove t wo c ro s sed b ones . A tt h et op o ft h e f r ame o ft h ed oo rt h e r ei sp laced t h et wo l e t te r s Aa nd 1 2i nf o rged i r on .T he e n t rance t o t h er oom i nw h ich t h es ku l l sw e re s t o red m ea su re sa pp rox ima te ly 2b y 2m e t r e s ,w he r ea s t h er oom i t se lf i sa pp rox ima te ly 5m e t re sw ide a nd 8m e t re sd eep . S ome t e nm e t re st ot h e No r th o f t he c ha rne l h ouse t h e g rave -d igge r 's h ou se i sl y ing ( F ig . 4 ) . A t ac orne r u nde rnea th t h er oof o ft h a th ou se ,f a c ing t h ec hu rchya rd , i s aw ooden s he lf u pon w h ich t h e s ku l l sw e re p laced f o r s ome t ime , f a c ing E a s t , i no rde rt ob eb l eached b efo re b e ing d eco ra ted a nd p l aced i nt h ec ha rne lh ou se . D u r ing t h is s t ay It r ied t od o s eve ra l t h ing s . H av ing g o t ap rope rp lace t ol i ve , w i th a r oom f a c ing t h ep i c tu resque m a rke t p l ace , Is pen tt h el unch t ime d ur ing t h e f i r s t w eek f i nd ing a p lace t o e a t . T h is w a s a c tua l ly n o t v e ry d i ff icu l t , b ecause a t l e a s t t h ree r e s tau ran t sw e r e a va i lab le ( a nd s t i l l mo re d u r ing t h et o u r i s ts ea son ) ,b u tt h ep rob lem w a s wh ich t oc hoo se . If i na l ly d ec ided o n t h eo n ly o ne w he re Iw a s o f f e red an ew spape rt o r e ad wh i le w a i t ing f o rt h e f ood t ob e s e rved , a nd w h ich w a s a l so t h eo n ly p l ace w he re t h ey c a red a bou tw he the rt h ef ood w a ss a t i sf ac to ry t ot h ec o s tume r . I nt h ee ven ing s Ih ad t h ep lea su r eo ft r y ing o u tw h ich b rand o fw ine Is hou ld b r ing b ack w i th m et o Sweden ,a t a sk t h a tt ook s eve ra l w eek s a tt h e s peed o fo ne b o t t le ad ay , b u tc e r ta in ly p rov ided m e w i th e xpe r ience o fw ine t a s t ing ,n o tt os ay s ub sequen tg ood n igh t 's s l eep . T he p r ime o b jec to f my s t ay , h oweve r , w as t oc a r ry o u tr e sea r ch o n t h e s ku l l s . I no rde r t od ot h a t , at a b le w a sp laced i nt h ec ha rne lh ou se , a l ong w i th ac ha i ra nd al amp w i th a n aked l i gh tb u lb . B e ing i nt h ew in te r ,h oweve r , Ih ad t ob ep rope r ly d re s sed ,a c tua l ly a s i f Iw e re t o wo rk o u tdoo r s i nw in te r . D u r ing t h ec o lde s tp er iod s , t h e t empe ra ture w a s a bou t3°C , a nd Ih ad t o make ab r eak a bou te ve ry h ou rt ow a rm u p s t if ff r ozen f i nge r s . O ne p rob lem i nt h i s c onnec t ion w a s t h a t f o rh and l ing t h e s ku l l s ( wh ich w e re t h e s ame t empe ra tu re a st h er e s t o ft h er oom ) g loves w e re v e ry c umbe r some t ou se . It h e refo re u sed w r i s t -g love so fc ame l woo l , s ot h a tt h ef i nge r sw e re f r ee . T he h ea t ing o ft h er oom w a s a lmo s tn on e x i s ten t , a nd Ih ad o n ly t h el i gh tb u lb o f 1 00 W , a nd my p ho to lamps o f 2 000 W u sed d u r ing s ho r tp e r iod s . Howeve r ,t h e re w e re many p rac t ica l ma t te r st ob ed ea l tw i th .I no rde rt ob ea b le t os t udy h er i tab i l i ty , Ih ad t o h ave a ccess t o t h e c hu rch r e co rds . F o r tuna te ly , t h e se w e re p re se rved ,e x tend ing b ack t o1 602 ,a nd Iw a so f f e red t h eo ppo r tun i ty t ol ook a tt h em . O n t h e o the r h and , t h e re t u rned o u t t ob e n o o r ig ina l a l phabe th ic r eg is te r s t ot h e c hur ch

8

r e co rds , a nd , i ft ha t d id n o t make t h e s ea r ch a wkwa rd e nough , t h e w r i t ing w a s t h e h andwr i t ing c o r respond ing t o Go th ic , al e t ter ing w h ich e ven n ow Ih ave n o t l e a rn t t o r e ad p rope r ly w i thou te f for t . T he r evea l ing q ue s t ion f r om t h ep r ie s tw a s : " Bu ti fy ou a r e j u s t t os t udy b i r ths , ma r r iages a nd d ea ths , d o y ou a c tua l ly n eed t ol ook a tt h e o r ig ina l r e co rd s? A s ama t te r o ff a c t , a n e xpe r t i no ld h andwr i t ing h a s r e cen t ly s u rveyed t h e c hu rch r eg i s te r so f many c hu rche si nt h ev a l ley ,i n c lud ing H a l l s ta t t , a nd h a sl e f t as e to f c op ie s a tt h e c hu rch o ff i ce ." Wha t h e s howed m e w a s as e to fn ine v o lume s o fn i ce ly t y ped c hu rch r eg is te r so nb i r th s ,d ea th s , a nd m a r r iage s .T he e x i s tence o ft h i sw a s ame re c hance o fl u ck , t h e v o lume s h av ing b een c omp le ted i n 1 961 a nd 1 967 b y D r . J o seph H e ide rf r om V ienna ,a nd w e re j u s tp e r f ec tf o r my p u rpo se , s pann ing t h et ime f r om 1 602 t o1 852 . F rom 1 853 a nd o nwa rd s , t h ec hu rch h ad k ep tr eg i s te r s . S ta t ing t h a t Iw ished I w e re a b le t oh ave ac opy o ft h e b ook s , t h ep r ie s tt o ld m e Iw a s f r ee t o make ac opy . I n a dd i t ion , h e a l so t o ld m e w he re Ic ou ld make o ne . I n H a l ls ta t t , ac ommun i ty o fa bou t 2 500 i nd iv idua l s , t h e re h appened t ob es i tua ted t h eA u s t r ian S choo lo f Wood T rea tmen t , w h ich owned aX e rox E qu ipmen t . Wi th r e spec tt ot h e c hu rch r eg is te r s f r om 1 852 a nd o nwa rd s , t h ef o rma tw a sl a rge , b u t ab ook p r in te ri nt h e n ea rby t own B ad I s ch lc u to u t j u s tt h er i gh tf o rma to fp ape rt om ake t h ep rope rc opy . Ie ven g o th e lp f r om t h es choo lt o m anufac tu re n umbe r f r ames t o d i sp lay t h e s epa ra te n umbe r o f e ach s ku l l f o r s l ide p ho tog raphy . I n a dd i t ion t ot h et yped r eg i s te r s , Ia l so g o tp e rm is s ion t op ho tog raph t h e o r ig ina l c h rono log ica lr e g i s te r sf r om 1 853 t o1 899 . A f te rr e tu rn ing t o Sweden Ih ad my c op ie sb ound i na bou tt h e s ame w ay a st h eo r ig ina l s i nH a l l s ta t t . D u r ing ar e cen ts t udy o ft h er eg i s te r s ,i tc ame a c ro s s my m ind t h a tt h e re w e r e t h ree v o lumes o f b i r th s d ur ing 1 602 -1785 , t wo c once r n ing d ea ths , a nd b u t o ne c oncer n ing m a r r iage s . I nt h el a t te r ,t h e re w e re d oub le e n t r ie s ,o ne f o re ach c oup le ,s ot h e n umbe ro fi nd iv idua l sa c tua l i ty c ou ld b ec on ta ined i nh a lf av o lume . Wi th r e spec tt ot h e b i r th s a nd d ea ths r e co rd s , h oweve r , al a rge n umbe ro fc h i ld d ea ths w e re n o ted , b u ts t i l l t h e re w a s o ne v o lume mo re c once rn ing b i r th s t h an d ea ths , t h eb i r ths c on s t i tu t ing s o me 3 0 ,000 . I ts e em s t ha tt h eo n ly e xp lana t ion f o rt h i s , a s sum ing t h a tb o th b i r th s a nd d ea th s w e re r e co rded w i th s im i la rd eg ree so fe xac tnes s ,w a st h a t ag rea t em ig ra t ion mu s th ave t a ken p lace f r om H a l l s ta t td u r ing t h e y ea r s . As im i la rt e ndency i sn o ted i nt h er e co rd s f r om 1 795 t o1 852 : T he v o lume o fb i r th si sa bou to ne a nd ah a lf a st h ick a st h a to ft h e d ea ths , a nd t h a t o f ma r r iage s i sa bou t h a lf t h a t o n d ea ths . O fc ou r se , t ho se w ho w e re m a r r ied i nH a l ls ta t t a nd h ad c h i ld ren w e re g ene ra l ly a l so b ur ied i nH a l ls ta t ta l ong w i th t h e i rd ead i n f an t s , a nd s ome u nma r r ied i nd iv idua ls w ho h ad n o t em ig ra ted . S ince t h e re w a s a l so s ome i mm ig ra t ion t o H a l ls ta t t , i n t e rms o f mar ry ing i n to t h e H a l ls ta t t c o mmun i ty , t h e n e t em ig ra t ion i sh idden f r om t h e c hu rch r e co rd s o f ma r r iages a nd d ea ths . T h i se f f ec ta c tua l ly l e ad st oa no ve r -e s t ima t ion o fc h i ld mo r ta l i ty , s i nce d i seased c h i ld ren a r ea ccumu la ted i nt h ec eme te ry ,w he rea sa l l em ig ran t s , mo s t ly a do le scen t sa nd a du l t s ,a r ec e r ta in ly l o s t .T he p rob lem i sw o r th c on s ide r ing w hen i n te rp re t ing c eme te r ie s o rg r ave -f ie ld si ng ene ra l . T h is may i mp ly t h a t ,f o ri n s tance ,t h eh igh i n fan t mor ta l i ty i n V ä s te rhu s( Ge jva l l 1 960 ) may b ee xagge ra ted ,a nd w i th r e spec tt op a leodemog raphy ,o ne m ay t h ink a bou t s urv ivo r sh ip o ft ho se w ho r ema ined i nt h e c ommun i ty , a nd n o to ft h e c omp le te p opu la t ion . T he n a tu ra le f f ec ti st h a tt h ee xpec ted l e ng th o fl i f ea tb i r th ,a sw e l l a st h e mean a ge o ft h ei n d iv idua l sb o rn i nt h ec ommun i ty ,a r eu nde re s t ima ted . T he s ku l ls i nV ienna w e re s t ud ied d u r ing ap a r t icu la rt r ip t ot h e c ap i ta l , b e ing ma in ly s i tua ted i n t he N a tu rh is tor isches Museum a nd i n t he O s ter re iches Museum f ü r V o lk skunde . I nV ienna , t h e re s hou ld b eo ne mo re s ku l l , w h ich Ih ave s t i l l n o ty e ts een , w h ich i sd i sp layed i nt h eM in i s te ry o fE duca t ion .D u r ing t h a ts t ay , Imade as ho r tv i s i tt o H a l l s ta t tt oge the rw i th t h e Swed i sh A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty , w h ich h appened t oh ave a n e xcu r s ion t oA us t r ia ,i n c lud ing H a l l s ta t t . O ne p rob lem w i th t h ec ha rne lh ou se a nd t h es ku l lc o l lec t ion w a s t h a tt h ec o l lec t ion i sa w e l lk nown t ou r is ta t t ra c t ion , a nd i ti sv i s i ted b y s ome 3 0 ,000 v i s i to r se ach y ea r ma in ly 9

d u r ing as ho r t s u mme r s ea son . H oweve r , s ome v i s i to r s e ven v i s i t H a l ls ta t t d ur ing t h e w in te r , a nd w ou ld f r ee ly e n te rt h ec ha rne lh ou se i ft h ey f ound t h ed oo ro pen .T he refo r e , i tw a s a dv i sab le t ok eep t h ed oo rs hu t . T he p rob lem d u r ing my s t ay w a s , h oweve r , t h a t t h e re w a sb u to ne k ey t ot h ec ha rne lh ou se . It h e refo re s ugges ted t h a t Is hou ld b el o cked u pw i th t h e s ku l ls , a nd b el e to u ta tf i xed h ou r s . T h is w a s n op rob lem , t wo l a d ie s l i v ing i nt h ea d jacen tg rave d igge r ' sh ou se t o ok c a re o ft h ek ey ,l o cked m eu pa nd l e tm eo u ta t t imes a g reed u pon . T ha ts y s tem w o rked p e r f ec t ly d u r ing my w ho le s t ay , a nd t h ey n eve r f a i led t ol e tm eo u t ,c on t ra ry t o ar umou r Ih ea rd u pon my n ex tv i s i t ,t h a to no ne o cca s ion t h ey h ad f o rgo t ten t ol e tm eo u t . B e ing l o cked i n , Ie xpe r ienced s ome t o u r i s t sf i nd ing t h e i rw ay t ot h ec ha rne lh ou se t r y ing t oo pen t h e l o cked o ak d oo r sw h ich t h ey t hough tw e r eo pen . T he r e ac t ion t ot h el o cked d oo r sd i f f e red : S ome v i s i to r sj u s tt ur ned a nd l e f t . O the r s a ppa ren t ly l ooked a r ound a nd o b served t h e s i gn o n t h ea d jacen tg rave -d igge r 's h ou se t e l l ing t og ot h e re t og e t ak ey t o g e t a cce ss t o t h e s ku l l s , a nd Iw a s t h en p repa red w hen a f ter aw h i le t h e d oo r s w e re u n locked . S ome o ft ho se w ho p eeped t h rough t h e k ey -ho le o b served t h a t t h e re w a s a l i gh tb u rn ing w i th in . B u tt h e mo s tc ur iou s g roup o fv i s i to r sc on s i s ted o ft ho se w ho f i r s t r e a l ized t h a t t h e d oo r s w e re l o cked , a nd t h en c l imbed u p t og e t ag l impse o ft h e s ku l l s t h rough t h eo pen ing b e tween t h ef r ame o ft h ed oo r sa nd t h ev au l ted c e il ing . T he r e ac t ion w hen s e e ing al i v ing h uman b e ing a m id s t t h e s ku l l s v a r ied f r om f l egma t oh o r ro r . I s hou ld p e rhap sa dd t h a t Iw a sw ea r ing aw h i te c oa t . D u r ing a l l my w o rk i nt h ec ha rne lh ou se ,w h ich w a sc o ld a nd d amp , In eve rb ecame s i ck o rg o tc o ld . O ne m ed ica ld o c to rw ho v i s i ted t h ec ha rne lh ouse p a r t icu la r ly i nqu i red a bou t t h a t , c l a im ing t ha t i tw a s s u rp r is ing t ha t Ih ad n o t s uf fe red f r om b ronch i t i s n o r p hneumon ia , a st h e w o rk ing c ond i t ion s w e re r a ther b ad f o rt h e h ea l th . O fc ou r se Iw a s a wa r e o ft h er i sk s , a nd i no rde rt op reven tt h is , It ook ag rea t d o se o fV i tam in C e ve ry mo rn ing . B e l iev ing t h a ti th e lped , a tl e a s ti td id n o h a rm , a nd t h em a in t h ing w a s t h a tI s t ayed h ea l thy . I ti sc er ta in ly e a sy t of o rge tt h ec o ld a nd d amp w o rk ing c ond i t ion s ,b u tt h ef a c tw a st h a ti t w a s b ad . E ven w hen p rope r ly c l o thed , a f te r aw h i le , s i t t ing s t i l l mo s to ft ime w i th b a re f i nge r s , t h e c o ld c ame c r eep ing u p . A t t h e e nd i tw a s an u isance b e ing mo r ea nd mo re f r ozen ,a nd t h el ow t empe ra tu re d e layed t h ew o rk ing p ace . O ne c ou ld p e rhaps s ay t h a ti ns p i te o ft h i s , Ie ndu red , b u tt h is w a sn o tt h ec a se . Ir e ca l l t h a t Is uf f e red i nd i f f e ren tw ay s , k now ing t h a t s oone ro rl a te rw h i le s i t t ing t h e re Iw a s g o ing t of r eeze , s ot h a tt h ew o rk b ecame mo re a nd mo re d e tes tab le .P a r t icu la r ly b ecau se I d o n o t g ene ra l ly f r eeze v e ry e a s i ly . Ir emembe rt ha t a tt ime s Ij us t s a t t h ink ing a bou t w he the r Iw a s s t i l lw a rm o rn o t . T he l a s tf i f teen m inu te so rs ob e fo re Iw a sl e to u to ft h e c ha rne lh ou se w e re g ene ra l ly v e ry l o ng m inu te s . Ip l anned t ob eg in e a r ly a nd w o rk f o r a bou t f ou r h ou r s b efo re l unch . H oweve r , Iw a s i n fo rmed t h a tt h e re m igh tb ep rob lem sw i th t h eb r eakf a s ti nt h a tc a se ,s i nce t h e re w e re n o f r e sh B rö tchen t ob eo b ta ined b efo re a bou te i gh tt h i r ty . Ic ho se t ow a i tf o rt h ef r e sh r ols . A nyway , t h e re w a sp l en ty o fp ape rw o rk t ob ed one i n my r oom i nt h e mo rn ing , s t a r t ing w i th t h ec on s t ruc t ion o ft h ep ed ig ree s . T he i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e i nd iv idua ls w a s n o t a s e a sy a s t hough t f r om t h e b eg inn ing . T he re w e re ar a the rf r equen tu se i nH a l ls ta t to fs u rname s s uch a sA nna , J ohann ,J osef , Ma th ia sa nd M ichae l . T he n ame sA nna a nd Mar ia w e re f r equen t ly u sed i nc omb ina t ion s s u ch a sA nna Mar ia o r Mar ia A nna w i th r e spec tt ot h eb i r th r e co rd s , b u ti nc onnec t ion w i th ma r r iage s a nd d ea ths , f r equen t ly o n ly o ne o f t h e n ame s w e re g iven . I nc a ses o f d oub le s u rname s , t h e re w e re a l so e xamp les t ha t o ne n ame w a s g iven i n t h e c hu rch r e co rd , b u t t h e o the rp a in ted o n t h e s ku l l . T h i s d id n o t , o n t h e o the rh and , c oncer nt h e 1 0

c omb ina t ion so fA nna a nd Mar ia ,b u to the rc omb ina t ion so fn ame s( e .g . ,J ohann G eorg , E va Mar ia ) . T he n am ing t r ad i t ion s e emed t o h ave wo rked i n t h e w ay t ha t t h e o ldes t s on v ery f r equen t ly g o tt h e s am en ame a sh i sf a the rw ho ,i nt ur n ,c ou ld h ave t h es ame n ame a sh i s f a the r . I ns ome c a se s Ia c tua l ly h ad t wo o rt h ree s kuls w i th t h es ame s u rname a nd f am i ly n ame p a in ted o nt h em . T he s ame p r inc ip le m ay c e r ta in ly e ven h ave e x i s ted w i th r e spec t t od augh te r s , b u t a s women c hanged t h e i r n ame b y ma t r imony , t h is d id n o t h ave t h e s ame e f f ec tw i th r e spec tt oi d en t if i ca t ion a si th ad w i th r e spec tt ot h e men .A f te r aw h i le , h oweve r ,i tb ecame mo re a nd mo re e v iden tt h a td u r ing ap ar t icu la rp e r iod o ft ime , mo s t o ft h e s ku l l sh ad b een p a in ted b y o ne s ku l lp a in te ro n ly , t hough e xcep t ions t ot h i s may h ave o ccur red . T he s ub sequen t s ku l l p a in te r c hose h i s own s t y le o f p a in t ing , b u t g ene ra l ly r e ta ined s ome e l emen t s o f h i s p redecesso r . I n t h is w ay , t h e s ku l l p a in t ing d eve loped a cco rd ing t ot h eg ene ra l ,a r chaeo log ica l ly k nown p r inc ip le o ft y po logy . S ince t h et ime f o ri n te rmen tw a sl im i ted b ecause o ft h es ma l la r ea o ft h ec hu r chya rd i nr e la t ion t op opu la t ion s i ze , i tw a s i nt h is w ay p o ss ib le t oa pp rox ima te t h e t ime o fd ea th o fa n i n d iv idua l , g i ven t h e mode o fd eco ra t ion . S uppo r tf o rt h is w a si np a r tg iven b y means o f s ku l ls w i th t h e i rn ame sa nd d a te o ry ea ro fd ea th p a in ted o nt h em , a nd i np a r tb y means o fs ku l l sf r om i nd iv idua l sw i th mo re u nu sua ln ames . T he y ea ro ra ge a td ea th w a s s ome t imes p a in ted o n t h e s ku l l , a nd a lways g iven i nt h e c hu rch r eco rd s a f te r 1 700 . E ven t h e a ges a t ma t r imony w e re g iven . Howeve r , w i th r e spec t t ot h e y ea r s p a in ted o n t h e s ku l l s , i tt u rned o u tt ob e g r ea t c onfu s ion . I n mo s t c a se s , t h ea ge sw e re c o r rec t , b u ti ns ome t h e re w e re ag r ea td i f f e rence b e tween t h ey ea r o fd ea th a cco rd ing t ot h ec hu rch r e co rd a nd t h a tp a in ted o nt h es ku l l ,t h el a t te rg ene ra l ly b e ing y ounge r . I n s ome o f t h ese c a ses t h e d i f f e rences w a s mo re t han t e n y ea r s , i n d ica t ing t h a tt h ep a in te rm ay h ave mean tt h ey ea ro fp a in t ing a nd n o tt h ea c tua ly ea ro f d ea th . I no the rc a se si ts e emed t h a t t h ey ea rw a s g iven a cco rd ing t o wha t s ome r e la t ive m igh th ave r e ca l led a nd n o tc hecked a ga in s tt h ec hu rch r e co rd s . W i th r e spec tt ot h ec hu r ch r e co rd s , o n t h eo the rh and , t h e g iven a ges o fd ea th c ou ld b e c hecked a ga ins tt h eb i r th r e co rd s . F requen t ly ,t h ef i r s tn ame sw e re n o tq u i te c o r rec t , a nd t h ea ge si nt h ed ea th r e co rd ss e em o f ten t oh ave b een r e co rded a cco rd ing t oi n fo rma t ion f r om r e la t ives o ft h ed i sea sed , w ho may n o ta lway s h ave e ven k nown t h ee xac td a te o f b i r th o ft h e d i sea sed . I nt h e c hu rch r e co rd s o fd ea ths i tw as t h e refo re ac on sp ic ious ly h igh n umbe ro fp eop le w ho h ad d i ed a tt h e a ge o f5 5 , 6 0 , 6 5 , 7 0 a nd 7 5 y ea r so fa ge . A nyway , e xac tk now ledge o ft h e a ge d id n o t s e em t oh ave b een v e ry i mpor tan t . When d ea l ing w i th t h e m ic roevo lu t ion o ft h e p opu la t ion d ur ing t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry , h oweve r , a c tua l a ge s b a sed o n b o th b i r th a nd d ea th r e co rd s w e re u t i l ized ( S jovo ld 1 986 ) . Odd ly , e r ro r s amoun t ing t o 1 2 y ea r s w e re a l so r a ther f r equen t w i th r e spec t t o a ges a t m a t r imony ,e ven w i th r e spec tt oi nd iv idua l sb e tween 2 0a nd 3 5y ea r so fa ge . H av ing p len ty o f f i lm , Ip ho tog raphed t h e s ku l ls i n a pp rox ima te ly t h e s i x s t anda rd n o rm s , u s ing as l ow , K odak P ana tom ic f i lm . T he ma in a im w a s t os t udy n on -me t r ica l t r a i ts , a nd n o t t o make p i c ture s e xac t ly i n t h e F rankfur t p lane . Wi th in a s hor t t ime , h owever , Ig o t af a i rr ou t ine o fa pp rox ima t ing t h ep lane a nd t h e n o rm s . If u r the rmo re t o ok t h ree o t he rb lack a nd w h i te e xpo su re so fe ach s ku l l ,o b l ique ly f r om a bove ,f r om t h e f r on ta nd o b l ique ly f r om b e low , b o th f r om t h ef r on ta nd r ea r . I na dd i ton Imade a tl e a s t t h ree c o lou rs l ide so fe a ch s ku l l ,o ne f r om b e low ,a nd o ne f r om e ach o b l ique ly r i gh ta nd l e f ts i de . T he se w e re s en tt ob ed eve loped t h rough t h el o ca lp ho tog raphe r . I nt h is w ay I g o t a tl e a s t 1 2 e xposu re s f r om e ach s ku l l . F ina l ly , i f Ih ad s o me e xpo sure s l e f t , I p ho tog raphed t h e mo s tb eau t ifu lo ft h em f r om i nf r on t . Is oon r ea l ised t h a t my h a logene l amps w e re r a p id ly w o rn o u tw hen Imade t h eb l ack a nd w h i te e xpo su re s . I no rde rt oa ch ieve a se xac tp i c tu re s a sp o ss ib le , Iu sed d i aph ragm 2 2 1

w i th l ong e xpo su re s ,b e tween 6 0a nd 9 0s e cond s . T he l amps w e re e xpen s ive i nt h ee nd , h oweve r , a nd Ik ind ly b or rowed t wo " no rma l " p ho tog raph ic l amps f r om t h e l o ca l p ho tog raphe r , i no rde rt ob e a b le t ot a ke l o ng e xpo su re s . Ia l so b ough t ap i ece o fr ed c l o th t o a c ta sb ackg round f o r my c o lou rs l ide s . S ho r t ly b efo re n oon If e t ched t h ed eve loped f i lm f r om t h ep ho tog raphe r .B lack a nd w h i t e f i lm u sua l ly t o ok t wo d ay s , t h e s l ide sc ame i nt h e ma i l . D u r ing t h el u nch h ou r s Ie n joyed s i t t ing o nt h eb a lcony o u t s ide my r oom o rder ing t h ef i lm r e tur ned . A f te ra bou t 1 : 30 pm , h oweve r , t h e s un s e t b eh ind t h e moun ta in s . T he b oxe s w i th s l ide s , t o my a musemen t , d i sp lay ing o ne s ku l l a f te rt h e o the r , w e re r e turned w i th a n a dve r t i s ing n o te a t tached t o t h em r e ad ing : " Th is b ox c on ta in s an umbe ro fe xce l len ts l ide st h a td e se rve t ob ec op ied a s p ape rp r in t s ." C e r ta in ly t h el a bo ra to ry d id n o tk now a ny th ing a bou tt h ea c tua ld i sp lay o f t h es l ide s ! D u r ing t h e f i r s t t wo o r t h ree w eek s o f my s t ay , t h e w o rk w a s a dvanc ing v e ry s l ow ly . A f te r aw h i le , Ih ad t or edo t h e f i r s t s ku l l s , r ea l iz ing t h a t Ih ad n o t u nde r s tood a l l t h e F rench d ef in i t ions c omp le te ly i nt h eb eg inn ing . Ia l so h ad t om ake s om r e -a r rangemen t s o f t h e l i s t o f t r a i t s t or u le o u t d up l ica te d ef in i t ions . T h is t ook a l o t mo re t ime t h an e xpec ted . A tt h ee nd o ft h e s t ay Ih ad f i n i shed t h e s t udy o fo n ly 1 75 s ku l ls , a nd Id id n o t k now w he the rt h e re w e re a no the rt wo o rt h ree h und r ed ,o ra no the rt h ousand s ku l l sl e f tt o b e i nves t iga ted . A nyway , Il e f t H a l ls ta t t a nd made ar ound t r ip t h rough S t e ie rma rk , K ä rn ten , V ienna ,U n te r - a nd O be rÖ s te r re ich t ol o ok a to t he rc ha rne lh ouse s .I nn one o f t h o se Iv i s i ted ( f o ri n s tance , i nP ürgg i nS te ierma rk , Möd l ing n ear V ienna , a nd i nt h e mona s te ry S t . F lo r ian i n Un te r -Ös te r re ich ) , w e re t h e re d eco ra ted s ku l l s , n o t e ven i n P ü rgg ,f r om w he re d eco ra ted s ku l l sh ad b een r epo r ted b yP rof e s so rS ause r( 1 952 ) . T he c o s t sf o rt r ave la nd l o dg ing e xceed ing ag ene ra lD oc to ra lg r an tf r om t h eU n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm w e re o n my own e xpence . Ac o l league i nS weden w ho h ad j u s tp a s sed t h e P h .D . f ound i to dd t h a t Ib o the red w i th s t udy ing t h eH a l l s ta t t s kul sa ta l li fI d i dn o tg e t p ayed . U nfo r tuna te ly , i ts eem s t h a t d i rec t e conom ica l c ompen sa t ion h a s e vo lved a s a p r e requ i s i te i n Sweden a mong many p re sen t -day s t uden t si no rde rt oi nve s ti nt h e i ro wn e duca t ion . I nt h i sw ay s ho r t te rm e conom ica ld emand sm ay o ve r r ide t h ep o s s ib il i t ies t o i n ve s ti np ro jec t st h a tw i l lp ay o f fi nt h el o ng r un . I n t h e w in te r o f 1 975 Is e t o u t a ga in f o r al o nge r c ampa ign i nH a l ls ta t t . Ia r r ived i n F eb rua ry , t h i st ime b yc a r , t ob r ing mo re e qu ipmen tw i th me , t y pew r i te r ,p ho tog raph ing e qu ipmen t ,e x ten s ive l i t e ra tu r e ,e t c . O nt h i so cca s ion ad up l ica te k ey t ot h ec ha rne lh ouse h ad b een made , a nd Iw a s f r ee t ol e ave t h ec ha rne lh ou se a s Ip l ea sed . H av ing h ad t ime t ot h ink a bou th ow t op roceed w i th t h ep ro jec t ,t h ew o rk w a sr unn ing mo re s moo th ly .I n s p i te o f t h is , h oweve r , i tw a s r a the r t ime c onsum ing . I n g ene ra l , Ik ep t t he s ame p rocedu re a sb efo re ,b u ta l so s u f f e r ed a ga in f r om l ow t empe ra tu re s . When t h ec o ld w a s t ob i t te r , h oweve r , If ound i te a s ie r t ow i thd raw t o my w a rm r oom a nd d op ape r wo rk t h an t oc on t inue s t udy ing t h e s ku l ls . S oh av ing ak ey a t my d i spo sa lw a sc er ta in ly b o th f o rt h eb e t te ra nd f o rt h ew o r se . E ven tualy , w i th t ime , Imanaged t op roceed t h rough a l lt h e s kul s . I tt ur ned o u tt h a tt h e d eco ra ted s ku l l s i nt h e c ha rne l h ouse n umbe red s ome 6 00 , a r ranged , n owadays , i na h o r seshoe f a sh ion . When s t udy ing t h e l a s t 1 50 -200 o ft h e s ku l l s , w h ich w e r ep laced a t t h e f a r w a l l o u t o fr each o f t hose s t and ing o n t h e f l oo r , Ih ad t oc l imb u p o n as he lf c over ing as t ack o fl o ng b one s , mo s t ly f emo ra , h ume r ia nd t i b iae , a nd s t re tch o u tt ot h e s ku l ls t h a tw e r ep l aced a tt h er e a r . A sI ' dh oped ,h oweve r ,t h ed eco ra ted s ku l l sw e re j u s t t h o se c ove r ing t h et o pl a ye r ,t h es ku l l si nt h el owe rl a ye r sb e ing u ndeco ra ted . T he s t ay l a s ted u n t i lt h eb eg inn ing o f May .I nb e tween , Imade t r ip sb a ck t oS weden , a nd a l so o ne t o P a r is i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e p lann ing o f t h e E u ropean A ssoc ia t ion o f

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A n th ropo log i s t s . R e turn ing f r om t h e l a s t t r ip , Ir e ce ived ac omp la in t f r om t h e l o ca l a u thor i t ies f o r n o t h av ing a wo rk ing p erm i t , h av ing s t ayed i n H a l l s ta t t l onge r t h an a l lowed w i thou th av ing a pp l ied f o rs uch ad ocumen t . Ia rgued t h a t Iw a sd o ing r e sea r ch a nd n o tb e ing e mp loyed i nA u s t r ia , a s my s t ud ie sw e re f i nanced f r om Sweden , a nd t h a tI h ad h ad s eve ra l s t ay s i nH a l l s ta t ta nd n o t ac on t inuou so ne . I tt u rned o u tt h a to ne o ft h e r ea sons f o r t h e c omp la in t w a s t ha t my l a nd lady h ad j us t r epor ted my s t ay t o t h e a u tho r i t ie so nce a nd n o tr epor ted t h a t Ih ad l e f ti nb e tween . A nyway , s i nce Iw a st ol e ave v e ry s oon ,i tw a sn og r ea tp rob lem ,a nd Ih ea rd n o th ing mo re a bou ti t . T h is t ime Iw a s i nH a l l s ta t t w hen s p r ing c ame . B efo re n oon t h e s un w a s f a i r ly w a rm , a nd o cca s iona l ly Ih ad t h e g a te o n to t h ec hu rchya rd o pen t ol e ti nt h e s un . O ne mo rn ing o ne o ft h ey ounge ri nhab i tan t so fH a l ls ta t t , It h ink i tw a st h ec h imney -sweepe r ,c ame i n l ook ing a t t h e s ku l ls o n my t a b le . H e t h en s udden ly t o ld m e t ha t t h e s ku l l o f h i s g r and fa the rs hou ld h ave b een p l aced i nt h ec ha rne lh ou se i nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e 1 960 s , b u tt h a ti th ad b een s t o len w hen b e ing b l eached o n t h e s he lf u nde rnea th t h er oof o ft h e g raved igge r 's h ou se , a f te r w h ich e ven t t h e p lac ing o f s ku l ls i nt h e c ha rne l h ou se h ad a b rup t ly c ea sed . Ia sked h im a bou th i sn ame ,a nd h et o ld m et h a ti tw a sS ee tha ler . O n my t a b le Id i scove red t h a t Ih ad t wo o rt h ree s ku l ls w i th t h a tn ame p a in ted o nt h em . I nt h eH a l ls ta t tl a ke t h e r ea r es eve ra l s pec ie so ff i sh .T he re i s af i she ry i nt h ev i l lage ,a nd t h e l o ca l f i sh i ss e rved i nt h e r e s tau ran t s . My f i r s t c on tac t i nH a l ls ta t t , t h e l a te K a r l H öp l inge r ,h ad r e t i red a sF i scheroberme i s ter w hen Im e th im t h ef i r s tt ime . P a r t icu la r ly b ecau se o fb e ing aN o rweg ian ,a ccus tomed t oe a t ing f i sh f r om my b i r th , Iw a si nv i ted t o h im d u r ing t h e s t ay t ot a s te t h ef i sh f r om t h el a ke . When s i t t ing d own t od ine w i th h im a nd h i sd augh te r ,h owever , Is udden ly r ea l ized t h a t Iw a st h eo n ly o ne t ob e s e rved f i sh . T h roughou tt h e ma in c ou r se , It h e refo re f e l tt h ee ye so f my h o s t a nd h o s te ss o b serv ing m e ,b u t In eve r the le s ss u cceded i ne a t ing t h ef i sh l e av ing t h eh ead ,t a i la nd s p ina lc o lumn i no ne c on t inuous p i ece . T he g raves i n t h e c hu rchya rd o u t s ide t h e c ha rne l h ouse w e re t e nded mos t ly b y t h e w omen o fH a l ls ta t ta nd t h eg raveya rd w a so ne o ft h ep re t t ie s tt h a t Ih ave e ve rs een ( f ig . 4 ) . A lmos t t h e y ea r a round t here s eemed t o b e f r esh f l owe r s o n t he g raves . T he i nhab i tan ts a l so h ad av ery n a tura l a t t i tude t owa rd s t h e g raveya rd , wh ich w a s q u i te u nfam i l ia rt ot h es o lemn a t t i tude t h a t Iw a sa ccu s tomed t of r om S cand inav ia . A s ar e su l t , Io ccas iona l ly h ea rd l oud d i scus s ions o u t s ide , t h e s ound s o ft h e v o ice s s eem ing t ob e r e info rced b yt h en a r row e n t rance t ot h ec ha rne lh ou se . S peak ing i nt h e i ro wn d i a lec t ,I d id n o tu nde r s tand n o rc a re t ol i s ten t ow ha ti tw a sa bou ta ta l ,b u tf r om t h e s ound o ft h e v o ice s Iwou ld g ue s st h a t ap a r to fi tw a sg o ss ip . D u r ing s p r ing , t h et empe ra tu re i nt h ec ha rne lh ou se r o se , a nd i nt ime , t h ei nhab i tan t so f t h e r oom eme rged . T ho se Ia c tua l ly s aw w e re l a rge s p ider s , s ome h a i ry a nd s ome n o t , s i t t ing mo t ion les s o n t h er oof o ro n t h ew a l l s , f l ee ing i n to c r eva s se s i nt h e s t one w a l ls w hen It r ied t op ho tog raph t h em ,t h eh ea tf r om my p ho tog raph ic l amps b e ing t oo i n ten se . T he re a c tua l ly s eemed t ob et wo d i f f e ren tk ind so fs p ide r s t h e r e , s ome mak ing n e t s a nd s ome r obb ing n e t s . T he ir a c t iv i t ie s w e re r ema rkab le , t h e i r n e t s b e ing woven a ccro ss o rb i t so rf o ram ina o fs ku l l s ,o rb e tween s ku l l s ,w ha teve rt h ey c ou ld h ope t oc a tch t h e re . O n o ne o cca s ion Ih ad t oc omp le te as t udy o fs ome s ku l ls w h ich Ih ad a l ready s t ud ied s ome f ew d ay sb efo r e , a nd t h es p ide r sh ad a l ready w oven n ew n e t so nt h e s ku l l s . T he s p r ing ' sc ampa ign w a sc omp le ted b y as t udy o ft h ed eco ra ted s ku l l sf r om H a l l s ta t t t h a tw e re i nt h ec o l lec t ions a tt h e Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH is to ry a nd t h e Museum o fE thno l o gy i nV ienna , a sw el a sa tt h eD epa r tmen to fA na tomy a tt h eU n ive r s i ty o fI nnsb ruck , w he re t wo d ozen o ft h es ku l l sw e re e xh ib i ted . O n my w ay h ome f r om I nn sb ruck , Im ade ab r ief s t op a tt h e t own K uf s te in b efo re p a ss ing t h e b o rde ri n to G e rmany . Howeve r , I d id n o tf i nd my w ay b ack t ot h eA u tobahn ,a nd h appened t oc ro s st h eb o rde rb y as ma l le r

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r oad p a ra l le lt ot h eA u tobahn . S ince Ih ad q u i te al o to fs c ien t i f ic e qu ipmen tw i th m e , I d ec la red w ha t Ih ad a nd w hy . I tw as l ooked u pon w i th s u sp ic ion b y aG e rman c us tom s o f f ice r , w ho a sked m e t op u l lo ve r a nd w a i tf o r af u l l i n spec t ion . S ince Ih ad n op rob l em s a rgu ing w i th h im i n h i s own l a nguage , h e e nded u p e xam in ing my g reen i n te rna t iona lc a ri n su rance c a rd , p o in t ing o u tt h a t Ih ad n o t s i gned i ta nd l e t t ing m e g o a f te rh av ing s e en my s i gna tu re . H av ing r e tu rned t o Sweden , Ic on t inued t oi d en t ify t h e s ku l ls a cco rd ing t ot h e c hu rch r e co rd s , a nd c on t inued t h ec ons truc t ion o fp ed ig rees . T h is c e r ta in ly w a st e d iou sw o rk . I w a sa tt h a tt ime f u l ly c onv inced a bou tt h ee xac tne s so ft h ec hu rch r e co rd s ,a nd n o ta wa re o ft h e e f f ec t s o fg ap s i nt h e i n fo rma t ion , i n exac tne s s i nt h e i n forma t ion a bou t a ge s a t d ea th , e t c . O the rp ro jec t s a l so t ook t ime ( f o ri n s tance my P h .D . t h es is ) . B y 1 977 , h ow e ve r , af i r s t manu sc r ip tw i th 9 1 p ed ig ree sw a sr eady ,c on ta in ing s ome 3 35 i nd iv idua ls o f w hom t h es ku l l sa sw e l la st h es ku l lo fa tl e a s to ne r e la t ive w a sk nown . T h is w a s ,f o rm e , n o tt h ee nd o ft h ew o rk o np ed ig ree so ro fi d en t ify ing s ku l l s . Iw o rked w i th t h eH a l ls ta t t ma te r ia la ti n terva ls ,a nd f ound t h a te ve ry t ime It o ok u pt h e ma te r ia l ,i t w a sp o s s ib le t oi d en t i fy s t i l l mo re s ku l l sa nd t oo b ta in mo re f am i ly m embe r s .T he refo re I d id n o t y e t w an t t op ub l ish t h e p ed ig ree s b efo re Iw a s c omp le te ly s a t i sf ied w i th t h e i d en t if ica t ion s . O nt h eo t he rh and ,t h ee x i s tence o fp ed ig r ee sm ade m ec omm i t as c ien t if i c " s in " i nt h ree o f my p r ev ious p ape r s ,a st h ep ed ig r ee sh ave b een r e f e r red t oa si np re s so r i np r in t , whe rea s t h ey s hou ld h ave b een r e f er red t o a s i n p rep . ( S jovo ld 1 987a ) . Howeve r , wo rk i n c onnec t ion w i th b e ing a ppo in ted H ead o f t he D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy t ook much o f my t ime , b u tf i na l ly i nt h e s umme ro f 1 979 , h av ing r en ted a c o t tage , Is a t d own t o d o w ha t Ih oped wou ld b e af i na l a s sessmen t o f t he s ku l l i d en t i f ica t ion sa nd t ot r yt oo b ta in s ome e s t ima te so ft h eh e r i tab i l i ty o ft h es ku l lt r a i t s . I n s p i te o f s ucced ing w i th my h e r i tab i l i ty c a lcu la t ions , If a i led . I tt u rned o u t t ha t t h e c ommon me thod o fe s t ima t ing h er i tab i l i ty r evea led ap a radox . T h is p a radox may b e e xp la ined i nt h ef o l low ing w ay : I fo ne a s sumes t h a t ap rope r ty i sh e red i ta ry ,i ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h a t p roper ty o ccu r s mo re o f ten w i th in ag iven f am i ly , s ome membe r s o fw h ich p o s se ss t h ep rope r ty , t h an w i th in ag ene ra lp opu la t ion . T he u sua l m e thod t h en r equ i re s t h a tf r om e ach o f an umbe ro ff am i l ie so ne i nd iv idua lp o s se s s ing t h ep rope r ty i ss e lec ted , a nd t h e f r equency a mong t h e r e la t ives i sc ompa red w i th t h e g ene ra l p opu la t ion . T h i s f r equency s hou ld t h en b e h ighe r a mong f am i ly m embe r s o fa f f ec ted i nd iv idua ls t han a mong t h e g ene ra l p opu la t ion b ecause o f t h e h e red i ta ry p rope r ty . I n s ome c a se s , I s ucceeded i no b ta in ing s uch ar e su l t , b u ti no the rc a se s , t h e h e r i tab i l i ty t u rned o u tt ob e n ega t ive ! If i na l ly f ound o u t w hy . S uppo se t h a t w i th in a f am i ly 5 0% o f t h e f am i ly member s p ossess t he t r a i t , a nd t ha t e very f am i ly h as f our membe r s . S uppose , f u r the rmo re , t h a tt h e f r equency among t h e g ene ra lp opu la t ion i s4 0% . T h is i sl i ke ly t o i n f e rt h a tt h et r a i ti sh e red i ta ry .B u tt h is i sw ha th appen sw hen t h ec a lcu la t ion sa r eb e ing made . I fo ne o ft h ea f f ec ted i nd iv idua ls i ss e lec ted , t h ef r equency among t h er ema in ing m embe r ss i nk st o3 3% ,w h ich i sl ower t h an i nt h eg ene ra lp opu la t ion . Wi th af am i ly s i ze o fs i xi nd iv idua ls a nd af r equency o f5 0% ,t h ef r equency a mong t h er ema in ing w ou ld b e 4 0% , a nd g rea te r t h an 4 0% w i th i n crea s ing f am i ly s i zes . B ecau se f am i ly s i zes a r e g ene ra l ly s ma l l ,i np ar t icu la ri nc onnec t ion w i th t h es amp l ing f r om t h eH a l l s ta t tc ha rne l h ou se ,t h ef am i ly s i ze e f f ec tf r equen t ly l e ad t on ega t ive h e r i tab i l i ty e s t ima te s .T he me thod i st h e refo re ma in ly s u i ted f o rr a re t r a i t sw i th h igh h e r i tab i l i t ie s ,o rf o rl a rge f am i ly s i ze s . R a re t r a i t sw i th h i gh h er i tab i l i t ie sa r e ,o nt h eo the rh and ,f r equen t ly d i sadvan tageous a nd e ven o f ten l e tha l . T he f a i lu re t oo b ta in r e a sonab le e s t ima te so ft r a i t st h a tw e re o bv ious ly h e red i ta ry s e tm e b ack f o r ac oup le o fy ea r s , s i nce Ih ad t os ea rch f o ra no the rm e thod t h a t wou ld wo rk . D u r ing t h i sp e r iod , Is udden ly r e a l ized t h a ta s Ih ad t h ep ed ig ree so rr e la ted i nd iv idua l s , I s hou ld n o to n ly s t udy t h eh e r i tab i l i ty o ft h en on -me t r ica lt r a i t s ,b u t Ia l so h ad t h em a te r ia l

1 4

f o r s t udy ing t h e h er i tab i l i ty o f s ku l l mea su remen t s a s w e l l . Al a rge n umbe r o f s ku l l m ea su remen t sa r ec l ea r ly r e co rded b ecau se s u i tab le m ea su r ing p o in t sh ave b een d ef ined , a nd b ecau se m ea su remen t s may b ec ompa red f r om o ne a u tho rt oa no the r . B u tt h e re h a s p r ev ious ly h a rd ly b een a ny mo t iva t ion t oc on s ide rm ea su r emen t si nt e rm so ft h e i rg ene t i ca lv a lue . O bv ious ly , t h et r end d u r ing t h el a te 1 960 s a nd e a r ly 1 970 so fs t udy ing n on m e t r ica lt r a i t sh ad mad em eb l ind t ot h ep o ten t ia lo fu t i l iz ing t h es ame ma te r ia lf o rs t udy i n gt h eh e r i tab i l i ty o fc l a s s ica l( a sw e l la s mo re r e cen t ly d ef ined )c r an ia l mea su remen t s . H av ing o b ta ined n ew t r ave l l ing f und s , Ir e tu rned t oH a l l s ta t tt ot a ke t h e mo s tu sua l s ku l l m ea su remen t s .T he o b s ta c le n ow w a st h a tt ime a va i lab le w a sv e ry l im i ted . Id rove d own t oH a l ls ta t t d i rec t ly a f te r N ew Y ea r 's E ve 1 979 , a nd h ad t or e turn a f te r t h ree w eek s . T hough r e s t r ic t ing t h e s t udy t ot h e s ku l ls o fr e la ted i nd iv idua ls , t h et ime a va i lab le w a s v e ry s ca rce . I no rde r t om ax im ize t h e t ime a va i lab le f o r wo rk i nt h e c harne l h ouse , I d ec ided t or educe l unch a nd d inne r h ou r s , b y s t ick ing t ot h e s ame m enu a l lt h e t ime . I c ho se aW iener schn i t ze l , al a rge b ee r , a nd al a rge , s t rong c up o fc of f ee t oc oun te rac tt h e b ee r . I n t h is w ay Id id n o t h ave t ow a i t t ob e s e rved a nd h ave t oc hoose f r om amenu e ach t ime ; s e e ing me c om ing Iw a s s e rved i mmed ia te ly . Ip a id i n a dvance f o r 2 0 W iener schn i t ze l s a nd a sked t ob e t o ld w hen t h a t a moun t h ad b een f i n i shed . Wo rk ing h our s w e re f r om 8 a .m . t o 1 p .m . When t h e l a s t W iener schn i t ze l w a s t ob e s e rved , h oweve r ,t h el a nd lo rd e xchanged i tw i th C hamo i s mea ti n s tead ,w h ich t a s ted d e l ic ious a s ac hange . T ha tw in te ri np ar t icu la rt h e re w a s much s now i nH a l l s ta t t ,a nd a lmo s te ve ry g rave c ro ss , w h ich i sa bou t 1 . 50 m t a l l , w a sc ove red w i th s now . I nt h ea i rt h e re w as ad i s t inc ts me l l o fs moke f r om t h e c h imney s , as me l l t h a t Iw a s u sed t of r om t h ep re ivous v i s i t s , mo s t h ou se s b e ing h ea ted b y c oa l o r wood . A s ama t te ro ff a c t , i nc onnec t ion w i th H a l ls ta t t h av ing p roduced r ock s a l t , t h e u se o f wood f o rc ook ing s a tu ra ted s o lu t ion s o fs a l ti n to s a l tb lo ck sh a s al o ng t r ad it ion i nt h ev i l lage ,a nd t ot h ed i f f e ren th ou se si nH a l l s ta t tt h e re w a s ap r iv i lege a t tached t h a tt h ey s hou ld b ep rov ided w i th ag iven amoun to f wood f o r h ea t ing d u r ing w in te r . Iw a st o ld t h a tt h i sp r iv i lege s t i l le x i s ted ,i nt h ew ay t h a ti f ah ou se w a s t or nd own a nd r ebu i l t , t h ep recau t ion w a st a ken t h a ta tl e a s to ne c o rne r s tone o ft h e o ld h ouse r ema ined , i no rde r t ok eep t h e p r iv i lege . T he h ou se n umbe r ing , h oweve r , r ema in so b scu re t om e .I tmay b et r aced b ack a tl e a s t t o1 771 b u ti ss oc omp l ica ted t h a t , a s Iw a s t o ld , t h e p o s tman h ad t ob e b o rn i nH a l l s ta t ti no rde rt ob e a b le t od e l ive rt h e m a i l . T he c hu rchya rd o u t s ide t h ec ha rne lh ouse w a sp i tch b l ack a tn igh t ,a l though t h ea d jacen t c a tho l ic c hu rch w a sf l ooded w i th l i gh t . O ne l a te n i gh t Ih ea rd s omebody w a lk ing o u t s ide i nt h ed a rk . Ic ou ld n o tf i gu re o u tw ho c ou ld h ave s ome th ing t od oo u t s ide a tt h a th ou r , b u t s o mebody w a s o bv ious ly w a lk ing a bou t o u t s ide t h e c ha rne l h ouse g a te , mak ing n o ise a nd s t umb l ing a r ound . When Il e f t al i t t le l a te r , Is aw f oo tpr in ts f r om h oove s , w h ich i nt h e mo rn ing Ic ou ld i d en t ify a sb e ing f r om a tl e a s t o ne r oe d ee r , wh ich h ad c ome d own b ecau se o ft h e h eavy s now t oe a to f ft h ei vy l e ave s g row ing o n t h e w a l lo f t h ec hape li nw h ich t h ec ha rne lh ouse w a sl y ing . Ir emembe r Iw a s al i t t le s o r et h a ti th ad n o tb een aC hamo i s . L eav ing H a l ls ta t t , If ound my c a rc ove red b ya bou t 2f oo to fs now , d i v ided a cco rd ing t of ou rh eavy s nowfa l l s . T he l a s t t r ip a s y e t t oH a l l s ta t t w a s made i nc onnec t ion w i th av i s i t t oY ugos lav ia i n A ugus t 1 980 . T he re w a sa lway s s ome th ing t ob ec omp le ted : a tt h is t ime Ih ad al a rge , mod if ied c oo rd ina te c a l iphe r made ,a sw e l la sa ni n s t rumen tt o mea su re i n ter na ld i ame te r s o f t h e s ku l l . T o my g r ea t a s ton ishmen t If ound s o me f ew n ew s ku l ls i nt h e c ha rne l h ouse , o ne o fw h ich h ad ama lgam f i l l ings i nt h e t e e th , t h e f i r s t Ih ad e ve r s e en a mong t h e se s ku l ls . A si tt u rned o u t , an ew g rave -d igge rh ad b een h i red ,b e ing a na r t i s ta sw e l l , a nd h ad t a ken u p t h e t r ad i t ion o fd eco ra t ing t h e s ku l l s . A s Is poke w i th h im o n s ome 1 5

o cca s ions , h e w a s w i thou t d oub t t he r i gh t p e r son t o c on t inue t h e s ku l l d eco ra t ing t r ad i t ion ,h av ing t h ep e r f ec ta t t i tude t ow ha ti tw a sa l la bou t . D u r ing t h ed ays Iw a st h e re , t h eg a te t ot h ec ha rne lh ou se w a s , a ga in ,l o cked .H oweve r , b e ing i n t h e t our is t s e a son , If ea red b e ing d i s turbed b y t our is t s , a l though t h e a c tua l e n t rance w a sn ow c l o sed w i th a ni r on b a rg a te ,p reven t ing t h et o u r is t sf r om e n te r ing t h e c ha rne l h ouse p rope r . S o , i n s tead o fs i t t ing o n e xh ib i t ion i n ac age , Ip r ef e r red t h eo ak d oo r st ob el o cked . V e ry s oon a f terwa rds , Ih ea rd n o i se o u t s ide , s omebody k nock ing a t t h ed oo r , a nd f oo t s teps f ad ing a way . If ound w hen l o ok ing o u tt h a tt h eg rave -d igge ra nd h i sc ompan ion h ad b een o u t s ide a nd a t tached as i gn o nt h ed oo rr e ad ing ( i nG e rman ,o f c ou r se ) : " The c harne lh ou se i st emporar i ly c l osed b ecau se o fs c ien t i f ic i n ve s t iga t ion ." S igned : T he C harne lH ou se A u thor i t ie s ( w i th as i gna tu re a nd as t amp ) . A l lt y ped w i th G o th ic l e t te r s . T he s c ien t if ic r e su l t sf r om t h ep ro jec th ave s l ow ly e me rged . A se xpec ted ,n on -me t r ica l t r a i t sb ehave i nd i f f e ren tw ay s . S ome p o s se s s ah igh d eg ree o fh e r i tab i l i ty ,o t he r s may b e g ene t ica l ly d e te rm ined t os ome d eg ree , w he rea s t h er e s t s how mo re r andom v a r ia t ion ( S jovo ld 1 984 ) . Wi th in t h is f r amewo rk ,o ne o ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan ta spec t si st oe nc i r c le w ha t i sr ea l ly t h e t r a i t i nq ues t ion , s o t h a t o ne i sp in -po in t ing t h e a c tua l f e a tu re t ob e s t ud ied , a nd n o tb el e da s t ray b yi r re levan tv a r ia t ion .F o ri n s tance ,i f ap a r t icu la rh o le i n t h es ku l l may b ep re sen to ra b sen t ,t h i sp a r t icu la rv a r ia t ion m ay b et h eh e red i ta ry f e a tu re , a nd n o tt h en umber o fh o les t h a tm ay b ep re sen ti ft h eh o le i t se lf m ay b e s ubd iv ided ,o r t h en umber o fs uch h o le s may a c tua l ly b ev e ry i mpo r tan tf r om ah e red i ta ry p o in to fv i ew . B u t i ti so bv ious ly i mpor tan t t o f i nd o u t w ha t k ind o f v a r ia t ion i st o b e t r ea ted a s s epa ra te , g ene t ica l ly i n f luenced p rope r t ies , a nd w h ich may b e l umped t oge the r a s c ommon f e a tu re s . A no the rr e su l tf r om t h ep ro jec ti st h a tt h et r a i tf r equenc ie so ft h ep opu la t ion r ema in f a i r ly s t ab le f r om as t a t i s t ica lp o in to fv i ew ,i fi nd iv idua ls b o rn i nH al s ta t ta r ec on s ide r ed .T h i s h a s f o r l ong b een a n a s sump t ion t h a t h ad t o b e p roved . However , i th a s a l so b een p o ss ib le t od emons t ra te t h a ti mm ig ra t ion f r om d i f f e ren ta r ea s may r e su l ti nc hange s i n t r a i tf r equenc ie st h rough t ime ,d epend ing o nw he r et h ei mm ig ran t so r ig ina ted f r om .T ha t i ts hou ld b e s o may n o tb ev ery s u rpr i s ing ,b ecau se i mm ig ra t ion m ay c hange t h eg ene t ic c ompo s i t ion o ft h ep opu la t ion , a nd a sf a ra sn on -me t r ica lt r a i t sa r ee xp re s s ing h e red i ta ry f e a tu re s ,t h a ti s ,p a r t ly g ene t ica lf e a tu re s ,i ti sq u i te l o g ica lt oe xpec tt h a tc hange si nt r a i t f r equenc ie st a ke p l ace w hen c hange si ni mm ig ra t ion p a t t er nt a ke p l ace ( S jovo ld 1 986 ) . W i th r e spec tt ot h em ea su remen t s ,t h eh e r i tab i l i ty s e em st of o l low amo re s imp le p a t te rn . T he c ha rac te r st h a tp o s se s st h eh i ghe s th e r i tab i l i t ie ss e em t ob et h o se c onnec ted w i th t h e s i ze o ft h e b ra in , t h e o rb i t s , t h e n o se ( o lf ac to ry o rgan ) a nd t h e c hew ing a ppa ra tus , i n b r ief , t h e v i ta l o rgans . T he s ku l l i sn o t af i xed u n i t f r om t h e b eg inn ing , b u t g rows g radua l ly t oe nc lo se a nd s uppo r tt h ev i ta lo rgan s , a nd i nt h i s w ay t h e s ku l l i sa dap t ing i t se lf t ot h e s i ze a nd s hape o ft h e v i ta l o rgan s , a nd n o tt h e o the r w ay a round ( S jovo ld 1 984 , 1 987b ) . I na dd i t ion ,d e ta i l so fs ku l l mo rpho logy ,m e t r ica lo rn on -me t r ica l , may b e h e red i ta ry . Howeve r , t h is may n o t a lway s b e p o ss ib le t o d emon s t ra te , b ecause t h e v a r ia t ion w i th in ag i ven m a te r ia l , s uch a st h eH a l ls ta t tm a te r ia l may b et oo s mal t or evea l h e red i ta ry p roper t ies ,y e tt h e re may b eg rea tg ene t ica ld i f f e rence sw hen c ompa r ing s ay , d i f f e ren tr a ce s .I ns ome o ft h e se c a se st h ec ha rac te r sm ay h ave b ecome g ene t ica l ly s t ab le . W i th r e spec tt os ku l lm ea su remen t sa ss e conda ry c ha ra c t e r sr e la t ive t ot h es i ze o ft h ev i ta l o rgan s , e xac t ly w he re s i ng le b one sm ee ti su n impo r tan ta sl o ng a st h ey m ee ts omewhe r e w i th in ar e la t ive ly r e s t r ic ted a r ea ,a nd a sl o ng a st h ey f u lf i l l t h e i rf unc t ion . I ti st h ej o in t r e su l to fa l lb one st h a tm a t te r s ,n o t as i ng le b one a ss u ch . O ne q ue s t ion a bou tt h es kul c o l lec t ion c once rn si t ss i ze .I tw a sa s sumed t h a tt h en umbe r o fs ku l l sh ad p rev ious ly b een l a rge r ,a nd t h a t an umbe ro fs ku l ls h ad b een s t o len .O no ne 1 6

o cca s ion , h oweve r , Ih ad g i ven as em ina ra tt h e D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy i nS tock h o lm a nd w a s a pp roached b y o ne o ft h eo lde r s t uden t s , w ho h ad t a ken u p a r chaeo logy a c tua l ly a f te r r e t i remen t . H e t o ld me t h a t h e h ad v i s i ted H a l l s ta t t a nd l o oked a tt h e c o l lec t ion . Id i dn o tf i nd t h a tp a r t icu la r ly e x t rao rd ina ry ,u n t i lh et o ld me t h a th ev i s i ted i t w hen h e w a s v e ry y oung t o ge the rw i th h i s f a the r , w ho w a s f r om A u s t r ia , i n 1 924 a nd 1 925 , a nd t h a th es t i l lh ad p o s t ca rd sf r om t h ec o l lec t ion .A cco rd ing t ot h ep o s tca rd s( F ig s 5a nd 6 ) , o ne o fw h ich t e l l ing p ho tog raph t a ken 1 922 , h a rd ly a ny s ku l l i sm i ss ing , a t l e a s t n o t as ub s tan t ia l n umbe r . T he a r rangemen to ft h e s ku l l s a tt h a t t ime w a s a c tua l ly q u i te d i f f e ren tf r om t o day , a sa l l t h e s ku l l s w e re p l aced a tt h e f a re nd o ft h er oom , a l l s ku l l s f a c ing E a s t . T he s ame a r rangemen ti ss hown b y Mo r ton ( 1954 ) , a nd t h ep i c tu r e mu s th ave b een t a ken b efo re t h er e a r rangemen to ft h e s ku l l s made b yP ro f e sso rS au se r a f te rh i ss t ud ie ss ho r t ly b e fo r e 1 950 . P e r sona l ly , Ih ave r e co rded 4s ku l l sm i s s ing : t h eu ppe rmo s tw i th t h el owe rj aw a t tached i nF igu r e2 ,a sw e l la st h es e em ing ly u nnamed o ne t ot h er i gh to ft h es ku l lw i th t h e s nake o n t h e l owe r s he lf , a nd t h e o ne o n t h e l owe r s he lf w i th t h e l owe rj aw i nF igu re 6 .I n a dd i t ion , o ne s ku l l d i sappea r ed b e tween my s t ay s i nH a l l s ta t t i n 1 974 a nd 1 975 . A s I r epor ted t h e t h ef t t o t h e p r ies t , h e s i ghed a nd s a id t h a t s uch t h ings o cca s iona l ly h appenend .I th ad o ccu r red s e ve ra lt ime s ,h oweve r ,t h a ts t o len s ku l l sh ad b een s en tb ack i nt h e ma i l —a nonymou s ly .E ven w hen r e tu rn ing i n1 979 Iw a st o ld t h a ti nb e tween v i s i t s as ku l l h ad b een s t o len , b u td i scove red l a te ro ni nt h e g a rage o ft h ev e ry h ou se w he r eI p r ev iou s ly u sed t ol i ve ! W i th r e spec t t ot h e t h e f t w h ich Ir epo r ted t ot h e p r ies t , o n t h e o t he rh and , h e s a id t h a tu n fo r tuna te ly t h e re w e re g ene ra l ly n or e co rd so ft h es ku l l s , a nd t h e r e fo r et h ey w e re h a rd t od e sc r ib e . Ia n swe red t h a t Ih ad t a ken a tl e a s t 1 2p ho tog raph s o ft h e s ku l li nq ue s t ion ,w h ich a ppa ren t ly m ade h im v e ry h appy . P rov id ing h im w i th t h e p ho tog raph s , Ie ven m en t ioned t h a ti ft h ep o l ice w e r ei n te re s ted i np a r t icu la rf e a tu re so f t h e s ku l lf o rr e cogn i t ion , Ih ad al i s to fs ome 2 25 ,a st h ep a r t icu la rf e a tu re so ft h es ku l l s , s o t os peak , w e re t h e a c tua l o b jec t o f my s t udy . Iw a s a l so i n fo rmed t h a t P rof e s so r S au se rh ad r e bu r ied s ome o ft h e s ku l l sw h ich d ur ing h i si n ve s t iga t ion w e re f ound t ob e b ad ly b roken o rf r agmen ted . N eve r the le s s , a tl e a s tj udg ing f r om t h e s ku l l s i nF igu re 6 ,a l l o fw h ich i nf r on tc an b e i d en t if ied a mong t ho se p re se rved ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion s m en t ioned ) , i ts e em s t h a t t h e c o l lec t ion i sf a i r ly c omp le te . T hough Id on o tk now w hen t h e s ku l l i nt h e Mu seum f ü r V o lk skund ei nV ienna w a sb rough tt h e r e , a tl e a s tt h r ee c o l lec t ion so fa l toge the ra bou t4 0 s ku l ls h ave b een b rough t t ot h e N a tu rh i s to r i sche s Mu seum i nV ienna f r om 1 931 a nd o nwa rd s , 2 4 t o t h e D epa r tmen t o f A na tomy a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f I nn sbruck a f te r P rof e s so rS au se r ' s s t ud ie s , a nd 3s ku l l s t ot h e Mu seum i nH a l l s ta t t . I n s p i te o ft h is , t h e s ku l l si nt h e mo s ta n t e r io rr ow s ,b e ing mo s te a s i ly a cce s s ib le t ob es na tched b y av i s i to r , s e em g ene ra l ly t or ema in . M i s s ing s ku l l s a r e a lway s ap i ty , p a r t icu la r ly i nc onnec t ion w i th t h i s m a te r ia l w h ich i ni t s w ay i su n ique a s ac o l lec t ion . T he refo re , much e f fo r ti s e xpended i nt r y ing t oi d en t ify a s many a s p o s s ib le o ft h e e x i s t ing s ku l l s , a nd an ew p ro jec t i sn ow p l anned i no rde r t oi d en t i fy mo s t o f t h o se w h ich h ave c e r ta in ly b een n amed , b u tw he re t h en ame h a sf a ded , a nd a l so t ot r yt oi d en t ify an umbe ro fs ku l l sf o r w h ich t h e n ame h a s o n ly b een i nd ica ted b y m ean s o fi n i t ia l s . T he o b jec t s o ft h i s i st o i n c r ea se t h en umbe ro fs ku l l so fk nown r e la t ive s . T he f i na l o b jec t o ft h e g ene t ica l s t udy o ft h e H a l l s ta t t s ku l l s , h oweve r , i st oo b ta in a s much i n fo rma t ion a s p o ss ib le a bou t t h e g ene t ica l v a lue a nd b ehav iou r o f c ra ina l m ea su r emen t sa nd n on -me t r ica lt r a i t si no rde rt ob ea b le t os t udy p opu la t ion r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween ,a nd f am i ly s t r uc tu r e sw i th in ,p r eh i s to r ic c eme t e r ie s . T or e ach t h ee nd o ft h a ti s ap ro jec tf o r al i f t e t im e .

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F ig . 1 .T he c en t ra l p a r t o fH a l l s ta t t ( Ha l ls ta t t Ma rk t ) s een f r om t h e S ou th . T he c ha rne l h ouse i sl y ing b eh ind t h e C a tho l ic c hurch wh ich i ss een t o t h e l e f t o f t h e y ounge r P ro te s tan t ic c hu r ch w i th t h e mo re s l ende rt owe r . F rom a n a r chaeo log ica l p o in to fv iew , t h ep reh i s to r ic g ravef ie ld i ss i tua ted i n ah ang ing v a l ley f u r the ru ph i l l .

F ig . 2 .T he o r ig ina lp o s tca rd f r om 1 955 t h a t i n i t ia ted t h e g ene t ica l s t udy o ft h e Ha l l s ta t t s ku l ls .

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F ig .3 .S t . M ichae l 's C hape l ( M ichae l skape l le ) w i th t h e g a te t ot h ec ha rne lh ou se a tt h e g round l e ve l .

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F ig . 4 . F rom t h e m a in p a r t o f t h e c hu rchya rd w i th t h e g rave -d igge r 's h ouse i n t h e b ackg round .T he w ooden s he lf o nw h ich t h e s ku l l sw e re p l aced t ob eb l eached i ss e en a t t h e f a r c o rne r o f t h e r oof . T he c o rne r o f S t . M ichae l ' s C hape l i ss e en a tt h e t op , l e f t . ( Same s c a le a si nF ig . 3 ) .

F ig . 5 .P o s tca rd o f t h e s ku l ls f r om t h e c ha rne l h ouse , d a ted 1 922 , s how ing h ow t h e s ku l l sw e re d i sp layed a tt h a tt ime .

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F ig . 6 .C lo se -up o ft h e s ku l l s d i sp layed o n F ig . 5 .G ene ra l ly , a l l s ku l ls o n t h e f i gu re h ave b een i d en t if ied i nt h et e x t . T he s ku l lw i th t h e s nake i sm a rked " o rmb i ten " —" b i t ten b y as nake" , ar u mou r t ha t s t i l l e x i s t s . H oweve r , a no the r s ku l l o f t h is k ind w a s d i scove red i n t h e s ku l l c o l lec t ion i n t h e N a tu ra l H is to ry Museum i n V ienna , b e ing b rough tt h e re i n1 878 a nd a ppa ren t ly f o rgo t ten a f te rwa rd s . C f . e ven F ig . 2 .

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R eferences B u rg s ta l le r , E . , 1 961 . S chäde lbesch r if tung u nd bema lung i n d en Ö s ter re ich ischen A lpen lände r . I n : K o ren , H . a nd K re tzenbache r , L . , ( e d s . ) : V o lk skunde i mO s ta lpen r aum ( A lpe sO r ien ta le sI ) . S t e i r i sche sV o lk smuseum , S t e in 7 1 -84 . G e jva l l , N . -G . , 1 960 . Wes terhu s . Med ieva l P opu la t ion a nd C hurch i n t h e L igh t o f S ke le ta lR ema in s . H äkan O h ls son ,L und . H enschen , F . , 1 966 . T he Human S ku l l . A c u l tura l h i s tory . T hames a nd H ud son , L ondon . Mo r ton , F . , 1 954 . Ha l l s ta t t .K u l tur u nd N a tur e i ner v i er tau send jähr igen S a l z s tä t te .B and I .D ie l e t z ten e i nhunderüünf z ig J ahre d e sB ergmannor te s . Mu sea lve re in H a l ls ta t t , H als ta t t . O lbr ich , E . , 1 963 . Ko r re la t ion sun te r suchungen a n g esch lech t sbekann ten S chäde ln . A n throp .A nz . :5 2 -54 . S ause r , G . , 1 938 . D ie Ö t z ta ler . A n thropo log ie u nd A na tom ie e i ner T iro ler T a l schaf t . N a turw i s sen scha f t l ich -med iz in i sche rV e r e in ,I nn sbruck . - 1 952 . B ema l te O s sua r ien schäde la us H a l l s ta t t .I n :A c te sd uI V eC ongr2 sI n terna t iona l d es S c ience sA n th ropo log ique se tE thno log iques .T ome I I ,V ienne 1 952 : 12 -116 . S jovo ld , T . , 1 984 . A r epo r t o n t h e h e r i tab i l i ty o f s o me c ran ia l m ea su remen t s a nd n on -me t r ic t r a i t s . I n : v an V a rk , G .N . a nd W .W . Howe l l s ( ed s . ) : Mu l t ivar ia te S ta t i s t ica l Me thod si nP hy s ica lA n thropo logy .R e ide l ,D o rd rech t : 2 23 -246 . - 1 986 . I n f rapopu la t ion d i s tance sa nd g ene t ics o fn on -me tr ica lt r a i t s . I n : H e r rmann ,B . ( ed . ) : I nnova t ive T rend s i nd er p räh is tor i schen A n thropo log ie . M i t te i lungen d er B er l iner G ese l l schaf tf ür A n thropo log ie , E thno log ie u nd U rgesch ich te . B and 7 : 8 1-93 . - 1 987a . D a s Vo rkommen v e rwand te r I nd iv iduen u n te r d en b ema l ten S chäde ln a u s H a l l s ta t t , O be rÖ s te r re ich . I np rep . - 1 987b . H e r i tab il i ty o ft r ad i t iona lc r an ia lm ea su remen t s . I np rep . Z uckerkand l , E . , 1 883 . B e i t räge z u C ran io log ie d er D eu tschen i n Ö s ter re ich . M i t te i lungen d er A n thropo log i schen G e se l l schaf ti nW ien 1 883 , 8 9 -118 .

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ARTEFACTS AND ARCHAEOLOGISTS B y A rne B . J ohansen V i ten skap smu see t . N -7004 T rondhe im , N o rway . D ur ing t h el a s tf ew d ecades t h e wo rd " a r tefac t " h a s s p read r ap id ly i na r chaeo logy . T he r ea son mus t b e t h e a dvan tage o f ac oncep t c ompr is ing many s pec ia l c a tegor ies o f man -fo rmed o b jec t s . O ne may r e f e r t ob o th j ewe l ry , w eapon s a nd a g r icu l tu ra l t oo ls a s " a r tefac t s " . A nd e ven mo re u sefu l : " A r tef ac t " i n c lude g roups o fo b jec t s t h a t a r e n o t c ove red b yt h es pec ia lc oncep t sa ta l l ,l i ke e . g .f l in t -wa s te a nd i r on s l ag . S t il mo re r e cen t w o rd sl i ke " e co f ac t s "i n d ica te t h ec on t inu ing n eed f o rs uch b road -spec trum c oncep t s . T he u sefu lne ss o f t h e b road c oncep ts i s s e lf -ev iden t . I n f a c t a l l u se o f l a nguage p re suppo se sa nd l e ad st o - s uch " s umm ing u p "o fn a r row c a tego r ie si n to b roade r . I n ap e r iod w hen c oncep t s a r eb roaden ing t h e re a r e ,h oweve r , many r i sk st ob ea wa re o f , a sw e l l : O ne d ange ri st h a tt h ep roce ss ing a l so b ecome s s t anda rd ized b ecause i ts eem s o bv ious t h a tp henomena h av ing s o much i nc ommon t h a tt h ey c an b e s umma r ized i n to o ne c oncep ta l so c an b ed e sc r ibed a nd a na lyzed a cco rd ing t o ac ommon f o rmu la . I ts oon b ecomes mo re a ccep tab le e . g . t oo b serve j ewe l ry a nd wo rk ing t oo l s i nt h e s ame w ay . T h i s " ave rage m e thod " mus t b e e s tab l ished m a in ly b y s up ress ing e i the r t h e e s the t ic a spec t so ft h ej ewe l ry o rt h ep rac t ica la spec t so ft h et oo l s .O the rw i se t h em e thod w i l ln o t b ecome s uf f ic ien t ly s t anda rd ized t od o t h ej ob o fp roce ss ing t h e d a ta f r om t h e b road a r te fa c t -ca tego ry . T ha tt h is d eve lopmen tp r ec lude sm any t y pe so fa na ly s i sa nd make st h er e su l t s mo r eb ana l i se v iden t : Mode rn a r chaeo logy t o ac on sp icuous d eg ree s t i l ll im i t si t se lf t oq ues t ion so f c h rono logy a nd g eog raph ica l o r ig in o f a r tefac t s a nd a r tefac t types . F o r t h e mo re c omp l ica ted c onc lu s ion sa bou te . g . t y pe o fs ub s i s tence a nd t e chno log ica lo rgan iza t ion w e mo re t han e ve r r e ly o n b o tany , z oo logy , c hem is t ry a nd o the r b ranches o f s c ience . A rchaeo logy h a s f o r m any o f u s b ecome at e chn ique f o r s u mm ing u p f r agmen t s o f i n fo rma t ion s upp l ied b yn on -a rchaeo log i s t s . T h is t r end i s s uppo r ted b y c ompu te r s a nd o ther mode rn r e sea rch -dev ices . T he i n fo rma t ion y ou p u ti n to ac ompu te r —o ri n to as t a t i s t ica lf o rmu la — mus tb es t andard ized a nd u namb iguou s . O ne c en t ime te rh a st oh ave t h e s ame v a lue a nd q ua l i ty r ega rd les so f w he the r i ti s mea su red o n af l in t a xe , o n af l in t b l ade , o n ap iece o fj ewe l ry o r o n a s wo rd . O therw ise y ou c an n o t k now whe the r t h e r e su l t y ou g e t i s s o me k ind o f d a ta -no ise o rr e a li n fo rma t ion a bou tp reh is to r ic man ,t h ea rgumen tr uns . O f t en Ih ave t h ei mp re s s ion t h a tt h i si nf luence f r om t h er e sea r ch " in s t rumen t s " mo re a nd mo re d om ina te s o u rr e sea rch -s t ra teg ie s : T he c ompu te r a nd s t a t i s t ica l m e thod s make i t r ea sonab le o r n ece ssa ry f o r t h e a r chaeo log is t t o g ive p ref e rence t od a ta t h a t c an b e d e sc r ibed i nm i l l ime te r s ,g r am so ra sa ni ndex o n ac o lou rc ha r t . D e sc r ip t ion so ft h et y pe " beau t ifu l " , " imp re s s ive " , " b ig " , " f rag i le " a nd " s lende r " a r e d e sp ised a nd d i sca rded a s s ub jec t ive o rs pecu la t ive . T he f a c ti st h a tt h ey a r e s imp ly u nf i ta s" f ood " f o rc ompu te r s a nd f o rmu la s . A no the rr i sk c onnec ted w i th t h e s p read o fg ene ra l iz ing c oncep t s i na r chaeo logy i st h e b e l ief t h a tt h e se c oncep t sc ove ra l lt h en eces sa ry i n fo rma t ion .T h is i s an a tu ra lb e l ief ,a s t h e g ene ra l c oncep ts h ave s hown p rec ise ly t h i s g rea t c apac i ty t oa b so rb many s pec ia l c oncep t s . 2 3

B u tt h i su np rob lema t ic a t t i tude t ot h eb o rde r so fk now ledge i sd ange rou sf o ra tl e a s tt wo r e a sons : a ) Wha tw ec on s ide rt ob e " f o rmed b y man " d epend so nw ha tt h ea r chaeo log i s tb e l ieve s a bou t t h e b ehav iou ro f man : I fy ou b e l ieve t h a tp reh i s to r ic man a lway sf r agmen ted h i s f l in tb ya pp ly ing c oncen t ra ted f o rce a t as ma l la r ea o ft h ec o re y ou w i l ln eve rd i scove ra s a r t if ac t so b jec t sl a ck ing t h ec l a s s ica lf l ak ing c r i te r ia ;p o in to fi mpac t ,b u lb a nd c oncen t r ic i mpu lse r i ng s .A nd i fy ou b e l ieve t h a tp eop le l e f ti mp r in t so ft h e i rt r ad i t ion o n ly o na xe s , s wo rd s a nd s im i la rt oo ls y ou w i l ln eve rs ee t h e s i gn if icance o fw a s te ma te r ia lf r om t h e t o o l -p roduc t ion . b ) As t i l l mo re s e r ious p rob lem i st ha t " a r tef ac t " i s at oo l im i ted c oncep t e ven w hen a pp l ied i nt h ew ide s ts en se : Man s u r round sh im se l fw i th o b jec t st h a th ed oe sn o t mod i fy i n f o rm , b u t w h ich n ever the less mean a g rea t d ea l t o h im . R aw ma ter ia l ( f o r t h e p roduc t ion o fe . g . t oo l s ,h ouse sa nd f i rep lace s ) s t o r ed i nt h ev i c in i ty o ft h el i v ing a r ea i s n o rma l ly n o t f o rmed i na ny w ay . I ti st r anspo r ted t owa rd s t h e l o ca l i ty , t ob e a th and w hen n eeded . I fo ne o n ly l ook sf o r " a r tef ac t s " o ne w i l l n eve rd i scove ra ny s uch o b jec t , r ega rd le s so fh ow much o ne s c ru t in ize so ne ' sa r ea . B u t a bove a l l , m en a r e s u r rounded b y i mpor tan t p henomena t h a t a r e n o t a ta l l o ft h e o b jec t type : T he l a nd scape a lway sc on ta in sv a lue sa nd o t he rm ean ing s . I ny ou rl a nd scape y ou c an h ide , f i nd f ood ,f e e lh o r ro r ,r e spec to rh app ines s , b eo b served o rt r ave lt h rough . P reh i s to r ic man p e rhap s n o t o n ly b u i l t g ravemound s b u t a l so r ega reded h i l l s a nd o the r p a r t so ft h el a nd scape a ss uch monumen t sw he re h ec ou ld d epo s i tt h ed ead . T h is p e rhaps m eans t h a t a r chaeo log i s t s h ave t os t udy t h e l a nd scape i nn ew w ays : H a s t h e a r ea w i th b u r ia ls e . g .c ha rac te r i s t ic s u r f ace p rof i le s ,c o lou ro r man -made mod if i ca t ion sl i ke f i l l ing s i nc r ack sa nd h o le s? D os u ch p i ece so ft e r ra in h ave a r t if i c ia lo rn a tu ra lb o rde rm a rk ing si n t h ef o rm o fe . g . s t one r ow s? T oa vo id t h e " b road -concep t " t y pe o fa r chaeo log ica le r ro rd ea l tw i th h e re i ti sn ece ssa ry a lway s t ob e a wa re o ft h ec l o se r e la t ion b e tween a r chaeo log ica lc oncep t s a nd o u ro wn p i c ture o f p reh i s to r ic man . We mus t a lways h ave i n m ind a p i c tu re o f man a s a mu l t i -face ted b e ing f u l lo fp o ten t ia lf o rv a r ied t h ink ing a nd a c t ing . P e rhaps t h ee s the t ic a spec t so f ab eau t i fu lp i ece o fj ewe l ry w e re i t sm a in v a lue ?P e rhaps t h ee s the t ic a spec t so f a g r icu l tu ra lt o o l sw e re mo re i mpo r tan tt h an t h e i rp rac t ica lp rope r t ie s? Ma ts P . Ma lme r h a s made m e r ea l ize t h e i mpor tance o f t h is p rob lem . T h rough h i s d emand f o r u namb igu i ty i n o bse rva t ion a nd a na lys is h e h a s n o t o n ly a ch ieved o u t s tand ing a r chaeo log ica lr e su l t s b u t a l so p rov ided ac l ea ri lus t ra t ion o ft h e l im i t s o f u namb igu i ty . — It h ink t h e re i sn o o the r w ay t od i scove r t h i s b o rde r t h an t or un u p a ga ins ti ti nt h ev e ry p ra c t ica lw ay Ma t sh a sd one .

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W HY NOT A " THIRD CRITERION OF CONTINUITY"? B y J ens P ou lsen U n ive r s i ty o fA a rhus . Moe sgä rd . DK8270 H O jb je rg ,D enma rk . R ead ing Ma t sP . Ma lme r 's s i gn i f ican ta nd o r ig ina l wo rk o na r chaeo log ica l me thodo logy " Me todp rob lem i nom j ä rnä lde rn sk on s th i s to r ia " ( Me thodo log ica lP rob lem si nt h eH i s to ry o fA r td u r ing t h eS cand inav ian I r on Age )f r om 1 963 ,o ne f i nd si tp uzz l ing t h a tf u l lj u s t ice i sn o t d one t o t he c h rono log ica l i mp l ica t ions o f t h e t h eo ry b eh ind t he p roduc t ion d i agrams ( d iscussed o n p ages 1 78 -198 , 2 70 -271) . A f te r h av ing d ea l t w i th t he c h rono logy o ft h e g o ld b rac tea tes i nt e rms o ft h ef i r s ta nd s e cond c r i ter ia o fc on t inu i ty ( p p . 2 6 -28 , 2 58 -259 ) , t h e a pp l ica t ion o ft h e p roduc t ion d iag ram s i so n ly c ons ide red a m a t te r o f at h i rd ma in s uppo r t o f t he r e su l t s o b ta ined b y m eans o f t h e t wo o the r p r inc ip les . S u re ly t h ey p rov ide t he n ecessary p re requ is i tes f o r i nves t iga t ing t h e c h rono log ica lp o ten t ia lo ft h ee v idence a ss e to u ti nt h ep roduc t ion d i ag ram s . I f ,h oweve r ,t h ep a r t icu la rc i r cum s tance so fs ome c o l lec t ion o fa r chaeo log ica la r t i fa c t sa r e s u i tab le f o rt h ee xp lo i ta t ion o fs u ch ap o ten t ia l —a sf o re xamp le i nt h ec a se o ft h er i ch a nd v a r iab le ma te r ia lo ft h eg o ld b rac tea te so ft h eS cand inav ian I r on A ge —t h en w hy n o td oi t w i th d ue r e f e rence t o at h i rd c r i te r ion o fc on t inu i ty? S ince t h i sw ou ld s e em t om et ob ea w o r thwh i le c on s ide ra t ion , Is ha l lr i sk my n eck b y t a k ing t h e p re sen t o ppor tun i ty —i n h umb le t r ibu te t o Ma lme ra s ag ua rd ian o ft h e Swed ish a r chaeo logy t r ad i t ion —t os ugge s t ap h ra s ing o fi ta sf o l lows . T he " t h i rd c r i ter ion o fc on t inu i ty " a pp l ies i nc a se s w hen t h ep roduc t ion d i agram s o fa r ange o ft ypes o ft h e s ame t y po log ica l s e r ies e xh ib i t c l ea r r eg iona l v a r ia t ion i n t h e i r f r equency o fo ccu rence . T h i s v a r ia t ion mu s t b e o f ar egu la r c ha rac te r , s h if ted i n t h e s pa t ia ld imen s ion i nt h es ense t h a tt h es ame t y pe ss hou ld n o to ccu rw i th h igh f r equenc ie s e ve rywhe re b u ta r ee xpe c ted t os u cceed e ach o t he ri nt h es pa t ia ld imen s ion . T he a d jo in ing T ab le 1g i ves aw ho l ly f i c t ive , t h eo re t ica le xamp le o ft h eo ccu r rence a nd p e rcen tage f r equency p a t te rn o f ar ange o f t ype s o f t he s ame t ypo log ica l s e r ies r ep re sen ted i n f i ve r eg ion s o f t h e s ame c u l ture a r ea . T he t ype s i n i t a l ics a r e t hose a ppea r ing w i th t h er eg iona l ly h i ghe s tf r equenc ie s . T ab le 1 .

w est

A+ B _ _+ C + D + / A+ B + C + D + / A+ B + C + D + E A+ B + C + D + E A+ / + C + D + E

e ast 1 00%

T he i mpor tan t p rac t ica l c h rono log ica l o u tcome o f mak ing u se o ft h e c omp lex t h eo ry u nde r ly ing t h e p roduc t ion d i ag ram s i sa l l a bou t i s o la t ing t ype s w i th t h e se p a r t icu la r q ua l i t ies a sb e ing mo re o r l e s s c on tempo raneous w i th e ach o the r b e tween r eg ion s . I n 2 5

o t he r wo rd s , t h e m e thod i s n o t d i rec t ly o r o n i t s o wn o f u se when i tc ome s t o d e te rm in ing t h ed i f f e r ence i na ge b e tween t y pe so ft h es am et y po log ica ls e r ie s . C on t inu i ty eme rge s i nt e rm s o f ac omb ina t ion o fv a r iou s p i ece s o f e v idence f o r t h e s u cce s s ion i nt ime a nd s pa ce o fr e la ted t y pe s . T he t h i rd c r i te r ion o fc on t inu i ty i st hu so f r e levance o n ly w hen f a vou rab le a spec t so ft h ef r equenc ies o ft h er eg iona lo ccu r r ence o f r e la ted t y pe sm ay b el i nked t ot h ea ppl i ca t ion o ft h ef i r s ta nd s e cond c r i te r ia o fc on t inu i ty .

2 6

ON THE PREREQUISITES SOURCE CRITICIS M

AND

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL

B y K las -Göran S e l inge D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy .U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S 106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden .

" ö fve rhufvud b ehö f va s omf a t tande v e ten skap l iga u nde r sökn inga ra f v ä ra g ra fm innen , h v i lka j u s t g enom d e v i t tne sbö rd om f or n t ida k u l tu r fö rhä l landen , s om d eg ömma is i t ti n re , ä r oa fs ynne r l igen s t o r v i g t , h va r jäm te d e ra s l ä ge , d e ra s a n ta l o ch o l ika f o rme r l emna v ä rde fu l la b i d rag t i l lv ä rh edna t i d st o pog ra f io ch s t a t i s t ik . " H an sH i ldeb rand 1 872 ,p .5 0

T he a bove s t a temen tb yt h e Swed i sh s cho la rH an sH i ldeb rand a bou tg r ave monumen t sa s a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce s -a bove a l lf r om aq uan t i ta t ive a nd t opog raph ica lp o in to fv i ew w a sf i r s t made a lmo s t 1 20 y ea r sa go .I n ab r ief r é sumé i mmed ia te ly p reced ing t h i sq uo te H i ldeb rand h ad j u s t e s tab l ished t h a t t h e t r ad i t iona l , l i te ra ry s ources f o r " ou r p agan h i s to ry " , f r om w h ich t h e h i s to r ian s o fh i s a nd e a r l ie r g ene ra t ions h ad b een wo rk ing , w e re f a rf r om ar e l iab le s t anda rd a sh i s to r ica ld ocumen t s .I nd o ing s o ,h en o to n ly c l ea r ly d i savowed t he i mag ina t ive h i s to r ica lw r i t ing s o ft h eR ena i s sance a nd t h e G rea tP owe r p e r iod a sc on tr ibu t ion s t oo u ra nc ien t h i s to ry ; h e a l so d ec la red t ha t r e co rd s o f amo re c on tempo raneou sc ha rac te r -s uch a sc l a s s ica la u tho r sa nd s e lec ted I c e land ic s aga s -w e re u n re l iab le o ra tl e a s ti n adequa te a ss uch s ou r ce s . I ti sn o tw i thou ti n te re s tf r om ar e sea r ch o r me thodo log ica lp o in to fv i ew t h a to ne o ft h et wo f ounde r so f Swed i sh a r chaeo logy i n ap a s sage t ha t f o l lowed d e l ibe ra te ly i n t roduced a r t ifac t s a nd a nc ien t monumen t s a s s ource so fo u re a r l ie rh i s tory a nd t h a t ,i nc on sequence ,h ec ons ide red t h em b e t te rf i t ted a s f ounda t ions f o rh i s tor ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s a nd r e cons t ruc t ions t han t h e p rev iou s ly u sed r e co rd sa nd t r ad i t ion s . S uch ah i s to r ica l c on sc iou sne ss o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce ma te r ia l a l so i mp l ie s t h e n ecess i ty o f s our ce c r i t ica l s t ud ies i n a r chaeo logy . Ana lyses o f t h e c ho ro log ica l , q uan t i ta t ive a nd morpho log ica l q ua l i t ie s o ft h e p reh i s to r ic g rave s t ruc tu re s -s uch a s H i ldeb rand r ecommended - a r e i n my o p in ion g ood e xamp les o f i nves t iga t ions d emand ing s uch a s ource -cr i t ica l c on sc iou sness . I ti s , h oweve r , n o t a s ton ish ing t h a t H i ldeb rand 's o wn f i r s t a t temp t a ta n a r chaeo log ica l ly f ounded w r i t ing o f h i s to ry i s , n owadays , t o ta l ly o u t o f d a te -a nd i ta l so c l ea r ly d emons t ra tes t ha t r emov ing t h e i nf luences o ft h e t r ad i t iona l s ou rce s w a s n o t s o e a sy , i np rac t ise . B u t t h i s f a i lu re d oe s n o t ,o fc ou r se ,d ep rec ia te t h ev a lue o fh i sf a r -s igh ted a pp roach t ot h es ou rce ma te r ia l . D u r ing t h e mo re t h an o ne h und red y ea r s o f Swed ish a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch s i nce t h e p ub l ica t ion o fH i ldeb rand 's t h e s i s , s ou rce c r i t ic i sm h a s ,h oweve r -a si sw e l lk nown -a s ar u le o n ly p layed am ino rr o le i ns cho la r ly d i scuss ion s a nd p ub l ica t ions . T h i s f a c t i s e s pec ia l ly r ema rkab le i fc ompa red t oo t he rd i sc ipl ine so ft h eh uman i t ie s ,a bove a l lh i s to ry a nd t h e h i s to r ica l d i sc ip l ine s , w he re s ou rce c r i t ic i sm h a s l ong b een aw e l l e s tab l i shed m e thodo log ica l s t anda rd ( c p . i . e . L iedman 1 978 , p4 2 f ) . I t wou ld p robab ly n o t b e e xagge ra ted t oa rgue t h a t Swed ish a r chaeo log i s t se ven t a lked a nd t hough tv e ry l i t t le o f a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce s a s ar e sea rch -me thodo log ica l c oncep td u r ing t h eg rea te rp a r to f t h is c en tu ry . O nt h eo the rh and t h ey h ave ,f o ri n s tance , mo re o rl e s sc on t inuous ly t a lked -a nd d i scussed -a t l e ng th a bou tf inds , ac oncep t t ha t may b e u sed p rac t ica l ly 2 7

s ynonymous ly w i th s ource s ( i .a . Mobe rg 1 969 , p4 9 f -t oq uo te am e thodo log ica l wo rk ) . I ti so fc ou r se p o ss ib le , i ns uch aw ay , t ou se t h is w o rd i n aw ide rc on tex t t h an " ob jec t " o r " comb ina t ion o fo b jec t s " , b u tt h en o ne mus td ef ine t h e i n tended c on ten to r b ounda r ies o f t h e c oncep t ( c p . Ma lme r 1 963 , p . 1 6 ) . Y e t i t may b e c on s ide red a s a n o pen q ues t ion , w he the ro rn o t t h e wo rd h a s c ome t oh ave p owe ro ve rt h e t h ough t , i . e . t h a tt h ec on t inua li n f low o fn ew " f ind s "h a sc on t r ibu ted t o ap re tended d e l ive rance f r om s our ce -cr i t ica lc onsc iousne ss a nd s ou rce - c r i t ica l i nves t iga t ions ( c p . G rä s lund 1 974 , p . 1 5) . O fc ou r se , o ne may d i scuss t h e r ea son s b eh ind t h is i n suf f ic ien t u se a nd a wa renes s o f s ou rce c r i t ic i sm . O ne c on t r ibu t ing c au se may b e t h eo b jec t ive c ha rac te ro ft h ea r t if ac t s a nd s t ruc tu re si nt h e i rc apac i ty a sr ema in so fc oncr e te h i s to r ica l s i tua t ion s . A st h et r u th w a sc ons ide red t ob et h e re -w h ich i sq u i te c o r rec t ( Ma lme r 1 963 , p .1 3 , B in fo rd 1 972 , p . 9 5 , Wa t son e t a l . 1 971 , p . 12 f ) -a r chaeo log i s ts mo re o r l e ss c onsc iou s ly a l so c ons ide red t h i s t r u th t o b e s pon taneous ly a ccess ib le t h rough i n tu i t ive a nd i nduc t ive o b serva t ions ; t h e s ou rce s w e re c on s ide red t o " s peak f o r t h em se lves " ( c p . K r i s t ian sen 1 974 , p . 1 20 fa nd 1 978 , p . 1w i th o p . c i t . ) . S uch at r ad i t iona l is t ic v i ew -o rp e rhap s r a the rp rac t ice -may b el a rge ly f ounded i n a" f ind -po s i t iv ism " ( Mobe rg 1 978 , p .2 32 f ) w i th r oo t sl e ad ing d eep i n to at y po log ica lt r ad i t ion w i th e vo lu t ion i s t ic o ve r tone s -i . e .o fa b a s ica l ly Mon tel ian s t anda rd . Ano the r r ea son f o r t h e a bsence o f s ou rce -c r i t ica l c onsc iousne ss may b e t h a t t h e c o l lec t ion so fa r chaeo log ica la r t i f ac t sa lway sc an b ee n la rged t h rough n ew e xcava t ion so f f u r the ra nc ien t monumen t s( G rä s lund 1 974 ,p .1 5 ) . O u to ft h e se c i rcum s tance sm ay h ave d eve loped b o th t h ef a i lu re t oe vo lve m e thod sf o ru t i l iz ing t h ek now ledge p o ten t ia lo ft h e a l ready d ocumen ted s ou rce ma te r ia l , a nd a n i n suf f ic ien t a n t iqua r ian r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r p ro tec t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage o f a nc ien t monumen ts . " To w a i t f o r n ew e xcava t ions " -a s t h e p h ra se n o t s e ldom r un s -w a s t oo o f ten a n e xcu se f o rn o t a sk ing r e levan tq ue s t ion sa bou tt h ea l ready k nown s ou r ce ma te r ia l . I nt h is c onnec t ion i ts hou ld a l so b e empha s ized t h a t t h e s ou rce ma te r ia l —c on t ra ry t op rev ious c l a im s ( G rä s lund 1 974 ,p .1 f ,A lmg ren 1 977 ,p .8 1 ) -n eve rw i l lb et o ta l ly i n c rea sed ;r a the r ,i nr ea l i ty i t w i l l b e r educed b y a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ions , e ven t hough t h e b ank o fk now ledge n o rma l ly w i l lb ee n la rged . U nexcava ted s t ruc tu re sa l so p o sse ss a" s ou rce p o ten t ia l " -a s G rä s lund 's t e rm r un s -t ow h ich o ne m ay p u tr e levan tq ue s t ions ,a nd ag r ea te ro rs male r p a r to ft h i sp o ten t ia lw i l la lway sb el o s ta tt h ee xcava t ion , w h ich i sd e s t ruc t ive b yn a tu re ( Mobe rg 1 969 , p .8 3 f , A lmg ren 1 977 ,p .8 1) . T o s ome e x ten t o b scur i ty h a s a l so p reva i led c once rn ing t h e c oncep t " a rchaeo log ica l s ou r ce " . B y ap a ra l le l i sm w i th h i s to r ica ld i sc ip l ine so ne may a rgue t h a tt h es ou r ce i st h e o r ig ina ld ocumen to f ap reh i s to r ic e ven t . A st h eo b jec to fp reh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy i st h e h i s to ry a nd c u l tu re o fp e r iod sw i thou tw r i t ten r e co rd s ,n orma l ly t h ep hy s ica lr ema ins o f p reh i s tor ic e ven t ss hou ld b er ega rded a st h eo n ly -o ra tl e a s tp r ima ry o rt y p ica l -s ou rce s f o ra r chaeo logy ( Ma lme r 1 963 , p .1 2f , c p . Mobe rg 1 969 , p .4 4f ) . B u t t h e re h a s b een a n o cca s iona l t e ndency t o l ook u pon -o r a tl e a s t h and le -w r i t ten a nd /o r p ub l i shed d ocumen ta t ion o ft h es ou r ce sa ss ou r ce si nt h em se lves o ra tl e a s ta s" s ou r ce p ubl i ca t ions " ( Grä s lund 1 974 , p . 1 f ) . F ounded o n al ong t r ad i t ion ( Egge r s 1 959 , p . 2 56 f , K r i s t ian sen 1 974 , p . 19 f ) , as choo l o f " s our ce c r i t ic i sm " i nU ppsa la ( A lmg r en e ta l . 1 972 , A lmg ren 1 977 , p .8 3 f ) h a s c hamp ioned t h is t e rm f o re xam ina t ion o f as pec ia l p rob lem , n ame ly t h er e l iab i l i ty o ft h er e co rds o fd ocumen ta t ion o fc l osed g r ave f i nd s , a bove a l lf r om t he I r on A ge . I np rac t ice , h oweve r , i tp rove si n mo s tc a se s t ob e ame re " l i te ra tu re c r i t ic i sm " i n s tead o fs c ru t iny o ft h eo r ig ina ls ou r ce s . Ih ave i na no the rc on tex t ( Se l inge 1 977 ,p .2 16 f )c ommen ted u pon s ome i n te rp re ta t iona lc on sequence so fs uch a l im i ted s ou r ce -c r i t ica la pp roach .

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T he t wo o r t h ree mo s t r e cen t d ecade s h ave b rough t a bou t ar enewed d i scuss ion o f p r inc ip le s ,t h eo r ie sa nd m e thod so fa r chaeo logy ,m a in ly u nde ri n f luences f r om a b road a bove a l lf r om B r i t i sh a nd Ame r ican a r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy l.B u tt ot h eb e s to f my k now ledge t h ec oncep t" a rchaeo log ica ls ou rce s "i sn o tv e ry much d i scu s sed ,n e i the r i nt h e Swed i sh r ef l ec t ion so ft h is i n ter na t iona ld eba te o ri no t he rd i scu s s ions o fp r inc ip le . O ne u nde r ly ing r ea son m ay b et h a tt h ec oncep ti si no ne w ay o ra no the rr ep la ced b yt h e t e rm d a ta . T h is t e rm i su sed mos t c on sc ious ly a nd p e rhaps mos t f r equen t ly i n t h e w r i t ings o fA rne B .J ohan sen ( p r inc ipa l ly i nJ ohan sen 1 974 ,b e s ides e . g . J ohan sen 1 979 a nd 1 982 ) , b u ti ti su sed mo re o rl e s s s ynonymou s w i th " s ou r ce s " b yo the r s , a sw e l l ( i . a . Mobe rg 1 975 , p . 3 62 ) . I n my o p in ion , C hr is tophe r sen p roposed a f undamen ta l s t a temen t o n t h e d i f f e rence b e tween " sou rce s " a nd " da ta " ( 1982 , p . 1 46 ) , w hen h e d ec la red t h a t t h e s ou r ce s r ep resen t " an a lway s e x i s t ing o b jec t ive i n s tance " , wh i le t h e a r chaeo log ica ld a ta u sed i nt h er e sea r ch p roce s sa r et h er e su l t so fa na c t ive s e lec t ion o u t o f t he k now ledge b ank o f t h ese s ources ( c p . Wa tson e t a l . 1 971 , p . 14 f ) . C onsequen t ly , Id on o t s ha re J ohan sen ' s o p in ion ( 1974 , p ,4 5 f , 1 982 , p .2 25 ) t h a tt h e s ou rce s d o n o t , i n am ean ingfu l w ay , e x i s ti ndependen to ft h e d e scr ip t ion o ft h em , i . e . o u t s ide t h e d a ta s e lec t ion -o re ven o u t s ide t h e m ind o ft h e a r chaeo log i s t . A tb es t , t h e l a s t -men t ioned p rob lem i s aq ue s t ion o fm e re p h i lo sophy ( c p . e . g . S a lmon 1 982 ,p .1 40 f , L iedman 1 978 ,p .2 3 ) . I nt h e i rc apac i ty a sp hy s ica lr ema in s o fh uman a c t iv i t ie s , t h e s ou rce s -a s Ma lme rs t a ted a ta ne a r ly p o in to ft ime ( 1963 p .1 3 ) -c on ta in " an o b jec t ive t r u th " o ft h ep a s tr ea l i ty .T h i sf undamen ta l ly p o s i t iv i s t ic a pp roach t ot h ea r chaeo log ica l s ou rce ma te r ia l mus t , h oweve r , b e c omb ined w i th me thodo log ica l ly c onsc ious i n s t rumen t sf o re x t rac t ing d a ta o u to ft h es ou rce s ( B info rd 1 972 ,p .1 38 f , S e l inge 1 979 b ,p .4 0f ,Ma lme r 1 984 ,p .2 65 ) . Documen ta t ion a nd c l a s s i f ica t ion ,c on sequen t ly , a r eo f t h eg r ea te s ti mpo r tance f o rt h ea cce s s ib i l i ty a nd r e l iab i l i ty o ft h es ou r ce s . Ma t s P . Ma lme r h a s a lways i n h i s own r e sea r ch -o nce p rog ramma t ica l ly l abe led s akf or skn ing ( " ob jec tr e sea rch " , 1 963 ,p .1 f ) -s t uck c l o se t ot h ep hy s ica ls ou rce sa nd a vo ided t h eo r iz ing f o ri t s own s ake ( i .a . 1 980 , p .2 60 , 1 984 , p .2 60 fa nd r epea ted ly o ra l ly ) . B u tp rec i se ly b ecau se o ft h i sr ea l i s t ic a nd p o s i t iv i s t ic -b o th a t t r ibu te si nt h eh e re a pp l ied o r ig ina lm ean ing s( Ma lme r 1 984 ,p .2 63 ) -a pp roach ,h i st h eo re t ica ls t ud ies h ave b een o ff undamen ta li mpo r tance ,n o tl e a s tr ega rd ing s ou rce t h eo ry a nd me thod ( i . a .1963 p p .11-38 ) . I nt h i sc on tex t , t h e refo re , Is hou ld l i ke t e n ta t ive ly a nd s u mma r i ly t od i scu s s s ome a spec t so fa r chaeo log ica ls ou r ce t h eo ry a nd s ou r ce c r i t ic i sm .F rom my e xpe r ience i t i sn a tu ra lt od ea le spec ia l ly w i th p hy s ica lr ema in si nt h el a nd scape ,i . a . g rave s t ruc tu re s f o rw h ich H i ldeb rand ,a sq uo ted a bove ,o b served t h en eed o fs ou r ce c r i t ic i sm .B e s ide s ,I s hou ld l i ke t ou nde r l ine a no the r a spec t o ft h e q uo ta t ion f r om H i ldeb rand , n ame ly t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f ap a rale lr e a son ing b a sed o na r chaeo log ica la nd h i s to r ica ls ou r ce s . T he v i ew o ft h es ou r ce m a te r ia li s ,o fc ou r se ,i n t ima te ly d ependen tu pon t h ei d ea o ne h a s o fa r chaeo logy a s ad i sc ip l ine o ft h eh uman i t ies ( o ra s as oc ia l s c ience ) a nd o fi t s t a sk s . T o s ke tch d i f f e ren ti d ea si nt h is r e spec tl i e so u t s ide t h ea im o ft h i sp ape r ,b u ta sr ega rd s s ou rce ma te r ia lo ne c an t o day ,w i th s ome d eg ree o fs imp l i f ica t ion ,d i s t ingu i sh t h re e ma in t r end s -d i s r ega rd ing p u re ly m e thodo log ica la nd r e sea r ch -h i s to r ica li nve s t iga t ions . I n at r ad i t iona la r t if ac ti n ve s t iga t ion o ne c an r e s t r ic to ne se lf t ou s ing t h es ou r ce sa s ad a ta b a se f o r n ew k now ledge o f t he ma te r ia l a s s uch o r i n o rde r t o i mprove u pon t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch s y s tem . S eve ra la r chaeo log ica ls t ud ies h ave o n ly s l igh t ly r a i sed t h em se lve s o ve rt h i s m a ter ia l -a rchaeo log ica l s t age -s ome t ime s i ns p i te o fc l a im s t oi n p r inc ip le w ide r i n te rp re ta t ions . I n s uch c a ses o ne p robab ly d oes n o t d i scu ss s ou rce c r i t ica lq ue s t ion si n amo re t ho rough w ay , b ecau se o ne w i l lh ave t ou se t h em a te r ia la t h and . T he o ppo s i te a nd mo re moder ne x t reme i mp l ie st h a to ne r ega rd st h es ou rce ma te r ia la sa b a s i sf o ra n thropo log ica le xper imen t s , a imed a te s tabl i sh ing c u l tu re -un ive r sa lc ove r ing

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l aw sf o rt h ec u l tu ra lr ea l i ty b eh ind t h e s ou rce m a te r ia l . A sa ne xamp le o ft h ese a t t i tude s m ay b e men t ioned s o -ca l led b ehav io ra la r chaeo logy ,w he re h uman b ehav io ra nd ma te r ia l c u l tu re c ons t i tu te f ou r s t ra teg ie s i nt e rm s o fp a s t a nd p re sen t ( Sch if f e r 1 976 , p . 4f ) . T h is a nd o the r n eo -a rchaeo log ica l a pproaches p re suppose a w e l l -rea soned s ou rce c r i t ic i sm ,f o ri n s tance s t ud ie so f" cu l tu re f o rma t ion p roce sse s " ( Sch if f e r 1 976 ,p .2 7f ) , i n c lud ing b o th t h ec i r cum s tance sa tt h et ime f o rd epo s i t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica ls ou r ce s a nd t h ep re requ i s i te sf o rt h e i rp ro tec t ion a nd p o s s ib le t r an sfo rma t ion a f te rt h a tt ime . Mo r e mode ra te a dvo ca te so f ten c l a im t h ed ef in ing o fc u l tu ra lp ro ce s se sa st h eu l t ima te g oa lo f a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch ( Thoma s 1 979 ,p .1 37 f ) . E xp l ic i ts t ud ie so ft h i sc ha rac te rh ave n o ty e tb een u nde r taken i n Sweden . At h i rd mode lo fi nve s t iga t ion may b ec ha rac ter ized b y ac u l ture -h i s tor ica lo r ien ta t ion , w he re t h ea r chaeo log ica lt r ea tmen ta nd i n te rp re ta t ion c on s t i tu te ac onnec t ion b e tween t h e d a ta b a se o ft h e s ou rce m a te r ia la nd t h eu nde r ly ing s oc ia l a nd c u l tu re -h i s to r ica lr ea l i ty , i . e . t h e p reh i s to r ic s oc ie ty o ft h er e sea rch a r ea . S uch ad eve lopmen to fo b jec t - c en t red r e sea r ch i n to as oc ia la r chaeo logy i mp l ie si n as en se a ni n s t rumen ta lv i ew o ft h es ou r ce ma te r ia l , wh ich n eve ri sa l lowed t ob ea ne nd i ni t se lf . A rchaeo logy a s as c ience t h en i f a ny th ing o b ta in s ame thodo log ica lc ha rac te r ,w h i le t h ei n te rp re ta t ion i ni t sm a in f e a tu re s may b e o f a n h i s to r ica l , s oc ia l o r e ven a n th ropo log ica l d es ign ( c p . t h e A ng lo -Saxon d i s t inc t ion b e tween a r chaeo logy a nd p reh is tory ) . T h i s a pproach c omes c l o se t o t h e a r chaeo logy w i th h i s to r ica l ly o r ien ted t h eo ry a nd s c ien t if ic me thod s f o rw h ich T r igge r h as e loquen t ly p leaded ( 1978 , p . 3 9 f ) Ia l so a dop t B info rd 's n ew c oncep t " m idd le range r e sea rch " ( 1983 , p .4 11 f ) , w h ich i n c lude s ah i s to r ica l a pproach t ot h e o b se rva t ion so ft h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ( p . 4 12 ) . H eu nde r l ine s ac ogn i t ive p a rad igm f o r d e scr ib ing t h e emp i r i s t ic w o r ld a nd as c ien t if ic t h eo ry f o r e xp la in ing i t .T he p a s t s o c ia lr e a l i ty i sa cce s s ib le o n ly b yi n f e rence f r om t h ec on tempo ra ry a r chaeo log i ca lr e co rd ( p . 4 20 ) . S uch a n a pp roach p re suppo se s ac a refu l ly p r epa red s ou rce t h eo ry , n a tu ra l ly i n c lud ing ac r i t ica lv i ew o ft h ef o rma t ion p roce s se so ft h ec on tempo ra ry s ou r ce ma te r ia l , b u ta l so a no bv iou s c onnec t ion o ft h e s ou r ce c r i t ic i sm t or e levan tc u l tu re -h i s to r ica l a nd s o c ia lp rob lem s i nt h ep a s tr e a l i ty a nd t ot h ep u rpo se o ft h ei nve s t iga t ion . T h i st wo fo ld t y pe o fs ou r ce c r i t ic i sm w i l lb ea imed a th encefo r th i nt h i sp ape r . I n my o p in ion C ha r le s R edman h as g iven a s hor t a nd g ood d ef in i t ion o f t h is " m idd le -range a r chaeo logy " , w hen h ec ha rac ter ize s i ta s" . . the s y s tema t ic s t udy o ft h e n a tu re a nd c u l tu ra l b ehav io ro fh uman b e ing s t h rough e xam ina t ion a nd a na ly s i s o ft h e ma te r ia l r ema in s o f t h e i r p a s t a c t iv i t ies " ( 1973 , p . 6 ) . T he d ef in i t ion o f t h e s ou rce ma te r ia la s" ma te r ia lr ema in so fp a s ta c t iv i t ie s "i si na cco rdance w i th t h e mo s tc ommon o p in ion e ven i n Sweden , p rov ided t h a t " r ema ins " h ave r e f e rence n o to n ly t os t ruc tu re s a nd o b jec t sb u ta l so t ou n in ten t iona lt r ace si nt h ec u l tu ra ll a nd scape . I n as upe rf i c ia lw ay i ti su sua lt ot a lk a bou tt h ree ma in g roups o fs ou rce s : s t ruc ture s ( i n aw ide s en se ) i nt h e l a nd scape a nd r ema in s t h e reof , o b jec t s ( movab le a r t if ac t s ) a nd o rgan ic a nd c hem ica l t r ace s o fp a s t a c t iv i t ie s ( e cof ac t s ) ( i . a . S e l inge 1 986 , p .3 ) . T he p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t ( g eo logy /geog raphy /hyd rog raphy ) i so f c our se o f g rea te s t i mpor tance t oo , b u t t h e se " geof ac ts " c anno t b e l ooked u pon a s ap u re c u l tu re -h is to r ica l s ource , i ft h ey a r e n o t a l te red b y man ( a nd h ence o f ten b ecome e cofac t s ) . Id on o tt h ink i ta dv i sab le t ou se t h e w o rd " f ind " a s at e rm f o ra r chaeo log ica l s ou rce s , a si tm ay i mp ly e ve ry th ing ( Mobe rg 1 969 , p .5 0 a nd 1 968 , p .2 34 ) 2. A cco rd ing t ot h e a bove , w r i t ten r e co rd so nt h eb a s i so fa r chaeo log ica l s ou r ce s , s uch a s p ub l ica t ions o f a r t ifac t c o l lec t ions , e xcava t ion r epo r t s a nd r e co rd ings o f a nc ien t monumen t s , s hou ld n eve rb e c ons ide red a sp r ima ry s ou rce ma te r ia l , e ven t hough t h ey s ome t ime s h ave b een t r ea ted o r a tl e a s t m en t ioned i nt h i s w ay . E very r e co rd o ft h is c ha rac te ri sn ame ly t h er e su l to f ad ocumen ta t ion p roce s s , w h ich m ean s t r ansf e r r ing o f d a ta f r om p hy s ica l d ocumen t s t o w r i t ten o ne s , a nd e ve ry s uch p rocess i mp l ies r i ch e l emen t so fa r rang ing a nd i n te rp re ta t ion . Ac on s ide rab le a moun to fd a ta a l so d i sappea r s ,

3 0

i sd es t royed o r a tl e a s t l e f t u nno t iced -i n ten t iona l ly o r u n in ten t iona l ly -i n e very d ocumen ta t ion p roce ss . A tb e s ti tc on s is t so fa ni n te rm inab le c ha in o fc on sc ious c ho ice s i tua t ions (Mobe rg 1 969 ,p .6 3 f .a nd 8 3 f ) . C on sequen t ly , t h e a r t i fa c tc o l lec t ion s c an n eve rb er ep laced b yt h e mu seum c a ta logue , a nd t h ea nc ien t monumen tr eg i s te ri s much p oo re ro fi n fo rma t ion t h an t h eo r ig ina l si nt h e l a ndscape . B u tn eve r the le s s , i n many c a se s -o rf o rp rac t ica lr ea son s n od oub ti n mo s t c a ses -o ne h a s t o u se t h e s e cond ary r eco rd s f o r s c ien t if ic p u rpo ses . A nd w hen t h e d ocumen ta t ion -i . e . a s ar u le t h ee xcava t ion -h a si nvo lved t h ed e s t ruc t ion o ft h eo r ig ina l s ou rce , t h er e co rd sc on s t i tu te t h ep r ima ry d ocumen t s . N o tl e a s t ,t h i sw il b et h es i tua t ion i n many c a ses o fo lde rd e s t ruc t ion -a l so w i th p oo rer o rn od ocumen ta ry s t anda rd a ta l l . I nt h er e sea rch s i tua t ion , t h e refo re , t h ep r ima ry d ocumen t -i . e . t h ed ocumen t , w h ich i s c onnec ted a s n ear ly a sp oss ib le w i th t h ep reh i s tor ic s i tua t ion -s hou ld b er ega rded a s a r chaeo log ica ls ource f o rt h ei nve s t iga t ion .T he p hys ica lr e s idue sn a tu ra l ly a r ec ogn i t ive d ocumen t si nt h e i rc apac i ty o fr ema in si nt h eh i s to r ica l ,s ou rce -c r i t ica lm ean ing o ft h e w o rd ( Ma lme r 1 963 ,p .1 2 f ,S e l inge 1 979 ,p ,3 1 O . I n my o p in ion i t wou ld , h oweve r , b e p u rposefu l a l so w i th in a r chaeo logy t ou t i l ize a s omewha t mo re f l ex ib le s ou rce c oncep t , b ound t ot h e w ay o ft r ea tmen t " t o u se a s a s ource" , wh ich R o lf T o r s tendah l ( 1971 ,p .7 0 )h as i n t roduced w i th r e f e rence t oh i s to ry . T he o r ig ina l ,p hy s ica lr ema in sa r ea lway s s ou r ce s . I f as e conda ry r e co rd o ft h i sp r ima ry b u t c i rcum s tan t ia l ly d e s t royed o r u na t ta inab le s ou rce mus t b e u sed , t h i s r e co rd i st h e s ou r ce f o rt h ei nve s t iga t ion i nq ue s t ion a nd my o n ly c on tac tw i th t h ep reh i s to r ic r e a l i ty . I f t h ep hy s ica ld ocumen t si nt h e s hape o fa nc ien t monumen t sa nd s t ruc tu re sa nd p reh is to r ic a r t ifac ts a r e p rese rved , Iam a b le t or epea t a nd i mprove t h e d ocumen ta t ion a nd d a ta s amp l ing i nnume rab le t ime s -p rov ided t h a tt h es ou r ce sa r en o td amaged o rb roken d own b y n a tu ra l ly o r c u l tu ra l ly c ond i t ioned p roces ses . I ti s ac ommonp lace t r u th t ha t t h e d ocumen ta t ion , when -s t r ic t ly s peak ing -t h e " s t ruc tu re d ocumen t " i sr ep laced b y t h e " ob jec td ocumen t " a nd s e conda ry r e co rd ing s ,i si np r inc ip le d e s t ruc t ive a nd o n ly c an b e made o nce ( Mobe rg 1 969 , p .6 4 ) . I ti sn a tu ra l , t h e refo re , t h a t s ou rce -cr i t ica lr ea son ing h a sa lway sp r ima r i ly b een c onnec ted w i th t h ea r chaeo log ica le xcava t ion s .T he a pp roach r e commended h e re i nvo lve s ,h oweve r , e s tab l i sh ing s ou rce -c r i t ica lr ea son ing a t ah ighe r s t anda rd o no t he rl e ve l so fa r chaeo log ica lw o rk a sw el -f o ri n s tance i nt r ea tmen to fo lde r r e co rd ing s ,c once rn ing s u rvey sa nd i nven to r ie s , a r t if ac tr e sea rch a nd s oo n . As imp le e xamp le may b e u sed t oi lus t ra te t h e p r inc ip le " t o u se a s as ou rce " -e ven r ega rd ing d ocumen t s p oo ri ni n fo rma t ion . " The c a lf lea the rc l e rgyman " N .J .Ekdah l i n t h e 1 820 s n o t iced t h eo ccur rence o f a" f ibu la " i n Gudmund sbyn , S kön p a r i sh ,p rov ince o f Mede lpad ( Enqu i s t 1 943 ,p .6 3 ) . T h is n o t ice d oe sn o tt e l lu sa ny th ing e l se t h an t h a ta cco rd ing t oa n a r chaeo log ica lj udgmen to fp robab i l i ty o u to fo u rk now ledge a bou tt h e a ppea rance o ff i bu lae -t h e re o nce e x i s ted ag rave f r om t h eI r on A ge t h e re . H oweve r ,h e a dd s i n c iden ta l ly t ha t i tw a s o f t h e t ype t h a t N .H .S jöbo rg q u i te e r roneou s ly c a l led i n cen so ry ( " a fS jöbo rg sr öke l sekä r l " ) . Ac heck i n" Sam l inga rf ö rN o rdens f o rn lä lska re " b yN .H .S jöbo rg d emon s t ra te st h a t ,t e rmed i nt h is w ay ,i tmu s th ave b een a no va lb rooch ( Se l inge 1 977 ,p .4 23 , c h . 3 : 1 , n o te 9 ) . Emp i r ica l ly w ek now t h a tb rooche so ft h is t ype w i th in t h is a r ea o n ly o ccu ri nV ik ing A ge f ema le b ur ia ls . Wi th in t h ev i l lage t h ere a r e t oday n op r ese rved g rave s t ruc tu re s , b u t t h i s n o te a nd ac oup le o fo the r s c onf i rm t h a t s e ve ra lb a r rows -i . a . w i th w eapon b u r ia l s ( Enqu i s t 1 943 ,p .6 2 ) -o nce e x i s ted . A tl e a s t o ne o ft h e se mus t , c on sequen t ly , h ave b een e r ec ted d u r ing t h e V ik ing P e r iod , a nd t h e v i l lage mu s t , a cco rd ing ly ,h ave b een i nhab i ted a tt h el a te s td u r ing t h i sp e r iod .T h is i sa n i mpo r tan t h i s to r ica l i n f e rence , b u t t he n o te i s o f c our se o f n o v a lue f o r o the r a r chaeo log ica l c onc lu s ions . T he refo re , t h e e xamp le a l so i lu s t ra te s t h a t a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce c r i t ic ism mus t w o rk w i th d i f f e ren t d eg rees o f e xam ina t ion a nd c ogency f o r d i f f e ren tt y pe so fp rob lem s( c p . J e n sen 1 973 ,p . 17 f ) .T oc l a im t h es ame c omp le tene s s i n t h e d ocumen ta t ion f o r i nves t iga t ions o f s e t t lemen t h i s to ry a s o ne h a s c ons ide red 3 1

n ece s sa ry i no rde rt oc on s truc tc h rono log ie sb a sed o nc l o sed f i nd c omb ina t ion s( A lmg ren e ta l . 1 972 ) , w ou ld b et o ta l ly m ean ing les s . O n s uch c ond i t ion so ne w ou ld -i na ny c a se w i th in t h e a r ea w he re t h e e xamp le w a sd e r ived f r om ( Se l inge 1 977 ,p .2 16 f ) -e xc lude mo re t h an 9 0p e rc en to ft h ek nown g rave f i nd sf r om t h ea r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ion .I n t h i sw ay o ne wou ld a l so s u s ta in h eavy l o s se si na no the rs ou r ce c r i t ica lc a tego ry ,n ame ly r ep re sen ta t iv i ty , w h ich i sc on s ide red t ob e " t he p r inc ipa l f unc t ion o fs ou rce c r i t ic i sm " ( K r i s t ian sen 1 974 , p .1 22 ) . C onsequen t ly , i ti sj u s t if ied t o s t a te t h a t e . g . ad e ta i led c h rono log ica l i nve s t iga t ion d emand sg rea tr e l iab i l i ty i nt h ed ocumen ta t ion o ft h es ou r ce m a te r ia l( A Lmg ren 1 977 ,p . 8 1 f . ) ,w h i le i . a . as ummar ized ,c omp rehen s ive i n ve s t iga t ion o fs e t t lemen th i s to ry p l ace s g r ea te rd emand s o n r epresen ta t iv i ty i nt h e s ou r ce m a te r ia l ( K r i s t iansen 1 974 , p .1 24 f a nd 1 978 , p .3 ) . T he se t wo f a c to r s e xemp l ify q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive v ar iab les , r e spec t ive ly ,i nt h es ou r ce s y s tem a nd o ugh tt ob et wo o ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan tb a s ic si nt h e j udgmen to fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l . O the rf a c to r so fg r ea ti mpor tance a r et h er e levance o ft h e ma ter ia lf o rd ef in i te p rob lem so ri t ss i gn cance f o rs pec ia lc a lcu la t ions , i . e . t wo o t he rv a r iab les o fq ua l i ty r e sp .q uan t i ty i nt h es ou r ce s . O fb a s ic i mpor tance i so fc ou r se a l so t h ej udgmen to ft h eh i s tor ic i ty o ft h em a te r ia l ,w hen o ne d oe sn o th ave t h ep r ima ry s ou rces a t o ne 's d i sposa l . O f c our se , many i nve s t iga t ions a l so r a ise q ues t ions o f p robab i l i ty o fd i f f e r en tr e la t ion sh ips i nt h em a te r ia l . A r chaeo log ica ls ou r ce c r i t ic i sm ,t h e refo re ,o ugh tt ob e amo re c omp rehen s ive a nd much d eepe rc oncep t t h an c ons ide ra t ion s i nvo lved i nt h ei n te rpre ta t ion o fi nven to ry r e co rd s , e xcava t ion r epo r t s , mu seum c a ta logue sa nd a n t iqua r ian a r ch ive s . I nc ompar i son w i th t h e s ou rce -c r i t ica l wo rk o f ah i s to r ian t h ese l a t te r p rocedu re s may i n a l l e s sen t ia ls b e c ompa red w i th t e x tua l c r i t ic i sm ( c p . E gge r s 1 959 , p .2 57 ) -f o ri n s tance g rapho log ica l a nd o the rs c ru t iny o f manu sc r ip t s ,c ompa r i son sb e tween e d i t ion so fs ou rce s ,a u then t ic i ty j udgmen t s , a t t r ibu t ing o f s ou rce s a nd s o o n ( To r s tendah l 1 971 , p .9 0 f ) -w h i le p u re s ou rce c r i t ic ism t r ea t s c i rcum s tance s o ft h e a bove -men t ioned c ha rac te ri nt h ep r ima ry s ou r ce ma te r ia l , i . e . w i th d i rec tr e levance t ot h ep a s ts o c ie ty . When s ou r ce c r i t ic i sm i nt h es en se a imed a th e re h a so nt h ew ho le b een a pp l ied ,o ne h a s a s ar u le t r ea ted q ue s t ions o fr ep r e sen ta t iv i ty f o rt h ep reh i s to r ic c ond i t ions i nt h ec u r r en t s ou rce ma te r ia l . T he i mp l ied d i f f icu l ty o f p r inc ip le h e re i si n f er r ing f r om a s t a t ic c on tempo ra ry r e co rd t od ynam ic c ond i t ions i nt h ep a s tr ea l i ty ( B info rd 1 983 , p .4 16 ) . T h i sp rob lem o f" a rchaeo log ica lf o rma t ion p roce s ses " ( K r i s t ian sen e ta l1 985 , Wi lde sen 1 982 ) f o r t h e mos t p a r t r e fe r s t o t h e t ime s ub sequen t t o t h e c r ea t ion o f t h e s ou rce ma te r ia l , a nd c oncer n s q ue s t ion so fi nf luence b y n a tu ra lp roce sses a nd h uman l a nd u se d u r ing t h et ime e l ap sed s i nce t h e s t ruc tu re sw e re b u i l ta nd t h ef i nd s a nd r emnan t sw e re l e f tb eh ind . S ch if f e rh a ss y s tema t ized t h e se p roce s se si nt e rm so fa r chaeo log ica lc on tex t s a nd s y s tem s t a te s( 1976 ,p .2 8f ) . O ne o ft h e mo s tf r equen tt ype so fi nve s t iga t ion i nt h i s s phe re i sa na ly ses o ft h e p resumed o r e s tab l ished d es t ruc t ion o fa nc ien t monumen t s , a bove a l l g raves o r ig ina l ly v i s ib le a bove g round . S uch i nve s t iga t ions may i n c lude c ompa r i son s b e tween monumen t s i nd i f f e ren tt ype s o fe nv i ronmen t ( Baudou 1 968 , p . 12 f ) o r o ve ra l l e s t ima t ions o f t h e t o ta l a n t iqua r ian r eco rds o f t h e k nown g rave o ccu r rence i n as pec ia lh uman -e co log ica lo rs oc ia lc on tex t( Se l inge 1 977 ,p .1 70 f ) . A ni mpor tan tf a c to ri nt h ee va lua t ion o ft h ec ur r en ta r chaeo log ica l s ou rce s y s tem i st h e d e s t ruc t ion o f monumen t s b y c u l t iva t ion i no lde r t imes o r w h ich o therw i se c anno t b e c hecked i nt h ea n t iqua r ian r e co rd s . A ni n c rea se o fc u l t iva t ion c ou ld h ave t wo e f f ec t so n t h e a n t iqua r ian s ource p ic ture : s upp ly ing n ew a r t ifac t s a nd d es t roy ing a nc ien t monumen t s , -b o th i n amo re o rl e s s u ncon t ro l led w ay ( Baudou 1 985 , p .6 3 ) . I tc an b e s hown t h a ti nD enma rk t h e re i s an ega t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween t h ed en s i ty o f mound so fa B ronze Age c ha rac te ra nd t h e d eg ree o fc u l t iva t ion , a nd ap o s i t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween d es t royed mounds a nd c u l t iva t ion ( Baudou 1 985 , p . 7 2 ) . T he re i sa l so a p o s i t ive

3 2

c or re la t ion b e tween t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f g rave f i nd s a nd t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f mound s ( Baudou 1 985 , P . 7 5 f , K r i s t iansen 1 985b ) . A n a na ly s i s f o r as ma l le r a r ea w i th o the r p re requ i s i te so ft h ec u l tu ra ll a nd scape d oe sn o t ,h oweve r ,g i ve ac omp le te ly u nequ ivoca l p i c tu re f o rI r on A ge b a r row sa nd c u l t iva t ion ( Se l inge 1 977 p .1 75 f ) . C on s ide ra t ions o n amo re g ene ra ll e ve li n d ica te t h a tI r on A ge c eme te r ie si nt o ta l ly c u l t iva ted l a nd scape sh ave t o ah igh d eg ree b een d e s t royed , wh ich c on t ra s t sw i th t h ec i r cum s tances i nt h e Mä la ren v a l ley ( Se l inge 1 985 ,p .5 6f ) . R epresen ta t iv i ty i nves t iga t ion s a l so c an b e made o nt h e b a s i so fh oa rd f i nd s , g rave f i nd sa nd s oo n ( s eve ra le xamp le si nK r i s t iansen e ta l . 1 985 ) . O n ly t o al e sse r d eg ree , h oweve r , h a s a t ten t ion b een p a id t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s ou rce ma te r ia l a l so o ugh t t ob e e va lua ted i nr e la t ion t ot h e c i rcum s tance s a tt h e t ime o fi t s o r ig in , i . e . i nc onnec t ion w i th f a c to r s i n co rpo ra ted i nt h ep reh i s to r ic s oc ie ty i t se lf a nd i n f luenc ing i t s a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s . T he se f a c to r s t e nd t ob e o f amo re q ua l i ta t ive c ha rac te r ,f o ri n s tance c onnec ted w i th s oc ia l ,e conom ica l , s exua l ,p o l i t ica l ,r el ig iou sa nd i d ea -o r ien ted c i rcum s tances i nt h e p reh i s to r ic s oc ie ty . I n e va lua t ions o ft h i s k ind , i n a dd i t ion t or ep re sen ta t iv i ty ,q ue s t ion so fr el iab i l i ty a nd r e levance a l so b ecome i mpo r tan t . D if f e ren t s ou rce c a tego r ie s t hu s r ef lec t d e l ibe ra te s e lec t ions o fd i f f e ren t k i nd s i n t h e p reh is tor ic s oc ie ty ( Egge r s 1 959 , p .2 65 f ) . T he refo re as c ien t if ic c on sc iou sne s s o ft h e k ind a nd n a tu re o ft h e s ou rce ma te r ia l a nd e va lua t ions o fi t s o r ig ina l i mpor tance a nd p u rpo se i nt h ep reh i s to r ic s oc ie ty a l so b e come e v iden t . I n a no the r c on tex t ( Se l inge 1 979 , p . 3 0 f ) Ih ave a t temp ted t o i lus t ra te t h e a r chaeo log ica l s ou r ce s i n amode lo f as y s tem theo re t ica l t ype ( Se l inge 1 979 , f i g . 3 ,p . 2 01 ,h e re s l igh t ly a l te red a sf i g . 1 ) . Al i v ing , s oc io -cu l tu ra l s y s tem may b ed ep ic ted a sa d ynam ic mode l ,c on s i s t ing o f an umbe ro fa rb i t ra ry v a r iab les ( C la rke 1 968 ,p .8 4 fa nd f i g . 1 4 ) . I n t h e s ame w ay t h e a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce s o fn ow e x t inc t c u l tu res may b e i lu s t ra ted i n as t a t ic mode lo ft h i st ype ( f ig . 1 ) . T o s e a rch f o rc onnec t ion s ,d emons t ra te r e la t ion sh ip sa nd c i r cum s tance so fc ause a nd e f f ec t ,t oq uan t ify ,a na ly se a nd e va lua te t h e c omponen t si nt h is s ou r ce s y s tem a nd t h e i rr e levance f o rt h ee x t inc ts oc ie ty i sa ne s sen t ia l -n o tt os ay p r inc ipa l -m i ss ion f o ra r chaeo log ica ls ou rce c r it i c i sm .I nt h ef i na le va lua t ion i ti s ama t te r o fr e la t ion sh ips b e tween t h e s t a t ic s ou rce s y s tem s a nd t h e o nce e x i s t ing d ynam ic , c u l tu ra l s y s tem s , w h ich h a s b een d e scr ibed a s ac omp l ica ted mode l o ft h e a r chaeo log ica lp roce s s ( C la rke 1 968 ,p .7 2f e . C on sequen t ly , i ti se v iden t a nd a pp ropr ia te a l so t ol ook u pon t h e s ou rce s y s tem a s a c hanne l o fc ommun ica t ion b e tween e x t inc t s ende r so f as oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l n a tu re a nd c u r ren tr e ce ive r s i nt h e i rc apac i ty o fr e sea rche r s . A s A rne B . J ohansen r epea ted ly h a s empha s ized ( i .a . 1 974 , p .2 0 f , 1 982 p .2 15 f )t h e i n te rpre ta t ion o ft h e me s sage o ft h e s ou rces a lways d epend s u pon t h e s i tua t ion o f t h e r e ce ive r , a cco rd ing t ok now ledge , e duca t ion ,e xpe r ience a nd r e sea r ch e nv i ronmen tb u tp e rhaps a l so a cco rd ing t oi r ra t iona l f a c to r s s uch a sp re jud ice a nd f an ta sy . I th a s n o t , h oweve r , b een u sua li na r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s t ol ook u pon t h em es sage f r om t h e s i tua t ion o ft h e s ende r , w ho i n many w ay s w a sa b le t oi nf luence a nd d e s ign t h ef u tu re s ou rce s i tua t ion . C o r rec t ly ,i th a so f ten b een empha s ized ( i .a . Ma lme r 1 963 p .1 2 ,T o r s tendah l 1 971 ,p .8 1 ) t h a ta r chaeo log ica l s ou r c e si nt h e i rc apac i ty a sr ema in so fp a s te ven t sa nd p roce s se sa r eo b jec t ive a sr ega rd st h e i r p reh is to r ic r e a l i ty ,b u tt h i sd oes n o tm ean t h a tt h i sr e a l i ty w a su nb ia sed a cco rd ing t ot h e c apac i t ie sa nd i n ten t ions o ft h es ende r so ft h ea r chaeo log ica lm e s sage . T oc on s ide rt h e se a spec t s o ft h e n a ture a nd c i rcums tance s o f t h e s ou rces i se xac t ly wha t c ha rac te r ize s h i s to r ica l , s ou rce -c r i t ica lm e thod s ( To r s tendah l 1 971 ,p .9 4f ) . A sB .G . T r igge r( 1978 , p .1 9f )h a s empha s ized ,p o lem ic iz ing a ga in s t ap u re ly a n th ropo log ica l ,n omo the t ic a nd g ene ra l iz ing a ccen tua t ion o fa r chaeo logy ,i tm ay b ep ro f i tab le t oa pp ly ah i s to r ica l , mo r e i d iog raph ic a nd p ar t icu la r iz ing a pp roach e ven i na r chaeo logy , w hose a im i st oe xp la in " t he e v idence o ft h ep a s ta si th as s urv ived i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd " ( T r igge r 1 978 , p .4 9 ) . T h is a pp roach a l so i nvo lve s ah i s to r ica l ly o r ien ted t ype o fs ou rce c r i t ic i sm ( c p . J en sen 1 973 , p . 1 08 f ) . 3 3

A s f r equen t ly men t ioned a l l p r ima ry , a r chaeo log ica l s ources a r e -t o u se ah i s to r ica l v ocabu lary -t o b e c ons ide red a s r ema ins , i . e . r emnan t s o f e ven ts , p roce sses a nd c omp lexe si nt h el i v ing c u l tu re s y s tem s ,i n wh ich t h ey w e r ei n teg ra ted p a r t s( To r s tendah l 1 971 ,p .8 0 ) .N o rmaly t h ey c an b eu sed f o ri n f e rence a nd i n te rp re ta t ion i nt h es ame w ay a s ah i s to r ian u t il ize sh i ss ou r ce sa sr ema in s . B u ti nm any c a se sh i s to r ica ls ou r ce s may b e u sed b o th a sr ema in sa nd a ss t a temen t s , i . e . mo re o rl e s s s ub jec t ive e v idence o fe ven t s a nd p roce s se s , b yt h ea u tho ro ft h ed ocumen to ra nybody e l se ( To r s tendah l 1 971 ,p .8 3 f )I nt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fs u ch s t a temen t s ,d e sc r ip t ion sa nd r e la t ion st h es pec if ic h i s to r ica l s ou rce c r i t ic i sm p rove s t ob e mos tp ronounced ( To r s tendah l 1 971 , p .9 2f ,D ah l 1 975 ) . I n my o p in ion t h e s ou rce -cr i t ica l d i scuss ions h ave d i s rega rded t h e f a c t t h a t i n aw ay s im i la rt oh i s to r ica l s t a temen t sm any a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce s -i ns p i te o fb e ing r ema in sa l so c on ta in i d ea s , m en ta l t emp la te s , e va lua t ion s , t r ad i t ion s , c onven t ion s a nd p e rhaps e ven f e e l ing s a nd p e r sona l s t a temen t s . T he o ne w ho l e f tt h e s ou rce b eh ind h a st h e reby i n tended t od e l ive r am e ssage -mo s t ly p e rhaps t oh i sc on tempo ra r ie s ,b u to f ten s u re ly t o p os te r i ty o r t o s upe r io r p ower s . I n h i s to r ica l t e rm ino logy t hese s ource s a r e , c on sequen t ly ,t e nden t iou s ,a nd t h ey c on s t i tu te o rc on ta in b o th r ema in so fp a s te ven t sa nd s t a temen t sa bou tp a s tr e a l i t ie s . I ti ss uf f ic ien tt or emembe ro u rr ock -eng rav ing si no rde r t or ea l ize t h a ti ti st h ec apac i ty a sm es sage o rs t a temen tt h a tu sua l ly i s mo s td i f f icu l tt o i n te rp re ta nd n o tt h eq ua l i ty o fp hy s ica lr ema in s . I nt h e mode l( f ig . 1 )a nc ien t monumen t sh ave b een d i v ided i nt wo ma in g roup sa cco rd ing t ot h ep r inc ip le sd i scu s sed a bove : i d ea lr ema in sa nd f unc t iona lr ema ins ,t h ef i r s to fw h ich m ay b ed iv ided i n to m emo r ia la nd r i tua lr ema ins ( Se l inge 1 979 ,p .2 01 ) 3.T he t h i rd ma in s ou rce c a tego ry i so b jec t s ,i . e . movab le a r t if ac t s a nd w a s te . O fc ou r se ,e ven s ome t ype s o f a r t ifac t s may h ave h ad a n i d ea l o r s ymbo l ic f unc t ion i n t h e p reh is tor ic s oc ie ty (We l inde r 1 986 , p . 1 2 ) . T he a r row s i nt h e mode l a l low c on junc t ions i na l l d i rec t ion s , a nd t he c oncep t " depo s i t " i su t i l ized i n av e ry w ide s en se . T he t o ta l s ou rce s y s tem o b jec t s w i thou tk nown f i nd ing -p lace o rp roven ience e xcep ted -i sa l so a ncho r ed i nt h e h uman -eco log ica lc on tex t ,w i th i t sg eophy s ica la nd b i o log ica l ma in c on s t i tuen t s . T he f unc t iona lr ema in sw e re a lways c r ea ted -i n ten t iona l ly o ru n in ten t iona l ly -b ecau se t h ey s upp l ied c e r ta in g ene ra l a nd e l emen ta ry h uman n eeds o rc on s t i tu ted t h er e su l t s o f s u ch af u lf i l l ing o fr equ i r emen t s .T he c u l tu ra lc a tego r ie su nde r ly ing t h em d on o tp re sen t f undamen taly d i f f icu l ti n te rp re ta t ion s ,w hen t h er ema in so nce a r ee s tab l i shed a st ok ind a nd t ype . T hey a lway s r ep re sen t ap rac t ica l p rob lem s o lu t ion a nd a r e r e su l t s o f a n a dap tab le a c t ion i n as oc io -econom ica l ly a nd h uman -eco logy c ond i t ioned e nv i ronmen t . T hey c on s t i tu ted ac omponen ti nt h ea c t iv i ty a nd w e re ap a r to ft h er e a la c t ion (We l inde r 1 986 , p . 1 2 ) . T h i s s ou rce c a tego ry , c onsequen t ly , c on s i s t s o fd we l l ing a nd s e t t lemen t s i tes a nd a c t iv i ty a nd w o rk ing s i te s i n av ery w ide s ense . E xpressed i n h i s to r ica l v ocabu la ry t h ey g ene ra l ly c on s t i tu te p u re r ema in sw i thou ta ny p ronounced t e ndency ( c p . e . g . Wa t son e ta l . 1 971 , p .2 5 , J ankuhn 1 977 , p . 1 3 f ) . D ue t ot h e i ra bove -men t ioned , i r ra t iona l b ackg round i d ea lr ema ins a r e a lways i ns ome w ay t e nden t iou s . T he d e te rm ina t ion o ft h e i rk ind a nd t y pe i sa s ar u le n o tc on t rove r s ia l , b ecau se t h ey h ave b een e r ec ted o rd e s igned i no rde rt oc on s t i tu te p e rmanen t monumen t s o rs y mbo l s , b o th f o rt h ec on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty a nd f o rt h ef u tu re . B u t , u n l ike f unc t iona l r ema in s ,t h ey l a ck a ni mmed ia te ly a va i lab le e xp lana t ion o ft h e i rr o le a nd f unc t ion i nt h e c on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty . I n s t r ic t ly e conom ic t e rm s t h ey d id n o t p o ssess a ny p rac t ica l f unc t ion sb u tr ep re sen ted as upe rf luou sp roduc t ion i nt h e s oc ie ty . F rom as ou rce -c r i t ica l p o in to fv i ew i ti se s sen t ia lt or emembe rt h a tt h ei d ea lr ema in sa r er e su l t so fn o rma t ive ly g ove rned a c t ion sa nd m ea su re sb yp reh i s to r ic man . B u ti fa nd w hen h ew a sn o tg ove rned b y s uch n orm s -o r p e rhaps a c ted f o r t h e s ame p u rpo ses i n aw ay t ha t d id n o t l e ave p e rmanen tt r ace s -w ep o s se s sn op re requ i s i te st ot r ace h i sa c t ion so ft h i sk ind . T hus i ti s t h en o rma t ive mo t ive sb eh ind t h e se s ou rce st h a tc ause st h e i rt e ndenc ie s ( c p . e . g .B in fo rd 3 4

1 972 , P . 2 13 f , E gge r s 1 959 , p .2 65 f ) . T he se mo t ive s s u re ly i n ten t iona l ly g ove rned b o th t h e i rd e s ign a nd s hape , t h e i ro ccu r rence a nd t h e i rf r equency . C onsequen t ly , t h e se s ou r ce s d o n o tn eed t ob ed i rec t ly r e la ted t o -o ri na ny c a se d on o t a lways p os se ss t h e s ame r e la t ion sh ips t o -t h e f unc t iona lr ema in s o ft h e s ame p opu la t ion g roup . T he mo s t c ommon a nd i n te rp re ta t ive ly mo s ti mpo r tan tr e la t ion sh ip o ft h is c ha rac te ri st h eo rd ina ry c onnec t ion b e tween g r ave sa nd s e t t lemen t . T he g rea t s ou rce g roup o f i d ea l r ema ins may b e d iv ided i n to t wo ma in p a r t s . T he m emor ia l o ne , a cco rd ing t o t h e mode l , c on s is ts a bove a l l o f t h e n ume rou s g rave s t ruc tu re sa nd g rave s i te sa sw e l la so fe . g . r un ic s t one s a nd o the rr un ic i n sc r ip t ion s . T o t h er i tua lg roup b e long a bove a l lr o ck e ng rav ing sa nd r ock p a in t ing sa nd o the rr ema in so f t h ec u l ts phe re o fs oc ie ty .F rom as e t t lemen t -a r chaeo log ica lp o in to fv i ew t h ea bou th a lf a m i l l ion r eg i s te red g rave s t ruc tu re si n Sweden a r e -a si sw e l lk nown -t h e mo s ti mpo r tan t s ou r ce g roup f o rt h et ime p e r iod s a nd a r ea sw hen monumen ta l g rave s w e re a ni n teg ra l p a r to ft h ec u l tu re p a t te rn . T h i sf a c t may j u s t i fy s ome c onc lud ing r ema rk so nt h es ou r ce c apac i ty o ft h eg r ave s t ruc tu re s . T he f a c t t h a t g raves i nt h e se s upe r f ic ia l c on tex t s a r e u sed a s i nd ica to r s o f s e t t lemen t c ons t i tu tes , c onsequen t ly , as ou rce -c r i t ica l c omp l ica t ion , b ecause i dea l s ou rces a r e u t i l ized f o rd raw ing c onc lus ion sa bou tf unc t iona lc u l tu ra lc a tego r ie s . Emp i r ica l ly , s uch a m e thod ica lu t i l iza t ion o ft h eg rave n umbe rh a sp roved t ob eb o th i n ev i tab le ,r ea sonab le a nd a pp rop r ia te ( i np r inc ip le : H yen s t rand 1 982 ,p .1 7 f ,c p . i . a . S e l inge 1 977 ,p .1 60 f a nd 1 985 , p .4 6 f ; mo reove r J ankuhn 1 977 , p .8 7 a nd 7 6 f ) . O ne a lway s , h oweve r , h a st or emembe rt h ep o s s ib l i l ty o fs ou r ce -cr i t ica lc ompl i ca t ion so rd i sag reemen t s . B o th r e p re sen ta t iv i ty a nd r e l iab i l i ty may f o ri n s tance b ei nf luenced b yp o s s ib le s e lec t ion sa nd i r regu la r i t ies i nt h eb u r ia lt r ad i t ion sa nd g rave b u i ld ing c u s tom s ,b a sed o nd i f f e rence si n s oc ia l e va lua t ions , r e l ig ious i d ea s , e conom ic c apac i ty o r s imp ly d ive rgen t b ur ia l t r ad i t ion si ng ene ra l ly s im i la rc u l tu re c omp lexe s ( Se l inge 1 979 ,p .8 7 fw i th o p .c i t . ) .I n a l l c a ses t h e re a r e , mo reove r , p o ss ib i l i t ie s f o r s pa t ia l a nd c h rono log ica l d i f f e rence s . I ndeed , i n many c a se se s tab l i shed d ive rgence si ng rave f r equency a nd g rave c ho ro logy h ave ar ea l b ackg round i n t h e f unc t iona l , d emog raph ic a nd s e t t lemen ta l c ond i t ion s ( Se l inge 1 986 ,p .8 4a nd 1 02 w i th o p . c i t . ) .T he " na t iona lr eg i s t ra t ion " o ft h ep reh i s to r ic p opu la t ion t h a to ne -l i ke Ake H yen s t rand ( 1978 ,p .7 1 ) -may c l a im t h el a rge r eg i s te red g r ave n umbe rt oc on s i s to fi s ,t h en ,i nr e a l i ty r a the r ar eg i s t ra t ion o fi d ea st h an o fp eop le . T he p rob lem o ft h er epr e sen ta t iv i ty o ft h er eg i s t red g rave s t ruc ture s may b ed iv ided i n to a tl e a s tt h ree s epa ra te c omponen t s : 1 )t h er e p re sen ta t iv i ty o ft h er eg i s te red n umbe rf o rt h e c u r ren t ly p re se rved n umbe ro fg r ave s ;2 )t h er e p re sen ta t iv i ty o ft h ep re served n umbe rf o r t h eo r ig ina ln umbe ro fg r ave s ; 3 )t h er ep re sen ta t iv i ty o ft h eo r ig ina ln umbe ro fg rave sf o r t h ep reh i s to r ic p opu la t ion .4 T he f i r s tf a c to ri s ama t te ro fr eg i s t ra t ion me thod ,t e chn ique a nd r e sou rce s . I t mus t o fc ou r se b e e va lua ted i n as ou rce -cr i t ica l w ay b u t w i l l n o t b e d i scu s sed f u r the ri nt h is c on tex t . T he s e cond f a c to ri sd ependen tu pon t h ep re requ i s i te s o ft h ec u l tu ra ll a nd scape a sa na n t iqua r ian m i l ieu a nd o ft h ek ind a nd i n ten s i ty o fl a nd u se d u r ing p reh is to r ic a nd h i s to r ic t imes ( c p . t h ed i scu s s ion a bove w i th o p . c i t . a nd S e l inge 1 986b , p . 6f ) . T he t h i rd f a c to r i n c ludes t h e s ource -cr i t ica l i mp l ica t ions o f t h e a bove -men t ioned i d ea lc ha rac te ro ft h eg r ave s t ruc tu re s .I tw il n o tb ec ommen ted u pon i n t h i sc on tex t ,e i the r .5 A s i se v iden t f r om t h e a bove t h e s econd f a c to r h a s -e spec ia l ly i n mode rn D an i sh a r chaeo logy -b een a s s igned ar a the rg r ea ti mpo r tance ,b u ti n my o p in ion t h e re h a sb een a g ene ra l u nde re s t ima t ion o ft h ep robab ly v e ry c on s ide rab le d i f f e rence s wh ich may e x i s t b e tween d i f f e ren tp a r t s o f Sweden i nt h i sr e spec t . Two n owaday sr epea ted ly p ub l i shed f r equency map s o ft h e s ou the rn h a lf o f Sweden ( mo s tr e cen t ly i nS e l inge 1 985 , f i g . 3 a nd 4 , b efo re i . a . Hyens t rand 1 984 , map 6 a nd 7 ) d emons t ra te t he f r equency o f

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r eg is te red g rave sa nd t h ef r equency o fr eg i s te red g rave s i te s ,r e spec t ive ly . O nb o th t h ese maps -b u t e spec ia l ly o n t h e s i te map ( f ig . 2i nt h i s p ape r ) -t h e d om inance o ft h e g ene ra l ly k nown , d en se p reh i s to r ic p rov inces i sq u i te c l ea re xcep t s ome d i s t inc tc a ses . T he se a r et h et o ta l ly c u l t iva ted a r ea si nt h ep rov ince so fS can ia ,H a l land ,V ä s te rgö t land , Ö s te rgö t land a nd N ä rke . Ac o r re spond ing map o f a l l t h e k nown b u r ia l f i nd s wou ld s u re ly p roduce q u i te a no the rd en s i ty w i th in t h e se a r ea s -y e ts t i l lw i thou tc o r r e spondence t ot h ep reh i s to r ic r ea l i ty . T he se a r ea s i n Sweden , f r om as ou r ce -cr i t ica lp o in to fv i ew , c o r respond t oD an i sh -o r e ven c on t inen ta l -c ond i t ions o ft h e a bove men t ioned t ype ( Se l inge 1 986b , p . 1 5 f ) . T he t wo maps a l so d i sc lo se s ome b a s ic d i f f e rence s b e tween t h ep rov inces o fG ö ta land a nd S vea land -i . e . s ou th a nd m idd le Sweden ,r e spec t ive ly -f r om as ou rce -c r i t ica lp o in t o fv i ew ( Se l inge 1 985 , p .4 7 f ) . V ery b r ief ly s u mma r ized , t h e Gö ta p rov ince s h ave a much g rea te r s ha re o fs i ngu la r ly s i tua ted g rave s , w h ich a l so mean s ar e la t ive ly g rea te r s ha re o fo lde r g raves ( Bronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge ) . T he s ame p rov inces -e xcep t e a s te rn Ö s te rgö t land ( c p . S e l inge 1 986 ) -a l so h ave n o t o n ly much f ewe r b u t , o n a n a ve rage ,a l so much s ma l le rc eme te r ie st h an t h eS vea p rov ince s ,a nd t h a ti sw hy t h ey h ave ac on s ide rab ly p oo re ra ppea rance w i th mo re s pa r se s e t t lemen t -a bove a l ld u r ing t h el a te r I r on Age ( c p . t h e f r equency o fc eme te r ie s : H yen s t rand 1 984 , p . 8 6 , m ap 2 9 ) . T he se b a s ic f a c t so ugh tt ob ew e ighed i . a . a ga in s tt h ec apac i t ie so ft h ec u l tu ra ll a nd scape a sa n a n t iqua r ian m i l ieu -i . e . i t sp re requ i s i te sf o rp re se rv ing i t so lde rc omponen t s( c p . S e l inge 1 986b ) . S umma r i ly o ne may s ay t h a t n owhe re a r e t h e se mo re f avou rab le t h an i n ar i f t v a l ley t e r ra in w i th t i l li nt h ee l eva ted p a r t sa nd c l ay i nt h ed ep re s s ion s ,t y p ica lo ft h eS vea p rov ince s o fU pp land a nd S öde rman land . W i th in t h e Gö ta p rov ince st h ec ond i t ions a r e mo re v a r ied ,b u tw i th in t h ea lmo s tt o ta l ly c u l t iva ted p l a in st h ea nc ien t monumen t sh ave b ecause o fp opu la t ion p re ssu re a nd u n l im i ted c u l t iva t ion p o ss ib i l i t ie s -r un amuch h eav ie rr i sk s i nce o ldes t t ime s . T h i s a pp l ie s a bove a l l t ot h e i n cons ide rab le I r on A ge c eme te r ie s . T he c omp l ica t ion s i nt h ese v e ry b r ief ly s ke tched s ou rce -c r i t ica l c i rcum s tances h ave p rev ious ly b een i lus t ra ted b y ac ompa r i son b e tween t wo d i s t r ic t s i n U pp land a nd V ä s te rgö t land , S em inghund ra a nd L a ske ,r e spec t ive ly ( Se l inge 1 985 ,p .5 6f ) . S e lec ted d a ta a r e r epea ted h e re i n ac onden sed t a b le ( f ig . 3 ,f o r l o ca t ion c p . f i g . 2 ) . T he t wo d i s t r ic t s a r e o fa n a lmos t i d en t ica l s i ze a nd c on ta in t h e s ame n umbe ro fp a r ishe s . T he t a b le d emon s t ra te sv e ry c l ea r ly t h ev a s tp redom inance o fg rave s t ruc tu re si nt h eU pp land h und red , e spec ia l ly w i th r e f e rence t ot h ec eme te r ies . I nL a ske , f o ri n s tance ,o n ly s even p e rc en t o ft h e g rave s i te s c on s t i tu te c e me ter ies , i nS em inghund ra n o l e ss t h an 4 7 p e r c en t . T he c eme te r ie sa r ea l so ,o na n a ve rage ,c on s ide rab ly l a rge ri nS em inghund ra a nd a g ood d ea l mo re n ume rou sp e ra r ea u n i t .T he p r ima ry s e t t lemen tu n i t s -i . e .h am le t sw h ich b yp re sence o fg rave s t ruc tu re s ,t y pe o fp l ace n ame s ,f i sca la nd a r ea ls i ze ,s i tua t ion i nt h e c u l tura l l a nd scape e t c a r e j udged t o h ave b een f ounded i n t h e p r ima ry , a g rar ian c o lon iza t ion -a r ea lmo s tf i ve t ime sa sn ume rou si nS em inghund ra a si nL a ske . I nL a ske , o nt h ec on t ra ry ,t h em ed ieva lc o lon iza t ion w a sc on s ide rab ly mo re w ide sp read .I ns p i te o f t h ef a c tt h a tt h e I r on A ge h am le t s w ou ld h ave b een ag ood d ea l l a rge ri nL a ske , w he re t h ey n owadays g enera l ly c or respond t o v ery l a rge v i l lages , t he c eme te r ies a r e c on s ide rab ly s ma l le ra nd f ewe r . B e s ide s , t h ey a r e t o ta l ly m i s s ing w i th in s ome h am le t s . T he p a r ish d iv is ion i n S em inghund ra i sr e la t ive ly w e l l a dap ted t o t h e t e n ta t ive ly s ugges ted t we lf th d iv i s ion o fU pp land w i th a bou t t we lve I r on A ge h am le t sp e rp a r i sh ( Hyen s trand 1 974 , p .4 4 fa nd 5 5 ) , w h i le i nL a ske a l l p a r ishe s b u t o ne -w i th n ine c on ta in o n ly o ne t of ou rI r on a ge u n i t s ( c p . S e l inge 1 985 ,p .6 0O .

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S umma r i ly , s ome p robab le c au se so fe xp lana t ion h ave b een s ugge s ted ( Se l inge 1 985 ,p . 7 0f ) w h ich may c on t r ibu te t ot h eg r ea td i ve rgence si nt h es ou rce c ond i t ion so ft h eg r ave s t ruc tu re so ft h e se t wo c en t ra lc u l tu re d i s t r ic t s : 1 )s e ve ra lc eme te r ie s a r e mo s tp robab ly t o ta l ly d e s t royed b yc u l t iva t ion i nL a ske , w h i le p rac t ica l ly a l lo ugh tt ob ep r e se rved i n S em inghund ra ; 2 )t h ea r ea l ly a nd f i sca l ly l a rge v i l lage si nL a ske a r ei nc l ea rc on t ra s tt o t h es mal a nd f ew c em e te r ie s ,b u ti ns p i te o ft h a tt h ey m ay h ave c on s t i tu ted h am le t si na n o rgan iza t iona ls e n se a l ready d u r ing t h eI r on A ge ; 3 )d i f f e rence si nt h es o c ia lb a ckg round o ft h ec eme te r ie s -i . e . i nt h es oc ie ta lo rgan iza t ion -a r ep o s s ib le b u tn o te s tab l i shed ;4 )a n a l ter na t ive mode lf o rl a nd u se -i n c lud ing mob i l i ty a tl o ng i n te rva l si nt h ef l a t ,c l ayey l a nd -i sq u i te p o s s ib le d u r ing t h e I r on A ge i nL a ske ; 5 ) t h e g raves o f S em inghund ra a r e p robab ly r ep re sen ta t ive f o r t h e I r on A ge p opu la t ion , w h i le t h i s c anno t b e t h e c a se i n L a ske ,n o te ven w i th c on s ide ra t ion o fp o s s ib le s ou r ce so fe r ro r ; 6 )t h es e t t lemen tp i c tu re a nd t h e o rgan iza t ion p a t te rn a tt h e e n t rance o f C hr i s t ian i ty h ave v e ry l i ke ly b een c on s ide rab ly d i f f e r en ti nt h et wo d i s t r ic t s . T h i sq u ick ly s k e tched e xamp le s how st h a tt h es e t t lemen t -h i s to r ica ls ou r ce p o ten t ia lo ft h e p r eh i s to r ic g r ave s o ugh tt ob e d ec i s ive ly g r ea te ri nU pp land t h an i nV ä s te rgö t land -i n a ny c a se a s r ega rd s t h e I r on A ge . T he e xamp le a l so d emon s t ra tes t h e n eed f o r c on s ide rab ly mo re t h o rough s ou r ce -c r i t ica la na ly se st h an h ave b een p rac t i sed s of a r -i n a ny c a se b e fo re d raw ing f a r reach ing i n f e r ence sr ega rd ing t h e s e t t lemen td eve lopmen t w i th in d i f f e ren tp rov ince s . S uch c ompa r i son s mu s t ,i na dd i t ion t os upe r f ic ia la na ly se so f t h i sk i nd ,a l so c omp r i se d e ta i led a na ly se so ft o taly e xcava ted c eme te r ie sw i th in d i f f e ren t a r ea s i no rde r t oe xam ine t h e t h i rd r ep re sen ta t iv i ty f a c to r , a sd e scr ibed a bove . I n t h i s e xamp le Ih ave o n ly w i shed t ot ouch u pon t h e b road s ou rce -cr i t ica l a na ly se s o f t h e p reh i s to r ic g rave n umbe r w h ich a wa i t s e t t lemen t - a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . T he e l emen ta ry f a c to r st h a te ven H i ldeb rand m en t ioned -t h e s i tua t ion , t h en umbe r s a nd t h e mo rpho logy o f t h e g rave s -a r e s t i l l j u s t a s a ppropr ia te , b u t t h ey o ugh t t o b e c omp lemen t ed b yo t he rs ou r ce -c r i t i ca lc on s ide ra t ion s . I n t h e s ame w ay a s t h e g rave s t ruc tu re s h e re e xemp l ify o ne c ou ld p o in t o u t o the r n ece s sa ry s ou rce -cr i t ica l p u rpo se s i n o t he r b ranche s o f a r chaeo logy , f o r i n s tance i n mu seum ma te r ia l , i no t he rt y pe s o fp reh i s to r ic r ema in s a nd a s r ega rd s t h ep reh i s to r ic c u l tu ra ll a nd scape a nd l a nd u se .A ni n c r ea sed a nd d eepened s ou r ce -c r i t ica lc on sc iou sne s s i si n my o p ion ion e s sen t ia lw i th in t h ew ho le o fa r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch . O ne m ay d i sce rn a tl e a s tt h r ee e s sen t ia lf i e ld sw he r es uch ac onsc iou sne s si nt h el o ng r un w ou ld p rove t o h ave c r uc ia le f f ec t s . I tw ou ld i nt h ef i r s tp l a ce c r ea te p re requ i s i te sf o rs ounde rr e sea r ch r e su l t s mo r ei nc ong ruen ce w i th t h es ou r ce m a te r ia l . Mo reove r ,i tw ou ld a c ta s as t imu lu s t oa nd b r ing a bou t ah i ghe r q ua l i ty i nr e sea rch t r a in ing . E ven tua l ly , i tw ou ld c r ea te o ppo r tun i t ie sf o rg r ea te rr e spec tf o ro u rd i s icp l ine w i th in t h ew ho le r e sea r ch c ommun i ty .

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ENVIRON MENT F ig . 1 .A m ode l o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce s , i lu s t ra ted a sb oxe s i na n o pen s y s tem . T he t h ree b ig b oxe si n ab o ld c on tou rl i ne i lu s t ra te t h et h ree f undamen ta lg r oup so fp u re a r chaeo log ica ls ou rce s : i d ea l a nd f unc t iona l r ema in s a nd movab le o b jec t s . T he se a r ec onne c ted i n am a in ,o u te rc yc le b y t h ree o t he r t y pe s o f s ou r ce s , w h ich m ay b e d ef ined a s c omb ina t ion s o ft h e f undamen ta l s ou r ce s i nt h e i n d ica ted p o s i t ion s . Ac l o sed f i nd ( e .g . as i ng le b u r ia l ) i s ,c on sequen t ly , m o s t ly ac omb ina t ion o fo b jec t s a nd a n i d ea l r ema in ; a n a ccumu la ted f i nd ( e .g . a r t ifa c t s , w a s te a nd s t r uc tu re s o n ad we l l ing s i te ) c ons t i tu te a c omb ina t ion o f o b jec t s a nd f unc t iona l r ema in s ; ac omb ina t ive s i te ( e .g . as i te w i th r emnan t s o fb o th s e t t lemen t a nd a c eme te ry ) c on ta in s ou rce s o f a l l t h e m a in g roups . A l l a r row s i nd ica te r e ve r s ib le c onnec t ion s , a nd t h e t wo j unc t ions a nd t h e a r row s i n af i ne c on tou r l i ne m ake c onne c t ion s i ne ve ry d i rec t ion p o s s ib le . T he c en t ra l b ox " d epo s i t s " i lu s t ra te — i n av e ry w ide s e n se o ft h e t e rm —k i nd s o f s ou r ce s , a s ar u le mo re u nu sua l , t h a tn o t f i ti n to t h e m a in c yc le . Ad epo s i tm ay e . g . b ea n a c cumu la ted f i nd i na n i d ea lr ema in ( e .g . b u r ia l si n am ega l i th ic g r ave s t ruc tu r e ) , ac l o sed f i nd i n af u nc t iona lr ema in ( e .g . ac o in d epo t i n ah ou se f ounda t ion ) , o r s i ng le o r a ccumu la ted o b je c t s i n as a c red s i t e ( e .g . b og d epo s i t s ) .A l lr ema in s a r en o rma l ly e ncompa s sed i na ne nv i ronmen ta lc on tex t —i lu s t ra t ed i nt h ee x te rna l f r ame o ft h em ode l —w h ich i sa ni n teg ra t ed p a r to ft h es ou r ce s y s tem ,t o o . I tm ay p r inc ipa l ly b ed ev ided i ng eo fa c t s a nd b io f ac t so ru no rgan ic r e spec t ive ly o rgan ic e nv i ronmen t . S i ng le o b je c t sw i thou t ak nown e nv i ronmen ta lc on tex t —a si lu s t ra t ed o u t s ide t h ef r ame i nt h et o po ft h e mode l —m ay n eve r the le s sh ave a d e l im i ted s ou rce v a lue ,e . g . f r om at y po log ica lp o in to fv i ew .

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F ig . 2 .F requency m ap o fs i te s w i th r e g i s te red p r eh i s to r ic g r ave s i nt h e s ou th p a r to fS weden ( i s land o f G o t land e xcep ted ) w i th r e f e rence t ot h eE conom ic Map n e t . E ve ry s ymbo l d eno te s2 5 s qua re k i lome t re s w i th n umbe r o f s i te s a cco rd ing t ot h e g i ven s c a le . T he s haded a r ea s s upe r f ic ia l ly r e p re sen t t o ta l ly c u l t iva ted p l a in s . I ti se v iden t t h a t t h e se a r ea s d o n o t l a ck p reh i s to r i c g r ave sb u t t h a tt h e d i s t r ibu t ion i s m uch mo re s pa r se h e re t h an i no t he ra r ea sw h ich w e re d en se ly p opu la t ed d u r ing p r eh i s to r ic t i me s —a bove a lE a s t e rn M idd le S weden .T he l a rge a r ea so ft h ei n t e r io rw h i ch n owaday sa r ed evo id o fp r eh i s to r ic g r ave s c on s i s t ,o n t h ec on t ra ry ,o ff o re s ted l a nd w h ich w a sn o tc o lon ized b e f o re t h eM idd le A ge s ( c p .m ap 5 ,p . 3 i nH yen s t rand 1 984 ) . T he e v idence o ft h ep re se rved g rave s a ss ou r ce s o fp r eh i s to r ic s e t t lemen ta r e , c on sequen t ly , m uch w eake ri nt h e t o ta l ly c u l t iva ted a r ea s t h an i nc ompa rab le d i s t r ic t s . T he t wo r homb s d eno te t h es i tua t ion o ft h ed i s t r ic t so fL a ske i nV ä s t e rgö t land ( SW )a nd S em inghund ra i nU pp land ( NE ) .

3 9

D is tr ic t

L a ske

A rea , s qua re km

2 22

N umbe ro fp a r i she s

7

S em inghundra 2 36 7

N umbe ro fg r ave s , t o ta l ly

5 92

1 0 ,045

N umbe ro fg r ave s i te s

2 53

6 02

N umbe rg rave s / s i te

2 . 3

1 6 .7

N umbe rg rave s / squa re km

2 . 7

4 2 .6

N umbe ro fc eme te r ie s N umbe rg rave si nc eme te r ie s

2 1

2 79

2 90

8 , 786

N umbe rg r ave s / ceme te ry

1 3 .8

3 1 .5

P r ima ry u n i t s ,I r on A ge

2 0

9 5

P r ima ry u n i t s ,m ed ieva l

5 5

1 5

N umbe rg r ave s /p r ima ry u n i t

1 4 .5

9 2 .5

F ig 3 .C ompa r i son b e tween s ome d a ta f r om t wo d i s t r ic t si nt h ep rov ince s o fV ä s te rgö t land ( La ske ) a nd U pp land ( S em inghund ra ) ,r e spec t ive ly . T he g r ave n umbe r sa r et a ken f r om t h er ev i sed a nc ien t monumen t r e g i s te r ,o t he rd a ta f r om t h eE conom ic Map o f Sweden a nd o rd ina ry r e f e rence w o rk s .F rom S e l inge 1 985 , p .5 7 .

No tes 1 ) As ho r t o u t l ine o ft h e se i n f luence s u p t ot h e l a te s even t ie s i sg i ven i nS e l inge 1 979b a nd amo re c omp rehen s ive o ne o n t h el a te r -a bove a l l B r i t i sh -d i scu s s ion i nJ en sen ( 1 987 ) ; c p . a l so H yen s t rand e t a l . 1 981 . 2 ) We l inde r( 1 986 ,p .1 )p ropo se s as omewha td i f f e r en tg roup ing : " a r t i f a c t s " ( i nc lud ing b o th s t ruc tu re s a nd o b je c t sa c co rd ing t ot h ea bove ) , " e co f ac t s " ( o n ly i n c lud ing r ema in so fa n ima l s a nd p l an t s , i . e . w ha t m ay b ec a l led " b io f a c t s " )a nd " geof a c t s " ( o n ly i n c lud ing u n in t en t iona lc hange si nt h ee nv i ronmen t ) . If i nd t h e f i r s t g roup u np ra c t ica l ly l a rge a nd t h e b ounda ry b e twe en t h e t wo o t he r s a r t if ic ia l ( " e co f ac t s " m ay t e n ta t ive ly a nd b e t te rb ec on s ide red a st h es um o f" b io f ac t s "a nd " g e ,o f ac t s " ,t h el a t te ri n aw ide ra nd m o r e n a tu r a ls e n se ) . 3 ) T he d i v i s ion i ni d ea l a nd f unc t iona l r ema in s h a s l a te r b een a dop ted b y We l inde r ( 1 986 . p . 1 2 ) , a s w e l l . 4 ) T h i s d e f in i t ion o ft h e g rave r e p re sen ta t iv i ty p rob lem i s , i nf a c t , t h e r e ve r se o ft h e s t ruc tu re o ft h e " a r chaeo log i ca lf o rma t ion p roce s s " a sd e sc r ibed b yC la rke ( 1 979 ,p .9 9 )a nd i l u s t ra ted b y Mobe rg ( 1 969 , p .6 5 )a nd We l inde r( 1 986 ,p .1 3 ) . 5 ) T ha t t h e se i d ea l i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e g rave s a s s e t t lemen t -h is to r ica l s ou r ce s m ay b e o f av e ry i mpo r tan t c ha rac t e re ven f o r t h eq uan t i ta t ive c a lcu la t ion s o fp r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s a nd s e t t lemen t h a s b e come g r adua l ly m o re e v iden t( mo s tr e cen t ly i nS e l inge 1 986 ,p .1 0 1 fw i th o p . c i t . ) .

4 0

R eferences A dam son , R . , 1 975 . T eor i o ch m e tod f ör e konom i sk o ch s oc ia l h i s tor ia . L ibe r L ä ro mede l ,L und . A lmg ren , B . , e ta l . 1 972 . S ource C r i t ic i sm . TOR , T id sk r if t f ö r n o rd i sk f o rnkunskap , V o l . X IV . Uppsa la . A lmg ren , B . , 1 977 . D en n o rd iska a rkeo log ien o ch k ä l lk r i t iken . V e tenskapsmannen i s amhä l le t . S ympo s ie rv id K ung l . V e ten skap ssamhä l le t iU ppsa la 1 976 -77 ,p p8 1 -85 . K ung l . V e t enskaps samhä l le t s iU ppsa la H aed l ingar 1 9 . B audou , E . , 1 968 . F orn t ida b ebygge l se iA ngerman land s k us t land . A rkeo log iska u nde r sökn inga r a v ä nge rman länd ska k us t rösen . A rk iv f ör n orr länd sk h embygd s f or skn ing XV I I . H ä rnö sand . - 1 985 . A rchaeo log ica l S ou rce C r i t ic ism a nd t h e H i s to ry o f Mode rn C u l t iva t ion i n D enm a rk .A rchaeo log ica lF orma t ion P roce s se s .T he r ep re sen ta t iv i ty o fa r chaeo log ica l r ema in sf r om D an i sh P reh i s to ry ( ed . K . K r i s t ian sen ) ,p p 6 3 -80 . K obenhavn . B info rd , L .R . , 1 972 . A n A rchaeo log ica l P er spec t ive . S em ina r P ress , N ew Yo rk . ( Mo s t ly p ub l i shed b e fo re i nt h ey ea r s 1 962 -1971 ) . - 1 983 . Work ing a tA rchaeo logy . A cadem ic P re ss , N ew Yo rk e t c . ( Mo s t ly p ub l i shed b efo re i nt h ey ea r s 1 966 -1982 ) . C la rke , D .L . , 1 968 .A na ly t ica lA rchaeo logy . Me thuen ,L ondon . - 1 979 .A na ly t ica lA rchaeo log i s t . C o l lec ted P ape r s ,e d i ted b yh i sC o l league s .A cadem ic P re ss , L ondon e t c . C hr is tophe r sen , A . , 1 982 . A rkeo log i , i deo log i o g o b jek t iv i te t -e t s t r id sspor smä l . F ornvännen 7 7 ,p p 1 41 -147 . S tockho lm . D ah l , 0 . , 1 975 . H i s to r i ska t e o r ie r . T eor i o ch m e tod f ör e konom i sk o ch s oc ia l h i s tor ia ( ed . R . Adam son ) , p p 2 44 -249 . L und . E gge r s , H .J . , 1 959 . E inf ührung i nd i e V orgesch ich t e . R . P ipe r&C o . München . E nqv i s t , A . , 1 943 . Ä ld re s ys tema t i ska i n ven ter ingar a v Mede lpad sf ornm innen . D e t g am la Mede lpad 1 .S und sva l l . G rä s lund , B . , 1 974 .R e la t iv d a ter ing . Om k rono log i sk m e tod in o rd i sk a rkeo log i . TOR , T id sk r if tf ö rn o rd i sk f o rnkun skap . V o l . XV I . U ppsa la . H i ldeb rand , H . , 1 872 . S venska f o lke t u nder h edna t i den . And ra oma rbe tade o ch i lus t r e rade u pp lagan . S tockho lm . Hyens t rand , A . , 1 974 . C en tra lbygd - R andbygd . S t ruk ture l la , e konom iska o ch a dm in i s t ra t iva h uvud l in je r im e l lan sven sk y ng re j ä rnä lde r . S tud ie si nN o r th -Eu ropean A r chaeo logy 5 .S to ckho lm . - 1 978 . F o rnm inne s inven te r ing ,k u l tu rm inne svä rd o ch a rkeo log i sk s amhä l l sfo r skn ing . F ornvännen 7 3 ,p p 6 9 -74 . S tockho lm . H yens t rand , A . e t a l . 1 981 . Dokumen ta t ion - F or skn ing . E n f ä l ta rkeo log isk p rog ramd i sku s s ion . R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t , S tockho lm . H yen s t rand , A . , 1 982 . F orn t ida s amhä l l sf ormer o ch a rkeo log i ska f or skn ingsprogram . A rbe t shand l ing . R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t ,S tockho lm . - 1 984 .F a s ta f orn lämn ingar o ch a rkeo log i ska r eg ioner . R appo r tR ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t 1 984 :7 . S tockho lm . J ankuhn ,H . , 1 977 . E inf ührung i nd i eS i ed lungsarchäo log ie .W .de G ruy te r ,B e r l in . J ensen , J . , 1 973 . A rkaeo log i o g h i s to r ie . A arboger f or n ord i sk O ldkynd ighed o g H i s tor ie ,p p 1 07 -130 . K obenhavn . J ensen , R . , 1 987 . P o s tp roce ssue l l a rkeo log i -n äg ra a spek te r p ä a k tue l l a ng lo -sax isk f o r skn ing . S amhä l l s teor io ch k ä l lma ter ia l -a k tue l la rkeo log iI( ed . A . H yen s t rand ) . S tockho lm A r chaeo log ica lR epor t s( i np r e s s ) . J ohan sen , A .B . , 1 974 .F orho ld e tm e l lom t e or io g d a ta ia rkeo log io g a nd re e i f ar ings v i tenskaper . A rkeo log iske s k r if te rN o 1 ,H i s to r i sk Mu seum , u n ive r s i te te t iB e rgen . - 1 979 . K r ing p ros jek te t No r r land s t i d iga b ebygge l se . F ornvännen 7 4 , p p 1 26 -129 . S tockho lm . - 1 982 . A rkeo log ien st e o r io gd a ta .F ornvännen 7 7 ,p p2 12 -225 . S tockho lm . 4 1

K r is t iansen , K . , 1 974 . E n k i ldek r i t isk a na lyse a f d epo tfund f r a D anma rk s y ng re b ronzea lde r( p e r iode I V -V ) . E tb id rag t i ld en a rkaeo log iske k i ldek r i t ik .A arbOger f or n ord i sk O ldkynd ighed o gH i s tor ie ,p p 19 -160 . K obenhavn . - 1 978 . T he App l ica t ion o fS ou rce C r i t ic i sm t oA rchaeo logy . N orweg ian A rchaeo l og ica lR ev iew , v o l . 1 , p p 1 5 . O s lo . K r i s t iansen , K . e ta l . , 1 985 .A rchaeo log ica lF orma t ion P roces se s . T he r ep re sen ta t iv i ty o fa r chaeo log ica lr ema ins f r om D an i sh P reh is to ry .N a t iona lmu see t ,K obenhavn . K r is t ian sen , K . , 1 985b . E a r ly B ronze Age B u r ia l F ind s . A rchaeo log ica l F orma t ion P roces ses ( ed . K . K r i s t ian sen ) , p p 16 -128 . K obenhavn . L iedman , S -E . , 1 978 . H uman i s t i ska f o r skn ing s t rad i t ione r iS ver ige . K r i t i ska o ch h i s to r i ska p e r spek t iv . Human iora pdu ndan tag , e na n to log ia vT oma sF o r se r ,p p9 -78 . PAN /No r s ted t s , S tockho lm . Ma lme r ,M .P . , 1 963 . Me todprob lem i n om j ärnä ld ern sk ons th i s tor ia . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L unden s ia , S e r ies i n8 °n r3 . CWK G leerup , L und . - 1 980 . Om a rkeo log ien st e o r i ,m e tod o ch m a te r ia l .E t td eba t t in lägg m ed u t gäng spunk ti f y ra a rbe ten a vA rne B .J ohan sen .F ornvännen 7 5 ,p p 2 60 -265 . S tockho lm . - 1 984 . A rkeo log i sk p o s i t iv i sm .F ornvännen 7 9 ,p p2 60 -268 . S tockho lm . Mobe rg , C -A . , 1 978 . T rad i t ione r ia rkeo log i . Human iora p ä u ndan tag , e n a n to log i a v T oma s F o r se r , p p 2 17 -240 . PAN /No r s ted t s , S tockho lm . - 1 969 . I n t roduk t ion t i l lA rkeo log i . J äm fö rande o ch n o rd i sk f o rnkun skap . N a tu r o ch k u l tu r , S tockho lm . - 1 975 . A n th ropo log is t s o n A rchaeo logy . S ome C ommen t s C ommen ted o n b y a n A rchaeo log i s t . E thnos 1 4 , p p 3 60 -364 . T he E thnog raph ica l Mu seum o f S weden , S tockho lm . R edman , C .L . , 1 973 . R esea rch a nd T heo ry i nC u r ren t A rchaeo logy : A n I n t roduc t ion . R esearch a nd T heory i nC ur ren tA rchaeo logy ( ed . C .L . R edman ) ,p p 5 -20 . W i ley & S ons , N ew Y o rk . S a lmon , M .H . , 1 982 .P h i losophy a nd A rchaeo logy . A cadem ic P re ss , N ew Y o rk e t c . S ch if f e r , M .B . , 1 976 .B ehav iora lA rchaeo logy . A cadem ic P res s , N ew Y o rk e t c . S e l inge , K -G . , 1 977 . J ä rnä lderns b ondeku l tu r iV ä s te rnor r land . V äs ternorr land s f örh i s tor ia , u tg iven a vV ä s te rno r r land sl ä n sl a nd s t ing ,p p 1 53 -459 . H ä rnö sand . - 1 979 .A grar ian S e t t lemen t sa nd Hun t ing G round s . AS tudy o ft h eP reh i s to r ic C u l tu r e S ys tem s i n aN o r th Swed ish R ive r V a l ley . T hese s a nd P ape r s i n Nor th -Eu ropean A r chaeo logy 8 .S to ckho lm . - 1 979b . N äg ra a spek te rp ä a rkeo log isk d eba t t o ch m e tod . A k tue l la rkeo log i , r appo r t f r än e nk u r sp äR ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t ,p p2 1-46 . S tockho lm . - 1 985 . V ä s te rgö t land o ch Mä la rda len - v ad s äge r f o rn lämn inga rna om 4 i s to r ien? V ä s tergö t land s ä ld re h i s tor ia ( e d . G . B eh re & E . Weg raeu s ) , p p 4 1-79 . Ä lv sbo rg s t h i n s museum , V äne r sbo rg . - 1 986 . F o rn lämn inga r o ch b ebygge l seh i s tor ia - i n ledn ing . ( a nd ) R ev ide rad k ar ta r ev ide rad f o rn t id? Om g ravf ä l to ch b ebygge l se p äV ikbo lande t .B ebygge l seh i s tor i sk T id sk r if tN r 1 ,p p 3 -7 a nd 7 9 -105 ,r e spec t ive ly . S tockho lm . - 1 986b . K u l tu r land skape t -l i vs rum o ch k unskapsbank . S amhä l l sp laner ing o ch k u l turm innesvärd , f ö red rag o ch d i skuss ions in lägg v id V i t terhe t sakadem iens s ympo s ium 2 8 ma r s 1 985 ,p p 3 -28 . KVHAA :s k onf e ren se r 1 4 , S tockho lm . T homa s , D .H . , 1 979 .A rchaeo logy . H o l t , R ineha r t & Win s ton , N ew Y o rk e t c . T o r s tendah l , R . , 1 971 . I n t roduk t ion t i l l h i s to r iefo r skn ingen . H i s tor ia s om v e tenskap . N a tu ro ch k u l tu r , S tockho lm . T r igge r , B .G . , 1 978 . T ime a nd T rad i t ions . E ssays i n A rchaeo log ica l I n te rp re ta t ion . E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P re ss . ( Pa r t ly p ub l i shed b efo re i nt h ey ea r s 1 968 -1976 ) . Wa t son , P . J . , L eB lanc , S . & R edman , C .L . , 1 971 . E xp lana t ion i nA rchaeo logy . An E xp l ic i t ly S c ien t if i cA pp roach . C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk & L ondon . We l inde r , S . , 1 986 .D e ta rkeo log i ska p er spek t ive t . F ran f o rn t id o ch m ede l t id 9 .L und . Wi lde sen , L .E . , 1 982 . T he S t udy o f I mpac t s o n A rchaeo log ica l S i tes . Ad vances i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heor y , A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk e t c . 4 2

FACTORS OF IMPORTANCE FOR I NTERPRETING S ETTLE MENT PATTERNS B y Mär ta S trömberg I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy .U n ive r s i ty o fL und . K ra f t s to rg 1 .S -223 5 0L und , S weden . When o ne s e t s o u t t o i nve s t iga te p reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t d eve lopmen t i n a n a r ea c ha rac te r i sed b yi n t en s ive a g r icu l tu r a la c t iv i ty ,i nw h ich o ne c an a s sum e ap r ior it h a tt h e r ema in sh ave b een d amaged a nd t h ea r te f ac t sd ec ima ted ,i ti sn ece s sa ry t oa pp ly s ou r ce c r i t ica lm e thod si nt h ei n t e rp r e ta t ion o ft h er ema in s .T h i si sp a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan ti nl i gh t o ft h ed ef i c ienc ie si nhe ren ti na r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia lw h ich i st ob eu sed a s ab a s i sf o r d i scu s s ion sa nd c onc lu s ion sa bou ts e t t lemen ta nd r e la ted q ue s t ion s . T he r ea r em any a r ea s w i th in a r chaeo logy i nw h ich s ou r ce c r i t ic i sm mu s tb ep ra c t i sed t o ag r ea te re x t en tt h an h a sb een t r ue u pt ot h ep re sen t( c f . f o re xamp le A lmg ren 1 972 ,p .5 ;H edeage r 1 978 ,p . 3 46 f . ; K r i s t ian sen 1 978 , p . 1f . , 1 985 ) . T he r e sea r ch ,i n c lud ing f i e ldwo rk ,w h i ch h a sb een c a r r ied o u ti nt h eH age s tad P ro jec ti n s ou thea s t S can ia f o r s om any y ea r s , h a sp rov ided many o ppo r tun i t ie s f o rm et or e f lec t u pon t h e v a r ia t ion i np re se rva t ion c ond i t ion s a nd t h e p rob lem o fr ep re sen ta t ivene s s . I w ou ld l i ke t ob eg in t h i s p ape r b y s ugge s t ing as e r ie s o fh ypo the t ica l s t age s o rl e ve l s w h ich c ou ld b ev a l id f o ra n a r ea c o r re spond ing t o ar e la t ive ly l a rge v i l lage d u r ing , f o r i n s tance ,t h eM idd le a nd L a t eN eo l i th ic P e r iod so rt h eB ronze A ge . I np r inc ip le i tc ou ld e ven b ev al id f o ro t he rp e r iod sw i th t h ee xcep t ion o ft h e Me so l i th ic P e r iod ,i nw h ich i ti s n ece s sa ry t oa s sume ad i f f e ren ts ub s i s tence b a se . H oweve r ,t h i s s hou ld n o tb ec on s t rued a s ab e l ief t h a t , f o r i n s tance , t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd R oman I r on Age s hou ld l e ave e qu iva len ts e t t lemen tr ema in s . N a tu ra l ly ,a ny d i scu s s ion o f ap reh i s to r ic s o c ie ty mu s tb e b a sed o n t h e p a r t icu la rp recond i t ion s o ft h a t s o c ie ty . S pec ia l a t ten t ion i sp a id h e re t o d i f f e ren tc ond i t ion so fp r e se rva t ion d u r ing ag i ven p e r iod . A .

The max ima l ly f avourab le s i tua t ion f or a n a gr icu l tura l r eg ion ( f ig . 1 )

T h i s s hou ld a pp ly t oa na r ea i nw h ich t h e re w a s s e t t lemen tf o rs om et ime . S ub sequen t ly t h e a r ea w a s t o ta l ly a bandoned o rp e rhap s u sed o n ly a s g raz ing l a nd s -w h ich i sl e s s l i ke ly -o r a tl e a s t w a s n o t u sed a ta ny l a te r t ime i n s uch aw ay t h a t f e a tu r es w e re s e r iou s ly d amaged . I no rde rt o make i tp o ss ib le t ow o rk w i th s eve ra lc omponen t s , Ia ma s sum ing t h a tt h e re w e r et wo c en t ra l s e t t lemen ts i t e s ,e a ch w i th ac eme te ry , a sw e l la ss e ve ra l s e a sona l s i te s o rl o ca t ion sf o rs pec ia la c t iv i t ie s . I nt h i sc onnec t ion t h e r ei sn or e a son t od i scu s sw he the r b o th c en t ra lp l ace sw e re u sed f o ra ne qua l ly l o ng t ime ,o ri n deed h ow t h ey r e la te t oe a ch o the r , o n ly t h a t w e a r e d ea l ing w i th t wo c omp lexe s w h ich w e re a t l e a s t p a r t ly c on tempo raneou s . Two q ue s t ion s may b ep o sed : 1 )

H ow much o fw ha to nce e x i s ted h e re c an w er ed i scove ra nd

2 )

D oe st h i ss ou r ce m a te r ia lh ave s u ch ad eg r ee o fp r e se rva t ion o ri si to fs u ch q ua l i ty t h a ti tp rov ide su sw i th c l ea ri n d ica t ion so ft h eo r ig ina lf unc t ion ?

I nt h e s ou th S wed i sh c oa s ta l z one , i ti sn ece ssa ry t oa s sume t h a ta bove -g round a nc ien t monumen t s ( e rec ted s t one s ,t umu l i ,c a i rn s ,e t c . )c an h ave b een d e s t royed t o ag r ea te ro r 4 3

l e sse r e x ten t , a l though f o r t h i s h ypo the t ica l e xamp le n o t s o much t h a t t h ey c anno t b e l o ca ted a nd c l a ss if ied . A s Ip o in ted o u ti nt h e i n t roduc t ion , o ne c anno t i gno re d amage c au sed b ya g r icu l tu re . H oweve r ,b ecau se t h i se xamp le i sv a l id f o ra ni mag ina ry s i tua t ion , i nw h ich o ne w ou ld r e ach o p t ima lr e su l t si nt h eq ue s t ion o ft h et y pe o fs e t t lemen tw h ich e x i s ted i n ag iven a r ea i n t h e i nve s t iga t ion , o ne s hou ld s t a r t w i th t h e mo s t o p t ima l c ond i t ion s ,e ven i ft h ey a r et ob er ega rded a sl e s sl i ke ly i np rac t ice . B .

A p reserva t ion s i tua t ion wh ich f ac i l i ta tes t he c orrec t r econs truc t ion o f e ssen t ia l s e t t lemen t c omponents ( f ig . 2 )

T h i s s t age r ep resen t sl e ss o p t ima lc ond i t ion so fp re se rva t ion t h an t h ep rev ious o ne ,b u t t h ea r chaeo log i s ta nd h i sc o l league si na ni n te rd i sc ipl in ary t e am c an n eve r the le s sc ome i n a t ar e la t ive ly a dvan tageou s s t age , i nt h a ti ti sp o s s ib le t oi d en t i fy a l lt h ep la ce sb u to ne , w h ich h a s t o ta l ly d i sappea red . T ha t i s , w e c an l o ca te t h e t wo c en t ra l p l ace s a nd t h e i r c eme te r ie s ,e ven t hough o ne o ft h el a t te ri sn ol o nge ri n tac t( t h i sc an b e am egal i th ic t omb o r o the r N eo l i th ic b ur ia l o r , f o r t h e B ronze Age , e ven s econda ry b ur ia l i n o lde r monumen t s ) . O ne a l so f i nd s s eve ra l s ma l le r s e t t lemen t s i tes , a l though t h ree o ft h em c ons i s to n ly o fv e ry f r agmen ta ry f e a tu re s o rw ide ly d i s t r ibu ted f i nd s w i th in r e la t ive ly w e l l -def ined a r ea s . U se o ft h e a r ea d u r ing l a te rp reh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ic p er iod s m ean s t ha t w e c anno t r econs t ruc t t h e w ho le s e t t lemen t c ons t ruc t ion w i th i t s d i f f eren t c omponen t s ( t o t h e e x ten tt h i s i sp o s s ib le w i th f e a tu re s w h ich d o n o to ccu ri nb og s o r w e t land s ) w i th a ccep tab le c e r t a in ty . Howeve r ,t h e re i se nough i n fo rma t ion t ob ea b le t o wo rk w i th t h e t wo l a rge e n t i t ies a nd s ome o f t h e s ma l le r o nes a cco rd ing t o t h e h ypo the se so ne h a sf o rmu la ted , a nd t h er ep re sen ta t ivene s sc an t h e refo re b e a s sumed t o b ea dequa te . N eve r the le s st h e re i s ad eg r ee o fu nce r ta in ty h e re d ue t ot h et h r ee f i nd -spo t s w h ich a r ep oo r ly r ep re sen ted . I nt h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e l a t te r , i ti sn ece ssa ry t ol e ave v a r iou sp o s s ib i l i t ie so pen ,d epend ing o nh ow d i f f e ren t ia ted t h e ma te r ia li s . C .

A l ow d egree o f p reserva t ion , l ead ing t o a r i sk f or e rroneous j udgemen t a bou t t he c en tra l c omponen ts i n t he s e t t le men t s t ruc ture ( f ig . 3 )

I nt h i sc a se ,o ne c an e nv i s ion e i the rp ro longed i n te r f e r ence ,i n ten s if ied a g r icu l tu r eo rn ew u se o ft h el a nd i nt h ep re sen t . T h i sr e su l t si nt h el o ss o fs eve ra lf i nd -spo t s ,i n c lud ing o ne o ft h ec eme te r ie s ,a nd mean st h a to n ly o ne l a rge s e t t lemen tw i th a t tendan tb u r ia ls i te c an b ei d en t if ied . O nt h ep o s i t ive s i de i st h e f a c tt h a tt h e re i sn eve r the le ss t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o f wo rk ing w i th t wo s e t t lemen tc o l lec t ions i na dd i t ion t ot h ec eme te ry , a sw e l l a ss ever a l l o ca t ion sw i th s t ray f i nd s a nd f r agmen ta ry f e a tu re s . I na ne va lua t ion o ft h e ma te r ia l ,o ne o fs e ve ra li n te rp re ta t ion sc an b ei d en t ica lw i th s t age s A o r B . Howeve r , i ti sn ece ssa ry t o c ons ide r t ha t t h e re c ou ld h ave b een s e a sona l s e t t lemen t so ro the rs ho r t te rm s i te si nt h ea r ea ,e ven t h ough i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t op i ck o u t t h e se s po t s b u t o n ly t or i ng i np o s s ib le a r ea s i nt h e t e r ra in t h rough a na logy w i th o the r s e t t lemen t a r ea s . I n o rde r t om ake s uch as i tua t ion c r ed ib le ( t ha t i s , t ha t a l l r ema in s s hou ld h ave b een d e s t royed ) ,o ne mu s tb e a b le t od emon s t ra te p ro longed c u l t iva t ion i n a r ea sd evo id o ff i nd s .T h i sw ou ld h ave a l so m ean tt h er emova lo fs t one sf r om s ub su r f ace c on s t ruc t ions a nd p low ing d own t ou nd i s tu rbed l a ye r s . D .

A v ery l ow d egree o f p reserva t ion , a l low ing o n ly g enera l c onc lus ions a bou t t he s e t t le ment wh ich o ccurred i n t he a rea d ur ing t he t ime i n q ues t ion ( f ig . 4 )

I nt h i sc a se t h ed ecay p roce ss i no ne o ft h ec en t ra ls e t t lemen ts i te sh a sg one s of a rt h a ta l t h a tr ema in si s as e t t lemen tw ho se c on s truc t ion sa r es of r agmen ta ry t h a tt h es i te c anno tb e c l a ss if ied a s as e t t lemen tw i th p lu ra l i s t ic f unc t ion s .T h i s may b ei nd i rec t ly i n f e r red i ft h e 4 4

s i te c on ta ins s uch ad i f f e ren t ia ted s ou rce ma ter ia l w i th in i t sr educed a r ea t h a to ne c an s ugge s tt h a ti tb e long st o amo re s t ab le s e t t lemen tw i th v a r ied a c t iv i t ie s . I n s ign i f ican tf i nd sf r om o ne o ft h ec eme te r ie sa r en ow a l lt h a tr ema in o ft h et wo o r ig ina l c eme te r ie s . H oweve r ,t h ef a c tt h a tt h e se r ema ins l i en ea rw ha ti sl e f to ft h es e t t lemen ts i te s i gna ls t h a t as e t t lemen tc ou ld h ave b een l o ca ted h e re .T he p r e se rva t ion s t age o ft h eo the r c en t ra lp l ace i st h es ame a si nl e ve l C( f ig . 3 ) . A pa r tf r om t h i s ,t h ea r ea c an p roduce o n ly f r agmen ts o fc ons t ruc t ion s s uch a s h ea r ths , o vens , o r s t one s f r om h ou se f ounda t ion s , a nd af ew s t ray f i nd s . P e rhaps i ti sp o ss ib le t oc onf i rm t h e e x i s tence o ft h e e r ad ica ted l i v ing f l oo r sw i th t h e i ra t tendan ta c t iv i ty a r ea st h rough i nd icat ion so fv a r iou s s o r t s , s uch a sp hospha te a na ly s i s s how ing h igh v a lue s a nd /o r a e r ia l p ho tog raphy . T he l a t te r c an o cca s iona l ly r evea lp r ev iou s ly e x i s t ing c on s truc t ion s ,b u tb o th m e thod se n ta i lp rob lem s w i th d a t ing . I n s uch as i tua t ion mo re a l te rna t ive i n te rp re ta t ions t h an i nt h ep rev ious c a ses mu s tb e p rov ided . I n as e r ie s w h ich s t a r t s w i th o p t ima l c ond i t ions , o ne wou ld p e rhaps l og ica l ly e xpec ta f i na l s t age ( E ) ,i lus t ra ted b ya na r ea i nw h ich c u l t iva t ion a nd o the ra c t iv i t ie sh ave t o ta l ly e r a sed t r ace so ff o rme ru se o ft h el a nd f o rs e t t lemen to fd i f f e ren tt ype s ,c eme te r ie s ,c u l t p l ace s , p o ss ib le d ef en s ive s i tes , f i e ld s a nd p a s tu re s . H oweve r , w ew i l l n o tt a ke u p t h i s f i na lp ha se ,f o rt h es imp le r e a son t h a to ne w ou ld h a rd ly i nve s t iga te a na r ea i nw h ich t h e c hance so ff i nd ing u sab le s ou rce ma te r ia lw e re s os l im . B u ti fo ne i mag ine s ac on t inued h eavy -handed e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e l a nd i n t h e f u tu re , at o ta l e r ad ica t ion o fp reh is to r ic r ema ins i nc e r ta in v u lne rab le a r ea s i su nfor tuna te ly ar e a l i s t ic f i na l d e s t ina t ion i nt h i s s e r ie so fh ypo the t ica ls i tua t ion s . E ven i ft h ef a rme r si n at o ta l ly c u l t iva ted a r ea a r ef o r ced b y e conom ic c i rcum s tances t o d ec rea se t h e i r p roduc t ion o f g ra in o r v ege tab le s , t h i s wou ld n o t p ro tec t t h e r ema in ing s ubsu r face a nc ien t r ema ins . T ho se f i e ld s n o l onge r n eeded f o rc u l t iva t ion w ou ld mos tl i ke ly b er ep laced b yf o res t wheneve rp o ss ib le . T he p lan t ing a nd g row th o ft h e se t r ees w ou ld f u r the r d amage g raves , o ccupa t ion l a ye r s , h ou se f ounda t ions , a nd o t he rr ema in s . Ma ter ia l f rom a reas w i th p oor p reserva t ion c an b e u sed t o s o lve p rob lems i n as e t t lemen t h i s tor ica l i nves t iga t ion I ti sp o s s ib le t oi lus t ra te t h ep re se rva t ion s i tua t ion i nv a r ious w ay s . H e re Ih ave c ho sen a ne xamp le w i th t wo s e t t lemen tc oncen t ra t ions , s i nce i ti sf i r s tu nde rs uch c i r cum s tance s t h a tp rob lem s o fi n te rp re ta t ion a r i se . U nde r f avou rab le c ond i t ions ( s tages A a nd B ) i t wou ld b e e a sy t oi d en t if y b o th , a nd t h e ma te r ia lc ou ld b e u sed t ot r y t ov e r ify t h eo r ie s a bou t t h e s e t t lemen t p a t ter n . A s t h e d amage i n c rea se s , t h e d i f f icu l t ies f o r ar e l iab le c l a s s i f ica t ion a l so i n c rea se ,b u ti ti ss t i l lp o ss ib le t ou se t h es ou rce ma te r ia lw i th r e la t ive s ucce s s( s tage C ) ,e spec ia l ly i fw ea r ea b le t oc ompa re t h ec ho sen a r ea w i th a no the rw i th t h es ame e co log ica lc ha rac te r i s t ic sw he re p re se rva t ion h a sb een b e t te r . A na r ea i ns t age D d oe sn o th ave much t oo f f e rs e t t lemen th i s to r ica lr e sea r ch . Ap o s i t ive f a c to r may b e c e r ta in g r ave s wh ich e i the rc onf irm t h e p i c tu re ( t hose wh ich w e re b es t d ocumen ted a s t o b u r ia l c us toms ) , o r g ive u s a mo re mu l t iface ted p i c tu re b y t h e ir d ive rgence f r om t h eu sua lp a t te rns . E ven ad amaged l i v ing f l oo ra nd s u r face f i nd s c an s o me t imes h ave s uch q ua l i t ies t ha t t hey a r e n ever the less i mpo r tan t a dd i t ions t o k now ledge a bou tt h es e t t lemen th i s to ry o fa na r ea . H oweve r ,t h is i so n ly p o ss ib le i ft h ey c an b er e la ted t o mo re w el -known p henomena . I ti s ap rob lem o fd ocumen ta t ion t od ec ide t h el e ve lo fp re serva t ion f o ra na r ea o fa nc ien t monumen t sw hen t h e se c on s i s tt o al a rge d eg r ee o fs ub su r f ace r ema ins .I nf a c t ,e x tens ive f i e ldwo rk i sr equ i red t od e te rm ine w ha ti ss t i l lp re served a nd w he the ri t sq ua l i ty i ss uch 4 5

t h a ta n i nve s t iga t ion wou ld y i e ld f r u i t fu lr e su l t s . Much k now ledge a nd e xper ience -a s w e l la sa no pen m ind f o ra l te rna t ive p o ss ib le e xp lana t ion sa st oh ow t h el a nd w a su sed a r en eeded t ob ea b le t os e lec ts t ra teg ic p o in t sf o rs y s tema t ic t e s te xcava t ion i na na r ea o f 2 5 -30 km 2 i n ac u l t iva ted l a nd scape . Mo re o f ten t h ef u l lp o ten t ia lf o re va lua t ion f i r s tb ecome se v iden ta f te re s sen t ia lp a r t so f t h ef i e ldwo rk h ave b een c omp le ted a nd s ome t ime so n ly f o l low ing c ompa r ison w i th o t he r a r ea sw i th t h es ame c ond i t ion s . S a mp l ing p r inc ip les f or i nves t iga t ion S ince t h eh ypo the t ica lc a ses a pp l ied t oa na r ea w h ich i sc u l t iva ted t o ag rea te ro rl e s se r e x ten t ,o ne mu s ti na ny e ven ta s sume c on t inuou sd amage a nd t h es ub s tan t ia lr educ t ion o f o u rt o ta l s ou r ce ma te r ia l .I nh i si n augu ra ll e c tu re u pon b ecom ing p ro f e s so ri nL und , Ma t s P . Ma lme re xp re s sed t h ef o l low ing : " A r chaeo logy i su nu sua la mong s cho la r ly d i sc ip l ine s i nt ha t i t s s ou rce ma te r ia l h a s af i n i te s i ze a nd i na dd i t ion i sc on t inuou s ly s ub jec ted t o d e s t ruc t ion a nd r educ t ion " ( Ma lme r 1 971 , p .2 ) . J u s t ap oo r ly c onduc ted e xcava t ion c a r r ie s t h e r i sk t h a tp a r t s o fo u r a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s a r e d es t royed , t h e re i sr i sk o f s im i la r e f fec t s f r om o the r s ou rce s . T he se i n c lude t ho se o f w h ich w e a r e a wa re a nd t h e refo re c an t r yt os t op ,a sw e l la st ho se w h ich a r ed i ff i cu l to ri mpo s s ib le t od oa ny th ing a bou t , e i the r f o r e conom ic r e a son s o r b ecau se t h e m a ter ia l i sd ec ima ted o r d e s t royed w i thou to u rk now ledge . I ts hou ld t h e re fo re b e n a tura l f o r a r chaeo log i s t s t ot r y t o s ave e ve ry th ing w h ich t h ey k now t o b e e ndange red , a nd i n t h is c onnec t ion t o c a r ry o u t t he b es t p o ss ib le d ocumen ta t ion , s i nce t h i s i n fo rma t ion c an b e a n i mpo r tan t p i ece i n t h e s e t t lemen t h i s tor ica l p uzz le o r p e rhaps a dd w e igh t t ow eak ly s uppor ted h ypo these s . B u t e ven i f many a g ree w i th t h i s i d ea i np r inc ip le , i td oe s n o t e n joy g ene ra l a ccep tance ( s ee t h e d eba te b y Amb ro s ian i ,J ohan sen e t . a l . F o rnvännen , 1 985 ,p .6 8 f . ) . L a rge q uan t i t ie so f f i nd ma te r ia l h ave d ur ing r e cen t y ea r s b een a dded t ot h e ma jo r mu seum s , a waken ing f e a r st h a t " dead " c o l lec t ion s w i l lp i le u pi ns t o rage w i thou ti n sp i r ing mean ingf u l s t udy . T h i s c an a l so l e ad t ot h e u se o fc o l lec t ion s f o ri nve s t iga t ion s w i th ap u re ly p o s i t iv i s t ic s l an t ( c f . Kyh lbe rg 1 985 ,p .7 4 ) . D ue t o al a ck o fe conom ic r e sou rce sa nd t os ome e x ten tt op rob lem so fs pace ,i ti so f ten f ound n ece s sa ry t os e tp r io r i t ie s . I ns uch c a se si ti sn a tu ra lt h a tp r ima ry c on s ide ra t ion i s a f fo rded p ro jec t s c ho sen o n t h e b a s i s o f c e r ta in s pec if i c c r i te r ia t o s o lve p ar t icu la r p rob lem s . I n s uch as i tua t ion much i n fo rma t ion w h ich i sn o tj udged t oh ave t h e s ame i mmed ia te i n fo rma t ion v a lue i sl o s tf o reve r . T ob es u re t h i si s ap rog re ss ive p roce s s ,b u t t h e re i s ad ange ri nt h a to ne c anno tf o r see t h eq ue s t ion sw h ich w i l li n te re s ta r chaeo log i s t s i nt h ef u tu re a nd o ne t h e refo re r un st h er i sk o f mak ing af a u l ty d ec i s ion . T he p os i t ive s i de o ft h is q ues t ion i st h a t a r chaeo log is t s h ave b ecome mo re t h eo ry m inded a nd a l so t h a t t e chn ica lm e thodo logy h a sg r ea t ly i mp roved ( c f .H yen s t rand 1 981) . Howeve r , w e h ave n o t b een a b le t o d o e spec ia l ly much t o h a l t t h e d es t ruc t ion o f s ubsur f ace r ema in s . S uch d e s t ruc t ion o ccu r s e ve ry s e a son i nt h ei n ten s ive ly c u l t iva ted p rov ince s , a bove a l li nS can ia , y e ti sn od oub t ap rob lem t o ag rea te ro rl e s se re x ten ti n o t he rl a nd scape sa sw el . T he Hage s tad P ro jec t T h rough t h eH age s tad P ro jec t , Ih ave b een c onf ron ted w i th t h ep rob lem sa s soc ia ted w i th v a r ia t ion si nd eg r ee o fp re se rva t ion i na no pen l a nd scape . When t h ep ro jec tw a sb egun i n t h e 1 960 s i tw a s i n av i l lage w h ich w a s c hosen a s a n o b jec t f o r t e s t ing a s e r ies o f h ypo the se s .T he p rac t ica la spec tw a st ot r yt oi d en t ify t h ec onnec t ion b e tween s e t t lemen t 4 6

a nd d i f f e ren tt y pe so fs o i l sd u r ing d i f f e ren tp reh i s to r ic p e r iod s( f rom t h e Me sol i th ic t ot h e M idd le Age s ) . T he ma ter ia l w a s t ob e e xam ined f r om v a r iou s a ng le s , a nd t h is w a s t o r e su l t i ns ugges ted e xp lana t ions f o r s t ab i l i ty a nd c hange i nt h e s oc ia l , e conom ic , a nd c u l tu ra lp a t ter n s . T he t h eo re t ica l s choo l ing a nd t h ep h i lo soph ica lb a s i so fa r chaeo logy a t t h a tt ime w e re s imp le rt h an t h ey a r et oday ( c f . Ma lme r 1 984 , p .2 60 f . ) . N ever the le ss , t h e re w a s ac l ea ri d ea a st ow ha tk now ledge w a s s ough t , a nd n o t ion s a st oh ow t og a in t h i sk now ledge e x i s ted ( S t rombe rg 1 962 , p . 1 23 f . ; 1 980 p .4 7 f . ) . We w e re p repa red t or eeva lua te a nd c hange t h eh ypo the se si ft h ey p roved n o tt ob es uppo r ted b yt h er e su l t s d u r ing o u r wo rk . T oday w e c an p o se t h e f o l low ing q ue s t ion : wha t c onnec t ion w as t h e re b e tween t h e r e sea r ch p rog ram a nd t h ee x i s t ing p o s s ib il i t ie sf o rr e a ch ing a dequa te r e su l t s? I tmu s tb e empha s ized t h a tt h em embe r so ft h eH age s tad P ro jec tw e re w el a wa re t h a tt h e H age s tad a r ea w a sp a r to f ah eav i ly c u l t iva ted r eg ion a nd t h e re fo re t h a t ag r ea td ea lw a s p robab ly d amaged o r d e s t royed , s o t h a t w e c ou ld n o t h ope t or e t r ieve w e l l -p reserved f e a tu re st oa ny g r ea te x ten t .B u ti ns p i te o ft h ep i c tu re p re sen ted b yt h e many f i e ld su nde r c u l t iva t ion ,w ef e l ti tw a sp laus ib le t of o rmu la te t h eo p t im i s t ic h ypo thes i st h a tw ec ou ld f i nd e nough t ob e a b le t od e te rm ine d a te , t ype o ff e a tu re , a nd c u l tu ra la f f in i ty . We a l so j udged t h e re w ou ld b ee nough t os t udy r e sou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion ,c u l tu ra ll e ve l , a nd c on tac t s w i th o the r g roups . T he d eg ree o fp rese rva t ion w h ich w e a s sumed t o e x i s t f i t s mo s t c l o se ly w i th s t age C ( f ig . 3 ) , a l though i ts hou ld b ep o in ted o u tt h a tt h ep ro jec ta imed a ta l o ng te rm p e r spec t ive ,r a the rt h an f o cu s ing o no ne d i sc re te p e r iod o ft ime . S ince w ea s sumed t h a tw ew ou ld b ea b le t of i nd l a rge r ,w e l lp re se rved c omp lexe si no n ly af ew l im i ted c a ses , t h er e s to ft h em a te r ia lc on s is t ing o ff r agmen t so fc on s truc t ion sa nd o ccupa t ion l a ye r s a nd s u r f ace f i nd s , w et hough tt h a tt h ef i e ldwo rk c ou ld b ec a r r ied o u t w i th in af ew y ea r s . T h i sw a si ns p i te o ft h ef a c tt h a tt h e me thodo logy c a l led f o rr epea ted r e conna i s sance o fe ve ry f i e ld ,a nd c l o se ly s paced t e s tp i t s .I ti si nt h i sc onnec t ion t h a to ne c an s e tt h er e la t ion " ba se a r ea " -" r e f e rence a r ea " . B ecause w eh ad n or ea son t oe xpec ts o m any c on tempo ra ry s e t t lemen t sw i th h igh ly i n fo rma t ive c o l lec t ions i nH age s tad i t se lf a t t h es t ar to ft h ep ro jec t ,w ew e re c a re fu lt oi n c lude i nve s t iga t ion si n ar e f e rence a r ea -t h a t i st h e s u r round ing c oa s ta l z one -t oc omp lemen tt h eh i a tu se si nt h e ma te r ia l ( St rombe rg 1 978 , p .4 ) . T he mode la l so i n c luded ah ypo the s i st h a tt h e re w e re v a r ia t ion si nt h es e t t lemen tp a t te rn , e ven t hough t h er eg ion i ss ma l l , a nd t h a ti tw a si mpo r tan tt oi nves t iga te t h e se a s sumed v a r ia t ion s . T he se c ou ld b ee xp la ined e i the rb y t r ad i t ion f r om o lde rc u l tu res , a se x te rna l i mpu l se s ,o rp e rhaps a s an a tu ra li n he ren tv a r iab i l i ty i n as oc ie ty w i th ac er ta in s t ruc tu re . We h ave s ubsequen t ly o bse rved t ha t t h e d eve lopmen t w a s i n s ome c a se s a s w e h ad p red ic ted , wh i le i n s eve ra l o the r c a se s i tw a s n o t . V e ry b r ief ly , t h e s i tua t ion c an b e s umma r ized a sf o l low s : T he h ypo the s i sa bou tt h en ega t ive e f f ec t so fc u l t ivat ion o nt h ed eg ree o fp r e se rva t ion f o r t h es ub su r f a ce r ema in si nH age s tad w a so n ly p a r t ia l ly c o r rec t .T h i sw a se v iden tf r om t h e m any w e l l -p re se rved a nd r e la t ive ly w e l l -p re se rved f e a tu re s .A s ar e su l t ,t h ep ro jec tf ound i t se lf w i th ac on s ide rab ly mo re d i f f e ren t ia ted m a ter ia lt han h ad b een s uppo sed . We w e re t h us a b le t oa sk mo re d e ta i led q ue s t ions a bou t t h e c ond i t ions f o r s e t t lemen t , as o r t o f f e edback .I nt u rn t h i ss i tua t ion l e dt o mo re e x ten s ive e xcava t ion st h an w eh ad o r ig ina l ly p l anned . I nt h is w ay w ec ame t o make u se o ft h ep o ten t ia l i nt h er e f e rence a r ea i nt h e f o rm o f Me so l i th ic f i nd -spo t s a nd mega l i th ic t ombs w h ich p rov ided o ppo r tun i t ies f o r s t udy ing c on s t ruc t ion e l emen t s , p lus s e t t lemen t s f r om t h e N eo l i th ic , B ronze A ge , I r on A ge ,e t c .

4 7

T he r e a son sf o rt h ep o s i t ive s t a te o fp re se rva t ion s ob enef i c ia lf o rt h ep ro je c tw e re : a )

f a rm ing a t t ha t t ime h ad n o t b een modern ized t o t he e x ten t t h a t w e h ad r e ckoned w i th , a nd c er ta in f ea tu res h ad b een c overed w i th s and i n t he p as t a nd t herefo re w e re f i r s t d i scove red t h rough o u r f i e ldwo rk a nd t o s ome e x ten t t h rough n ea rby s u r face f i nd s .

T hank st ot h eb enef ic ia lp re se rva t ion c ond i t ions ,w ed a red t oe n ter ta in t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o f i n c lud ing s eve ra ll owe rl e ve lq ue s t ion si nt h ep ro jec t ' sp rog ram . I td id s e em u n rea l i s t ic t o r e ckon w i th aq ua l i ta t ive ly e qu iva len t r e cons t ruc t ion o f s e t t lemen t e n t i t ies f o r e ach p reh i s to r ic p e r iod , b u tt h er e su l t s g a ined d u r ing t h ef i r s ty ea r so pened u pp ro spec t st h a t s t age B ( f ig . 2 )c ou ld b er e levan tf o rc e r ta in p e r iod s . We d i scove red t r ace so fs e t t lemen t i nd i f f e ren tp a r t s o ft h ev i l lage ( 30 km 2 i ne x ten t ) , w h ich p rov ided a tl e a s tp re l im ina ry s uppo r tf o r ah ypo the s i so ft wo o r mo re s oc ia lg roup s . Howeve r , s eve ra l f a c to r s s ub sequen t ly wo r sened t h e c ond i t ions f o r t h e H ages tad i n ve s t iga t ion .T he se w e r e : 1 )

t he u se o f h eav ier mach ine ry , wh ich c ompac ted t he s o i l a nd t he refore o cca s iona l ly p lowed i n to o ccupa t ion l a ye r so rg rave s ;

2 )

d eepe r p low ing - w i th t he s ame n ega t ive e f fec t -o n f a rms w i th l a rge r n umber o f h ogs , i n o rde r t o s pread t he f e r t i l ize r mo re e ven ly i n a mo re l im i ted a r ea ;

3 )

e a r l ier s ow ing , b efo r e t h e g round w a s f r o s t -f ree , w h ich o f ten made i nve s t iga t ion s i mpo s s ib le ;

4 )

s ys tema t ic r e mova l o f s t ones f r om s o me f i e lds . T hese h ad p rev ious ly o f ten a i ded i nr e conna i ssance t o l o ca te s t ruc tu ra l r ema ins ( s tones a r e o f ten n o t o the rw ise f ound i nt h ef i e ld si nc e r ta in p a r t so ft h ei n ve s t iga t ion a r ea )a nd

5 )

l a nd e xp lo i ta t ion i nc e r ta in a r ea s .

T he se f a c to r s m ade t h e a r chaeo log ica l w o rk mo re d i f f icu l t , a nd many f i e ld s w e re n o t a cce s s ib le f o rs eve ra ls e a son s .I ft h eH age s tad P ro jec th ad b een s t ar ted af ew y ea r sl a te r , c ond i t ions w ou ld h ave b een much w o r se a nd t h er e su l t sw ou ld h ave b een l e ss f r u i t fu l . A t t h e s ame t ime i tmu s tb ee mpha s ized t h a tt h ese m ea su re s , s on ega t ive f r om o u rp o in to f v i ew , w e re n o t t a ken e ve rywhe re a nd n o t t ot h e s ame e x ten t . T h is i sa l so t r ue o ft h e r e f e rence a r ea .H e re w en o ted t h a tc u l t iva t ion h ad s ucce s s ive ly d e s t royed mo r ea nd mo re , f o re xamp le i nI nge l s to rp ,V a l lebe rga , a nd G i s löv ,w h i le o nt h eo t he rh and c e r ta in p lace s h ad e scaped s e r ious d amage ( S t rombe rg 1 971 , 1 975 , 1 982 a nd 1 985 ) . I n s uch ac a se o ne mu s t a s sume t h a t o ne h a s ar andom s amp le o f s e t t lemen t r ema ins , af a c t wh ich makes as ou rce c r i t ica l a na ly s is e spec ia l ly i mpor tan t . T he r ea son t h a tr ema ins n ea rt h e c u l t iva t ion l a ye rh ave n o tb een d es t royed c an b e f o ri n s tance t ha tc e r ta in f a rme r s wo rk d i f f e ren t ly a nd t h a to lde rf a rme r sh ave n o t mode rn ized t h e i r mach ine ry . H oweve r ,o the r r e a son sf o rb e t te ro rw o r se c ond i t ions o fp re se rva t ion i np a r t so fa ni nve s t iga t ed a r ea c an a l so b e a dvanced . D u r ing t h e p e r iod o ft ime t h a t t h e H ages tad P ro jec t h a s b een i np rog res s , o ne s pec ia l s ou r ce ma ter ia l h a s b ecome l e s s a cce s s ib le . Mo re t h an 1 00 p r iva te a r tef ac tc o l lec t ion s c ou ld b e c oun ted i nt h ev i l lage o fH age s tad i nt h e 1 960 s ( S t rom b e rg 1 962 , p .1 34 f . ) . 4 8

S eve ra l o ft h ese a r e n ow d iv ided u p among f am i ly m embe r s a nd h ave b een r emoved f r om H age s tad . Unde r t h e se c i rcum s tance s t h e re i s ag rea t r i sk t h a t t h e l o ca t ion a nd s pec ia lo b serva t ions o nt h ef i nd -spo tw i l lb el o s t -t os ub s tan t ia ld e t r imen tf o rw o rk w i th a na r ea 's s e t t lemen th i s to ry . We h ave o b se rved t h i su nfo r tuna te s i tua t ion r a the ro f ten i n t h er e f e rence a r ea , f o ri n s tance i nG i s löv ( S t rombe rg 1 985 ,p .2 9 ) . O ne d e s i re v o iced i n t h ep ro jec th a sb een f o rs ome s o r to fi nv i s ib le ( e lec t ron ic? )m ean so f ma rk ing t oi d en t ify o b jec t sf ound a ta no the rp l ace t h an w e re t h ey w e re f i r s tr eg i s te red . Var iab i l i ty i n t he d egree o f p reserva t ion i n v ar iab i l i ty i n s e t t lemen t d ens i ty?

e qu iva lent

a reas

a nd /or

I ti si mpo r tan tt od e te rm ine t h el e ve lo fp re se rva t ion a nd t ot r yt ot r ace p o ss ib le v a r ia t ion w i th in a ppa ren t ly e qu iva len t a r ea s when a t temp t ing t o wo rk h o l is t ica l ly . T h is i s n ece ssa ry t oc oun te rac tn eed le ss ly s t e reo typed p e r cep t ion so fb o th t h ei n te rna l s t ruc tu re a nd t h e l a rge r s e t t lemen t p a t te rn . R ecen t r e sea rch h a s b egun t of ocus i n te res t o n t h e p rob lem mo re a nd mo re ( c f . e . g . F o r sbe rg 1 985 ) . T he a na lys is mus t t h erefo re c oncen t ra te p r ima r i ly o ns im i la r i t ie sa nd d i f f e rence si nr ega rd t oe co f ac t si nt wo o r mo re a r ea s . T h i s i sn ece ssa ry i no rde rt oi lum ina te t h e q ue s t ion o ft h e d en s i ty o fs e t t lemen t d ur ing c e r ta in p er iod s . O n t h e o ne h and , o ne c anno t a s sume t h a t ar eg ion w a s f u l ly e xp lo i ted i ns u ch aw ay a st oh ave l e f tr e adab le t r ace s .O nt h eo t he rh and ,o ne c anno tu se w eake r ma te r ia li na no the ra r ea t o ma in ta in t h a ti th a sb een l e s sd en se ly s e t t led d u r ing a c e r ta in p reh is to r ic p e r iod . I ti st r ue t h a t s uch ac onc lus ion may s eem n a tu ra l w hen l o ok ing a tt wo a r ea s i nw h ich p reserva t ion c ond i t ion s a nd f i nds v a ry h eav i ly . B u tt h e n ex ts t ep i nt h ep rog ram mu s tb et oc a r ry o u t as ou r ce c r i t ica le xam ina t ion i nc omb ina t ion w i th f i e ldwo rk i no rde rt od e te rm ine h ow r e l iab le t h ec onc lu s ions a r e . T h i sw o rk c an b e d one o ns eve ra ll e ve l s : 1 )

One c an u se d i f feren t me thods t o e xam ine l and a nd t opograph ica l c ond i t ions , w a te rways , e t c . ( t he l a t te r c an b e f i l led in a nd t herefore d i f f icu l t t o i den t ify t oday , b u t t hey c an o f ten b e t r aced o n o lder maps ) i n o rder t o g a in a n u nde rs tand ing o f w he ther o ne a rea p rov ided more f avou rab le c ond i t ion st h an a no the r .

2 )

One c an i nves t iga te i f c u l t iva t ion o r o ther a c t iv i ty h as b een more i n tens ive a nd t herefore more d amag ing t o a rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins i n o ne a r ea t h an i na no the r .

3 )

One c an i nves t iga te t he p rev ious d i scove rc l ue sa bou td i f f e rence s .

4 )

I f t he d i f fe ren t a reas a re n o t i nves t iga ted a t t he s ame t ime , o ne c an c ons ider t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t he r eason t he re a re f ewer f ea tures a nd f i nd si no ne a r ea i sd ue t oc on t inuou sc u l t iva t ion o ro t he ra c t iv i ty .

5 )

B y means o f o ther me thods , o ne c an t r y t o h ypo the se so fe qua ld ens i ty w i th in t h ed i f f e r en ta r ea s .

s t age 's

The n ot ion o f a " to ta l i nves t igat ion" d e term in ing t he d egree o f p reserva t ion

a nd

s e t t lemen t

t he

s uppor t

a nd

o r

t hereby

d isprove

c onsequences

f or

I ti sn o tp o s s ib le t od e te rm ine e xac t ly t h ee x ten to ft h eD an ish N eo l i th ic r ow c eme te r ie s , w h ich c an b e n ea r ly t wo k i lome t res l ong . T h i s i sb ecau se h ia tuses c an e x i s t a nd w e c anno ta lway se s tabl i sh t h eb eg inn ing a nd t h ee nd ( Becke r 1 967 ,p .1 9f . ; N ie l sen 1 981 , p .9 2 f . ) . B u t w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f s uch e x t reme f o rm s , ac e me tery c an u sua l ly b e t o ta l ly e xcava ted ,a sc an as e t t lemen ta nd o the rf e a tu re sw i th i d en t if iab le l im i t s .H oweve r , 4 9

i ti s much mo re d i ff i cu l tt od e te rm ine i fo ne h a ss u cce s sfu l ly f ound a l le x i s t ing t r a ce so fa s e t t lemen tf r om ag iven t ime p er iod w i th in al a rge ra r ea -s uch a si nt h i sc a se av i l lage o f 2 5 -30 km2 w h ich l i e si nh eav i ly c u l t iva ted t e r r ra in . B e s ide st h ep rob lem so fd a t ing l e s sd i s t inc tf e a tu re s ,o ne h a st od ea lw i th t h ep rob lem o f l o ca l iz ing a l l t h e t r aces w h ich man c an h ave l e f t . I n r ea l i ty t h i s s hou ld r equ ire a n e x t reme ly d en se s y s tem o ft e s t s qua re s , p e rhaps o n ly af ew m e t r es a pa r ti nt hose a r ea s whe re i th a s b een p o ss ib le t ot r ace s e t t lemen tr ema in s b yo the rm ean s . H oweve r , s uch d en s i ty i ss e ldom f e a s ib le . I nt h eH age s tad P ro jec tw eh ave t r ied t op lace t h e s qua re s 5 me t re s a par t , b u tf o re conom ic r ea son s w e h ave n o tb een a b le t of o l low t h i sr eg ime i n e ve ry f i e ld . I na dd i t ion t h e re i st h e 2 5 -35 cm t h ick p low z one , w h ich o f ten c on ta in s a r tefa c t s . O ne w ou ld n eed t os i eve t h e e n t i re p low z one o rc o l lec t s u r f ace f i nd s f o r many s ea sons i n o rde r t of i nd a l l t h ese a r te fac t s . B o th t h ese t a sk s w ou ld e n ta i l h igh c o s t s , a nd e ven s o t h ey m igh to n ly r e su l ti n al a rge r n umbe ro ff i nd so ft h e s ame s o r tf r om t h e a r ea . I ti s n a tu ra lt os o lve t h i sp rob lem mo re s imp ly ,f o ri n s tance b yc a r ry ing o u ts u r f ace s ampl ing c o l lec t ion f o rt wo t ot h ree ( o ri ns ome c a se sp e rhap s mo re ) s e a sons a nd u nde rv a r iou s c ond i t ion s , s ome t ime sc omb ined w i th s i ev ing t h ep low z one i n as ma l le ra r ea t oe s tab l i sh f i nd d ens i ty a nd s t a te o fp re se rva t ion . I nt h is c a se o ne c an h ope t og e t ar ep resen ta t ive s amp le . B u ta tt h es ame t ime t h is m ean st h a to ne mu s tf o rgo l a rge q uan t i t ie so f ma te r ia l w h ich m igh th ave b een s u i tab le f o rs pec ia li n ve s t iga t ion s . A s i ti sn o tp o ss ib le t or emove t h e t opso i l f r om t h e l a rge a r ea s t h i s w ou ld r equ i re i na r eg ion o ft h em en t ioned s i ze ,n o rt oc o l lec ta l lt h ea r tef ac t si nt h ep low z one ,o ne c anno t a t temp t a" t o ta l e xcava t ion " o f al a rge r a r ea . I tf o l lows t h a t o ne c anno t d e te rm ine t h e d eg ree o fp re se rva t ion w i th c e r ta in ty ,e ven w hen o ne d evo te s ag rea td ea lo ft ime t ot h e p rob lem . Ag r ea tn umbe ro fs ma l le rs e t t lemen t s ,w h ich c an b ei mpo r tan tt oi d en t ify a nd u se i nt h ea na ly s is , m ay h ave e x i s ted . N eve r the les s at ho rough i nve s t iga t ion s hou ld n o t h ave m i ssed a ny o f t h e l a rge r s e t t lemen t s o r c eme ter ies , a tl e a s t w hen t h e d eg ree o f p re se rva t ion i sr a the rh i gh ( s tage A -B ) . T he re i sn o d oub t t h a t al a rge p a r t o f t h e p reh i s to r ic s ou rce ma te r ia l i sd amaged o r d e s t royed e ve ry y ea ri nt h ei n ten s ive ly c u l t iva ted l a nd scape . T h i sc anno tb ep reven ted , s i nce i ti so f ten aq ue s t ion o fa nu nd rama t ic , s ucce ss ive d ecay w h ich i sn o to b se rved b y t h e f a rme r a nd t h e refo re d oes n o t u sua l ly c ome t o t h e a t ten t ion o f t h e B ureau o f A n t iqu i t ie s . B u ti ti sp rec i se ly f o rt h i sr ea son t h a ti ti si mpor tan tt oc hoo se c e r ta in a r ea s w h ich c an b et ho rough ly i nve s t iga ted , s ot h a ti tw i l lb ep o ss ib le t os t udy m any d i f f e ren t a spec t so ft h es e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re a nd t h e rea f te rt e s tt h ev a l id i ty i n al o ca lm i l ieu a sw e l l a si no the rk ind s o fl a nd scapes whe re i tw i l l t h e re fo re n o t b e n ece ssa ry t oi nves t s uch g r ea tr e sou rce si nf i e ldwo rk .

T ran s la t ed b yD ebo rah O lau s son

5 0

F igure 1 .

S t age A . Ah ypo the t ica la r ea w i th m ax ima l ly f a vou rab le p r e se rva t ion s i tua t ion . S=c en t ra l s e t t lemen ts i te . C =c eme te ry .

F igure 2 .

S t age B .A na r ea w i th l e s so p t ima lc ond i t ions o fp re se rva t ion than i ns t age A .

F igure 3 .

S t age C .A n a r ea w i th l ow d eg ree o fp re se rva t ion .

F igure 4 .

S tage D . A na r ea w i th v e ry l ow d eg ree o fp re se rva t ion .

5 1

R eferences A lmg ren , B . , 1 972 . S ou rce c r i t ic ism . T or X IV , 1 970 -1971 . Amb ros ian i , B . , J ohansen , A . B . e t a l . , 1 985 . E n d eba t t om b eva rande o ch k un skap sp roduk t ion .F ornvännen . B ecke r , C .J . , 1 967 . G ädefu lde j y ske s t ena lde rg rave . N a t iona lmusee t s A rbe jd smark . K obenhavn . F o r sbe rg , L .L . , 1 985 . S i te v ar iab i l i ty a nd s e t t lemen t p a t terns . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t5 . Umeä . H edeage r , L . , 1 978 . B ebygge l se , s oc ia l s t ruk tu ro gp o l i t i sk o rgan i sa t ion iO s tdanma rk s x ld re o g y ng re r ome r t id . F or t id o g n u t id XXV I I . T id ssk r if t f o r k u l tu rh i s to r ie o g l oka lh i s to r ie . Hyens t rand , A . , 1 981 . Dokumen ta t ion -f or skn ing . E n f ä l ta rkeo log isk p rog ram d i skuss ion . R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t . Dokumen ta t ion sby rän . A rbe t shand l ing . S tock h o lm . K r i s t ian sen , K . , 1 978 . T he a pp l ica t ion o fs ou rce c r i t ic i sm t oA rchaeo logy .N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 1 . O s lo . - 1 985 .A rchaeo log ica lf orma t ion p roce s se s . N a t iona lmu see t .K ob enhavn . Kyh lbe rg , 0 . , 1 985 . A rkeo log in o ch d e e x i s ten t ie l la g rundbeg reppen . K on tak t s tenc i l 2 4 -25 . St o ckho lm . Ma lme r ,M .P . , 1 971 .A rkeo log ien sm ä lo ch mö j l ighe te r .A le 1 970 :3 . - 1 984 .A rkeo log i sk p o s i t iv i sm .F ornvännen . N ie lsen ,P . -0 . , 1 981 . Danmark sh i s tor ien .S t ena lder en .B onde s tena ld eren . V ibo rg . S t römberg , M . , 1 962 . E ine s i ed lungsgesch ich t l iche U n te r suchung i n H ages tad , S üdo s t -Schonen . Medde landen f rän L und su n iver s i t e t sh i s tor i ska mu seum 1 961 . - 1 971 . G rubenhäuse ri nV a l lebe rga . Medd e landen f rän L und s u n iver s i te t sh i s tor i ska mu seum 1 969 -1970 . - 1 975 . U n te r suchungen z u rB ronzeze i t i nS üdos t schonen . Medd e landen f rän L und s u n iver s i te t sh i s tor i ska m u seum 1 973 -1974 . - 1 978 . H ages tadsunde r sökn ingen s om u tgäng spunk t f ör b egygge lseh i s tor iska me tode r . B ebygge l se sh is tor isk m e tode o g t e kn ik . S k r if te rf r aH is to r i sk I n s t i tu t , 2 3 . Oden se . 1 980 . T he H age s tad i nve s t iga t ion -ap ro jec t a na ly s i s . Medde landen f rän L und s u n iver s i te t sh i s tor i ska m u seum 1 979 -1980 . 1 982 . I nge l s torp . Z ur S ied lungsen tw ick lung e i ne s s üd schwed i shen Dor ies . A c ta A r chaeo log ica L unden s ia 4 : 14 . L und . - 1 985 .J ägare f l in t smed b ond ej ärnsmed iG i s löv . U tg iven a vG i s löf sS rn ide smu seum . S i rn r i shamn .

5 2

PRESERVATION OF THE PAST B y J .M . Co les F u r sdon M i l lC o t tage . T ho rve r ton . D evon EX5 5 JS . E ng land . O ve rt h ep a s tt wen ty y ea r s ,E u ropean a r chaeo log i s t sh ave b ecome i n c rea s ing ly a wa re o f t h ep res su res i mpo sed o n s i te s a nd monumen t sb y mode rn l i f e a nd a l li t sr equ i remen t s . Wha th a so ccu r red i nt h e se t wo d ecades i sn o tm e re ly a2 0 th c en tury l i nea ri n crea se i n d amage a nd d es truc t ion o ft h e r e co rd o ft h ep a s t , b u t a n a cce le ra ted t r a jec to ry w h ich , u n le s sc hecked ,w i l ll e ad u l t ima te ly t ot h el o ss o fa lmo s te ve ry a nc ien t monumen to t he r t h an t hose a c tua l ly o wned o r t i gh t ly c on t ro l led b y c onse rva t ion i n te re s ts , i n c lud ing a r chaeo log is t s . T h roughou t h i s l ong a nd d i s t ingu ished c a ree r , Ma ts P . Ma lme r h a s d emon s t ra ted t ime a nd a ga in h i sc once rn f o rt h ep re se rva t ion o ft h ep a s t ,a sw e l la sf o ri t s e xp lana t ion , a nd i ti s ap l ea su re t op re sen t t h i s p ape rt oh im a s as ma l l t r ibu te f o r h i s c on t r ibu t ion t ot h ec u l tu ra lh e r i tage . Among t he 2 0 th c en tu ry d eve lopmen t s s eem ing ly d ev ised , a cco rd ing t o mo s t g ove rnmen t s , f o r h uman " improvemen t " a r e many w h ich a ppea r t o af ew p eop le a s s hor t -s igh ted , p e rhaps o f i mmed ia te b enef i t b u t o f d ub ious l onge r te rm a dvan tage . Among t h e se a r ep re s su r es p u tu pon w ide e xpan se so ft h a te nv i ronmen t wh ich p re serve n a tura l a nd c u l tu ra l e l emen t s r ef lec t ive o fp a s t , l e ss d eve loped a nd mo re s t ab le e ven t s w h ich many o fu s s t i l l a dm i re a nd c he r ish . T he b road e xpanse s o fm ixed wood land , n ow r ep laced b y u n ifo rm i ty o fc on if e rou s t r ee s , o rt o ta l ly c l ea red f o ra r ab le p l a in s , t h e r i ch ly -va r ied p l an ta nd a n ima ll i f eo fr i ve rv a l ley s ,n ow o ve rwhe lmed b yu rban s p raw lo r t r unca ted b y mo torway i n c is ion , a r e o n ly t wo e nv i ronmen t s wh ich n o t o n ly h e ld r emnan t s ‘o fp a s tn a tu ra lw i ld l if eb u to f ten a l so s i gn if ican tt r ace so fa nc ien th ab i ta t ion o r a c t iv i ty . A rchaeo log i s t s , l i ke n a tu ra l i s t s , h ave n o e xcuse i nl amen t ing t h e l o ss o fs uch e v idence u n les s t h ey h ave made e ve ry e f for t t op re serve , a tt h e v e ry l e a s t , a dequa te s amp le so fs uch e nv i ronmen t s , a nd i ti st h ep u rpo se o ft h i sp ape rt oc ommen tu pon t h e p re ssu re s o n a r chaeo log ica l s i tes a nd l a nd scape s , a nd t o make s ome s ugge s t ion s a bou t t h e w ay s b y w h ich s ome may a t temp t t oc oun te rs uch p re s su re . I nt h el a t te r a im Iw i l l r e s t r ic t my c ommen t s t ot ho se f ew i n s tances w he re a r chaeo log i s t s h ave n o t t r ied t o m e re ly d ef lec t " t i me 's a r row " b u t h ave w o rked t op reven t a ny p ar t o fi t s d es t ruc t ive c ou r se . I ti so bv ious ,y e ts ome t ime so ve r looked ,t h a tn os i te o r monumen te ve re x i s ted w i thou ta c on tempo ra ry l a ndscape , a nd t h a t n o s oc ie ty e ve r c on temp la ted p lac ing as t ruc tu re a t r andom . E ve ry s i te w ea r e c once rned w i th h a s , o rh ad , al a nd scape t h a tw a sp a r to ft h e monumen t , t h a t s e rved n o t o n ly a s ab ase f o r t h a t s i te b u t a l so a s as e t t ing a nd a n e nv i ronmen t w i th in w h ich t h e monumen tf unc t ioned . A lmo s tw i thou te xcep t ion , e ach s i te w a s c once ived , d e s igned a nd c ons t ruc ted t o s u i t i t s p rec ise l a ndscape . L ake s ide s e t t lemen t ss e to nd eep ly -d r iven p i le s , ( e .g .p reh i s to r ic l a ke s ide s e t t lemen t si nt h eA lp ine l a ke s ,o rT enoch t i t lan ,n ow Mex ico C i ty ) ,h eavy monumen t sp laced o nl i v ing r ock , ( e .g . S tonehenge ,E ng land o rm ed ieva lO rv ie to ,I t a ly ) ,e a r then r ampa r t sl a ced w i th t imbe ra nd e ng inee red a ga ins tl a nd s l ip , ( e .g . t h eH eunebu rg ,G e rmany ,o r No rman c a s t le mound s ) , o rw ooden p l a t fo rm sp egged i n to t h e ma r sh ( e .g . t h eF o r tC en te rF lo r ida b u r ia l s , o rt h e S omerse t L eve ls i s land -edge o ccupa t ions , E ng land ) , a l l d emons t ra te t he a cknow ledgemen to ft h ep a s t ,o ft h a ti n t ima te r e la t ion sh ip o fs i te a nd s e t t ing . B u tt h e se monumen t sh ave o u t l i—ed t h e i r make r s , a nd h ave h ad t os urv ive i ns e t t ing sf a r d i f f e ren t f r om t h e i r o r ig ina l c ha rac te r . Many n ow f a ce c hang ing c ond i t ions wh ich 5 3

t h rea ten t h e i re x i s tence ,a nd m any h ave f a l len i n to o b l iv ion t h rough d e l ibe ra te o ri gno ran t a c t ion sb yp eop le w ho a r en o ta wa re o ft h ec u l tu ra lh e r i tage wh ich t h e se s i te sr ep re sen t . I fw ea ccep tt h a tt h en a tu ra lr e sou r ce so f an a t ion i n c lude i t sc u l tu ra le l emen t s , a l ong t h e l i nes o fc e r ta in e n l igh tened c oun t r ie s ,w eh ave ap r ima ry o b l iga t ion a sa r chaeo log is t st o i d en t ify ,e xp la in a nd c on se rve t h eh e r i tage o ft h ep a s t ,n o ta s me re a n t iqua r ian c u r io s i t i te s b u t a s ar e sou rce f o r e duca t ion ; a nd n o t a s as imp le e xp lana to ry v eh ic le f o r t h e c on tempo ra ry d ef in i t ion o f an a t ion 's c ha rac te r , b u ta s ad ocumen t o fu n ive r sa l h uman e x is tence , s t rugg le a nd a ch ievemen t . T hose monumen t s t ha t c an d ocumen t s uch a ch ievemen t s a r en ow t h rea tened b y many p re ssu re s , s ome o fw h ich a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 1• T ab le 1 .

n a rchaeo log ica l e nv ironmen ts P ressures o E xamp le s

F arm ing

c l ea rance ,c u l t iva t ion ,b ioc ide s ,d ra inage , g r az ing

F o re s t ry a nd v ege ta t ion

p l an t ing ,h a rve s t ing ,d ra inage , s c rub land

Q ua r ry ing

r ock , s and , g r ave l ; o nl a nd a nd u nd erwa te r

Wa te re ro s ion

l a ke l e ve l s ,w ave a c t ion ,r i ve r s

L and e ro s ion

t empe ra tu r e ,p rec ip i ta t ion ,l e ach ing , l a nd s l ip

T ou r i sm a nd u rban ism

e ro s ion ,h ou s ing ,i ndu s t ry ,p o l lu t ion

We t land d r a inage

d e s icca t ion ,e ro s ion ,b i ochem ica l d eg rada t ion

T ran spo r ta t ion

mo to rway s ,a i rpor t s ,d ock s .

I ti sn o tt h ep u rpo se o ft h i sp ape rt od e sc r ibe t h e se p re s su re s , a st h ey w i l lb es e l f -ev iden t t oa l lw ho h ave b een w i tne s st ot h es e em ing ly i n exo rab le r educ t ion o fo u ra r chaeo log ica l d a ta b a se a nd t h ed e s t ruc t ion o ft h ec u l tu ra lh e r i tage o fa l lp eop le . I n s tead ,w es e a rch f o r a r chaeo log ica lr e spon se s t ot h e se p re ssu re s , f o rs i gn so fr e s is tance w h ich m ay r e su l ti n p re se rva t ion o fs i te sa nd monumen t se ven a ga in s ts e em ing ly i n su rmoun tab le d i ff icu l t ie s . I ti sa rguab le t oday t h a ta r chaeo logy s hou ld e xpend much o fi t sl im i ted e ne rgy i ne f fo r t s t o r e ta in t ha t e v idence o f t h e p a s t t h a t w i l l p e rm i t f u ture a na lyses a nd t h eo re t ica l i n terp re ta t ions t ot a ke p l ace ,r a the rt h an m e re ly t oc on t inue t oe xp lo re c u r ren t mode ls o f e xp lana t ion , wh i le i r re t r ievab le d amage i sd one t ot h e s u rv iv ing r e co rd . J u s t a s t h e q ue s t ion s o ft oday r equ i re t h e e v idence o fy e s te rday , t ho se u nknown q ue s t ion s o ft h e f u tu re r equ i re t h a tw er e ta in e nough e v idence t oday f o ro u rd e scendan t s . P robab ly t h e g rea te s t t h rea t t o a r chaeo log ica l monumen ts i sp osed b y f a rm ing , a 1 0 .000 -yea r -o ld i ndu s t ry f o rme r ly o pe ra t ing i nh a rmony w i th i t se nv i ronmen t sb u to f ten n ow p u r su ing a na gg res s ive a nd e x t rac t ive p o l icy t h a ti ss y s tema t ica l ly d amag ing many t r ad i t iona l a spec t s o ft h e l a nd ( e .g . L owe e ta l1 986 ) . C lea rance o fw ood land , d eepe r p lough ing , d ra inage , i n tens if ied g raz ing , d eepe r -roo ted c rops , f e r t i l ize r s a nd b ioc ide s , a r ea l lr e spons ib le f o rt h ed e te r io ra t ion a nd d e s t ruc t ion o fa nc ien ts i te s ,w he the rt h ey b e u ps tand ing e a r thwo rk s o r s ub -sur f ace f e a tures . H ow t o c oun ter s uch a c t iv i t ie s i sa p rob lem wh ich f ew n a t ion s h ave a dd re ssed , a l though n a t iona l l e g is la t ion s uch a s t h e 5 4

C on se rva t ion o fN a tu re A c ti nD enma rk i so ne s u ch a t temp t . A rchaeo log ica lr e spon se s h ave b een m ixed , b u t l a nd t e nancy a g reemen t s mus t i mpo se r e s tr ic t ions o n i n ten s ive m e thod s a nd e s tab l i sh l e ve ls o ff a rm ing t h a tr e spec tt h ea r chaeo log ica lc ha rac te ro ft h e l a nd ; i nC o rnwa l l , E ng land ,j us t s uch a g reemen t s i mpo sed b y t h e N a t iona l T ru s t h ave a s su red t h es u rv iva lo fw ide e xpan se so fI r on A ge l a nd p a t te rn sd e l im i ted b ys t one f ence s a nd e nc lo su re s ( Thack ray & H ea rn 1 985 ) . I no t he ra r ea sw he re a g r icu l tu re i s mo re e xp lo i t ive ,q u i te f i rm c on t ro l sa r er equ i red . A n I r on A ge h i l lfo r t a tC he rbury , O xon , E ng land s u f f e red f r om p lough ing o ft h e i n te r io r , c a t t le g raz ing a nd e ro s ion o f t h e e a r then b ank s , d eve lopmen t o f s c rub v ege ta t ion i n p l ace s ,h e rb ic ide a nd f e r t i l ize rd r i f to n to t h eb ank s ,a nd r abb i ta nd b adge rb u r row ing ( f ig . 1 ) . T he s i te h ad b een r i ch i n w i ld l ife , b o th p lan t s a nd ( sma l l ) a n ima ls , a nd b o th a r chaeo logy a nd n a tu re c on se rva t ion i n te re s t sr e cen t ly p roduced ap lan f o rt h es u rv iva lo f t h e monumen t . R emova l o fw i ld a n ima ls b y t r app ing ( badge r s ) a nd g a ss ing ( r abb i t s ) , r e pa ir o ft h ee a r thwo rk s , c l ea rance o fs c rub , a nd t r an sf e ro ft h ei n te r io rf r om a r ab le t o p a s tu re w i th f e nced in c a t t le , w ou ld c o s tl i t t le y e tc ou ld e nsu re t h es u rv iva lo ft h es i te i na s ympa the t ic e nv i ronmen t( Lew i s &M i le s 1 985 ) . T h i sc omb ina t ion o fa r chaeo logy a nd n a tu re c on serva t ion i s ak ey f o rs i te p re se rva t ion . T he c omb ined c on t ro lf o rB ronze A ge b a r row si nD enma rk , f o re xamp le , a l low ing p lan t c ommun i t ie st od eve lop o nu ncu l t iva ted g round ( Ravn s ted -La r sen 1 983 ) a nd p reven t ing d amage t ob a r r row s t ruc tu re t h rough s c rub d eve lopmen t ( e .g . T ho r sen 1 982 ) o rh eavy g r az ing , i s as imp le s o lu t ion t oc omb ined p rob lem s . Much w o rk o f as im i la rn a tu re h a s b een d one i n G e rmany whe re s ympa the t ic r e s to ra t ions a re ma in ta ined t h rough c on se rva t ion m ea su re s ( e .g . Abe l s 1 984 ; B auch 1 980 ) . Among o the rp re s su re so na r chaeo log ica l s i te sa r el a nd a nd w a te re ro s ion ,a nd h e re a ga in s ome e f fo r t s h ave b een made t op reven t s uch d amage b y p hys ica l mean s . T he G rea t Mo rav ian s i te s o fS ta re Mes t ro a nd M iku lc ice a r en ow p ro tec ted f r om f r o s te ro s ion b y s t onewo rk wh ich s t reng then s ,r e s to re s a nd a b so rb sc l ima t ic p re ssu re s ( Pou la 1 960 ) . A t O u jon i n Sw i tze r land p a r t s o f t h e m ed ieva l mona s te ry h ave b een e xposed a nd t h en s ubme rged b enea th d epo s i t so fs o i ld e s igned t or ef l ec tt h eo r ig ina lw a l ll i ne a nd c ha rac te r y e tt op rov ide p ro tec t ion a ga in s th eavy s now a nd c o ld a t moun ta in a l t i tude (We idmann 1 985 ) . R e la t ive ly l i t t le , i ts eem s , c an b e d one t op reven t f r os t e ros ion o fa nc ien t r ock c a rv ing si nt h en o r th o fE u rope o ra th igh a l t i tude se xcep tb ys ea sona lb u r ia lo rs e a l ing b y af l ex ib le p a in t b a se , a l though t h e l a t te r h a s s e r iou s d i sadvan tages f o r a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . No r h a s much b een d one t oc oun te r t h e e f f ec t s o f a c id d epo s i t ion o n s t one monumen t si nE u rope o ri nt h e Ame r ica s( e .g . A dam s&P age 1 986 ) . T he b u r ia l o f s i tes a tr i sk f r om t h e p ub l ic a nd i t s i n sa t iab le c ur io s i ty i si n c rea s ing ly c ommon . T he N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t o f H eke l ingen i n Ho l land h as r ecen t ly b een s ubme rged b enea th o ne me t re o f s o i l t o h e lp r e ta in s o me mo is tu re a s w e l l a s t o d i scou rage e f for t st op i l lage t h es i te ( Louwe K oo i jman s 1 985 ) . Mo re f undamen ta lb ecau se o fw ide re f f ec ta r et h ec u r ren tl a ke l e ve lc ond i t ion si np a r t so f Sw i tze r land w he re w a te r e ros ion h a s e xposed t h e t r aces o f p reh is to r ic l akes ide s e t t lemen t s , i mmen se ly r i ch i na r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s o fb o th o rgan ic a nd i no rgan ic c ha rac te r . Wi thou t s ome f orm o f i n te rven t ion , t h ese s i tes p e r i sh b y b iochem ica l d eg rada t ion a nd p hy s ica l e ros ion , a nd , f o r e xamp le , C or ta i l lod les -Esse r t s i sn ow s e r ious ly d amaged . T oa t temp tt oc onse rve s i te sb y b u r ia l , b yd ump ing s and a nd r ock s , h a s n o t b een s uccessfu l , a nd B ronze A ge N euchä te l -Ba ins d u C r8 t a nd N eo l i th ic S a in tB la i se h ave s uf f e red ( Eg lo f f1 982 ) . Mo re r e cen t ly , as i te a tC o rce le t te s , s t i l lb u r ied b yn a tu ra ld epo s i t sy e tp e r i lous ly c l o se t ot h e mode rn s ho re l ine a nd i t sa t tendan te ro s ive p owe r s , h a s b een p ro tec ted b y ac u r ta in o fw ooden p i le s s e to f f sho re t ob reak t h ew ave f o r ce ,a nd b y ac obb le b each t op reven te r o s ion ( Vaud 1 983 ) . T he s ucce s so ft h i sv en tu re 5 5

mu s tr e s tw i th t h ee s tab l i shmen to fv ege ta t ion o n t h eb each , t op rov ide s t ab i l i ty a nd t o h e lp ma in ta in w a te rs a tu ra t ion o ft h ec u l tu ra ld epo s i t sb eh ind . Wi th t h e se f ew e xamp le sw eh ave e s tab l i shed t h ep a r ame te r so fc on t ro la nd i n te rven t ion f o r t h e p rese rva t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l monumen t s . E f fo r t s t o c r ea te e nv i ronmen t s a pp rop r ia te f o r t h e s urv iva l o f s i te s r equ ire a s e t o f c on t ro ls w i thou t w h ich s uccess c anno tb ea s su red .T he se c on t ro l sa r et h ree i nn umbe r : 1 .

l e ga lc on t ro l ,t h el e g i s la t ive m echan i sm w h ich c an d e te ro rd e lay a ny d e t r imen t a l a c t ion o nt h es i te .

2 .

c u l tura lc on t ro l , t h e i mpo s i t ion b yp e r sua s ion o ri n cen t ive o fs i te m anagemen t , t op reven td amage b ya ny h uman a c t iv i ty i n c lud ing n eg lec t .

3 .

e nv ironmen ta l c on t ro l , t he man ipu la t ion a nd a l te ra t ion o f c ond i t ions o n a nd a round t h e s i te t oe n su re t h a tt h ep hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t i sc onduc ive t o t h es u rv iva lo ft h es i te .

I ti s my o p in ion t h a tn o a nc ien t s i te o r monumen tc an b e a s su red o fs u rv iva lu n le ss a l l t h ree c ond i t ion sa r e me t ,a l lt h ree c on t ro l si mpo sed a nd ma in ta ined .F ew s i te sh ave s uch c on t ro l ss u cce s sfu l ly a pp l ied ,a nd s eve ra lb r ief e xamp le sc an b ea dvanced t od emon s t ra te t h ep rob lem s . 1 .

L ega lc on t ro l s . A l though n a t iona lp o l ic ie se x i s ti ns ome c oun t r ie s t ha t more o r l e s sa u toma t ica l ly p ro tec ta ny v i s ib le monumen t s , ( e .g . D enma rk , Mex ico )t h e re a r e many s i tes n o t " v i s ib le " i n t h e n orma l s en se o f t h e w o rd , a nd i ti ss uch f r agmen tary a nd e l u s ive s i te st h a ta r ep e rhap st h e mo s ts i gn if ican tf o ru s t oday , a st h ey p re sen tn ew k ind so fe v idence h i the r to n o te xpo sed a nd n o tu nde r s tood . O ther c oun t r ies h ave l e ss embrac ing p o l ic ies ; o f ak nown 5 00 .000 a r chaeo log ica ls i te si nE ng land ,o n ly 1 2 .800 a r el e ga l ly p ro tec ted ( Wa inw r igh t 1 985 ) , a nd e ven h e re t h ee nfo rcemen to fs uch l e g is la t ion may c au se p rob lem s a nd a l iena te t h es ympa th ie so fl a ndowne r s .

2 .

C u l tura l c on t ro ls . E ven where l ega l p ro tec t ion e x is ts , i nappropr ia te managemen t may c au se p rog re s s ive d amage ,t h rough n eg lec to rm i s in fo rma t ion . C on t inued p lough ing , a tt r ad i t iona l d ep ths a nd n o mo re , i ss t i l l p e rm i t ted o n s ome " p ro tec ted " monumen t si nE ng land . Abandoned b a r row sa nd h i l lfo r t ss oon s uppo r t d ense v ege ta t ion . P opu la r monumen t s a t t rac t v i s i to r s b y t h e t e ns o f t housands a nd s e r ious e ros ion a nd t r amp l ing c an o ccur ; S tonehenge i n E ng land a nd T eo t ihuacan i n Mex ico a r e b o th u nde rgo ing e normous p re s su re sa nd r equ i re f i rm c u l tu ra lc on t ro l .

Managemen ta g reemen t sf o ra g r icu l tu re , a sf o rt ou r i sm , a r ec ruc ia l , a nd t h ee n l igh tened a pp roach o f t h e N a t iona l T rus t i n t h e U n i ted K ingdom , a nd t h e c omb ined l a nd -u se p o l ic ies o f G e rman ( G lu tz e ta l 1 984 ) , D an ish ( So lvang 1 983 ) a nd o the r E u ropean c oun t r ie sw h ich c omb ine a r chaeo log ica lp re se rva t ion w i th n a tu re c on se rva t ion a r eu sefu l e xamp les o f s ucce ssfu l c o l labo ra t ion ( e .g . D anev irke ) . T ab le 2 f o r e xamp le , l i s t s t h e p r io r i t ie su sed i nt h es e lec t ion o f monumen t sa nd n a tu re c on se rva t ion s i te sf o rp ro tec t ion b yb o th l e ga la nd c u l tu ra lp ol i c ie si nE ng land .

5 6

T ab le 2 .

P r ior i t ies i n t he s e lec t ion o f monumen ts a nd n a ture c onserva t ion s i tes f or p ro tec t ion i n E ng land 1 985

A rchaeo logy

N a ture C onserva t ion

S u rv iva l /Cond i t ion : ( q ual i ty )

S u rv iva l :q ua l i ty a nd e x ten t

P e r iod : a l lt y pe s

H ab i ta tt y pe :a lt y pe s

R a r i ty : ( un ique s i te s )

R a r i ty v a lue :r a re s pec ie s

F rag i l i ty /Vu lne rab i l i ty

F rag i l i ty o rv u lne rab i l i ty

D ive r s i ty : ( mu l t ip le o rs i ng le f e a tu re s )

D ive r s i ty o fi n te re s t : ( p lan t s& a n ima l s )

D ocumen ta t ion : a dequa cy o fd a ta

D ocumen ta t ion : s pec ie sr e co rd s

G roup v a lue :l a nd scape a s soc ia t i on

G roup v a lue : w i ld l if er e se rvo i r s

P o ten t ia l : ( a n t ic ipa t ion o f i mpo r tance )

P o ten t ia l :f u tu re v a lue

( b racke ted c ommen t sa r ep a raph ra sed f r om t h eo r ig ina l ) B a sed o n Wa inw r igh t1 985 a nd V i t t er y1 985 . O fc ou r se , b o th l e ga l a nd c u l tu ra l managemen t p o l ic ie s r equ i re e nfo r cemen t , a nd t h e p i t ifu l ly -sma l l p ena l t ies i mposed o n t ho se w ho h ave w i lfu l ly d amaged t he c u l tu ra l h e r i tage a r en od e te r ren tf o rt h ef u tu re . T he " po l ic ing " o f monumen t si na l lp a r t s o ft h e w o r ld i s an eg lec ted e l emen t i na l l t h e d i scu s s ion s a bou t , a nd i mpo s i t ion o f , c on t ro l s ; d ra inage o fp ro tec ted l a nd s ,p lough ing o fb a r row s ,q ua r ry ing o fh i l lfo r t s ,d e s t ruc t ion b y mo to rway o r p ipe l ine c ons t ruc t ion , o r u rban d eve lopmen t , a r e a s d e l ibe ra te a c t s o f d amage a sa r et h e mo r es p ec tacu la rt omb robb ing i nC en t ra l Ame r ica a nd t h eN ea rE a s t . 3 .

E nv i ronmen ta l c on t ro l . I n a l l t h ese ma t te r s o f c on t ro l a nd managemen t , e nv i ronmen t s e ldom e n te r s t h e d i scus s ion . Y e t i ti sc ruc ia l f o r t h e l ong te rm s u rv iva lo f monumen t s a nd s i te so fa l lk ind s , a nd n owhe re mo re i mpo r tan tt h an f o rw a te r logged s i te s . H e r ei st h ec ruc ia le xpo su re o fa r chaeo log i s t st ot h ei d ea l s o f p rese rva ton f o r t h e f u tu re . B efo re t u rn ing t o t he se p rob lems a g lance a tt h ec oncep to fe nv i ronmen ta lc on t ro l s may b eo fv a lue .

B ye nv i ronmen ta li n te rven t ion w em ean t h ed e l ibe ra te i mpo s i t ion o rt h ep re se rva t ion o f p rec ise p hys ica l c ond i t ion s u pon a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a nd l a nd scapes ( Co le s 1 987a ) . Mo s to ft h ec u r ren tp rob lem so fp r e se rva t ion a r e ad i rec tr e f lec t ion o ft h el o s so rd ecay o f t h eo r ig ina lo rh i s to r ic e nv i ronmen tt h a th ad a l lowed s uch s i te st os u rv ive .E nv i ronmen ta l i n terven t ion a t temp t st oh a l to ra tl e a s td e lay t h er a te o fd ecay o fi mpo r tan ts i te sa nd a r ea s . I ti nvo lves d rama t ic a l te ra t ion o f p re sen t p rocesse s , a nd may i n t roduce c hanges i n g eo log ica l f e a tu res , i n p l an t l i f e , i n d ra inage a nd e ro s ion c yc les , a nd i n t h e h uman p rac t ice so pe ra t ing o ns u ch e nv i ronmen t s . T he b u r ia lo fa r chaeo log ica l s i te st or e ta in h igh w a te r tab le ( e .g . H eke l ingen , H o l land ) , t h ep a r t ia ld ra inage o fa na r ea t op reven td amage t os t ruc tu re sb yr i s ing d amp ( e .g . p l ans f o r T enoch t i t lan , Mex ico ) , o r t h e r e s to ra t ion o f monumen t s t oh e lp s ea l u nd is tu rbed 5 7

o r ig ina ld epo s i t s ( e .g . B auch 1 980 , G e rmany ) a r ee xamp le s o ff o rm s o fe nv i ronmen ta l i n terven t ion o r c on t ro l . T he r e c lama t ion o ft h e p o lde r s o ft h e I j e s se lmee r f r om 1 930 o nwa rd s r evea led h und reds o f s h ipw reck s , a nd an umbe r a r e n ow b e ing h e ld i nt h e i r w a te r logged s t a te b ys e a l ing t h em i n aw a te r t igh tc on ta ine r ; e ach s i te i ss u r rounded b ya w a l lo fp l a s t ic f o i ls e ti n to t h eu nde r ly ing i mpe rmeab le c l ay , t h ef o i lt h en f o lded i nwa rd s a nd o ve r t h e w reck t o c r ea te a " t ub " o f w a te r -soaked s ed imen t s , f ed b y r a inf a l l o r a r t if ic ia l ly a nd t hus h e ld i n g ood c ond i t ion f o r f u tu re d ec is ions a bou t e xcava t ion ( Re inde r s 1 982 ) . Many a r chaeo log ica l s i te s o f l a te p reh i s to r ic o r e a r ly h i s tor ic d a te l i e i n w e t land s , p a r t icu la r ly i nn o r th -we s tern E u rope , a nd t h e i rp re serva t ion c an b ee xcep t iona l ,w i th e . g . h ouse w a l l s , s hed sa nd f ence s s t i l l s t and ing i np a r t , a nd o rgan ic e qu ipmen t s u rv iv ing i n u nu sua la bundance ( e .g . F edde r sen W ie rde :H aa rnage l 1 979 ) . O the rw e t land sw he re p ea t h a so verwhe lmed a nc ien ts t ruc tu res a l so p rov ide a r chaeo logy w i th u n ique e v idence ( e .g . L owe r S axony wooden r oadways a nd v eh ic le s : H ayen 1 987 ) . T hese w e t land s i te s a pproach t h e q ua l i ty o f t h e " d rowned " s e t t lemen t s o f t h e Sw iss , I t a l ian a nd F rench A lp ine l akes ( e .g . P er in i 1 983 ) , b u t t h e n o r the rn w e t lands a l so p reserve s uch a n a bundance o fw i ld l if et h a tb o th a r chaeo logy a nd n a tu r ec on servancy c omb ine i ne f fo r t st o p re se rve monumen t s ,w i ld l i f ea nd t r ad i t iona lr u ra lp ra c t ice s( Hayen 1 981) . A l l t h e se i n te re s t s a r e b rough t t oge the r b y o ne e l emen t -w a te r . H igh w a te rl e ve ls a r e n eeded f o rt h eo rgan ic p re serva t ion o n s i te s , f o rs pec ia l i sed p lan t sa nd a n ima ls , a nd f o r w e t land f a rm ing a c t iv i t ies . Wi thou t w a te r , a l l mus t p e r ish , a nd e nv i ronmen ta l i n terven t ion i st h e refo re s e en a so ff undamen ta li mpo r tance i na s su r ing t h e h i gh w a te r t a b les w h ich a l l r e cogn i se a s c ruc ia l . Y e t t h e re i so ne f e a ture i nt h is c omb ina t ion o f i n te re s t s t h a t s e t a r chaeo log ica lp re se rva t ion a par t ( f ig . 2 ) . We t land s a t t rac t s pec ia l i sed w i ld l if e wh ich e vo lve a nd c hange i nc ompo s i t ion a st h ee nv i ronmen td i c ta te s ; ad ry ing w e t land w i l lh ou se o t he rl i f ef o rm sl e s sa menab le t od rowned d epo s i t so fs wamp ,m a r sh , f en o r b og . I fr ewe t ted , h oweve r , t h e l a nd w i l l o nce a ga in a s sume i t s t r ue w e t land c ha rac ter a nd a t t rac t s ome o ft h e s pec ia l i sed f o rm s a ga in s hou ld t h ey h ave s u rv ived e l sewhe re ;t h el o ng -d i s tance m ig ra to ry a nd c o lon i s ing h ab i t so f many s pec ie sa r es t il n o t f u l ly u nde r s tood . T hu sf o rn a tu re c on serva t ion ,w e t land sa r eo f ten c apab le o fr e s to ra t ion t op rev iou s l e ve l s , a nd s ome t imes o fe nhancemen tt on ew l e ve l so fw a te r logg ing ( f ig . 2 ) .I ti sn o tt h e s ame f o ra r chaeo log ica lr ema ins . O nce t h e se h ave b egun t od ry o u t , t h ey c anno tb er e s to red t ot h e i ro r ig ina lw e l l -p re served c ond i t ion ; t h el o s s i sp e rmanen t , a nd n o f u r the rw e t t ing o ft h e e nv i ronmen tc an r e crea te t h e a r chaeo log ica l e l emen t s i nt h i s s i tua t ion . T he f i n i te r e sou r ce o fa r chaeo logy o na ny s i te c anno td raw u pon t h er e sou r ce s f r om o the r s i tes t o r e s to re i t s c ond i t ion , u n l ike w e t land w i ld l ife r e se rves . T hus a r chaeo logy h a s t o b e e t e rna l ly v ig i lan t a nd c anno t a f fo rd t o l e t s l ip a ny e f fo r t s t o p re se rve t h e monumen t so ft h ep a s t .T ol o se o ne b a t t le i st ol o se t h a tw a r . We t land s a r ec u r ren t ly u nde ri mmen se t h rea t st h rough d ra inage a nd t h rough p ea t -cu t t ing ( Co le s 1 984 ) . I nf ew c a se s h ave s ucces sfu l s t eps b een t a ken t or e s i s tt h e d e s t ruc t ion o f w a te r logged a r chaeo log ica l s i tes a nd t h e i r a s soc ia ted e nv i ronmen ta l e v idence a nd l a nd scape . I nD ema rk , a si n af ew o the rp l ace s , t h e n a t iona l a gency h a s r e sponded t o w e t land t h rea t s b ya s se r t ing t h et h ree l e ve l so fc on t ro ln o ted a bove -l e ga l , c u l tu ra la nd e nv i ronmen ta l . I n Ämo sen b og , w he re a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a r e w e l l -known a nd o rgan ica l ly -p re served ,c u rren t s u rvey sh ave i d en t if ied p a r t icu la ra r ea so fh igh a cadem ic p r io r i ty f o rc on se rva t ion , a nd p rev iou sd ra inage s cheme sh ave b een t e rm ina ted a nd w a te r r eg ions r e s to red t o s u i tab le w e t land l e ve ls ( i nfo . K .K r is t ian sen ) . S im i la r s u rveys a r e u nde rway i n t h e I le rup b og o f J u t land w he re t h e e normous s a cr if ic ia l d epos i t s o f w eapon so fc .2 00 A .D . h ave b een i d en t i f ied a nd w he re o the ri mpo r tan td epo s i t sr ema in i n w a te r logged c ond i t ion ( I lk jae r & L ons t rup 1 982 ) . F o r s im i la r r ea sons , wo rk i s u nde rway a r ound t h e s a cr if i c ia l s p r ing o ft h e 6 th c en tu ry A .D . a tI s oky rö L eva luh ta i n F in land i ne f fo r t s t o ma in ta in a pp ropr ia te c ond i t ion s ( i nfo . J . -P . T aav i t sa inen ) . T hese 5 8

e xamp le s o fe nv i ronmen ta li n te rven t ion a r e f ew ; t ot h em may b e a dded t h e a s soc ia ted w o rk o n s i te s a nd n a tu re r e se rve s i nS ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in ( i nfo . J .Re ich s te in ) . I n o the r w e t land s ,r e ten t ion o fw a te rl e ve l sa pp rop r ia te t oa r chaeo log ica lp re se rva t ion h a sp roved d i f f icu l t ( e .g . L owe r S axony : H ayen 1 980 ) o r i mpo ss ib le ( e .g . I r e land : C o le s 1 987b ) . I mmense p rob lem s a l so e x i s tf o rt h e h uge F en land o fe a s te rn E ng land , w he re c en tu r ie s o f d ra inage h ave t r ansfo rmed af o rme r w e t o rgan ic p ea t - a nd s i l t land i n to ad ry ing l a nd scape s u i tab le f o ra r ab le a nd r oo tc rop c u l t iva t ion .T he o pe ra t ion h a sr e su l ted i nt h e l o ss , b y s h r inkage a nd b y e ro s ion , o f me t res o fo rgan ic s o i l s a nd o ft h e d e s t ruc t ion o f h und red so fa r chaeo log ica l s i te s . F i e ld s u rvey sn ow a r ei d en t ify ing t ho se a r ea sa nd s i tes o f p r ima ry i mpo r tance t o a r chaeo logy ( Ha l l 1 985 ) , a nd eme rgency e xcava t ions a r e u nde rway ,b u tt h en a t ion s t i l lh a st oa dd re s st h ep rob lem o fi n terven t ion a ta l lt h ree l e ve l s i fa ny o ft h ec u l tu ra lh e r i tage i st os u rv ive f o rt h ef u tu re . T he s ame w e t land p rob lem sh ave b een e ncoun te red a nd t os ome e x ten to ve rcome i nt h e S ome r se t L eve ls o f E ng land whe re a r chaeo log ica l wo rk h a s i d en t if ied h und red s o f p reh is to r ic s t ruc tu re so r ig ina l ly b u i l ti nt h e s wamps a nd moo r so f aw ide b a s in ( Co le s& C o le s 1 986 ) . Many o ft h e se monumen t sh ave b een d e s t royed b yp ea t -cu t t ing , a nd mo re a r e b e ing d amaged b y d ra inage . T he e a r l ies t k nown s t ruc tu re i s aN eo l i th ic wooden t r ackway c a l led t h e Swee tT rack , b u i l to f many v a r ie t ie s o fw ood a bou t6 000 y ea r s a go ( f ig . 3 ) . T hrough many e nv ironmen ta l a nd d end roch rono log ica l a na lyse s , e xcava t ions a nd e xpe r imen ta lw o rk w i th a xe ,w edge a nd ma l le t ,w ek now t h a tt h i s 1 800 m t r ack w a s b u i l t i n av e ry s ho r t p e r iod o f t ime ( pe rhaps o n ly 1o r 2d ays !) b y t wo g roups o f f a rme r s a nd g a the re r s u s ing h uge o ak s a nd o the r t r ee s f r om managed wood land so nt h eh i l l s s u r round ing t h ew e t land . T he many s t ud ies d eve loped f o rt h e Swee tT rack i nves t iga t ion h ave t o ld u s a bou tl o ca l a nd r eg iona le nv i ronmen t ,c l ima t ic c hange ,t h ee lm d ec l ine ,c a rpen t ry ,u se -wea rf ea tu re s o n a s soc ia ted f l in tt oo l s , t h ec on ten t sa nd c ha rac te ro ff i ne p o t te ry , wooden i mp lemen t s a nd many o the ru nu sua l ly p rec i se a spec ts o fN eo l i th ic a c t iv i ty . I nd ue t ime w e w i l lb e a b le t o d e te rm ine t h e e xac t y ea r , a nd p e rhaps t h e s ea son o ft h a t y ea r , w hen t he t wo N eo l i th ic g roups me ta nd d ec ided o nt h e i rc ou r se o fa c t ion . B ecau se t h is s t ruc tu re p rov ided s uch ma jo r o ppo r tun i t ies f o r b o th t r ad i t iona l a nd i nnova t ive s t ud ie s ,w ed e c ided t oa t temp tt op re serve a s much a sp o s s ib le o ft h et r ack ; f o r n oa r chaeo log ica l s i te k nown t ou sw e re t h ep ro spec t so ff u tu re u n though t -of a na ly se s s o a t t rac t ive , a nd t oe xcava te t h ee n t i re s t ruc tu re w ou ld b eu n ju s t if ied , e ven w i th t h e g r ea t p re ssu res i mpo sed b yd ra inage a nd p ea t -cu t t ing . S ome o ft h e t r a ck , t h a tw h ich y i e lded o u ri n fo rma t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion , i sn ow d es t royed b y p ea tcu t t ing , a nd s ome i sn ow d amaged b yd ra inage o ft h ep ea ta nd t h e re fo re l o ss o fw a te r logg ing . F o r as t r e tch o f5 50 m , h oweve r , r epresen t ing 3 0% o f t h e w ho le monumen t , ac omb ined e f for t h a s b een made b y a r chaeo logy a nd n a tu re c onserva t ion t o p rese rve t h e s i te f r om d ecay o r d es t ruc t ion ( f ig . 4 ) . B r ief ly , t h e s i te w a s p u rcha sed f r om t h e p ea t c ompany w h ich o wned i t ,a t ac o s tb e low t h ec omme rc ia lp r ice ; t h ec ompany c once rned h ad c o -ope ra ted w i th u s f o r 1 5 y ea r s a l ready . T he f und s f o r t h e p u rcha se o ft h e r e serve w e re o b ta ined f r om t h e N a t iona l H e r i tage Memo r ia l F und b y ac omb ined a pp roach f r om t h e N a tu re C on servancy C ounc i l , E ng l ish H e r i tage a nd t h e S ome r se t L eve l s P ro jec t . T h is a c t ion t ook t h el a nd ( c . 5 50x500 m ) o u to fa ny p ea t -cu t t ing t h rea t . H oweve r , d ra inage a round much o ft h er e ser ve t h rea tened t od ry o u tt h ep ea t , t oa f f ec tt h eu n ique w e t land w i ld l if e a nd t od ecay t h e p reh i s to r ic wooden s t ruc tu re ; t h e f a c tt h a tt h er e se rve w a s aN a t iona l N a tu re R e se rve , a nd t h e s t ruc tu re aS chedu led A nc ien t Monumen t , w a s o fl i t t le u se i n p re se rva t ion ,u n le s st h ee nv i ronmen ta r ound t h es i te c ou ld a l so b em a in ta ined .I no rde rt o c on t ro l t h e e nv i ronmen t , a nd t o a s sure i t s w e t land c ha rac te r , t h e w ho le r e serve w a s i s o la ted f r om t h e a d jacen tl owe r a nd d r ie rp ea t lands b y ac omb ina t ion o f ac l ay b ank , s t reng thened p ea tb ank sa nd a ne x i s t ing m e ta l led r oadway ; t h e se p reven td ra inage o u to f t h e r e se rve . T he Swee t T rack l i es b ur ied u nde r a bou t o ne m e t re o fp ea t t h rough t h e 5 9

m idd le o ft h er e se rve a nd ,b e s ide t h et r ack l i ne ,n ar row f l ow c hanne l sw e re d ug b yh and t oa l low w a te rt of l ow o ve rt h e s t ruc tu re . A ma s s ive p i pe w i th v a r ious f l ood v a lves w a s l a id a l ong s ide t h ec hanne l s t of e ed t h em w i th w a te ra u toma t ica l ly p umped i ne ach d ay f r om a c o l lec t ion p oo l j u s t b es ide t h e r e serve . A long t h e l i ne o f t h e t r ack , n a r row o b se rva t ion t u be sh ave b een i n se r ted i n to t h ep ea ts ot h a tw a te rl e ve l sc an b e mon i to red , a nd e x t ra p ump ing i n i t ia ted w hen t h el e ve l sf a l lt h rough p a r t icu la r ly d ry c ond i t ion s . S ince i n s ta l la t ion i n1 984 ,t h i s s y s tem h a sw o rked w e l l ,i na t t rac t ing n ew w e t land p l an t s a nd a n ima l s b ack i n to t h e r e serve , a nd i n ma in ta in ing t h e p reh is to r ic s t ruc ture i n a w a te r logged c ond i t ion . T he o pe ra t ion p rov ide s au se fu le xamp le o ft h eo ppo r tun i t ie sf o r a r chaeo log i s t s t o c omb ine w i th o the r i n te res t s i n t a k ing p os i t ive a c t ion t op reserve s i gn if ican tp a r t so ft h ec u l tu ra l h e r i tage . I ta l so p o in t st ot h e n eed f o ru rgency i fe f fo r t s a r et ob em ade t oc on se rve t ho se s i te st h a tw i l li nt h ef u tu re y i e ld a l lk ind so fi n fo rma t ion t h a ta r chaeo log i s t ss e ek i nt h e i re f fo r t st ou nde r s tand a nd e xp la in p a s th uman b ehav iou r .

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F igure 1 . E nv i ronmen ta la nd c u l tu ra lp rob lem sf o rI r on Age e a r thwo rk s .Sec t ion a c ro s s t h ed i tche sa nd r ampa r t so f ah i l lfo r t . ENV IRON MENTAL I NTERVENT ION

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F igure 2 . T he e f f ec t so fe nv i ronmen ta li n terven t ion o n aw i ld l if eh ab i ta t a nd a n a r chaeo log ica ls i te ,p a r t icu la r ly i nw e t land c ond i t ion s .

6 0

F igure 3 . T he Swee tT rack , S ome r se t ,E ng land , a6 000 -yea r -o ld w ooden t r ackway b u r ied b yp ea tf o rma t ion . P ho to J .M .Co le s .

6 1

F igure 4 .

L ega l ,c u l tu ra la nd e nv i ronmen ta li n terven t ion t op rese rve t h e Swee tT rack .

6 2

R eferences A be ls , B . -U . , 1 984 . A usg rabungen u nd r ekons t ruk t ion d er s pä t la t neze i t l ichen B ef e s t igung smaue ra uf d em S ta f f e lbe rg , Das a rchäo log i sche J ahr i nB ayern 1 983 , 8 3 -5 . A dam s , D .W . a nd P age ,W .P . , 1 986 .A c id D epos i t ion . P lenum . N ew Y o rk . B auch , W . , 1 980 . D enkma lschu tz u nd D enkma lpf lege i n S ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in . D ie H e ima t . 8 7 , 3 03 -7 . C o les , B . a nd C o les , J . , 1 986 . S wee tT rack t oG la s tonbury . L ondon . C o le s , J .M . , 1 984 . T he a rchaeo logy o fw e t land s . E d inbu rgh . - 1 987a . T he p re se rva t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l s i te s b y e nv i ronmen ta l i n terven t ion . I n H .W .M .Hodge s ( e d . ) I n S i tu A rchaeo log ica l C onser va t ion . G e t ty C onserva t ion I n s t i tu te ,C a l ifo rn ia . - 1 987b . I r i sh b og s .T he t ime i sn ow .N or th Muns ter A n t iquar ian J ourna l 2 8 . E g lof f ,M . , 1 982 . U n a ven i rp ou rn o t re p a s se ? L ' a r ch6o log ie N euchä te lo i se e n t re t r ax e t t r ue l le , Mu sa N euchä te lo i se 3 ,1 09 -18 . G lu tz ,R . ,G rewe ,K . a nd Mü l le r ,D . , 1 984 .Z e ichenr ich t l in ien f ür t o pograph i sche P läne d er a rchäo log i schen D enkma lpf lege . C o logne . H aa rnage l ,W . , 1 979 .D ie G rabung F edder sen W ierde . Me thode , Hau sbau , S i ed lungs u nd W ir t schaf t sf ormen s ow ie S oc ia l s t ruk tur . W ie sbaden . H a l l . D .N . , 1 985 . S urvey w o rk i ne a s te rn E ng land , i nS . Mac ready a nd F .H . T hompson ( ed s )A rchaeo log ica lf i e ld s u rvey i nB r i ta in a nd a broad . ,2 5 -44 .L ondon . H ayen , H . 1 980 . G edanken z um S chu t z v on MoorRe s ten . O ldenbu rg . - 1 981 . Moorarchäo log ie u nd N a tu r schu t z . O ldenbu rg . - 1 987 . P ea t b og a r chaeo logy i nL ower S axony , G e rmany , i nJ .M . C o le s a nd A .J . L aw son ( ed s )E uropean We t land si np reh i s to ry . O xfo rd . I l k jae r , J .a nd L ons t rup , J . , 1 982 . I n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e g r ea tv o t ive d epo s i t so fI r on A ge w eapon siourna lo f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy 1 ,9 5 -104 . L amb r ick ,G . ( e d ) , 1 985 .A rchaeo logy a nd n a ture c on ser va t ion . O xfo rd . L ew i s , N .A . a nd M i le s , D . , 1 985 . A rchaeo logy a nd n a tu re c on serva t ion : p rob lem s a nd p o ten t ia la tC he rbu ry C amp , O x fo rd sh i re ,i nL amb r ick 1 985 , 1 -20 . L ouwe Koo i j mans , L .P . ,1985 . S poren i n h e t l and . De N eder land se d e l ta i n d e p reh i s tor ie . Am s te rdam . L owe , P . , C ox , G . , Ma cEwen , M . , O 'R io rdan , T . , a nd Win te r , M . , 1 986 . C oun trys ide c onf l ic t s .T he p o l i t ic so ffa rm ing ,f ore s t ry a nd c on ser va t ion . A lde r sho t . P e r in i ,R . , 1 983 .S u l le t r acce d e l le a n t iche g en t ig iud icar ie s i . B en ic u l tu ra l in e lT ren t ino , T ren to . P ou l ik , J . , 1 960 . D&ouver tes d an sl eb ou rgwa l ld eF 6poque d el ' Emp i re G rand -mo rave äM iku lc ice e n Mo rav ie m6 r id iona le , N ouve l les f ou i l les a rchgo log iques e n T ch &os lovaqu ie , 2 4 -9 . R avns ted -La r sen , L . , 1 983 . F or t id sm inde r o g b o tan iske i n te re sse r . G ravho je e r a nde t e nd o ld sage ro gs ke le t te r ! A n t ik var i ske s t ud ier 6 ,6 8 -94 . R e inde r s . R . 1 982 . S h ipwreck s o ft h eZ u ider zee .F levober ich t 1 . RUk sd ien s tv oor d e I j sse lmeerpo lder s 1 97 . L e ly s tad . S o lvang , G . , 1 983 .F redn ingsp lan laegn ing o gk u l tu rh is to r ie . Me tode ro gr e su l ta te rf r ae t p i lo tp ro jek t iV e s t s jae l lands a m t .A n t ikvar i ske s t ud ier 6 ,9 -35 . T hack ray , D .W .R . a nd H ea rn , K .A . , 1 985 . A rchaeo logy a nd n a tu re c onse rva t ion : t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o ft h eN a t iona lT rus t ,i nL amb r ick 1 985 , 5 1 -8 . T ho r sen , S . , 1 982 . O lho j v ed A snaes : L id t om e n g an ske a lm inde l ig g ravh0 j , o g om d ens t i l s tand g ennem d es i d s te t oh und rede ä r .A n t ikvar i ske s t ud ier 5 ,6 3 -86 . V aud ( Can ton d e V aud ) , 1 983 . C h ron ique d es f ou i l le s a r ch6o log iques 1 983 , R evue h i s tor ique v audo i se 1 983 , 2 23 -51 . V i t te ry ,A . , 1 985 . W i ld l if e a nd t h eC oun t ry s ide ,i nL amb r ick 1 985 , 1 9 -22 . Wa inw r igh t , G .J . , 1 985 . T he p reserva t ion o fa nc ien t monumen t s , i nL amb r ick 1 985 , 2 3 -8 . We idmann ,D . , 1 985 . U n man teau d et e r re p ou rp ro t 4e rl ac ha r t reu se d 'Ou jon äA rz ie r , C han t ier s ISu i sse 1 6 , 5 4 1-6 . 6 3

A CHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF HEADSTONES I N NORTHERN SWEDEN

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B y Noe l D . B roadben t C en te rf o rA rc t ic C u l tu ra lR e sea r ch . U n ive r s i ty o f Umeä . S -901 8 7 Umeä , Sweden . I n troduc t ion L ichen g row th h a sp roved t ob ea na ccu ra te m ea su re o ft h ea ge o fe xpo sed r o ck s u r face s ( Be sche l 1 950 ; Webbe ra nd A nd rews 1 973 ; L ocke e ta l . 1 979 , p lu sr e f e rences ) . N ew ly e xpo sed mo ra ine d epo s i t si n moun ta inous r eg ion s a r er ap id ly c o lon ized b yl i chens a nd t h e i r s ub sequen t g row th , a sr ef lec ted b y i nd iv idua l s i ze s a nd g round c ove r , h a s b een c o r re la ted w i th g l a c ia lf l uc tua t ions a nd c l ima te c hange s ( c f .K a rMn 1 975 , 1 982 ) . L ichenome t ry a s at e chn ique , a l though c ons ide red i n 1 933 b y Fxg r i , w a s f i r s t s y s tema t ica l ly a pp l ied d u r ing t h e 1 950 's s t a r t ing w i th t h ew o rk o fB esche l ( 1950 ) . T he me thod i sp a r t icu la r ly s u i tab le i na r ea sp oo ri no rgan ic d epo s i t s . F o r t h i sr ea son i th a s b een f avo red b y g eo log i s t s a nd p hys ica l g eog raphe r s w o rk ing i nh igh moun ta in a nd a r c t ic r eg ion s . T he ma jo r a dvan tage , o the rw i se , i st h a tr e la t ive o r a bso lu te a ge c an b e a s s igned d i rec t ly t o s t one f e a tu re s , b o th n a tu ra l a nd man -made , a nd i n n ea r ly a l l e nv i ronmen t s f r om t h e a r c t ic t o t h e t r op ics . T h is g oa l i s , n ever the le ss , f r equen t ly h ampe red b y t h ep rob lem s o fe s tab l i sh ing l i chen g row th r a te c urve s , s i nce t h i sr equ i re s n umbe r s o f a l ready d a ted r ock s u r faces f o r c a l ib ra t ion , w e l l d i s t r ibu ted i nt ime , a nd s uppo r t ing l i chen p opu la t ion s . S uch f e a tu re sa r en o te a s i ly f ound i ni s o la ted a r ea sw he re h i s tor ica l monumen t s , d a ted h ead s tones e t c . , a r e s c a rce . When p o ss ib le , r ad ioca rbon d a t ing s o fg round s u r f ace s , a l though l e s s a ccu ra te f o rc a l ib ra t ion p u rposes , h ave b een u sed i n s tead . T he p o ten t ia l sf o rd e t e rm in ing l i chen g row th r a te si n mo re s e t t led r eg ion sa r eg r ea te r , a nd i ti ss upr i s ing t ha t mo re a t ten t ion h a s n o t b een g iven t h e me thod b y h i s tor ians a nd a r chaeo log i s t s . L ichenome try o n t he B o thn ian C oas t I n 1 985 s t ud ie s o fl i chen g row th o n t h e B o thn ian c oa s t w e re i n i t ia ted b y t h e a u tho r w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o f ar e sea rch p ro jec ta tt h e C en te rf o rA rc t ic C u l tu ra lR e sea rch a t Umeä Un ive r s i ty a nd s uppo r ted b y t h e Swed i sh C ounc i l f o r H uman i t ies a nd S oc ia l S c ience R e sea r ch . I tw a sh ypo the s ized t h a tu p l if ted b ea che so nt h eB o thn ian c oa s tw ou ld h ave b een c o lon ized b yl i chens i nt h es ame w ay a sg l ac ia l mo ra ine i nt h eh i gh moun ta in s . S ubsequen t g row th a ti n c rea s ing e l eva t ions a bove m ean s ea l e ve l c ou ld t h e refo re b e c o r re la ted w i th r a te so fs ho re d i sp lacemen ta nd c a l ib ra ted o nt h i sb a s is . F i e ldwo rk i nt h e s umme ro f 1 985 p roved t h ef e a s ib i l i ty o ft h ei d ea a nd p re l im ina ry g row th c u rve sc ou ld b e c ons t ruc ted a tt wo s i tes n ea r B ju rök lubb i n V ä s te rbo t ten a nd i n t h e H apa randa a r ch ipe lago ( Broadben t a nd B e rgqu i s t 1 986 ; B roadben t 1 986 ) . Max imum d i ame te r s o f t h ec r us to se l i chen R h i zocarpon g eograph icum i n c rea sed l i nea r ly t h rough t ime a nd c ou ld b ed e sc r ibed u s ing al i nea rr eg res s ion e qua t ion . O nt h is b a s i s ,a ge c ou ld b ea s s igned t oa g i ven l i chen d i ame te rw i th in as t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f ±3 5 y ea r sf o rt h ep e r iod A .D 6 00 A .D 1 750 . B ecau se o fs ho re c ond i t ions a ccu ra te c a l ib ra t ion c ou ld o n ly b e e s tab l i shed f r om a bou tt h e 2m e l eva t ion a nd h i ghe r . F o rt h i sr e a son , as t udy o fc eme te ry h ead s tone s a nd o the r d a ted s t one s u rfaces w a s a l so u nde r taken . H ead s tone s a tB ygdeä C hu rch c eme te ry , l o ca ted 4 0 km n o r th o f Umeä a nd 1 0 km f r om t h ec oa s t , a sw e l l a ss t one s i n L övänge rc eme te ry a nd B acken c eme te ry w e re e xam ined .T he B ygdeä h ead s tone sw e re f ound t os uppo r tt h er i che s tf l o ku o fR h i zocarpon g eograph icum a nd t h e reby p rov ided a m eans f o rc a l ib ra t ing l i chen g row th d u r ing t h ep a s t 1 50 y ea r s . 6 5

B ygdeä Church F o r ty -f ive d a ted h ead s tone sw i th m ea su rab le l i chen sw e re a na lyzed a tB ygdeä C hu rch . T hese d a te b e tween 1 864 a nd 1 953 . T he s t one sc on s i s to fg ray , b l ack a nd p ink g ran i te . P o l i sh ing w as n ea r ly a lway s r e s t r ic ted t ot h e f r on ts o ft h e h ead s tone s s o l i chen s w e re mos t ly f ound o n t h e ir r ough n a r row s i des a nd b ack s . O n ly c i rcu la r s pec imen s w e re m ea su red a nd d i ame te rw a sd e te rm ined t ot h en ea re s tm i l l ime te r . T he f i r s t q ues t ion p osed w a s h ow l ong i tt ook f o r l i chens t o c o lon ize t h e s t one s f o l low ing e r ec t ion . I tc an b e a s sumed t h a t s ome d eg ree o fw ea ther ing i sn ece ssa ry o n f r e sh s t one s u r face s b efo re c o lon iza t ion c an b eg in , a so ppo sed t on a tu ra l ly w ea the red r ock w h ich , t h eo re t ica l ly a tl e a s t ,o ugh tt ob ec o lon ized w i th in s eve ra ly ea r so fe xpo su re . T h is a s sump t ion p roved t r ue a nd R .g eograph icum w a s f i r s t o b served o n t h e B ygdeä s t one s d a ted t o 1 950 a nd e a r l ie r . T h is c i rcum s tance s ugge s t s t h a t n o rma l c o lon iza t ion r equ ires a bou t 3 5 y ea r s o f e xposu re . Obse rva t ions a t t he B acken a nd L övänge r c eme te r ie sc o inc ide i nt h i sr e spec ta sd os eve ra ll o ca l monumen t sd ed ica ted t o av i s i tb y t h e Swed i sh k ing , s i gned G us ta fA do lf ,o nJ une 2 0 th 1 952 . O ne s t one s t and so u t s ide t h e B ygdeä c eme te ry a nd a no the ro u t s ide t h eL övänge rc eme te ry c a4 5 km t ot h en o r th ( F ig . 3 ) . No l i chens a r e f ound o n t h e se w o rked a nd d a ted s u r f aces . T h i s 3 5 y ea rw ea ther ing f a c to r mus t t h e refo re b e k ep t i n m ind w hen c ompa r ing c h ipped s t one s u r face s w i th n a tu ra l ly w ea the red s u r f aces . T ha ti st os ay ,h ead s tone g row th a so ppo sed t o mo ra ine o r b each g row th . S ource C r i t ic ism A s ide f r om t h ew ea the r ing f a c to rt h e re a r eo the rp rob lem sw h ich mu s tb ec on s ide red . N o a t ten t ion w i l lb eg i ven h e re t ot h ep rob lem so fl i chen s pec ie si d en t i f ica t ion s i nce t h i si sa s pec ia l ized ma t te r r equ ir ing b o tan ica l e xpe r t ise . A r e fe rence c o l lec t ion o f l o ca l R h izocarpon v a r ie t ies , i d en t if ied b y R o land Mobe rg a t t h e U ppsa la U n ive r s i ty H e rba r ium , w a s u sed i nt h ep re sen t s t udy a nd amo re d e ta i led a na ly s is i sb e ing c a r r ied o u tb y t h e D ep t . o fE co log ica l B o tany a t Umeä U n ive r s i ty . L ichen g row th i nt h e s ame s pec ie s i sf u r the r d ependen t o n n a tu ra l c ond i t ions , r ock t ype , h um id i ty , e xpo su re e t c . W i thou tc a refu lc ompara t ive a na lys i s i ti st hus n o t a dv i sab le t ou se g row th r a te si no ne r eg ion a sr ep re sen ta t ive o fa no the r . O ne o ft h eo ngo ing g oa ls o ft h ep ro jec ti st os t udy t h i sp a r t icu la rp rob lem a nd ,i fn ece s sa ry ,e s tab l ish n ume rou sl o ca lg row th c u rve s . O fe qua li mpo r tance i nt h is p a r t icu la rc on tex ti st h em a t te ro ft h eh ead s tone st h em se lve s . T he re i so f ten u nce r ta in ty a st ow hen as t one w a s h ewn , w hen i tw a s s e t i np l ace a nd w he the ro rn o ti tw a s c l eaned e t c . I ti sn o t u ncommon t h a th ead s tones w e re p u rcha sed a nd s e tu p many y ea r sp r io rt oo re ven a f te rt h ed ea th o fa ni nd iv idua l . E qua l ly u nce r ta in a r ef am i ly h ead s tone sw h ich u sua l ly l a ck d a te s a nd a r eo n ly a pp rox ima te ly r e la ted t ot h e d ea th o f af am i ly m embe r . K eep ing t h ese f a c t s i n m ind , t h e f o r ty -f ive B ygdeä h ead s tone s w e re s ub jec ted t o a na ly s i s . A s as amp le t h is m a te r ia li sc on s idered a sr e p r esen ta t ive b u tt h ep robab i l i ty o f t h er e su l t sw i l l b ei n c rea sed a s mo re d a ta a r ec o l lec ted i nt h is r eg ion . T he a ges a nd s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion sr ange b e tween 3 1 a nd 1 21 y ea r s a nd 5a nd 1 9m i l l ime te r s . T ab le 1l i s t st h e h ead s tones b y y ea ra nd t h e m ax imum t h a l lus d i ame te r sf o rR . g eograph icum f ound o n e ach s t one . O n ly max imum d i ame te r s a r e c on s ide red f o r t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f ag row th c urve . T he se d a ta a r e p lo t ted i nf i gu re 2 i nw h ich a ge i sc a lcu la ted i nt e rm s o fy ea r s b efo re p re sen t ( 1985 ) . T he re i s af a i r ly h igh c o r r e la t ion ( c oef f ic ien t( r ) =0 . 69 ) b e tween a ge a nd l i chen d i ame te ra l though i tc an b e s een t h a tm any l i chen s a r e s ma l le rt h an t h e max imum g row th t r end ,a nd s ome a r el a rge r .T he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t an umbe ro fh ead s tone s c ou ld h ave b een s c rubbed a ts ome t ime d u r ing t h ep a s t 1 50 y ea r sc anno tb ed i sm i s sed . I no rde rt od e sc r ib et h eB ygdeä t r end i n am a thema t ica l ly s u i tab le m anne ro ne mu s tf i r s t 6 6

g i ve c on s ide ra t ion t ot h e b o tan ica l n a tu re o fl i chen g row th i ng ene ra l . A cco rd ing t oa n umbe r o f s t ud ies ( r ef e r B esche l 1 950 ; Webbe r a nd A nd rews 1 973 ; T opham 1 977 ; L ocke e ta l . 1 979 ) , l i chen g row th f o l low ing i n i t ia l c o lon iza t ion i sr ap id a nd h a s b een d e sc r ibed a st h e " g rea tp e r iod " o fg row th a so ppo sed t o al a te r " l inea rp ha se " . T he g r ea t p e r iod l a s t s f o r 1 00 t o 3 00 y ea r s , t h e l i nea r p e r iod f o r u p t o t hou sand s o fy ea r s . A s m en t ioned e a r l ie r ,l i nea rg row th w a sd ocumen ted o nt h eB o than ian c oa s tf r om A .D 1 750 t o A .D 6 00 . B u t f o r t h e 2 00 y ea r s a f te r 1 750 , t h e p er iod r e la t ing t o t he B ygdeä h ead s tones , a mo re c urv i l inea r t r end c ou ld b e e xpec ted , a s i mp l ied i n f i gure 2 . A cco rd ing ly , al e a s t s qua res c urve -f i t t ing a na ly s i s u s ing as e cond d eg ree p o lynom ia l e qua t ion w a sc ho sen t od e sc r ibe t h ed a ta i nT ab le 1( c f . R yan e ta l . 1 976 ,p p 1 76 -194 ) . T h i sr e su l ted i na ne qua t ion a sf o l low s : y( a ge B .P ) =1 6 .1 + 3 . 06 x+0 . 0682 x2 I nt h is e qua t ion xi sl i chen d i ame te ri nm i l l ime te r s . T he s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f yi s±1 8 y ea r s ,w h ich i st os ay t h a tt h e re i s a6 8% p robab i l i ty o f al i chen d a te f a l l ing w i th in t h i s3 6 y ea r sr ange . C ons ider ing a l l t h ep o ten t ia l s ou rce s o fe r ro ri nvo lved , t h is i sa n a ccep tab le ma rg in o f e r ro ra nd av e ry g ood r e su l t . S ome T es ts o f t he E qua t ion S eve ra l s imp le t e s t s w e re p e r fo rmed u s ing t h e e qua t ion . Ac h ipped a nd d a ted s u r f ace f ound o n t h ep rev iou s ly m en t ioned R oya l monumen tf r om L övänge r d a tes t oJ u ly 1 0 , 1 921 a nd h a st h en ame sG us ta fa nd V ic to r ia e ng raved o ni t( F ig . 3 ) . Nume rous c i rcu la r l i chen sm ea su r ing 1 3 mm a r ef ound o nt h i sd a ted s u r f ace ; i ti st h e reby e s t ima ted a sd a t ing t ot h ey ea r 1 916 , a ne r ro ro fo n ly 5y ea r sf r om t h ee ng raved d a te . Two u nda ted f am i ly g raves tones a tB ygdeä c eme tery w e re s im i la r ly a na lyzed a nd l a te r c hecked i nt h ep a r i sh r e co rd s . T hey w e re p robab ly e r ec ted i n 1 907 a cco rd ing t ol i chen s i ze , 1 5 mm . P a r i sh r e co rd s i nd ica te t h a t b o th s t ones w e re p robab ly e r ec ted i n a bou t 1 903 ,t h er eg is te red d a te o fd ea th f o rt h e s t ones 'f i r s to wne r s . I no ne c a se t h ef am i ly h ad d i ed o u t a nd t h e s t one w a s n eve rc l eaned ; a s ar e su l t n ume rous c i rcu la r l i chen s o ft h e s ame m ax imum s i ze d o ti t s s i de sa nd b ack .E ven i nt h e se c a se s ,t h ee r ro ri si n s ign if ican t , o n ly 4y ea r s . T he o ve ra l l a ccu racy o ft h e e qua t ion f o r t h is r eg ion mus t b e t e s ted u s ing mo re d a ta a l though a tt h i ss t age t h er e su l t ss e em mo s te ncou rag ing . I tmu s tn ever the le ss b ep o in ted o u t t h a t t he l i chens f ound o n as t one s u rface d o n o t n ecessa r i ly c o r respond t o t h e max imum a ge o ft h e s u r f ace , b u t a lways p rov ide am ea sure o fm in imum a ge . I n many i n s tances t h i s i s av a luab le s ou rce o fi n fo rma t ion i ni t se lf a nd a dequa te t od i s t ingu i sh r e cen tf e a tu re sf r om o l de rr ema ins . Conc lus ions T h is a na ly s i s o f h ead s tones s ugges t s t h a t l i chen g row th c an b e u sed f o r c a lcu la t ing m in imum a ge s o f s t one s u r f ace s i nc oa s ta l V ä s te rbo t ten . Ap er iod o f c a 3 5 y ea r s o f w ea the r ing t a ke sp lace b e fo re l i chen sc o lon ize aw o rked g ran i te s u r f ace . G row th d u r ing t h ef i r s tc a 1 00 y ea r si sr a p id a nd r ough ly c urv i l inea r .A ne qua t ion d e sc r ib ing t h et r end o f t h is g row th i sp resen ted . T he re a r e many a r ea s o f a pp l ica t ion f o r l i chenome t ry i n Sweden . T he a bundance o fh i s tor ica l ly d a ted s t one s make s p o s s ib le t h e c a l ib ra t ion o f l o ca l g row th r a te sf o rt h i sp u rpo se ; o nce e s tab l i shed , i tw i l lb ep o ss ib le t od i rec t ly d a te e xpo sed r ock s u r face s , i n c lud ing h i s to r ic a nd p reh i s to r ic f e a tu re s o f many c a tego r ie s , w a l l s , f ounda t ion s ,r unes tones , f o r t res se se t c . 6 7

T ab le 1 D a te s o n g ran i te h ead s tone s i nB ygdeä c hu rch c e me te ry . D a te s A .D . , B .P . ( 1 985 ) a nd max imum d i ame te r so fR h i zocarpon g eograph icum . D a te A .D . 1 892 1 910 1 885 1 947 1 864 1 884 1 871 1 949 1 954 1 938 1 885 1 890 1 886 1 925 1 889 1 884 1 940 1 905 1 917 1 912 1 949 1 953 1 910 1 903 1 929 1 881 1 918 1 930 1 939 1 938 1 945 1 935 1 942 1 937 1 933 1 934 1 933 1 933 1 932 1 931 1 945 1 903 1 933 1 911 1 893

Y ea r s ( B .P ) 9 3 7 5 1 00 3 8 1 21 1 01 14 3 6 3 1 4 7 1 00 9 5 9 9 6 0 9 6 1 01 4 5 8 0 6 8 7 3 3 6 3 2 7 5 8 2 5 6 1 04 6 7 5 5 4 6 4 7 4 0 5 0 4 3 4 8 5 2 5 1 5 2 5 2 5 3 5 4 4 0 8 2 5 2 7 4 9 2

D iame te r( mm ) 1 7 1 3 1 5 9 1 6 1 9 1 5 7 1 4 1 2 1 5 1 9 1 5 1 2 1 2 1 2 7 1 7 1 0 1 3 1 2 5 1 5 1 7 1 3 1 6 1 8 1 0 7 7 1 0 7 1 2 1 0 1 6 1 1 6 1 4 1 3 8 1 8 1 3 1 5 1 7

6 8

F igure 1 .B ygdeä c hu rch c eme te ry i nV ä s te rbo t ten , n o r the rn Sweden , a nd d a ted g ran i te h ead s tone w i th n ume rous c i rcu la rc ru s to se l i chen s .

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F igure 2 . D iag ram s how ing t h e max imum d i ame te r so fR h i zocarpon g eograph icum o n 4 5d a ted h ead s tone si nB ygdeä c hu r ch c eme te ry . L ine s how sc u rv i l inea rt r end o f max imum g row th a se xp re s sed b yl i chen d i ame te r s .

6 9

F igure 3 . S tone c ommemo ra t ing r oya l v i s i t s t oV ä s te rbo t ten i n 1 921 a nd 1 953 . T he o l de r ( uppe r ) s u r f ace h a s n ume rou s l i chen s m ea sur ing 1 3 mm i nd i ame te r whe reas t h e y ounge r s ur face h as n o t y e t b een c o lon ized b y R . g eograph icum .

7 0

R eferences B e sche l ,R .E . 1 950 . F lech ten a l sA l te r sma s s tab rezen te r Mo rän .Z e i t schr if tG le t scherkd . G laz ia lgeo l . 1 ,p p . 1 51 -161 . B roadben t , N .D . 1 986 . D a te r inga r a v f o rn lämn inga r iB o t tenv iken s k us t land g enom l a v t i l lväx t ( l i chenome t r i ) . P re l im inä ra r e su l ta t . I nB o t tn i sk K on tak tI I( P . T o ivonen , e d . ) J akob s tad . B roadben t , N .D . a nd B ergqv is t , K .I . 1 986 . L ichenome t r ic c hrono logy a nd a r chaeo log ica lf e a tu re so nr a i sed b eaches . R e su l t sf r om t h e Swed i sh N or th B o thn ian C oa s ta lR eg ion .A rc t ic a nd A lp ine R esearch . V o l . 1 8 ,N o . 3 K a r la , W . 1 975 . L ichenome t r isk d a ter ing i n or ra S kand inav ien — me todens t i l lfö r l i t l ighe to ch r eg iona la t i l lämpn ing .N a turgeograf i ska i n s t i tu t ionen ,S tockho lm s u n iver s i te t ,f or skn ing srappor t , 2 2 -1 982 . Ho locene g l ac ie rf l uc tua t ion si nS cand inav ia . I nH o locene G lac ie r s (W .K a r la , e d . )S t r iae . Vo l . 1 8 ,p p . 2 6 -34 , U ppsa la . L ocke , W .W . , A nd rews , J .T . , a nd Webbe r , P . J .1979 . A Manua l f o rl i chenome t ry . B r i t i sh G eomorpho log ica lR e search G roup .T echn ica lB u l le t in , 2 6 . R yan , T .A . , J o iner , B .L . a nd R yan , B .F . 1 976 . M in i tab S tuden t Handbook . Wad swo r th P ub l i sh ing C ompany I n c . B e lmon t , C a l ifo rn ia . T opham , P .B . 1 977 . C o lon iza t ion , g row th , s u cces s ion a nd c ompe t i t ion . I n S eawa rd , M . R . D . , e d .L ichen e co logy . A cadem ic P re ss , L ondon ,p p . 3 2 -68 . Webbe r , P . J . a nd And rews , J .T .1973 . L ichenome t ry : ac ommen ta ry .A r c t ic a nd A lp ine R esearch , 5 ,p p . 2 95 -302 .

7 1

THE I NTRODUCTION ARCHAEOLOGY

OF

PHOTOGRAPHY

I NTO

SWEDISH

B y Gus taf T ro tz ig R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t . B ox 5 405 . S 114 8 4 S tockho lm , Sweden . I np i c to r ia ld ocumen ta t ion t h ei nven t ion o fp ho tog raphy p roduced ac hange c ompa rab le t ot h a to ft h e s t eam -eng ine i nt h ef i e ld o fe ne rgy p roduc t ion . U pt ot h e momen tw hen a p i c tu re c ou ld b ep roduced b y mean so fc hem i s t ry a nd o p t ics ,i th ad b een t h eh and o ft h e a r t i s t t h a t c r ea ted p i c to r ia lr ep re sen ta t ion . "Man h ad a tl a s t a ch ieved aw ay o f mak ing v i sua lr epo r t s t h a th ad n oi n te r f e r ing s ymbo l ic l i nea r s yn tax o ft h e i r own . I nt h ew ho le h i s to ry o fh uman c ommun ica t ion i ti sd oub t fu li fa ny mo re e x t rao rd ina ry s t ep h ad e ve r b een t a ken t h an t h i s ." ( I v in s 1 953 ) . T he e vo lu t ion o fp ho tog raphy i n to ap rac t icab le m e thod f o rv i sua lc ommun ica t ion w a sa c omp l ica ted p roce ss o fd i scove r ie s ,i nven t ion sa nd c on s truct ion si nt h ef i e ld so fp hy s ics a nd c hem is t ry . T he f i na l d ec i s ive s t eps w e re t a ken i nF rance i n t h e f i r s t h a lf o f l a s t c en tu ry b y L . J .M D ague r re a nd N . N iepce . Ar ema rkab le d ocumen t , i n aw ay t h e " b i r th -ce r t if ica te " o fp ho tog raphy ,i s ar epo r to n t h ei nven t ion b y ar enowned p hyc ic i s t M . A rago t ot h e C hamb re d e s D epu tes a nd t h e F rench A cademy o fS c ience i n 1 839 . P ho tog raphy a nd a r chaeo logy w e re c onnec ted a l ready f r om t h e v ery b eg inn ing : " I f p ho tog raphy h ad b een k nown i n 1 789" /dur ing N apo leon B onapa r te 's e xped i t ion t o E gyp t / "we w ou ld t oday h ave h ad a ccu ra te r epresen ta t ions o f al a rge q uan t i ty o f monumen t sw h ich t h el e a rned wo r ld ,t h ank st ot h eg r eed o fA rab sa nd c e r ta in t r ave l le r s , f o reve r h as b een d epr ived o f . F o rc opy ing t h e s eve ra l m i l l ions o fh i e rog lyph s , wh ich c ove r t he v e ry f a cades o f t h e b ig monumen t s " . . ." o ne wou ld n eed d ecades a nd a mu l t i tude o fa r t i s t s . B yt a k ing d ague r reo type so ne p e r son c ou ld b r ing t h i se no rmou st a sk t o ah appy e nd ." H e a l so p o in t so u tt h a tp i c tu res made i nt h i s w ay s u rpa ss t h e wo rk o f mos t s k i l led a r t is t s a s f a r a s a u then t ic i ty i sc once rned ( Arago 1 839 ) . T he re w a s , h oweve r , ap rob lem w i th t h ed ague r reo type s . E ve ry s i ng le p i c tu re w a sa no r ig ina l made o n as i lve rp l a te , s ot h e re w a sn on ega t ive a nd c onsequen t ly i tc ou ld n o tb ec op ied .T hu s t h is t e chn ique o n ly b ecame as i de t rack i nt h eh i s to ry o fp ho tog raphy a nd a r chaeo logy w a sn eve ra ni mpo r tan tf i e ld o fa pp l ica t ion . O ne p e r son w ho w a s n o t v e ry h appy w hen r e ad ing a bou t t h e ma rve lous i nven t ion b y N iepce a nd D ague r re , w a s t h e E ng l i sh s c ien t i s tW .H .F . T a lbo t , w ho h ad i ndependen t ly c ome u p w i th a lmo s t t h e s ame i nven t ion . H i s p roce ss w a s d i f f e ren t f r om t h a t o f t h e F renchmen ,h oweve r ,a si tw a sb a sed o n an ega t ive /po s i t ive m e thod w h ich w a st ob et h e f i r s t s t ep i n t h e d i rec t ion t owa rd s mode rn p ho tog raphy . A d i f f icu l ty w i th T a lbo t 's m e thod , t hough ,w a st h a th eu sed ao i led o rw axed p ape rf o r mak ing t h en ega t ive , s ot h a t t h e d e ta i ls o ft h e p o s i t ive c opy b ecame b lu r red a nd n eeded t ob e t ouched u p . I n 1 843 T a lbo t t r ied t oa rou se t h e i n te res to ft h e E ng l i sh a r chaeo log i s t S i r C ha r le s F e l lows f o r u s ing p ho tog raphy o n h i s e xped i t ions t oA s ia M ino r : " Suppo se t ha t i nt r ave l l ing y ou a r r ive a ts ome r u in s u nexpec ted ly , w h ich y ou w i sh t o h ave d rawn . You s e t u p t h e C ame ra , o pen t h ep o r tfo l io , a nd t a ke o u t as hee to fp ape rr e ady p repa red , s l ip i ti n to t h e i n s t rumen t ,a nd t a ke i to u ta ga in w hen y ou t h ink t h a t as u f f ic ien tt ime h a se l apsed ,a nd i n t e nm inu te sa l li sp acked u p a ga in a nd y ou a r ep roceed ing o ny ou rj ou rney " . P roce ss ing , T a lbo ta dded ,c ou ld b ed ef e r red u n t i lt h ee ven ing ( Newha l l 1 982 ) .T o my k now ledge S i r C ha r le sd id n o tf o l low t h i sa dv ice .

7 3

I tw a st ot a ke y e ta no the rd ecade b e fo r et h ep rob lem o ft r an spa r en tn ega t ive sw a ss o lved , t h es o lu t ion b e ing g l a s s -p la te sw i th c o l lod ion . O ne i n conven ience w i th t h en ew m a te r ia l w a st h a tt h en ega t ive sh ad t ob ee xpo sed i n aw e tc ond i t ion .I ns p i t eo ft h i st h ew e t -p la te s c omp le te ly r ep laced b o th t h e d ague r reo type a nd t h e c a lo type ( Ta lbo t 's c on st ruc t ion ) w i th in t h ed ecade a nd h e ld t h e i ro wn a sl o ng a su n t i l 1 880 . T he f i r s ta r chaeo log i s tt ou se ac ame ra a ta ne xcava t ion w a sC .T .N ew ton i n1 857 i nh i s e xcava t ion a tH a l ica rna s su s . T he se p ho tog raphs w e re e xh ib i ted i nR ome w he r e t h ey w e re o b served b y aG e rman a r chaeo log i s t , A . C onze , w ho t h en w a s i n sp i red t ou se p ho tog raphy f o r d ocumen ta t ion o n h i s e xped i t ion t oS amo th ra ce i n 1 873 ( M ichae l i s 1 908 ) . T he u se o fp ho tog raphy i nt h e se c a se sw a sn od oub ts t imu la ted b yt h ec i r cum s tance s i n w h ich t h e a r chaeo log ica l w o rk w a s c a r r ied o u t . E xped i t ion s t of a r a way p l aces w e re c e r ta in ly f o r ced t ob r ing h ome m a te r ia lf o rf u r the rp ro ce s s ing a t ar e a sonab le c o s t .T he re w a s a l so , n o d oub t , ad e s i re t ob e mode rn a nd u se t h e l a te s t i n ven t ions i nt h i s f i e ld i n o rde rt oi mp rove t h ed ocum en ta t ion / commun ica t ion s y s tem . T he s e cond s t ep i nt h ec ommun ica t ive p roce s s ,r ep roduc t ion o ft h ep ho tog raph si np r in t , w a s n o t y e t f u l ly d eve loped . Al o t o fd i f f e ren t m e thod s w e r e t r ied , a l l w i th v a ry ing i n conven ience s , n o t l e a s t e conom ic o ne s . I n N ew ton ' s c a se h e h ad h i s p ho tog raphs r ed rawn i n to l i thog raph s , w h i le C onze p ref e r red t ou se a l bumen c op ie s moun ted o n s p ec ia lp i c tu r e -page si nh i sp r in ted r e po r t s . A tt h e 6 t h s e s s ion o ft h e I n ter na t iona l C ong res s o fA n th ropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy a t B ru s se l s i n 1 872 ap ho to l i thog raphy w a s c i r cu la ted a mong t h e d e lega te s . I tw a s a n i l u s t ra t ion f o r ap ape rg i ven b y aF rench a n th ropo log i s ta nd a r chaeo log i s t ,E .R iv ie re ,o n as ke le ton f r om t h e e a r ly s t one -age f ound a t Men ton ( Cong re s s 1 873 ) . T h i s i s , t o my k now ledge , t h ef i r s tr e p roduced p ho tog raph f r om a ne xcava t ion s how ing as ke le ton i n s i tu w i th a r t if ac t s . I tm ed ia te s t h a tc e r ta in i mp r e s s ion o fp r e sence t h a to n ly ap ho to c an g i ve .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h a tp i c tu r eo nt h i ss pec ia lo cca s ion ,n od oub ti nd ica te st h eh i gh e s teem o fi t si mpo r tance . T he a r to fp ho tog raphy s p read q u ick ly o ve rE u rope a r ound t h em idd le o rt h el a s tc en tu ry a nd Sweden w a sn oe xcep t ion . I n 1 855 S tockho lm h ad t h ree p ro f e s s iona lp ho tog raphe r s . T en y ea r sl a te rt h ey w e re 6 5 , w h ich i s al a rge n umbe r ,c on s ide r ing t h a tS tockho lm a tt h et ime h ad o n ly a bou t 1 00 ,000 i n hab i tan t s . T he g r ea t b r eak th rough i np ho tog raphy c ame i n 1 866 w i th t h e A r t a nd I ndu s t ry E xh ib i t ion ,whe r ep ho tog raphy w a sg i ven c on s ide rab le a t ten t ion ( He rn rn ing s son 1 970 ) . P ho tog raphe r s w e re r e cru i ted f r om many d i f f e ren t o r ig ina l p ro f e s s ion s ; many a r t i s t s , f o ri n s tance ,l e a rned t h en ew t e chno logy . T he b ounda r ie sb e tween p ro f e s s iona l s , h a l f -p ro f e s s iona l sa nd a dvan ced a ma t eu r sw e r ef l ex ib le i ndeed . T he l a t te rp a r to ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry w a sa l so t h ec r ea t iona lp e r iod o f mode rn a r chaeo logy . I ta l l s t a r ted i n1 836 w i th t h ef i na le s tab l i shmen to ft h et h r ee -pe r iod s y s tem b yT hom sen w h ich g ave E u ropean a r chaeo logy a t r emendou s u psw ing . T h is w a s i n t roduced i n Sweden b y ap up i l o fT hom sen ' s , B .E . H i ldeb rand , w ho i n 1 837 b ecame h ead o f t h e n a t iona lc o l lec t ion o fa n t iqu i t ie s . D u r ing h i sp e r iod t h ey g r ew e xceed ing ly a nd i n aw ay h e c ou ld b e r ega rded a s t h e f ounde r o f t h e N a t iona l Museum o f A n t iqu i t ies . A c on tempo ra ry o f H i ldeb rand w a s z oo logy p rof e s so r S ven N i l sson , who p l ayed a n i mpo r tan tp a r ti nt h ee xp lana t ion o fs t one a r t i f a c t sa sh uman t o o l s .W i th t h e se f o r e -f a the r s o f mode rn a r chaeo logy i n Sweden s t i l l a c t ive , an ew g ene ra t ion o fr e sea r cher s s t a r ted t h e i r c a ree r : H .H i ldeb rand , s on o f B .E . H i ldeb rand , a nd 0 . Mon te l ius w ho b o th , i n d i f f e r en tw ay s ,w e r et op l ay i mpo r tan tp a r t si nt h ed eve lopmen to f Swed i sh a r chaeo logy . 7 4

H i ldeb rand ,f a the ra nd s on ,w e re t os ucceed o ne a no the ra sR oya lA n t iqua r ie s . Mon te l iu s h e ld ap os i t ion a tt h e R oya l A cademy o f L e t te r s f r om 1 863 , l a te r w i th t h e t i t le o f p ro f es so r . Mon te l ius w a s a l so R oya l A n t iqua r ian d u r ing s o me y ea r s a tt h e e nd o fh i s c a ree r . H i sw o rk so nc h rono logy a r ew e l l -known . T o s hed s o me l i gh t o n t h e a n t iqua r ian s i tua t ion i n g ene ra l a s f a r a s p ho tog raphy i s c once rned , Iq uo te al e t te rt oB .E .H i ldeb rand ,w r i t ten b y af r iend i n1 858 : " It h ink t h a t w hen d ep ic t ing o ne n ow c ou ld make u se o f P ho tography , al e ss e xpen s ive w ay t h a tr equ i r e sn oa r t i s t ic s k i l la nd s t i l lr ep re sen t st h eo r ig ina lb e t te rt h an a ny a r t is ti sa b le t oa nd t r u s twor thy w i thou ta ny d oub t s f o rt h e f u tu re . T ak ing p ho tog raph s d oe sn o te xceed t h ea b i l i ty o fa na t tendan t ,w hen o nce h eh a sl e a rned t h ew ay o fd o ing i t . A mu s ic ian a tL inköp ing w ho c anno td raw as t ra igh tl i ne o n ap i ece o fw h i te p ape ri sa s p lend id p ho tog raphe r . Iwou ld m e re ly a sk t h eq ue s t ion w he the ri tw ou ld n o tb ew o r th w h i le t op u r cha se ag ood p i ece o fa ppa ra tu s a nd t r a in a na t tendan tt ot a ke p ho tog raph s . How c heap ly t h en e xac tp i c tu res c ou ld b e o b ta ined , w h ich n ow c anno tb ed one b u tb y h av ing a n e xpens ive a r t i s t , s ome t ime s f o r s eve ra l mon ths , i n af o re ign p lace . T h ink i t o ve r ! T o g e t p i c ture s o ft h e b ur ia l mound s a t " " a s w e l l a s g ood r epre sen ta t ion o f a r chaeo log ica lf i nd s i np r iva te p o s se s ion o ri nf o re ign c o l lec t ion s " ( l e t te r : We t te rbe rgh 1 858 ) . T he p l ea f o rt h e u se o fp ho tog raphy a sc heap a nd s imp le i ss u rp r i s ing ly s im i la rt ot h e a r gumen t s a dvanced b yA rago 2 0y ea r sb efo re . I ti so bv iou st h a tt h e a u tho ro ft h el e t te r u nde res t ima tes t h e t e chn ica l p rob lem s o f p ho tog raphy , n o t t o s peak o f t h e n eed o f q ua l if i ca t ion s . T he p o s s ib il i ty o fu s ing p ho tog raphy w a sd i scu s sed b yt h eR oya lA cademy o fL e t te r st h e s ame y ea ra s as u i tab le m e thod f o rd ocumen ta t ion o ft h em ed ieva lp a in t ing si n ac hu rch b efo re i tw a sp uled d own ( M inu te s : RAL 1 858 ) . T he p a in t ing sw e re ,h oweve r , s ke t ched o f fb y C .F . L indbe rg , w ho l a te r o n b ecame t h e f i r s t p rof ess iona l p ho tog raphe r a tt h e RAL . S of a r Ih ave n o tb een a b le t ot r ace a ny a r chaeo log ica lp ho tog raphs f r om t h is e a r ly p e r iod . S ome y ea r sl a te rB .E . H i ldeb rand s t ar t sp ub l i sh ing aw o rk o n med ieva l s ea l s . Ac ruc ia l p rob lem w a st h en h ow t ot r ansm i tt h eh andmade d raw ing s i n to p r in tw i thou th av ing t o make e xpen s ive e ng rav ings . H av ing t r ied d i f f e ren t w ays , H i ldeb rand made u se o f a b rand n ew i nven t ion , ap ho to -mechan ica l m e thod ( H i ldeb rand 1 862 ) . I n al e t te r t o H i ldeb rand t h is i sc ommen ted o ni nt h ef o l low ing w ay : " I ti sp l ea san tt h a tp ho tog raphy h a sb een f o r ced t og i ve ah e lp ing h and a nd i ti sr ea l ly j oyfu lt ol e a rn t h a tt h i sw onde r fu l i n ven t ion b ya nd b yi sw ak ing u pt o amo re n ob le a ch ievemen ti nt h es e rv ice o fs c ience a f te r h av ing a lmo s t e xc lud ing ly c ondescended i t se lf t o t h e s habby o ccupa t ion o f p roduc ing v i s i t ing c a rd sw i th p o r t ra i t s , a tl e a s tb yu s " ( l e t te r : I h re 1 863 ) . T he a u tho ro f t h i sl e t te rh a sa ppa ren t ly m i sunde r s tood t h er o le o fp ho tog raphy i nt h ep roce ss . T he f i r s t s t umb l ing s t ep s o fa r chaeo log ica l p ho tog raphy i n Sweden w e re t a ken i nt h e c oun ty o fV ä s te rgö t land . I n J une 1 863 H i ldeb rand S r . c a r r ied o u t a n e xcava t ion o fa p a s sage -g rave a tK naggä rden ( Lu t t ra p a r i sh ) . H ew a sa s s i s ted b y ac o l league a nd al i t t le g a ther ing o f a n thropo log is t s a nd i n te re s ted a ma teur s . Among t h e n ames i s "Med . P h i l .kand . " Gus ta fR e tz ius , s on o ft h ef amou sA .J . R e tz iu s ,c r ea to ro f ac o l lec t ion a nd a s y s tem f o rc l a s s ify ing h uman c r an ium s . H e w a s , a l ready a tt h i s t ime , a tt h e a ge o f2 1 , t h e b ea re r o fa cadem ic t i le s a nd w a s a bou t t o s t a r t ag lo r iou s a cadem ic c a reer a s a n a na tom is t . H e w a s ac l o se f r iend t ob o th H i ldeb rand J r . a nd Mon te l iu s . I n t h e c en t ra l a r ch ive st h e re i s ap ho tog raph s how ing t h i sp a s sage -g rave a nd o nt h ep i ece o fc a rd -boa rd w he re i ti s moun ted i sw r i t ten " 1863" .T h is m ay mean t h a tt h ep ho tog raph w a st a ken o n t h i so cca s ion . O nt h eo t he rh and i tmay o n ly i nd ica te t h a tt h e monumen tw a se xca va ted i n 7 5

1 863 . T oge the rw i th t h i sp ho tog raph t h e re a r ea no the rf ou rw i th j u s ta bou tt h es ame s i ze a nd t h es ame mo t if ,c op ied o nt h es ame t y pe o fa l bum en p ape r ,u ndoub ted ly t a ken o nt h e s ame o cca s ion . I th a s n o t b een p os s ib le t oc onf i rm t h e d a t ing i na ny o the r s ources . I t s e em s mos tp rob lab le t h a tt h e se p ho tog raph s o r ig ina te f r om a no the re xped i t ion t ot h i s a r ea n ine y ea r s l a te rw hen Mon te l iu s w i th t h e a s s i s tance o fR e tz ius e xcava ted a no the r p a s sage -g rave .T h is t ime R e tz iu sa c ted a sp ho tog raphe ra nd a n th ropo log i s t . T ha tv e ry y ea rt h eR oya lA cademy o fL e t te r s a l so s en to u tt h e i ra r t i s tC .F . L indbe rg i n o rde rt ot a ke p ho tog raph st oge the rw i th H i ldeb rand J r . T he i rc once rn w a s , h oweve r , n o t a r chaeo logy b u t ma in ly c hu rches a nd o the r monumen t s ( Mänad sb lade t 1 873 ) . S o i t wou ld s e em q u i te c l ea r t h a t G us taf R e tz ius s hou ld g e t t h e c r ed i t f o r t a k ing t h e f i r s t a r chaeo log ica lp ho tog raphs i n Sweden i nt h e y ea ro f 1 872 . I ts hou ld b e a dded t h a t b y " a rchaeo log ica l p ho tog raphs " Imean p ho tos t a ken w i th t h e e xc lus ive i n ten t ion o f t r an sm i t t ing a r chaeo log ica li n fo rma t ion . F rom R e tz iu s ' w o rk a s ap ho tog raphe r i n 1 872 -74 f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l a c t iv i t ie s i n V ä s te rgö t land t h e re r ema in 2 3 a l bumen c op ie s . Twen ty r ep re sen tp a sage -g rave sw i thou t a ny t r aces o fe xcava t ion a nd t h ree s how al a rge s t one -c i s ta f te rt h ee xcava t ion w hen t h e c ove r ing s l ab s a nd t h e c on ten t h a s b een r emoved . T he c op ie s a r e s l igh t ly b rown i n c o lou r ; t h e i rs i ze sv a ry b e tween 1 50 -170 mm i nw id th a nd 9 0 -130 i nh e igh t . R e tz iu sh a s n od oub tb een u s ing as o -ca l led t r ave lc ame ra f o rc o l lod ion ( "we t " ) p l a te s , w h ich w a s a r a the rc omp l ica ted e n te rpr i se . F o rt h ew o rk w a sn eeded , n o to n ly t h ec ame ra w i th l e n s a nd t r ipod , b u ta l so an umbe ro fg l a ss -p la te s , c hem ica l sf o ra pp ly ing t h el i gh t -sen s i t ive l a ye ro nt h ep l a te sa nd at e n tw he re t h ep rocedu re sc ou ld b ec ar r ied o u ti nt o ta ld a rkne s s . When t h ec ame ra w a s moun ted o nt h et r ipod a nd t h e mo t if w a sf o cu ssed o nt h es c reen , t h ep l a te sh ad t ob ep repa red a nd t h en i mmed ia te ly e xpo sed a nd d eve loped n o tt oo l ong a f te rwa rd s . T he c op ies w e re made f r om t h e p l a te w hen i tw a s d ry b y ad i rec tm e thod w i thou t t h e h e lp o fa n e n la rge r . T he d i f f e rence i ns i ze o ft h e c op ie s c an b e e xp la ined e i the rb yv a ry ing s i zes o ft h ef r am ing o ft h ep l a teho lde r so rs imp ly b yt h ec u t t ing o ft h e c op ie s . I tw a s c e r ta in ly n o t a cc iden ta l t h a t Mon te l ius a nd R e tz ius made t h e se e xcava t ions i n V ä s tergö t land when t hey d id . I n 1 874 Sweden h ad t he h onour o f h o s t ing t he I n te rna t iona l C ong res s a nd mos t p robab ly t h ey h ad t h is i nm ind w hen p lann ing t h e e xped i t ion s . Mon te l ius w a s p repa r ing ap ape r o n S tone -Age t ombs a nd R e tz iu s mos t c e r ta in ly w a s i n te res ted i nf i nd ing o s teo log ica l ma te r ia l o fi mpo r tance f o r h i s r a c ia l s t ud ie s ( h igh ly t op ica l a tt h e t ime ) . T he " p ic to r ia l " p a r to ft h ed ocumen ta t ion s e em s t o h ave e spec ia l ly c once rned R e tz iu s , w ho i n al e t te rt o Mon te l iu s a bou tt h ec ampa ign i n 1 872 w r i te st h a tt h e re i s ap o s s ib l i ty t h a ta na cqua in tance o fh i sc an p a r t ic ipa te . . ."becau se h e i s ag ood a r t i s t " a nd h e a dd s "Mo reove r , Iw i l l i fp o ss ib le b r ing ap ho tog raph ica l C ame ra " ( l e t te r : R e tz ius 1 872 ) . H e may h ave s een o r h ea rd a bou t t he s ke le ton p ho to l i thog raphy t h a th ad b een c i rcu la ted a tt h ec ong r e s so ne mon th b e fo re ,w h ich c ou ld h ave s t imu la ted h im t o t h e e f fo r t o f t a k ing p ho tog raph s . I n t h e c ong re ss r epor t t ha t a ppea red i n 1 876 t h e re i s ac omp rehens ive p ape rb y Mon te l ius o n t h e " Tombs a nd t h e t opog raphy o f Sweden d u r ing t h e S tone -Age " w h ich p a r t ly i si lus t ra ted w i th t h e p ho tog raph s b y R e tz iu s . A s t h e b ig h i tc ame a f te rt h e t e rm ina t ion o ft h e c ong re ss , t h e r i ch l a te n eo l i th ic s t one -c is t a tK a r leby , t h is w a s a dded i n t h e c ong ress r epo r t a s a n ew s i tem wh ich i sa l so i lu s t ra ted w i th t wo p ho tog raph s b y R e tz iu s . H i ldeb rand t h e y ounge r , w ho w a s t h e S ec re ta ry G ene ra l a tt h e c ong r es s , w r i tes i nh i s p refa ce : " Ih ave t r ied t og ive / t he r epo r t / at ypog raph ic f o rm a nd ar i chne s s i ni lus t ra t ion w o r thy o ft h e C ong re ss a nd o f Sweden " . Wha t i sn ew i nt h is e d i t ion o ft h e c ong re ss -repor t s i sn o d oub tt h ei lu s t ra t ion s . T hank st ot h ed eve lopmen to ft h et e chno logy o f wood -eng rav ing i th ad b een p o s s ib le t op r in tt h ep i c tu re st o ge the rw i th a nd w i th in t h et e x tw h ich c ou ld n o t b e d one w i th l i thog raphy . T he mo s ti mp re ss ive a r e n o d oub t p age s 1 58 -160 a nd 1 72 , w i th t h e i ri lu s t ra t ion se ng raved f r om R e tz ius 'p ho tog raph s ,f i g . 1 3 . 7 6

I nt h i s c on tex t i ts hou ld b e m en t ioned t h a t t h e o lde r H i ldeb rand , i no rde r t og i ve t h e d e lega te so ft h ec ong re s sa ni n te re s t ing o b jec to fs t udy , h ad at r ench m ade i no ne o ft h e b i g b u r ia l -mound s a tO ld U ppsa la . T h i s w a s p ho tog raphed b y ap ro f e s s iona l p ho to g r aphe ri nU pp sa la ,H en r iO s t i ,w ho se n ega t ive c o l lec t ion o f1 6 ,000 p l a te si sk ep ti nt h e U n ive r s i ty L ib ra ry a tU pp sa la ( Söde rbe rg & R i t t se l 1 983 ) . Among h i sp i c tu re st h e r ea r e t wo s how ing t h e t r ench a tO ld U pp sa la , f i g . 4 .O ne c ou ld p onde r w he the r t h ey w e re o rde red t o b e t a ken b y H i ldeb rand , f o r i n s tance . H oweve r , n o th ing p o in t s i n t h a t d i r ec t ion .A sO s t id e l ive r ed p i c tu r e st ot h ei lu s t ra ted m agaz ine sa tt h et ime ,p e rhaps t h ey w e re l e f t o ve r . T he d i f f e rence b e tween t h e p ro f e s s iona l a nd t h e a ma teu r i sn o d oub t v i s ib le when t h ey a r e c ompa red t ot ho se t a ken b y R e tz iu s , a s f a r a st e chn ica l s k i l l i s c once rned . O n t h e o the rh and o ne g e t s t h e i mp re s s ion t h a tt h e man b eh ind t h e c ame ra w a s a t al o ss r ega rd ing w ha t w a s i mpor tan t t o d ep ic t . T he b ig h o le a nd t h e l i t t le s t one -ca i rn mu s th ave b een ad i sappo in tmen tt ot h eo rgan ize r sa nd c e r ta in ly n o ta ni d ea l n ew s i tem o f t h e k ind t h a t w a s e xpec ted f r om ap re s t igous e xcava t ion . T he a r t o f p ho tog raphy o pened u p n ew p oss ib l i l i tes i n a r chaeo log ica l c ommun ica t ion , c omp l imen ta ry t ot h eo l de ro ne s : t h ew r i t ten r e co rd ,t h ed r aw ing , t h em ea su r emen t sa nd t h es amp le so ri t em s . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p ho tog raphy a nd " a r t " w a s a l ready f r om t h ev e ry b eg inn ing a b one o f c on ten t ion ( Scha r f 1 968 ) . T ha t d i scus s ion h a s n o r e levance t o i t s u se i n a r chaeo logy ,w he re i ti s am ean so fc ommun ica t ing o b se rva t ion s .T he d i f f e r en ce b e tween d raw ing a nd t h e p ho tog raph i n t h is c onnec t ion h a s b een a na lyzed b y t h e F rench p h i lo sophe rR o land B ar the s . H ep o in t s o u tt h a tt h ep ho tog raph i s am e s sage w i thou ta c ode , a n a na logon , a nd t h a t i ti sc on t inou s . T he d raw ing , p a in t ing , e t c d eve lop s a s upp lemen ta ry m e s sage , t h e s t y le o ft h er ep roduc t ion : " ad eno ted m e ssage w h ich i st h e a na logon i t se l fa nd ac onno ted m e s sage i nw h ich s o c ie ty t o ac e r ta in e x ten tc ommun ica t e s w ha ti tt h ink so fi t " . T he o b jec t iv i ty o ft h ep ho tog raph ,t h ough ,d oe sn o tp roh ib i tt h eu se o fi tf o rd i f f e ren tp u rpo se s , m ak ing i tc onno ted b y t h ew ay i ti sp roduced a nd h and led . T h is i s wha t B a r the s c a l l s t h e " pho tog raph ica l p a radox " , t h e c oex is tence o f t wo m es sage s , o ne w i thou t ac ode ( t he p ho tog raph ic a na logue ) a nd o ne w i th ac ode ( t he " a r t " ,o rt r ea tmen t ,o rt h e" w r i t ing "o rt h er e tho r i co ft h ep ho tog raph ) . B a r the s l i s t s s eve ra lw ay s o fc onno t ing t h ep ho tog raph i nr e la t ion t oi t s u se a s ap re s s i l u s t ra t ion ,w ay sw h i ch t o ac e r ta in e x ten ta l so a r ea pp l icab le t oa r chaeo log ica lp i c to r ia l f unc t ion s . F i r s t ly t h e re a r e t h e w ay s i nw h ich t h e c ame ra i sh and led , t r ick e f f ec t s , t h e c ho ice o ft h e momen tf o rt a k ing t h ep ho tog raph , t h et r ea tmen to ft h eo b jec t b e fo re t h e p ho tog raph i st a k en e t c . S econd ly t h e re i st h e m anne r o fc omb in ing p ho tog raph w i th t e x t . E ven t h ough t h ei c on ic a nd g r aph ic r ep re sen ta t ion n eve rc an s peak e xa c t ly t h es ame l a nguage ,t h ey c an b e mo re o rl e s sa ma lgama ted . F inaly t h e re a r et h ew ay st h er e ce ive r g r a sp st h em e s sage a cco rd ing t oh i ss o c ia la nd c ogn i t ive q ua l if ica t ion s( Ba r the s 1 978 ) . A n a na ly s i so ft h ef i r s ta r chaeo log ica lp ho tog raph si st h e reby d oomed t ob e s upe r f ic ia l , a st h ei n te rp lay b e tween t h ed i f f e r en ta r chaeo log ica lm ed ia c anno tb ef u l ly s t ud ied ,d ue t o l a ck o fs ou r ce s . I nt h ec a se o fR e tz iu s 'p i c tu r e s h oweve r , t h e re s e em t ob ea tl e a s tt h r ee a s pec t s o fi n te re s t : t h e c ho ice o f mo t if s , t h e s e lec t ion f o rp r in t a nd t h ep repa ra t ion f o r p r in t ing . T he p ho tog raph sr e p re sen t ing p a s sage -g rave sc an b ec l a s s if ed , a cco rd ing t ot h e i r mo t if s , i n to c a t ego r ie sa sf o l low s : -p i c tu r e st h a tl o ca t et h e monum en t si nt h el a nd scape a nd d emon s t r a t et h e i ri n te r r e la t ion sh ip w i th o t he rs u r round ing o b jec t s ,f i g . 5 . -p i c tu re s d e scr ib ing t h e e a s i ly r e cogn ized p a r t s o ft h e monumen t s , ma in ly t h e s t one s t ruc tu r e s , f i g . 6 . 7 7

- p i c tu re si nd ica t ing c er ta in d e ta i l so ft h e monumen t s , s uch a st h ee n t rance o rs t one -s lab wh ich i sr ega rded a sr ema rkab le ,f i g . 7 . T he se t h ree q ua l i t ie s : l o ca t ing -d esc r ib ing -i nd ica t ing ,a l lo fw h ich a r ec onnec ted w i th t h ed i s tance sb e tween t h eo b jec t s a nd t h ec ame ra ,d oub t le s sc ons t i tu te ap ho tog raph ica l c onven t ion . T he p a r t icu la r si nt h i sc onven t ion a r en o ts ome th ing n ew ,d er iv ing f r om t h e p ho tog raph ica l me thod , y e t t h e c on sequen t ly r e a l ized s y s tem i s , Ib e l ieve , an ove l ty . A no the r ,o ne may s ay c ompl imen ta ry c onven t ion c once rn st h ew ay t h eo b jec t sa r eb e ing p ho tog raphed f r om d i f fe ren t c ompass p o in t s a t d i f fe ren t d i s tances . B o th t h ese " conven t ion s " a r e s t i l li nf unc t ion . T he p o ss ib l i ty o fp roduc ing ac omp le te p i c tu re e ach t ime ap la te i se xposed mos t c er ta in ly e ncou rage s a n a bundance o fp ho tog raphs e ven w hen t h et e chn ica la dve r s i t ie sw e re a so bv ious a st h ey w e re i nt h e 1 870 s . A mo re p rofound a na ly s i so ft h er e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h ep ho tog raphs t h a tw e re t a ken a nd t ho se t h a tw e re c ho sen f o rp r in t ing i sn o tm ean ingfu l , a st h e ma te r ia l i ss om eag re . T he f olow ing d iag ram g ive s ao ve rv iew o ft h et y pe so fp ho tog raph sa nd t ow ha te x ten t t h ey w e re u sed i nt h ec ong re s sr epo r t . p l a ce s :

A

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LOCAT ING

o

o o

x o

DESCR IBING

o

x

o

I ND ICAT ING

o

x o

o=u npub l i shed p ho tog raph

D

E

F

G

H

x o

x

o

o

o

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o o

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x xo

x=p ub l ished p ho tog raph s

I ts eem s a s t h e c ho ice o fp i c tu re s f o r p r in t d oe s n o t r evea l a ny d eepe r t hough t . T he s ha rpe s ta nd mo s tw e l l -made p i c tu re sh ave b een u sed . I ts hou ld b e s t re s sed t h ough ,t h a t b o th o f t h e t wo f i r s t c a tego r ie s a r e r ep re sen ted . B efo re t h e u se o fp ho tog raphy o ne p robab ly w ou ld h ave b een s a t isf ied w i th o ne o f e i the r k ind . Am ea su remen t o f t h e i mpor tance o ft h e n ew p i c tu re s i st h a t t h ey r ep re sen th a lf o ft h e t o ta l amoun t o ff u l ly e ng raved i lu s t ra t ion si n Mon te l ius 'p ape ra nd r ep resen t mo re t h an 5 0% o ft h ee ng raved b lock s . R ega rd ing t h ew ay t h ep ho tog raphs w e re t ur ned i n to p r in t s al o tc ou ld b e s a id ,a st h eu se o fw ood -eng rav ing h a sb een s ub jec tt oc omp rehen s ive r e sea rch . H e r e i ts hou ld o n ly b e men t ioned t h a tt h e me thod w a s ac ommon w ay o ft r an sm i t t ing p ho tog raph si n to p r in ta t t h et ime a nd r ega rded a s mo re o rl e ss a so bec t ive a si sp ho tog raphy t oday ( J ohanne sson 1 982 ) . I tc an b eo b se rved t h a tt h ey d id n o th e s i ta te t oa d jus tt h ep i c tu re b y f o ri n s tance l e av ing o u td i s tu rb ing o j ec t sl i ke t h ep o le i nf i g . 3 .I ti sa l so o bv ious t h a tp i c tu r es made f r om p ho tog raphs c ou ld b e m ixed w i th o the r s made f r om d raw ing s . E ven t hough t h e d i f f e rence w a sn o ts os t r ik ing a tt h et ime a si ti sf o ru st oday ,i ts e em sa si ft h ey a vo ided p l a c ing t h em s ot h a tt h ey c ou ld b ed i rec t ly c ompa red . T he p ho tog raph sb yR e tz iu sc on ta in t wo f avou r i te a r chaeo log ica ls ub jec t s ,t h e monumen t u n touched i n i t s s u r round ings a nd t h e monumen t d u r ing e xcava t ion . T he re a r e f o r i n s tance n o a r chaeo log ica l a r t ifac t s i nt h ep ho tog raph s f r om h i s c ame ra , a l though t h i s w a sn o tg ene ra l ly t h ec a se a tt h et ime . Among Mon te l iu s ' e xce rp t st h e re a r eo cca s iona l p ho tog raph sd a t ing f r om t h e 1 870 s .I nt h ec ong re s sr epo r to f1 872 s eve ra lp i c tu r e -page s a r el i thog raphed f r om p ho tog raph s . I nt h ee d i t ion o f 1 874 t h e re i so ne , e ng raved " f rom p ho tog raphy " i no ne o f Mon te l iu s ' p ape r s , f i g . 8 .I ti si n te re s t ing t os e e h ow t h e a r t i s t 7 8

h a sh ad av e ry s t eady h and w hen d ep ic t ing t h ea r t if ac td i re c t ly ,w h i le t h er ep roduc t ion o f ap ho tog raphy i nt h i sc a se s e em st o h ave c au sed s ome u nce r ta in ty . T h i so fc ou r se may b ee xp la ined b yt h ea r t i s t ' su nf am i l ia r i ty w i th a r chaeo log ica la r t i fac t so nt h ew ho le ,w h i le t h eo the rc ou ld b ep roduced b y as pec ia l i s t . O ne c anno te xc lude t h ep o ss ib l i ty , t hough , t h a tt h es t i l le x i s t ing h e s i ta t ion b e tween d raw ing so rp ho tog raph sf o ri lu s t ra t ing a r t i f ac t s , h a so ld r oo t s . T he a im o ft h ep re sen tp ape rh a sb een t os hed s ome l i gh to ve rt h ee a r ly y ea r so f Swed i sh a r chaeo log ica l p ho tog raphy . T h is s ub jec t i sc e r ta in ly o f i n te res t i n a nd o f i t se lf . H oweve r , Ia l so b e l ieve t h a ta r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch mu s ts c ru t in ize i t s me thod sa sf a ra s c ommun ica t ion i sc once rned . T he c r ea t ion a nd e vo lu t ion o f c ode s a nd c onven t ions s hou ld b ea na lyzed i no rde rt or enew a nd r e f ine t h em . A sa r chaeo logy h a s at e ndency t o b e a ccumu la t ive e ven w hen m e thod s a r ec once rned , s uch s t ud ie s s hou ld b ep e r fo rmed d i a ch ron icaly . R eferences A rago , M . , 1 839 . R appor t s ur l e Daguer rM type l u al as eance d e l aC hambre d es Depu te sl e 3J u i l le t1 839 e ta l ' AcacMm ie d e sS c ience s ,s éance d u1 9A ou t .P a r is . B a r the s , R . , 1 978 . T he p ho tog raph ic m es sage . I n : AB ar thes r eader . E d . S u san S onn t a g . N ew Yo rk 1 982 . C ong it s I n te rna t iona ld 'An th ropo log ie & d 'A rchaeo log ie P reh i s to r ique . 1 873 . C omp te r endu d el a6 e s e ss ion , B ruxe l les , 1 872 . B ru s se l s . L ikew i se 1 876 . C omp te r endu d el a7 e s e ss ion , S tockho lm , 1 874 . S tockho lm . H emm ings son , P . , 1 970 .F o toh i s tor i sk t . S tockho lm . H i ldeb rand ,B .E . , 1 862 . S ven ska s i g i l ler f rän m ede l t iden . S tockho lm . I v ing s ,W .M . , 1 953 .P r in t sa nd v i sua lc ommun ica t ion . C amb r idge , Ma s s . J ohannes son , L . , 1 982 .X y lograf io ch p re ssb i ld . U ppsa la . M ichae l i s ,A . , 1 908 .E in J ah rhunder tK un s tar chäo log i scher E n tdeckungen .L e ipz ig . Mänad sb lad , Kung l iga V i t te rhe t sh i s to r ie o ch a n t ikv i te t sakadem ien s . 1 873 . S tockho lm . S char f , A . , 1 968 .A r t &P ho tography . L ondon . S öde rbe rg ,R . &R i t t se l ,P . , 1 983 . Den s ven ska f o tograf ins h i s tor ia . S tockho lm . Unpr in ted s ources k ep t i n t he A rch ives o f t he C en tra l B oard o f Na t iona l An t iqu i t ies , S tockho lm : L e t te r st oB .E .H i ldeb rand f r om : A . I h re 1 3F eb rua ry , 1 863 G . R e tz iu s , 2 1 S ep tembe r , 1 872 C .A . We t te rbe rgh , 2A ugu s t , 1 858 . M inu te sf r om amee t ing w i th t h eR oya lA cademy o fL e t te r s , 5Novembe r , 1 858 , § 2S3 . P ho tog raph sb yR e tz iu sf r om t h ep a r ishe sK a r leby a nd L u t t ra i nV ä s te rgö t land . E xce rp t si nt h e0 . Mon te l iu sc o l le c t ion .

7 9

F ig . 1 . P ho to sb yR e tz ius s how ing p a s sage -g rave si nV ä s te rgö t land , t a ken i n1 872 .

8 0

F ig . 2 . Wood e ng rav ings i nt h e C ong res s r epo r t o f 1 874 , made f r om t h e p ho to s b y R e tz ius . P age 1 60 i nt h er epo r t .

8 1

F ig . 3 . P ho tos b yR e tz iu si n1 874 s how ing al a rge s t one -c is te xcava ted b yh im a nd Mon te l iu si n t h ea u tumn a f te rt h e Wo r ld A r chaeo log ica lC ong re ss ,b u tc on s ide red t ob es or ema rkab le t h a ti tw a si n c luded i nt h eC ong re s sr epor t . R ep roduced b y wood e ng rav ing o np age 1 72 i nt h er epo r t .

8 2

F ig . 4 . P ho to sb yH en r iO s t i .T he p i c tu re sa r e s how ing t h eh uge t r ench i no ne o ft h e mound sa t o ld U ppsa la w h ich w a so pened i nh onou ro ft h e Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica l C ong re ss 1 874 . T he c on ten to ft h e mound mo s tc e r ta in ly w a s ad i sappo in tmen t ,a lmo s tu nde r l ined b yt h e p ho tos .

8 3

F ig . 5 . P ho to b yR e tz ius 1 872 . T o my k now ledge t h ef i r s ti nS weden t os how a na r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion . T h i s p i c tu re l o ca tes t h e monumen t i nt h e l a nd scape a nd d emons t ra te s i t s i n te r re la t ion sh ip w i th o t he rs u r round ing o b jec t s .

F ig . 6 . P ho to b y R e tz iu s . T h i s p i c tu re d e sc r ibes t h ee a s i ly r e cogn ized p a r t s o ft h e monumen t , ma in ly t h es t one s t ruc tu re s .

8 4

F ig . 7 . P ho to b yR e tz iu s .T he p i c tu re i nd ica te sc e r ta in d e ta i l so ft h e monumen t .

8 5

F ig . S . F 4 p (e . M e ldembourg .

F ig . 8 . T he l e f tp i c tu re i se ng raved " a f te rp ho tog raphy " ; t h er i gh ti s made f r om ad raw ing . 1 874 .

8 6

THE NEED FOR ETHNOGRAPHICAL ANALOGIES I N THE S TUDY OF PREHISTORIC CARIBOU / WILD REINDEER HUNTING : A CASE S TUDY FRO M SU MTANGEN , NOR WAY * B y O t to B lehr N o rweg ian Gover nmen tR e sea r ch R e sea rch A s soc ia te . H a l le o gK o tä sen , N -3630 R odbe rg , N o rway . D epa r tmen to fS oc ia lA n th ropo logy . Un ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S 106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden . F or a n a n th ropo log is t i n te res ted i n t h e p reh i s tor ic h un t ing s oc ie t ies d ependen t o n c a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rl a s ar e sou rce , i ti sh a rd ly s u rpr i s ing t of i nd t h a t e t hnog raph ic monog raphs f r om t h eA r c t ic a r ev e ry i mpo r tan tf o ro ne 's o wn wo rk . T he p i c tu re g iven t h e re h e lp u st o ab e t te ru nde r s tand ing o fh ow t h e i rp reh i s to r ic c oun te rpa r t sc ou ld h ave e xp lo i ted t h es ame e co log ica ln i che . Wha t s t r ike s a nyone w ho r ead s t h e se monog raphs — a sw e l l a s d e sc r ip t ions g i ven b y e xp lo re r s —i sh ow u n ifo rm t h et e chn iques f o rh un t ing c a r ibou /w i ld r e indee r a ppea rt o h ave b een t h roughou tt h eA rc t ic . T he h un tb yi n d iv idua la r che r sh a sn eve rb een o f much i mpo r tance . I n s tead , t h e a n ima ls n eeded w e re s ecu red b y o ne f o rm o r a no the r o f c ommuna l h un t ing . Why t h e empha s is o n t h e l a t te r t e chn iques? A nd c ou ld i tb e t h a t p reh i s to r ic h un te r s , a sw e l l ,h ad t ou se t h i st e chn ique t os e cu re t h ea n ima ls t h ey n eeded ? T he a ma teu r No rweg ian a r chaeo log i s tN e rgaa rd , w ho w o rked o nt h e moun ta in p la teau H a rdangerv idda i n S ou ther n N o rway d rew t h i s c onc lus ion a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h is c en tu ry . H e h ad r ead t h e b ook — f i r s t p ub l ished i n 1 907 — a bou t t h e p o la r e xp lo re r Amund sen 's v oyage t h rough t h eN or th We s tP a s sage , w he re Amund sen d e scr ibed h ow t h eN e t s i l ik E sk imo sd rove t h ec a r ibou i n to t h ew a te r , w he re t h ey w e re k i l led b yh un te r s i n k a jak s . T o h e lp c on t ro l t h e a n ima l s t h e E sk imo s b u i l t c a i rns t ha t w e re t aken f o r p reda to r s b y t h e c ar ibou . T he c a i rn s t hus b ecome a n i mpor tan t p a r t o f t h e h un t ing t e chn ique , s i nce b yp l ac ing t h em a ts t ra teg ic p l ace st h eE sk imo sc ou ld u se t h em t of unne l t h ea n ima l st owa rd st h ew a te r( Amund sen 1 972 :155 ) . N e rgaa rd , w ho h ad f ound s i tes r i ch i n r e indee r b ones a tl akes o n H a rdange rv idda , a r gued t h a tt h ey h ad b een u sed b yh un te r sd epend ing o nt h es ame t e chn ique f o ro b ta in ing t h e w i ld r e indee r t h ey n eeded . H is a s sump t ion w a s c onf irmed b y f i nd ing s o fr ow s o f c a i rn sb e tween t wo l a ke s . Al o ca ll e gend r e coun ted t h a ti ne a r l ie rt ime sr ope sh ad b een s t rung b e tween t h e c a i rn s t o s t op t h e w i ld r e indee r f r om p ass ing b e tween t h e l a ke s . I n s tead t h ey w e re d r iven i n to o ne o ft h em , a nd k i l led b yh un te r s i nb oa t s ( 1911 :60 -64 ) . T ot h eb e s to f my k now ledge ,t h is w a st h ef i r s tu se o fa ne t hnog raph ic a na logy t oe xp la in t h eh un t ing t e chn ique o fp reh i s to r ic r e indee rh un te r s . B u tN e rgaa rd w en te ven f u r the r .H es t a ted t h a tt h eh un te r sd epend ed o nl a ke sf o rg e t t ing t h ea n ima ls t h ey n eeded ( i b id :63 ) . O r ,i no the rw o rd s ,w ha th es t a ted w a st h a ti no rde rt o p rocu re as uf f ic ien t n umbe r o fr e indee r t h e h un te r s h ad h ad t od epend o n c ommuna l d r ive s . H e d id n o t d eve lop t h i s h ypo thes i s f u r the r , e xcep t b y r e f e r r ing t o t h e p oo r w eapon st h eh un te r s mus th ave h ad . B u to bv iou s ly ,i tw i l lb eo ft h eg rea te s ti mpo r tance f o ro u ru nde r s tand ing o fp reh i s to r ic c a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rh un te r si fh ec an b ep roved t o b e r i gh t i n h i s a s sump t ion . Howeve r , h ow c an i tp oss ib ly b e p roved? A s n o ted , N e rgaa rd c i te s t h e p oo r w eapons o f t h e p reh is to r ic h un te r s a s a n e xp lana t ion . A nd c l ea r ly t h ee ff i c iency o ft h ew eapon u sed mu s tb er e levan tw hen e xp la in ing t h es uce s so r f a i lu re o fh un t ing t e chn ique s . B u ts u re ly t h eb ehav iou ra lp a t te rn o ft h es pec ie sh un ted i s a l so r e levan t . 8 7

L e tu sf i r s tl ook a tt h ew eapon u sed . A r row p o in t sa r e g ene ra l ly f ound a th un t ing s i te s . We c an e a s i ly i d en t ify t h em a ss uch b ecau se t h e f unc t ion o fs im i la r f o rm s a r ek nown e t hnog raph ica l ly . T he p reh i s to r ic h un te r s mus tt h e refo re h ave k nown t h eu se o ft h eb ow a nd a r row . I fw e a ga in l ook t oe t hnog raphy f o r a na log ie s w e f i nd t ha t , b e s ide s l a nce s t h a tw e re t h ru s ti n to a n ima ls f r om as ho r td i s tance , t h eb ow a nd a r row w a s t h e g ene ra l w eapon u sed b y t h e c a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rh un te r s . N ow , w e c an w i th af a i ra moun to f c e r ta in ty a s sume t h a t t h e e f f ic iency o ft h i s l a t te r w eapon d id n o tc hange f o rt h e w o r se f r om p reh i s to r ic t ime st ot h et imes w ek now e t hnog raph ica l ly ( c f . L augh l in 1 976 :198 ) . T h i s mean st h a tt h ee f f ec t ive r ange o ft h ea r row mu s th ave b een a pp rox ima te ly t h es ame i na l lc a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rh un t ing s oc ie t ie s . T he i mpo r tan ti mp l ica t ion o ft h i si st h a tt h e r ange o ft h ep reh i s to r ic a r row c an b ea r r ived a tt h rough e t hnog raph ic a na logy . A no the r , e qua l ly j u s t if ied a s sump t ion i st h a tt h eb ehav iou ro ft h ec a r ibou /w i ld r e indee ra s as pec ie s d id n o tc hange d u r ing t h es am ep e r iod ,e i the r . T he a n ima l s wou ld t h e re fo re h ave b ehaved t owa rd s t h ep reh i s to r ic h un te r s a st h ey d id t owa rd st h eo ne sk nown f r om e t hnog raphy . And t h ea r che r s ,r ega rd le s s o fw hen o rw he re t h ey l i ved , h ave h ad t od eve lop t h e s ame s t ra teg ie st os e cu re t h e i rp r ey . I fw et h en s ucceed i np rov ing t h a ti tw a si mpo ss ib le f o rt h ev a r ious h un te r sw e mee ti n e t hnog raphy t o p rocu re t h e n eces sa ry a n ima ls t h rough i nd iv idua l h un t ing , t h en t h is s hou ld q u i te l og ica l ly h ave b een t h ec a se i np reh i s to r ic t ime sa sw el .T h i sw ou ld e xp la in w hy c ommuna lh un t ing h a sa lway sb een ap r e requ i s i te a mong s o c ie t ie sd epend ing o nt h e c a r ibou /w i ld r e indee ra s ar e sou rce . A nd w ha tw eh ad s e to u tt op rove w ou ld i ndeed h ave b een p roved . Ib e l ieve t h a t Ih ave s ucceeded i nd o ing j u s tt h a ti n ar e cen ta r t ic le ( B leh r 1 988 ) .L e t me t h e refo re r e f e rt h o se i n te re s ted t ot h i sw o rk ,w h ich a l so g i ve sr e f e r ence st o t h e r e levan t l i te ra tu re f r om t h e A rc t ic . H e re i tw i l l s uf f ice w i th ab r ief o u t l ine o f my a rgumen tb efo re w et ur nt ot h e g ene ra l i mp l ica t ion s o f my f i nd ing s f o ra r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . My a rgumen tr un s a sf o l low s : F rom t h ew r i t ing s o ft h ee a r ly A rc t ic e t hnog raphe r s w e c an d raw t h ec onc lu s ion t h a tt o le rab le a ccu racy , s uch a sn eeded f o rh i t t ing a na n ima lw i th a n a r row ,w a s n o te n su red b eyond ar ange o fa bou t2 0m e te r s . H oweve r ,i ti se x t reme ly d i f f icu l tt og e tt h a tc l o se t ot h ec a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rb efo re i ts e e sy ou , a nd e scape sb y f l igh t . I n mo s ts i tua t ion si ti sn o tp o s s ib le t og e tc l o se a ta l l . Mo reove r ,t h is r ange h ad t o b e e ven s hor te ri ft h e a r che rw a s t oh ave much h ope o fh i t t ing a n a n ima l t h a t w a s n o t s t a t iona ry . T oo ve rcome t h is h and icap t h eh un te rw ou ld f o l low d i f f e ren t s t ra teg ie s . H e c ou ld f o ri n s tance make a s udden d a sh t owa rd sh i sp r ey ,a nd t hus w i th s ome l u ck g e tu p t o1 5 -20 m e te r sc l o se rt h an w a sp o s s ib le b y s t ea l th a l one . O rh ec ou ld t r yt op red ic tt h e p a th t h ea n ima ls w ou ld t a ke a nd —c oncea led a t as u i tab le p lace a l ong t h ep a th —w a i tf o r t h em t og e tw i th in t h er ange o fh i sa r row s . E ven w hen t h el a nd w a sd ep le ted o fa n ima l s t h ea r che rc ou ld f o l low as omewha ts im i la rs t ra tegy . T h i s mean t , h oweve r , a n t ic ipa t ing t h ep a th t h ec a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rw ou ld f o l low ,i ft h ey i ndeed d id a ppea r , a nd t h en f o r d ay sw a i t ing h opefu l ly f o rt h em . T he se i nd iv idua lh un t ing t e chn ique s ,a sw el a st h eo t he r sm en t ioned i ne t hnog raphy ,a r e d e sc r ibed a sb e ing g ene ra l ly i n eff i c ien ta nd y i e ld ing l i t t le .I ts e em st h a ti tw a se xcep t iona l f o r mo re t h an o ne a n ima l t ob e s e cu red b efo re t h er e s to ft h eh e rd w a s s c a red o f f . O n ly when t h e a n ima l s d u r ing t h e s p r ing a nd f a l l m ig ra t ion s moved i n g r ea t h e rd s q u i te o b l iv iou st od ange rc ou ld s uch h un t ing p robab ly g i ve ar e la t ive ly r i ch y i e ld . B u tn o te ven o nt h e se o cca s ion sw ou ld i nd iv idua lh un t ing g i ve as u f f ic ien tn umbe ro fa n ima l s . F rom r ead ing t h e e t hnog raph ic m a ter ia l , i tb ecames a ppa ren t a ga in a nd a ga in t h a t s uch a n umbe rc ou ld o n ly b eo b ta ined b yc ommuna lh un t ing . Wi thou tg o ing i n to d e ta i la st ot h e d i f f e ren tc ommuna lh un t ing t e chn ique s ,i tm igh tb es a id t h a tt h er ea son t h ey w e re a l ls o o ve rwhe lm ing ly s uccessfu l w as t h a t t h ey h ampe red t h e movemen t s o f t h e a n ima ls e nough f o rt h eh un te r st oo ve r take t h em . Ih ave a l ready m en t ioned t h ed r ive se nd ing i n 8 8

w a te r . T he re h un te r s i nb oa t s q u i te e a s i ly c ou ld o u tmanoeuve rt h e s w imm ing a n ima l s . B u t t h e c ommuna l d r ive s c ou ld b ej u s t a s s ucce ssfu l w hen t h ey e nded i ne nc losu re s , p i t f al s ,o rn e t s ,t o men t ion s ome o ft h eo the rt e chn iques . Wha tt h ey a lh ad i nc ommon w a st h a tb yh ampe r ing o ri mmob i l iz ing t h ea n ima l st h ey made i r re levan tt h ef a c tt h a tt h e e f f ec t ive r ange o ft h ea r row w a ss os ho r t . G ran ted t h en t h a t t h e c ommuna l h un t ing g ave e nough a n ima l s f o r t h e c a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rh un t ing s oc ie t ie st ob ecome d ependen to nt h i sa n ima l ,w ha tt h en d oe st h i sr e a l ly i mp ly? T he c r uc ia lf a c th e re i st h a tt h i sd ependency w a sn o tp r ima r i ly d ue t ot h ee xce s so f m ea t t h a t w a s s e cu red i nt h is w ay . R a the r , t h e p a ramoun t i mpor tance o f c ommuna l h un t ing h ad t od o w i th t h e n eed f o r a dequa te w in te rc l o th ing i nt h e se s oc ie t ies . O fa l l s k ins a va i lab le i nt h eA rc t ic , t h a to ft h ec a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rh a s t h e f u rw i th t h e b e s t i n su la tory e f fec t , a nd h ence p rov ided t he w a rme s t d ress . No t s urpr i s ing ly i tw a s t h e re fo re p re f e r red a l o ve rt h eA r c t ic f o rw in t e ru se . A nd —a ni mpo r tan tf a c th e re — o n ly d u r ing t h e s ho r tf a l l p e r iod d oe s t h ef u rh ave t h er i gh tl e ngh tf o rs uch c l o th ing . T he 3 0 o r mo re s k in s n eeded b y t h e h un te r a nd h i s f am i ly t hu s h ad t ob ep rocu red d u r ing t h e f a l l . A nd t h eo n ly w ay t h i sc ou ld b ed one i ns u ch as ho r tt ime w a sb yc ommuna lh un t ing . T h i s ,t h en ,m igh tb es a id t ob et h er e a son t h a tt h i sf o rm o fh un t ing w a s ap re requ i s i te f o r b ecom ing d ependen to nc a r ibou /w i ld r e indee ra s ar e sou rce . A nd i ng ene ra li tm igh tb e s a id t h a t t h e i mpo r tance o fc ommuna l h un t ing w a s al og ica l c on sequence o ft h e g r ea t d i f f icu l t ie sc onnec ted w i th g e t t ing a n ima l sa ny o t he rw ay . I nf a c t ,c ommuna ld r ive sw e re p r ef e r red e ven w hen t h ep rey w a s as i ng le a n ima l . N e rgaa rd ' sa s sump t ion c once rn ing t h ea l l impo r tan tr o le p l ayed b yc ommuna lh un t ing i n w i ld r e indee r —a nd l e tm e a dd , c a r ibou - h un t ing s oc ie t ie s t hus s e em s t oh ave p roved c o r rec t .L e tu st h e refo re ,a sp rom i sed a bove ,c onc lude b yl ook ing a tt h ei mp l ica t ions t h i s c an h ave f o ra r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch . C lea r ly ,t h ei n s igh tw eh ave g a ined t h rough t h eu se o fe t hnog raph ica la na log ie sa nd z oo log ica l( e tho log ica l )d a ta , s hou ld b ed i rec t ly r e levan t f o ro u rr eg iona ls t ud ie so fs uch s oc ie t ie s . L e tm et a ke S um tangen ,t h eb e s t -known s i te o n H a rdangerv idda , a s a n e xamp le . T h is s i te i ss i tua ted o n ap o in t o n t h e s ou th s i de o fa s ma l l l a ke c a l led L ake F in sbe rg , a nd i se xcep t iona l ly r i ch i nr e indee rb ones f r om t h e E a r ly Med ieva lP e r iod ( A .D . 1 050 -1350 ) ( B leh r 1 973 :106 ) . T h i si mp l ie s ,f r om w ha th a s b een s a id a bove , t h a t i n t h i s p er iod t h e s i te w a s b e ing u sed b y p eop le e ngaged i n c ommuna l h un t ing o ft h i s a n ima l . B u t t h e s i te h ad a l so b een u sed e a r l ie r . I n f a c t , i t a ppea r st h a ti th as b een i nu se t ime a nd t ime a ga in t h roughou tt h el a s t7 000 -8000 y ea r s ( Hagen 1 983 :147 -151) . Av ery r ea sonab le h ypo thes i s i so f c ou r se t h a t i n t h e o the r p e r iod so fo ccupa t ion a sw e l l , S um tangen h ad b een u sed i nc onnec t ion w i th c ommuna l h un t ing . O rp u ti na no the r w ay : I ft h e a r ea n ea r t h e s i te w a s w e l l s u i ted f o rc ommuna l h un t ing o fr e indee r i nt h e E a r ly Med ieva l P e r iod , t h is w ou ld mo s tc e r ta in ly a l so h ave b een t h ec a se i ne a r l ie rp e r iod sa sw e l l , a sl o ng a st h e re w e re a n ima ls t h e re t oh un t . T h i s s u i tab i l i ty w ou ld h ave b een t h ei n cen t ive f o rc hoo s ing t h es i te i nt h ef i r s tp l ace . T he a r chaeo log i s t st h a tr e cen t ly h ave b een i n te re s ted i nt h ea r ea h ave c ome t ot h e s ame c onc lus ion ( I nd re l id 1 976 :131 a nd 1 979 :58 , H agen 1 983 :147 ) . Howeve r , t h ey h ave r eached i to n t h e b a s is o f o the r d a ta . Al o ca l l e gend e xp la ined t h e l a rge amoun t o f r e indee rb one sa tt h es i te a s ar e su l to fh un t ing a t an a tu ra lc ro ss ing p l ace ,t h a ti s , ap l ace w he re d ur ing m ig ra t ions t h ea n ima l sc ro ss al a ke o rg r ea tr i ve ro ft h e i ro wn v o l i t ion . A t S um tangen ,t h el e gend t o ld ,t h ea n ima l sc ro s s t h el a ke f r om t h en or th s ho re t ot h ep o in t w i th t h e s i te . A nd i tw a s d ur ing t h is c ro ss ing t h a t t h ey w e re a t tacked a nd k i l led b y h un te r s ( N ico lay sen 1 861 :23 ) . N ow , i fw el ook i nt h ee t hnog raph ic m a te r ia l f r om t h eA rc t ic w ef i nd t h a ts uch n a tu ra l c r o s s ing p l ace sa r ef ound o n ly w he re m ig ra t ing c a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rh ave t oc ro s sr a the r i mp re ss ive w a te rways . B u t s uch o bs tac les a r e h a rd ly f ound o n H a rdangerv idda , a nd L ake F in sbe rg i sc e r ta in ly n o t s o i mp re s s ive t h a t t h e r e indee r wou ld c hoo se t o s w im 8 9

a c ro s si t .R a the r , a s Ih ave o b served r epea ted ly , t h ea n ima l s , a t t rac ted a st h ey a r e t ot h e s ound o fr unn ing w a te r ,c ro s sw he re t h er i ve rr un so u to ft h el a ke . A sw e s hou ld e xpec t , t h er emnan t so f ar ow o fc a i rns o nt h en o r th s i de o ft h e l a ke a sw e l lb ea re v idence t h a t w eh ave h e re a na r t i f ic ia lc ro ss ing p l ace ,i . e . ap l ace w he re t h ea n ima l sw e re d r iven i n to t h e w a te r . A t L ake F in sbe rg t h e r ow o fc a i rns h ad c hanne led t h e r e indee rd own t ot h e l a ke whe re i ti sa ti t s w ide s t . T he w id th w a si mpo r tan tb ecau se i tmade i tmo re d i f f icu l t f o rt h e a n ima l s t or e a ch t h es ho re a nd e s cape w hen a t tacked . O nf i r s tt hough to ne m igh ta r gue t h a tf o ra nu nde r s tand ing o ft h ec ommuna lh un ta tL ake F in sbe rg i tmake sl i t t le d i f f e rence o ne w ay o ra no the rw he the ri tw a sa t an a tu ra lo ra ta n a r t if ic ia l c ros s ing p l ace . T h i s m igh tp a r t ia l ly e xp la in w hy a r chaeo log is t s s o s t ubbo rn ly k eep o n i n s i s t ing t h a t t h e c ommuna l h un t s h e re w e re a t an a tu ra l c ro ss ing p l ace e ven w hen i tr epea ted ly h a s b een d ocumen ted t h a t t h e o ppo s i te i st h e c a se ( B leh r 1 973 a nd 1 982 ) . O rc ou ld t h e re b e a no the rr e a son f o r t h e i ri n s is t ing t h a t t h ec ommuna l h un t ing t ook p lace a tn a tu ra l c ro ss ing p laces? C ou ld i tb e r e la ted t o t h e f a c t t h a t s uch a n e xp lana to ry mode l e xemp t s t h em f r om l ook ing f o r emp ir ica l v e r if ica t ion s i nce s uch h un t ing s uppo sed ly w a s c a r r ied o u t w i thou t t h e n eed f o rc a i rn s , a nd t h e refo re d id n o t l e ave a ny t r ace o f h uman a c t iv i t ies w he re t h ey t ook p lace? T h is v iew s e em s t o b e c onf i rmed b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p reh i s to r ic h un te r s a r e a l so a s sumed t oh ave u sed a t e chn ique w he reby t h er e indee ra r ec augh ta tn a tu ra l ly g i ven c o r r ido r si nt h el a nd scape ( J ohan sen 1 978 :60 , 12 , c f . H agen 1 983 :64 -65 ) . Wha teve rt h e i rr e a son sf o ri n s i s t ing o nt h er e levance o fn a tu ra lc r o s s ing p l ace so rn a tu ra l c o r r ido r sf o rr e indee rh un t ing ,i tm igh tb ec on s ide red ag ood e xamp le o fh ow f a ra s t ray a r chaeo log i s t s c an b e l e d b y i gno r ing r e levan t d a ta a va i lab le t h rough e t hnog raph ic a na log ies a nd e t ho logy . A s f a r a s S um tangen g oes t h e i r m i s in te rp re ta t ion o f h ow t h e h un t ing w a s c a r r ied o u t d oes n o t ma t te r much : t h e l o ca l l e gend a nd t h e a moun t o f r e indee rb one sm ade t h em r i gh t ly d raw t h ec onc lu s ion t h a tt h ea n ima ls w e r ec augh ti nt h e w a te r . B u tw hen t h ey a r et od ec ide h ow s i te sd evo id o fo s teo log ica l ma ter ia lh ave b een u sed , t h e i r l a ck o f i n s igh t i sf a ta l , s i nce t h e i r e va lua t ion s a r e d one i ndependen t ly o f e mp i r ica ld a ta .A nd t h i si s ar ea lp i ty s i nce r emnan t so fc a i rn si nt h ea r ea n ea r as i te —a sI h ave a rgued — m igh t b e t ray i ta s al o ca l i ty u sed b y p eop le e ngaged i nh un t ing a ta n c ro ss ing p l ace . L uck i ly , n o t o n ly o n H a rdangerv idda , b u t a l l o ve r t h e A r c t ic whe re s t one sw e re a va i lab le ,t h i sw a st h ep ref e r red b u i ld ing m a te r ia lf o rc a i rn s .T h is i sw hy t h e c a ir n s b ecome s o i mpo r tan t t ou s a sp reh is tor ian s . F o r e ven a f te rt h ey h ave c o l lap sed t h ey c an u sua l ly b e r a the r e a s i ly r e cogn ized a sr emnan t s o f s uch c a i rn s . We a r e a l so h e lped b yt h ef a c tt h a tw ef i nd t h em i nn umbe r s , a nd u sua l ly i n al i ne a sw e l l . We h ave , i no the rw o rd s , as u re w ay o ft e s t ing w he the ra na r ea w he re s t one sa r ea bundan th a se ve r b een u sed b yp reh i s to r ic c a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rh un te r s . When Ih ave u sed S um tangen t oi lu s t ra te my p o in t i ti sp a r t ly b ecause f o ry ea r s ( c f . B leh r 1 982 )i th a sp uzz led m et h a tf o rt h ea r chaeo log i s t si nvo lved i ts e em sn ece s sa ry t o i n s i s to ni tb e ing an a tu ra lc ro s s ing p l ace r ega rd le s so ft h ef a c t st ot h ec on t ra ry . A no the r a nd mo re i mpor tan tr e a son i st h a tt o my m ind i ts oc l ea r ly s how st h en eed o fn ew t y pe s o fi n s igh ta mong a r chaeo log i s t si n te re s ted i nf o rme rl i f eway s . S hou ld t h i sb ec on s ide red i mpe r t inen t —c om ing a s i td oes f r om a n on -a rchaeo log i s t —t h en Id o n o t a sk f o r i ndu lgence . R a the r , Iw ou ld w e lcome g e t t ing ad i scus s ion g o ing o n t h e r e levance o f u s ing e t hnog raph ic a na log ie sa nd e t ho log ica ld a ta i na r chaeo logy a l ong t h el i ne s Ih ave f o l lowed i nt h i sa r t ic le . Ia mp a infu l ly a wa re o ft h ef a c tt h a t my l im i ted s t udy h e re o nt h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween m an a s h un te r a nd t h e c a r ibou /w i ld r e indee r a sp rey h a s b een a r a ther t hankfu l o ne : N o o the r p u re h un t ing s oc ie t ies a r e s o w e l l d ocumen ted e t hnog raph ica l ly a s t ho se o f t h e A rc t ic . A l l t h e s ame Ib e l ieve t h e a pproach Ih ave f o l lowed h e re m igh tp rove t ob ef r u i t fu lf o rt h es t udy o fp reh i s to r ic h un te r sd ependen to n o the r s pec ies o f b ig m amma l s a s w e l l . A s l o ng a s t h e i r p rey i sn o t e x t inc t i tw i l l b e p oss ib le t o o b ta in b ehav ioura l d a ta r e levan t f o r h un t ing s t ra teg ies . A nd g iven t h e 9 0

s im i la r i t ie sb e tween t h ew eapons t e chno logy o ft h ep reh i s to r ic h un te r s , a nd t h eh un te r s k nown f r om e t hnog raph ic m a te r ia l ,t h eu se o fa na log ie sm igh tp rove a su sefu lt h e re ,j u s t a si th a sp roved f o r me i n my w o rk w i th p reh i s to r ic c a r ibou /w i ld r e indee rh un te r s .

A cknow l edgemen t * The d a ta t h is a r t ic le i sb a sed o nw a si np a r tc o l lec ted w hen Iw a s ar e sea rch a s so c ia te f o rt h eN o rweg ian R e sea rch C ounc i l f o r S c ience a nd t h e H uman i t ie s . Ig ra tefu l ly a cknow ledge i t s s uppo r t . Ia l so w an t t o t h ank my s on A nde r sf o rt h es ke tch f r om L ake F in sbe rg .

F oo tno t e 1 )T he c a r ibdu /w i ld r e indee rc an b es ubd iv ided i n to t wo ma in w ood land s ub spec ie s ,a sw e l la st wo ma in t u nd ra s ub spe c ie s .I ti st h el a t te rt wo —R ang if er t a randu sg roen land icus a nd R ang if er t a randu st a randus — t h a tc once rn u sh e re .

R eferences Amund sen , R . , 1 972 .N ordve s tpa ssa s jen . O s lo . B leh r , 0 . , 1 973 . T rad i t iona l R e indee r H un t ing a nd S oc ia l C hange i n t h e L oca l C ommun i t ies S ou r round ing H a rdangerv idda . N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew . Vo l . 6 , No . 2 . - 1 982 .N ä rv i l l re inen l o pe rd i td uv i l : E nf ang s tme tode ,o gd e ts po re f te rd en id ag k an f o r te l le om f o r t idens j ege r sam funn .T romura . K u l tu rh is to r ie n r . 1 . - 1 988 . C ommuna l H un t ing a s aP re requ i s i te f o rC a r ibou /W i ld R e indee r a s aH uman R esource . I n ( Dav is , L .B . E d . ) Hun ter s o ft h e R ecen t P as t . ( P roceed ing s o f t h e Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica lC ong re s s ,S ou thamp ton 1 987 ) . I np re s s . H agen , A . , 1 983 . N orge s o ld t id . O s lo . I nd re l id , S . , 1 976 . E ld re s t e ina lde r is o rno r sk h oyf je l l . B op la s se r , b o se tn ing smOn s t re o g k u l tu r fo rme r . V ik ing 1 976 . - 1 979 .D a menne skene k om .I nH ardanger v idda . O s lo . J ohansen , A .B . , 1 978 . f l Oy f fe l l sf unn v ed L c erda l svassdrage t I . Na turbruk o g t r ad i s jon s sammenheng ie ts or -nor sk v i l l re inomräd e is t e in .a lder .B e rgen . L augh l in , W .S . , 1 976 . H un t ing . A n I n teg ra t ing B iobehav iou r S y s tem . R epo r t : I nu i t L and U se a nd O ccupancy P ro jec t .V o l .2 .O t tawa . N e rgaa rd , H j . , 1 911 . H a rdangerv idden s x ld s te b efo lkn ing . U nde r soge lse r o g f und . B ergens Museums A arbok 1 911 , N r . 4 . N ico laysen , N . , 1 861 . R e isebe re tn ing i nd send t t ul d e t a kadem iske Ko l leg ium . F oren ingen t ulN or ske F or t id sm ind esmerker s B evar ing . A ar sbere tn ing f or 1 860 . C h r i s t ian ia .

9 1

F ig .

1 .

As ke tch d ep ic t ing ap ha se o ft h ec ommuna lh un t ing a tL ake F in sbe rg . S even r e indee ro n t h e i rf l igh tf r om t h ed r ive r sh ave n o td a r ed t of o l low t h e i ru sua lp a th t h rough t h el i ne o f c a i rns s i nce t h ese a r ea c t iva ted b yp i ece so fs k in o rb i rd w ing s ,e t c . ,t h a ta r ef l u t te r ing i n t h ew ind .I n s tead t h ey h ave r un d own p a ra l le lt ot h ec a i rn s , a nd i n to t h ew a te rt og e ta way f r om t h e i r t o rmen to r s . Two b oa t s h ave j u s t p u t o u t f r om t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e l ake t o i n te r cep tt h ea n ima l sa nd s t a r tt h ek i l l ing . A long t h e s ho re sp eop le h ave a ppea r ed t h a tb y w av ing t h e i ra rm s a nd c ry ing w i l ld i scou rage t h ea n ima l s f r om t r y ing t oe scape a sho re . T ot h er i gh to ft h e s ke tch o nt h es ou th s ho re i sS um tangen P o in t .

9 2

F ig .

2 .

D e ta i l f r om t h e r ow o f c a irn s g o ing d own t o L ake F insbe rg . S ix mo re o r l e ss w e l l p r e se rved s ma l lc a i rns r uns t h rough t h ep i c tu re . O n t h eo the r s i de o ft h el a ke i ss een t h e p o in tS um tangen . I tw a sb e tween t h i sp o in t ,a nd t h eo ne s e en i nt h el e f to ft h ep i c tu re t h a t t h ew i ld r e indee rw rong ly w e re s uppo sed t oc r o s sd ur ing t h ef a l lm ig ra t ion .

9 3

THE ALVASTRA P ILE D WELLING : I TS SOCIAL AND ECONO MIC BASIS B y Hans B rowa l l D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy .U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S -106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden . I n troduc t ion P urpose a nd A ims T h is p ape r i s as umma ry o f t h e a u tho r 's t he s is " A lva s t ra p ä lbyggnad : s oc ia l o ch e konom i sk b a s " ,w h ich w a sp ub l i shed i n1 986 ( Browa l l 1 986 ) . T he p resen t s t udy a t temp t s t oe x tend t h e k now ledge o ft h e n eo l i th ic e conomy i n t h e i n land a r ea so fs ou the rn M idd le Sweden . B a sed o nt h es ou rce ma te r ia lf r om t h eA lva s t ra p i le dwe l l ing a nd i t ss u r round ing s ,t h i s s t udy s e ek st or e con s t ruc tt h er e sou r ce u t il iza t ion o ft h es oc ie ty t h a tc r ea ted t h eA lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing . T he P rob lem " Economy" may b e d ef ined a s as ys tem o f p roduc t ion a nd c onsump t ion w i th in a g eog raph ica l ly d e l im i ted a r ea .I na r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch " e conomy " i s ,h oweve r ,o f ten l im i ted t o t h e u t i l iza t ion o f r e sou rce s , a nd t h e s t ud ies a r e u sua l ly c a r r ied o u t i n a l ong te rm t empo ra lp e r spec t ive ,w he re i n te re s ti sc oncen t ra ted o n s i gn if ican tc hange si n t h e r e sou rce u t i l iza t ion a nd e xp lana t ion s o f t h e se c hanges . T he s ho r t s oc ia l ly a c t ive p e r iod o ft h ep i le d we l l ing , s ome 2 0y ea r s , make si th a rd ly p o s s ib le t ot r ace a ny ma jo r c hanges i n t h e p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty a l ong t h e t ime a x i s . H e re t h e a na ly s i s mus t i n s tead b ec oncen t ra ted o nt h ep ropo r t iona lu t i l iza t ion o fr e sou r ce si n ag ene ra l ized a nnua l c yc le . I n t h e s t udy o ft h e p i le d we l l ing ' s e conomy , t h e p r ima ry s ou rce ma te r ia l c on s i s t s o f a r tefac t s a nd e cof ac t s , c o l lec ted i nt h e p i le d we l l ing a nd c a tego r ized . B y means o ft h e p roduc t ion f a c to r s , ( A ) m anpowe r , ( B ) n a tu ra l r e sou rce s , ( C ) r ea l c ap i ta l , t h e s ource ma te r ia l may b el i nked t o( a ) s o c io -demog raph ic , ( b ) s pa t io -eco log ica l , ( c )t e chno log ica l a spec t so ft h es oc ie ty t h a tc r ea ted t h ep i le d we l l ing . T h is r equ i re s ad e te rm ina t ion o ft h e p i le dwe l l ing 's s oc ia l a nd s pa t ia l l e ve l o f o rgan iza t ion i n i t s s oc ie ty : T he h ighe r t h e o rgan iza t iona ll e ve la tw h ich t h ep i le d we ll ing f unc t ioned ,t h eg r ea te rt h ee x ten tt ow h ich t h ep i le dwe l l ing ' se conomy m ay b ee xpec ted t or ep re sen tt h ee conomy o fi t ss o c ie ty . T h i s p rob lem i ss o lved b y i n te rpre t ing t h e u se , f unc t ion a nd c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e p i le dwe l l ing . I nt h i sc onnec t ion " u se "r e f e r st ot h et y pe o fa c t iv i t ie st h a to ccu r red i nt h ep i le dwe l l ing , w h i le " f unc t ion " r e f e r s t ot h e a c t iv i t ies ' -a nd t h e reby t h e p i le dwe l l ing 's p urpose i n t h e l o ca l s oc ie ta l a nd c u l tu ra l p rocess . " Cons t ruc t ion " r e f e res t ot h e p i le d we l l ing 's a r ch i tec ton ic d e s ign a nd t e chn ica le xecu t ion . The A lvas tra P i le Dwe l l ing P rev ious R esearch a nd F ac t s T he A lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing i ss i tua ted i n as p r ing -f ed m i re i n as ou thwe s te x ten s ion o ft h e f e r t i le O s tgö ta p la in , i nV . T o l ls tad p a r i sh i nt h e p rov ince o fÖ s te rgö t land ( F ig s . 1 ,2 ) . T he h o r izon ta lc on s t ruc t ion so ft h ep i le d we l l ing r e s to nl ime g y t t ja a nd c l ad ium p ea t ,a nd

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a r ec ove red b yc a rex p ea t . T he d i s tance t of i rm g round i ss ome 1 50 a nd 8 0mt ot h e NW a nd S E ,r e spec t ive ly . D iscove red i n 1 908 ( Schn i t tge r 1 908 ) , t h e A lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing w a se xcava ted u nde r t h el e ade r sh ip o fO t to F röd in d u r ing 1 909 -1930 ( F röd in 1 910a , 1 910b ) a nd u nde r Ma t s P . Ma lme rd u r ing 1 956 a nd 1 976 -1980 ( Ma lme r 1 978 , 1 981 , 1 984 ) . T he p i le dwe l l ing h a sn o tb een i nve s t iga ted i ne x ten so . T he v a r iou st r enche sa r ed e s igna ted a si nF ig . 3 . T he a r chaeo log ica l ly d ocumen ted c on s t ruc t ion sc on s i s to fh o r izon ta l ly p laced l o g s ,b ed s o ft w ig s a nd b ranches , " ma t s " o fc r iss -c ro s sed s hee t s o fb a rk , v er t ica lp i les , s t one a nd c l ay h ea r th sa nd l ong i sh s t one c on s t ruc t ion s( F ig . 4 ) . T he a r tef ac t sc on s i s to fs ou thwes tS cand inav ian f l in t , s ed imen ta ry a nd n on -sed imen ta ry r ock s , c l ay ( c e ram ics ) , ambe r , a n ima l b ones , t e e th a nd h orn s , wood a nd w ood f i be r s ( r ope ) , a nd a r e i n many c a se s r epre sen ted i nt h e e a r ly m idd le n eo l i th ic f unne l -beake r c u l ture a nd i n t h e p i t ted -wa re c u l ture . T he e cof ac t s c ons i s t o f a n ima l a nd v ege tab le r ema in s . B o th d omes t ica ted a nd w i ld a n ima ls , a sw e l la sc u l t iva ted a nd w i ld p l an t s a r e r ep re sen ted ( Ma lme r 1 981 , 1 984 ) . T he re a r e at o ta lo f2 1 d a t ing s f r om t h ep i le d we l l ing . T he o lde s tm ean d a te f o ri t s c on s t ruc t ion i s4 470 B .P . , o ra bou t3 100 B .C . i nc a l ib ra ted c a lende ry ea r s . A" f loa t ing " d end rochrono log ica l ly d a ted o ak c urve h a s b een e s tab l ished f o r t h e p i le dwe l l ing , emb rac ing 1 80 ,o r2 2% ,o ft h et o ta lo f8 16 r eg i s te red p i le s . T he o ak c urve r ep re sen t st h e f o l low ing r e la t ive y ea r s : 0 -1 , 2 -3 , 1 0 -11 , 1 5 , 1 6 -17 , 1 7 , 1 8 , 4 0 -42 . When p laced i nt h e c oo rd ina te s y s tem ,t h ed a ted o ak p i le se xh ib i t ap ronounced p l ac ing p a t te rn f o rt h ey ea r s 1t o1 8 ( Ba r tho l in 1 983 : 2 4 -25 a nd B a r tho l in 's p ape ri nt h ep re sen tv o lume ) . Cu l tura l I n terpre ta t ions O n ly a y ea r a f te r t h e f i r s t s ea son o f e xcava t ions ( 1909 ) , O t to F röd in p resen ted a c omprehens ive i n terpre ta t ion o f t h e A lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing : F röd in a s sumed t ha t t h e c ons t ruc t ion w a s b u i l t l i ke ah ouse , s uppor ted o n p i le s , u sed a s ad we l l ing a nd h ad a d ef en s ive p u rpo se . I n a dd i t ion , h e l e f t t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o pen t h a t s ome s o r t o fb u r ia l o r d ea th c u l th ad t a ken p l ace t h e re ( F röd in 1 910a , 1 910 1 3 ;F röd in & F ü r s t 1 919 ) . A sl a te a s i n 1 929 h i s i n te rp re ta t ion s eem s t oh ave r ema ined a lmo s t e n t i re ly u nchanged . O n o ne i mpo r tan tp o in t ,h oweve r ,n ew d i scove r ie sh ad b een m ade : T he s uppo sed h ou se sh ad n o t b een s uppo r ted o np i le s ; f r om t h ev e ry s t a r tt h el o gf l oo r sh ad r e s ted o nt h eg round . I n an umbe r o f e s say s p ub l ished i n c onnec t ion w i th r e cen t i nves t iga t ions , Ma ts P . Ma lme rh a sd e sc r ibed t h ew ooden a nd s t one s t ruc tu re so ft h eA lva s t ra p i le d we ll ing ,b u t h i si n te rp re ta t ion sh ave p r ima r i ly b een a imed a ti t su se a nd f unc t ion ( Ma lme r 1 978 , 1 981 , 1 984 ) . Ma lme rs umma r ize sn ega t ive a nd p o s i t ive f a c t sa sf o l low s( Ma lme r 1 984 : 3 75 ) : T he A lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing c anno tb ed e f ended . I ti sn o tp o s s ib le t ol i ve t h e re y ea r round . I ti sn o tp rac t ica l t ol i ve t h e re e ven d ur ing t h e s umme r t ime , w h ich w a s o bv iou s ly w ha tp eop le d id d o . T he re i s n o t r ace o f p rac t ica l w o rk a s ide f r om t he p repa ra t ion o f f ood a nd c on s t ruc t ion o ft h ep i le d we l l ing i t se lf . 1 2

T he p i le dwe l l ing i s ac ommuna l c ons t ruc t ion p ro jec t f o r ap rosperous f a rm ing p opu la t ion w i th h un t ing a nd f i sh ing a ss e conda ry o ccupa t ion s . T he re a r em any h ea r th sa nd r ema in so fr i ch a nd p l en t ifu lf e a s t ing . 9 6

3 4

T he re a r e c l ea r t r ace s o f s a c r if ices t o h ighe r p owe r s , b o th e xpens ive a nd l e ss e xpens ive o b jec t s ,a sw e l la sd e l ibe ra te i n c ine ra t ion o ff ood s . Du r ing a tl e a s ti t sf i na lp ha se t h ep i le d we l l ing w a s ap l ace f o rt h ed ead .

T hese ma in f a c t s l e ad Ma lme r t o t h e i n terp re ta t ion t ha t t h e A lva st ra p i le dwe l l ing o r ig ina l ly f unc t ioned a s as oc ia la nd c u l tc en te rf o ri t sd i s t r ic t ,a nd t h a ti tw a st h us u sed a s amee t ing p lace , f o rr i ch f e a s t ing a nd f o r s a cr if ice s t oh ighe rp owe r s . T he s ame f ou r p o s i t ive c onc lu s ion s a r e a l so v a l id f o r t h e s ou thern S cand inav ian p a ssage g raves . A s r ega rds f unc t ion , t h e A lva s t ra p i le dwe l l ing may a l so b e c ompa red w i th n eo l i th ic c au sewayed c amps i nE ng land a nd s ou the rn S cand inav ian s t ruc tu res o f t h e s o -ca l led S a rup t ype ( Ma lme r 1 984 :3 74 ) . R econs truc t ion o f t he P i le Dwe l l ing 's Bas ic P lan N o tu n t i l 1 982 d id t h e re e x i s t ad e ta i led i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ea r ch i tec ton ic s t ruc tu re o ft h e A lva s t ra p i le dwel ing a s aw ho le . Ar e cen td i scove ry o fc er ta in s t ruc tu ra lr e la t ion sh ips i n t h ep i le dwe l l ing h a s , h oweve r ,e nab led ar e con s t ruc t ion o fi t sb a s ic p lan ,i . e . t h ef o rma l c ompo s i t ion o f h o r izon ta l c on s t ruc t ion e l emen t s t h a t c an b e a s sumed t o b e o r ig ina l f unc t iona lu n i t s ( Browa l l 1 982 , 1 983 ) . S ub sequen tt ot h is d i scove ry , t h er e con s t ruc t ion h a sb een c ompa red i nd e ta i l w i th t h ed ocumen t sf r om t h e 1 909 -1930 i nve s t iga t ion s , a s w e l l a s t he p ub l ished a nd u npub l i shed o b serva t ions a nd a na ly s i s r e su l ts f r om t h e 1 976 -1980 e xcava t ions . T he r e cons t ruc t ion h a sn o tr ega rded t h ep o ss ib le o ccu r rence o f u pr igh t ,j o ined w ood c on s t ruc t ion sa s am a t te ro fp r ima ry i n te re s t . T he o r ig ina lb a s ic p lan o ft h ep i le d we l l ing ( F ig s . 5 ,4 )c on s i s t s o ft wo , a pp rox ima te ly e qua l c ompa r tmen t s , a n e a s te r ly ( A ) a nd aw es te r ly ( B ) , w hose s ho r t e nd s m ee t a ta n a ng le . T he o u te r s i de s o ft h e c ompa r tmen t s , a sw e l l a st h e i r s ho r t s i de i nc ommon , a r e ma rked b y l og s l y ing s e r ia l ly , a nd ( on t h e o u te r s i de s ) b y l ong i sh s t one c ons t ruc t ion s . N ex tt oa nd i nl i ne w i th t h e se c on s t ruc t ion st h e re o ccu ra t2 -4 m i n te rva l st h em a jo r i ty o f t h eo ak p i le sf r om t h er e la t ive y ea r0 1 ( F ig . 6 ) . R unn ing l e ng thw i se t h rough b o th c ompa r tmen t st h e re i s ac en t ra lf oo tb r idge ,w h ich i sa c on t inua t ion o ft h e p rev iou s ly k nown f oo tb r idge , r each ing t h e p i le d we l l ing f r om t h e s ou thea s t ( F ig . 6 ) . A long t h i s c en t ra l f oo tbr idge , t h e c ompa r tmen t s a r e s y mme tr ica l ly d iv ided i n to 1 7 f ou r -cor ne red a r ea s ,h e re c a l led " r oom s " . A l lb u tt h ree o ft h e se r oom sa r ee qu ipped w i th l o gf l oo r s , wh ich i ns eve ra lc a se sl i ea tr i gh ta ng le st oo ne a no the r .T he e x te rna ls i de so f t h el og f l oo r s e nd a bou t 1m i n s ide t h e o u te rb o rde ro ft h ec ompa r tmen t s ; t h e g ap i si n p l ace sf i l led b yt h el ong i sh s t one c on s t ruc t ion s ( F ig . 5 ,4 ) . T he l og f l oo r su sua l ly r e s td i rec t ly o nt h en a tu ra ls u r f ace a nd o n ly h e re a nd t h e re a r et h e re b ranches a nd s c raps o f w ooden m a te r ia l . T he s ame i st r ue o ft h e b ounda ry l og s , t h e l ong i sh s t one c on s t ruc t ion s a nd t h ef oo tb r idge . C ompac ta nd w idesp read c u l tu ra ll a ye r s d o n o t c ha rac te r ize t h e s ubs t ruc tu re o f t h e l og f l oo r s . I ti st h e refo re a r ea sonab le a s sump t ion t h a t t h e b a s ic p lan o f t h e p i le d we l l ing w a s u n ifo rm ly e s tab l ished i nt h e r e la t ive y ea r0 1 a cco rd ing t ot h eo ak p i le c h rono logy .W i th r ega rd t ot h ep a t te rn o fl og f l oo r sa nd t h ep l ac ing o ft h eo ak p i le si nt h ef o l low ing y ea r s ,n os y s tema t ic c hange i nt h e o r ig ina l b a s ic p lan wou ld s eem t o h ave b een made u n t i l y ea r 1 8 . R epa i r s d o s eem , h oweve r ,t oh ave b een m ade , a nd t h ec en t ra lf oo tb r idge p robab ly l o s ti t so r ig ina lf unc t ion a s at r anspo r t p a ssageway t h rough t h e c ompa r tmen ts . A f te r a2 2 -yea r p ause i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion wo rk ,d u r ing w h ich n oo ak p i le sw e re a dded ,f u r the rc on s t ruc t ion b egan i n an ew , a sy e tu nknown p a t te rn d u r ing y ea r s4 0 -42 . F o l low ing t h eb ounda ry l i ne sf o rt h eo r ig ina lp l an o ft h ep i le d we l l ing ( F ig .5 ) , t h ei n ne r

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a r ea o ft h ee a s te rn a nd t h ew e s ter nc ompa r tmen t 's l og -cove red a r ea c an b ec a lcu la ted a t 2 33 m2 a nd 2 14 m2,r e spec t ive ly . O ft h e se a r ea s ,9 3 .5% o ft h ee a s ter nc ompa r tmen th a s t o ay b een e xcava ted a nd 6 5 .4% o ft h e w e s te rn . T he a ve rage a r ea o ft h er oom si s2 2 .4 mz . T he f a c tt h a tt h e t wo c ompa r tmen t s a r e a ng led v i s -à -v is o ne a no the ri sp robab ly a c on sequence o ft h eb u i lde r 's c hoo s ing w ha t a tt h a tt ime w a s t h ed r ie s tp a r to ft h em i re , t h us a d jus t ing t h eo r ien ta t ion o ft h ec on s t ruc t ion t ot h ec ond i t ions o ft h et e r ra in . G iven t h ec ompa r tmen t 's a ng le -re la t ion a nd t h ed i v id ing o fr oom s , s pace h a sb een m ade i nt h e NE c o rne ro ft h ee a s te rn c ompa r tmen tt o a9 th r oom ,o bv ious ly i n aw ay w h ich h a s n o t s e r ious ly a f f ec ted t h e s y mme t ry o f t h e b a s ic p lan . T h is c ou ld p o ss ib ly b e a no the r e xp lana t ion f o rt h ep i le -dwe l l ing ' sa ng led f o rm . "Hab i ta t ion S i te" , " Cu l t S i te" , " Bur ia l S i te" T he q ue s t ion o ft h ec ha rac te ro fp eop le sl i v ing i nt h ep i le dwe l l ing i si mpo r tan t ,n o to n ly f o rt h eu nde r s tand ing o ft h eu se a nd f unc t ion o ft h es t ruc tu re , b u ta l so f o rt h ek now ledge o fs ou the rn S cand inav ian n eo l i th ic c u l tu re i ng ene ra l . I n o rde r t o d e te rm ine whe the r ag iven a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s i te w a s i nhab i ted , i ti s n ece ssa ry t od ef ine " hab i ta t ion " . A s sum ing t h a t t h e h ab i ta t iona l a c t iv i t ies i ns t one -age s oc ie t ie s d id n o t d i f f e r f r om t ho se f undamen ta l t o e t hnog raph ica l ly a nd h i s tor ica l ly d o cumen ted s ub s is tence s oc ie t ie s ,t h em ean ing o f" hab i ta t ion s i te " t os t one -age r e se arch c an b ec once ived o fa sa n a r ea w i th in w h ich p eop le ( A ) s pend t h en i gh t , ( B )p repa re a nd e a tf ood , ( C )p roduce a nd u se o b jec t s . F rom t h i s g ene ra l c oncep to fh ab i ta t ion s i te , t h e f o l low ing i mp l ica t ions o f h ab i ta t ion c an b e d educed , a l l o f w h ich a re i n p r inc ip le o b servab le a ta na r cheo log ica lf i nd s i te : ( a )r ema in so fr e s idua lc on s t ruc t ions , ( b )h ea r th s w i th r ema in so ff ood s , ( c )w a s te f r om i mp lemen tp roduc t ion a nd t r ace so ft h e i ru se . T he f ou r -s ided r oom si nt h ep i le d we l l ing a r ee ach s uf f ic ien t ly l a rge t oc on ta in as ma l l g roup o fp eop le . A t t h e h ea r th s t h ey w e re a b le t o p repa re t h e ir f ood , a nd t h e re a r e p l en t ifu l r ema ins o fm ea ls i n t h e f o rm o f s p l i t a n ima l b ones a nd v ege tab le w a s te . A c a refu l s ea rch o f t h e f i nd s h as d emons t ra ted t he c omb ina t ion o f r aw ma te r ia ls , p repa ra to ry w o rk ,e n t i re ( c omp le ted ) a nd f r agmen ta ry ( wor n -ou t )i mp lemen t s , a sw e l la s w a s te a nd c h ips ( bu lba rw a s te ) ,t h a tt oge the ri nd ica te t h ep roduc t ion i nt h ep i le d we ll ing o fd oub le -edged a xes a nd wo rk a xe s o f s l a ty amph ibo l i te , f i re s tones ( s tr ike -a l igh t s ) f r om l o ca ls t one m a te r ia la nd s ma l li mp lemen t so f" impo r ted " s ou thwe s te rn S cand inav ian f l in t ( Browa l l 1 986 : 5 8 -64 ) . T hu sf o rs hor te ro rl onge rp er iod so ft ime ,p eop le d we l ta t t h ep lace , d u r ing w h ich t ime t h ey p repa red a nd a t ef ood , a sw e l l a sp roduced a nd u sed i mp lemen t s . I nt h i s c onnec t ion i ti si mpo r tan t t on o te t h a t t h e re s ca r ce ly n eed b e a ny c on t rad ic t ion b e tween p rac t ica l w o rk ( t he p roduc t ion o fo b jec t s ) a nd s ymbo l ic a c t ions ( c e remon ie s ) ; s uch h uman a c t ion s c an me rge i n to o ne i d eo log ica l g oa l . I ti st hu s n o t a s sumed t h a t h ab i ta t ion i n ap rac t ica l s ense w a s t h e t r ue g oa l f o r t h e i r l i v ing i nt h e p i le d we l l ing . N ea rby t h e re a r e -b o th t o pog raph ica l ly a nd g eo log ica l ly -c on s ide rab ly mo re f avo rab le s i te sf o rr egu la rh ab i ta t ion t h an t h i sp e r iod ica l ly w e ta nd s o f ts p r ing -f ed m i r e . N o ri st h e c l a im c onv inc ing t h a tt h e f unc t ion o ft h ep i le d we l l ing w a sd ef ens ive ; p rac t ica lr e a son s s peak a ga in s ti t . T he a na ly s i so ft h es oc ia la nd e conom ic b a s i so ft h ep i le d wel ing i si n s tead d e r ived f r om Ma lme r 's i n te rp re ta t ion , n ame ly t h a tt h ep i le dwe l l ing o r ig ina l ly f unc t ioned a s as oc ia l a nd c u l tc en te rf o ri t sd i s t r ic t ,a nd t h a ti tt h us w a su sed a s ac ommuna l mee t ing p l ace f o r t h ed i s t r ic t 's p opu la t ion . A ti t sg a the r ing sp repa ra t ion o ff ood ,m ea ls ,p roduc t ion a nd u se o fo b je c t sa nd s a c r if i c ia la c t st o ok p l a ce i nt h ep i le d we l l ing . T he f i nd s o fh uman b ones b ea r w i tne ss t or e l ig ious a c t s t h a t p robab ly c once rned t h e 9 8

d i spo sa lo fd ead m embe r so ft h ep i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty . A s Ma lme r empha s ized , s u ch a c t sp r ima r i ly o ccu r red i n al a te s t age o ft h ep i le d we l l ing ' sp e r iod o fu se ,p robab ly i nt h e y ea r s4 0 -42 ( Ma lme r 1 981 : 2 7 -28 ; 1 984 : 3 74 ) . T he S pa t ia l U t i l iza t ion T he s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ed end roch rono log icaly d a ted o ak p i le s( " dend rocho ro logy " ) p rov ide s ag ood p i c tu re o fw he re w i th in t h ed we l l ing t h eb u i ld ing a c t iv i t ie sd u r ing t h e4 2 y ea r sw e re p r ima r i ly c a r r ied o u t . I fi ti sa s sumed t h a ti ng ene ra lt h e se a c t iv i t ie so ccu r red d u r ing t h e " summe r " h a lf o ft h e y ea r ( Apr i l t h rough S ep tembe r ) , ma jo r c on s t ruc t ion w ou ld s eem t oh ave o ccu r red i nt h e e a s te rn c ompa r tmen t d ur ing a l l t h e n ine s ea son s i nd ica ted b y t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e o ak p i le s , i . e . y ea r s 1 ,3 ,1 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 1 7 , 1 8 a nd y ea r s 4 0 -42 ( c oun ted a st wo y ea r s ) . T he w e s te rn c ompar tmen t , o n t h e o the rh and , w a s a f f ec ted b y s uch w o rk o n ly d u r ing y ea r s 1 ,1 5 a nd 1 7 ( Ba r tho l in 1 983 : 2 4 -25 ) .T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ew e s te rn a nd e a s te rn c ompa r tmen t s , a tl e a s t a sr ega rd s t h eo ak p i le s ,c an t hu sb es t a ted a s 1 : 3 . T he q ue s t ion t h en a r i se sa st ot h ee x ten tt ow h ich t h eo ak p i le d i s t r ibu t ion a l so m i r ro r st h e r e la t ive u se o ft h ev a r iou s s pace s ,i . e . t h ep e r iod iza t ion a nd l o ca l iza t ion o ft h ea c t iv i t ie s o t he rt h an c on s t ruc t ion .I tw ou ld s e em r e a sonab le t h a tt h ep i le dwe l l ing w a su sed a tl e a s t d u r ing t h e s ea sons w hen o ak p i le sw e re a dded , a nd t h a tt h ee a s te rn c ompa r tmen td u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e 4 2y ea r s w a s u sed t o ag r ea te re x ten tt h an t he w e s te rn c ompa r tmen t . T h is h ypo thes is c an b e t e s ted a ga in s t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e f i nd s w i th in t h e d we l l ing , u s ing t h et wo c ompa r tmen t sf o rc ompa r i son . When t e s tn ing t h i s h ypo thes is , u se w a sm ade o ff i nd s o ff i re s tone s , h amme r s tone s a nd b one a w l sw i th k nown c oo rd ina te s . T he se i mp lemen t s may b er ega rded a sr ep re sen t ing s l igh t ly mo re t h an 4 0% o fa l lt h ea r tef ac t sw i th k nown c oo rd ina te s . When c ompa r ing t h e q uan t i ta t ive r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ec ompa r tmen t s , o n ly t ho se f i nd sp e ra r te fac tg roup w e re i n c luded t h a to ccu r red w i th in t h ep i le d we l l ing 's h ab i ta t ion a r ea ,i . e . t h ea r ea w i th in t h e dwe l l ing ' s i nne r s i de b ounda r ies a cco rd ing t o t h e b a s ic p lan . A s ac ompa ra t ive m ea su re , t h en umbe ro ff i nd s p e r m2 w a s e mp loyed . I nq ua l i ta t ive t e rm s t h e re w a s n o d i f f e rence b e tween t h ec ompar tmen t s : F i re s tone s ,h amme r s tones a nd b one a w l so ccu ri n b o th c ompa r tmen ts a nd w i th in t h e b o rde r s o fe ach r oom . T he re i s , h oweve r , ama jo r d i f f e rence b e tween t h ec ompa r tmen t si nq uan t i ta t ive t e rm s .T he a ve rage a r tef ac td en s i ty i s 2 .4 t imes h ighe r i n t h e e a s te rn c ompa r tmen t ( Browa l l 1 986 : 6 8 -69 ) . S ince t h e c ompa r tmen t s a r e a pp rox ima te ly e qua li ns i ze a nd i nve s t iga ted o ve r mo re t h an 6 0% o f t h e i r a r ea , t h is i mp l ie s t h a t t h e i mp lemen t t u rnove r w a s mo re i n ten s ive i nt h e e a s ter n c ompa r tmen t . T he r e su l to ft h e a na ly s i sc an t h e refo re b e s a id t os uppo r tt h e h ypo thes i s t h a tt h ee a s ter nc ompa r tmen tw a su sed t o ag r ea te re x ten td u r ing t ho se 4 2y ea r st h an t h e w e s te rn o ne . I fu se o ft h e o jbec t s i nt h ep i le d we l l ing f o l lowed t h e s ame p a t ter n f r om s e a son t os ea son , i tc an b ea s sumed t h a tt h ei mp lemen tt u rnove rw a sp ropo r t iona lt ot h e t ime d u r ing w h ich t h ec ompar tmen t sw e re u sed .T he s pa t ia ld i s tr ibu t ion o ft h eo ak p i le s a nd t h e s pa t ia la na ly s is o ft h ea r tef ac td i s t r ibu t ion t hus i nd ica te a pp rox ima te ly t h es ame t empo ra ld i f f e rence : A c t iv i t ie si nt h ee a s te rn c ompa r tmen tw en to n2 -3 t ime s ( 3a nd 2 . 4 , r e spec t ive ly )l o nge rt h an t h ec o r re spond ing a c t iv i t ie si nt h ew e s ter nc ompa r tmen t . T he p e r iod d ur ing w h ich t h e p i le d we l l ing w a s u sed f o r s oc ia l a c t iv i t ie s w a s p robab ly l im i ted t ot h ef i r s t 1 8 y ea r s ,a cco rd ing t ot h es pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eo ak p i le s ( Ma lme r 1 984 : 3 74 ) .T h i sl e ave so pen t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h ee a s te rn c ompa r tmen tw a su sed e ach s e ason u n t i l a nd i n c lud ing y ea r 1 8 . I na ny c a se , i t sp e r iod o fu se w a sn o ts ho r te rt h an 7 s e a son so ft h ef i r s t 1 8y ea r s . C er ta in o b se rva t ion s s ugges t t ha tn o a c t iv i ty t ook p lace i n t he w e s te rn c ompa r tmen t b e tween y ea r s 2a nd 1 4 : A tt h eb o t tom o ft h ec u l tu re l a ye r si nt r enche s Va nd St h e re a r e 9 9

n ume rou s u nbu rned 1 3 -14 y ea r o ld w i l low ( Sa l ix ) s t umps , wh ich a r e f ound t oge the r w i th b ough sa nd t w ig so ft h es ame s o r tp re s sed a ga in s tb u rned l og f l oo r s .T he se s t ump s a r ed e r ived f r om ad en se c l ump o fw i l low s t h a t s pon taneou s ly s ho tu p t h e re o n ly t ob e c u t d own d u r ing t h e s umme r 1 4 y ea r s l a te r a nd s t rewn o ve r t h e a r ea ( Ba r th° l in 1 983 : 2 5 ) . S ince t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e o ak p i le s i nd ica ted a c t iv i t ie s i nt h e w es te rn c ompa r tmen ty ea r 1a nd y ea r 1 5 ,b u tn o ti nb e tween ,i ti sr ea sonab le t op lace t h e " s tump h o r izon "b e tween t h e se t wo a c t ive y ea r s . U s ing t h e" s tump h o r izon " a s at ime a ncho r ,t h ew e s ter nc ompar tmen tw ou ld h ave b een u sed a tl e a s tt h ree s ea sons d u r ing t h ec ou r se o ft h ef i r s t 1 8y ea r s( y ea r s 1 ,1 5 , 1 7 ) , a nd a t mo s tf i ve ( a l so y ea r s 1 6 a nd 1 8 ) . I ft h ee a s ter nc ompa r tmen t ' su sage i sc a lcu la ted o nt h e b a s is o ft h er a t io o ft h ea ve rage a r te f ac td en s i ty p e rc ompa r tmen t ,w ea r r ive a t at ime t h a t i s2 . 4 t ime s l onge rt han 3a nd 5s e a son s , r e spec t ive ly . T he s ho r te rt ime f o rt h ee a s tern c ompa r tmen t wou ld t h en c o inc ide w i th t h en umbe ro fa c t ive y ea r sr e co rded i nt h es pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e o ak p i les ( 7 s e a son s ) , w h i le t h e l onge r e s t ima te w ou ld y i e ld 1 2 s ea sons . T he a na ly s i s o ft h e s pa t ia l u sage d emon s t ra te s t h a t t h e t wo c ompa r tmen t s o ft h e p i le d we l l ing w e re f ounded a nd u sed y ea r0 1 .A f te rt h a tt h ec ompa r tmen t sw e re u sed f o rt h e s ame p u rpose s , b u t f o r d i f f e ren t l e ng ths o f t ime . I n a l l p robab i l i ty t h e a c t iv i ty i nt h e w e s te rn c ompa r tmen t w as l im i ted t o b e tween h a lf a nd at h i rd o f t h a t o ft h e e a s te rn c ompa r tmen t , a nd s pec i f ica l ly n o tb e tween y ea r s 2a nd 1 4 . F rom y ea r 1 5o na nd p e rhap s a sl a te a sy ea r 1 8t h et wo c ompa r tmen t sw e re o nce a ga in u sed s imu l taneous ly . S oc ie ta l Ana lys is S oc ia l O rgan iza t ion T he r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e p i le d we l l ing 's b a s ic p l an make s i te v iden tt h a t t h e s t ruc tu re w a s c onsc ious ly p lanned a nd e s tab l ished a so ne u n i t . T hus , t h e s ymme t r ica lp a t ter no f f ou r -s ided r oom s d id n o t g radua l ly d eve lop i nr e sponse t oa n i n c rea s ing n eed f o rn ew c ons t ruc t ions , b u t r a the r w a s i n i t s e n t i re ty c rea ted a cco rd ing t o t h e l og ic t h a t i s d e te rm ined b y ac e r ta in d e s i red o rde ri n ag i ven s o c ia la nd c u l tu ra lr e a l i ty .T he b a s ic p l an t h u sc an b es a id t oc on ta in s t ruc tu ra li n fo rma t ion a bou tt h es o c ie ty t h a tc r ea ted i t . T he w ay i nw h ich mank ind a l lo ca te sa va i lab le s pace i si ng ene ra la f f ec ted b yt h es y s tem t h a tt h e s oc ie ty i nq ue s t ion u se s t oc l a s s i fy a nd d i s t ingu ish b e tween d i f f e ren tc a tego r ie s o fa c t iv i ty a nd s oc ia li d en t i ty ( F le tche r 1 977 : 4 7 -60 ) . S pa t ia ld i spo s i t ion c r ea te s af o rma l o rde ri nn a tu re a nd i s ac a te rgo ry o fo rgan iza t ion . T he s t ruc tu re o ft h ep i le dwe l l ing c on s i s t so fa r ea lu n i t st h a ta r e s pa t ia l ly r e la ted t oo ne a no the r a tt h e s ame a nd a td i f f e ren t l e ve l s : T hus , e ach r oom o n t h e s ame s i de o ft h e f oo tb r idge i sp a r to f ad e l im i ted s e c t ion ; t wo p a ra l le l s e c t ion sc omp r i se ac ompa r tmen t , a nd t h et wo c ompa r tmen t sc omp r i se t h e e n t i re ty , i . e . t h e t o ta l , f l oo red l i v ing a r ea ( F ig . 7 ) . I ft h e s pa t ia l s t ruc ture o ft h e o r ig ina lp l an i sa s sumed t om i r ro r a n o rgan iza t ion o f s oc ia l g roup s , t h i so rgan iza t ion i so rde red i n to d i f f e ren tl e ve ls o fg roup s i ze , s uch t h a ta g roup t oge the rw i th o the rg roup s ,f o rm s al a rge ru n i ti n al im i ted c ha in o fl e ve l s . S ince t h e p i le dwe l l ing f unc t ioned a s as oc ia l a nd c u l tc en te rf o ri t s d i s t r ic t , t h e o rgan iza t ion w a s p robab ly s uf f ic ien t ly e x ten s ive t o i n c lude s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l r e la t ion s i n t h e p opu la t ion o ft h ec ommun i ty i nt h is d i s t r ic t . T he p rob lem o fl a y ing b a re t h ec on ten to f t h i so rgan iza t ion t h us b ecome so ne o fs oc ie ta ls t ruc tu re . T he o rgan iza t ion 's p urpose i n t h e p i le d we l l ing w a s o f c ou r se i den t ica l w i th t he c e remon ia l c ha rac te ro ft h ed we l l ing ' sf unc t ion . T h i sd oe s n o tn eces sa ry i mp ly t h a tt h e o rgan iza t ion w a se xc lus ive ly d e s igned f o rt h ep i le d we l l ing 's s pec ia lf unc t ion :T he l a rge

1 00

a moun t so f wood a nd s t one ma te r ia l ,t o ge the rw i th n o tl e a s tp roduc t so fg ra in c u l t iva t ion , p l an tg a ther ing ,h e rd ing ,h un t ing a nd f i sh ing b rough tt h e re t ob u i ld t h ep i le d we l l ing a nd t oc a r ry o u tt h ea c i t iv i t ie sw e re s u re ly e xp lo i ted a nd t r an spo r ted w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o f ar egu la rs oc ia l a nd e conom ic s y s tem . F u r the rmo re ,t h ep re sence o fp rac t ica la c t iv i ty i n t h ep i le d we l l ing i nd ica te st h a th ab i ta t iona la c i t iv i t ie st o ok p l ace t h e re . T he e t hnog raph ic mode lo f as oc ie ta lo rgan iza t ion t h a ti nt h es imp le s ta nd c l ea re s tm anne r c an b ec o r r e la ted w i th t h es pa t ia l s t ruc tu re o ft h ep i le d we l l ing i st h a to ft h es egmen ta ry , t r iba ls oc ie ty ( F ig . 8 ) .T he s egmen ta ry p r inc ip le i mp l ie st h a tt h es oc ie ty i so rgan ized i n to an umbe r o fh ab i ta t iona l g roups t ha t i n s oc ia l a nd e conom ic r e spec t s a r e s t ruc tu ra l ly s im i la r . T h i s p r inc ip le f u r the r i mp l ies t h a t s t ruc tu ra l ly s im i la r g roups t oge the r f o rm a g roup o n ah ighe ro rde ri n al im i ted c ha in o fl e ve ls . T he g rea te rp a r to ft h e s oc ia l a nd e conom ic l i f en eve r the le s st a ke sp l a ce a tl owe rl e ve l so fr e la t ion sh ip t h an t h a to ft h et r ibe ; u sua l ly a tt h eh ou seho ld a nd l i neage l e ve l s ( Ha s t rup & O ve r sen 1 982 : 1 44 -145 ; K ee s ing 1 976 : 2 40 -259 , 2 97 -299 ) . S eve ra l s t ud ies may b e m en t ioned a si nd ica t ion s t h a t a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch h a s l ong b een a wa re o ft h ep o ss ib le e x i s tence o ft h e s egmen ta ry f o rm o fs oc ie ta lo rgan iza t ion i n t h e n eo l i th ic ( Chang 1 958 ; R and sbo rg 1 975 ; R enf rew 1 976 ; 1 979 ; F ra se r 1 983 ) . S uch s t ud ie s a l so t a ke c ogn izance o ft h er e cen t ly e s tab l ished t h eo ry t h a tb yt h em idd le o ft h e n eo l i th ic p e r iod ( a round 3 200 B .C . ) t h e e a r ly a g ra r ian s oc ie ty o fn o r thwe s te rn E u rope h ad a bandoned a ne ga l i ta r ian a nd a u tonomou s s o c ia ls t ruc tu re i nf avo ro f as t ra t i f ied a nd i n teg ra ted o ne ( J ensen 1 979 ; K r i s t ian sen 1 982 ) . I ts eem s c l ea r t ha t t h e s pa t ia l s t ruc tu re o f t h e p i le dwe l l ing f o l lows t h e s egmen ta l p r inc ip le , i nt h a t t h e c ompar tmen t s a r e s t ruc tu ra l ly s im i la r i nt h e i r l a you t . I ft h e p i le d we l l ing w a s c r ea ted a nd u sed a s aman if e s ta t ion o f s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l u n i ty i n t h e s u r round ing a r ea , t h i s s peak s f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t t h e c ompa r tmen t s r epre sen t s oc ie ta l s egmen ts , w i th t he r oom s r epresen t ing t he s ma l les t f unc t iona l g roups ( hou seho ld s ) i nt h e i rr e spec t ive s egmen t s . As im i la rc oncep t , i . e . t h a tt h e d iv i s ion i n to r oom sf ound i no lde rn eo l i th ic b u i ld ing sf unc t ion ing a ss oc ia la nd c u l tc en te r sq u i te w e l l c an m i r ro rt h e u nde r lay ing s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion i nt h e c ommun i ty , h a s p rev ious ly b een s ugge s ted f o rt h el a you to ft h eh ou se c ons t ruc t ions i nB a rkae r ,D enma rk ( G lob 1 975 ) . T he p i le d we l l ing 's b a s ic p l an m ay p o ss ib ly b ec ompa red w i th t h eb a s ic v i l lage p lan f o r t h e d i ame t r ica l ly s t ruc tu red d ua l o rgan iza t ion ( Lev i -S t raus s 1 967 : 1 28 -160 ) , w h ich i n g ene ra ls e em st of a l lw i th in t h e mode l led f r ame o ft h es egmen ted ,t r iba lo rgan iza t ion . T he d i s loca t ion o fa c t iv i t ies i nt h ep i le dwe l l ing , a sd emons t ra ted i nt h ea na lys i s o ft h e s p a t ia lu t i l iza t ion , may p o s s ib ly b er ega rded a si nd ica t ing t h a tt h eo rgan iza t ion l a cked t h e s t reng th a ppe r ta in ing t o ap e rmanen to rgan f o rc oo rd ina t ing a nd i n teg ra t ing c ommuna l a c t iv i t ie s .T he i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ep i le d we l l ing a s ac e remon ia l ly f unc t ion ing mee t ing p l ace f o r an umbe ro fs oc ia lg roup so rgan ized i n to t wo l a rge rs egmen tl e ad s ,h oweve r ,t o t h ec onc lus ion t h a tt h e re e x i s ted ac en t ra l ized s oc ia l a nd s pa t ia lo rgan iza t ion w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o ft h eo lde rn eo l i th ic a g ra r ian s oc ie ty i nt h ep rov ince o fO s te rgö t land . P opu la t ion T he re a r ea tl e a s tt h ree m e thod sf o ra pp rox ima te ly c a lcu la t ing t h e s i ze o fp opu la t ion o n t h e b a s i s o fd a ta f r om ah ab i ta t ion s i te . T he f i r s t u t i l ize s me thod s t ha t c a lcu la te t h e n umbe r o f i nhab i tan t s b a sed o n t h e t o ta l f l oo red a r ea o f dwe l l ing r ema ins w i th in a d e l im i ted a r chaeo log ica l s i te . T he s e cond e mp loy si n te rp re ta t ion so fb u i ld ing p lan s a nd f i nd c on tex ta ta na r chaeo log ica lh ab i ta t ion s i te t od e te rm ine t h en umbe ro fs o c ia lg roup s l i v ing t h e re a nd a s sume sa na ve rage n umbe ro fi nd iv idua l sp e rg roup t oa pp rox ima te t h e t o ta lp opu la t ion s i ze . T he f i na l me thod i sb a sed o nt h ev ege tab le a nd a n ima lf ood r ema ins

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o n t h e s i te , wh ich a l low s t h e d e te rm ina t ion o ft h e a moun t o rf ood c on sumed p e r t ime u n i t ; a s sum ing a n a ve rage e ne rgy c on sump t ion p e ri nd iv idua l p e r t ime u n i t , o ne t h en o b ta in st h es i ze o ft h ep opu la t ion c once rned . I th a s n o t y e t b een p oss ib le t oa pp ly t h e t h i rd me thod t ot h e p i le dwe l l ing , s i nce t h e a bso lu te a nd r e la t ive amoun t s o fv ege tab le r ema in s c anno t b e q uan t if ied , d ue t ot h e m e thod s o fc o l lec t ion a nd d ocumen ta t ion u sed . T u rn ing t ot h e f i r s t t ype o fm e thod , i t r e s t so nt h es uppo s i t ion t h a tt h e re e x i s t s af unc t iona lr e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h en umbe ro f i n hab i tan t si n adwe l l ing a nd t h e s i ze o ft h ef l oo red a r ea u nder r oof . S uch m e thod sh ave u sua l ly b een d eve loped f r om s t ud ies o fe t hnog raph ic s oc ie t ies , a nd may b eo f mo re o r l e s s g ene ra lc ha rac te r . F ou rs uch m e thod s( Na ro l l 1 962 ; C ook & H e ize r 1 968 ; L eB lanc 1 971 ; C a s se lbe r ry 1 974 )a r et e s ted a nd d i scus sed i nr e la t ion t od a ta f r om t h eA lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing . T he c a lcu la t ion sr e su l ti na ni n terva lo fb e tween 3 8 a nd 6 3 i nd iv idua l s ,w h ich t hus wou ld b e t h e n umber o f p eop le f o r wh ich t h e p i le dwe l l ing o r ig ina l ly w a s d imen s ioned . T he i ra pp l ica t ion i nvo lve s ama jo r s ou r ce o fe r ro r , h oweve r , i nt h a ts uch m e t hod sr e f e rt or egu la rs e t t lemen td we l l ing so fc e r ta in t ype s ,w h i le i tc anno tb es a id t h a t t h eA lva s t ra p i le d we ll ing w a s ar egu la rp l a ce o fr e s idence -i ti si nf a c tu ncer ta in w he the r h ouse c on s t ruc t ion se ven e x i s ted a tt h ep l ace . T he s e cond me thod o fc a lcu la t ion p rov ide s ab e t te ra l te rna t ive . I t s a pp l ica t ion d er ive s f r om t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e p i le dwe l l ing 's s pa t ia l s t ruc tu re a sa n e xp re ss ion f o rt h e c ommun i ty 's s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion . E ach r oom r ep re sen ts a h ou seho ld , w h i le t h e t wo c ompa r tmen t s e ach r ep resen t as oc ie ta l s egmen t , t oge the r r epresen t ing t h e h ighe s t o rgan iza t iona l l e ve l o ft h e c ommun i ty . Ac omp rehen s ive r ev iew o ft h e h i s to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch c once rn ing s e t t lemen ta nd p opu la t ion o fn o rh te rn E u rope ,b a sed o nv a r iou s s ou rce m a te r ia l sf r om v a r iou st ime p e r iod sa nd u s ing d i f f e ren tm e thod s ,l e ad s t ot h ec onc lu s ion t h a td ur ing b o th h i s tor ica l a nd p reh i s to r ica l t imes , t h e a ve rage s i ze o f t h e s ma l les t f unc t iona l g roup ( t he h ouseho ld ) , v a r ie s b e tween 5 a nd 1 0 p eop le . T he a ve rage i st hu s7 . 5 , w h ich c an a l so b e a s sumed f o rt h ep i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty . S ince t h eo ne s egmen ti n c lude sn ine h ou seho ld sa nd t h eo the re i gh t , t h ec a lcu la t ion w i l lr e su l t i n8 5 t o 1 70 p eop le . A s amea su re f o r t h e s i ze o ft h e p opu la t ion i nt h e p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty a tt h e t ime o ft h er e la t ive y ea r0 1 , t h ea ve rage v a lue o f1 27 .5 ,o ra bou t 1 30 p eop le , i sa s sumed . I ts hou ld b e empha s ized t h a t i ti sn o t a ta l l c e r ta in t h a t a l l m embe r s o f t h e v a r ious h ou seho ld sa c tua l ly t ook p a r ti nt h ea c t iv i t ie si nt h ep i le d we l l ing ,a nd t h u sr e s ided t h e re . T he p i le dwe l l ing 's f unc t ion a s ac e remon ia l c en te r c an i mp ly t h a t o n ly t h e i n i t ia ted m embe r sw e re p e rm i t ted e n t ry , s ot h a te ach h ou seho ld ' sc on t r ibu t ion t ot h ea c t iv i ty w a s a t tended t ob yc e r ta in r ep re sen ta t ive so n ly . T he R esource A rea S i te -ca tchmen t a na lys is i s am e thod t h a t i nr e cen t y ea r s h a s f r equen t ly b een u sed i n a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch t od e te rm ine t h e s i ze o ft h ee xp lo i ta t ion a r ea , c l a ss if y l a nd u se a nd a na lyze p roduc t ion r e la t ion s ( H iggs & V i ta -F inz i 1 972 ; J a rman 1 972 ; J a rman & V i ta -F inz i &H igg s 1 972 ; H igg s 1 975 ) . R ega rd le s so ft h ec r i t ic i sm t h a th a sb een l e ve led a ga in s ts i te -ca tchmen ta na lys i s ( Hodde r&O r ton 1 976 : 2 33 -235 ) , f o rl og ica lr e a son s i t w ou ld b ei mpo ss ib le t oa pp ly i ti nt h ep re sen tc a se , s i nce t h es e t t lemen ts i te so ft h ep i le d we l l ing c ommun i ty a r en o tf u l ly k nown . I ti sp os s ib le t h a t a tl e a s to ne s e t t lemen t s i te e x i s t s o u t s ide t h e 5 -km r ad ius f r om t h ep i le d we l l ing t h a tt h i sp a r t icu la rm e thod wou ld d ef ine a st h ee xp lo i ta t ion a r ea f o rt h ep i le d we l l ing .T h i sw ou ld c au se s e r iou sp rob lem s , s i nce t h e ma te r ia ls f o ri mp lemen t s a nd f ood w e re p robab ly b rough tt ot h ep i le d we l l ing a f te rb e ing e xp lo i ted b em eans o fl o ca le conom ic a c t iv i ty , b ased o nt h ep lace sw he re t h e c ommun i ty ' s s e t t lemen tg roup sr egu la r ly r e s ided .

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I n s tead a me thod i s u sed t ha t i nvo lves t he a na lys is a nd mapp ing o f t he n a tu ra l p rovenance f o rc e r ta in i n o rgan ic a nd o rgan ic s ub s tance sw h ich f o rm t h er aw ma te r ia lf o r t h e a r tefac t s a nd e cof ac t s f ound i nt h e p i le d we l l ing . S ince t h is mapp ing c anno t w i th c e r ta in ty b e s a id t or ep re sen t t h e f u l l a r ea l e x ten t o f e xp lo i ta t ion a c t iv i ty , b u t o n ly p rov ides d i scre te s pa t ia l i nd ica t ions o ft h is a c t iv i ty , t h e t e rm " r e sou rce a r ea " i su sed r a the rt h an " exp lo i ta t ion a r ea " .T h i st h us i mp l ie st h a tt h ea r ea d e l im i ted b yt h em e thod i n q ue s t ion c on s i s t so ft h el e a s ta r ea , a sd ef ined b yt h e s ho r te s to b servab le r ad iu sf r om t h e p i le d we ll ing f o rt h e mo s td i s tan tr e sou r ce g roup ,w i th in w h ich t h ec ommun i ty c onduc ted i t ss ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s . O ft h eh und r ed so fi no rgan ic a nd o rgan ic ma te r ia l si d en t i f ied i nt h ep i le d we l l ing f i nd s ,i t i sp oss ib le w i th r ega rd t o t he i r r e spec t ive g roup t o f i nd i nd iv idua l o b jec t s o f t h e f o l low ing t y pes a sf r om r e la t ive ly w e l ld e l im i ted n a tu ra le nv i ronmen t so rl o ca l sw i th in t h e map a r ea ( F ig . 1 ) : A B C D

S o i lt y pe s : ( 1 ) s ho re s t one s ,( 2 ) s ed imen ta ry g r ave l ; M ine ra lt y pe s : ( 1 )m e tavu lcan i te , ( 2 )i r on p y r i te b a l l s ; P lan ts pec ie s : ( 1 )o ak , ( 2 ) a l de r ; A n ima l s pec ie s : ( 1 )b ea r , ( 2 )b eave r , ( 3 ) s hea t -f i sh , a nd ( 4 )w h i tef i sh .

T he p robab le l o ca t ion sf o rt h er e sou r ce s i te so ft h ev a r iou st y pe sh ave b een n o ted o nt h e map ( F ig . 9 ) . T he r e sou rce s i tes t h a tc an b e d e te rm ined l i e a t ad i s tance f r om t h e p i le d we l l ing o fb e tween 2 00 m a nd 5 . 4 km . T he r ad iu s f o rt h e c ommun i ty 's r e sou r ce a r ea c an t hu s b e e mp i r ica l ly s pec if ied a sa tl e a s t 5 . 4 km . U s ing t h i sr ad ius F ig . 9i lu s t ra te s t h ed e l im i ted r e sou r ce a r ea a sw i th in t h eh a tched a r c ,w ho se l a nd a r ea c on ta in s s ome 7 0 km 2.T hank st ot h el a nd scape 's a bundance o fc on t ra s t s ,t h i sa r ea i ss ha rp ly d el inea ted i n n a tu re a nd c on s i s t s i nl a rge p a r to ft h ep resen tp l a in . I ti sn o ti mpo ss ib le t h a tt h i sp la in c omp r i sed t h ep r ima ry s e t t lemen ta nd e xp lo i ta t iona la r ea o ft h ep i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty , w i th t h e a d jo in ing a r ea s o f Ho laveden 's r ocky t e r ra in a sc omp lemen ta ry h un t ing a nd t r app ing a r ea s , a nd w i th t h ep i le d we l l ing i nA lva s t ra a s ac en t ra ls i te ,n o t me re ly i ns oc ia l a nd c u l ts en se ,b u ta l so i n ag eog raph ica lo ne . I nve s t iga t ion s o f t h e q ua te rna ry g eo logy a nd p o l len a na ly s is ( von P os t 1 916 ; 1 923 ; Magnu s son 1 964 ; N o r r rnan 1 964 ; G ö ran sson 1 987 )i nd ica te t h a tt h en a tu ra le nv i ronmen t o ft h e d e l im i ted r e sou rce a r ea i nt h e e a r ly s ubbo rea l p e r iod ( 5 150 -4000 B .P . ) c an b e s umma r ized i nt h ef o l low ing m a in p o in t s : -T he d ep th o fL ake T äkem w a s a bou t 4m , w h i le i t s r e la t ive w a te r leve l w a s o n t h e w ho le a bou tt h e s ame a st oday ( 93 .6 -94 m .a .s . 1 . ) . -T he s ho re l ine o fL ake V ä t te rn w a s a bou t 3m b e low t oday 's l e ve l ( 88 .5 m .a .s . 1 . ) . T he s ho re a l ong t h eo u t le to fA lebäcken p robab ly h ad t h es ame t o pog raph ic a nd g eo log ica l c ompo s i t ion a sa tp re sen t ,m e re ly b e ing ab i tf u r the rw e s t . -T he L and a r ea w a sa pp rox ima te ly t h es ame a sa tp r e sen t . -T he r ocky t e r ra in i nH o laveden a nd o n Moun t Ombe rg w a s p robab ly c ove red w i th d en se d ec iduou so rm ixed c on if e rou sf o re s t . -T he d ry l a nd o ft h ep l a in w a sc ove red w i th d ec iduou sf o re s t st h a th ad b een t h inned o u t a nd o pened u pb y man . -T he D ag s mosse b og a nd i t s s u r round ing m a r sh land w e re o pen a r ea s w i th af i rm s u r f ace .The D ag s mo sse w a s ah ea th o fc . 1 2 km 2,c ha rac ter ized b y b og -moss a nd h ea the r .The s u r round ing t e r ra in c on s i s ted o ff l a t -sedge m eadows t oa na r ea o fc . 5 km 2. 1 03

-T he c l ima te w a sw a rme ra nd d r ie rt h an a tp re sen t ,w i th p a r t icu la r ly h igh t empe ra tu re s d u r ing t h e s umme r . T he Resource U t i l iza t ion O n t h e b a s i s o ft h e a bovemen t ioned f a c t s a nd t h e a s sump t ions m ade , t h ep i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty i sc a lcu la ted a sc on ta in ing s ome 1 30 p e r son s ,w i th ar e sou rce a r ea s ome 7 0 km 2 i ne x ten t . A tt h el e ve lo ft h ep i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty a s aw ho le t h e s ub s i s tence s y s tem c on ta ins t h ef o l low ing p r ima ry f o rm so fp roduc t ion : ( a )c u l t iva t ion o fc e r ea lg ra in s ,( b )c o l lec t ion o fw i ld v ege tab les , ( c ) h e rd ing , ( d ) h un t ing / cap tu re o fm amma l s a nd b i rd s , ( e ) f i sh ing , ( f )r aw -ma te r ia le x t rac t ion f o r( g )p roduc t ion o fi mp lemen t sa nd b u i ld ing s . T he s t udy o ft h e r e sou rce u t i l iza t ion o ft h e p i le d we l l ing c ommun i ty i nvo lve s mode l c a lcu la t ion s w ho se c o re i st h ep opu la t ion 's a nnua lc onsump t ion o fe s sen t ia lf ood s tuf f s , e xp res sed i ne ne rgy ( k ca l ) . T hese c a lcu la t ions make n o a l lowance f o r l o s ses o ff ood d u r ing h and l ing a nd s t o rage ,n o rf o rt h ep roduc t ion o fe xe s sf ood sb eyond t h en ece s sa ry r e a lc ap i ta l . T he 1 30 m embe r so ft h ec ommun i ty c an b ec onve r ted ( Hanne rbe rg 1 971 : 9 3 ;H u l th6n & We l inde r 1 981 : 1 81) t o9 1 c onsump t ion u n i t s ( " s tanda rd c on sume r s " ) , e ach o f wh ich u ses 3 000 k ca l /day f o r t h e 3 65 d ays o ft h e y ea r , y i e ld ing a n a nnua l c onsump t ion o f 9 9 ,600 ,000 k ca l . T h is c onsump t ion i sd i s t r ibu ted among t h e f o l low ing a n ima l s pec ies , b a sed o n t h e o s teo log ica ld e te rm ina t ion o ft h eb one m a te r ia lf ound i nt h ep i le d we l l ing ( Du r ing 1 986 ) : c a t t le , s heep , e lk , r ed d ee r , r oe d ee r a nd p ig . T he se a n ima ls a r e a s sumed t o h ave p rov ided t h em a in m ea td i e t . F i sh a nd b i rd sa r ef ound i nr e la t ive ly s ma l la moun t sa nd a r e n o tc on s ide red a sh av ing m ade ma jo rc on t r ibu t ion st ot h ef ood e ne rgy a va i lab le . Among t h e p lan t s i d en t if ied i nt h e e cofac t s , t h e f o l low ing w e re u sed a sf ood : b a r ley , em rne r , h aze ln u t s , g oo se -foo t ,w i ld a pp les ,r o se -h ips a nd r a spbe r r ie s ( Be rgg ren 1 956 ) . T he r e la t ive m ea tc on sump t ion f o rd ome s t ic ( c a t t le a nd s heep )a nd w i ld a n ima l si sj udged o nt h eb a s i so ft h eo s teo log ica l ly d e te rm ined m in imum n umbe ro fi nd iv idua l s( MN I )f o r a n ima ls s e lec ted .T h i sc on sump t ion i sc onve r ted i n to k ca la f te rc o r r ec t ing f o rt h ea ve rage mea tc on ten t a nd e ne rgy v a lue p e ra du l ti nd iv idua l ( Browa l l 1 986 : 14 , 15 , A ppend ix C ) . A sp rev iou s ly m en t ioned ,t h ep ropo r t ion t h ee d ib le p l an t sc on t r ibu ted t ot h et o ta la nnua l c onsump t ion o ff ood c anno t b e c a lcu la ted o n t h e b a s i s o ft h ep i le d we l l ing ' s e cof ac t s . I n s tead , a me thod i su sed w he reby t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f c on sump t ion a nd p roduc t ion among t h ev a r iou sf ood g roup si sj udged o nb a s i so ft h ree a l te rna t ive ,h ypo the t ica lr a t io s o fg ra in -de r ived a nd l i ve s tock -de r ived e ne rgy c onsump t ion . T h i sm e thod i sb a sed o nt h e v i ew t h a t as ub s is tence e conomy b a sed o na gr icu l tu re a nd h un t ing w i l lh ave a g r icu l tu re a si t s s t ee r ing f a c to rf o rt h ep l ann ing a nd e xecu t ion o fi t se conom ic a c t iv i t ie s . A l te rna t ive A a s sume st h a tg r a in sc omp r i se 2 5% o ft h et o ta lc a lo ry v a lue o ft h ec on sumed a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t s , w h i le a l te rna t ive B a nd C r a i se t h i s p e rcen tage t o5 0 a nd 7 5% , r e spec t ive ly , o ft h e s ame n umbe ro fc a lo r ies . F o r e ach a l te rna t iv b eef a nd mu t ton a r e a s sumed t oh ave p rov ided t h er ema inde ro ft h e a g r icu l tu ra l ly -p roduced f ood . T he rea f te r t h e c on sumed n umbe ro fw i ld -pn ima l c a lo r ie s f o re ach a l te rna t ive i sc a lcu la ted o n t h e b a se o fi t s p ropo r t ion o ft h e a s sumed n umbe r o fm ea t c a lo r ie s . When t h e c a lcu la ted 1 04

a moun to fc a lo r ie si ss ummed ,t h e re r ema in ac e r ta in n umbe ro fc a lo r ie sb efo re t h et o ta l r e ache st h ee xpec ted 9 9 ,600 ,000 k ca l . T h i sr ema inde rr ep re sen t st h ea nnua lc on sump t ion o fc o l lec ted w i ld p l an t s . Aj udgmen t o f wh ich a l te rna t ive o f c onsump t ion p a t te rn i s mos t p robab le f o r t h e p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty i so b ta ined f r om t h eu nde r ly ing a g r icu l tu r a lp roduc t ion r e la t ion s f o rt h ev ar ious a l te rna t ive s . B a sed o n a na log ies f r om e xpe r imen t s a nd l ow techno logy a g r icu l tu re i nh i s to r ica lt ime s ,t h ea nnua lp roduc t ion o fg ra in sa nd l i ve s tock i se s t ima ted . H e re i ti sp re sumed t h a t Gö ran sson 's mode l f o r t h e m idd le n eo l i th ic c opp ice -wood a g r icu l tu re may b e a pp l ied t ot h ep i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty ( Gö ran s son 1 982 ; 1 987 ) . I n e ach a l te rna t ive t h e l a nd r equ i red f o rc u l t iva t ion o fc e rea l s , c opp ice -wood p a s tu re a nd l e a f -fodde rg a the r ing a r ea si s ma tched a ga in s th ow t h e a c tua l a g r icu l tu ra ll a nd ( i nf ie ld s l a nd ) f ound w i th in t h er e sou rce a r ea w a s q uan t i ta t ive ly d iv ided i n to t i l led g round a nd m eadow s /pa s tu res i n 1 640 ( He lm f r id 1 962 ; F ig s . 1 0 , 1) . M idd le n eo l i th ic a g r icu l ture w a si na l lp robab i l i ty p u r sued w i th in t h ec on f ine so f1 7 th c en tu ry a g r icu l tu re l a nd ( 3600 h a ) .I tc an a dd i t iona l ly b ea s sumed t h a ti tm ade r ough ly t h es ame d emand so ns o i lq ua l i ty f o r g ra in c u l t iva t ion a nd l i ves tock p as turage a s d id 1 7 th c en tu ry l ow techno logy a g r icu l tu re . Wi th in t h e f r amewo rk o f t h e mode l , t he q uan t i ta t ive r e la t ionsh ips d emanded f o r s ubs is tence a c t iv i ty a cco rd ing t o a l te rna t iv A a r e r ega rded a s i mprobab le : T he l a nd r equ i red f o r g ra in c u l t iva t ion , c opp ice -wood p a s tu re a nd l e af -fodde r g a the r ing a r ea s s u f f ic ien t t os uppo r t s uch e x ten s ive h e rd s e xceed s t h e p o ten t ia l a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd a r ea ( 3600 h a ) . F u r thermo re , t h e p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty 's p opu la t ion w ou ld s e em r a the r s ma l l i nr e la t ion t ow o rk i npu tn ece s sa ry t oc a r ry o u t s eve ra lo ft h ev a r ious s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie sa tt h es ame t im e . I n a l ter na t ive B a nd C , t h e q uan t i ta t ive r e la t ion sh ips a r e mo re r ea l is t ic t han i n t he p r ev iou s a l te rna t ive , w i th r ega rd t op opu la t ion s i ze , t h ep re requ i s i tes f o rc opp ice -wood a g r icu l tu re a nd t h ep o ten t ia l a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd a r ea . F rom t h ep o in to fv i ew o fa g ra r ian e conom ic s , t h e s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ies i na l te rna t ive C a r et h e mo s tf avou rab le , s i nce t h e p roduc t iv i ty i sr e la t ive ly h i gh a nd y e tt h ec opp ice -wood u t i l iza t ion s ave sr e sou rce s . T he d i f f icu l ty i nd e te rm in ing t h ei mpo r tance t h a tt h eb og D ag s mo s se h ad a sp a s tu rage f o rl i ve s tock make si ti mpo s s ib le t op re f e re i the ro fa l te rna t ive s Ba nd C .I na dd i t ion ,t h is w ou ld r equ i re f u r the rs t ud ie so ft h er o le o ft h eq uan t i ta t ive r e la t ion sh ip o ft h ef ood p lan t s f ound i nt h ep i le d we l l ing v i s -à -v i so ne a no the ra nd t h ec a lcu la ted a n ima lf ood a va i lab le . I ti sa l so n ecessa ry t o i n crea se k now ledge o f t he e co log ica l e f f ec t s o f c u l t iva t ion , p a s tu rage a nd l e af -fodde rg a the r ing f o rg i ven q uan t i t ie si n ac opp ice -wood e nv i ronmen t . S ince c opp ice -wood a g r icu l tu re i s ar e la t ive ly wo rk in ten s ive f o rm o fu t i l iza t ion , t h e a nnua l ly c u l t iva ted a r ea p e rc on sump t ion u n i t ,i na dd i t ion t oo t he re conom ic a c t iv i t ie si n a l te rna t ive C ,c an h a rd ly h ave b een mo re t h an t h ec a lcu la ted 0 . 3h a . T he p e rcen t t hese f our f ood c a tergo r ie s ( measured i n k ca l ) c on t r ibu ted t o t he c ommun i ty 's a nnua l f ood c onsump t ion s hou ld a tp re sen t b e a s sumed t ol i e w i th in t h e r a nge g i ven b y a l te rna t ive s Ba nd C . T hose c omb ina t ions t h a tc an b et e s ted w i th in t h e f r ame p rov ided b y Ba nd C i nd ica te t h a t t h e c onsump t ion o f a gr icu l tu ra l ly -p roduced f oods s hou ld b e a t l e a s t 5 6% o f t he p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty 's a nnua l f ood c on sump t ion . I fo s teo log ica la nd z oo log ica li n ves t iga t ion ss hou ld p rove t h a tt ame s w ine a r er ep re sen ted i nt h eb one ma te r ia lf r om t h ep i le d we l l ing , a nd a dd i t iona l ly p e rm i tt h e c a lcu la t ion o ft h e s um o fi d en t if ied i nd iv idua l h og s , t h en t h ec on sump t ion o fp roduced f ood sw i l lb ee ven h i ghe rt h an t h ea bove -quo ted 5 6% .

1 05

S e t t lemen t T he t e rm " s e t t lemen t " i su sed h e re t or e f e rt op eop le 's e s tab l i shed e x i s tence , i n c lud ing b u i ld ing sa nd s oc ia lr e la t ion s ,w i th in ag eog raph ica l ly d e l im i ted a r ea . T he s t udy o fo lde rn eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t p a t te rns i ns ou the rn S cand inav ia h a s i nr e cen t r e sea r ch o f ten b een o r ien ted t owa rd sf unc t ion ,b e ing c onduc ted w i th h ab i ta t ion s i te sa nd b u r ia l s i te sa si t s ma in s ou r ce ma te r ia l . Ad e te rm ina t ion o ft h ef unc t ion o ft h eh ab i ta t ion s i te sh a st hu su sua l ly b een d e r ived f r om a p sec t so ft h es u r round ing t e r ra in ,t h es i ze o ft h e s i te s ,r ema in so fb u i ld ing s , a r tef ac t sa nd e cof ac t s ( La r s son 1 984 ; 1 80 -186 ,2 09 -213 ) . I n t e rm so ff unc t iona li n te rp re ta t ion s ,o lde rn eo l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s i te si ns ou the rn S cand inav ia c an b ed iv ided i n to t h ef o l low ing g roup s : AH ab i ta t ion s i te sw i th ag ene ra l s oc ia l a nd e conom ic f unc t ion ( " pe rmanen ts e t t lemen t s i te s " , " ma in s e t t lemen ts i te s " ) . BH ab i ta t ion s i te s w i th as pec ia l e conom ic f unc t ion ( " hun t ing / f i sh ing s i te s " , " s a te l l i te s i tes " ) . C H ab i ta t ion s i tes w i th t h e f unc t ion o f as oc ia l a nd c u l t c en te r ( " cen t ra l s i tes " , " c e remon ia ls i te s " ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce s f o r t h e s t udy o fn eo l i th ic s e t t lemen tp a t te rns i ns ou thwe s t Ö s te rgö t land ( F ig . 1 )c an mo s ts imp ly b ed iv ided i n to s t ray f i nd s , g rave s a nd h ab i ta t ion s i te s . T he e xam ina t ion o fa l l c u r ren t ly -known a r chaeo log ica l s ou rce ma te r ia l f r om t h e m ap a r ea h a sn o ty e tb een c omp le ted . T he p r e sen ti n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e s e t t lem en tp a t ter n i sb a sed o n ly o n t h e i n forma t ion f r om r eg is te red h ab i ta t ion s i te s a nd p a laeobo tan ic a na ly se s .T he i n te rp re ta t ion mu s tt h e refo re b er ega rded a sp rel im ina ry . B efo re 1 978 , w i th in t h e m ap a r ea o n ly t wo s t one a ge h ab i ta t ion s i te s w e re k nown t o a r chaeo logy . T he p re sen ta u tho r ,i nc oope ra t ion w i th t h ea r chaeo log ica li nven to ry c a r r ied o u tb yt h e Swed i sh C en t ra l B oa rd o fN a t iona l An t iqu i t ie s , h a s i n c rea sed t h en umbe ro f k nown s i te st oa tl e a s t3 4 . A cco rd ing t ot h e i rn a tu ra la nd g eog raph ic c ha rac te r i s t ic st h ey c an b e p laced i no ne o f t h ree g roups : ( 1 ) l a nd h ab i ta t ions , ( 2 ) s ho re h ab i ta t ion s , ( 3 ) w e t land h ab i ta t ion s . T hese g roups a r e d i s t r ibu ted a s f o l lows ( Browa l l 1 986 : 1 40 -141 ; F ig . 1 2 ) : 4l a nd h ab i ta t ion s ,2 8 s ho re h ab i ta t ion sa nd 2w e t land h ab i ta t ion s . O n ly o ne h ab i ta t ion s i te ( t he A lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing ) h a s b een e xam ined i na ny d e ta i l , w h i le t wo s i tes ( Kä l ls tad : 1 6 , S t rä : 3 2 ) h ave b een s ub jec t t o ap re l im ina ry e xam ina t ion a nd o ne s i te ( Väve r sunda : C ha r lo t tenbo rg ) h a s b een c hecked b y t h e d igg ing o f af ew p i ts . T he o the r s h ave b een r eg is te red t h rough s y s tema t ic s u r f ace c o l lec t ion o f a r tef ac t s i n c u l t iva ted l a nd . T he ma jor i ty o ft h er eg i s te red s i te s a r el o ca ted i nt h en o r ther np a r to ft h e map a r ea , a round L ake T äke rn . T he a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeobo tan ica l s ou r ce ma te r ia li nd ica tes t h a t , i n a dd i t ion t oh un t ing a nd f i sh ing ,d u r ing t h en eo l i th ic p e r iod c e rea lg ra in sw e re c u l t iva ted a nd l i ve s tock r a i sed i nb o th t h eA lva s t ra a nd T äker na r ea s . T he f ou rl a nd h ab i ta t ion s a r eo nh igh g round ( > 1 00 m .a .s . 1 . ) , w he re t h e s o i l sa r e s andy a nd t h eg round r e la t ive ly w e l l -d ra ined .W i th o ne e xcep t ion ,t h ey i nvo lve f i nd c o l lec t ions i nc u l t iva ted l a nd , t h e f i nd s c on s i s t ing o fa xe s a nd a x f r agmen t s , f l in ti mp lemen t s a nd c h ips . O ne s i te c on ta ins c u l tu ra l l a ye r s w i th b ones o fl i ve s tock , w i ld a n ima l s a nd f i sh ( Väve r sunda : C ha r lo t tenbo rg ) . Me so l i th ic a r tef ac tt y pe sh ave n o ty e tb een i d en t i f ied w i th c e r ta in ty i nt h ef i nd m a te r ia lf r om a ny o ft h e se l a nd h ab i ta t ion s . T he 2 8 s ho re h ab i ta t ion s a r e a l l l o ca ted i nl ow land t e r ra in ( < 1 00 m .a .s . 1 . ) , b y L ake 1 06

T äke rn , w he re t h ey o ccupy f l a th igh g round a l ong t h e A t lan t ic p e r iod s ho re l ine ( c . 9 5 m .a .s . 1 . ) . Wi th t wo e xcep t ions t h e s ho re h ab i ta t ions a ppea r a s f i nd c o l lec t ions i n c u l t iva ted l a nd . I ns uch c a se st h ef i nd ma ter ia lc on s i s t s o fs ma l li mp lemen t s ( p r ima r i ly s c rape r s ) , b l ade s , m ic rob lades , c h ips ( bu lba rw a s te ) a nd w a s te o ff l in ta nd d en se r ock s , a sw e l la ss eamed a nd b u rned ,c r umb ly s t one . C lay p o t sha rd so ccu ri no ne o ft h e se s i te s . Two s ho re h ab i ta t ion s ( Kä l l s tad : 1 6 , S t rä : 3 2 )c on ta in c u l tu re l a ye r sw i th c l ay p o t sha rd s , b one sf r om l i ve s tock ,w i ld a n ima ls ,b a t rach ians ,b i rd sa nd f i sh . Me so l i th ic a nd n eo l i th ic a r tef ac tt y pe su sua l ly c o -occu ri nt h e se s i te s . T he t wo w e t land h ab i ta t ion so ccupy r e la t ive ly l ow land t e r ra in i nt h e i rr e spec t ive a r ea s . T he f i nd ma te r ia l a tt h e A lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing i su nequ ivoca l ly n eo l i th ic , a nd i nt h e s ubbo rea lp e r iod t h eg round o nt h e s i te w a s am i re . A tA bo F y rbondegä rd ( Ode shög : 6 ) , t h e s i te i sc ha rac te r ized b y am ix tu re o fm e so l i th ic a nd n eo l i th ic f i nd s f ound o n g round w ho se c ompo s i t ion a tt h et ime o ft h ed epo s i t sw a se i the rl a ke o r ma r sh . Wi th in t h e r e sou rce a r ea r e con s t ruc ted f o rt h ep i le d we l l ing c ommun i ty , t h e re a r e t wo l a nd h ab i ta t ions , s even s ho re h ab i ta t ions a nd aw e t land h ab i ta t ion . T he c ommun i ty ' s s ub s i s tence e conomy w a s b a sed o n ac omb ina t ion o fa g r icu l tu re a nd h un t ing / f ish ing . A g r icu l tu re d emand sl ong te rm p l ann ing a nd b ind si t sp rac t i t ione r st ot h es o i lu sed .T he c opp ice -wood c u l t iva t ion u sed h a s i na l lp robab i l i ty b een c a r r ied o u ti nr e la t ive ly h igh t e r ra in w i th s andy s o i l sa nd n a tu ra ld ra inage . T h i si sa l so t h et y pe o ft e r ra in w he re t r ace s o ft h e p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty 's r egu la r h ab i ta t ion s i tes ( s e t t lemen t s i te s ) a r e t ob e e xpec ted . T he l a nd h ab i ta t ion a tS t . B roby ( V . T o l l s tad : 6 7 ) , a bou t 3 00 m s ou thea s t o ft h e p i le d we l l ing w e l la nswe r st h ea bove p r e requ i s i te s ,a nd a mong t h es t one a ge f i nd sd i scove red t h e re a r ea r te fac t st h a tf r om at y po log ica lv i ewpo in tp rov ide l i nk st ot h ef i nd ma te r ia li n t h ep i le dwe l l ing . D end roch rono log ica la nd w ood -ana tomy a na ly s i so ft h ep i le sf r om t h e d we l l ing h ave i nd ica ted t h a tf o re s tf e l l ing o ccu red i nt h eh igh a r ea sa tS t . B roby d ur ing a 6 0 -80 -yea rp e r iod b efo re a nd d u r ing t h e p i le d we l l ing 's p e r iod o fu sage . I tt hu s s eem s r e a sonab le t oi n te rp re tt h es i te a tS t . B roby a s ar egu la rs e t t lemen ts i te f o rs ome o ft h ep i le d we l l ing c ommun i ty 's p opu la t ion . T he a g r icu l tu ra l wo rk o n t h e l a nd s t h a t t h is c ommun i ty i sc a lcu la ted t oh ave n eeded a nnua l ly ( a tl e a s t 120 h a )c an h a rd ly h ave b een o rgan ized a nd c a r r ied o u tf r om o n ly o ne o rt wo s e t t lemen ts i te s ; t h ee x i s tence o fs eve ra ls uch s i te s mus ti n s tead b ea s sumed . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ep i le d we l l ing 's s pa t ia l s t ruc tu re i nt e rm so fs oc ia lo rgan iza t ion l im i t s t h en umbe ro fs imu l taneous ly e x i s t ing s e t t lemen ts i te sa tt h et ime o ft h er e la t ive y ea r0 1 t oa t mo s t 1 7 . G iven t h ea bovemen t ioned t e r ra in , t h em idd le n eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ts i te si n t h e A lvas t ra a nd L ake T äke rn a r ea w i l l c o inc ide w i th t h e a g r icu l tura l s e t t lemen t s d ocumen ted i nt h e 1 7 th c en tury , a nd t h us h ave b een s ub jec tt od e s t ruc t ion t h rough l a nd u se f o rh und red s o re ven t h ousand s o fy ea r s . T he s ea rch f o r s t one -age h ab i ta t ion s i tes , t oge the rw i th t h ea r chaeo log ica l i n ven to ry c a r r ied o u tb yt h e Swed i sh C en t ra lB oa rd o f N a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie s ,n eve r the le s si nd ica te st h a tt h er ema ins o fm idd le n eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s i te si nf u l ly f a rmed a r ea sa r es t i l lp o s s ib le t oo b se rve . D ue t ou nde rd imen s ione r ing ,t h e s ea rch f a i led t o p rov ide t h e b a s is f o r t e s t ing t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty c on s i s ted o f an umbe ro fs e t t lemen t s i tes w i th in t h ep o ten t ia l ly a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd a r ea o fi t sr e sou r ce a r ea . T he t e r ra in a round t h e s ho re h ab i ta t ion s a tL ake T äkern ,t h e i rf i nd m a te r ia l ,r e la t ive a nd a b so lu te d a t ing s a l li nd ica te t h a tt h ey w e re u sed a sc amp sf o rh un t ing a nd f i sh ing i nb o th t h e meso l i th ic a nd n eo l i th ic e r a s . T he o ccu r rence o ft h er e la t ive ly l a rge s hea t -f i sh i nt h e b one ma te r ia lo ft h ep i le d we l l ing i st h e mo s td ependab le s i gn t h a tt h en a tu ra lr e sou rces o f L ake T äke rn w e re u sed w i th in t h e f r ame o f t h e s ubs is tence e conomy o f t h e p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty . O ne o r s eve ra l o ft h e s ho re h ab i ta t ion s a l ong t h e s ou thwe s t 1 07

p a r to ft h el a ke c an t h e reby b ea s sumed t oh ave s e rved a st empo ra ry s i te sf o rp a r to ft h e p opu la t ion w h i le h un t ing a nd c a tch ing f i sh t h e re . O fp a r t icu la r i n te res t i st h e s ho re h ab i ta t ion c l ose s t t ot h e p i le d we l l ing , t h a t o fH o lmen ( Svan sha ls : 1 32 ) , w hose f i nd ma te r ia li n d ica te st h a tt h ep l ace w a sa c t ive ly u sed d u r ing t h em idd le n eo l i th ic p e r iod .T he p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty 's s ubs is tence e conomy a l so i n c luded e xp lo i ta t ion o fn a tu ra l r e sou rce s i na nd n ea r L ake V ä t te rn , w h ich may b e s e en f r om t h e wh i tef i sh a nd s ho re s t one sf ound i nt h ep i le d we l l ing . I ti sn o tp o s s ib le t os ay w he the ro rn o ts ho re h ab i ta t ion e x i s tb e tween H ä s tho lmen a nd t h e s ou ther nt i p o f Moun t Ombe rg , s i nce t h e s ubbo rea l p e r iod ' s s ho re l ine n ow l i e su nde rt h ree m e te r so fw a te r . P hy s ica l ly s peak ing , t h e s e t t lemen t p a t tern o f t h e p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty c an b e d e sc r ibed a s ac omb ina t ion o fr egu la rh ab i ta t ion s i te s ( s e t t lemen t s i tes ) w i th ag ene ra l s oc ia la nd e conom ic f unc t ion ( g roup A , a bove ) a nd h un t ing / f ish ing c amps w i th s pec ia l e conom ic f unc t ion s( g roup B , a bove ) . T he s e t t lemen ta l so i n c luded ac ommuna lm ee t ing p l ace ( g roup C , a bove ) a nd p re sumab ly b u r ia lg round .T he s e t t lemen ts i te so ccup ied t h e h igh g round a d jacen t t ol a nd a pp ropr ia te f o rf a rm ing , w h i le t h e h un t ing / f i sh ing c amp s w e re l o ca l ized t o a r ea s c ons ide red ma rg ina l t o t h e a r ab le a r ea s . T he s ame g ene ra l s e t t lemen tp a t te rn i nn eo l i th ic t ime s a l so s e em s t ob ev a l id f o rt h e t e r ra in a r ound L ake T äke rn . C opp ice -wood a g r icu l tu re p re suppo se s y ea r ly r o ta t ion o ft h ep roduc t ion l a nd , w h ich i n t h e l ong t e rm may p e rhaps h ave h e lped c ause a c e r ta in m ig ra t ion o f t h e s e t t lemen ts i te sw i th in t h eh igh g round a r ea s .T he s ou r ce m a te r ia ld oe sn o ty e tp e rm i ta ny d e te rm ina t ion o ft h e n umbe r o f s ynch ron ic s e t t lemen t s i tes , n o r ad e term ina t ion a s t o whe the r t hey c ons is ted o f v i l lages w i th s eve ra l h ouseho ld s l i v ing t oge the r , o r o f i nd iv idua lf a rm sw i th o ne o rt wo h ouseho ld sp e rf a rmya rd . T he re t hus d oe sn o te x i s tt h e ma ter ia l b a s i s f o r as t udy o f t h e p re sump t ive t e r r i to r ia l d iv is ion i n t h e p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty .T he c a lcu la ted ,r e la t ive ly l a rge ,a nnua l ly u t i l ized a r ea s( c u l t iva t ion ,h e rd ing , l e a f -fodde r g a ther ing ) makes i tl i ke ly t h a t t h e p i le -dwe l l ing c ommun i ty h ad s eve ra l s e t t lemen ts i t e sa tt h es ame t ime . A cco rd ing t ot h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ep i le d we l l ing ' ss pa t ia ls t ruc tu re ,t h es oc ie ty ' s s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion c on s i s ted o f1 7h ouseho ld s .T he p i le -dwe l l ing ' sf unc t ion a s as oc ia la nd c u l t c en te r f o ri t s d i s tr ic t i mp l ies t h a t t h e h ou seho ld s w e re r egu la r ly g rouped i ni nd iv idua l f a rm s -i ti sp rec ise ly s uch as c a t te red f o rm o fs e t t lemen tt h a tc an h ave c on t r ibu t ed t ot h e n eed f o r aj o in tm ee t ing p l ace f o rt h ee n t i r es o c ie ty .

1 08

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F igure 1 .

T he r e sea rch a r ea i n s ou thwe s te rn Ö s te rgö t land ( 8E H JO SO ) a nd t h e g eog raph ica lp o s i t ion o ft h eA lva s t ra p i le dwe l l ing .

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F igure 2 . T he t opog raphy a nd q ua te rna ry g eo logy o ft h e A lva s t ra p i le dwe l l ing 's s u r round ing s . T he g eog raph ica lp o s i t ion o ft h ep i le d we ll ing i sd e s igna ted " X" . K ey t o t h e s i gn s : 1T i l l , s andy ; 2T i l l , g rave l ly ; 3T i l l c ove r o n g l ac iof luv ia l d epo s i t ; 4G lac iof luv ia l d epo s i t ; 5G rave l ; 6S and ; 7S i l ty C lay -c oa r se s i l t ; 8F en ; 9B ed rock .

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P robab le , n a tu ra lp rovenance f o rc e r ta in i n o rgan ic a nd o rgan ic s ub s tance s , wh ich f o rm t h e r aw ma te r ia l f o r s o me g roups o fa r tefac t s a nd e cofac t s , f ound i nt h eA lva s t ra p i le dwe l l ing : A l =s ho re s t one s ; A2 = s ed imen ta ry g rave l ; B 1 =m e tavu lcan i te ; B 2 =i r on p yr i t b a l l s ; C l =o ak ; C 2 =a l de r ; D 1 =b ea r ; D 2 =b eave r ; D 3 =s hea t -f i sh ; D 4 =w h i tef i sh . B lack s qua r e d e s igna te st h e g eog raph ica lp o s i t ion o ft h ep i le dwe l l ing , a nd h a t ched a r c d e s igna tes t h e e x ten s ion o ft h e p i le d we l l ing c ommun i ty 's r econ s t ruc ted r e sou r ce a r ea .

16

F igure 1 0 . I n f ie ld l a nd ( t i l led g round , m eadow , p a s tu re -g round ) w i th in t h e r e sea rch a r ea a tt h ey ea r 1 640 .A f te rH e lm f r id 1 962 .T he g eog raph ica lp o s i t ion o ft h e A lva s t ra p i le dwe l l ing i sd e s igna ted " x " , a nd t h eh a tched a r cd e s igna te st h e e x tens ion o ft h ep i le d we l l ing c ommun i ty ' sr e con s t ruc ted r e sou rch a r ea .

17

F igure 1 1 . T i l led g round w i th in t h e r e sea rch a r ea a tt h e y ea r 1 640 . A f te r H e lmf r id 1 962 .The g eog raph ica lp o s i t ion o ft h e A lva s t ra p i le dwe l l ing i sd e s igna ted " X" , a nd t he h a tched a r c d e s igna tes t h e e x ten s ion o f t he p i le dwe l l ing c ommun i ty 's r e con s t ruc ted r e sou rce a r ea .

18

F igure 1 2 . T he g eog raph ica lp o s i t ion o ft h ek nown s t one -age h ab i ta t ion s i tes w i th in t h e r e sea rch a r ea . T he s i tes a r e n umbe red p a r i sh b y p ar ish , a cco rd ing t ot h e r eg i s te ro ft h e Swed i sh C en t ra l B oa rd o fN a t iona l An t iqu i t ie s .Unde r l ined n umbe r sd e s igna te t h a tt h e s i te sc an n o tb ef u l ly d ef ined a sh ab i ta t ion s i te . A round L ake T äke rn i st h ec on tou ro f9 5 m .a .s . l . d e s igna ted b y at h in l i ne .

19

References B a r tho l in , T .S . , 1 983 . T r a ze t iA lva s t ra . S ka lk . N r . 4 .H o jb je rg . B e rgg ren , G . , 1 956 . V äx tma te r ia l f r än t r ä skbop la t sen iD ag smosse .Svensk b o tan i sk T id sk r if t . B d 5 0 , H .1 . L und . B rowa l l , H . , 1 982 . P ä lbyggnadens iA lvas tra p lans t ruk tur -e n h ypo tes . D up l ica te ( 1982 -02 -07 ) . F o r skn ing sp ro jek te tA lva s t ra p ä lbyggnad . S tockho lm . - 1 983 .A lva s t ra : Om e n mode l la ve nf o rn lämn ing o ch e n mode l lf ö rt o lkn ing .F orn t id o ch F ram t id . N r 1 0 . A rg . 1 8 . S tockho lm . - 1 986 . A lvas tra p ä lbyggnad : s oc ia l o ch e konom i sk b as . T he ses a nd P ape r s i n Nor th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy 1 5 . S tockho lm . C a s se lbe r ry , S .E . , 1 974 . F ur the rr e f inemen to ff o rmu lae f o rd e te rm in ing p opu la t ion f r om f l oo ra r ea . Wor ld A rchaeo logy . V o l . 6 . No . 1 .O xfo rd . C hang , K . -C . , 1 958 . S tudy o ft h e N eo l i th ic S oc ia l G roup ing : E xamp les f r om t h e N ew Wo r ld . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t . V o l . 6 0 . L o sA nge le s . C ook , S .F . &H e ize r , R .F . , 1 968 . R e la t ion sh ips a mong H ouse s , S e t t lemen t A rea s a nd P opu la t ion i n Abo r ig ina l C a l ifo rn ia . I n : C hang , K .C . ( ed . ) , 1 968 . S e t t lemen t A rchaeo logy . N a t iona lP re s sB ook s . P a lo A l to . D u r ing , E . , 1 986 . T he F auna o fA l va s t ra . A no s teo log ica la na ly s i so fa n ima lb one sf r om an eo l i th ic p i le d we l l ing . O SSA . V o l . 1 2 . S upp l . 1 .S o lna . F le tche r , R . , 1 977 . S e t t lemen t S tud ie s ( M ic ro a nd S em i -m icro ) . I n : C la rke , D .L . ( ed . ) , 1 977 . S pa t ia lA rchaeo logy . A cadem ic P r e ss . N ew Y o rk . F ra se r ,D . , 1 983 .L and a nd S oc ie ty i nN eo l i th ic O rkney . B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s ( BAR ) . B r i t i sh S e r ie s 17 ( i )( i i ) . O xfo rd . F röd in , 0 . , 1 910a . E n s ven sk p ä lbyggnad f r än S tenä ldem .F ornvännen 5 . S tockho lm . - 1 910b . E in s chwed i sche rP f ah lbau a u sd e rS t e inze i t . Mannu s . Wu rzbu rg . F röd in , 0 . &F ü r s t , C .M . , 1 919 . H a rs ka lpe r ing f ö rekomm i t iN o rden u nde rs t enä ldem? R ig . B d Io ch I I . S tockho lm . G lob , P .V . , 1 975 . D e d odes l a nge h u se , S ka lk . N r . 6 .H o jb je rg . Gö ransson , H . , 1 982 . T he u t i l iza t ion o ft h e f o res t s i nN o r th - We s tE u rope d u r ing E a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic .P ACT 7 .S t ra sbou rg . -1 987 .N eo l i th ic Man a nd t h eF ore s tE nv ironmen ta round A lvas t ra P i le Dwe l l ing i n E as tern Ö s tergö t land . T heses a nd P aper s i n N o r th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy . S tockho lm . ( I np r in t ) . H anne rbe rg ,D . , 1 971 . S vensk ta grar samhä l le u nder 1 200 ä r . G ä rd o ch k e r . S kö rd o ch b o skap . L ä romede l sfö r lagen . S tockho lm . H a s t rup , K . & O vesen , J . , 1 982 . F rämmande k u l turer . D en modema e t nog raf ins g runde r . G id lund s . S öde r tä l je . H e lmf r id , S . , 1 962 . Ö s tergö t land " Vä s tan s täng" . S tud ien ü be rd i eä l te r e Ag ra r land scha f t u nd i h re G ene se . G eog raf i ska A nna le r ,V o l . XL IV , 1 962 : 1 2 . S tockho lm . H igg s , E .S . ( e d . ) , 1 975 . A ppend ix A . S i te c a tchmen ta na ly s is : Ac onc ise g u ide t of i e ld me thod s . I n : H igg s , E .S . ( e d . ) , 1 975 . P a laeoeconomy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C amb r idge . H iggs , E .S . & V i ta -F inz i , C . , 1 972 . P reh is to r ic e conom ie s : at e r r i to r ia l a pproach . I n : H igg s , E .S . ( e d . ) , 1 972 .P aper si nE conom ic P reh i s to ry . C amb r idge a tt h eU n ive r s i ty P re ss . C amb r idge . Hodde r , I .& O r ton , C . , 1 976 . S pa t ia la na lys i s i na rchaeo logy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss . C amb r idge . Hu l t Mn , B . & We l inde r , S . , 1 981 . A S tone A ge E conomy . T heses a nd P ape r s i n Nor th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy 1 . S tockho lm . J a rman , M .R . , 1 972 . At e r r i to r ia l mode lf o ra r chaeo logy : ab ehav io ra l a nd g eog raph ica l a pp roach . I n : C la rke ,D .L . ( e d . ) , 1 972 . Mode l si nA r chaeo logy . Me thuen . L ondon . J a rman , M .R . , V i ta -F inz i , C . & H iggs , E .S . , 1 972 . S i te c a tchmen t a na lys is i n a r chaeo logy . I n : U cko , P . J . , T r ingham , R . & D imb leby , G .W . ( e d s . ) , 1 972 . Man , 1 20

S e t t lemen ta nd U rban i sm . D uckwo r th . L ondon . J ensen , J . , 1 979 . O ld t idens s amf und . T iden i nd t i l ä r 8 00 . D ansk s oc ia l h i s tor ie 1 . G y ldenda l . K obenhavn . K ees ing , R .M . , 1 976 . . C u l tura l A n thropo logy . A C on tempo ra ry P e r spec t ive . Ho l t , R ineha r ta nd Win s ton . N ew Y o rk . K r is t ian sen , K . , 1 982 . T he F o rma t ion o fT r iba l S y s tem s i nL a te rE u ropean P reh is to ry : No r the rn E urope , 4 000 -500 B .C . I n : R enf rew , C . , R ow land s , M .J . & S eg raves , B .A . ( ed s . ) , 1 982 . T heory a nd E xp lana t ion i nA rchaeo logy . A cadem ic P re ss . N ew Yo rk . L a r sson , M . , 1 984 . T id igneo l i t ikum iS ydvä s t skäne . K rono log i o ch b o sä t tn ingsmön s te r . A c ta A r chaeo log ica L unden s ia . S e r ie si n4 ° . N° 1 7 . L und . L eB lanc , S . , 1 971 . A n a dd i t ion t o N a ro l l 's s ugges ted f l oo r a r ea a nd s e t t lemen t p opu la t ion r e la t ion sh ip . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty , V o l . 3 6 . N o . 2 .S a l tL ake C i ty . L ev i -S t raus s , C . , 1 967 . S t ruc tura l A n thropo logy . D oub leday & C ompany , I n c . N ew Yo rk . Magnu sson , E . , 1 964 . P o l len -ana ly t ica lI nve s t iga t ions a tT äkern , Dagsmosse a nd t h e N eo l i th ic S e t t lemen t a t A lvas t ra , S weden . S ve r iges G eo log iska Unde r sökn ing ( SGU ) . S e r . C . N r 5 97 . S tockho lm . Ma lmer , M .P . , 1 978 . F or skn ingspro jek te t A lva s t ra p ä lbyggnad . F ornvännen 7 3 . S tockho lm . - 1 981 . T he E xp lana t ion o f aP i le Dwe l l ing . I n : K ön ig sson , L . -K . &P aabo , K . ( ed s . ) , 1 981 .F lor i leg ium F lor in i sD ed ica tum . S t r iae . Vo l . 1 4 .U ppsa la . - 1 984 . On t h e s oc ia l f unc t ion o f p i le d we l l ings a nd mega l i ths . I n : B urenhu l t , G . , 1 984 . T he A rchaeo logy o f C arrowmore . E nv ironmen ta l A rchaeo logy a nd t he Mega l i th ic T rad i t ion a t C a r rowmo re , C o . S l igo . I r e land . T he ses a nd P ape r s i n No r th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy 1 4 . S tockho lm . N a ro l l , R . , 1 962 . F loo ra r ea a nd s e t t lemen tp opu la t ion . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty . V o l . 2 7 . N r . 4 .S a l tl a ke C i ty . No r rman , J .0 . , 1 964 . L ake V ä t tern . I nve s t iga t ion s o n S ho re a nd B o t tom Mo rpho logy . G eog ra f i ska A nna le r . V o l . XLV I . N r 1 2 . S tockho lm . v on P o s t , L . , 1 916 . E in ige s üd schwed ischen Q ue l lmoo re . B u l len t in o ft h e G eo log ica l I ns t i tu t ion o ft h e U n iver s i ty o fU psa la . V o l . XV . U ppsa la . - 1 923 . D ag smo s se o ch D rC leve -Eu le r sg ungn ing shypo te s . G eo log i ska F ören ingen si S tockho lm F örhand l ingar ( GFF ) . B d4 5 . S tockho lm . R andsbo rg , K . , 1 975 . S oc ia l D imens ions o fE a r ly N eo l i th ic D enma rk . P roceed ings o f t h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty . V o l . 4 1 . C amb r idge . R enf rew , C . , 1 976 . Mega l i ths , T e r r i tor ies a nd P opu la t ions . I n : D e L ae t , S . J . ( ed . ) , 1 976 .A ccu l tura t ion a nd C on t inu i ty i nA t lan t ic E urope ma in ly d ur ing t h eN eo l i th ic p er iod a nd t h eB ron ze A ge . D i s se r ta t ione sA rchaeo log icae G anden se s . V o l . XV I . D e T empe l . B rugge . - 1 979 .I nve s t iga t ion si nO rkney . R epo r t so ft h eR e sea r ch C omm i t tee o ft h eS oc ie ty o f An t iqua r ies o fL ondon . No . XXXV I I I . L ondon . S chn i t tger , B . , 1 908 . Mossfynd f r än s t enä lde rn v id A lva s t ra . Medde landen f rän Ö s tergö t land sF ornm inne s -o ch Mu se if ören ing 1 908 . L inköp ing .

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"OAK AND WILLO W": ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PERIODS AT ALVASTRA P ILE DWELLING . A R esu l t o f D endrochrono log ica l a nd Wood Ana tom ica l I nve s t iga t ions B y T homa s B ar tho l in L abo ra to ry o fQ ua t e rna ry B io logy .U n ive r s i ty o fL und . T omay . 1 3 . S -223 6 3 L und , Sweden . When t h e f i r s t p i le s , a l l t h a t r ema ined o ft h e p rev iou s e xcava t ions o f 1 908 -1919 a nd 1 928 -1930 , w e re r ed i scove red i n 1 976 a f te r P rof e s so r Ma t s P . Ma lme r r eopened t h e e xcava t ion s a tA lva s t ra , t h e re w a s l i t t le h ope t h a td end roch rono logy c ou ld b e s ucce s s f u l ly e mp loyed t od e te rm ine t h eu sage p e r iod s o ft h en eo l i th ic A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing . T he p o le s w e re v e ry s ma l l a nd c on ta ined v e ry f ew t r ee r i ngs , a nd i tw a s i mpo s s ib le a t t h a tt ime t od i sce rn a ny s y s tema t ic p a t te rn i nt h e i rp l a cemen tw h ich c ou ld a s s i s ti nd a t ing t h em r e la t ive t oe ach o t he r . T he o ak p i le s ( 203 o ft h e 8 56 e xcava ted p o le s ) , t h el i ke ly b a s i so fa ny s u cce s sfu la t t emp ta td a t ing ,w e r ea l so a ppa r en t ly s c a t te red u n sy s tema t ica l ly t h roughou tt h e ma te r ia l ( f ig . 1 ) . P ro f e sso r Ma lme rn eve r the le s sd e s i r ed t h a t at h o rough s amp l ing f o r ad end ro ch rono log ica l a na ly s i s s hou ld t a ke p l ace , a l though t h e f i nanc ia l c o s t sp rom i sed t ob es ub s tan t ia la nd t h el i ke l ihood o fp o s i t ive r e su l t sw a sv e ry s ma l l . T h i sd ec i s ion p roved t ob eo fe x t rao rd ina ry i mpo r tance f o rt h ee ven tua l s ucce s so ft h e e xcava t ion .T he d end ro ch rono log ica le xam ina t ion o ft h eo ak p o le su nexpe c t ed ly r evea led ac omp rehen s ive p i c tu re o ft h e d eve lopmen to ft h e e n t i re d we l l ing . T he r e su l t s o ft h i s e xam ina t ion h ave b een p r ev iou s ly p ub l i shed ( Ba r tho l in 1 983a ) , a nd w i l l t h e refo re b e o n ly b r ief ly d e sc r ibed a tt h i st ime . T he u nexpec ted s ucce s s o ft h e d end roch rono log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion d epended u pon t h e e x t rao rd ina ry f a c tt h a tt h eo ak sw e r eo r ig ina l ly t a k en f r om o ne s ou rce , al o ca lf o r e s tw i th h omogenou s g row th c ond i t ion s ( Ba r tho l in 1 978 , 1 983b ) . T he p o le s t h e re fo re r evea led s im i la rg row th p a t te rn s , a nd i tw a sp o s s ib le t or e la t ive ly d a te t h er e su l tan tc u rve sb ye ye , w i thou t t h e s t anda rd s t a t i s t ica l c o r re la t ion s n o rma l ly r equ i red . Mo reove r , as t a t i s t ica l e va lua t ion i so f t en e xt reme ly d i f f icu l ti nc a se s , s u ch a st h i se xamp le ,w he re t h e s amp le s h ave v e ry f ew t r ee r i ng s( 30 t o7 0y ea r s ) . T he i n i t ia lw o rk o nt h ec u rve sw a sp e r fo rmed w i thou tk now ledge o ft h ei ns i tu p o s i t ion o ft h ei nd iv idua lp o le si nt h ep i le c on s tr uc t ion .T he s u cce s s ive d eve lopmen to ft h es i te ,a s r e vea led b yt h er e la t ive d a t ing o ft h eo ak p i le s ,c an t h e re fo r eb es a id t ob eo b jec t ive ,s i n ce t h e i n te rna l r e la t ion sh ip s w e re n o t a l lowed t oi nf luence t h e i n te rp re ta t ion ( s ee f i gu re s 2 10 ) .F u r the rmo r e ,b ecau se o n ly a bou t 1 0o ft h eo ak p i le s ( o f2 03 )w e r eu nda teab le t h e r e su l t s r ep re sen t t h e e n t i re c h rono log ica l e vo lu t ion o ft h e s i te , a s sum ing t h a t t h e f ew u nda ted s amp le s a r e e xamp le s o fn on rep re sen ta t ive g row th r a the r t h an e xcep t ion s i n t ime o fc u t t ing a nd u se . A n e a r l ie r p ropo sa l t h a t t h e re e x i s ted a n a c t iv i ty p e r iod d u r ing ( r e la t ive ) Y ea r s 8 9 ( Ba r tho l in 1 978 , 1 983b )w a sr e jec ted a f te r al a te rr e v iew o ft h em a te r ia lc onf i rmed o n ly o ne d a t ing f r om t h a t y ea r . An ew a c t iv i ty p ha se i si n s tead r e p re sen ted b y af ew p i le s f e led d u r ing t h es p r ing o fY ea r 1 8 ,a sw e l la ss ome p i le sf e l led d u r ing t h es p r ing o fY ea r 1 7 .T he se l a t te rp i le sw e r ea ppa ren t ly s t o red u n t i lt h ec on s t ruc t ion p e r iod o ft h ef o l low ing y ea r ( 1 8 ) , a se v idenced b yt h e l a rva t u nne l sf ound u nde rt h e i rb a rk ( Ba r tho l in 1 983b ) . D eve lopmen t s w i th in t h e c ons t ruc t ion u n t i l Y ea r 1 8 a r e c oncen t ra ted t o w i th in t h e b ounda r ie so ft h e o r ig ina l s t ruc tu re . L a te ra c t iv i ty , i nY ea r s4 0 -42 , f a l l so u t s ide o ft h i s p a t te rn ( f ig . 1 0 ) . 1 23

I n a dd i t ion t op rov id ing ma te r ia l f o r ad end roch rono log ica l i nve s t iga t ion , t h e l a rge n umbe r o f e xcava ted p o le s w e re i n tended t ob e u sed i n as t udy o f t h e c on s t ruc t ion t e chn ique s emp loyed i n b u i ld ing t h e p i le d we l l ing , a nd t o a l low i n te rp re ta t ion o f c ond i t ion a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e l o ca l f o re s t . T o s uppo r t t h i s r e sea r ch ad emand ing a na ly s i s w a s p e r fo rmed o n t h e h uge a moun t s o fw ooden r ema in s f ound i nt h e c u l tu re l a ye r so ft h ea r ea se xcava ted d u r ing 1 976 -1980 u nde rt h ed i r ec t ion o fP rof e s so r Ma lme r ( f ig . 1 ) . T he w ood a na tom ica la na ly s i so ft h i se x ten s ive c o l le c t ion i ss t i l li n comp le te ,b u t i tc an a l ready b e p roven t h a t t h e t h ree s epa ra te s amp le g roups ( po le s , t w ig s , a nd c ha r coa l ) , e ach h ave av e ry d i f f e ren t s pec i f ic c ompo s i t ion , t h e r eby i nd ica t ing h uman a c t iv i t ie sa nd f o r e s te xp lo i ta t ion o fc omp le t e ly d i f f e r en tt y pe s . A bou t2 000 w ood s amp le sw e re s t ud ied f r om e ach o ft h en o r thwe s te rn a nd s ou thea s te rn e xcava t ion f i e ld s . T he se a na ly se sw e re d one w i th g r ea te mpha s i so nd e ta i lb ecau se o ft h e u n ique c ha rac te ro ft h em a te r ia l , a nd b ecau se o ft h ed i f f icu l ty i np re se rv ing t h er ema ins f r om t h e d ecay w h ich w ou ld q u ick ly r educe i t s v a lue a so b jec t s o fs t udy . T h i s w o rk i n c luded m ic ro scop ic a na tom ica ld e te rm ina t ion o ft h es p ec ie s ,c oun t ing t h et r ee r i ng si n t h es t e rn /b ranch ,m ic ro scop ic e va lua t ion o ft h eo u te rmo s tr i ng t oa s ce r ta in t h e s e a son o f f e l ing ,m ea su remen to ft h ed i ame te r ,e t c . Ac omp le te s t udy o fs uch d a ta r equ i re se x ten s ive c ompu te ra na ly s i s , b u tu n fo r tuna te ly t h en ece s sa ry s y s tem sa r en o ty e ta va i lab le .H oweve r ,e ven t h e se c ond i t iona ls t ud ie sc an g i ve s u rp r iz ing a nd i mpo r tan tr e su l t si ft h ee xcava t ion i sp l anned a nd p e r fo rmed w i th t h e n ece s sa ry a wa r ene s so ft h ep o s s ib il i t ie so fp re sen ta nd f u tu r ei n ve s t iga t ion . A ne xcelen ti lu s t ra t ion o ft h ec on t r ibu t ion o fd end ro log i ca la na ly s i st ot h eu nde r s tand ing o ft h ev a r iou sa c t iv i ty p e r iod si st h ee xamp le o ft h em any b r anche sa nd s t ump so fw i l low ( S a l ix s p . , p robab ly S a l ix c i nerea ) , w h ich c on s t i tu ted a pp rox ima te ly 2 5% o f t h e i n ve s t iga ted w ooden r ema in sf r om t h ec u l tu re l a ye r so ft h el o ng e xcava t ion f i e ld t ot h e NW a nd t h es ho r te rf i e ld t ot h eS E ( 6 73 s amp le si nt h e NW a nd 3 52 s amp le si nt h eS E ) . T he w i l low ma te r ia li se xcep t iona lb ecau se i te x i s t sb o th a sb r an che sa nd a ss t ump s ,t h e l a t te rf ound i ns i tu . I ts hou ld b en o ted t h a ti ti se x t reme ly l i ke ly t h a ta f te rt h ei n i t ia lb u i ld ing p ha se t h e NW c or ne ro ft h ep i le d we ll ing w a sa bandoned o rl e f tf a l low u n t i la bou tY ea r 1 5 ,a nd t h eS E c or ne ru n t i la bou tY ea r 1 ,a nd t h a tb o th s e c to r sd u r ing t h i st ime b ecame o ve rg rown w i th av e ry t i gh tt h icke to fw i l low . Mo reove r , t h e r e i se v idence t h a tt h e s ou ther ns e c to rw a s o nce a ga in a bandoned t or e g row th d u r ing a4 -yea rp e r iod b e tween Y ea r s 1 2a nd 1 5 . F igu re s 1 2a nd 1 3 s how t h ev e r t ica l s p r ead o ft h el a ye rc on ta in ing b ranche sa nd s t ump s o fw ilow ,t o ge the rw i th t h eo t he rt r ee s pec ie s .T he much s ma l le rl a ye rt ot h e NW r ef lec t s t o ag r ea td eg r ee t h en a tu ra ll a yo ft h el a nd scape , s i nce j udg ing b yt h ec u l tu re l a ye rt h e a moun to fa c t iv i ty i nt h i s s e c t ion mu s th ave b een l im i ted . F u r the rmo re , ap r e -cond i t ion f o rt h eo ccu r r ence o fw i l low i nt h ee nv i ronmen ti st h ep r e sence o ft o p so i l ,o ra tl e a s tt h e c omp re s s ion o ft h eo r ig ina la nd a ppa ren t ly v e ry t h ick v ege ta t ion o fc u t -sedge ( C lad ium m ar i scu s ) .T he w i l low l a ye ri nt h eS Ei ss a ndw iched b yt h eu nde r - a nd o ve r ly ing c u l tu r e l a ye r . T he h or izon ta ls p read o ft h es t ump s y s tem i si lu s t ra t ed i nf i gu r e s 1 4a nd 1 . F igu re s 1 5 a nd 1 6 s how t h ef e l l ing t ime o ft h e b r anche sa nd s t ump s , a sw e l la st h e i ra ge a tc u t t ing . F igu re 1 7 s how s t h e d i ame te ro ft h e b ranche s a nd s t ump s i nr e la t ion t ot h e n umbe ro f t r ee r i ng s . T he o ccu r rence o fw i l low i sr ee r ic ted t o ap a r t icu la r s e c t ion o ft h ec u l tu re l a ye r . T he s p read i na ge o ft h es t ump sa nd b r anche s ,t h et ime o ff e l l ing , a nd t h ed i ame te ra li nd ica te

1 24

ad ef in i te i n te r -re la t ion sh ip .I nt h eS Et h e re i s ac oncen t ra t ion o fb ranche s 3t o 4y ea r so ld t h a t c anno t b e e xp la ined a s t he n o rma l p roduc t ion o f b ushes u p t o 1 0 y ea r s o ld . C ompa re , f o ri n s tance , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rns i nt h e NW . I ts hou ld b e e xpec ted t h a t many y oung , t h in b ranche s w i th f ew t r ee r i ng s w i l l b e f ound , s i nce t h ese a r e t h e mo s t c ommon o nb u she s ,b u tt h ey a r es ub jec tt oe a sy d ecay a nd d i sappea rq u ick ly u nde ru sua l c i rcum s tance s . T he t h icke t s mu s th ave b een f e l led i nt h e s p r ing o rs umme r . O n ly af ew b ranches h ave a c omp le te o u te rr i ng ,a ni n d ica t ion t h a tc u t t ing t o ok p l ace i nt h ew in te rp e r iod o rv e ry e a r ly s p r ing , b efo re t he n ew y ea r 's g row th h ad s t a r ted . I t s eem s f r om t h e d iame te r r e la t ion sh ips b e tween t h et h icke s tb ranche s a nd s t ump s t h a t s ome o ft h eb ranche s mus t h ave b een r emoved , b ur ned , d ecayed , e t c . T he t h icke ti nt h e NW h a s b een c omp le te ly o ve rg rown , w i th u pt o2 4b u shes p e r m2,a sf u r the ri nd ica ted b yt h ev e ry s l ow i n crea se i nd i ame te r . I nt h eS Et h et h icke th a sn o tb een n ea r ly a st i gh t ,b u tt h eb u she sh ave b een much mo re v igo rou s . A f te r 1 0y ea r sg row th t h eb ranches h e re w e re t w ice a st h ick a nd t h es t umps t h ree t ime sa st h ick a st ho se i nt h e NW . T he re i sn o th ing t oi nd ica te t h a tt h es t ump sb egan t os end u pn ew s hoo t sa f te rt h et h icke t s w e re c u td own . T hey w e re a ppa ren t ly c ove red a nd s u f foca ted b yt h e i ro wn l e a f -bea r ing b ranche sa nd o t he r" cu l tu re l a ye r "d epo s i t s . T he many 3 -4 y ea ro ld t w ig si nt h eS Ea r em ixed i nt h el a ye ro fw ilow b ranche s ,a nd i t i sd i f f icu l t t od i sce rn a nd i n te rpre t t h e i r h or izon ta l s p read ( f igure 1 4 ) . T h is d oes n o t n ece s sar i ly m ean t h a tt h ey h ave b een a dded l a te r ,b u tt h ey a ppa ren t ly h ave n o tg rown a t t h el o ca t ion , s i nce n o ma tch ing s t umps h ave b een d i scove red . I t may b et h a tt h ey h ave g rown i na n a r ea o u t s ide o ft h e e xcava t ion , e i the r a ss e ed l ing s o r a ss hoo t s , b eg inn ing t h e i r g row th 3 -4 y ea r s e a r l ie r . S ince t h e se t h icke t s h ave g rown i np lace a nd w e re a h i nd rance f o ra ny r egu la ra c t iv i ty ,i ti sr ea sonab le t oa s sume t h a tt h ey g rew i nt h ey ea r s b e tween t h ea c t iv i ty p e r iod so ft h ef i r s t 1 8 y ea r so ft h ep i le d wel ing . B y c omb in ing t h e d end roch ron log ica l d a t ing s o f t h e o ak p i les f r om t h e e n t i re p i le d we l l ing w i th t h e a na ly s i so ft h eb ranche s a nd s t umps o fw i l low f r om al im i ted p ar to f t h ee xcava t ion , w ec an c ons t ruc tt h ef o l low ing a c t iv i ty p ha se mode lf o rt h eu sage o ft h e s i t e : P ha se P ha se P ha se P ha se P ha se P ha se P ha se

I I I I I V V V I V I I

- R e la t ive Y e ar 0 - 3 - R e la t ive Y ea r 3 11 R e la t ive Y ea r 1 -12 R e la t ive Y ea r1 2 -15 R e la t ive Y ea r1 5 -18 R e la t ive Y ea r 1 8 -40 - R e la t ive Y ea r4 0 -42 ( ? )

A c t ive P e r iod P a ss ive P e r iod A c t ive P e r iod P a s s ive P e r iod ? A c t ive P e r iod ? A c t ive P e r iod

I nt h e NW a c t iv i ty i sp e rhaps r e s t r ic ted t oY ea r 1a l one ,p o s s ib ly t oY ea r 1 7 a l one . Add i t iona l a na ly s is a nd d i scuss ion i sr equ i red i n o rder t o c l a r ify a nd d eve lop t h ese p ropo sa ls . R eferences B a r tho l in , T .S . , 1 978 . A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing : T ree s t ud ies . T he d a t ing a nd t h e L and s c ape . P re l im ina ry r e su l t s .F ornvännen 7 3 , 2 13 -219 . - 1 983a . T rxe t iA lva s t ra . S ka lk 8 3 :4 , 2 2 -27 . - 1 983b . T he c omb ined a pp l ica t ion o fd end roch rono logy a nd w ood a na tomy . M i t t . B unde sf or schungsan s ta l tf .F or s t - u nd Ho l zw ir t sch . 1 41 , 7 9 -92 . 1 25

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ANI MAL BONE MATERIAL FRO M THE ALVASTRA P ILE D WELLING — A CLOSE -UP OF L IFE AND ECONO MY I N SWEDEN ABOUT 5 000 YEARS AGO B y Ebba Dur ing O s teo log ica lR e sea r ch L abo ra to ry . Un ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S -171 7 1 S o lna , Sweden .

I n troduc t ion T he e xp re ss ion " The D awn o fH i s to ry "i sa tt ime su sed . U sua l ly i tm eans t h et ime w hen E gyp t a ppea r s mo re d i s t inc t ly i nh i s to ry w i th r e spec t t on a t iona l c u l tu re -a bou t 3 000 B .C . , d u r ing ap er iod w hen f o r i n s tance t h e h uge p y ram id s o f C heops , C hef ren a nd Myke r ino sw e re c on s t ruc ted .I nt h ec a se o ft h en o r ther nE u ropean c oun t r ie st h is s e em st o b er a the rf a rb ack i nt ime . F o re xamp le w ha tc an b e s a id a bou t Sweden a nd i t s s oc ie t ie s a nd e cosy s tem s a tt h i s t ime? A n i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e " r ea l l i f e " p i c tu re o f Sweden a tt h a tt ime i sg i ven b yt h eA lva s t ra p i le d wel ing .T he s i te i ss i tua ted a tA lva s t ra i nt h ep rov ince o fÖ s te rgö t land , s ou ther n Sweden ( f ig . 1 ) .T h i st y pe o fs i te i su pt on ow u n ique i nS cand inav ia a nd h a sb een s ub jec ted t os eve ra lp er iod so fe xcava t ion b e tween 1 908 -1919 , 1 928 -1930 a nd 1 976 -1980 . V e ry l i t t le h a s b een p ub l i shed f r om t h e e a r l ie r e xcava t ion s ( F röd in 1 910a , 1 910b ) . F rom t h er e cen te xcava t ions u nde rt h e g u idance o f P rofe sso r Ma t s .P . Ma lme r a tt h e Un ive r s i ty o f S tockho lm s o me r e su l t s h ave b een p ub l ished ( Ba r tho l in 1 978 , Ma lme r 1 978 , 1 981 , 1 984 , Ma lme r & B a r tho l in 1 983 , B rowa l l 1 986 , Du r ing 1 986 ) . S eve ra l C 14 -ana lyses p lace t h e s i te i n t he M idd le N eo l i th ic , a bou t 3 000 B .C . ( c a l ib ra ted ) . A cco rd ing t od end roch rono log ica l d a t ing t h e ma te r ia la ccumu la ted d u r ing av e ry s ho r tt ime p e r iod ,p robab ly n o t mo re t h an 5 0y ea r s . T he c l ima te d ur ing t h e who le S ub -bo rea l p e r iod h a s b een v e ry much d i scussed , e spec ia l ly c once rn ing p rec ip i ta t ion . T he c l ima te i sd e scr ibed ( Be rg lund 1 968 ,p .4 6 ) a s mo re c on t inen ta l t h an i nt h ep rev iou s , A t lan t ic p e r iod , t h a t i st h e s u mme r t empe ra tu re w e re h i ghe r , t h ew in te rt empe ra tu re sc o lde ra nd t h ep r ec ip i ta t ion l owe r . Mo reover , t h e s i te i ss i tua ted i n as p r ing m i re ,A lva s t ra k ä l lmyr , a bou t 8 0mf r om d ry l a nd . Due t o t he c ompo s i t ion o f t h is m i re a l l s ke le ta l ma te r ia l h a s b een v e ry w e l l p re se rved t oge the rw i th t h er ema in so fw ooden c ons t ruc t ion s ,f i rep la ce sa nd a na bundan t ma te r ia l o f a r tefac t s a nd e cofac t s , s uch a s d oub led -edged b a t t le -axes o f s t one , i mp lemen t so ff l in ta nd o b jec t sf o rp roduc ing f i re ,p o t te ry ,c a rbon ized g ra in so fc e rea l s , a pp le sa nd h aze lnu t se t c . ( Ma lme r 1 981 , 1 983 , 1 984 , Ma lme r &B a r thol in 1 983 ) . I ti sq ue s t ionab le w ha t k ind o f h ab i ta t ion t h e p i le d we l l ing w a s a nd w he the r i tw a s p ermanen t ly u sed d u r ing t h e w ho le y ea r ( Ma lme r 1 981 , 1 983 , 1 984 , Ma lme r & B a r tho l in 1 983 ) . P resen ta t ion o f t he b one ma ter ia l I nt h ef o l low ing c on t r ibu t ion t ot h is F e s t shcr if t Iw i l l t r y t og ive as u rvey o fw ha t t h e a n ima lb one r ema in sc an t e l lu sa bou tl i f ea nd e conomy o ft h ep eop le w ho u sed t h e s i te . I ti st ob es t re ssed t h a tt h er e su l t sa r em a in ly b a sed o ns t ud ie so f as ma l ls amp le f r om t h e s i te n ame ly ,t h eb one m a te r ia lf r om t h eE a s te rn T rench ,e xcava ted i n1 976 -1980 , b u tt h e s t udy a l so i n c ludes c ompa r i sons w i th p rev ious ly a na lysed , mo s t ly u npub l i shed , b one ma te r ia l ( Hede l l 1 909 -1913 , 1 919 , 1 910 , E kman 1 977 ) . T he E a s ter n T rench c ove r s a bou t 1 5 m2 o ft h ew ho le s i te a r ea ,m ea su r ing a bou t 1 000 m2.T he w ho le b one ma te r ia l 1 33

i si nf a c to ne o ft h er i che s te ve rf ound o n ap r eh i s to r ic s i te o nt h e Swed i sh ma in land . D ue t oc ompa r i son s w i th t h ep rev ious ly a na lysed m a te r ia l t h e s amp le s t ud ied , a bou t4 2 k g a nd > 8 7 ,000 f r agmen t s , a bou t 6% b y w e igh to ft h et o ta lb one ma te r ia l ( abou t7 00 k g ) , c an p robab ly b ec on s ide red a sr ep re sen ta t ive o ft h ew ho le p i le d wel ing . T he a n ima lb one sp robab ly r ep re sen tf ood d eb r i st o al a rge e x ten ta nd n eed n o to fc ou r se r ep re sen ta l l s pec ie s e x i s t ing i nt h er eg ion d u r ing t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic . I nt h e E a s te rn T rench ma te r ia l7 9f r agmen t ss how c l ea r ma rk so fh uman a c t iv i ty ,p robab ly i nd ica t ion s o f b u tche r ing , s k inn ing o r ma r row e x t rac t ion ( Dur ing 1 986 , T ab le s 4a nd 7 7 ) . A s e v iden tf r om w e igh t a nd n umbe rt h e d eg ree o ff r agmena t ion i si ng ene ra l h igh i nt h e ma te r ia l . T h is may t o ag rea t e x ten t d epend o n v a r ious t a phonom ic f a c to r s , s uch a s f r ac tu r ing o ft h e b ones t og e ta cces s n o to n ly t ot h e b one ma r row , b u ta l so t ot h e b one g rea se a nd j u ice ( Bonn ichsen 1 973 , Noe -Nygaa rd 1 977 , B info rd 1 978 , 1 981) . S uch p roce sse s may h ave r e su l ted i nm any f r agmen t sw i th n od i s t inc t ma rk sa ta l l . Mo reove r , 3 28 f r agmen t s s how c l ea rg naw ma rk s f r om mamma l t e e th ( Du r ing 1 986 , T ab le 5a nd 7 8 ) . T he E a s ter nT rench ma te r ia la l so i n c lude s 1 20 p i ece so fw o rked b one o b jec t s , mo re o rl e s sf r agmen ted ( Du r ing 1 986 , p9a nd T ab le 7 6 ) . I ts hou ld b en o ted t h a tH ede l la l so made c ommen t so n b u tche ry , c u ta nd g naw ma rk s ( 1909 -1913 , 1 919 ) , a nd t h em a te r ia l p rev ious ly a na lysed i n c ludes n ume rous w o rked b one o b jec t s ( F röd in 1 910a , H ede l l 1 909 -1913 , 1 919 ) . T he re i s ag r ea tv a r ie ty o fv er teb ra te a n ima ls r ep re sen ted i nt h es amp les . T he mamma l s a r e r epresen ted b y 2 1 s pec ies , t h e b i rd s b y 1 6 s pec ie s a nd t h e f i she s b y 1 0 s pec ie s ( Tab le s 1 3 ) . H ence t h e re i s at o ta l o f 4 7 s pec ie s i d en t if ied . O f t h e E a s te rn T rench ma te r ia l4 424 f r agmen t s ( 17 ,6 k g )p roved s u i tab le f o rc l o se ri d en t if ica t ion t op a r t icu la r b one e l emen t s a nd s pec ie s . C a t t le , d ome s t ic B os i st h e mo s tc ommon s pec ie s ,f o l lowed b yp ig a nd r ed d ee r . Among t h er ema in so ff u ra n ima l s ,p ine m a r t en ,b adge ra nd w i ld c a t a r et h e mo s tc ommon s pec ie s . C ompa r ing t h e se r e su l t sw i th t h eo ne sf r om t h ep r ev iou s ly a na ly sed b one ma te r ia l ( Tab le 1 )t h ey a g ree w i th o ne a no the rf a i r ly w e l l ( Du r ing 1 986 , C hap te r 7a nd 8 ) . T he b one s f r om t h e b i rd s a r ef ew i na l l s amp les , b u tt h ed ive r s i ty o f s pec ie si sl a rge ( Tab le 2 ) .W i th af ew e xcep t ions , s uch a st e a l ,t h ed i f f e ren ts pec ie sa r ei n g ene ra l r ep re sen ted b y s i ng le s pec imen s ( Tab le 2 ) . Abou t 1 0% b y n umbe ro ft h e t o ta l i d en t if ied m a te r ia lf r om t h eE a s ter nT rench c on s i s t so ff i sh r ema in s ( Du r ing 1 986 , p5 3 ) a nd t h e mo s tc ommon s pec ie sa r ep ike a nd b r eam .P ike i sa l so t h e mo s tc ommon s pec ie s i np rev iou s ly a na lysed m a te r ia l . C ompa red t oe a rl ie ra na ly se s , 1 0% i s ah igh f i gu re .T he d i f f e rence d epends p robab ly t o ag r ea te x ten to nd i f f e rences i nt h ee xcava t ion m e thod s , s i nce t h e e xcava t ions b e tween 1 976 -1980 w e re u nde r taken w i th mode rn me thod s , i n c lud ing i np ar t icu la rw a te r -s iev ing .I th a sb een s ugge s ted ( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .1 87 )t h a t ,i f moder nt e chn ique ss uch a sw a te r s iev ing h ad b een u sed f o rt h ep rev ious ly e xcava ted a r ea ( a bou t 6 25 m2)a nd t h ef r equency o ff i sh b ones w a s a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame a sf o rt h e E a s te rn T rench ,t h e re w ou ld h ave b een mo re t h an 1 8 ,000 s pec imens o ff i sh t ob ef ound a mong t h ev e r teb ra te r ema in s . H oweve r ,i nt h ep rev iou s ly a na ly sed s amp le so n ly a bou t 1 00 b one so ff i sh h ave b een i d en t if ied ! T he s pec ie sw h ich h ave b een i d en t if ied i nt h eb one s amp le sp rov ide v a luab le i n fo rma t ion o nb o th t h ed ome s t ic a nd w i ld v e r teb ra te f a una e x i s t ing i nt h ea r ea a tt h et ime o ft h ep i le d we l l ing a nd h e lp u s t o s how h ow t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic p eop le made u se o f t h e s u r round ing n a tu ra l r e source s . I n a dd i t ion t h ey g ive v a luab le i nd ica t ions o f t h e o ccu r rence o fd i f f e ren tb i o type si nt h ec a tchmen ta r ea o ft h es i te . T he e nv iron men t T he p i le dwe l l ing i ss i tua ted a tt h e f oo to f moun t Ombe rg ( l es s t h an o ne km f r om t h i s P recamb r ian h o r s t ) , a bou t2 . 5 km f r om t h ee a s ter ns ho re o fL ake V ä t ter na nd a bou t 4km s ou thwe s to fL ake T äke rn . T h i s a r ea o fÖ s te rgö t land b e long s t ot h e mo s t s ou thwe s te rn 1 34

p a r t o f t h e Ö s tgö ta -p la in , o ne o f t h e mos t f e r t i le d i s tr ic t s o f Sweden , o f f e r ing g ood p rospec t s f o r h uman s e t t lemen t s i nce a bou t 7 000 B .C . ( Magnusson 1 964 , p . 2 9 -38 , G ö rans son 1 987 ) . I n t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic t h e re w e re t hus g ood h un t ing a r ea s s uch a s l a rge m ixed d ec iduou sf o re s t s ,t h eh i l ly r eg ion o f moun t Ombe rg ,g ood f i sh ing w a te r si n l a ke sa nd s t ream si nt h ev i c in i ty o ft h e s i te a nd f u r the ra way i nt h e s ou th t h e wood land H o laveden . A cco rd ing t ot h e v ege ta t iona l h i s to ry o ft h e a r ea a round t h ep i le d we l l ing ( Gö ran s son 1 982a , 1 982b , 1 987 )e nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion si nt h eM idd le N eo l i th ic w e re mos t f avourab le f o r a n ima l h usband ry s o t ha t man a nd h i s l i ves tock h ad c l ea r ly i nf luenced t he l and scape . I n t he s u r round ing r eg ion t h e re w e re a r ea s s u i tab le f o r c u l t iva t ion , f o re xamp le l i gh tl ime -r ich s o i ls i nt h e I s be rga d i s t r ic t . T he mo s tc ommon t r ees w e re e lm , l ime , o ak a nd a l so a sh a nd h aze l a nd man p robab ly a l ready h ad e s tab l i shed c opp ice w ood s ,a tt ime st r an sf e r red i n to p runed wood sa nd a l so c r ea ted g ra ss s wa rd . O the r p ar t s w e re t o ta l ly c l ea red t o c u l t iva te c e rea ls . Al a rge p a r t o f t h e a r ea c ons i s ted o ff en l a nd ,s uch a st h ev a s tf e na r ea s i tua ted b e tween A lva s t ra s p r ing m i re ,t h e b og Dags mosse a nd t h el ow mo i s t s ho re f en s o fL ake T äkem . T he p runed w ood s a nd b o rde r s o f f ens a nd s ho res whe re s c rubs o f a l de r a nd s a l low t h r ived c ons t i tu ted i mpor tan tp a s tu re f o rt h el i ve s tock a sw e l l a sp rov id ing a bundan tf odde rf o rt h ew in te r ( Gö ran sson 1 987 ) . C a t t le ( Bos p r im igen ius f . t aurus ) O nt h eb a s i so fr e la ted f a c t sa nd r e su l t s ( Dur ing 1 986 ,p .8 3 -93 )i tc an b ec onc luded t h a t a n ima l h u sband ry w a s p robab ly o f g rea t i mpo r tance t o t h e l i f e a nd e conomy o f t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic p eop le w ho u sed t h ep i le d we l l ing . T he r ema in s s how t h a tc a t t le w e re i mpor tan tm ea tp roduce r s ,p robab ly t h eb e s t , a nd ama jo rs ou rce o fp ro te in .A ge a nd s ex d a ta i nd ica te t h a tc a t t le w e re k ep tf o rb o th m ea ta nd d a i ry p roduce sa nd f o rr e p roduc t ive p u rpo se s a sw e l l ( Du r ing 1 986 , p .3 7 -39 , 9 0 -91) . A tl e a s t4 0% o ft h e a n ima ls f r om t h e E a s te rn T rench w e re s ke le ta l ly f u l ly g rown a n ima ls when s l augh te red . S laugh te r o f m a tu re a n ima l s a mong ap r im i t ive l a te -ma tu r ing s t ock p robab ly b rough tw i th i tah ighe r p ropo r t ion o f f a t i n t h e c a rca ss ( van Wi jngaa rden -Bakke r 1 980 , p . 16 -117 ) a nd c on sequen t ly g ave ag ood c a rca ss w e igh t . S ince a cce ss t op a s tu re a nd f odde rp robab ly w a sv e ry g ood ,i ti sa l so l i ke ly t h a tj uven i le a n ima ls a t ta ined a na ccep tab le c a r ca s sw e igh t b e fo re t h ey w e re mo re f uly g rown ( t ha ti sa bou t3 . 5y ea r so ld ) . F o rt h eA lva s t ra c a t t le a l i ve w e igh ti ss ugges ted o fb e tween 2 50 a nd 4 00 k g . T he r e la t ive w e igh to ft h ec a rca s s c ompa red w i th t h el i ve w e igh ti sd eno ted a s" d re s s ing p e rcen tage " a nd e x t ima ted t ob e 4 5 -55% , g iv ing e d ib le p o r t ion s o fb e tween 5 0 -60% , t ha t i sa bou t 1 30 -235 k g ( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .8 9 -90 ) . When c ompa r ing t h e se d a ta w i th modem Swed i sh o ne s ,t h eb e s tb eef i s n ow c on s ide red t oc ome f r om a n ima l sb e tween o ne a nd 1 . 5 y ea r so ld w i th al i ve w e igh t o f b e tween 4 00 -600 k g a nd a c a rcass w e igh t b e tween 2 00 a nd 3 00 k g ( S lak te r io rgan i sa t ionen 1 982 ) . T he c a t t le r ema in sf r om t h eE a s te rn T rench p rov ide n od i rec te v idence t h a tc a s t ra t ion w a s p rac t i sed . T he re a r e , h oweve r , a rgumen t s wh ich may b ep u tf o rwa rd a nd w h ich s peak f o r , n o ta ga ins t , c a s t ra t ion . T he c a rca s se s o fo xen a r e c ons ide rab ly f a t te rt h an t ho se o f b u l ls ( v an Wi jngaa rden -Bakke r 1 980 , p .1 21-122 ) . F ur the rmo re i nc ommun i t ies w i th a s ys tem o f e x tens ive f eed ing a nd g raz ing t h e mo re p eacefu l t emperamen t o f s t ee r s /bu l lock s make t h em mo re s u i tab le t ok eep t h an b u l l s .T h i si sa l so t h ec a se i fma le s a r eu sed a sd raugh to xen . C on s ide r ing b one s i ze , i ti sa s sumed t h a t s ome o ft h e a n ima l s w e re l a rge , a t ta in ing a w i the r s h e igh t o f a bou t 1 40 cm . T h i s amoun t s t o t h e s ame h e igh t a s among s eve ra l p re sen t -day i mp roved r a ce s . S ome e s t ima t ion s , t hough , i nd ica te t h a tt h ew i the r s h e igh t h ad aw ide r ange ( 1 14 -140 cm ) . I nt e rm so fs i ze a nd m ea su remen t so ft h ec a t t le r ema in s i ng ene ra l , t h eA lva s t ra c a t t le a g ree w e l l w i th c a t t le r ema in s f r om o the rN eo l i th ic s i te s ( Du r ing 1 986 , p .9 0 -91 a nd T ab le s 3 3 -48 ) . T he se r ema in s a r e a l so c ons ide red t oh ave

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c ome f r om l a rge a n ima ls ( Nob is 1 954 , D ege rbo l 1 939 , 1 963 ,v an W i jngaa rden -Bakke r 1 980 ) e ven i f , g ene ra l ly , i ti ss t a ted t h a t t h e s i ze h a s d ecrea sed c ompa red t ot h e w i ld p rogen i to r ,t h eU ru s . Wi th r e spec tt o mea su remen t sa nd c ompa ra t ive s t ud ie st h e re a r en os pec imen sp o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied a sa u roch s ( Bos p r im igen ius )i nt h e ma te r ia l ( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .8 6 -88 ) . D ue t o i s o la t ion o ft h e Swed ish s t ock a nd b io tope c hanges i nt h e e cosys tem a f te r Me so l i th ic t ime s , i td oes n o t s eem l i ke ly t h a t h e rds o f a urochs w e re s t i l l l i v ing i n t h e r eg ion ( Lep ik saa r 1 977 , p . 8 8 , 1 982 , p . 1 06 , 1 983 , p . 1 47 , L i l jeg ren 1 983 , p . 3 ) . Q u i te p o ss ib ly , h oweve r , s i ng le i nd iv idua ls s t i l l w ande red i n to t h e a r ea . F o ri n s tance , o n t h e w e s t c oa s t o f Sweden o ne f i nd o fa u rochs h as b een m ade w i th C 14 d a te o f3 940±60 B .P . , o r a bou t 2 000 B .C . ( LU 1 260 ) ( Lep ik saa r 1 983 , p . 1 47 ) . I n t h i s c onnec t ion i t s hou ld a l so b e n o ted t h a t n o s pec imen o fE u ropean b i son ( B i son b onasus ) h a s b een p o s i t ive ly i d en t i f ied i nt h em a te r ia lf r om t h eA lva s t ra p i le d we ll ing . S heep ( Ov i s ammon f . a r ies ) C ompa red t oc a t t le t h er e la t ive f r equency o fs heep i sf a i r ly l ow i nt h eb one m a te r ia lf r om t h e E a s te rn T rench ( 6% b y n umbe r a nd 1 . 7% b y w e igh t ) , a sw e l l a si nt h ep r ev iou s ly a na lysed ma te r ia l ( Tab le 1 ) . T h i s i nd ica tes t ha t s heep -f a rm ing d id n o t p l ay s uch a n i mpo r tan t p a r t i nt h e e conomy a sc a t t le ra i s ing . N eve r the les s , b one s f r om b o th y oung a nd a du l ti nd iv idua l s may s how t h a tt h eA lva s t ra s heep w e re k ep tb o th f o rm ea ta nd d a i ry p roduces , e ven i ft h e s amp le , mo re c l o se ly s t ud ied , i st oo s ma l lt op rov ide a ny r e l iab le e v idence a st ow he the rm ea to rm i lk p roduc t ion p l ayed t h e mo s ti mpo r tan tr o le ( Du r ing 1 986 , p . 4 0 -41 , 1 08 -109 ) . I n t h e b one s amp les f r om t h e p i le d we l l ing t h e re a r e n o f r agmen t s h i the r to i d en t if ied a sg oa t ( Capra i b ex f h i rcu s ) ( Tab le 1 ) . S ince s heep a nd g oa ta r e s ke le ta l ly v e ry s im i la rs pec ie s ,t h e re a r ei nt h eE a s te rn T rench s amp le ( a si nt h e o t he rs amp le s ) g roups o ff r agmen t sw h ich c ou ld o n ly b ei d en t if ied a sc om ing f r om e i the r s heep o r g oa t . I n c onnec t ion w i th t h e q uan t if ica t ion o ft h e E a s te rn T rench m a te r ia l a s t a t i s t ica l mode l w a s u sed i no rde rt oa l loca te " g rouped ma te r ia l " t op a r t icu la rs pec ies . A pp ly ing t h e f o rmu la t oa l l s heep /goa t ma ter ia l , t h e se f r agmen t s w e re a l l a loca ted t o s heep ( Du r ing 1 986 , p . 6 0 -62 ) . G ene ra l ly , t o b e a b le t o e va lua te mo re c l ea r ly t h e i mpo r tance o f s heep o r g oa t i na r chaeo log ica l s amp le s , e nab le s o ne t o make amo re r e l iab le i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e e nv i ronmen ta nd e conomy . T he s heep i s ag raz ing a n ima l w h i le t he g oa t i s a mo re h a rdy a nd b rows ing a n ima l . F rom t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e i r i n t roduc t ion t on o r the rn E u rope t h ey s e em t oh ave f i led d i f f e ren te conom ic f unc t ion s ,t h e s heep b e ing ma in ly am ea t p roduce r a nd t h e g oa t ma in ly am i lk p roduce r ( Lep ik saa r 1 963 , p .3 3 ) . A l so i nD an ish b one r ema in s f r om t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic t h e g oa tc an b e t o ta l ly m i s s ing ( Nyegaa rd 1 985 ,p .4 27 ) . Mea tf r om s heep g e t s mo re f a t ty a nd l e s st a s ty w i th a ge a nd t oday mea tf r om a n ima l sa bou t 7mon th so ld ( a t mo s to ne y ea ro ld )w i th a l i ve w e igh to f4 5 -50 k g a nd ac a rca ss w e igh to f 1 7 -20 k gi sc on s ide red t oh ave t h eb e s t q ual i ty ( S lak te r io rgan isa t ionen 1 982 ) . Dog ( Can i s l upus f . f am i l iar i s ) I nt h e c a se o ft r u ly d ome s t ica ted a n ima ls t h e re a r e a l so r eam in s o fd og i nt h e s amp le s ( Tab le 1 ) . T he c on s tan t ly s ma l l p ropo r t ion o fd og r ema in s i na l l s amp le s f r om t h e s i te may r ef lec tt h ea c tua ls i tua t ion . U sua l ly ,t h ed og w a sp robab ly n o tb rough tt ot h e s i te t o b ee i the rc on sumed o rs k inned f o ri t sp e l t . P o s s ib ly i tw a sa tt ime su sed o rs a c r i f iced f o r r i tua l o ro the ra c t iv i t ie s . H oweve r , mo s t o fa l l t h e d og w a s p robab ly i mpo r tan tt o man a l ive , a n i nva luab le h e lp i ns t a lk ing a nd h un t ing v a r iou s g ame a n ima l s a nd i nt e nd ing c a t t le a nd s heep . I t s b a rk ing a l so w a rned p eop le a ga in s t a pp roach ing d ange r s . D ead b od ie so fd og s may v e ry w e l lh ave b een h onou red a nd b u r ied e l sewhe re . D og b u r ia l sa r e d ocumen ted i n Sweden s i nce Meso l i th ic t imes ( f o r e xamp le Moh l 1 962 , p .9 04 -905 , L a r s son 1 980 , 1 981 , 1 982 , 1 983 a nd 1 984 ) . 1 36

Wi ld mamma ls D ur ing t he M idd le N eo l i th ic t h e A lva s t ra r eg ion p robab ly p rov ided a n e xce l len t e co sy s tem t ot h ew i ld f a una . Wi th r e spec tt oh un t ing a nd a l so f i sh ing t h ee nv i ronmen ta l e v idence c e r ta in ly d oe s n o t s ugges t t ha t t h e p eop le c ommon ly h ad t ou nde r take l ong e x tended a nd d emand ing e xped i t ions t of i nd g ame .T oday t h ep rov ince o fÖ s te rgö t land a nd t h e A lva s t ra r eg ion i np a r t icu la r s how f a r mo re o pen h ab i ta t s t h an i nt h e M idd le N eo l i th ic a nd c on sequen t ly t h e e co sys tem i sc hanged . N eve r the le ss , many o ft h e " p i le d we l l ing w i ld mamma l s " s t i l l e x is t i n t h e l o ca l i ty , n ame ly a l l c erv id s , b adge r , p ine m ar ten , moun ta in h a re ,r ed s qu i r re l ,v o le s , c ommon s h rew s a nd h edgehog . T oday t h e re a r e n o b rown b ea r s , o t te r s o rp opu la t ions o fw o lve s o rb eave r s . T he l y nx i sp re sen ti n v e ry s ma l ln umbe r so n ly i nc on i f e rou sa r ea so fÖ s te rgö t land . I nt h ec a se o ft h ew i ld b oa r e co log ica lc ond i t ion sa r es t i l li d ea l ,b u tt h is s pec ie sn ol onge rl i ve sf r ee ly s i nce i ti st oo much o f an u isance t of a rme r s ( Du r ing 1 986 , p .1 88 ) . I nt h ec a se o ft h ew i ld c a t ,i th a s b een a rgued t ha t t h is s pec ie s p robab ly b ecame e x t inc t i n Sweden a tt h e e nd o f t h e S ub -bo rea lp e r iod ( Lep ik saa r 1 983 ,P . 1 37 ) . P ig ( Sus s crof a a nd S us s crof a f . d omes t ica ) W i ld b oa ra nd p ig ,p robab ly i na ne a r ly s t age o fd ome s t ica t ion , s e em t oh ave b een n ea r ly a si mpo r tan t ar e sou rce a sc a t t le f o rt h eA lva s t ra c ommun i ty a si n d ica ted b yt h ef r equency o fp ig b one s i nt h er ema in s ( Tab le 1 ) . T he re i sn o d oub t t h a t s ome o ft h ep ig r ema in s c ome f r om w i ld b oa r s , a si nd ica ted b y mea su remen t s ,c a lcu la t ion so fw i the r sh e igh t so f c l ose t oo ne o r mo re t h an o ne m e te r , t u sk s a nd c ompa ra t ive s t ud ie s ( Du r ing 1 986 , p . 1 23 -127 a nd T ab le s6 1-66 ) . P robab ly t h er ema in so fs ma l le rp ig sc ome f r om as t ock o f l o ca l w i ld b oa r s w h ich h ave , t o s o me e x ten t , b een d omes t ica ted . T he w i ld b oa r i sa s o c iab le a n ima l n o t at e r r i to r ia l o ne , a nd i t s s oc ia l b ehav iou r a nd v a r iab le f ood c ho ice s peak i nf avou ro fl o ca l a t temp t s t od omes t ica te ( C lu t ton -Brock 1 981 , p .7 3 ) . H un t ing a nd k i ll ing t h ed ange rou sw i ld b oa rp robab ly a l so g ave ,b e s ide sf ood ,p re s t ige a nd s oc ia l s t a tu s . S ince Meso l i th ic t ime s i n Sweden t h e w i ld b oa rh a s b een a n i mpor tan tf a t a nd p ro te in r e sou rce ( f o re xamp le L ep ik 5aa r 1 982 ,p . 13 , 1 983 ,p .1 42 ) .T oh ave b een a b le t od ome s t ica te t h ew i ld b oa r mus th ave c on s t i tu ted ag rea tc ha l lenge t oE a r ly N eo l i th ic f a rme r sb u th ad n o tb een a ni mpo ss ib le t a sk . I ti sh a rd t os e et h en eed t oi mpor ta l ready d ome s t ica ted p ig st ot h eA lva s t ra r eg ion . T he re w a sp robab ly ac on t inu ing i n f luence b y ma le w i ld b oa r d u r ing r u t t ing p er iod s , c on t r ibu t ing t o t h e ma in tenance o f " w i ld " c ha ra c te r i s t ics i nt h ed ome s t ic s t ock ( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .1 25 , 1 97 -198 ) .T he f a c tt h a ta l lp ig r ema ins emana te f r om s uch a s ho r t t ime p er iod ( abou t 5 0 y ea r s ) empha s izes t he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tw i ld a nd e a r ly d oem s t ica ted p ig sl i ved i nt h ea r ea a tt h es ame t ime . T he c a rca s sw e igh tf o r Me so l i th ic w i ld b oa r si se s t ima ted t oh ave b een i nt h er eg ion o f7 5k g , t h eo ne f o rN eo l i th ic d omes t ic p ig s f r om N ew G range 5 3 -75 k g ( La r sson 1 978 , p .1 87 , v an Wi jngaa rden -Bakke r 1 980 ,p .1 59 ) .T he t o ta ld re s s ing p e rcen tage i se s t ima ted t ob e h igh , mo re t h an 8 0% f o r p ig s ( Boe ssneck e ta l . 1 971 , p .8 ) . T o c ompa re w i th t oday 's d a ta i tc an b e n o ted t h a ti nS weden t h eb e s tm ea ti sc on s ide red t oc ome f r om f a t ten ing p ig sa bou to f 6t o 7mon th so ld a nd w i th ac a rca s sw e igh to fa bou t7 5k g . C erv ids ( Red d eer ( Cervus ( Capreo lus c apreo lus ) )

e laphus ) , E lk ( Ai ces

a lces ) ,

Roe

d eer

T he r ema in so fr ed d ee ra r er a the rf r equen ti na l lb one s amp le s ( Tab le 1 )i nd ica t ing t h a t t h is s pec ies h ad c ons ide rab le e conom ic v a lue among t h e c e rv id s ( Dur ing 1 986 , p . 13 -119 ) . I ns ou the rn S weden t h er ed d ee rh a s ,s i nce Me so l i th ic /A t lan t ic t ime s ,b een o ne o ft h e mo s ti mpor tan tm ea tp roduce r sf o rp e rh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s . A na t temp tt oe s t ima te t h ec a r ca ss w e igh tf o r Me so l i th ic r ed d ee ri nt h ep rov ince o fS can ia , s ou ther n Sweden , r e su l ted i n af i gure o f1 50 k g( La r s son 1 978 ,p .1 87 -188 ) . I nt h eE a s te rn T rench m a te r ia l

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t h e re a r er e am in so fb o th j uven i le a nd a du l ta n ima l s ,p o s s ib ly a l so o ft wo s t ag sa nd o ne h ind ( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .4 1 -42 ) . A cco rd ing t ov a r iou s s t ud ie s ,p reh i s to r ic r ed d ee rs e em t oh ave b een l a rge rt h an t oday ' s a n ima ls ( f o r i n s tance Ah len 1 965 , Nodd le 1 982 , C lu t ton -Brock e t . a l . 1 982 ) . F u r the rmo re ,i nve s t iga t ions h ave s hown t h a tt h eD an i sh b u tn o tt h e No rweg ian r ed d ee r s how ad ecrea se i n s i ze f r om B o rea l t oS ub -bo rea l t imes ( Ah len 1 965 , p . 1 51 -174 ) . L ep ik saa rc l a im s ( 1978 , p . 1 40 ) t h a tt h e mea su remen t s o ft h e Swed i sh Me so l i th ic r ed d ee rr e ach h i ghe rv a lue st h an t h e Swed ish moder no ne sa nd t h a tt h e Swed i sh Me so l i th ic d ee r a pp roached t h e s i ze o ft oday 's l a rge E a s t E u ropean r ed d ee r . H e f u r ther c l a im s ( 1974 ,p .1 48 ) t h a tt h e Swed i sh M idd le N eo l i th ic r ed d ee ri nn or the rn p a r t sa pp roached t h es i ze o ft h el a rge moder nC en t ra lE u ropean o ne .I ng ene ra lt h ea va i lab le m ea su r emen t s o ft h eA lva s t ra r ed d ee ra r et oo f ew t oa l low a ny r e l iab le c ompa r i son so ft h es i ze o ft h i s a n ima la nd o the rN eo l i th ic o ry ounge rp opu la t ion s . P o ss ib ly o ne c an a tl e a s ts ay t h a tt h e r e su l t si nd ica te n od ec rea se b e tween t h e Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic p e r iod s( Du r ing 1 986 , p . 14 a nd T ab le s5 2 -54 a nd 5 7 ) . G ene ra l ly t h e r ema ins o ft h e l a rges t c e rv id , t h e e l k a r e f ew i na l l s amp le s ( Tab le 1 ) , p o s s ib ly i nd ica t ing t h a tt h ee l kw a sn o t ac ommon s pec ie si nt h el o ca le nv i ronmen ta nd t h a tt h ep eop le w ho u sed t h ep i le dwe l l ing d id n o th un te l ki np a r t icu la ro rb rough ti tt o t h e s i te . E lk h un t ing may a l so h ave b een mo re s po rad ic d ue t o t h e a n ima l 's s oc ia l b ehav iou r a nd r e la t ive i nacce ss ib i l i ty t om an c ompa red t or ed d ee r ( Dur ing 1 986 , p . 11) . I nt h ec a se o ft h er oe d ee r ,t h er ema in sv a ry f r om b e ing f ew a si nt h e ma te r ia lf r om t h e E a s te rn T rench t or a the rf r equen ti no the rs amp le s ( Tab le 1 ) . T h is may i nd ica te t h a ti t s i mpo r tance i n t h e e conomy may h ave b een g rea te r t h an t h e E a s tern T rench ma te r ia l s ugges t s . T he d i f f e rences i n f r equency may d epend o n v a r ious f ac to r s s uch a s h e te rogeneous d i s t r ibu t ion d ue t o s amp le s i ze , h uman s e lec t ion a nd f l uc tua t ions i n n umbe ra nd a cce ss t og ame ( Du r ing 1 986 ,p . 14 -115 ) . F ur a n i ma ls Among t h ef u ra n ima l sp ine ma r ten ( Mar te s ma r te s )i s mo s tf r equen ti nt h em a te r ia lf r om t h eE a s te rn T rench , w h i le b adge r( Me les m e le s ) g ene ra l ly s e em s t ob e mo s tf r equen ti n o the rs amp les f r om t h e s i te ( Tab le 1 ) . C on s ide r ing a va i lab le mea su remen t so ft e e th a nd j aw s f r om t h e se s pec ie s ,t h ed imen s ions s e em t of a l lw i th in t h er ange r e co rded f o rb o th D an i sh a nd B a l t ic s ubfo s s i l a n ima l s ( Du r ing 1 986 , p . 1 41 , 1 45 a nd T ab les 7 0 , 7 1 -72 ) . B e s ide sb adge ra nd p ine ma r ten t h ew i ld c a t( Fe l i ss i lves t r i s ) s e em s g enera l ly t ob et h e mo s tf r equen tf u ra n ima l i nt h e s amp le sf r om t h es i te ( Tab le 1 ) . I n Sweden t h ew i ld c a t s e em st oh ave b een f a i r ly r egu la r ly h un ted b y man s i nce A t lan t ic t ime s a nd a tl e a s ti n to t h eM idd le N eol i th ic ( f o re xamp le L ep ik saa r 1 974 ,p .1 49 , 1 982 ,p . 19 , L a r s son 1 981 , p .4 3 -45 , 1 983 ,p .3 9 ) . N of i nd so fw i ld c a ti na r chaeo log ica lb one ma te r ia la r ed a ted t o l a te rt ime p e r iod s . Mea su rab le t o o th a nd b one s pec imen sf r om t h ep i le d we ll ing m a te r ia l a r ev e ry f ew . H oweve r ,t oo th m ea su remen t sa l lf a l lb e low t h eu ppe rl im i ta nd a bove t h e l owe rl im i to fD an i sh Me so l i th ic o ne s( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .1 51 a nd T ab le 7 5 ) . Many o the r f u r a n ima l s a r e r epresen ted i nt h e m a te r ia l , n ame ly b rown b ea r ( Ur sus a rc tos ) ,w o lf ( Can i sl u pu s ) ,o t te r( Lu t ra l u t ra ) ,l ynx ( Lynx l y nx ) , b eave r( Ca s tor f i ber ) , moun ta in h a re ( Lepus t im idu s ) a nd r ed s qu i r re l ( Sc iurus v u lgar is ) , I n s ome s amp le s r ema in s e spec ia l ly o fb rown b ea r s e em t ob e f a i r ly w e l l r ep re sen ted ( Tab le 1 ) . H ence t h e re a r er ema in so fn ume rou sd i f f e ren tf u ra n ima l si na l l s amp le s . P robab ly t h i s s how s t h ei mpo r tance o fs uch a n ima l sa sv a luab le s k in a nd p e l tr e sou rce . T hey p rov ided w a rm a nd h a rdwea r ing c lo th ing a s w e l l a s p e rhaps a t t rac t ive me rchand i se f o r e xchange p u rpo se s ,f o re xamp le o ff l in ta nd a mbe r . F l in ta nd a l so a mbe ro b jec t sa r ef ound a mong

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t h ea r te fa c t ma te r ia lf r om t h es i te ,b u tw e re n o tt ob ef ound l o ca l ly . O ther sma l l mam ma ls B es ides t h e se ma in ly f ood a nd f u r mamma l s t h e re a r e a l so s ome r ema ins o fh edgehog ( Er inaceu se uropaeu s ) , g round v o le ( Arv ico la t e r re s t r i s ) ,f i e ld v o le ( M icro tu sa gre s t i s ) a nd c ommon s h rew ( Sor ex a raneu s )i nt h e s amp le s( Tab le 1 ) .T he h edgehog m igh th ave b een k i l led a nd t a ken t ot h ep i le d we l l ing t ob ec on sumed . R ema in so fv o les h ave q u i te o f ten b een i d en t if ied i nb one s amp le s o f Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic d a te ( f o r e xamp le L ep ik saa r 1 974 , p . 1 52 , 1 983 , p .1 65 , A a r i s -So rensen 1 978 , p . 1 6 ) a nd g ene ra l ly t h e se r e am ins a r e u n l ike ly t ob e c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e h uman o ccupa t ion o ft h e s i te , b u t i nd ica t ive o f s e conda ry r e s idues o f n on -human o r ig in ; f o r e xamp le r e s t s f o p e l le t s c om ing f r om b i rd s o fp rey . I n t h e E a s te rn T rench mo s tr ema ins o ft h e s ma l l r oden t s emana te f r om c u l tu ra ll a ye r s , a tt ime s mo re t h an 8 5 cm u nde rt h ep resen tg round l e ve l . H ence , s uch r ema in s may w e l lb ec on tempo ra ry w i th t h ep i le d we l l ing a nd n o tr e s idue s o fl a te rs e cond a ry d i s tu rbance . Ana tom ica l p resen ta t ion o f i den t if ied b one e l emen ts Wi th r e spec tt ot h ea na tom ica lp o s i t ion a nd n ume r ica lr ep re sen ta t ion o fi d en t if ied b one e l emen t s ,i tc an b es t a ted t h a tt h e mo s tc ommon mea tp roduc ing m amma l s ,c a t t le ,w i ld o r d ome s t ic p ig ( o rb o th ) ( F ig . 2a nd 3 )a nd r ed d ee r , a r er ep r e sen ted i nt h eE a s te rn T rench s amp le b y b one s pec imen s f r om a l l b ody r eg ion s , a l be i ti nt h ec ase o fp ig a nd r ed d ee r s ome b ody r eg ion s ,f o re xamp le r i b s ,v e r teb rae a nd p e lv i sa r er ep resen ted b yo n ly af ew s pec imens . Howeve r , b y s t a t is t ica l ly a l loca t ing " g rouped ma te r ia l " f r om a ma jo r t a xonom ic g roup c a l led " b ig r um inan t s " ( c omposed o ff r agmen t s i d en t if ied a s e i the r c a t t le , e lk o rr ed d ee r ) t op a r t icu la r s pec ies ( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .5 6 -59 ) o ne c an s ay t h a ta t l e a s t r ed d ee r b ones f r om a l l b ody r eg ion s a r e p robab ly b e t te rr ep resen ted t han w a s i n i t ia l ly n o ted .T he s t a t i s t ica lc o r r ec t ions f u r the rd emon s t ra te t h a ts heep a nd a l so r oe d ee r a bove a l l a r ep robab ly b e t te rr epresen ted b y mo re b one e l emen t s f r om v ar iou s s ke le ta l r eg ion s t h an w e re f i r s ti d en t if ied i nt h e s amp le . F u r the rmo re t h ea l loca t ion o f" g rouped ma ter ia l " among s pec ies a l so c on s ide rab ly i n crea se t h e r e la t ive f r equency o f , f o r i n s tance , c a t t le f r om 2 8 .5 t o4 8 .5% b yn umbe ra nd f r om 6 3 t o7 5 .5% b yw e igh t , s heep f r om 1 . 4 t o 6% b y n umbe ra nd 0 . 8 t o 1 . 7% b y w e igh ta nd f o rt h eb ig c e rv id s ( e lk a nd r ed d ee r ) f r om 4 . 5 t o mo re t h an 8% b yn umbe ra nd f r om 8 . 5 t o 1% b yw e igh t( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .6 3 -72 ) .I ft h ef r agmen t sf r om " g rouped ma te r ia l " a l loca ted t ot h eb i gc e rv id sa r e d i s t r ibu ted b e tween t h et wo s pec ie s , a pp rox ima te ly a bou t9 0% i sa l loca ted t or ed d ee r , b e ing f a r mo re f r equen tt h an e l ki nt h em a te r ia lo r ig ina l ly i d en t i f ied t os pec ie s . Mo reove r t h e s t a t i s t ica le va lua t ion s a l so c hange t h er e la t ion sh ips , b e tween mea ty a nd l e s s m ea ty p a r t so ft h e b ody , g iv ing f o rb o th r ed d ee r , s heep a nd a l so r oe d ee r ab e t te r , mo re e ven , r ep re sen ta t ion o fn u t r i t iou s a r ea s ( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .7 5 -77 a nd F ig . 1 6 ) . I nv i ew o ft h e se r e su l t si ts eem sl i ke ly t h a tb od ie sw e re b u tche red o nt h es po t ,t h a ti s ,n o to u t s ide t h es i te . A l te rna t ive ly t h ey w e re b u tche red e l sewhe re , b u tt h en mo s tp a r t s w e re b rough t t ot h e s i te . S ome f u ra n ima l s a r ea l so c on s ide red t oh ave p rov ided f ood a sw e l l , n ame ly t h e b rown b ea r , b adge r , b eave r a nd moun ta in h a re . Among t h e se t h e ma ter ia l f r om t h e E a s te rn T rench i nd ica te s t h a tb adge ri sr ep re sen ted b ye l emen t sf o rm a l l s ke le ta lr eg ion s ,w h i le b rown b ea r , b eave r a nd moun ta in h a re a r e r ep resen ted b y f ewe r s pec imen s . A lso t h e r ema ins o fp r ima r i ly f u ra n ima l s , s uch a sp ine ma r ten a nd w i ld c a ti nd ica te t h a tw ho le b od ie sw e re b rough tt ot h e s i te ,w h i le w o lf a nd l ynx a r er ep re sen ted o n ly b ys i ng le b one s pec imens ( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .7 4a nd 7 9 ) .

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A spec ts o n h u man e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he mamma ls Whe the r ,d u r ing t h eM idd le N eo l i th ic i n Sweden ,m an h ad d i f f e ren t mea tp ref e r ence st o t h o se o ft h e moder n Swed i sh p opu la t ion i sd i ff i cu l tt oe s tabl i sh .A sg ood mea tp roduc ing s pec ies , c a t t le , e lk , r ed d ee r , r oe d ee r , p ig , b rown b ea r , b adge r , b eave r a nd moun ta in h a re h ave b een c ons ide red . P oss ib ly a l so h edgehog w a s c onsumed . A s p r ima r i ly n on -mea tp roduc ing mamma ls , w o lf ,p ine ma r ten , l y nx , w i ld c a ta nd a l so o t te ra nd r ed s qu i r re lh ave b een c on s ide red . T he re i so fc ou r se a lway st h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tm ea tf r om a t l e a s ts ome o ft h e se a n ima l sw a sc onsumed .T he m ea to fl y nx f o ri n s tance s e em si nf a c tt o h ave b een q u i te a pp rec ia ted a mong t h e Swede s a tl e a s ts i nce t h e 1 8 th c en tury ( Be rg iu s 1 787 , p .6 4 ) a nd a sl a te a st h e 1 930s ( Ekman 1 910 , p . 1 22 , L iebe rk ind 1 939 , p . 16 ) . T he a u tho r sc l a im t h a tt h er oa s tf r om al y nx l o ok sl i ke a nd t a s te v e ry much l i ke m ea tf r om c a lf o r t u rkey . F orme r ly a l so m ea t o f r ed s qu i r re l w a s c ommon ly e a ten i n Sweden ( Ekman 1 910 ,p .1 57 ) ,a sw e l la si nE u rope d u r ing t h eM idd le A ge s ( Bru sew i t z 1 978 ,p . 2 04 ) . Mea to fh edgehog h a sf o re xamp le b een e a ten i nh i s to r ic t ime s( Lep ik sa a r 1 982 ,p . 1 21) . I ti so fc ou r se a l so p o ss ib le t h a t wo lf mea t a nd /o r o f f a l w a s r i tua l ly c on sumed , e ven i ft h e L ap lande r s f o re xamp le a sf a ra si sk nown n eve rc on sumed mea to fw o lf i n t h ep a s t ( Dur ing 1 986 , p .8 1 ) . I nv i ew o ft h i si ts hou ld b e empha s ized t h a tf ood t a boo s c ou ld h ave o ccu r red , a sw e l la sc u s tom sd emand ing c on sump t ion o fm ea ta nd o f fa lf r om c e r ta in a n ima l sw h ich t oday a r ec on s ide red n e i the ra ppe t iz ing n o re d ib le . A pa r t f r om b e ing v a luab le m ea t a nd f u rp roduce r s t h e mamma l s p rov ided h ides a nd f l eeces u se fu lf o rc l o th ing a nd s i news u sefu l i nv a r ious s ew ing wo rk . Many o ft h eb one s pec imens f r om b o th l a rge a nd s ma l l mamma ls w ere o bv ious ly a t t rac t ive i n manufac tu r ing b one i mp lemen t sa nd o rnamen t s , s uch a sa n t le r ,l ong a nd s ho r tl e gb one s a nd t e e th ( Du r ing 1 986 , T ab le 7 6 ) . T he a n ima l s a l so p rov ided a no the rv a luab le a s se ta n ima lf a t . P robab ly t h ef a tc ou ld a tt ime sb ea sv a luab le a st h e mea t , f o ri n s tance f r om b adge r , e spec ia l ly f o rp reh i s to r ic g roups w ho n eeded t ot a ke c a re o fv a r iou s s k in a nd l e a the ra r t ic le s . T he b adge rf a ts e em si nf a c tt ob eo ne o ft h e mo s ts u i tab le s ub s tance st o u se a s al ub r ican t ( Du r ing 1 986 , p . 1 41 , 1 96 -197 ) . A n ima l f a tw a s a l so p robab ly u sed f o rt a l low , a sf ue lf o rl amps a nd p e rhap ss ome t ime sb adge ra nd a l so l ynx f a tc ou ld h ave b een u sed t h e rapeu t ica l ly a sf o ri n s tance i nc onnec t ion w i th r heuma t i sm ( Nea l 1 977 ,p . 2 9 , Dur ing 1 986 , p . 1 50 ) . O the r p a r t s o f s o me a n ima l s may a l so h ave b een u sed t h e rapeu t ica l ly , a sf o ri n s tance t h e b ea r ' s g a l la ga in s ti n te rna l i lne s se s ( Ekman 1 910 ,p . 8 5 ) a nd t h e s t rong ly s me l l ing g l and s e cre t ion c a l led " bävergä l l" w h ich i ss a id t oh ave a s eda t ive e f f ec t( L iebe rk ind 1 940 ,p .4 46 , L ay sund 1 975 ,p .1 6 ) . I nc onnec t ion w i th t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e mamma lr ema in s i ti ss t re ssed t h a tc u l tu ra l f a c to r s may h ave e x i s ted w h ich i nf luenced t h ek i l l ing o fa n ima l sf o rr ea son so t he rt han s imp ly f ood c on sump t ion o ro the r mo re p rac t ica le xp lo i ta t ion o ft h ec a r ca s s . G ene ra l ly w ho le a nd u ndamaged l o ng b one s ,e spec ia l ly f r om m ea tp roduc ing mamma l s , s e em t ob e r a re ly f ound among t h e b one r ema ins f r om t h e p i le dwe l l ing . H oweve r , among t h e E a s te rn T rench r ema ins t h e re i s at o ta l ly u ndamaged l e f tu lna f r om ab rown b ea r . T he s pec imen s e em st oh ave c ome f r om al a rge a n ima la nd i nf a c ti th a sa bou tt h es ame l e ng th a sa nu lna f r om amode rn g r izz ly b ea r( Dur ing 1 986 ,p .1 38 a nd T ab le 6 8 ) .T he u lna w a s f ound c l o se t oo ne o f t h e f i rep laces a nd i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t wo s ma l l o b l ique f l in t a r rowhead s ,p e rhap s at e s t imony t o ar i tua lc e remony? B irds T he f ew b i rd b one si nt h eA lva s t ra b one s amp le s( Tab le 2 ) may s i gn ify t h a tt h eA lva s t ra p eop le d id n o t c on sume much b i rd m ea t , a tl e a s tn o t a tt h ep i le dwe l l ing . T he r ema in s s how h oweve r ag r ea td ive r s i ty a mong s pec ie s . O bv ious ly w i th in t h ee co log ica l s y s tem w h ich s u r rounded t h e s i te i nt h eM idd le N eo l i th ic , m any d i f f e ren tb i rd s pec ie s t h r ived v e ry w e l l . T he a s so r tmen t o f d i f f e ren t s pec ie s w a s p robab ly a s c ons ide rab le i n t h e

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M idd le N eol i th ic a si ti st o day .A l ls pec ie si d en t i f ied i nt h eA lva s t ra b one m a te r ia la r es t i l l p re sen ti nt h el o ca l i ty , w i th o ne e xcep t ion , t h ec ape rca i l l ie ( Te t rao u roga l lu s ) ( Dur ing 1 986 , p .1 89 -190 ) . T h is a cces s t oa n a bundan tb i rd f auna p rov ided t h e A lva s t ra p eop le w i th t he o ppo r tun i ty t ob e mo re s e lec t ive a nd c hoo se s pec ia lb i rd sf o rs pec ia lp u rpo se s b o th f r om an ut r i t iona l , u t i l i ta r ian a nd o rnamen ta lp o in to fv i ew . T he r ema ins may v e ry w e l lr ef l ec ts uch ac ho ice . Among t h er ema in sf r om t h eE a s te rn T rench 8o f1 i d en t if i ed f r agmen t sc ome f r om mo re m ea ty p a r t so ft h eb i rd c a r ca s sa nd a mong t h e se 4c ome f r om t h e w ings , whe re o rnamen ta l f ea the r s a r e t o b e f ound ( Du r ing 1 986 , p . 1 72 -173 ) . S eve ra lf r agmen t sc ome f r om b i rd sw h ich c an b ec on s ide red a su sefu l s ou r ce so f mea t , s uch a sc rane ( Gru s g ru s ) , h e ron ( Ardea c i nerea ) , c ape rca i l l ie , w oodcock ( Sco lopax r u s t ico la ) , ma l la rd ( Ana sp la thyrhyncos ) ,p in ta i l ( Ana sa cu ta ) ,t e a l( Ana sc recca ) ,w i ld g oo se ( Anser a nser o rA nser f aba l i s ) , w ood p igeon ( Co lumba p a lumbu s ) a nd w hoope r s wan ( Cygnu sc ygnu s ) .F o ri n s tance i n med ieva lt ime sb o th t h ec r ane a nd t h eh e ron w e re r ega rded a s h igh ly e d ib le b i rd s ( Brusew i tz 1 978 , p . 1 63 , 1 65 ) . T he h e ron h ad a m agn if icen tp lumage a nd t h e se M idd le N eo l i th ic p eop le m igh tw e l lh ave f ound p lume s f r om t h eg o lden e ag le ( Aqu i la c h ry sae tos ) ,c r ane ,w ood p igeon a nd o the rb i rd sa t t rac t ive i n many w ays . T he b one s o f b i rd s c l a ssed a s s ma l l b i rd s , s uch a s t h e meadow p ip i t ( An thus p ra tens is ) , may h ave l a nded u p i nt h e A lva s t ra c u l tu ra ll a ye r s b y a cc iden t , o r p o s s ib ly s uch b i rd sw e re c augh ta nd e a ten a s" ed ib le s ma l lb i rd s " . F ish I ts e em sl i ke ly t h a tf i sh ,c ons t i tu t ing am a jo rp ro te in s ou r ce ,p rov ided t h eA lva s t ra p eop le w i th a n i mpo r tan t c omponen t o f t h e i r d i e t ( Dur ing 1 986 , p . 1 73 -188 ) . B o th L ake T äke rn ,L ake V ä t te rn a nd s t ream si nt h ea r ea p robab ly o f f e red e xce l len tb io tope sf o rt h e s p ec ie si d en t i f ied i nt h eA lva s t ra b one m a te r ia l( Tab le 3 ) . T oday a l lt h e se s pec ie s ,w i th o ne e xcep t ion ,t h ew e l s( S i luru sg lan i s ) ,a r ep re sen ti nL ake V ä t te rn . L ake T äke rn , i na c tua l i ty , p a sse s t h rough as l ow t r an sfo rma t ion f r om l a ke t o s wampy g round t o ma r sh land ( Ha rgeby 1 985 ) . T he w e l sp opu la t ion sw h ich s t i l le x is ti n S weden a r et oday c on s ide red a sr e l ic tp opu la t ions f r om aw a rme rc l ima te .I nt h eA lva s t ra s amp les a l l f i sh r ema in s r ep re sen t e d ib le v a r ie t ie s . Many s pec ie s , s uch a sp ike ( Esox l u c iu s ) ,p e r ch ( Percaf luv ia t i l i s ) ,w h i tef i sh ( Coregonu ss pec ies ) ,b ream ( Abram i sb rama ) a nd w e l sa r ec on s ide red t ob ev e ry t a s ty a nd v a luab le f i she s . P a tho logy I n te re s t ing ly f ew p a tho log ica l c hange s h ave b een n o ted s o f a r i n t h e b one ma te r ia l ( Dur ing 1 986 , p . 1 2 ) . Among t h e r ema ins o fc a t t le , f o r i n s tance , o n ly o ne p remo la r s how sa na bno rma lk ind o fs eve re a t t r i t ion a nd o ne m e taca rpa ls how ss l igh td egene ra t ive c hange a tt h ej o in t . T h i s may i nd ica te t h a t t h e e a r ly f a rme r s w e re l ook ing a f te r t h e i r l i ve s tock v e ry w e l l a nd t h a t t h e s upp ly o fp a s tu re a nd f odde rw a sv ery g ood t h ew ho le y ea ra r ound . I nt h is r e spec ti tc an b en o ted t h a ts eve re a t t r i t ion o ft e e th a nd c hange st ot h e j o in t s o ft h e f oo t may b e s i gns o fo lde r a n ima ls ( o r t h e t r a in ing o f s t ee r s t ob ecome d raugh to xen ) . P er iod ica l o ccupa t ion S ince i ti ss t i l lq ue s t ionab le w ha tk ind o fh ab i ta t ion t h ep i le dwe l l ing w a sa nd w he the ri t w a s p e rmanen t ly u sed t h roughou t t h e y ea r , a n a t temp t h a s b een made t o e s tab l i sh s e a sona lu se o ft h es i te . I nt h ec a se o fp robab le t ime sw hen t h ej uven i le p ig s ( t he r ema in sc ome f r om t h eE a s te rn T rench )w e re k i l led , t h er e su l t si nd ica te t h a tp o s s ib ly t h eb us ie s tt ime a tt h es i te w a sf r om t h e b eg inn ing o f Ma rch t o t h em idd le o fO c tobe r( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .1 25 -127 ) .T he mo s t

1 41

" p roduc t ive " s l augh te rp e r iod o fd ome s t ic a n ima l s ,c a t t le a nd s heep ,i sa s sumed t oh ave b een i nl a te a u tumn w hen t h em ea tw a sb e s ta f te rt h ef a t ten ing s p r ing a nd s umm e rp a s tu re a nd w hen t h ec ond i t ion sf o rd ry ing , s mok ing a nd s t o r ing t h em ea tw e re mo s ts u i tab le . I n t h ec a se o fa l lg ame mamma ls i d en t if ied i nt h es amp le sa nd j udged t oh ave b een v a luab le t ot h e c ommun i ty , t h e l i ke ly b e s t a nd l e a s t " p roduc t ive " h un t ing s ea son ( s ) h ave b een e s tab l i shed w i th r e spec tt o max imum h uman y i e ld a nd a cce s s ib i l i ty o ft h eg ame ( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .1 61-164 ) . L a te s u mme ra nd a u tumn s e emed t oh ave b een i d ea lp e r iod sf o rt h e h un t ing o f mo s t s pec ie s , r ega rd le ss o ft h e i r e ven tua l o ccu r rence a nd f r equency i nt h e b one ma te r ia l .F o rs pec ie sw e l lr ep re sen ted i na l lb one s amp le sa nd wh ich a r ec on s ide red a s ma in ly mea t ,f a ta nd f u rp roduc ing m amma l s , s uch a sw i ld b oa r ,r ed d ee r ,b adge ra nd p ine ma r ten t h e f a l l i sc on s ide red t oh ave b een a" p roduc t ive " s ea son . F o r s ome g ame a n ima l s s uch a s moun ta in h a re a nd a l so w i ld b oa rt h e h un t ing a nd t r app ing m ay h ave t a ken p lace i na l l s ea son s , a nd f o ra l lv a luab le f u ra n ima l s , w i th ap o ss ib le e xcep t ion o f b rown b ea ra nd b eave r ,t h ew in te rw a st h e mo s ti mpo r tan ts e a son . I nt h ec a se o ft h eb i rd r ema in st h em ig ran ts pec ie sa r ep redom inan t( Du r ing 1 986 ,p .1 73 ) , af a c tw h i ch p o in t s t o at ime p e r iod f r om s p r ing t oa u tumn r a the r t h an w in te r . I n c er ta in a r ea s d u r ing t h e m ig ra t ion f l igh t s s ome s pec ies , f o ri n s tance c ranes a nd w i ld g eese , m igh t h ave l a nded p e r iod ica l ly t of e ed a nd w e re p o ss ib ly t h en mo re e a sy t og e th o ld o f . Mo reove r ,t h eb e s t t ime t oc a tch b i rd s ,e spec ia l ly n e s t l ing s ,a nd t og a the re gg si sd ur ing t h eb reed ing s e a son , b e tween s pr ing a nd e a r ly s umme r . I nt h ec a se o ff i she s ,i ti sa s sumed t h a ti np r eh i s tor ic t imes mos t f i sh ing g ene ra l ly t ook p l ace d ur ing t h e p e r iod w hen t h e i d en t if ied s pec ie s w e re a bundan t ly p re sen t a nd mos t e a s i ly c augh t . T he i d ea l i st hu s i n t h e s pawn ing p e r iod s a nd s ea sona l ly f r om e a r ly s p r ing t o l a te a u tumn , w i th o ne e xcep t ion , t h e w h i tef i sh w h ich s pawns d u r ing b o th t h e a u tumn a nd w in te r . F o r t h e ma jo r i ty o fg ood e d ib le s pec ie st h eb u s ie s tf i sh ing p e r iod p robab ly s t a r ted i n Ma r ch a nd c on t inued t h rough t h e s u mme r ( Dur ing 1 986 , p . 1 84 -186 ) ,In v i ew o ft h ese r e su l t s p eop le s eem t oh ave g a the red f o rv a r ious a c t iv i t ies a tt h ep i le d we l l ing mo s tf r equen t ly f r om e a r ly s p r ing t o l a te f a l l , p o s s ib ly w i th p eak si nl a te s p r ing / ea r ly s umme ra nd a u tumn . N eve r the le s st h e f i nd s o f v a r ious f u r a n ima ls i n p a r t icu la r a nd a l so wh i tef ish f o r e xamp le s ugges t a c t iv i t ie s ,p o s s ib ly mo re o cca s iona l ,d u r ing t h ew in te rs ea son . Conc lus ions O bv iou s ly t h ep i le dwe l l ing w a s u sed b y ac ommun i ty who se e conomy w a s b a sed o n b o th f a rm ing , a n ima l h usband ry , h un t ing a nd f i sh ing . I n t h is M idd le N eo l i th ic i n land e conomy , h oweve r , t h ep lan tf ood mu s tb ec on s ide red a sw e l l . T he A lva s t ra c ommun i ty w a so bv iou s ly a l so g row ing c e rea ls a nd p robab ly a l so c o l lec t ing h e rb s ,r oo t s ,h aze lnu t s , w i ld a pp les e t c . I nt h i s c onnec t ion i tmay b e n o ted t h a td i s t inc td epo s i t s o fs e ed s f r om s v inmä l la ( Chenopod ium a lbum ) w e re n o ted i nc u l tura l l a ye r s a tt h e E a s te rn T rench . H ence t h e re w a sp robab ly p len ty o ff i be ri nt h e i rd i e t . I nf a c tt h ey s eemed t oh ave h ad a v e ry b a lanced d i e t , aw ide r ang ing h ea l thy o ne . T he N eo l i th ic c ommun i t ie sh ad b roken a way f r om b e ing d ependen to nj u s ts e a sona lh un t ing a nd g a the r ing b u tp robab ly h ad n o t n a r rowed d own t h e i rd i e t . T he A lva s t ra p eop le p robab ly f o rmed af a rm ing c ommun i ty w i th as pec ia li n te re s ti na n ima lh u sband ry a nd t h ey a ppea red t oh ave e xp lo i ted t ot h ef u l l t h ea va i lab le w i ld n a tu ra lr e sou r ce sa sw e l la sc u l t iva t ing t h el a nd .

1 42

T ab le 1 .

Numbe ro ff r agmen t s( n )o fd i f f e ren ts pec ie so f MA MMALS o ccu r r ing i n b one s amp le sf r om t h eE a s te rn T rench ( ET ) a nd p rev iou s ly a na ly sed b one ma te r ia lf r om t h eA lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing .T he mamma l sa r em en t ioned i nt h e s ame o rde ra si nt h et e x t . When t h ee xac tn umbe ro ff r agmen t sh a sn o tb een g i ven ,t h ea bb r ev ia t ion s m=mo s t ,r = ra the r ,f = f requen t ,a f=a f ew a nd t h ee xp re s s ion s ome a r eu sed .

E T

P IRA

1 976 -80

1 909

HE D E L L 1 910

1 911

1 912

m f

m f

m f

E ICMAN

1 913

1 919

1 977

m f -

2 68 4 3

1 59

a f > 2016

3

2 2

7 r f 5

1 4 18 1

S PEC IES CATTLE AUROCHS* SHEEP

2 146

f

2 63

7

GOAT 9

1

DOG RED DEER E LK

SHEEP /GOAT 3 3 27 3 8

2 3 a f

1 r f 1 3

1 f a f

5 r f 1 2

s ome

ROE DEER P IG WILD BOAR DO MEST IC P IG

1 5 9 37

7 f -

r f f

r f f -

> 15 f

P INE MARTEN BADGER WILD CAT

15 3 6 2 6

2 1 7

1 8 4 7 8

3 0 6 8 1

BRO WN BEAR

4

2

2 5

2 3

WOLF OTTER LYNX B EAVER

6

3

1 0 9 4 3

1 2 5 4 7

7

1

MOUNTA IN HARE RED SQU IRREL HEDGEHOG GROUND VOLE F IELD VOLE CO M MON SHRE W

2 6 1 2

6

4 6

2 2 8 1

*H ede l l ' sa r gumen t sf o ra u roch ss pec imens s e em n o tc onv inc ing

1 43

5 3

1 2 1 8 2 2

3 1 57 f 1 089 -

2 1 6

1

3 2 1 54 1

5 4 3 1 7

2 6 9 9 2 7

5

2 0 1 ? 1 9 9

1 2 4

3

1 3 > 6 1

-

1

1

4 2 90 1

6 1

1

2 3 2

T ab le 2 .

N umbe ro ff r agmen t s ( n ) o fd i f f e ren t s pec ie s o fB IRDS o ccu r r ing i nb one s amp les f r om t he E a s te rn T rench ( ET ) a nd p rev ious ly a na ly sed b one ma te r ia lf r om t h eA lva s t ra p i le d wel ing .

ET 1 976 -80 SP E CI ES

n

GOLDEN EAGLE

-

CRANE

2

HERON

1

( Aqu i la c hr ysae to s ) ( G ru sg rus ) ( A rd eac ine r ea )

P IRA 1 909

1 910

n

n

HE D E L L 1 911 1 912 1 913 n

n

MARSH HARR IER ( C i r cu sa e rug ino su s )

1

-

1

TA WNY OWL ( S t r ix a luco )

2 1

1

WOODCOCK ( S co lopax r u s t ico la )

1 1

-

P INTA IL ( A r ia sa c iaa )

-

T EAL ( Ar ia sc r e cca )

1

1 1

2 -

WILD GOOSE (g rey lag o rb ean g oo se ) ( An se ra nser o rA ns er f aba l i s )

9

1 3

1

1

WHOOPER SWAN ( Cygnus c ygnus )

1

MEADO W P IP IT ( An thus p ra t ens i s )

1

TREE P IP IT ( An thu st r iv ia l i s )

1

GREAT GREY S HR IKE* ( Lan iu se xcub i tor ) TO T A L

n 1

-

MALLARD ( Ana sp la thy rhynchos )

EK MAN 1 977

-

( Pe rn i sa p ivo rus )

WOOD P IGEON ( Co lumba p a lumbus )

n

3

HONEY BUZZARD

CAPERCA ILL IE ( T e t rao u roga l lu s )

n

1 919

-

-

8

-

1

2

*A cco rd ing t oE lunan p robab ly as e conda ry r e s idue .

1 44

1 0

4

2

3

2 1

T ab le 3 .

N umbe r o ff r agmen t s ( n ) o fd i f f e ren t s pec ie s o fF ISH o ccu r r ing i nb one s amp les f r om t h e E a s te rn T rench ( ET ) a nd p rev iuo s ly a na ly sed b one m a te r ia lf r om t h eA lva s t ra p i le d wel ing . a f =af ew .

ET 1 976 -80 SP E CI ES P IKE ( E sox l u c iu s ) P ERCH ( P e r caf l u v ia t i l i s ) WH ITEF ISH ( Coregonu ss p ec i es ) BREAM ( Ab ram i sb rama )

n 1 02

P IRA 1 909

1 910

n

n

a f

8

4 7

n 2 5

n

n

5

1

5

1 919 n 3 0 2

EKMAN 1 977 n 6

-

4 1 1 39

T ENCH ( T inca t i nca )

4

ROACH ( Ru t i lus r u t i lus )

5

RUDD ( S card in iu se r y th roph ta lmu s )

5

I DE ( L euc i s cus i d u s )

1

S ILVER BREAM ( B l icca b j oe rkna )

-

1

8

-

1

WELS ( S i lurus g lan i s )

TO T A L

'HE D E L L 1 911 1 912 1 913

3

3 44

a f

1 0

1 45

3 3

2

1

7

2

-

-

2

1

3 4

1 5

H is s f ie y.

F r ebe rga,

q, 3 555

•

9. 3^ -?'

S kede t ,

' 3 e z

. 40

z Na : tt i tre 5 07va t

a•

V äe ra ünda

S vansh

s

6

V ättern

nv a lle to rp

i l inge l t i rp

4

4. yck leby

i i t t l iüs ta

VT o l ls täd

V3 5 1 1 e

, ,

Fi g .l . G eog raph ica lp o s i t ion o ft h eA lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing ( * ) . ( Ou to fo ff i c ia lm ap m a te r ia lf r om t h eN a t iona lL and S urvey o fS weden . N umbe ro fp e rm is s ion t or e p roduce 8 6 .0028 ) . O ne s qua re o ft h eg r id =o ne s qua re k i lome te r .

1 46

Cattle ( Bos p r im igen ius f . t aurus )

[

I

1 7

I

4 4

5 4

V . CE

V . CA

S AC

3 0 1 11 1 2 00 C RA

S CA

4 4 C OX

6 0 C OS

C OR

1 1 1 2

6 6 V . TH

D EN 1 39

5 2 R A+UL M AX 2 9

I

M C i

H U

M P

C A

F E

3 7

3 4

2 1

1 3 1

I

I

I

T A 4 0 I

M T 4 0

T I

I

S E

3 0

M A 4

F ig.2. CATTLE ( 1260 f r agm , 1121 .7 g ) . CA = C a rp i , COS = C os tae , COR = C o rnua , COX = C oxae , CRA =C ran ium , DEN = D en te s , F E =F emu r , HU = Hume rus , HYO = O s h yo ideum , MA = O s ma l leo la re , MAN = Mand ibu la , MAX = Max i l la , MC = Me taca rpa l ia4 MP = Me tapod ia l ia , MT = Me ta ta r sa l ia , PH = P ha lange s , RA + UL = R ad ius e tU lna , SAC = S acrum , S CA = S capu la , S E =S e samo idea , TA = T a r s i , T I =T ib ia , V =V e r teb rae , Vc a =V e r t . c auda les , Vc e =V e r t . c e rv ica les , Vl u =V e r t . l umba les , Vt h= V er t . t ho raca le s . ( Red rawn a f te rN icke le ta l . 1 961) .

1 47

P ig

( Sus s crof a a nd S us s crof a f . d omes t ica )

I I V . CE

1 48

.

Ma

2 V . TH

S CA

WI

2 V LU

I 1 6

2 C OX

BB

2 V . CA

C OS

C RA

D EN 2 48

M AX 1 03 m AN

I

M AX + M : ‘7N

7 6

I

6 4 P H H U I m p 2 I 0

C A

M C

1 3

1 5

I I

II

2 3

I

R A+ U L

T I

1 9

1 0 I

1 P A

S

T A 1 6

S E

M T

9

8

h i

a

1 F E

7

I

F ig .3. P IG ( 937 f r agm ; 1 506 .4 g ) . CA = C a rp i , COS = C o s tae , COX = O s c oxae , CRA = C ran ium , DEN = D en te s ,F E =F emu r , H =F ibu la , HU = H ume ru s , MAN =Mand ibu la , MAX = Max i l la , MAX + MAN = Max i l la /mand ibu la , MC = Me taca rpa l ia , MP = Me tapod ia l ia , MT = Me ta ta r sa l ia , PA = P a te l la , PH = P ha lange s , RA+UL =R ad iu s e tU lna , S CA = S capu la , S E =s e samo idea , TA = T a r s i , T I =T ib ia , Vc a= V e r t . c auda le s , Vc e =V e r t . c e rv ica le s , Vl u =V e r t . l umba le s , Vt h =V e r t . t ho ra ca le s . ( Red rawn w i th a dd i t ion a f te rN icke le ta l . 1 961 ) .

1 48

R eferences A a r i s -So ren sen , K . , 1 978 . Knog lema te r ia le t f r a d en me l lemneo l i t iske b op lad s v ed Korsnäs , G röd inge s ocken , S öderman land . E n z oo log isk g ennemgang . R ik san t ik var ieämbe t e to ch S ta t en sh i s tor i ska m u seer R appor t1 978 :8 . S tockho lm . A h len , I . , 1 965 . S tud ie s o n t h e r ed d ee r , C ervu s e l aphu s L . , i nS cand inav ia .V i / trevy . S wed i sh W i ld l if e , 3( 1 -3 ) . B a r tho l in , T h . S . 1 978 . A lvas t ra p i le dwe l l ing : T ree s t ud ies . T he d a t ing a nd t he l a nd scape .F ornvännen 7 3 ,2 13 -219 . B e rg ius , B . , 1 787 .Ta l om L äckerhe ter , b äd e is i g s j e lf va o ch s ädana , o ch f or s ädana a nsedda g enom F o lk s lags b ruk o ch i nb i l ln ing , h ä l le t f ö r Kong l . V e tenskaps A cadem ien v id P rae s id i i n ed läggande , d en 3 ma j 1 780 . A nd ra d e len . J .G .Lange , S tockho lm . B e rg lund , ) 3 .E . , 1 968 . V ege ta t ion su tveck l ingen iNo rden e f te r i s t iden : I n : S ver iges Na tur ,A r sbok 1 968 , 3 1 -52 . S ven ska N a tu r skydd sfö ren ingen . B info rd ,L .R . , 1 978 .N unam iu tE thnoarchaeo logy . A cadem ic P re ss . N ew Y o rk . - 1 981 . BONES .A nc ien t Men a nd Mod ern My th s . A cadem ic P re s s . N ew Y o rk . B oe ssneck , J . ,v on d en D r ie snh , A . , Meye r -Lemppenau , U . & Wechs le r -von O h len , E . , 1 971 . D ie T ie rknochenfunde a us d em O pp idum v on Manch ing .D ie A u sgrabungen i n Manch ing . 6 .( K räme r ,W . , e d . ) . F ranz S t e ine r ; Wie sbaden . B onn ich sen , R . , 1 973 . S ome o pe ra t iona l a spec t s o fh uman a nd a n ima l b one a l te ra t ion . I n G i lbe r t , M . ( ed . ) : Mamma l ian O s teo -Archaeo logy : Nor th Amer ica , 9 -24 . Un ive r s i ty o fM i s sou r i -Co lumb ia . M i s sou r i . B rowa l l , H . , 1 986 .A l va s t ra P ä lbyggnad :s oc ia lo ch e konom i sk b a s . T he se sa nd P aper s i n Nor theuropean A r chaeo logy 1 5 , ( Ma lme r ,M .P . ,e d . ) . S tockho lm . B ru sew i tz , G . , 1 978 .J ak t .J ägare , v i l lebräd , v apen o ch j ak tme tod er f rän ä ld s ta t i dt i l l v ära d agar . Wah l s t röm & W id s t rand . C lu t ton -Brock , J . , 1 981 . Domes t ica ted A n ima l sf rom E ar ly T imes . B r i t . Mu s .Na t .H is t . , L ondon . C lu t ton -Brock , T .H . , G u ine ss , F .E . &A lbon , S .D . , 1 982 . R ed D eer . B ehav iour a nd E co logy o f Two S exe s . E d inbu rgh U n iv . P res s ; E d ingbu rgh . D ege rbo l , M . , 1 939 . I V . D y reknog le r . I n Ma th ia ssen , T . , J es sen , K . & D ege rbo l , M . B und s0 , e n y ng re S t ena lde r s B op lad s p aa A ls .A arb .f or n ord i sk O ldkynd ighed o g H is tor ie , 8 5 -198 . - 1 963 . P r eh i s to r ic C a t t le i nD enma rk a nd A d jacen tA rea s .I n Mou ran t ,A .E . &Z eune r , F .E . ( ed s . ) . Man a nd C a t t le . R oya l A n throp . I ns t . O cca s iona l P aper 1 8 , 6 7 -69 . L ondon . D u r ing , E . , 1 986 . T he F auna o fA lva s t ra . A n O s teo log ica lA na lys i s o fA n ima lB ones f rom aN eo l i th ic P i le Dwe l l ing . O SSA , V o l . 1 2 ,S upp lemen t1 . E kman , J . , 1 977 . L is t o f a n ima l b one m a ter ia l f r om t he A lva s t ra p i le dwe l l ing . Unpub l i shed manu sc r ip t . ( i n Swed i sh ) . E kman , S . , 1 910 .N or r land sj ak to ch f i ske . N o r r länd sk tH andb ib l io tek I V . A lmqv is t& Wik se l l ,U pp sa la . F röd in , 0 . , 1 910a . E n s ven sk p ä lbyggnad f r än s t enä lde rn .F ornvännen , 2 9 -77 . - 1 910b . E in S chwed i sche rP ha lbau a us d e rS t e inze i t . Mannu s2 ,1 09 -152 . G ö ransson , H . , 1 982a . T he u t i l iza t ion o f t h e f o re s t s i n N or th -Wes t E u rope d ur ing E a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic .P ACT 7 ,2 07 -221 . - 1 982b . N eo l i t ikum sb egynne lse iÖ s te rgö t land , S ve r ige , e n l ig tp o l lenana ly t i ska d a ta . I n S jovo ld , T . ( ed . ) : I n troduks jonen a v j ordbruk i Norden . De t Nor ske V iden skaps -Akadem i ,9 9 -123 . U n ive r s i te t sfo r lage t , O s lo , B e rgen a nd T rom s0 . - 1 987 . N eo l i th ic man a nd t h e f o re s t e nv i ronmen t a r ound A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing ( i n p ress ) . H a rgeby , A . , 1 985 . F ran s t enä lde rns ma la r t i l l r udo r iö ve rf löd . V ingspege ln 4 ( 2 ) , 9 2 -96 . 1 49

H ede l l , L . , 1 909 -1913 , 1 919 . A na lyse s o f b one ma te r ia ls f r om e xcava t ions a t t h e A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing . U npub l i shed m anu sc r ip t s . ( I n Swed i sh ) . - 1 910 . F i skbenen iA lva s t ra fynde t .F ornvännen , ( r ef e r red t oi nF röd in 1 910a ; 6 4 ) . L a r sson , L . , 1 978 . A ge röd I : B -A ge röd I :D . AS tudy o fE a r ly A t lan t ic S e t t lemen t i n S can ia . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L unden s ia S e r . i n4 ° . N ° 1 2 . R udo lf H abe l t V e r lag , B onn & CWK G lee rups F ö r lag , L und . - 1 980 . S t enä lde r s jäga rna s b op la t s o ch g rava r v id S ka teho lm . L imhamn iana 1 980 . Ma lmö . - 1 981 . E n7 000 -ä r ig s ydku s tbop la t s .N y t t om g amma l tf r än S ka teho lm .L imhamn iana 1 981 . Ma lmö . - 1 982 . S ka teho lm sp ro jek te t . N ya g rava r o ch e t t n y t t g ravf ä l t . L imhamn iana 1 982 . Ma lmö . - 1 983 . S ka teho lm sp ro jek te t . J äga re -F i ska re -B önde r .L imhamn iana 1 983 . Ma lmö . 1 984 . S ka teho lm sp ro jek te t . P ä s pä ren e f te r g ray sed sfö ränd r inga r , c e remon ip la t se r o ch t ama r äva r .L imhamn iana 1 984 . Ma lmö . L ay sund , S . , 1 975 . B ävern iS ver ige . S t a tens N a tu rvä rd sve rk . L ibe r F ö r lag /A l lmänna F ö r lage t , S tockho lm . L ep ik saa r , J . , 1 963 . H usd ju rens h i s to r ia iS käne land .A LE 2 ,2 5 -39 . 1 974 . D ju r res te r f r än d en m e l lanneo l i t i ska ( g ropke ram i ska ) b op la t sen v id Ä s , R om f a r tuna s n . , V ä s tman land . I n L öf s t rand , L . : Y ngre s t enä lderns k u s tbop la t ser . A un I .U ppsa la . 1 977 . Männ iskan o ch h usd ju ren .F auna o ch F lora 2 1 3 , 7 9 -100 . - 1 978 . B one r ema in s f r om t h e Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen tA ge röd I : B a nd A ge röd I :D . I n L a r s son ,L . : Age röd I : B -A ge röd I :D . AS tudy o fE a r ly A t lan t ic S e t t lemen ti nS can ia . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L unden s ia S e r .4° . N °12 . R udo lf H abe l tV e r lag , B onn &C WK G lee rups F ö r lag , L und . - 1 982 . D ju r re s te rf r än d en t i d iga t lan t i ska b op la t sen v id S egeb ro n ä ra Ma lmö iS käne ( Syd sve r ige ) . I nL a r s son ,L . :S egebro :e nt i d igan t lan t i sk b op la t sv id S egeä sm ynn ing . Ma lm end 4 . Ma lmö . - 1 983 . Z oo log isk u nde r sökn ing . I n W igfo r s s , J . , L ep iksaa r , J . , O l sson , I .U . & P ä s se ,T . :B ua V ä s t ergärd -e n8 000 ä rg amma lk u s tbop la t s .A rkeo log i iV ä s t sver ige 1 . Gö tebo rg sA rkeo log iska Museum . L iebe r ldnd ,I . ,1 939 .D jurens V är ld .E np opu lä rve ten skap l ig f r am s tä l ln ing a vd j u ren sl i v p äg rundva l a v B rehm 's T ie r leben . Däggd jur I :11 . Wa l leng ren , H . &H ans t röm , B . ( ed s . ) . S ven sk U pps lag sbok A -B . , Ma lmö . - 1 940 . D jurens v är ld . Däggd jur 1 : 10 . Wa l leng ren , H . &H ans t röm B . ( e d s . ) S ven sk U pps lag sbok A -B . , Ma lmö . L i l jeg ren , R . , 1 983 . U roxen il unda t rak ten -e t s agod ju rr edan u nde ry ng re s t enä lde r . S känes N a tur . S käne s Na tur värd sf örbund sA r sskr if t7 0 , 2 9 -36 . Magnusson , E . , 1 964 . P o l lenana ly t ica l i nve s t iga t ion a tT äkern , Dags mosse a nd t h e N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ta tA lva s t ra , S weden .S ver ige sG eo l . U nder sökn .S er . CN r5 97 . Ä r sbok 5 8N r3 .S tockho lm . Ma lme r , M .P . , 1 978 . F o r skn ing sp ro jek te t A lva s t ra p ä lbyggnad . F ornvännen 7 3 ( 3 ) , 1 49 -158 . - 1 981 .T he e xp lana t ion o f ap i le d we l l ing .S t r iae 1 4 , 2 6 -28 . U pp sa la . - 1 983 . A lva s t ra p ä lbyggnad s k on s t ruk t ion o ch a nvändn ing . I n O laf sson , G . ( ed . ) : Hu s , G ärd o ch B ebygge l se . F öred rag f rän d e t XV I n ord i ska a rkeo logmö te t , I s land 1 982 . R eyk jav ik . Ma lme r , M .P . , 1 984 . O n t h e s oc ia l f unc t ion o f p i le dwe l l ings a nd mega l i ths . I n B u renhu l t , G . ( e d . ) : T he A rchaeo logy o fC arrowmor e . T he ses a nd P aper s i nN or th E uropean A rchaeo logy 1 4 , 3 71 -375 . S tockho lm . Ma lme r , M .P . 8 zB a r tho l in , T h .S . 1 983 . A lva s t ra p ae lebygn ing . S ka lk 4 ,1 8 -22 . M0 1 1 1 ,U . , 1 962 . Übers ich t ü ber K nochenfunde a us G räbern d er s chwed isch no rweg i schen S t re i tax tku l tur . I n Ma lme r , M .P . : J ungneo l i th ische S tud ien . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L undens ia S er . i n8 ° . N ° 2 .R udo lf H abe l t V e r lag , B onn & CWK 1 50

G lee rups F ö r lag , L und . N ea l , E .G . , 1 977 . Badger s . B land fo rd Mamma l S e r ies . B land fo rd P re ss , P oo le , D o r se t . E ng land . N ob is , G . , 1 954 . Z u r K enn tn i s d e r u r - u nd f r ühge sch ich t l ichen R inde r No rd - u nd M i t te ldeu t sch land s .Z .T ier züch t . u .Z üch tungsb io log ie 6 3 , 1 55 -194 . N oe -Nygaa rd , N . , 1 977 . B u tche r ing a nd ma r row f r ac tu r ing a s at a phonom ic f a c to ri n a r chaeo log ica ld epo s i t s .P a leob io logy 3 ,2 18 -237 . N odd le , B . , 1 982 . T he s i ze o fr ed d ee ri nB r i ta in -p a s ta nd p re sen t ,w i th s ome r e f e rence t of a l low d ee r . I nL imb rey , S .&B e l l ,B . ( e d s . ) :A rchaeo log ica lA spec t so f Wood land E co logy . S ymp . o ft h eA s s .f or E nv ironmen ta lA rchaeo logy N o2 .B AR I n terna t iona l S er ie s 1 46 . Oxfo rd . N yegaa rd , G . , 1 985 . F auna levn f r ay ng re s t ena lde rp a o e rne s yd f o rF yn . I n : S kaa rup , J . : Y ngre s t ena lder p ä ( erne s yd f or F yn . Medde le l ser f ra L ange land s Museum , R udkop ing . S l ak te r io rgan i sa t ionen ( SCAN ) is i f f ro r 1 982 . S l ak te r ifö rbunde t . Wi jngaa rden -Bakke r , L .H . v an . 1 980 . A n A rchaeozoo log ica l S tudy o f t h e B eaker S e t t lemen ta tN ew G range ,I r e land . P h .D . D i s s . Am s te rdam .

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THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE ALVASTRA P ILE D WELLING

DURING

THE

T I ME

OF

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B y Hans Göransson L abo ra to ry o fQ ua te rna ry B io logy .U n ive r s i ty o fL und . T o rnavägen 1 3 . S -223 6 3 L und , Sweden . Abs trac t T he e lm d ec l ine ( c . 5 150 b .p . ) i ss ynch ronou s o ve r t h e who le o fN o r th - We s t E u rope . A l so t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e f o l low ing r egene ra t ion i ss ynch ronou s o ve r l a rge a r ea s ( c . 4 500 b .p . ) . I ti sd emon s t ra ted t h a t t h e A lva s t ra P i l e Dwe l l ing wa s b u i l t d u r ing t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e R egene ra t ion P ha se ( "A lva s t ra T ime " ) . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h i sp ha se r ef lec t s t h e r e a l s t a r to ff a rm ing i nG ö ta land ( and p robab ly o ve rl a rge a r ea s o f Nor th - We s. E u rope ) . T he b eg inn ing o ft h i s p ha se t hu s d oe s n o tr e f lec t ar eg re ss ion i nc u l t iva t ion a si sg ene ra l ly a s sumed b y a r chaeo log i s t s a nd p o l len a na ly s t s .T he e x t r eme ly w e l l -da ted p o l len d iag ram s f r om t h e D ag s Mo s se b og , t h e Mab c Mo s se b og a nd t h eA ge röd s Mo sse b og a r ed i scu s sed .

I n 1 976 Ma t sP . Ma lme ri nv i ted m et ot h ee xcava t ion s i te a tt h eA lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing . A sd u r ing t h a tt ime Iw a sj u s tf i n i sh ing my w o rk o nt h ev ege ta t iona lh i s to ry o fs ou the rn Ö s te rgö t land , If ound i tv e ry t emp t ing t o g o o n w i th p a laeoeco log ica l s t ud ie s i nt h e A lva s t ra a r ea i nw e s ter nO s te rgö t land . I nt h e 1 950 's my c o l legue E . Magnus son h ad b een c o -ope ra t ing w i th Ma t sP . Ma lme ra tt h a t s i te . It hu sk new t h a t Ma t sw a sv e ry a wa re o f t h en ece s s i ty o ft h ec on tac tb e tween a r chaeo logy a nd p a laeoeco logy . " Pa laeoeco logy " i n t h e s pec ia lc a se o ft h eA lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing i nvo lved p o l len a na ly t ica li nve s t iga t ion s , a na ly se so ff r u i t s a nd s eed sf r om t h ec u l tu re l a ye ra nd s t ra t ig raph ica l s t ud ie s . B a sed o n t h e se s t ud ie sa na t temp tw a s made t or e con s t ruc tt h eM idd le N eo l i th ic l a nd scape a r ound t h eA lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing -i nt h ef i r s tp l ace .I nt h ep re sen tp ape r ,h oweve r , Iw i l lt r yt o r e cons truc tt h ef o re s tv ege ta t ion d u r ing t h i se a r ly p a r to ft h eM idd le N eo l i th ic f o r amuch l a rge ra r ea ,c ove r ing a tl e a s tt h ew ho le o fG ö ta land . B e ing ap a laeoeco log i s t Iw a sn o tb ound t ot h ee xcava t ion s i te p rope rb u tc ou ld p e r fo rm i n ve s t iga t ion sw i th in al a rge a r ea o ft h ev e ry o ld c u l tu ra ll a nd scape i nt h ec en t re o fw h ich t h eA lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing i ss i tua ted , t h a ti s , t h ec oun t ry s ide t ot h e s ou th -we s to fL ake T äke rn . I nt h a ta r ea t h e s o i l sa r ev e ry d i ve r se ,c on s i s t ing o fs andy a nd c l ayey t i l l s ,c l ay s , g l ac iof luv ia l d epo s i t s a nd o the r l i gh t , s andy s o i l s . T hese s o i ls a r e r i ch i nl ime . L a rge a r ea sc ons is to fm i re s . T he m i re st ot h es ou th -we s to fL ake T äker na r eo ft h ree d i f f e ren tk ind s .T he A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing i ss i tua ted i nt h eA lva s t ra S pr ing M i re . T he p re requ i s i te f o rt h ef o rma t ion o fa s p r ing m ire i st he p resence o f c op iou s ly f l ow ing g round -wa te r , wh ich eme rges a s s p r ing s o n s l ope s . T he A lva s t ra S p r ing M i re , w h ich c ove r sc .1 9 h ec ta re s ( c . 4 7 a c re s ) , b o rde r s o n t h e t i l l -cove red , g rave l ly s l ope s b e low t he f a rm s tead o fB roby . F rom t h ese s l ope sa nd f r om g rave l ly l a ye r sb enea th t h em i re ,t h eg roundwa te r eme rge s . T he A lva s t ra S p r ing M i re h a s n eve rb een al a ke -n o t e ven as ha l low l a ke -b u tj u s t a s p r ing m i re ! No b oa t s w e re e ve r s e en o n t h e m i re ! T he s u r f ace o ft h e s p r ing m i re w a s , h oweve r , d i f f icu l tt ow a lk o n . W i thou tt h e u se o f af oo t -br idge i tw a s n o te a sy t or each t h ep i le -dwe l l ing f r om t h ef i rm g round . T ot h en o r th o ft h eA lva s t ra S p r ing M i re t h el a rge D ags Mo s se b og i ss i tua ted .T h i si sa n omb ro t roph ic S phagnum b og . " Omb ro t roph ic " m ean st h a tt h eS phagnum s pec ie s , w h ich b u i ld u pt h eb og , a r et o ta l ly d ependen to np rec ip i ta t ion -t h ey d on o tt o le ra te t h ei n f luence o ft h em ine ra l -r ich g round -wa te f .

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O u t s ide t h e D ag s Mo sse b og a nd t h e A lva s t ra S pr ing M i re , l a rge , v e ry f l a t f en s a r e f ound . T he se f ens w e re b u i l t u p b y d i f f e ren t f en p l an t s , w h ich w e re f e r t i l ized b y t h e y ea r ly f l ood ing . T he f ens h ave b een t r an sfo rmed i n to t h ea r ab le l a nd a nd p a s tu re l a nd o f t oday . A tt h et ime w hen t h ep i le d we l l ing w a s b u i l t( "A lva s t ra T ime " ) t h i sf en a r ea w a s c ove red w i th s edge s , mo s t ly t a l lC arex -spec ie s . Mo s tp robab ly t h i sl a rge f en c on s t i tu ted a ni mpo r tan tg raz ing a r ea d ur ing t h eM idd le N eo l i th ic . T he m i re c omp lex w a so pen a nd t r ee le s se xcep ta tt h e ma rg in sw he re a l de ra nd w i l low f o rmed b road b e l t s . T he r i ch a nd v a r ied m ine rogen ic s o i l sc a r r ied r i ch a nd v a r ied f o re s t so fb road leaved t r ee s d u r ing t h eS tone A ge , a sd emon s t ra ted b yt h ep o l len d i ag ram s . T he p o l len d i ag ram f r om t h eD ag s Mo s se b og p re sen ted h e re ( F ig .2 )i sa ne xce rp tf r om my d i ag ram f r om t h a tb og i np r in t . T h is e xce rp t d iag ram c ove r s c .2 000 y ea r s o ft h e m idd le p a r t o fP o s tg lac ia l T ime ,f r om t h el a te s tp a r to fA t lan t ic T ime u pt ot h em idd le p a r to fS ubbo rea lT ime ,t h a t i s ,f r om t h el a te s tp ar to ft h e Me so l i th ic u pt ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic . A cco rd ing t ot h eS ue ss c a l ib ra t ion c u rve , 5 400 c onven t iona l 1 4 C -yea r sb efo re p re sen t( " b .p ." )c o r re spond st oc . 4 300 -4370 B .C . a nd 3 600 1 4 C -yea r s b . p . c o r re sponds t o c .2 000 -2100 B .C . ( Sue s s 1 979 ) . T he e lm d ec l ine i nt h eD ag s Mo sse b og i sd a ted t o5 180±60 b . p . T he e lm _dec l ine m ean s t h ei n i t ia lf a l lo ft h ee lm c u rve , n o ts ome l e ve la bove t h i si n i t ia lf a l l . T he re i sv e ry g r ea t c onfu s ion i nt h ed i scu s s ion o ft h ee lm d ec l ine .L e tu ss t a te t h a tt h ee lm d ec l ine m ean sj u s t t h e i n i t ia l f a l l o f t h e e lm c u rve a tt h e e nd o f A t lan t ic T ime , a nd n o th ing e l se . T he f o l low ing " e lm m in imum " i sa tl e a s tt h ree h und red y ea r sy ounge rt h an t h ee lm d ec l ine i na l lp o l len d i ag ram s ! Al a rge s e r ies o f 1 4 C -da t ings f r om t h e w ho le o fN o r th - We s tE u rope d emon s t ra te s t h a t t h ee lm d ec l ine i ss ynch ronou sw i th in t h e w ho le o ft h a ta r ea . T he ' 4C -da t ing sf r om t h e D ag s Mo sse b og , t h e Mabo Mo sse b og i nn o r th -ea s te rnmos t Smä land , 9 0 km t ot h e e a s t -sou thea s to ft h e D ag s Mo sse b og ( Gö ran s son 1 977 ) a nd f r om t h e Age röd s Mo s se b og i n t he m idd le o f S can ia ( N i lsson 1 964 ) d emons t ra te t h a t a l so t h e f o l low ing r e gene ra t ion o fe lm ( a nd l ime ,o ak a nd a sh w h ich o f ten d ec l ine a tt h es ame t ime a se lm )i s s ynch ronous a t l e a s t w i th in t h e w ho le o f e a s te rn Gö ta land . T he b eg inn ing o f t h e r egene ra t ion i sd a ted t o c .4 450 -c .4500 b . p . i n a l l t he t h ree b os s m en t ioned . T h is 1 4 C -da te c o r respond s t oc .3 350 B .C . ( Sue ss o p .c i t . ) . T he c .6 50 ' 4C -year s b e tween t h ee lm d ec l ine a nd t h eb eg inn ing o ft h eR egene ra t ion P ha se s hou ld t hu sc o r r e spond t oc . 7 30 s i de rea ly ea r s . A cco rd ing t ot r ad i t ion t h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic " expan s ion p ha se " s t a r t sa tt h ee lm d e c l ine a nd e nds a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e R egene ra t ion P ha se . I ti sn o tp os s ib le h e re t og o i n to t h e d e ta i l s o ft h i s s o -ca l led e xpan s ion p ha se , t h er e ade ri sr e commended t os t udy my w o rk o n t h e A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing ( Gö ransson 1 987 a nd Emanue l sson , B e rgendor f f a nd Gö ransson 1 987 ) . A cco rd ing t o t h e p o l len a na ly t ica l t r ad i t ion ( c f c omp i la t ion b y B e rg lund 1 969 ) a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica lt r ad i t ion ( c fG rä s lund 1 981 ) t h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic e xpan s ion c ea sed c .4 500 b . p . T he r egene ra t ion o ft h ef o res t sw h ich i sr ef l ec ted i n mo s t p o l len d iag rams f r om No r th - Wes t E u rope s hou ld i mp ly t ha t t h e f a rm ing e conomy " co l lapsed " ( G rä s lund o p . c i t . ) . A cco rd ing t oB rad ley ( 1978 ) t h e " Neo l i th ic e xpan s ion h ad t empo rar i ly o u t s t r ipped t h ec apac i ty o ft h es y s tem t os uppo r ti t " .T he a r chaeo log i s t s G rä s lund a nd B rad ley a r eg r ea t ly i nf luenced b yt h et h eo r ie so ft h ep o l len a na ly s t sa nd t h e a rgumen t g oes o n i n ac i rc le , a s t h e p o l len a na lys ts t h en c i te - a mong o the r s G rä s lund ( !) . H uge amoun t s o fc a rbon ized g ra in so fb a r ley a nd o f emme rw hea th ave b een r e co rded f r om t h ec u l tu re l a ye ro ft h eA lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing . T he v a lue so fc e rea l ia i nt h ep o l len d i ag ram f r om t h ec u l tu re l a ye rP r ee x t reme ly h igh ( F ig . 3 ) . Ih ave s ucceded i nf o l low ing t h is " c e rea lp eak " a c ro s s t h eA lva s t ra S p r ing M i re . A t ap o in t 3 2 mt ot h en o r th -ea s to f 1 54

Ma t s P . Ma lme r 's E a s te rn T rench w e f i nd t h i sc e rea lp eak j us ta tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e R egenera t ion P ha se ( F ig . 4 ) . P o l len f r om t h er egene ra t ing f o res t s o nh igh g round h ave b een m ixed w i th c e rea lp o l len w h ich w a sb rough tb yt h ew ind f r om t h ef l oo ro ft h ep i le d we l l ing t ot h es amp l ing s i te . T he A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing i sa bou t 1 000 s qua re m e t r e si na r ea a nd t h en umbe ro fv e r t ica l w ooden p o s t s i sw e l l o ve r 1 000 ( Ma lme r 1 984 ) . Aw ea l thy p ea san t s o c ie ty b u i l t t h e p i le dwe l l ing ( op .c i t . ) . J anzon ( 1984 ) f ound -t hank s t o ar ea l d e tec t ive j ob -a d e s t royed mega l i th ic g rave 1 500 m t ot h e s ou th -we s to ft h ep i le dwe l l ing a tt h ef oo to f t h e h i l l Ombe rg . T h i s meg l i th ic g rave i se v iden t ly o ft h e s ame a ge a st h e A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing ( J anzon o p .c i t . , Ma lme r o p .c i t . ) . I ta l so s e em s v ery l i ke ly t h a t t h e c .3 00 m ega l i th ic g rave s i n C en t ra l V ä s te rgö t land a r e o f t h e s ame a ge a s t h e A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing a nd t h em ega l i th ic g rave a t Ombe rg ( J anzon o p .c i t . , Ma lme ro p .c i t . ) . I ti sa l so e v iden t t ha t s ome o ft h e h uge m ega l i th ic g raves i nt h e B r i t i sh I s le s , f o re xamp le N ew G range ,w e re b u i l ta tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eR egene ra t ion P ha se I n as e r ie s o fp ape r s ( 1982 , 1 983 , 1 984a , 1 984b , 1 986 a nd 1 987 ) Ih ave s ugge s ted t h a t t h e R egene ra t ion P ha se , w h ich i st hu s s ynch ronou s o ve r v e ry l a rge a r ea s , may b e e xp la ined i nt h e f o l low ing w ay : c opp ice wood s w e re c r ea ted w i th in t h e mo re c en t ra l s e t t led a r ea s a nd t h e i mpo r tance o fc e rea l c u l t iva t ion i n c rea sed . B ecau se o f ac l ima t ic c hange a nd an ew f o rm o ff a rm ing , amuch mo re e conom ic a nd s e cu re u t i l iza t ion o ft h e f o re s tc ap i ta l w a s i n i t ia ted . Ih ave a l so s ugge s ted t h a t " t he E a r ly N eo l i th ic e xpan s ion " s hou ld b en amed " t he E a r ly N eo l i th ic D e s t ruc t ion " . B ecau se o f many i n te rac t ing f a c to r s t h e f o res t e co sy s tem o fn emo ra l b road leaved t r ees w a s w eakened . T he se f a c to r s may h ave b een b o th n on -b io log ica l( phy s ica l ) , s u ch a sc l ima te a nd f i re a nd /o rb io log ica l ,f o r e xamp le ,t r ee d i sea se sc omb ined w i th b row s ing . P e rhaps ,h oweve r ,t h eA lva s t ra A rea a nd C en t ra lV ä s te rgö t land t oge the rw i th s ome o t he r a r ea sw e re o n ly e xcep t ion sf r om ag ene ra lr u le a ss ugge s ted b yG rä s lund ( 1981 ,p .1 5 )? A cco rd ing t oG rä s lund f a rm ing s e em s t oh ave s u rv ived o n ly i nv ery " f avou rab le " a r ea s d u r ing t h eR egene ra t ion P ha se . F o r tuna te ly ,m any y ea r sa go Ip roduced ap o l len d i ag ram f r om t h e Mabo Mo s se b og i nN o r the rn T ju s ti nn o r th -ea s te rnmo s t Smä land ( F ig . 5 ) .T he a r ea a round t h e Mabo Mo sse b og g ive su s a" w i ld "i mp re ss ion t oday w i th f o re s t so fp ine a nd s pruce . T he b eg inn ing o ft h eR egene ra t ion P ha se ,a sm en t ioned ,i sd a ted a l so i nt h e Mabo Mo s se b og t oc .4 500 b . p . I ti se x t reme ly i n te re s t ing t oo b se rve t h a tc e rea lp o l len i sr eg is te red a l so i n t h e Mabo mos se b og d i ag ram f i r s t d u r ing t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e R egene ra t ion P ha se . T he u ppe rmo s t l e ve l i n t h e e xce rp t d iag ram , p re sen ted h ere , o ugh t t oh ave a 1 4 C -age o fc .4 400 b . p . D u r ing t h e t ime s pan b e tween 4 500 b . p . a nd 4 400 b . p . c e r ea l s w e re t hus c u l t iva ted i n t h e Mabo Mo sse b og a r ea i n No r thern T ju s t . T he f o res t s o f n emo ra lb road leaved t r ee so nt h el i gh ts o i l sw h ich s u r round t h e Mabo Mo s se b og , w e re , a cco rd ing t o my h ypo the s i s ,u t i l ized f o rt h ec u l t iva t ion o fc e rea l si n as y s tem o fc opp ice w ood s . P a r t s o ft h e c opp ice w ood s o n o the r s o i l s w e r e g razed , a sd emon s t ra ted b yt h e p re sence o fp o l len o fP lan tago l a nceo la ta i nt h e Mabo Mo s se b og d i ag ram . Mo s to ft h e c opp ice wood so no the rt h an l i gh ts o i l sw e re ,h oweve r ,p robab ly u sed f o rt h ec o l lec t ion o fl e a f -fodde r . D ur ing t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic D es t ruc t ion P ha se , f o res t f i res w e re v e ry c ommon i nt h e Mabo Mosse b og a r ea . T he se f o res t f i res a l so s p read t ot h e b og s u r f ace . D ur ing t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e R egene ra t ion P ha se ( "A lva s t ra T ime " ) t h e f o res t f i res a lmo s t t o ta l ly c ea sed a nd n o f i re s a f f ec ted t h e b og s u r f ace . T he d ecrea se i nf i res a tt h e s ame t ime a s c e rea l p o l len i sr eg i s te red s eem s t o s uppo r t my t h eo ry o f f o res t f a rm ing i n c opp ice woods .

1 55

A cco rd ing t o my h ypo the s is t h ef o re s tf i re s ,w h ich a r er eg i s te red o ve rv e ry l a rge a r ea so f No r th - We s t E u rope d u r ing t h e t ime b e tween t h e e lm d ec l ine a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e R egene ra t ion P ha se w e re p a r t ly c l ea rance f i r es i n i t ia ted b y man ,p a r t ly n a tu ra l f i re s i n d ry , d amaged f o re s ts . My h ypo the s i s t hus i mp l ies t h a t n o s l a sh -and -burn t o ok p lace d u r ing N eo l i th ic T ime i nt h ef o rme ra r ea o fn emo ra lb road leaved t r ee s i nN o r th - We s t E u rope . N eo l i th ic m an u t i l ized t h e f o re s t s i n a mos t s oph i s t ica ted w ay . T he f o re s t wo rked f or man , man d id n o tw o rk a ga in s ti t .T he f o r e s tw a sa l lowed t of unc t ion b o th a s m anu re -sp reade ra nd p lough . T he f o res t d es t ruc t ion d ur ing t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic w a s c aused b y many i n terac t ing p hy s ica la nd b i o log ica lf a c to r s , man a nd h i sl i ve -s tock b e ing o n ly o ne o ft h e se b i o log ica l f a c to r s . D ur ing t h e R egene ra t ion P ha se t h e f o re s t s r e cove red a nd amo re i n ten se a nd e f f ec t ive u se w a s made o ft h er i ch f o re s tc ap i ta l . A l ready d u r ing t h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic t h e d amaged f o re s t sw e re u sed a sc opp ice w ood s . D u r ing t h eR egene ra t ion P ha se ,h oweve r , t h eu t i l iza t ion o ft h ef o re s t sa sc opp ice w ood sw a sa ccomp l ished .T h is mean st h a td u r ing t h e t ime when t he A lvas t ra P i le Dwe l l ing w a s b e ing b u i l t , c u l t iva t ion c ou ld b e c oncen tra ted t oc e r ta in s e t t led a r ea s . W i th in t h e se c en t ra l s e t t led a r ea st h ey i e ld o fc o rn a nd o f mea tw a sh igh b ecau se o ft h ee f f ic iency o ft h ec opp ice w ood s . I n mo re ma rg ina la r ea st h ef o re s t sr egene ra ted f u l ly t h ank st ot h ec hanged c ond i t ion sf o r t h en emo ra lb road leaved t r ee s .T he p o l len a na ly s tw i l la lmo s te ve rywhe re g e tt h ep i c tu r e o f" un touched n a tu ra l f o re s t s " , w he the rh e g e t s p o l len s pec t ra f r om r egene ra ted f o res t s o u t s ide t h e c en t ra l s e t t led a r ea s o r h e g e t s t h em f r om c opp ice woods i nt h e se s e t t led a r ea s . I ti sa lmo s ti mpo s s ib le t od i s t ingu ish b e tween t h e se s pec t ra . O n ly w hen t h ep o l len a na ly s ti nve s t iga te s s ma l lb a s in s , s uch a s ,f o ri n s tance , t h e Mabo Mo sse b og ,h ew i l lb e a l b le t os e ew ha tt ook p l ace w i th in t h ef o re s t sd u r ing " A lava s t ra T ime " . D o ing s oh ew i l l u nde r s tand t h a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e R egene ra t ion P ha se r ef lec ts t he " r ea l " s t a r t o f f a rm ing i nS ou th S cand inav ia . A dm i t ted ly i tw a s f o re s t f a rm ing ; i tw as , h oweve r , t h e f i r s ts t ep t owa rd sg enu ine f a rm ing . H i the r to p o l len a na ly s t sh ave i n te rp re ted t h ep o l len d i ag ram si nt h ef o l low ing w ay : 1 )

ar eg re s s ion o fb road leaved t r ee sd u r ing N eo l i th ic T ime m ean s ac u l tu r a l e xpan s ion .

2 )

h igh v a lues o f b road leaved t r ees i n t he p o l len d iag ram s d u r ing L a te A t lan t ic T ime a nd d ur ing t he R egenera t ion P hase r ef lec t e pochs o f h un t ing -ga the r ing a nd /o ra b sence o ff a rm ing e conom ie s .

B y s t udy ing t h ep o l len d i ag ram sf r om Ö s te rgö t land ,n o r th -ea s ternmo s t Smä land ( Mabo Mo s se ) a nd S can ia ( Age röd s Mo s se )w eh ave n ow s e en t h a ts uch s imp le r e la t ion sd on o t e x i s t . Il i ve i nn o r th -we s te rn S can ia w he re many s ma l l -ho lde r s h ave t h e i rf i e ld s o fc o rn a nd w he re t h e c ows g raze o n r a the r s ma l l p a s tu re s . T hese c u l t iva ted a r ea s a r e i n te r spe r sed among f o re s t so fs pruce , b eech ,o ak a nd b i rch .T he c u l tu ra ll a nd scape h e re i sd om ina ted b y f o re s ts ; i ti s , h oweve r , a n a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd scape . A s ur face s amp le t a ken s ome h und red me t res i n s ide af o re s t i nt h is n o r th -we s t S can ian l a nd scape wou ld mo s t l i ke ly g ive a s pec t rum d om ina ted b y t r ee p o l len . I n t h e s ame w ay t h e f i e lds o f t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic f o re s tf a rme ra r ed i f fucu l tt ot r ace i no u rp o l len d i ag ram s . T he E a r ly N eo l i th ic D e s t ruc t ion P ha se i sf ound i na l lp o l len d i ag ram s , a si ti su n ive r sa l a nd c aused b y many i n te rac t ing f a c to r s , a bove a l l f a c to r s l y ing b eyond man 's c on t ro l . T he v e ry e f f ec t ive f o res t f a rm ing d ur ing t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e R egene ra t ion P ha se ( "A lva s t ra T ime " ) mu s tg i ve u s ap i c tu re o ff o re s t si no u rp o l len d i ag ram s .

1 56

T he f o re s to fn emo ra lb road leaved t r ee s w a s S tone A ge man 's g rea te s tr e sou rce i nt h e i n te r io r . T he f o re s t w a s u t i l ized i n amos t e f f ic ien t w ay : i tw a s u t i l ized w i thou tb e ing d e s t royed . I tw a s d u r ing t h i s t ime o fh igh ly e ff i c ien tf o re s tf a rm ing d u r ing t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic t h a tt h eA lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing w a sb u i l t .

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R eferences B e rg lund , B .E . 1 969 . V ege ta t ion a nd h uman i nf luence i nS ou th S cand inav ia d u r ing P reh i s to r ic T ime . O iko sS upp l . 1 2 , 9 -28 . C openhagen . B rad ley ,R . 1 978 .The P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen to fB r i ta in . L ondon . Emanue lsson , U . , B e rgendor f f , C . , a nd Gö ran sson , H .1987 . Ar e con s truc t ion o ft he l a ndscape a round A lvas t ra P i le Dwe l l ing , 5 400 b .p . -4 000 b .p . ( w i th 1 7 c ompu ter -drawn maps ) .Theses a nd P aper s i n Nor th -European A rchaeo logy . S tockho lm . I np re s s . G rä s lund , B . 1 981 . C l ima t ic F luc tua t ion si nt h eE a r ly S ubbo rea lP e r iod . Ap re l im ina ry D iscu ss ion . S TRIAE , V o l . 1 4 , 1 3 -22 . U ppsa la . Gö ransson , H . 1 977 . T he F land r ian V ege ta t iona l H i s to ry o fS ou the rn Ö s te rgö t land . T hes is 3 . , U n iv . L und . , Dep t . Q ua t .Geo l . L und . - 1 982 . T he u t i l iza t ion o ft h ef o re s t si nN o r th - We s tE u rope d ur ing E a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic . S ec . N o rd . C onf . A pp l . S c . Me th . A rch . PACT 7 ,2 07 -221 . S t ra sbou rg . - 1 983 . N ä rb ö r ja rN eo l i t ikum ?P opu lär A rkeo log i1 : 3 ,4 -7 . L und . - 1 984a . V id a lm fa l le tg ä rr i dän u pp .P opu lä rA rkeo log i2 :2 ,2 0 -25 . L und . - 1 984b . P o l len a na ly t ica l i nves t iga t ion s i nt h e S l igo A rea .In : T he A rchaeo logy o f C a r rowmo re ( Ed . G .Bu renhu l t ) . T hese sa nd P aper si nN or th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy 1 4 , 1 54 -193 . S tockho lm . - 1 986 . Man a nd t h e F o res t so fN emo ra l B road -Leaf ed T rees D u r ing t h e S tone Age . S TRIAE , V o l . 2 4 . U ppsa la . - 1 987 . N eo l i th ic Man a nd t h e F o re s t E nv i ronmen t a round A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing . T he se sa nd P aper si nN or th -European A rchaeo logy . S tockho lm . J anzon , G .O . 1 984 . A Mega l i th ic G rave a tA lva s t ra i nÖ s te rgö t land , Sweden . I n : T he A rchaeo logy o f C ar rowmore ( Ed . G .Burenhu l t ) .Theses a nd P apers i n N or th -European A rchaeo logy 1 4 , 3 61 -366 . S tockho lm . Ma lme r , M .P . 1 984 . O n t h e S oc ia l F unc t ion o fP i le Dwe l l ings a nd Mega l i ths . I n : T he A rchaeo logy o f C a r rowmore ( Ed . G .Burenhu l t ) . T heses a nd P aper s i n N or th -European A rchaeo logy 1 4 , 3 71 -375 . S to ckho lm . N i l sson , T . 1 964 . S tanda rdpo l lend iag ramme u nd C1 4 -D a t ie rungen a us d em A ge röd s mo sse i mm i t t ler en S chonen .L und s U n iv .Ä r sskr if tN .F . 2 :59 . 5 2p p . L und . S ue ss , H .E . 1 979 . AC a l ib ra t ion T ab le f o r C onven t iona l R ad ioca rbon D a te s . I n : B erger , R & S uess , H .E . ( ed s ) , R ad iocarbon Da t ing . B erke ly -Los A nge le s -London .

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SO ME ASPECTS OF CULTURAL RELATIONSHIP AND ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS DURING THE LATE MESOLITHIC AND EARLY NEOLITHIC B y L ars L arsson I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . I C ra f t s to rg 1 .S -223 5 0L und , Sweden . T he t r an s i t ion f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t ot h eN eol i th ic h a s ,s i nce i tw a se s tab l i shed ac en tu ry a go , a lway sf a sc ina ted a r chaeo log i s t s ,e ven t h ough a c tua ld i scu s s ion o ft h ep e r iod u nde r r e v iew h a s , i nt e rm s o fr e sea r ch h i s to ry , b een mo re t ot h e f o re a ts ome t im e s t h an a t o t he r s . T h i s i st r ue n o tl e a s to fr e cen ty ea r s , w he re in i n te re s t ing a spec t s c on junc t ive t o b o th t h e s oc ia l a nd n a tu ra l s c ience s h ave b een d eba ted ( J ennbe r t 1 984 ; 1 985a ; 1 985b ; M .La r s son 1 984 ; 1 985a ;1985b ; R ow ley C onwy 1 984a , 1 984b ; 1 985 ;Z ve leb i l &R ow ley C onwy 1 984 ; B e rg lund 1 985a ; 1 985b ; N ie l sen 1 985 ) . T h i s c on t r ibu t ion b y n o m ean s p r e t end st oc on s t i tu te a na l l -emb ra c ing a ccoun to ft h i sm any -f a ce t ted s ub jec t ,b u tr a the r h a s a si t so b jec tt h ep i n -po in t ing o fc e r ta in c ond i t ion sw h ich mo s tp robab ly h ave b een o f s i gn i f i cance i nt h ep roce s se sw h ich g ove rned t h ec hange f r om ac a t chmen tt oa na g r ar ian e conomy . T he r esearch a reas T he p r ima ry r e a son f o rt h e a u tho r ' s i n te re s ti nt h i sp roce s s i sd ue t oh i se ngagemen ti n t h el a rge -sca le , c ro s s -sc ien t if i cp ro jec to f f ic ia l ly c aled T he C u l tu ra lL and scape D u r ing 6 000 Y ea r s ,o r -mo re p ro sa ica l ly -T he Y s tad P ro jec t , ( La r s son & L a r s son 1 984 ; 1 986 ; B e rg lund 1 985b ; L a r s son 1 985a ; R egne l l 1 985 ) . T he a r ea emb raced b y t h e l a t te r c omp r i se sL jun i t 's a nd H e r re s tad ' sh und red so nt h eS ou th S can ian B a l t ic c oa s t .T he t o ta l r e se a r ch a r ea d i sp lay sc on s ide rab le d i f f e ren ce si nr ega rd t ob o th s o i l type a nd t o pog raphy . L a rge a r ea s i nt h e c oa s ta l z one a r e c omp r i sed o f al ow land t e r ra in w i th l i gh t s o i l s , mo s t ly s a nd -adm ixed . C on s ide rab le s e c t ion so ft h ef l a tl a nd scape w i th in t h i sp a r to ft h e r e sea rch a r ea f e a tu re , h oweve r , a n u ndu la t ing t e r ra in w i th much mo re v a r ied s o i l c ompo s i t ion si nt h er eg ion o ft h eh i n te r land . T he l a t te rs e c t ion o ft h er e sea r ch a r ea may b e d i v ided i n to t wo m a in z one s w he re t h e b o rde r b e tween t h em i ss omewha tf l u id ; a n o u te rh in te r land z one m a in ly c ompo sed o fl i gh t mo ra in c l ay s a nd a ni nne rz one w i th a c on s ide rab ly g r ea te re l emen t o fc oa r se rf r a c t ion s c on ta in ing l e s s c l ay a nd , i na dd i t ion , l e s sr i ch i nl ime . A no the rr e sea r ch a r ea w h ich p r ima r i ly c once rn s t h e L a te Me so l i th ic s e t t lemen to n t h e s ou the rn S can ian B a l t i cc oa s ti st h a tc a l led S ka teho lm ,w h ich b o rde r so nt h eY s tad a r ea t owa rd st h e We s ta nd w he r ei n t en s ive e xcava t ion sh ave b een c onduc ted d u r ing t h ey ea r s 1 980 -85 ( La r sson 1 984b ; 1 987b ) . S tud ie s r e la t ive t o t h e l a t te r a r e , t h e r efo re , a n i mpo r tan tc omp lemen tt ot h es t udy i nh and . T he p re -h i s to r ic a spec t o ft h e s t udy w i th in t h e w ide r s cope o ft h e Y s tad P ro jec t w a s b a sed o nt h e mode lr e la t ing t oh uman i nf luence o nt h ee nv i ronmen ta sh ypo the s ized b y B e rg lund ( 1 969 ) . H e re , h ed i sce rn s an umbe ro fe xpan s ion p ha se sw h ich a r em a rked b y a ni n c rea sed s ha re o fp l an t sw ho se p re sence i si n te rp re ted a sp roo fo fd i r ec to ri nd i rec t h uman c ausa l i ty . B e rg lund , i n t h e p o l len -d iag ram s f r om s eve ra l p o in t s i n s ou the rn S cand inav ia ,h a si d en t i f ied c hange si nt h el a nd scape ' s make -up d u r ing p r e -h i s to r ic t ime a nd d ocumen t ed a l toge the rf ou re xpan s ion s t age s . T he f i r s ts t age -w h ich c an h a rd ly b et e rmed e xpan s ive i nt h et r ue m ean ing o ft h ew o rd , 1 65

b u tr a the ra sa ni n i t ia lp ha se -c o inc ide sw i th t h ec o lon iza t ion p ha se a l ready d i sce rned b y I v e r sen a tt h et r an s i t ion f r om t h e Me sol i th ic t ot h eN eol i th ic e r a( I ve r sen 1 94 1 ) . A no the rm a rked e xpan s ion p ha se d i sce rnab le i nt h ep o l len -d iag ram si sd a t ed b yB e rg lund a sh av ing b een i n i t ia ted r ound a bou t2 900 B .C . a nd c an b ef o l lowed u pt oc .1 250 B .C . , a ne poch w h ich c on s t i tu te st h ea c tua lp e r iod o fe xpan s ion i nw h ich t h ee f f ec t so fh uman i n f luence r ad ica l ly a l t e r ed t h ea ppea rance o ft h ec u l tu r a ll a nd scape . T he o lde s tp ha se i nt h e S can ian d i ag ram , r ep re sen ted b y t h e s t anda rd p rof i le f r om t h e B jä r s jöho lm ss jön l a ke ( N i ls son 1 961) , f e a tu re s ama rg ina l b u t n one the le s s c l ea r ly d i sce rnab le i n i t ia ls t age ,w h ich a f te rs ome c en tu r ie st r an s ide si n to a na c tua le xpan s ion .A m an if e s tr eg re s s ion i sn o t iceab le a bou t 3 200 B .C . As e cond e xpan s ion s t age i nS can ia a g r ee sw el w i th I v e r sen ' sp o l len a na ly se sf r om D enma rk . E ven i f , a s t h e a bove i nd ica te s , t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h a t w h ich f i r s t a ppea red a s a m arg ina la l te ra t ion o ft h ee nv i ronmen ta st h er e su l to fh uman i n t e r f e rence e ven tue l ly l e d t o ac u l tu ra ll a nd scape w h ich d i sp layed c hange so fv a ry ing magn i tude s ,i nt e rm so fb o th t ime a nd s pa ce ,t h ef a c tr ema in st h a tt wo d i s t inc te xpan s ion -pha se sa r ec l ea r ly d i sce rnab le i nr e ga rd t ot h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod .T he f i r s tc on s t i tu t e s ac hange w h ich a ppea r sa sm a rked i n c rea se i na n e a r l ie r h uman induced a l te ra t ion o ft h e l a nd scape . T he s e cond s t age o f e xpan s ion ,o ccu r sa f te rs om ec en tur ie so fr eg re s s ion o rs t agna t ion . I n sof a ra se a ch p o l len d i ag ram r ef l ec t st h e s pec if i ce nv i ronmen ta si ti si nt h ei mm ed ia te v i c in i ty o ft h e s amp le p o in ta nd , a ss uch , n o tt ob e t a ken a sb e ing r ep r e sen ta t ive o ft h e c oun t ry s ide a s al a rge rw ho le , b u tr a the ra st h eb a s i sf o ra n h ypo the t ica l a ccoun to ft h e n a tu re o ft h ec u l tu ra l l a nd scape ' s g row th . P o l len p ro f i le s f r om s e ve ra l s amp le p o in t s i n t h eY s tad a r ea w e re ,t h e r e fo r e , a na ly sed i no rde rt op i n -po in tt h a tw h ich i sc ha ra c t e r i s t ic c once rn ing t h ea r ea ' s s h a r ei nt h ec u l tu r e ind i ca t ive f l o r a lc hange s . T he o r ien ta t ion o fs t ud ie sr ega rd ing t h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod i s ,t h en ,t owa rd s a na t temp tt o p l a ce t h e se q ua te rna ry -b io log ica l ly p roven c hange s i nr e la t ion t ot h e c u l tu r e -h i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t w he re , s im i la r t ot h e p o l len -d iag ram s , l o ca l c ond i t ion s a r e f ound w h ich n a tu ra l ly c anno tb ea pp l ied a se xamp le so fc u l tu re -h i s to r ica lc hange so ve r ag r ea t e ra r ea c e r ta in ly n o tw i thou t ag r ea td ea lo fr e se rva t ion . F rom Meso l i th ic t o N eo l i th ic T he t h eo r ie s c once rn ing t h e i n t roduc t ion o f a g r icu l tu re a nd p a s to ra l a c t iv i t ie s c an b e s ubd iv ided i n to t wo a l ter na t ive mode l s .T he f i r s t mode li sb a sed o nt h ec i r cum s tance t h a t t h et r an s i t ion f r om ac a tchmen tt o ap a s to ra lw ay o fl i f em ean t ac on s ide rab le c hange i n t h ee conom ic c ond i t ion s ( Beck e r 1 955 ,p .1 62 ) .A dvoca t e so ft h i s mode lh ave s ome t ime s u sed t h e t e rm N eo l i th ic R evo lu t ion , a st hough t oe mpha s i se , i fn o t t oe xagge ra te t h e s cope o f t h e r e -s t ruc tu ra l i sa t ion o f t h e e conomy . B u t t h i s t h eo ry may a l so i n c lude a l te rna t ive e xp lana t ions , s uch a s t h a t t h e e nv i ronmen t a l te r s r ad ica l ly , w he r eby t h e e s tab l i shed l i f epa t t er nb ecome s s ub jec ted t o ma rked d i s tu rbance s . N ew m ean so fs upp ly c ou ld ,i nt h i ss i tua t ion ,w in g r ea ti nf luen ce a nd t h e r eby r e su l ti nc hange si nt h es e t t lem en t p a t te rn a nd p o s s ib ly e ven i nt h es o c ia ls t ruc tu re . T he s e cond mode li sb a sed o nt h ea s sump t ion t h a tn of undamen ta lr e vo lu t iona ry c hange t o ok p l ace ,b u tr a the rt h a tt h i sw a sg r adua l , w i thou ta ny g r ea td i s tu rbance o ft h ea b id ing s o c ia l c ond i t ions / s t ruc tu re ( T roe ls -Sm i th 1 953 , p .4 2 ) . H e re , t h e n ew m eans o fs upp ly a r e s e en a sn o th ing mo re t h an a sb e ing c omp lemen ta ry , w i th l i t t le o rn o e f f ec to n t h e p r econd i t ion sr e la t ive t ot h ee s tab l i shed e conomy a nd s o c ia lp a t ter n . I ti so n ly a t al a te r s t age t h a ta g r icu l tu r ea nd p a s to r a la c t iv i t ie sb ecome d ec i s ive f a c to r si nt h ee conomy .

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I ti sb yn om eans e a sy t od i sce rn t h e b o rde r s b e tween t h ese t wo t h eo r ies a nd e xamp le s e x i s tw he re a spec t so fe a ch a r ei n g red ien t si nt h e mode lr e ga rd ing t h et r an s i t ion f r om a c a t chmen tt oa na g ra r ian e conomy . O ne o ft h e se a spec t sc once rn st h es i gn if icance o ft h e e ven tua l e f f ec t s o fi mm ig ra t ion . E ven i fo ne t o ne s d own t h e e a r l ie rp romu lga t ion t h a t g r oup so fp eop le w i th aN eo l i th ic e conomy i mm ig ra ted a nd l i t e ra l ly w iped o u to rd rove o u tt h ei nd igen tp opu la t ion ,t h ee f f ec t so fs u ch a ni nva s ion ,e ven o n as ma l l s c a le , wou ld s t i l lb e ah igh ly v a l id e xp lana t ion ,b ecau se i ns p i te o fw h ich mode lo ne p re f e r s , t h ef a c t r ema in s t h a tf o re ign e l emen t s w e re i n t roduced i nc on junc t ion w i th t h e t r an s i t ion t oa n a g r icu l tu ra l /pa s to ra le conomy , s u ch a sc e r ea l sa nd t ame a n ima l sl i ke s h eep a nd g oa t s . B u ti ti sn o tm e r e ly aq ue s t ion o fi n t roduc ing t h en ew p l an t sa nd a n ima l s .I ti s ,t oa ne ven g r ea te rd eg r ee , aq ue s t ion o fk now ledge a st oh ow t h e se n ew s pec ie ss hou ld b et e nded i n o rde rt h a tt h ey s hou ld s u rv ive a nd mu l t ip ly t h a ts e em sd i f f icu l tt oc ommun ica te w i thou t d i rec t c on ta c t w i th p rac t i s ing f a rme r s . T h i s may mean t h a t t h e t r an s i t ion t ook p lace t h rough t h ea gency o fs ma l lg roup so fi mm ig ran tf a rm e r s ,o rb yw ay o f ad i r ec ts ha r ing o fk now ledge . I n t h e f o rme r c a se t h e n ew e conom ic b a s i s c an h ave s p read r ap id ly , w he rea st h el a t te ra l te rna t ive i n s inua t e s ad e layed -a c t ion p ro ce s si nt h ec on ta c t sb e tween We s ta nd E a s ti nS ou th S cand inav ia . C hanges o f t he c oa s ta l e nv ironmen t C e r ta in a na ly s is re su l t s r ega rd ing C1 3 v a lue s i nh uman b one s h ave b een p re sen ted i n r e cen ty ea r s a nd t h e se h ave b een a pp l ied a st h e b a s i s f o r as t udy r ega rd ing t h er e a son w hy a n e conomy b a sed o n c a tchmen t c hanges t o , o r i s s upp lemen ted b y a g r icu l tu ra l /pa s to ra l a c t iv i t ie s . D i s t inc t d i f f e rence s i n t h e C1 3 con ten t b e tween t h e b one -ma te r ia l i n Me so l i th ic c on t ra N eo l i th ic g r ave s h ave b een o b served i nD enma rk , w he re t h er e la t ive v a lue sa r eb e tween 12° /oo a nd 15° /oo i n Me so l i th ic g rave s a ga in s t 1 8° /oo a nd 2 5° /oo i nN eo l i th ic g r ave s ( Taube r 1 981 ) . T he f o rme ri n t e rva li sc onnec ted w i th ad i e t w h ich i sp r ima r i ly b a sed o n s e a l a nd f i sh . When t h e l a t te r v a r ia t ion i s a s soc ia ted w i th t e r re s t r ia l f a una a nd f l o ra t h e v a lue s p rov ide a n e x t reme ly i n te re s t ing f ounda t ion o n wh ich t o b a se a n ew w ay o f s t udy ing t h e e conomy . A d eg ree o f u nce r ta in ty e x i s t si nt h ea ppl i ca t ion o ft h e se a na ly se si nt h a tt h e Me so l i th ic g r ave sa r ea l l o ca ted w i th in t h ee a s ter na nd n o r the rn Z ea land r eg ion a nd r e la ted t oa c tua lc oa s t -bound s i te s , w h i le t h e N eo l i th ic g rave m a te r ia l -w i th o ne e xcep t ion -o r ig ina te s f r om i n land s i te s o n t h ei s land s o fF unen a nd L ange land a nd f r om J u t land . T he e xcep t ion -wh ich m igh tp rove t h er u le i na ne va lua t ion o ft h i sm e thod -c on s i s t so f ag r ave n ea rD rag sho lm o nt h en o r th -we s te rn Z ea land ic c oa s t ,w he r e -i mmed ia te ly a d ja cen tt ot h eN eo l i th ic g r ave -aMe sol i th ic d oub leg r ave w a sf ound ( Br in ch P e te r sen 1 974 ) .B o th g r ave sa r er e la t ive t o o ne a nd t h e s ame c oa s t -bound s i te , b u te ach d i sp lay s m an if e s t ly d i f f e ren t C1 3 va lue s . T h i sw ou ld m ean t h a tp e r son s w ho w e re b u r ied t h e r e d u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod mo s t p robab ly a l so o ccup ied as e t t lemen ta d jacen tt ot h es ho re l i ne ,b u tw i thou te xp lo i t ing t h e m a r ine r e sou r ce st ot h es ame d eg ree a sd u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod . O nt h eo t he rh and , t h e l ow C1 3 va lue s d o n o t s how w he the r t h e t e r re s t r ia l f auna i n t h e d i e t w e re t h e p roceed so fh un t ing a nd g a the r ing ,o ro fa g r icu l tu ra la nd p a s to ra la c t iv i t ie s ,e ven t h ough i tl i e s n ea r t oh and t op o s tu la te ar e -s t ruc tu r ing o f t h e e conomy o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e se d i f f e r ence s i n C1 3 c on ten t . Ap r ima ry q ue s t ion r a i sed b y t h e C ' 3a na ly se sq ue r ie s t h e c au se o rc ha in o fe ven t sw h ich l i eb eh ind t h ec i rcum s tance t h a tt h es i gn if i cance o fm a r ine h un t ing a nd f i sh ing a ppe a r st oh ave d e c rea sed d r a s t ica l ly . Ac hange i nf i sh ing w i th ab i a st owa rd sp a r t icu la rs pec ie s o ra l te red b io tope sf o rt ho se s p ec ie sw h ich c on t inued t ob ec augh tm ay a l so e f f ec tc hange si nt h e C1 3 c on ten t . A no the re xp lana t ion m ay b et h a tc hange si nt h ee co log ica lc ond i t ion sm ean tt h a tp eop le d i dn o t ma in ta in t h em se lve sw i th in t h ec oa s ta la r ea t ot h es ame d eg r ee a se a r l ie r ,w he r eby t h er o le o fm a r ine -ba sed h un t ing a nd f i sh ing d im in i shed . I nt h i sc a se i ti sp r ima r i ly t h e 1 67

c oa s ta l z one 's e co log ica l p re -cond i t ions w h ich h ave b een d ec i s ive , i nt h a t s e t t lemen t d ur ing t h e L a te Meso l i th ic w a s b a sed o n t h ese a nd w hen ad i s t inc t c oncen t ra t ion o f c oa s ta l s e t t lemen tc an b ed i sce rned . T he p re -cond i t ion sf o ry ea r round s e t t lemen th ave mo s tp robab ly e x i s ted b o th i nt h eh i n te r land a nd o nt h ec oa s td u r ing t h eE a r ly Me sol i th ic . T he n a tu re o fi n land s e t t lemen ta ppea r st oh ave a l te r ed d u r ing t h eL a te Me so l i th ic w i th in c on s ide rab le p a r t so fs ou the rn S cand inav ia ,w he re ac hange f r om p e rmanen t ,y ea r round s e t t lemen tt os ho r t te rm s t ay sc ha rac te r i sed b ys pec ia l i sed h un t ing ,f i sh ing a nd g a the r ing a nd when t h el a rge rp e rmanen ts e t t lemen t s a r et ob ef ound i nt h ec oa s ta l z one ( La r s son 1 983 , p p . 1 29 f . ) . C er ta in i nd ica t ion s t owa rd s c oa s ta l c oncen t ra t ion c an b e d i sce rned a l ready d ur ing t h e K ongemo se c u l tu re , b u t t h e t e ndency b ecomes mo re man if e s t d u r ing t h e E r te l :0 l le c u l tu re . Ap a r t icu la rc i r cum s tance n ow p roved i n af ew p l aces , b u t o ne w h ich may b e a s sumed t oh ave b een mo re g ene ra l , i st h a to fc omp lexes c omp r i s ing l a rge s e t t lemen t s a nd a d jacen tg rave -f ie ld s . T h i sc omb ina t ion h a sb een e s tab l i shed i na tl e a s tf ou rs i te si n s ou the rn S cand inav ia , n ame ly a tB ogebakken o nt h eD an i sh O re sund c oa s ta nd a tt h ree s i te sw i th in t h ec onf ines o fa n a nc ien tb ay a tS ka teho lm o nt h e s ou the rn S can ian B a l t ic c oa s t ( A lb re thsen & B r inch P e te r sen 1 977 ; L a r sson 1 984 1 ) ; 1 987b ) . T he s i tes a nd i n te r re la ted g rave -f ie ld sa r ed a ted a sh av ing b een i n cep ted d u r ing t h e s i x th m i l lenn ium . S i te ss im i la rt ot h el a t te rh ave b een e ncoun te red i ns eve ra la r ea si nD enma rk a nd S can ia , f o r wh ich r e a son t h e se a r e t a ken a s t h e b a s i s f o r ad i scuss ion o n h ow t h e e co log ica l c ond i t ions c an h ave d eve loped a tt h e e nd o fL a te Me so l i th ic a nd b eg inn ing o fE a r ly N eo l i th ic t ime . T he B ogebakken s i te i sl o ca ted o nt h ee dge o f al a rge b og c omp lex w h ich c on s t i tu ted a n a r row a nd d eep b ay r unn ing i n to t h e O resund s t ra i t . Av e ry d e ta i led p i c tu re o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween l a nd a nd w a te rh a sb een o b ta ined a st h er e su l to f ac omb ina t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd q ua te rna ry - b io log ica li nve s t iga t ions . H e re , s im i la rt oo the r s i te s i n S ou th S cand inav ia , as e r ie s o ft r ansg re ss ion s a nd i n te rven ing r eg re ss ions o rp e r iod s o f s t agna t ion c an b e d i scer ned ( Ch r i s tensen 1 982 , F ig . 1 ) . An a l te rna t ing s equence o f t r an sg res s ions o f u p t o ag ood m e t re i n h e igh t a nd s ub sequen t r eg ress ions o f l e sse r magn i tude c an b e f o l lowed d u r ing t h e who le s pan o f t h e L a te Meso l i th ic . I ti so n ly t owa rd st h ee nd o ft h eL a te Me so l i th ic a nd b eg inn ing o ft h eN eo l i th ic t h a tt h i sc ond i t ion r eve r se st oo ne w he re t h er eg re s s ions b ecome o fg rea te r magn i tude t h an t h ec on t inua l ly e x i s t ing t r an sg re s s ion s . An e x ten s ive s ys tem o fs and -ba r r ie r sw a sf o rmed a tt h e mou th o ft h e b ay i nc on junc t ion w i th t h e i n crea s ing r i ses i ns e a l e ve l . I nt h e c ou r se o ft h e se , c ons ide rab le a moun t s o fn u t r ien t s i nt h e s o i l c ame t ob e w a shed o u t a nd e n r iched t h e w a te r . Ah e igh tened l e ve l h a s a l so m ean ta n i n crea sed w a te rv o lume a nd t h e reby t oa n e ve r -h ighe rt u rn -ove ro fo xygen a nd n u t r ien t s . T ha t s eve ra l d i f f e ren tp a r t s o ft h e b ay 's e co sy s tem w e re e xp lo i ted i ss hown b yt h ef a c t t h a ts e t t lemen th a sb een e s tab l i shed b o th w i th in t h eb ay a nd o u t s ide o nt h en ew ly -fo rmed s and -ba r r ie r s ( Chr i s ten sen 1 982 , F ig . 6 ) . An a l l t oo e x tens ive n a tu ra l b u i ld ing -up o ft h e s and -ba r r ie r s c ame , h oweve r , t oh ave d ra s t ic c on sequence s f o r t h e e co log ica l s i tua t ion . T he e x ten t e ven tua l ly r ea ched s uch p ropor t ion st h a tc on tac tb e tween t h eb ay a nd o pen s e ab ecame a l lb u tc omp le te ly c u to f f ( yang P e te r sen 1 982 , p .1 41) . T h i s s ub sequen t ly h ad t r auma t ic e f f ec t si nt h a te xchange b e tween t h et wo a r ea s o fw a te rd im in ished a nd f i na l ly c ea sed . I na dd i t ion , al owe rs e a l e ve lr e su l ted i n ar a p id r e -g row th o ft h eb ay . T h i sc an h ave mean tt h a tt h ep re -cond i t ion s f o rf i sh ing t ot h ee x ten ta si th ad b een d i sappea red c omp le te ly w i th in ar e la t ive ly s ho r t s pace o ft ime . T he b ay ' s s i gn i f icance a sa ni mpo r tan te co log ica ln i che d im in ished g r ea t ly t o ap o in to fn oc on sequence d u r ing t h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic . I n sof a ra st h eb ay a tV edbxk i s o n ly o ne o f many s im i la r ly -fo rmed i nE a s t D enma rk t h e c hanges s ke tched a bove c an h ave h ad ac on s ide rab le e f f ec to n t h ep o ss ib i l i t ie s f o rt h ec on t inued c onduc to f ma r ine

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h un t ing a nd f i sh ing f r om t h ee s tab l i shed s e t t lemen tc oncen t ra t ion s . E a r l ie r i nve s t iga t ion s f r om t h e s ou the rn p a r to ft h e.S can ian a r ea u nde rr ev iew s how a s e quence o fe ven t sa na logou st ot h eb ay a tV edxk . ö ja -He r re s tad ' sb og i nt h eY s tad a r ea c on s t i tu ted ab ay d ur ing t h eL a te Me so l i th ic ,w hen a ne x ten s ive s y s tem o fs and -ba r r ie r s c ame t ob ef o rmed w i th in w ha ti s , t o day , ac oa s t -ad jacen tz one ( N i l s son 1 935 , p p . 4 55 f . ) . T he se h ad t h e e f f ec t o f c u t t ing o f f t h e c onnec t ion b e tween t h e b ay a nd s e a i n c on junc t ion w i th t h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic r eg r e s s ion s a nd w i th t h e s ame r e su l t s a sd e sc r ibed a bove . As omewha t d i f f e ren t s t a te o f a f f a i r s e x is t s i nr ega rd t ot h e a r ea a round t h e s i te a t S ka teho lm . H e re , t h e b ay h ad ac omp le te ly d i f f e ren t f o rma t ion , w i th aw ide o pen ing . I n so f a ra st h ea r ea c omp r i se s af l a tt e r ra in e ven m ino rr i se si ns e al e ve l sh ave m ean tt h a t l a rge p a r t s o f i tf l ooded o ve r . T he c oas t l ine 's c on tou r s a l te red d u r ing t h e L a te Me so l i th ic , w hen s ma l l c ape s a nd b ay s t ook s hape , w he re in e ven am ino ra r ch ipe lago w a s f o rmed . B eech s pu r so r s andba r r ie r s e x i s ted a tt h e mou th w h ich p ro tec ted t h eb ay f r om t h e o pen s e a . T he se s pu r s c ame t o b e s ubme rged a tt h e t r an sg re s s iona l p eak , h oweve r ,w h ich m ean tt h a tw hen t h i se a r l ie rb u f f e rd i sappea red t h ec on tou r so ft h ei n ne r b ay i t se lf c ame t or ep re sen t t h e a c tua l c oa s t l ine w i th s ub sequen t e ro s ion a nd e xpo sed s i tua t ion .T he s e t t lemen th a sb een f o rced t o move f r om t h ee a r l ie rp ro jec t ing l o ca t ion st o mo re i n -d rawn a nd s e c luded s i te s . T he l a te rr e g re s s ion s ,o nt h eo t he rh and ,c ame t oh ave a pp rox ima te ly t h es ame e f f ec t s a sm en t ioned ,i . e . t h ef o rma t ion o f ab lockad ing s y s tem o fs a nd b a r r ie r s . E ven t hough t h e s e t t lemen tc oncen t ra t ion r e f e r red t oa bove h ave b een l o ca ted i nb ay so f d i f f e ren tf o rm st h es i tua t ion w h ich m a in ta ined d u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic -Neol i th ic t r an s i t iona l p e r iod h a s n one the le s s h ad as im i la r a nd e qua l ly d ra s t ic e f f ec t o n t h e e a r l ie r f o rm o f s e t t lemen t . T ha t t h e l a t te r f o rm w a s f ounded o n a ge -o ld t r ad i t ions , b u t who se p re -cond i t ions r ad ica l ly a l te red , i s i nd ica ted b y , a mong o the r s , t h e c ond i t ions a t S ka teho lm ,w he r et h e movem en to fs e t t lemen ta r ea ,f o r ced b ya ne ve r -h ighe rw a te rl e ve l , c an b ef olowed o ve r ap e r iod s pann ing mo re t h an am i l lenn ium . T h ree c omp lexe sw i th s e t t lemen ta nd c eme te ry a r ea c an b ed i sce rned d u r ing t h i sp e r iod .T he i ri n te r r e la tedne s s i ss hown i nt h a tt h ed i s tance b e tween e ach s i te i sn o mo re t h an 2 00 m e t re s . T he f a c t t ha t ac hange i n t h e e co log ica l c ond i t ions may e x i s t i ss ugge s ted b y t h e s t ra t ig raphy o f s ome J u t land ic k i t chen m idden s , w h ich c on ta in b o th Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic a r t i fa c t s . O y s te rs hel sc on s t i tu te t h em a jo rp a r to f mo l lu sc r ema in si nt h eL a te Me so l i th ic l a ye r s , w h i le ar ad ica l c hange o ccu r s i nc on junc t ion w i th t ho se c on ta in ing N eo l i th ic a r t if ac t s , w he reby o y s te r s a l l b u td i sappea ra nd t h el a ye rc ome si n s tead t ob e d om ina ted b y h ea r tc ocke l s a nd b lue mu sse ls ( J a rman e ta l . 1 982 , p .9 3 ) . T h i s c an b e i n te rp re ted a s m ean ing t h a t e i the r t h e e a r l ie r p re -cond i t ions c onduc ive t o o ys te r s d i sappea red , o r e l se c hanged r ad ica l ly . A no the r e xp lana t ion w ou ld b e t h a t t h e e nv i ronmen t c hanged i ns uch aw ay t h a t t h e g a the r ing o fo y s te r s w a s i mpa i red . T he r educed d epend ency o nm a r ine f ood s tuf f sc an a l so b es hown b ym ean so ff i nd sf r om t h e E a s tJ u t land s i te sd a ted t ot h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic p e r iod ,w he r e mo l lu sc s he l l sa r ec omp le te ly m i s s ing e ven a ts i te s l o ca ted m e re ly s ome f ew h und red m e te re s f r om t h e a c tua l c oa s t ( Mad sen 1 982 , p .2 07 ) . T he a bove s how s t h a t t h ep re -cond i t ion s f o rf i sh ing a si th ad b een c onduc ted f o r mo r e t h an am i l lenn ium g r adua l ly d i sappea red d u r ing t h et r an s i t ion f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t ot h e N eo l i th ic . I ts ha l l ,h oweve r ,b en o ted t h a te v idence o fc oa s ta l s e t t lemen ta l ong t h ec oa s t i sf ound e ven i nt h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic ( Skaa rup 1 973 ) . U n fo r tuna te ly , o u r k now ledge a bou t t h e E ar ly N eo l i th ic c oa s ta l s e t t lemen t s i st oo l im i ted , b u t e ven i nt ho se w h ich c on ta in al a rge b one m a te r ia li ta ppea r st h a ts e a l -hun t ing ,f o re xamp le ,h a sb een o fl im i ted e x ten t( Skaa rup 1 973 ,p p . 1 29 f . ) .

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As i te wh ich i so fi n te res ti nc onnec t ion w i th t h ed i scu ss ion i nh and w a se ncoun te red i n c on junc t ion w i th t h er e conna i s sance o ft h e S ka teho lm a r ea . T he s i te , n amed R ävg rav , w a s o ccup ied d ur ing t h e TN /MN t r an s i t ion a nd c on ta ined , among o the r t h ings , a n e x t reme ly a bundan tb one ma te r ia l ( La r s son 1 985a ; 1 987a ) . I t s l o ca t ion , a d jacen tt ot h e s ho re , a g ree sw e l lw i th t h a to fL a te Me so l i th ic s i te s .T he b one m a te r ia l s how s ,h oweve r , t h a t l e ss t h an 5% o ft h er ema in s o r ig ina te f r om h un t ing a nd f i sh ing . T he r e s t a r e f r om d omes t ica ted a n ima ls . T h is t e ache s t h a t o ne c an make s e r ious m is in terp re ta t ion s o f r e sou rce -exp lo i ta t ion i fo n ly t h es i te l o ca t ion i su sed a s ay a rd -s t ick . H e re ,i ns p i te o ft h e c oa s t -bound s i tua t ion ,t h ea moun to fe f fo r td i rec ted t owa rd sf i sh ing a nd s e a l -hun t ing h a s b een i n s ign i f ican t . A no the r s i gn if ican t o bserva t ion i st ha t t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f f i sh -bones s ugges t s a d i f f e ren tm e thod o ff i sh ing t h an t h a tp rac t i sed d u r ing t h eL a te Me so l i th ic . T ha tw h ich i s t yp ica l f o r t h e s ou thern S cand inav ian s i tes d u r ing t h e l a t te r p e r iod i st h a t awho l ly d om ina t ing ma jo r i ty o ff i sh -bone r ema ins o r ig ina te f r om v e ry s mal s pec ie s .T he se h ave , f o rt h e mo s tp ar t ,b een c augh ti ns t a t iona ry t r aps -s uch a sw icke rc age s -w h ich n a tu ra l ly d emand s pec ia lm i l ieus a s ,f o re xamp le ,f a s t runn ing w a te r -way sw h ich c an b ew holy o r p ar t ia l ly c l o sed . T he f i sh -rema in sf r om R äv igav i nd ica te o fl a rge e xamp le so fs a l t -wa te r s pec ie s , w h ich c an h a rd ly b ei n te rp re ted o the rw i se t h an t h a t ac hange i nt h er e la t ionsh ip b e tween l a nd a nd w a te rn ece s s i ta ted at r ansfo rma t ion i nf i sh ing me thod s . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a t ,i na dd i t ion ,t h es i ze o ft h e i rc a tch w a st h e reby c on s ide rab ly r educed . T he re i se v idence t h a t a c t iv i t ies t ook p lace e ven i n t h e h in te r land d u r ing t h e L a te Me so l i th ic . S i tes e x is t a d jacen t t ol ake s -e spec ia l ly t ho se w h ich w e re i n as t age o f r e -g row th -wh ich t e s t ify t o s ho r t te rm o ccupa t ion . T hese h ave , i n a l l p robab i l i ty , c on s t i tu ted s e a sona lc amps ,t ow he re o ne r e tur ned d u r ing p a r t icu la rt ime so ft h ey ea r . I t c anno t b e r u led o u t t h a t t h e s i gn if icance o ft h e se i n crea sed i nt a c t w i th t h e c hanged e co log ica lc ond i t ion s a tt h et r ad i t iona la nd mo re p e rmanen tc oa s ta l s e t t lemen t s . I t may v e ry w e l l b e s o , t h a tt h e c hange i nt h ec oa s t l ine u l t ima te ly c ame t oe f f ec t al a rge a r ea a way f r om t h ec oa s ta lz one . S uch a ne f f ec t may ,f o re xamp le ,b e ,t h a tt h ei mpo r tance o f b i gg ame h un t ing i n c rea sed .A n ima l ss uch a sr ed d ee r ,w i ld b oa ra sw e l la sb eave rp l ay a b y n o means i n s ign if ican tr o le i ne nv i ronmen tc on t ro l a nd e ven f o rma t ion b yv i r tue o f t h e i rg raz ing ,c hur n ing -up o fs u r f ace l a ye r so r ,i nt h ec a se o fb eave r s ,t r ee -f el ing a nd t h e f l ood ing o fc on s ide rab le a c rage , a l li n aw ay w h ich e f f ec ted t h ef o re s te nv i ronmen ti na , f o rh uman s , p o s i t ive manne r . I ft h e h un t ing o ft h e se a n ima ls r ap id ly i n c rea sed i t may h ave mean t t ha t t h e p opu la t ion s c ou ld n o t t o le ra te t h e o ve r taxa t ion , w he reby t hey g radua l ly b ecame d ep le ted i nn umbe r s w i th as ub sequen tr e -g row th o ft h ef o re s t . I ni t s t u rn , t h is may h ave c on t r ibu ted t o a n i nc reased i mpo r tance o f e a r l ie r , o n ly ma rg ina l ly -exp lo i ted a r ea s . I t may v ery w e l l h appen t h a t h uman s a c t ive ly a l te red t h e l a nd scape i nt h e ir i mmed ia te v i c in i ty b y means o f b a rk r i ng ing o r c o l la r ing o ft r ees ( Gö ransson 1 982 , p p . 4f . ) . T h i s l i ke ly t h inn ing -ou t o ft h e f o res t may p o ss ib ly h ave b een p rac t ised l a te ro ni nt h eh i n te r land i no rde rt oc r ea te ap rop i t iou sm i l ieu c onduc ive t o a ni n c rea se i nt h e mo re i mpor tan tw i ld -game p opu la t ion . A no the r f a c to r w h ich may h ave e f f ec ted t h e e co log ica l s y s tem i sc omb ined w i th t h e d emon s t rab le c hange s r e la t ive t ot h e s o impo r tan t b ay s ' f o rma t ion . Ad e te r io ra t ion i n c l ima te c an b e d i scer ned d u r ing t h e t r ans i t iona l p e r iod , o fw h ich t h er eg re ss ions may , i n c iden ta l ly ,b e as i de -e f f ec t . Ad ec l ine i nt empe ra tu re c an b en o ted t h rough s c ru t in isa t ion o fp o l len d i ag ram s a s w e l l a s f r om a n a na lys is o ft h e s t ra ta i nl a ke b o t tom s ( N i ls son 1 961 , p .2 0 ; Mö rne r & Wa l l in 1 978 ) . I ni t se lf , t h i s t empe ra tu re -dec l ine may h ave b een l im i ted i ne x ten t ,b u tc omb ined w i th o the rf a c to r si tc an h ave h ad s e r ious a nd l o ng te rm c on sequence sf o rt h ep a r t icu la re nv i ronmen to nw h ich Man w a sd ependen t .

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E ar ly N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t Ar e la t ion sh ip c en t ra l t ot h e d i scu s s ion r ega rd ing t h e Me so l i th ic /Neo l i th ic t r an s i t ion c once rn s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f s e t t lemen t r ema ins a nd f i nd s . T he a ppa ren t ly v e ry t r ad i t ion -bound n a tu re o f t h e L a te Me so l i th ic s e t t lemen t -pa t te rn h a s a l ready b een m en t ioned .T h i sc an a l so b ee s tab l i shed f r om t h es p r ead o fL imhamn a xe sf r om t h eL a te E r tebo l le c u l tu re , f o r thcom ing a l ong t h e c oa s t o ra d jacen t t ol a ke s ho re s ( F ig . 1 ) . T he s p read ( F ig . 2 )o ft h eo l de s tt y pe o fp o in t -bu t ted f l in ta xe s -c on tempo raneou sw i th t h e o l de s tp a r to ft h eF unne l -beake rc u l tu r e -p r e sen t s ac omp le te ly d i f f e ren tp i c tu re s how ing s ome f ew f i nd sc onne c ted w i th t h ec oa s t ,b u tw i th am a rked d i s t r ibu t ion b i a st owa rd st h e i n te r io r( He rnek 1 985 ) .T he t r ad i t iona lE r tebo l le c u l tu r es e t t lemen t -pa t ter ng i ve sw ay t o , a nd i sf i na l ly r ep laced b y , s om e th ing q u i te n ew i nt e rm so ft h es pac ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e s i tes . T he q ue s t ion r ema in s , h oweve r , whe the r t he n ew s i tes h ave t he s ame i n f ra s t ruc tu ra lf o rm a st h eo l do ne s . A ni n te re s t ing c i rcum s tance i nt h es t udy o fE a r ly N eo l i th i c s e t t lemen tp a t te rn sc once rn s t h e c hange i nc ho ice o f s e t t lemen t l o ca t ion w i th in a n a na ly sed a r ea i n s ou thwe s te rn S can ia . D u r ing t h eo lde s tp ar to ft h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic t h e s e t t lemen t sa r eu sualy s i tua ted o n ma rked r i ses i nt h et e r ra in , i nt h ev i c in i ty o fs andy o rl i gh tc l ay s o i l a nd a d jacen tt o s ma l ll o t so fm a r sh land ( M .L a r s son 1 984 ,p p . 2 07 f . ) . Du r ing t h ey ounge s te s tab l i shed p ha se , o n t h e o the r h and , t h e a r ea i nt h e s e t t lemen t 's i mmed ia te n e ighbou rhood i s c ha rac te r i sed b yh eavy c l ay s . Af a c to rw h ich i nt h i sc on tex ti sa l so i n te r e s t ing c once rn s t h ec i r cum s tance t h a ts e t t lemen tm a t e r ia lf r om t h eo ld e rp a r to ft h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic s e ldom a ppea r si nc on junc t ion w i th M idd le N eo l i th i cm a te r ia l ,w h i le s u ch ac omb ina t ion e x i s t si n r e ga rd t or ema in s f r om al a te rp a r to ft h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic . T h i s may b e i n te rp re ted a s m ean ing t h a t t h er e s t ruc tu red s e t t lemen t p a t ter n a l so h ad c on t inu i ty w e l l i n to M idd le N eo l i th ic t ime . A no the r a na ly s i s o f t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t c omp r ise s p a r t s o f E a s t J u t land ( Mad sen 1 982 , p p . 1 97 f . ) . H e re , at y pe c a l led " r e s iden t ia l s i te " i sd i sce rned wh ich r e f e r s t os ma l l s i te s l e ss t h an 5 00 -700 m2 i ne x ten t ( Mad sen 1 982 , p .2 05 ) . T he f i nd m a te r ia lf r om t h e se i sd e sc r ibed a sl im i ted .T h i si si n tended t om ean t h a tt h e s i te si nt h e r e se ar ched p a r to fJ u t land w e re o fl im i ted s i ze a nd ,i na dd i t ion ,o ccup ied f o ro n ly as ho r t t ime . T h i sm ay b ec ompa red w i th t h eJ u t land ic c oa s ta l s i te sd u r ing t h eL a te Me so l i th ic w h ich a r eo fc on s ide rab ly g r ea te re x ten ta nd w h ich mo r eove rh ave p rov ided r ad ioca rbon d a t ing sw h ich o f ten c onf i rm t h a ts e t t lem en th a sb een f o r thcom ing d u r ing mo s to ft h e5 t h m i l lenn ium . T ha t E a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s a r e o f l im i ted s i ze i s a l so e xemp l if ied b y f i nd s f r om s ou th -ea s te rn S can ia , w he re s ma l l c on s truc t ion s -i n te rp re ted a sh ou se b o t tom s -h ave b een e ncoun te red ( S t rom b e rg 1 978 ,p p .7 3 f . ) S eve ra ls i te sh ave b een e s tab l i shed i nt h e c ou r se o ft h ei nve s t iga t ion sc a r r ied o u tu nde rt h er eg i so ft h eY s tad P ro jec ta nd s ome o f t h e se h ave b een t h eo b je c to fa c tua le xcava t ion . Ac ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu r ei st h a tt h es i t e sa r e s ma l l , c omp r i s ing s ome f ew h und red s qua re me t re s ( La r s son e z .L a r s son 1 986 ) . T h i s a pp l ie s n o to n ly t ot ho se d a t ing f r om t h eE a r ly F unne l -beake rc u l tu r e , b u ta l so t os i te s f r om t h eL a te F unne l -beake rc u l tu re ( La r s son 1 985b ) . S i te sb e long ing t oa ne a r ly p a r to ft h eE a r ly N eol i th ic h ave b een e s tab l i shed b o th i nt h e s a ndy c oa s ta lz one a nd i nt h eh i n t e r land w i th in t h eY s tad a r ea ,i ti sf i r s td u r ing al a te p a r t o ft h i sp e r iod t h a to ne c an d ocumen t aman i f e s ti n c rea se i nt h e n umbe ro fs e t t lemen t s . T h i si n c r ea se c an b er e la t ed t ot h er e a le xpan s ion d i sce rnab le i nt h ep olen d i ag ram sf r om t h e f i r s t p ha se o fp a lpab le h uman i nf luence . T h i s e xpans ion n eed n o t n ece ssar i ly b e r e la ted t oa ny g r ea ti n c rea se i np opu la t ion w ha t soeve r . T he o b se rved c hange si ns pec if i c c u l tu ra ll a nd scape i nd ica to r sa sr ef lec ted i nt h ep o l len d i ag ram sa sw el a si nt h eg r ea te r n umbe ro fs i te s may e qua l ly b e ar e su l to fa l te r ed a g r icu l tu ra le xp lo i ta t ion .A nu p sw ing

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i nt h es ha r eo fc e rea lp o l len m ay i n d ica te a ni n c r ea sed i mpo r tance i nt h er o le o fc u l t iva t ion a nd t h e rew i th ar e -s t ruc tu r ing o ft h el a nd scape a nd c on sequen t ly o ft h ee nv i ronmen t ,i n t a c tw i th a ni n c r ea se i nt h en ew m ean so fs upp ly . E ven t h ough t h ef a c tua lb a s i si s ,a sy e t ,d e f ec t ive ,t h e re s t i l le x i s t ss eve ra li nd ica t ion st o t h ee f f e c tt h a tt h eo lde s tN eol i th ic p ha se r e f lec t s an umb e ro fd ev ia t ing s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s t h an t h a to ft h o se c u r r en td u r ing t h eL a te Me sol i th ic p e r iod .T he l a rge sca le c oa s t -bound , a ppa r en t ly p e rmanen t ly -se t t led s i te sd i sappea ra nd a r er e p laced b y ag r ea te re xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e i n te r io r , w he re t h e s i te s a r e s ma l le r t h an p rev iou s ly a nd a l so o fc on s ide rab ly s ho r te r p e r iod s o fo ccupa t ion . S uch ac hange c an h a rd ly h ave c ome a bou t w i thou t a f undamen ta l b reak ing -down o ft h e e a r l ie r -ma in ta ined s oc ia l s t ruc tu re w h ich n ow w a s r e p laced b yn ew f o rm s . A ni n te re s t ing f a c to ri nt h i sc onnec t ion i st h ec i r cum s tance t h a t t h e l a rge L a te - Me so l i th ic s e t t lemen t s w e re -i na l l p robab i l i ty o n av e ry w ide s c a le i n te r re la ted w i th v e r i tab le g rave -f ie ld s . T h i s r e la t ionsh ip h a s b een u sed t oe xp la in d i f f e rence s i n s oc ie ty ' s d eg ree o fd ependency o n t h e e xp lo i ted a r ea ( Chapman 1 981 , p .7 2 ) . T he t e ndency t ob u ry t h ed ead i mmed ia te ly a d ja cen tt ot h e s e t t lemen tw ou ld b e l e s si ns oc ie t ies w he r et h ea s se r t ion o fr i gh t st o ap a r t icu la ra r ea d o e sn o te x i s t s . O nt h e o t he rh and ,i ns o c ie t ie sw he r e s e t t lemen ti so f ap e rmanen to rs em i -pe rmanen tc ha ra c te r a nd /o rw he re c ompe t i t ion f o rc e r ta in r e sou r ce se x i s t st h eg r ave s a r eo f ten a s s igned t oa r e s t r ic ted a r ea a d jacen tt ot h es i te . S i nce t h e Me sol i th ic s e t t lemen ta ppea r st oh ave h ad a p e rmanen tc ha rac te rt h i sh a sv e ry p robab ly m ean tt h a t ag r ea td ea lo ft ime c ou ld b e ,a nd w a s ,e xpended o nt h eb u i ld ing o fs t a t iona ry t r app ing a r rangem en t s ,s u ch a sw icke rc age s a nd p i t f a l l s . When l a id o u ti ns p ec ia lh un t ing t r a i l s ,t h ea r ea c ove red b yt h e se d ev i ce sw il h ave amoun ted t o ac on s ide rab le p a r t o f t h e s u r round ing s w h ich d emanded r egu la r a t ten t ion a nd a l so p ro tec t ion . A s t ob u r ia l d u r ing t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic , e xamp le s o f s uch d o e x i s t , b u t t h ey a r e o fa d i f f e ren t f o rm t o t ho se f r om t h e L a te Meso l i th ic . T he g rave s ' r e la t ionsh ip t o t h e s e t t lemen t s i sn o t y e t f u l ly r e sea r ched , b u t r e l iab le e v idence o f s uch ac onnec t ion i s s e ldom f o r thcom ing . T he f a c t t h a t g r ave s w e re l o ca ted o n o lde r s i te s i sa n i n te re s t ing a spec t ( Mad sen & P e te r sen 1 984 , p p . 7 1 f . ) , b u t o ne w h ich c anno t , h oweve r , b e e qua ted w i th t h e c l o se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween g rave s a nd s e t t lemen t d u r ing t h e L a te Me so l i th ic . Af a c to rw h ich o ugh tt ob e a c co rded ac e r ta in s i gn if i cance i st h a tg r ave sd o n o ta ppea ri ns u ch d en se c oncen t ra t ion sa sr e cen te v idence s how sw a sc u r ren tp r ac t ice i n L a te Me so l i th ic s e t t lemen t s .I na cco rdance w i th t h er e a son ing o u tl ined a bove i ts hou ld b e p o s s ib le t oa s soc ia te t h i s f a c to rw i th t h e h ypo the s i s t h a tt h e s i te w e re n o l o nge ro ft h e s ame p e rmanen tc ha rac te ra nd /o rt h a tt h en ew r e sou rce so rm ean so fs upp ly w e r ea lmo s t u nl im i ted . Two n ew c on s t ruc t ion f o rm s a r e r ega rded a s b e ing o f g rea t s i gn i f icance f o r t h e u nde r s tand ing o f t h e l a te r p ha se o f t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic . O ne o f t h e se c once rn s t h e Mega l i th ic g r ave s . G rave s a ppea ri nE a s tJ u t land a l ready i na n e a r ly p a r to ft h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic i n t h e f o rm o f l ong -ba r row s o f c on s ide rab le d imen s ions , b u t t h ey a r e , h oweve r , f ew i n c ompa r i son w i th t h e n umbe r o f d o lmen s w i th in t h e r e sea rch a r ea . Mad sen c on s ide r s t h a t ap a lpab le r e la t ion sh ip e x i s t sb e tween t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fg rave s a nd s e t t lemen t s , i nw h ich c a se i tw ou ld i nd ica te t h a t t h e p roven r e la t ion sh ip b e tween g r ave sa nd s e t t lemen td u r ing t h eL a te Me so l i th ic b eg in st oa ppea ro nce mo r e .T he o t he r c on s t ruc t ion f o rm a ppea r si n al a te p a r to ft h eE a r ly N eol i th ic a nd c once rn s s i t e sr e f e r red t oc en t ra l a r ea s ( Mad sen 1 982 , p .2 08 ) . T he se c omp r ise c ons ide rab le a r ea s , w he re d imen s ions f r om 1 0 ,000 m2 t o 5 0 ,000 m2 a r e g iven a nd , i n a dd i t ion , c on ta in a n e x ten s ive f i nd -ma te r ia l . S ome f e a tu re d yke s o f af o rm wh ich e nab le s p a ra l le l s t ob e d rawn w i th t h e s o -ca l led c ausewayed c amp s w i th in We s ta nd C en t ra lE u rope ( Mad sen 1 978 , p . 1 71 f ;L a r s son 1 982 , p . 9 0 f . ) T he se c ons t ruc t ion s h ave b een v a r iou s ly i n te rp r e ted , b u ts eve ra lf i nd -ca tego r ie s s ugge s tt h a tt h ey f unc t ioned a sg a the r ing -p lace s f o ra n e x t reme ly l a rge n umbe ro fp eop le ( Ande r sen 1 981 , p .8 2 ; 1 982 , p .3 1 ; Mad sen 1 72

1 982 ,p .2 10 ) . T he c on s truc t ion o ft h ese h a sd emanded av a s t ly g rea te r wo rk -ef fo r tt h an t h eb u i ld ing o f Mega l i th ic g r ave sr equ i red . A tt h ep re sen ts t age o fr e sea rch i nr ega rd t oS can ia ,o n ly o ne d o lmen h e re h a sb een d a ted t ot h i sp e r iod . T he c on s t ruc t ion -e v idenced p u re ly o nt h eb a s is o fm i sco lou r ing si nt h e s ub so i l -w a se ncoun te red b e low aB ronze Age t umu lu sa tS kog sda la ,n ea rY s tad o nt h e s ou ther nB a l t ic c oa s t . T he l im i ted p o t te ry f i nd sd i sp lay f o rms a nd mo t ive s w h ich h ave g r ea ts im i lar i t ie sw i th t h eF uch sbe rg p ha se ( J akob s son 1 986 ) . H e re ,h oweve r ,i tmus tb e o b se rved t h a tt h et ime i n terva lr e f e r red t o -t h et r an s i t ion b e tween t h ey ounge s ts egmen t o ft h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd t h eo lde s tp a r to ft h eM idd le N eo l i th ic -i ss ho r t . D a t ing sh ave b een o b ta ined f o rt h eF uch sbe rg p ha se w i th t h em ean v a lue 3 360 B .C .c ompa red t o3 250 B .C .f o rt h eb u i ld ing s t age o ft h ep a s sage g rave a tR am shög i nS ou thea s tS can ia , w h ich y i e lded p o t te ry w i th a n o ldes tc l a ss if ica t ion t o MN 1b ( Ande r sen & Madsen 1 978 , p . 1 44 ; S t römbe rg 1 971 , p .2 03 ) . A st ot h es o -ca l led c en t ra la r ea s ,t h e re a r eb o th i nd ica t ion sa nd a c tua lp roo ft h a ts uch e x i s t i nE a s tD enma rk a nd S can ia ,b u ta l so e v idence t ot h ee f f ec tt h a t ,i nc e r ta in c a se s ,t h et ime o ft h e i rb u i ld ing a ppea r st ol i es omewha tl a te rt h an t h e ma jo r i ty o ft ho se i nE a s tJ u t land ( La r s son 1 982 , p p . 8 9 f . ) . H uman s ke le ta l p a r t s h ave b een e ncoun te red w i th in t h e c onf ine s o ft h e c en t ra l a r ea a t S a rup o nF unen , i na l lp robab i l i ty t h er ema in s a nd r e su l to fa c t iv i t ie so f ar i tua ln a tu re , s u ch a sa r e mo re man i f e s t ly e s tab l i shed i nC on t inen ta ls i te s .I tmay b em en t ioned ,i nt h i s c onnec t ion , t h a t o the r f i nd s a l so s how t h a t h uman s a cr i f ice w a s p rac t i sed d u r ing t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic . Af ew c o rpse sf ound i nb og so nZ ea land a nd i nS can ia h ave p roven v i a C1 4 da t ing st ob e long t ot h i sp e r iod ( B lumbe rg se ta l . 1 974 ; S t je rnqu is t 1 981 ; S kaarup 1 985 ; E bbe sen 1 985 ) . C on s t ruc t ion si n te rp re ted a sc u l th ou se sb eg in t oa ppea rd u r ing a l a t e rp a r to ft h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic c on junc t ive t ot h eb u i ld ing o f Mega l i th ic g rave s( Skaa rup 1 985 ) . T h is c ons t ruc t ion f o rm a ppea r s t oh ave i t s s t r ik ing ly s im i la r L a te Meso l i th ic a n teceden ti n af i nd a to ne o ft h eg rave -f ie ld sa tS ka teho lm ( La r s son a ) . F ina l r e marks Man if e s tc hange sf r om t ho se c u r ren td ur ing t h ee a r l ie rN eo l i th ic p ha se c an ,i nt h i sw ay , b ed i scer ned i n al a te rp a r to ft h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic . I n te re s t ing ly e nough , c e r ta in f a c to r s a ppea r t o h ave p a ra l le l s i n t h e L a te Meso l i th ic s e t t lemen t , s uch a s t h e r e la t ion sh ip s e t t lemen t /g raves . O n t h e o the r h and , i nnova t ive e l emen t s , s uch a s c on tac t s w i th c on t inen ta l s o c ie t ie s , a r ev e ry much t ot h ef o re . T he f o rego ing d emon s tra t e s ,t h en ,t h a tt h et r an s i t ion f r om ap u re ly c a t chmen te conomy t o a na g ra r ian /pa s to ra le conomy c omp r ise sa tl e a s tt h ree ma in p ha ses : t h eL a te Me so l i th ic , o l de rE a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd y ounge rE a r ly N eol i th ic ( Zve leb i l &R ow ley -Conwy 1 984 ,p p . 1 05 f . ) , e ach o f wh ich mus t n ece ssa r i ly b e s c ru t in ised i n t he l i gh t o f t h e s pec ia l c ond i t ions ma in ta in ing f r om o ne p e r iod t oa no the ri no rde rt oo b ta in af ul u nde r s tand ing o ft h ep roce s so fd eve lopmen ta nd c hange i np reh i s to r ica lc on tex t s . ( T rans la t ion b y Wi l l iam T roy )

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F igure 1 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fL imhamn a xe s ( J ennbe r t 1 984 , F ig . 6 6 w i th a dd i t ion s ) .

F igure 2 .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e o ldes t t y pe o fp o in t -bu t ted f l in t a xe ( Hemek 1 985 , F ig . 1 0 a nd F ig . 1 ) .

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R eferences A lb re thsen , S .E . &B r inch P e te r sen , E . , 1 977 . E xcava t ion o f aMe so l i th ic C eme te ry a t V edbxk ,D enma rk .A c ta A rchaeo log ica lV o l . XLV I I . A nde r sen , N .H . , 1 981 . S a rup . B efx s tede n eo l i t iske a n lxg o g d e ra s b agg rund . Kum l 1 980 . - 1 982 . AN eo l i th ic C ausewayed c amp a tT re l lebo rg n ea r S lage lse , Wes t Z ea land . J ourna lo f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy , V o l . 1 . A nde r sen , N .H . & Mad sen , T . , 1 978 . S kä le o g b xg re med s t o rv inke lbänd f r a y ng re s t ena lde r . O ve rgangen m e l lem t i d l ig -o ch m e l lemneo l i t ikum .K um l1 977 . B ecke r ,C .J . , 1 947 . Mo se fundne L e rka rf r ay ng re S tena lde r .A arbOger 1 947 . - 1 955 . S tena lde r sbebygge lsen v ed S to re V a lby . P rob leme r omk r ing t r ag tbxge r k u l tu ren sx ld s te o gy ng s te f a s .A arboger 1 954 . B e rg lund , B . , 1 969 . V ege ta t ion a nd h uman i nf luence i n S ou th S cand inav ia d ur ing P reh i s to r ic t ime . O ikos ,S upp l . 1 2 . - 1 985a . E a r ly Ag r icu l tu re i n S cand inav ia : R e sea rch P rob lem s r e la ted t o P o l len a na ly t ica lS tud ies .N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew , V o l . 1 8 ,N o . 1 2 . - 1 985b .N eo l i t i ska e xpans ione ro ch r eg re s s ione r iY s tad som räde t . I nR egna l ,G . ( ed . ) K u l tur land skape t -d e s sf ramväx to ch f öränd r ingar .S ympos ium s ep t . 1 984 . L und . B lumbe rg s , Z . & G e jva l l , N . -G . & V a ren iu s , C . , 1 974 . S ubbo rea l F auna l R ema ins f r om aP ea tB og i nS andäk ra ,D i s tr ic to fS ku rup , S can ia . O s sa 1 974 ,N o . 1 . B r inch P e te r sen , E . , 1 974 . G ravene v ed D rag sho lm . F ra j xge re t i l l b onde rf o r6 000 ä r s i den . Na t iona lmu see t sA rbe jd smark 1 974 . C hapman , R . , 1 981 . T he eme rgence o f f o rma l d i sposa l a r ea s a nd t h e " p rob lem " o f mega l i th ic t omb si np reh is to r ic E u rope . I nC hapman , R . &K inne s ,I .& R and sbo rg , K . ( ed s . ) ,T he a rchaeo logy o fd ea th . C h r is tensen , C . , 1 982 . S tena lde rf jo rden o g V edbz ekbop ladse rne . H aysspe j le ts s v ingn inge r5 500 -2500 f .K r .N a t iona lmu see t sA rbe jd smark 1 982 . E bbe sen ,K . , 1 985 . S t enä lde r sbonden sr e l ig iö sa s ede r .P opu lär A rkeo log i1 985 :3 . G rä s lund ,B . , 1 982 . C l ima t ic F luc tua t ion si nt h eE a r ly S ubbo rea lP e r iod . AP re l im ina ry D i scu s s ion . S t r iae , V o l . 1 4 . Gö ran sson , H . , 1 982 . N eo l i t ikum s b egynne l se iÖ s te rgö t land , S ve r ige , e n l ig t p o l len a na ly t i ska d a ta .I nS jovo ld ,T ,( e d . ) ,I n t roduk s jonen a vj ordbruk iN orden . H e rnek , R . , 1 985 .D en s pe t snack iga y xan a vf l in ta . T ypo log i , k rono log i o ch u r sprung . S em ina rp ape r ,I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fL und . I v e r sen ,J . , 1 94 1 . L andnam iD anma rk ss t ena lde r . Danmark sG eo log i ske U nd er soge l se , IR c ekke ,N r6 6 . J acob s son , B . , 1 986 . T he S kogsda la D o lmen . Al ong d o lmen b enea th aB ronze Age B u r ia l Mound a t S kogsda l , s ou th S can ia . Medde landen f rän L und s u n iver s i te t s h i s tor i ska mu seum 1 985 -1986 . J a rman , M .R . &B a i ley , G .N . &J a rman , H .N . , 1 982 . E ar ly E uropean A gr icu l ture . I t s f ounda t ion a nd d eve lopmen t . C amb r idge . J ennbe r t , K . , 1 984 . D en p roduk t iva g ävan . T rad i t ion o ch i nnova t ion iS yd skand inav ien f ö ro rnk r ing 5 300 ä rs e dan .A c ta A rchaeo log ica L unden s ia 4 :16 . - 1 985 .N eo l i th i sa t ion -aS can ian P e r spec t ive .J oruna lo f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy , V o l .4 . L a r sson , L . , 1 982 . AC au sewayed E nc lo su re a nd aS i te w i th V a lby P o t tery a tS täv ie , We s te rn S can ia . Medd e land en f rän L und su n iver s i t e t sh i s tor i ska mu seum 1 981 -1982 . - 1 983 . A ge röd V .A nA t lan t ic B og S i te i nC en tra lS can ia .A c ta A rcaeo log ica L und en s ia 8.1 2 . 1 984b . T he S ka teho lm P ro jec t . AL a te Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen ta nd C eme te ry C omp lex a t aS ou the rn Swed i sh B ay . Medde landen f rän L und su n iver s i te t sh i s tor i ska mu seum 1 983 -1984 . - 1 985a .E nk us tbop la t sf r än t i d ig b onde s tenä lde r is öd ra S käne .A le 1 984 :5 . - 1 985b . K a r l sfä l t . AS e t t lemen t f r om t h e E a r ly a nd L a te F unne l B eake r C u l tu re i n S ou the rn S can ia , Sweden .A c ta A rchaeo log ica , V o l .5 4 . 1 75

1 986 . A rchaeo log ica l s u rvey mapp ing . I nB e rg lund , B . ( ed . ) Handbook o f Ho locene P a laeoeco logy a nd P a laeohyd ro logy . - 1 987a . E ine Küs tens ied lung d er f r ühen T r ich te rbeche rku l tur b e i R ävg rav i n S üdschonen , S chweden . I n H o ika , J .( ed . ) F rühneo l i th i sche T r ich terbecherku l tur . S ch le sw ig . I np re ss . - 1 987b . L a te Me so l i th ic s e t t lemen t sa nd c eme te r ie sa tS ka teho lm , s ou ther n Sweden .I n B on sa l l , C . ( ed . ) . T he Me so l i th ic i nE urope :P roceed ings o ft h eT h ird I n t erna t iona l S ympos ium , E d inburgh 1 985 . E d ingbu rgh . - a .A c on s t ruc t ion f o r c e r imon ia l a c t iv i t ie s f r om t h e L a te Me so l i th ic a tS ka teho lm , s ou the rn Sweden . Medde landen f rän L und s u n iver s i te t s h i s tor iska museum 1 987 -1988 . I np re s s . L a r sson , L . &L a r sson ,M . , 1 984 . F l in tyxo r , s ko skav o ch ma s so ra vs t o lphä l . Y s tad iana 1 984 . - 1 986 .D et i d iga s te b önde rna iY s tad s t rak ten . Y s tad iana 1 986 . L a r sson ,M . , 1 984 . T id igneo l i t ikum iS ydvä s t skäne . K rono log io ch b o sä t tn ingsmön s te r . A c ta A r chaeo log ica L und en s ia 4 : 17 . - 1 985a . N eo l i t ikum iY s tad som räde t . I nR egn6 1 1 , G . ( ed . ) K u l tur land skape t -d ess f ramxäx to ch f öränd r ingar .S ympos ium s ep t . 1 984 . L und . - 1 985b . T he E a r ly N eo l i th ic F unne l -Beake r C u l tu re i n s ou thwes t S can ia , Sweden . BAR I n terna t iona lS er ie s2 64 . Madsen , T . , 1 978 . T of tum v ed Ho r sens , e t " bef z es te t " a n lxg t i l lhorende T rag t b xge rku l tu ren .K um l1 977 . - 1 982 . S e t t lemen tS y s tem so fE a r ly A g r icu l tu ra lS oc ie t ie si nE a s tJ u t land : AR eg iona l S tudy o fC hange .J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy , V o l . 1 . Mad sen , T . &P e te r sen , J . E . , 1 984 . T id l ig -neo l i t i ske a n l a eg v ed Mo segä rden . R eg iona le o gk rono log i ske f o r ske l le it i d l igne ,o l i t ikum .K um l1 984 . Möme r , N . -A . & Wa l l in , B . , 1 978 . A 1 0 .000 -yea r s t empe ra tu re r e co rd f r om Go t land , Sweden .P a laeogeography ,P a laeoc l ima to logy a nd P a laeoeco logy ,V o l .2 1 . N ie l sen ,P . -0 . , 1 985 . D ef o r s te b onde r . N ye f und f r ad en t i d l ig s te T rag tbxge rku l tu rv ed S ige r s ted .A arbOger 1 984 . N i l sson , T . , 1 935 . D ie p o l lenana ly t i sche Z oneng l iederung d e r s pä t - u nd p o s tg laz ia len B i ldungen S chonen s . G eo log i ska F ör en ingen s iS tockho lm F örhand l ingar ,B and 5 7 , Häf te 3 . - 1 961 . E in n eues S tanda rdpo l lend iag ramm a u s B jä r s jöho lm ss jön i nS chonen .L und s U n iver s i te t sÄ r ssk r if t . N .F . , A vd . 2 ,B d . 5 6 , N r 1 8 . R ow ley C onwy , P . , 1 984a . Me l lemneo l i t isk o konom i iD anma rk o g S ydeng land . K nog lefundene f r aF anne rup .K um l1 984 . - 1 984b . T he l a z ines so ft h e s ho r t -d i s tance h un te r : t h eo r ig in o fa g r icu l tu re i nw e s te rn D enma rk .J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 1 984 . - 1 985 .T he O r ig in o f Ag r icu l tu re i nD enma rk : AR ev iew o fs ome T heo r ie s .J ou rna lo f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy , V o l .4 . S kaa rup , J . , 1 973 . H esse lo -So lage r . J ag t s ta t ionen d e r s üd skand inav ischen T r ich te r b eche rku l tu r .A rk c eo log i ska S tud ier , V o l .I . - 1 985 . Y ngre s t ena lder p ä erne s yd f or F yn . R udkob ing . S t je rnqu i s t ,B . , 1 981 . N äbbe mo sse . A My s te r iou sS tone A ge L ake .S t r iae , V o l . 1 4 . S t römbe rg , M . , 1 971 . D ie Mega l i thg räbe r v on H ages tad . Z u r P rob lema t ik v on G rabbau ten u nd G rab r i ten .A c ta A r chaeo log ica L und en s ia 8 : 9 . - 1 978 .T h ree N eo l i th ic S i te s . AL o ca lS e r ia t ion? Medde landenf rän L und su n iver s i t e t s h i s tor i ska mu seum 1 977 -1978 . T aube r , H . , 1 981 . Ko s tvane r if o rh i s to r i sk t i d -b e lys tv ed C 1 3 -mä l inge r . I nE gevang , R . &E j le r s , C . &F r i i s , B . &H o jrup , 0 . ( e d s . ) ,D e ts kabene m enn i ske ,B ind I . T roe l s -Sm i th , J . , 1 953 . E r tebo l leku l tu r -B ondeku l tu r . R esu l ta te r a fd e s i d s te 1 0 A a r s U nde r sOge l se r iA amo sen .A arboger 1 953 . Ya ng P e te r sen , P . 1 982 . J xge rfo lke t p ä V edb kbop ladse rne . K u l turu tv ick l ingen i K ongemo se -o gE r tebo l le t id .N a t iona lmu see t sA rbe jd smark 1 982 . Z ve leb i l , M . &R ow ley C onwy , P . , 1 984 . T ran s i t ion t oF a rm ing i nN or the rn E u rope : A H un te r -Ga the re rp e r spec t ive .N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew , V o l . 1 7 ,N o2 . 1 76

ANALOGIES I N THE S PREAD OF NEOLITHIC I NNOVATIONS OVER EUROPE AND AFRICA

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B y Chr is t ian L indqv is t D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy .U n ive r s i ty o fS t o ckho lm . S 106 9 1 St o ckho lm , Sweden . 1 . I n troduc t ion V a r ious p reh i s to r ians h ave a t temp ted t o map a nd m ea su re t h e r a te o f s p read o f d ome s t ica ted a n ima l sa nd p l an t so ve rE u rope ( G .C la rk 1 965a , 1 965b ,A .J .Amm e rman & L .L .Cava l l i -Sfo rza 1 971 , 1 984 , P .Menozz i , A .P iazza & L .L .Cava l l i -Sfo rza 1 978 ) a nd A f r ica ( J .De smond C la rk 1 970a , 1 970b , 1 972 , 1 979 , T .Shaw 1 977 , 1 980 , J .Deacon 1 984 e t c . S ince t h ec o r r e la t ion b e tween t h ed i f f e r en tN eo l i th ic t r a i t sa nd t h er e a ls ub s i s tence o ft h e p reh i s to r ic s oc ie t ies h a s b een i n comp le te ly i n ve s t iga ted , p reh is to r ian s h ave u sua l ly w o rked w i th aN eo l i th ic s en su l aw d ef in i t ion ,i mp ly ing t h em e re o ccu r rence o fp o t te ry , p o l i shed s t one a xe sa nd d ome s t ica ted a n ima l sa nd p l an t sd e r ived f r om t h et e chno log ica l a nd e conom ic d ef in i t ion so ft h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod d r awn u pb yS i rJ ohn L ubbock i n1 865 , n om a t te rh ow r a re t h ey a r ec ompa r ed t ot h et o ta lf i nd m a t e r ia lo f as i t e . H oweve r , S ven N i l s son h ad a l ready d i v ided h e rde r s f r om h un te r s b y t h e i r s ub s i s t ing c h ief ly o nt h ep roduce o ft h eh e rd s( 1 843 ) , a nd G raham C la rk a pp rehend st h eN eo l i th ic c ommun i t ie s a s " s ub s tan t ia l ly b a sed o n f a rm ing " o r " depend ing l a rge ly o n f a rm ing " ( 1 980 ,p p . 3 6 -37 ) ,t h u sr a the rw o rk ing w i th aN eo l i th ic s en su s t r ic to d e f in i t ion . Wa rw ick B ray , w ho h a s i n te rp re ted t h e M idd le Ame r ican s equence , d i scu s sed t h is e s sen t ia lp rob lem o fd ef in i t ion a st ow he r e t od r aw t h e l im i tb e tween t h e h un t ing a nd g a the r ing a nd a g r icu l tu ra ls o c ie t ie s .T he u sua lc oncen t ra t ion o nt h eq ue s t ion o ft h eo r ig in o ff a rm ing i st og e tt h ep r io r i t ie sw rong ,h ew r i te s( 1 977 ) : " The c r i t ica l momen t w a s n o t t h e p l an t ing o ft h e f i r s t s e ed , o r t h e t am ing o ft h e f i r s t a n ima l ,b u tt h ea ch ievemen to f af uly e f f ec t ive s y s tem o fa g r icu l tu r ea nd o fd ependence u pon c u l t iva ted f ood s . / . . . /T he e a sy w ay o u to ft h ed i lemma i st oc hoo se s ome a r b i t ra ry f i gu re a nd t od e f ine a n a g r icu l tu ra l s o c ie ty a so ne w h ich o b ta ins , s ay , 5 0p e r cen to fi t s t o ta l c a lo ry i n take f r om f a rm ing ( c f . P .E .L .Sm i th & J .C .Young 1 972 :58 o n t h e d ef in i t ion o f i n c ip ien t c u l t iva t ion ) . T h is a pp roach may b e u sefu l f o r p u rpo se s o f c l a s s if ica t ion a nd d e sc r ip t ion , b u ti td oe sn o tn ece s sa r ly c o r r e spond w i th t h er e a l i t ie so f l i f e . Why c a lcu la te o n t h e b a s i s o ff ood e ne rgy r a the r t h an , f o r e xamp le , t h e r e la t ive a moun t so ft ime a nd /o re f fo r ts p en to no b ta in ing d i f f e r en tk i nd so ff ood ? A st h ed i ag r am s how s ( F ig . 7 7 p .2 28 ) t h e re i sn ov e ry c l o se c o r re la t ion b e tween a ny f i xed p e r cen tage f o rc u l t iva ted f ood i nt h e d i e t a nd t h e a ppea rance o fs uch p henomena a s s eden t i sm o r c hange si nt o o lk i t s . Wha ti sn eeded i s ad e f in i t ion w h ich c an b ec on s i s ten t ly a pp l ied b u t w h ich t a ke sl o ca lc i r cum s tance si n to a ccoun t . R a the rt h an t oe mp loy a r b i t ra ry f i gu r e s ,I w ou ld p r e f e rt oi n t roduce amo re f l ex ib le d e f in i t ion b a sed o nt h ei d ea o fd epend ence ,i . e . t h a ta na g r icu l tu ra l s o c ie ty ( wha teve rt h ep ropo r t ion o fi t sd i e tb a sed o nf a rm ing )i so ne w h ich h a sr e a ched as t age o fd ependence o nc u l t iva ted f ood s . C on sc iou s ly o rn o t , s u ch a s o c ie ty h a s a r r ived a tt h e p o in t o fn o r e turn : h un te r s a nd g a the re r s h ave b ecome , a nd mu s tr ema in , f a rme r s . T he r e i s ar a the r s imp le c r i te r ion f o rt h i s s t a te o fd ependence o r c o rn i tmen t ; i ti si r reve r s ib le . T he c ommun i ty , n o ma t te r h ow l i t t le c u l t iva ted f ood i t c on sume s ,c an n ol o nge rr e ve r tt o ah un t ing a nd g a the r ing e x i s tence w i thou ts u f f e r ing a 1 77

l o ss o fp opu la t ion t h rough d ea th o r m ig ra t ion . I n e f f ec t , t h i s m eans t h a t t h e s t age o f c omm i tmen t h as b een r eached a s s oon a s t h e n umbe r o fp a r t t ime f a rme r s b ecome s g rea te rt h an t h en umbe ro fp eop le w h ich t h ea r ea c ou ld s uppor tu nde r ap u r e ly h un t ing a nd g a the r ing r eg ime , o r when t h e l a nd scape h a s b een s o mod if ied ( f o r i n s tance , b y r emova l o ft h e n a tu ra l v ege ta t ion ) t h a t ar e turn t ot h e f o rme r w ay o fl i f e i sn o l onge r f e a s ib le " (W .Bray 1 977 ,p p . 2 43 -244 ) . A s B ray e xpre sses i t , " t he e nqu i ry i sn a r rowed d own t o t h e s t udy o f t wo v a r iab le s : p opu la t ion s i ze a nd c arry ing c apac i ty" , (W .Bray 1 977 , p .2 44 ) s i nce t ob e a b le t o c onc lude i fas oc ie ty w a sd ependen to nd ome s t ica ted a n ima ls a nd p l an t sw eh ave t ok now i ft h ep opu la t ion w a st oo l a rge f o rt h ec a r ry ing c apac i ty o fi t sc a tchmen ta r ea . Howeve r , t h i s me thod i sc e r ta in ly i n t r ica te w hen a pp l ied t op reh i s to r ic s oc ie t ies , a nd B ray h im se lf h a st oa dm i tt h a tt h e se f a c to r s" a r et wo o ft h e mo s td i ff i cu l tt h ing sf o ra na r chaeo log i s tt o mea su re " , (W .Bray 1 977 , p .2 44 ) , a nd i t may b e q ues t ioned w he the rt h i s i s ame thod t h a tr ea l ly c an b ec on s i s ten t ly a pp l ied , e spec ia l ly w hen d ea l ing w i th al a rge n umbe ro f s i te sd i s t r ibu ted o ve rt wo c on t inen t s . I n t he p resen t s i tua t ion , t h e re a r e g rea t a dvan tage s w i th a mo re g ene ra l a nd e a s i ly mea su rab le c r i te r ion o fw ha ti st ob e c l a ss if ied a s aN eo l i th ic s oc ie ty , a nd B ray s e em s u nab le t o a pp ly i n r ea l i ty t h e mo re i n t r ica te mea su remen t s o f d ependence t ha t h e t h eo re t ica l ly p ref e r st ot h e mo re t h an 5 0p e rcen to ft h ed i e td ef in i t ion t h a th ea pp l ie si n r ea l i ty (W .Bray 1 977 , p . 2 28 , F ig . 7 7 ) . H is d iag ram s eem s i n f a c t t o s how t ha t p e rmanen tv i l lages i nM idd le Ame r ica a ppea rs ome 5 00 -750 y ea r s b efo re t h e momen t w hen f a rm ing p rov ided 5 0 p e r cen t o ft h e d i e t , a f te r ap e r iod o fa bou t 6 , 500 y ea r s o f i n c ip ien t a g r icu l tu re . T hus , w hen p e rmanen t v i l lages a ppea red , t h ey w e re t oa bou t 4 0 p e r cen td ependen to nd ome s t ica ted s pec ie si nt h ed i e t . I n o the r r eg ion s w i th a n a u thoch tonous d omes t ica t ion o f a n ima ls a nd p l an t s , a s i n S ou th -we s tA s ia a nd p o s s ib ly i nt h eS aha ra ( a sw e l la sp robab ly i nS ou th -ea s ta nd S ou th A s ia ) , t h e p e r iod o f i n c ip ien t h e rd ing a nd c u l t iva t ion may h ave h ad a d ura t ion o f a pp rox ima te ly 3 , 500 y ea r s . Howeve r , i ns uch a r ea s a s S ou th -ea s t , M idd le a nd p a r t s o f No r th -wes t E urope , N o r th A f r ica a nd t h eN i le v aley ,t h eN eo l i th i sa t ion s e em st oh ave b een v e ry a b rup t .H e re af ew h und red y ea r s a t mo s td iv ided t h e e xc lu s ive ly h un t ing a nd g a the r ing s oc ie ty f r om t h e p e redom inan t ly f a rm ing ,f u l ly N eo l i th ic , s o c ie ty . I ns t i l l mo r ep e r iphe ra lr eg ions ,s uch a s No r th a nd No r th -ea s tE u rope a nd We s t , C en t ra l a nd S ou ther nA f r ica ,t h et r ans i t ion w a s d e layed b yu n su i tab le e nv i ronmen t sf o rt h eE a s t Med i te r ranean d ome s t ica te sa nd ar i ch l o ca lf auna a nd f l o ra ( s ee f i g . 1 ) . S ince t h ep e r iphe ra lr eg ion s s e em t oh ave e n te red t h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod a ts ucces s ive ly l a te r s t age s w i th i n c rea s ing d i s tance t ot h e a r ea o fe a r l ies t d ome s t ica t ion i nt h e E a s t Med i te r ranean r eg ion ,i ti sl og ica lt oa pp rehend t h is s p read a sw ave so fi nnova t ion f r om t h ec en te rt owa rd t h ep e r iphe ry ( s ee f i g . 1 ) . S ince Amme rman a nd C aval i -Sfo rza u se t h e N eo l i th ic s ensu l a to d ef in i t ion ,i . e . " a rea si nw h ich e a r ly f a rm ing w as p re sen t " , a nd d id n o t h ave f u l l a cce ss t ot h e p re sen t b ody o fi n fo rma t ion f r om F enno scand ia , t h e E a s t B a l t ic a nd C en t ra l R us s ia , t h e i rr e su l t s a r e o f ar a the rl im i ted v a lue f o rs t uden ts o ft h e N eo l i th ic t r ans i t ion i nN o r the rn E u rope ( 1971 , p .6 85 , 1 984 , p p . 5 9 -60 ) . T hus , u s ing t h e ir d ef in i t ion , t h e r a te o f s p read o f e a r ly f a rm ing u p t o N or th S cand inav ia w a s e x t reme ly h igh , a st h e e a r l ie s to ccu r rence s o fs heep ( a nd p o s s ib ly c a t t le a nd p ig ) a nd b a r ley c u l t iva t ion i sd a ted a tc a . 2 , 200 -1 ,800 b c . i nt h i sr eg ion . U s ing t h e N eo l i th ic s en su s t r ic to d ef in i t ion , h oweve r ,w ef i nd t h a ti tw a sn o tu n t i l t h e L a te N eo l i th ic -Ea r ly ( o r p o s s ib ly L a te ) B ronze A ge i nM idd le Sweden a nd t h e E a s t B a l t ic , a nd n o tu n t i lt h el a te rp a r to ft h eE a r ly I r on A ge i n Nor th Sweden , t h a tt h e " f u l l

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N eo l i th ic " ,i . e .t h es t age w hen d ome s t ica ted a n ima l se xceeded 5 0p e r cen to ft h em amma l r ema ins ,o ccu r red . T he e a r l ie ro ccu r rences a r e m a in ly f r om s i tes w i th a r tefac t s a nd p o t te ry t y p ica l o ft h e E a s te rn Swed i sh P i t ted Wa r eC u l tu re a nd t h e Swed i sh N o rweg ian a nd t h eE a s tB a l t ic a nd B ye lo russ ian B a t t le -axe / co rded Wa re C u l tu res a nd t h e C en t ra l R u ss ian F a tyanovo C u l tu re , whe re t h ed ome s t ica ted a n ima l so ccu rs po rad ica l ly a nd u sua l ly c ons t i tu te f r om l e s st h an 1p e rcen tt oa bou t3 0p e rcen to ft h e mamma lr ema ins . A l though t h e se c u l tu re s a r ed e rv ied f r om t h e S ou th S cand inav ian a nd M idd le E u ropean F unne lB eake rC u l tu re a nd G lobu la r Ampho ra C u l tu re ,w h ich a r ef u l ly N eo l i th ic ,t h eP i t ted Wa re a nd n o r the rn B a t t le a xe c u l tu re s mus tb ec l a ss if ied a sS ub -neo l i th ic o rI nc ip ien t ly N eo l i th ic . T h i s i s p robab ly d ue t o t he f a c t t h a t t h ey e xpanded i n to v a s t a r ea s w i th d ense f o re s t s a nd w ood land s w i th f a i r ly r i ch l a rge -gam e f auna , a nd c oa s t s w i th e x t reme ly r i ch a qua t ic r e sou rces , s uppo r t ing ac ompa ra t ive ly d ense p opu la t ion o f mo re o r l e s s p e rmanen t ly s e t t led ,p o t te ry -u s ing h un te r s ,f i she r sa nd n u tga the re r s . C once rn ing A f r ica , T hu r s tan S haw ( 1977 , p . 1 08 , F ig . 3 3 , 1 980 , p . 1 81 , F ig . 2 5 .4 ) f avou r s a n i n te rp re ta t ion w i th t wo r ou tes o f d i f fu s ion s ou thwa rd s , o ne t h rough t h e C en t ra l S aha ra t ow es tA f r ica , a nd a no the ra l ong t h eN i le t oE a s tA f r ica , a nd f u r the rt o S ou th A f r ica , l e av ing al a rge a r ea i nt h eE as ter n S aha ra a nd No r th o ft h e C ongo /Za i re b a s in u n i te rp re ted , d ue t ol a ck o fi n fo rma t ion . N ew i n fo rma t ion , h oweve r , h a s s hown t h a tt h e re i s ap o ss ib i l i ty t h a tc a t t le p a s to ra l i sm o n as ma l l s ca le ( l e ss t han 1p e r cen t ) e x i s ted among t h eE a s te rn S aha ran Wavy L ine P o t te ry g roup sa l ready b e tween 7 , 400 a nd 6 , 000 b . c . , f o re xamp le a tE lA dam a nd E lN ab ta P laya i nt h eE gyp t ian We s te rn D e se r t ( F . Wendo r fe ta l . 1 976 , F . Wendo r f&R .Sch i ld 1 980 , 1 984 , A .Gau t ie r 1 984 , a l though q ues t ioned b y A .B .Sm i th 1 984 , 1 986 ) . H e re c a t t le may h ave b een a u toch tonou s ly d ome s t ica ted , s i nce a u roch so ccu red i nN o r th A f r ica a sf a rt ot h es ou th a s Wad iH a lf aa t t h eE gyp t ian -Sudane se b o rde rd u r ing t h eL a te P a laeol i th ic .A l so a f te rt h ei n t roduc t ion o f s heep /goa t s a f te r 5 , 500 b . c . t ot h e Magh reb a nd t h e E a s te rn S aha ra ( a nd p os s ib ly E a s t A f r ica )f r om t h eE a s ter n Med i te r ranean r eg ion a nd S ou th -wes tA s ia , c a t t le w e re h igh ly p redom inan t i nt h e f auna l r ema ins i nt h e S aha ra , S udan a nd e a s t A f r ica , w h ich may i n d ica te t h a tt h e re w a sa no lde rc a t t le -he rd ing t r ad i t ion i nt h eS aha ra ,w he rea ss heep /goa t s t rong ly d om ina ted i n No r th A f r ica . T he re a r ea l so i nd ica t ion s -a l though c on t rove r s ia lo ne s -t h a tc a t t le a nd s heep /goa t s may h ave r eached E a s t A f r ica a s e a r ly a s b e tween 5 , 300 -a nd 4 ,000 b . c , f o r e xamp le a t S a la sun a nd L ukenya H i l l i n K enya ( D .P .G if fo rd -Gonzä les & J .K imeng ich 1 984 , C .M .Ne l son & J .K imeng ich 1 984 ) . A l though t h e re a r el a rge t ime g aps b e tween t h e se e a r ly s i te sa nd t h em a jo r i ty o ft h ef uly N eo l i th ic s i te s ( t he E a s tA f r ican P a s to ra lN eo l i th ic )w h ich d a te t oa f te ra bou t 1 , 100 b c . i n K enya , t h e i n terven ing p e r iod o fa bou t 3 , 500 y ea r s d u ra t ion ( s ince t h e re a r e f i nd s o f d ome s t ica ted a n ima l s a l so a ta bou t 2 , 000 b . c . ) , may w i th mo re d a ta s how u p t o b e i n c ip ien t ly N eo l i th ic , b u tt h ee a r ly s i te sm ay b ei n te rp re ted a st empo ra ry i n t roduc t ion so f d ome s t ica ted a n ima ls o n as ma l ls c a le ,i n te r rup ted b yt h en ex tw a rm -hum id p e r iod . C once rn ing t h e i rf u r the rs p read , i th a sb een t h eg ene ra l a pp rehens ion t h a tt h e s p read o f d ome s t ica tes a nd p o t te ry , a sw e l la si r on w o rk ing , f r om t h e G rea tL ake sr eg ion i nE a s t A f r ica t os ou th A f r ica w a sm a in ly t h er e su l to ft h es o -ca l led B an tu e xpans ion f r om a bou t t h e b i r th o f C h r is t t o A .D . 3 50 -500 ( D .W .Ph i l l ipson 1 977 a . o . ) , a l though s o me p r eh i s to r ians q ue s t ion t h i s . J ane t te D econ i n ve s t iga ted t h es p read r a te o fp o t te ry a s soc ia ted w i th s t one A ge a r tef ac t s i nA f r ica b y p lo t t ing t ime a ga ins t l a t i tud ina l p o s i t ion o f t h e s i tes ( 1984 , p .2 79 , F ig . 1 39 ) .T he d i ag ram s how st h a t : 1 79

"Wh i le i tt o ok a bou ts even m i l len ia f o rp o t t e ry t od i f fu se f r om 3 5d eg r ee sn o r th i nN o r th A f r ica t oj u s t s ou th o f t h e e qua to r a ta bou t 5d eg ree s s ou th , o n p re sen t e v idence i t a ppea red v i r tua l ly s imu l taneou s ly f r om 5d eg ree s t o3 5 d eg r ee s s ou th b e tween a bou t 2 , 500 a nd 2 ,000 y ea r s a go . T he c l o se c o r re la t ion b e tween e a r ly p o t te ry a nd t h e a ppea rance o fd ome s t ica ted s h eep i nS ou th A f r ica ( Tab le 7 7 ) h a sl e dt ot h ea s sump t ion t h a tb o th w e r ei n t roduced b yi mm ig ran th e rde r sw ho moved s ou thwa rd f r om B o t swana a f te rt h ey h ad a cqu i red s heep f r om t h e i rn e ighbou r st ot h en o r th a nd e a s t . C e r ta in ly t h e s p eed w i th w h ich t h ep o t te ry w a sd i spe r sed w ou ld s uppo r t am ig ra t ion h ypo the s i s . . . / . . . / T he i mp l ica t ion sa r et h a th i gh ly mo t iva t ed i mm ig ran t sb rough ts h eep a nd p o t t e ry i n to t h e s ou ther nC ape a nd t h a tt h ey w e r en o to b s t ruc t ed b yu n su i tab le l o ca lc ond i t ion s( J .Dea con 1 984 , p p . 1 79 -180 " ) . F o rs eve ra lh und red y ea r sa f te ra bou tt h eb i r th o fC h r i s t ,h oweve r ,t h e se e a r ly h e rde r si n t h eC ape P rov ince ,w ho a r eu sua l ly i n t e rp r e t ed a sK ho i -Kho in speake r s ,d id n o tr e vea la h i ghe rp e r cen to fd ome s t ica ted a n ima l si nt h e mamma lr ema in so ft h e i ro ccupa t ion s i t e s t h an b e tween l e s st h an 1p e r cen ta nd a bou t 1 5p e r cen t . H ence , b yd ef in i t ion ,t h ey w e re n o tf u l ly N eo l i th ic . I nf a c t , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h e se h e rde r sn eve rr e a ched t h e mo r et h an 5 0p e rcen tt h re sho ld ( F .R .Schwe i tze r 1 979 ,J . Pa rk ing ton 1 981 , a . o . ) . T he E a r ly I r on A ge c ommun i t ie s i nt h e T ransvaa l P rov ince a s i n te rp re ted a s B an tu s p eak ing ,h oweve re xh ib i ted b e tween 3 8 a nd 9 3 p e r cen td ome s t ica ted a n ima l se ven i n A .D . 3 50 -500 , w hen t h ey f i r s t a ppea red , a nd t h ey d id n o t h ave much c u l tu ra l ly i n c ommon w i th t h eL a te S tone A ge p r edece s so r si nt h e i ra r ea ,w he rea st h ee a r ly h e rde r si n t h e C ape P rov ince s e em t oh ave d eve loped , i fn o tf r om t h e l o ca l , t h en f r om ag ene ra l S ou the rn A f r ican L a te S tone A ge c on tex t ,t ow h ich p o t te ry a nd s heep w e r ea dded . 2 . T he i mpac t o f n a tura l b arr ier s a s e xp lana t ions o f a l tera t ions i n t he N eo l i th ic d i f fus ion p roce ss i n E urope a nd A f r ica S ince t h e s u r face o ve r w h ich w ave s o f i n nova t ion move i sr a re ly h omogeneou s , t h e w ave s a r e a l te red i nt h e i rc ou r se d ue t or ef lec t ing b a r r ie r s , o rh a l ted d ue t oa b so lu te o r a b so rb ing b a r r ie r s ( R .Ab le re t . a l . 1 972 ,p p . 3 89 -404 ) . H ence , t h ew ave s o fi n nova t ion a r e c hanne led mo re q u ick ly i ns ome d i r ec t ion s t h an i no t he r , w he re a tl e a s t t empo ra ry v acuum sm ay o ccu r . T he se p henomena c an c e r ta in ly b e r e cogn ized i n t h e d i f fu s ion o f a g r icu l tu re . T he s im i la r i ty t ot h e movemen t so fr e a ls e a -wave si sm ade c l ea r e rb yt h ef a c tt h a ti nE u rope i t i st h e l owe r a l t i tude s t h a t o f f e r t h e b e s t c l ima te a nd s o i l s f o r a g r icu l tu re . T he h i ghe r a l t i tude sw i th t h e i r moun ta in s a nd l e ached s o i l sw e r en a tu ra l ly a vo ided a sl o ng a st h e re w e r eg ood l ow -a l t i tude s o i l st oc u l t iva t ea nd g r aze a n ima l so n . O n t h e i s och ron maps s how ing " a rea s i n wh ich e a r ly f a rm ing w a s p r esen t " i n A .J .Amme rman a nd L .L .Cava l l i -Sfo rza ( 1 984 , p .5 9 F ig . 4 . 5 ) a nd i nP .Menozz i e t . a l . ( 1 978 , p .7 90 F ig . 6 ) , e a r ly f a rm ing o ccu r red m a rked ly l a te r i nt h e A lp s t h an o n t h e M idd le E u ropean p la in f a r t o t h e n o r th o f t h e A lp s . I ti sp robab le t h a t t h e A lp ine h i gh land s , w i th t h e i r l owe r t empe ra tu re s , f unc t ioned a s b o th a b so lu te a nd r ef lec t ing b a r r ie r s , s i nce t h e s p read w a sd i r ec ted w i th s u ch ah i gh r a te i n aN o r th -we s t e rn d i r ec t ion , i nt h es ame w ay a sw a te rr a ce sf a s te ri n an a r row s t ra i t . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a tt h ed en se f o r e s t st ot h en o r th a nd n o r thea s t , t h er ema in ing s t and s o ft h e e lm , l ime , o ak -and a sh -fo re s t t h a t t o ta l ly c ove red t h e C en t ra l E u ropean p l a in d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r p a r t o f t h e C l ima t ic O p t imum , a nd w h ich s e em s t o h ave b egun d i sappea r ing a l ong t h e s ame s ou thea s t -no r thwe s ta x i s a st h e e a r ly f a rm ing o ccup ied a t f i r s t -i ti su nc lea r w h ich w a s t h e c au se a nd e f f ec t i nt h i s p roce s s ( s ee f o r e xamp le 1 80

B .Hun t ley a nd H .J .B i rk s 1 983 , p p . 4 03 -430 ) -f unc t ioned a s a no the r b a r r ie r , a lbe i t p e rmeab le i nt h el ong r un .I ft h ed i sappea r ing o ft h ed en se f o re s ti nM idd le E u rope w a s n o t c aused b y t h e e lm -d i sea se , i tc ou ld h ave b een c aused b y c l ima t ic d e ter io ra t ion o r e x ten s ive f o re s t -c lea r ing s o n t h er i che s tl o e s s ic s o i l s , w h ich e v iden t ly w a sp ref e red b y t h e L inea r P o t te ry C u l tu re , i t sp le ion . T he s p read o fd omes t ica ted a n ima l s a nd p lan t s f u r the rn o r th a nd e spec ia l ly n o r thea s tw a sn eve r the le s si nh ib i ted f o rt hou sand so fy ea r s , p robab ly d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h is e nv i ronmen t w a s n o t s u i tab le f o r t h e Med i te r ranean d omes t ica te s , a nd t h a tt h e r es t i l le x i s ted ac ompa ra t ive ly r i ch f auna a nd f l o ra ,w h ich w a s s t i l lu t i l ized b y a ni nd igenou s h un t ing a nd g a the r ing p opu la t ion . D u r ing t h ep roces s o f a dap ta t ion o f t he N eo l i th ic s ubs is tence t o t he M idd le a nd Nor the rn E uropean e nv i ronmen t , h e rd ing b ecame mo re d ependen to n c a t t le a nd p igs t han o n s heep /goa t s , a nd c u l t iva t ion mo re d ependen to nb a r ley ( a nd r ye b rome? ) t h an o n emme rw hea t , a nd l a te r o n o a t s a nd r ye . I ne x t reme No r th -we s t E u rope , e spec ia l ly a l ong t h e N orweg ian c oa s t a s f a r t o t h e n o r th a s F innma rk p rov ince , s heep b ecame a dap ted t of e ed ing o n h ea the ra nd o the rE r icaceaean s a nd s eaweed ,w h ich p e rm i t ted t h em t os u rv ive o u tdoo r s a l lt h ey ea rr ound . A f te rt h e se a dap ta t ion s , a g r icu l tu re w a sa b le t oc ro ss e ven t h ea r c t ic c i r c le , a l though b efo re t h e c l ima te h ad b ecome t oo d e te r io ra ted , e ven s heep /goa t s a nd b a r ley o ccu r red s po rad ica l ly i nN o r th S cand inav ia a se a r ly a sc a . 2 ,200 b e . A l l t h ese l o ca l i t ie s , h oweve r , s eem t o b e s i tua ted t o t h e s ou th o r o n t h e w a rme r s i de o f t h e J anua ry i so the rm f o r8°C a nd p ref e rab ly c l o se t or i ch ( c lay ) s o i ls i nt h ec oa s ta ll ow land , s o t h e e a r ly f a rme r s mus t h ave b een h igh ly s e lec t ive c oncern ing t h e i r e nv i ronmen t ( A .Äy räpää 1 937 , M .P . Ma lme r 1 957 , p .1 60 ) . T h i s s e lec t iv i ty i sa l so e v iden t i n S can ia , S ou th Sweden , whe re t h e s ou the rn a nd s ou thwe s ter np a r to ft h ep rov ince w i th t h e i rr i ch a l ca l ic s o i l sh ave as u rp lu so fN eol i th ic f l in ta xes n o to n ly c ompared t ot h er e s to ft h ep rov ince ,b u tt ot h er e s to f Sweden . Ma t s P . Ma lme r a pp l ied t h e c oncep t p le ion , i . e . a r ea s w i th p o s i t ive a noma ly ( a h uman g eog raph ica l c oncep t i n t roduced b y T .Häge r s t rand f r om c l ima to logy ( 1952 ) ) , t o t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ff l in ta nd s t one a xe sa nd f l in td agge r si nS can ia . T h i s h ighe s t a bundance h appen s t oc o r re spond t ot h e b e s ta l ca l ic s o i l s i nS can ia i na l l N eo l i th ic a r tefac tc a se si nve s t iga ted b y Ma t sP . Ma lme r( 1 957 ,p p . 1 72 -173 Maps 7 -10 ) , a nd h et h e refo re c onc lude st h a tt h ep robab i l i ty i sv e ry h igh t h a tt h es ub s i s tence w a sb a sed o nc u l t iva t ion o fd ome s t ica ted p l an t sa sw e l la so nh e rd ing b o th d u r ing t h eE a r ly ,M idd le a nd L a te N eo l i th ic . Ma lme ra l so c onc lude st h a ts i nce 8 6p e r cen to ft h eo lde s tb a t t le a xe s b e long ing t ot h e Swed i sh -No rweg ian B a t t le A xe C u l tu re i nS can ia a r ef ound w i th in t h e p le ion -a rea a nd 1 4p e rcen ti nt h ep e r iphe ry , a nd o n ly 7 0p e rcen to ft h ey ounge ra xe sa r e f ound w i th in t h ep le ion a nd 3 0p e r cen ti nt h ep e r iphe ry ,t h eo lde s ta xe sa r e mo re s t rong ly t i ed t ot h ep le ion t han t h e y ounge r ( M .P . Ma lme r 1 957 , p p . 1 82 -184 ) . Ma lme r 's l a te r w o rk o n aF enno scand ian s ca le , h oweve r , r evea led t h a t t h e o ldes t t ypes w ere mo re a bundan ti nt h ep e r ihpe ry , d ue t oi t s g rea te rc u l tu ra lc on se rva t ism ( M .P . Ma lme r 1 962 , 1 981) . A l though i ts e em s c l ea r t ha t f a rm ing a ppea red b e tween 3 , 500 -2 , 800 b . c . i n S ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in a nd S .Scand inav ia , a nd o n ly a ppea red i nt h e E a s t B a l t ic , C en tra l R uss ian a nd No r th F enno scand ian r eg ions w i th t h e C o rded Wa re /Ba t t le A xe c u l tu re g roup b e tween 2 , 300 a nd 1 , 800 b . c . , t h e re a r e af ew c on t rove r s ia l p a lyno log ica l i nd ica t ions o f c e rea l a g r icu l tu re i n F in land ( Suom i ) f r om t h e 4 th m i l len ium b c . F u r the rmo re , a par tf r om t h eN eo l i th ic s ub s i s tence ,r ema in so fs ub s tan t ia lb u i ld ing s ,l a rge c eme te r ies , w i th d i f f e ren t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fb u r ia l g ood s ( eg . ambe rb ead s ,a n ima lh ead s cu lp tu res e t c . ) , e xchange o f ma te r ia ls a nd a r tefac t s o ve r l ong d i s tances , c l ay a n th ropomo rph ic f i gur ine s , a dvanced r ock a r t a nd a s t ab le ma r ine mamma l h un t ing a dap ta t ion ( p robab ly i n c lud ing t h e v e ry l a rge s t o rage v esse l s o fP i t -comb w a re t ype ) s i nce a tl e a s t4 , 200 b c .i nt h ee n t i re E a s tF enno scand ia a nd a j dacen tr eg ion st ot h e s ou th a nd e a s t ,c ou ld i nd ica te as o ce ty o fs o -ca l led a dvanced h un te r s ,o ne t h a tw a sa sa dvanced a s t he N eo l i th ic s oc ie ty : w i th p ermanen t s e t t lemen t s , ad e layed r e tu rn s ys tem a nd d i f fe ren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f s p i r i tua l a nd w o r ld ly r ank a nd p owe r , i . e . i mp ly ing t h e 1 81

e x i s tence o fs haman sa nd b i gm en . I nA f r ica t h e s i tua t ion w a sd i f f e r en t : h e re t h ew a rm -hum id t r op ica l l ow land sf o r al o ng t ime w e re u n su i tab le t ot h ep a laea r c t ic d ome s t ica te s , s i nce t h ey w e re s en s i t ive t on agana ( T rypanosom ias i s ) w h ich w a s s p r ead b y t s e t se f l ie s ( G los s ina s pp . ) t h r iv ing i nt h i s e nv i ronmen t . T se t se f l ie s a r er e s t r ic ted t o ay ea r ly r a inf a l l i s ohye to fc a . 5 00 mm , a nd s i nce t h e s h i f to ft h ei n te r t rop ica lc onve rgence z one d u r ing t h eC l ima te O p t imum moved t h i s i s ohye t n o r thwa rd s t o a bou t t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e p resen t 2 00 mm i s ohye t , ( c o r re spond ing t o t h e l a t i tude o f K ha r toum ) t h e p robab i l i ty i sh igh t h a t c a t t le w e re e f f ec t ive ly p reven ted f r om a ny s p read s ou thwa rd s b efo re t h e o nse t o f t h e f i na l d e s s icca t ion o ft h eS aha ra ( A .B .S tn i th 1 984 ,p .1 05 ) . H oweve r , b efo re t h is e ven t , t h e re w e re t wo e a r l ie r a r id i n te rva l s , a s s hown b y t h e f l uc tua t ing l a ke l e ve l s i nE a s tA f r ica a nd t h e S aha ra ( among o the r s K .W .Bu tze re t . a l . 1 972 ) , t h e f i r s t b e tween a bou t 5 , 500 o r5 , 000 b . c . a nd 3 , 900 b . c . w i th t h e l owe s t l a ke l e ve l s a bou t 4 , 700 b . c . , a nd t h e s e cond b e tween a bou t 3 , 000 a nd 1 , 900 b . c . , w i th t h e l owe s t l a ke l e ve ls a bou t 2 , 200 b . c . T he f i r s t a r id i n te rva l w a s n eve r s eve re , a nd c an p robab ly n o tb ef u l ly c ompa red w i th t h e s e cond a r id i n te rva l ,a nd c er ta in ly n o tw i th t h e f i na l d e s s ica t ion a f te r a bou t 1 , 100 b . c . , a l though i tw a s d e f in i te ly d r ie rt h an h ad b een n o rma lp r ev iou s ly a ta bou t4 , 700 b . c . ( a nd m ay a l so h ave h ad al o nge rd u ra t ion t h an t h e s e cond a r id i n te rva l ) . H ence , t h e t s e t se f l y b a r r ie r m ay h ave h ad p e r iod s o f p e rmeab i l i ty , a l be i t o f s ho r t d u ra t ion ,i fi tw a si n deed ab a r r ie r . T h i s c ou ld h oweve rb e t e s ted : i ft h e t s e t se f l y b e l t f unc t ioned a s ab a r r ie r a ga in s t a ny s p read o fc a t t le s ou thwa rd sf r om t h eS aha ra ,t h en i np e r iod so fa r id i ty —w hen t h et s e t se f l yb e l tc on t rac ted —i to ugh tt oh ave b een p o s s ib le t od r ive c a t t le i n to E a s tA f r ica ,w h ich w a s t h e o n ly p o s s ib le r ou te f o ra vo id ing t h e e qua to r ia lr a in f o re s t f r inge s w he r e t s e t se s t i l l mu s th ave t h r ived . T o t e s tt h i s w e h ave t op lo t t h er ad io ca rbon d a ted f i nd s o fd ome s t ica ted a n ima l s f r om E a s t A f r ica ( Kenya ) a ga in s tt h ec l ima t ica ld eve lopmen ti n f e r red f r om t h er ad ioca rbon d a ted l a ke l e ve l si nt h e s ame r eg ion . ( S ee F igu re 2 ) . H av ing d one s o , w e may c onc lude t h a t t h ere i s ac er ta in a g reemen t b e tween a r id p e r iod s a nd h e rd ing o f c a t t le a nd s h eep /goa t si nE a s tA fr i ca ,a nd c onve r se ly ,b e twe en h um id p e r iod sa nd al a ck -a l be i tn o t at o ta ll a ck -o fh e rd ing .I ft h em a t e r ia lr e p r e sen ted i nt h ed i ag ram i sr e p r e sen ta t ive f o rt h e d eve lopmen t o f s ub s i s tence i n E a s t A f r ica , w e may t h u s c onc lude t h a t h e rd ing o f d ome s t ica ted a n ima ls w a s i n t roduced o n o ne o r t wo o cca t ion s w i thou t b e ing a b le t o e ndu r et h en ex th um id p e r iod .T he r ea r e ac oup le o fl o ca l i t ie sa tL ake T u rkana w i th c a t t le a nd s heep /goa tr ema in sd a ted t oc a . 2 , 000 b . c . t h a tf i t si n to t h i sh ypo the s i s . H oweve r ,i n E th iop ia a nd S oma l ia ,t h e r ea r es e ve ra ll o ca l i t ie sw i th d ome s t ica ted a n ima lr ema in sd a ted t oc .1 , 500 b . c . -w h ich i s mo re o rl e s s i nt h e m idd le o ft h e t h i rd a nd l a s tw a rm -hum id p e r iod . T h i s m ay p o s s ib ly b e e xp la ined b y t h e f a c tt h a t t h e se l o ca l i t ie s a r e s i tua ted o n h i ghe ra l t i tude so ri n mo r ea r id a r ea s ,a nd h ence t h a th e rd ing w a sa b le t oe ndu r et h et h i rd w a rm -hum id p e r iod i nE th iop ia a nd S oma l ia b u tn o ti nK enya . A t t h e se o cca s ion s t h e p e r cen to fd ome s t ica ted a n ima l so ft o ta lm amma lr ema in sd id p robab ly b a r e ly e xceeded 1 0 p e r cen t , a nd t h e w e ighed a ve rage o fa l l c on tempo ra ry s i te s o ft h e se p e r iod s w e re c e r ta in ly s i gn if ican t ly l e s st h an 1 0% . A f t e rt h ef i na ld e s s icca t ion o ft h eS aha ra h ad b egun a bou t 1 , 100 b . c . , h oweve r ,t h ed ome s t ica ted a n ima l sc on s t i tu ted mo r et h an 5 0p e r cen to f t h et o ta l mamma lr ema in s , a nd s oon i n c rea sed t on ea r ly 7 0p e r cen t . S ince t h eS udane se l o ca l i t ie si nt h eK ha r toum a r ea r e ached t h i s l e ve la l r eady a bou t4 , 000 b . c . ( A .T igan ie l Mah i 1 982 , R .Haa land 1 982 ,A .Gau t ie r 1 984 ) , a nd t h em a in p a r to ft h eS aha ran r o ck a r t b e long ing t ot h eB ov ine p a s to ra l i s tp e r iod s e em st oh ave b een c r ea ted b e tween 4 , 000 a nd 3 , 000 b . c . , ( H .Lho te 1 959 ,G .Camp s 1 974 a . o . ) ,i ti sn o te a sy t oe xp la in t h en ea r ly t o ta l 1 82

l a ck o fe v idence f o rh e rd ing i nE a s tA f r ica d u r ing t h es ame i n te rva l ,u n le ss i tw a sc aused b yt h et s e t se f l yb a r r ie r ,i . e . t h el a ck o f at s e t se -f ree c o r r ido r . We h ave a l ready c onc luded t h a t t h e E qua tor ia l r a in f o res t f unc t ioned a s ar e f lec t ing b a r r ie r , s i nce t h ep a laea r c t ic d omes t ica tes d id n ot h r ive i nt h is e nv i ronmen t .T he I nd ian O cean c oa s t ,o fc ou r se ,f unc t ioned a sa no the rr ef lec t ing b a r r ie r ,l e av ing t h eE a s tA f r ican h i gh land g ra s s land sa st h eo n ly r ema in ing c o r r ido rf o r as p read o fd ome s t ica ted a n ima l s f u r the rs ou thwa rd si n to S ou the rn A f r ica . ( I ts hou ld ,h oweve r ,b er ema rked t h a tp o l i shed s t one a xe a nd p o t tery -us ing c u l tu res w i th o i lp a lm s a nd C ana r ium ,p robab ly r oo tc rops a nd p o s s ib ly d wa rf g oa t ss e em t oh ave e x is ted i nt h er a in f o re s tf r inge a nd r i ve rv a l ley s a f te rc a . 1 , 500 -1 ,100 b . c . , r each ing L owe rC ongo /Za i r e c a . 2 00 b . c . ( F . v an N o ten , e d . 1 982 , p . 6 3 -64 , 1 57 , J .Van s ina 1 984 , p . 1 32 , D .de Ma re t 1 986 , p p . 13 , 1 21 , 1 27 ) . T he e v idence i ss can ty ,b u tp a lyno log ica l s t ud ie s s how p robab le f o re s tc l ea rance s a tt h is t ime a nd l a te r ( J .D .C la rk 1 970 ,p p . 2 05 -206 , A .Ham i l ton e t . a l . 1 986 ,p p . 1 64 -167 ) ) . S ince t s e t se f l ie sa r ew ide ly d i s t r ibu ted a ga in i nS ou ther nA f r ica -e xcep ta l ong t h eh igh a l t i tude a nd s em i -ar id w a te r shed o u tt h rough Z amb ia , A ngo la a nd N am ib ia -t h e re w a s p robab ly n o mo t iva t ion f o r af u r the re xpan s ion o fN eo l i th ic s ub s i s tence i n to a na r ea w i th ar i ch l a rge g ame f auna t h a tc ou ld w e l l s uppo r ti t sh un te r sa nd g a the re r s ( f o re xamp le a t Gw isho Ho t S pr ing s i nZ amb ia , w he re s ome h un te r a nd g a the re r s e t t lemen t s d a ted t o 2 , 835 - 1 , 710 b . c . s ub s is ted o n l a rge g ame , e . g . e l ephan t , r h ino , h ippo , z eb ra , w i ldebees t , w a r thog a nd l e chwe , b u ta bove a l l b uf fa lo , ( t o9 6p e r cen t )o ft o ta l mamma l r ema ins ) ( B .M .Fagan & F .L . v an No ten 1 971 , B .Fagan 1 976 ) ) Howeve r , i ti sq u i te p o s s ib le t h a to pen g r a s s land a r ea s -e spec ia l ly i nt h eE a s tA f r ican h igh land s ,w i th ah igh c oncen t ra t ion o fl a rge g ame b i oma ss ,m ay h ave b een s ough ta f te ra l so b yt h eh e rde r s ,n o t s o much f o rt h e i rw i ld g ame i t se lf , b u tb ecause t h eh e rde r sc ou ld i n f e rf r om t h et ype o f g r az ing w i ld g ame t h a tt h eg r a s s land sh ad t h eb e s ts o i l sa nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ion sf o rc a t t le , a s w e l l . S eve ra l g ra ss land a r ea s i n E a s t A f r ica w i th al a rge b ioma ss a r e s i tua ted o n v o lcan ic o rr i f ts ed imen t si nr eg ion sw i th ama rked d ry s e a son a nd s uppo r t ing e no rmous h e rd s o f s ea sona l ly m ig ra t ing z eb ras , g nues a nd g aze l le s , w he rea s mo s t s avanna w ood land a r ea sw i th ah i ghe ra nd mo re e ven r a in fa l l -o f ten i nt h el ow land s -a r es i tua ted o n b a semen t o r g ran i te , a nd s uppo r t ad i f f e ren t f auna , ma in ly r epre sen ted b y l a rge r s pec ies s uch a se l ephan t , b uf f a lo a nd h ippo , b u to f ten w i th al owe rb ioma ss p e r s q .km ( R .H .V .Be l l , 1 984 ) . H ence , t h e o pen h igh land g ra ss land s s i tua ted o n v o lcan ic o rr i f t s ed imen t s wh ich a r e h i gh ly f e r t i le f o rt h ef a vou red g raz ing g r a s se s , a r et h ep le ion ,o rr i che rt h an a ve rage a r ea s i nA f r ica S ou th o ft h eS aha ra . ( The o n ly a r ea st h a tc ou ld p o ss ib ly c ompe te w i th t h e se a r e t h er i ve rv a l ley s ,n o tab ly t h eN i le V aley ,w h ich a r es e a sona l ly i ndunda ted a nd f e r t i l ized w i th s i l t ) . I n t h e mode l o f R .Fo ley ( 1982 ) a . o . t h e h un te r -ga the re r s oc ie t ies i n t h e se p l e ion a r ea s ( t he f e r t i le g ra ss land s ) c ou ld h ave b een q u i te d i f f e ren t t o t h e p resen t h un te r -ga the re rs oc ie t ie s s u rv iv ing i np e r ihpe ra lr a in f o re s to rd e ser ta r ea s . T he f o rme r p robab ly d epended mo re h eav i ly o n l a rge g ame m ea t , p rov ided t h rough o rgan ized l a rge -sca le o pe ra t ions d emand ing l a rge rc oope ra t ing g roups , ad e layed r e tu rn s y s tem a nd amo re " advanced " s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion a nd l e ade r sh ip . I nf a c t ,t h ef auna lr ema in sr evea l t h a t whe rea st h el a rge t e r res t r ia lg ame s howed ac l ea r ly d ec rea s ing t e ndency t h roughou t t h e P o s tg lac ia l p er iod i ni n land A f r ica ( a s w e l l a s i nS ou th a nd M idd le E u rope ) , t h e ma r ine mamma ls , b i rd s ,f i sh a nd mo l lu scs c ons t i tu ted a ni n c rea s ing r e sou r ce i nc oa s ta l No r thern E u rope a nd S ou the rn A f r ica d ur ing t h e C l ima t ic O p t imum d ue t o t h e T ape s /L i to r ina t r ansg re s s ions , a nd t h i sp robab ly c au sed ad e lay i nt h er a te o fs p read o f d ome s t ica ted a n ima l si na r ea sw i th ama r ine a dap ta t ion , a nd a ni n c rea sed r e cep t iv i ty t o t h e N eo l i th ic i nnova t ion s i ni n land a r ea s . I ti sf u r the rmo re p o ss ib le t h a t t h e c l ima t ic c hange t o ac on t inen ta l t ype w i th v e ry d ry s u mme r s d ur ing t h e S ubbo rea l p er iod i n E u rope c au sed ma jo rr eg re s s ion si nl a ke l e ve l sa nd r e t rea to ft h ef o re s t s /expan s ion o ft h e s t eppe s , a s e g . i n t h e U ra l r eg ion , w he re t h e s t eppe e xpanded b e tween 1 45 -200 km

1 83

n o r thwa rd s d ur ing t h e M idd le G u rbunovo p e r iod ( c . 1 , 700 -1 .200 b . c . ) ( T .Su l im i r sk i 1 970 , P . 2 52 ) , wh ich p robab ly f avou red t h e s p read o f g raz ing d omes t ic a n ima ls a nd c u l t iva ted c e r ea l s . 3 . Compar ison o f t he a verage s pread r a tes o f e ar ly f ar m ing , f u l ly N eo l i th ic s ubs is tence a nd o f i ron work ing T he se r a te so fs p read w e re mea su red t h rough l i nea rr eg re ss ion a na lyses ,w h ich r evea led t h a tt h ea ve rage r a te o fs p read f o rt h ee a r l ie s to ccu r rence o fd ome s t ica ted a n ima ls o ve r E u rope u pt oN o r th S cand inav ia w a s0 . 8 km p e ry ea ro r 1 9 .9 km p e r2 5 -yea rg ene ra t ion ( r =0 .96 ) , a nd o ve rA f r ica d own t ot h e S ou thern C ape P rov ince , S ou th A f r ica w a s 0 . 8 km p e ry ea ro r 1 9 .8 km p e rg ene ra t ion ( r =0 .93 ) . T he a ve rage r a te o f s pread o f f u l ly N eo l i th ic s ubs is tence ( i .e . mo re t han 5 0% d ome s t ica ted a n ima l so ft h e mamma lr ema in s )o ve rE u rope u pt oN o r th S cand inav ia w a s 0 . 58 km p e r y ea r o r 1 4 .7 km p e r g ene ra t ion ( 0 .86 ) , a nd o ve r A f r ica d own t o S ou th A f r ica ( T ran svaa l P rov ince ) w a s 0 . 59 km p e ry ea ro r 1 4 .7 km p e rg enera t ion ( r =0 .98 ) . T hu s ,t h es p read o ft h ee a r ly N eo l i th ic w a s mo re t h an 5km f a s te rp e rg ene ra t ion t h an t h e f u l ly N eo l i th ic ,w h ich a tl e a s ti nE u rope i sd ue t ot h ef a c tt h a tw he rea st h es p read o ft h e e a r l ie s to ccu r rence o fd ome s t ica ted a n ima l sw a sh appen ing a ta bou tt h e s ame r a te a l lt h e w ay t ot h ep e r iphe ry ,t h er a te s l owed d own ma rked ly f o rt h ef u l ly N eo l i th ic s ub s i s tence t owa rd st h ep e r iphe ry .T h is i se spec ia l ly e v iden ti nN o r th E u rope ,b u tc anno tb ea se a s i ly t r aced i nS ou ther nA f r ica d ue t ot h el a ck o fe a r ly s i te si nZ amb ia ,Z imbabwe ,A ngo la a nd Mocamb ique ,w he re t h eo lde s ta g r icu l tu ra l s i te sa r et h eE a r ly I r on A ge s e t t lemen t s . T he a ve rage r a te o fs p read o fi r on w o rk ing o ve rA f r ica w a s2 . 7 km p e ry ea ro r6 7 .7 km p e r 2 5 -yea rg ene ra t ion ( r =0 .90 ) . I n E u rope ap re l im ina ry c a lcu la t ion o ft h e r a te o f s p read f o r i r on wo rk ing r evea l s a s im i la ro r s omewha t f a s te rr a te o f2 . 9 km p e ry ea ro r7 2 .9 km p e rg ene ra t ion ( r =0 .89 ) , a nd w e t hus may c onc lude t ha t i r on s p read a t amuch h ighe r r a te t han d ome s t ica ted a n ima l s . I nf a c t , i ta r r ived i n No r the rnmos tE u rope a nd S ou the rnmo s tA f r ica b efo re t h e s o c ie t ie st h e re h ad b ecome " f u l ly N eo l i th ic " . T ab le 1 . A ve rage r a te o fs p read p e rg ene ra t ion ( i n km p e r2 5 y ea r s ) E u rope E a r l ie s tf a rm ing F u l ly N eo l i th ic I r on wo rk ing D i sc -whee lw agon s L igh tc ha r io t s

A f r ica

1 9 .9 1 4 .7 7 2 .9 1 21 c a . 8 6

1 9 .8 1 4 .7 6 7 .7 c a . 7 5

4 . The s pread o f w agons , c har io ts a nd h orse s ; ad igress ion A sw e may s e ef r om ac ompa r ison o ft h e s p read r a te f o rt h eN eo l i th ic i nnova t ion s a nd i r on wo rk ing , t h er a te o ft h el a t te rw a s ma rked ly h ighe ri nb o th E u rope a nd A f r ica , b u t t h e s p read r a te s f o r t h er e spec t ive i nnova t ion s w e re a l so c ompa rab le i nE u rope a nd i n A f r ica . T ha t i nnova t ion s h ave s ome t ime s a r r ived s omewha t l a te r i nS ou th A f r ica t h an No r th E u rope ,i s -o fc ou r se -d ue t ot h eg r ea te rd i s tance b e tween t h eE a s ter n Med i te r ranean a nd S ou th A f r ica ( J e r icho - C ape Agu lha s : c . 7 ,450 km ) t han b e tween t h e E a s te rn Med i te r ranean a nd No r th E u rope ( J e r icho -N o rdkapp :c .4 , 350 km ) ,t h ef o rme rd i s tance 1 84

b e ing a bou t 1 . 7 t ime sl o nge r . S ince i nnova t ion sh ave d i f fu sed a ts im i la rr a te o ve rE u rope a nd A f r ica a nd t h e l i nea rc o r re la t ion c oef f ic ien t i sn o t much d i f f e ren t f o r t h e A f r ican l o ca l i t ie st h an f o rt h eE u ropean l o ca l i t ie si fJ e r icho i st a ken a st h ep o in to fd epa r tu re ,o r c en t re o fd i f fu s ions ,i ti sl o g ica lt oa pp rehend t h eE a s te rn Med i te r ranean a st h ec ommon c en t re o fd i f fu s ion f o rb o th c on t inen t s . I ft h e w aves o fi nnova t ion t ot h e t wo c on t inen t s s t a r ted a ta bou tt h e s ame t ime f r om a c ommon p o in t o f d epa r tu re , t h e a na logous d i f fus ion p rocesse s n a tu ra l ly s eem mo re e xp l icab le . S ome t imes a ni nnova t ion m ay n o tw i th c e r ta in ty h ave r eached t h ep e r iphe ry p hy s ica l ly , b u t may h ave d one s o a sa n i d ea , i ns ome l u cky i n s tance s p reserved a s ap i c tu re . F o r e xamp le ,n a tu ra l i s t ic E a s t Med i te r ranean s h ip -a nd c ha r io t -p ic tu re sr eached as e conda ry c en t re o fd i f fu s ion i nS ou th S cand inav ia d ur ing t h eE a r ly B ronze Age p e r iod s 1-3( c a . 1 , 500 -1 , 200 b . c . ) . T he e a r l ie s tk nown s h ip e ng rav ing i nS ou th S cand inav ia ( p e r iod 1 -2 ) w a s f ound o n a c u rved s wo rd o f s ou thea s te rn o r ig in a tR o rby , K a lundbo rg , D enmark . I tw a s s oon f o l lowed b yt h e s h ip c a rv ing so nt h eW i sma rt r umpe t( M .P . Ma lme r 1 981 ,p .1 5 ,F ig . 5 ) a nd o n s l ab No . 2i nt h eK iv ik g rave c hambe r ( Ma lme r 1 981 , p . 1 7 , F ig . 6 )d a ted t oc . 1 , 200 -1 , 000 b . c . L a te r , a cco rd ing t o Ma t s P . Ma lme r ( 1970 , 1 981 ) a nd S . Ma r s t rande r ( 1963 ) , mo re s chema t ica ls h ip -p ic tu re sw e re d eve loped , t h e l a s tt y pe sn o th av ing much i nc ommon w i th t h e o r ig ina l mo t if . I n ac ho ro log ica l i nves t iga t ion Ma t s P . Ma lme r s howed t h a tt h ee a r l ie s tt y pe i n c rea sed i na bundance t h eg r ea te rt h ed i s tance t ot h ec en t re o fd i f fu s ion i n Wes tD enmark w a s( M .P . Ma lme r 1 981 ,p p . 2 0 -21 ,F ig . 7 -8 ) . T he r ea son f o rt h ep ropo r t iona l ly b e t te rr ep re sen ta t ion o ft h e e a r l ies tt ype i np e r iphe ra l a r ea s w a s e xp la ined b y Ma lme ra sf o l low s : " I n ac r ea t ive c en t re ( a s D enma rk h a s f r equen t ly b een i nt h e p a s t ) at ype w i l l n o t b e p roduced f o rv e ry l ong b e fo re n ew i mpu lse s ( f o re xamp le f r om t h ec on t inen to fE u rope ) c au se t h ec r ea t ion o fn ew t y pe s . B u tp e r iphe ra lr eg ion s( c en tra la nd n o r the rn S cand inav ia w e re o f ten s uch r eg ion s d ur ing t h e S tone A ge a nd B ronze Age ) o f ten l a g b eh ind t oa c ons ide rab le e x ten t , s o t h a tt ypes may b e p roduced i ns uch a r ea s l ong a f te rt h ey h ave g one o u to ff a sh ion i nt h ec en t ra lr eg ion s . I no the rw o rd s : t h es p r ead o ft h ee a r l ie s to fa s e r ie so fc u l tu r a l ly r e la ted t y pe sw ou ld f o l low a nu n inh ib i ted p a t te rn ,w h i le t h ep a t te rn o f s p read o fs ub sequen tt y pe sw ou ld b e mo re i nh ib i ted ( M .P . Ma lme r 1 981 ,p .2 2 ) ." I ts hou ld b e a dded t h a tc er ta in i n con s i s tenc ie si nt h ec ho ro log ica l s t a t i s t ics f r om N o r th a nd E a s t F enno scand ia m ay d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t a cco rd ing t o s ho re l ine d i sp lacemen t c h rono log ica la nd c ho ro log ica ls t ud ie s mo s tb oa tp i c tu re sf r om t h e se r eg ion sa r ed a ted t o t h e S tone Age a nd a r e a s soc ia ted w i th a p redom ina t ly s ea mamma l a nd f i sh ing s ub s i s tence .T h rough t h e i rn a tu ra l i s t ica l ly d ep ic ted s ea l -ha rpoon ing s cene s a nd e l khead p row s e t c . t hey c on t ra s t ma rked ly w i th t h e S ou th S cand inav ian B ronze Age s h ip c a rv ings wh ich a r e a s so c ia ted w i th a n a g ra r ian s ubs i s tence a nd p robab ly as t ra t if ied s oc ie ty ( C .L indqv is t 1 978 , 1 983 , 1 984a , 1 984b ) . I n s tead t h en o r ther nb oa t s s e em -w i th t h e i rn a tu ra l i s t ic e lkhead p row s -t ob ea s soc ia ted w i th t h ee lk c u l t , wh ich h ad i t sc en t re o fd i f fu s ion i nE a s ter nF enno scand ia ,n o tab ly a round L ake O nega . H ence t h e re m ay b ed i f f e r en tt r ad i t ion sa nd d i f fu s ion p roce s se s emana t ing f r om d i f f e ren t c en t re so fd i f fu s ion a tw o rk i nt h es ame o ra d jacen tr eg ion sa nd f u r the rmo re s im i la rb u t o bv iou s ly i ndependen tc u l tu ra le xp re s s ion s may o ccu ro nd i f f e ren tc on t inen t s . S ome t ime s d eve lopmen tm ay p roceed i n ap a ra l le l f a sh ion i nd i f f e ren tc on t inen t s : t h e r ock a r to ft h e No rd land s t y le i n No r th N o rway d eve loped f r om n a tu ra l i s t ic a n ima ls i n n a tu ra l s i ze , o r ig ina l ly p o l i shed a nd s l igh t ly l a te rc a rved a nd p ecked i n to t h e r ock , t o

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s ucce ss ive ly s ma l le r s i zed a n ima ls p ecked i n to t h e r ock , i n t h e e nd b ecom ing r a the r s c hema t ic ized .T hey w e re t h en r e p laced b yt h ev e ry s ma l lB ronze A ge a n ima l s ,w h ich a r e mo s t ly d i f f icu l t t oi d en t ify a st os pec ie s . Now , t h er o ck a r td eve loped a l ong t h e s ame l i ne si nt h eS aha ra a nd No r th A f r ica , a nd s ome mo t i f s , f o re xamp le t h e s c enes o fc o i tu s a nd c o i tus e xp o s te r io r ea nd ma sked i t ypha l l ic m en ( H .Lo the 1 959 , 1 961 ,F .Mo r i 1 965 , W .An ton iew icz 1 968 , G .Camps 1 974 , G .G je s s ing 1 978 , C .L indqv is t 1 984b ) : o ccu red a l ready d u r ing P a laeo l i th ic , Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic p e r iod si nb o th r eg ion s . H ence t h e f e r t i l i ty c u l t i n f o r e xamp le t h e N o rd land t r ad i t ion d eve loped i ndependen t ly o f i t s b e t te r -known c oun terpa r t i n t h e S ou th S cand inav ian B ronze Age t r ad i t ion . I ft h ese r ema rkab le s im i la r i t ie sb e tween F enno scand inav ia a nd t h eS aha ra a r en o td e r ived f r om a c ommon o lde r o r ig in , f o r e xamp le t h e We s t E u ropean P a laeo l i th ic c ave a r t t r ad i t ion , w he re s im i la r mo t if so ccu r ,i ti sd i f f icu l tt oe xp la in t h ep a ra l le l i sm i nt h ea r td eve lopmen t i nt h et wo a r ea s . I n t h i s b ew i lde r ing s i tua t ion , i ti si n te res t ing t o n o te t h e a ppea rance o f p i c tu res o f h o r se -d rawn c ha r io t sw i th s t and ing d r ive r sa nd r e in so ft h eE a s t Med i te r ranean ,p robab ly Mycenaean t ype , a tv i r tua l ly t h e s ame t ime i n b o th S ou th S cand inav ia a nd C en t ra l S aha ra . An a tu ra l is t ic c ha r io t i ns i depe r spec t ive w a s f ound o n s l ab No . 7i nt h e K iv ik g rave c hambe r , S can ia , S ou th Sweden ( C . -A . Mobe rg 1 975 , p .3 0 , M .P . Ma lme r 1 981 , p . 1 7 F ig . 6 ,p . 4 5 F ig . 1 6 ) , d a ted t op er iod 3 ( c a 1 , 200 -1 ,100 b . c . ) , a nd s t i l l mo re n a tu ra l is t ic a r e an umbe r o fr ock p a in t ings o fh o r se -d rawn t wo t of ou r i nh and ) l i gh t c ha r io t s w i th o ne o rt wo d r ive r s w i th r e in s , d ep ic ted f l y ing -a t -a -ga l lop , f r om i n te ra l ia A la -n -Edoumen t , i nt h e T a ss i l i n -A j je r moun ta in s , A lge r ian S aha ra ( H .Lho te 1 959 , p . 16 F ig . 8 7 ) ,d a ted t ot h eC aba l l ine p e r iod ( c . 1 , 200 -500 b . c . ) . D u r ing t h i sp e r iod t h e G a raman tes -ap owe r fu l B e rbe rt r ibe -e s tab l ished t h e i rc ap i ta l G a rama i nH ammada -e l -Ham ra ,t h ep resen tF ezzan i nL ibya , a tc .1 , 000 b . c . , a nd a f te r a bou t9 00 b . c . t h e c ha r io t a nd h o r se r ock c a rv ing s w e re s upp lemen ted b yT iph inag ian i n c r ip t ion s , a n a l phabe td e r ived f r om t h eP un ic i nC a r thage , u n t i la bou tA .D . 6 50 . T ha t t h e G a raman te s u sed s uch c ha r io t s a sd ep ic ted o n t h er ock s i sc onf i rmed b y aw r i t ten s ou rce , H e rodo to s ( c . 4 50 B .C . d ead 4 25 B .C . ) . H ence , i ti sp oss ib le t ha t a tl e a s t p i c tu res o fh o r se -d rawn c ha r io t s , a nd p o s s ib ly t h er e a lt h ing s , v i r tua l ly s imu l taneous ly r e a ched b o th S ou th S cand inav ia a nd t h eC en t ra lS aha ra . We a r ec e r ta in t h a tl i gh tc ha r io t sw e re i nu se i nt h eM inoan a nd Mykenean c u l tu re s ( c . 1 , 800 -1 ,200 B .C . ) , w he re a l so f l y ing -a t -a -ga l lop w a s u sed i n t h e a r t , a nd t ha t t h e H yk sos i n t roduced h o r se -d rawn w a r c ha r io t s i n to E gyp t ( c . 1 , 675 -1 ,570 B .C . ) . T he o lde s tk nown p i c tu re s o fl i gh tc ha r io t s a r ef r om K ü l tepe ( c . 1 , 900 B .C . ) a nd S ippa r( c . 1 , 780 B .C . )i nE a s tA na to l ia ( S .P iggo t t 1 968 ) .A na pp rox ima te c a lcu la t ion o ft h e s p read r a te f r om A na to l ia o rt h et wo s e condary c en t re s o fd i f fu s ion r evea ls ar a te o fc .3 . 4 km p e ry ea ro r8 6 km p e r2 5 -yea rg ene ra t ion t oS can ia , a nd c .3 . 0 km p e ry ea ro r7 5 km p e r g ene ra t ion t oT a ss i l i n -A j je r , b u t s i nce t h e se c a lcu la t ions a r e n o tb a sed o nr ad ioca rbon d a te st h ey a r ep robab ly n o tq u i te d ependab le . We may c ompa re t h i sw i th t h es p read r a te f o rd i sc -whee lw agon s ,t h eo lde s tp i c tog raph s o f wh ich a r e f r om U ruk (Wa rka ) I V , Mesopo tam ia ( 14C d a te : 2 ,815 b . c . , o r c . 3 , 200 -3 ,100 B .C . ) a nd r ea lw agons i nt h eK u ra -A raxe sa r ea i nt h eC auca su s( 14C d a tes : 2 ,950 -2 ,450 b . c . , o r c . 3 , 700 -3 ,200 B .C . ) ( S .P iggo t 1 968 ) . T he o ldes t f i nd o f d i sc -whee ls i n No r th -wes t E u rope a r e r ad ioca rbon d a ted t o 2 ,260 -2 ,230 b . c . ( B je r regaa rd ,K ide r i sa nd P i lkmo se i nD enma rk ) a nd 2 , 235 -1 ,990 b . c . ( t he N e the r land s ) ( H .Ros tho lm 1 977 ) . Ac a lcu la t ion o ft h es p read r a te f r om t h eC auca su so r Me sopo tam ia t oD enma rk r evea ls a r a te o f c .4 . 7 -4 .9 km p e r y ea r o r 18 -123 km p e r 2 5 -yea r g ene ra t ion f o r d i sc -whee l w agon s , a nd w e may p re sume t h a tt h e s p read r a te f o rl i gh tc a r io t si nr e a l i ty w a sa tl e a s t a sh igh . 1 86

C ons ider ing t h e o ccu r rence o f ad i sc -whee l a tZ ür ich , Sw i tze r land , d a ted t o2 , 340 b . c . a nd o fc l ay d i sc -whee lw agon mode l si nt h eB aden - Nce lc u l tu re i nH unga ry ( Budak ä lä sz a . o . ) b efo re 2 , 310 b . c . ( a nd p robab ly a s e a r ly a s c . 2 , 700 B .C . ) ( S .P iggo t t 1 968 , H .Ros tho lm 1 977 ) , w e may g uess t h a t t h i s i nnova t ion t ook t h e D onau V a l ley r ou te t h rough M idd le E u rope u pt oS ou th S cand inav ia a nd t h eN e the r land s . H ence , v i r tua l ly i na n i n s tan t , d i sc -whee l w agons , d rawn b y p a i r s o fy oked o xen , h ad s p read f r om S ou th -we s t A s ia o ve rt h e Uk ra inan s t eppe s a nd t h e H ung ra r ian p u s ta a nd o ve rt h em idd le E u ropean p la in , a nd when t h i s i nnova t ion h ad r eached t h eN o r th -we s t E u ropean p e r iphe ry ,t h eh o r se -d rawn l i gh tc h ar io tw i th s poked w hee l s( f o rw h ich t h eu se o ff i ne me ta l t oo l sw a s ap resuppo s i ton ) h ad a l ready b een i nven ted i nE a s tA na to l ia o r N o r th S yr ia , a nd i n t he s ame a r ea t h e H e t t i tes w e re j us t d eve lop ing i r on wo rk ing t e chn ique s ,w h ich w a sg o ing t op rove s oi mpo r tan tf o rt h ep roduc t ion o f mo re e f f ec t ive a g r icu l tu ra li mp lemen t sa nd w eapon s , a nd p romo te t h e s p read o ff a rm ing ,l ong d i s tance e xchange a nd t h e s t ra t if ied s t a te s oc ie ty . Meanwh i le t h ec ha r io t s s p read , a sr e co rded i n t h er ock a r t ,f u r the ri n to t h ep e r iphe ry f r om t h es e conda ry c en t res o fd i f fu s ion i nS can ia u pt oM idd le S cand inav ia ,a nd i nT a s s i l i -n -A j je rd own t ot h eN ige rb end i n Ma l i .A sw i th t h e S ou th S cand inav ian s h ip -ca rv ing s t h e p e r iphe ry , mo s t c ha r io t s a nd w agon s i nt h e p e r iphe ry a r es chema t ica l ly d ep ic ted ,i nt h i sc a se i nb i rd -pe r spec t ive w i th t h ew ee l sa nd t h e h o r se leg s t u rned o u tt ot h e s i de i n ar a the r a wkwa rd manne r ( s ee f o re xamp le t h e r o ck c a rv ings a tF ränna rp , G ry t p a r i sh , N o r th S can ia i n s ou th Sweden ( M .P . Ma lme r 1 981 , p .4 5 F ig . 1 6 .3 , C . -A .A l th in 1 945 ) ) . T h i s s chema t ic t ype i s mo re f r equen ti nB ohu s län , Wes t Sweden ( 83% ) a nd i nO s t fo ld , S ou th -ea s t No rway ( 100% ) t h an i n S can ia ( 40% ) , whe re t he more n a tu ra l is t ic s i depe r spec t ive p redom ina te s . I ti su nce r ta in i fr ea l w agon s , a nd e spec ia l ly c ha r io t s , e x i s ted i nM idd le S cand inav ia a tt h i st ime ,a nd i tmay b ep re sumed t h a tt h er o ck c a rv ing a r t is t s i nt h e p e r iphery h ad ar a the rv ague a pp rehens ion o ft h e mo t if . C once rn ing t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t ha t t h e h o r se w a s u t i l ized a s ad raugh t -an ima l i n S ou th S cand inav ia c . 1 , 200 -1 ,100 b . c . ,i ts hou ld b ek ep ti nm ind t h a t( dome s t ica ted? )h o r se r ema in sh ave b een i d en t if ied f r om an umbe ro fl o ca l i t ie si n We s t ,N o r th -we s ta nd No r th -ea s tE u rope a l ready f r om t h el a te M idd le N eo l i th ic a nd L a te N eo l i th ic ,b eg inn ing a bou t am ilen ium b efo re t h e K iv ik g rave ,a nd t h a td ome s t ica ted h o r se sh ave b een i d en t if ied f r om T r ipo lye C I I -pha se s i te s i nt h e U k ra ine a nd t h e S redn i S tog s i te s i nt h e S ou th R u ss ian s t eppe s t i l l e a r l ie r , a bou t t h e m idd le o ft h e t h i rd m i l len ium b . c . o re a r l ie r ( K .L .Paave r 1 965 , J .Lep ik saa r 1 974 , J .Ekman 1 974 , L .H . v an Wi jngaa rden -Bakke r 1 975 , K .Dav id sen 1 978 e t c . ) . N ow i ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a ta na na logous s chema t iza t ion s e em st oh ave d eve loped i n t h e S aha ran r ock a r t d u r ing t h e C aba l l ine p e r iod : c on t ras t ing t o t h e n a tu ra l is t ica l ly d ep ic ted h o r se -d rawn c ha r io t s f l y ing -a t -a -ga l lop w i th d r ive r s a nd r e in s , f o re xamp le a t T in -Abou -Teka a nd A la -n -Edoumen t i n t h e T a ss i l i n -A j je r moun ta ins i n t h e n o r th ( H .Lo the 1 959 , 1 963 ) , a r e mo re s chema t ica l c ha r io t s f o r e xamp le a tI n -Dä lag i nt h e H ogga r moun ta in s ( F .T ro s t 1 981 ,p .1 56 F ig . 3 63 -5 ) ,a nd s t i l l mo re s chema t ica lc ha r io t s d ep ic ted i nb i rd -pe r spec t ive w i th t h e w hee l s a nd h o r se leg s t u rned o u t , f o re xamp le a t T ond ia , G ao , M idd le N ige r ( B .Dav id son 1 959 , 1 962 , p p . 6 8 -70 ) . T he l a t te rc a rv ing s f r om T ond ia , d a ted t o c . 5 00 b . c . , a r e amaz ing ly s im i la r t o t he c or respond ing c ha r io t -p ic tu re si nt h e S cand inav ian p e r iphe ry ,f o re xamp le a tF ränna rp , o n ly s t i l l mo re s imp l if ied ,w i th t h ed r ive rl y ing o nh i sb ack b eh ind t h ew hee ls . I tmay b eq ue s t ioned w he the rh o r se -d rawn c ha r io t sr ea l ly a dvanced a sf a rt ot h es ou th a s t h e R ive rN ige r . H .Lho te , w ho h a s mapped t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o fc ha r io tp i c tu res , c l a im s t h a tt h e re w a s ad i c ided r ou te a sf a rt ot h es ou th a sE sS ouk ( "Tademekka " )a nd G ao ,a nd R . Mauny c l a im st h a tt h e re w e re t wo r ou te s ,t h eo the re nd ing a tT egdaou s ti n Mau re tan ia

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( 1970 ) . I ti sa l so i n te re s t ing t on o te t h e f i nd o f ah o r se too th f r om t h e c e ram ic a nd m ic ro l i th l e ve l i nR op R o ck S he l te ri nt h eN ige r ian s avanna ( T .Shaw 1 978 ,p p . 3 9 -41) . T he re a r e t wo r ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om R op : 4 80 b . c . a nd 2 5 b . c . , b u t t h e f i nd may a s w e l l b e s i gn if ican t ly o lde r . S t i l l , i ti st emp t ing t oi n te rp re t t h er o le o ft h e h o r sed rawn c ha r io t s o n t h e n or th to -sou th r ou te a c ro ss t h e S aha ra a s mo re p eacefu l t h an i n t h e f amous h i s to ry o f H e rodo tus f r om c .4 50 b . c . , a nd s ee t h em a s ap ioneer ing t r ade t r an spor t ing s y s tem , l i ke t h el a te rc a ravan s , t h a tp robab ly t r an sf e r red t h ek now ledge o f i r on wo rk ing f r om t h e Magh reb t ot h e mo re w e l l -fo re s ted a r ea ss ou th o ft h eS aha ra w i th t h e i rb e t te ra cce ss t oc ha rcoa l . H e re , i nN iger ia , an umbe ro fi r on -sme l t ing f u rnace s a t T aruga h ave b een r ad ioca rbon d a ted t o4 40 b . c . ,w h ich i sa l so t h ed a te f o rt h er em a rkab le t e r raco t ta h ead s f r om N ok ( T .Shaw 1 978 , p p . 6 9 -88 ) . ( The re a r e o the re a r ly d a tes f o r i r on s me l t ing f r om A ze l ik a nd A gadez i nN ige r -7 th . c en tu ry b . c . a nd 4 90 b . c . -a nd f r om t h e K emondo B ay , L .V ic to r ia , N .W . T anzan ia -o ne d a te o f5 70 b . c . , e i gh t d a te s b e tween 1 70 b . c . -A .D . 1 30 a nd f i f teen b e tween A .D . 2 10 -540 ,a sw e l l a sf o rc oppe r s me l t ing i n t he S aha ra - 2 nd m i l len ium B .C . ( D .Ca lvoco re ss i & N .Dav id 1 979 , P .R .Schm id t & S .T .Ch i lds 1 985 , p p . 9 -10 , 5 4 -55 , 6 3 , 6 8 , 9 4 ) ) . Apa r t f r om i r on , Magh reb w a s c er ta in ly i n tere s ted i nt h e g o ld , c oppe r a nd s a l t a sw e l l a st h e i vo ry a nd s l ave so f We s tA f r ica . B u t , o fc ou r se , w e s hou ld n o t o ve r look t h e m i l i ta ry i mpo r tance t h a t h o r se s h ad i nt h e c ava l ry o f mo s t s t a te si nt h e Mag reb a sw e l l a si nt h e S ahe l a nd S udan d u r ing t h e L a te I r on A ge a nd M idd le A ge s ; e ven t h ep r ie s t -k ing si nt h er a in f o re s ts t a te si nS ou th N ige r ia a r e o cca s iona l ly d ep ic ted a s moun ted w a r r io r s , a se xemp l if ied b y c i re p e rdue b ronze s f r om I gbo Ukwu ( c . A .D . 8 50 ) a nd B en in ( 15 th -17 th . c . ) , a l so d ep ic ted b y t h e Du tch t r ave le r O lphe r t D appe r i n 1 668 . ( E .Eyo & F .W i l le t t 1 980 , p l . 3 6 , 0 .Dapper 1 668 , F .W i l le t t 1 971 , P . 1 00 , M .Sh inn ie 1 965 , p . 1 05 , 1 07 ) . 5 . Conc lud ing r emarks T he s p read o ft h es ame d ome s t ica ted a n ima l s( c a t t le a nd s heep /goa t ,a nd o cca s iona l ly p i g a nd h o r se ) , a nd t o s o me e x ten t t h e s ame d omes t ica ted p lan t s ( t o b e t r ea ted i n a f o r thcom ing w o rk ) , a nd p o t te ry , s e em s t oh ave o ccu r red a ta n a na logou s a ve rage r a te o ve rE u rope a nd A f r ica ,a sc a lcu la ted f r om S ou th -we s tA s ia . S ince o the r , l a te ri nnova t ion s , e g . h o r se -d rawn c ha r io t s a nd i r on -wo rk ing ( a nd t os ome e x ten tw r i t ing a nd h o r se r i d ing )h ave a l so s p read a ta na logou s , a l be i th ighe ra ve rage r a te s o ve rt h et wo c on t inen t s ,w e may a s sume t h a tt o pog raph ica la nd e co log ica lo b s tac le sd id n o tp lay a ny s i gn if ican tr o le i nt h e i nnova t ion p roce sse s ( o rt h ey d e layed t h em j u s t a s much i nE u rope a si n Af r ica ) . T he e nv i ronmen ta lo b s tac le s ma in ly i nf luenced w h ich d ome s t ica ted s pec ie s mo s te a s i ly s p read i n to a nd b ecame mo s tc ommon i n an ew r eg ion , o rw he the rl o ca lw i ld s p ec ie st h a t w e re b e t te ra dap ted h ad t ob ed ome s t ica ted i n s tead .T he se o b s ta c le sp robab ly d e layed t h e s p read s omewha t mo re i nA f r ica t h an i nE u rope . . . I ti si n te re s t ing t ha t t hese a na log ie s i n t h e s p read o ccur red d esp i te t h e s upposed d i f f e rence s i nc u l tu re a nd p opu la t ion b e tween t h e t wo c on t inen t s . T he a na log ies i nt h e s p read r a te sf o ri nnova t ions i ndeed s how t h a tt h e A f r ican p opu la t ion w a s a si n nova t ive a nd r e cep t ive f o rt h e s p read o fi n nova t ions a st h eE u ropean a tb a s ica l ly t h e s ame t ime , a nd s omewha te a r l ie r . T h i s c ompa ra t ive s t udy o fp e r iphe ra l E u rope a nd A f r ica c ou ld e as i ly b e b roadened t o o the rf i e ld s , s uch a st h e d eve lopmen to fs t a te s oc ie t ies , d i f f e ren t ia t ion o fp rof e ss ion s , " money " a nd " ma rke t s " , e xchange o f manuf ac tured ma te r ia ls a nd a r tefac t s o ve r l ong d i s tances , w r i t ing e t c . My b e l ief -b a sed o n p re l im ina ry c a lcu la t ions -i st h a t t h e se 1 88

" i nnova t ion s " a l so s p read a tb road ly a na logou sr a t e si nt h et wo c on t inen t s ,i r r e spec t ive o f e nv i ronmen t ,c u l tu re , a nd p opu la t ion .H ence ,t h e r eo ugh tn o tt oe x i s ta ny " e co log ica l " o r " c u l tu ra l "o b s tac le sf o ra ny e t hnoa r chaeo log ica lc ompa r i son sb e tween E u rope a nd A f r ica . S i nce t h ea ccep tance o ff ood p roduc t ion p r e suppo se s ad e layed r e tu rn s y s tem ,i . e . amo re " advanced " s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion t h an a mong t h ep re sen th un te r -ga the r e r s , w h ich u sua l ly h ave a n i mmed ia te r e tu rn s y s tem ( J . Woodbom 1 982 ) a nd a r e n o t a b le t oc ope w i th c onf l ic t e xcep t t h rough s o -ca l led f l ux ( C .M .Tumbu l l 1 965 , J .Woodbu rn 1 968 ) , i ti s p o s s ib le t h a t t h e n ece s sa ry s oc ia l c hange h ad a l ready o ccu red w i th in t h e n ow e x t inc t h un te r -ga the re r s oc ie t ie s , b efo re d ome s t ica ted a n ima l s a nd p lan t s a ppea red i n t h e s ub s i s tence ( B .Bende r 1 978 ) , e i the r a s a n a u toch tonous d ome s t ica t ion a s e g . , i n S ou th -we s tA s ia ,o ra s as p read o fi n nova t ion sf r om ac en t re o fd i f fu s ion . ( S ince w ec an p o s i t ive ly t e l l f r om t h e A f r ican e v idence t h a td ome s t ica ted c a t t le a nd s heep /goa tw e r e i n t roduced f r om t h e Med i te r ranean , a nd p o s s ib ly t h en o r the rn S aha ran ,r eg ion ,i ts e em s p robab le t h a t t h ey s p read i n t h e s ame w ay i n E u rope , a nd w e re n o t — d e sp i te t h e e x i s tence o f a u rochs a nd w i ld b oa r s —t o a ny s i gn if ican t d eg ree d ome s t ica ted a u to ch tonou s ly ,d ue t ot h ea na logou sr a te o fs p read i nt h et wo c on t inen t s . . . ) . S i nce i ti sh a rd t ot e l lf r om t h ea r chaeo log ica lc on tex to n ly ,w he the rs o c ia lc hange f r om a n i mmed ia te r e tu rn t o ad e layed r e tur ns y s tem h ad o ccu r red w i th in ah un te r -ga the re r s o c ie ty , Ih ave c ho sen t h e mo re e a s i ly m ea su r ed f e a tu re >5 0% d ome s t ica ted a n ima l so f t o ta l mamma lr ema in st om a rk t h et h re sho ld t of u l ly N eo l i th ic s oc ie ty ,w h ich , Ig a the r , mus t c e r ta in ly h ave h ad a d e layed r e tur n s y s tem . I n s ome c a se s , h oweve r , af ew s heep -goa t s -e a s i ly moved o ve r f a i r ly l ong d i s tance s -may h ave b een i n t roduced i n s em i -nomad h un te r -ga the re rs oc ie t ie s ,e . g . t h eS ko l tL app s( Saame ) ,w ho k ep t2 -3 , max 7s heep p e r f am i ly i nt h e P e t samo a r ea o n t h e K o la p en in su la i nN -e . F enno scand ia ( V .Tanne r 1 929 ,p . 14 ) ) ,a cco rd ing t of a una lr ema in sf r om s o -ca l led S ubneo l i th ic s i te s i ne g . N o r th E u rope d u r ing t h em idd le a nd L a te N eo l i th ic , a nd i nS ou th A f r ica p r io rt o t h eE a r ly I r on A ge ,w i thou ta ny s ub s tan t ia l s o c ia lc hange s . B e ing a tl e a s tp a r t ly m a r ine a dap ted ,p o t te ry -u s ing a nd p e rmanen t ly s e t t led ,t h ey h ad p robab ly a l ready c hanged t oa d e layed r e tu rn s y s tem p r io rt ot h ei n t roduc t ion o fd ome s t ica ted a n ima l s , a nd t h e refo r e m ay h ave b een a ss oc ia l ly " advanced " a st h ef u l ly N eo l i th ic s o c ie t ie si nl e s sp e r iphe ra l r eg ion s . B u t h e re t h e e f f ec t ive ma r ine a dap ta t ion , a nd i ns ome r e l ic t a r ea s h un t ing o f l a rge t e r r e s t r ia lg ame ,c ou ld d e lay t h et r an s i t ion t of a rm ing w i th > 50% d ome s t ic a n ima l s .

1 89

F igure 1 . T he f requency o f d omesticated a nima ls i n p ercent o f m amma l r ema ins o ver t ime f rom N orthern E urope t o S outhern A fr ica . 0

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T he r e lation b etween f requency o f d omesticated a nima ls(b lack=

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1 91

D istance(Km)

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F ig. 4 b

F igure 3 a a nd b . L inear r egression a na lysis

F igure 4 a a nd b . L in-

o f t he a verage r ate o f s pread o f t he e arliest

na lysis e ar r egression a

o ccurrence o f d omesticated a nima ls(open c ircles

ate o f o f t he a verage r

a nd t h in l ines), a nd o f f ully N eo lithic s ubsist-

s pread o f t he e ar liest

e nce(more t han 5 0 %d omesticated a nima ls o f m am-

o ccurrence o f i ron w ork-

m a l r ema ins)(f illed c ircles a nd t hick l ines),

i ng o ver E urope a nd A fr i-

a s c a lcu lated f rom T e ll e s-Su ltan, P a lest ine

c a f rom t he L evant(ca .

( ca . 7 ,500 b c.).

1 ,600 b c .).

1 92

F igure 5 . H orse-drawn l ight c har iot r ock p a int ing

d ep icted i n f ly ing-

a t-a-ga llop i n r ed a nd w hite c o lours i n s cene s how ing a h unt o f b arbary s heep (aoudad), f rom A la-n-Edoument, T assili n -Ajjer , A lger ia .(After H .Lhote 1 959).

I nset : C arving f rom K ivik,Scania,Sweden(M .P .Malmer 1 98 1).

F igure 6 . H orse-drawn l ight c har iot r ock c arv ings d ep icted i n b irdp erspective , f rom T ond ia, G ao , M idd le N iger , M a li.(After B .Dav idson 1 959 ,1962).

I nset : R ock c arving f rom F rännarp , N orth S cania, S weden

( M .P.malmer 1 98 1).

1 93

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I n : O r ig in a nd e ar ly d eve lopmen to ffo od -produc ing c u l ture s iN or th -ea s t ern A f r ica , e d s . L .K ryzyzan iak & M .Kobu s iew icz . P oznän . Wi jngaa rden -Bakke r , L .H . v an , 1 975 . H o r ses i n t h e D u tch N eo l i th ic . I n : A rchaeo z oo log ica lS tud ie s , e d . A .T .C la son . Am s te rdam . Wi l le t t ,F . , 1 971 .A f r ican a r t . L ondon . We l inde r , S . , 1 975 . A g r icu l tu re , i n land h un t ing , a nd s ea h un t ing i nt h e Wes te rn a nd N o r the rn r eg ion so ft h eB a l t ic ,6 , 000 -2 ,000 B .C .I n :P reh i s tor ic mar i t ime a dap ta t ion s o ft h eC ircumpo lar z one ,e d .W .F i tzhugh . T he H ague -Pa r is . Woodbu rn , J . , 1 982 . E ga l i ta r ian s oc ie t ies . Man ( n .s . ) V o l . 1 7 No . 3 . Z ve leb i l ,M . , 1 978 . S ub s i s tence a nd s e t t lemen ti nt h eN o r thea s te rn B a l t ic .I n : T he e ar ly P os t -g lac ia ls e t t lemen to fN or thern E urope ,e d . P . Mela r s .L ondon . - 1 981 . F rom f o rage rt of a rme ri nt h e B o rea l z one : r e con s t ruc t ing e conom ic p a t te rn s t h rough c a tchmen t a na lys is i n p reh i s to r ic F in land . BAR . I n terna t iona l S er .115 . O xfo rd . Z ve leb i l , M . &R ow ley -Conwy , P . , 1 984 . T ran s i t ion t of a rm ing i nN o r the rn E u rope : A h un te r -ga the re rp e r spect ive .N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 1 7 :2 .

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S EARCH FOR S TONE AGE S ETTLE MENTS ON GOTLAND B y I nger Ö s terho lm D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy .U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S 106 9 1 S tockho lm , S weden . T he p hy s ica l g eog raphy o f G o t land p rov ide s t h e S tone A ge r e sea rche r w i th r a the r e xcep t iona l w o rk ing c ond i t ion s . T he l o ng a nd n a r row i s land c omp r i se s , f o re xamp le , t w ice a s much c oa s t l ine a s ac o r re spond ing p i ece o f ma in land c oa s tw i th t h es e ao no ne s i de o n ly . D u r ing t h e S tone A ge , t h eL i t to r ina S ea r e a ched u pt o ac on s ide rab ly h ighe r p o in to nt h ei s land t h an t h ec u r ren tB a l t ic S ea , a nd b ay s a nd s ound s c u td eep ly i n to t h e l a nd f r om b o th s i de s . G o t land p rov ided , i no t he rw o rd s , a nd i d ea l s e t t lemen ta r ea f o ra p opu la t ion w ho se m a in m ean so fs ub s i s ten ce w a sf i sh ing a nd s e a lh un t ing . T he r e la t ive ly f a s tr i se i nl a nd h a sa l so p roduced as p ec ia le f f ec t .D u r ing t h eS tone A ge t h er a te w a sp robab ly a r ound t h ree m e t re sp e rt n i l len ium ,w h ich r e su l t ed i nt h e s he lv ing b ea che sr ap id ly e xpand ing o u twa rd s . P rev iou s s e ab ay sw e re t r an s fo rmed i n to b rack i sh w a te rl a goon sa nd l a te rt oi n land l a ke s .T he s e a l -hun t ing a nd f i sh ing c ommun i t ie sw e re g ene ra l ly o b l iged t of o l low t h e e xpand ing s ho re o u twa rd s . T h i s h a s l e d t o as i tua t ion w he reby t h ec h rono log ica l ly d i f f e r ing s i te sa r ea l so c ho ro log i ca l ly s e pa ra ted ,t h eo lde s t b e ing s i tua ted o n t h eh i ghe s tp o in t so fe a r l ie rc oa s t l ine s , a nd t h ey ounge s tb o th f u r the r d own a nd f u r the ro u t . I ti so n ly o nt h e s t eep s ho re sw he re t h er i se i nl a nd h a sp roduced i n s ig in i f ican to rn oc hange , t h a ty ounge ro ccupa t ion l e ve l sc an b ef ound o ve r ly ing o lde r o ne so no ne a nd t h e s ame s i te .T h i sl a t te rs i tua t ion i st h ec a se ,f o re xamp le ,i nt h eV i sby a r ea a nd o nS to ra K a r l sö ( S to ra F ö rva r ) . I nc a ses whe re l a rge s e a a r ea s w e re t r an sfo rmed i n to i n land l a ke s , c oa s ta l s i te s w e re e v iden t ly s e t u p a ts ome t ime o r a no the r b e s ide t h em . I tm igh t b e t h a t t h e s pec ia l c ond i t ion sh e r el e dt o ad i f f e r en tf o rm o fe conomy . I nf a c t ,t h ee a r l ie s tt r a ce so ff a rm ing o nt h ei s land h ave b een d i scove red i nt h e se a r ea s ,e . g . a t Mö lne r -Gu l la rve iV ä te p a r i sh , a t Ma r tebo m i r ea nd a tS t .D om e ra rve i nH ab l ingbo p a r i sh . T he f i r s t t r ace s o f S tone Age s e t t lemen t s o n Go t land w e re d i sc lo sed d u r ing g rave l q ua r ry ing i n t h e o lde r c oa s ta l b ank s a nd t h rough o b serva t ion s made b y g eo log i s t s , w o rk ing o n ag eo log ica lm ap o ft h ei s land a tt h et ur no ft h ec en tu ry . S omewha tl a te rt wo r e sea rche r sb egan w o rk ing s y s t ema t ica l ly o nG o t land ' sS tone A ge .N i l sL i thbe rg w ro te a t h e s i so n t h e s ub jec ti n1 914 , a nd J ohn N ih la p roduced af u r the rt h e s i s i n1 927 . E ven t o day , t h e i rr e su l t sa r ev e ry i mp re s s ive ,i nv i ew o ft h ef a c tt h a tt h e i ro n ly i nve s t iga t iona l m e thod a tt h e t ime w a s t r ia l e xcava t ion s w i th t h e a i d o f s t ray a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s ( L i thbe rg 1 914 ,N ih la 1 927 ) . T oday , t o ta l ly d i f f e r en tr e sou r ce sa r ea tt h ed i spo sa lo ft h eS tone A ge r e sea r che r . A e r ia l p ho tog raphy u s ing s pec ia l t y pe s o ff i lm c an , f o re xamp le , r evea l s i te s f r om t h e S tone A ge ,e ven i ft h em e thod i sg ene ra l ly mo r es e rv iceab le f o rm a te r ia lf r om l a t e rp e r iod s .T he a e r ia lp ho tog raph ( f ig .1 )o fS t . D ome r a rve ,H ab l ingbo p a r i sh ,w a st a ken w i th a ni n f ra r ed c o lou rf i lm , f r om w h ich i tc an b e s e en t h a tt h eo ccupa t ion l e ve lf r om t h e S tone A ge i s c l e a r ly v i s ib le i na na i rp i c tu r eo ft h i st y pe .T he mo s tw e s t e r ly p a r to ft h es i te i sc oncea led b yg row ing c r op sa nd i st h u sn o tv i s ib le i nt h ep i c tu r e . B yu s ing ad i f f e ren tt y pe o ff i lm , h oweve r , s uch a sa ni n f ra r ed s e n s i t ive b l a ck a nd w h i te f i lm ,i tw ou ld h ave b een p o s s ib le t oe xpo se t h i sp ar to ft h eo ccupa t ion l e ve lt o o . G eo rada rs u rvey ing i sa no the rh i gh ly t e chno log ica lm e thod . E lec t ro -magne t ic i mpu l se s 1 99

a r e s en td own i n to t h e g round a nd t h e i re choes a r er eg i s te red . D epo s i t s i nt h e g round , s uch a sg rave s ,c ook ing p i t s ,e t c . ,c an b el o ca l i sed w i th t h is m e thod i fg round c ond i t ion s a r ef a vou rab le . T he t h ree mo s ti mpo r tan ta i d sf o r aS tone A ge r e sea r che ra r e ,h oweve r ,t h es o -ca l led s po t t e s t me thod f o rp ho spha te s u rvey s , t h e n ew maps w i th h e igh t c on tou r s a nd f i na l ly t h e p o l len d i ag ram o ft h es t anda rd p o l len d i ag ram t y pe w i th r eg iona lv a l id i ty , s upp lemen ted w i th mac ro f o s s i ls u rvey so fs ma l le rl o ca t ion s( wood a na tom ica la na ly s i s ,g ra in a na ly s i s , e t c . ) . P ho spha te s u rvey s w i th t h e s po t t e s t me thod c an b r ief ly b e d escr ibed a st h er e lea se o f p ho spha te si nt h eo ccupa t ion l e ve l( o r ig ina t ing f r om a n th ropogen ic w a s te ) b ym ean so fa s t rong a c id , s ub sequen t ly i nd ica ted w i th ammon ium h ep tamo lybda te a nd a sco rb ic a c id . T he s u rvey sc an b ec onduc ted i nt h ef i e ld b yt h ea r chaeo log i s t . S e r ie so fs amp le so fs o i l a r e e x t rac ted w i th a n a uge r , a nd as ma l l a moun to fs o i lf r om e ach s amp le i sp l aced o n f i l te rp ape rw i th t h ep o in to f ak n if e . Ac oup le o fd rops o fa c id m ixed w i th ammon ium h ep tamo lybda te a r e a dded t oe ach s ma l l s amp le a nd a f te r ah a lf am inu te t wo d rops o f a s co rb ic a c id a r e a dded . T he s ma l l s amp le s t u rn t os hade s o fb lue o fv a ry ing i n ten s i ty , d epend ing o n t h ec on ten to fp ho spha te , a nd t h eb lue s had ing c an b ev i sua l ly c l a ss if ied , u sua l ly o n as c a le o fI -V ( O s te rho lm I& S 1 983 ) . T h i sm e thod e nab le s ar ap id d e l im i t ing o ft h eh o r izon ta le x ten to ft h eo ccupa t ion l e ve l . Ac omp rehen s ive s urvey w i l l , h oweve r , p rov ide f u r the ri n fo rma t ion o n t h e p hospha te maps . T he p hospha te m ap f r om S t . D ome ra rve , H ab l ingbo p a r ish , i sa n e xamp le . A s i nd ica ted o nt h e map o ft h e s e t t lemen ta r ea ( f ig . 2 ) , t h eS t . D ome ra rve s i te w a s s i tua ted o n ap romon to ry w i th s ome i s le t so f fi t sw e s tc oa s ta nd al a rge s ea b ay t oi t se a s t .D u r ing t h e Meso l i th ic p e r iod i tw a s as ea l -hun te r / f i she r s i te . E xcava t ions o f t h e u ndermos t o ccupa t ion l e ve l h ave r evea led l a rge c on ten t s o fs ea lb one s , f i sh b one s , l o ca lf l in ta nd t oo ls s uch a sf i sh h ook s a nd h a rpoon h ead s . T he s ubme rgence o ft h el owe s tp a r t so ft h e s i te u nde rL i t to r ina s h ing le a t al e ve lj u s tb e low t h eL i t to r ina max imum i nd ica t e s ap e r iod o fj u s t o ve r 6 ,000 y ea r s a go . A s t ra t ig raph ica l ly y ounge r o ccupa t ion l eve l h a s b een r ad ioca rbon d a ted t o2 , 900 b . c . F ind s o fc o rd -or namen ted p o t te ry , u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th e a r ly f a rme r s , i nd ica te t h a t t h e s e t t le r s h ad g radua l ly i n c luded f a rm ing i nt h e i r e conomy . B one sf r om d ome s t ica ted c a t t le c onf i rm t h i sp i c tu re . T he p ho spha te map ( f ig . 3 )i nd ica te st h et o ta le x ten to ft h eo ccupa t ion l e ve l . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fp ho spha te sw i th in t h e s i te a r ea a l so r evea l st h ef a c tt h a tt h e s e t t le r s moved i n as ou th -ea s te r ly d i rec t ion o n t wo o cca s ion s , w hen t h e s i te p romon to ry h ad e xpanded i nt h i sd i rec t ion , d ue t or i se si n t h el a nd .A rd s c ra tche si nt h ee a rl ie rs i te a r ea si nd ica te t h a tt h ey w e re u sed f o rc u l t iva t ion . T he b ay e a s to ft h es i te w a sg radua l ly t r an sfo rmed i n to al a ke w i th a no u t le ti mmed ia te ly t ot h e s ou th o ft h e s i te . S ome k i lome t re t ot h e w e s t t h e re w a s s t i l l as ea b ay , a nd t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e s i te p rob lab ly c on t inued t ob ef a vou rab le , a tl e a s tf o r ac ommun i ty w ho se e conomy w a sn ol o nge rp redom inan t ly b a sed o nf i sh ing a nd s ea l -hun t ing . T he e x tens ive o ccupa t ion l e ve lw ou ld s ugge s tt h a tt h e s i te c on t inued t oe x i s tf o r ac on s ide rab le p e r iod o ft ime . No p i to rnamen ted p o t te ry w ha t soeve rh a s b een f ound a tS t . D ome ra rve ,h oweve r . T h is wou ld s ugge s t t h a t a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p i t ted w a re p er iod t h e a r ea h ad b een a bandoned i nf a vou ro ft h e l a rge c oa s ta l s i te o f Gu l l rum , s ome k i lome t re s t ot h e s ou th ( f ig . 2 ) , wh ich p robab ly a ccomoda ted t h e e n t i re p opu la t ion o f t h e r e sour ce a r ea f o r s eve ra l c en tur ies . T he r ea sons f o r t h is a r e d ea l t w i th mo re c lose ly b e low , i n t h e p a rag raph c oncer n ing t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h es t anda rd p o l len d i ag ram f o rt h ei s land . T he h e igh t c on tou r s o n t h e n ew maps a r e o f i nva luab le h e lp w hen a t temp t ing t o r e con s t ruc t t h e p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t a round t h e S tone Age s i tes . I n an umbe r o f s e t t lemen tg roups a round G o t land ,t h eh e igh tc on tou r sp rov ide u sw i th ac l ea rp i c tu re o f

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t h ec hanges i nt h ec oa s td ue t ot h er i se i nt h e l a nd a nd t h e reby t h e d i f f e r ing c ond i t ion s f r om p e r iod t op e r iod f o re ach i nd iv idua l s i te . T he s e t t lemen ta t Mö lne r -Gu l la rve i nt h e p a r i sh o fV ä te w i l lb e t a ken a sa n e xamp le . T he s i te h a s b een n amed a so ne o ft h e f ew i n land s i tes i n Go t land a nd , d ue t ot h e a bundance o fc o rd -o rnamen ted p o t tery , a s a f a rm ing s i te ,d i f f e r ing f r om t h eo the r ,o f ten c oa s ta l ,S tone A ge s i te so nt h ei s land . I f ,h oweve r ,t h ec oa s ta ll i ne o ft h a tp e r iod i sr e con s t ruc ted i nr e la t ion t ot h es i te w i th t h e h e lp o ft h e h e igh t c on tou r s , t a k ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion c er ta in a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s a nd r ad iocarbon d a te s ,t h ep i c tu re b ecome s s i gn if i can t ly d i f f e ren t . T he s i te w a si nf a c ta tt h a t t ime ac oas ta l s i te b e s ide ag ood -s ized l a ke , w h ich d ur ing t h ee a r ly A ncy lus p e r iod h ad p robab ly b een ab ay o f t h e A ncy lus s ea , b u t w h ich h ad g radua l ly b een d ammed t o b ecome a ni n land l ake , w hen t h ee no rmou sA ncy lu sb ank w a sb u i l ta round 9 ,000 y ea r s a go .I nt h en o r th ,t h el a ke w a sc onnec ted w i th a nd r e ce ived w a te rf r om a ne x ten s ive l a ke a nd ma r sh a r ea ,i t so u t le tb e ing t h rough t h eE jmund sR ive ri nt h ew e s t( f ig .4 ) . Two d i f f e ren tr ad ioca rbon d a t ing s o n c ha rcoa l f r om h ea r ths ; 5 , 230 b . c . a nd 4 , 920 b . c . r e spec t ive ly ( S t9 472 a nd S t9 471 )p l ace t h ee a r l ie s ts e t t lemen ta t Mö lne rG u l la rve o n a p a r w i th Go t land 's o ldes t k nown Meso l i th ic s i te s , a l l o f w h ich a r e c oa s ta l , s uch a s S va l ing s ( Go them p a r i sh ) ,G i ss lause ( Lä rb ro p a r i sh ) a nd S t rä ( Bunge p a r i sh ) . T he a r ea a t Mö lne r Gu l la rve c on s is t so fa c id p r ima ry r ock s and , a nd t h e re a r et h e refo re n ob one s p re se rved . Ac er ta in a moun to fl o ca lf l in th a sb een f ound , o n t h eo the rh and , i n c lud ing f i ve t r ansve r se a r rowhead s . A s a l ready men t ioned , t h e s i te h a s a l so p roduced a n a bundance o fc o rd o rnamen ted p o t te ry , wh ich i s at r a i t o ft h e e a r ly f a rme r s , a nd i mp re ss ions o fw hea t g ra ins i nt h e p o t te ry p rov ide f u r the r e v idence t h a t t h e s e t t le r s h ad g radua l ly emba rked o n f a rm ing a c t iv i t ie s .T h i sm ay h ave t a ken p l ace r e la t ive ly e a r ly : ar ad ioca rbon d a t ing o nt h ec ha r coa l f r om t he l a ye rc on ta in ing t h ep o t te ry h a s p rov ided ad a t ing o f3 , 610 b . c . ( S t7 271) . I n o the r wo rd s , w e a r e h e re d ea l ing w i th o ne o f S weden 's v ery e a r l ie s t f a rm ing a r ea s . P end ing t h e rmo l m in i scence d a t ing so nt h ep o t te ry w i l lh opefu l ly p rov ide f u r the rd a t ing e v idence . T he r ea sons f o r s t a r t ing t oc u l t iva te t h e l a nd s o e a r ly m igh t l i e i nt h e e a s i ly c u l t iva ted s andy s o i li nt h ea r ea ,a sw e l la st h ef a c tt h a tt h e s i te w a ss i tua ted b ya ni n land l a ke s ho re ,t h us l a ck ing i ns ome o ft h e ma r ine r e sou rce sa va i lab le t ot h ec oa s ta l s i te sb y t h e s a l ty L i t tor ina s ea . A s men t ioned i nt h e i n t roduc t ion , i t wou ld s eem t h a t s im i la r c ond i t ion s a ts ome o the rp l aces o n t h e i s land l e dt oa n e a r ly e l emen to ff a rm ing i nt h e e conomy . G ene ra l ly s peak ing , t h e p o l len d i ag ram s c an b e s a id t o p rov ide i nd ica t ion s o f t h e c hang ing p re requ is i te sf o rt h eS tone A ge s e t t lemen t sa nd f o rt h eS tone A ge man 's q ue s t f o r f ood . I n t h e m idd le o f t h e 1 970 's I ngema r P äh l sson d rew u p as t anda rd p o l len d i ag ram o nt h eb a s is o fs ed imen ta t ion i nB ro t rä sk a nd S t ang sm i re i nt h ep a r i sh o fL o js ta i n t h e m idd le o f Go t land . I n 1 982 N i l s -O lov S vensson c a r r ied o u t s o me s ed imen t s u rvey si n an umbe ro fG o t land ic m i re s ,a tt h er eque s to ft h eG o t land S tone A ge P ro jec t : a nd t h en d rew u p ap o l len d i ag ram f o rV ä t l ing s m i re i nn or thern Go t land . H is d i ag ram w a sc ong ruen tt oP äh l sson ' s o n a l l s i gn if ican tp o in t sa nd s how s t h a tP hä l sson ' sd i ag ram c an b e i n te rp re ted i n mos t c a ses o n ar eg iona l s ca le f o r t h e e n t ire i s land , ( Päh l sson , 1 977 ) . T he n o tab le e lm d ec l ine , w h ich c ha rac ter ise s a l l p o l len c urve s f r om many a r ea s i n We s te rn E u rope , a nd w h ich many c ons ide r t or ef lec t t h e i n t roduc tory p ha se o f t h e N eo l i th i sa t ion p roce s s ,i sn o tp a r t icu la r ly p rom inen ta sf a ra sG o t land i sc once rned .T h i s may b ed ue t ot h e i n s ign if ican tr ep re sen ta t ion o ft h ee lm i nt h e Go t land ic b road leaf ed f o re s t s . T he q uan t i ty o fc ha rcoa lp a r t ic le si nt h es ed imen td oe s ,h oweve r ,b ea rw i tne s st o t h ef a c tt h a tG o t land h a sa l so e xpe r ienced ac u l t iva t ion p ha se w i th e x ten s ive b u rn -bea t ing a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e S ub -Bo rea l P er iod , ( f ig . 5 ) . I ti sa l so q u i te a ppa ren t t h a t t h e

2 01

c l earance wo rk w a sa tt h ee xpen se o ft h eb road lea ff o re s t s . A sr ega rd st h e s ub sequen tp ha se , t h ep o l len d i ag ram p rov ide su sw i th n o tl e ss i n te re s t ing i nd ica t ions . T he a moun t o f c ha rcoa l s i nk s t o am in imum a nd i nd ica tes d im in ish ing c l ea r ing -bu rn ing a c t iv i t ie s . S imu l taneou s ly a s e r ie s o fn o tches i nt h e c urve i nd ica te s d rama t ic c hange sf o rt h eP inu s . I na l lp robab i l i ty t h ey r e f lec t as e r ies o fr i se si nt h el e ve l o ft h eL i t to r ina S ea , w he reby l a rge a r ea so fc oa s ta lp ine f o res t sw e re l a id w a s te , w i th a r e su l t ing d ec rea se i np ine p o l len p roduc t ion . T h is i sa l so p robab ly t h e r ea son f o r t h e u nu sua l ly r i ch ma r ine r e sou rces d ur ing t h e p i t ted w a re p e r iod ( a pprox . 2 , 400 -1 ,900 b . c . ) . T he f o rwa rd t h rus to ft h e s ea t r an spo r ted n ew f r e sh s a l tw a te ri n to t h eB a l t ic S ea B a s in o n r epea ted o cca s ion s , w h ich f avou red p l ank ton p roduc t ion a nd t hu s a n u nusua l w ea l th o ff i sh a nd s ea l -t h e b a s i s o f t h e p i t ted w a re p o t te r s ' w ay o fl i f e . D ur ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e M id -Neo l i th icum , i tw ou ld s e em t h a t t h ep opu la t ion o fG o t land b ecame c oncen t ra ted t ot h e p i t ted w a re p o t te r s ' s i te s o n t h e c oa s t . V ir tua l ly a l l r e sou rce a r ea s a r ound Go t land a r e s e en t oh ave h ad l a rge c oa s ta l s i te s a tt h i s t ime . T he e x t reme ly r i ch a nd w ide sp read o ccupa t ion l e ve l s b ea rw i tnes s t ot h e f a c tt h a tt h ey p robab ly p rov ided y ea r -round s i te s f o rl a rge c ommun i t ie s o fp eop le d ur ing ac ons ide rab le p er iod o ft ime , p robab ly s eve ra lc en tu r ie s . B one so fp ig a r ea bundan t , b u to the rw i se t h ea r chaeo log ica l y i e ld s a r ed om ina ted b y m a r ine r e sou rce s . T he q uan t i ty o ff i sh a nd s ea l b ones i so f ten i n cred ib ly l a rge . I ti sa ppa ren tt h a tt h ec oa s ta tt h a tt ime o f f e red s u ch o p t ima lc ond i t ion s t h a t i tw a s q u i te p o ss ib le t o l i ve v ery c omfo r tab ly w i th much l e ss e f for t t han w a s a s soc ia ted w i th t h ef a rme r s ' s t renuou sl i f e .N oc e r ta in i mp re ss ion so fg ra in so fc o rn h ave b een d i scove red i nt h e Go t land ic p i t ted w a re , d e sp i te t h e l a rge q uan t i t ie s o fp o t she rd s f ound a nd e xam ined . T he g r ea ti n c rea se i nc ha rcoa lp a r t ic le s , w h ich t h ep o l len d i ag ram o nce a ga in i nd ica te s d u r ing t h el a t te rp a r to ft h eS ub -Bo rea lP e r iod ,r ep re sen t sa ni n ten s ive c u l t iva t ion p ha se d ur ing t h e L a te N eo l i th icum -E a r ly B ronze A ge . T he p ine f o res t s t h en s ucceded i n r ega in ing t h e i rs ha re o ft h ep o l len r a in , a nd t h e re w a s as imu l taneou s i n c rea se i ng ra s s a nd o the rl i gh t -demand ing s pec ie s ,w h i le t h ed ec iduo sf o re s t sw e re f o rced o nce a ga in t o y i e ld t ot h ea xe a nd f i re . T he l a rge p i t ted w a r ec oa s ta l s i t e s s e em t oh ave b een a bandoned a tt h a tt ime . I ti sp robab le t h a tt h er i ch r e sou r ces i nt h es ea b ecame e xhau s ted d u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h el a te N eo l i th ic P e r iod , a nd t h ep opu la t ion o f Go t land m ig ra ted t owa rd s t h e i nne rp a r t so ft h ei s land , t ob ecome s hephe rd s a nd c u l t iva to r s . T he re t oday w ef i nd , b y w ay o fs t ray a r chaeo log ica lf i nd s ,t h e i rt y p ica ls ha f t -ho le a xe s ,f l in ts i ck le sa nd d agge r s , c oncen t ra ted t ot h eb e s ta r ab le l a nd s . Wo rk o na t temp t ing t of i nd t r ace so fs e t t lemen t so ft h ep e r iod h a sb een i n i t ia ted w i th t h e s t udy o f ma ter ia l f r om p rev ious e xcava t ion s a nd t h e mapp ing o f a l l k nown s t ray a r chaeo log ica lf i nd s . T he f i e ld w o rk t h a th a sb een e mba rked u pon w i th s y s tema t ic t r ia l e xcava t ions , f o l low ing p ho spha te i nd ica t ion s , s ugge s t s t h a t a mo re w ide spread a nd d i f fuse s e t t lemen t p a t te rn t h an e a r l ie r w i l l p robab ly b e d i sc lo sed , a nd t h a t t h e i n land c on ta in ing t h e b es t a r ab le l a nd s t ook o ve rt h er o le o fs e t t lemen t a r ea s f r om t h e e a r l ie r r e sou r ce a r ea s ,w h ich w e re t i ed t ot h ec oa s t . T he i n ten s if ied S tone A ge r e sea rch d u r ing t h ep a s tf ew y ea r so n Go t land h a sr e su l ted i n e no rmous y i e ld s o fa r chaeo log ica l m a ter ia l , w h ich h ave o n ly b een p re l im inar i ly d ea l t w i th . Wi th t h ea i do ft h em e thod se xempl if ied a bove ,i th a sn ever the le s sb een p o s s ib le t o p roduce t h ei n i t ia l o u t l ine o ft h e c hang ing S tone A ge e nv i ronmen t s o n t h e i s land . T he p ro spec t ing m e thod sm en t ioned , a nd i np a r t icu la rt h ep hospha te s u rvey s , h ave made i t p o s s ib le t oi mp rove t h ee ff i c iency o ff i e ld w o rk . Map s t ud ie sa nd a na ly s i so ft h ep o l len d i ag ram sh ave f a c i l i ta ted t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ec onnec t ion b e tween S tone A ge man a nd h i se nv i ronmen t ,a nd o ft h ea r chaeo log ica ld epo s i t sd i sc lo sed t od a te .

2 02

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2 08

S TONE AGE FRONTIERS — AN EXA MPLE FRO M MIDDLE SWEDEN B y Ake Hyens trand D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S 106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden . T he q ue s t ion o f" a rchaeo log ica lf r on t ie r s " i so fg r ea tc u r ren t i n te re s t ( c fD enne l l 1 985 E d . ) . A rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch i n Sweden p rov ides a " c la ss ica l" s uch p rob lem : t h e s ou the rn b o rde r o f t h e h un te r -ga the re r c u l tu re o f Nor the rn Sweden ( No r r länd sk f äng s tku l tu r , c f B audou 1 977 ) . T h is s ub jec t h a s b een d i scussed s i nce t h e 1 860s ( c f H i ldeb rand 1 866 , C hr i s t iansson 1 963 , We l inde r 1 974 e t c ) . H i ldeb rand p e rce ived a f r on t ie r n or th o f t h e p rov ince s o f U pp land , V ä s tman land a nd V ä rm land . L öf s t rand ( 1 969 )i so ft h e s ame o p in ion . H is b a s ic a r gumen ti st h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eP i t ted - Wa re c u l tu re d ur ing t h eM idd le N eo l i th ic . T he p rob lem o ff r on t ie r s i sb o th emp i r ica la nd t h eo re t ica l ( c fD enne l l 1 985 ) . Af r on t ie r b e tween an o r the rn h un te r -ga the re rc u l tu re a nd as ou ther nn eo l i th ic c u l tu re c an h a rd ly b e e xac ta nd s t a t ic .I ti si n s tead t h e" mob i le a l ter na t ive " ( c fA lexande r 1 978 ,D enne l l 1 985 ) t h a ti sr e levan ti n al ong t ime p e r spec t ive .T h i sa pp roach i se spec ia l ly s i gn if i can tf o rt h e q ue s t ion o fM idd le Sweden a nd t h eV ä rm land -Da la rna -Gä s t r ik land r eg ion .T he f r on t ie r mus t h ave b een p o rous , w i th " a ss im i la t ion o f h un ter -ga the rer s i n to f a rm ing c ommun i t ies " a nd " m ig ra t ion o f r e sources i n to h un ter -ga the re r a r ea s " ( Denne l l 1 985 :135 ) .T he f r on t ie r -que s t ion h a sa l so b een d i scu s sed b yH u l th6n a nd We l inde rf r om aS ou th -Scand inav ian p e r spec t ive ( 1981 ) . I ti s , o fc ou r se , n o tp o s s ib le t od i scus s t h i s c omp lex q ue s t ion i n as ho r tp ape r . R a the r , t h ea im w i l lp r ima r i ly b et op o in to u ta ni n te re s t ing a r ea f o rs uch ad i scu ss ion . T he t ime p e r spec t ive mu s tb e l ong . I ti sa l so n ece s sa ry t os t udy t h e a r ea i n aw ide rg eog raph ica l c on tex t . Ou r s t a r t ing -po in t i si t s s i tua t ion a s a" m idd le -a rea " , n o t o n ly b e tween h un t ing -ga the re rc u l ture s i nt h e n o r th a nd a g ra r ian c u l tu re s i nt h e s ou th , b u t a l so a sa r eg ion b e tween t h e moun ta in a r ea si nN orway i nt h ew e s ta nd t h e B a l t ic a nd F in land i n t h ee a s t . T he a r ea u nde r s t udy c on s is t s ma in ly o f t h e D a lä lven R ive r w a te r s y s tem a nd t h e n o r the rn p a r t o f t h e K la rä lven R ive r w a te r s ys tem . T h is a r ea i sn o t h omogenou s : a r eg iona l d iv is ion c an b e made , b a sed o n t opog raph ica l c r i ter ia a nd c l ima te . A f undamen ta le co log ica lp roce ss i nvo lved h e re i st h el a nd e l eva t ion . D ur ing t h eA ncy lu s p e r iod al a rge p a r to ft h eD a lä lven w a te rs y s tem w a sc ove red b yt h e s ea . We c an f o l low a ne co log ica la nd c h rono log ica lp roces sd ur ing ap e r iod o fa tl e a s t8 000 y ea r s ,f r om t h e m e so l i th ic t ot h es i tua t ion t o day . I n al ong t ime p e r spec t ive t h e a r ea c an b e d iv ided i n to t h ree ma in z ones ( f ig . 1 4 ) : a f o res t -zone a bove t h e h i ghes t s ea leve l , am idd le -zone b e tween t h e h ighe s t s ea l e ve l ( Ancy lu s p e r iod ) a nd t h e L i to r ina l e ve l d u r ing t h e L a te Me so l i th ic , a nd ac oa s ta l z one , r e levan tf o rt h e s e t t lemen tp roce s sd u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic , B ronze A ge a nd I r on A ge . I na l o ng t ime p e r spec t ive t h e t h eo re t ica l q ue s t ion o ff r on t ie r s a nd b ounda r ies i na n a r ea o f t h i sk ind mu s tb e a na ly sed i nt h e l i gh to ft h e s t a ted c i rcum s tances . A s amode l o ne c an t a lk a bou ts i x " f ron t ie rp roce s se s " :

2 09

-t h e -t h e -t h e -t h e -t h e -t h e

e co log ica lp roce s s c h rono log ica lp roce ss e conom ic p roce s s s oc ia lp roce ss p o l i t ica lp roce s s e t hn ic p roce s s

I nt h e se p roce sses w e c an s t udy d i f f e ren t c hange s i nt h e t h ree z one s . T he e co log ica l p ro ce s sh a sb een m en t ioned .T he c h rono log ica lp roce s si sr ef lec ted b yt h ea r chaeo log ica l s ou r ce ma te r ia l : -a r tef ac t s ,i ns i te c on tex ta nd w i thou ts i te c on tex t -d we ll ing s i te s -h un t ing p i t s -g r ave s -i r on p roduc t ion s i te s T he a r chaeo log ica le xcava t ions c once rn ing t h eS tone A ge a nd t h eB ronze A ge a r ef ew . T he s ou rce ma te r ia l s i tua t ion i s , h oweve r , r e la t ive ly g ood b ecause o fr eg is t ra t ion a nd i nven tor ie s . A r tefac t s h ave b een c o l lec ted f o r ap er iod o f 1 00 y ea r s a nd a n i mpor tan t s pec ia l i nven to ry h a s b een made i nu ppe rD a la rna b y R agnar L anne rb ro ( 1976 ) . I nt h i s i n ve s t iga t ion , made s i nce t h e 1 950 s ,h e h a sc o l lec ted a bou t6 ,000 a r tef ac t so fs t one a ge t y pe a nd 1 00 ,000 so fp i ece so fw a s te f r om t oo l mak ing .T he i nven to ry f o rt h ee conom ic map o f Sweden , made b y t h e C en t ra l B oa rd o fN a t iona l A n t iqu i t ie s , h a sr e su l ted i na n A nc ien t Monumen t sr eg i s te rf o rt h ea r ea ,c on s is t ing o ft hou sand so fe n t r ie s . T he s ou rce ma te r ia l c an b e s u mma r ized : a bou t 5 00 d we l l ing s i tes ( f ig . 5 ) , c ha rac te r ized b y b u rn t s t ones a nd w a s te f r om t oo l mak ing , l o ca ted a t l a ke a nd r i ve r s ho res , a bou t 8 000 a r tef ac t s , a bou t3 000 h un t ing p i t s , a bou t2 000 g r ave sf r om t h eI r on A ge a nd a bou t 1 000 i r on p roduc t ion s i te sf r om t h eI r on A ge ,p r ima r i ly V ende lp e r iod a nd V ik ing A ge . T he s i te s a nd t h e a r tefac t s r ef lec t ac h rono log ica lp rocess d ur ing al o ng p e r iod o fl a nd e l eva t ion a nd s e t t lemen t s o n t h e s ho re s o ft h e s ea ( f ig s 2 -4 ) . D u r ing t h is p roce ss a nd b ecau se o fi nf i l t ra t ion i n to t h eh un te r ing -ga the r ing l a nd g roup so fp eop le w e r es t ay ing i n t r ad i t iona l t e r r i tor ies i n ag row ing i n land , f i l led u p b y l a kes , r i ve r s a nd r e sou rces . A h un t ing -ga the r ing c u l tu re o ft y p ica lN o r r land ic c ha rac te rw a sf o rmed . We c an s t udy d i f f e ren t s oc ia l t e r r i to r ie s c onnec ted t ol a ke s a nd w a te r s y s tem s , l o ca l r e sou rce s a nd l o ca l r ock ma ter ia l ( c f L anne rb ro 1 976 ) . I n t h e p rov ince o f D a la rna , e spec ia l ly i nt h ef o re s tz one ,w ec an r e con s t ruc t as y s tem o fs oc ia lt e r r i to r ie sw i th c en t ra l c amps a nd s t a t ions ( f ig . 1 2 ) u sed f o r h un t ing , f i sh ing , g a the r ing , t oo l -mak ing e t c . D if f e ren tt y pes o fs i te sa nd u nde r ly ing f a c to r sc an b ec l a ss if ied i n ag ene ra l mode l( F ig . 1 7 ) . G raves a r e n o t k nown f r om t he Meso l i th ic , N eo l i th ic o r B ronze A ge i n t h e h un te r ing -ga the r ing a r ea . C a i rn sf r om t h eB ronze A ge a r ef r equen ti nt h ec oa s ta lp a r t so f G ä s t r ik land . D ur ing t h e E a r ly I r on A ge an umbe ro fc eme te r ies , u sua l ly c on s i s t ing o f 2 0 -40 s t one -se t t ings c ove r ing b urn t b ones , h ave b een i d en t if ied i nc on junc t ion w i th m any o ft h eh un t ing -ga the r ing c en t ra lc amp s .T he b ackg round o ft h ec eme te r ie sh a sb een d i scus sed : p u re h un t ing -ga the r ing c u l tu re o rs t a t ion sf o ri nf i l t ra t ion f r om c en t ra lI r on A ge a r ea s ,f o re xamp le i nt h eL ake Mä la ren a r ea .T hey mu s t ,h oweve r ,b es e en a se v idence o f ad we l l ing a nd s e t t lemen t c on t inu i ty , d i rec t o r i nd irec t , i n t h e h un t ing l a nd o ver t hou sand so fy ea r s . As ou r ce ma te r ia lo fs pec ia li n te re s tc on s i s t so ft h eh un t ing -p i t so ft r ad i t iona l " no r the rn " c ha rac te r ( c f S e l inge 1 974 ) ( f ig . 1 3 ) . T hey c an b e d a ted t o al ong p e r iod , f r om t h e 2 10

Meso l i th ic t oL a te I r on A ge o rt h eM idd le A ge s —e ven l a te r . T he i rd i s t r ibu t ion f o rm a v e ry c l ea r s ou the rn b o rde r t h rough t h e n o r thern p a r t o fV ä rm land , t h e m idd le p a r t o f D a la rna t ot h ep rov ince o fG ä s t r ik land i nt h ee a s t . T he a c tua l " f ron t ie r a r ea " w a s c o lon ized b y f a rme r s d ur ing t h e L a te I r on A ge a nd t h e M idd le Age s .T h i sc o lon iza t ion w a sc onnec ted t ol ow techno logy i r on p roduc t ion . T h i s s pec ia l p roce ss c an b e c ha rac te r ized a s ap ene t ra t ion , s t ep b y s t ep , i nt h e l i gh t o fn ew s oc io -econom ic s ys tem s , s t a te f o rma t ion a nd c en t ra l i n te res t i n t h e r e sou rces o f t h e o u t ly ing d i s t r ic t s . T he h un t ing -ga the r ing c u l tu re w a sa s s im i la ted d ur ing t h eI r on Age .I n t h i s c on tex t w e h ave t h e e t hn ic f r on t ie rp rocess , w h ich i sv ery i n te re s t ing b u t n o t t h e o b jec tf o rd i scus s ion h e re . We a l so h ave t h ep o l i t ica lf r on t ie rp roce s s . T he b eg inn ing o ft h e c h rono log ica l p roce ss i st ob e f ound d u r ing t h e A ncy lu s p er iod . T he meso l i th ic ma te r ia l f r om d we l l ing s i tes i st y p ica l : m ic ro b l ade t e chn ique , h and le c o re sa nd —p robab ly i n al a te rs i tua t ion —k ee led c o re s c rape r s ( f ig .2 ) . Al a te Me so l i th ic p e r iod i sc ha rac ter ized b y p i cked a xes , s p read a l l o ve r t h e a r ea , a l though t h e re a r e r ema rkab le c oncen t ra t ions a tt h e L i tor ina s ea l e ve l i n t h e s ou th -wes t ( f ig . 3 ) . T he t r ad i t iona l v i ew o f t h e s e t t lemen t d i rec t ion d ur ing t h e Meso l i th ic h as b een f r om s ou th -we s tt ot h eu ppe rp a r t so fD a la rna . T h is t h eo ry mu s tb e t ur ned u ps ide -down . T he Me so l i th ic c o lon iza t ion i nt h ea r ea s t a r ted o nt h ei nne rp a r t so ft h eA ncy lus s e a ,p e rhaps a s ar e su l to fm ig ra t ion f r om t h ew e s te rn p a r t so fs ou ther n Sweden a nd t h ea r ea o fL ake V äne rn . T he s e t t lemen to n t h e L i to r ina s ea s ho res i s al a te r s t age i nt h e c hrono log ica l p roce ss . D u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic af r on t ie rp rob lem i sh a rd ly r e levan t .T h i sg ene ra lp rob lem mu s tb e r e la ted t o ag row ing a g ra r ian c u l tu re i nt h es ou th a nd i nt h e Mä la ren a r ea ,e spec ia l ly i nt h e p rov inces o fU pp land a nd V ä s tman land ( c f We l inde r 1 974 ) . B e tween t h i s a r ea a nd t h e h un t ing -ga the r ing a r ea i n t h e n o r th a n e two rk o f n a tura l c on tac t r ou te s c an b e r e con s t ruc ted ,c onnec ted t oe ske r sa nd s ma l lw a te rs y s tem s . D u r ing t h eE a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic t h eq ue s t ion o ff r on t ie rp roce s se sw i l lb er e levan t i nt h el i gh to fs pec ia l a r tef ac tf i nd s i nt h e h un t ing -ga the r ing a r ea : f l in ta xe s , p o lygona l s ha f tho le a xe s ( f ig . 6 ) ,b a t t le a xes ( f ig . 7 )a nd i n land s i tes w i th P i t ted - Wa re p o t te ry ( f ig . 9 ) . T h is i n f i l t ra t ion i se spec ia l ly s i gn if ican ti nt h e m idd le z one a nd i nt h ec oa s ta l z one . C en t ra lp o in t sf o rc onne c t ion sb e tween h un t ing -ga the r ing p eop le sa nd " ag ra r ian p eop le s " c an a sa n h ypo thes is b er e con s t ruc ted : i nt h e L ake S to r s jön a r ea i nG ä s t r ik land , a tt h e B u l lfo r sen R ap id so nt h eD a lä lven R ive ri nt h ep a r i sh o fT una i nD a la rna a nd o n s eve ra l p o in t sa l ong t h es ho re so fL ake S i l jan -O r sa s jön . D ur ing t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd t h e B ronze A ge t h is i n f i l t ra t ion i ss t i l l mo re e v iden t , ma rked b ya bou t 1 00 s imp le s ha f tho le a xe s ( f ig . 1 0 ) a nd an umbe ro ff l in td agge r s . T he a xe sa r ec ommon i nt h em idd le z one a nd t h ec oa s ta lz one , t h ed agge r si nt h ew e s te rn p a r t o ft h ep rov ince o fD a la rna .I nt h ea r tef ac t ma te r ia lf r om t h ed we l l ing s i te sw ec an s e et h e m ix tu re b e tween s ou thern a nd n or the rn c ha rac te r , f o r e xamp le 3 s ided a r rowhead s o f n o r th -Scand inav ian t y pe a nd s poon -shaped s c rape r so fS ou th -Scand inav ian t ype , made o ff l in to rl o ca lr ock ma te r ia l ( c fL anne rb ro 1 976 ) . T he se f ew g l imp se sf r om t h ea r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l may i lu s t ra te t h ei mpor tance o ft h e m idd le a r ea . I n aw ide rg eog raph ica l p e r spec t ive t h i s p a r t o fS cand inav ia may h ave a g ene ra li n te re s t ,n o tl e a s ti nt h el i gh to ft h ef r on t ie rd i scu s s ion . T he p re requ is i tes f o rt wo s t a t ic s y s tem so fd i f f e ren tk i nd sa r ee v iden t : an eo l i th ic s y s tem w i th a g ra r ian f e a tu res i n t h eL ake Mä la ren p rov ince sa nd ah un t ing -ga the r ing s y s tem , b a sed o nt r ad i t iona l s oc ia l t e r r i to r ies , r e sou rces a nd l o ca lr ock ma te r ia l , p r ima r i ly i nt h ep rov ince o fD a la rna . T he d i s tance b e tween a M idd le N eo l i th ic c oa s t l ine n o r th f r om L ake Mä la ren t o i n land d we l l ing s i te s w i th P i t ted - Wa re c e ram ics a tt h e s ho re s o f L ake S i l jan i sa bou t 3 00 2 11

k i lome te r s .T he h un t ing -ga the r ing a r ea w a sc onsequen t ly q u i te a va i lab le f o re xp lo i ta t ion . R e la t ion s i ng ene ra l c an b e d i scus sed f r om at h eo re t ica l mode l ( F ig . 1 6 ) . T he s t a r t ing p o in t s a r e t wo d i f f e ren t s y s tem s a nd t wo k ind s o fs oc ia l t e r r i to r ie s , o ne c onnec ted t oa c oa s ta la g ra r ian s y s tem a nd o ne c onnec ted t o ah un t ing -ga the r ing s y s tem i na na va i lab le f o re s ta r ea . A" t echn ica l " f r on t ie rc an b e made f r om t h er e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion t e r r i to r ie s . As e cond d eepe rb o rde rm ay m a rk t h ei nne rf r on t ie ro fa n " i nf i l t ra t ion z one " .I nt h is z one as pec ia ls t a t ion s uppo r t st h ei nf i l t ra t ion a nd e xp lo i ta t ion .A tt h is s t a t ion s eve ra lg roup so f p eop le w i l lm ee tf o re xchange a nd s oc ia lc on tac t .B a se c amps a nd s o c ia lt e r r i to r ie si nt h e h un t ing -ga the r ing a rea h ave b een i n f luenced i n d i f f eren t w ays , d epend ing o n p re requ i s i t ie si nt h es o c io -econom ic s y s tem ,d i s tance a nd n a tu ra lc on tac tr ou te s . I ns ome p a r t so ft h ea r ea t h ec on tac t sl e ad t oc o lon iza t ion ,m ig ra t ion a nd s o c ia lc hange . R aw -ma ter ia l s o f as pec ia l k ind a nd s oc ia l s y s tem s m ake t h e r e la t ions d i f f e ren t a nd c omp lex a s r ega rd s " f ron t ie r p rocesses " . I n t h i s s i tua t ion t h e l o ca l s t ab i l i ty o f t h e h un te r -ga the re rg roups i sa l so v e ry i mpor tan t ,i . e . t h eq ues t ion o fs ea sona lw ande r ing o r n o t ( c fF o r sbe rg 1 985 ) . T he mode l may b e r e levan t f o r r e la t ions b e tween t h e L ake Mä laren a r ea a nd a h un t ing -ga the r ing a r ea i nt h es ou the rn p a r to fN on land ,i n c lud ing D a la rna a nd V änn land , d u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic a nd t h eB ronze A ge -Ea r ly I r on A ge —i nt h el i gh to ft h ee co log ica l f r on t ie r p rocess . T he p r inc ipa l r e sea rch f o r t e s t ing t h e mode l g oes w i thou t s ay ing : t hou rough a na ly se so ft h ea r chaeo log ica ls ou r ce m a te r ia l .T he p r e requ i s i t ie sa r ee xce l len t , n o tl e a s tb ecause o fL anne rb ro 's w o rk . T he i mpo r tan t f r on t ie rp rob lem h a s n o t b een d i scu ssed i n Swed i sh a r chaeo logy i nt h e t o ta l g eog raph ica lp e r spec t ive o ft h eL ake Mä la ren a r ea a nd t h e " m idd le a r ea " a nd i na l o ng term p e r spec t ive . I n te r e s t ing t e ndenc ie so nt h i sm a t te ra r e ,h oweve r ,t ob ef ound i n t h er e sea rch o fS t ig We l inde rs i nce t h e 1 970 s ( 1973 , 1 974 , 1 975 , 1 977 , 1 982 e t c ) . T he f undamen ta l a r tef ac ta na ly s is p r inc ip le so f Ma t sP . Ma lme r( 1962 , 1 969 ) h ave n o tb een c on s i s ten t ly a pp l ied t oa r chaeo log ica lm a ter ia lf r om h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ia lt e r r i to r ie s . B yu s ing t h e s ha rp a na ly t ic t oo ls h eh a sg iven a r chaeo logy ,i tmu s tb ep o ss ib le t od ef ine t h e se t e r r i to r ie si nb o th ag eog raph ica la nd al ong te rm p e r spec t ive . T he f r on t ie rr e sea r ch f r om t h ee xamp le o f" m idd le S weden "h a sj u s tb egun .

T h i s p ape ri s as ho r ts umma ry o f al a rge rm anu sc r ip t :D e ts öd ra f ängs t land e t ( The S ou the rn H un t ing G a th e r ing A r ea ) 1 987 .

2 12

F ig . 1 . No r thern E u rope w i th t h er e sea rch a r ea ( t he " m idd le a r ea " ) , i . e . t h e p rov ince s o f D a la rna a nd G ä s t r ik land ,t h eR ive rD a lä lven Wa te rS y s tem , a nd t h e n o r ther np a r to ft h e p rov ince o fV ä rm land .

2 13

F ig . 2 .T he Me so l i th ic . T he A ncy lus c oa s tl i ne . D is t r ibu t ion o f dwe l l ing s i te s w i th f i nd so fk ee led c o re s c rape r s a nd h and led c o re s .

2 14

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F ig . 3 .T he L a te Meso l i th ic . T he L i tor ina c oa s tl i ne . D is t r ibu t ion o fc oncen t ra t ion a r ea s f o rp icked a xe s .

2 15

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F ig . 4 .T he M idd le N eo l i th ic . I n land s i te s w i th p o t te ry o fp i t ted w a re t ype ( sma l l d o t s ) a nd s o me o ft h ei mpor tan tP i t ted Wa re c u l tu re s i te si nt h ec oa s ta l a r ea s .

2 16

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F ig . 5 .F requency o fs i te so fh un t ing -ga the r ing t ype i nt h er e sea rch a r ea . ( F rom t h e R eg i s te ro fA nc ien t Monumen t s , C en t ra lB oa rd o fN a t iona l A n t iqu i t ie s ) .

2 17

o i

SO km

F ig . 6 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fp o lygona l s ha f t -ho le a xe s ( s qua r es ) a nd d oub le -edged s ha f t -ho le a xe s ( r ec tangu la r s ) .

2 18

o

S O km

F ig .7 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fb a t t le a xe s ( " boa t -axe s " ) .

2 19

F ig .8 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fh amme rs t one s ( " S te inge rä te m i tR i l le " ) .

2 20

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F ig .9 .I n land s i tes w i th f i nd so fp o t te ry ( dom inance f o rp i t ted w a re t y pe ) .

2 21

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F ig . 1 0 . D i s t r ibu t ion o fs imp le s haf t -ho le a xe s .

2 22

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F ig . 1 1 . D i s t r ibu t ion o fm e ta lf i nd sf r om t h eB ronze Age .

2 23

HÄLS INGLAND

F ig . 1 2 . R econ s truc t ion o f" Cen t ra lC amps "i nt h e s ou ther nh un t ing -ga the r ing a r ea ( do t s ) ,a nd h ypo the t ica lm a in s i te so fa g r icu l tu ra lt y pe ( r homb s ) .

2 24

F ig . 1 3 . S ys tem so fh un t ing p i t s . L a rge d o t s =2 0o r mo re . Sma l ld o t s =l e s st h an 2 0 . ( F rom t h eR eg is te ro fA nc ien t Monumen t s ,C en t ra lB oa rd o fN a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie s ) .

2 25

.

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F ig . 1 4 . A mode lo fg eog raf ica ld iv i s ion o ft h er e sea r ch a r ea i n al ong t ime p e r spec t ive . 1= t h ef o re s tz one , 2= t h em idd le z one , 3=t h ec oa s ta lz one .

2 26

HÄL S I NGLA N

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F ig . 1 5 . E xamp les o fd i f f e ren tf r on t ie r si nt h er e sea rch a r ea . 1= t h eb o rde rb e tween Sweden a nd N orway d u r ing t h eM idd le A ge s , 2=t h en o r the rn b o rde ro fl ow techn ica l i r on p roduc t ion d u r ing t h el a te I r on A ge , 3= s ou the rn b o rde ro fh un t ing p i t so f N o r r land ic c ha ra c te r .

2 27

1=Ag r icu l tu ra l t e r r i to ry . 2= S oc io -econom ic b oa rde r . 3=I nf i l t ra t ion z one . 4= H un t ing -ga ther ing t e r r i to ry .

F ig . 1 6 . Hypo the t ica l mode lo fr e la t ion s i n ah un te r -ga the re r /ag r icu l tu ra lf r on t ie ra r ea . a=c en t ra lc amp i n" ag r icu l tu ra l t e r r i to ry " . b=c o lon iza t ion f r om " ag r icu l tu ra l t e r r i to ry " . c= a g r icu l tu ra l s t a t ion i nh un t ing -ga the r ing t e r r i to ry . d=p e rmanen tc en t ra lc amp i nh un t ing -ga the r ing t e r r i to ry . e= s ea sona lc en tra lc amp i nh un t ing -ga the r ing t e r r i to ry . f= s ea sona l " s pec ia lp u rpo se " c amps .

2 28

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3

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4

5

6

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7

8

9

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R e source s i tua t ion V a r ied

S pec ia l ized

O cca s iona l

E xchange c ommod i ty

1

2

4

5

6

7

8

9

3

F ig . 1 7 . Hypo the t ica l mode lo fd i f f e r en t s i te si nt h eh un t ing -ga the r ing a r ea .

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References A lexande r , J . 1 978 . F ron t ie r s t ud ies a nd t he e a r l ies t f a rme r s i n E u rope . S oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd s e t t lemen t .B AR ,4 7 . B audou , E . 1 977 . D en f ö rh is to r i ska f äng s tku l tu ren iV ä s te rno r r land .Väs ternorr land s f örh i s tor ia . H ämö sand . D ennel , R .W . 1 985 .T he H un te r -Ga the re r /Ag r icu l tu ra lF ron t ie ri nP reh i s to r ic T empe ra te E urope . T he A rchaeo logy o f F ron t ie r s a nd B ounda r ie s . S tud ie s i nA rchaeo logy . A cadem ic P re s s . C h r is t ian sson , H . 1 963 . No r r land o ch S yd skand inav ien . A rkeo log i ska f r äge s tä l ln inga r o ch p rob lem lö sn ing ar u nde re t ts eke l .T or . F o r sbe rg , L . 1 985 . S i te v ar iab i l i ty a nd s e t t lemen tp a t terns . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ron men t . Umeä . G ende l , P .A . 1 984 . Me so l i th ic S oc ia l T er r i tor ies i n No r thwe s te rn E urope . BAR I n t erna t iona lS er ie s2 18 . H i ldeb rand ,H . 1 866 . S ven ska f o lke tu nder h edna t id en . S tockho lm . Hu l th6n , B . & We l inde r , S . 1 981 . A S tone A ge E conomy . T heses a nd P ape r s i n No r th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy , 1 . S tockho lm . L anne rb ro , R . 1 976 . I mp l imen t s a nd r ock ma te r ia l i nt h e P reh i s to ry o fu ppe r D a lama . E ar ly N or r land ,4 . KVHAA . L öf s t rand , L . 1 969 . D en g ropkeram iska k u l turens n o rdg räns o ch k on tak te r med n o r r länd sk s t enä lde r . N ord svensk f orn t id . S ky t teanska s am funde t s h and l inga r 6 . Umeä . Ma lme r ,M .P . 1 962 .J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien . A c ta A r chaeo log ica L unden s ia . 1 969 . G ropkeram ik sbop la t sen J on s torp RÄ . A n t ikva r i sk ta rk iv , 3 6 . KVHAA . S e l inge , K . -G . 1 974 . F äng s tg ropa r .F ornvärdaren , 1 4 . O s te r sund . We l inde r , S . 1 973 . T he p re -po t te ry S tone A ge o fE a s tern M idd le S wed en . A n t ikva r i sk t a rk iv , 4 8 . KVHAA . 1 974 . D en n o r r länd ska s t enä ldem s s ydg rän s .F ornvännen . 1 975 . T he e conomy o ft h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re i nE a s te rn Sweden . Medde landen f rän L und su n iver s i te t sh i s tor i ska m u seum . 1 977 . T he m eso l i th ic S tone A ge o fE a s tern M idd le S weden . A n t ikva r i sk ta rk iv , 6 5 . KVHAA . 1 982 . T he h un t ing -ga the r ing c omponen t o f t h e C en t ra l Swed ish F unne l -Beake r c u l tu re ( TRB )e conomy .F ornvännen .

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THREE STONE AGE CULTURES I N THE PROVINCE OF SÖDER MANLAND , EASTERN CENTRAL SWEDEN — FACT OR F ICTION? B y Anders C ar lsson D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S -106 9 1 S to ckho lm , Sweden .

T h i sa r t ic le i s ap r epa ra to ry s t udy t o aw o rk c once rn ing s ome a spec t so ft h eS t one A ge o fe a s te rn c en t ra l S wed en ( t he p rov in ce so fG o t land ,S öd e rman land ,a nd ö s t e rgö t land )w h ich h ope fu l ly w i l lb ep ub l i shed i n t h e n ea r f u tu re . S im i la r p rob lem s h ave b een t o uched u pon b y t h e a u tho r i n B e rgh e t a l . 1 984 ( Söde rman land ) , C a r l s son e ta l . 1 986 a nd C a r l s son 1 987 ( Go t land ) , a nd n o t l e a s t i n my w o rk w i th in Ma t sP . Ma lme r 's r e sea r ch p ro je c tT he A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing s i nce 1 977 ( ö s te rgö t land ) .

I nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e2 0 th c en tu ry ,t h ea r chaeo log i s tK nu tS t je rna i n i t ia ted r e sea r ch i n to t h e S tone Age o f v a r ious Swed i sh p rov inces ( A lmg ren 1 914 , N e rman 1 963 -64 ) , i n c lud ing S öderman land . T he t a sk o fp re sen t ing t h e S tone Age o fS öde rman land f e l l u pon J oe l V . E r ik sson , w ho u nfo r tuna te ly d id n o t s uceed i n p repa r ing a ny th ing f o r p ub l ica t ion . I nt h e 1 920 sI va rS chne l lc on t inued E r ik sson 's r e sea rch ,p roduc ing am ino r p ub l ica t ion c oncern ing ap a r t o f S öde rman land ( t he i s land S öder tö rn ; 1 930 ) , b u t n o m a jo rp ubl ica t ion sw e re p roduced .T he i d ea o f ap ub l ica t ion d ea l ing w i th t h ee n t i re S tone A ge o ft h ep rov ince w a sn ol o nge ro fi n te r e s t . T he ma in wo rk o n S tone A ge p rob lem si nS öde rman land w a si n s tead c onduc ted b y t h e g eo log is t S ten F lo r in , who t ho rough ly e xam ined t he e a r ly n eo l i th ic F unne l B eake r C u l tu re o f t he a r ea ( 1938 , 1 958 ) . F lo r in v iewed t he F unne l B eake r C u l tu re a s a d eve lopmen tf r om t h em e so l i th ic p opu la t ion i nS öde rman land ,b u tw i th s ome " impu l se s " f r om mo re d eve loped a gr icu l tu ra l a r ea s i nt h e s ou th -we s t . H e a l so t hough t o ft h e l a te m idd le n eo l i th ic B a t t le A xe C u l tu re ( Co rded Wa re C u l tu re )a s af u r the rd eve lopmen to f t h e F unne l B eake r C u l tu re , a ga in w i th n ew " impu lse s " f r om o the r a r ea s . T h is ma in ly " adap t ive "v i ew w a sn o tw ide ly s ha red b yo the rr e sea r che r s , who f r equen t ly s aw c hange a s ar e su l to fm ig ra t ion s .F lo r in s aw t h eF unne lB eake rC u l tu re a ss e t t led f a rme r sa nd t h e B a t t le A xe C u l tu re a sh av ing amo re " nomad ic " w ay o fl i f e , ac ommon t hough ta tt h a t t ime . I na dd i t ion t ot h e se t wo S tone A ge c u l tu re s ( t he F unne l B eake rC u l tu re a nd t h eB a t t le A xe C u l tu re ) , t h e re w a s a no the rc u l tu re i nt h e a r ea , t h eP i t ted Wa re C u l tu re . T he v i ew h e ld b y F lor in c once rn ing t h ese t h ree c u l tu re s c an b e s u mma r ized f r om h i s ma jo r p ub l ica t ion ( 1958 )a nd f r om t h ree m ap sp ub l i shed i n1 961 ( f ig s 1 3b e low ) . F ig . 1s hows S öderman land d ur ing t h e e a r ly n eo l i th ic p e r iod ( c . 3 , 300 -2 ,300 B .C . , a cco rd ing t oF lo r in ) . T he b l ack d o t s m a rk s e t t lemen t s b e long ing t ot h e F unne l B eake r C u l tu re a nd t h e c hecke red d o t s ma rk h un t ing a nd f i sh ing s i te s . T he c i rc les ma rk t h e f i nd -spo t sf o rt h in -bu t ted a xe s . Mo s ts i te sh ave ad i rec tc onnec t ion t ot h es e a . F ig . 2s hows t h e s i tua t ion d ur ing t h e m idd le n eo l i th ic p e r iod ( c . 2 , 300 -1 ,600 B .C . , a cco rd ing t o F lo r in ) . T he b l ack d o t s ma rk s e t t lemen t s b e long ing t o t h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re , wh ich a r ea l l s i tua ted a tt h ec oa s t s .T he d rama t ic e f f ec tt h a tc hange si ns e a leve l ( l and u pheava l ) h ave h ad f o rt h e a r ea i sc l ea r ly v i s ib le b yc ompa r ing f i g s 1a nd 2 .T he f o rme r ly s e t t led a r ea s a r e n ow a lmo s tc omp le te ly w i thou t s e t t lemen t s . F lor in d oe s n o t 2 31

p r e sen ta ny t h o rough e xp lana t ion f o rt h ea ppea rance o ft h eP i t ted Wa re C u l tu re o rf o rt h e l a ck o ff i nd si nt h ei n t e r io r . F ig . 3s how s s i te sb e long ing t ot h eB a t t le A xe C u l tu re f r om t h el a t te rp a r to ft h em idd le n eo l i th ic p e r iod ( a f te r c .2 000 B .C . , a cco rd ing t oF lo r in ) . T he r homb ic s i gns m a rk g r ave sa nd t h ec i r c le sb a t t le a xe s ( " boa t -axe s " ) . A so ne c an s e e ,t h ei n te r io ri so nce a ga in d en se ly o ccup ied .T ot h i sm ap o ne s hou ld a dd t h el a te rp ha se so ft h eP i t ted Wa r eC u l tu r e s i te sa l ong t h ec oa s t s ( f ig . 2 ) . F lo r in s t re s se s t h e s im i la r i t ie s i ns t one t e chno logy b e tween t h e F unne l B eake rC u l tu r e a nd t h e B a t t le A xe C u l tu re ( a nd b e tween t h e f o rme r a nd t h e Me so l i th ic C u l tu re ) , b u t d oe sn ' tc a r ry t h ed i scu s s ion much f u r the r ,f a i l ing t op r e sen t as a t i sf ac to ry e xp lana t ion f o r t h ei n t e r r up t ion i ns e t t lemen tc on t inu i ty i nt h ei n te r io r . I nr e cen t y ea r s , t h e S tone A ge r e sea r ch i ne a s te rn c en t ra l Sweden h a s a lmo s te n t i r e ly b een c onduc ted b yS t ig We l inde r( among t h ew o rk sw ec an e spec ia l ly m en t ion 1 969 -70 , 1 971 -72 , 1 973 , 1 975 -76 , 1 976 ( Späng , We l inde r & Wy szom i r sk i ) , 1 977 , 1 977 -78 , 1 981 ( Hu l th6n & We l inde r ) , a nd 1 982 ) . I mpo r tan tc on t r ibu t ion sh ave a l so b een m ade b y O l s son a nd Ä ke r lund , w ho d ea l sw i th m a te r ia lf r om r e cen tr e scue e xcava t ion si nt h ea r ea ( f o r thcom ing ) . Iw i l l n o t t r y t os umm a r ize We l inde r ' s e x ten s ive r e sea r ch , b u t m e r e ly e x t ra c t s ome o fh i s s ugge s t ion sc once rn ing t h er e la t ion sh ips b e tween t h e t h ree c u l tu re s u nde rs t udy . H i s ma in a r ea o fr e sea r ch h a sb een t h em e so l i th ic a nd e a r ly n eo l i th ic S tone A ge ,w h i le t h el a te rp e r iod sa r eo n ly o cca s iona l ly t o uched u pon . T h i si st r ue n o to n ly o f We l inde r ' sr e sea r ch ,b u to fS wed i sh a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch a ss u ch ( s ee We l inde r 1 983 i nS wed i sh A r chaeo logy 1 976 -1980 a nd t h ea r t ic le si nS wed i sh A rchaeo logy 1 981 -1985 . I nt h el a t te rv o lume t h ey ounge rS tone A ge i sh a rd ly t r ea t ed a ta l ) . We l ind e rs e e st h ei n t roduc t ion o fa na g r icu l tu ra le conomy a st h er e su l to fa ni mm ig ra t ion d u r ing t h e e a r ly n eo l i th ic ( 1975 -76 ) . T he s e t t lemen tp a t te rn d u r ing t h i s t ime c on s is ted b o th o fa g ra r ian s e t t lemen t s a nd h un t ing /f i sh ing s t a t ion s , a nd h e s t re s se st h ei mpo r tance o fh un t ing /f i sh ing /ga the r ing a c t iv i t ie sa mong t h ee a r ly f a rme r s( 1 982 ) . W i th t h ei n t roduc t ion o ft h eP i t t ed Wa r eC u l tu r ea l ong t h ec oa s t s ,w h ich Wel inde rs e e sa s as p ec ial iza t ion t owa rd s am a r i t ime e conomy a mong t h ee a r l ie ri n hab i tan t so ft h ea r ea ,t h e i n te r io rw a s l e f t a s ide a nd t h e a g ra r ian e conomy a bandoned ( 1975 -76 ) . We l inde rd oe s n o t s e e t h eP i t ted Wa re C u l tu r e a s ar e su l to fi mm ig ra t ion s , av i ew c ommon ly h e ld i n e a r l ie rr e sea rch u n t i l Ma t s P . Ma lme r s howed i n1 969 t h a t t h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re i n S can ia w a s ac on t inua t ion o ft h ee a r l ie rh un t ing a nd f i sh ing p opu la t ion o ft h a ta r ea ( p . 8 6 ) . I nt h e l a te rp ha se o ft h e m idd le n eo l i th ic p e r iod t h e B a t t le A xe C u l tu re ( Co rded Wa re C u l tu re ) r e in t roduce s a n a g r icu l tu ra l e conomy i n to t h e i n te r io r o f S öde rman land . We l inde ra s sume st h a t ac e r ta in e xchange o rc o -ope ra t ion ( t rade )e x i s ted b e twe en t h et wo c u l tu re s ,w h ich m ade f u r the rs pec ia l iza t ion p o s s ib le ( a nd n ece s sa ry ,d ue t oc ompe t i t ion ) . T h i s " c ompe t i t ion " b e tween t h eP i t ted Wa r eC u l tu r ea nd t h eB a t t le A xe C u l tu r el e dt ot h e f o rme rb e ing f o r ced i n to ad ange rou so ne s ided s p ec ia l iza t ion t h a tu l t ima te ly l e dt ot h e d i sappea rance o ft h ec u l tu r e( 1 975 -76 ) . We l inde r ' s v i ew h a s b een q ue s t ioned b y S vend N ie l sen ( 1986 , p .2 24 ) , w ho s ugge s t s t h a tt h ef i nd so fB a t t le A xe C u l tu r ea r te f a c t so nP i t ted Wa re C u l tu r es i te si nd ica te t h a tt h e f o rme ra r ey ounge ra nd s how t h a tt h es i t e sw e r eu sed b yt h a tc u l tu r ea f te rt h eP i t ted Wa r e C u l tu re h ad a bandoned t h em . N ie l sen ' s v i ew i sh a rd t oa ccep t , h oweve r , b ecau se t h e P i t ted Wa r eC u l tu re mo s tp robab ly s t i l le x i s ted i nt h ea r ea i nt h el a te n eo l i th ic ( Löf s t rand 1 974 ,p .1 30 ) ,a nd p e rhap se ven l a te r( e ven i fw ed on o tu se t h a tn ame f o ri t ) .

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L e tu ss umma r ize s ome p o in t st h a tp e rhap sc an m ake u ss e et h es i tua t ion mo re c l ea r ly .I n t h ee a r ly n eo l i th ic t h eF unne lB eake rC u l tu re i sm a in ly r e p re sen ted b y s e t t lemen t sw i th i n t er a l ia p o t te ry ;t h ey a r eo f ten s i tua ted o ns a ndy t e r ra in c l o se t os a l tw a te rb ay si nw ha t w a sl a te rt ob ecome t h ei n te r io ro ft h ep rov ince o fS öde rman land . N og r ave sa r ek nown f o rc e r ta in . D u r ing t h ee a r ly m idd le n eo l i th ic t h ei n te r io r ,w h ich d ue t ot h el a nd u pheava l i sn ow mo re i s o la ted f r om t h e s e a , s e em s t ol a ck b o th s e t t lemen t s a nd c eme te r ie s . I n s tead ,t h ec oa s ta la r ea sh a s al o to f ,o f ten l a rge , s e t t lemen t sw i th i mmen se q uan t i t ie so f p o t t e ry ( t he P i t t ed Wa re C u l tu re s i t e s ) .T he se s e t t lem en t sc on t inue d u r ing t h el a t em idd le n eo l i th ic a nd p robab ly a l so i nt h el a te n eo l i th ic p e r iod . Af ew g rave sh ave b een f ound i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e se s e t t lemen t s . D u r ing t h el a te m idd le n eo l i th ic w ef i nd g r ave sf r om t h e B a t t le A xe C u l tu re i nt h e i n te r io r , b u tw e h a rd ly f i nd a ny s e t t lemen t s . T he g rave s h ave o f ten b een p l a ced o nt h et o po ft h es ame s a ndy t e r ra in t h a tp rev iou s ly w a so c cup ied b yt h ee a r ly n eo l i th ic F unne lB eak e rC u l tu r e . T h i sm ean st h a ti nt h ei n te r io ro fS öde rman land w eh ave s e t t lemen t sf r om t h ee a r ly n eo l i t h ic ,n o th ing f r om t h ee a r ly m idd le n eo l i th i c , a nd g r ave sf r om t h el a te m idd le n eo l i th ic . T he c oa s t sa r e mo r eo rl e ss i n ten se ly o ccup ied d u r ing a l lt h ep e r iod si nq ue s t ion . I ti so bv iou s t h a t t h e i n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e c u l tu ra l h i s to ry o ft h e a r ea s o f a rh a s b een b a sed o na ni n su f f ic ien tk now ledge o ft h et o ta l i ty o ft h es ou r ce ma te r ia l . T he r e mu s t ,o f c ou r se ,h ave b een g r ave sd u r ing t h ee a r ly n eol i th ic a nd s e t t lemen t sd u r ing t h el a te m idd le n eo l i th ic . T he t h ing i st h a t a r chaeo log i s t s c anno t s e e t h em . T h i s s t a temen ti so fc ou r se s e l f -ev iden t ,b u ti tm ay h ave s e r iou sc on sequence s .I fw ed on o ts e et h ee a r ly g r ave sa nd t h el a te s e t t lemen t s ,i tm ay w e l lb et h a ti nt h ep e r iod t h a tf a l l si nb e tween ( t he e a r ly m idd le n eo l i th ic )w es ee n e i the rt h eg rave sn or t h es e t t lemen t s , i ns p i te o ft h ef ac tt h a tt h ey a r e t h ere . T h i s i sa s Is e e i t al og ica l c onc lu s ion a nd o ne t h a tw i l l c hange o u rv i ew o ft h e h i s to ry o ft h er eg ion i nq ue s t ion d r ama t ica l ly . L e t u s l ook a tt h i s al i t t le c l o se r . T he e xp lana t ion w hy w e f i nd t h e e a r ly n eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s b u tn o tt h el a te m idd le n eo l i th ic o ne s i sp robab ly b ecau se t h e f o rme rw e r e s i tua ted o n g round n o t s u i tab le f o rl a te rf a rm ing a c t iv i t ie s , w h i le t h e l a t te r h ave b een e r oded a way b y f a rm ing p robab ly s i nce t h e l a te S tone A ge ( Ma lme r 1 962 , p .2 62 f , Wel ind e r 1 981 ,p .1 74 f ) .T he o p in ion t h a tt h ee a r ly n eo l i th ic F unne lB eake rC u l tu re t oa l a rge d eg ree w a s d ependen t o n h un t ing a nd f i sh ing a g ree s w i th t h i s v i ew (We l inde r 1 982 ) . T h i s i sa l so t h er e a son w hy t h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re s i te s a r e s o w e l lp re seved . A no the ri mpo r tan tf a c to ri st h a tt h e s a ndy t e r ra in o ft h ee a r ly n eo l i th ic s i te s a nd a l so o f t h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re s i te s h a s a trac ted g r ave l d i gg ing i n mode rn t ime s , w h ich h a s r e su l ted i n al o to fs i te s b e ing r e po r ted t ot h e a n t iqua r ian a u tho r i t ie s ( t he p o t te ry b e ing e a s i ly r e cogn izab le ) . A s men t ioned , t h e g r ave s f r om t h e B a t t le A xe C u l tu re a r e o f ten s i tua ted o n t h e s ame s andy t e r ra in a st h ee a r ly n eo l i th ic s i te s , a nd c on sequen t ly t h ey a r eo f ten d i scove red i n c onnec t ion w i th g r ave ld i gg ing .T h i si sp robab ly n o tt h eo n ly r e a son w hy t h ey a r ef ound , w h i le t h ee a r ly n eo l i th ic g r ave sa r en o t .T he k nown g r ave so ft h eB a t t le A xe C u l tu r e mo s t c e r ta in ly r e p re sen t an ew b u r ia lr i tua l , h e ld b y t h e u ppe r s t ra ta o ft h e s o c ie ty ( Ma lme r 1 962 , p .2 28 f , 7 14 fa nd 1 986a , p .2 1 ) . T he g rave s a r e e a s i ly r e cogn izab le i ng rave l d i gg ing b ecau se o ft h eg r ave g ood s( o f ten b a t t le a xe s , s t one o rf l in ta xe s , a nd p o t te ry ) . I f t h e e a r ly n eo l i th ic g rave s a r e l e s s f r equen t , d i f f e ren t ly e qu ipped , a nd /o r p l a ced e l se w he r e ,t h ey m igh te a s i ly r ema in u nd i scove red . Iw i l l n ow t r y t o p re sen t s ome t hough t s a bou t h ow t h e s ou rce ma te r ia l c ou ld b e i n te rp re ted i fw ea ccep tw ha th a sb een s a id a bove , b ea r ing i nm ind t h a to u rk now ledge a bou ti ti ss pa r se a nd t h a tt h e re a r et r oub le som ep rob lem sc oncer n ing t h er e l iab i l i ty o ft h e s ou rce ma te r ia l ( c f . B l idmo 1 984 ) . Wha t w e d o k now , h oweve r , i st h a t t h e i n te r p r e ta t ion sm ade s of a rn eed t ob er e v i sed i no ne w ay o ra no the r . 2 33

I fw e a s sume t ha t t h e e a r ly n eo l i th ic F unne l B eake r C u l ture t o al a rge d eg ree w a s d ependen t o n h un t ing , f i sh ing , a nd g a the r ing , t h en i t may w e l l b e t ha t t h e e a s i ly r e cogn izab le s e t t lemen t sw i th p o t te ry d on o tr ep re sen ty ea rr ound s i te s , a nd t h a tt h ey a r e n o t s i tua ted w he re t h eb e s tr equ i remen t sf o ra g r icu l tu re w e re a th and . Ma t s P . Ma lme r h a s w r i t ten t ha t t h e l a rge s e t t lemen t s t h a t a r chaeo log i s t s f i nd a r e l i ke ly t or epresen t n on -permanen t s i tes ( o f ten w i th n on -ag r icu l tu ra l e conom ies ) , w h i le t h e o ne s t h a tl ook s ma l lc an r ep re sen t mo re p e rmanen tf a rm ing s i te s ( b ecau se t h ey h ave t o ag r ea te re x ten t n ow b een e roded a way b y f a rm ing a c t iv i t ie s ) ( Ma lme r 1 962 , p .2 62 f , 1 976 , p .4 0 f , 1 986a ,p .1 5 ) . We mu s ta l so r emembe rt h a tt h e se e a r ly n eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t sw e re i nf a c t s i tua ted n ea rt h ec oa s t . B i rg i tA r rhen iu s h a s p ropo sed t h a t S tone A ge p o t te ry may h ave b een u sed f o r , a mong o the r t h ing s , s t o rage p u rpo ses , a nd t h a t f e rmen ted p o r r idge w a s p roduced i ns ome o f t h em ( A r rhen iu s 1 987 ) . T h i sc an m ean t h a tp o t te ry o nS tone Age s i te si ns ome c a se sm ay i nd ica te t h a tt h e s e t t lemen t sw e re n o to ccup ied p e rmanen t ly . T he p o t te ry c an h ave b een p roduced a tt h e s i te s t os e rve a ss t o rage v e s se l s d u r ing t h eo ccupa t ion . T hey w e re t h en l e f tb eh ind when t h ep eop le moved o n . T h i s w ou ld e xp la in t h ev a s ta moun to fp o t te ry f ound o ne spec ia l ly t h eP i t ted Wa re C u l tu re s i te s . I nt h ee a r ly m idd le n eol i th ic p e r iod t h ec hange i ns e a leve l( l and u pheava l )h ad r e su l ted i n t h e f o rme r s e t t lemen t s i tes n ow b e ing s i tua ted c l o se t ol a ke s i n s tead o ft ot h e s e a . T he p eop le s pe c ia l ized i nf i sh ing a tt h es e a coa s t( we c a l lt h em t h eP i t ted Wa re C u l tu r e )b u ti n my o p in ion t h es ame p eop le a l so i n ten s if ied t h ea g r icu l tu ra la c t iv i t ie si nt h ei n te r io r( t ha t i s ,a round t h eo ld s e t t lemen t s i te s ) . T he p a leobo tan i s tH an s Gö ran s son h a s s howed t h a t t h ec ommon ly h e ld v i ew o f ar educ t ion i no ra na bandonmen to fa g r icu l tu re i nt h ee a r ly m idd le n eo l i th ic mo s tp robab ly i s w rong . I n s tead , h i s a na ly s i s o ft h ep o l len d i ag ram s i nd ica tes a n i n tens if ica t ion o f a g r icu l tu re . I ta l l d epend s o n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e d i ag ram s( Gö ran s son i nt h is v o lume ) . Ia g ree w i th t h i sl a t te rv i ew . T h i s may mean t h a t t h e s e t t lemen t s i nt h e i n ter io r c ou ld h ave moved d own f r om t h e s andy t e r ra in t o mo re s u i tab le a g r icu l tu ra ll a nd ,t hus b ecom ing l i ab le t oe ro s ion b yl a te r f a rm ing a c t iv i t ie s ( c f . a bove ) . T he re i s , h oweve r , a l so t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t t h ey a r e s i tua ted o n a lmo s t t h e s ame s i tes a se a r l ie r , b u t t ha t t h ey d id n o t l e ave a ny p o t te ry t o s peak o f .T he p o t te ry w a sn ow b e ing d i spo sed o fa tt h en on -pe rmanen ts i te sa tt h ec oa s t s ( t he P i t ted Ware C u l tu re s i te s ) o r a tr i tua l s i te s l i ke t h e A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing i nt h e p rov ince o f O s tergö t land ( Ma lme r 1 986b ) .Th is wou ld make i td i f f icu l t f o r u s t o r e cogn ize t h es e t t lemen t s ,t h er e sea r ch c once rn ing n on -po t te ry a r tef a c t sf r om t h en eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s b e ing b ad ly n eg lec ted . I ft h eb u r ia lc u s tom s a sw el a te rk now t h em ( du r ing t h e t ime o ft h e B a t t le A xe C u l ture ) w e re n o ty e t d eve loped , w e w ou ld b e l e f t w i thou t e i the rr e cogn izab le s e t t lemen t so rc eme te r ie s .S t ray f i nd s , h oweve r ,d os how t h a tt h ea r ea w a s u t i l ized , b u t t h is h a s f o r t h e mo s t p a r t p a ssed u nno t iced b y a r chaeo log i s t s . T he p o s s ib le m i s in te rp re ta t ion o ft h e p o l len d i ag ram s h a s i n s tead l e d t ot h e v i ew t h a t t h e i n te r io rw a sa bandoned . I n t h e l a te m idd le n eo l i th ic p er iod t h e n ew b ur ia l r i tua l h a s l e f t u s w i th g rave s a nd n ume rous s t ray f i nd s ( among o the r t h ings b a t t le a xe s ) i n t he i n ter io r . I t mus t b e e mphaz i sed t h a tp robab ly o n ly as ma l lp a r to ft h ep opu la t ion w a sb u r ied a cco rd ing t ot h e n ew r i tua l .T he l a ck o fs e t t lemen t sc an b ee xp la ined i nt h es ame w ay a sa bove . T he s ea sona le xp lo i ta t ion o ft h ec oa s ta l a r ea sc on t inued . Al o to fp o t te ry w a sp roduced ( ? ) , u sed a nd l e f tb eh ind o n t h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re s i te s . T he re a r e a l so b u r ia ls h e re , mo s tc e r ta in ly s how ing t h a tt h ep e r iod so fo ccupa t ion w e re q u i te l o ng ( t he refo r et h en eed f o r s t o rage v e sse ls ) . T he re mo s tc e r ta in ly w e re o the r s i te s f o r s pec ia l i s tp urpo se s t h a t o n ly r equ i red o ccupa t ion f o r as ho r tt ime ,t h u sl e av ing n ot r a ceab le p o t te ry b eh ind . 2 34

T he t h r ee S tone A ge c u l tu r e si nt h ep rov ince o fS öde rman land a r e ,o fc ou r se ,i nr e a l i ty a f i c t ion . B u t t h ey m igh t b ecome a r chaeo log ica l f a c t s , i ft h ey a r e p rope r ly d ef ined . T he d i f f e rence b e tween t h em i sd ue t os o c ia la nd e conom ic c i r cum s tance s ,a nd d i f f e r ence si n t ime . T he re i sn os en se i nd ef in ing a r chaeo log i ca lc u l tu re si ft h ed ef in i t ion sa r en o tu sed i na nswe r ing s pec i f ic q ue s t ion s . N ew q ue s t ion s d emand s n ew d ef in i t ion s . O the rw i se , t h ec u l tu r e sm igh tb ecom e mo r eo fa no b s ta c le t h an ah e lp f o ra r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch ( c f . We l inde r 1 986 , w ho w a rn s a ga in s tm i su se o ft h ec oncep to fc u l tu re s ) . T hey w i l le a s i ly b e t a ken f o rg r an ted a nd i n te rp re ted a sr e p re sen t ing r e a le t hn ic g roup s . N o th ing c an b e mo r ed ange rou sa nd m i s lead ing . F o rn ow , my s ugge s t ion i st ot r ea t t h e p rov ince o fS öde rman land a so ccup ied b y o ne S tone A ge p opu la t ion , c hang ing i t s s oc ia l a nd e conom ica l s t ra tegy t h rough t ime , t hu s l e av ing mo r eo rl e s sr e cogn izab le t r a ce sb eh ind f o ru st oi n te rp r e t . We mu s tn eve r the le s s a lway s c a lcu la te w i th t h e t o ta l i ty o f s ou r ce s , w he the r w e s e e t h em o r n o t ! T h i s w i l l f r equen t ly l e ad t ot h eu se o fv a r iou sa l ter na t ive e xp lana t ion s ,a nd t h a ti s much b e t te rt h an t og e ts t uck w i th t h ew rong i d ea . S ou r ce c r i t ic i sm i s ,a sa lway s ,o fv i ta li mpo r tance h e re . D ow en eed a r cha eo log i ca lc u l tu r e s? I ti sd i ff i cu l tt oa n swe rt h a tq ue s t ion .A r cha eo log ica l c u l tur e sa r ei n aw ay e qu iva len tt oa r chaeo log ica lt y pes . T ype i s amo r en eu t ra lt e rm t h an c u l tu r e . I fw e s t a r to u rr e sea r ch w i th w e l ld ef ined t y pe sw em ay r e a ch r e su l t st h a te nab le u st ot a lk a bou tc u l tu r e s ,w i thou tt h ed r awback sm en t ioned a bove . T he s e a r ch f o rt h ee ar ly m idd le n eo l i th ic " Funne lB eake rC u l tu r e " s i te si nt h ei n te r io ri s t h e mo s tf undamen ta l t a sk f o rf u tu re r e sea rch i nt h ep rov ince o fS öde rman land . I fw e f i nd t h em ,t h ep i ece sw i l lp robab ly f a l lb e t te ri n to p l ace .

2 35

2 36

F igs

1 -3 .

F ig . 1 .S öde rman land d u r ing t h ee a r ly n eo l i th ic p er iod ( c . 3 , 300 -2 ,300 B .C . , a cco rd ing t oF lo r in ) . T he b l ack d o t s ma rk s e t t lemen t sb e long ing t ot h eF unne lB eake rC u l tu re a nd t h e c hecke red d o t s ma rk h un t ing a nd f i sh ing s i tes . T he c i rc les ma rk t h e f i nd spo t s f o r t h in -bu t ted a xe s . T he e a r ly n eo l i th ic s ho re l ine i sm a rked o nt h em ap . ( F rom F lo r in 1 961 , p .3 19 ) . F ig . 2 . S öde rman land d u r ing t he m idd le n eo l i th ic p er iod ( c . 2 ,300 -1 ,600 B .C . , a ccord ing t o F lo r in ) . T he b lack d o ts ma rk s e t t lemen t s b e long ing t o t h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re . T he m idd le n eo l i th ic s ho re l ine i s ma rked o n t h e map . ( F rom F lo r in 1 961 , p . 3 20 ) . F ig . 3 .S öde rman land d u r ing t h el a t te rp a r to ft h em idd le n eo l i th ic p e r iod ( t he t ime o ft h e B a t t le Axe C u l tu re ; a f te r c .2 000 B .C . , a cco rd ing t oF lo r in ) . T he r homb ic s i gns ma rk g r ave s a nd t h ec i rc les b a t t le a xe s ( " boa t -axe s " ) . T he s ho re l ine i st h e s ame a si nf i g . 2 . ( F rom F lo r in 1 961 , p .3 21) .

2 37

R eferences A lmg ren , 0 . , 1 914 . D e p ägäende u nde r sökn ingarna om S ver iges f ö r s ta b ebygge l se . I n s ta l la t ion sfö re lä sn ing v id U psa la U n ive r s i te td en 1 5j an . 1 914 . F ornvännen , S tock h o lm . A r rhen ius , B . , 1 987 . P reh is to r ic D ie t a nd A rchaeo logy i nt h e L abo ra to ry . I n : S wed i sh A rchaeo logy 1 981 -1985 . P ub l i shed b y t h e Swed i sh A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty . S tock h o lm . B e rgh , S . , B l idmo , R . , C a r lsson , A . , E r icson , P .G .P . , O lsson , E . & Äker lund , A . 1 984 . S öde rman land s s t enä lde r . A rkeo log isk tf o r skn ing sp rog ram f ö rS öde rman land . U npub l i shed manusc r ip t . S öde rman land s Museum , N yköp ing . B l idmo , R . , 1 984 . P rovunder sökn ing a v s t enä lder sbop la t ser o ch n ägra t o lkn ings p rob lem . S tockho lm A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s 1 5 ,S tockho lm . C a r l sson , A . , C a r ls son , D . &W idg ren , M . 1 986 . A rkeo log isk t f o r skn ing sp rog ram f ö r G o t land , a nknu te t t i l l l ä gesbes tämda d a ta . U npub l i shed manu scr ip t . Go t land s F o rn s a l , V i sby . C a r l s son , A . , 1 987 . T he P reh i s to ry o f Go t land i nS wed i sh A rchaeo log ica lR e sea r ch . I n : S wed i sh A rchaeo logy 1 981 -1985 . P ub l i shed b yt h e Swed ish A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty . S tockho lm . F lo r in , S . , 1 938 . V räku l tu ren . I n : K u l turh i s tor i ska s t ud ier , t i l lägnade N i l si berg 2 4 17 1 938 . S tockho lm . - 1 958 . V räku l turen . S t enä ld er sbop la t serna v id Moge to rp , Ö s t ra V rä o ch B rokvarn . KVHAA , S to ckho lm . - 1 961 . D jupv ik , e ine o s t schwed ische F i scher s ied lung v om E nde d er S te inze i t . U ppsa la . G ö ransson , H . , 1 987 . T he C u l tu ra l L and scape d ur ing t h e t ime o f t h e A lva s t ra P i le Dwe l l ing . I n : T heore t ica lA pproache st oA r tef ac t s ,S e t t lemen ta nd S oc ie ty .S tud ie si n h onour o f Ma t sP . Ma lmer . B .A .R . I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s . H u l th6n , B . & We l inde r , S . , 1 981 . AS tone A ge E conomy . T heses a nd P ape r s i n N or th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy 1 . S tockho lm . L ö f s t rand , L . , 1 974 . Y ngre s t enä lderns k us tbop la t ser . U nder sökn ingar v id Ä s o ch s t ud ier id en g ropkeram i ska k u l turen sk rono log io ch e ko log i . AUN 1 .U pp sa la . Ma lme r , M .P . , 1 962 .J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien .A c ta A r chaeo log ica L unden s ia , L und . - 1 969 . G ropkeram ik sbop la t sen J ons torp RÄ . A n t ikva r isk t A rk iv 3 6 . KVHAA , S tockho lm . - 1 976 . B o s tad , b op la t so ch b ebygge l se .I skos 1 .H e l s ingfo r s . - 1 986a . V ad k an v e ta s om s t r id syxeku l tu rens k rono log iska o ch s oc ia la f ö rhä l landen? T eo re t iska b e t rak te lser . I n : S t r id sok se t id iS yd skand inav ien . B ere tn ing f ra e t s ympos ium 2 8 . -30 X .1985 iV e j le ( e d s . A dam sen , C . &E bbesen , K . ) . K obenhavn . - 1 986b . A spec t so nN eo l i th ic r i tua l s i te s . I n : Word sa nd O b jec t s .T oward s aD ia logue B e tween A rchaeo logy a nd H i s tory o fR e l ig ion ( e d . S t e ins land ,G . ) . O s lo . N e rman , B . , 1 963 -1964 . K nu t S t je rna o ch h ans s em inar ium f ö r u t fo r skn ingen a v S ve r ige s s t enä lde r .L ychnos . L ä rdom sh i s to r iska S am funde t sÄ r sbok . S tockho lm . N ie l sen , S . , 1 986 . Om s t r id sok seku l tu rens e r hve rv sfo rme r —med s z e r l ig th enb l ik p äj ag t o g f i sker i . I n : S tr id sok se t id iS yd skand inav ien . B er te tn ing f ra e t s ympos ium 2 8 . -30 X .1985 iV e j le ( e d s . A dam sen , C . &E bbe sen , K . ) . K obenhavn . O lsson , E . & Äke r lund , A . , S tenä lde r sunde r sökn inga r iö s t ra Me l lansver ige . I n : A rkeo log i iMe l lansver ige . R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t( UV ) , S tockho lm ,i np r in t . S chne l l , I . , 1 930 . S öder tö rn u nde r s t enä ldem . B idrgg t i l l S öderman land s ä ld re k u l turh i s tor ia lSöd erman land sF ornm inne sf ören ing sA r ssk r if t . S t rängnä s . S päng , K . , We l inde r , S . & Wy szom i r sk i , B . 1 976 . T he I n t roduc t ion o ft h e N eo l i th ic S tone Age i n to t h eB a l t ic A rea . I n :A ccu l tura t ion a nd C on t inu i ty i nA t lan t ic E urope ma in ly d ur ing t h eN eo l i th ic p er iod a nd t h eB ronze A ge .D i s ser ta t ione sA r chaeo log icae G andense s . B rugge .

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S wed i sh A rchaeo logy 1 981-1985 . P ub l i shed b y t h e Swed ish A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty . S tockho lm . We l inde r , S . , 1 969 -1970 . Ö ve räda . A P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re S i te i n E a s te rn M idd le Sweden . Medde landen f rdn L und sU n iver s i t e t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum , L und . - 1 971-1972 . T he R ad ioca rbon A ge o ft h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re i nE a s te rn Sweden . Medde landen f rän L und s U n iver s i t e t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum , L und . - 1 973 . T he P re -po t tery S tone A ge o fE a s tern M idd le Sweden . A n t ikva r i sk tA r ldv 4 8 . KVHAA , S tockho lm . - 1 975 -1976 . T he e conomy o f t he P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re i n E as tern Sweden . Medde land en f rdn L und s U n iver s i te t sH i s tor i ska Museum , L und . - 1 977 -1978 . T he A ccu l tu ra t ion o f t h e P i t ted Wa re C u l tu re i n E a s te rn Sweden . Medde landen f rdn L und s U n iver s i t e t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum , L und . - 1 982 . T he h un t ing -ga the r ing c omponen t o ft h e C en t ra l Swed i sh N eo l i th ic F unne l B eake rC u l tu re ( TRB )e conomy .F ornvännen ,S tockho lm . - 1 983 . T he S tudy o fE a r ly F a rm ing S oc ie t ie s . I n : S wed i sh A rchaeo logy 1 976 -1980 . P ub l i shed b yt h e Swed i sh A r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty . S tockho lm . - 1 986 . R ecen s ion a v B rowa l l , H . , A lvas t ra p d lbyggnad . S oc ia l o ch e konom i sk b a s a nd F o r sbe rg , L . , S i te v ar iab i l i ty a nd s e t t lemen t p a t terns . A n a na lys is o f t h e h un ter -ga therer s e t t lemen ts y s t em i nt h eL u le R iver V a l ley , 1 500 B .C . —B .C . /A .D . F ornvännen , S tockho lm . *

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COURT TO MBS , PASSAGE TO MBS NORTH COUNTY S LIGO , I RELAND

AND

SOCIAL

CONTEXTS

I N

B y S tefan B ergh D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S 106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden . I n troduc t ion T he s t udy o ft h e mega l i th ic monumen t so fw e s te rn E u rope h a s s e en ar ad ica lc hange o f m e thod s a nd d i rec t ions d u r ing t h e l a s t t wo d ecade s . I n b road t e rm s t h is h a s b een a c hange f r om ma in ly mo rpho log ica ls t ud ie st ot r ac ing i n te r reg iona lc on tac t sa nd p a t te rn s o f d i f fu s ion , t o as t udy o f s pa t ia l r e la t ions a nd s oc ia l c on tex t s o n ar eg iona l l e ve l . R enf rew 's s t ud ie so ft h e monumen t si n We ssex a nd O rkney h ave h ad ama jo ri n f luence o n t h e s pa t ia l a nd s oc ia l i n te rp re ta t ion s ( Renf rew 1 973 ; 1 979 ) . Mo rpho log ica l s t ud ie s s t i l l f o rm a n i mpor tan t t oo l , b u t a r e n ow u sed i n c oope ra t ion w i th c omp lemen ta ry v a r iab le s i nt h e p roces s o fi n terp re ta t ion ( F ra se r 1 983 ) . S tud ies c once rn ing t h e s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion i nt h es oc ie ty o ft h em ega l i thbu i lde r sh ave o ve rt h el a s tf ew y ea r sf o rmed a n i mpo r tan tc on t r ibu t ion t oo u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h ec on tex t so ft h em ega l i th ic monumen t s ( e .g . D arv i l l 1 979 ; Webe r &P ion tek 1 985 ) . T he mega l i th ic monumen t s a r e mo s to f ten p re sen t i n ac h rono log ica l a nd c u l tu re -h is to r ica l i n terva l w i th in wh ich d i scuss ions c once rn ing s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion i sl i ke ly t op rove w o r thwh i le ;i na dd i t ion ,t h e monumen t s a ss uch p o s se ss q ua l i t ie st h a tc an f o rm t h eb a s i sa nd s t imu l if o ri n te rp re ta t ion so fs oc ia l o rgan isa t ion .T he v a r iab le st h a th ave p roved w o r thw i le i nt h is c on tex ta r ee . g .t h es pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion a nd t he s i ze o f t h e monumen t s , t h e s i ze a nd c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e b ur ia l c hambe r s a s w e l l a s t h e n umbe r o f c hambe r s o r s egmen t s ( F lem ing 1 972 , 1 973 ; S he r idan 1 986 ) . T he p re sen t p ape r d ea ls w i th t h e t wo ma jo r g roups o f m ega l i th ic monumen t s w i th in I r e land : c ou r t t omb s a nd p a ssage t ombs . We s ha l l c ons ide r t he p oss ib l i t ies a nd l im i ta t ion sf o rr e con s t ruc t ing t h ec h rono log ica l a nd s oc ia lc on tex tf o rt h e se t wo t ypes o f monumen tf r om ma in ly s pa t ia la na ly s i sw i th in ad ef ined r eg ion . C our t T ombs C our t t ombs , w ho se k nown n umbe r a moun t s t oc .3 30 ( O 'Ke l ly 1 981 ) , c ons i s t o f a l ong -ca i rn w i th a s t one -bu i l t c hambe r o f 2t o 4s egmen t s a to ne e nd ( F ig . l a ) . T he c hambe r -end o ft h e c a i rn o f ten h a s ad eep c oncave s hape , l i ned b ya sf a çade o fu pr igh t s l ab s , w i th t h e c hambe r b e ing l o ca ted a tt h e b ack o ft h i s c oncave * a le . T he ma in a r ch i tec tu ra lf e a tu re i st h ed ema r ca ted o pen s pa ce i nf r on to ft h ec hambe re n t rance w h ich h a s g iven t h e monumen ti t s n ame , " cou r tt omb " ( f o rme r ly " ho rned c a i rn " ) . Howeve ri t mu s tb e s t re ssed t h a tt h e re i sg rea tv a r ia t ion c oncer n ing t h e l o ca t ion o ft h ec hambe ra s w e l l a s t h e d e s ign o f t h e c ou r t ( s ee D eVa le ra 1 960 ) . T he f i nd s i n c lude u ndeco ra ted s hou lde r -bow l sa nd n eo l i th ic f l in t -ar t if ac t s . T he i r g ene ra l d i s t r ibu t ion i sl im i ted t ot h e n o r the rn t h i rd o fI r e land , w i th a n i n crea sed d en s i ty a l ong t h ec oa s t s ,e spec ia l ly i nt h ew e s t( F ig . l b ) . T he c ou r tt omb sa r ep ref e rab ly l o ca ted o n l i gh t s o i l s , t h e i r t opog raph ica l l o ca t ion b e ing t h e l ow land s o r t h e t r ans i t ion b e tween t h e l ow lands a nd h ighe r t e r ra in . N ea r ly w i thou t e xcep t ion t h ey a r e f ound a s s i ng le s i te s , mo s to f ten w i th al ow d eg ree o fv i s ib i l i ty ,w h ich i nd ica tes t h a tt h ey s c a r ce ly c an h ave f unc t ioned a sv i sua lt e r r i to ry -ma rke r s .

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P assage T o mbs T he I r i sh p a s sage t omb s ,w ho se k nown n umbe r amoun t st oc . 3 30 ( He r i ty 1 974 ) , f o rm ap a r to ft h ew e s t -Eu ropean p a s sage t omb t r ad i t ion b u tw i th s ome s pe c if i cc ha rac te r i s t ics , s uch a st h ec ruc ifo rm c hambe r( F ig . 1 c ) . T he re i s ag r ea tv a r ie ty o fc hambe r -fo rm s ; d ue t ot h e i rf i nd -ma te r ia l , d o lmen s a nd c i s t s w i th in b ou lder c i rc le s a r ei n c luded w i th in t h i s t r ad i t ion . T he se f i nd s a r e c ha rac te r ized b y f u l ly d eco ra ted b ow ls ( Ca r rowkee l Wa re ) , t oge the rw i th b one -p in s a nd s t one -pendan t s . T he i rg ene ra l d i s t r ibu t ion i ss hown i nF ig . l d . T he mos td i s t inc t ive f e a tu re o ft h eI r i sh p a ssage t ombs i sa ppa ren t f r om t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion , n ame ly t h e g roup ing o ft ombs i n to c e me ter ie s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion i sd om ina ted b y t h e f ou r l a rge c eme te r ie s o fB oyne ( 32 t ombs ) , L oughcrew ( 32 t omb s ) , C a r rowkee l ( 20 t ombs ) a nd C a r rowmo re /Knockna rea ( 7 8 t omb s )w h ich t oge the rr ep re sen t mo re t h an 5 0% o ft h et o ta ln umbe ro fs i te s ( n umbe r f r om H e r i ty 1 974 , w i th a dd i t ion s ) . T he se f ou rc eme te r ie s a r er ough ly l o ca ted o n al i ne a c ro ss I r e land , r unn ing f r om t h e B oyne i nt h e e a s t t oC a r rowmo re /Knockna rea i nt h e n or thwe s t . A l a rge n umbe r o f t h e p a ssage tomb s h ave a h igh d eg ree o f v i s ib i l i ty , w h ich w a s e v iden t ly d e l ibe ra te , w h i le o the r s a r e l o ca ted i n t h e u ndu la t ing l ow land s w i th al ow d eg ree o fv i s ib i l i ty . T he p a ssage t ombs a nd c ou r tt omb s t h a th ave b een g i ven a b so lu te d a te st h rough r ad ioca rbon d a t ing , c on s t i tu te ar e la t ive ly s ma l l a nd u neven ly d i s t r ibu ted s amp le f r om t h e c . 6 60 s i tes . F rom t h e C -14 e v idence b o th t ypes o f monumen t s , h oweve r , s eem t oh ave b een u sed d ur ing t h e g rea te rp a r to ft h e 3 rd m i l len ium b e . No s pec i f ic c oncen t ra t ion sa r ee v iden tf o re i the ro ft h et y pe sw i th in t h i sp er iod ( f o r al i s to f a l lp ub l i shed r ad ica rbon d a te s , s e eC au l f ie ld 1 983 ,w i th r e f e rence s ) . A spec ts o f t he G enera l D is tr ibu t ion As t udy o ft h e s pa t ia lr e la t ion b e tween c ou r tt omb s a nd p a ssage t omb s h a sb een c a r r ied o u t b y D a rv i l l ( 1979 ) , w he re t h e d i spe r sed c ou r t tomb s a r e s e en t oc on t ra s t w i th t h e a gg lome ra ted p a s sage tomb s . T he f o rme ra r e i n te rp re ted a sr ep resen t ing as egmen ta ry s oc ie ty wh i le t h e l a t te ra r e s e en a sr ep re sen t ing ah i e ra rch ica l ly -o rde red s oc ie ty . I nt h e l i gh t o ft h e i n terp re ta t ion o ft h e s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion t a ken t oge the r w i th t h e a va i lab le d a t ing e v idence ,D a rv i l l s e e s ac h rono log ica ls equence w he re t h es egmen t ary c ou r tt omb s oc ie ty b ecame a ne l emen ti n ah i e ra r ch ica ls y s tem w ho se c en tre sw e re c on s t i tu ted b yt h e ma jo rp a s sage t omb c eme te r ie s . T he p resen tp ape rp a r t ly a im s a te l abo ra t ing s ome a spec t so ft h er e la t ion b e tween t h e se t wo mega l i th ic t r ad i t ion sf r om ar eg iona lp e r spec t ive ,a nd i nt h a tc onnec t ion i lu s tra t ing s ome o ft h ep rob lem sd i scu s sed b yD a rv i l l . F i r s t ly , h oweve r , s o me r ef lec t ions c once rn ing t h e g enera l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e t wo monumen t sa nd i t sc h rono log ica li mp l ica t ion s . When a na ly s ing d i s t r ibu t ion -pa t ter n so ve r s uch a l a rge a r ea a s I r e land , i tc ou ld p rove d ange rous t o make t oo f a r reach ing c onc lu s ion s , a st h e s ma l l s c a le c ons t i tu te s a ne l emen to fr i sk f o rm i s judgemen t s . I ft wo d i s t r ibu t ion -pa t te rns c omp lemen t e ach o the r t he re i s ag ood c hance t h a t t h ey a re c on tempora ry , w h i le t wo i d en t ica l d i s t r ibu t ions a r e i n s tead l i ke ly t o r ep resen t a c h rono log ica l s ucce s s ion . Howeve r , t wo s t ud ied d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rns r a re ly s how e i ther o ft h e se i d ea l s i tua t ions , a mo re c omp lex p i c tu re mo s to f ten b e ing p re sen ti n s tead . D a rv i l l s e e st h et wo d i s t r ibu t ion s ( c ou r tt omb sa nd p a s sage t omb sr e spec t ive ly ) a s" no t mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive " ( Da rv i l l 1 979 ; 3 12 ) , a nd i n te rp re t st h is a sa ni nd ica t ion f o r ac h rono log ica ls ucce s ion . 2 42

S ome g ene ra lc ommen t sc oncer n ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion sm igh te l uc ida te t h es pa t ia lr e la t ion b e tween t h et wo ( F ig s . l ba nd 1 d ) . I ts hou ld b en o ted t h a tt h ee x ten s ive d rum l in -a rea i n t h ec en t ra l -ea s ter np a r ti nt h en o r th o fI r e land l a ck sp a s sage tomb s , a nd i f ah ypo the t ica l l i ne i sd rawn t h rough t h i sa r ea a c ro ss I r e land ( F ig s , l ba nd 1 d ) al e s sr i g id p i c tu re o ft h e t wo d i s t r ibu t ion s m igh t b eo b ta ined . No r th o ft h i s l i ne 2 3% o ft h e p a ssage t omb s a nd 5 7% o ft h ec ou r tt omb sa r et ob ef ound ,w h i le t h ec o r re spond ing r e la t ion So ft h el i ne i s 7 7% a nd 4 3% ,r e spec t ive ly . O bv ious ly t h ed rum l in -a rea d oe sn o ta f f ec tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e c our t t omb s w h i le i tf o rm s ab a r r ie r t ot h e p a ssage t omb s . T hree o u t o f f ou r p a s sage t omb s a r e l o ca ted S o f t h e l i ne . I ts hou ld a s w e l l b e n o ted t ha t 6 3% o f t h e p a s sage t omb sa r et ob ef ound w i th in a3 0 km w ide s t r ip r unn ing S E -N W a cro s sI r e land , f r om t h eB oyne -a rea u pt oC a r rowmo re /Knockna rea o nt h ew e s tc oa s t . T h i si s ap a t te rn t h a ti nn ow ay i sd i sce rnab le a mong t h ec ou r tt omb s . T he se d em a r ca t ion sa r eo fc ou r se t o ta l ly a rb i t ra ry ,b u ta r en eve r the le s si mpo r tan t ,a st h ey s t re s sc e r ta in d i f f e rence si nt h eg ene ra ld i s t r ibu t ion s . A pa r tf r om t h e se g ene ra ld i f f e rence si ts hou ld b ep o in ted o u tt h a tc ou r tt omb sa r et o ta l ly l a ck ing i n t h e S E p a r t o f t h e p a ssage t omb a r ea , whe re al a rge n umbe r o f t h e mo re e l abo ra te p a s sage t omb sa r ep re sen t( Boyne ,L oughc rew ) . T he o ppo s i te s i tua t ion o ccu r s i nt h ew e s te rnmo s ta r ea o ft h ec our tt omb s , w he re p a s sage t omb sa r et o ta l ly l a ck ing . T he i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t t h e c our t t omb s c h rono log ica l ly a r e s ucceeded b y t h e p a ssage t omb s c an h a rd ly b e u namb iguous ly s uppo r ted b y t h e g ene ra l d i s t r ibu t ions , a st he t wo p a t te rn st o ah igh d eg ree c omp lemen te ach o the rr a the rt h an c o inc ide . B u tt h ep i c tu re i s t o o c omp lex t oi nv i te c h rono log ica l i n te rpre ta t ion s o n i t s o wn . F o r i n te rpre ta t ions o f s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd r e la t ion si ti sn ece s sa ry t ou se t h er eg iona l l e ve l . I tw a s i nt h e r eg ion t h a tn eo l i th ic m an l i ved a nd i tw a st h e re h i sc oncep t ion so fa f f in i ty a nd a l iena t ion w e re f o rmed . The R eg iona l P erspec t ive O ne o ft h er eg ion sw he re as pa t ia ls t udy o ft h er e la t ion b e tween c ou r tt omb sa nd p a s sage t omb s m igh tp rove w o r thwh i le i si nNC oun ty S l igo , o n t h e NW c oa s to fI r e land ( F ig . 2 ) . T he r eg ion i sd ema rca ted t ot h e Sa nd E b y t h e moun ta in c ha in so fO x M t 's , C ope ' s M t a nd K ing ' s M t , w h ich t oge the r w i th t h e A t lan t ic t ot h e Na nd W c on s t i tu te n a tu ra l g eog raph ic b o rde r s .T he d ema r ca t ion so ft h er eg ion a r e ,h oweve r ,n o ta sd ef in i t ive a l ong t h e c oa s ts t o t h e NE a nd W . T he l im i t s o f t h e r eg ion h ave b een d rawn where t h e r e la t ive ly n a r row l a nd -s t r ip b e tween t h e s ea a nd t h e moun ta ins c hanges i n to amo re e x ten s ive p l a in , a st h e moun ta in sc ea se t of o rm t h en a tu ra li n land b ounda ry . T he a r ea o ft h er eg ion a moun t s t oc .4 30 km 2 ( l and a bove 1 20 m .a .s . l . e xc luded ) , a nd t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e3 2c our tt omb sa nd c .9 1 p a s sage t omb s ,r e spec t ive ly ,i ss hown i n F ig . 2 . C our t T ombs A l l t h e c ou r t t omb s w i th in t h e r eg ion h ave ac oa s ta l l o ca t ion t hus i mp ly ing i ti s mo s t l i ke ly t h a t t h eb u i lde r s o ft h e monumen t s ( i ft h ey l i ved n ea rby , s e e b e low ) h ad ac l o se e conom ic o r /and g eog raph ica l r e la t ion t ot h e c oa s t . T h is d i s t ingu i shes t h em f r om t h e c ou r t t ombs t h a t a r e l o ca ted j u s t So ft h e O x M t 's , w h ich d esp i te t h e r e la t ive ly s ho r t d i s tance t ot h es e an ever the le s sh ave a ni n land l o ca t ion . I ti se v iden t f r om F ig . 2t h a t t h e c ou r t t omb s a r e s p read o ve r t h e who le r eg ion w i th c e r ta in c oncen t ra t ion sa l ong t h et wo c oa s t l ine s Na nd W o ft h ec en t ra l ly p l aced C u i l i r ra 2 43

p en insu la . T h i sc en t ra lp a r t , w i th t h e l ong b ay so ne i the rs i de o ft h eC u i l i r ra p en insu la a nd L ough G i l l w i th i t so u t -f low , t h eG a ravogue R ive r , d oe s n o t s e em t oh ave b een a s a t t rac t ive a st h eu ndu la t ing l a nd a l ong t h ec oa s t st ot h e Na nd W . T he mean n ea re s tn e ighbou rd i s tance ( n .n .d . ) i s1 990 m , w i th amoda lv a lue o f 1 400 m . T he n .n .d . f o r e ach t omb i sp resen ted i nF ig . 3 ,w he re t h e v a lue t o t h e f a r l e f t i st h e n o r ther nmo s ts i te a nd t h ev a lue sa r et h en g i ven f o rt h es i te si nc onsecu t ive o rde rt owa rd s t h e s ou th d own t ot h eC u i l i r ra p en in su la a nd f r om t h e re t owa rd st h ew e s t . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a tt h en . n .d . h a s amuch w ide rr ange i nt h en o r the rn p a r to ft h er eg ion t h an i nt h e s ou th . T he t h ree s i tes w i th an . n .d . b e tween 4 -5 km i nt h ec en t re o ft h ed i ag ram a r et h e s i te s o n t h e C u i l ir ra p en in su la . T he t o ta l a r ea d iv ided b y t h e n umbe r o fc our t t omb s g ives t h e r a t io 1 s i te / 12 .3 km 2 .I tm igh t s eem s u rpr is ing t h a t t h e a r ea a round t h e G a ravogue R ive ri st h el a rge s ta r ea w i th in t h er eg ion w he re c our tt omb s a r el a ck ing , a s t h e p re -requ i s i tes f o r an eo l i th ic e conomy a r e c on s ide red t o h ave b een e spec ia l ly f avourab le i n t h is p a r t o f t h e r eg ion . No th ing , h oweve r , i nd ica te s t ha t t h e r a te o f d e s t ruc t ion o fs i te s s hou ld h ave b een h ighe rh e re ,t h an i nt h en e ighbo r ing a r ea s . I ti s mo s tl i ke ly t h a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fc ou r tt omb sr e p re sen t s as e t t lemen t -pa t ter n ,e ven i fe v idence f r om c on tempo ra ry s e t t lemen t s i sl a ck ing i nt h er eg ion . T h rough e x ten s ive s u rveys i nNC o . Mayo ( c . 7 0 km W o ft h eS l igo reg ion ) ,C au lf ie ld h a s s hown t h a tc l o se l i nk ing o f s e t t lemen t w i th t omb i sv a l id o n as pa t ia l l e ve l ( Cau lf ie ld1983 ) . I ts hou ld t h e refo re mo s t l i ke ly b e a s sumed t ha t ap os i t ive s pa t ia l r e la t ion e x i s t s b e tween t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fc our tt omb sa nd c on tempo ra ry s e t t lemen t si nt h eS l igo reg ion ,a sw el . I nt wo i n s tance st wo c ou r tt omb sa r ef ound l e s st h an 5 00 m a pa r t ,w h ich i si nc on t ra s tt o t h e o the rw ise r e la t ive ly d i spe r sed p a t te rn . T hese a d jacen t s i tes m igh t r epresen t a c hron log ica l s ucce ss ion w he re o ne s i te h a s b een a bandoned a nd t h e n ew o ne e r ec ted n ea rby . A n a l te rna t ive i n te rp re ta t ion i st h a t t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e monumen t s w i th in t wo n e ighbour ing c ommun i t ie s n ea r ly c o inc ide s . O u rk now ledge i sv e ry l im i ted c oncer n ing t h ef a c to r st h a tg ove rned t h ec ho ice o fl o ca t ion f o rt h e monumen t s ,e spec ia l ly a sw i th in t h e l ow land st h ey o ccupy aw ide r ange o ft o pog raph ica la nd g eog raph ica ll o ca t ions . A s t udy o ft h er e la t ion b e tween m ega l i th ic t omb sa nd s o i lt y pe si nC o . L e i t r im ( c .2 0 km E o ft h e S l igo -reg ion ) , p e r fo rmed b y C ooney ( 1979 ) , s howed ac o r re la t ion b e tween t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fm ega l i th ic t omb sa nd s o i l sf a vou rab le f o rn eo l i th ic f a rm ing ( Brown E a r th t y pe ) . A s ad e ta i led s o i lm ap f o rC o . S l igo i sn o ty e ta va i lab le ,t h ed ef in i t ive s o i l -con tex t f o rt h ev a r iou st omb sc an n o tb eg i ven . O ne l o ca t iona l f e a tu re t h a tt h ec ou r tt omb sd oh ave i nc ommon w i th in t h er eg ion i st h e o f ten l ow d eg ree o f v i s ib i l i ty . T hey c an h ard ly h ave b een i n tended a s v i sua l t e r r i tory -ma rke r s , a l though t h i s o f c our se d oes n o t e xc lude t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t t h ey n eve r the le s sh ad ad ema r ca t ing f unc t ion . D a rv i l l i n te rp re t s t h e c ou r tt omb s a sr epre sen t ing as egmen ta ry s oc ie ty ( Da rv i l l 1 979 ) , wh ich , c on s ide r ing t h e i r s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion , i sr e a sonab le t oa s sume . T he p i c tu re o fa s egmen ta ry s oc ie ty i nt h e S l igo reg ion i sr e info rced b y t h e f a c t t h a t n o t omb , n e i the r g eog raph ica l ly , t opog raph ica l ly n o r morpho log ica l ly , c an b e s a id t od i f f e r f r om t h e g enera l p a t tern . Wh i le c e r ta in monumen t s a t p resen t s eem t o g ive a more c omp lex /e labo ra te i mp re s s ion t h an o t he r s ,t h ef a c tt h a t al a rge n umbe ro ft h ec ou r tt omb s a r eb ad ly p re served m ean st h a ti tc an n o tb ed e te rm ined w he the rt h i sd i f f e rence e x i s ted d u r ing N eo l i th ic t ime s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fc ou r t t omb s i nt h e r eg ion i nd ica te s as y s tem o ff a i r ly i ndependen t e conom ic u n i t s w he re t h e mega l i th ic monumen t p l ayed a c en t ra l p ar t i n t h e r i tua l c oncer n ing t h ed ecea sed m embe r so ft h eu n i t . C au lf ie ld h a sd emon s t ra ted t h ec onnec t ion b e tween c ou r t t ombs a nd e x tens ive f i e ld -sys tem s a tB ehy /G lenu l ra i n N C o . Mayo 2 44

( Cau lf ie ld 1 983 ) . C au lf ie ld i n te rpre t s t h e se f i e ld -sys tem s a sr ep resen t ing a n e conomy b a sed o n d i a ry o rp o ss ib ly b eef -p roduc t ion . As im i la r e conom ic s t ruc tu re m igh t h ave a pp l ied f o rt h ec ou r tt omb si nt h eS l igo reg ion . F o r t h e c ou r t t omb s i nt h e S l igo -reg ion Iv i sua l ize ap i c tu re o f af a rm ing c ommun i ty w he re ag roup o f f a rm s tead s f o rmed t h e u n i t w h ich , l i nked b y l i neage o r e conom ic f a c to r s , c ons t i tu ted t h e " bu r ia l -g roup" r ep re sen ted b y ac our t t omb . S uch as y s tem i s l i ke ly t o r ep re sen t a n e conomy o f as t a t ic c ha rac te r w i th r e la t ive ly f ew h aza rdous e l emen t s ,a sw e l la s as t a t ic s e t t lemen tp a t te rn . T he n umbe ro fs egmen t sw i th in t h eb ur ia lc hambe r si sp e rhaps r e la ted t ot h e s i ze o ft h e " bu r ia l -g roup " , b u tt h el ow n umbe ro f monumen t sw he re t h en umbe ro fs egmen t s w i th c e r ta in ty i sd e te rm inab le d oe sn o ta low at e s t ing o ft h i sp ropo sed r e la t ion . P assage T ombs C ompa red t ot h ed i spe r sed p a t te rn o ft h er e la t ive ly u n ifo rm monumen t so ft h ec ou r tt omb c l a s s , ar ad ica l ly d i f f e ren t p a t te rn i sp resen t c once rn ing t h e p a ssage tombs ( F ig . 2 ) . T he se o r ig ina l ly c .9 1 s i te s ( Pe t r ie 1 837 ; Wood - Ma r t in 1 888 ; O 'Nua l lä in 1 968 ) , a r e l o ca ted i n t h e c en t ra l p a r t o f t h e r eg ion , a nd p r ima r i ly o n t h e C u i l i r ra p en in su la . T opog raph ica l ly , t h ey c an b ed i v ided i n to t wo d i s t inc tg roups ,w i th c .7 4 s i tes l o ca ted i n t h e l ow land sa nd 1 7i nt h e s u r round ing moun ta in s . T he r e a son w hy ad ef in i te n umbe ro f s i tes c anno t b e g i ven i st h e h i gh d es t ruc t ion o fs i te s w i th in t h e C a r rowmo re c eme te ry , w h ich o r ig ina l ly c ons is ted o f a pprox ima te ly 7 0 s i te s , o f w h ich o n ly 3 2 r ema in . T h i s t o pog rah ica ld i s t inc t ion h a si ns ome r e spec t s amo rpho log ica lv a l id i ty , a st h es i te si nt h e l ow land s mo s to f ten c on s i s to fd o lmen so rc i s t sw i th in ab ou lde r -c i r c le , w h i le t h eh i l l top t ombs o f ten h ave amo r ec omp lex c hambe rc on s t ruc t ion w i th ac ove r ing c a ir n .I ft h et o ta l a r ea o ft h er eg , ion ( 4 30 km 2)i sd i s t r ibu ted b e tween t h e9 1 p a ssage t omb s ,t h er a t io o f 1 t omb /4 .7 kmz i sr eached . I fh oweve r o n ly t h e a r ea t ow h ich t h e p a ssage t omb s r e c onf ined ( 88 km 2)i sd i s t r ibu ted i nt h e s ame w ay , t h e r a t io b ecome 1t omb / 1 km L ) . T he se v a lue s s hou ld b ec ompa red t ot h ed en s i ty o f 1c ou r tt omb / 12 .3 km 2. I n t e rm s o fs oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion t h e I r ish p a ssage t omb s h ave o f ten b een i n te rp re ted a s r epre sen t ing ah i e ra r ch ica l s y s tem ( Da rv i l l 1 979 ; R enf rew 1 981 ) .T h i si n te rp re ta t ion h a s ma in ly b een d e r ived f r om t h es t ruc tu re o ft h ef ou rl a rge c eme te r ie s ,a nd m aybe e spec ia l ly f r om t h eB oyne -g roup w i th i t st h ree e no rmou s ly l a rge monumen t s .T he p a s sage t omb si n t h eS l igo -reg ion h ave a l so b een i n c luded i nt h ed i scu s s ion , t h e re o ccupy ing ap l ace a pa r t a st h e mega -ceme te ry w i th in t h eI r i sh p a s sage t omb t r ad i t ion ,w i th o r ig ina l ly c .7 8t omb s ( Ca r rowmo re /Knockna rea ) . E ven i ft h e re a r e s t rong h i e ra rch ica l e l emen t s w i th in t h e S l igo -reg ion c once rn ing c ons truc t ion a nd l oca t ion , i tm igh t n eve r the less p rove wo r thwh i le t oe l abo ra te o nt h e s t r ic th i e ra r ch ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ep a ssage t omb si n t h is a r ea . T he t omb s i nt h e S l igo reg ion a r en o tl i ke ly t oh ave ah i s to ry o fd eve lopmen t t h a ti sd i rec t ly a pp l icab le t oa ny o ft h eo the rl a rge c eme te r ie s . T he r e a son f o rt h i si st h a t t h is c oncen t ra t ion o ft ombs h a s b o th q uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive a spec t s t h a t g ive i ta u n ique p o s i t ion w i th in t h eI r i sh p a s sage t omb t r ad i t ion . Q uan t i ta t ive ly , 2 8% o r9 1 o ft h e 3 30 I r ish p a ssage t omb s a rl o ca ted w i th in t h e r eg ion ( t o ta l n umbe r o ft omb s : H e r i ty 1 974 ) . T h is m eans t h a t mo re t h an o ne i nf ou r p a ssage t omb si nI r e land w a sb u i l tw i th in t h i sr eg ion o f 8 km 2. Q ua l i ta t ive ly ,t h ef u l lr ange o ft omb t y pe sa sr ega rd sc on s t ruc t ion a nd s i ze i sr e p re sen ted , w h ich d oe sn o to ccu ri na ny o t he ra r ea i nI r e land . E ven i fa l l p a ssage t omb s i n t h e S l igo -reg ion w e re b u i l t a nd u sed w i th in t h e s ame c u l tu re t rad i t ion ,t h ed i s t inc t ion b e tween t h el ow land t omb sa nd t h eh i l l top t omb sm igh t 2 45

b e o f i mpo r tance . A pa r t f r om t h e d i f f e ren t t opog raph ica l l o ca t ion a nd g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion ,i ti si mpo r tan tt on o te t h a tt h el ow land t omb si ng ene ra lh ave al ow d eg ree o f v i s ib i l i ty , w h i le t h eh i l l top t omb sr ep re sen t s ad i f f e ren tc oncep t ion a bou tt h et omb a sa v i sua le ye -ca tche r ,a st h em a jo r i ty h ave ah i gh d eg ree o fv i s ib i l i ty . T he s i te d i ame te r sd i f f e rb e tween t h et wo g roup sa sw e l l ,t h a to ft h el ow land l y ing w i th in t h er ange o f7 -20 m ,w h i le t h eh i l l top t omb sr ep re sen t ac on s ide rab le l a rge rr ange , w i th f ou r t ombs h av ing ad iame te r e xceed ing 3 0 m . T he l a rges t s i te i n t h e r eg ion , Q ueen Maeve 's C a i rn a tt h e s umm i to fK nockna rea M tW o fC a r rowmo re ,h a s ad i ame te ro f6 3 m . T h ree o f t h e s i te s a tC a r rowmo re h ave b een r ad ioca rbon d a ted ( Burenhu l t 1 984 , p . 4 8 -64 ) . T he d a te f o rt omb No . 4 ,3 800 b c . ,d emand s s uppor tf r om f u r the rd a te s , b u tt h e t h ree d a te s f r om t omb N o . 2 7 , 3 090 b c . , 3 050 b e . a nd 2 990 b e . , a nd t h ed a te f r om t omb N o . 7 ,3 290 b e . ,p e rm i t ap re l im ina ry c h rono log ica li n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ec on s t ruc t ion a nd u se o ft h e se t omb si nt h el a s tq ua r te ro ft h e4 t hm i l len ium b e .T h i sc h rono log ica lp o s i t ion i sa ccep ted a s h ypo the t ica l ly v a l id f o r t h e C a r rowmo re c eme te ry a s aw ho le u n t i l d ive rg ing d a tes a r e p re sen ted . T he v a l id i ty o ft h e C -14 d a te s f r om C a r rowmo re h a s , h oweve r , b een d i scussed b y C au lf ie ld ( 1 983 ) . N o a bso lu te d a tes a r e a va i lab le f r om t h e h i l l top t ombs . I ti sh oweve r r ea sonab le t o a s sume , b y a na logy w i th c ompa rab le , d a ted s i tes e l sewhe re i nI r e land ( Cau lf ie ld 1 983 , w i th r e f e rences ) , t h a t a tl e a s t t h e l a rge r s i te s d o n o p reda te C a r rowmo re , b u t r a the r b e long t ot h e3 rd m i l len ium b e . T he c au se s o f t h i s c hange h ave b een d i scussed b y S her idan ( 1986 ) , w ho s ees t h e i n c rea sed s i ze a nd e l abo ra t ion a sa ne xp re s s ion f o ra ni n te r -g roup c ompe t i t ion f o rs t a tu s . T he S l igo -reg ion c on s t i tu te s a n e xe l len t a r ea f o r ac a se -s tudy o ft h e d eve lopmen t a nd c hange w i th in t h i sm ega l i th ic t r ad i t ion , a st h ef u l lr a nge o ft omb type si sp r e sen t . T h i sw ide r ange a sr ega rd sc on s t ruc t ion a nd s i ze s t and sh oweve ri ns ha rp c on t ra s tt ot h e t h rough -go ing u n ifo rm i ty o ft h ec .7 5 t omb sw i th in t h eC a r rowmo re c eme tery .T he m a in c oncen tra t ion o ft omb sa tC a r rowmo re i st ob ef ound w i th in a na r ea o fc .8 50 x5 50 m ( 3 o u t l ie r s 1 50 m t ot h e NW a r e om i t ted ) , w he re o r ig ina l ly c .6 7 t ombs h ave b een l o ca ted ( F ig . 4 ) ( Pe t r ie 1 837 ; Wood - Ma r t in 1 888 ; K i tch in 1 983 ) . T oday 3 1 s i tes c an f u l ly o r p ar t ly b ei d en t if ied w i th r ega rd t ot y pe o rc on s tr uc t ion .T he ma jo r i ty -a nd p e rhaps a l -o f t h e s i tes h ave c on s i s ted o f b ou lde r -c i rc les w i th v a r ious c en t ra l c on s truc t ions , ma in ly d o lmen so rc i s t s . C ove r ing c a i rn sw e r en o tt h ef a sh ion ( Bu renhu l t 1 984 ,p .4 8 ; T i money 1 984 , p .3 20 ) . T he s t one m a te r ia l c on s is t s o fg ne i ss a nd g ran i te i nt h e b ou lde rc i rc le s , w h i le l ime s tone i si ns ome i n s tance su sed f o rp a r t si nt h ec i s t s . T he d i ame te ro ft h ec i r c le sl i e sw i th in t h er ange o f7 -20 m ,w i th am ean v a lue o f1 4 .8 m ( b a sed o n2 1 s i te sw he re t h ed i ame te ri sk nown ) .N os i te c an b es a id t ov i sua l ly d om ina te t h e c e me ta ry , n e i the r t h rough s i ze n o r l o ca t ion . T he l a rge r ec tangu la r c hambe r s u r rounded b yt h er ema ins o f ac a i rn ,c a l led L i s togh i l ( 4 3 mi nd i ame te r ) ,i s mo s tl i ke ly t ob eo f as e conda ry p ha se o fC a r rowmo re d ue t oi t s s i ze , c on s truc t ion a nd p lan . I nt h e u ndu la t ing l a ndscape t h e t omb s a r e f ound i na l l t o pog raph ica l l o ca t ions s uch a sr i dges , f l a tg round o rd ep re ss ions . T he s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion i si n te re s t ing , a st h e t omb s a r e l o ca ted o n ap la teau t h a ti sw e l l d ema rca ted t owa rd s t h e S , Ea nd N . W i th in t h is p l a teau t h e t omb s a r e ma in ly l o ca ted a l ong t h e s i de sa nd af a i r ly l a rge a r ea l a ck ing t omb si sp r e sen ti nt h ec en t ra lp ar t . O nt h e f i r s tm ap o ve rC a r rowmo re , d rawn b yB e range ri n1 779 ( He r i ty 1 974 ,p .1 6 ) , t h e re i sa s ma l l l a ke ma rked i nt h e s ou the rn p a r t o ft h i s a r ea . T he re i s ap os s ib i l i ty t h a t t h i s l a ke ( wh ich n o l o nge re x i s t s ) h ad al a rge re x ten s ion d u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic , a round wh ich t h e

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t omb sw e re l o ca ted . D ue t ot h el o ca lt o pog raphy ,h oweve r ,i ti sn o tp o s s ib le f o rt h i sl a ke t oh ave c ove red t h ew ho le o ft h ec en t ra la r ea . C oncer n ing t h es e t t lemen tp a t ter nb eh ind C a r rowmo re ,t h e re i sv e ry l i t t le i n fo rma t ion t h a t c an b e g a ined f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . N o s t ray f i nd s o ro the ri nd ica t ion s o f c on tempo ra ry s e t t lemen ta r ep resen ti nt h ea r ea . D own b yt h e s ea a tC u l leenamo re ,c .4 km W o fC a r rowmo re ,h oweve r ,t h e re a r es ub s tan t ia lk i tchen m idden s .T he l owe s tl a ye r i nt h em idden t h a th a sb een C -14 d a ted h a sa na ge o f2 760 b c . ( O s te rho lm 1 984 .p .3 27 ) . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h e m iddens i nd ica te ap a r t o f t h e e conomy o f t h e t omb b u i lde r s a t C a r rowmo re ,e ven i fa na b so lu te c on tempo rane i ty i sn o tp re sen tw i th t h ed a ted t omb s . T he s e t t lemen tp a t ter nb eh ind t h eI r i sh p a s sage t omb c eme te r ie sh a sb een i n te rp r e ted a sa p a t te rn o fd i spe r sed s e t t lemen t s , a nd n o ta gg lome ra ted ( Renf rew 1 981 ) . O ne r e a son f o r s u ch a ni n te rp re ta t ion l i e si nt h ef a c tt h a tn oc on tempo ra ry , s ub s tan t ia l s e t t lemen t sh ave b een f ound i nt h ev i c in i ty o ft h ec eme te r ie s . B u ti ti so nt h eo the rh and i mpo r tan tt on o te t h a tn oi nd ica t ion so fd i spe r sed s e t t lemen t sh ave b een f ound e i the r . D ue t ot h el a ck o fp lough ing t h e re a r ev e ry f ew s t ray f i nd si nt h ea r ea t oi nd ica te e i the r t y pe o fs e t t lemen tp a t ter n s . T he c .1 00 h u ts i te sa t Mu l laghf a rna ,i nt h eB r ick l ieve M t 's i n SC o . S l igo ,h oweve r , a r e a d jacen tt ot h ep as sage t omb c eme tery a tC a r rowkee l ( Maca l i s te re t . a l . 1 912 ; G rogan 1 980 ) . T he n ea re s tt omb i ss i tua ted a tc .1 00 m d i s tance o nt h er i dge o ve r look ing t h e h u t s i tes . T he c hrono log ica l p o s i t ion o ft h e h u t s i tes i su nknown , b u t t h e c l o se s pa t ia l r e la t ion w i th t h ep a s sage t omb sd oe sn o ta ta ny r a te c on t rad ic t ac on tempo rane i ty b e tween t h eh u ts i te sa nd t h et omb s . T he l o ca t ion o ft h eC a r rowmo re c eme te ry o nt h eC u i l i r ra p en in su la i si n te re s t ing a st h e p en in su la f o rm s t h e c en t ra l p a r t o f ar eg ion w hose e conom ic p o ten t ia l f o r an eo l i th ic p opu la t ion mu s th ave b een v e ry h igh . T h is n eo l i th ic p opu la t ion w ou ld p re sumab ly n o t b e s o le ly d ependen t o n af a rm ing e conomy , d ue t ot h ee x t rao rd ina ry v a r ie ty o fe conom ic r e sou rce s t h a ti sl i ke ly t oh ave b een p re sen ti nt h is a r ea . E ven i ft h ea r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om t h em e so l i th ic p e r iod i sl a ck ing ,i ti sc on s ide red a s mo s tl i ke ly t h a tt h er eg ion w a si nhab i ted d u r ing t h i sp e r iod . F o r t h e l a te -meso l i th ic e conomy i n Z ea land P a ludan - Mü l le r ( 1979 ) d ef ined s even " r e sou rce s pace s " w h ich t od i f f e ren td eg r ee sw e re i mpo r tan tt ot h em e so l i th ic e conomy : e s tuar ie s , f r eshwa te r s y s tem s , o u te rp en in su la s , n a r row s t ra i t s , o pen c oa s t s ,i s land s a nd c l osed f o res t s . S uch a n c omb ina t ion o f e conom ic z ones c ou ld h ave s uppo r ted a n i n crea sed r e s iden t ia l s t ab i l i ty a nd y ea r -a round s e t t lemen t , a nd e spec ia l ly f r om t h e p resence o f e s tua r ies , p en in su la s -s t ra i t s a nd s t ra i t s is land s ( Pa ludan - Mü l le r 1 979 , p . 1 35 -137 ) . A l lo ft h e se z one sh ave b een e a s i ly a cce s s ib le f r om t h eC u i l i r ra p en in su la . O nt h eC u i l i r ra p en insu la ,j u s tW o fC a r rowmo re ,i st h ei s o la ted l ime s tone moun ta in o f K nockna rea ( 329 m .a .s . 1 . ) ,t h a tw i th i t sc l ea r -cu ts ky l ine v i sua l ly d om ina te st h ew ho le o f NC o . S l igo .T h is s t r ik ing moun ta in h a so fc ou r se p l ayed ama jo rp a r ti nt h et o pog raphy o ft h er eg ion e ven d u r ing t h em e so l i th ic a nd n eo l i th ic p e r iod s . I f , -a nd Is ay i f, am eso l i th ic p opu la t ion i n t h e a r ea h ad a n eed f o r ac en t ra l m ee t ing -p lace t o e xchange g ood s , m a r r iage s , b u r ia ls o r o the r i n ter -g roup r e la ted a c t iv i t ie s , t h e C u i l i r ra p en insu la c ou ld h ave s e rved t h is p urpose . T h is i st h e n a tu ra l g eog raph ic c en t re i n aw e l l d ema rca ted r eg ion , w i th K nockna rea M t c ons t i tu t ing a n e ve rp re sen tl a ndma rk . T he C u i l ir ra p en in su la c ou ld h ave c ons t i tu ted a" f o rma ld i spo sa l a r ea " i n ap re -mega l i th ic c on tex t , a sd esc r ibed a nd d i scus sed b yC hapman ( 1981 ) . I fs o , t h i sc ou ld p rov ide ap a r t ia le xp lana t ion f o rt h ea gg lome ra te o f mega l i th ic monumen t sa t C a r rowmo re . 2 47

Am e so l i th ic e conomy h a sn or e a son t op roduce s uch a ne xce s so fe ne rgy a st h eb u i ld ing o f mega l i th ic monumen t s r ep re sen t s . T he c ond i t ions p receden t f o r b u i ld ing s uch monumen ts c an h oweve r b e p resen t i n as t rong m eso l i th ic e conomy , i . e . w he re t h e e conom ic r e sou rce sh ave b een a ta no p t imum . S uch a ne conomy c an mo re e a s i ly a ccep t e x ter na lr e sou rce -demand ing i mpu l se ss u ch a sm ega l i th ic monumen t s . T he S l igo -reg ion h ad t h ese p rerequ is i tes a nd w hen r eached b y i mpu lses f r om m ega l i th -bu i ld ing c ommun i t ie si tc ou ld a dop tt h en ew i d ea sc once rn ing t h er i tua lf o rt h e d ead . When t h en ew r i tua li n vo lv ing t h eb u i ld ing o fm ega l i th ic monumen t si si n t roduced , t h is i se a sed b y b u i ld ing t h e monumen t s i nt h e t r ad i t iona l ly u sed a r ea a tt h e f oo t o f K nockna rea M t . I tm igh tb ed ange rou st oa lway sl i nk m ega l i th ic monumen t sw i th f a rm ing e conom ie s .I n t h e r eg ion h e re d i scussed , t h e e conom ic p re -requ is i tes w e re d ef in i te ly p re sen t f o r i nves tmen ts i n m ega l i th -bu i ld ing , w i thou t b e ing d ependen t o n ag ood r e tu rn f r om a f a rm ing -ba sed e conomy ( s ee B u renhu l t 1 984 , p . 1 41-146 ) . Ma r ine r e sou r ce s c er ta in ly p layed a ma jo r r o le f or t he C a r rowmo re p opu la t ion , b u t i n c omb ina t ion w i th f a rm ing -e lemen t sa sw e l la sh un t ing a nd g a the r ing . As im i la re conom ic c on tex th a sb een a r gued f o rb y A shbee ( 1982 ) f o rm ega l i th ic monumen t s o n S c i l ly . T h i s d ive r s if ica t ion g i ve s ap i c tu re o fa ne xpan s ive e conomy w i th ar e la t ive ly h igh d eg ree o ff l ex ib i l i ty . H ow c an t h es o c ia ls t ruc tu re o fC a r rowmo re b ei n te rp re ted? I ti sc on s ide red a sl i ke ly t h a t s ome o ft h ec .7 0t omb sa r ec on tempo ra ry ,b u tl e s sl i ke ly t h a ta l lw e re i nu se a tt h es ame t ime . T he monumen t s c ou ld h ave h ad al im i ted p er iod o f u se d e term ined b y e . g . t h e n umbe r o f b ur ied i nd iv idua ls , t h e n umbe r o f b u r ied g ene ra t ion s o r o the r f a c to r s u nknown t ou s . I ti sa s sumed t h a te a ch t omb r e p r e sen t ag roup w h ich m igh tb ed ef ined a s ae conom ic u n i t o rt h rough l i neage , a nd t h a te ach t omb f o rmed ap a r to ft h er i tua lo ft h ed ecea sed w i th in t h is g roup . A f te r ac e r ta in t ime o fu se t h et omb w a sa bandoned a nd as e cond w a se r ec ted n ea rby . T he t omb s a r e i ns eve ra li n s tance sp l aced i np a i r s , ap a t te rn r e cogn izab le f r om t h ee a r ly r e co rd so ft h ec e me te ry i nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry . T he p o in th e re i s t h a tt h ep a t te rn o fp a i red t omb si sn o t ar e su l to ft h ee x ten s ive g rave l -d igg ing i nt h e a r ea d u r ing t h e l a s t 2 00 y ea r s . T he r a te o f t omb -des t ruc t ion d ur ing e a r l ie r p e r iod s i s u nknown , b u ti sl e s sl i ke ly t oh ave b een a sh igh a st h er ap id d e s t ruc t ion o ft omb sd u r ing t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry . A n a l te rna t ive v i ew i st h a tn ot omb sw e re a bandoned , a nd n ew t omb sw e re b u i l td ur ing t h e u se o f t hose a l ready p re sen t . I tm igh t h oweve r b e h a rd t o u nde r s tand t h e s oc ia l b ackg round f o rs uch ad eve lopmen tu n le s s ac on s ide rab le i n c rea se i np opu la t ion c an b e d emon s t ra ted . Is e et h es oc ia l s t ruc tu re o fC a r rowmo re a ss egmen ta ry ,w he re al i neage o re conom ica l ly d ef ined g roup c ons t i tu tes as egmen t . E ach t omb r e pre sen t s ap a r t o ft h e r i tua l o ft h e d ecea sed w i th in as egmen t .T he u n ifo rm i ty o ft h et omb st a ken t oge the rw i th t h er e la t ive ly s peak ing l im i ted i n ve s tmen to fl a bou rt h ey r e p re sen ta l so y i e ld s ap i c tu re o fa ne ga l i ta r ian s t ruc tu re w he re t h ef o rma lp owe rh a sn o tb een o rgan ized v er t ica l ly . T h is l a t te ri n te rp re ta t ion c an o fc ou r se p rove t ob ew rong , a s as oc ia lh i e ra rchy d oe sn o t h ave t ob er ep re sen ted b yr ank ing o ft h ed ead . A na dd i t iona lo b jec t ion t ot h ee ga l i ta r ian i n te rp re ta t ion l i e si nt h ef a c tt h a tt h et omb sa r ea gg lome ra ted ,w h ich h a sb een p o in ted o u t b y R enf rew w hen d i scus s ing t h eI r i sh p a ssage t omb s : " Bu t a l ready t h e eme rgence o fa c en t re . . . . h in t s a ts ome th ing b eyond t h e s ymme t r ica l a nd mechan ica l s o l ida r i ty o ft h e 2 48

t r ibe . I ti st h ee s sence o f ac h iefdom s oc ie ty t h a ti ti sc en t red ,a s syme t r ica l ,a nd h a ss ome e l emen t so fo rgan ic s o l ida r i ty " ( Renf rew 1 981 ,P . 1 6 ) . T he re i s ac l ea rh i e ra r chy a mong t h e h i l l top t omb si nt h e r eg ion c on s ide r ing s i ze a nd c on s t ruc t ion , b u t as h if tt owa rd s a r ank ing c an p e rhap sb eo b se rved e ven a mong t h et omb sa tC a r rowmo re . O ne o ft h e t wo b ou lde r -c i rc les t h a th ave ad i ame te re xeed ing 2 0 m ( t omb 2 7 ) i sa tt h e s ame t ime t h eo n ly t omb a tC a r rowmo re w h ich h a s ac ruc ifo rm c hambe r . T h i si s at ype o fc hambe r mo re t yp ica l o ft h e h i l l top t omb s , a nd a tl e a s t t wo s i tes w i th c ruc ifo rm c hambe r s a r e p re sen t o n K nockna rea M t . W o fC a r rowmo re . As e cond i nd ica t ion f o r r ank ing w i th in C ar rowmo re i s t h e l a rge c hambe red t omb c a l led " L is togh i l " . A s men t ioned a bove , i tc ons is t s o f ar e c tangu la r c hamber a nd i s t h e o n ly t omb a t C a r rowmo re w i th r ema in s o f ac ove r ing c a i rn . An a dd i t iona l c a i rn m igh t h ave b een p re sen t a tL each ta ree l H i l l , i nt h e S E p ar t o fC a r rowmo re ( Pe t r ie 1 837 , Ms 4 47 ) . T h i s t a ken t oge the rw i th t h ef a c tt h a ti th a s ad i ame te ro f4 3m ,i nd ica te st h a tt h es i te r e p r e sen t s s ome th ing a pa r t f r om t h e u n ifo rm i ty t h a to the rw ise c ha rac te r izes t h i s c oncen t ra t ion o f s i te s . S ynthes is A s r ega rd s t h e c h rono log ica l r e la t ion b e tween c our t t ombs a nd p a ssage t omb s i nt h e S l igo reg ion ,t h e re a r en oa b so lu te d a te sf r om t h ef o rme r ,w h ich o fc ou r se make sd i rec t i n te rp re ta t ion s d i f f icu l t . T he s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s how s ap a t te rn s im i la rt ot h e g ene ra l d i s t r ibu t ion w i th in I r e land , a st h e t wo t ype s t o ah igh d eg ree c omp lemen t e ach o the r , w h i le a tt h es ame t ime y i e ld ing ac e r ta in d eg ree o fo ve r lap . I ti si n tere s t ing t o n o te t h a t t h e t h ree c ou r t t ombs t h a t a r e l o ca ted o n t h e C u i l ir ra p en insu la a nd t h et omb j u s t So fi t( F ig . 2 ) ,i . e .t h ec our tt omb st h a ta r el o ca ted c l o se s tt o t h e C a r rowmo re c e me te ry , h ave t h e h ighes tn . n .d . v a lue s ( F ig . 3 ) . F u r thermo re t wo o f t h ec our t t ombs o n t h e C u i l i r ra p en in su la ( K i l la spughb rone a nd C ummen ) a tt h e s ame t ime s how c on s t ruc t iona lf e a tu re su nu sua lt oc ou r tt omb si ng ene ra l ( DeVa le ra 1 960 ,p . 8 8 -89 ) . T he se h in t s , t a ken t oge the rw i th t h ef a c tt h a tt h ea r ea a r ound t h eG a ravogue R ive r( F ig . 2 ) , w h ich w ou ld h ave b een c en t ra l t ot h ep a ssage t omb p opu la t ion , l a ck s c ou r t t ombs , m igh ti nd ica te t h a tt h ep r esence o ft h ep a ssage t ombs h a si nf luenced t h el o ca t ion o ft h e c ou r tt omb s . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e c h rono logy o ft h e se t wo t ype s o fm ega l i th ic monumen t s a sa s ucce ss ion f r om as egmen t ary s oc ie ty r ep re sen ted b yt h ec ou r tt omb s ,t ol a te rb ecom ing a ne l emen ti n ah i e ra rch ica l s y s tem r epre sen ted b yt h ep a ssage t omb s ( Da rv i l l 1 979 ) , i s n o t u namb igous ly s uppo r ted b y t h e e v idence f r om t h e S l igo -reg ion . T he s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h et wo t y pe so f monumen t si s mo re l i ke ly t oi nd ica te ac e r ta in d eg ree o f c on tempo rane i ty . T he s oc ia ls t ruc tu re so ft h et wo m ega l i th ic t r ad i t ion si nt h eS l igo reg ion a r ei n te rp re ted a s t wo s egmen ta ry s oc ie t ie s , w he re t h e c our t t omb s r ep re sen t as t a t ic s oc ie ty a sr ega rd s e conomy a nd s e t t lemen t -pa t te rn , w h i le t h e p a ssage t ombs a r e s e en a sr ep re sen t ing a s oc ie ty o f amo re e xpan s ive c ha rac te ra nd w i th in w h ich as h if tt owa rd s ar anked s oc ie ty d eve lops a t al a te rs t age .T he e conom ic b a se w i th in t h ef o rme rt r ad i t ion i si n te rp re ted a s ma in ly t i l lage a nd a n ima lh u sband ry , w h i le t h el a t te r , a tl e a s ti ni t sf i r s tp ha se ,w a sb a sed o n amo re d i ve r s i f ied e conomy ,w i th in w h ich m a r ine r e sou rce sf o rmed am a jo rp ar t . T he e conom ic / soc ia lc on tex tf o rt h et wo m ega l i th ic t r ad i t ion si nt h eS l igo reg ion a r gued f o ri nt h is p ape r , d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly i nd ica te as t a te o fo ppo s i t ion , a sp opu la t ions i n d i f f e ren ta r ea sh ave a dap ted t h e i re conom ie st ot h el o ca lg eog raph ica lc ond i t ion s . I ns uch

2 49

ac on tex ti ti sc ons ide red a sp laus ib le t h a tv a r ied r i tua l sc once rn ing t h ed ead c ou ld h ave c o -ex is ted w i th in ar eg ion o ft h es i ze o fN . C o . S l igo . A cknow ledge ment It h ank D r . A l i son S he r idan f o rp e rm is s ion t ou se i n fo rma t ion f r om h e rp ape ri na dvance o fp ub l ica t ion .

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•I F igure 1 a -d . •2 a :C ou r tt omb a tB a l lyma r lagh , C o . A n t r im •3 ( a f t e rD eV a le ra , 1 960 ) . b :G ene ra ld i s t r ibu t ion o fc ou r tt omb si nI r e land ( a f te rD eV a le r a , 1 960 ,a nd O 'Nualä in 1 976 ) . c :P a s sage t omb ( " ca i rn K " ) ,C a r rowkee l ,C o . S l igo ( a f te r Maca l i s te r ,e ta l . 1 912 ) . d :G ene ra ld i s t r ibu t ion o fp a s sage t omb si nI r e land ( a f t e rO 'Nualä in 1 968 ,a nd H e r i ty 1 974 ) . 1 = s ing le p a s sage t omb 2 =ceme t e ry ( 3 -12 p a s sage t omb s )3 =ma jo rc eme te ry ( Ca r rowmo r e /Kno ckna rea , C a r rowkee l ,L oughc r ew ,B oyne ) .

2 50

F igure 2 .

D i s t r ibu t ion o fc our tt omb sa nd p a s sage t omb si nt h e S l igo r eg ion . 1=c ou r t t omb ; 2=p assage t omb ; 3= c l us te r o f p a ssage t ombs , ma rked o n ly s c hema t ica l ly .

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23

F igure 3 .

N ea re s t -ne ighbou rd i s tance f o rc our tt omb si nt h e S l igo r eg ion . T he v a lue s a r e g i ven f o rt h e t omb s i nc on secu t ive o rde rf r om NE t oS ,a nd t h en t owa rd s W ( s ee F ig . 2 ) .

2 52

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T he c en t ra lp a r to ft h eC a r rowmo re c eme te ry . 1= Mega l i th ic monumen to fw h ich c on s t ruc t iona lf e a tu re s s t i l lr ema in . 2= S i te o fd e s t royed m ega l i th ic monumen t . 3= D es t royed mega l i th ic monumen t , e xac t l o ca t ion n o t k nown . ( Ba sed o n t he 6 i n ch map ( S l igo s hee t 1 4 ) s urveyed b y P e t r ie 1 837 ; Wood - Ma r t in 1 888 , a nd r e cen t s u rvey b y t h ea u tho r ) . T he p re sen tm ap w i l l p robab ly b e a l te red b yc on t inu ing f i e ld s u rvey b yt h e a u tho r .

2 53

R eferences A shbee ,P . , 1 982 . Me so l i th ic Mega l i th s? T he S c i l l ion ian E n t rance -G rave s ; aN ew V iew . C orn i sh A rchaeo logy N o .2 1 . B u renhu l t , G . , 1 984 . T he A rchaeo logy o f C a r rowmo re . T heses a nd P aper s i n N or th -European A rchaeo logy 1 4 .U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . C au lf ie ld , S . , 1 983 . T he N eo l i th ic S e t t lemen to fN o r th C onnaugh t . I n : R eeve s -Smy th , T .&H ammond , F .( e d s )L and scape A rchaeo logy i n l r e land . B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s , ( Br i t i sh S e r ie s ) 16 . O xfo rd . C hapman , R . , 1 981 . T he eme rgence o f f o rma l d i spo sa l a r ea s a nd t h e "p rob lem " o f Mega l i th ic t ombs i n p reh is to r ic E urope . I n : C hapman , R . & K innes , I . & R and sbo rg ,K . ( e d s ) . T he A rchaeo logy o fD ea th . C amb r idge . C ooney , G . , 1 979 . S ome A spec t so ft h e S i t ing o f Mega l i th ic T omb si nC oun ty L e i t r im . J ourna lo ft h eR oya lS oc ie ty o fA n t iquar ie so fI r e land 1 09 . D ub l in . D arv i l l , T .C . , 1 979 . C our t c a i rn s , p a ssage g rave s a nd s oc ia l c hange i nI r e land . Man X IV . D eVa le ra , R . , 1 960 . T he C ou r t C a i rns o f I r e land . P roceed ings o ft h e R oya l I r ish A cademy 6 0C . Dub l in . F lem ing , A . , 1 972 . V i s ion a nd d e s ign : a pp roache s t oc e remon ia l monumen t t y po logy . Man ( N .S . ) 7 . -1 973 . T omb sf o rt h el i v ing . Man ( N .S . )8 . F ra se r , D . , 1 983 . L and a nd S oc ie ty i nN eo l i th ic O rkney .B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t s ( Br i t i sh S er ie s ) 17 . O xfo rd . G rogan , M . , 1 974 . H ouse s o ft h eN eo l i th ic p er iod i nI r e land , a nd c ompara t ive s i te s i n B r i ta in a nd o n t h e C on t inen t . U npub l ished M .A . t h es is . D ep t .of A r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege D ub l in . H e r i ty , M . , 1 974 . T he I r i sh P as sage G rave s . D ub l in . K i tch in , F .T . , 1 983 . T he C a r rowmo re Mega l i th ic C eme te ry , C o . S l igo . P roceed ings o f t h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 9 . C amb r idge . Maca l is te r , R .A .S . , A rm s t rong , E .C .R . & P raege r , R .L 1 . , 1 912 . R epor t o n t h e E xp lo ra t ion o fB ronze -Age C am so n C a r rowkee l Moun ta in , C oS l igo .P roceed ing s o ft h eR oya lI r i sh A cad emy 2 9C . D ub l in . O 'Ke l ly , M .J . , 1 981 . T he Mega l i th ic T omb s o f I r e land . I n : E van s , J .D . , C un l if fe , B . a nd R enf rew , C . ( ed s ) A n t iqu i ty a nd Man . E ssays i n Honour o f G lyn Dan ie l . L ondon . O 'Nua l lä in , S . , 1 968 . AR u ined Mega l i th ic C eme te ry i nC o .D onega l a nd I t sC on tex ti n t h e I r ish P a ssage G rave S e r ie s .J ourna lo fR oya lS oc ie ty o fA n t iquar ie so fI r e land 9 8 . D ub l in . -1 976 . T he C en t ra l C ou r t tomb s o ft h e N o r th - We s t o fI r e land . J ourna l o ft h eR oya l S oc ie ty o fA n t iquar ies o fI r e land 1 06 . D ub l in . P a ludan - Mü l le r , C . , 1 978 . H igh A t lan t ic f ood g a ther ing i n n o r thwes te rn Z ea land , e co log ica l c ond i t ions a nd s pa t ia l r epresen ta t ion . I n : K r is t iansen , K . & P a ludan - Mü l le r , C . ( eds ) , N ew D irec t ions i n S cand inav ian A rchaeo logy . C openhagen . P e t r ie , G . , 1 837 . L e t te r s c on ta in ing i n fo rma t ion r e la t ive t ot h e C a r rowmo re c e me te ry , c o l lec ted d u r ing t h ep rog re s so ft h e O rdnance S u rvey . R ep roduced ( i nt y pe sc r ip t )i n 1 928 . Ms 4 33 -465 . N a t iona lL ib ra ry o fI r e land . D ub l in . R enf rew , C . , 1 973 . Monumen t s , mob i l i sa t ion a nd s oc ia lc hange i nn eo l i th ic We s sex . I n : R enf rew , C . ( e d ) . E xp lana t ion o fc u l ture c hange . L ondon . -1 979 . I nve s t iga t ion s i nO rkney . R epor t s o ft h eR esearch C omm i t te o ft h eS oc ie ty o f A n t iquar ie so fL ondon , 3 8 . L ondon . -1 981 . T he Mega l i th B u i lde r s o f Wes te rn E urope . I n : E van s , J .D . , C un l if fe , B . & R enf rew , C . ( e d s ) .A n t iqu i ty o f Man . E s say si nH onour o fG lyn Dan ie l . L ondon . S he r idan ,A . ( f or thcom ing ) . Mega l i th sa nd Mega loman ia ; a na ccoun t , a nd i n te rp re ta t ion , 2 54

o ft h e d eve lopmen t o fp a s sage t omb s i nI r e land . U l s ter J ourna l o fA r chaeo logy ( f o r thcom ing ) . T imoney , M . , 1 984 . E a r then b u r ia l s i te s o n t h e C a r rowmo re p en in su la , C o . S l igo . I n : B urenhu l t , G . T he A rchaeo logy o f C a r rowmo re . T he ses a nd p aper s i n N or th -European A r chaeo logy 1 4 . U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . Webe r , A . &P ion tek , J . , 1 985 . S oc ia l C on tex t o ft h e Unchambe red Mega l i th ic L ong B a r row si nM idd le P ome ran ia ,P o land .J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 4 . Wood - Ma r t in , W .G . , 1 888 . T he R ud eS t one Monumen t s o fI r e land ( Co . S l igo a nd t h e I s land o fA ch i l l ) . D ub l in . O s te rho lm , I .a nd S . , 1 984 . T he K i t chen M idden s a l ong t h e c oa s to fB a l ly sada re B ay . I n : B u renhu l t , G . T he A rchaeo logy o f C a r rowmo re .These s a nd P aper s i n N or th -European A r chaeo logy 1 4 . S t ockho lm .

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THE EVIL EYE : A SOCIOBIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE I NTER PRETATION OF ROCK CARVINGS B y B irg i t A rrhen ius A r chaeo log ica lR e sea r ch L abo ra to ry . U n ive r s i ty o fS to ckho lm . S 106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden . I nh i sp ionee r ing s t udy o nt h ec ho ro logy o ft h eN o r th E u ropean r o ck c a rv ing s ( Ma lme r 1 981 ) M .P . Ma lme rh a sd rawn o u ra t ten t ion t ot h ed i f f e rence b e tween a n a b so lu te o ra r e la t ive i n te rp re ta t ion o f ar ock c a rv ing -mo t if . A n a b so lu te i n te rp re ta t ion i mp l ie s a n i n te rp r e ta t ion o fe ach mo t i fu s ing c ompa ra t ive s t ud ie so f mo t if s , w he r ef o re xamp le t h e e x i s tence o f as ymbo lf o r ag od i nB udd i s t ic I nd ia i nt h eb eg inn ing o fo u re r ai nt h es hape o f ap a i ro ff oo t so le s i su sed t oe xp la in t h e s ame mo t if o n r o ck c a rv ing s a round 3 000 y ea re a r l ie r . Ar e la t ive i n te rp re ta t ion i si n s tead d i rec ted t ot h ep hy s ica lp rope r t ie so ft h e r o ck c a rv ing ss u ch a st h e i rv a r iab i l i ty ,c ho ro logy a nd c h rono logy . Ma lme rc onc lud e sh i s d i scu s s ion w i th t h e r ema rk t h a t i f , h oweve r , a n a b so lu te i n te rp re ta t ion i su sed i ti s a b so lu te ly n ece s sa ry f o rt h ei n t e rp r e ta t ion t ob ea ncho red i nc on tempo r a ry s ou r ce s . C on s ider ing h i s s t rong r e se rva t ions a bou t a n a b so lu te i n te rp re ta t ion o fr ock c a rv ing mo t i f s , i tw ou ld s e em t ob e v e ry d a r ing t op ropo se an ew a b so lu te i n te rp re ta t ion . My o n ly d ef ence f o rd o ing s oi st h a tt h i s i n te rp re ta t ion w i l l n o tb e t i ed t oe i the r as pec if ic c u l tu ra l c on tex t o r af i xed p e r iod . O n t h e c on t ra ry Ih ave t r ied t oi n te rp re t t h e r ock c a rv ing s a sh uman e xp re s s ion si n as o c iob io log ica l s oc ie ty . T ha t man i sp ar to f aw ide r s o c iob io log ica l s o c ie ty w i th c ommon l aw si s av i ew w h ich r e cen t ly h a sb een a dvoca ted b y b io log i s t s ( c f H ubend ick 1 985 , 1 09 -135 a nd Wi l son 1 980 , 2 71 f ) . Wi th t h is a s sump t ion a s my s t a r t ing p o in t Iw i l l t r y t of i nd a n i n te rp re ta t ion f o ro ne o ft h e mo s t c ommon a nd g ene ra l ly s p r ead mo t i f si nr o ck c a rv ing -a r t ,i . e .t h ec upma rk . T he c upma rk i s amo t if w h ich c an b e c ha rac te r ized w i thou t u s ing many t ypo log ica l p rope r t ie s . I ne . g . " Rea l lex ikon d e rG e rman i schen A l te r tum skunde " t h ey a r ed e sc r ibed a sc i r cu la r , s ome t ime so va l ,d ep re s s ion s 2-1 0 cm i nd i ame te ra nd 0 . 5 -1 0 cm i nd ep th , o f t en f ur n i shed w i th e ccen tr ic r i ng sa nd g roove s . B e ing s i ng le t h ey c an b ec onfound w i th n a tu ra ld ep re s s ion s ( w i tche s 'c au ld ron s ) b u tc upma rk sc ha rac te r i s t ica l ly o ccu ri nl a rge r a nd s ma l le r g roups . C upma rk s a r e k nown f r om a lmo s t a l l E u ropean c oun t r ie s a nd a l l A s ia a sf a ra sI nd ia a nd N o r th a nd C en t ra l Am e r ica . T he mea su r emen t sg i ven i n" Rea l lex ikon " a g r ee w i th w ha tG lob ( 1 969 , 11 ) ,B u r enhu l t ( 1 980 , 8 9 ) , K je l l6n a nd H yen s t rand ( 1 976 , 1 5 ) h ave r e cogn ized i nD enma rk , S ou the rn S weden a nd U pp land , r e spec t ive ly . L a rge c upma rk s 1 0 cm i nd i ame t re ) a r er a re i n t h e se a r ea s ,w i th t h en o rma l s i ze a ppa r en t ly a r ound 5c mi nd i ame t r e . G lob ( 1969 ) a l so d e scr ibe s w ha t h e c a l l s " pocke t -cupma rk s " ( l omme skä l s tene ) , w h ich a r e s ma l l s t one s , a bou tt h e s i ze o f af i s t , w i th c upma rk s . H ow t h e se s t ones r e la te t ot h e l a rge b lo ck si sn o tk nown ,a sa lmo s ta l p o cke t -cupma rk sa r ef ound w i thou ta ny c on tex t . G lob a l so p rov ide s ag ood d e sc r ip t ion o fh ow t h ec upma rk sa r em ade t h rough p ound ing w i th ah a rd q ua r tz i te s t one ( G lob 1 969 , 1 09 ) . T hu st h eb o t tom o ft h em a rk i ss moo th a nd c ou ld g i ve y ou t h e i mp re s s ion t h a tt h ed ep re s s ion w a s g round . T he re a r e , h oweve r , n o c l ea r t r ace s o fg r ind ing o n t h e c upma rk s . T he p o l i shed b o t tom o ft h e d ep r es s ion s i sa v e ry r ema rkab le p rope r ty o ft h ec upma rk ,w h ich t e nd st og i ve t h eb o t tom p a r t as l igh t ly d i f f e ren tc o lou rt h an t h es u r round ing w a l l s .T he c on tou rl i ne st h a ts ome t ime sb o rde rt h e c upma rk sa sw e l la st h eg roove s( r ay s )a r eg ene ra l ly c u tw i th t h in l i ne s . 2 57

C upma rk sa r ea l toge the rt h e mo s tc ommon mo t if i nS cand inav ian r ock -ca rv ing a r t . T hey g ene ra l ly o ccu ri ns ma l le ra nd l a rge rc l u s te r sb u tt h e re i s ac e r ta in t e ndency t og roup t h e c upma rk si np a i r s , at e ndency , h oweve r ,t h a ti sn eve rc on s i s ten t ly f o l lowed . S ome t ime s ap a i r o fc upma rk s a r e p laced t oge the r l i ke ap a i r o f s pec tac le s b u t a s G lob r ema rk s ( 1969 , 11 ) , t h i s s hape p e rhaps s hou ld b eu nde r s tood a s ap i c tu re o f af oo t ( o rr a the ra s hoe -c f Ma lme r 1 981 , 5 9 ) . U sua l ly t h ec upma rk sf o rm s epa ra te f i e ld si n ar ock -ca rv ing a r ea b u tt h ey c an a l so c ove r o the rp i c tu re so rb ec ove red b yl a te re ng rav ing s . I ns ome r a re c a se st h ey a r ei n c luded i n o the r p i c to ra l s c ene s ; h e re t h e r a re o cca s ion s w hen ac upma rk s eem s t oi nd ica te t h e f ema le s ex ( c fB u renhu l t 1 980 , 8 9 a nd G lob 1 969 , 3 06 ) h ave w on much a t ten t ion . I n t h e se f ew c a se si tc an h oweve rb e d oub ted i ft h ed ep re ss ion i sa no rd ina ry c upma rk ( c f G lob 1 969 , 3 06 , w ho p o in t so u tt h e i ri r regu la rs hape ) . T he d a t ing s o ft h e c upma rk s s e em ma in ly b e n eo l i th ic a nd b ronze -age p e r iod s ( G lob 1 969 , 1 28 )b u tt h e i ro ccu r rence i nt h eI r on A ge i ns e t t lemen t sa sw e l la sg rave -f ie ld s ( c f H e lgö , E xcava t ions a tH e lgö I , B i rka , H a l ls t röm 1 913 , 1 3 ) g ive s ah in t t h a tt h ey a l so c ou ld b el a te r . T he d a t ing a sw e l la st h ed i s t r ibu t ion w i l lb ef u r the rd i scu s sed a tt h ee nd o ft h i sp ape r . T he o ccu r rence o fc upma rk s i nt h e O ld Wo r ld a s w e l l a s t h e N ew a nd i na l toge the r d i f f e ren tc u l tu re si s ar e a son t os uppo se t h a tt h e i rs ymbo l ic m ean ing s hou ld b eo f av e ry g ene ra ln a tu r e . T he i n te rp re ta t ions g i ven i no lde ra r chaeo log ica ll i t e ra tu re l a ck t h e se g ene ra la spec t s .T he h ypo thes is ( f ir s t p u t f o rwa rd b y R ive t t -Ca rnac ( 1877 ) ) t ha t t h e c upma rk s m igh t c o r re spond t ot h e I nd ian L ingam -symbo l i si nt h i s r e spec t t oo s pec ia l ized ; n o r i st h e t r ans la t ion o ft h e s ymbo lt ot h e " D i sab lo t " t o ld a bou ti nt h eN o rd ic s aga s ( p ropo sed b y 0 . A lmg ren ( 1934 , 3 61) ) c onv inc ing . S ophus Mü l le r 's ( 1917 ) i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e c upma rk sa sf e r t i l i ty s ymbo l sw he re t h em a rk sr e pr e sen tf i re -d r i l l ing i so f amo re g ene ra l k ind , b u tc anno tb ec on s ide red r e levan t ,a st h ec upma rk sa r en o td r i l led b u th ewn . T of i nd amo re g ene ra li n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ec upma rk s It h ink i tw ou ld b ep o s s ib le t ol i nk t h e o rnamen t t o t ho se p henomena w h ich h uman b e ing s s ha re w i th o the r b io log ica l c r ea tu re s . H e re Ih ave i nm ind t h e e xpe r imen t sr e f e red t ob y T inbe rgen ( 1974 , r ev i sed e d i t ion )c oncer n ing t h ei mpo r tance o fe yema rk sa sp ro tec t ion f o ri n sec t s . T he se e xper imen t s d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h e c o lou r fu l r ound c oncen t r ic r i ng s t h a t o f ten a do rn t h ew ing so fe . g .b u t te rf l ie s ( c ff i g . 1 )a r en o tm e r e ly ac ap r ice o fn a tu r eb u ti ndeed s e rve a s ap ro tec t ion a ga ins tb e ing e a ten b yo the ra n ima l s .T he e yema rk si m i ta te t h ee y s o fl a rge v e r teb ra te s , t hu s f r igh ten ing a way b i rd s . T op rove t h is , as e r ie so fe xpe r imen t s w e re p e r fo rmed w he re am aggo tw a sp l aced o n al i t t le c a se ( f ig . 2 ) . O nb o th s i de so ft h e c a se t h e re w a s aw indow o fo paque g l a ss b e low w h ich as l ide w i th t h e or namen t( f ig . 3 ) w a sh idden . O n ly w hen al i t t le e l ec t r ic l i gh tw a sl i tb e low t h eo rnamen tc ou ld i tb es een . When t h i s c a se w a s p laced i n ab i rdcage t h e b i rd u sua l ly j u mped d own o n i t .A t t h e momen tw hen t h eb i rd t r i ed t op eck a tt h em aggo tt h el amp w a sl i t . T he b i rd ' sr e ac t ion t o t h i s d i sp lay w a s c a refu l ly n o ted . B efo re e ach t e s t s e r ie s w a s p er fo rmed e ach b i rd w a s a l lowed t ob ecome f am i la rw i th t h et e s tc a se ;t h er e a le xpe r imen t sd i dn o tc ommence u n t i l a f te rt h eb i rd w a sa b le t oc a tch t wo m aggo t sw i thou ta ny s i gna l . T he r e su l t s o ft h ese e xpe r imen t s w e re v e ry o bv ious . T hey c l ea r ly d emon s t ra ted t h a t o rnamen t s i nt h e s hape o fr i ng s w e re much b e t te ra tp ro tec t ing t h e maggo tf r om b e ing e a ten t h an o the r s i gns u sed i nt h e e xpe r imen t s , s uch a sc ro sses o rl i ne s ( c ff i g . 3 ) . T h i s w a sc on f i rmed b yt e s t sc a r r ied o u to nt h ree d i f f e ren ts pec ie so fb i rd s . F ur the ri ta ppea red

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t h a t an umbe ro fc oncen t r ic r i ng sh ad ab e t te re f f ec tt h an as i ng le r i ng . Mo s ta ppa ren tw a s t h a t or namen t s wh ich t h rough s hadow ing a nd o the rt r i ck sw e re made t ol ook s t i l l mo re e ye l ike h ad t h eg rea te s te f f ec ta ss i gna l st op ro tec tt h e maggo t( c fT inbe rgen 1 974 , 1 21 f ) . B u tc an i tb ec on s ide red r e levan tt oa pp ly t oh uman c u l tu r a lt r a i t s —i nt h is c a se o rnamen t s u sed i n r ockca rv ing -a r t —b ehav io ra l p roper t ies l i nked w i th b i rd s? Ir e ly h e re u pon r e sea rch i n c u r ren t s oc iob io logy . E .O . Wi lson h a s s t a ted t h is v iew c l ea r ly i n t he f o l low ing " Le t u s n ow c on s ide r man i nt h e f r ee s p i r i to fn a tu ra l h i s to ry , a st hough w e w e re z oo log i s t sf r om a no the rp lane tc omp le t ing ac a ta log o fs oc ia l s pec ie so nE a r th . I n t h i s mac ro scop ic v i ew t h eh uman i t ie sa nd s oc ia ls c iences s h r ink t os pec ia l ized b ranche s o fb io logy ; h i s to ry , b i og raphy , a nd f i c t ion a r e t h e p ro toco ls o fh uman e t ho logy ; a nd a n t ropo logy a nd s oc io logy t oge the r c ons t i tu te t h e s oc iob io logy o f as i ng le s pec ies " (W i lson 1 979 , 2 71) . O fs pec if ic i n te res ti nt h i ss i tua t ion i st h ef a c tt h a tf e a ro fe ye si sn o to n ly v a l id f o rb i rd s b u t amo re g ene ra lp rope r ty . Ac ha rac te r i s t ic e xamp le i st h ef l ee ing a n ima li nf r on to fa mo to rca rw i th i t sh ead l igh t so n .T he a n ima lb ecome sp a ra lyzed b yt h es h in ing l amp sa nd c anno tj ump a s ide . Among h uman s ,a sw e l l ,t h i sf e a ri sw e l lk nown .I nl a rge p a r t so ft h e w o r ld t h ec oncep to f" The e v i le ye " i s ak nown i d iom ( c fK unz 1 971 ( r ev . e d . ) 1 48 f ) . E ve rs i nce E gyp t ian t ime s ,a mu le t si nt h es hape o f ab anded o nyx c u ts ot h a tt h ey i m i ta te a ne ye ( c ff i g .9 )h ave b een u sed a s ap ro tec t ion a ga in s tt h ee v i le ye . B u t a l so i n r e l ig ious t e x t s t h e re a r e many r e f e rences t o t h e p owe r o f t h e e ye . T he E gyp t ian g od O s i r is , w ho w a s t h er u le ro ft h e E gyp t ian r ea lm o ft h e d ead , h ad an ame m ean ing " t he p l a ce o ft h ee ye " a nd w a sd ep ic ted w i th a ne ye l ike s i gn . T he a nc ien tG reek sh ad t h el e gend o ft h es i ng le -eyed c yc lop s ,f r igh ten ing mon s te r si nt h e s e rv ice o f Z eu s . Ody s seus a nd h i s men w e re c ap tu red b y a no the r s i ng le -eyed g i an t , P o lyphemu s , a nd d id n o t g e t f r ee u n t i l O dysseu s managed t op u t o u t h i s e ye w i th a s mou lde r ing p o le . A nd i nt h e O ld N o rd ic s aga s t h i sp owe ri sa l so w e l lk nown . A cco rd ing t ov e r se 1 50 i n H avama l , Od in h ad s uch p owe ri nh i se ye t h a th ec ou ld s t op t h ea r rows o ft h ee nem ie si n t h ea i r . Many o ft h eI c e land ic s aga st e l lo fw eapons b ecom ing b l un td ue t ot h ei n f luence o f a n e v i l e ye . I n t h e " Laxda la saga " H a l lb jö rn h ad t op u t as a ck a round h i s h ead t o p reven tt h ei nf luence o fh i se v i le ye ( c fK u l tu rh is to r i sk tl e x ikon , " de to nda ö ga t " ) . Wha t a r e t h e r e a sons f o r s uppos ing t h a t c upma rk s m igh tb e p i c tu res o fe ye s? I n l a te r t ime s t h ed ep ic t ion o fa ne ye i sc oncen t ra ted t ot h ee ye l id s ,e . g . a ne ye i sd ep ic ted a sa p o in ted o va l . I n ag roup o fc upma rk s o ne o r ap a i ro fe ys h ave c oncen t r ic r i ngs w h ich v e ry c l ea r ly a l lude t oe ye l id s ( c f f i g . 8 ) . Mo s t c upma rks , h oweve r , a r e o n ly r ound d ep re s s ions . B u tt h ed ep ic t ing o fa ne ye a s ar ound d ep re s s ion o r ag lobe s e em st ob et h e o r ig ina lw ay ,p e rhaps b ecause t h ee ye lobe w a st h e mo s ti mpo r tan tp a r ti no lde rt ime s . I r e fe r h e re t o t he n eo l i th ic f i gu r ines f r om No r ther n a nd N or thea s te rn E urope ( c f Wy szom i r ska 1 984 ) ,w he r et h ee ye sa r e mo s t ly d ep ic ted a ss ha l low d ep re s s ions ( c ff i g . 4 ) . T h is e ye type i sa l so f ound o n s cu lp tu re s f r om t h e B ronze -Age , f o r e xamp le t h e w oman f r om J avngyde ( c ff i g . 6 ) . B u t t h e re i sa l so a no the r t y pe o fB ronze -Age e ye , w he re t h ep ro t rud ing e ye lobe sa r ec l ea r ly m a rked ( c ff i g .7 -8 ) .O fs pec ia li n te re s th e re a r e t h e e ye s o n t h e s nake g ode ss f r om F ä rda l , w he re e ven t h e e yes a r e i n la id w i th as h iny me ta l . Ih ave p o in ted o u t t ha t t he c upma rks o f ten h ave a s h iny b o t tom a nd t he r e semb lance t o t h e e ye o f s ome B ronze A ge -scu lp tu res ( a l though t h e c upma rk s a r e d ep res s ion s )i ss t r ik ing .

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An i n te res t ing d e ta i l i nt h i s ma t te r i st h a t e ye s s e em n o t t ob e ma rked o n t h e h uman f i gu re so nr ock c a rv ing s . S ome t ime s ,h oweve r ,y ou c an f i nd e yema rk so na n ima lf i gu re s ( c f Ma lme r 1 981 ,t y pe B l Ia2 a nd Bl i c2 ) . I tmay b et h a tt h i sl i t t le d e ta i lg i ve u s ah i n tt h a t t h e c upma rk s w e re n o t t h e e yes o f h uman b e ing s i n g ene ra l , b u t e yes w i th s pec ia l p rope r t ie s . T h i sl e ad su sd i rec t ly t ot h ed i scu s s ion o fa ga ins tw hom a nd f o rw ha tp u rpo se t h ec upma rk sw e re c u t . D u r ing t h ee a r l ie rp ar to ft h en i ne teen th c en tu re ,r ock c a rv ing s w e re ma in ly i n te rp re ted a sh i s to r ica ld ocumen t s s how ing b a t t le s e t c ( c fS jöbo rg 1 830 , Ho lmbe rg ,A .E . 1 842 -45 a nd Mon te l ius 1 874 ) a nd o n ly c upma rk s ,f e e ta nd c i r c le sw e re t hough tt oh ave as ymbo l ic mean ing . Wo r sae s e em st ob e t h ef i r s t s cho la rw ho d ev i sed t ha t t he r ock c a rv ing s may b e o f r e l ig ious i mpo r tance . 0 . A lmg ren p ur sued t h is i n te rp re ta t ion a nd t r ied t oi d en t ify v a r ious r e l ig ious r i te s o n t h e c a rv ing s ( c fA lmg ren 1 934 a nd e a r l ie r wo rk q uo ted t h e re in ) . A nd t h i s l i ne o fr ock c arv ing s t ud ies h a s w on r e cogn i t ion i nt h ec ompa ra t ive s t ud ie so fr el ig ion s( c fH u l tk ran tz 1 973 ,3 1) . A s n o ted i n t h e i n t roduc t ion t o t h is p ape r , Ma lme r b rough t a rgumen t s a ga ins t t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie so fa b so lu te i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h er el ig iou sc oncep t si nt h er ock c a rv ing mo t if s . H e a l so d rew a t ten t ion t o t h e p o ss ib le r e la t ions b e tween t h e r ock c arv ing s a nd t h e e conom ic s ys tem i n S cand inav ia , p o in t ing o u t t h e o bv ious e xpos i t ion o f ma t te r s c onnec ted t ow ea l th a mong t h er ock c a rv ing -mo t if su sed i nS cand inav ia . A no the rl i ne i nr ock c a rv ing s t ud ie sw h ich h a s g a ined i mpo r tance i nr e cen ty ea r si st h e d i scu ss ion o ft h e f unc t ion o fr ock c arv ing s a st e r r i to r ia l ma rke r s . T h i s d i scu s s ion w a s s t a r ted b y Ake Hyen s t rand ( K je l l6n o ch H yen s t rand 1 977 , 2 7 f ) , w ho f r om e a s te rn U pp land d e sc r ibe sa r ea sw i th at y p ica lB ronze A ge s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re ( f i rec racked s t one h eaps ) whe re t h e s e t t lemen ts a r e i n te r spe r sed w i th p a tches w i th r ock c arv ing s . H yen s t rand h a s a l so p roposed t h a t t h e r ock c a rv ing s i nt h e s hape o f af oo t s hou ld b e i n te rp re ted a s ak ind o ft e r r i tor ia l ma rke r s . I n t h i s p o in t , a l though a ppa ren t ly w i thou t k now ledge o fe ach o the r , h er e ce ives s uppo r tf r om r e sea rch o nh uman t e r r i to r ia l i ty b y T o r s ten Ma lmbe rg ( c f Ma lmbe rg 1 980 a nd 1 983 ) ,w ho c l a im st h a tt h ep r in to ft h en aked f oo ti so ne o ft h e mo s to r ig ina la nd mo s tc er ta in s i gn so fh uman p recedence a nd t h e refo re t h i s s i gn o n r ock c a rv ing s s hou ld b e at e r r i tor ia l m a rke r ( Ma lmbe rg 1 983 , 8 8 ) . I n t h e s ame p a s sage h ea l so d i scu ss ar ock c a rv ing f r om H ede i nB ohu s län w he re t wo m en o n b o th s i des o f al i ne w i th c upma rk st h rea ten e ach o the rw i th e r ec ted a xe s . T h i s s c ene h a s b een i n terpre ted a s ab ounda ry -f igh t , a n i n te rpre ta t ion wh ich Ma lmbe rg s t rong ly empha s ize s . J a r l No rdb ladh ( 1981 ) h a sp u r sued t h e se s t ud ie s f u r the ri nt h eK v i l le a r ea i nB ohu s län . H e h a s h e re f ound t h a t t h er ock c arv ings h ave a n f a i r ly e ven s p read w i th in t h e Kv i l le a r ea , wh i th 2 9% s i tua ted w i th in 2 00 m o f e ach o the r . H e s umma r izes h i s r e su l ts a s f o l lows : " The Kv i l le p e t rog lyphs s how g rea t u n i ty , b o th w i th r ega rd t o p os i t ion d i st r ibu t ion a nd c omb ina t ion o fg lyph s .T he p o s i t ion ,w i th af ew e xcep t ion s ,i st h ew a rm e a s t s ou th a nd w es t s l opes o f r anges o f h i l ls a nd , i n b road v a l leys , l ow r ocky i mped imen t s . T h is i s ap o s i t ion w h ich d oes n o ti n te r f e re w i th p roduc t ion , b u tw h ich a t t h es ame t ime s e em st ob e ac en t ra lo ne ,w he re p roduc t ion t ook p l ace ( w i th t h ee xcep t ion o ff i sh ing a nd s ea t r an spo r t ) . T he p o s i t ion i nd ica te s t h a tt h e re w a s g ene ra l a cce ss , a nd t h a t , u nde rt h e t o pog raph ica l c ond i t ions o ft h e t ime , t h e p e t rog lyphs c ons t i tu ted f i xed p o in t si nt h el a nd scape ,m a rked o u ta nd o f ten v i s ib le f r om a f a r ." Ib e l ieve t ha t N o rdb ladh h a s h e re i nd ica ted s o me v ery i mpor tan t t r a i t s o f t h e r ock c a rv ing s ,n ame ly t h ed emand t h a tt h ey b ea cce s s ib le a nd i n ac en t ra ls e t t lemen ta r ea .T h i s g i ve ac l ea ri nd ica t ion t h a t t h e message g iven o n t h e r ock c a rv ing s i s mean t f o ro the r h uman b e ing s . T he re i sh e re ac l ea rd i f f e rence b e tween t h ep i c tu re s f ound o nt h e s t one s l ab si ng rave s ( e .g . t h eK iv ik a nd S agaho lm g rave s )w h ich h ave b een h idden f r om o the r p eop le s i nce t h eb ur ia l .I n s tead t h er o ck c a rv ing f i e ld ss e em t oi n v i te v i s i to r sa pp roach ing t h e s e t t lemen ta r ea s . A nd t h e a gg lome ra t ion o fr ock c a rv ing si nt h e s e t t lemen td i s t r ic t s 2 60

s e em st ou nde r l ine t h ep u rpo se t ob ee ncoun te red b ye ve ry v i s i to r . T h i s may a l so b et h e e xp lana t ion f o rt h e i r u neven d i s t r ibu t ion ; e . g . t h ey a r e p l aced o n r ock s whe re v i s i to r s may b e e xpec ted t op a s s ; t h a t i s , n o t a l ong o ne b ig r oad b u t a l ong a l l t h e s ma l l p a th s a r ound t h ei nne rz one o ft h es e t t lemen ta r ea . A nd t h ev i s i to r s , Ib e l ieve , mus th ave b een f a i r ly n ume rou s , b o th f r om t h ev i c in i ty a nd f r om f a r a way . I n t h e B ronze -Age , t h e e conomy s e em s t oh ave b een b a sed o n b a r te r , e i the ri nt h e s hape o fg i f te xchange o rc ommod i t ie se xchange ( c fT .B .L a r s son 1 986 , 1 8 fa nd t h ed i scus s ion o ft h e se p rob lem si n c i ted t h e re in ) . I nS cand inav ia t h eb ronze h ad t o b eb rough tf r om f a ra way .B a r te r mean st h a tp eop le f r om v a r iou sa r ea s mu s th ave h ad t o m ee tt oe xchange t h e i rc ommod i t ie s . Ii mag ine t h a tt h er ock c a rv ing sw e re a ni n te rg ra ted p a r to ft h is e xchange , t h a ti s ,t h ey r ep re sen t ap a r to ft h ei n te l lec tua l d i a logue t h a t mu s t p recede a ny k ind o fb a r te r( c fS ah l ins 1 972 , 1 85 f w he re t h ec omp l ica ted s oc io logy o f p r im i t ive e xchange i sd escr ibed ) . T he r ock c a rv ing p i c tu re s t h a t mee t t h ev i s i to r s w i l l g i ve t h em i mpres s ions o ft h e w ea l th o ft h ep eop le t h ey a r e g o ing t od ea l w i th b u t a l so a nnounce w ha tk ind o fc ommod i t ie sa r e mo s th i gh ly a pp rec ia ted .T he r epe t i t ion o f mo t if s w h ich i s av e ry c ha rac te r i s t ic t r a i to nr ock c a rv ing sc ou ld p e rhap sb ec ompa red w i th w ha t i ss e en a t ama rked d i sp lay w he re t h er epe t i t ion i ni t se lf u nde r l ine st h e me s sage a nd a l so i st hough t t oi mpre ss . A s S ah l in s h a s c l ea r ly p o in ted o u t t h e t e ndency t oe sca la te i n p r im i t ive e xchange s y s tem si s ab u i l t in f a c to ri nt h es y s tem i t se lf ( c fS ah l in s 1 972 ,3 03 ) . I nt h i s e sca la t ion t h e re i sa l so a sp o in ted o u t b y S ah l ins ( Sah l in s 1 972 , 3 02 ) ar i sk o f v io lence . H e re Ib e l ieve t h a tt h ec upma rk sh ave t h e i r ma in f unc t ion a s aw a rn ing t ot h e i n t rude rt h a tt h ei n hab i tan t sa r ep ro tec ted . A nd t h i sw a rn ing i sg i ven w i th as i gn w h ich i s o fs uch ag ene ra l s oc iob io log ica lk ind t h a ti ts hou ld n o tb ep o s s ib le t om i sunde r s tand i f y ou l i ve c l o se t on a tu re . T hu st h er ock c a rv ing sc ou ld g i ve av i s i to r aw ho le r ange o fi n fo rma t ion w h ich c ou ld b e j u s t a sc l ea ra si fi tw e re s poken o rw r i t ten . I ndeed t h er ock c a rv ing s h ave a dvan tage s c ompa red w i th aw r i t ten o rs poken m e s sage b ecau se t h ey a r e n o tb ound t oo ne c e r ta in l a nguage . T he o ccu r rence o fr ock c a rv ing si nt r an s i t ion a r ea s s uch a se . g . t h eA lps may b ed ue t ot h i sp roper ty .I ti sq u i te c l ea rt h a ta ny v i s i to r wou ld b ea wa re t h a th ei sc l o se t o t h e s e t t lemen t a r ea when h e i sc onf ron ted w i th t h e r ock c a rv ing s . B u t h e re , t oo , t h e re s e em s t ob e ak ind o fd e l ibe ra te s e lec t ion a mong t h e r ock c a rv ing mo t if s w he re t h e c upma rk s s eem t oo ccu r i n aw ide rr ange t h an o the r mo t if s ( c fN o rdb ladh 1 981 , 4 4 ) . Maybe " The e v i l e ye " , p rec ise ly b ecause o fi t s g ene ra l s oc iob io log ica l mean ing , w a s t h ough tt oh ave t h es t ronge s tp owe ri np reven t ing i n t rude r sf r om f o r c ing t h e i rw ay . Ih ave h e re u nde r l ined t h ee conom ic f unc t ion o ft h er ock c a rv ing sa nd t r ied t os how t h a t t h e i rm e s sage w a so f ag ene ra ln a tu re a nd m ean tt ob eu nde r s tood b yo the rh uman b e ing s i ng ene ra l ,e . g . n o to n ly p eop le b e long ing t oo ne k in sh ip . T h is d oe sn o tm ean t h a tt h e se p i c tu res h ave n or e l ig ious c on tex t . I np r im i t ive s oc ie t ie sr e l ig ion i sc l o se ly i n teg ra ted i n d a i ly l i f e ( c fH u l tk ran tz 1 973 , 1 29 ) a nd t h e refo r et h e re a l so c ou ld b er e l ig ious m ean ing s a sw e l la ss ymbo l sa mong t h ep i c tu re s . Ib e l ieve ,h oweve r ,t h a tw en ow h ave t or ev ise t h er a the rs t ra igh t -fo rwa rd h ypo the s i st h a t t h er ock c a rv ing sa r e ma in ly r e l ig ious d ocumen t s .T he i rm e s sage s e em st ob e much mo re c omp lex ,g i v ing i n fo rma t ion o nw ea l th a sw e l la so nt h es oc ia l ,c u l tu ra la nd t e chno log ica l s t a tus o ft h ed eve loped B ronze A ge s oc ie ty w eh ave l e a rned t ok now i nr e cen tt ime ( c f L a r sson 1 986 , Wig ren 1 987 ) .

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F ig . 1 .B u t te rf ly w i th e yema rk s . A f te rT inbe rgen 1 974 .

+ +•

c ) . F ig .2 .T he b i rd a nd t h ec a se w i th am aggo tb e tween e yema rk s . A f te rT inbe rgen 1 974 .

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F ig .3 .T he d i f f e ren te yema rk s u sed i nt h et e s t . A f te rT inbe rgen 1 974 .

F ig . 4 . Human h ead w i th t h e e yes ma rked a s s em i -round c av i t ies . N eo l i th ic t ime . K o lmhaa ra , S uom i . A f te r Wy szom i r ska 1 984 .

F ig . 5 .B ronze Age f i gu re f r om Home , D enma rk .

F ig . 7 .B ronze A ge f i gu re f r om F ä rda l , D enma rk .

F ig . 6 .B ronze A ge f i gu re f r om J avngyde , D enma rk .

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F ig . 8 . C up ma rks i n t h e s hape o f e ye s . U pp land , Sweden . A f ter K je l l6n & Hyen s t rand 1 977 .

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F ig . 9 .S o c a l led " ev i l e yes " , mo s t ly c u t f r om b anded a ga te . F rom d i f fe ren t p lace s . A f te r Kunz 1 971 .

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R eferences A lmg ren , 0 . , 1 934 . N ord i sche F e l sze ichnungen a l s r e l ig iö se U rkunden . F rankfur t am Ma in . B u renhu l t ,G . , 1 980 . G ö ta land sh ä l l r i s tn ingar , d e lI .S tockho lm . E xcava t ion sa tH e lgö I ,c fH o lmqv i s t ,W . G lob , P .V . , 1 969 . H e l ler i s tn inger iDanmark . J ysk a r keo log i sk s e lskab s sh if te r , B ind V I I . Oden se . H a l l s t röm ,G . , 1 913 .B irka I .H ja lmar S to lpes g raf und er sökn ingar ,f ör s ta h äf te t . S tock h o lm . Ho lmbe rg ,A .E . , 1 848 . S kand inav ien sh ä l l r i s tn ingar . S tockho lm . Ho lmqv i s t ,W . , 1 964 .E xcava t ions a tH e lgö I . KVHAA . S tockho lm . Hubend ick , B . , 1 985 . Männ i skoeko log i . G id lund s . Ma lmö . Hu l tk ran tz , A . , 1 973 . Me tod vägar mom d en j ämf örande r e l igon sf or skn ingen . E sse l te . S tockho lm . K je l l6n ,E . /Hyen s t rand ,A . , 1 976 . U pp land sh ä l l r i s tn ingar . KVHAA . S tockho lm . K je l l6n , E . /Hyens t rand , A . , 1 977 . Hä l l r i s tn ingar o ch b ron sä lder s samhä l le is yd vä s t ra U pp land . U pp land sf o rnm inne sfö ren ing st i d sk r if t4 9 . U ppsa la K u l turh i s tor i sk tl e x ikon f ör n ord i sk m ed e l t id .A l lhem . Ma lmö . Kunz , C .F . , 1 971 ( r ev i sed e d . ) . T he c ur iou s l o re o fp rec iou s s t ones . Dove r p ub l . inc . N ew Yo rk . L a r sson , T .B . , 1 986 . T he b ron ze a ge m e ta lwork i ns ou thern S weden . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t6 . Umeä . Ma lmbe rg ,T . , 1 980 . Human t e r r i tor ia l i ty . Mou ton T he H ague . P a r i s ,N ew Y o rk . Ma lmbe rg ,T . , 1 983 .R äkna m ed r ev ir . L ibe r . S tockho lm . Ma lme r , M .P . , 1 981 . AC horo log ica lS tudy o fN or th E uropean R ock A r t . A n t ikva r i ska s e r ien 3 2 . KVHAA . S tockho lm . Mon te l iu s , 0 . , 1 874 . B ohus länd ska h ä l l r is tn inga r . G ö teborgs o ch B ohu s läns f orn m inne sf ören ings t i d sk r if t , b and I . Mü l le r , S . , 1 917 . S kaa lfo rmede f o rdybn inga r , h e i l ige t e gn f o r i l den . Ä rboger f or n ord i sk O ldkynd ighed o gH i s tor ie . K öpenhamn . No rdb ladh ,J . , 1 981 . G lyf er o ch r um .K r ing h ä l lr i s tn ingar iK v i l le . Gö tebo rg . R ea l lex ikon d er G erman i schen A l ter tum skunde . Wa l te rd eG ruy te r ,B e r l in . N ew Yo rk . R ive t t -Ca rnac , H . , 1 877 . R ough n o te s o n s ome a nc ien t s cu lp tu r ings o n r ock s i n K amaon .J ourna lo ft h eA s ia t ic s oc ie ty o fB enga l .P ar tI ,v o l4 6 . C a lcu t ta . S ah l ins ,M . , 1 972 .S tone a ge e conom ic s . T av i s tock P ub l ica t ion s . L ondon . S jöbo rg , N .H . , 1 830 . S am l ingar f ör N orden sf ornä l skare .I I . S tockho lm . T inbe rgen , N . , 1 974 ( r ev i sed e d . ) .N yf iken in a turen . A ldus . B onn ie r s . S tockho lm . Wig ren , S . , 1 987 .S örm länd sk b ron sä lder sbygd .E ns t ud ie a v t i d iga c en t rumb i ldn ingar d a terade m ed t e rmo lum ine scen s . T he se sa nd P ape r si nN or th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy n r 1 6 , S tockho lm . Wi l son , E .O . , 1 980 . S oc iob io logy . B e loknap . H a rva rd C amb r idge . Ma s sachuse t t s . Wyszom i r ska , B . , 1 984 . F igurp las t ik o ch g raysk ick h os N ord - o ch N ordö s t europas n eo l i t i ska f ängs tku l tu rer .A c ta A rchaeo log ica L unden s ia .L und .

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CO MPLEX I DEAS , CO MPLEX ARTIFACTS , CO MPLEX METHODS , CO MPLEX CONCEPTS B y E l isabe th H erner a nd S t ig We l inder I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . K ra f t s to rg 1 .S -223 5 0 L und , Sweden . ( EH ) . Un ive r s i te te t so ld sak sam l ing . F rede r ik sg t . 2 , N -0164 O s lo 1 , No rway . ( SW ) . J ag v e t , a t t i ngen t ing k an f öre läggas D ig , s om ä r v ärd ig t D in v i she t , Du s om h ar g enomvandra t d en v ärd s l iga v i sdomens f ä l t o ch n u m ed ä n s törre ä ra s t ig i tu pp t i l ls t ud ie ta vd en g udom l iga v i she t en . ( Adam t i l lL iemar ,v i dö ver lämnand e ta vG e s ta H ammabu rgen s i sE cc l e s iae P on t i f icum ) Abs tract T he c oncep to f a r chaeo log ica l t ype s i sd i scu s sed . I ti sa rgued t h a t t h e c oncep to fp o ly the t ic t ype s may b e u sed t o d e sc r ib et h ec omp lex i ty o fh uman c r ea t ive a b i l i ty .T h i sc onc ep ti mp l ie st h eu se o f mu l t iva r ia te s t a t i s t ica lm e thod s . / c a se s t udy o fS cand ina v ian E a r ly B ronze A ge s p i ra ld eco ra t ion i sp r e sen ted .

T he s t udy o fa r t ifac t s a nd o the ri t em so f ma te r ia lc u l tu re i sa tt h ec o re o fa r chaeo logy . A r chaeo logy d e scr ibe sa nd a na ly ses a r t ifac t si no rde rt ou nde r s tand i n te rac t ion b e tween a r t ifac t s a nd h uman s , p eop le a nd ma te r ia l c u l ture , b e t h i s i n ah i s to r ica l o rp reh i s to r ic c on tex t . T h is i st y po logy . T he l a te s t i s sue i nt h e f i e ld i no u rl i b ra r ie s i s Wha l lon e ta l . 1 982 , wh i le t h e c l as s ic w i th in S cand inav ian a r chaeo logy i s Ma t s P . Ma lme r 's J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien . T ype s a r e u sed t oc oncep tua l ise a nd g ene ra l i se h uman t h ink ing a nd h uman b ehav iou r . A cco rd ing t o Ma lme r , t y pe s a r e g roups o fa r t ifa c t s w h ich h ave e s sen t ia l a t t r ibu tes i n c ommon , t h e mo re t h e b e t te r . T he t y pe s c o r re spond t os pec if ic , h i s to r ica l s i tua t ions i n w h ich h umans h ave a c ted i nt h es ame w ay . P eop le u se s im i la ra r t if ac t si ns im i la rw ay si n s im i la r s i tua t ion s f o rg i ven p sycho log ica l , t r ad i t iona l , r e l ig iou s , e conom ic , o rp o l i t ica l r e a sons .T h is make st h ea r chaeo log ica ls t udy o fh uman sp o s s ib le ( Ma lme r 1 962 : 4 8 -57 ) . Wha t i fh umans a r e l ooked a tt h e o the r w ay r ound , i . e . a s i nd iv idua ls w i th c r ea t ive a b i l i ty , r i ch i nv a r ia t ion a nd n uance s? H umans d o n o tc ons t i tu te u n ifo rm g roup s b u t a c omp lex t a ng le o fd i ss im i la r i t ie s . Wha tw i l lt h en h appen t oa r chaeo logy? L e tu sh ave a l ook a tS cand inav ian E a r ly B ronze A ge a r t if ac t s . D u r ing p e r iod s 1 3 o ft h eB ronze A ge s p i ra l s a nd o the rl i ne s w e re c ha sed w i th at r ace r a nd av a r i ty o fm ark sw e re h amme red w i th ap unch i nt h es u r f ace so fc a s tb ronze a r t if ac t s ( F ig . 1 ) . S ome t imes t h ep i eces r ep resen tt h er e su l to fc r a f t sman sh ip o f ah igh q ua l i ty , s ome t imes l e ss s k i l led w o rk o r me re r ou t ine h and icraf t . T he t e chn ique s o f s uch d eco ra t ion a r ed e scr ibed i nd e ta i li nL owe ry e t . a l . 1 972 a nd S avage e t . a l . 1 982 . T he s p i ra ld eco ra t ion w a su sed o nb o th f ema le a nd ma le o rnamen t sa nd o nd agge r s a nd w eapons . T he t i ny d e ta i l so ft h e s p i ra ls a r ei n f in i te ly v a r ied a nd r ende rt h e a r t if ac t s , a s w e l la st h ec r a f t smen , ap e r sona lc ha rac te r .

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H e re 3 4 a t t r ibu tes h ave b een s e lec ted ( Tab . 1 )t o d e scr ibe t h e s p ira l s . O u t o f t h e se a t t r ibu te s 1 6c an b eu sed t og r ade t h eq ua l i ty o ft h ec r a f t sman sh ip ( Tab . 2 ) .T he a t t r ibu te s h ave b een r e co rded f o r 2 2 a r t ifac t s r epre sen t ing v a r ious o rnamen t s a nd w eapon s , g eog raph ica l a r ea s , f i nd c on tex t s , a nd p e r iods . T hu s , a2 2 x3 4 d a ta s e t i sc omp i led ( Tab . 3 ) . T o g ene ra te p a t te rn s i n ad a ta s e t t h a t i sh a rd t os u rvey t h e a pp l ica t ion o f mu l t iva r ia te s t a t i s t ica l m e thod s i si nd ica ted . B eyond t h ee i genva lue w a l l amu l t id imen s iona lr ea l i ty ( c f . R edman 1 978 )i st u rned i n to t wod imen s iona lp lo t s ( F ig s . 3 -4 ) . A s i nd ica ted b y Ma lme r ( op . c i t . ) s eve ra l f a c to r s i nf luence t h e c raf t sman , w hen h e c on temp la tes t h e d es ign o ft h e a r t ifac t to -be . T he d a ta -reduc ing e f f ec t o fe i genva lue ma thema t ics t e chn iques , i nvo lv ing ad ep re ss ion o f d i s turbance a nd a n empha s is o n i nd ica t ive ly p a t te rned i n fo rma t ion , i s mean t t op inpo in t t h ese f a c to r s a nd m ake t h em i n te rpre tab le . T he r e co rd ing o f amu l t iva r ia te d a ta s e t f r om ma ter ia l c u l ture a nd i t s a na ly s i sb y mu l t iva r ia te m e thod ss t r ive st os imu la te amu l t id imen s iona lw o r ld . T he u se o fs p i ra ld eco ra t ion w a sq uan t i ta t ive ly , a nd i no u ro p in ion a l so q ua l i ta t ive ly , a t i t sh e igh td u r ing p e r iod 2o ft h eS cand inav ian B ronze A ge .D u r ing t h es ma l l -sca le s t a r to f p e r iod 1a s w e l l a sd u r ing t h e d e r iva t ive u se o fp e r iod 3 ,a r t if ac t s d i ss im i la r f r om t h e s t anda rd o fp e r iod 2w e re m anuf ac tu red ( F ig . 5 ) . T hu s , t h e s p i ra ld eco ra t ion c on ta in s a c h rono log ica ld imen s ion . S p i ra l d eco ra ted b ronze a r t if ac t s w e re c a s t a nd d eco ra ted i na l l o f S ou th a nd C en t ra l S cand inav ia . I n a dd i t ion t h ey w e re e xchanged a s g i f t s , p e rhaps a s p res t ige o b jec t s , r i tua l ly , o rt oge the rw i th w omen . I nC en t ra l Sweden a r t if ac t s w i th as t anda rd d i ss im i la r t ot h a to fS ou th S cand inav ia h ave b een i nu se ( F ig . 6 ) .W i th in t h el a t te ra r ea t h ea r t if ac t s i nt h ee a s ter np a r to ft h ea r ea a r ed i f f e ren tf r om t h em a in p a r to fa r t if ac t si nt h ew e s te rn p a r t o f i t . T hus , t he s p ira l d eco ra t ion c on ta ins a l so a s pa t ia l , o r s ensu Ma lme r , c ho ro log ica ld imen s ion . T he h eavy f ema le d i sp lay o rnamen ts h ave l a rge , s moo th s ur faces w e l l s u i ted f o r e xce l lence i ns p i ra l d eco ra t ion . At h i rd d imen s ion i nt h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e s p i ra l d eco ra t ion i sf o rmed b y t h e f a c t t ha t t h e se a r t if ac t s s how a s t anda rd o f manuf ac tu re d i s s im i la rt ot h a to ft h ew eapons a nd s ma l lo rnamen t s ( F ig . 7 ) . F ema le or namen t s h ave b een d epo s i ted i ng r ave s o rr i tua l ly i nh oa rd s i ns e t s o ft wo o r t h ree a r t if ac t s . I ns ome c a se s t h ese a r t if ac t s s how t h e s ame s t anda rd o f manuf ac tu re , i n o ther c ases t h ey d o n o t ( F ig . 8 ) . T h is i s t he f ou r th a nd f i na l d imens ion o f t h e manuf ac tur ing a nd u se o fa r t if ac t sw i th s p i ra ld eco ra t ion d ur ing t h e S cand inav ian E a r ly B ronze A ge t ob ep re sen ted h e re . I n t h i s a na ly s is e ach a r t if ac t h ave b een l ooked u pon a s au n ique p iece , s im i la r a nd d i s s im i la rt oa l l o the ra r t if ac t s i na cco rdance w i th i t sp o s i t ion w i th in ag eome t r ic s pace ( F ig . 4 ) . A l l a t t r ibu te s h ave b een s imu l taneou s ly i n c luded i nt h e p roce ss t oa n e x ten t s e t t led b yt h e i rr e spec t ive p o s i t ion si nr e la t ion t ot h ef i r s tt wo a xe so f ac o r re spondence a na ly s i s ( F ig . 3 ) . T he a r t if ac t sh ave n o tb een s ubd iv ided i n to c l a s se so rg roups ,a nd n oa t t r ibu te sh ave b een s e lec ted among t h e d ef ined a t t r ibu te s ( Tab . 1 )t oc i r cum scr ibe s uch g roups o rc l a s ses . T he p rocedu re c an b e d escr ibed a s amu l t id imens iona l s e r ia t ion i nvo lv ing n o t me re ly c hrono logy . Two e xamp le s may i lus t ra te t h e mechan ism s c ompr ised i nt h is k ind o f t y po logy . T he g roups D -E a t t r ibu te s ( Tab . 1 )r e f e rt ot h e g roove sf o rm ing t h e l i ne s o ft h e s p i ra l s 2 68

a nd t h er i dge s b e tween t h e g roove s ( F ig . 2 : 18 -25 ) . T hu s , t h ey a l so r e f e rt ot h ep o in to f t h et r a ce ru sed b yt h ec r a f t sman a nd t h ew ay i nw h ich h eh a su sed t h et r ace r . T he i n te rco r re la t ion o ft h ea t t r ibu te s s ugge s t st h eu se o ft wo ma in t e chn ique so fc ha s ing ( F ig . 9 ) . E i the r ap o in ted t r ace rh a sb een d eep ly h amme red i n to t h eb ronze s u r face ,o ra l e s sp o in ted t r ace rh a s b een l e ss d eep ly h amme red i n to i t .I ns ome c a se si ti si n t ima ted t h a t ap o in ted t r ace r( a t t r ibu te n o .2 0 )h a sb een w o rn d own ( a t t r ibu te n o .2 2 )a nd p e rhaps r e sha rpened ( a r t if ac tn o . 1 2 ) . H oweve r , t h ep o in t ( s ic !) i st h a tt h e a t t r ibu te s d o n o tf o rm c ongruous g roups ( Tab . 4 ) . T he t wo ma in t e chn iques a r ei nd ica ted b yt wo s e t s o fa t t r ibu te s . E ach a r t if ac td i sp lay s s ome b u t n eve r t h e t o ta l o f a t t r ibu te s f r om o ne o f t h e t wo s e t s a nd i n s ome c a ses a n a t t r ibu te f r om t h e o the r s e t i n a dd i t ion . Am ino r i ty o f a r t ifac t s d i sp lay e qua l ly many a t t r ibu te sf r om e ach o ft h es e t s . T he g roup ing o ft h e a t t r ibu tes r e f e r r ing t ot h et r ace ra nd i t s u se h a sr e su l ted n o ti nt wo d i sc re te ,h omogeneous g roups b u ti n ab i po la r i ty a mong amu l t i tude o fa l te rna t ive sf o ra c r a f t sman t oh and le at r ace r . T he a t t r ibu te s i n T ab le 2 r epre sen t o u r a t temp t a t a s sess ing t he q ua l i ty o f t h e c r a f t sman sh ip p roduced b yt h eE a r ly B ronze A ge a r t isan s . As e r ia t ion o ft h e se a t t r ibu te s w i l lc r ea te as ca le f o rg rad ing t h ea r t i fac t sf r om l ow q ua l i ty a r tt oh igh q ua l i ty a r t . T he mu l t id imen s iona l s ca l ing a l go r i thm c r ea te s af a i r ly l i nea rs ca le o fq ua l i ty , a l though t h e t wo -d imen s iona lg raph t a ke st h es hape o f ah o r se shoe ( F ig s . 1 0 -11 ) . T he a r t ifac t s may b er anked a cco rd ing t ot h e s c a le o fq ua l i ty c r ea ted b y t h e s t a t i s t ica l mode l . T ab le 5p re sen t sa ni n tu i t ive s ugge s t ion o fs uch ar ank ing . I no u rv i ew ,h oweve r , t h i si sp o in t le s s .T he i nd iv idua la r t i san 's w ay o fw o rk ing d oe sn o ts how i t se lf w el s u i ted f o ru nequ ivoca lc ompa r i son s a l ong au n i l inea rs c a le . T he make ro ft h eb e l td i sc n o . 8( Tab . 3 )w a s as c rupu lous p e r son a ccu ra te ly e xecu t ing t i ny d e ta i l s o ft h e s p i ra l s b u tl e ss c a refu lw i th t h eo ve r -a l lv i ew . B e l td i sc n o . 2o nt h e o the rh and h a sb een c ha sed b y ap e r son ,w ho h a sa ch ieved g eome t r ica l ly p e r f ec ts p i ra l s b u ts howed n oi n te re s ti nt h ec onnec t ing l i ne s ,w h ich e xh ib i ts eve ra ls i gn so fp oo rw o rk ( c f .T ab 3 ) .T he s ha f tho le a xe n o .2 1 ( F ig . 1 ,T ab . 3 )d i sp lay sg eome t r ica l ly g ood s p i ra l s b u ta l so s p i ra l sw i th i r regu la rd i s tance sb e tween t h el i ne sa nd s ome w i th s l ip -m a rk sf r om a n u ns teady h and d i rec t ing t h e t r ace r . O ne p o ss ib i l i ty i st h a t t wo p e r sons h ave b een e ngaged i nt h e mak ing o ft h ed eco ra t ion o ft h ea xe . T he g roup ing o f t he a r t ifac t s a ccord ing t o t he r egu la r i ty a nd p rec is ion i n t h e c r a f t sman sh ip e xpo sed i nt h e s p i ra ld eco ra t ion b yt h e make r sh a sn o tr e su l ted i nd i sc re te g roups o r e ven i n au n i l inea r s ca le . A ga in ag ene ra l b ipo la r i ty i ss ugge s ted a mong a mu l t i tude o fw ays f o ra na r t i san t od emon s t ra te h i s s k i l lo rl a ck o fs k i l li nd e s ign ing a nd c ha s ing s p i ra ld eco ra t ion . T hu s ,b y s e lec t ing al im i ted n umbe ro fr e la ted a t t r ibu te si th a sb een p o ss ib le t oe n l igh ten t wo o ft h ed imens ion se n tang led i nt h ec omp lex , mu l t id imens iona l g roup ing o fF igu re s 3 -4 . T he se t wo d imens ions h ave r evea led t h em se lves n o t a s l i nea r s ca les o r d i sc re te g roup sb u tr a the ra sn e t so fv a r ia t ion e ach w i th ag i ven f r ame . O u ra r gumen ti st h a tt h i si s t h ew ay h uman st h ink a nd b ehave . T he w ay o fg roup ing a r t ifac t s e xemp l if ied h e re c onfo rms t ot h e c oncep to fp o ly the t ic g roup ing d e scr ibed a nd a dvoca ted b y C la rke 1 968 : 3 5 -38 ( s ee a l so Mobe rg 1 969 : 1 05 -106 ) . We h ave n o ta imed a td ef in ing t y pe so fs p i ra ld eco ra t ion o rt y pe so fd eco ra t ion t e chn ique s . P o ly the t ic t y pe sc ou ld b ed ef ined f r om T ab le s4 -5 . 2 69

T od ef ine t ype so fa r t if ac t sw i th in a r chaeo logy i se qu iva len tt od ef in ing t y pe so fh uman s , a nd t h e s e lec t ion o f at ype o ft y po logy i se qua l t ot h e s e lec t ion o f aw ay o fc once iv ing h uman s . Mono the t ic g roup ing s t re s se ss im i la r i ty w i th in c a tego r ie so fh uman s . P o ly the t ic g roup ing s t re s se sv a r ia t ion a nd n uance sa mong p eop le . Ma t s P . Ma lme rh a s l a id as ound c oncep tua l f ounda t ion f o r s c ien t if ic w o rk a l ong t h e f o rme r l i ne . T he l a t te rl i ne i sa n e xc i t ing c ha l lenge a l ong w h ich t oc on t inue h i s w o rk w i th in S cand inav ian a r chaeo logy .

T ab . 1 . D ef in i t ions o f a t tr ibu te s . A .

T he f ul s p i ra l 1 . C i r cu la r( F ig . 2 : 1) 2 . E l l ip t ica l , s t ra igh to r ien ta t ion ( F ig .2 : 2 ) 3 . E l l ip t ica l ,o bl ique o r ien ta t ion

B .

T he l i ne so ft h es p i ra l s 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .

C .

T he c en te ro ft h es p i ra l s 1 0 . 1 . 1 2 . 1 3 . 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6 . 1 7 .

D .

T he l e f te nd p o in t sa t 6o ' c lock ( F ig .2 : 10 ) A sa bove , 1 2o 'c lock A sa bove , 9o 'c lock A sa bove , 3o 'c lock A sa bove , 4 -5 o 'c lock A sa bove , 1 0 -11 o 'c lock A sa bove , 7 -8 o 'c lock A sa bove , 2o 'c lock

T he p ro f i le o ft h eg roove s 1 8 . 1 9 . 2 0 . 2 1 . 2 2 . 2 3 .

E .

Un i fo rm d i s tance sb e tween t h el i ne s I r regu la rd i s tance sb e tween t h el i ne s S l ip -ma rk s D i scon t inous l i ne s T he l i ne e nd si n s ide t h es u r f ace o ft h ea r t if ac t( F ig . 2 : 8 ) T he l i ne e nd sa tt h ee dge o ft h ea r t if ac t( F ig . 2 : 9 )

U -fo rmed , d eep ( F ig . 2 : 18 ) U -fo rmed , s ha l low ( F ig . 2 : 19 ) V -formed , d eep ( F ig . 2 : 20 ) V -fo rmed , s ha l low ( F ig . 2 :21 ) R ounded V -fo rm ,d eep ( F ig . 2 :22 ) R ounded V -fo rm , s ha l low ( F ig . 2 : 23 )

T he r i dge b e tween t h eg roove s 2 4 . R ounded r i dge ( F ig . 2 : 24 ) 2 5 . S ha rp -ang led r i dge ( F ig . 2 : 25 )

2 70

T ab . 1C on t . F .

T he l i ne c onne c t ing t h es p i ra l s 2 6 . 2 7 . 2 8 . 2 9 . 3 0 . 3 1 . 3 2 .

G .

F u l ll i ne ( F ig . 2 : 26 ) D i scon t inuou sl i ne L ine w i th i r regu la rw id th o rd ep th L ine i n te r rup ted a tb o th e nd s( F ig . 2 : 29 ) L ine i n te r rup ted a to ne e nd ( F ig .2 : 30 ) L ine f o rm ing h a l f as p i ra lc o i l( F ig . 2 : 31 ) N oc onnec t ing l i ne

V a r ia t ion 3 3 . L e s st h an t wo p re sen ts t a t e sa mong g roup C 3 4 .L e s st h an t wo p r e sen ts t a te sa mong g roup D

T ab . 2 . S tandard o f c raf tsmansh ip . A t t r ibu t e si nd ica t ing h i gh -qua l i ty c r a f t sman sh ip : 1 ,4 ,1 8 ,2 0 ,2 2 ,2 5 -26 , 3 3 -34 A t t r ibu te si nd ica t ing l ow -qua l i ty c r a f t sman sh ip :

T ab .

3 . T he d ata s et .

F or d efinitions o f v ar iab les, s ee T ab .

3 ,5 7 , 1 9 ,2 1 ,2 3

1 .

1 . B e lt d isc

K NM B . 1 0278

J ut land

G rave

2

1 1 10 10 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 1 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 10

2 . B e lt d isc

K NM B . 1 3260

J ut land

G rave D 2

10 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 1 10 0 0 0 1 1

3 . B elt d isc

K NM B . 1 090

Z ealand

H oard A

2

10 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 1 10 0 0 10 1 1 1

4 . B e lt d isc

K NM B . 1 091

Z ealand

H oard A 2

10 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 10 0 0 10 0 10 0 0 0 10

5 . B e lt d isc

K NM B . 1685

Z ealand

H oard

2

1 1 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 1 10 0 0 10 0 0 10 0

6 . B e lt d isc

K NM B . 2 307

Z ealand

H oard

2

10 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 10 0 0 0 1 1

7 . B elt d isc

K NM B . 2 202

Z ealand

G rave B 2

10 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 1 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 10

8 . B elt d isc

S HM 1217

S cania

H oard C 2

0 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 1 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 1 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 0 10 0 0 0

9 . B elt d isc

S HM 1217

S cania

H oard C

2

1 0 . B e lt d isc

K NM 1 7131

B ornho lm

G rave

3

10 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 1 10 0 10 0 0 1 1

1 . C o llar

K NM B . 1 3259

J ut land

G rave D 2

0 10 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 1 10 10 0 0 10 0 10 10 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 0 10 0 10 0 0 0 1 0

. 1 2 . C o llar

K NM B . 2 200

Z ealand

G rave B 2

1 3 . C o llar

S HM 1217

S cania

H oard C 2

10 0 1 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 10 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 0 0

1 4 . C o llar

S HM 9 822 :786

S cania

G rave

2

0 1 10 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 0 1 1

1 5 . T utu lus

S HM 1 4270

U pp land

G rave

2

0 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 1 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10

1 6 . B ornho lm f ibu la

S HM 2 109:1162

S cania

G rave

3

1 10 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 1

1 7 . S pear h ead

K NM B . 7 523

Z ealand

H oard

1

1 1 10 0 0 1 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 10 0 0 10 10 0 0 10 0 0 10

1 8 . S pear h ead

S HM 9 822:773

S cania

2

1 1 1 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 10

1 9 . S haftho le a xe

K NM 2 6333

J ut land

2

1 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 0 0 0 0 1

2 0 . S haftho le a xe

S HM 2 548

S cania

2

1 1 0 0 0 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

2 1 . S haftho le a xe

S HM 2 2775

V ästmanland

H oard

2

1 1 0 1 1 1 00 1 1 00 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 00 1 00 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

2. P alstave

S HM 2 0153

U pp land

G rave

2

10 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 1 1

2 71

T ab. 4 . G roups D -E a ttributes .

1 1 5 1 6 2 2 2 1 1 9

1

1 1 1

2 3

1

1

2 4

1

1 1

1 7 5 1 8 1 7 1

1

1

1

1

1

1 1

1

1 1

2 5

5 . G roups A -B ,

1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1

1

1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

5 8 1

E -G a ttributes f rom T able 2 .

3 1 0

3 3

1

1 1 1 1

2 6

1

1 1

3 4

2 5

1

1

1 8

4

1

1

2 0

9 3 6 91

8 4 1 2 1 3 1 0 2 0 2 1

1

1 1

2 2

T ab.

2

1

1 1 1

1 4

1 1

1 1

2 6 4 1 2 2 2 1

1 1

72 0 1 9 1 6

1 1 1

1 3 1 8 1 7

1

1

11 4

5

1 1 1 1

1 1

1

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F igure 1 . S ha f tho le a xe f r om V ä s tman land ( SH M 2 2775 ) w i th S cand inav ian E a r ly B ronze A ge s p i ra ld eco ra t ion .

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F igure 3 . P lo t o f t h e v a r iab le s ( a t t r ibu te s ) a ga ins t t h e f i r s t ( ho r izon ta l , 1 4 .9% o f v a r iance ) a nd s e cond ( v e r t ica l , 1 0 .8% o fv a r iance ) a xe s o f ac o r re spondence a na ly s i s ( Da l tve i te ta l . 1 983 :2 1 -24 )o ft h ef u l ld a ta s e ti nT ab le 3 .

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F igure 4 . P lo to ft h eu n i t s ( a r t i f a c t s )c o r re spond ing t ot h ep lo to fv a r iab le s( a t t r ibu te s ) i nF igu re 3 . A • •

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F igure 1 1 . A t t r ibu te s i nd ica t ing h igh q ua l i ty ( do t s ) a nd l ow q ua l i ty ( c i rc le s ) o f c ra f t smansh ip ( s ame p lo t a s F ig . 1 0 ) . AK enda l l h o r se -shoe i ss ugges ted ( Kenda l l 1 971 :218 -227 ) .

2 79

R eferences C la rke ,D .L . , 1 968 .A na ly t ica la rchaeo logy . Me thuen ,L ondon . Da l tve i t , M . , L auvskar , 0 . , We l inder , S . & A rhus , S . , 1 983 . S TAR I V . S TAR a l go r i thm s .R appor t ser ie u t g i t ta v NAVF s EDB -sen t er f or h uman i s t i sk f or skn ing 3 2 . K enda l l , D .G . , 1 971 . S e r ia t ion f r om a bundance ma t r ices . I n : H od son , F .R . , K enda l l , D .G . &T au tu , P .( ed s . ) , Ma thema t ics i nt h ea rchaeo log ica la nd h i s tor ica ls c iences . U n ive r s i ty P re ss , E d inbu rgh ( 2 15 -252 ) . L owe ry , P .R . , S avage , R .D .A . &W i lk in s , R .L . , 1 972 . T he t e chn ique o ft h ed eco ra t ion o n ad i sc -bu t ted a xe f r om R oman ia . P roceed ings o ft h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 8 ( 165 -169 ) . Ma lme r , M .P . , 1 962 .J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien . CWK G lee rups , L und . Mobe rg , C . -A . , 1 969 .I n t roduk t ion t i l la rkeo log i .J ämf örande o ch n ord i sk f ornkun skap . N a tu ro ch K u l tu r . S tockho lm . R edman , C h .L . , 1 978 . Mu l t iva r ia te a r t if ac t a na lys is : ab a s i s f o r mu l t id imens iona l i n te rp re ta t ion . I n : R edman , C h .L . , B e rman , M .J . , C u r t in , E .V . , L angho rne , W .T . , V e r sagg i , N .M . & Wan se r , J .C . ( e d s . ) ,S oc ia la rchaeo logy .B eyond s ub s ic tence a nd d a t ing . A cadem ic P res s ,N ew Y o rk ( 1 59 -191 ) . S avage , R .D .A . , L owe ry , P .R . & S ho rer , P .H .T . , 1 982 . T he t e chn ique o f t h e d eco ra t ion o n ab e l t -p la te f r om V ogn serup E nge .P ACT 7 : 2 ( 4 59 -476 ) . Wha l lon ,R . &B rown ,J .A . ( ed s . ) , 1 982 .E s say so na rchaeo log ica lt y po logy . C en te rf o r Ame r ican A rchaeo log ica lP re s s ,E van s ton ,I l .

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Theoretical Approaches to Artefacts, Settlement and Society

Studies in honour of Mats P. Maimer

edited by Goran Burenhult, Anders Carlsson, Åke Hyenstrand and Torstein Sj�vold

Part ii

BAR International Series 366(ii) 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S366 (II), 1987: 'Theoreti cal Approaches to Artefacts, Settlement and Society' Part II

©

The Indi vi dual Authors, 1987

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388571 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388588 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544753 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346410 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544753 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS T abu la G r a tu la to r ia G ö ran B ur enhu l t ,A nd er sC a r l s son & A ke H yen s t rand : T heo r e t ica la pp roache st oa r te f a c t s ,s e t t lemen ta nd s o c ie ty :T he a r chaeo log i s t Ma t sP . Ma lme r T or s t e in S j Ovo ld : D eco ra ted s ku l l sf r om H a l l s ta t t ,A u s t r ia :T he d eve lopmen to f ar e sea r ch p ro je c t .

1 5

A rne B .J ohansen : A r te f ac t sa nd a r chaeo log i s t s

2 3

J en sP ou l sen : Why n o t a" t h i rd c r i te r ion o fc on t inu i ty "?

2 5

K la s -Gö ran S e l inge : O nt h ep r e requ i s i te sa nd n eed so fa r chaeo log ica l s ou rce c r i t ic i sm

2 7

Mä r ta S t römb e r g : F ac to r so fi mpo r tance f o ri n te rp re t ing s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s

4 3

JM . C o le s : P re serva t ion o ft h ep a s t

5 3

N oe lD .B roadben t : Ac h rono log ica la na ly s i so fl i chen g row th o nh ead s tone si nn o r the rn S weden

6 5

G u s taf T ro t z ig : T he i n t roduc t ion o fp ho tog raphy i n to S wed i sh a r chaeo logy

7 3

O t t oB l ehr : T he n eed f o re t hnog r aph ica la na log ie si nt h es t udy o fp r eh i s to r ic c a r ibou / w i ld r e indee rh un t ing : Ac a se s t udy f r om S um tangen ,N o rway

8 7

H an sB rowa l l : T he A lva s t ra p i le d wel ing :i t ss oc ia la nd e conom ic b a s i s

9 5

T homa sB a r th° l in : " Oak a nd Wi l low " :A c t ive a nd p a s s ive p e r iod sa tA lva s t ra p i le d we l l ing . Ar e su l to fd end roch rono log ica la nd wood a na tom ica li nve s t iga t ion s

1 23

E bba Du r ing : An ima lb one m a te r ia lf r om t h eA lva s t r ap i le d wel ing — Ac l o se -up o fl i f ea nd e conomy i n Sweden a bou t5 000 y ea r sa go

1 33

H an sG ö ran s son : T he c u l tu ra ll a nd scape d u r ing t h et ime o ft h eA lva s t ra p i le dwe l l ing

1 53

L a r sL a r s son : S ome a spec t so fc u l tu r a lr e la t ion sh ip a nd e co log ica lc ond i t ion sd u r ing t h el a te Me so l i th ic a nd e a r ly N eo l i th ic

1 65

C h r i s t ian L indq v i s t : A na log ie si nt h es p r ead o fN eo l i th ic a nd l a te ri n nova t ion so ve rE u rope a nd A f r ica

1 77

I nge rO s t e rho lm : S ea r ch f o rS tone A ge s e t t lemen t so nG o t land

1 99

A k eH yen s t rand : S tone A ge f r on t ie r s —a ne xamp le f r om m idd le S weden

2 09

A nd e r sC a r l s son : T h r ee S tone A ge c u l tu r e si nt h ep rov ince o fS ödennan land ,e a s te rn c en t ra l Sweden —f a c to rf i c t ion?

2 31

S t e f an B ergh : C ou r tt omb s ,p a s sage t omb sa nd s o c ia lc on t ex t si nn o r th c oun ty S l igo , I r e land

2 41

B i rg i tA r rhen iu s : T he e v i le ye : as o c iob io log ica la pp roa ch t ot h ei n te rp r e ta t ion o fr ock c a rv ing s

2 57

E l i sabe th H e rne r &S t ig W e l ind e r : C omp lex i d ea s ,c omp lex a r t if ac t s ,c omp lex m e thod s ,c omp lex c oncep t s

2 67

O la K yh lb e r g : T owa rd sa na r chaeo log ica lt h eo ry o fp ro ce s s

2 81

J a r !N ordb lad h : B i rd ,f i sh o rs omewhe r ei nb e tween? T he c a se o ft h er o ck p a in t ing so ft h e Swed i sh w e s tc oa s t

3 05

G ö ran B u r enhu l t : E thnoa r chaeo logy a s am e thod o fe s tab l i sh ing m id range t h eo ry . An ew e r ai n E u ropean a r chaeo logy —o re xo t ic n on sen se?

3 21

U l fB er t i l s son : T he r ock c a rv ing so fB ohu s län —s pa t ia lc on tex t

3 29

R onn i eJ en sen : B ronze Age s e t t lemen tp a t ter n s —ac ho ro log ica l a pp roach

3 35

G e r t Magnu s son : Man a nd e nv i ronmen to nt h eS wed i sh e a s tc oa s td u r ing t h el a te N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge

3 59

K enne th G u s ta y s son : C ha r red -s tone c a i rn so n Köka r

3 69

R icha rd B rad le y : Ac ompa ra t ive s t udy o fh oa rd ing i nt h el a te B ronze A ge a nd V ik ing e conom ie s

3 79

I nge rZ achr i s son : L a te manuf ac tu re o fc h ipped s t one t o o l si nn o r the rn F enno scand ia

3 89

M ichae lO lau s son : H ilfo r t s ,s ub s is t ence a nd e conom ic c en t ra l i sa t ion A .D . 3 00 -500 i ne a s te rn m idd le Sweden

3 99

B oP e te At h ree -decade a r chaeo log ica lp ro jec t —t h eL ovö p ro jec t

4 19

J ohan C a l lme r : I r on A ge a nd e a r ly Med ieva ls e t t lemen td eve lopm en ti ns ou the rn S cand inav ia : S ome c on tempo ra ry a nd f u tu re r e sea r ch p e r spec t ive s

4 29

P er G .P .E r ic son : E xp lo i ta t ion o fs e ab i rd si nc en t ra lS weden d u r ing l a te I r on A ge — c onc lu s ion sd rawn f r om t h eb i rd r ema in sa tB i rka

4 45

Mon ica Mod in & Da v id D a r ne l l : I nhuma t ion b u r ia l sa nd C h r i s t ian i ty i nV ik ing -Age m idd le S weden

4 55

K e i th WU kan c l e r : Am ap o ft h es e t t lemen td eve lopmen ti nt h ep rov ince o fS ödennan land , Sweden

4 59

N i l sR ing s t ed t : A r te f a c td ifu s ion —e xchange ,t r ade a nd o t he re xp lana t ion s

4 69

A nd er sB roberg & K enne th S ven s son : U rban a nd r u ra lc on sump t ion p a t te rn si ne a s te rn c en t ra l Sweden A .D . 1 000 1 700

4 79

H an sC hr i s t ians son : " He tN ieuwe L and " :T he o r ig in sa nd f u r the rd eve lopmen to fs o c ia l h i s to ry r e sea r ch i n to S p i t sb e rgen

4 89

K enne th J on s son : E a r lB i rge ra nd h i sc o inage a tL ödö se c .1 260 -6

5 01

C ar lO lo fC ed e r lund : T he E r ic N ord eva l l —A ne a r ly Swed i sh p add le s t eame r

5 17

B r i ta Mahne r : Ma t sP . Ma lme r ' sp ub l i shed w o rk s . Ab ibl iog raphy 1 948 -1987

5 43

TO WARDS AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL THEORY OF PROCESS B y O la Kyh lberg D epar tmen to fA rchaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S 106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden . 1 . A s hor t e vo lu t ionary i n troduc t ion Swed ish a r chaeo logy d id n o t d eve lop e ven ly a nd s t ra igh t f o rwa rd ly t owa rd s t h e a ppea rance o f" new a r chaeo logy "i nt h en ine teen -s ix t ie s .I fw eg ob a ck t ot h es e cond h a lf o f t he 1 9 th c en tu ry ( wh ich i n f a c t w a s ap re -da rw in is t ic p er iod w i th in No rd ic a r chaeo logy ) ,w ew il f i nd t h a tt h e re e x i s ted ac l o se c onnec t ion a nd c oope ra t ion b e tween a r chaeo logy a nd o the r s c iences . A rchaeo log is t s h ad t h e i r p ape r s p ub l ished e . g . i n g eog raph ica lj ou rna ls l i ke Ymer o re t hnog raph ica lj ou rna l s l i ke R ig . T he re w as a l so a n a tu ra ll i nk b e tween a r chaeo log i s t sa nd h i s to r ian so re t hno -g raphe r s ,a ss e en i nt h e 1 874 e t hno -a rchaeo log ica l c ong ress i n S tockho lm , w hose p o in t s o f d epar tu re f o r t he d i scu s s ion sw e re q ue s t ion sl i ke " How i st h eB ronze A ge i nS weden c ha rac te r ized? " T h is mu l t i -d isc ip l ina ry a nd h o l is t ic a t t i tude d id n o t , h oweve r , d eve lop a ny f u r the r , i n s tead ,f o rs eve ra lg ene ra t ion st h ed i sc ip l ine r eg re s sed . F ind s /ob jec t s / a r tef ac t sa nd t h e i r c h rono logy a nd t ypo logy w e re g iven p r io r i ty . P ape r s a nd a r t ic le sv e ry o f ten d ea l tw i th s i ng le f i nd s , t h e i r c l a ss if ica t ion a nd d a t ing . A rchaeo logy l e a rn t h ow t os pe l l . B u tt h i s s t age o fd eve lopmen t , ak ind o fr e ac t ion ,w a si nf a c ta l so r eac t iona ry .I nt h es p i r i to ft h e V ic to r ian e r a ,a r chaeo logy b ecame m a te r ia l i s t ic a nd f o cu sed o ns t y le . S ty le a nd t y po logy w e re e xc lus ive ly t r ea ted p r ima r i ly a sp rob lem so fc h rono logy . A s ac on sequence c hange s w e re s t ud ied i n t e rm s o f t ime a nd c h rono logy , mo re s e ldom i nt e rm s o fc u l tu re a nd s oc ie ty , s t i l l mo re s e ldom a s s pa t ia l p henomena . T h is i ndeed c ou ldn ' t h ave b een t h e e f f ec to f ap o s i t ive d a rw in is t ic i nf luence . O n t h ec on t ra ry ad a rw in i s t ic i nf luence w ou ld h ave b rough t a bou ta ni n te re s ti ns t udy ing l ong te rm s oc ia l c hanges , n o to n ly ma te r ia l c u l tu re . E ven t oday t h e w o rd " ma te r ia l " , a s u sed i n Swed i sh , c ou ld b e s a id t ob e a h ackneyed wo rd w i th in a r chaeo logy . B y t h e f i r s t wo r ld w a rt h e re h ad a ppea red ap a r t i t ion b e tween a r chaeo logy a nd r e la ted s c ience s . E thnog raphe r sa nd e t hno log i s t s ,a sw e l la sh i s to r ian s ,b ecame a dvoca te so ft h e s o c ia li mp l ica t ion so fv a r ia t ion w i th in m a te r ia lc u l tu re .T he i d ea so fs pa t ia la na ly s i sa nd t h e s t udy o fs oc ie ty w e r en o tf u l ly i n teg ra ted i na r chaeo logy u n t i la f te rt h es e cond w o r ld w a r , a s ar e su l t o f i nf luence f r om n a tura l a nd c u l tu ra l g eog raphy a nd s oc ia l a n th ropo logy . E ven t oday i t may s t i l l b e s t a ted t h a t t ot oo g rea t a n e x ten t N o rd ic a nd Swed ish a r chaeo logy i st h e o b jec t o f a nd n o t t h e s ub jec t f o r i nnova t ive i nf luences b e tween h uman i s t ic , s o c ia la nd n a tu ra ls c ience s . S t a t i s t ic s a nd c ompu te r sh ave b een i n teg ra ted i n to as c ience w h ich , g ene ra l ly s peak ing , h a s n o td eve loped f r om q ua l i ta t ive e mp ir ic i sm t o aq uan t i ta t ive a pp roach , f r om s t ad ia l p o s i t iv ism t o ap roce s s -o r ien ted c on s t ruc t ion o ft h eo r ies o rf r om mon te l ian t ypo logy t o t h r ee -d imen s iona l s e r ia t ion m e thod sf o re xp lana t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion . I ti sn o rma lt h a t i nnova t ions s p read n e i the r e ven ly n o r a te ven s peed , b u t i ts eem s r ema rkab le t h a t a r chaeo logy f o r s uch al o ng p e r iod d id n o t a s s im i la te e x te rna l i nf luence t o a ny g rea t e x ten t .T he e f f ec t so ft h ed ynam ic e vo lu t ion i nt h en a tu ra la nd s oc ia ls c ience sd ur ing t h e f i r s th a l fo ft h e2 0 th c en tu ry d id n o ta f f ec t No rd ic a r chaeo logy u n t i lt h e 1 950 s .A tt h ee nd o ft h i sp e r iod Ma t sP . Ma lme ra ppea red a sa ni nnova to r ,w i th h i sd emand sf o rc l a r i ty o f t h ough ta nd o fd ef in i t ion s ,h i s s t r iv ing f o ro b jec t iv i ty a nd n o tl e a s ta s ar ep re sen ta t ive o f b o th aq ua l i ta t ive a nd q uant i ta t ive t h eo ry c ons t ruc t ion . Ma lme rw a se v iden t ly i nf luenced 2 81

b y c u l tu ra l g eog raphy a nd a l so a n o penm inded h uman i s t , r e cep t ive t on ew i d ea s f r om r e la ted s c ience s . 2 . The c oncep ts o f q ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty O fs pec ia li mpo r tance w a s Ma lme r ' se s tab l i shmen to ft h et y po log ica lm e thod c a r ry ing h i s n ame . T he me thod a nd i t s t h eo ry c on s truc t ion o ppo sed t r ad i t iona l a r chaeo logy , w h ich g ave p r io r i ty t ot h e s t udy o ff i nd c omb ina t ion s a nd q ua l i ta t ive s ou rce c r i t ic ism . T he t r ad i t iona l i s t s s t re s st h i sk ind o fs ou r ce c r i t ic ism i n s tead o f aq uan t i ta t ive s ou rce a na ly s i s a nd c on t ro l led me thod . T h is s eems t o r e s t o n am isunde r s tand ing , o r r a the r a n u nsympa the t ic a t t i tude t owa rd s q uan t i ta t ive s o lu t ion s o fp rob lem s . I n f a c t Ma lme r 's t ypo logy , wh ich w a s b a sed o n t h e s e lec t ion a nd d ef in i t ion o f i ndependen t e l emen t s ( =va r iab le s ) s t and s v e ry c l ose t ot h e t h eo ry o f s t a t i s t ics a nd c on s t i tu te s ap re -s tage o f s t a t is t ic d a ta a na lys i s . T he q ua l i ta t ive s ou rce c r i t ic i sm b y t h e t r ad i t iona l i s t s h a s b een c on s ide red a p os tu la te f o r a na lyse s o f f i nd c omb ina t ions . A s c ru t iny o f t he f i nd c i rcum s tances i sn o t p a r t icu la r ly f r u i tfu l , h oweve r , s i nce i ti sb a sed o n t h e ( f a lse ) a s sump t ion t h a tt h ec omb ina t ion i t se lf r ep re sen t s t h ec onsump t ion p ha se , n o tp r ima r i ly t h e s amp l ing , w h ich i n f a c t i s t h e c a se . B ecau se o f i t s f i rm t h eo re t ica l b a s is t h e t y po log ica lm e thod p re sen ted b y Ma lme rh a ss hown t ob ev e ry f r u i t fu lf o ra r chaeo log ica l a na ly se s ,e spec ia l ly w i th in t h er ange o fq ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty . Q ua l i ta t ive a na lyses f ocu s o n c ha rac ter is t ic s w h ich a n swe r t h e q ues t ions " how " a nd " wha t " . T h is a t t i tude h a s l ed t o a n i n te res t f o r t h e u nusua l , t he u n ique o r t he c on sp icuou s . T he q ua l i ta t ive s choo lp ref e rs t udy ing t h eo ccu rence st ot h ef r equenc ie sa nd i tr e jec t sc onc lu s ion sd rawn " es i len t io " . T h is s choo lg i ve sp r io r i ty t ov e rba l iza t ions a nd i tr eac t s b y d oub t ing t h e c r ed ib i l i ty o ff i gu re s a nd n umbe r s ( c f . Ma lme r 1 963 , p . 1 89 ) . B u t a s Ma lme rh a sp o in ted o u t , many v e rba ld a t ing s a r e m e re ly r a the re xa c t f i gu re s i n d i sgu i se ( Ma lme r 1 968 ,p .8 1 f . ) . T he t r ad i t iona l i s t s o ft h eq ua l i ta t ive s choo lp r ima r i ly s eek ac onf i rma t ion o fs im i la r i ty b e tween o b jec t s o r a r tef ac t s . S im i la r i ty i s ad i sc re te v a r iab le . T he q uan t i ta t ive e qu iva len tt ot h i s t e rm i sc o r re la t ion , w h ich i sa c on t inuou s v a r iab le . T he q ua l i ta t ive s choo l s how s ac l ea r t e ndency t ou nde res t ima te s pace a s a n a na ly t ica lf a c to r . Map sa r eu sed p ref e rab ly a sb ackg round so rs c ene sf o rt h ep re sen ta t ion o fv a r ious a r tef ac t s , f i nd s o r s i tes . C on t ra ry t ot h i s t h e q uan t i ta t ive a nd /o rp roce ssua l v i ew l e ad st oa ni n te re s t ,n o ti nt h eu n ique ,b u to fw ha ti sd ef in i te ly much mo re d i f f icu l t t o c onf i rm a nd s pec ify , n ame ly t he " no rma l" o r t he " no rma l b ehav iour " o f a p henomenon . Am i ss ing f i nd o ro b jec t , c oun t s a sa n a b sence , n o to n ly a s " as i len t ium " . An ume r ica l r ep re sen ta t ion c on sequen t ly mus ti n c lude t h ef i gu re o rv a lue o f0 .T h is a l lows c oun t ing n o to n ly f r equenc ie s ( = f ) , b u ta l so t h ee l emen t s ( =n )o f as amp le . A nd t h is i s ac ond i t ion f o rt h ec on s truc t ion o fs e r ia t ion d i ag ram s . T he t e rm ino log ica l b o rde r b e tween t h e q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive a pproach c an b e d e sc r ibed o rd ef ined b yt h ef o l low ing t e rm s : Qua l i ta t ive t e rm ino logy

Quan t i ta t ive t e rm ino logy

f i nd s ,o b jec t s , a r tefac t s mapp ing o ff i nd se t c a b so lu te s t ad ia l q ua l i t ie s ,c ha rac te r i s t ic s s im i la r i ty

r ep re sen ta t ion ,p re sence ,o ccu rence v a r ia t ion , s p read , s c a t te r ,d i spe r s ion r e la t ive ,p ropo r t iona l p roce s sua l q uan t i t ie s ,r e la t ion sh ip c onnec t ion ,c o r re la t ion , s ynch ron i sm , r eg re s s ion e t c s e r ia t ion

t y po logy

2 82

2 . 1 . T ype , s im i lar i ty a nd c orre la t ion I nt h ei n t roduc t ion t oh i s b ook o n m e thodo log ica lp rob lem sw i th in t h eh i s to ry o fa r to f t h eI r on A ge , Ma lm e rp r e sen t st e rm i no log ica la na ly s i so fa r chaeo log i ca lt y pe s : . "One c an d i s t ingu i sh b e tween d i f f r en tk i nd so ft y pe sa c co rd ing t ot h ed e f in i t ion o ft h e t e rm s im i la r i ty . P hy s ica ls im i la r i ty l e ad st ot h ed i sce rn ing o fa r te f a c tt y pe s . O nt h eb a s i s o f s im i la r i ty b e tween d i f f e ren t f i nd c omb ina t ion s i ti sp o s s ib le t od i sce rn s t ruc tu ra l t y pe s . . . C ho ro log ica l s im i la r i ty , f i na l ly , a l low s t h e d i sce rnmen t o f l o ca l t y pes . . ." ( Ma lme r 1 963 ,p .1 5 f . ) . Ma lm e rc onc lude st h a ti ti st h ek i nd o fs im i la r i ty t h a tp r e suppo se st h et y pe . C on sequen t ly w i th in t h er e sea r ch o na r te f a c t sa l lt y pe s mu s tb eq ua l i ta t ive . Ma lme rp o in t so u tt h a tt h e t y po log ica le l emen t s s hou ld b eq ua l i ta t ive ly i ndependen to fe a ch o t he r , i ft h ey a r et ob e u sed f o r t y po log ica l a na lyses . A s i ndependen t Ma lme r e xemp l if ie s s ome t e chn ica l e l emen t s v e r su s s ome d eco ra t ive e l emen t s o fs t one a xe s , o rt h e t e chn ique o fw e ld ing v e r sus t h e or namen t o n t h e h i l t o f ai r on s wo rd ( Ma lme r 1 963 , p . 2 9 ) . Ma lme r 's e xamp le s r e f e rt ot e chn ique a nd h and ic ra f t . T hey c on sequen t ly b e long t ot h e c u l tu ra l d imen s ion o rs c a le o n ly . F rom ap roce s sua lp o in to fv i ew t h e re mu s te x i s t ac onnec t ion b e tween t h e o rnamen t o f ab ronze a xe a nd i t s a r sen ic c on ten t s - o n t h e c h rono log ica l s c a le , ac a se o f s ynch ron i sm . I ti st h e refo re o f g r ea t i mpor tance t o empha s ize t h a t t y po log ica l e l emen t s a nd t y pe s a lway s a r e i n te rmed ia r ie s o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re w i th in a t ime / space p ro ce s s . R ega rd ing t h e t e rm s im i la r i ty , t h e re c on sequen t ly mu s tb e a dded a no the r t e rm t ot h e t h ree p r e sen ted b y Ma lme r ( phy s ica l , s t ruc tu ra l a nd c ho ro log ica l s im i la r i ty ) :p ro ce s sua ls im i la r i ty . T he d i sc re te p roces sua l s im i la r i ty i sa ne qu iva len tt oc o r re la t ion , ac on t inuou sv a r iab le , w h ich v a r ie s b e tween a bso lu te n ega t ive t o a b so lu te p o s i t ive c o r re la t ion . T he t e rm c o r r e la t ion c omp r i se so t he rt e rm s ,l i k ec onnec t ion ,p rox im i ty ,a s soc ia t ion ,c o -o rd ina t ion , r eg re s s ion , c o -va r ia t ion e t c . W i th in t h ef r ame o f ap roce s sua l a na ly s i s t h e q uan t i ta t ive t e rm s im i la r i ty t h e r e fo re h a s ag r ea te xp lana to ry p owe r . S ince i ti st h ek ind o fs im i l ar i ty t h a td e f ine st h et y pe si ti sp o s s ib le t od e r ive ad e f in i t ion o ft h ep roce s sua lt y pe f r om t h e p r e sence o f ap ro ce s sua ls im i la r i ty .T he b ea r ing o ft h i st e rm i st h a t ac e r ta in p henomenon s how s ac e r ta in " behav iou r " . S uch ap ro ce ssua lt y pe m igh tb ed ef ined f r om t h es hape o f af r equency c u rve , f r om s pa t ia l s t ruc tu re s o r p a t te rn s a nd s o o n . E very p roduc t ion d i ag ram , a cco rd ing t o t h e t e rm ino logy p ropo sed b y Ma lme r ( h e re 1 963 ) , i st o b e c on s ide r ed ap roce s sua la nd r eg iona lt y pe . 2 .2 . F igures , n umber s a nd f requenc ies O ne o ft h ec h ara c te r i s t ics o fa r chaeo logy ( i nc on t ra s tt os t a t i s t ic s ) i st h eu se o ff i gu r e s , e spec ia l ly l ow n umbe r s . T he a r chaeo log ica l s ou r ce s r a re ly o rn eve ra l low o fa na ly se s b a sed o nr andom s amp l ing . O nt h ec on t ra ry much a r chaeo log ica la na ly s i sf undamen ta l ly s t r ive s a te s tab l i sh ing t h en a tu re o ft h es amp l ing a nd t h eb a ckg round f o rt h ed epo s i t ion , t h e reby b e ing a b le t oe xp la in t h e s o c ia l a nd o the rp a t te rn s b eh ind i t .A rchaeo logy i sa p r io r is e ldom a b le t oc onf i rm t h er e p re sen ta t iv i ty o f as amp le a nd t h e re fo r et e nd st of o cu s o ns i ng le f i nd so ru n ique o b jec t s . O nt h eo t he rh and n of i gu r es e em st ob et o os ma l lt ob e a c cep tab le f o ra r chaeo log ica la na ly se s . T h i sh a sb een e xp r e s sed b y Ma lme ri nh i sp ape r o nt h ed a t ing so ft h eg o ld b rac tea te s( 1 977 ,p . 10 ) : . "Kann man n un w i rk l ich a us e i ne r s o k l e inen A nzah l , w ie e s 2 0 S o l id i a us n eun H o r ten s i nd , s o lche S ch lü s se z i ehen? I c hg l aube j a ,u nd i c hb i nü be rhaup td i e Me inung , d a s s a r chäo log i sche s Ma te r ia l v o rzüg l ich s t a t i s t i sch u n te r such t w e rden k ann , w e i l e s n äm l ich z uf ä l l ig z u s tande g ekommen u nd n i ch a u sge le sen i s t . . ." ( F ig . 1 ) . 2 83

F rom ah i s to r ica lp o in to fv i ew t h i sr ep re sen t s as pec if i co p in ion a bou tt h ec onfo rm i ty o f t h e s amp l ing p roce sses a nd t h e r ep resen ta t iv i ty o f t h e " co rpus " o f f i nd s . T h is i s c onf i rmed b y Ma lme r 's s u rvey o ft h e g o ld b rac tea te sf r om t h ey ea r s 1 850 , 1 875 , 1 900 , 1 925 a nd 1 950 i n Swed ish mu seum s ( 1963 , F ig . 1 2 ) . Ma lme ra nswe r s t h e q ues t ion o f w he the r2 6o r8 7 b rac tea te sa r es uppo sed t ob e " s uff i c ien t ly many " ,b yp o in t ing o u tt h a t t h e4 5b rac tea te sk nown i nA .D . 1 850 i np r inc ip le s how t h es ame d i s t r ibu t ion o ft ype sa s d ot h e 1 90 b rac tea te sf r om A .D . 1 950 . Ma lme ra l so c ommen t so nt h eq uan t i ta t ive p a radox t h a tn oa r chaeo log ica la na ly s i sw i l l e ve r s a t i sfy a l l s t a t i s t ica l d emand s . O ne p o s s ib l i l i ty i st oa na lyze l a rge f i nd c a tego r ie s o n ly , s uch a sf o re xamp le b u rn tb ones f r om t h eB ronze A ge o rn a i l s a nd r i ve t sf r om t h e I r on Age . And t h is wou ld c e r ta in ly g ive a w rong p i c tu re o f p reh is tory . T he o the r p o s s ib i l i ty ,a cco rd ing t o Ma lme r ,w ou ld b et oi n c lude e ve ry f i nd c a tego ry i nt h ea na ly s i s a nd t od raw c onc lu s ion s f r om t h e se f i nd so nt h er e levan tt h eo re t ica lb a s i s ,w i th s uppo r t o fa l l me thod sa va i lab le ( Ma lme r 1 963 ,p .1 91) . T he q ue s t ion ing o ft h eq uan t i ta t ive r ep re sen ta t iv i ty o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia li si ni t se l f i n app ropr ia te , a st h ep rob lem i s as t a t i s t ica l o ne a nd c once rn s t h e s amp l ing . F igu re s i n g enera l mus t n o t b e c onnec ted w i th s t a t i s t ics . F igu res m igh t b e q ua l i ta t ive -v e rba l d e sc r ip t ion s o rd ef in i t ions q uan t i ta t ive ! O ne e xamp le o ft h i s i sg iven b y Ma lme ri nh i s p ape ro nt h eb a s ic c oncep t so fc h rono logy : . "On t h e o the r h and ar e la t ive -ch rono log ica l d ef in i t ion m igh t b e r a the r e xac t , f o r e xamp le t h es t a temen tt h a t ac e r ta in o b jec tc h rono log ica l ly b e long st ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h e l a te R oman P er iod . No a r chaeo log is t s h as e ve r p rac t ised a d a t ing t o r e la t ive c h rono log ica l p er iod w i thou t a tl e a s t a pp rox ima te ly k now ing t h e u nde r ly ing a b so lu te d a te . . ." ( Ma lme r 1 968 , p .8 2 ) . T he q ue s t ion o fa b so lu te d a te si sc l o se ly r e la ted t ot h a to fa b so lu te f a c t . F o ra r chaeo logy a b so lu te n umbe r s i n c lude s pec if ic p rob lem s . O ne s uch e xamp le c an b e t a ken f r om t h e f i e ld o fr e sea rch o nr ock c a rv ing s . G lob m en t ion s 1 04 s epa ra te s i te s i nD enma rk w i th p i c tu re s o the rt h an c up -ma rk s ( 1969 ,p . 1 59 ) . Wha td oe st h i si n fo rma t ion m ean? I si ta l a rge amoun t? How a r e t h ey s pa t ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted? I n f a c t w e c an ' t i n terpre t t h e i n fo rma t ion a s w e d on ' t k now t h e c i rcum s tances a nd t h e c ond i t ions , n e i the r f o r t h e o ccu r rence ,n o rf o rt h ev a r iab i l i ty o ft h ep i c tu re so rt h es i te s . C on sequen t ly i ti sl og ica lt os t a te t h a ti na r chaeo logy a ny a ccoun ti na b so lu te f i gu re si s i n f e r io rt ot h a to fr e la t ive o ne s . A r chaeo logy s e ldom o rn eve rf i nd s t h ea b so lu te t r u th i n e xp lana t ion so ri n te rp re ta t ion sa nd mu s to f ten c on s t ruc ta no pe ra t ive f r ame o fr e f e rence i n o rde rt og e ah o l i s t ic p e r spec t ive o nt h em a te r ia l , a sw e l la s ab e t te ru nde r s tand ing o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween d e ta i l s . Ma lme rh a s empha s ized t h ei mpo r tance o fr e la t ive o rp ropo r t iona lv a lues . O nt h eu se o f p e r cen tage sh eh a ss t a ted : . "Concern ing c a lcu la t ions o f p e rcen tages t here e x is t s am isunder s tand ing i n a r chaeo logy , wh ich mu s t b e s a id t ob e g ro te sque . I th a s b een s ugges ted t h a to n ly l a rge q uan t i t ies may b e t ur ned i n to p e r cen tages , a nd t ha tc a lcu la t ion s o fp e rcen tage s o n t h e b a s i s o fs ma l l n umbe r s i sa f f ec ted w i th g r ea td ange r . T h is m isconcep t ion s eem s t ob e v e ry c ommon . E ven a r chaeo log i s t sw ho o the rw i se n eve ru se as t a t i s t ica l a r gumen ta t ion c ons ide rt h em se lve se n t i t led t oc r i t ic ize s ha rp ly o re ven s cor n fu l ly t ho se w ho s how t h e a udac i ty t oc a lcu la te p e rcen tages o n t h e b a s i s o f s ma l l n umbe r s . . ." ( Ma lme r 1 963 , p . 1 90 ) .

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F rom t h ep roce s sua lp o in to fv i ew i ti sn eve r the le s sc l ea rt h a tc a lcu la t ion so fp e r cen tage s o ro t he rp ropo r t iona l v a lue s a r e i n s t rumen t s f o re xp lana t ion a nd a na lys i s , n o to n ly f o r d e scr ip t ion o fd a ta . E ve ry c a lcu la t ion o fp e r cen tage si sb a sed o n ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween t wo p opu la t ion so rs amp le s . I st h eb a se f o rt h ec a lcu la t ion r e levan tf o rt h eq ue s t ion? I si t ap a r t o f ad ocumen ta t ion , i si ta n e xp lana to ry s t ep , a n a na lys i s o r a n i n te rp re ta t ion? C a lcu la t ion so fp e r cen tage so ro t he rm ea su re so fp ropo r t ion sc an b eb a sed o ne i the rt wo e qu iva len tp opu la t ion s ,o rt wo s amp le sf r om d i f f e r en tp opu la t ion so rt wo e l emen t sf r om t h e s ame s amp le . I ti s t h e refo re i mpo r tan t t o c r i t ic ize t h e s ou rce s q ua l i ta t ive ly . C a lcu la t ions o n t he n umbe r o f 1 0 o r t h e n umbe r o f 1 0 ,000 a l low o f d i f f e ren t g ene ra l iza t ion s . T he v e rac i ty may b et h e s ame f o re ve ry s t a temen to f" 50%" ,b u th a rd ly t h e v a lue o ft h e i n forma t ion . I nm any c a se s o t he rr e la t ion sh ip s a r e mo re i mpo r tan tt o o b se rve a nd m ea su re ,f o re xamp le m ea su re so fd en s i ty ,i n ten s i ty , a nd s oo n . 3 . T he t hree -d i mens iona l a pproach . T he i nnova t ive p roce ss A r chaeo logy d id n o tu n t i lr e cen t ly a b so rb at h eo ry o fi t so wn o nt h es pa t ia la nd c u l tu ra l i mp l ica t ion so fc hange sb yt ime ,b u tn ew a r chaeo logy , o rr a the rs ome a r chaeo log i s t so f t oday e xpre ss a t h ree -d imen s iona l a nd p roce ssua l a t t i tude t o e xp lana t ions a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion s . T he f a c ti st h a tn od i s loca t ion m ay b ew i thou t ac ongruen tc h rono log ica l d i sp la cemen ta nd n oc hange i nt ime / spa ce w i thou t ad e f inab le c u l tu r e /ene rgy f a c to r( c f . K yh lbe rg 1 983b ) . A l lt h ree d imen s ion s ( t ime , s pace a nd e ne rgy / cu l tu r e ) a r ec on t inuou s v a r iab le s ,a se mpha s ized a bove . Many t ime st h i si sa no b s ta c le f o rt h ea r chaeo log i s t s . T o c ompen sa te f o ra ni n te l lec tua l s ho r tcom ing w e a r e b ound t oc l a s s i fy , g roup a nd d iv ide t h em a te r ia l ,q ua l i ta t ive ly o rq uan t i ta t ive ly . A nd t h e se p rocedu r e sa r ep e r fo rmed f o rn o t o n ly t ime , b u t e qua l ly f o r s pace a nd c u l tu re . T h i s d emand s ac l ea r l og ic o n e i the r a q ua l i ta t ive a nd /o r emp i r i c i s t ic o r aq uan t i ta t ive a nd /o rd educ t ive t h eo r e t ica lb a s i s . T he t h ree b a s ic c oncep t s o fe x i s tence ( c f . K yh lbe rg 1 983b ) t o ge the rf o rm as pace f o r e ve ry e xp lana t ion , a na ly s i s o ri n te rp r e ta t ion . T ot h e a r chaeo log i s t so ft h eV ic to r ian e r a t h ea b s t ra c t ion o ft ime w a sc on s ide red m a te r ia l i s t ic a nd l i nea r ,e xp r e s sed i nw o rd s l i ke " t ime i s money " o r " t he v a luab le t ime " e t c ( c f . F rykman & L ö fg ren 1 980 , p .2 1 f . ) . T he se e xp re s s ion s a nd o t he rt r ad i t ion s w e r e t y p ica l o ft h e u rban i s t ic s oc ie ty ' s a t t i tude t owa rd s w o rk a nd p roduc t ion , w h ich w a s b o th e x t reme ly h i gh ly v a lued . P e rhap s s pa ce w a s t h e l e a s t o f ten p rac t i sed a na ly t ica l f a c to r . E a r l ie r a r chaeo log i s t s o f ten j umped t o c onc lus ion s a bou t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef ac t s . T rade w a s t h e g ene ra l e xp lana t ion , t h e r eby p a s s ing o ve rt h ea na ly se so ft h ei n nova t ive p roce s si t se l f .T he s t ep st owa rd st h e s c ien t if ic e xp lana t ion mu s t i n c lude as t udy o ft h e p roduc t ion , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd t h e s amp l ing b efo re a r r iv ing a tt h e i n te rp re ta t ion . S ome b a s ic c oncep t s f o r s pa t ia l a nd i n nova to ry p roce s se sa r e : D i s t r ibu t ion a nd c horo logy i sp roce s sua l ly e xp la ined a s t ime / spa ce f a c to r e ne rgy f a c to r S pr ead ,s ca t t e r ,d i spe r s ion i sp ro ce s sualy e xp la ined a s t ime / ene rgy f a c to r s p a t iar f a c to r S peed i sp ro ce s sua l ly e xp la ined a s s p a t ia l / ene rgy f a c to r t ime t ado r D i s t r ibu t ion i nt h es en se o f at r ad ep roce s si sp roce s sua l ly e xp la ined a st ime x s pa ce xe ne rgy f a c to r 2 85

D is t r ibu t ion / cho ro logy c an b e e xpre ssed i n a b so lu te f i gu re s a nd t h e i r g eog raph ica l e x tens ion . S pread / sca t te r /d ispe r s ion i s n o t p oss ib le t o e va lua te q ua l i ta t ive ly a nd a b so lu te ly ,o n ly b ym eans o fs t a t i s t ics a nd f r om ah o l i s t ic p o in to fv i ew . B y s pa t ia l d iv i s ions c o r r e la ted t ot y pes a nd /o rt oc h rono log ica lp e r iod si ti sp o s s ib le t o c on s t ruc t s e r ia t ion s a nd t op e r fo rm o the rp roces sua l a na ly se s . E ve ry p lo td i ag ram w i th t wo o ft h e v a r iab le s t ime , s pace a nd /o r e ne rgy / cu l tu re , d ef ines t h e t h i rd v a r iab le a s a f unc t ion .T he refo re e ve ry s e r ia t ion d emand s ad ef in i t ion o ft h ea pp l ied d imen s ion s /axe s . T he d iag ram i nf i g . 2i s ac o l lec t ion o f 1 4C -samp le s f r om af o s s i l a g ra r ian s i te . T he o b jec t ive sf o rt h ep re sen ta t ion i st od e scr ibe t h ec h rono log ica la nd s pa t ia le xpan s ion o f t h e f a rm . B u t o n ly o ne d imens ion i sp resen ted h e re , t h e t ime a x i s . I ti st h e refo re n o t p o ss ib le t o a na ly se s pace . T he e f f ec t o f t h i s i st h a t t h e a bso lu te n umbe r o f s amp le s d i rec t ly i n f luence st h es hape o ft h ef r equency c u rve .T h i sc ou ld f a l se ly b ei n te rp re ted a sa c hange o fc u l t iva t ion i n ten s i ty . Ar ep re sen ta t ion l i ke t h i so ne d oe sn o ta l low h oweve ro f c onc lus ions a bou t t h e p roduc t ion i n tens i ty o r e xpan s ion o ft h e f a rm . I ti sp r ima ry a t e chn ica lq ue s t ion o ft h er ep re sen ta t iv i ty o ft h es amp le s . A s t age o f d eve lopmen t b e tween t ypo logy a nd s e r ia t ion i st h e s o -ca l led p roduc t ion d i ag ram p re sen ted b y Ma lme r ( h e re 1 963 , p . 1 80 ) . T he mea su r ing o fp roduc t ion i s d i scu ssed b y Ma lme ri nh i sp ape ro nt h eb a s ic c h rono log ica lc oncep t su nde rt h eh ead ing " i nd i rec t q uan t i ta t ive d a t ing " . E ve ry s i ng le r eg iona l p a r t o f Ma lme r 's p roduc t ion d i ag ram sr e p r e sen t s ar ow o r ac o lumn o f as e r ia t ion . Ma lme rc ommen t so nt h i ss i tua t ion : . "Fo r t h i s r e a son t h e s e r ia t ion d i ag ram s h ave b een c on s t ruc ted f o r s eve ra l a d jacen t r eg ion s . T oge the r t h ey w i l l g ive a n e x ten s ive c h rono log ica l a nd c ho ro log ica l g ene ra l v i ew . . ." ( Ma lme r 1 968 , p .8 9 f . ) . 3 . 1 . S er ia t ion a na lyses . ( F ig . 3 -5 , 7 ) I nt h ep re sen tp ape rs ome a pp l ica t ions o ff r equency s e r ia t ion sw i l lb et e s ted a c co rd ing t o am e thod p resen ted b y t h e a u tho r i n 1 980 . I n a cco rdance w i th t h e o b jec t ive s o f t h e p re sen tp ubl i ca t ion t h ee xamp le sh ave p ref e rab ly b een t a ken f r om Ma lme r ' sc ho ro log ica l s t udy o fS cand inav ian r o ck a r t( 1981 ) .I na dd i t ion r e f e rence ma te r ia lh a sb een t a ken f r om a1 980 s t udy , B u renhu l t ' st h e s i so nr ock c a rv ing s ( h e re f i g . 8 ) . A cco rd ing t oO ccam ' sl aw t h en umbe ro fp re sump t ion sf o rmu la ted s hou ld b em in im ized . Me thod icaly t h i si mp l ie st h a ti ti si n app rop r ia te t ou se mo re s oph i s t ica ted m e thod st h an t h es ou r ce ma te r ia la nd t h eh ypo the se sp e rm i t . T he r a the rs imp le m anua ls e r ia t ion sw h ich a r eh e re p re sen ted h ave b een s hown t ob e mo re r e l iab le t h an o ccu r rence s e r ia t ion s ,e ven t hough t h e l a t te r a r e p er fo rmed b y c ompu te r . T h is i se xp la ined b y t h e i mp l ic i t s ou rce a na ly s i s .T he m e thod i sa dap ted t ot h ea bove s t a temen tt h a tn on umbe ri st oo s ma l lt ob e i n teg ra ted i na n a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s is a nd t h a t c a lcu la t ions o fp e rcen tage s may b e p e r formed e ven o n s ma l l q uan t i t ie s , p rov ided t ha t t h ey a r e i n c luded i n aw e igh t ing p rocedu re .T he s e r ia t ion sa r eb a sed u pon t h ev a r iab le so ft ime , s pace a nd e ne rgy / cu l tu re i no rde rt oo b ta in p roce ssua li n fo rma t ion . O ft h eg rea te s ti mpor tance f o rt h eo u t come i s t h e c oun t ing o f b o th f r equenc ie s a nd e l emen t s ( fa nd n ) ( c f . K yh lbe rg 1 983a ) . T he ma t r ice s a r ec ons t ruc ted t oa nswe rt h e q ues t ion o fh ow t h e t ype s s p read f r equen tua l ly w i th in ar eg ion -c ompa red t oo the r r eg ions . T he o ppos i te q ue s t ion , h ow t h e t ype i s s p r ead o ve r a l l t h er eg ions , i sl e s s r e levan t . T h i s c ho ice i sd ec i s ive f o rt h e r e su l t . T he s pa t ia lc a lcu la t ion so fp e r cen tage sa r eh e re n o td e sc r ip t ion so ff a c t s ,b u tt h ef i r s ts t ep i na w e igh t ing p rocedu re . T hey a im a ta n i n te r reg iona l b a lanc ing o ft h e n umbe r s , t h e f i r s t w e igh t ing momen tb e ing p e r fo rmed h o r izon ta l ly b yr ow s . V e r t ica l ly i n as e cond s t ep t h e a r i thme t ic m ean i sc a lcu la ted ( on a l l e l emen t s , n ) . T he mean i nd ica tes a l e ve l o f 2 86

s i gn if icance . T h is p rocedure i s t heo re t ica l ly c onnec ted w i th t he c a lcu la t ion o f " p le ion leve l s " ,b y Ma lme r( c f . 1 957 ) . T he c oncep t t h a tp e rcen tages a r e q u i te r e la t ive v a lues i sc on t rad ic ted b y t h e s e r ia t ion m a t r ice sb e low . T he d i ag ram sf o re xamp le i n c lude t h ec a lcu la t ion o fp e r cen tage si nt wo s u cce s s ive s t eps . T he v a lue s a bove t h em ean o ft h ec o lumns g i ve v e ry g ood s uppor tf o r t h eo rde r ing o ft h ec o lumn s .A f te rt h ec omp le t ion o ft h e s e r ie sb yq uan t i ta t ive m eans t h e r e su l ts hou ld b ec hecked a ga in s tq ua l i ta t ive f a c to r s . T he o rde r ing o ft h ec o lumn si sa l so s uppo r ted b y ac ompa r ison o ft h ef i gu re s t wo b y t wo a nd b y e s tab l i shmen to f a" good c urve " f o r e ve ry r ow . E ven t h e s um s f o r e ve ry r eg ion ( a b s . n ' s ) c ou ld b e u sed f o r c heck ing t h e " good c u rve " , i . e . t h ei nnova to ry p roce s s . I na dd i t ion , s ome r a the r s imp le s t a t is t ica l c a lcu la t ions h ave b een p e r fo rmed , s uch a s t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion ( s ) , t h e v a r ia t ion c oef f ic ien ta nd P ea r son ' sc oeff i c ien to fs kewne s s ( Kyh lbe rg 1 983a ) . I ts hou ld b e emphaz ised t h a tt h et y pes a r eo rde red q uan t i ta t ive ly b yt h ec en t ra lv a lue o f t h ef r equency d i s t r ibu t ion , t h e mode a nd /o rt h em ean , n o tb yt h ef i r s tr epresen ta t ion o r t h el a s t . E ve ry d i s t r ibu t ion r eg iona l ly i sh e re t r ea ted a s af r equency c u rve .T he c u rve sa r e a r r ranged i no rde rb yt h ep o s i t ion o ft h e i rc en t ra lv a lue sa nd t h ec urva tu re a nd s kewne s s o ft h ec u rve a r ec a lcu la ted b y s imp le s t a t is t ica lf o rmu la s . T he re a r e s eve ra lp o s s ib i l i t ie s f o rc heck ing t h e s e r ie sa nd t h eo rde ro ft h ec o lumn s / rows ,a nd t oge the rt h ey g ive ah igh d eg ree o fr e l iab i l i ty t ot h er e su l t . F ig . 3 a( a f te rB robe rg & H a s se lmo 1 981 )p re sen t s ap re -s tage o f as e r ia t ion . T he f a c to r s p lo t ted a r e l a ye ra nd t ype . T ype i sh e re t h er ep re sen ta t ive o ft ime /cu l tu r e a nd l a ye rt h e r e p re sen ta t ive o ft ime / space . C on sequen t ly t h ef unc t ion o ft h e se t wo ma in v a r iab le sw i l l b et ime i t se lf : t h ec h rono logy f o rt h es e r ia ted v a r iab le s . T he a b sence o fr ep re sen ta t ion i s n o t p a r t icu la r ly ma rked . T he n umbe r s a r e a b so lu te a nd t h e c o lumns n o t s or ted . T he a b so lu te n umbe r sp r ima r i ly r e f lec tt h e s amp l ing ,b u ta l so t h en umbe ro fc e ram ic v es se l s o r ig ina l ly f ab r ica ted a nd i nu se a nd t h e v o lumes o fe a r th i nve s t iga ted . I ti st h e refo re e v iden tt h a tt h ec oun t ing o ff r equenc ie s ( f )o n ly i sn o t ap rac t icab le w ay .B u ta dd ing t h e f i gu re 0f o rn or ep re sen ta t ion t h ef i r s ts t ep c an b et a ken f r om p u re p o s i t iv i sm . I nf i g . 3 bt h ea b so lu te n umbe r sh ave b een r ep laced b yp e r cen tage sw i th in e ve ry l a ye r .T o c ompensa te f o rd i s turbances a nd d es t ruc t ion i nt h e s t ra t ig raphy a nd t o ma rk al e ve l o f s i gn if icance , t h e a r i thme t ic m ean i sc a lcu la ted v e r t ica l ly . F igu re s a bove t h e m ean a r e o u t l ined . F rom t h is p o in t i ti sp o ss ib le t oc ons t ruc t as e r ie s o ft ypes ,j udged f r om t h e p i c tu re g i ven b yt h eo u t l ined v a lue s a nd f r om c ompa r i son so ft h ef i gu re st wo b yt wo i n t h er ow s , a nd s oo n . I nf i g . 3 c t h en ex ts t ep o fa na lys i si si lu s t ra ted ,i . e . t h em anua lo rde r ing o ft h ec o lumn s a c co rd ing t ot h eo u t l ined v a lue s .T h i si sc hecked b ys t a t i s t ica lc a lcu la t ion s ,a sm en t ioned a bove ( s ee a l so b e low ) . As u rvey o fa l lt h ec e ram ic t a b le si nt h ew o rk b yB robe rg & H a sse lmo i nd ica te st h a tt h e p a t te rn a cqu i red t h rough t h is s e r ia t ion i sg ene ra l ly r epea ted . S oi n c luded i nt h em e thod a nd t h e w e igh t ing p rocedu re s t h e re i sa l so a momen t o f s ou rce a na lys is . I ti sa l so o bv ious t h a t t h e a b so lu te f i gu res , t h e u nwe igh ted n umbe r s , d o n o t p rov ide r ea l i s t ic i n fo rma t ion a bou tt h er e a l( p ro ce s sua l ) s t ruc tu re o ft h e ma te r ia l . 3 .2 . A c ase s t udy o f S cand inav ian r ock c arv ing s . ( F ig . 4 -13 ) I ts eem s o bv ious t h a t t ime d id n o t eme rge i n t h e c onsc ious m ind o f Man u n t i l t h e N eande r tha l s pec ies w a s e x t inc t . C rö - Magnon man s eem s t o h ave b een t he f i r s t t o p roduce c ave p a in t ing s .B yt h a tt ime t h e " s oc io -ch rono log ica l " s y s tema t iz ing o fe ve ryday l i f e mu s t h ave b een i n i t ia ted . T he c ave p a in t ing s s ome t ime sr e f e rt oe ven t s i nt h ep a s t 2 87

( vo t ive d e s igns? ) , s o me t imes make a l lus ion s a tf u tu re i n c iden t s ( hun t ing mag ic f o r e xamp le ) . S ome p a in t ing si lus t ra te " he ra ld ic "t ime le s sa l ignmen t s . O fa l lp a r t icu la r is t ic e xp lana t ion sa nd i n te rp re ta t ion st h i so ne s e em st ob eo ft h eg r ea te s ti mpo r tance : t h rough p i c tu re st ime c ou ld b ed ef ined a nd " c augh t " . ( c f .K je l l6n & H yen s t rand 1 977 ,p . 11 f . ) Many s c ien t is t s h ave empha s ized t h e a s sumed c ommun ica t ive f unc t ion o f t h e r ock c a rv ings . O n r a the r t h e s ame , a nd c ommon b a s is a r chaeo log is t s o ve r t h e y ea r s h ave p resen ted t he i r p e r sona l o p in ions o n t h e s i gn if icance o f r ock a r t ( c f . K je l l6n & H yen s t rand 1 977 , p . 11 f ) . O the r sh ave t r ied t og ob ack t ot h e s ou rces i no rde rt os e ek n ew i n forma t ion , t h rough ar enewed a na ly s is b a sed o n ar ev ised d ocumen ta t ion . T he c ommun ica t ive s choo lh a si t sf o remo s tr ep re sen ta t ive i nN o rdb ladh , w ho i n te rp re t s t h e p i c tu re s i n t e rm s o f mode rn l i ngu i s t ics , a s m e ssage s w i th in t h e s oc ie ty ( No rdb ladh 1 980 ) . H yen s t rand h a s p re sen ted as cheme o fa na ly s is f o r t h e r ock c arv ings , b y p u t t ing f i ve q ue s t ion s : "Wha ta r et h ec on ten t so ft h ep i c tu re s? " "Whom d ot h ep i c tu re sa dd re s s? " "Who se c oncer nw a st h ep roduc ing o fp i c tu re s? " "Wh ich w a st h ei n ten t ion o ft h ep i c tu re s? " "When w e re t h ep i c tu re s made? " ( K je l l6n & H yen s t rand 1 977 ,p . 14 ) . H yen s t rand s pec if ie st h ef i r s tq ues t ion . H ep o in t so u tt h a tt h e re i s ad i f f e rence b e tween " r ea l i ty " a nd " t hough t " , b e tween ar ep re sen ta t ion o ri mage o rj us t as ymbo l . T he re a r e f ew a r chaeo log is t s , i fa ny , w ho b es ide H yens t rand h ave p resen ted t h is " pseudo c ommun ica t ive " v iew . No rdb ladh 's c ommun ica t ive mode ls i nc lude t wo s epa ra te i nd iv idua l so rp a r t s ,t h ec a rve ra nd t h eo b serve r ,t h es ende ra nd t h er e ce ive r . H yen s t rand h a sp o in ted a tt h ep o s s ib il i ty o f amuch mo re c omp lex p sycho log ica ls i tua t ion : ad i a logue n eed n o t b e o pen t ot wo s epa ra te p a r t ies . I tc an a l so t a ke p lace a s s o -ca l led " i nne r s peech " ,i . e . ad i a logue w i th in t h ep e r sona l i ty o fa ni nd iv idua lt h rough s epa ra te c hanne l s o ft h e s en ses a nd t h e h uman b ra in . T h i s i sc l ea r ly v i s ib le a mong c h i ld ren a t ac er ta in s t age o fd eve lopmen t .H yens t rand 's c l a s s if i ca to ry i d ea i sf undamen ta lf o ra ny a na ly s i so f r ock c arv ing s . B u renhu l t p re suppo se s t h a t t h e p i c tu re s i n g ene ra l a r e i lu s t ra t ion s o f r e a l i ty a nd t h is i s ac ond i t ion f o r t h e d a t ings b y a r tef ac t a na log ies . B u t , i ft h e w ho le c oncep to fr o ck a r ti ss ymbo l ic a nd n o tm a te r ia l i s t ic ,n o tr e p r e sen t ing t h ei d ea o fs peak ing b u to ft h ink ing , t h en r ock c a rv ing a na lyse s mu s tb ep e r fo rmed w i th g r ea tc a re . T he p resen t p ape r d oes n o t d ea l w i th t h is p rob lem , i n tend ing i n s tead t or epresen t a q uan t i ta t ive a nd h o l i s t ic a pp roa ch t ot h ei n nova t ive p ro ce s s ,r ega rd le s so ft h ei n telec tua l , p sycho log ica lo rs o c ia l s i gn i f icance o ft h ep i c tu re st h em se lves . I ts e em st ob en ece s sa ry f o rt h ep o s i t ive d eve lopmen to fr e sea rch o nr ock c a rv ing st og a in c on t ro lo ve rt h es pa t ia l a nd c h rono log ica l p roce ss a nd t h e v a r iab le p a t te rns , b efo re a n t i the t ica l ly r e tu rn ing ( qua l i ta t ive ly )t ot h es ou r ce s . I n f i g . 4( a f te r Ma lme r 1 981 , F ig . 1 ) , t h e r eg iona l d iv i s ion o ft h e i nves t iga ted a r ea i s p r e sen ted . A cco rd ing t o Ma lme r( w i th t h ea dd i t ion o ft h en umbe r s )t h er eg ions a r e : 1A -BORNHOLM , 1B -DENMARK ( e xcep t B or nho lm ) , 2-S CAN IA , 3-SOUTH EAST SWEDEN , 4-Ö STERGÖTLAND , 5-MALAR D ISTR ICT , 6-BOHUSLÄN , 7-WEST SWEDEN , 8-SOUTH NOR WAY ( i nc lud ing R oga land a nd Ö s t fo ld ) , 9M IDDLE NOR WAY ( i nc lud ing T rönde lag ) , 1 0 -NORTH NOR WAY ( i nc lud ing S ou th No r r land , J äm t land , Änge rman land a nd No r th Nor r land ) , 1 -F INLAND a nd KAREL IA . 2 88

T he m a in mo t i f so rt y pe sa r e ,a cco rd ing t o Ma lme r( w i th t h ea dd i t ion o fi n i t ia l s ) : A -SH IPS , B -CARTS /CHAR IOTS , C -WEAPONS , D -CLOTH ING /FRA MES / NETS , E -HANDS , F EET , F -C IRCLES , G -HU MAN F IGURES , H -AN I MAL DESIGNS . I ns ho r t Ma lme rh a sm ade at y po log ica l ,c h rono -a nd c ho ro log ica la na ly s i so ft h er ock a r t mo t if s ,q uan t i ta t ive ly b a sed o np ropo r t iona l s t ud ie sa nd o np e rcen tages ( Ma lme r 1 981 ) . H ee s tab l i shed t h a to ne c en t re o ft h ei n nova t ive p roce s s mu s th ave b een l o ca ted i nS ou th S cand inav ia a nd t h a t i tg radua l ly c ompr i sed n o r thern p a r t s o f S cand inav ia . A no the r c en t re , a cco rd ing t o Ma lme r , mus t h ave b een l o ca ted i nt h e n o r the rn p a r ts o fN o rway . Ma lme rh a sp ropo sed t h a tt h e se t wo o r ig ina l ly s epa ra ted t r ad i t ion sa nd i nnova t ive r ou te s h ave me ti nc en t ra lS cand inav ia ,i nt h eN äm fo r sen a r ea ,i nÄ nge rman land ,Ö s te rgö t land , B ohu s län a nd e ven tua l ly K a rel ia ( Ma lme r 1 982 ,p .1 03 f . ) . T he s e r ia t ion ma t r ix i nf i g . 5d e sc r ibe s a n i nnova t ive p roce ss w h ich i si nc onco rdance w i th Ma lme r 's a s sump t ions a nd r e su l t s , b u tw h ich a l so i n vo lve s s ome n ew i n f e rences . O n t h e who le , t h e s e r ies s e em s t ob e r a the r h omogeneou s , b u t d iv ided i n to t wo p a r t s . T he s epa ra t ion o f B o rnho lm f r om D enma rk c l ea r ly s hows t ha t , a l ready f r om t he b eg inn ing , t h e re w e re t wo s epa ra te r ou te so fi n f luence .T h i si sd i sce rn ib le b ecau se S ou th E a s t Sweden / 3 /i sp laced b efo re S can ia / 2 / , a nd S ou th N o rway / 8 /b efo re B ohu s län a nd We s t Sweden / 6+7 / .T he l a t te r mu s tr ef lec t ad i rec tc u l tu ra lc on tac tb e tween J u t land a nd S ou th No rway . I ti sa l so e v iden tt h a tt h ed iv i s ion b e tween Ö s te rgö t land a nd L äke Mä la r d i s tr ic ti sq ues t ionab le . T he f i gu re s s how as t rong v a r iab le c onnec t ion , ac o -va r ia t ion b e tween t h e se t wo r eg ions . T he s e r ies o f mo t if s c onf i rm s t h a t t h e c i rc le s/ F /o pen t h e p roce ss , f o l lowed b y h and s / f ee t/ E / , s h ips / A / , c a r t s / cha r io t s/ B / , c l o th ing / f rame s /ne t s / D / ,w eapon s/ C / , h uman f i gu re s/ G /a nd t h a ti tc ome st oa ne nd w i th t h ea n ima ld e s ign s / H / . J udged f r om t h ec oef f ic ien t so fv a r ia t ion t h e s e r ie s s how many c ha rac te r i s t ic so fa r egu la r i nnova t ive p roce ss . I n t h e b eg inn ing t he re i sa n i n i t ia l l o ca l o r r eg iona l a gg lome ra t ion ,f o l lowed b y ap ha se o f mo re r ap id c hange so ft y pe s ,i . e .h ighe rd eg ree o f v a r iab l i l i ty , a nd f i na l ly a no the rl o ca lo rr eg iona l a gg lome ra t ion , a" conden sa t ion " . T he s ame c an b e o b served f o r t h e c i rc le s b e low ( f ig . 6 ,a nd f o r t h e s h ips ( f ig . 7 ) . A s t h e f i gu res a r e c a lcu la ted o n p e rcen tage s t h e h ighe r f i gu re s r epresen t al owe r d eg ree o f s p read ( Kyh lbe rg 1 983a a nd 1 985 ,p .5 0f . ) . T he s e r ies o fr eg ion si ss uppo r ted b yt h ea b so lu te q uan t i t ie so fp i c tu re s ,c o l lec ted i nt h e c o lumn t ot h er i gh t .T he s e r ie so fa b so lu te n umbe r sr eg iona l ly d e sc r ibe st h e s ame c u rve , w i th o ne e xcep t ion o n ly ,r eg ion 5( wh ich i su nde r rep re sen ted ) . T h is m igh tb ee xp la ined b y t h e r eg iona l d iv i s ion i t se lf . T he o n ly o ve r rep resen ta t ion v i s ib le i sf o rr eg ion B , t h e f i r s ti nt h es e r ie s . T h i sm igh tb ee xp la ined b ya ni n i t ia la gg lome ra t ion , s e ea bove . T he r ange b e tween t h en umbe r so ft y pe sr eg iona l ly i sc ompen sa ted f o rb yt h ew e igh t ing p rocedu re s .T he c i r c le sv a ry b e tween 6a nd 2 42 p i c tu re sr eg iona l ly ,t h es h ip sb e tween 2 6 a nd 1 518 . I n h i s s t udy o f r ock a r t Ma lme r p u ts s t ress o n t he s pa t ia l a nd i nnova t ive p roce ss . B u renhu l t ( c i ted h e re a sB u renhu l t 1 980 ) , o n t h e o the r h and , a pproaches t h e p rob lem q u i te d i f f e ren t ly . H is t h e s is i sb a sed o nt h ea s sump t ion t h a td i f f e ren tc a rv ing t e chn iques ( p ick ing t e chn ique , s e e b e low ) r ef lec t d i f fe ren t c h rono log ica l p e r iod s . B urenhu l t p rac t i se sf r equency a nd o ccu r rence s e r ia t ion s ,b u tb o th p re sen ted a si lus t ra t ive p i c tu re s o n ly . B u renhu l td iv ide st h ei nnova t ive p roce s si n to t h ree p a r t s ( t rad i t ions ) : I ,I a nd I I . T he f i r s ti s , a cco rd ing t oB u renhu l t , c ha rac te r ized b yc i r c le s , s ome mega l i th ic s ymbo l s a nd s ome w eapon d e s ign s . T he s e cond t r ad i t ion i sc ha rac te r ized b yw eapons , l a te ra l so c i rc le s , h uman f i gu re s a nd b y t h ee a r l ie s t s h ips . T he t h i rd t r ad i t ion i sc ha rac te r ized b y , a bove a l l ,t h es h ips ,w eapon s ,h uman f i gu re s ,c i r c le sa nd f r ame s /ne t sd e s igns ( Bu renhu l t 2 89

1 980 , P . 1 25 ) . T h is d iv is ion i n to t h ree t r ad i t ions s e em s , i n t h e l i gh t o f t h e p resen t a na ly s i s ,t ob e aq ua l i ta t ive o u t l ine w i thou ta ny s t rong q uan t i ta t ive o rp roce ssua ls uppo r t i n t h e s ou rce ma ter ia l . T he d ive rgence b e tween B u renhu l t ( 1980 , F ig . 4 5 ) a nd t h e s e r ia t ion ma t r ice s a bove d epend s o n t h e f a c t t h a t , w i th in a n i nnova t ive p roces s , e very c omponen tc o -va r ia te sw i th e ve ry o the rc omponen t .T oge the rt h ey make u p t h ep roce ss a nd c onsequen t ly t h e p rob lem o f a na ly s is i so f p u re ly q uan t i ta t ive a nd p roce ssua l c ha rac te r . T he d e s ign sa nd p i c tu r es t h em se lve s a r et h ev eh ic le so f ac u l tu ra la nd s pa t ia l p roce ss .T h is p roce s sc anno tb eq ua l i f ied w i thou t ap receed ing p ro ce s sua la na ly s i s . 3 . 2 .1 . C irc le s . ( F ig . 6 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h e s e r ia t ion ma t r ix a bove ( F ig . 5 ) , t h e c i rc le s o pen t h e s e r ie s . C onsequen t ly i ti sn o t a s ton ish ing t h a t t h e c i rc le s d id n o r r e ach t h e n o r the rn r eg ions i n t h e i r o r ig ina l s hape . I n r eg ion s 1 0 a nd 1 t h ey o n ly o ccu r i n c onnec t ion w i th c e r ta in s t and s o r w i th s h ip s o r h uman f i gu re s ( c f . Ma lme r 1 981 , F ig . 2 2 ) . T h rough t h i s s e r ie s t h e o rde ro ft h er eg ion s 1B a nd 1A i sc onf i rmed . T he s e r ies a l so c on ta ins o ppor tun i t ie sf o rc heck ing t h em e thod i t se lf .T he s e r ia t ion d i v ide st h et y pe si n to g roup st h a tc an b ed i scus sed q ua l i ta t ive ly a cco rd ing t o Ma lme r ' st e rm so fs im i la r i ty . T he t ypo log ica lt e rm ino logy f o rt h ec i r c le si s ,a cco rd ing t o Ma lme r( 1981 ,p .6 8 ) : A . B . C . 0 . 1 . 1 2 . 3 . 4 . a . b . c .

Ac i r c le Two c oncen t r ic c i r c le s T h ree o r mo re c oncen t r ic c i r c le s No r ad i i F ou rr ad i i( = two d i ame te r s )d rawn w i th s i ng le l i ne s F ou rr ad i i ( = two d i ame te r s )d rawn w i th d oub le l i ne s E igh tr ad i i( = fou rd i ame te r s ) An umbe ro fr ad i io t he rt h an z e ro ,f ou ro re i gh t Ah amme r ed -ou tc i r c le N od e s ign se xcep tr ad i iw i th in t h ec i r c le O ne o r mo r ed o t sw i th in t h ec i r c le ( po s s ib ly i n c lud ing r ad i i ) D es igns o ther t han d o ts a nd r ad i i w i th in t he c i rc le ( bu t p oss ib ly i n c lud ing e i the ro rb o th )

T he s e r ie si sd iv ided i n to s epa ra te p a r t so rp ha se s / s tage s . T he f i r s tp a r tc ons i s t so fc i r c le s w i th f ou rr ad i i , f o l lowed b y c i r c le s w i th t h ree o r mo re c oncen t r ic c i rc le s a nd t h e f i r s t c i rc le w i th d o t s . F ina l ly t h e re i s ag roup o fc i r c le sw i th a l te rna t ive ly d o t s o rc oncen t r ic c i r c le si nc omb ina t ion . T he d i ag ram f i g . 6d i sp lay s s ome c a se so fc o -va r ia t ion ,b e tween Bl a a nd A lb , b e tween C Oa a nd B Oa e t c . T he d iag ram a l so s hows t ha t t h e r ou te o f i n nova t ion l e ad sa l ong t wo s epa ra te w ay s , o ne s t a r t ing i nr eg ion 1B a nd 1A ,t h eo the r i nr eg ion 3a nd 2 .A cco rd ing t of i g s . 1 a nd 1 3 b e low , t h e t y pes A la a nd A 0a mus t b e c on s ide red t h et wo m a in t y pe s ,i . e . t h es imp le c i r c le a nd t h es imp le c i r c le w i th f ou rr ad i i . T he re i s as ha rp d i scon t inu i ty b e tween t h e se t wo ma in t y pe s . We m igh tc onc lude t h a tt h is i nd ica te s ar e a lt r ad i t iona l ,i . e . c u l tu ra l ,d i f f e rence , a st h ec i rc le sw i thou tr ad i ia r ea lmo s t t o ta l ly m i ss ing i nS can ia a nd We s tS weden . 3 . 2 .2 . S h ips . ( F ig . 7) .T he s e r ia t ion d iag ram f i g . 7 ,d i sp lays ar a the r c omp l ica ted s e r ie s . T he w ho le p roces s f a l l s i n to t h ree s epa ra te p a r t s . T hese g roups a r e c l ea r ly a nd w e l l d ef ined b y t h e c oef f ic ien tb y P ea r son . T he f i r s tg roup c on s i s t so ft h et ype s BI ,I a nd I I , t h es e cond g roup o ft h et y pe s A Ia nd A I , CI ,D a nd E a nd t h et h i rd o ft y pe sA I I , CIa nd C I I . T hese g roup ing s a r e c ong ruen t w i th t h e g eog raph ica l s p read . T he f i r s t g roup ma in ly b e long s t os ou thern S cand inav ia , t h e s e cond t ot h e m idd le p a r to fS cand inav ia , a nd t h e 2 90

t h i rd g roup t ot h en o r the rn p a r t s o fS cand inav ia . A cco rd ing t o Ma lme rt h e t ypo log ica l t e rm ino logy f o rt h e s h ips i s( 1981 ,p .1 2f . ) : A . B . C . D . E .

S h ip sw i th ag unwa le a nd ak ee l( doub le l ine s h ip s ) S h ips w i th ag unwa le b u tn ok ee l( s ing le l ine s h ip s ) S h ips w i th ah amme red -ou th u l l C on tou red s h ips S h ips w i th a g unwa le a nd a k ee l a nd a t l e a s t o ne i n te rmed ia te h o r izon ta ll i ne o nt h eh u l l I S h ips w i th d oub le p row s I . S h ips w i th o ne d oub le a nd o ne s i ng le p row I I . S h ips w i th t wo s i ng le p row s

I np r inc ip le t h e s e r ie ss t a r t sw i th s i ng le -l ine s h ips . I nt h em idd le s e c t ion t h ed oub le l ine s h ips a ppea rf o r t h e f i r s tt ime a nd f i na l ly t h e c onc lu s ion o ft h e s e r ies a nd t h e p roce ss c on ta in h amme red -ou ts h ips . Af a c to r o fi n te res t f o r c heck ing t h e s e r ies i st h e c o lumn f o r t h e a bso lu te n umbe r o f p i c tu res r eg iona l ly . T h is s e r ies d esc r ibes av e ry " good c urve " w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f r eg ion 5 ( s ee a bove ) . A cco rd ing t of i g s . 1 2 a nd 1 3 t ypes A I I , CI a nd C I I mus tb e c on s ide red s ub type so rv a r ian t s ,i . e . d ependen tt ype s . T ype A Il o ok sl i ke t h e ma in t ype ( c oncer n ing ma in t y pe -h o lo type , s e eb e low ) .A sf o rc o -va r ia t ion i tmay b eo b se rved t h a t t y pe B Ia nd B I Ic o -va r ia te p o s i t ive ly a nd t h a tt ype s Ea nd D /A I c o -va r ia te n ega t ive ly a nd s oo n . T he a na ly s i sa nd t h es e r ie si nd ica te t h a tt h es h ip t y pe sa mong t h ep i c tu re sr e a l ly r ep re sen t d i f f e ren tr ea l s h ips . A re a l lo ft h em s h ips a ta l l? I si tp os s ib le t h a t s ome o ft h ed e s ign s r epresen t s l edge s a nd s ewn b oa t s f o r e xamp le? O ne f e a ture s eem s t o b e o fi n te re s t , b e s ide t h ee xamp le so fc o -va r ia t ion e t c ,a nd t h i si st h ep redom inance o ft ype A I Ia nd C Ii nr eg ions 1 0 a nd 1 r e spec t ive ly a nd t h e r e la t ive d om inance o ft y pe D i nr eg ion 9 . T he se s h ip t y pe sb e long t ot h es ame r eg ion sa sd ot h e ma in p a r to ft h er ock p a in t ing s .I s i tp oss ib le t h a t t h e t ype s t h em se lves a r e t e chn ica l ly d ef ined a nd t ha t s ome o f t h e d i f f e rence s mus tb ea s c r ibed t od i f f e rence si nc o lou r ing t e chn ique s? 3 . 2 .3 . P ick ing t e chn ique -a c hrono log ica l v ar iab le? ( F ig . 8 ) . I n h i s t h e s is o n r ock c a rv ing s B u renhu l tp re sen ted a n a t temp t a t ag ene ra l c h rono log ica l s u rvey o ft h e p i c ture mo t if s . T h i s i sp e r fo rmed b y means o f ac l a ss if ica tory a na lys is o f c a rv ing t e chn ique s( p ick ing t e chn ique s ) ,d iv ided i n to s even d i f f e ren t" qua l i t ie s " ( Bu renhu l t 1 980 , p .9 2f . ) . T he c h rono log ica ls e r ie so fp i ck ing t e chn ique s ( 7 -2-3-4-5-6-8 )i si n ter a l ia t e s ted a ga in s tw eapon d e s ign s . T he me thod emp loyed i sf undamen ta l ly q ua l i ta t ive a nd t e n ta t ive , t h e reby p r ima r i ly f ounded o n emp ir ica l a r chaeo log ica l k now ledge . Howeve r , t e s t s o n t h e r eg iona l s e r ie s p resen ted a bove r evea l t ha t t h e r ock c arv ing t r ad i t ion i si n t roduced b yt h e c i rc le mo t ive ( a nd t h e s h ip? ) , n o t t h e w eapon s . T h i s f a c t w eaken sB u renhu l t 's a r gumen ta t ion . H i s s e r ie so fp i ck ing t e chn iques , b e l ieved t ob eo f c h rono log ica ls i gn i f icance ,h a sb een t e s ted v e r sus t h et y po log ica ls e r ie sp re sen ted a bove . I nB u renhu l t 's own p re sen ta t ion o fh i s s ou rce ma te r ia lt h e mo t ive sa r eo rde red : SH IPS -F EET -C IRCLES -HU MAN F IGURES -WEAPONS -FRA MES/NETS CHAR IOTS -AN IMAL DES IGNS ( Bu renhu l t 1 980 , F ig . 4 3 ) . I nh i st a b le o rd i ag ram ,w he re t h e s e r ie si sp re sen ted ,t h et wo v a r iab le st ype a nd p i ck ing t e chn ique a r en o ts e r ia ted . T he r ank c o r re la t ion b e tween B u renhu l t 's s e r ies o ft ype sa nd t h eo ne p resen ted a bove i sr s -0 .07 . T h is i sr ead a sh a rd ly a ny c o r re la t ion a ta l l . F rom

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t h i sr a the rs imp le c ompa r i son i tf o l low st h a tt h ep i ck ing t e chn ique i si np r inc ipa ln o tf i t ted f o rc h rono log ica la na ly se s .T he e xp lana t ion f o rt h ec ho ice o fc a rv ing t e chn ique mu s tb e r e f e rab le t o t h e mo t if s t h em se lves ( c f . f o rego ing c hap te r ) a nd t o r eg iona l o r l o ca l d i f f e rence s , i . e . c u l tu re , n o t t ime . T he a noma l ie s a nd t h e n ega t ive c o -va r ia t ion f o rt h e c i rc les a nd t h e h uman a nd a n ima l f i gu re s m igh tb e e xp la ined a s ac hange i nc o lour ing t e chn ique ( c f . B u renhu l t 1 980 , p .1 08 ) . 3 .3 . T he p rocessua l t ype . ( F ig . 9 -13 ) . O ft h e g rea tes t c u r ren ti n te re s ti st h e p os s ib i l i ty t h a th a s a r isen o fg e t t ing i n fo rma t ion a bou tt h e s peed o fp i c ture p roduc t ion . T h is c an b es t ud ied b yp lo t t ing t h ec oef f ic ien to f v a r ia t ion v e r su st h ea b so lu te n umbe r s ( c f . f i g . 1 3 ) . T h i si lu s t ra te st h ef a c tt h a tt h eg roup o fa n ima ld e s ign sd i f f e r sf r om t h er e s tb yc on s i s t ing o ft oo many p i c tu re si nr e la t ionsh ip t ot h e r eg iona l a nd r e la t ive s p read . T he a n ima l d e s ign s c onsequen t ly m igh t b e l ooked u pon a sl o ca lo rr eg iona lt y pe so ra st h er ep re sen ta t ive sf o rt h es o -ca l led " conden sa t ion " p ha se o f t h e i nnova t ive p rocess . Among t h e a g ra r ian p i c tu res t h e s h ips , f r om t h e p roce s sua lp o in to fv i ew ,f o rm ag roup o ft h e i ro wn . I nt h em idd le s e c t ion t h e r ei s av e ry c l ea r e xamp le o f c o -va r ia t ion b e tween t he c a r t s / cha r io t s , c lo th ing / f rame s /ne t s a nd w eapon s . Ac omb ina t ion o ft h et ype sB , Ca nd D h a st h e r efo re b een t e s ted f o rp roce ssua l r ea sons . T h i s i sp re sen ted i nf i g . 9 .T he p o s i t ion o ft h e o pe ra t ive ma in t ype BCD i s t h e reby s omewha tn o rma l ized t h rough t h i s s t ep ,b u tt h e r ei ss t i l l an ega t ive a nd p o s i t ive c o -va r ia t ion v i s ib le b e tween t y pe BCD a nd t y pe G ,t h eh uman f i gu re . A nd t h is i sa l so q ua l i ta t ive i n fo rma t ion . I tm ean st h a tt h e re e v iden t ly i s af unc t iona la nd c u l tu ra l( no tp a r t icu la r ly c h rono log ica l )c onnec t ion b e tween t h e se t y pes .T h is m ean st h a t t h e who le i nnova t ive p rocess o fr ock c a rv ing s m igh t b e d iv ided i nf i ve mo re o r l e ss s ucce ss ive p ha se s / s tage s : 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

C IRCLES ( Ma lme r 1 981 ,p .6 6f . ) HANDS AND F EET ( Ma lme r 1 981 ,p .5 6f . ) SH IPS ( Ma lme r 1 981 ,p .1 f . ) HU MAN F IGURES p lu sw eapon s ,c l o th ing ( ? )a nd c a r t s ( Ma lme r 1 981 , p .4 3 f . ,4 9 f . ,7 6 f . ) . AN I MAL DESIGNS ( Ma lme r 1 981 ,p .8 5 f . )

T he d i f f e rence b e tween c i rc les a nd c a r t s i nd ica te s t h a t t h e f o rme r , t h e whee l -shaped d e s ign s , mu s tb ei c onog raph ica l ly s epa ra ted f r om t r und le so ro rd ina ry w hee ls .T he s e r ie s i sp o ss ib le t oe s tab l ish a nd c onf i rm b eyond e ve ry d oub t , a s i ti sc oo rd ina ted w i th a s pa t ia l movemen t a nd s ynch ron ized w i th ac h rono log ica l d i sp lacemen t . T he t r ans i t ion b e tween mo t if s i ss moo th a nd r egu la r . T h is r egu la r i ty m igh t b e i n terpre ted a s t h e r ef lec t ion o f ac ong ruen te vo lu t ion o fs oc ie ty . I ta l so a l low so f af e edback t oi nd iv idua l r ock c a rv ing s i te s . O ne e xamp le c ou ld b et a ken f r om t h eo n ly k nown r ock c a rv ing s i te o n Go t land , i nH ägv ide i nL ä rb ro p a r ish ( No rd in 1 911) . T he c ompo s i t ion o ft h is p i c tu re g roup i s , b es ide 1 50 c up -ma rk s , c . 2 6 s h ips , c . 1 f e e t d es igns a nd c . 4w eapon d e s ign s , a cco rd ing t o No rd in ( 1911) . T h is mean s t h a t t h e s i te d i sp lay s c .2 7% f e e t , c . 6 3% s h ips a nd c .1 0% w eapon d e s igns . T he s h ips s e em p ref e rab ly t ob eo ft y pe A Ia nd AI l ( ? ) . C i rc le sa r ec omp le te ly a b sen t , a sa r et h ea n ima ld e s ign s . Al t h ree p e rcen tage s r epresen t v a lue s a bove t h e mean i n f i g . 5 ,a bove . T he p ropor t ions a r e c onsequen t ly r epresen ta t ive a nd t h e s i te m igh t b e long t o ar a the r l e ng thy p er iod a round t h e c h rono log ica lc en t re o ft h er ock c a rv ing t r ad i t ion . T h ree p lo t d i ag ram s , f i g s . 1 0 -13 , p resen t t h e i n fo rma t ion p rov ided b y t h e f r equency s e r ia t ion s a bove . T he t wo p lo t ted f a c to r s o r v a r iab le s b o th r e fe r t o t h e f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion so ft h ev a r iab le s ,t h e i rc urva tu re a nd t h e i rs k ewne ss .A si np ho tog raph ic f i lm as t ruc tu re i sh e re d ev loped , w h ich o n ly w i th g r ea te f for t wou ld h ave b een a cce ssab le 2 92

f r om t h e t a b les . T he t h ree p lo t d iag ram s g ive ah o l is t ic a nd p roces sua l v iew o n t h e s ource s . And i ti so f t h e g rea tes t i n te re s t t ob e a b le t o c onf irm t h e a ppea rance o f a p roce ssua l t ype w i th in t h e i nnova t ive p roce ss a s w e l l . F o r a l l t h ree p lo t s t h e re i sa d i v i s ion i n to t h ree p a r t s /g roup s . S ome t y pe s s how av e ry c l ea rn ega t ive s kewne s sw i th a v e ry l ow v a lue o fv a r ia t ion ,i . e . ar eg iona l ly r e la t ive ly c oncen t ra ted c urva tu re . C on t ra ry t ot h i s t h e re i sa no the rt y pe w i th ac l ea rn ega t ive s kewne ss c omb ined w i th av e ry h igh v a lue o fv a r ia t ion . A s t h ep lo t s a r ed rawn o nt h eb a s i so fn umbe r s a l ready w e igh ted b y r eg ion , c e r ta in c onc lu s ions may b e d rawn f r om t h i s p henomenon . P roce ssua l ly t h e re e x i s t s at ype w h ich i sn o ti nnova t ive a ta l l , b u tr a the r " cons t i tu t ive " . T he t ype a ppea r s d u r ing a lmos tt h e who le i nnova t ive p e r iod a nd t h e re fo re c ou ld b e c a l led a" ho lo type " . T h i si sv a l id f o rt h e s h ip s ( t ype A i nf i g s . 5 ,7 ,9 ,1 0 , 1 2 a nd 1 3 ) , f o rc i r c le s t ype A la a nd A0a ( i n f i gs . 6 , 1 a nd 1 3 ) a nd f o r s h ips t ype A I( i n f i g s . 7 , 1 2 a nd 1 3 ) . I n a n o ppo s i te p o s i t ion i nt h ep lo td i ag ram st h e re a ppea r s ag roup o ft y pe sw h ich c onsequen t ly a r e n o t p roces sua l ly i ndependen t a ta l l . T h is i sv a l id f o r t h e c ar t s / cha r io t s a nd t h e c l o th ing / f rame s /ne t si nf i g s . 5a nd 1 0 ,f o rt h ec i r c les t y pe A 0b , B 0a , B 0b , C Oa a nd C Ob ( ? ) i nf i gs . 6 ,1 a nd 1 3 , a nd f o rt h e s h ips t y pe A I I , CIa nd C I I i nf i g s . 7 , 1 2 a nd 1 3 . I np lo td i ag ram f i g . 1 3 t h ea b so lu te n umbe r sa nd t h ev a r ia t ion c oef f ic ien tf o rt h ec i rc le s a nd t h e s h ips a r e p lo t ted a ga ins t e a ch o the r . I n t h e ma in s e r ies t h e c i rc les a r e p laced b efo re t h es h ip s ( f ig . 5 ) . T he d i ag ram c on sequen t ly s how st h ep roce s sua le xp re ss ion f o r t h e i nnova t ive p roces s . T he re i s ac onnec t ion b e tween t h e a b so lu te n umbe r a nd t h e p o s i t ion i nt h ei nnova t ive p roces s , a sw e l l a sb e tween t h eq uan t i ty a nd t h e s p read . T h i s c o r re la t ion e xpresses t h e r e la t ionsh ips b e tween t h e t ype s . T he o pe ra t ive l i nes o f r eg re ss ion d rawn i nt h e d i ag ram ma rk t h e p rog re ss ing p roce ss . T he a xe s s ucce s s ive ly b ecome mo re a nd mo re h o r izon ta l .T h is m ean st h a tt h ei nnova t ive t ype ss ucce s s ive ly a r e mo re n ume rou s a nd t h a tt h e mo t if g roups a r e mo re s p read u p t ot h e max imum o ft h e p roce ss . T he e s tab l ishmen t o f ap roce ssua l t ype a nd t h e c omb in ing o ft h e t ypes i np roce ssua l g roups b a sed o nt h er eg iona l ly w e igh ted f i gu re si nt h es e r ia t ion d i ag ram sa bove ,l e ad st o t h ec onc lu s ion st h a th uman ma te r ia lc u l tu re a ss t ud ied i nt h i sp ro ce s sm igh tb ec on s ide r ed a sv e ry r egu la r . I ts e em sp o s s ib le t ot a lk a bou ts pa t ia la nd c u l tu ra ll aw s , i nr ega rd o ft h e s t ud ied p roces se s . O nt h ef i rm t h eo re t ica lb a s i sl a id b y Ma lme ro n am ic ro - a sw e l l a so n amac ro leve l , i t h a s b een p o s s ib le t od eve lop a n a na ly s i s . T he s e r ia t ion a na ly ses d i sp lay ar a the rh igh d eg ree o fa ccu racy ,t h e reby a low ing af e edback t oi nd iv idua lr ock c a rv ing s i te s .I ts e em s p o ss ib le t op u t ac e r ta in r eg ion o r l o ca l o r s i te i n to t h e s e r ie s . T h is c ou ld b e d one b y r e p lac ing ar eg ion o r at y pe i nt h em a t r ix . I tc ou ld a l so b ed one b yq ua l i ta t ive m ean s ,b y c on f i rm ing t h ep re sence o ra b sence o fc e r ta in t ype s ,t h e reby i n c lud ing ad i scus s ion o ft h e v a r ia t ion a nd s p read o ft h e mo t if s .

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1 4 .3 1 1 . 2

1

0

5 < -

1 2 .3

0 . 3 1 20 ,7 0

2 5 .0110 .51 6 . 6 2 5 .0

F igure 3 b .

6 0 .9

0

0 7 . 7

0

2 .6

0

.8 0 12

0 . 7 12 .0

2 .0

0

0

0 . 7

1 0 0 .1

0 . 9

IC 0

G

0

0

0

9 .9

0 . 7 11 , 0 I0 . 3

0

0

0

0

0

9 .8

2 . 4 I 0

0

0

0

0

1 0 0 .1 1 0 0 .0

1 . 4

0

1 7 .8 1 1 4 .6

2 .1

0 . 3

6 5 .5

2 .4

0

0

0

1 .1 I 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3 .6

2 4 .8

0 . 7

1 . 7

1 . 0

1 .8

1 . 9

1 . 9

2 .9

1 9 .2

1 4 .3

5 . 8

5 . 5

4 . 2

2 . 6 0 . 5

0

1 3 .6

8 . 5

1 7 .1

1 . 4 1 0 .7

3 0 .3

5 . 0

0

01 53 .8

1 2 .5 I 0

0 . 6 12 . 2

7 . 9 l T

1 6 .5

0 i8 .9 4 . 8

5 . 1

6 . 5

0 .8

2 .0

T ab le o fc e ram ics a cco rd ing t of i g . 3 a . Ab so lu te n umbe r s c onver ted i n to p e rcen tages p e rl a ye r( hor izon ta l ly / rows ) . T he a r i thme t ic mean c a lcu la ted v e r t ica l ly ( co lumns ) . V a lue s e xceed ing t h e mean a r e o u t l ined . C o lumns n o t s o r ted .

2 95

A

A l l

A l l

A l 2

1

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

3

0

0 . 6

0

4

0

0

0

5

0 . 3

0 . 3

0 . 7

2 .6

7 . 7

2 .6

1 0 .5 .12 3 ,0

2 5 .0

6

0

7

6 . 6

B 1 12

B 1 13

0 12 .1

B l l

B I ll

1 2 .1

1 8 .6

C l l

8 1 2

7 . 9 19 , 3

5 . 0

9 . 3

4 .9

7 . 4

4 . 1 10 . 8

3 . 4

2 .2

0

0

0

6 1 .2

2 .3

1 3 ,2

0 H -7 . 74 1 0 .7

2 0 .7

6 0 .9

8 . 5

6 . 5

5 . 1

1 7 .1

2 .0

B I I4

1 3 .6

0

1 2 .5

C 1 2

2 .5

0

7 . 7

C 1 3

1 3 .6

0 . 8

0 , 7 12 .0

C 1 12

L J

0 0 . 6

2 .6

2 .9 _ ILL " 5 6 .0 1 . 7 4 3 .3 3 0 .3

C I I1

5 3 .8 I2 ,6

0 I7 . 3

6 . 7

8 . 6 1 . 7

0 . 8

1 . 6

0 .8

0

0

0

0

0

0

1 2 .8

2 .6

0

0

0

0 . 7

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

8

1 6 .5

2 5 .0

4 3 .9

7 , 5

0 . 5

0 .9

1 . 4

4 . 2

0

9

1 4 ,6

1 7 .8

4 6 ,3

1 6 ,7

1 . 0

0 . 3

2 , 1

0 . 7

0

1 0

1 4 .3

6 5 .5

1 4 .3

1 . 2

0

2 ,4

2 ,4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

I

1 .1

8 ,9 , 1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 . 3

F igure 3 c .

S e r ia t ion ma t r ix a cco rd ing t of i g . 3 b . C o lumns s o r ted .

F igure 4 .

T he g eog raph ica l a rea s o f No r th E ruopean r ock a r t ( f rom Ma lme r 1 981 , F ig . 1 ) .

2 96

F

E

A

B

D

C

G

H

C I R CLE S

H A ND S , F E ET

S H IPS

C A RT S , C H AR IOT S

C L OTH ING , U E APO NS F R AME S , N E TS

H U MAN F I GURE S

A N IM ALS

1B

5 5.9

2 2.5

1 2.2

0

0

0

6 .1

3 .3

2 13

1A

2 2.6

2 1.4

5 4.8

0

0

0

1 .2

0

8 4

3

1 6.3

2 1.7

5 1.2

0 .8

0

3 .1

2

1 0 .9

3 1.7

2 3.5

3 .3

0 .2

1 8.0

8

8 .5

1 7 .0

6 6 .7

0

0

0 .8

2 .6

4 .5

9 20

1 5.6

3 021

. 1 9.4

1 419

0

7 .0

1 29

8 .8

3 .6

4 77

6 + 7

5 .7

1 0.4

5 0.2

1 .4

0 .1

0 .5

1 6 .0

4

5 .0

1 2 .7

4 5 .4

0 .1

0 .1

1 0 .2

7 .0

5

3 .5

4 .9

4 7 .2

0

1 .7

6 .2

2 2.2

1 4.2

2 88

1 0 .5

7 .0

4 1.5

1 208

5 .2

7 .3

6 1.2

1 076

2 0 .7

5 2.5

6 80

9 5 15

9

5 .9

7 .1

2 8.0

0

1 0

0 .3

3 .5

2 2.4

0

0

1

4 .6

2 .3

1 9.8

0

0

6 48

1 049

3 877

6 1

1 0

4 57

1 034

2 379

1 2 .6

1 4 .1

3 8 .3

0 .5

0 .2

4 .9

9 .0

2 0.2

1 5 .7

9 .5

1 7 .7

1 .0

0 .5

5 .9

7 .5

2 1.5

1 24 .6

6 7.4

4 6.2

2 00 .0

2 50 .0

1 20 .4

8 3 .3

1 06.4

A bs . n :s

X

1 00 s

A bs. n :s

X P earson ' s c oeff . +

F igure 5 .

1 .28

+0 .44

-1 .20

+1 .50

+1 .20

+0 .9 1

+0 .80

+0 .84

S e r ia t ion ma t r ix f o r r ock c arv ing mo t if a nd mo t if g roups . P e rcen tage s c a lcu la ted h or izon ta l ly ( = reg iona l ly ) . T he a r i thme t ic mean c a lcu la ted v e r t ica l ly ( =co lumns ,t y pe s ) . V a lues e xceed ing t h e mean a r e o u t l ined . C o lumns s o r ted . T he s ou rce ma ter ia li ni t se n t i re ty f r om Ma lme r 1 981 ,p . 13 f .

2 97

E I DGC00000 Bl a

Al b

A l a

C O b

C

O a

BO a

AO a

A Ob

B O b

A bs.

n : s

I5.5

5 .5

7 2.2

0

0

0

5 .5

1 1.1

0

0 .4

2 .9

6 9 .8

0

3 .3

2 .5

1 5.3

5 .8

0

2 42

3

5 .9

0

5 2.9

5 .9

2 9 .4

5 .9 :

0

0

0

1 7

2

9 .6

0

6 7 .3

0

0

0

2 3 .1

0

0

5 2

8

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3 .1

1 9.4

6 .1

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1 4.3

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6 + 7

1 .2

2 .4

5 5.9

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0

2 3 .8

1 1.9

4

3 .3

3 .3

6 5 .0

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3 .3

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5

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1 6.7

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0

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1 .6

1 .6

1 0 .9

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1 7 .2

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1 4

1 6

3 39

1 5

3 5

X

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0

6

3 1.2

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6 4

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6 31

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3 .9

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1 0.2

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1 0.9

1 5.5

3 .3

5 2.3

1 20.4

1 47.8

1 28.2

6 0.9

1 34.8

1 50.0

- 0 .97

- 0 .17

+ 1 .06

+ 1 .32

+ 0 .33

+ 1 .10

+ 1 .27

X P earson's c oeff. + 1 .26

F igure 6 .

S e r ia t ion ma t r ix f o r c i rc les . P e rcen tages c a lcu la ted h or izon ta l ly ( = reg ionaly ) . T he a r i thme t ic m ean c a lcu la ted v e r t ica l ly .V a lue se xceed ing t h em ean a r eo u t l ined .

2 98

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B I

B III

1B

BII

0

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C I

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AI

z z / (=j , 0

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7 .7

1A

6 .5

6 .5

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7 1.7

3

4 .5

1 6 .7

1 3 .6

5 7 .6

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2

1 0 .7

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5 0 .0

2 7 .7

8

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1 1.4

2 5 .2

3 9 .2

1 5 .5

1 1.9

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4

1 .9

1 .9

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-4 7 .1

2 8 .1

6 .2

5

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6 6 .2

1 7 .6

3 .7

3 .

1 0.9

4 .1

1 0 .6

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P earson 's c oeff .+ 0 .78

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9

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F igure 7 .

( AI I

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3 .6

4 .9

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0 .2

1 8 .8

2 .7

0 .4

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S er ia t ion ma t r ix f or s h ips . P ercen tages c a lcu la ted h o r izon ta l ly ( =reg iona l ly ) . T he a r i thme t ic mean c a lcu la ted v a r t ica l ly . V a lues e xceed ing t h em ean a r eo u t l ined .

TYPE A C IRC LES

H ANDS ,F EET

SH IPS

C ARTS ,

F RAMES ,

C HAR IOTS

N ETS

7

2

3

4

5

P ICK ING T ECHN IQUE

6

8

I

I

WEAPONS

HUMAN AN IMALS F IGURES

A

B C D

1B

5 5 .9

2 2 .5

1 2 .2

0

6 .1

3 .3

1A

2 2.6

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5 4.8

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3

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2 1.7

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0

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2

1 0.9

3 1.7

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8 .8

3 .6

8

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1 7 .0

6 6 .7

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4 .5

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5 0 .2

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1 6 .0

1 5 .6

4

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4 5 .4

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1 9 .4

5

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7 .9

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9

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6 1.2

1

4 .6

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1 4 .1

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9 .0

2 0.2

S

6 .6

1 00 s 17 .9

P earson's c oeff . +0 .77

F igure 9 .

S er ia t ion ma t r ix f o r r ock c a rv ing mo t if s a cco rd ing t o f i g . C o lumn sB , Ca nd D c omb ined .

3 00

5 .

P E A R SON 'S C O EFF IC IE NT O F S KE W NE S S 3 ( 5 Z -m o )

+1 .50+1 .25+1 .00+0 .75+0 .50+ .0.25+0 .00-0 .00-0 .25-0 .50-0 .75-1 .00-1 .25-1 .504 0-

5 0-

6 0-

7 0-

8 0-

9 0- 1 00- 10- 1 20- 1 30- 1 40- 1 50- 1 75- 2 00-

V A R IAT IO N C O EFF IC IEN T 1 0 0 s

F igure 1 0 .

P lo t d iagram o f P ea rson 's c oef f ic ien t o f s kewness v ersus t he v a r ia t ion c oef f ic ien t f o r a l l r ock c a rv ing mo t if s a ccord ing t o f i g . 5 .

3 01

P E A R SO N 'S C O EF F IC IEN T O F S K EW NE S S 3 ( < -M D ) +1 .50+1 .25-

B l A

B O B

B O A

+1 .00-

A O B

C O A

+0 .75+0 .50+0 .25-

A D A

+0 .00-

C O B

-0 .00-

A l B

-0 .25-0 .50-

A l A

-0 .751 .00-1 .25-1 .50 -

5 0-

6 0-

7 0-

8 0-

9 0- 1 00- 10- 1 20- 1 30- 1 40- 1 50- 1 75- 2 00- 25-

V AR IA T IO N C O EFF IC IEN T 1 0 0 s

F igure 1 1 .

P lo t d iagram o f P ea r son 's c oef f ic ien t o f s kewness v e rsus t he v a r ia t ion c oeff ic ien tf o rc i r c le s ,a cco rd ing t of i g . 6 .

P EA R SON S 'S C O EF F IC IE NT O f S KE W NE SS

3 (

- r e )

+ 1 .50 + 1 .25 -

; NW

+ 1 .00 -

\ t o m i l

+0 .75 +0 .50 +0 .25 +0 .00 0 .00 -

4 e t e2)

-0 .25 0 .50 -0 .75 - 1 .00 - 1 .25 1 .50 -

5 0-

6 0-

7 0-

8 0-

9 0-

1 00-

10-

1 20-

1 30-

1 40-

1 50-

1 60-

1 70-

1 80-

1 90-

2 00-

2 25-

V A R IA T IO N C O EFF IC IEN T

F igure 1 2 .

2 50-

1 0 0 s

P lo t d iagram o f P ea r son 's c oef f ic ien t o f s kewness v e rsus t he v a r ia t ion c oef f ic ien tf o rs h ip s , a cco rd ing t of i g . 7 .

3 02

A B SOLU TE N UI BER S

1 5001 2501 0009 008 007 006 005 004 003 002 001 009 59 08 58 07 57 06 56 05 55 04 54 03 53 02 52 01 51 05 -

A I

B I

4 0-

5 0-

6 0-

7 0-

8 0-

9 0- 1 00- 10- 1 20- 1 30- 1 40- 1 50- 1 60- 1 70- 1 80- 1 90- 2 00- 25- 2 50- 2 75-

V AR IA T ION C O E FF IC IEN T 1 0 0 s

F igure 1 3 .

P lo t d i ag ram o f a b so lu te n umbe r s v e r sus t h e v a r ia t ion c oe f f ic ien t f o r c i r c le s( c ap i ta l sa nd c i r c le s ) a nd s h ip s ( i t a l ic s ) a cco rd ing t of i g . 5 , 6a nd 7 .

3 03

R eferences B robe rg , B& H a s se lmo ,M . , 1 981 . K e ram ik ,k amma ro ch s ko rf r än 7mede l t ida s t äde r . F ynd s tud ie .R appor t Med e l t id s s taden 3 0 . S tockho lm . B u renhu l t , G . , 1 980 . Gö ta land s h ä l lr i s tn inga r . D e l I .T heses a nd p aper s i nN or th E uropean A rchaeo logy 1 0 . S tockho lm . F rykman , J .& L öfg ren , 0 . , 1 980 . D en k u l t ive rade m änn iskan . S kr if ter u t g ivna a v E tno log i ska s ä l l skape t iL und 1 . S tockho lm . G lob ,P .V . , 1 969 .H e l ler i s tn inger iDanmark . A a rhu s . H äge r s t rand ,T . , 1 953 . I nnova t ion sfö r loppe tu rk o ro log i sk s ynpunk t . Medde land en f r e in L und su n iver s i t e t sG eograf i ska I n s t i tu t ion ,A vhand l ingar 2 5 . L und . K je l l6n , E . &H yen s t rand , A . , 1 977 . H ä l l r is tn inga ro ch b ronsä lde r s sa rnhä l le is ydvä s t ra U pp land . U pp land sF ornm inne sf ören ings T id skr if t4 9 . U ppsa la . K yh lbe rg , 0 . , 1 980 . H e lgö o ch B i rka . K rono log i sk topog raf i sk a na ly s a v g ray - o ch b op la tse r . R appor t er o ch m edde landen f rän i n s t i tu t ionen f or a rkeo log i , s är sk i l t n ordeurope i sk , v id S tockho lm su n iver s i t e t .N r6 .S tockho lm . 1 983a . S o l idu s a u reus . Me todo log i ska s t ud ie r i4 00 - o ch 5 00 ta len s myn t ska t te r . Num i sma t i ska m edde landen XXX IV . S tockho lm . - 1 983b . A rkeo log in o ch d e e x is tens ie l la g rundbeg reppen . K on tak t s tenc i l 2 4 -25 . S tockho lm . Ma lme r ,M .P . , 1 957 .P le ionbeg reppe t sb e tyde lse f ö rs t ud ie ta vf ö rh i s to r iska i n nova t ion s f ö r lopp .F inska F ornm inne sf ören ingens t i d sk r if t5 8 . H e l s ingfo r s . - 1 963 . Me todp rob lem i nom j ä rnä lderns k on s th i s to r ia .A c ta A rchaeo log ica L und en s ia . S er ies i n8 ° . N o . 3 .L und . - 1 967 . S ympo s ium iR om om ma tema t ik o ch d a tama sk ine r is amhä l l sye ten skape rna . F ornvännen . St o ckho lm . - 1 968 . D ek rono log iska g rundbeg reppen .F ornvännen . S tockho lm . 1 977 . C h rono log ie d e r S o l id i u nd Go ldb rak tea ten . A rchäo log ische B e i t räge z ur C hrono log ie d er V ö lkerwand erungze i t .R e ihe 3 .B and 2 0 . B onn . - 1 981 . Ac ho ro log ica l s t udy o f No r th E uropean R ock A r t . A n t ikvar i ska s er ien 3 2 . KVHAA . S tockho lm . No rdb ladh , J . , 1 980 . G lyf er o ch r um . K r ing h ä l lr is tn inga r iK v i l le . ( i nc l . J o in t a ppend ices t o t h e t h es i s . . . ) . A kadem isk a vhand l ing u tg iven a v I ns t i tu t ionen f or a rkeo log iv id G ö t eborgs u n iver s i te t . G ö tebo rg . No rd in , F . , 1 911 . Go t land s f ö r s ta k ända h ä l lr is tn ing . V id H ägv ide iL ä rb ro s n . F ornvännen . S tockho lm .

3 04

B IRD , F ISH OR SO ME WHERE I N BET WEEN? The C ase o f t he Rock P a in t ings o f t he Swed ish Wes t C oas t B y J an lNordb ladh D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fG o thenbu rg . B ox 2 133 . S -403 1 3 G ö tebo rg , Sweden . I nt h e No rd ic c oun t r ie s o fN o rway , Sweden a nd F in land , t h e re a r e t oday a bou t e i gh ty r ock p a in t ing s k nown . T hese p a in t ing s a r e o fa bou t t h e s ame k ind , t e chn ica l ly a nd i n c ompo s i t ion a sw e l l a sc ho ice o f mo t ive s a nd l o ca t ion . T he refo re t h ey c an b et r ea ted a s a na r chaeo log ica lc a tego ry o ft h e i ro wn ( F ig . 1 ) . However , w ha tt h is c a tego ry m ean ti n p reh is to r ic t imes i s n o t v e ry w e l l k nown . We d o n o t e ven k now whe the r i tw a s h omogeneou si nc u l tu ra lc on tex ta nd /o rt ime . T h i sp ape rw i l lb r ie f ly d i scu s sh ow a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l sc an b ef o rmed s t a r t ing f r om t h er e cen t d i scove r ie s o fr ock p a in t ings o n t h e Swed i sh We s t C oa s t . A s t h e h i s tory o f d i scove ry h a sh ad at ime s pan o fo n ly o ne d ecade a nd t h e s i te sa r ef ew -o n ly e i gh t ,w i th l e s st h an ah und red f i gu re sa l toge the r -t h ep roce s s ,o fd a ta f o rma t ion s hou ld b ee a s ie rt o r e cogn ize . How w a s t h er epe r to i re o fi mages -t h e d a ta b ank -a f f ec ted b y n ew f i nds? H ow w e l lw e re n ew f i nd sr e ce ived b yt h ec a tego r ie se s tab l i shed f r om t ime t ot ime? When w a st h es t o re o fc a tego r ie ss t ab i l ized ? T he s i te o f Tu m lehed o n t h e i s land o f H i s ingen w i th in t h e b o rde r s o f p re sen t -day Go thenburg w a s d i scove red i n 1 974 ( Cu l lbe rg , S jöbe rg & No rdb ladh 1 975 ) . T he p a in t ing c an , d e sp i te i t s r a the rl im i ted s pace o f c . 1x 1me te r ,b es een a t ad i s tance a c ro ss t h e T um lehed v a l ley . T he s i te i ss i tua ted a bou t2 5 me te r s a bove t h ep re sen t s ea l e ve l o n av e r t ica l r ock w i th u neven s he lves . No t a l l t h e f i gu re s , a bou t e i gh teen , a r e e qua l ly e a sy t od i sce rn ; t h e re a r e a l so s po t s o fp a in t , n ow i mposs ib le t o i d en t ify a s f i gu re s .T he l a rge s t mo t ive i s ad ee rw i th f ou rl e g sa nd an e t -f igu re i nc onnec t ion w i th i t s h ead .T he re a r ea l so b oa t l ike f i gu re sw i th i nd ica t ion so fc r ew s , a nd f u r the rmo re f i sh a nd z i g -zag b and s . A s ac ompo s i t ion a l lt h ef i gu re s s e em t ob ed i rec ted t ot h er i gh t . D ur ing p r eh i s to r ic t ime s t h e s i te w a s s i tua ted i na n a r ch ipe lago c l o se ly c onnec ted w i th t h e s ea . ( F ig . 2 ) . I n1 976 t wo mo re f i nd so fp a in t ing sw e r er epo r ted f r om t h ep rov ince o fV ä rm land NE o f B ohus län , b o th s i tua ted o n t h e s ame l a ke , N ed re B loms jön . T he f i r s t , B ra t tbergen , c on ta ins as i ng le e l kf i gu re , e xecu ted i nc on tou r , w i th l i f e l ines a nd ah ea r ti nt h eb ody ( No rdb ladh 1 976 ) . O n ly t wo l e g s a r e s hown . T he s i te i so n a n e ven , v er t ica l p rec ip ice a bou t 1 . 5 m e te r sa bove t h ew a te rl e ve l ( F ig . 3 ) . T he o the r s i te i s ac oup le o fk i lome te r s s ou thwa rd s o n t h e l a ke , a l so o n a n i mpre ss ive p rec ip ice , B rureberge t , b u t h e re t h e f i gure s a r e s c a t te red o r i n g roups ( No rdb ladh 1 976 ) . S ome o ft h ef i gu re sa r ew e l lp ro tec ted u nde rs o -ca l led a b r is . T he re a r ea bou tt e n f i gu re s . Mo s to ft h em a r ee l k s w i thou ta n t le r s . As t ag , t h eo n ly o ne ,i sv e ry c l ea r . S ome o ft h ef i gu res a r ep a in ted s oh i gh u pa bove t h ep re sen tw a te rl e ve l( a bou t 4m e te r s )t h a ti n w in ter t ime ak ind o fl a dde r mu s t h ave b een u sed f r om t h e i c e o ft h e l a ke o rt h e w a te r l e ve l mu s th ave b een h i ghe r . T he f i gu re sa r ea l lf i l led ,w i thou tc on tou r s .T he b ody o fo ne o ft h ee l k sh a sg eome t r ica lp a t te rns ( F ig . 4 -8 ) . I n 1 977 a n ew d i scove ry w a s m ade i n S tranderäng , p rov ince o f B ohus län , a tt h e i nne rmo s tp ar to ft h eF jo rd o fA by ,h i gh u po n ac l if f( No rdb ladh & S jöbe rg 1 981) . I ti s p a in ted u nde ra n a r c l ike a br i , a bou t 4 5 m e te r s a bove s ea l e ve l , w he re t h e re i s aw ide 3 05

v i ew o ft h eF jo rd . T he p i c tu re a r ea i sv e ry s ma l l , w i th o n ly t wo f i gu res o fl i nked r i ng s ( F ig . 9 ) . T he f o l low ing y ea r as i te w a sf ound i nS und sbyn b yS to ra L ee ,w h ich i s af a r -reach ing s y s tem o f l ake s i nV ä rm land , b e tween Sweden a nd N o rway ( No rdb ladh 1 979 ) . T he p a in t ing , c ons i s t ing o ft h ree o rf ou rr e la ted h uman f i gu res , b e tween 1 2 -21 c en t ime te r s h i gh ,i ss i tua ted a bou t 1 . 5m e te r sa bove t h ew a te rl i ne ( F ig . 1 0 ) . I n 1 981 t h eh i the r to mo s tc omprehen s ive r ock p a in t ing s i te w a s d i scove red i n Medbo , B ä rf enda len , B ohus län , n o t f a r f r om t h e s i te o f S t rande räng ( Cu l lbe rg 1 981 ) . T h is p a in t ing i ss i tua ted a bou t6 5m e te r sa bove t h eb o t tom o ft h ev a l ley ,o n av e r t ica l , s moo th c l if fo fc .3 0m e te r s 'l e ng th w i th at e r race i nf r on to fi t .T he re a r ed i f f e ren tg roup ing so f f i gu res , s ome o ft h em d amaged , s ome v e ry c l ea ra nd mos t o ft h em f u l ly p a in ted . T he m a in c ompo s i t ion i si nt h em idd le ,a r ranged v e r t ica l ly ,w i th -a tt h et op -ah uman f i gu re w i th r a i sed a rm s ,f o l lowed b y ad ee r , an e t -f igu re o fo va l s hape , a nd a ne l kb u l lw i th b ig a n t le r s . B enea th t h ee l kt h e re i s ab ig f i sh a nd av e ry c l ea rh ook . T he b o t tom mo t if i sa h uman f i gure , p e rhaps r a is ing a b ow . B e tween s ome o f t h e f i gures s ma l l b i rd l ike c r ea tu re s a r ei n se r ted -e ag les? -w h ich a l so c an b e s e en t ot h er i gh ta s ap a i r , t hough o f b i gge rs i ze .F u r the rt ot h el e f ti nt h ef r ieze t h e r ei sa no the rv e r t icaly a r ranged g roup w i th ah uman f i gu re ( d if f icu l t t o s ee ) , e l k f i gu res a nd o t he r a n ima l s , who se s pec ies a r e d i f f icu l t t od e te rm ine . T o t h e f a r l e f t t h e re a r e mo re s c a t te red f i gu res -mo s t o ft h em h uman b e ing s ( F ig . 1 -15 ) . I n t h e s ame y ea r ( 1981 ) s ome t e n k i lome te r s t o t h e NW , a no the r s i te w a s f ound i n A l le s torp , w i th av e ry w e l lp rese rved a nc oncen t ra ted i mage o f ar ow o fh uman f i gu r es w i th at a l le rp e r son c l o se t oa nd a bove i t( Cu l lbe rg 1 982 ) . B e low t h e re a r e t wo s t ag s c onnec ted b y al i ne .T he s i te i ss i tua ted o na ni mp r e s s ive c l if fw i th av iew o ff i e ld sa nd a l i t t le s t ream . I t sa l t i tude a bove t h ep re sen ts e al e ve li sa bou t3 0m e te r s . Wi th in l e s st h an t e n me te r s ,o nt h es he lf w h ich i si nf r on to ft h ep a in t ing , s ome c up -ma rk sa r et ob e s e en ( F ig . 1 6 ) . T he l a te s tr epo r ted d i scove ry , S kar s tad ,i sf r om 1 985 i nt h e s ame B ohus län a r ea , s ome t h ree k i lome te r s S E o f t h e s i te o f S t rande räng . T he l o ca t ion t oday i sd rama t ic . T he p a in t ings a r e s i tua ted i n ag o rge o f a bou t f our m e te r s ' d ep th . T he a l t i tude a bove t h e p re sen t s ea l e ve l i sa bou t9 0 m e te r s , w h ich g ive s aw ide v i ew o ve rt h ev a l ley . Mos to f t h ef i gu re sa r ec l ea r ly s t ag sa nd t h er e s td ef in i te b u tu n r ecogn izab le f i gu re s ,e xcep tf o ra h uman b e ing . T hey a r ea l p l aced o nt h el e f th and w a l lo ft h eg o rge ,p ro tec ted f r om d i rec t s un -sh ine ,w ind ,r a in , s now a nd i c e . I nf r on to ft h e s i te t h e re i s ar a the ru neven b u tq u i te w a lkab le s he lf ( F ig . 1 7 ) .

O fc ou r se t h ef i r s td i scove ry a tT um leda len a c tua l ized t h eq ue s t ion o fi t sa u then t ic i ty . B u t t h e g row th o fl i chens a sw e l l a st h e w ea the r ing o ft h ep a in t a nd t h e p ene t ra t ion o ft h e s u r f ace l a ye ro ft h ec l if fb yt h ec o lou rp igmen t s ,s howed t h a tt h ep i c tog raph w a sf a rf r om mode rn .T h is e v idence w e re a l so r epea ted a nd c onf i rmed i nt h ef i nd st oc ome . T he t wo mo s ti n teg ra t ing f e a tu re sf o rt h er ock p a in t ing s i te so ft h eN ord ic c oun t r ie s a r e o fl o ca t iona la nd t e chn ica lc ha ra c te r : t h ec ho ice -o rr a the rt h ec r ea t ion -o fp l ace i sa lmo s t t h e s ame , w i th t h e p ref e rence f o r p rox im i ty t ow a te r -s a l t o r f r e sh -o n i mp re ss ive , v e r t ica lo ro ve rhang ing c l i f f s ; a nd t h eu se o fr ed o ch re p a in ta sc o lou r ing p igmen t s . B u t u nfo r tuna te ly t h e se t wo f e a tu re sa r en o tq u i te i n dependen t .T he i mage s may e x i s tb ecau se o ft h ep ro tec t ing q ua l i ty o ft h e a b r i s , a nd t h e refo re t h e s i te s a r e i mpo ss ib le t or e la te t o s i te sw i th o the rk ind so fp o s i t ion ( e xcep tf o rc a rv ings a nd i nc aves ) .T he m ine ra l so ft h e o ch re -based p a in t s eem t o ama lgama te w e l l u nde r a b r i -cove r s w i th t h e p e t rog raph ic l a ye r so ft h ec l if f s . 3 06

O the r k ind s o f p a in t a r e n o t k nown ( excep t a tG e i th i lde ren , Ä r sand i n Ho rda land , N o rway ) . Howeve r , a ne xc lu s ive , monoch rome r ed c o lou r ,u sed f o rt h e mak ing o fs i gn s a nd o fc ou r se o fs y mbo l s i sn o tv ery p robab le . T o a l low c on t ra s ta nd d i s t inc t ion mo re c o lou r s a r e n eeded ( Be r l in & K ay 1 969 , J acob s son -W idd ing 1 980 ) . O nt h eo the rh and t h ep a in t ing si nt h eN o rweg ian c ave s ( whe re o t he rc o lou r sc ou ld h ave s u rv ived ) a r e a l l monochrome . S o t h e se t wo f e a tu re s , l o ca t ion a nd t h e u se o fr ed o ch re , a r e n o tr ea l ly c l ea ra t t r ibu te so fr ock p a in t ing s .T hey h ave r a the r ac ons t i tu t iona lt a sk i nd e te rm in ing t h e f o rm ing o ft h i sc a tego ry a sa na r chaeo log ica lu n i t .

R ock i mage sa r ee spec ia l ly i n te re s t ing a nd i mpo r tan tb ecau se t h ey c an -f o rg ood r e a son s -b e s uppo sed t oc ons t i tu te s oc ie ta l m e ssages , c ons t ruc ted a nd i n te rpre ted b y h uman b e ing s w i th t h e s ame f unda -men ta lc ompe tence a sw e h ave t oday . T he se m es sages a r e b a sed p a r t ly o n s y mbo l s w h ich i n t u rn a r e p roduc t s o f t h e i r r ea l i ty , c hosen t o d o s i gn se rv ice . O n ad eepe rl e ve lt h ey c on s t i tu te m en ta ls t ruc tu re st om ake o ppo s i t ions a nd i n teg ra t ion sp o s s ib le a nd t h e reby t h ep roduc t ion o fe x i s ten t ia la rgumen t s . E ve ry t a ng ib le m e s sage i s as oc ie ta l a c t , ap a r t o ft h e i n te rg ra t ion o f as ys tem , whe re c e r ta in r e la t ions a r e s t reng thened o rw eakened . Mes sage sa r ea l so a dap ta t ion so fc ode s , m a in tenance o f c ommun ica t ion c hanne ls a nd -b y w ay o f e xpe r imen t -s p read o f i n fo rma t ion ( No rdb ladh 1 978 , 1 980 ) . W i th t h i si nm ind t h e re c an b en od i so rde ro rc hao si nt h er o ck i mage se xcep tt h a td ue t o c on tempo ra ry , i n suff i c ien t , s c ien t if ic m eans . T he v a r ia t ion b e tween t h e se i mage si st h e b a s ic ma te r ia l o fs t udy . I t mus t b e empha s ized , h oweve r , t h a t o cca s iona l a nd t h e reby w eak l i nk s b e tween i mages , o r b e tween i mage s a nd o the r ma te r ia l p roduc t s , a r e n o t s u f f ic ien t .A l lm en ta la c t iv i ty i si mmen se ly c omp lex a nd e nd les sa nd c ons i s t sp r inc ipa l ly o fl o ans a nd t r an sfo rma t ion s , w i th d i f f e ren to r ig in s a nd c on ten t s . N o s ymbo l ic s y s tem s a r e e n t ire ly u n ique . I n s tead , t he s pec ia l , d ema rca t ing a nd n on -s ta t ic q ua l i t ies a r e r e coverab le t h rough t he mo t if i ndex , t he mo t if c omb ina t ions , t he p r inc ip les o f c ompo s i t ion , a nd t h ev i sua l s y s tem a s aw ho le . I ti sr ema rkab le t ha t t h e We s t Swed i sh g roup f o rm s ag roup p r ima r i ly b ecau se o fi t s g eog raph ica ls e t t ing . C once rn ing f o rm a nd s t y le ,t h ei mage sh ave v e ry l i t t le i nc ommon . C once rn ing mo t if s t h e re a r ed i f f e rences , w i th a n empha s i so n e l kf i gu re s ( 3o f 8s i te s ) , d ee r ( 4o f8 ) , h uman b e ing s ( 4o f8 )a nd f i sh ( 2o f8 ) . Mo s to ft h e i mage s s how e i the r l i nk s w i th No rweg ian a nd /o rF inn i sh s i te s , o rt h ey e xpo se ( h i the r to ) u n ique mo t ives : a t S ka r s tad u n iden t if ied f i gu res , a t Medbo e ag le s , af i sh -hook a nd o va l n e t -f igu re , a nd a t S t rande räng l i nked r i ng s . E ven o n t h e s ame l a ke , N ed re B lom s jön , t h e re i sn o s t y l i s t ic r e la t ion b e tween t h e s i te s . T h is p henomenon i sa l so d emons t ra ted w i th in as i ng le s i te , Medbo , whe re t h e t wo v e r t ica l c ompo s i t ion s s how v e ry d ive rgen t mo t ive f o rm s . T he s pa t ia la r rangemen t s ,h oweve r ,a r es im i la r . T he f i gu res a nd c ompo s i t ions o ft h er ock p a in t ing s w i th in t h e Wes t Swed ish g roup a r e v e ry c l ea r . No f i gu re sc r o ss e ach o t he r ,a nd t h e re i sn oo bv ious d aub .T he mos tc omp lex c ompo s i t ion s a r e a t Medbo , b a sed o nv e r t ica lp r inc ip le s . T he o the rs i te s h ave o n ly o ne f i gure ( Bra t tbe rgen , S t rande räng ) , o r s ca t te red f i gu re s , o f ten w i th a p ref e rence f o r h o r izon ta l ism ( Bru rebe rge t , S und sbyn ) . S ome s i te s ( Tum lehed ,A l le s to rp , a nd S ka r s tad ) h ave c ompo s i t ion sw i th b o th h o r izon ta la nd v e r t ica le l emen t s . A l ls i te sw he re d i rec t ion s a r ep o s s ib le h ave t h e i rf i gu re sa r r anged i no ne d i rec t ion o n ly . T he s i te o fA l le s to rp i ss pec ia l .I t sl o ca t ion i sr a the rl ow i nr e la t ion t os ea leve l ,a nd i ti s 3 07

q u i te c l o se t os ome c up -m ark s .T he s t e reo typed s hape o ft h eh uman f i gu re si sr ema rkab le a sw e l la st h er ow s e en f r om t h es i de . A nd f i na l ly ,t h et wo s t ag sa r ec onnec ted b y al i ne b e tween t h e ir b ack l e g s a nd t h e i r t a i l s . T h is w ay o fa r rang ing f i gu res i ns pace h a s n o c oun te rpa r t a mong t h e r e s t o ft h e N o rd ic r ock p a in t ing s . T he re h ave b een s ugge s t ion s t h a t t h i s s i te i sf r om t h e B ronze A ge ( Cu l lbe rg 1 982 :18 , B u renhu l t 1 983 :203 ) , a n i d ea t ha t t akes u s t o t h e q ue s t ion o f c h rono logy . T he re a r e s evera l -a nd d i f fe ren t c h rono log ica l a rgumen ts . Mos t o f t h em s eem t o b e p os s ib le . S ome o f t h em a r e , h oweve r ,t oo w eak . A rgumen t s s uch a st h ec ho ice o fc l i f f s( Luho 1 962 :69 ) a sa t yp ica lo f t h e s i te s o ft h e B ronze A ge c a rv ings , o rb oa t mo t ive s a so n ly b e long ing t ot h e B ronze Age i mages ( Enge l s tad 1 934 :114 , Ma r s t rande r 1 965 :161 , B ang -Ande r sen 1 982 :67 ) a r e n o te nough a sd i agno s t ic i n s t rumen t s . T yp ica lc l if f so ft h ek ind u sed f o rr ock p a in t ing s , h ave a l so b een u sed f o rc a rv ing s ( Be r t i l sson 1 985 :213 -2 14 ) . B oa t s mu s th ave b een u sed t housand s o fy ea r s b efo re t h e B ronze A ge . E ven i f ac er ta in mo t ive i st yp ica l o fe . g . B ronze A ge r ock c a rv ing s , ad a t ing t oe a r l ie ro rl a te rp e rod si sn o te l im ina ted . I ft h et a sk i st os epa ra te d i f f e r en ta r chaeo log ica l c a tego r ie s , t h e s c ien t if ic wo rk p re sumab ly e n te r s d i rec t ion s wh ich a r el e s s s u i tab le f o ro the rt a sk s . I nt h a tc a se i tw i l lb ed i ff i cu l tt oa nswe r q ue s t ion ss uch a sh ow t h ec omb ined i nven to r ie so fc a t ego r ie sc an b er e la ted i ns pace a nd t ime ; whe the rt h ey a r ep roduc t so ft h es ame t r ad i t ion s ; a nd f u r the ro n ,h ow t h i s t r ad i t ion h a s s u rv ived a nd h ow t h ev i sua ls y s tem so rp a r t so ft h em c on s tan t ly o rp e r iod ica l ly h ave b een r ev i ta l ized . T he c hrono log ica l a rgumen t s a bou t t h e r ock p a in t ing s i mp ly av e ry c omp lex s t a te o f t h ings . T he c a tego ry o f r ock c arv ings w h ich r ef lec t s p r ima ry h un t ing a nd f i sh ing s oc ie t ie s ( no td ea l tw i th i nt h i sp ape r ) s how s a ne qu iva len tc omp lex i ty . T ime s equence s o ft he se c a rv ing s a r ef o rN orway f r om c .4 000 B .C . i n to t h eB ronze Age ( Ba cka 1 975 , H agen 1 976 :169 , H e l skog 1 985 ) ; f o r Sweden c .3 000 -2000 B .C . ( Ramqv is t , F o r sbe rg &B acke 1 985 :328 ) ; a nd f o rt h e w e s te rn p ar to ft h e U SSR c .3 , 500 -2000 B .C . ( op .c i t . p .3 26 , 3 28 ) . N or ock c a rv ing so fi c on ic t y pe h ave y e tb een f ound i nF in land . Wi th t h e se g ene ra l d a te s , t h is g roup o fr ock c a rv ing s s e em s t oc oex is t w i th t h e r ock p a in t ing s . B u t f o r t h e momen t n o p rec i se c h rono logy s eem s p o ss ib le t oo b ta in . T he F inn i sh p a in ted s i tes a r ed a ted i nr e la t ion t ot h ed eve lopmen to ft h el a ke s y s tem s , t oc . 3 000 -100 B .C . ( Taav i t sa inen 1 978 :181 ) . W i th t h e s ame m e thod t h es ea -connec ted s i te s o n t h e Swed i sh We s tC oa s ts hou ld b ev e ry o ld . B u tt h i si sh a rd ly t h ec a se . T he s t ra tegy o fr e la t ing t h es i te so n ly t o ac l o se w a te r -f ron ti sn o te nough h e re . S ve inung B ang -Ande r sen h a s a pp roached t h ep rob lem i n av e ry s ucce ssfu l m anne rb y d i scu s s ing t h eu se o fo ch re i nt h ep reh i s to ry o f SW N o rway ( 1982 ) .A pa r tf r om t h er ock p a in t ing s t h e re , h e h a s i d en t if ied 1 6 s i te s w i th t r ace so fo ch re . A t s ome o ft h em i tw a s p o ss ib le t od i sce rn s pec ia ld e ta i l sa bou tt h eh and l ing o fo ch re : b o th p a le t te s( wh i ch w e re f ound a l so i nt h e p a in ted c ave o fF inga lshu len ) a nd as he l l w h ich s eem s t oh ave b een u sed a s ac on ta ine ro fo ch re p owde r . T he se s i te s b e long t o as equence f r om c .5 , 500 t o 3 , 300 B .C . , w i th ad om inace o f 4 , 300 -3 ,300 B .C . U nfo r tuna te ly t h e re a r e n o d i rec t c onnec t ions b e tween t h e s i te sc on ta in ing o ch re a nd t h er ock p a in t ing s i te s . I na dd i t ion , o ne Norweg ian c ave , S o l sem , h a s a r chaeo log ica ll a ye r s , d a ted f r om L a te S tone A ge t o E a r ly I r on Age ( Sognne s 1 983 ) . T h is f a c t i s , h oweve r , n o t a b so lu te ly b ound t o t h e i mage so nt h ew a l l s . B u t t h e u se o fo ch re f o rt h er ock p a in t ing sp resuppo se s t h e u se o fo ch re e l sewhe re . I n Sweden o ch re o ccu r so n dwe l l ing s i te sa nd i ng rave sf r om t h eL a te Me so l i th ic t ot h eL a te B ronze Age , i . e . c .4 , 300 -800 B .C . ( e .g . Ma lme r 1 962 :215 , J anzon 1 974 , S t römbe rg 1 975 :37 , H ä l lans 1 982 , L a r s son 1 983 -84 , Wy szom i r ska 1 984 :183 -185 ) . F u r the rmo re , o ne o ft h e dwe l l ing s i te s w i th o ch re f i nd si sf r om K v i l le i n aP i t ted -wa re c on tex t , i nt h e s ame n e ighbo rhood a st h er ock p a in t ing o fA l le s to rp ( A l in 1 953 :223 ) . I nF in land ,g rave s f r om t h e C ombed -wa re C u l tu re o f ten c on ta in t r aces o fo chre ( Edg ren 1 966 , H ä l lan s 3 08

1 982 :16 ) . T hu s t h e No rweg ian , Swed i sh a nd a l so F inn ish o ch re f i nd s p a r t ly s uppo r t e a ch o t he ra nd t h eu se o fo ch re i sw e l lc onf i rmed f o rt h e Me so l i th ic ,a sw el . I nt h eg ene ra ls i tua t ion o fc h rono log ica lr e la t iv i ty t h e re i s ap o s s ib i l i ty o fc l o se rd a t ing : t o t r yt of i nd p hy s ica lc oun te rpa r t st oc e r ta in o ft h e mo t ives . O fc ou r se p i c tu re so fa n ima l s d on o th e lp h e re -u n le ss p i c tu res a r e f ound o no t he ro b jec t s -b u ta r t ifac t sc an h e lp . I n t h i sc a se t h ef i sh -hook a t Medbo p rov ide s ag ood o ppo r tun i ty .T he h ook i sv e ry c l ea ri n d e s ign , a nd b one h ook so ft h e s ame f o rm s hou ld b ep o s s ib le t of i nd . B u tu nfo r tuna te ly mo s t c omp le te f i sh -hook s a r e f ound i nc on tex t s o fl i t t le v a lue , e . g . a s s i ng le f i nd s i n l a kes a nd b og s . T he mos t s im i la r f i nd s s e em t ob e h ook s f r om t h e dwe l l ing s i te o f R o t t jä rn s l id , D ragsma rk p a r i sh , B ohu s län , s i tua ted c .3 0 k i lome te r s d i rec t ly SW o f Medbo . O nt h ei n i t ia t ive o ft h e Go thenbu rg A r cha eo log ica l Museum t h e re e x i s tt h ree C 14 d e te rm ina t ion s o fb one -ma te r ia l , w i th t h ef o l low ing r e su l t s : 3 , 650 ± 1 40 B .C . , 3 , 620 ± 3 00 B .C . a nd 3 , 505 ± 3 00 B .C . ( S t . 2 421 , 3 878 a nd 3 879 ) . T he f i sh -hooks o f R o t t jä rn s l id a r e mo s t ly b roken , s ot h a tt h et wo p a r t s ,t h ep o in t / f luke a nd t h es ha f ta r en o t k nown a s c omb ina t ion s . B u t a mong t h e c .1 2 f r agmen t s d i scove red t h e re a r e s eve ra l s haf t s w i th af o rm r e semb l ing t h e Medbo h ook . Mo s t o ft h e p o in t s h ave o ne o r t wo f l uke s ( F ig . 1 8 ) . * T he d i f f e ren td a t ing s s e em t ob ei nc on tac tw i th e ach o the r . T he re i sf o rt h e momen tn o e v iden t h i s to r ica l r e la t ion t o t h e P a leo l i th ic , C on t inen ta l r ock a r t . B u t a r e t h e r ock p a in t ing si nN o rway , Sweden a nd F in land p a r t so f am e re a r chaeo log ica lc a tego ry ,o rd o t h ey r ef lec t aP an -No rd ic v i sua l s y s tem? F o rs e ve ra lr e a son s ,i ti sn o ty e tp o s s ib le t og i ve a n a nswe rt ot h i s q ues t ion . I nt h i s h ypo the t ica l P an -No rd ic i mage w o r ld many s y s tem s m ay b el u rk ing ,c on tempo raneous o rd i f f e ren ti nt ime a nd w i th d i f f e ren ta l loca t ion s . T he w es t Swed ish r ock p a in t ings s uppo r t s uch av i ew . T he i mages a r e n o t o bv iou s a s a g roup . Mo s t l i nkages a r e w i th s i te s f a r f r om t h i s a r ea . T h is c ou ld p e rhaps s t imu la te a t tack so nt h et r ad i t iona lp reh i s to r ic s t ud ie so ft h eN o rd ic c oun t r ie s ,w he re mu l t icu l tu ra l s i tua t ion sa r eu sua l ly a vo ided a nd p reh i s to ry a tl a rge i s au n i l inea ra f f a i r . B u tw ha ta bou tt h eg eog raph ica le x tens ion? I ti si n te re s t ing t h a tF inn ish s cho la r s ma in ly l o ok t ot h e e a s t f o r l i nk s , o f ten w i th r e f e rence t os haman ism a nd L app c u l tu re ( d rum p i c tu re s ) ,n eg lec t ing t h ew e s te rn c on tac t s( Luho 1 970 :9 , S i ika la 1 981 ) .T h i si so fc ou r se ap o ss ib i l i ty , b u ti nt h a tc a se t h ey w i l lf i nd mo re c on tex ta nd m i l ieu a nd l e ss s ou rce so f o r ig in . T he r ock p a in t ings d i scussed h e re a r e mos t l i ke ly t o b e ac i rcumpo la r p henomenon ( c f . G jes s ing 1 953 , Ma lme r 1 975 ) . A lmos t i d en t ica l i mages s hou ld b e p o ss ib le t of i nd f o re xamp le i nC anada ( Taav i t sa inen 1 978 :187 , Wa inw r igh t 1 985 ) .T h i s i sh a rd ly ac a se o fd i f fu s ion i sm ( a s G je s s ing s ome t ime s t hough t ) . T h is n ew s i tua t ion c on ta ins t h ep o ten t ia lf o ri n dependen t ly e x i s t ing v i sua ls y s tem so n amo re r eg iona lb a s i s . B u ta bove a l l ,t h e wo r ld o ft h eN o rd ic r o ck p a in t ing sc on s t i tu te s ab ackg round r e f e rence t ot h e wo r ld o ft h e S cand inav ian r ock c a rv ing s .I nw e s ter n Sweden t h ee i gh tk nown s i te s w i th r ock p a in t ing sa r es i tua ted i nt h e s ame s u r round ing s a sa bou to ne t hou sand s i tes o f r o ck c a rv ing sw i th maybe 2 0 ,000 f i gu re s . T h i sl a t te ri mage c omp lex c anno th ave a r i sen o u to fn o th ing a nd f r om n owhe re . I tw i l lb e at a sk f o rf u tu r ea r chaeo log i s tt op onde ro nt h ef a c t so ft h i sc onnec t ion .

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F igure 1 . R ock p a in t ing s i te s i n No rway ( N ) , Sweden ( S ) a nd F in land ( F ) . S ou rce s : C u l lbe rg , S jöbe rg & No rdb ladh 1 975 ; H agen 1 976 ; T aav i t sa inen 1 978 ; B ang -Ande r sen 1 982 ; S ognne s 1 983 ; R amqv i s t , F o r sbe rg & B acke 1 985 .The s i te s o nt h e Swed i sh Wes t C oa s t ( t ot h er i gh ti nf i g . 1 )a r e : 1 )S und sbyn , 2 )B ra t tbe rgen , 3 )B r u rebe rge t , 4 )A l le s to rp , 5 ) Medbo , 6 )S t rande räng , 7 ) S ka r s tad , 8 )T um lehed .

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F igure 2 . T he r ock p a in t ing a tT um lehed , T o r s landa p a r i sh , Go thenbu rg . S ca le c . 1 : 13 . Documen ta t ion :N o rdb ladh & S jöbe rg 1 975 a nd N o rdb ladh 1 986 .

F igure 3 . T he r ock p a in t ing a t B ra t tbergen , N ed re B lom s jön . N ä s 1 : 35A I I , B lom skog p a r ish , Ho lmeda l r ura l d i s t r ic t , Vä rm land . S ca le1 :10 . Documen ta t ion : N o rdb ladh 1 976 .

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F igure 4 . T he r ock p a in t ing a t B ru rebe rgen , N ed re B lom s jön . L i l la B oda 1 : 4 , H o lmeda l sr u ra ld i s t r ic t ,V ä rm land .

F igure 5 -6 . D e ta i l so ft h er ock p a in t ing a tB ru rebe rge t , N ed re B lom s jön , V ä rm land . S ca le 1 : 10 . Do cumen ta t ion : N o rdb ladh 1 976 .

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F igure 7 -8 . D e ta i l so ft he r ock p a in t ing a tB ru rebe rge t , N ed re B lom s jön , V ä rm land . S ca le c .1 : 13 . D ocumen ta t ion : No rdb ladh 1 976 .

F igure 9 -10 . L ef t . R ock p a in t ing a tS t rande räng 1 : 5 , B ro p a r ish , S tängenä s r u ra l d i s t r ic t , B ohu s län . S ca le c .1 : 13 . D ocumen ta t ion : No rdb ladh a nd S jöbe rg 1 981 . R igh t . R ock p a in t ing a tS und sbyn 11 4 I V , Ho lmeda l p ar ish , Ho lmeda l r u ra l d i s t r ic t , V ä rm land . S ca le c .1 : 13 . Documen ta t ion : N o rdb ladh 1 979 .

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F igure 1 2 . D e ta i ls o f t he r ock p a in t ing a t Medbo , B ohus län . S ca le c . 1 : 13 . D ocumen ta t ion : N o rdb ladh 1 981 a nd 1 986 .

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F igure 1 3 -14 . D e ta i l s f r om t h e r ock p a in t ing a t Medbo , B ohus län . S ca le c . 1 : 13 . D ocumen ta t ion : Gö ran A nde r sson & N o rdb ladh 1 981 , N o rdb ladh 1 986 .

3 15

F igure 1 5 . D e ta i ls f r om t h e r ock p a in t ing a t Medbo , B ohus län . S ca le 1 : 10 . D ocumen ta t ion : G ö ran A nde r s son & N o rdb ladh 1 981 , N o rdb ladh 1 986 .

F igure 1 6 . T he r ock p a in t ing a t A l le s torp , 1 : 39 I I , K v i l le p ar ish , T anum r u ra l d i s t r ic t , B ohus län . S ca le 1 : 10 . D ocumen ta t ion : G ö ran A nde r sson & N o rdb ladh 1 981 .

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F igure 1 7 . T he r ock p a in t ing a t S ka r s tad , B ro p a r ish , S tängenäs r u ra l d i s t r ic t , B ohus län . S ca le c .1 : 12 .4 . D ocumen ta t ion : N o rdb ladh 1 986 .

3 17

F igure 1 8 . T he p a in ted f i sh -hook f r om Medbo ( l ef t ) a nd h ook s f r om t h e s i te o f R o t t jä rn s l id , D rag sma rk p a r ish , S kaf tö r u ra l d i s t r ic t , B ohus län ( 1 -12 ) . S ca le c .1 : 1 .3 . T he s i te w a sp ub l i shed b yA l in 1 935 .

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R eferences A l in ,J . , 1 955 .F ör teckn ing ö ver s t enä lder sbop la t ser iN or ra B ohu s län . Gö tebo rg . B akka , E . , 1 975 . G eo log ica l ly d a ted A rc t ic r ock c a rv ings a tH amme rn ea r S t e ink je ri n No rd -T ronde lag . P re l im ina ry r epo r t a nd d i scuss ion . A rkeo log iske s kr if ter f ra H i s tor i sk mu seum , U n iver s i te te t iB ergen .N o2 . B ang -Ande r sen , S . , 1 982 . Om o ke rb ruk b lan t f o rh i s to r iske j ege r / sam le r -g ruppe r i S ö r -No rge . ( Summa ry : O n t h e u se o f O ch re among Hun te r /Ga the re r -G roups i n S ou the rn N o rway ) . FAGGRENSER BRYTES . A r t ik le r t i l le igna O dmund Möle rup 7 . d ecembe r 1 982 . R ed . A .L i l lehamme r . AMS -Skr if ter . A rkeo log isk Museum i S tavanger .N o9 . B e r l in , B . &K ay , P . , 1 969 .B a s ic c o lor t e rm s . B e rke ley . B e r t i lsson , U . , 1 985 . N y reg i s t re r ing a v h ä l lb i lde r iB ohus län 1 982 -83 . A rkeo log i i S ver ige 1 982 -1983 . R aä o ch SH M . R appo r tR aä . 1 985 :5 . B u renhu l t , G . , 1 983 .A rkeo log i iS ver ige .2 . B önde ro ch b ron sg , ju ta re . u .o . C u l lbe rg , C . , 1 982 . N yf unna h ä l lmä ln inga r iB ohus län .B ohu s län . C u l lbe rg , K . , S jöbe rg , J E . & No rdb ladh , J . , 1 975 . T um lehed . T o r s landa 2 16 H ä l lmä ln ing . S tenä lde r /Bronsä lde r . FYND Rappor ter .R appo r te r ö ve r G ö tebo rgs A rkeo log i ska Muse iu nde r sökn inga r . E dg ren , T . , 1 966 . J äkä r lä -G ruppen . E n v ä s tf insk k u l tu rg rupp u nde r y ng re s t enä lde r . F inska F ornm inne sf ören ingen sT id skr if t . 6 4 . E nge l s tad , E . , 1 934 . ö s tnor ske r i s tn inger o gm a l inger a vd en a rk t i ske g ruppe . I n s t i tu t t f o rS ammen l ignende K u l tu r fo r skn ing . S e r ie B : S k r if te r XXV I . O s lo . G je s s ing , G . , 1 953 . T he C i rcumpo la rS tone A ge .A n t iqu i ty . N o 1 05 . Ma rch . H agen ,A . , 1 976 .B ergkun s t .J eger f o lke t s h e l ler i s tn inger o g ma l inger in or sk s t e ina ld er . O s lo . H e l skog , K . , 1 985 . B oa t a nd Mean ing . AS tudy o fC hange a nd C on t inu i ty i nt h e A l ta F jo rd , A rc t ic No rway , f r om 4 200 t o 5 00 Y ea r s B .C . J ourna l o fA n t ropo log ica l A rchaeo logy . V o l4 .N o3 . H ä l lan s ,A . -M . , 1 982 .R ö t tf ä rgämne in eo l i t i sk tg ravma t er ia l -e ns t ud ie i f ärgsymbo l ik . U npub l i shed p ape ra tt h eD epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fS to ckho lm . J acobsson -W idd ing , A . , 1 980 . C ommen t s o n Wre sche r : R ed O ch re a nd Human E vo lu t ion . AC a se f o rD iscu s s ion . C urren tA n t ropo logy . V o l2 1 .N o5 . O c tobe r . J anzon , G .O . , 1 974 . G o t land s Me l lanneo l i t iska g ravar . A c ta Un ivers i ta t is S tockho lm ien s i s . 6 .S tockho lm . L a r sson , L . , 1 983 -84 . T he S ka teho lm P ro jec t . A L a te Meso l i th ic S e t t lemen t a nd C emen te ry C omp lex a t aS ou the rn Swed ish B ay . P aper s o ft h e A rchaeo log ica l I n s t i tu te , U n iver s i ty o fL und . V o l5 . L uho , V . , 1 962 . K l ippmä ln ingen v id J uu s jä rv i . F in sk t Mu seum . LX 1X . - 1 970 . Om d ef ö rh i s to r i ska h ä l lmä ln inga rna iF in land .F in sk t Mu seum . 7 7A rg . Ma lme r , M .P . , 1 962 . J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L undens ia . S e r . i n 8 ° . No 2 .L und . - 1 975 . T he R ock c a rv ing s a tN äm fo r sen , Ä nge rman land , Sweden , a s ap rob lem o f m a r i t ime a dap ta t ion a nd c i r cumpo la ri n te r r e la t ion s .P r eh i s tor ic m ar i t ime a dap ta t ions o f t h eC ircumpo lar z one . E d .W .F i tzhugh . P a r i s . Ma r s t rande r , S . , 1 965 . F inga l shu len iG ravv ik . N o rd -T rönde lag . V ik ing . B ind XX IX . No rdb ladh , J . , 1 976 . N yf ynd a v h ä l lmä ln ingar iV ärm land , B lomskogs s ocken , n r 1 00 , 1 01 , 1 02 . U npub l i shed r epo r tt oR aä a nd ATA . - 1 978 . I mages a s Me ssage s i n S oc ie ty . P ro legomena t ot h e S tudy o f S cand inav ian P e t rog lyphs a nd S em io th ics . NE W D IRECT IONS I N SCANDINAV IAN ARCHAEOLOGY . E d .K .K r is t ian sen & C .Pa ludan - Mü l le r .S tud ie si nS cand inav ian P reh i s tory a nd E ar ly H i s tory . V o l1 .C openhagen . - 1 979 . N yf ynd a v h ä l lmä ln ing iV ärm land , Ho /meda l s s ocken n r 3 3 . U npub l ished r e po r tt oR aä a nd ATA . 3 19

- 1 980 . G lyf er o ch r um . K r ing h ä l l r i s tn ingar iK v i l le . ( Summ ary : G lyph s a nd S pa ce . O nt h eR ock C a rv ing so f Kv i l le , C oun ty o fB ohu s län , Sweden ) . G ö tebo rg . - 1 981 . Know ledge a nd I nfo rma t ion i n S cand inav ian P e t rog lyph Documen ta t ion . S im i lar f ind s? S im i lar I n terpre ta t ions? E d . C . -A . Moberg . D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy . G o thenbu rg U n ive r s i ty . No rdb ladh , J .& c S jöbe rg ,J E . , 1 981 .R appor tf rän g ran skn ing a vf örmodad h ä l lmä ln ing v id i n ner s ta A byf jorden :S t rand eräng 1 :5 ,B ro s ocken , S tängenä s h ärad ,B ohu s län . U npub l i shed r epor tt oR aä a nd ATA . R amqv is t , P . , F o r sbe rg , L . & B acke , M . , 1 985 . . . and H e re w a s a n E lk t oo . . . A P re l im ina ry R epo r to fN ew P e t rog lyph s a tS tomo r r fo r s , Ur n eR ive r . I n HONORE M EVERT BAUDOU .A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t .4 . S i ika la , A . -L . , 1 981 . F inn ish R ock A r t , A n ima l -Ce remon ia l ism a nd S haman ism . T emenos .S tud ie si nC ompara t ive R e l ig ion . V o l1 7 . S ognnes , K . , 1 983 . P reh i s to r ic C ave P a in t ings i nN o rway .A c ta A rchaeo log ica . V o l5 3 . 1 982 . C openhagen . S t rombe rg , M . , 1 975 . B ronsä lder p ä O s ter len . U nder sökn ingar i V a l leberga L öderup -Inge l s torp .K u l tu rnämnden iY s tad .Y s tad . T aav i t sa inen , J . -P . , 1 978 . H ä l lmä ln inga rna -e n n y s ynv inke l p ä F in lands f ö rh is to r ia . A n t rop log i iF in land .4 . Wa in r igh t , I .N .M . , 1 985 . R ock A r tR e sea r ch i nC anada .B o l le t t ino d e lC en t ro C amuno d iS tud iP re i s tor ic i . V o l XX I I . Wyszom i r ska , B . , 1 984 . F igurp la s t ik o ch g raysk ick h o s N ord - o ch N ordös teuropas n eo l i t i ska f ängs tku l turer . A c ta A r chaeo log ica L unden s ia .Se r . i n4 ° . N o 1 8 . L und .

C ommen t o n t he d ocu men ta t ion o f r ock p a in t ing s : T h i st a sk i se x t reme ly d i f f icu l tb ecau se t h ef i gu re sa r ei n f luenced b yh um id i ty ,t os un e t c . S ome o ft h ef i gu re s , e . g . S t rande räng , a r ec omp le te ly g one f r om t ime t ot ime . A l so t h e t r ac ing i sf u l l o f p rob lems , w i th d i f f e ren t d eg rees o f c o lour i n tens i ty . F ina l ly t h e i lu s t ra t ion so ft h ed ocumen ta t ion r e su l t s l a ck s t anda rd s . I nt h is p ape r af r ee d o tp a t te rn h a s b een t r ied , s o t h a t d ocumen ta t ions o f r ock p a in t ings a nd r ock c arv ing s c an b e s e pa ra ted . S ome o ft h ep rob lem si n vo lved i nt h ep e t rog lyph d ocumen ta t ion a r et r ea ted b y No rdb ladh 1 981 . A cknow ledge ments : Iw i sh t ot h ank Gö ran A nde r s son , T o s sene , t h e f am i ly o f Gö s ta B e rg s t rom i nS to r fo r s , O la N e rman , G o thenburg a nd my c o l legue J anE r ic S jöberg , T he Go thenbu rg A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum , f o ri n te re s t ing d i scu s s ion s a nd a s s i s tance a tt h e s i te s t h rough t h e y ea r s . Ia m d eep ly g ra tefu l f o r t h e h e lp o fH e lga O h ls son i ni mprov ing my p oo r E ng l i sh .

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ETHNOARCHAEOLOGY AS A METHOD OF ESTABLISHING MID -RANGE THEORY . A NE W ERA I N EUROPEAN ARCHAEOLOGY OR EXOTIC NONSENSE? B y Göran Burenhu l t D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy .U n ive r s i ty o fS t ockho lm . S 106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden . " A r chaeo logy i sa n th ropo logy -o ri ti sn o th ing " ( W i l ley , GR . a nd P h i l l ips ,P . ) I ndeed ap rovoca t ive l i ne f o ra r chaeo log i s t sw o rk ing i nE u rope . Y e t ,i tg i ve su st h ef u l l a nd c l ea rt r u th o f wha ta r chaeo logy i sa l l a bou t -o rs hou ld b e : t h e s t udy o fp r eh i s to r ic m an . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd m a te r ia l i so n ly t h e s pa r se r ema in s o f ao nce f l ou r i sh ing p r eh i s to r ic c u l tu re a nd c on sequen t ly t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h i s ma te r ia l mu s tb et h ef i na l a im o fa ny a r chaeo log ica l s t udy . N o ma jo r t h eo re t ica l a pp roach t o t h e m e thodo log ica l p rob lem s o f S cand inav ian p r eh i s to ry h a s b een m ade s i nce Ma lme r ' s p ionee r ing w o rk i nt h e e a r ly 6 0 's . I n aw ay J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien w a s t h e s umm i t o f av e ry s pec if ic S cand inav ian r e sea rch t r ad i t ion , i n t ima te ly l i nked t ot h e a r chaeo log ica lf i nd ma te r ia l , t h a t s t a r ted w i th f amou s s c ho la r s s u ch a sT hom sen , H i ldeb rand o r Mon te l iu s , b u tn ow p rov ided w i th af i rm a nd c a refu l ly f ounded t h eo ry a s w e l l a s a n i n te rd isc ip l ina ry a pp roach c on s ide r ing c ho ro log ica l a nd e nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s ( Ma lme r 1 962 ) . B u t t o Ma lme r t h e t ho rough s t udy o ft h e a r chaeo log ica lf i nd m a te r ia li so n ly t h eb eg inn ing o ft h e s t o ry , as ou r ce t o m ake p o s s ib le t h ec r ea t ion o f av e rba ld e sc r ip t ion o ft h el i f eo ft oo l -mak ing m an i nt h e p a s t . " A rchaeo logy i ss imp ly g ene ra l k now ledge o f man f o r 9 9% o ft h e c r ea t ing a nd t h ink ing m an ' st ime b e fo re t h e w r i t ten r e co rd s " ( Ma lme r 1 970 ) . G ene ra lk now ledge o f m an -t h a ti sa n th ropo logy . A pa r tf r om Ma lme r ' sw o rk Swed i sh a r chaeo logy h a s s i nce mo s t ly b een l i v ing o nl o an s f r om v a r iou s d i rec t ion s . F ew a t temp t s t op u tt h ef i nd m a te r ia l s i nr e la t ion t ot h el i v ing s oc ie t ie s o f t h e p a s t h ave s e en t h e d ay l igh t a nd much o f t h e t h eo re t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica ld i scu s s ion s h a s s hown a n i n c r ea s ing l a ck o fi n te r e s ti na r chaeo log ica l f i e ldwo rk . T he g ap b e tween t h e a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t a nd t h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e s y s tem ic c on tex ti nw h i ch i tw a sc r ea ted i si mmen se . F rom ah i s to r ica l p o in t o fv i ew t h i s s i tua t ion i sn o t a ta l l s u rpr i s ing . S ince n oc u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s f r om p reh i s to r ic t ime s e x i s t i n a ny p a r t o f E u rope , t h e d eve lopmen t o f a m a te r ia l l inked m e thodo logy w a sn a tu ra l ,f a rf r om t h eb ehav io ra l ly o b se rvab le w o r ld . I n as t r ic t s en se , t h i sc r ea ted af i rm a nd u n ique k now ledge o ft h e a r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l , b u ta tt h es ame t ime t h et h eo re t ica lf r amewo rk d u r ing t h el a s tf ew d ecade sh a st o ag r ea t e x ten tl o s tc on tac tw i th t h ep reh i s to r ic r ema in s . I n mo s tc a se s , t h et e s t ing o f mode l so r h ypo the se sp u tf o r th i sc on sp icuou sb yi t sa b sence . T ou nde r s tand t h ea r chaeo log ica lr ema in sw em u s tu nde r s tand t h ep ro ce s se st h a tc r ea ted t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l , t h a t i s , h ow t h e se p roce s se s t r an s la te t h em se lve s i n to t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . I n Ame r ican a n th ropo logy t h i sh a sb een c a l led m id range t h eo ry , t h e c r ea t ion o f ag ene ra l t h eo ry f o r e xp la in ing t h e p a s t a nd a dd ing mean ing t o o u r e mp i r ica l o b se rva t ion s ( B info rd 1 977 , 1 981 ; C la rke 1 973 , H u r s tT homa s 1 979 , 1 983 ; S ch if fe r 1 976 ; S u l l ivan 1 978 ; T homas , Win te rha lder a nd MacRae 1 979 ) . E thnoa rchaeo logy i st h e s t udy o f t h e l i v ing c u l tu re w i th in i t s s y s tem ic c on tex t , t h e 3 21

p roce ssua l s t udy t h a tc an p rov ide b r idg ing a r gumen t sf o rt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fp reh i s to r ic r ema ins ( Hu r s tT homa s 1 979 ) . F o rv a r iou sr e a son st h ee t hnoa rchaeo log ica la pp roach i n E u ropean a r chaeo logy h a sb een r ega rded a ss omewha td ub iou s . T he k now ledge o ft h ee no rmou sc omp lex i ty o fp r im i t ive s oc ie t ie s ,t h el o ca la dap ta t ion o f h uman b e ing s , a sw e l la st h ei mpo r tance o ft h ec l ima te h ave made many a r chaeo log is t s s c ep t ica l o ft h ep o s s ib i l i t ie so fe t hnoa rchaeo logy i nE u ropean a r chaeo logy . I th a s o f ten b een s a id t h a ti ti sn o tp o ss ib le t ot r an sf e ra ne xpe r ience o f Abo r ig ines i nA u s t ra l ia , f o r e xamp le , t oo u r o wn m ig ra to ry h un te r -ga the re r s d u r ing Meso l i th ic t ime s . O ne -s ided , d i rec tc ompa r i sons o rp a ra l le l s w h ich n ece s sar i ly r un t h er i sk o fb e ing t o ta l ly i n co r rec t h ave f r igh tened mo s ta r chaeo log i s t sf r om e ve ry f u r the ra t temp t . Y e t , t h e e t hnog raph ic a na logy i sp robab ly t h e o n ly w ay E u ropean a r chaeo log i s t s c an b r idge t h eg ap b e tween t h es i l en ta r chaeo log ica lf i nd m a te r ia la nd t h el i v ing s o c ie ty o ft h e p a s t . E thnoa rchaeo logy i ss imp ly aw ay o fu nde r s tand ing h ow t h e t h ing s w ee xcava te m ay h ave w o rked i nt h ep a s t . T he re i sn o d oub t t h a t o u r i n te rpre ta t ions o fp reh i s tor ic s oc ie t ies c an b e much mo re r e l iab le , d e ta i led a nd v a r ied i fw e h ave as o l id e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l e duca t ion f o r t h e p urpo se o fb roaden ing o u r p e r spec t ive a nd o ur b a s i s o fi n te rpre ta t ion . We mu s t f i nd p a t te rns wh ich a r e c ommon t o many d i f f e ren t s oc ie t ie s w i th s im i la r e conom ie s a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te rns , a nd l ook f o r t h ing s t h a t a r e i ndependen t o f c l ima to log ica l a nd g eog raph ica l c ond i t ion s a nd w h ich i n s tead a r e r e la ted t og roup s i ze , t h e u t i l iza t ion o f c u l tu ra lr e sou r ce s , t h eb reed ing o fc a t t le , g rave f o rm so r ac er ta in t y pe o fs e t t lemen t . I f w e c an f i nd p a t te rns w h ich a r e c ommon t o an umbe ro fd i f f e ren t c u l tu ra l g roups i na c er ta in k ind o f s oc ie ty , w e may b e a b le t o s t udy w i th c au t ion , i fa n a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l s e em s t of i ti n to t h is p a t ter no rn o t . I nt h i sw ay w eg e t at o ta l ly n ew d imen s ion o fo u rp os s ib i l i t ies o fi n te rp re ta t ion , a nd p e rhaps w e mus t b r ing f o rwa rd an umbe r o f d i f f e ren ta l ter na t ive sf o rf u r the rs t udy . T he e xamp les o f i mpo r tan t e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l f i e ldwo rk t h a t i n s ome c a se s h ave r evo lu t ion ized o ur c oncep t o f a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls o r t u rned a r chaeo log ica l s t e r eo type s u ps ide d own a r ei nnume rab le . H e re , r e f e rence s hou ld b e made o n ly t ot wo r e cen ts t ud ie st h a tm igh tg i ve E u ropean a r chaeo log i s t ss l eep le s sn i gh t sf o ry ea r st oc ome . P e te rJ . Wh i te ' s s t one too la na ly s i sa mong t h eD una speak ing p eop le so ft h eP apua N ew G u inea H igh land s ,w i th i t st h o rough a r chaeo log ica lc l a s s i f ica t ion m e thod s ,s howed g r ea t d i f f e rence si nt h e s hape a nd s i ze o ft h et o o l s made b yd i f f e ren tg roups o fc r a f t smen a nd a l so b e tween i nd iv idua l s (Wh i te 1 967 , 1 978 ; Wh i te a nd H u r s t T homa s 1 972 ; Hu r s t T homa s 1 978 ) . D av id H u r s tT homa sc onc lude s t h a t " much o ft h e s o -ca l led t y po log ica l v a r ia t ion t h a t a r chaeo log is t s n o te i np reh i s to r ic a s semb lage s i sn o mo re t h an v a r ia t ion b e tween c on tempo ra ry c r a f t smen " ( Hu r s tT homa s 1 979 ,p .4 10 ) . I nh i s own c omp rehen s ive w o rk o n t h e Mon i to r V a l ley S ho shone p eop le D av id H u r s t T homa sh a s s hed f l a sh l igh to nt h ev a s td i f f icu l t ie si nh un te r -ga the re rs t ud ie s . H ef ound t h ree s t ruc tura l ly d i f f e ren t e co log ica l a dap ta t ion s o pe ra t ing a tt h e s ame t ime w i th in a r ad ius o fl e s s t h an 1 00 km . A nd y e t t h ey b e longed t ot h e s ame g roup o fp eop le . "We c u r ren t ly l a ck t h et h eo re t ica l mode ls t oe xp la in t h i sv a r iab i l i ty " ( Hu r s tT homa s 1 983 ,p . 3 8 ) . O the rs t r ik ing e xamp le si nt h ee t hnog raph ic ma te r ia l ,r e levan tt oE u ropean p rob lem s ,c an b ef ound f o ri n s tance c oncer n ing l ong d i s tance c on tac t s a nd t r ade . I nS tone A ge No r th Amer ica , a tt h e t ime o fw h i te man 's a r r iva l a nd c on sequen t ly b efo re t h e u se o fr i d ing h o r se s , g ood s t r ave l led f r om t h e w e s t c oa s tt ot h e e a s t c oa s t i nl e ss t h an o ne y ea ri na r egu la r n e twork b e tween d i f f eren t t r ibes a nd w i th s pec if ic ma rke t p laces o r " r endez -vous " , ad i s tance o fo ve r5 000 km o rt h ed i s tance b e tween I r e land a nd t h eU ra l 3 22

Moun ta in s i nE u rope (Wood 1 973 ) . S udden ly t h e t r anspo r t o fg ood s a nd i d ea s i nt h e B a l t ic d u r ing , s a y ,t h eN eo l i th ic s e em st oh ave t a ken p l ace i n ab a th tub . A s im i la r s i tua t ion o f r ema rkab le l ong d i s tance r egu la r c on tac t s ys tem o ccu red i n A u s t ra l ia , whe re t h ed i f f e r en ta bo r ig ina lt r ibes h ad a ne qualy w e l ld eve loped a nd f i rm ly a r ranged n e two rk f o ri n te r t r iba lr e la t ion si n av e ry e ga l i ta r ian s oc ie ty ( Thom son 1 949 ) . Wh i le t h eN o r th Ame r ican e xamp le t o ag r ea te x ten tw a sb a sed u pon r e a lt r ade w i th d r ied f i sh , mea t ,f u ra nd h ide s ,t h eA bo r ig ina ls y s tem h ad ma in ly ar i tua lb a ckg round a l though d e s i rab le g ood sf l ow a l ong t h ep a r tne r sh ip t r a i ls . T h i sk now ledge c e r ta in ly g i ve su s ap a infu lp e r spec t ive o fo u ro wn p oo re f fo r t st oa s s ign m ean ing t ot h ea r chaeo log ica lf i nd m a te r ia l s . C an w et h en i na ny w ay c r ea te am id range t h eo ry , b a sed o n e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , s u i tab le f o r t h e d emand s o fE u ropean a r chaeo logy? T he e t hnoa rchaeo log ica lm e thod may b eu sed o ns eve ra ll e ve l s ,b u tf ou rm a jo r mode so f a pp roach c an b ed i s t ingu i shed i nt h i sc on tex t : 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 .

T he d i rec te t hnog raph ic a na logy . T he u t i l iza t ion o fp ub l i shed e t hnog raph ic o ra n th ropo log ica lm a te r ia l s . T he t r ansforma t ion o fe t hnog raph ica l o r a n th ropo log ica l t h eo re t ica l mode ls o n to a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s . E thnoa rchaeo log ica lr e sea r ch ,p e r fo rmed b yt h ea r chaeo log i s t .

T he s imp le d i rec te t hnog raph ic a na logy o rp a ra l le li st h e mo s tc ommon ly u sed me thod o f g e t t ing b r idg ing a rgumen t s f o rt h e a r chaeo log i s t , a nd i tw a s f r equen t ly u sed a l ready i n t h e 1 9 : th c en tury . O ne -s ided m i s -use o f i ti sc e r ta in ly o ne o f t h e ma in r e a sons why e thnoa rchaeo logy h as b een r e jec ted a s ar e l iab le me thod b y many E uropean a r chaeo log is t s . None t h e l e s s , u sed w i th c au t ion t h e s imp le a na log may p rov ide a n i n c rea sed a n th ropo log ica la wa rene s si no rde rt ob roaden o u rp e r spec t ive o fi n te rp re ta t ion . E thnog raph ic l i te ra tu re c an p rov ide a n e no rmous b u lk o f d a ta c once rn ing p r im i t ive s oc ie t ie s , a nd t h ei mpo r tance f o rt h ea r chaeo log i s tt og e ta qua in ted w i th t h i s ma te r ia li s o bv ious . Howeve r , much o f t he e t hnog raph ic d a ta i s i r re levan t t o a r chaeo logy . A rchaeo log is t s d ea l w i th ma te r ia l c u l tu re , e t hnog raphe r s w i th t h e s ys tem ic c on tex t s . C on sequen t ly many q ues t ion s r ema in u nanswe red t ot h e a r chaeo log i s t a f te r s t udy ing o t he rw i se c omp rehen s ive p ub l ica t ion s . A n th ropo log ica l t h eo ry i sb u i l t o n a n th ropo log ica l ma te r ia l s . F o r o bv iou s r ea sons t h e mode l sp u tf o r th c anno tb eu sed b yt h ea r chaeo log i s t . N eve r the le s s ,h o r r ify ing e xamp les o ft h i sa r en o tr a re i nE u ropean a r chaeo log ica ll i t e ra tu re , s t ud ie sw he re t h ea r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia li so f ten t o ta l ly i g no red . T h i sl e ave s u s , i n my o p in ion , w i th t h eo n ly f r u i t fu lw ay o fd ea l ing w i th t h ep rob lem o f c r ea t ing av a l id m id -range t h eo ry : e t hno -a rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch , p e r fo rmed b y t h e a r chaeo log i s ta nd d i rec t ly c onnec ted t oa r chaeo log ica lf i e ldwo rk ,f r om t h es imu l taneou s c o l lec t ing o fa r chaeo log ica la nd r e levan te t hnog raph ic d a ta t ot h ef o rma t ion a nd t e s t ing o f t h eo re t ica l mode ls . Whe the rw el i ke t oa dm i ti to rn o t ,t h em a jo rp a r to ft h ei n te rp re ta t ion st h a ta r en ow b e ing made o ft h eE u ropean p reh i s to r ic s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s a r ei nd i rec t ly b a sed o ne t hnog raph ic e v idence , f o ri n s tance t h er e su l t s o ft h e Ame r ican a n th ropo logy . O n ly w hen w er ea l ize t h e n ece ss i ty o f t h is , ad eve lopmen t o f ar ea l i s t ic a pproach t oo u r f i nd ma ter ia l s i s p o ss ib le .

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T he f o l low ing e xamp le may g ive a n i d ea o ft h e p o ss ib i l i t ies o fe ven av e ry s imp le , o ne leve l a na log , o r r a the r i d en t if ica t ion o f s im i la r i t ie s t ha t i n s ome w ay h ave t ob e e xp la ined . We h ave a lmo s tn ok now ledge a ta l lo fp r eh is to r ic v oyage sa c ro s st h es e ai nS cand inav ia . Wh i le w e h ave many f i nd s p rov ing t h a t d ug -ou t c anoes w ere u sed i n l a ke s a nd w a te r -cou r ses a lmos t 1 0 ,000 y ea r s a go f o r i n land t r anspor t s a nd f i sh ing , w e l a ck , f o r o bv ious r ea sons , e n t i re ly f i nds o ft h e c r af t w h ich w e re u sed a ts ea . I n t h e o ve rg rown l a ke s ,d ug -ou tc anoe sh ave b een p re se rved a sf i nd si nb og s ,b u ta tt h ec oa s t st h e re a r en o s uch c ond i t ion s . I n s tead w e mu s tt u rn t ot h er ock -ca rv ing so ft h eN eo l i th ic a nd t h eB ronze A ge t og e ta n i d ea o ft h eb oa tt y pe st h a tw e re u sed d u r ing ama jo rp a r to fo u rp reh is to ry . B u th e re w e c ome a c ro ss q u i te d i f f e ren t p rob lem s . I n s p i te o ft h e f a c t t h a t w e k now t housand s o f c a rv ing s o f b oa t s o n t h e r ock s i nt h e Swed i sh p rov ince s , n o c l ea r p i c tu re o ft h e r ea l p ro to type so ft h e se r i tua l s ymbo l sh a sy e tb een p re sen t ed . A pa r tf r om s ome v e ry s pec if ic N o rweg ian o nes t h a t o bv ious ly s how s k in -cove red t y pe s , t h e i r mag ic a nd c e remon ia l c on ten t sh ave m ade t h em s os t y l ized a nd s c hema t ic t h a tt h ea t temp t sa ti n te rp r e ta t ion h ave b een m any a nd u ncer ta in ( Ma r s t rande r 1 963 ; K je l l6n a nd H yen s t rand 1 977 ) . T he i d ea l s i tua t ion w ou ld o fc ou r se b et os t udy t h e s chema t ic r ock -carv ing so fp eop le s s t i l l l i v ing i n ap reh i s tor ic s oc ia l s i tua t ion a nd w he re b oa t s , a sm eans o ft r an spo r ta t ion a nd a cco rd ing ly t h ep i c tu re s o fb oa t s a ss ymbo l s , h ave b een o fg rea ti mpor tance t ot h e p a t te rn o fl i f ea nd t ot h ep i c tu r ew o r ld . A s am a t te ro ff a c tt h e re a r es eve ra l s u ch r eg ion s i nt h e w o r ld w he re w e h ave t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fc ompa r ing k nown b oa tt ype s w i th r i tua l r ep resen ta t ion so ft h em o n s t one . T he b r i l l ian ts e af a re r s o fS tone A ge P o lyne s ia b e long t ot h e se p eop le s . When J ame s C ook s a i led r ound t h e a r ch ipe lago o ft h e P ac if ic a tt h e e nd o ft h e 1 8 : th c en tu ry h em e tS tone A ge p eop le e ve rywhe re w ho s a i led w i thou td i ff icu l ty b e tween t h e i s land s . T he v oyages o f ten c ove red u n imag inab le d i s tances , c ro ss ing s t h a t c a l led f o r a dvanced k now ledge o fn av iga t ion . B u tw ha ti s mo s ti n te re s t ing f r om o u rp o in to fv i ew i st h a t t h e o n ly c r a f t t h a t t h e P o lyne s ian s k new a nd u sed f o r t h e se s a i l ing t ou r s a ts ea w e re t h eo u t r igge rc anoe a nd t h ef u l ly d eve loped d oub le c anoe . F o rt r anspo r t so n l a ke s a nd l a goon s , s l ende rd ug -ou tc anoe sw i thou to u t r igge r sw e re u sed ,e xac t ly a sd u r ing t h e S cand inav ian S tone Age , b u t o n o pen w a te r s t h is i ngen ious , a nd y e t s o s imp le , c on s t ruc t ion t oi n c rea se t h e s eawo r th ine s s o ft h ec anoe i si nd i spen sab le a sl ong a st h e b oa t sa r er e la t ive ly s ma l la nd s en s ib le t o ah eavy s e a . T he P o lyne s ian s h ave l e f t many r ock -carv ings b eh ind i n many p laces i n t h e S ou th P ac if ic , f o r i n s tance o n H awa i ' i , a nd a mong t h e many k inds o f f i gu res w e a l so f i nd r ep re sen ta t ions o fb oa t s , n a tu ra l ly e nough . S ince w e k now t h ep ro to type s i nd e ta i l , n o t o n ly t h rough s t i l l e x i s t ing o u t r igge r s a nd f r om t h e h i s to r ic e v idence , b u t a l so t h rough a r chaeo log ica lf i nd so fp reh i s to r ic b oa t s ,t h es c hema t ic f i gu re sa r eo fg r ea ti mpor tance t o t h e i n te rpre ta t ion o fo ur o wn c a rv ing s o fb oa t s . I tc anno t b e d en ied t h a t a l so t h e mo s t i nd if f e ren t r ock -carv ing s pec ia l is t mus t r a i se h i s e yeb row s f aced w i th t h e s t r ik ing p a ra l le l so ft h er ep re sen ta t ion s ( f ig s . 1 3 ) . We re o u t r igge r s p e rhaps t h e c r af t s a i led i nS cand inav ia d ur ing t h e S tone a nd B ronze Ages? C an i tr e a l ly b e t r ue , a si th a s b een s a id , t h a t t h e o lde s tk nown s a i l ing -ve sse l i n Sweden ,t h eb oa tf r om G a l tabäck f r om t h e6 t hc en tu ry A .D . ,m igh t a l so i nd ica te t h et ime o ft h ef i r s ti n t roduc t ion o ft h ea r to fs a i l ing i no u rc oun t ry? I no the r wo rd s ,t h a tf o r4 000 y ea r so fp e r iod ica l ly i n ten se c on tac tw i th t h eC on t inen ta nd t h e Med i te r ran ian c oun t r ie s , t h eS cand inav ian p opu la t ion m igh th ave m i s sed t h i st e chn ique c omp le te ly d u r ing ap e r iod w hen t h e s ea s w e re t h e o n ly m ean ingfu l r ou te s o f t r anspor t a nd c on tac t ( Bu renhu l t 3 24

1 971 -72 , 1 986 ) . T he re a r e many t h ing s t h a t i nd ica te t h a t t h e a dvanced s a i l ing -boa t s w h ich c an b es e en o nt h ep i c tu r e s t ones o nG o t land f r om t h em idd le o ft h eI r on A ge h ad al ong , l o ca l d eve lopmen t b eh ind t h em . A nd t h e re a r e i nf a c tr ock -ca rv ing s f r om t h e B ronze Age w i th i nd ica t ions o f m a s t s a nd s a i l s ( Bu renhu l t 1 971 -72 , 1 986 ) . B u t t h i s s imp le a t temp t t o make a n e t hnog raph ic a na logy i sn o t w he re t h e s t o ry e nd s . T h i s i s w he re i tr e a l ly b eg in s . T he k now ledge o ft h eP o lyne s ian r o ck a r tg i ve su s ap o s s ib i l i ty t o e s tab l i sh ah ypo the s i sf o rf u r the rt e s t ing .

F ig .

1 .

R ock -ca rv ing s h ips w i th s a i ls f r om K a l ia l inu i , i s land o f Mau i , H awa i ' i , a nd P u 'u loa , i s land o fH awa i ' i , H awa i ' i .

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S a l i t F ig .

i t te t 2 .

R ock -carv ing s h ip sf r om v a r ious s i te si n Sweden .

t a t F ig .

3 .

R ock -ca rv ing s h ips w i th s a i l s f r om J ä r res tad No . 4 , Sweden , a nd ar ock -carv ing s h ip w i th ma s tf r om Möck le ryd ,B lek inge , Sweden .

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R eferences B info rd , L .R . , 1 977 .F or t h eor yb u i ld ing i na rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk . - 1 981 .B one s :a nc ien tm en a nd m odern m y th s . N ew Yo rk . B u renhu l t , G . , 1 971-72 . R ock C a rv ing C h rono logy a nd R ock C a rv ing s h ips w i th s a i l s . Medd e landen f rän L und s U n iver s i te t sH i s tor i ska Mu seum . L und . - 1 986 . S peg l ingar a vd e tf örf lu tna . H öganä s . C la rke , D .L . , 1 973 . A r chaeo logy : t h el o s so fi nnocence .A n t iqu i ty ,v o l .47 . K je l l6n , E . a nd Hyens t rand , A . , 1 977 . Hä l lr is tn ingar o ch b ronsä lder ssamhä l le i s ydvä s t ra U pp land . U ppsa la . Ma lme r ,M .P . , 1 962 .J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L undens ia . S e r ie si n 8 ° , No 2 .L und . - 1 970 . A rkeo log i sk k van t i te t o ch k va l i te t . L undaf or skare f öre läser . I n s ta l la t ion s f ö r e lä sn ing v id L und sU n ive r s i te t 1 970 . L und 1 971 . Ma r s t rande r , S . , 1 963 . O so ld sJ ordbruk sr i s tn inger . O s lo . S ch if f e r ,M .B . , 1 976 .B ehav iora la rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk . S u l l ivan , A .P . , 1 978 . I n f e rence a nd e v idence i na r chaeo logy : ad i scus s ion o fc oncep tua l p rob lem s . I n : S ch i f f e r , M .B . ( e d )A dvances i na rchaeo log ica lm e thod a nd t h eory , v o l . 1 .N ew Y o rk . T homa s , D . H u r s t , 1 978 . T he a wfu l t r u th a bou t s t a t is t ics i na r chaeo logy . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty , v o l .43 , n o . 2 . - 1 979 .A rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk . - 1 983 . T he a r chaeo logy o f Mon i to rV a l ley . 1 .E p is temo logy .A n thropo log ica lp aper s o ft h e Amer ican Mu seum o fN a tura lH i s tory ,v o l .58 ,p a r t 1 .N ew Y o rk . T homa s ,R .B . ,W in te rha lde r , B . a nd MacRae , S . , 1 979 . A n a n th ropo log ica l a pp roach t o h uman e co logy a nd a dap t ive d ynam ics . Y earbook o fP hys .An throp . , v o l . 2 2 . N ew Y o rk . T hom son , D .F . , 1 949 . E conom ic S t ruc ture a nd t h e C eremon ia l E xchange C yc le i n A rnhem L and . Me lbou rne . Wh i te , J . P . , 1 967 . E thno -A rchaeo logy i nN ew G u inea : Two E xamp le s . Mank ind , Vo l . 6 ,N o . 9 . Wh i te , J . P . a nd Mod je ska , N . , 1 978 . A cqu i re r s , U se r s , F inde r s , L ose r s : T he U se A xe B lade s Make o ft h eD una . Mank ind , V o l . 1 , N o . 3 . Wh i te , J . P . a nd T homa s , D .H . , 1 972 . Wha t m ean t h ese s t ones? E thno taxonom ic mode l sa nd a r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ion si nt h eN ew G u inea H igh land s .I n : C la rke , D . ( e d ) Mode l si nA rchaeo logy . L ondon . Wood , W .R . , 1 973 . C on t ra s t ive f ea tu res o f n a t ive N o r th Ame r ican t r ade s ys tem s . A n th ropo log ica lP aper s4 .U n ive r s i ty o fO regon .

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THE ROCK CARVINGS OF BOHUSLÄN — S PATIAL CONTEXT B y U lf B er t i lsson D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S 106 9 1 S tockho lm , S weden . B ackground T he r ock c a rv ing s o fB ohus län , o n t h e w es te rn c oa s t o f Sweden h a s b een m en t ioned s i nce t h em idd le o ft h e 1 7 th c en tu ry a nd o b je c tt os y s tema t ic d ocumen ta t ion a nd r e sea r ch s i nce t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry . T h roughou tt h ey ea r st h ey h ave a t t rac ted many f amou s s cho la r s , o fw h ich s ome o ft h e mo s tr enowned a r eL au r i tz B a l tze rf o rh i so u t s tand ing d ep ic t ion s ( 1 881 -90 a nd 1 891 -1908 ) a nd O sca rA lmg ren f o rh i s a na ly s is o ft h e mo t if so ft h er ock c a rv ing s i n aw ide r , ma in ly h i s to ry o fr e l ig ion o r ien ta ted c on tex t ( 1927 ) . A lmg rens e xp lana t ion o f t he r ock a r t b e ing e xpress ions o f af e r t i l i ty -cu l t b a sed o n f a rm ing c ons t i tu ted at r end w h ich d om ina ted t h er e sea rch o ve r av e ry l ong p e r iod o ft ime ( a mo re c omp le te h i s to ry o fr e sea rch i sp rov ided b y Mand t 1 980 ) , a nd i nf a c tp a r t ly s t i l l d oe s . H oweve r , a st ime h a sg one b yn ew r e sea r ch t rend sh ave e me rged , a ls pa t ia l ly o r ien ta ted ( e .g . b y Hyen s t rand 1 977 , B u renhu l t 1 980 , a nd e spec ia l ly b y Ma lme r 1 981 ) . I n h i s c ho ro log ica ls t udy Ma lm e ra r gue ss t rong ly f o r ar e la t ive e xp lana t ion ,b a sed m a in ly o nt h e c on tempo ra ry c u l tu ra l c on tex tp roduc ing t h er ock a r t ( 1981 :109 ) o ppo sed t oA lmg ren s a b so lu t ee xp lana t ion i mp ly ing t h a t ad e s ign h ave t h es ame m ean ing w he re -a nd w heneve r i to ccu r s . B u renhu l th a s t r ied t op u tt h e Swed i sh r ock a r ti n to n o r thwe s tE u ropean a nd C on t inen ta l t r ad i t ions i n s tead o f s ee ing i ta s al o ca l p henomenon ( 1980 :139 ) a nd H yens t rand h as emphas ized t he s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween r ock c a rv ings , b ur ia l -g round s a nd d we l l ing -s i te s i n t h e B ronze A ge l a nd scape ( 1977 :25 ) . O n t h e i n te rna t iona ls c ene t h er ock c a rv ing si nS cand inav ia , a nd e spec ia l ly t ho se i nB ohu s län i s o f ten r e f e red t oe . g . i nw o rk s b y B r ia rd ( 1979 ) a nd b y C o le s a nd H a rd ing ( 1979 ) . I ti s o bv iou sf r om t h o se b ook st h a tt h el a ck o f mode rn c a ta logue sa nd a na ly s is h a sg iven r i se t o many m isunde r s tand ing s , e spec ia l ly c oncer n ing t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion ( e .g . B r ia rd 1 979 :156 ) . C o le sa nd H a rd ing ,a l though b e ing v e ry p e ss im i s t ic a bou tt h ep o ss ib i l i t ie st o m ake g ene ra l iza t ion s a bou t t h e r ock a r t ( 1979 :318 p p ) , f i na l ly a r r ive s a tt h e s ound c onc lu s ion t h a t : " P robab ly t h eo n ly w ay b yw h ich t h ea r tc an s ucce s sfu l ly b es t ud ied i s t h rough d e ta i led r eg iona l s urvey s o fd i scove ry a nd l o ca t ion , i nt h e i r r e la t ionsh ips t o , s e t t lemen t s , c eme ter ie s , h oa rd s a nd l a nd -u se o f t h e B ronze Age " ( Co le s & H a rd ing 1 979 :522 ) . I no rde rt ot h row s ome mode rn l i gh tu pon t h ep rob lem ,t h ep re sen ta u tho ri s n ow i n h i s t he s is , c onc lud ing a s pa t ia l a na ly s is a nd p resen ta t ion o f t h e r ock a r t o f B ohus län , wh ich h a s b een c a r r ied o u t i n t h e 1 980 s , b e ing b a sed o n a n a bundan t d a ta -body , o fw h ich ag r ea t p a r t h a s b een r e co rded a ts u rvey s t a ken p l ace s i nce 1 970 c onduc ted b yt h eC en t ra lB oa rd o fN a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie s( Be r t i l s son 1 986a ) . B ohus län S ince t h e d ay s o f B a l tze r a nd A lmg ren , w ho se wo rk s f o r al ong t ime p reva i led t h e o u t s tand ing s ou rces o fi n fo rma t ion a bou tt h er ock c a rv ing s o fB ohus län a nd T anum i n g ene ra l , i mpo r tan t s t ud ies w e re c a r r ied o u t b y F red s jö a nd b y N o rdb ladh , a l l ma in ly c once rn ing d ocumen ta t ion . T he l a t te rh oweve r ,a l so c a r r ied o u t ac a se -s tudy c once rn ing t h er ock c a rv ing si nK v i l le ( 1980 )o r ien ta ted t owa rd ss t ruc tu ra l i sm a nd s em io t ic s . ( Kv i l le i s al a rge p a r i sh a nd h und red ( Sw . h ärad ) i nt h e h ea r to ft h er i che s tr ock a r td i s t r ic t i n n o r the rn B ohu s län , c f . f i g . 1 ) . My p resen t a na lys is e ncompa sse s t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f k nown r ock c a rv ings f r om t h e p rov ince o f B ohus län , w h ich n ow amoun t s t o 1 , 598 l o ca l i t ies ( i nd ica t ing s i te sb e ing s e pa ra ted b y am in imum d i s tance o f5 0m ;f o rd i scu s s ion 3 29

o fp r inc ip le so fd ocumen ta t ion ,s e eS e l inge 1 985 ) ,a nd 2 , 288 e ngrav ing -area s( o fw h ich s eve ra lc an a ppea ro nt h es ame l o ca l i ty ) . 5 83 l o ca l i t ie sc ompr i se so fs uch w i th c up -ma rk s o n ly a nd t hus 1 , 015 o f s uch w i th m ixed d es igns i nc lud ing c up -ma rks . T he c o r re spond ing n umbe r so nt h ee ng rav ing -a rea l e ve li s8 99 a nd 1 , 389 r e spec t ive ly . Mo re t h an at h i rd o ft h el o ca l i t ie s h a s b een d i scove red s i nce 1 971 . T he p e r cen tage r e la t ion o f l o ca l i t ies w i th m ixed d e s ign s v e r su s t h eo nes w i th c up -ma rk s o n ly i s6 4 t o3 6 % . T he c o r re spond ing v a lue sf o rö s te rgö t land i s1 3t o8 7 %( Se l inge 1 985 :116 )a nd f o rU pp land 2 0t o8 0 % ( K je l la &H yen s t rand 1 976 :117 ) , w h ich mo re t h an a ny th ing i lus t ra te st h e r i chne s so fd e s ign si nt h er ock a r to fB ohu s län . T he t o ta l n umbe r o fd es igns i nt h e a r ea e nnume ra te s t o4 7 ,884 w h ich a r e d i s t r ibu ted a mong s tt h eb a s ic t y pes i nt h ef o l low ing w ay : s h ip d e s igns 7 , 947 ,h uman d e s igns 3 , 561 , f oo t d es igns 5 83 , a n ima l d es igns 1 , 533 , c i rc le d e s igns 6 31 ( among w h ich a r e 2 31 r i ng -c ro sse s ) , 3 1 ,740 c up -ma rk s a nd 1 , 889 o the rd e s ign s . T he l a t te rc a tego ry i n c lude s 7 9 c a r t d e s igns , 5 6 d i sc -shaped d es ign s , 2 7 c ro sses , 2 7 s p i ra ls a nd 2 6 n e t -de s igns . F ur thermo re i tc ove r s 1 3 s e rpen t s , 1 t r ee -shaped d es igns , 1 0 p lough ing -scene s , 9 s wo rd s ( a l l o f I r on A ge t ype ) , 8a rm a nd h and d es ign s , 7s h ie ld s , 4f i bu lae -shaped d e s ign s( one o fw h ich s e em st ob eo ft h es p ec tac le s type a nd a ccompan ied b y ad ep ic t ion o f ap a i r o fd oub le s tud s o f B audou ' s t ype 4 ( Baudou 1 960 :87 ) a nd t hus i nd ica t ing a d a t ing t ot h el a te B ronze A ge ) .T he re a r ef i na l ly s ome r e p re sen ta t ion so ft h et r i skel ion o r t h et r ip le sp i ra l ,i nd ica t ing ap o s s ib le d a t ing t oe i the rt h eN eo l i th ic o rt h eE a r ly I r on A ge , b u ta l lt h es ame p o in t ing a tc on tac tw i th We s ter nE u rope a nd e spec ia l ly t h eB r i t i sh I s le s . A no the ri n te re s t ing d e s ign i st h a to ft h e man t le o rc l oak ,w h ich a ppea ro nt h ree o cca s ion s i nB ohu s län a nd h ave p a ra l le l si nb o th U pp land a nd O s te rgö t land . T he re a r ef u r the rmo re s ome a xe d e s igns , e xecu ted i n much t h e s ame w ay a st hose o n t h e c i s t -s lab s f r om t h e K iv ik -ca i rn ( Bu renhu l t 1 980 :73 p p , g roup 8a nd t a b le 3 0 ) a nd f i na l ly ap a i ro fs t y l ized r e p re sen ta t ions o fb u l l so rb u l lock s -head s ,l ook ing a lmo s tl i ke r ow lock sa nd v e ry s im i la r t ot ho se o f Mon t B ego a nd V a l C amon ica ( e .g . B u r enhu l t 1 981 :247 , f i g . 6a nd B r ia rd 1 979 :165 ,f i g . 1 55 ) . S im i la rd e s ign sw e re r e co rded i nU pp land i nt h el a te 7 0 s( K je lMn & H yens t rand 1 977 :47 , f i g . 3 1) . A s p o in ted o u t a l ready b y Ma lme r , t h e re a r e e x t reme ly f ew d ep ic t ions o fu nhaf ted a nd n o tc a r r ied w eapons i nB ohu s län . S pa t ia l a na lys is F rom as t a t is t ica l a na ly s i so ft h ef r equence o fr ock c a rv ing sr e la ted t o ad ef ined s pa t ia l a r ea ,r ep re sen ted b yt h eg r id -sy s tem o ft h eE conom ic Map , t h r ee d i s t inc tc en t re s eme rge s o n t h e mac ro leve l , o fw h ich t h e mo s tp rom inen ti ss i tua ted i nt h eT anum -Kaleby -a r ea f o l lowed b ya no the rm a jo rc oncen t ra t ion i nt h eB o t tna -Kv i l le -a r ea a nd f i na l ly o ne i nt h e T o s sene -A skum -a r ea ( Be r t i l sson 1 986 :73 p p ,f i g s 1 0 -12 ) . M ino r ,m ic ro leve lc en t re sa r e l o ca ted t o t h e S kee -a rea a nd t ot h e i s land o f T jö rn . I fo n ly c up -ma rk l o ca l i t ie s a r e c on s ide red , t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion f a i r ly w e l lc o r r espond s t ot h a to ft h e m ega l i th ic g raves i n t h e a r ea . F u r the rmo re i ti se v iden tf r om ar ank c o r re la t ion a na ly s i s , t h a tt h e re e x i s t s n o p rofound d i f f e rence b e tween t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fc up -ma rk o no ne s i de a nd o ft h er e s to f t h e r ock a r t d es igns o n t h e o the r , a s s ome t imes h a s b een a rgued . T he p oss i t ive c o r r e la t ion c oncer n sa sw e l lt h es pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion a st h ef r equency ,m ean ing t h a ti tg e t s s t ronge rt owa rd st h ec en t re s . T he re h a sb een much d eba te a bou tt h ep o s i t ion ing o fr ock a r ti nr e la t ion t ot h es e aa nd i t h a sb een a r gued t h a ta lmo s te ve ry r ock p ane lw a si n ten t iona l ly p l aced w i th in s i gh tf r om w a te r( Bu renhu l t 1 980 a nd 1 983 ) . H oweve r ,a l though i ti se v iden tf r om t h em a ss o fs h ip d e s ign st h a tt h e s ea mu s th ave b een o ne i mpo r tan tf a c to ri nt h ei d eo logy e xp re s sed i nt h e ; rock a r t , i ti sf u r the r o bv ious t h a t o the r f a c to r s s uch a s o pen a nd a r ab le l a nd a nd p rox im i ty t od we l l ing -s i te s a nd b u r ia l g round s mu s th ave b een i mpo r tan tt oo ( Co le s & H a rd ing 1 979 :318 a nd B e r t i l s son 1 986b :11 p p ) . I nt h e macro -pe r spec t ive , h oweve r , i t b ecomes e v iden t f r om t h e a na ly s i s o ft h er ock c a rv ing s i nB ohus län r e la ted h e re , t h a t 3 30

t h e re i s ac l o se r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f r ock a r t l o ca l i t ie s a nd t h e c oa s t l ine r e la t ive ly s e en , a l though t h ea ve rage d i s tance v a r ie sb e tween 6a nd 1 0 km f o r t h e ma ss o ft h e l o ca l i t ie s . C once rn ing t h e a c tua l l e ve l l ing o fl o ca l i t ie s , amo r e d e ta i led a na ly s i sw i l lb ep re sen ted i nt h ea u tho r st h e s i s . F rom a n a na ly s i s o ft h e n umbe r o fd e s ign s r ep re sen ted o n t h e d i f f e ren t l o ca l i t ie s a nd e ng rav ing -a rea s , w ec an l e a rt h a tt h e a ve rage n umb e ro n t h el o ca l i ty leve li s2 7 a nd o n t h ee ng rav ing -a rea s2 0d e s ign si nt h es t udy a r ea ,e ncompa s s ing t h ec en t ra lr o ck a r ta r ea i nn o r the rn B ohu s län ( f ig . 1 ) . T he c o r re spond ing v a lue s f o r t h e t wen ty -f ive l a rge s t l o ca l i t ie sa nd e ng rav ing -a r ea sa r e4 05 a nd 3 04 ,r e spec t ive ly ,w h ich i n av e ry d i s t inc tw ay i lu s t ra te st h ec en t ra l ized d i s t r ibu t ion o fr o ck a r tw i th in t h ea r ea .T he l o ca l i ty h av ing t h e m o s tn um e rou sd e s ign si ss i tua ted a tT egneby i nT anum a nd o f ten r e f e red t ob yt h en ame " S tenbacken " a nd t h u s i nf a c t o u t -numbe r ing t h e T o r sbo s i te i nK v i l le ( e .g . C o le s & H a rd ing 1 979 :320 ) . T he l a t te ri sh oweve rt h e s e cond l a rge s ti nt h e e n t i re a r ea , h av ing mo r ee ng rav ing -a r ea s ,c .2 0 , a nd mo r e s h ip d e s ign s ,c .3 50 , t h an a ny o ft h eo t he r s . T he S t enbacken -s i te c omp r ise s o f c . 1 075 d e s igns a nd t h e T o r sbo -s i te o f c .9 60 . O ne r ema rkab le f e a tu r eo ft h ef o rme ri st h ee x t r eme n umbe ro fc up -ma rk s ,r i s ing u pt oc .9 50 a nd t h u sp robab ly t h el a rge s tw i th in a l lS cand inav ia . T he l a rge n umbe ro fc up -ma rk si s o ne o ft h e s a l ien tf e a tu re s o ft h el a rge l o ca l i t ie s a nd e ng rav ing -a rea s , w h ich h ave b een o b se rved i n t h e p re sen t a na ly s i s . F u r the rmo re t h e a gg lome ra t ion o f c up -ma rk s a r e g ene ra l ly f o rm ing r ow so rc i rc le so ro t he rg eome t r ic p a t ter n s . O ne i mpo r tan tr e su l tf r om t h es t udy i st h a tt h ec up -ma rk sc on s t i tu te av e ry i mpo r tan te l emen to ft h er ock a r ti nt h e a r ea . A ne l emen tw h ich c l ea r ly i n d ica te sc on tac tw i th t h eB r i t i sh I s le sa nd i t sg eome t r ic d e s ign s c onnec ted w i th t h e m ega l i th ic c u l tu re ( Bu renhu l t a nd F e t t a mong o t he r s h ave s poken i nf avou r o ft h i s r e la t ion sh ip ) . D ue t or e s t r ic ted s pace a va i lab le h e re i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t op re sen t a l t h e r e su l t s f r om t h e a na ly s i s o ft h e r o ck c a rv ing s i nB ohu s län , w h ich w a sg ove rned b yt h ec onv ic t ion t h a tb yc oncen t ra t ing o nt h e s pa t ia la spec to ft h e d a ta i t wou ld a l so b e p o ss ib le t o s ay s ome th ing a bou t t h e r e la t ionsh ip t o t h e a r chaeo log ica ls ou r ce m a t e r ia lc omp r i s ing o fn o to n ly r o ck a r td e s ign sb u tf u r the rmo re o f d we l l ing s i te s , b u r ia l -g round s , s t one a nd b ronze a r te f a c t s , t hu sh ope fu l ly g i v ing r i se t o mo re i n fo rma t ion a bou tt h eB ronze A ge m an a nd h i sl a nd scape a nd i d eo logy i nc on t ra s t t ot h ei mm ed ia te m ean ing o ft h es i ng le d e s ign .

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F ig . 1 . T he r ock c a rv ing a r ea o fN o r the rn B ohu s län . T he mo re d en se ly h a t ched a r ea i nd ica te st h e c en t ra l z one i nT anum , K v i l le a nd T o s sene .M a p :C a ta r ina B e r t i l sson .

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R eferences A lmg ren , 0 . , 1 927 . Hä l lr i s tn ingar o ch k u l tbruk . KVHAA :s h and l . ,d e l3 5 . S tockho lm . B a l tze r ,L . , 1 881-1890 . Hä l lr i s tn ingar f rän B ohu s län . G ö tebo rg . - 1 891-1908 . N y s e r ie . G ö tebo rg . B audou ,E . , 1 960 .D ie r eg iona le u nd c hrono log i sche E in te i lung d er j üngeren B ronze ze i t i mN ord i schen K re i s . A c ta U n ive r s i ta t i s S tockho lm ien s is . S tud ie si nN o r th -Eu ropean A r chaeo logy . S tockho lm . B er t i ls son , U . , 1 986a . H ä l l r i s tn inga r , g rava ro ch b ebygge l se iB ohu s län — e n a na ly s a v r um s l iga s amband .B ebygge l seh i s tor i s tT id sk r if t —F orn lämn ingar o ch b ebygge l se — N r1 . St o ckho lm . - 1 986b . R ock C a rv ing s a nd G rave s : S pa t ia l R e la t ionsh ips . Word s a nd Ob jec t s . T he I n s t i tu te f o rC ompa ra t ive R e sea r ch i nH uman C u l tu re . S e r ie D . S k r if te r LXX I .O s lo . B r ia rd ,J . , 1 979 . T he B ron ze A ge o fB arbar ian E urope . L ondon . B u renhu l t , G . , 1 980 . T he R ock -Carv ings o fG ö ta land . P ar tI .T hese s a nd P ape r s i n No r th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy 1 0 . S tockho lm . - 1 981 .S t enä lder sb i ld er . Hä l l r i s tn ingar o ch s t enä lder sekonom i . S tockho lm . C o les , J .& H a rd ing , A . , 1 979 . T he B ronze A ge i nE urope . L ondon . K je l l6n , E . & Hyen s t rand , A . ( e d . ) , 1 976 . T he R ock C arv ings o f U pp land , S weden . KVHAA . Monog ra f ie r . S tockho lm . K je l l6n ,E . &H yen s t rand ,A . , 1 977 . Hä l l r i s tn ingar o ch b ron sä ld er s samhä l le is yd vä s t ra U pp land . U pp land sF o rnm innes fö ren ing sT id sk r if t4 9 . U pp sa la . Ma lme r , M .P . , 1 981 . AC horo log ica l S tudy o fN or th E uropean R ock A r t . KVHAA , An t ikva r iska s e r ien 3 2 . S tockho lm . Mand t , G . , 1 980 . R is tn ing ss tud ie t if o r skn ing sh is to r isk l y s —H v i lke v ege r f o re r f r amove r? R i s tn inger if orh i s tor ie o g m idd lea lder . U n ive r s i te te ts O ld sak ssam l ing , V a r ia 1 .O s lo . N o rdb ladh ,J . , 1 980 . G lyf er o ch r um .K r ing h ä l l r i s tn ingarna iK v i l le . G ö tebo rg . S e l inge ,K . -G . , 1 985 . Om d okumen ta t ion a vh ä l l r is tn inga r —Me tod iska s ynpunk te rm ed ö s tgö t ska e xempe l .F ornvännen 8 0 . S tockho lm .

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BRONZE AGE APPROACH

SETTLE MENT

PATTERNS

— A CHOROLO GICAL

B y Ronn ie J ensen D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy .U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S -106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden . S pa t ia l a na lys is i n a rchaeo logy T he b a s ic a im o f s pa t ia l a na ly s i s i n a r chaeo logy i st o i n te rpre t a nd e xp la in s oc ia l s t ruc tu res a nd c hanges w i th in t h ese s t ruc tu re s . I nt h e w o rk s o fD .C la rke ( 1968 , 1 972 , 1 977 ) a nd I .Hodde r a nd C .O r ton ( 1976 ) modern m e thod s w e re a dop ted f r om h uman g eog raphy ( Hagge t t 1 965 , H agge t t e t .a l . 1 977 ) , a sw e l l a ss oph i s t ica ted s t a t i s t ica l a nd ma thema t ica l m e thod s ( Soka l &S nea th 1 963 , D o ran & Hod son 1 975 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o l a rge -sca le s pa t ia l a na ly s i s , i n t ra s i te s pa t ia l a na ly s i s h a s a l so b een g rea t ly d eve loped d u r ing t h e mo s tr e cen td ecade ( e .g . H ie ta la 1 984 ,K in t igh & Amme rman 1 982 ) . I nS pa t ia lA na ly s i si nA rchaeo logy ( 1976 )H odde ra nd O r ton g ave t h ree ma in r e a son sf o r emphas is ing t h e i mpo r tance o f d eve lop ing n ew me thod s i n s pa t ia l a na lys is i n a r chaeo logy . T he f i r s tp o in tw a st h a te a r l ie rr e sea rch w a sr ega rded a sl im i ted i ni t sa im s a nd me thod s , u nc r i t ica l i n a na lys i s o f d a ta e t c . T he s e cond p o in t w a s t ha t p rev ious i n te rpre ta t ions o f d i s t r ibu t ion maps w ere t oo s ub jec t ive . T h i rd ly , t he p o ten t ia l i n fo rma t ion f l ow f r om l a rge b od ies o f n ew d a ta , mus t b e h and led w i th more s oph i s t ica ted t e chn iques . H odde ra nd O r ton r e cogn ized t wo ma in p a th si nd eve lopmen t o fs pa t ia li n te rp re ta t ion s ( i b idem p p . 7 10 ) .T he f i r s ti nvo lve ss oph i s t ica ted q uan t i ta t ive a nd s t a t i s t ica l m e thod s i no rde rt oo b ta in g rea te rp rec i s ion a nd r e l iab i l i ty . T he s e cond m a in t r end w a s ag r ea te re mpha s i so na r chaeo log ica lf o rma t ion p roce sse sc once rn ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn . O ne d i f f icu l ty i st h a to nt h eo ne h and d i f f e r en tp roce s se sc an p roduce t h es ame s pa t ia lp a t ter na nd o nt h eo t he rs im i la rp roce s se sc an p roduce d i f f e ren tp a t ter n s . W i th in ag ene ra l s pa t ia l t h eory D .C la rke ( 1977 ) d ef ined f o r ma in g roups o f s pa t ia l t h eo r ies w h ich c an b eu sed i na na r chaeo log ica lc on tex t : 1 )a n th ropo log ica ls pa t ia lt h eo ry , 2 )e conom ic s pa t ia lt h eo ry , 3 )s oc ia lp hy s ics t h eo ry a nd 4 )s t a t i s t ica lm echan ics t h eo ry . F u r the rmo re h e d ef ined t h r ee l e ve l s o fr e so lu t ion i ns pa t ia l a r chaeo logy : am ic ro l e ve l c oncer ned w i th w i th in s t ruc tu re ma t te r s ( l eve lo fc on s t ruc t ion ) , as em i -m icro l e ve l ( t he w i th in -s i te o r l o ca l l e ve l ) a nd t h e m acro leve l c oncern ing b e tween -s i te ma t te r s ( t he r eg iona l l e ve l ) . C la rke ' s d ef in i t ion s w i l l n o tb e c ommen ted f u r the ri nt h is p ape r . F o ra S wed i sh r ev iew t h er e ade ri sr e f e r red t oF u r ing s ten 1 981 ,p p . 6 3 -65 . I n amo re r e cen t w o rk H odde r , r e f e r ing t oH i l l ie re t .a l . ( 1976 , p . 1 80 ) , emha s i se s t h a t " s pa t ia lp a t te rn ing may n o tb e ar ef lec t ion o fs o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion , b u tc omp lemen ta ry t o i t . . S pace i sn o t ar e f lec t ion o fs oc ie ty b u ti so rgan ized i nr e la t ion t os oc ia l f o rm , o f ten p rov id ing a n a l te rna t ive t oi t . W i th in t h e c oncep t s o f s oc ie ty , s e t t lemen t s pace may p rov ide an ece s sa ry b u ts e pa ra te f o rum f o rs ymbo l ic e xp res s ion " ( Hodde r 1 982 ,p .1 94 ) . J .Do ran c onc ludes t h a t t h e u se o f f orma l m e thod s ( ma thema t ica l , s t a t is t ica l a nd c ompu te r -ba sed m e thod s )i na r chaeo logy h a sf a i led t od e l ive ra s much a sw a so r ig ina l ly h oped ( Do ran 1 986 ,p .3 2 ) . H e s e e sa nu nce r ta in ty i nt h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween m e thod s , d a ta a nd t h eo ry . I nb r idg ing t h eg ap b e tween d a ta a nd p roce s s mode ls ,D o ran p roc la im s t h e n eed f o rt h e d eve lopmen t o f mo re a r chaeo log ica l t h eo ry t o wh ich f o rma l me thod s o ugh tt ob er e la ted .

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K in t igh a nd Amme rman c a l lf o rs pa t ia la na ly s i s mo re c l o se ly t a i lo red t oa r chaeo log i ca l o b jec t ives a nd d a ta , a nd r e commend ah eu r i s t ic a pp roach , a n empha s is o n t h e u se o f c on tex tua l k now ledge a nd h uman e xpe r t ise w i th in a f o rma l p rocedure ( K in t igh & Amme rman 1 982 ,p .3 1 ) . A rchaeo log ica l s pa t ia l a na lys is i n Sweden I n Sweden s pa t ia l o r c ho ro log ica l r e sea rch h a s m a in ly b een d eve loped i n h uman g eog raphy ( God lund 1 954 , H anne rbe rg 1 961 , 1 969 , 1 970 a nd H äge r s t rand 1 952 , 1 953 ) . S pa t ia l r e sea rch c an b e l ooked u pon a s o ne a spec t o fc ho ro log ica l m e thod s . B e s ide s s pa t ia l a spec t s ( s pace ) ,c ho ro logy i n c lude sc h rono log ica l ( t ime ) a nd i n nova t ion a nd d i f fu s ion ( movemen t ) a spec t s ,a sw e l l . I nc onnec t ion w i th a n a r chaeo log ica l s em ina r a tt h eU n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm i n 1 981 , P rof e s so r Ma t sP . Ma lme rd ef ined c ho ro logy i na na r chaeo log ica lc on tex t : A .

S ta t ic ( d irec t )c horo logy c once rned w i th " f o s s i l ized s pace " .S ta t ic c ho ro logy d ea l sw i th 1 . 2 . 3 .

B .

Dynam ic ( i nd irec t )c horo logy i sc once rned w i th s pa t ia l movemen to r d i f fu s ion o ve r as pan o ft ime .T h i si mp l ie s ac omb ina t ion o fc ho ro logy a nd c h rono logy .D ynam ic c ho ro logy c an b ed ev ided i n to 1 . 2 . 3 .

C .

O ccu r rence o f( n a tu ra l )r e sou r ce s A b so lu te t y pe o ccu r r ence ( o ccu r rence o ft h ew ho le o ft h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re ) R e la t ive t y pe o ccu r r ence ( t he l o ca t ion o fe a ch ma te r ia lt y pe i nr e la t ion sh ip t o e ve ry o t he rt y pe )

D if fu s ion b y ( n a tu ra l )r e sou r ce e xp lo i ta t ion A b so lu te t y pe d i f fu s ion ( s pa t ia l movemen to ft h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re o ve r as pan o ft ime ,i nnova t ion -d i f fu s ion ) R e la t ive t y pe d i f fu s ion ( t he p roduc t ion / innova t ion o fe a ch ma te r ia lt y pe i n r e la t ion sh ip t ot h ei n nova t ion c ou r se o fe ve ry o t he rt y pe

C ausa l ( e xp lana tory )c horo logy ,t h a ti sc ho ro logy ,c h rono logy a nd a n th ropo logy i nc omb ina t ion . 1 . 2 . 3 .

N a tu ra l( e nv i ronmen ta l )c au sa ld i f fu s ion ,e . g .c l ima te c hange sr e su l ti n i n c rea s ing s t o ck -b r eed ing i mp ly ing s pa t ia l movemen t se t c . C oncep t iona lc au sa ld i f fu s ion ( i nnova t ion a nd a ccep tance o fn ew i d ea s ) D emocau sa ld i f fu s ion ( d if fu s ion o fp eop le ,i nd ica ted i nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd )

T hu s , t h et h ree c oncep t sc horo logy ( c oncep to fs pa ce ) ,c hrono logy ( c oncep to ft ime ) a nd a n thropo logy ( c oncep t o f man ) c an b e l ooked u pon a s ma in f a c to r s i na r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . Ma t s P . Ma lme r w a s t h e f i r s t a r chaeo log is t i n Sweden t ou se a dvanced c ho ro log ica l me thods i n a n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t , a dop t ing i d ea s a nd me thods f r om h uman g eog raphy , e spec ia l ly f r om T .Häge r s t rand ( Häge r s t rand 1 952 , 1 953 ) . I n ap ape rc a l led P le ionbegreppe t s b e tyd e l se f or s t ud ie t a vf örh i s tor i ska i nnova t ionsf ör lopp ( 1957 ) , Ma lme ri n te rp re ted t h eS can ian B a t t le -Axe c u l tu re o nt h eb a s i so ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s o f d if feren t t r aces f r om t he ma te r ia l c u l ture , ma in ly i n c ompa r ison w i th t h e F unne l -Beake r c u l tu re . T he a na lys is w a s f u r the r b a sed o n d ens i ty maps , s how ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re r e la ted t o ag r id s y s tem o f h exagons ( compa re 3 36

H äge r s t rand 1 952 ,p .6 ) .T he g r id s y s tem w a su sed t od raw i s o l ine sc onnec t ing p o in t so f e qua ld en s i ty .I no rde rt oe l im ina te e r ro r s ma in ly c aused b yc u l t iva t ion ,t h em ean v a lue i n e ach c e l lw a sd e te rm ined ,w hen r e la t ing t h et o ta la r ea so fc u l t iva ted l a nd . When c hoo s ing t h ei s o l ine i n te rva l s , Ma lme r empha s i sed t h ei mpo r tance o fd e te rm in ing t h ec on tou r sf o r t h e mean d en s i ty i nS can ia ; i . e . w h ich p a r t s o ft h e p rov ince h ad g rea te rm ean d ens i ty c ompa red w i th S can ia a s aw ho le? O n t h eb a s i so ft h em ean v a lue ( M ) f ou ra dd i t iona l i s o l ine sw e re d e te rm ined s oa st of o rm ag eome t r ica l s equence w i th t h eq uo t ien t 2( M /4 , M /2 ,M , 2M a nd 4M ) . A rea s w i th h ighe rd en s i ty t h an t h e m ean v a lue w e re c a l led p le ions ( Ma lme r 1 957 , p . 1 74 ) . T he c oncep t o ft h ep le ion w a s a dop ted f r om H äge r s t rand ( 1952 , p . 1 0 , 1 953 , p . 3 5 ) , who h ad i n t roduced i ti n h uman g eog raphy . O r ig ina l ly t h ep le ion w a s u sed i n c l ima t ic r e sea r ch ,w he re i tr e p re sen ted a r ea sw i th p o s i t ive a noma ly . F u r the rmo re ,t h ed ens i ty d i s t r ibu t ion w a sr e la ted t os o i lc ond i t ion s . A se xpec ted , ah igh p o s i t ive c o r re la t ion w a sv e r i f ied b e tween p le ion a r ea sa nd a r eas w i th f e r t i le a r ab le l a nd . T ha ti s ,t h em a thema t ica lp le ion a r ea so nt h ed ens i ty maps c an b el ooked u pon a sa r ea s w he re t h ea g ra r ian e conomy w a s mo re p rof i tab le t h an a r ea so u t s ide t h ep le ion . When a na ly s ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fd i f f e ren tt y pe so fb a t t le -axe sa nd N eo l i th ic c e ram ic si n ac h rono log ica lc on tex t , Ma lme rf ound t h a tt h ep le ion a r ea sc on s t i tu ted c o re a r ea sf o rt h e d i f fus ion o f d i f f e ren t t r ace s o f t h e ma te r ia l c u l ture . T ha t i s , t h ep le ion a r ea s w e re i n nova t ion c en t re sa sr ega rd sn ew i d ea s ,c oncep t sa nd t y pe so fa r tef ac t s . I n Ma lmer 's c omprehens ive s t udy J ungneo l i th ische S tud ien , h e a l so t ho rough ly i n te rp re t sc ho ro log ica lq ue s t ion sr ega rd ing t h es o -caled Swed ish -No rweg ian B a t t le -Axe C u l tu re ( Ma lme r 1 962 ,p .6 77 -878 ) . E spec ia l ly c once rn ing c e r ta in t r ace si nt h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re w i th in t h e S can ian N eo l i th ic c u l tu re s , t h ec oncep to ft h ep l e ion i sa pp l ied o nce a ga in ( i b idem p p . 6 97 -703 ) . A n a pp roach s im i la r t o Ma lme r 's u s ing i s ome t r ic maps b a sed o n s qua red maps , w i th i n d ica t ion so fM /2 , M a nd 2M v a lue s ,c once rn ing c u l t iva t ion d u r ing h i s to r ica lt ime a nd B ronze Age g rave f i nd s i n D enma rk , w a s p resen ted b y E .Baudou i n al e c ture i n C openhagen i n1 964 . H oweve r ,t h i sl e c tu re w a sn o tp ub l i shed u nt i l 1 985 ( Baudou 1 985 , p p . 6 3 -80 , e spec ia l ly p p . 7 5 -77 ) . I nh i s s t udy o ft h e S tone A ge i nV ä s tman land , L .Löf s t rand w a s i n sp i red b y Ma lme r ' s m e thod s a sr ega rd s i s a r i thm ic d ens i ty m ap s i nd ica t ing d i s tr ibu t ion p a t ter no fd i f f e ren t t r aces f r om t h e ma te r ia l c u l ture ( Löf s t rand 1 966 , p p . 1 0 -13 a nd maps 2 a nd 3 ) . H oweve r ,L öf s t rand d oe sn o td ea lw i th t h ec oncep to ft h ep le ion .I n s tead h eu se si s o l ine i n terva l sb a sed o n 1 ,4 , 8a nd 1 2f i nd sp e rc e l l ,r e spec t ive ly . T he g r id s y s tem c ons is t so f s qua re s .T h i sm e thod i su sed t oi lu s t ra te t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fp ecked a xe sa nd s imp le s t one s ha f t -ho le a xe s . I nr e cen ty ea r sn ew a pp roache st os pa t ia la na ly s i sh ave e me rged i n Swed i sh a r chaeo logy . F o ra pp roache s d ea l ing w i th d en s i ty m aps a nd d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n sr ega rd ing d i f f e ren t t r aces i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd , wo rk s b y H .Lundma rk mus t b e men t ioned ( Lundma rk 1 983 , p p . 8 8 -95 , 1 984a , p p . 1 -22 , 1 984b , p p . 4 3 -62 ) . I no rde rt oi n te rpre t d i f f e ren tc l us te r s , d en s i ty o ri s a r i thm ic m aps h ave b een u sed . L undma rk h a sd eve loped t h es o -ca l led D -cu rve m e thod w i th 7 0 -80% o ve r lapp ing r e f e rence c e l ls ,i . e . t h ed eg ree o f c hange i nd en s i ty a round e ach p o in ti sc a lcu la ted b y e xpand ing ac i rcu la ra r ea a round e ach o ft h em b y ac e r ta in f i xed i n te rva l( Lundma rk 1 984b ,p .4 5 ) .

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I n 1 983 H .Pe r sson d i scus sed t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fp a l s tave sf r om t h eE a r ly B ronze Age i n s ou the rn Sweden . A n i s a r i thm ic map s how ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fp a l s taves i nS can ia i s p re sen ted , u s ing t h ec oncep to fm ean d en s i ty v a lue si nr e la t ion t oa r ea s ( Pe r s son 1 983 , p p . 14 -120 ) . I n t h is c on tex t t h e i s a r t ihm ic m aps s how ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fa nc ien t monumen t s i n s ome c oun t ies i n Sweden c an b em en t ioned , a sw e l l . T hey a r eb a sed o nt h eR eg i s te ro f Anc ien t Monumen t s , a nd h ave b een c omp i led b y t h ec ompu te ra tt h e C en t ra lB oa rd o f R ea lE s ta te D a ta i nG äv le , Sweden ( Hyen s t rand 1 979a , F ig . 6 1 , 8 5 , 1 07 , 13 , 15 , 17 ; 1 979b , p .9 8 ; 1 984 , F ig . 5 0 , 6 9 , 8 4 , 8 6 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 1 00 ) . B ronze Age s e t t lemen t p a t terns i n t he Mä lar B as in r eg ion — t he c oncep t o f t he p le ion I nt h is p ape r ,h oweve r ,o u ri n ten t ion i so nce mo re t oa dop tt h ec oncep to f t h ep le ion i na B ronze A ge c on tex ti ne a s te rn M idd le S weden ,m a in ly i nt h ep rov ince so fU pp land a nd V ä s tman land ( F ig . 1 ) . T he b a s ic p rob lem i so fc our se t or e la te d a ta a nd t h eory , i . e . i n te rp re tt h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re i nd ica t ive o fe x t inc tc omp lex s oc ie t ie s .T he re i s ad i a lec t ica l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s pa t ia la nd s oc ia ls t ruc tu re , a nd t h i s mu s tb ea na ly sed .T he a na ly s i s b e low i st ob es e en a sp re l im in ary , a sr ega rds s pa t ia lp a t te rn sa nd p roces se si n d ica ted b y t h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re . T he ma in s t a temen t si nt h i sc on tex tr ega rd ing t h eB ronze A ge s e t t lemen tp a t ter ni nt h e Mä la ra r ea a r e : 1 .

T he re e x i s ted a ni n t rareg iona ld i ver s if ica t ion r ega rd ing s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re , e conom ic s t ruc tu re a nd s o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion . Ac or ez one e x i s ted w i th m arg ina la rea s a round i t .

2 .

T h i sc o re z one h ad i t sr oo t si nt h eN eo l i th ic ,a nd t r a ce si nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i nc omb ina t ion w i th e co log ica lc ond i t ion si nd ica t et h a tt h i sz one c on s t i tu t ed ap le ion a r ea o r az one o fw ea l th i nc on t ra s tt ot h es u r round ing ma rg ina la r ea s .T h i sc an b e i lu s t ra ted b yd i s t r ibu t ion a na ly s i so fc e r ta in a r tef a c t so rr ema in si nt h em a te r ia l c u l tu re ,e spec ia l ly b yt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fb ronze o b jec t s .

3 .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n so fd i f f e ren to b jec t sa nd r ema ins i n d ica te i n nova t ion a nd a ccumu la t ion a r ea s ,w h ich a r es uppo sed t oc on s t i tu te l o ca lo rs ub reg iona l ( s ub t r iba l ) d i s t r ic t si n a" t r iba ls y s tem " . T he se d i s t r ic t sa r en o ts t a t ic ;i n s tead , d i f f e r en td ens i ty p eak sc an b er e cogn ized w i th in t h ec o re z one o ve r as pan o ft ime , i nd ica t ive o f ad ynam ic p roce s sua ld eve lopmen t ,b a sed o ne conom ic /eco log ica la nd i d eo log ica l / soc ia lf a c to r s( J ensen 1 986 ,J en sen i np r in t aa nd i np r in tb ) .

T he a na lys i s i sb a s ica l ly q uan t i ta t ive a nd i n ac e r ta in e x ten tq ua l i ta t ive a sw e l l . I n a d eepened i n te rp re ta t ion l a te ro n ,t h ei n ten t ion i st oe mpha s ise t h eq ua l i ta t ive f a c to r st oa h i ghe rd eg ree . T he ma te r ia lc u l tu re w h ich w i l l b e d i scus sed i nt h i sp ape rc an r ough ly b ed ev ided i n to t wo ma in g roups . T he f i r s t g roup c ons is t s o fa r tef ac t s c h rono log ica l ly r e la ted t ot h e N eo l i th ic a nd /o r t h e B ronze A ge : t h ick -bu t ted a xe s , s imp le s t one s haf t -ho le a xe s a nd d i f f e ren tt ype so fb ronze o b jec t s . T he s e cond " g roup "a nc ien t monumen t s ,o n ly c ons is t s o fh eap so ff ir e -cracked s t one s ,d i rec t ly i nd ica t ive o fs e t t lemen ta r ea sa nd c h rono log icaly c onnec ted ma in ly t ot h eB ronze A ge a nd t o ac e r ta in e x ten tt ot h eE a r ly I r on A ge . G rave s a nd r ock -carv ing s a r ee xc luded i nt h is s t udy . H oweve ri n as t udy l a te ro n ,t h el a t te rw i l l 3 38

b ei n t e rp r e ted i nd e ta i l ,b o th i nq uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive m anne r ,e s pec ia l ly t h eg r ave s . T he f orma l m e thod T he i n te rp re ta t ion i sb a sed o n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f d en s i ty maps . D if f e rence s i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn a cco rd ing t od en s i ty a r ed ef ined s pa t ia l ly b yd r aw ing i s o l ine sb e tween p o in t s w i th t h e s ame d en s i ty v a lue . I n b o th g eog raph ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l a na ly s i s ag r ea td ea lh a sb een s a id r e ga rd ing d i f f icu l t ie sc oncer n ing t h es hape a nd s i ze o f t h ec e l l sa nd t h en umbe ro fi s o l ine s ,i . e . i nd e te rm in ing t h ei s o l ine i n te rva l s( Dav i s 1 974 , p p . 7 5 -81 , F o r s s t röm & O ls son 1 975 , p p . 8 8 -96 , H agge t t e t .a l . 1 977 , p p . 2 91 -301 , H anne rbe rg 1 961 , p p . 3 0 -42 , H äge r s t rand 1 953 , p p . 2 5 -33 , H odde r&O r ton 1 976 ,p p . 3-43 , O r ton 1 980 , p p . 1 24 -127 , L undma rk 1 984a , p p . 1 4 -21 , 1 984b , p . 4 5f f a nd Ma lme r 1 957 ,p p . 1 57 -174 ) . T he r e sea r ch a r ea c on s t i tu t ing t h ec ho ro log ica lm a t r ix i si n t h i s c on tex t g r aph ica l ly s t ruc tu red b y ag r id s y s tem c ons i s t ing o f s qua re s . T he g r id s y s tem i si d en t ica lt ot h ed i v i s ion o ft h eE conom ic Map o f Sweden .T ha ti s ,e a ch s qua re o rc e l li si d en t i ca lw i th o ne e conom ic m ap ,2 5 s q km . When t e s t ing d i f f e ren t c e l l s i ze s b a sed o n t h is map s ys tem , t h e c ho ice o f t h e o ne -econom ic -map s i ze t u rned o u tt ob eu se f u lf o ri lu s t ra t ing t h eg enera lt r end sw i th in t h e d i f f e ren t d i s t r ibu t ion s . F u r the rmo re , a l l r e co rded a nc ien t monumen t s ( bu t n o t a r te f ac t s )a r er e la t ed t oa nd i n d ica t ed o nt h ee conom ic m ap si nc onnec t ion w i th t h es u rvey f o rt h o se map s . T h i sm ean st h a ta l lk i nd so f monumen t sc an b ei n te rp r e ted i nr e la t ion t o t h i s m ap s y s tem . When a na lys ing s e t t lemen t d i s t r ibu t ion o n l owe r l e ve l s , e . g . o n a s em i -m ic ro l e ve l , o the r p e rhap s mo re s oph i s t ica ted m e thod s c an b e mo re u sefu l ( Lundma rk 1 984a a nd 1 984b ) . O n t h e s em i -m ic ro l e ve l s epa ra ted s e t t lemen t u n i t s , p e rhaps b a sed o n l o ca l l i neage s , mu s tb eh and led c a re fu l ly . O fc ou r se ,c a re fu lm e thod s a r ei mpo r tan ta tt h em ac ro l e ve la sw e l l ,r ega rd ing t h eo ve ra l ld i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn ,w h ich i s mo s t ly i n d ica t ive o f s e pa ra ted s ub reg iona l o r l o ca l d i s t r ic t s . N ever the le s s , i n t h i s c on tex t , t h e c ho sen m e thod i sr e levan t f o r d i scer n ing d i f f e ren t c l u s te r s i nd ica t ive o f s ub r eg iona ld i s t r ic t s . I no rde rt oa vo id v e ry h i gh d en s i ty p eak sa l ter na t ing w i th d eep d ep re s s ion s , t h ed en s i ty m ap h a s b een " smoo thed " , i . e . t h e r e f e rence a r ea w o rk s w i th a n o ve r lap o f 5 0% , b y a ve rag ing t h ev a lue s i nf ou ra d jacen t s qua re s a nd p u t t ing t h er e su l ta tt h ep o in tw he r e t h ey m ee t . I nt h a tw ay t h ee l im ina t ion e f f ec to nt h es ub lo ca lf a c to r si ss t reng thend . A rchaeo log ica l s ource c r i t ic i sm A r chaeo log ica l s ou rce c r i t ic i sm i so fc ou r se n ece s sa ry w hen d ea l ing w i th t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fp reh i s to r i c monum en t sa nd a r te f a c t s .T he mo s ti mpo r tan tf a c to rr ega rd ing t h e r ep re sen ta t iv i ty o f d i f f e ren t t y pe s o fp reh i s tor ic r ema in s , i sh ow c u l t iva t ion h a s a f f ec ted t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he c u l t iva t ion f a c to ri so fc ou r se mo s te v iden ti n r e g ion s w i th ah i gh d eg r ee o fc u l t iva t ion , a sD enma rk , S can ia , p a r t s o fV ä s te rgö t land ( Fa lbygden ) e t c . I n t h e c oun ty o f Ma lmöhu s ( we s te rn S can ia ) , s ome 9 0% o f t h e h ypo the t ica lp r eh i s to r ic m onum en t sh ave b een d e s t royed ,m a in ly a s ar e su l to fc u l t iva t ion a c t iv i t ie s ( Kyh lbe rg 1 982 , p . 1 2 ) . T h i s c an a l so b e s a id r ega rd ing t h e mo s ti n ten s ive ly c u l t iva ted a r ea si nt h ea d jacen tp rov ince so fH a l land a nd B lek inge , a nd i no t he rp a r t so f S can ia a sw e l l( i b id em p .1 8 ) . O n t h e o the r h and , t h e p rov ince o f U pp land i n e a s te rn M idd le Sweden , s hows t h e o ppo s i te p i c tu re . I n c on t ra s t t ot h e a bovemen t ioned r e g ions i nS ou ther n S weden , t h e r e p re sen ta t iv i ty o f t h e a nc ien t monumen t s i nU pp land i se s t ima ted t ob e a f f ec ted b y c u l t iva t ion t oo n ly al im i ted e x ten t ( i b id em p ,1 2 , S e l inge 1 985 , p p . 4 1 -80 ) . B a sed o n g ene ra ls t a t i s t i ca lm e thod s ,K yh lbe rg e mpha s i se st h a tt h eR eg i s t e ro fA nc ien t Monumen t s i so nt h ew ho le r ep re sen ta t ive a ss ou r ce ma t e r ia lf o ra s se s s ing t h e s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o f 3 39

p reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen ta r ea si nU pp land a nd V ä s tman land . T he d eg ree o fd e s t ruc t ion o f p r eh i s to r ic r ema in sb yc u l t iva t ion h a sb een f a i r ly l im i ted ,a bove a l li nr e la t ion t ot h ev a s t c u l t iva t ion a r ea si nS ou the rn Sweden ( Kyh lbe rg 1 982 ,P . 7 ) . O fc ou r se ,t h i sg ene ra la nd r eg iona lp i c tu re i sd i s tu rbed t o ac e r ta in e x ten tw hen l o ok ing a tt h el o ca lo rs ub r eg iona l l e ve l . T homa sB . L a r s son h a s s hown w i th e xamp le sf r om t h ep rov ince o fÖ s te rgö t land t ot h e s ou th o ft h e Mä la r B a s in d i s t r ic t , t h a t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn o fr e co rded p reh i s to r ic monumen t sand f i nd s o f s t one ( a nd t o al e s se rd eg ree , b ronze ) a r tefa c t s o n t h e w ho le c o r r espond st or e a lc ond i t ion sr ega rd ing p r eh i s to r ic s p a t ia lo rgan i sa t ion ( La r s son 1 986a , p p . 1 44 -150 ) . L a r s son empha s i se s t h a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fb ronze o b jec t s w a sr egu la ted b y s oc io -econom ic f a c to r s . A rea s b e tween c l u s te r s o fb ronze o b jec t s m igh th ave b een d ense ly p opu la ted b y " common " p eop le w i thou t a c ce ss t ob ronze ( i b id em p . 1 47 ) . N eve r the le s s ,n of u r the rs o r uce c r i t ic i sm r e ga rd ing t h e ma te r ia lc u l tu r ew i l lb eg i ven i n t h is s ho r t p ape r . H oweve r , ab road s ou rce c r i t ic i sm r e la ted t o p a r ishe s w i th in t h e r e sea r ch a r ea w i l lb ep rov ided i n as t udy l a te ro n . S hore d i sp lacemen t a nd s e t t lemen t p a t tern T he p re sen tl a nd scape h a sg r adua l ly r i sen o u to ft h es e aa f te rt h ee nd o ft h e mo s tr e cen t g l ac ia l p e r iod . T he Mä la r B a s in s how s amuch mo r e d ynam ic c ou r se i nt h i s r e spec t c ompa red w i th S ou ther n Sweden , s i nce n ew l a nd h a sa lmo s tc on t inua l ly b e en a cce s s ib le , m a in ly o w ing t ot h e i s o s ta t ic l a nd e l eva t ion a nd t o al e sse r d eg ree b ecau se o fl o ca l t e c ton ic movemen t s . F u r the rmo re , e u s ta t ic c hange s i nt h e w o r ld s e a l e ve l c au sed b y g l oba lc l ima t ic c hange s ,h ave a c ted a s ac on t rad ic to ry f o r ce . B e cau se o ft h eo s c ila t ion si n s e al e ve l ,w h ich l e dt ot r an sg r e s s ion s ,r e g re s s ion s a nd s t agna t ion s , w em ee tw i th s hore d i sp lacemen ti n s tead o fl a nd e l eva t ion , s e en i n al o ng t ime p e r spec t ive ( J en sen 1 986 ,p . 2 1f ,J en sen i np r in t aa nd i np r in tb ) . D u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic mo s to ft h ep rov ince o fU pp land a nd t o al e s se rd eg ree t h ep rov ince o fV ä s tman land ,c on s i s ted o fc ong lome r a t ion so fi s land s a nd i s le t s , t h u sc on s t i tu t ing a n a r ch ipe lgo i n t h e L i to r ina S ea . I ti so n ly i n t h e w e s te rn a nd n or th -we s te rn p a r t s o f U pp land , a nd c on t inu ing o n i n to V ä s tman land , t h a t ma in land p a r t s e x i s ted . T he se m a in land a r ea sa d jacen tt ot h ea r ch ipe lago c on t s t i tu t et h ec o re a r ea sr ega rd ing s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu r ed u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic ,a nd t o ag r ea te x ten td u r ing t h eB ronze A ge a sw e l l .T h i s t o pog raph ic s t ruc tu re c hanged g r adua l ly . D u r ing t h eB ronze A ge ( a nd p r ima r i ly d u r ing t h eL a te B ronze A ge ) ,w em ee tw i th al a nd scape c on s i s t ing o f an e two rk o fn ar row b ay s a nd f i s su r e -va l ley s ,b u ts t i l l( t o ag r ea te x ten t )w i th t h ec h a rac t e ro fa ni n ne ra r ch ipe lago . A sm en t ioned t h es e t t lemen tc o r ez one h a si t sr oo t si nt h eN eo l i th ic . C on t inu i ty o ve rt im e w i th in t h i s z one i si nd ica ted i nt h e a r caeo log ica l r e co rd . F u r the rmo re , as ucce s s ive s e t t lemen t d i sp lacemen t t owa rd s t h e s ou th a nd s ou th -ea s t c oncu r ren t w i th t h e s ho re d i sp lacemen tc an b e n o ted . I no rde rt oi lu s t ra te t h es pa t ia le x ten s ion o ft h e s e t t lemen t c o re z one ,t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fs ome a r te f a c tt y pe s ,m en t ioned a bove a nd c h rono log ica l ly c onnec ted t op a r t so ft h eN eo l i th ic ,w i l lb ep r e sen ted . T h ick -bu t ted a xes F ig . 2s how s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h ick -bu t ted s t one a nd f l in t a xe s i nt h e p rov ince s o f U pp land a nd t h ee a s te rn p a r t so fV ä s tman land .T he se a xe sa r ec h rono log ica l ly a s so c ia ted m a in ly w i th t h e s e cond h a l fo ft h e M idd le N eo l i th ic a nd t h e e a r l ie rp a r t s o ft h e L a te N eo l i th ic ( Ekho lm 1 915 , p .5 3f ) . T he s ou r ce s a r e G .Ekho lm ' s p ub l ica t ion c once rn ing t h eS tone A ge i nU pp land ( 1 915 )a nd L .Lö f s t rand ' sc a ta logue f r om V ä s tman land ( 1 966 ) . At o ta l o f4 35 t h ick -bu t ted a xe s a r e r e co rded , 6 3% i nU pp land a nd t h u s 3 7% i nt h e r e sea rch a r ea i nV ä s tman land . T he ma in p a r to ft h ea xe sa r e s i ng le f i nd s ,b u ta s aw ho le 3 40

t h ey a r ei nd ica t ive o fs e t t l emen ta r ea s ,i n c lud ing a c t iv i ty a r ea sc once rn ing s ub s i s tence . A s w i l l b e n o ted t h e re i s at ime d i f f e rence o f c . 5 0 y ea r s b e tween E kho lm 's a nd L öf s t rand 's p ub l ica t ions . T h is i mp l ie s t ha t t h e t h ick -bu t ted a nd t he s imp le s t one s haf t -ho le a xe s ( t he l a t te rd i scu s sed b e low ) a r e u nder rep re sen ted t o ac e r ta in e x ten t a s r ega rd s t h e t o ta l n umbe r i nU pp land ( ba sed o n E kho lm 1 915 ) i nr e la t ion t ot h e t o ta l n umbe ri ne a s te rn V ä s tman land ( ba sed o n L öf s t rand 1 966 ) . L öf s t rand 's s t udy i sb a sed o n E .O lsson 's c a ta logue f r om 1 915 , c on tempo ra ry w i th E kho lm 's s t udy . When c ompa r ing O l sson 's f i gu r e s w i th L ö f s t rand 's , t h e re i s ad i f f e rence o fc .2 5% r ega rd ing t h e t h ick -bu t ted a xes a nd c .1 0% r ega rd ing t h e s imp le s t one s haf t -ho le a xes . T hese f i gu re s ,r ep re sen t ing t h e a dd i t ion o fa xe si ne a s ter nV ä s tman land d ur ing a5 0y ea rt ime s pan , c an b e u sed a s ag u ide l ine f o r t h e p o ss ib le c o r re spond ing a dd i t ion i nU pp land d u r ing t h es ame p e r iod . Ag r ea tp ropo r t ion o fs uch f i nd so ccu red d u r ing t h ee xpan s ion o f a g r icu l tu re b e tween c .1 875 a nd 1 915 .T he re i s ah i gh p o s i t ive c o r re la t ion b e tween ar i se i nf i nd f r equency a nd t h ec u lt iva t ion o fn ew l a nd a r ea s . I n E kho lm 's a nd L öf s t rand 's c a ta logue s , t h e a xes a r e mo s t ly r e la ted t ov i l lages a nd h am le t sw i th in t h ep a r i she sa nd i n al e s se rd eg ree t op a r i she so n ly . Ih ave t r ansf e r red t h e f i nd p laces t o t h e a pp ropr ia te E conom ic Maps , a s d i scussed a bove . Axes , s pa t ia l ly d e te rm ined t ot h e p a r ish o n ly b y E kho lm a nd L öf s t rand , a r e r e la ted t ot h e e conom ic map s , c a lcu la ted a s ap e r cen tage i nr e la t ion t ot ho se a xes w h ich a r e l o ca ted t ov i l lage s a l ready i ne ach p a r ish , r e spec t ive ly . T he s ame p rocedu re i sr epea ted r ega rd ing t ho se a r te fac t sp re sen ted b e low . A r tef ac t sl o ca ted t op a r i sh o n ly ,c on s t i tu te mo s t ly am ino rp a r t o f t h e t o ta l . H oweve r , w i th r e f e rence t o t h e b ronze o b jec t s , t h is g roup i ss o mewha t g rea te r c ompa red w i th s t one o b jec t s ( e .g . i nU pp land b ronze o b jec t s r e la ted t op a r i sh o n ly ,c on s t i tu te c .1 4% o ft h et o ta ln umbe r ) . T he p e rcen tage o ft h ick -bu t ted a xe s d i s t r ibu ted w i th in t h ep le ion ( M ) a r ea s i s8 9 .4 . A p le ion a r ea w i th av a s t s pa t ia l e x ten s ion c an b e s een i nF ig . 2 ,c ons t i tu t ing ab road " d iagona l " t owa rd s t h en o r th -ea s ta nd s ou th -wes t . T h is p le ion a r ea i si d en t ica lw i th t h e s e t t lemen tc o re z one w i th in t h o se w e s ter n ma in land p a r t s ,d i scu s sed a bove . F u r the rmo re , f ou rm ino r s pa t ia l ly i s o la ted p le ion a r ea s c an b ed e te rm ined . T he s ma l le s to ne i st ob e f ound i nt h eL i to r ina a r ch ipe lago t ot h es ou th -ea s t , a tt h a tt ime c ons i s t ing o ft h eh ighe s t h ily a r ea s( t he R ia la d i s t r ic t )i nt h em a r ine p a r t so ft h a tt ime .T he t h ree r ema in ing p le ion a r ea sa r et ob ef ound t ot h en o r th o fa nd r a the rc l o se t ot h ec o r ez one .T he o ne f a r the s tt o t h en o r th , t h eT ie rp d i s t r ic t ,h a s ad en s i ty t wo t ime sa sh i gh a st h ep le ion v a lue i n as ma l l a r ea w i th in t h e c en t ra l p a r to ft h e M p l e ion a r ea . T he T ie rp d i s t r ic t c ons is ts o fw a te r s y s tem s a nd s ed imen t d epos i t s a d jacen t t o t h e r i ve r T ämna rän , a tt h a t t ime p a r t ly a n a r row b ay o ft h eL i to r ina S ea , s u r rounded b yv a s tf o res t s . Wi th in t h ec o re z one t wo m a in 2M a r ea sc an b es e en ,i . e . a r ea sw i th v a lue st w ice a sh i gh a st h ep le ion v a lue .F i r s t ly , t h e re i s av a s ta r ea c on s i s t ing o ft h ec en t ra la nd n or th -ea s ter n p a r t s o f t h e c o re z one . W i th in t h i s d en s i ty z one ( t he 2M z one ) ah igh d en s i ty c an b e r e cogn ized i n a r ea s e x tend ing t o t h e n or th -we s t a l ong t h e r i ve r S va r tän , w i th t h e V ä s terf ä rnebo d i s t r ic tf a r the s tt ot h en o r th , ac en t ra la nd i nnova t ion a r ea d u r ing t h eL a te Me so l i th ic a nd E a r ly N eo l i th ic .T he s e cond ma in 2M z one i sl o ca ted f a r the s tt ot h ew e s t , i n t h e p a r ishe s o f F e l l ingsb ro a nd V ä s t ra S kedv i . A s c an b e s een i n F ig . 2 , t he n o r th -ea s ter np a r to ft h i s 2M z one c on s t i tu te s am ino r 4M z one ,f ou rt ime sa sh igh a st h e p le ion . R ega rd ing t h e 4M v a lue , t wo ma in 4M a r ea s w i th in t h e f i r s t men t ioned , c en t ra l a nd e a s te rn 2M z one , c an b e d e tec ted . O ne l i es a d jacen t t oa nd t ot h e n or th o f t h e t own V ä s te rä s ,b e tween t h er i ve rS va r tän a nd t h er i ve rS agan .T he s e cond 4M a r ea i ss i tua ted t ot h e n or th -ea s t , i n c lud ing f ou rm ino r 8M d en s i ty p eak s . T he " buf f e r -zone " b e tween t h e se t wo l a t te r 4M a r ea sc on s i s t so ft h er i ve rÖ r sundaän , a tt h a tt ime an a r row b ay o ft h e 3 41

L i to r ina S ea ,c on s t i tu t ing at opog raph ica l " bounda ry "r ega rd ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s o fd i f f e ren tk ind so f ma te r ia lc u l tu re . T he M /2 d ens i ty v a lue i si nd ica ted i nF ig . 2a sw e l l ,i . e . ad en s i ty h a lf a sh igh a st h eM ( p le ion) ,v a lue . Am ino rp a r to ft h ea xe sf a l ls w i th in t h eM /4 z one ,n o ti nd ica ted i nF ig . 2 . T o ac e r ta in e x ten t , t h e se c l u s te r sr e cu ri nt h e f o l low ing . T oc onc lude , t h ed i s tr ibu t ion p a t te rn o ft h et h ick -bu t ted a xe si si nd ica t ive o fs e t t lemen ta r ea so ft h a tt ime ( pa r t so ft h e N eo l i th ic ) . S imp le s t one s haf t -ho le a xes F ig . 3s how s t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fs im ile s t one s ha f t -ho le a xes . Abou t2 000 a xes ( 83 .3% ) a r er e co rded i nU pp land ( Ekho lm 1 915 ) , a nd a lmo s t4 00 ( 16 .7% ) i nt h ee a s ter np a r to f V ä s tman land ( Löf s t rand 1 966 ) . I n aN o rd ic c on tex tt h e s imp le s t one s haf t -ho le a xe i s mo s tc ommon i n Sweden ,a nd i np a r t icu la ri nt h er e sea r ch a r ea i nq ue s t ion .T he d a t ing o f t hese a xes h a s b een d i scussed i n tens ive ly . I n t h e Mä la r B a s in t hey s eem t o b e c h rono log ica l ly c onnec ted ma in ly t o t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge ( Ekho lm 1 915 ,p .7 0 , L indqu i s t 1 912 , L öf s t rand 1 966 ,p .3 0 -36 ) . When c ompa r ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h et h ick -bu t ted a nd t h es imp le s t one s h af t -ho le a xe s , t h ree ma in t r ace sa r et ob ef ound .F ir s t ly , as e t t lemen td i spe r s ion t owa rd st h es ou th a nd t h e s ou th -ea s t , c l o se rt ot h e L ake Mä la ren a r ea ( a tt h a tt ime ap a r to ft h e L i to r ina S ea ) c oncu r ren tw i th t h es ho r ed i sp lacemen tc an b e s e en .A tt h es ame t ime t h e r ei s ad ec rea se i nt h ea xe d i s t r ibu t ion i ns ome o ft h em ino rp a r t so ft h em a in land , mo s to bv iou s ly a l ong t h er i ve rS var t än t ot h en o r th -we s ta nd t o al e sse rd eg r ee i nt h ew e s te rn p a r to ft h ep le ion ( M ) z one , w he re ab reak i nt h e p l e ion i s o l ine may b e s e en . T h i s b reak b e tween o n t h e o ne h and as ma l le rw e s ter np le ion z one ,a nd o nt h eo t he r av a s tc en t ra la nd n or th -ea s ter n z one ,w a sa l ready f a in t ly o u t l ined i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h et h ick -bu t ted a xe s .T he T ie rp d i s t r ic t , f a r the s t t ot h e n o r th , d ec rea se s i nd en s i ty a sw e l l a nd c on s t i tu te s aq u i te s ma l l p le ion a r ea . T he s econd ma in t r a ce i st h a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion s how sa t mo re s pa t ia l ly e x ten s ive p a t te rn t o t h ee a s ta nd s ou th -ea s t . T he e a s te rn p a r t so fU pp land , t h ei nne ra r ch ipe lago a r ea ( t oday c a l led R o s lagen ) ,a nd t h ea r ea st ot h en o r th o fS to ckho lm ,h ave aw ide sp re ad d i s t r ibu t ion o fs haf t -ho le a xe s . T h i s p a t te rn i so n ly f a in t ly i nd ica ted i nF ig . 3b y t h e t h r ee s ma l lM a r ea s . Howeve r , av a s ta r ea a r ound t h em h a s aM /2 d en s i ty . T h i si st h ec a se a d jacen tt o t h e ma in p le ion z one a sw e l l . T he M /4 i s o l ine si n c lud ing t h et o ta la xe d i st r ibu t ion a r en o t i nd ica ted i nF ig . 3 .T he m a in p a r t o f t h e a xe s i nt h e M /4 z one a r e d i s t r ibu ted i nt h e e a s te rn a nd s ou th -ea s te rn c oa s ta la r ea s . T he t h ird ma in t r ace i st h a tt h es ha f t -ho le a xe ss how h i ghe rd en s i ty v a lue si n many p a r t s o ft h er e sea rch a r ea ,c ompa r ed w i th t h et h ick -bu t ted a xe s . T hey s how amo re i n ten s if ied p i c tu re b ecau se o ft h ef a c tt h a tt h en umbe ro ff i nd so fs h a f t -ho le a xe si s2 . 5t ime sa sh i gh a st h e n umbe r o ft h ick -bu t ted a xes . C once rn ing t h e d ens i ty v a lues i nt h e v as tp le ion z one , t wo 4M d en s i ty p eak sc an b es e en ,i nd ica t ive o fs e t t lemen tc o re a r ea sd ur ing p a r t s o ft h eN eo l i th ic a nd p rob lab ly t h eE a r ly B ronze A ge a sw e l l . T h is t y pe o fa xe i sc onnec ted t o at r u ly b a s ic l e ve li ns o c ie ty ,a nd i t sf e a tu re sa r ep robab ly p r ima r i ly p rac t ica l . T he s haf t -ho le a xe s a r e mos t ly s i ng le f i nd s , o f ten d e tec ted d ur ing c u l t iva t ion ( Sege rbe rg 1 978 ) . Am ino rp a r to ft h es i ng le f i nd sc an b ei nd ica t ive o fg r ave s , o the r s o f s e t t lemen t s s i te s . S eve ra l f i nd s h ave p robab ly b een d i scove red o n f o rme r p roduc t ion o ra c t iv i ty a r ea sa d jacen tt os e t t lemen ts i t e s .

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Heaps o f f i re -cracked s t ones F ig . 4s hows t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f h eaps o f f i re -c racked s t one s , r e co rded i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e s u rvey o f a nc ien t monumen ts f o r t h e E conom ic Map . I n t h i s c on tex t i ti s' i mpo r tan t t on o te t ha t t h e w es ter n p a r t s i nF ig . 4 ,t h e a r ea s i nV ä s tman land , a nd t h e n o r the rn a nd n o r th -wes te rn p a r ts o f U pp land a s w e l l , h ave n o t y e t b een r ev ised ( i nd ica ted i nF ig .4 ) . I nt h ee a s ter np a r t so fV ä s tman land ,w ec an a s sume ac on s ide rab le i n c rea se i n t h e r eco rd ing o f h eaps o f f i re -cracked s t ones , i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e a pp roach ing r e su rvey i nt h e se a r ea s ( 1 988 ) . My i n ten t ion i sn o t t or ev iew t h e d i scus s ion o ft h e h eap s o ff i re -c racked s t ones , w i th r ega rd t ot e rm in log ica l , mo rpho log ica l ,f unc t iona la nd c h rono log ica lq ue s t ion s .I n s tead ,I s ha l lr e f e rt oB e l lande r 1 938 , G u s taws son 1 939 , H yen s t rand 1 968 , J en sen 1 984 , 1 986 , i n p r in t aa nd i n p r in t b ,K je l len a nd H yens t rand 1 977 , L a r sson 1 986a a nd 1 986b , R en tzhog 1 967 a nd l a s t ly S jö swä rd a nd Ä s t röm 1 976 . H oweve r ,r ega rd ing f unc t ion ,t h e h eaps o ff i re -c racked s t one sc anno tb ec on s ide r ed t oc ons t i tu te aq u i te u n ifo rm g roup o f a nc ien t monumen t s . I ng ene ra l ,h oweve r , t h ey s e em t ob eh eaps o fw a s te i nc onnec t ion w i th p reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen ts i te s ( J aanu sson 1 981 , J en sen 1 986 ,i np r in t aa nd i np r in tb , H yen s t rand 1 968 , K je l len a nd Hyenst rand 1 977 ) . S ome t imes p r ima ry o r s e conda ry b ur ia ls a r ef ound i nt h eh eaps . C once rn ing c h rono log ica lq ue s t ion st h eh eaps a r eo f ten d e te rm ined ma in ly t ot h eB ronze A ge a nd t o al e sse re x ten tt ot h eE a r ly I r on A ge . B u tt h er ad ioca rbon d a te sp ub l i shed s o f a r i nd ica te a s p read c h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion , f r om E a r ly B ronze A ge t o t h e f i r s t c en tur ie sA .D . w i th , s omewha ts u rp r i s ing ly , empha s i so nt h eE a r ly B ronze A ge ( J en sen 1 986 ,p p . 2 0 -21 ,J ensen i np r in t aa nd i np r in tb ) . A bou t4 000 h eaps a r er e co rded i nU pp land a nd c .2 50 i nV ä s tman land .T he r e a ln umbe r i nt h el a t te rp rov ince i ss u re ly c on s ide rab ly h i ghe rt h an k nown t oday .I nF ig . 4c .9 0% o f t h e h eaps o ff i re -c racked s t one s a r e l o ca ted w i th in t h ep le ion ( M ) z one . I nt h e e a s te rn a r ch ipe lago t wo s ma l le rM z one sa r ei nd ica ted ,o u t s ide t h er e a lc o re z one .T he e x ten s ion o ft h e ma in p le ion z one c o r re spond st o ac e r ta in d eg ree w i th t h ee x ten s ion o ft h ee a s te rn ' ma in p le ion z one r ega rd ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e s imp le s t one s ha f t -ho le a xe s , b u tt h e d i s t r ibu t ion i s mo re s pa t ialy c oncen t ra ted .W i th in t h ep le ion z one t wo s pa t ia l ly s epa ra ted ma in a r ea s c an b e s een , w i th a " buf f e r -zone " a l ong t h e r i ve r ö r sundaän , ab a s ic t o pog raph ica la nd p e rhap ss oc ia lb ounda ry ,a sm en t ioned a bove . W i th in e ach ma in a r ea t h e re e x is t 8M z one s ,t h e mo s ti n ten s ive o ne i nt h en o r th -ea s te rn p a r t s , w i th am ino r 1 6M a r ea a sw e l l . T he h ighes td ens i ty a r ea s c or respond t o ag rea t e x ten tw i th h i gh d en s i ty v a lue sr ega rd ing t h et wo f o rme ra xe t ype s , a na ly sed a bove .T he t wo ma in c l us te r s w i th in t h ep le ion z one h ave n od oub tt h eh ighe s td en s i ty o fh eap so f f i re -c racked s t one sk nown i n Sweden .T he l o ca t ion o ft h e s ou th -ea s te rn 8M z one i nt h e E nköp ing d i s t r ic tc o r r e spond sf a i r ly w e l lw i th t h eo ccu r rence o ft h er i che s tr ock -ca rv ing d i s t r ic tk nown i nt h e Mä la rB a s in , w h ich i so ne o ft h er i che s tk nown i n Sweden , a sw e l l . T he M/2 a r ea si nF ig . 4a r e ma in ly s pa t ia l ly c onnec ted w i th t h et h ree p le ion z one s .T he h eaps w i th in t h e M /4 a r eas ( no t i nd ica ted i nF ig . 4 ) a r e ma in ly d i st r ibu ted o n t h e o ne h and t ot h e w e s to ft h e s ou th -wes te rn m a in c o re z one i nV ä s tman land , a nd o nt h eo the r w i th in t h ee a s te rn a nd s ou th -ea s te rn c oa s ta la r ea s . T he s e t t lemen ts i te si nt h ec o re z one i nd ica ted b yt h eh eaps a r ei ng ene ra lc onnec t ed t ot h e b o rde r -l ine b e tween o nt h eo ne h and r ock -a nd mo ra ine a r ea s ,a nd o nt h eo the rs ed imen t d epo s i t s ,o f ten g l ac ia lc l ay ,b u tp o s tg lac ia lc l ay a sw el .T he s t a t ic d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter no f t h eh eaps o ff i re -c racked s t one sr ep resen t sa na ccumu la ted ma te r ia lo ve r as pan o ft ime a nd i s ar e su l to f ad ynam ic a nd p roce s sua lc ou r se o fs e t t lemen t .

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B ronze o b j ec t s -a r ea s o f a ccumu la t ion I nc onc lu s ion t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fr e co rded b ronze a r te f a c t sw il b ed i scu s sed . T he s ou r ce s a r e t h e c a ta logue s b y A .O ldebe rg f o r t h e E BA ( O ldebe rg 1 974 a nd 1 976 ) a nd b y E .Baudou f o rt h eL BA ( Baudou 1 960 ) . E ar ly B ronze A ge ( EBA ) . A lmo s t 1 50 EBA o b jec t s o fd i f f e ren t t y pes a r er e co rded i n O ldebe rg w i th r e f e rence t ot h er e sea r ch a r ea . C . 5 0% c an b er e la ted t ot h ee a r l ie rp a r to f t h e EBA ( p e r . I ) .T he o t he rh a lf i sf a i r ly e qua l ly d i v ided i n to t h et wo f o l low ing p e r iod s ( I a nd I I ) , w i th ac e r ta in p recedence f o rp e r . I .T he h i gh n umbe ro fo b jec t sr e la ted t o p e r . Ii s ma in ly b a sed o n t h e f a c t t h a t c .3 1% o ft h e a r te f a c t s c on s i s t o ff l anged a xe s . O the r a xe t y pe s c onnec ted t ot h e E BA a r e s ocke ted a xe s ( 8% ) , p a l s tave s ( 6% ) a nd s ha f t -ho le a xe s o fb ronze o rc oppe r ( 4% ) . T ha ti s ,c .5 0% o ft h eb ronze o b jec t sc on s i s t o fd i f f e ren t t y pe s o f a xe s , w i th b o th p rac t ica l a nd /o r s ymbo l ic mean ing . S ome o ft h e s ub type s h ave o bv iou s ly n o t b een u sed a st o o l s i n aw o rk ing c on tex t , e . g . s ome o ft h e p a l s tave s , i n te rp re ted a s c e remon ia l a xe s o r w eapon a xe s ( Mon te l iu s 1 9 17 , p . 3 5 ) . C once rn ing w eapon s ,c .1 5% o ft h et o ta ln umb e ro fo b jec t sc on s i s to fs pea rhead sa nd c . 9% o fd agge r sa nd s wo rd s . E spec ia l ly t h eh i gh n umbe ro fs pea rhead sc an b en o ted .T h i s c an o n ly b e m a tched b y s ome r eg ions i nS can ia ( La r s son 1 986a , p .2 9 ) . T he r e s t , c . 2 6% ,c on s i s to fd i f f e r en tt y pe so f" o rnamen t s " ,s u ch a st u tu l i ,d oub le s t ud s ,r a zo r se t c . W i th r e f e rence t of i nd c on tex t s , c .8 0% o ft h e o b jec t s s e em t ob e c onnec ted t os i ng le f i nd s ,c .1 5% t ob u r ia l sa nd t h er e s t , c . 5% , t oh oa rd s . T he d i f f e ren tf i nd c on tex t s a r eo f i n te re s t f o r t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e b ronze o b jec t s , t h e i r d i f f e ren t s o c ia l f unc t ions a nd p r a c t ica l symbol i cm ean ing s .T ob en o t ed i st h a ts eve ra lo ft h es i ng le f i nd sa r eb og f i nd s , o f ten o f " h igh s t a tu s " c ha rac te r , e . g . t h e B ragby s wo rd f r om p e r . I( E ld io lm 1 921 n o . 1 9 , Mon te l iu s 1 917 n o . 8 30 , O ldebe rg 1 974 n o . 2 810 ) .T h i sf i nd g roup m a in ly c on s i s t s o fa r tef ac t s i n ten t iona l ly d epos i ted a nd mu s t t o ag r ea t e x ten t b e c ompa red w i th t h e h oa rd sf r om t h eL a te B ronze A ge ( s ee b e low ) . I nF ig . 5a l lb ronze o b jec t sf r om t h eE a r ly B ronze A ge c an b er e la ted t op le ion a r ea s .A s u sua lt h e ma in p le ion a r ea i si d en t ica lw i th t h eo l dc o re z one , w i th r oo t si nt h eN eol i th ic . I ti si mpo r tan t t on o te t h a t t h e e a s te rn p a r t s o fU pp land , t h e R o s lagen a r ea , h ave n o b ronze o b jec t s r e co rded a ta l l , w i th af ew e xcep t ion s . A s c ou ld b e s e en a l r eady i nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e s imp le s t one s ha f t -ho le a xe s ,t h ew e s t er nF e l l ing sb ro d i s t r ic td e cl ine s g r adua l ly . T he T ie rp d i s t r ic t ,f a r the s tt ot h en o r th ,c on s t i tu te sa ni s o la ted b u tr i ch p le ion a r ea ,w i th a1 6M d en s i ty v a lue i nt h ec en t ra lp a r t . A no the ra r ea w i th 4M d en s i ty v a lue s , i sl o ca ted i nt h e S tockho lm r eg ion , i nt h e s ou th -ea s te rn p a r t o ft h e r e sea rch a r ea . T he h i gh d en s i ty i nt h i sl a t te ra r ea c an p e rhap sp a r t ly b ee xp la ined b ye xp lo i ta t ion a c t iv i t ie s c onnec ted t oi t s u rban e xpans ion . W i th in t h e ma in p le ion z one f our o rf i ve s epa ra ted a r ea sw i th h i gh d en s i ty v a lue sc an b es e en .A su sua l ,t h eh i ghe s td en s i ty i st ob ef ound i n t h ec en t ra la nd n o r th -ea s te rn p a r t so ft h a t z one , w i th f i ve 8M a r ea s ( one o ft h o se w i th a v e ry s mal s pa t ia le x ten s ion ) . L a t eB ron ze A ge ( LBA ) . F ig . 6i lu s t ra te s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ronze a r tef ac t s f r om t h e L BA ( p e r . I V -V I ) . T he re a r e at o ta l o fc .2 40 o b jec t s , a l l e s t ra c ted f r om B audou ' s c a ta logue ( Baudou 1 960 ) . Wi th r e f e rence t of i nd c on tex t s , t h ef i nd sc an b ed i v ided i n to s i ng le f i nd s ,h oa rd f i nd sa nd f i nd si nb u r ia l s . I ts hou ld b en o t iced t h a t mo r et h an 8 0% o f t h e f i nd s a r er e la ted t oh oa rd f i nd s . T he a xe s , o n t h e w ho le made u p o fs ock e t ed a xe s , r e p re sen t mo r et h an 3 8% o ft h et o ta ln umbe ro fo j bec t s . T he h oa rd f i nd sa nd t h es o ck e ted a xe s w i l l b e f u r the ri n te rp re ted b e low . Weapon s , h e re d ef ined a s s wo rd s /dagge r s a nd s p ea rhead s , c on s t i tu te o n ly 8% o ft h e t o ta l n umbe ro fo jbec t s , ac on s ide rab le d ec rea se c ompa red w i th t h e E BA . T he " o rnamen t s " ,m a in ly c on s i s t ing o fn eck - a nd a r rn r ing s , d oub le s t ud s a nd p in s , r e p resen t mo re t h an 5 0% o ft h e t o ta l n umbe r o fo b je c t s , much

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m o re t h an ad oub l ing o ft h en umbe r ,c ompa r ed w i th t h eE BA .T ha ti s ,t h ei n c rea se i nt h e n umbe ro fa r te f ac t sf r om t h eE BA t ot h eL BA , mu s tb er e la ted t ot h e" o rnam en t " g r oup t o ag r ea te x ten t . A sr ega rd ss pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion , mo r et h an 9 0% o ft h eo b jec t sa r ec onnec ted t ot h ep le ion z one s . T he r e s ta r ei n c luded i nt h eM /2 z one a nd a r e ma in ly f ound a d jacen tt ot h e ma in p le ion z one , a nd f u r the r w i th ad i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h e e a s te rn a nd s ou th -ea s te rn a r ea s , mo s t ly a d ja cen tt ot h es ma l lp le ion a r ea si nt h e se p a r t s( s ee F ig . 6 ) .T ob en o t iced i st h a tt h eT ie rp d i s t r ic tf a r the s tt ot h en o r th , w i th a1 6M d en s i ty d u r ing t h eE BA , o n ly c on s t i tu te s aM /2 z one d u r ing t h eL BA . W i th in t h ec o re z one t h ef o rma t ion o ff i ve u n ifo rm ly l o ca ted h i gh d en s i ty a r ea sc an b e s e en . T ho se h igh d en s i ty c l u s te r si nd ica te a ccumu la t ion a rea sr ega rd ing b ronze o b jec t s . T he o ccu r rence o fs p ec ia la c cumu la t ion c en t re sc an p e rhap sb ef u r the re mpha s i sed ,w hen l o ok ing a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fL BA h oard f i nd s . A s m en t ioned , moa re t h an 8 0% o ft h e t o ta l n umbe ro ff i nd s c an b er e la ted t oh oa rd s . I nr e la t ion t ot h et o ta ln umbe ro ff i nd s , w eapon s a nd " o rnamen t s " a r e o ve r rep re sen ted i nt h e h oa rd s . T he o ppo s i te c ond i t ion o ccu r sr ega rd ing t h e a xe s . O n ly 4% o ft h eh oa rd f i nd s c on s i s to fs o cke ted a xe s . I tc an t h u sb e s t a ted t h a tt h e h oa rd st o ag r ea te x ten tc an b er e la ted t o as ymbo l ic ideo log ica l s phe re o ft h e s oc ia l f o rma t ion . T ha t i s , w eapon s a nd o rnamen t s h ad t h e c ha ra c te r o f s t a tus s ymbo l s t o ah i ghe rd eg ree t h an t h e s o cke ted a xe , b e ing i nd ica t ive o fw ea l th a nd s u rp lu st og r ea te re x ten t . When a na ly s ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fh oa rd f i nd s ( n o tp ub l i shed h e re ) , t h e s ame a gg lome ra t ion a r ea s a s w a s t h e c a se w i th t h e o ve ra l l p a t ter n c an b e r e cogn ized . T he m a in d i f f e r ence i st h a tt h ef i ve m ino rp le ion a r ea si nt h ee a s ter na nd t h e s ou th -ea s te rn p a r t si nF ig . 6d i sappea r .W i th f ew e xcep t ion st h eh oa rd sa r ec onnec ted t o t h ec l u s te r si nt h em a in c o r ez one . When l o ok ing a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h es ocke ted a xe s ( F ig .7 ) ,w ew il f i nd t h a tt h e ma in p a r to ft h eb ronze o b je c t si nt h ee a s te rn c oa s ta la r ea sc on s i s to fs o cke ted a xe s .T he g r ea t n umbe ro fa xe sc omb ined w i t ht h ed i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn i n d ica te t h a tt h ey p robab ly c an b e r e la ted t o amo re i n te rmed ia te l e ve li ns o c ie ty t h an mo s to ft h eo t he rb ronze s .T ha ti s ,t h e s o cke ted a xe i st o ag r ea te x t en tr e la ted t ot h es phe r eo fp roduc t ion , a nd t o al e s se re x ten t ( when c ompa red w i th h i gh s t a tu sb ronze o b jec t s ) t ot h e s phe re o fs ymbo la nd i d eo logy . T he c on t inu ing u se o fs t one a xe s c o r re spond s t ot h e mo s t b a s ic l e ve l . B ecau se o ft h e g r ea t n umbe r o f a xe s a nd t h e v a r ia t ion i nf o rm a nd s i ze , t h e s o cke ted a xe s mu s t b e r e ga rded a s ag ood s ou r ce m a te r ia li nq ua l i ta t ive a na ly s i s ,w hen s t udy ing t h el o ca t ion o f r e g iona lo rl o ca lg roup ing s . I n trareg iona l d i ver s if ica t ion - i nnova t ion a nd a ccumu la t ion a r eas T he d i s t r ibu t ion a nd e xchange o fb r onze o b je c t sw e r ec on t ro l led t o ag r ea te x ten tb yl o ca l g roups i nt h e c o re z one , l o ca ted i nt h e a ccumu la t ion a r ea s w i th in t h a t z one . T hus , t h e c o re z one c on s t i tu te sa ni n nova t ion a rea r ega rd ing a dap t ion o fn ew i d ea sa nd n ew t y pe s o fa r te f ac t s a nd r ega rd ing t r an sfo rma t ion ,p roduc t ion a nd e xchange o fa r te f ac t s a sw e l l . Ad i f f us ion o f a r te f ac t s ( ma in ly o f s ocke ted a xe s ) f r om t h e c o re z one t owa rd s t h e m a rg ina la r ea st ot h ee a s ta nd t ot h es ou th -ea s ti si nd ica ted d u r ing t h ec ou r se o ft h eL BA . T h is d oe s n o te xc lude t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fl o ca lp roduc t ion a nd e xchange i nt h em a rg ina l a r ea s t o ac e r ta in e x ten t . C once rn ing t h e c e ram ic s , s ome o ft h e s e t t lemen t s i te s i nt h e e a s te rn c oa s ta l a r ea s h ave p o t she rd s c on s i s t ing o fa n e a s te rn , s t r ia ted t y pe , w i th in t h e l im i t s o ft h e s o -ca l led A sva c u l tu re i nE s ton ia a nd s ou thwe s te rn F in land ( Amb ro s ian i 1 959 , p . 1 21f , J aanus son 1 981 , p p . 3 5 , 5 1f f a nd 1 21f , J en sen 1 986 , p . 3 0 ) . T hese c i rcum s tances e x is t t o al e s se r e x ten t w i th in t h e c o re z one , a s w e l l . T he e xchange n e two rk w a s c omp lex a nd d i rec ted ma in ly t owa rd s t h e s ou th a nd s ou th -ea s t a nd t oa c e r ta in e x t en tt ot h ee a s ta nd n o r th a sw e l l .

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T he r e la t ive r i chne ss o fb ronze o b jec t s w i th in t h e c o re z one c an b e e xp la ined w hen a na ly s ing e conom ic s t ruc tu re , s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion a nd l a nd u se . T hese f a c to r s a r eb a sed o nl o ca le co log ica la nd t o pog raph ica lc ond i t ion sa nd ac on t inu i ty f r om t h eN eo l i th ic .T he p roduc t ion s y s tem w i th a ne l emen ta ry e conomy b a sed o nl a rge -sca le g raz ing ,m a in ly o n g l ac ia l c l ay a nd w e t land s , i nc omb ina t ion w i th e l emen t s o fa g r icu l tu re a nd a l ong w i th f i sh ing a nd h un t ing ,f o rmed t h eb a s i sf o r ap rodcu t ion o fs urp lu s . T he s u rp lu sc ou ld b e t r an sfo rmed e . g . i n to b ronze o b jec t s . T he se o b jec t s p o sses sed b o th p rac t ica l /econom ic a nd s ymbo l ic / ideo log ica ls i gn if icance i n as o c ia lc on tex t . T he se b a s ic c ond i t ion sr e su l ted i n ap ronounced p o l i t ica l ,e conom ic a nd i d eo log ica lp owe ri nr e la t ion t oa d ja cen tm a rg ina l a r ea s . T he r e la t ive l a ck o fb ronze o b jec t s i nt h e e a s te rn p a r t s o fU pp land , i st o ag rea t e x ten te xp la ined b yd i f f e ren te co log ica la nd t o pog raph ica lc ond i t ion si nc omb ina t ion w i th o n ly s l igh ts pa t ia la nd c h rono log ica lc onnec t ion st ot h eN eo l i th ic i nt h e se c oa s ta la r ea s . T he se b a s ic c ond i t ions i nf luenced a nd f o rmed t h ee conom ic a nd s oc ia ls t ruc tu r et o ag r ea t e x ten t . T he e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l p owe r i nt h e s eden ta ry c o re z one p robab ly h ad a mode ra t ing e f f e c tt o ac e r ta in e x ten tt owa rd st h ec oa s ta la r ea sa sr ega rd st h eo ppo r tun i t ie s f o rs o c ia la nd e conom ic d eve lopmen t . F ig . 8i lu s t ra tes t h e a r ea s i nt e h Mä la r B a s in w he re a tl e a s t 1 5% o ft h e l a nd a r ea i s c omp r i sed o fc u l t ivab le l a nd t oday ( Spo r rong 1 985 ,p .3 9 ) . T he b l ack a r ea sc o r re spond t ol a nd a r ea sw he re 5 0 -100% i sa r ab le l a nd .T he l a t te ra r eas c o r r espond t o ag r ea te x ten t t ot h ec o re z one d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge . T he l owe s ts i tua ted p a r t so ft h e se a r ea s , mo s t ly p o s tg lac ia lc l ay s ed imen t s , c on s t i tu ted t o ah igh d eg ree b ay s i nt h eL i to r ina S ea a tt h a t t ime . T he s ed imen td epo s i t s , l o ca ted o n h ighe rt o pog raph ica l l e ve l s b u ta d ja cen tt ot h e w a te rs y s tem s ,w e re p robab ly mo s t ly u sed a sg raz ing l a nd . T he se a r ea sc ons i s ted ma in ly o fg l ac ia l c l ay , b u tp o s tg lac ia lc l ay e x i s ted a sw e l l . T he s ed imen td epos i t s s u i tab le f o r c u l t iva t ion a tt h a tt ime w e re l o ca ted o nt h eb o rde rl i ne sb e tween mo ra ine a nd s a ndy s o i l s . T he e co log ica lp re requ i s i te sw i th in t h ec o r ez one s t rong ly s uppo r tt h eo ppo r tun i ty f o ra n e conomy w h ich l e d t o ap roduc t ion o fs urp lus . T he q uan t i ta t ive d i s t r ibu t ion a nd t h e q ua l i ta t ive p roper t ie so ft h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re w i th in t h ec o re z one i nd ica te as i tua t ion o f w ea l th . D ur ing t h e I r on A ge , e spec ia l ly t h e L a te I r on A ge , t h e s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re c hanged d rama t ica l ly , a sd id t h ep o l i t ica l ,e conom ic a nd s o c ia ls t ruc tu re a sw e l l , t owa rd s amo re u n ifo rm s i tua t ion b e tween t h e c o re z one a nd f o rme r m a rg ina l a r ea s . Howeve r , t h e se c hange sf a l lo u t s ide o u rp re sen ts cope . T h i sp ape rc an b es e en a s ap rel im ina ry i n te rp re ta t ion o fs pa t ia ls t ruc tu re sa nd p roce s se s i nd ica ted b yt h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re i nt h er e sea rch a r ea .T he c on t rad ic t ion b e tween o nt h e o ne h and s pa t ia l s t ruc tu re a nd o n t h eo the rs pa t ia l a nd s oc ia lp roce sses c an , Ih ope , b e b r idged . T he t a sk o f e xp la in ing s oc ia l s t ruc tu res w hen a na lys ing s pa t ia l s t ruc ture s i mp l ie s t h e s t udy o ft h e d ia lec t ica l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s oc ia l a nd s pa t ia l s t ruc tu re (W idg ren 1 986 , p .1 60 ) . E x tended q uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive a na ly s i s o ft h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re w i l lb ec a r r ied o u t .

3 46

F igure 1 . Map s how ing t h er e sea r ch a r ea t ot h en o r th o fL ake Mä la ren ,i n c lud ing t h e p rov ince so fU pp land a nd t h ee a s ter np a r t so fV ä s tman land , Sweden .

3 47

F igure 2 . D ens i ty map s how ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ick -bu t ted s t one a nd f l in ta xe si n t h ep rov ince so fU pp land a nd t h ee a s te rn p a r t so fV ä s tman land , S weden . T he M i4 a r ea sa r en o ti n d ica ted .

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3 49

F igure 4 . D en s i ty m ap s how ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fh eap so ff i re -c racked s t ones i nt h e p rov ince so fU pp land a nd t h ee a s ter np a r t so fV ä s tman land , S weden . T he M /4 ,M /8 ,M / 16 a nd M /32 a r ea sa r e n o ti n d ica ted .

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F igure 6 . D ens i ty m ap s how ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fb ronze o b je c t sf r om t h eL a te B ronze A ge i nt h ep rov ince so fU pp land a nd t h ee a s te rn p a r t so fV ä s tman land , Sweden .

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F igure 7 . D en s i ty m ap s how ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fs o cke ted a xe sf r om t h eL a te B ronze A ge i nt h ep rov inces o fU pp land a nd t h ee a s ter np a r t so fV ä s tman land , S weden .

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F igure 8 . A rea si nt h e Mä la rB a s in ( t he p rov ince so fU pp land ,S öde rman land a nd t h e e a s ter np a r t so fV ä s tman land )w e r ea tl e a s t 1 5% o ft h el a nd a r ea i sc omp r i sed o fc u l t iva tab le l a nd . S ou r ce : S po r rong 1 985 .

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R ef erence s Amb ro s ian i , B . , 1 959 . K e ram ikbop la t sen p ä H amnbr inken v id D a r sgä rde .TOR ,v o lV . p p . 1 08 -128 . B audou , E . , 1 960 . D ie r eg iona le u nd c hrono log ische E in te i lung d er j üngeren B ronzeze i t i m Nord ischen k re is . S tud ies i n No r th -Eu ropean A rchaeo logy 1 . St o ckho lm . - 1 985 . A rchaeo log ica l S ou rce C r i t ic ism a nd t h e H i s tory o f Mode rn C u l t iva t ion i n D enma rk . A rchaeo log ica l F orma t ion P rocesses ( K .K r i s t ian sen e d . ) , p p . 6 3 -80 . C openhagen . B e l lande r , E . , 1 938 . B ä l rösen -o f f e r rösen . K u l turh i s tor i ska s t ud ier t i l lägnade N i l s A berg , p p . 9 1 -100 . S tockho lm . C larke ,D .L . , 1 968 .A na ly th ica lA rchaeo logy . Me thuen . - ( ed . ) , 1 972 . Mode l si nA rchaeo logy . Me thuen . - 1 977 . S pa t ia lI n fo rma t ion i nA rchaeo logy .S pa t ia lA rchaeo logy ( D .L .C larke e d . ) ,p p . 1 32 . A cadem ic P r e s s . - 1 979 .A na ly th ica lA rchaeo logy ( 2nd e d i t ion ) .L ondon . D av i s , P . , 1 974 . Da ta d e scr ip t ion a nd p re sen ta t ion . S c ience i nG eog raphy 3 . Oxfo rd U n ive r s i ty P re ss . D o ran , J . , 1 986 . F o rma l me thod s a nd a r chaeo log ica l t h eo ry : ap e r spec t ive . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 8 :1 ,p p . 2 1 -37 . D o ran , J .& H odson , F .R . , 1 975 . Ma thema t ics a nd C ompu ter s i n A rchaeo logy . E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P re s s . E kho lm , G . , 1 915 . S tud ier iU pp land s b ebygge l seh is tor ia I .S tend ldern . Uppsa la u n ive r s i te t sä r s sk r if t 1 916 :1 . - 1 921 . S tud ier iU pp land s b ebygge l seh i s tor ia I . B ron sä ldern . U ppsa la u n ive r s i te t s ä r sk s r if t 1 921 , p p . 1 137 a nd p p . I -XXX . F o r s s t röm , A . 8 4 .O l sson , R . , 1 975 . G eograf i sk i n f orma t ion sbehand l ing . S cand inav ian U n ive r s i ty B ook s ,E s se l te S tud ium , S tockho lm . F ur ings ten , A . , 1 981 . S pa t ia l A rchaeo logy o ch D -by rän s f o r skn ing . Dokumen ta t ion f or skn ing ( Ä .Hyen s t rand e d . ) ,p p . 6 3 -72 . R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t , S tockho lm . G od lund , S . , 1 954 . B us s traf iken sf ramväx t o ch f unk t ion id e u rbana i n f luensf ä l ten . L und . G u s tawsson , K .A . , 1 949 . K ok s ten shöga r . F ornvännen 1 949 , p p . 1 52 -165 . H agge t t ,P . , 1 965 .L oca t iona la na ly s i si nh uman g eography . L ondon . H agge t t ,P . , C l if f ,A .D . &F rey ,A . , 1 977 .L oca t iona la na ly s i si nh uman g eography I I I . E dwa rd A rno ld ,L ondon . H anne rbe rg ,D . , 1 961 .A t ts t udera k u l turgeograf i . S tockho lm . - 1 969 .B e skr ivande k oro log i . S tockho lm . - 1 970 .K oro log i ska p opu la t ionsmode l ler . S tockho lm . H ie ta la , H .J . ( e d . ) , 1 984 .I n t ra s i te s pa t ia la na ly s i si na rchaeo logy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P ress . H i l l ier , B . , L eaman , A . , S tansa l l , P . a nd B edford , M . , 1 976 . S pace s yn tax . E nv ironmen ta nd P lann ing B , 3 ,p p . 1 47 -185 . H odde r , I . , 1 982 . S ymbo l s i na c t ion . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty p re s s . H odde r , I ,a nd O r ton , C . , 1 976 . S pa t ia la na ly s i si na rchaeo logy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P ress . H yens t rand , A . , 1 968 . S kä rv s ten shöga ro ch b ronsä lde r sm i l jöe r . TOR X I I ,p p . 6 1-79 . - 1 979a .A rkeo log i sk r eg ion ind e ln ing a vS ver ige . R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t ,S tockho lm . - 1 979b . A nc ien tm onumen t s a nd p reh is tor ic s oc ie ty . R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t , S tock h o lm . - 1 984 . F as ta f orn lämn ingar o ch a rkeo log iska r eg ioner . R appo r t RAÄ 1 984 :7 . S toc k ho lm . H äger s t rand , T . , 1 952 . T he p ropaga t ion o f i nnova t ion w aves . L und S tud ies i n G eog raphy , S e r . B , n o 4 . 3 55

- 1 953 .I nnova t ionsf ör loppe tu rk oro log i sk s ynpunk t . L und . J aanusson , H . , 1 981 . Ha l lunda . As t ud y o fP o t tery f rom aL a t eB ronze A ge S e t t lemen t i nC en t ra lS weden . S tud ie s 1 .S tockho lm . J en sen ,R . , 1 984 . B ron sä lde r sbo sä t tn ing iU pp land u t gäende f r än r eg i s t re rade b op la t se r . B ron sä lder sf or skn ing -k r ing a k tue l la p ro jek t ( A .Hyens t rand e d . ) . A rkeo log iska r appo r te ro ch m edde landen f r än I n s t i tu t ionen f ö ra r keo log iv id S tockho lm su n ive r s i te t n r 1 7 , p p . 4 2 -51 . - 1 986 . S kärvs ten shöga r o ch b osä t tn ing smön s te r iMä la rda len u nde r b ron sä lde rn . F orn lämn ingar o ch b ebygge l seh i s tor ia ( K . -G .Se l inge e d . ) . B ebygge lseh i s to r i sk t i d sk r if tn r 1 , p p . 1 7 . -34 . S tockho lm . - i np r in t a .B ronze A ge s e t t lemen tp a t te rn si nt h e Mä la rB a s in -e co log ica l a nd s o c ia l r e la t ion sh ips .B ron ze A ge S tud ie s ( H -Ä .No rd s t röm e d . ) . S tud ie s 5 .S tockho lm . - i np r in tb .T he B ronze A ge i nE a s te rn M idd le Swed en -H eaps o fF i re -c ra cked S tone s a nd S e t t lemen tp a t te rn . T he P o l ish -Swed i sh B ron ze A ge S em inar a tJ u l i ta 1 0 -12 s ep t 1 986 . K in t igh , K .W . & Amme rman , A .J . , 1 982 . H eu r i s t ic a pp roache s t o s pa t ia l a na lys i s i n a r chaeo logy . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 7 :1 ,p p . 3 1-63 . K je l l& i ,E . &H yen s t rand , A . , 1 977 . Hä l lr i s tn ingar o ch b ron sä ld er s samhä l l e is yd vä s t ra U pp land . U pp land sf o rnm inne sfö ren ing st i d sk r if t4 9 . Kyh lbe rg , 0 . , 1 982 . U ppod l ing , ö verod l ing o ch b or tod l ing . E n m e tod s tud ie . A rkeo log iska r appo r te r o ch medde landen f r än I n s t i tu t ionen f ö r a rkeo log i v id S tockho lm su n ive r s i te tn r1 . L a r sson , T .B . , 1 986a . T he B ronze A ge Me ta lwork i nS ou thern S wed en . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t6 . Umeä . - 1 986b . B os tä t tn ing o ch e konom i iö s t ra Ö s te rgö t land u nde r y ng re b ronsä lde r . F orn lämn ingar o ch b ebygge l seh is tor ia ( K . -G . S e l inge e d . ) . B ebygge lseh is tor i sk t i d sk r if tn r 1 ,p p . 3 5 -48 . S tockho lm . L indqu i s t , S . , 1 912 . F rän N er ike ss t en - o ch b ronsä ld er . Medde landen f r än F ö ren ingen O reb ro l ä n s mu seum V . O reb ro . L undma rk , H . , 1 983 . S amhä l l sfö ränd r ing b ron sä lde r -j ä rnä lde r . E n s t ruk tu rana ly sm ed u tgäng spunk t f r än Ö se rgö t land I .S t ruk tur o ch f öränd r ing ib ronsä lderns s amhä l le ( B .S t je rnqu i s t e d . ) . I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy , R epo r t S e r ies No . 1 7 , p p . 8 8 -95 . Un ive r s i ty o fL und . 1 984a . A Me thod o f A na lyz ing H ie ra rch icha l O rgan iza t ion . P aper s i nN or thern A rchaeo logy ( E .Baudou e d . ) . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t2 ,p p . 1-22 . Umeä . 1 984b . T he I den t if ica t ion o fT r iba l H ie ra rch ies . S e t t lemen ta nd E conomy i nL a ter S cand inav ian P reh is tory ( K .K r is t iansen e d . ) , BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ies 2 11 , p p . 4 3 -62 L öf s t rand , L . , 1 966 . V ä s tman land s s t enä lde r . V ä s tman land s f ornm innesf ören ings ä r sskr if t XLV I . Ma lmer , M .P . , 1 957 . P le ionbegreppe ts b e tyde lse f ö r s t ud ie t a v f ö rh is tor iska i nnova t ionsfö r lopp . F inska f ornm inne sf ören ingens t i d skr if t 5 8 , p p . 1 60 -184 . H e l s ink i . - 1 962 .J ungneo l i th i sche S tud ien . A c ta A rchaeo log ica L unden s ia , S e r . i n8 ° , 2 . Mon te l iu s , 0 . , 1 917 .M innen f rän v är f orn t id . S tockho lm . O ldebe rg , A . , 1 974 . D ie ä l tere Me ta l l ze i ti nS chwed en I .K ung l iga V i t te rhe t s H i s to r ie o ch An t ikv i te t sA kadem ien . S to ckho lm . - 1 976 . D ie ä l tere Me ta l l ze i t i n S chweden I . K ung l iga V i t te rhe t s H is tor ie o ch An t ikv i te t sA kadem ien . S tockho lm . O lsson , E . , 1 917 . F ör teckn ing ö f ver t i l lvara tagna s t en - o ch b ronsä lder sf ynd i V ä s tman land , Da larne o ch G e s t r ik land . V ä s tman land s f o rn rn ine sfö r en ings ä r s s I c r if t I X . O r ton , C . , 1 980 . Ma thema t ic si nA rchaeo logy . C o l l in s ,L ondon . P er sson , H . , 1 983 . P ä ls taven u nde r ä ld re b ronsä lde r . S truk tur o ch f örändr ing i b ronsä ldern s s amhä l le ( B .S t jernqu is t e d . ) . I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , R epo r t S e r ie s 3 56

No . 1 7 , p p . 14 -120 . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . R en tzhog , S . , 1 967 . Om s kä rvs ten o ch s kä rvs tens rö sen . TOR X I , p p . 6 1-82 . S ege rbe rg , A . , 1 978 . D en e nk la s kaf thä l syxan a v s t en . F yndfö rhä l landen o ch d a te r inga r . TOR XV I I , p p . 1 59 -218 . S e l inge , K -G , 1 985 . V ä s te rgö t land o ch Mä la rda len — v ad s age r f o rn lämn inga rna om h i s to r ien? V ä s t ergö t land sä ld re h i s tor ia ,p p . 4 1 -79 . S t if te l sen Ä lv sbo rg sl ä n smu seum , V äne r sbo rg . S jöswä rd , L . & A s t rom , E . , 1 976 . S kärvs tenshö g ar iS pänga s ocken , U pp land . I n s t i tu t ionen f ö ra r keo log iv id S tockho lm su n ive r s i te t . S t enc i l . S oka l , R .R . &S nea th , P .H .A . , 1 963 . P r inc ip le s o fn umer ica l t a xonomy . S an F ran s isco &L ondon . S por rong , U . , 1 985 . Mä larbygd . A grar b ebygge l se o ch o d l ing u r e t t h i s tor isk g eograf i sk tp er spek t iv . Medde landen s e r ie B 6 1 , K u l tu rgeog raf iska i n s t i tu t ionen , S tockho lm su n ive r s i te t . Widg ren , M . , 1 986 . A rchaeo logy a nd G eog raphy i n Sweden . C ommon R e sea rch T heme sa nd C on t ra s t ing V iews i nt h eL a s Twen ty Y ea r s .I n Honorem E ver tB audou . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t4 ,p p . 1 55 -162 . Umeä .

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MAN AND ENVIRON MENT ON THE SWEDISH EAST COAST DURING THE LATE NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE B y Ger t Magnusson D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy .U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S -106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden . F o r s o me y ea r s t h e re h a s b een a g row ing i n te res t i n e co log ica l e xp lana t ions o f a r chaeo log ica lp henomena .T h is k ind o fr e sea r ch h a sb een c a r r ied o u tb y ag r ea tn umbe r o f a r chaeo log is t s i n mos t p a r t s o f t h e wo r ld . I n S cand inav ian a r chaeo logy t h ese q ues t ions h ave b een d i scu s sed b y , i n te r a l ia , We l inde r , H yens t rand , Ma lme r , S e l inge a nd J ensen . I n many w ay st h ee co log ica lb ackg round h a sg i ven n ew p e r spec t ives o nt h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T h i s p ape r w i l l p resen t s ome mode l s w i th b ackg round s f r om t h e Swed ish e a s t c oa s t i n t h e s u r round ings o f V ä s terv ik i n t h e n o r thea s tern p a r t o f t h e p rov ince o f Smä land . T he l and scape h e re i sd iv ided i n to t h ree d i f f e ren t b iome s . T o t h e e a s t w e h ave t h e a r ch ipe lago , c on s i s t ing o fa bou t 1 000 s ma l l , r ocky i s land s . T h i s i s ab a r ren l a nd scape a nd t h ep eop le h e re m ake t h e i rl i v ing f r om t h es e a . T he s e cond b iome i st h ei n ne rp ar to ft h ea r chepe lago a nd t h ec oa s tl i ne .T h i sl a nd scape h a so b ta ined ag r ea tp a r to fi t sl a nd -v a l leys w i th av e ry f e r t i le c l ay b e tween s ome l ow r ock s -f r om t h e s ea . T he r e sou rce s f o r man h e re a r e b o th a g r icu l tu re a nd c oa s ta l a c t iv i t ie s , s uch a sf i sh ing a nd h un t ing . T he t h i rd b iome i st ob ef ound af ew m i le s f r om t h e c oa s t l ine , i nt h ed eep f o res t s . T he g round h e re i s mo s t ly mo ra ine w i th al o to fr ock sa nd b i gs t one si ni t .I n many w ays t h i s l a nd scape i sd i v ided b y ag r ea tn umbe ro fl a ke s . I nt h e se t h ree m a in b i ome sm any a nc ien t monumen t so fd i f f e ren tt y pe sa r et ob ef ound . I nt h eb iome o ft h e a r ch ipe lago t h e re a r e mo s t ly o n ly c a i rn s a nd s ma l le rs t one -se t t ing s . ( F ig . 1 ) .A sf a ra sw ek now a tp re sen tt h e re a r en od we l l ing s i te si nt h eo u te ra r ch ipe lago b u ti fy ou s t udy t h ep o s i t ion o ft h ec a i rn sa nd t h e s ma l l s t one -se t t ing sy ou c an g ue ss t h e p l ace so ft h ed we l l ing s i te si fy ou a ccep tt h eh ypo the s i st h a tt h eg rave ss hou ld b ev i s ib le f r om t h e se s i te s . Many o ft h ec a i rn sa r e s i tua ted a r ound s ma l lb ay so ro the rp lace si nt h e l a nd scape s he l te red f r om t h ew ind . We f i nd t h ese s ma l l a r ea s , l im i ted b y t h e g rave s , i n t h e h und red s a l ong t h e c oa s t . T hey m igh t h ave b een s i tes f o r af i sh ing o r h un t ing p opu la t ion w h ich w a s l i v ing t h e re f o r l onge ro r s hor te rp er iod s o ft ime . A cco rd ing t o s ome p o l len a na ly ses f r om an e ighbou r ing a r ea , M is te rhu l t ,t h e re i sn oe v idence o fa ny t y pe o fa g r icu l tu re i nt h is a r ea . ( Magnus son 1 986 ) . T he s e cond b iome i st h e r i ches t a s r ega rd s a g r icu l tu ra l o ppor tun i t ies . I n t h e i nne r a r ch ipe lago a nd o nt h ec oa s t l ine t h el a nd i sb o th f e r t i le a nd v e ry c l o se t ot h er i ch s e a . I n t h is b iome ( f ig s 2a nd 3 ) t h e re a r e many p reh i s to r ic monumen t s s uch a s c a ir n s , s t one -se t t ing s , h eaps o ff i rec racked s t one s , r ock -ca rv ing s a nd s ome s ma l l f i e ld s w h ich a r ec l ea red o fs t one s . S tone sh ave a l so b een c o l lec ted i nc l ea r ing c a i rn so rj us t moved t o t h e s i de s o ft h e f i e ld . P e rhaps t h e b e s t e xamp le o ft h is t ype o ff i e ld s w i th p reh is to r ic monumen ts i ss i tua ted i nt h e n e ighbou rhood o fC a s im i r sbo rg i nG am leby p a r ish ( See f i g . 5a nd f i g . 6 ) . T he s t r ik ing t h ing h e re i sh ow t h e a nc ien t monumen t s a r e s i tua ted c l o se t oge the r . A s f a r a sc an b e s e en n one o ft h e monumen t s h a s b een d es t royed f r om 3 59

a ny l a te ra c t iv i ty i nt h er eg ion .T he q ue s t ion i s ,w he the rt h i si st h ea g r icu l tu ra ll a nd scape o f t h e B ronze A ge i n t h is a r ea . I si tp oss ib le t o s e e h e re t h e e x ten t o f B ronze Age a g r icu l tu re? T he se q ue s t ion sc anno tb ea n swe red w i thou ta r chaeo log ica le xcava t ion s . I n s ome o f t h e se a r ea s t h e re a r e a l so s ome m ega l i th ic s t one c i s t s . T h is m igh t b e a n i nd ica t ion o ft h et ime w hen t h eu se o ft h i sl a nd f o ra g r icu l tu re c ou ld h ave s t a r ted . ( F ig . 2 ) . O ne o ft h e se g a l le ry g rave s h a s b een e xcava ted b y H a ra ld S t ah le . T he f i nd s w e re , among o the rt h ing s , af l in td agge ra nd s ome b ronze o b jec t sf r om t h ee a r ly B ronze A ge . T he q ue s t ion i sw he the rt h e se monumen t sa r ef r om t h es ame t ime o ri fw ha tw es e eh e re i st h e s um o f av e ry l o ng u se o ft h i sp a r to ft h el a nd . F a ra way f r om t h ec oa s t l ine t h e re i s at h i rd c ha rac te r i s t ic t y pe o fc omb ina t ion o fa nc ien t monumen t s ( f ig . 4 ) ; a round t h e se monumen t s , mo s t ly o n ly c a i rn s , t h e re a r el a rge a r ea s w i th c l ea r ing c a i rn s . S ome o ft h e se a r ea sa r ea bou t 1 5t o2 0h a . V e ry f ew e xcava t ion sh ave b een u nde r taken i nt h e se a r ea s , a nd t h et ime p e r iod i nvo lved i st h e refo re u nc lea r .H oweve r , a cco rd ing t ot h ed a t ing sf r om o t he rp a r t so f Smä land ,o ne m igh ts ugge s tt h a tt h ey b e long t ot h eB ronze A ge . C on s ide r ing t h ee x i s tence o ft h e se t h ree d i f f e ren tp reh i s to r ic m i l ieu so ne m igh ta s sume t h a tt h e re h ave b een d i f f e ren tw ay sf o rt h ep eop le l i v ing h e re t of i nd t h e i rl i vel ihood . T he s i te s a l ong t h ec oa s ta nd i nt h ea r ch ipe lago f a ce t h er i chne s so ft h e s e a , s ot h a tt h e i r u se o fl a nd w a s am in imum .T he s i te sp robab ly o n ly h ad s ome s ma l lc o t tage sc l o se t ot h e s ho re i n ac a lm b ay .U nfo r tuna te ly n os i te so ft h i st y pe h ave b een e xcava ted y e tb u tt h e re a r e s ome s i te s w he re i tw ou ld b ep os s ib le t ot e s tt h i sh ypo the s i sb ye xcava t ion s . P o l len d i ag ram sh ave i nd ica ted al a ck o fa g r icu l tu re i nt h is m i l ieu . T he s e cond m i l ieu h a s b een mo re e xcava ted a s t o t h e d i f f e ren t t ypes o f a nc ien t monumen t s , b u t i n mos t o f t h ese e xcava t ions t h e a r chaeo log i s t s h ave o n ly a sked q ue s t ion s a bou t t h ed i f f e ren t monumen t s , s uch a st h e i rc ons t ruc t ion , a ge a nd f unc t ion . S tud ie so ft h ec ho ro log ica lq ue s t ion sc once rn ing t h e se monumen t sh ave a l so b een made , b u t t ot h e b es t o f my k now ledge , n o s t ud ie s h ave b een made o f t h e a ppea rance o f a B ronze Age f a rm i na n a r ea l i ke t h is . Wha t w a s t h e s ca le o fB ronze A ge a gr icu l tu re? How l a rge w a s af a rm a nd h ow w a s t h e s ub s is ten t s y s tem? T hese a r ev e ry p re l im ina ry q ue s t ions , b u t It h ink t h is mus tb et h eb a s i sf o rt h eu nde r s tand ing o ft h ew ho le s oc ie ty o f t h ep er iod . I fw ed on o tk now t h eb a se ,h ow w ou ld i tb ep o ss ib le t ou nde r s tand t h es oc ia lh i e ra rchy a nd t h eq ue s t ion so ft r ade a nd p roduc t ion? T he ma in q ue s t ion h e re i sw he the re nv i ronmen t ss uch a sC a s im i r sbo rg s how u sB ronze A ge f a rm s . I nt h i sc on tex ti ti so fu tmo s ti mpo r tance t os how t h a tt h e monumen t si nt h e se m i l ieus b e long t ot h es ame p e r iod o ft ime a nd t ou nde r s tand t h ep u rpo se f o rw h ich t h e se s ma l la r ea sc l ea red o fs t one sw e re u sed .

K ey t ot h ef i gu re s 1 4o nt h ef o l low ing p age s : 1 .C a i rn s( g rave s ) 2 .C lea r ing c a i rn s 3 .H eap so ff i rec r a cked s t one s 4 . Sma l la r ab le f i e ld s 5 .G a l le ry g r ave 6 .R ock c a rv ing s 7 .S tone w i th c upma rk s

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R ef erence s B audou ,E . , 1 968 .F orn t ida b ebygge l se iÄ ngerman land sk u s t land . A rk iv f ö rn o r r länd sk h embygd s fo r skn ing XV I I . H ä rnö sand . C la rke ,D . , 1 976 . Me so l i th ic E u rope .T he E conom ic B a s i s . I n :T he E conom ic a nd S oc ia l A rchaeo logy , p p4 49 -482 . L ondon . H yens t rand , A . , 1 982 . F orn t ida s amhä l l sf ormer o ch a rkeo log i ska f or skn ingsprogram . A rbe t shand l ing . S to ckho lm . - 1 984 .F a s ta f orn lämn ingar o ch a rkeo log i ska r e g ioner .R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te t sR appo r t 1 984 :7 . S tockho lm . J ensen , R . , 1 984 . B ronsä lde r sbosä t tn inga r iUpp land u tgäende f r än r eg is t rerade b op la t se r .B ron sä lder sf or skn ing k r ing a k tue l la p ro jek t . A rkeo log iska r appo r te ro ch medde landen f r än i n s t i tu t ionen f ö r A rkeo log i v id S tockho lm s u n ive r s i te t n r 1 7 , p p 4 2 -51 . S tockho lm . - 1 986 . S kärvs ten shöga r o ch b osä t tn ing smön s te r iMä la rda len u nde r b ron sä ldem . B ebygge l seh i s tor i sk t i d sk r if tn r 1 . S tockho lm . K je l l6n ,E .&H yen s t rand ,A . , 1 977 . Hä l lr i s tn ingar o ch b ron sä ld er s samhä l le iS ydvä s t ra U pp land . U pp land sf omm inne sfö r en ing st i d s l c r if tn r4 9 . U ppsa la . Magnu s son , G . , 1 979a . F o rn t id iT ju s t . T ju s tbygden p p 1 3 -28 . V ä s te rv ik . - 1 979b .E t te ko log i sk tp e r spek t iv m ed r ö t te r ie t no log ien .A k tue l la rkeo log ip p9 9 -102 . S tockho lm . - 1 986 . F o rn t ida k u s tbosä t tn inga r iM i s te rhu l t s s o cken , Smä land .B ebygge l seh i s tor i sk t i d skr if tn r 1 ,p p 4 9 -60 . S tockho lm . S e l inge , K -G . , 1 966 . F om lämn inga r ig ränsbygd .F ynd p p 7 -35 . G ö tebo rg . - 1 979 .A grar ian S e t t lemen ta nd Hun t ing G round s . AS tudy o ft h eP reh i s tor ic C u l ture S y s tem i n aN or th S wed i sh R iver V a l ley . T he ses a nd P ape r s i n N or th E u ropean A r chaeo logy n r8 .S tockho lm . S t ah le , H . , 1 970 . S ä rp räg lad b ron sä lde r iT ju s t o ch M i s te rhu l t . T ju s tbygd en p p 2 3 -35 . V ä s te rv ik . W inbe rg , B . , 1 979 . T jus tbygdens b ron sä lde r —n äg ra k ommen ta re r k r ing t r e k a r to r . T ju s tbygden p p2 9 -44 . V ä s te rv ik . We l inde r , S . , 1 975 . P reh i s tor ic A gr icu l ture i nE a s tern M idd le S weden . A c ta A rchaeo l og ica L unden s ia ,L und . - 1 977 . E konom i ska p roce s ser i f örh i s tor i sk e xpans ion . A c ta A r chaeo log ica L unden s ia , L und . - 1 983 . T he E co logy o ft h e B ronze A ge L and scape i nC ent ra l Sweden . S t ruk tur o ch f öränd r ing ib ronsä ld erns s amhä l le . R epo r t S e r ie s n r 1 7 ,p p 1 66 -182 . U n ive r s i ty o f L und . L und .

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CHARRED -STONE CAIRNS ON KÖKAR B y Kenne th Gus taysson Ä land s Mu seum , S F -221 0 0 Ma r iehamn . A land . F in land . T he i mpo r tance o f c ha r red s t ones a nd c ha r red -s tone c a i rn s f o r t h e u nde r s tand ing o f p reh is to r ic l i f eways h a s b een i n c rea s ing ly r e cogn ized i n t h e l a s t f ew y ea r s . T h is e n igma t ic monumen tf o rm i sn ow t h eo b jec to f an umbe ro fr e sea r ch p ro jec t s . Two e n t i re r ly d i f f e ren t c ha r red -s tone a r ea s c an b e d i s t ingu i shed i n Sweden . I n t h e n o r the rn p a r t o ft h e c oun t ry c ha r red s t ones a r e a s soc ia ted w i th S tone Age s e t t lemen t , w h ich i mp l ies a c onnec t ion w i th s ea sona l a c t iv i t ies ( Me schke 1 968 , B audou 1 977 , B roadben t 1 979 ) . I nc en t ra la nd s ou ther n Sweden ,o nt h eo the rh and ,c ha r red s t one sa r e ma in ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h el a te B ronze A ge a nd ,o cca s iona l ly ,e a r ly I r on A ge . T hey c ons t i tu te a ni mpor tan t f e a tu re o f aw ide sp read s e t t lemen tp a t te rn ,w he re h u t s ,c ha r red -s tone c a i rn s , g rave s a nd c up ma rk s o ccu r w i th in as i ng le d we l l ing -s i te u n i t . H e re w e a r e d ea l ing w i th amo re s t a t iona ry k ind o f o ccupa t ion , w he re c ha r red s t one s a r e t h e r e su l t o fd a i ly a c t iv i t ie s ( Hyen s t rand 1 968 ,H yen s t rand & K je l l6n 1 977 ) . I nF in land c ha r red s t one r e sea r ch h a sn o tc ome a sf a ra si n Sweden .T ot h i sd ay n od i rec t r e f e rence st oc ha r red -s tone h eaps h ave b een r e por ted ; e ven i fs u ch c ha r red s t one s may b e f ound i ng r ea tn umbe r sa ts i te sf r om t h el a te B ronze A ge ( e .g . M ie t t inen 1 982 ,5 8 -60 ) . A land c ons t i tu te s a n e xcep t ion w i th in t h e F inn ish ma ter ia l . O n t h e ma in i s land a l one s ome 3 0c a ir n sf r om 1 4l o ca l i t ie sh ave b een r e co rded .H oweve r ,t h i s monumen tt ype h a s n o tr e ce ived e nough a t ten t ion -t h e i ra c tua ln umbe ri sa ppa ren t ly much l a rge r . S eve ra lo f t h ek nown l o ca l i t ie sa r ec l ea r ly a s so c ia ted t od we l l ing -s i te sd a tab le t ot h el a te B ronze a nd e a r ly I r on Age s( Fo rnm inne s inven te r ingen 1 979 -80 ) . O n ly o ne o ft h e se c ha r red -s tone c a i rns h a sb een t ho rough ly i nve s t iga ted : monumen t 1 7a t t h e l a rge B ronze A ge s i te o fG ry tve rk snä se t , S ibby , S und . I tc on s is ted o f ac . 1x 8m c a i rn o fc ha r red s t one sc ove r ing s eve ra ls t one c i rc le sa nd t h ick c ha r coa ll a ye ra ti t sb a se . T he f i nd sw e re t yp ica lo fc ha r red -s tone c a i rn s : p o t te ry , d eb i tage ,f i ve g r ind -s tones a nd o ne h amme rs t one . P o t te ry s he rd sf r om am in imum o ft h ree v e sse l s w e re r e co rded ; o ne w a s b iocon ica l a nd a no the rh ad af i nge r -s t roked s u r f ace . A tl e a s tt h el a s tt ype , wh ich i s v e ry c ommon o n A land , d a tes a pp rox ima te ly t o t h e l a te B ronze Age ( Dre i je r 1 938 , 2 8 -28) . T he refo re , t h e c ha r red -s tone c a i rn s o n t h e A land ' s ma in i s land a ppea rt ob e o fr egu la r c en t ra l Swed ish t ype , a nd many o ft h em a r ec onnec ted w i th l a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t c omp lexe s . A land a l so h a s a no the rt y pe o fc ha r red -s tone o ccu r rence s , o n Köka r , b y A land 's o u te r a r ch ipe lago . H e re ,o no ne o ft h es ma l li s land s ,t h e a u tho rh a sf ound c .1 50 c ha r red s tone f e a tu res i n ama r ine e nv i ronmen t t h a t s ugge s t s ac onnec t ion w i th p reh is to r ic s ea l ing . T hey a l low a ni n te rp re ta t ion t h a t may e ven b eo fi n te re s tf o rc ha r red -s tone r e sea rch a sa w ho le . K öka ri so ne o ft h es ma l le s tp a r i she so fA land w i th c .2 80 i nhab i tan t s . S ince a gr icu l tu re w a s e n t i re ly a b sen t , u p u n t i l t h e b eg inn ing o f t h i s c en tury t he p r inc ipa l means o f 3 69

s ub s is tence w e re f i sh ing a nd s ea l ing . I na r chaeo log ica l c i rc les K öka ri sb e s tk nown b y t h e O t te rbö te s i te , a n o bv ious s e a l ing s t a t ion f r om t h el a te B ronze A ge . T he re i sa l so a n umbe ro fc haf f ed -s tone f e a tu re s ,b u tf ew o the rp reh i s to r ic . No tu n t i lt h ee a r ly m ed ieva l p e r iod ,d id K öka rg e t as t ab le s e t t lemen t . T he n ew ly f ound c ha r red s t one l o ca l i t ie sc on s i s to f mo re o rl e s sc a i rn l ike s t ruc tu re s , a l l o ccu r r ing o n g en t ly s l op ing o u tcrops s i tua ted 1 0 -30 m a . s . l . O n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r c on s t ruc t ion d i rec t ly o n r ock , Ih ave c ho sen t o c a l l t h em c ha r red -s tone c a i rns t o d i s t ingu i sh t h em f r om c ha r red -s tone h eaps o fc en t ra l Swed ish t ype . I n t h ev i c in i ty o f t h ese c a i rns a tl e a s t t h ree l a rge c ha r red -s tone l a ye r s u nde rf l a t g round h ave a l so b een r e co rded . D u r ing 1 978 -83 Ih ad t h eo ppor tun i ty t oe xcava te t h ree c a i rn sa nd o ne o fs uch l a ye r s t h ank s t ot h e s uppo r to fB er i t Wa l lenbe rg s S t if te l se . A l though Köka rc a i rn s may d i f f e rs omewha ti no u te rs hape f r om e ach o t he r , a sw es ha l ls e eb e low t h ey a l so p r e sen ta s e r ie so fc ommon c on s t ruc t ion f e a tu re st h a tl e ad t ou n ivoca li n te rp re ta t ion . Monumen t4 : 91 c on s is ted o f ar ough ly h o r se shoe -shaped c ha r red -s tone c a i rn m ea su r ing 7 10 m i nd i ame t re a nd c . 1m i nh e igh t .I tr e s ted d i rec t ly o n as ou th -s lop ing o u t c rop t h a t h ad a2x6m d ep re s s ion i mmed ia t ly b e low t h ec a i rn ' se dge .T he re w a sa l so af ou r -s ided f r ame o fl a rge u nburn t s t ones w i th a n o pen ing t owa rd s t h e men t ioned d epr es s ion . T he c a irn w a s c ompo sed o fs ome 2 0 m3 o fs t rong ly f i re -c racked s t one s w i th in am a t r ix o f t h e rm ica l ly p u lve r ized s t one ,c ha r coa l a nd a shy s o i l . T he p ropo r t ion o fs t one t o ma t r ix w a s 3 : 1 a tt h eu ppe rl e ve ls o ft h ec a irn , b u to n ly 1 : 1 a ti t s b a se . T h i sp o in t st or epea ted p owe rfu l f i res . L a rge s l abs c racked o f f f r om t h e r ock b e low t he c a i rn s ugge s t s em ic i rcu la rf i r ing a round t h e s t one f r ame , t hough n o tw i th in i t ,u pt o ad i s tance o f2 -3 m . E ven i n s ide t h ef r ame w a st h er ock w eak a nd w i th t r aces o ft h e rm ic f l ak ing . F rom a s e r ies o fb u rn ing h o r izon si nt h ep rof i le i tw a sp o ss ib le t os ee t h a t s eve ra lf i r ing e ven t s h ad l e dt ot h ec a i rn 's g row th . T h ree c ha rcoa l s amp les y i e lded a ges o f 2 100 ± 9 5 , 2 070 ± 9 5 a nd 1 910 ± 9 5 B .P . o rde red f r om t h e b a se t ot op ( S t 6 904 -06 ) ; i nd ica t ing t h a t u t i l iza t ion b egan d u r ing t h e P re roman I r on Age a nd c on t inued f o r ar e la t ive ly l ong p er iod . E xcava t ion p roduced i nd ica t ions t h a t t h e c a i rns may h ave b een c onnec ted w i th t h e p repa ra t ion o ft r a in o i l . Among o the rt h ing s ,t h eg rea sy s mea ry c a i rn f i l l ing g ave o f f as t range o do rr em in iscen t o fr anc id b u t te r . S ub sequen tr e sea rch h a s g iven s t rong s uppo r t t ot h is h ypo thes i s . S ince c ha r red s t one s w e re n o t g eo log ica l ly d i f f e ren t t h an o the r s t one s o nt h e s ame r ocky h i l lock , i ta ppea r s t h a tt h e ma te r ia lu t i l ized c on s i s ted o r ig ina l ly o f1 0 -30 cm s t ones . Wood a na ly s i so ff i ve s amp le st a ken f r om t h ec ha rcoa l r ich ( ove r 1 01 )c a i rn sm a t r ix i nd ica ted t h eu se o fy oung f a s t -g row ing t r ee s -ma in ly b i r ch , b u t a l so a spen , a sh a nd a l de rn oo lde rt h an 1 0y ea r s . T h i s a l so s ugge s t s i n ten s ive b u rn ing : t r ee s w e re u t i l ized b efo re t h ey c ou ld g row . T he w es te rn p o r t ion o f t h e c a irn y i e lded a f ew g rams o f v ery f r agmen ta ry b urn t b one , p re sumab ly s heep o rg oa t . T h i sm ay b eu sed t oa r gue a ga ins ts e a l ing a c t iv i t ie sb u t , s i nce t h ey o ccu r red i n ar e s t r ic ted a r ea , t h ey c ou ld r ep re sen tm ea lr ema in sa sw e l l . P ho spha te c on ten t w i th in t h e c a irn w as n o t e xcep t iona l ly h igh ( 60 -242 P ° ) , b u t i ts ugge s t s c onnec t ion w i th ap ho spha te -p roduc ing m a te r ia l . H oweve r ,t h e mo s ti mpo r tan ti nd ica t ion so ft r a in -cook ing c ame f r om t h ea na lyse so ft h e d a rk c a i rn f i l l ing , w h ich c on ta ined u p t o4 , 8% f a t s . Mo reove r , ab l ack t h ick p ape r l ike ma te r ia l f ound i nt h ef i l l ing h ad 0 , 8% f a t s . U nde rE lec t ron m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion i t r evea led an umbe r o fs ma l l f i re tw i s ted f i b res -r e s t s o fi nne r s k in w h ich , e ven a f te r b ur n ing , h e ld ar e la t ive ly h igh f a tc on ten t . T he f i nd i sn o tewor thy a nd u n ique f o rA land ( Gu s tays son 1 980 ) .

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C a i rn 7 :28 h ad as im i la rc ons t ruc i ton b u tw a s s ma l le ri ns i ze : 4x6x0 . 3 m . I tw a so va l i n s hape a nd s l oped d own t o an a tu ra l 2x2 . 5 d epre ss ion i n t h e r ock . Af ew l a rge u nbu rn t s t one sl a yb e tween t h i sd ep re s s ion a nd t h ee dge o ft h ec a i rn . U nfo r tuna te ly t h e f i ll ing d id n o tc on ta in a dequa te m a te r ia lf o rr ad ioca rbon d a t ing . Among t h ef i nd sw e re a f r agmen ta ry w he t s tone , a nd t h ree f r agmen t s o f r ed -burn t t empe red c l ay . P hospha te a na ly s is g ave v a lue sb e tween 8 0a nd 1 07 P ° . C a i rn 4 :76 c on s i s ted o f ac ha r red -s tone c oncen t ra t ion o fc . 8x8x0 .4 m s l op ing d own t o a3x3 . 5 mn a tu ra ld ep res s ion . A l though o n ly h a lf o ft h i sc a ir nw a si nves t iga ted , t h e r e su l t sw e re s im i la rt ot h ep rev ious t wo . B e tween e dge o ft h ec a i rn a nd t h ed epre ss ion t h e re w a s at r iangu la rf r ame o fl a rge u nbu rn ts t one s . T he c a i rn w a sr i ch i nc har coa l a nd a shy s o i l , b u th ad n o o the rf i nds . Two r ad ioca rbon d e te rm ina t ion s o f2 100 ± 10 a nd 2 070 ± 10 B .P . ( Su 9 69 -970 ) a l so p lace t h i sc a ir nw i th in t h eP re roman p e r iod . As u rvey o fo the rc ha r r ed -s tone c a i rn so nK öka rs howed t h a t ,w i th v e ry f ew e xcep t ion s , a l lh ave t h et h ree b a s ic e l emen t sd e scr ibed a bove : ac ha r red -s tone p ack ing w i th s ome s o r to fs t one f r ame b y an a tu ra l d ep re ss ion i na no u tcrop . On t h eb a s i s o f mo rpho logy , i n ve s t iga t ion r e su l t sa nd e t hnoh i s to r ica ld a ta t h ef o l low ing i n te rp re ta t ion c an b e made : A f te r ma jo r s e a l ing e xped i t ions a round t h e K öka ra r ea , t h e h un te r s t ook t ot h e c l o se s t s u i tab le s ho re sw i th t h e i rs k in a nd b l ubbe rc a t ch ( w i th l a rge c a tche st h es k inned c a r ca s se s a r e l e f t o n t h e i c e ) . T he c r i te r ium f o r as u i tab le s ho re wou ld b e a ccess t of i rewood , a dequa te s t one s a nd as l op ing o u tc rop w i th an a tu ra l d ep re ss ion . T he o n ly c on s t ruc t ion n eeded w a s s ome s o r to fs t one f r ame a bove t h e d ep res s ion . S tones w e re h ea ted b yt h e f r ame a nd d ep re ss ion . A f te rt h eb lubbe rh ad b een r emoved f r om t h e s k in s ,i tw a sp l aced i n s ide t h ef r ame t oge the rw i th r ed -ho ts t one s .A st h eb l ubbe rm e l ted t h et r a in w ou ld f l ow d own i n to t h ed ep res s ion ,w he re i tc ou ld b ee a s i ly s cooped u pb ecau se i td oe sn o th a rden w i th c oo l ing . When s t ones h ad c oo led , t h ey w e re a ga in h ea ted a nd t h en t h e o pe ra t ion w i th b lubbe ra nd h o ts t one si n s ide t h ef r ame w a sr epea ted . S tone s w e re d i sca rded o nce t h ey h ad c racked t h rough v io len tt empe ra tu re c hange s ,t h i sp roce s sg i v ing g radualy r i se t o ac a i rn . T h is w ay ac on s ide rab le a moun to fb lubbe rc ou ld b e me l ted i n to o i lr e la t ive ly f a s ta nd e a s i ly . F o rt h e s ake o fc ompa r i son , t oday 2 0 s ea ls a r ec on s ide red af a i r ly g ood c a tch o n ar egu la r s ea l ing t r ip , a nd a n a du l t g ray s ea l may y i e ld 8 0 -90 l i t res o ft r a in . F rom t h i si tf o l low st h a ts ma l lc e ram ic v e s se ls a r en o ta dequa te f o rt r a in c ook ing i ns uch as c a le . E thnog raph ica l r e co rd s d e scr ibe t h e m e thod o fc ook ing t r a in w i th t h e h e lp o fh ea ted s t one s , s pec ia l ly i nt h ec a se o ff i sh o i l ; f o re xamp le a tK o lmuk R ive ri nC anada a nd a t K amcha tka J e lowka i nt h eS ov ie tU n ion ( E id l i tz 1 969 , 8 5 ) . I nt h ec a se o fs ea lt r a in t h e re i sa ni n te re s t ing 1 6 th c en tu ry a ccoun tf r om t h e Wh i te S ea ,w he re l a rge s c a le s ea l ing t o ok p l ace o nt h ei c e . T he s e a le r s s ough tt h ec l ose s ts ho re w i th t h e i rn ew ly c augh ts k in sa nd b l ubbe r . T hey d ug l a rge p i t si nt h eb each b ank a nd f i l led t h em w i th b lubbe ra nd r ed -ho t s t ones . T h rough s imp le p roce s si tw a sp o ss ib le t oe x t rac tt h ev a luab le t r a in , w h ich w a s t h en t r an spo r ted s ou th a nd s o ld ( Tegeng ren 1 970 , 1 32 ) . T he Köka rc ha r red -s tone c a ir n sc ou ld h ave a l so b een t empo ra ry t r a in -cook ing p lace so n , o ra tl e a s ti nt h ev i c in i ty o f , t h ee x is t ing s ho re . I ft h is i st h ec a se , t h en t h ea l t i tude o ft h e c a i rns a bove t h e p re sen t s ea l e ve l s hou ld b e p ropor t iona l t ot h e i r a n t iqu i ty . T he f i ve r ad ioca rbon d e term ina t ion s a va i lab le g ive ac l ea r P re roman d a te , w h ich i si n g ood a g reemen tw i th t h e a l t i tude o f mo s to ft h ec a ir n s . I nt h es ame f a sh ion t h a tc ha r red -s tone c a i rns c an b ee xp la ined a st h er ema ins o ft empo ra ry w o rk -s i te s ,c an c haf f ed -s tone l a ye r s u nde rf l a t g round b e g i ven ap l aus ib le i n te rp re ta t ion . L aye r4 : 8 , i nS öd ra K a r lby , w a s a l so t he o b jec t o f i nve s t iga t ion . T he f ea ture w a s i n d i rec t c onnec t ion w i th a h o r se shoe -shaped c ha r red -s tone c a irn . I tc ons i s ted o f ac up -shaped , s omewha t o va l c ha r red -s tone c oncen t ra t ion w i th ad i ame t re o fc .1 0ma nd at h ickne ss o f0 . 1-0 .3 m . I n 3 71

p lace s t h e p ack ing w a s r i ch i n s and , a nd a ti t s c en t re t h e re w a s al a rge c ha rcoa l /a sh c oncen t ra t ion t h a ty i e lded o ne k i log ram o ff r agmen ta ry b u rn tb one . Among t h e se w e re a m in imum o ft h ree g ray s ea l s , a nd am in imum o f t h ree h a res , a s w e l l a s an umbe r o f u nspec if ied s ea l b ones a nd af ew b i rd b ones . T he o n ly o the r f i nd s w e re af ew v e ry f r agmen ta ry p o t te ry s he rd s . A s i ng le r ad ioca rbon d e te rm ina t ion h as g iven aR oman p er iod d a te : 1 570 ± 7 0 B .P . ( Su -1223 ) . T he l ow a l t i tude o f 1 0 -12 m a . s . l . i si n a g reemen tw i th t h i sd a te . A l though t h en e ighbou r ing c ha r red -s tone c a i rn w a sn o ti nve s t iga ted , o ne c ou ld a s sume t h a tt h er e la ted c a i rn a nd l a ye ra r ec on tempo raneou s , a nd t h a tt h ef i r s tw a s at empo ra ry wo rk s i te w he rea s t h el a t te rw a s at empo ra ry d we l l ing s i te : ah u to rw ind s he l te rw i th a w a rm ing f l oo ro fh ea ted s t one s . T he s ame c a i rn laye ra s soc ia t ion w a s r e co rded a tt wo o t he rl o ca l i t ie s .T h is c omb ina t ion m ay b ew ide sp read , b u tu nfo r tuna te ly t h ey a r ed i f f icu l t t od e tec t u nde r t h e v ege ta t ion . T he s ea sona l c ha rac te ro ft h e o ccupa t ion i ss t res sed b y l a ck o f a r tefac t f i nds . T he s ea le r s h ave a ppa ren t ly s t ayed o n K öka r o n ly d u r ing t h e s ea l ing s ea son . Wha t t h ey d id d u r ing t h e r e s to ft h e y ea rc anno tb e d e te rm ined a tt h i s p o in t . I ti sp os s ib le t op i c tu re amob i le b u t w e l l -o rgan ized h un t ing b and s ub s i s t ing o n l a rge s ca le s ea l ing a nd c on t ro l l ing t wo i mpo r tan t g ood s : s e a l s k in s a nd t r a in . B o th p roduc t s w e re n ece ssa ry t od a i ly l i f e ,b u th ad p robab ly ag r ea te rs i gn if icance a st r adegood s . S ea l s k in c ou ld p rov ide l e a the rg ood s ,r ope , t e n tm a ter ia l ,d r e s sa nd f oo twea r .T ra in c ou ld b e u sed a sl amp f ue l , f o ri mp regna t ing w ood a nd , a bove a l l , i nt h em anuf ac tu re o fl e a the r . T he refo re , s e a ls k ins a nd t r a in c ou ld h ave b een h igh ly v a lued s pec ia lt r adegood so u t s ide o fs ea l ing t e r r i to r ies . I n my o p in ion , t h ep resence o f ac on s ide rab le a moun to fc ha r red s t one c a i rns o n l i t t le K öka r ( on ly c . 5km 2 a tt h e t ime o fo ccupa t ion ) c l ea r ly p o in t s t o ma jo rs ea l ing a c t iv i t ie s b o rde r ing o n i ndu s t r ia l s ca le a nd p o ss ib ly c onnec ted w i th t r ade . T he a c tua lr e a son s f o rs uch d eve lopmen t sa r ev e ry d i f f icu l tt od e te rm ine . Ap o ss ib i l i ty , p e rhap sn o tt o of a r -f e tched ,w ou ld b et h ei mpo r tan tr o le p l ayed b yt r a in i nt h ep r epa ra t ion o fl e a the r . T hu s t h e Köka r c a i rn s c ou ld b e c onnec ted w i th am a jo rd emand f o rl e a the r g ood s a nd ,c on sequen t ly , f o rt h e t r a in n eeded i nt h e i rm anuf ac tu re d ur ing t h eP re roman a nd R oman I r on A ge .

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F igure 1 .C ha r red -s tone s i tes o n K öka r , i nt h e s ou thea s tern A land a r ch ipe lago . T he p a laeogeog raph ic r e con s t ruc t ion s how st h ec oa s tl i ne 1 0mh i ghe rt h an t oday ,a si tw a sc . 2 000 y ea r sa go .T he w h i te s qua re r ep re sen t st h ed we l l ing s i te o fO t te rbö te .

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F igure 2 . C ha r red -s tone c a i rn 4 : 91 , K a r lby , w i th i t s s ou the rn h a lf r emoved t h rough e xcava t ion . N o te t h ec en t ra ln a tu ra ld ep re s s ion o ft h e r ock ( now f i l led w i th w a te r ) a nd t h e 4 s ided s t one f r ame . T he l a rge s t one s o n t h e f o reg round b e longed t ot h e s t ruc tu re , b u tt h e i rf unc t ion i su nknown . ( Pho tog raphed f r om S ,K .Gus tay sson 1 978 ) .

‘ ‘ e . F igure 3 .G ene ra l v i ew o f c a i rn 4 :91 . D ur ing t h e P re roman I r on A ge t h e s ho re l ine wou ld h ave b een b y t he t r ees i n t he b ackg round . ( Pho tog raphed f r om NE , K .Gu s tay sson 1 978 ) .

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F igure 4 . C ha r red -s tone c a i rn 7 :28 , Ö ve rboda , a f te r t o r fr emova l . No te t h e n a tu ra l d epress ion i n t he r ock t o t h e l owe r l e f t a nd t h e l a rge r u nbu rn t s t ones a bove . ( Pho tog raphed f r on N , K .Gu s taysson 1 980 ) .

F igure 5 . C ha r red -s tone c a i rn 4 : 76 , K a r lby , a f te r t h e i nves t iga t ion o f i t s w es te rn p or t ion . O b se rve a ga in t h e s ame t h ree e l emen t s f o rm ing t h e s t ruc tu re : ac ha r red s t one p ack ing , as t one f r ame , a nd an a tura ld ep re ss ion i nt h er ock . ( Pho tog raphed f r om W , K .Gus tay sson 1 980 ) .

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F igure 6 . C ha r red -s tone l a ye r 4 :8 , K a r lby , w h ich i si n terpre ted a s at empo ra ry d we l l ing s i te . A ma jo rc oncen t ra t ion o fc ha r coa la nd b u rn tb one w a sr e por ted f r om w he re t h ep rof i les c ro s s . ( Pho tog raphed f r om NE , K .Gu s tay sson 1 982 ) .

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R eferences B audou , E . , 1 977 . D en f ö rh is tor i ska f äng s tku l tu ren iV ä s te rno r r land .Väs ternordand s f örh i s tor ia . Mo ta la . B roadben t ,N . , 1 979 . C oa s ta lR e source sa nd S e t t lemen tS tab i l i ty .. Aun 3 .U pp sa la . D re i jer , M . , 1 938 . S keppsä t tn inga rna p ä G ry tverk snäse t . A länd sk Od l ing 1 : 3 . Ma r iehamn . E id l i tz ,K . , 1 971 . F ood a nd Eme rgencyfood i nC i r cumpo la rA rea .S tud ia E thnograph ica U psa l ien s ia 3 2 . U ppsa la . F ornm inne s inven t er ingen 1 979 -80 . P l ane r ing s räde t & Mu se iby rän . Ma r iehamn . G u s tays son , K . , 1 980 . S kärv s ten shögar p äK ökar -f örh i s tor i ska t r ankokn ing sp la t ser? S em ina rP ape r . S tockho lm sU n ive r s i te t . H yen s t rand , A . , 1 968 . S kä rvs ten shöga ro ch b ron sä lde r s rösen . TOR X I I . U pp sa la . K je l l6n , E . /Hyens t rand , A . , 1 977 . Hä l l r i s tn ingar o ch b ron sä lder s samhä l le is ydväs tra U pp land . UFT 4 9 . U pp sa la . M ie t t inen ,M . , 1 982 . D en f ö rh i s to r i ska t i den iP e ta lax .P e ta lax H i s tor ia I . T egeng ren ,H . , 1 970 . F äng s tmän o ch amazone r . N or rbo t ten . Umeä .

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A CO MPARATIVE S TUDY OF HORDING I N THE LATE BRONZE AGE AND V IKING ECONO MIES B y R ichard B rad ley D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fR ead ing . Wh i tekn igh t s . PO B ox 2 18 . R ead ing R G 62 AA . G rea tB r i ta in . I n troduc t ion - Unders tand ing me ta l h oards Ma t s P . Ma lme r h a s a lways b een i n t re s ted i n d i scover ing w ays o f " r ead ing " t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . T h i sp ape ri sc once rned w i th o ne o fi t s mo s to bv ious c omponen t s , t h e me ta l h oa rd , b u t c on s ide r s t h e e v idence f r om t wo q u i te s epa ra te p e r iod s , t h e L a te B ronze Age a nd t h eV ik ing a ge . I td i scus se st h es im i lar i t ie sa nd d i f f e rence sb e tween t h e t r ea tmen t o fm e ta lwo rk a tt ho se t imes a nd c on s ide r s s ome o ft h e e v idence f r om b o th s i de so ft h eN o r th S ea . Ma t sP . Ma lme rh a s b een a mong t h ea dvoca te so fa na r chaeo log ica l s ou rce c r i t ic i sm , a n e xp lo ra t ion o fh ow t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd w a sc r ea ted a nd h ow i th a s b een r evea led . H oa rd s p ose p a r t icu la r ly i n te res t ing p rob lem s f r om t h is p e r spec t ive . Dur ing c e r ta in p e r iod st h ey f o rm ama jo rp a r to ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ,b u tt h ey a r eu nu sua lb ecause s o many o ft h em a ppea rt oh ave b een d epo s i ted d e l ibe ra te ly ; i nt h i st h ey r e semb le g rave g ood s . Hoa rd s c ove r a n e no rmous t ime p e r iod , f r om t h e N eo l i th ic t ot h e M idd le Age s , b u t a l l t oo o f ten t h ey a r e t r ea ted a s as i ng le p henomenon a nd t h e r ea son s f o r t h e i r d epo s i t ion a r ed i scu ssed w i th l i t t le a t ten t ion t ot h ed i s t inc t ive c ha rac te ra nd t r ea tmen to f t h e i rc on ten t s .T h is p ape rw i l la t temp tt oi lu s t ra te t h ec hang ing c ha rac te ro fm e ta lh oa rd s a nd w i l l s ugge s ts ome o ft h ew ay si nw h ich t h ei d ea o f" hoa rd ing "m igh tb ed i v ided i n to i t sc omponen tp a r t s . T he d epos i t ion o f h oa rd s i sc e r ta in ly a n i mpo r tan t p rob lem , b u t d i scus s ion o f t h is q ues t ion s e em s t ob e r a the r r e s t r ic ted : s ome h oa rd s w e re a ppa ren t ly v o t ive d epos i t s , w h i l s t o the r s w e re s imp ly s t o re s w h ich h ad b een l o s t d u r ing p e r iods o f c r i s is . U n t i l r e cen t ly s cho la r s s eem t oh ave b een s a t isf ied w i th t h i s s imp le d iv is ion b u t p a id l i t t le a t ten t ion t od ev i s ing w ay so fp u t t ing t h e se i d ea st ow o rk . T he mo s tp rom is ing a pp roach h a s b een t oi n ve s t iga te t h ef i nd spo t so fi nd iv idua lh oa rd s .V o t ive h oa rd s may p e rhap sb e s ugge s ted w he re o b jec t s h ad b een d epo s i ted i np lace s f r om w h ich i t wou ld h ave b een d i f f icu l to ri mpo s s ib le t or e cove rt h em ,w h i l s tt empo ra ry s t o re s s hou ld h ave b een r e ad i ly a ccess ib le a nd t h e i r l o ca t ion s m igh t e ven h ave b een ma rked . S ome p rog re ss i sb e ing made i na pp ly ing t h e se d i s t inc t ions . S ome o ft h e ma jo rv o t ive d epo s i t s o ft h e R oman I r on A ge c an b ee xam ined b yc a refu le xcava t ion , w i th t h er e su l tt h a tw ec an l e a rn much mo re a bou tt h ew ay si nw h ich t h ey f o rmed ( I lk jae ra nd L on s t rup 1 977 ) . E qua l ly v a luab le w o rk h a s b een c a r r ied o u tt oi nve s t iga te t h el o ca t ion s o fm e ta l h oa rd si nt h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn . I n S cand inav ia t h is h a s i nvo lved t h e u se o f m e ta l d e tec to r s a nd p ho spha te a na ly s is , w i th t h er e su l tt h a t s ome o ft h eV ik ing a nd l a te rh oa rd sn ow s e em t oh ave b een b u r ied i n s ide h ouses o r c l o se t o o ccupa t ion s i tes ( Ös te rg ren 1 983 ; C a l lme r 1 980 ) . G eophy s ica l s u rvey i nF rance h a s a l so s hown h ow s ome o ft h e B ronze A ge h oa rd sh ad b een b ur ied o u t s ide s e t t lemen t s ( Ve r ron 1 983 ) . T he s ame c ou ld b et r ue o fc on tempo r ary h oa rds i ne a s te rn E ng land w ho se f i ndspo t s h ave b een i n ves t iga ted b y a i rp ho tog raphy ( Lawson 1 980 , 2 81) . A na ly s i s o f t h e c i rcum s tances i nw h ich p a r t icu la r h oa rd s w e re f ound c an a l so b e i n fo rma t ive . We re t h ey b ur ied a t ag rea t d ep th , o r w ere t h ey s u f f ic ien t ly n ea rt ot h e s u r face f o re a sy r e cove ry ( K r is t ian sen 1 985 )? How w ou ld t h e i r p o s i t ion sb ek nown? I ns ou the rn G e rmany , f o ri n s tance , s ome o ft h eB ronze A ge h oa rd s h ad b een ma rked b y as t one ( S te in 1 976 ,2 06 -8 ) .

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S uch a pp roache s h ave c ons ide rab le p o ten t ia l a nd m ake a n i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion t o a r chaeo log ica ls ou rce c r i t ic i sm . O nt h eo t he rh and ,t h e re i s ag ap b e tween t h e se s pec if ic s t ud ies a nd t h e mo re t h eo re t ica l a ccoun t s o fh oa rd ing i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra ture . T he se t e nd t os t re ss e i the rt h e " vo t ive " o rt h e " u t i l i ta r ian " a spec t so fh oa rd ing , b u to n ly r a re ly a r et h ey c once rned w i th t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ese t wo p roce sse s ( c fB rad ley 1 985 ) . No rd o t h ey p ay much a t ten t ion t ot h e d e ta i led c ha rac te ro ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he re h a s b een c ons ide rab le r e l iance o n a r gumen t b y a na logy . T ho se w ho e mpha s i se t h eu t i l i ta r ian c ha ra c te ro fm e ta lh oa rd sd r aw a t ten t ion t ot h ep eak so fh oa rd ing o b se rved d u r ing p e r iod so fc r i s i sd ocumen ted i nt h eh i s to r ica lr e co rd . E xamp le si n c lude t h ed epo s i t ion o fI r on A ge h oa rd s a tt h e t ime o fC ae sa r 's i nva s ion so fB r i ta in ( Cun l if f e 1 978 ,7 3 -4 )o rt h ec oncen t ra t ion o fV ik ing s i lve rh oa rd si nI r e land a r ound t h et ime o ft h e B a t t le o fT a ra ( G raham -C ampbe l l 1 976 ,4 8 ) . U s ing a na log ie ss u ch a st h e se , R and sbo rg h a s emp loyed t h e c hang ing d i s t r ibu t ion o fV ik ing h oa rd s i nD enma rk t oc a lcu la te a n " i ndex o fa gg re ss ion " ( 1980 , 1 41 ) . T he a dvoca tes o fa n a l te rna t ive a pp roach h ave a l so e mp loyed a na logy , t h i st ime w i th e t hnog raph ic e v idence . T he mo s ta t t rac t ive a na log ie s h ave b een w i th c e remon ie s i nvo lv ing c ompe t i t ive c onsump t ion . T hese i n c lude t h e p o t la tch c e remon ie s p rac t i sed o n t h e n o r th w e s t c oa s t o f Ame r ica ( Ro sman a nd R ube l 1 971) a nd t h e " B ig Man " f ea s t s o f Me lane s ia ( S t ra the rn 1 971 ; Y oung 1 971) . I n e ach c a se , h oweve r , t h e re h a sb een t o ol i t t le c oncer nw i th b r idg ing t h eg ap b e tween t h eb a s ic t h eo re t ica la pp roa ch a nd t h es p ec if i cf o rm t a ken b ym a te r ia li nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . O ne s o lu t ion i ss ugge s ted b yJ ane tL evy i nh e rs t udy o fB ronze A ge h oa rd si nD enma rk , w he re s he s e a rches t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd f o r c ro ss c u l tu ra l r egu la r i t ie s i nt h e f o rm t a ken b yv o t ive d epo s i t s ( 1 982 , 1 7 -49 ) . T he p rob lem i st h a tb yd o ing s os he d i vo rce sa l l t h o se d epo s i t sf r om t h el o ca l s i tua t ions i nw h ich t h ey d eve loped . As im i lar a pp roach h a s b een t a ken t ot h e o rgan i sa t ion o fp reh is to r ic m e ta lwo rk ing ( Row land s 1 972 ) , a l though t h i sr ev iew w a s o n ly ap re lude t o ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l i t se lf ( Row land s 1 976 ) . T he e t hnog raph ic r e co rd i sn o t t h e o n ly s ou rce o f f r u i tfu l c ompa r i sons , s i nce i ti s e s sen t ia l ly s t a t ic a nd p rov ide s l i t t le i nd ica t ion o f t h e l e ng thy s equences w h ich a r e a r chaeo logy ' s s t ock i nt r ade . N o r d oe s i tp rov ide a n i d ea o f t h e p rec ise c ond i t ion i n w h ich d i f f e ren td epo s i t so fm e ta lwo rk w ou ld e n te rt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . Mo reove r t h ee t hnog raph ic e xamp le su sua l ly e mp loyed i nd i scu ss ions o fh oa rd ing a r e t a ken f r om r eg ions r emo te f r om t h e emp i r ica l e v idence f ound i n E u rope . I tm igh t b e mo re a pp rop r ia te t oc ons ide rt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i na n a r ea w he re t h e re i sa tl e a s t s ome h i s to r ica l e v idence a bou t t h e t r ea tmen t o fw ea l th . S cand inav ia i so ne s uch r eg ion . N o t o n ly d oe si th ave al o ng h i s to ry o fh oa rd ing : t h e re a r el i t e ra ry s ou r ces w h ich r e f e rt ot h e u ses o f t r ea su re i nt h e e a r ly h i s to r ica l p e r iod . T he re i st h e a dded a dvan tage t ha t t h e c ha rac te ra nd c on ten t so fV ik ing s i lve rh oa rd sh ave b een s t ud ied i nd e ta i l ( Hä rdh 1 976 ) a nd h ave b een r e la ted t ot h e e me rgence o ft h e m ed ieva l e conomy ( Hä rdh 1 978 ) . F o r t h e se r e a son s S cand inav ia i so ne r eg ion i nw h ich w ea r ea b le t oc on s ide rt h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween w ha t i sk nown o ft h e g ene ra l e conomy a nd t h e c ha rac te ro ft h e m e ta l h oa rd s t h em se lve s . A tt h e s ame t ime , w ec an u se o u rk now ledge o ft h el a te r ma te r ia l t oa s ses s t h er e levance o fs ome o ft h ei d ea se mp loyed i nd i scu s s ion o ft h ep r eh i s to r ic h oa rd s . T h i s p rocedu re i sc l o se t ow ha tB info rd ( 1 977 ) c a l l sm idd le r a nge t h eo ry . I nw ha tf o l low s Is ha l l make u se o ft h ec h rono log ica ld imen s ion w h ich i sa r chaeo logy ' s g r ea te s ts t reng th a nd c ompa re t h eh oa rd so ft wo d i f f e ren tp e r iod si nS cand inav ia a nd t h e B r i t ish I s le s . Is ha l l b ec once rned w i th t h ree q ue s t ion s w h ich h ave p l ayed ap rom inen t p a r t i n B ronze A ge s t ud ie s : t h e r e a sons f o r t h e f o rma t ion o f p reh i s to r ic h oa rd s ; t h e q ues t ion o fh ow f a r t h o se s ame f a c to r s a f f ec ted t h e f o rma t ion o fh oa rds i nt h e V ik ing p e r iod ; a nd , f i na l ly , ad i scu ss ion o ft h ee x ten t t ow h ich s im i la rp roce sses may a ccoun t f o rt h ed i s t inc t ive c ha rac te ro ft h em e ta lh oa rd so ft h e se t wo p e r iod s . 3 80

T he d ua l c harac ter o f me ta lwork h oards T he h oa rd so ft h eL a te B ronze A ge o f ten h ave ad ua lc ha rac te r , w h ich t os ome e x ten ti s o b scu red b y t h e l i te ra tu re . V o t ive d epo s i t s h ave b een c l a imed i nt h e s ame r eg ions a s u t i l i ta r ian h oa rd s , a nd s ome t imes b o th c on ta in t h e s ame t y pes o fo b jec t . F o re xamp le , c omp le te w eapons may b e f ound i nb og s b u t may a l so b e f ound a s f r agmen t s i nt h e s o -ca l led s c rap h oa rd s ( B rad ley 1 985 ) . I nt h e s ame w ay ,i t em sw h ich a r en eve rf ound i n a s soc ia t ion i nt h e v o t ive d epo s i t s may o ccu ri nt h e s ame " non r i tua l " h oa rds , t oge the r w i th e v idence o f me ta lwo rk ing . Ac l ea re xamp le o ft h is p a t te rn i sf ound i nL evy 's s t udy o fD an i sh B ronze Age h oa rd s . S he d i s t ingu ishe s b e tween as e r ie s o f ma le a nd f ema le a s soc ia t ion sa nd s ugge s t st h a ts ome o ft h ev o t ive h oa rd sw i th f ema le o rnamen t sc on ta in a n umbe ro fp e r sona l s e t s( 1 982 ,7 1 -4 ) . S ome o ft h e mo s tc omp lex o rnamen th oa rd sh ave ar e s t r ic ted d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd i nP e r iod 5many o ft h e se a r ef ound i nJ u t land . A tt h es ame t ime , t h ese o rnamen t s a r ek nown i no t he r h oa rds , c on ta in ing w ha t s he c ons ide r s t ob e ma le a s soc ia t ions . I nP e r iod 5t h ese h oa rd s a r ef ound ma in ly i nF unen a nd Z ea land , s o t h a t t h e t wo g roups h ave al a rge ly c omp lemen ta ry d i s t r ibu t ion ( f ig . 1 ) . I tm ay b e n o a cc iden t t ha t 5 5% o f t h e se m ixed h oa rd s i n c lude f r agmen t s o f m e ta l o r c a s t ing j e t s , s ugge s t ing t h a tt h eo b je c t si nt h em w e re b e ing c o l lec ted a sr aw m a te r ia la nd h ad l o s tt h e i r o r ig ina l i mpo r tance . I ts e em s a si ft h e s ame t ype s o fa r tefac t c ou ld b e t r ea ted i nv e ry d i f f e ren tw ay sa nd t h a tt h i sd i s t inc t ion c an b er ef lec ted i nd i f f e ren tt y pe so fm e ta ld epo s i t . I ts e em sp o ss ib le t h a t as im i la rp roce ss h a sb een o b served b ye conom ic a n th ropo log i s t s . O b jec ts c an h ave a d ua l c ha rac te r , s e rv ing a s g i f ts i n s ide t h e c ommun i ty a nd a s c ommod i t ie s o u t s ide i t( G regory 1 982 ) . Wha t m ay b e av a lued g i f t w i th in o ne s oc ie ty may l o se i t s s i gn if icance o u t s ide t h a tl o ca l s e t t ing a nd may b e s ub jec tt o mo re b a lanced e xchange . A s Ma r sha l l S ah l ins o b se rve s , t h e c ha rac te r o f e xchange t r ansac t ion s c an c hange a cco rd ing t ot h es o c ia ld i s tance b e tween t h ep a r t ic ipan t s ( 1 974 ) . A to ne l e ve lt h is may e xp la in w hy t h e re c an b e s o much f o rma l i ty i n t h e d epo s i t ion o f B ronze A ge a r te fac t s w hen a na ly s i sr evea l s t h a tt h e s ame t ype s w e re b e ing r e cyc led f o rt h e i rm e ta l c on ten t .T h i sa ppea r st ob et h ep roce s sb eh ind t h eh oa rd d i s t r ibu t ion i nf i gu re 1 . I na ne a r l ie rs t udy ( Brad ley 1 985 ) Is ugge s ted t h a tt h is c on t ra s tm igh tb eh igh l igh ted b y t wo f e a tu re s o ft h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . I fo b jec t sw e re t r ave l l ing o u t s ide t h e a r ea s i n w h ich t h ey p l ayed as pec ia l i sed r o le ,i ts e emed l i ke ly t h a ts ome o ft h eu t i l i ta r ian h oa rd s t h o se o s ten s ib ly c onnec ted w i th m e ta l p roduc t ion -w ou ld b e f ound a tt h e e dge o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fv o t ive f i nd s c on ta in ing t h e s ame k ind s o f o b jec t . Whe re o b jec t s w e re b e ing moved o ve rg r ea td i s tance s , s uch f i nd sm igh tb e mo re c ommon n ea rt h ec oa s t . N o t o n ly wou ld t h is p rov ide p l aces f o r t r ans -sh ipmen t : t h e c oa s t l ine w ou ld a l so p rov ide a n eu t ra la r ea w he re b a lanced t r an sac t ions c ou ld t a ke p l ace . S econd ly , w em igh tb ea b le t o t e l l w he the rm e ta lwo rk w a s s ub jec tt ob a lanced e xchange f r om t h ef o rm i nw h ich i tw a s a ccumu la ted i nh oa rd s . I tm igh t b e d i v ided i n to mu l t ip les o fo ne b a s ic u n i t , r a the rl i ke i n go t s ,o ri tc ou ld b er educed t o ac ommon s t a te a ss c rap m e ta l . T he re s e emed t ob e e mp i r ica l s uppor t f o rt h e se i d ea s , b u tt h e s t reng th o ft h e a r gumen t d epended mos t o n t h e p a ren t t h eo ry , a nd t h is i s c on t rove r s ia l ( Row land s 1 986 ) . A l though t h e re i s s cope f o r mo re d e ta i led c ha rac te r isa t ion o f b ronze h oa rd s , t h is i n te rp re ta t ion h a st h ew eakne s st h a ti ti sh a rd t ot e s t . O nt h eo the rh and ,i ft h es t reng th o f t h i sa pp roach d epends o nt h eu nde r ly ing t h eo ry ,i tm igh tw e l lb er ef lec ted i nt h ee v idence f r om o t he rp e r iod s . I ti sw or th c ons ide r ing t h eu sefu lne s so ft h e s ame i d ea sb yl o ok ing a t t h eb e t te rd o cumen ted m e ta lh oa rd so ft h eV ik ing a ge .T h i sh a sf ou rm a in j u s t i f ica t ion s : 1 )B o th p e r iod sw e re t ime so fl o ng d i s tance e xchange i nw h ich c ommun i t ie si nn o r th a nd n o r th w es t E urope w e re l a rge ly d ependan t o n a me ta l s upp ly f r om o u t s ide . T hus m e ta lwo rk c ou ld p lay a s pec ia l ised r o le i n s oc ie ty w h i ls t t h e r aw ma te r ia l w a s a n

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i mpo r tan tc ommod i ty . 2 )T he V ik ing h oa rd s a r ec ompo sed ma in ly o fs i lve r ,w h ich , l i ke b ronze ,i ss u i tab le f o r mak ing c omp lex o b jec t s ; b u ti tc an a l so b er e cyc led a nd e xchanged i ns t anda rd u n i t s . 3 ) T h is a pproach h a s t h e a dvan tage o f c ompa r ing l i ke w i th l i ke . T he re a r e f ewe r p rob lem so f" t ran s la t ion " t h an w ee xper ience i nc ompa r ing p reh i s to r ic ma te r ia l w i th t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd . 4 )O u rg rea te rk now ledge o ft h eV ik ing e conomy a l so r educes t h ea moun to fa mb igu i ty a nd u ncer ta in ty i nr e la t ing t h es i lve rh oa rd st ot h e i ro r ig ina lc on tex t s . Me ta lwork h oards i n t he L a te B ronze Age a nd V ik ing p er iods We c an c ompa re t h e se g roups o fh oa rd sa tt h ree l e ve l s : 1 )t h er e levance o ft h ed i s t inc t ion b e tween g i f t s a nd c ommod i t ies ; 2 )t h e c ha rac te r a nd t r ea tmen t o ft h e o b jec t s f ound i n t h e se h oa rd s ; a nd 3 )t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eh oa rd s . 1 )G if ts a nd c ommod i t ie s . T h i s i sp e rhap s t h e l e a s tc on ten t iou s p o in t , f o rt h e V ik ing p e r iod p rov ide s a na lmo s tp er f ec ti lus t ra t ion o ft h i sp r inc ip le a tw o rk . Among t h e mo s t c ommon i t em si nV ik ing s i lve rh oa rd s a r er i ngs a nd b rooche s , w h ich h ave b een b roken i n to p i ece s o fr aw m e ta l . T he b a s ic p roce ss h a s b een d e sc r ibed b y G raham -C ampbe l l : " To m ake as i lve ro rnamen t ,c o in sw e re c o l lec ted t o ge the r ,m e l ted d own i nc r uc ib le s , a nd t h en c a s ta nd f a sh ioned b y aj ewe l le r . B u t , h oweve rc o s t ly t h er e su l t , t h eo rnamen tw a s u l t ima te ly n o mo re t h an al a rge l ump o fs i lve rb u l l ion ,t ob ec u ti n to p i ece sa nd w e ighed o u t , w hen r equ i red , i n ab a lance " ( 1982 , 3 3 ) . A s h e p o in t s o u t , " s i lve rc o in s , o b ta ined b y l oo t ,r an som o rt r ade , w e re r egu la r ly m e l ted d own t o make o rnamen t s b o th f o rm en a nd f o r women . . . O s ten ta t ious d i sp lay w a st h en o rm , a nd s i lve ro rnamen t s s e rved a st h e v i s ib le s i gn o f as ucce ssfu l V ik ing a nd h i s l a dy ; b u t a s n ece ss i ty a rose o r d i c ta ted , o rnamen t sm igh tb ec u tu p t os e rve h i sm e r can t i le i n te r e s t s " ( i b id) . T ha tp a s sage p rov ides a ne xce l len ti lus t ra t ion o ft h ed ua l n a tu re o fm e ta lwo rk d epo s i t s , b u ti fw ea r et oe x tend t h e a r gumen tt o ad e ta i led c ompa r i son w i th t h eL a te B ronze A ge e v idence , s ome i mpo r tan t q ua l if ica t ions a r e n eeded . I ts eem s c l ea rt h a t b y t h e V ik ing p e r iod e l abo ra te m e ta lwo rk w a sl e s so f ten d epo s i ted i ng r ave s . O nt h eo t he rh and ,v o t ive o f f e r ing s may s t i l lh ave b een m ade , a se v idenced b yt h e s i gn if ican tn umbe ro fw eapon s r e cove red f r om r i ve r s . D irec t c ompa r ison w i th t h e L a te B ronze Age w ou ld b e m is lead ing , h oweve r , s i nce t h e re i s as ha rp d iv is ion b e tween t h ec on tex t so ft h eV ik ing w eapons a nd t h e d i scove ry o fs i lver a r tef ac t s i nh oa rd s . T he re i sn o d oub t t h a t s i lve r o rnamen t sw e re a ni mpo r tan tm ed ium o fd i sp lay -e ven t h el a rge s tb rooche s s how s i gns o fw ea r -b u tf ew m ay h ave b een d epos i ted i no the rc on tex t s , u n le ss s ome o ft h e mo re e l abo ra te s i ng le f i nd sw e re o r ig ina l ly i n ten t iona lo f f e r ing s . D e sp i te t h e se q ua l if ica t ion s ,t h e re a r eo t he rp o in t so fs im i la r i ty w i th t h eL a te B ronze A ge e v idence . I n many c a ses t h e h oa rd s b r ing t oge the r t y pe s o f s i lve r a r tef ac t w h ich h ad c i rcu la ted i nq u i te d i f f e ren tr eg ion s f r om o ne a no the r( c fS kovmand 1 942 ) . I ndeed , t h e r a nge o fs ou rce a r ea sr e p re sen ted i ni nd iv idua lh oa rd ss e em st oh ave b ecome w ide ro nce t h e p rac t i se w a s e s tab l ished . O the r h oa rd s may c on ta in e s sen t ia l ly l o ca l t y pes , w h ich w e re a l so t r an sm i t ted t oo t he ra r ea s -o ne e xamp le i sp rov ided b y at y pe o fs i lve ra rm r ing w h ich s e em s t oh ave b een m ade i nI r e land ( Graham -C ampbe l l 1 976 , 5 1 ) . A s i t em s moved o u t s ide t h e i r o r ig ina l f i e ld o f c i rcu la t ion , t h e ir s i gn if icance c ou ld a l so h ave c hanged . As t r ik ing i n s tance i sp rov ided b yt h e s i lve rc o ins w h ich w e re s t ruck a tH edeby a nd u sed a lmo s te xc lu s ive ly i nt h e m a in t r ad ing p or t s . Wh i ls tt h ey may h ave p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n e xchange a tt ho se s i te s , a lmos t a l l t h e e xamp le s f r om B i rka w e re d epo s i ted i nw omen 's g rave s ( Rand sbo rg 1 980 , 1 49 ) . 3 82

2 )T he c ond i t ion o f t he h oarded o b jec t s . T he a c tua l t r ea tmen t o ft h e o b jec t s i nt h e h oa rd s p rov ide s a no the r a r ea f o r c ompa r i son b e tween t h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd t h e V ik ing p er iod . T he re i sl e ss e v idence f o rw ha ta ppea rt ob ec omp lex d epo s i t sd ur ing t h e V ik ing p ha se , a nd g rave f i nd sa r en o ta sc ommon a st h ey w e re i ne a r l ie rp e r iod s . I ts t i l l r ema in si mpo r tan tt od i s t ingu i sh b e tween p e r sona l s t o re so fv a luab les , h idden b u tn eve r r e cove red , a nd a ccumu la t ion so fm e ta li n tended f o ru se i nt r ade . T he c ompa ra t ive r a r i ty o f who le o b jec t s i nV ik ing h oa rd s s ugges t s t h a t p e r sona l d epo s i ts w e re b y n o mean s c ommon , a l though s i ng le f i nd so fu ndamaged a r tef ac t sc ou ld b ei n te rp re ted i nt h i sw ay . T he re a r e s eve ra lc l ues t ot h e " e conom ic " c ha rac te ro f mo s tV ik ing s i lve rh oa rd s . F i r s t , t h e re a r ec l ea r cu tc hange si nt h ec on ten t sa nd s i ze o ft h e se h oa rd s . I ng ene ra l ,t h ee a r l ie r h oa rd sa r ea mong t h e s ma l le s ta nd a r et h eo n ly o ne st h a tr egu la r ly c on ta in w ho le o b jec t s . L a te rh oa rd s , o n t h eo t he rh and , mo re f r equen t ly c on ta in am ix tu re o fs i lve ro rnamen t s , c o ins a nd e ven i n go t s ; t h es equence d raw st o ac l o se a sc o ins c ome t od om ina te t h eo the r t y pe s o f ma te r ia l , a nd t h en t os upp lan tt h em ( Hä rdh 1 976 ) . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h e re i sa g r adua l c hange f r om t h ei n co rpo ra t ion o fs i lve rc o ins , o r ig ina t ing i n av a r ie ty o fe xo t ic l o ca t ions , t o t h e a lmo s t e xc lus ive r ep re sen ta t ion o f c o in s o f S cand inav ian o r ig in . S econd ly , t h e re a r e c hange s i nt h e c ond i t ion o f t h e s i lve r o b jec t s i n t h ese h oa rd s . I n g ene ra l , t h e e a r l ie rh oa rds c on ta in mo re w ho le o b jec t s , a nd w hen t h el a t te r a r e b roken i n to f r agmen t s , t h ese p i eces s how aw ide r ange o fs i ze s . T he s ame a pp l ies t of i nds o f e xo t ic c o ins i n t h e e a r ly h oa rd s . A s t h e s equence g oes o n , t wo t e ndenc ies c an b e r e cogn i sed f a i r ly w ide ly : t h ef r agmen ta t ion o ft h e s i lve ra r tef ac t s i n to s ma l le ru n i t s a nd i n c rea s ing e v idence t h a t t h e q ua l i ty o ft h e s i lve r h ad b een t e s ted . T h is a l so a pp l ie s t o c o in s a nd i ngo t s . T he t r ea tmen to ft h e se o b jec t sb ecome su n ifo rm o ve rq u i te w ide a r ea s ( Hä rdh 1 976 a nd 1 978 ) . A ga in i ti si mpo r tan tt or e cogn i se t h ed ua lc ha rac te ro fs uch d epo s i t s . Mo s ts cho la r s a r e a g reed t h a tt h e mo re e ven f r agmen ta t ion o ft h es i lve ra r tef ac t sr ef l ec t st h ed eve lopmen to f mo re b a lanced e xchange , ap roce ss w h ich a l so a ccoun t s f o rt h e g row ing r epre sen ta t ion o fc o in s . A tt h e s ame t ime , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e s i lve ro b jec t s i nt h e e a r l ie s th oa rd s w e re o f ten made a cco rd ing t o au n ifo rm s y s tem o fw e igh t s , s ot h a te ven w hen t h ey w e re w or n a sp e r sona lo rnamen t st h ey s t i l lc on ta ined ak nown a moun to f me ta l . N o to n ly d oe s t h i s e mpha s i se t h ef l ex ib le r o le o ft h e se t y pe s , a sg i f t sa to ne momen ta nd c ommod i t ie sa tt h e n ex t : i ta l so makes t h e m e rg ing o f t h e se c a tego r ies e a s ie r t o u nde r s tand . I ti sa l so a ppa ren tt h a ts ome o ft h ef i r s tn a t ive c o ins w e re b e ing m ade a cco rd ing t ot h es ame w e igh t s t anda rd s ( Skaa re 1 976 ) . A t o ne l e ve l b o th p r inc ip le s f i nd t h e i rc oun te rpa r t s i nL a te B ronze A ge h oa rd s . T he se s how as ha rp d i s t inc t ion b e tween g roups o fs t anda rd i t em s , l i ke a xes a nd s i ck les ,a nd a ccumu la t ions o f s c rap m e ta l , b u t i n t h is c a se t h e i r w e igh t s h ave h a rd ly b een i n ve s t iga ted . P re l im ina ry w o rk i sc er ta in ly p rovoca t ive ,b u ta tp re sen tt h eg o ld h oa rd sa r e t h e o n ly o ne s i nw h ich s t anda rd isa t ion c an b e s hown w i th a ny c onf idence ( Spra t l ing 1 980 ) . F u r the rr e sea r ch i nt h is a r ea i sb ad ly n eeded . 3 )T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f h oards . We c an a l so c ons ide r t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fL a te B ronze A ge a nd V ik ing h oa rd s . T h is h a s s eve ra l a spec t s . F i r s t , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fs ome o ft h e e a r l ie s ts i lve rc o ins d oe se mpha s i se t h ec oa s t l ine ; t h e s ame h a sb een s ugge s ted f o rm any B ronze A ge h oa rd s . I nD enma rk a nd s ou ther n Sweden t h ef i r s tV ik ing h oa rd s s how t h i s p a t te rn c l ea r ly , a nd e ven w hen t h e h oa rd d i s t r ibu t ion s p read i n land , t h e c oa s ta l f i nd s e x tended o ve r aw ide r a r ea ( Skovmand 1 942 ) . T he re i sf u r the r e v idence f o r t h e i mpo r tance o ft h ec oa s t l ine i nt h ec ha rac te ro ft h es i lve rh oa rd s . We s ugge s ted t h a ti nt h e L a te B ronze A ge b a lanced e xchange m igh tb e mo s tc ha rac te r i s t ic o fc oa s ta l a r ea s ; i ti s c l ea r t h a t c oa s ta l s i lve r h oa rd s i nS weden s howed t h e f r agmen ta t ion o ft h e i r c on ten t s s ome t ime b efo re t h i sh appened e l sewhe re ( Hä rdh 1 976 ) . A tt h e s ame t ime ,R and sbo rg 3 83

h a s a r gued t h a tD an i sh s i lve rh oa rd sw i th w ho le o b jec t sw en to ni nu se w he re t h eV ik ing e conomy w a sl e s sd eve loped ( 1 980 , 1 61 ) . T h i s l a s tp o in ti sc ons is ten tw i th s t ud ie s o ft h ee a r l ie s tc o in h oa rd s . I n Sweden i ts e em s t h a t mo s t o ft h e d epo s i t s d a t ing f r om H ä rdh 's m idd le p ha se a r e i na r ea s w i th K öp ing p l ace n ames , w h i ls t i nh e r l a te rp ha se mo s t o ft h e c o in h oa rd s a r e f ound w i th V ik ing t owns ( Hä rdh 1 978 , 1 69 ) . T he s ame g ene ra l p a t te rn i sf ound i nD enma rk , w he re t h e e a r l ie s tl o ca l ly m in ted c o ins c ome f r om t h ep o r to fH edeby a nd h ave ad i s t r ibu t ion l im i ted t os i te s o fs im i la r c ha rac te r . A ga in t h e f i r s tp u re c o in h oa rd s i nD enma rk o ccu ri nt h e s ou th w e s t o f t h e c oun t ry , t h e a r ea w i th t h e mos t a dvanced e conomy i nR and sbo rg ' s i n terpre ta t ion . H e s ugges t s t h a t t h e re i s ad i rec t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e c hang ing d i s t r ibu t ion o fs uch h oa rd s a nd t h ee a s twa rd s p read o ft h e s t a te ( Rand sbo rg 1 980 , 1 62 ) . O ne f i na l e xamp le o fh oa rd d i s t r ibu t ion h igh l igh t s t h e l i nk s b e tween c o inage a nd t h e g row th o f t r ad ing t own s . G raham -C ampbe l l ( 1976 ) h a s s t ud ied t h e f i nds o f V ik ing s i lve ri nI r e land , a nd h a s s hown h ow t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h is m a ter ia l s e em st od i v ide i n to t h ree z one s w i th i n crea s ing d i s tance f r om t h et r ad ing p o r t s o n t h e e a s tc oa s t ( f ig . 2 ) . I n t h e f i r s t z one , n ea r t ot h e c oa s t , t h e re a r e an umbe r o f V ik ing c o in h oa rd s , p e rhaps i n d ica t ing av igo rous m e r can t i le e conomy ,b u tt h e se f i nd sa r ef l anked b yt h e mo re i n land d i s t r ibu t ion o f h oa rd s c on ta in ing am ix tu re o fc o in s a nd o the r t y pes o f a r tef ac t . S t i l l f u r the rt ot h ew e s t , o u t s ide t h ea r ea c on ta in ing V ik ing b ur ia l s , t h es ame s i lve ro b jec t s a r e f ound i nh oa rd s w i thou t a ny c o ins , o ro ccur a s s i ng le f i nds w ho se f i ne c ond i t ion m ay i nd ica te t h a t t h ey h ad b een u sed i n as pec ia l ised s phe re o fa c t iv i ty . S uch ad i v is ion i s r a the r s im i la r t ot h e c hang ing a s soc ia t ions o fP e r iod 5 o rnamen t h oa rd s i nD enma rk , i lu s t ra ted i nf i gu re 1 . D iscuss ion O ur c ompa r isons b e tween B ronze A ge a nd V ik ing h oa rd s h ave empha s i sed s eve ra l e l emen t s . T hey s e em t o s how t h e u sefu lness o f t h e d i s t inc t ion b e tween g i f t s a nd c ommod i t ie s o u t l ined e a r l ie ri nt h is p ape r , s t re s s ing h ow v e ry e l abo ra te o b jec t s , m ade f r om e xo t ic r aw m a te r ia l s , c ou ld move i n mo re t h an o ne s phe r e o fe xchange ,a nd c ou ld c hange t h e i re n t i re c ha rac te ra c co rd ing t ot h et y pe o ft r an sa c t ion i nw h ich t h ey w e re b e ing u sed . T he s t reng th o f t h is a rgumen t f o r B ronze A ge s t ud ies c omes f r om t h e v e ry s pec ia l i sed c on tex t s -g r ave s a nd " vo t ive s i te s " -i nw h ich s ome o ft h e se t y pe sh ave b een f ound . T h is i sp e rhaps t h e w eakness o f t h i s a pproach i n V ik ing s t ud ies , s i nce i t em s w h ich w e re u sed f o r s pec ia l ised p u rpose s a r e l e ss c ommon ly d i scove red i n f o rma l d epo s i t s . O n t h e o the r h and , c ommod i ty e xchange i se a s ie r t or e cogn ise i nt h e l a t te r p e r iod b ecause o ft h e c hang ing c ha rac te r a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e h oa rd s . N o t o n ly d o t h e se i n c lude ag row ing p ropor t ion o fc o inage : t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion e mpha s ise s t h ee a r l ies t d ocumen ted ma rke t s ( Hä rdh 1 978 ) . I nt h es ame w ay , o u rg r ea te rk now ledge o ft h ee conom ic r o le o ft h eV ik ing s i lve rh oa rd s s ugges t s n ew q ue s t ions t o a sk o f L a te B ronze A ge m e ta l d epo s i t s . T he c hang ing c ha rac te ro ft h e V ik ing m a te r ia l s how s h ow s pec ia l i sed t ype s o f* o rnamen t , t h em se lve s p roduced t os e t w e igh t s , w e re b roken u p f o ru se i nt r ade a nd h ow t h e e nd r e su l to ft h a t p roce ss c ou ld b et h ed eve lopmen to f al o ca lc o inage a dop t ing t h es ame w e igh ts t anda rd . I tw ou ld b ef a rt o os imp le t om ake a ne xa c te qua t ion w i th t h eB ronze A ge e v id ence ,b u ti t i sc e r ta in ly s t r ik ing h ow m any h oa rd sc on ta in mu l t ip le so ft h es ame t y pe o fa r tef a c t -a xe s i nn o r th a nd n or th w e s t E urope a nd s i ck le s i nc en t ra l E urope . O ne w onde r s w he the r t h ese m igh t h ave b een s een a s s t anda rd u n i t s o f m e ta l . I tm igh t a l so b e w o r th r e con s ide r ing t h eB ronze A ge s c rap h oa rd si nt h el i gh to ft h eV ik ing e v idence . I tw ou ld b e e a sy t oe xagge ra te t h e s im i la r i t ie s , b u t r e sea r ch o n t h e V ik ing h oa rd s p rov ide s a n o b jec tl e s son i nh ow t h i sq ue s t ion c ou ld b et a ck led .

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F ina l ly , t h e d i s t r ibu t iona l e v idence f r om t h e V ik ing p e r iod s uppo r t s t h e i d ea t h a t c ommod i ty e xchange m ay b e mo s tc ha rac te r is t ic o fc oa s ta la r ea s . I nt h eL a te B ronze A ge t h e re i ss ome e v idence f o rs pec ia l i sed s i te sp roduc ing o re xchang ing f i ne m e ta lwo rk i n t h i s z one ( Brad ley 1 985 , 6 98 -9 ) , b u t t h e much mo re e xac t r e la t ion sh ip t h a t c an b e o b se rved b e tween t h et a ke u po fc o in h oa rd sa nd t h ed eve lopmen to fm a rke t sa nd t r ad ing p o r t s means t h a t w e a r e b e t te r p laced t oi n terp re t t h e e conom ic e v idence . A ga in t h i s p rov ides a c l ue wh ich c an b e u sed i n r enewed c ha rac te r isa t ion o f t h e B ronze A ge m a te r ia l . I ti sa tt h i sb road l e ve lt h a ts uch c ompa r i son sc oun t .A l though w eh ave b een d ea l ing w i th t wo v e ry d i f f e ren t s oc ie t ie s , l i nked b y l i t t le mo re t h an t h e ir d ependence o n a n o u t s ide s upp ly o f me ta l , t h is s t udy h a sb een l im i ted t ot h ec ha rac te ro ft h eh oa rd st h em se lves . I t s h ed sn on ew l i gh to nt h eV ik ing sb u tm ay h e lp t os e t t le s ome a r gumen t si nB ronze A ge s t ud ie s . T he re a r e a lway sp rob lem si nr e la t ing a r tefac t st oa r chaeo log ica l t h eo ry , a nd i n t r an s la t ing e t hnog raph ic o b se rva t ion si n to t h ep ecu l ia rf o rm t a ken b yt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T h i s m ay b e ar a re c a se w he re w e c an l e a rn r a the r mo re b y c ompa r ing t h e a r chaeo logy o ft wo d i f f e ren tp e r iod s . A cknow ledgmen t s Ia m g ra tefu l t o t h e e d i to r s f o r i nv i t ing a n a dm i re r o f S cand inav ian a r chaeo logy t o c on t r ibu te t ot h i sc e leb ra t ion a nd t o Ma rk E dmond sf o rt h ef i gu re d raw ing s .

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F igure 2 .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fV ik ing s i lve ra r tef ac t si nI r e land ( a f te rG raham -C ampbe l l 1 976 ) . O n ly p r ec i se ly p rovenanced f i nd s a r e mapped .

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R eferences B info rd , L . , 1 977 . G ene ra l i n t roduc t ion . I n L .B info rd ( e d . ) . F or T heory B u i ld ing i n A rchaeo logy , 1 10 , N ew Y o rk . B rad ley , R . , 1 985 . E xchange a nd s oc ia l d i s tance -t h e s t ruc tu re o f b ronze a r tefac t d i s t r ibu t ion s . Man 2 0 , 6 92 -704 . C a l lme r , J . , 1 980 . T opog raph ica l n o tes o n s ome S can ian V ik ing p e r iod a nd e a r ly med ieva l h oa rd s . Medde landen f rän L und s u n iver s i te t s h i s tor iska museum 3 , 1 32 -49 . C un l if f e , B . , 1 978 .I r on A ge C ommun i t ie si nB r i ta in . S econd e d i t ion . L ondon . G raham -C ampbe l l . J . , 1 976 . T he V ik ing -a ge s i lve rh oa rd so fI r e land . I nB .A lmqv i s t a nd D .G reene ( ed s . )P roceed ings o ft h eS even th V ik ing C ongre ss , 3 9 -74 . D ub l in . -1 982 . V ik ing s i lve rh oa rd s : a n i n t roduc t ion . I nR .T . F a re 1 1 ( ed . ) T he V ik ings , 3 2 -41 . C h iche s te r . G rego ry , C . , 1 982 . G if t s a nd C ommod i t ies . L ondon . H ä rdh , B . , 1 976 . W ik ingerze i t l iche D epo tf unde a u s S üd schweden : P rob leme u nd A na ly sen . L und . -1 978 . T rade a nd money i nS cand inav ia i nt h e V ik ing a ge . Medde land en f rän L und s u n iver s i te t sh i s tor i ska m u seum 2 ,1 57 -71 . I l k jae r , J .a nd L Ons t rup , J . , 1 977 . I le rup Ä da l , u dg rav ingen 1 976 . Kum l ( 1977 ) , 1 05 -17 . K r i s t iansen , K . , 1 985 . B ronze h oa rd sf r om t h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge . I n K .K r i s t ian sen ( ed . ) A rchaeo log ica lF orma t ion P roces se s -t h e r epresen ta t iv i ty o f a rchaeo log ica lr ema in sf rom Dan i sh p reh i s to ry , 1 29 -4 1 . C openhagen . L aw son , A . , 1 980 . T he e v idence f o rL a te rB ronze A ge s e t t lemen ta nd b u r ia li nN o r fo lk . I nJ .Ba r re t ta nd R .Brad ley ( e d s . )S e t t lemen ta nd S oc ie ty i nt h eB r i t i sh L a t er B ron ze A ge , 2 71 -94. O xfo rd . L evy , J . , 1 982 . S oc ia la nd R e l ig iou sO rgan i sa t ion i nB ronze A ge D enmark . O xfo rd . R and sbo rg , K . , 1 980 . T he V ik ing A ge i nD enmark . L ondon . R o sman , A . a nd R ube l , P . , 1 971 .F ea s t ing W i th M ine E nemy . N ew Y o rk . R ow lands , M . , 1 972 . T he a r chaeo log ica l i n terp re ta t ion o fp reh i s to r ic me ta lwo rk ing . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 3 ,2 10 -224 . -1 976 .The P roduc t ion a nd D is tr ibu t ion o f Me ta lwork i nt h e M idd le B ronze A ge i n S ou thern B r i ta in . O xfo rd . -1 986 . G if t sa nd c ommod i t ie s : amode rn is tf a n ta sy i np reh i s to ry? Man 2 1 , i np r e s s . S ah l ins , M . , 1 974 . O n t h e s oc io logy o fp r im i t ive e xchange . I n M .Sah l ins S tone A ge E conom ics , 1 85 -275 . L ondon . S kaa re , K . , 1 976 . C o in s a nd C o inage i nV ik ing -A ge N orway . O s lo . S kovmand , R , 1 942 . D e d an ske s ka t tefund f r av ik inge t iden o g d en e 1 d s te m idde la lde r i nd t i l omk r ing 150 .A arbOger ( 1 942 ) , 1 275 . S pra t l ing , M . , 1 980 . We igh ing o f g o ld i n p reh i s to r ic E u rope . I n W .A .Oddy ( ed . ) A spec t so fE ar ly Me ta l lurgy . 1 79 -83 . L ondon . S t e in ,F . . 1 976 .B ronze ze i t l iche H or unde i nS üdd eu t sch land . B onn . S t ra the rn , A . , 1 971 . T he R ope o f Moka . C amb r idge . V e r ron , G . , 1 983 . L ' in te rpre ta t ion d e s d 6pö t s d e l ' Age d u B ronze ä l a l um ie re d e p rospec t ions e t d e f ou i l les r&en te s . I n J .Br ia rd ( ed . ) E nc los F unera ire s e t S t ruc ture sd 'Hab i ta te nE urope d uN ord -Q ue s t , 2 63 -80 . R enne s . Y oung , M . , 1 971 . F igh t ing w i th F ood . C amb r idge . Ö s te rg ren , M . , 1 983 . S i lve r ska t te rna s f yndp la t se r -f a rmännens g ä rdar . I n G u tar o ch V ik ingar , 3 4 -48 . S tockho lm .

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LATE MANUFACTURE OF CHIPPED S TONE TOOLS I N NORTHERN FENNOSCANDIA B y I nger Z achr isson S t a ten sh i s to r i ska mu seum . B ox 5 405 . S -114 8 4 S tockho lm , S weden . T here i s i ncrea s ing a r chaeo log ica l e v idence t ha t c h ipped s t one t oo ls w ere s t i l l manufac tured i n t h e M idd le A ge s i n n o r the rn F enno scand ia . T he e v idence p e r ta ins c h ief ly t oa r te f a c t so fh a rd r o ck ,p a r t icu la r ly q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz i te . T h i sl a te u se o fc h ipped s t one i sc ompa ra t ive ly u nknown a mong Swed ish a r chaeo log i s t s , n o tw i th s tand ing t h a ti tw a sl o ng a go ma in ta ined b ye . g . H va r fne ri n1 957 a nd S e rn ing i n 1 966 . S eve ra l n ew e xamp les t he reof w e re l a te r p resen ted f r om o the r p a r ts o f F enno scand ia . Ac omp i la t ion o fa l l o ft h ese s hou ld b eo fv a lue . O n ly d ef in i te c a ses a r e i n c luded . I ti so f ten v e ry d i f f icu l t i n an o r the rn d we l l ing s i te o r g rave ma ter ia l t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween l a te s t one a r tef ac t sa nd a dm ix tu re o fm a te r ia lf r om e a r l ie rs e t t lemen t a tt h es ame p l a ce . Am icrowear a na lys is h a s n ow b een e xecu ted o n al a te s t one a r tef ac ti na n a t temp t t o d e te rm ine i t s f unc t ion . S ince i ti su nce r ta in h ow t h e v a r ious o the r s t one a r tefac t s men t ioned b e low w e re u sed t h e d e s igna t ions g iven b y t h e r e spec t ive a u tho r s , a sr u le " s c rape r " , a r es e ti nq uo ta t ion -ma rk s . F ina l ly i ts hou ld b eo fi n te re s tt oi nve s t iga te w he the rt h i sl a te manuf ac tu re o fs t one t oo l s c an b e l i nked t o as pec if ic e t hn ic g roup . S aam i s , F inn s a nd N o rd ic p eop le a r e k nown f r om t h ea r ea . T he e xamp le s k nown t om e f r om t h e p e r iod a f te r c . 1A .D . a r e p re sen ted h e re , f r om n or th t os ou th ( c f . t h em ap ) . T he l a rge S aam ic eme te ry a t Mor ten sne s i nN o rd -Va range ri nF innma rk y i e lded o ne o f t h e l a tes t p roof s o f t h e u se o f a r tefac t s o f c h ipped s t one . A g rave , C 14 d a ted t o 1 200 -1340 A .D . , c on ta ined " s c rape r s " o fq ua r tz a nd f l ake s o fq uar tz a nd d o lom i te f l in t . A r tefac t s o fh a rd r ock w e re r e co rded i n 1 2o the rg rave s a tt h e s ame c eme te ry ( K leppe 1 974 :116 , 1 34 f ) . T he c e me te ry c an b e d a ted b y C 14 s amp les a nd t ypo log ica l d e te rm ina t ion so fa r te fa c t st oa tl e a s t 100 -1700 A .D . ( O l sen 1 985 :18 ) . N ew e xcava t ion so ft h et wo w e l lk nown E a s tS aam is umme rd we l l ing s i te sa tK je lmöy i n S ö r -Va range r i nF innma rk a nd at h i rd a tn ea rby K jööy h ave r evea led ac on s ide rab le i n c idence o fc h ipped s t one . Q ua r tz i st h er aw ma ter ia l f o r9 7 .3% o ft h e s t one a r tefac t s , q ua r tz i te f o r 1 . 3% a nd f l in t f o r0 . 9% . No i mp lemen t s o fp o l i shed s l a te w e re h oweve r f ound i nt h ec ou r se o ft h e se e xcava t ion s .T he e dge a ng le so ft h es t one a r tef ac t s ( l e s st h an 5 5° )i nd ica te t h a tt h ey w e re n o tu sed f o rc u t t ing . T h is m ay i mp ly t h a te dged i mp lemen t s o fm e ta lh ad w ho l ly t a ken o ve rt h i sf unc t ion , at h eo ry s uppo r ted b yt h e many b one /an t le r h a f t sf o ri r on k n ive s . A r te f ac t so fi r on a r ed ocumen ted a l ready i n al a ye rd a ted b yC 14 t o 7 80 -420 B .C . T he re w a sc on t inu i ty o fs e t t lemen to ft h et y p ica lK je lmöy c u l tu re a tl e a s t u n t i l3 00 -400 A .D . T hu si r on a nd s t one w e re u sed i np a ra l le lf o r av e ry l ong t ime ( O l sen 1 984 ) . T he u se o f c h ipped s t one a r tef ac t s , c h ief ly o f q ua r tz , i st hough t t o h ave c eased i n S ö r -Va range rc .1 000 -1100 A .D . ( O l sen 1 984 :51 ) . 3 89

C rema t ion g rave s a tA ssebak te i ni nne rF innma rk , d a ted t ot h e 1 th t o1 2 th c en tury b y C 14 v a lue s a nd b y a r tef ac t s , y i e lded t wo " s c rape r s " a nd f ou r f l akes o f q uar tz i te i n a l toge the r f ou r g raves ( one " s c rape r " a nd o ne f l ake b e ing i nt h e s ame g rave ) . T he se c r ema t ion g rave s a r e t e n ta t ive ly i n te rp re ted a sb e ing S aam i ( S imonsen 1 979 , c f . O dne r 1 983 :690 . Dwe l l ing s i te e xcava t ions a tG au te l i s n ea r N a rv ik i n No rd land p roduced e qua l ly l a te d a t ing so fs t one " s c rape r s " ( He l skog 1 975 ) . A r tef ac t so fq ua r tz w e re f ound o nt h ek nown S aam is umme rd we l l ing s i te a tJ u iken t tä i n t h e K em i r i ve r w a te r s ys tem i n F inn ish L ap land f r om c . 1 200 -1700 A .D . T he m anuf ac tu re a nd u se o fq ua r tz " s c rape r s " d id n o tc ea se i nt h i sa r ea u n t i lt h eM idd le A ge s ( Ca rpe lan 1 966 , 1 975 ) . T he f ounda t ions o f aS aam i h u t ( kä ta ) f r om t h e E a r ly I r on A ge w a s e xcava ted o n t h e I s land o fJ a tu l in saa r ii nL .K em i jä rv ii nO s te rbo t ten .A r te fa c t sa nd f l ake so fq ua r tz i te a nd s l a te w e re l y ing i n t h e s ame h omogeneous l a ye r a nd a tt h e s ame l e ve l a s a sbes tos c e ram ic sa nd m e ta la r tef ac t s( S i i r iä inen 1 964 ) . A tV a rgha lsen n ea rA r jep log i n Swed i sh L ap land aq ua r tz i te " s c rape r " c ame t ol i gh ti na l a ye rd a ted b yC 14 t oc . 100 ( J ohansson 1 962 :224 ; c f ,h oweve r ,B audou 1 974 :47 n o te 6 ) . T he g rea te rp a r to ft h e dwe l l ing s i te w ou ld s eem t od a te f r om t h ep e r iod b efo re 4 00 A .D . S ome s hee t b ronze a nd t h e i r on k n if e f ound t h e r e p re sumab ly a l so b e long t ot h e l a te ro ccupa t ion f r om t h eL a te V ik ing t oE a r ly Med iaeva lp e r iod ,a sc onf i rmed b ys eve ra l C 14 d a t ings . T h is l a te r o ccupa t ion , e t hn ica l ly r e la ted t ot h e f o rme r , c an b e d e s igna ted S aam i ( Zach r i sson 1 976 :103 , c f . p .9 7 , a nd B audou 1 981 :140 ) . E xcava t ions b y J an Me lande r i n 1 975 i n t h e Ä nge rmanä lven r i ve r w a te r s y s tem a t A bbor rv iken i n Ä se le p a r ish ( Raä n o . 1 080 ) i n L ap land b rough t t ol i gh t aq ua r tz i te " s c rape r " i n ap u ta t ive d ry ing o ven f o rm ea t . T he o ven w a sd a ted b yC 14 t o 150 ± 1 20 B .P . ( no tc a l ib ra ted ) . T he re w a s n o S tone A ge dwe l l ing s i te i nt h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty . S uch o vens f r om t h e I r on A ge a r e k nown f r om t h e f o re s t s o ft h e i n ter io r o fn o r the rn No r r land ( Me lande ro ra lc ommun ica t ion , Me lande r 1 986 ) ,w he re t h e S aam i st h en w e re t h em a in p opu la t ion . G rave 3a tt h ec eme te ry o n L ängön I s land i nL .H o t ing s jön i nt h e s ou rce a r ea o ft h eR . Ä nge rmanä lven i nn o r th -we s te rnmo s t Ä nge rman land , ac r ema t ion g rave , d a ted t ot h e 1 0 th c en tu ry ,c on ta ined t wo c o l lec t ion so fb one s ,o ne o fh uman b one si nt h ec en t re o ft h e mound , a nd o ne o f a n ima l b ones o n t h e p e r iphe ry . Al a rge " s c rape r " a nd af l ake o f q ua r tz i te w e re f ound a mong t h el a t te r . T he a s soc ia t ion o ft h eq ua r tz i tes w i th t h eb one si s h e re b eyond a l l d oub t ( Hva r fne r 1 957 :74 ) . T he r ema inde ro ft h e g rave g ood s c ons i s t s o n ly o f af r agmen t o fa n i r on a r rowhead a nd as ma l l p i ece o fi r on -t h e m idd le o ft h e mound h ad b een l oo ted . D ue t o t h e g rave s ' l o ca t ion a nd g rave g ood s t h ey a r e n ow a s sumed t ob e S aam i ( Amb ro s ian i 1 984 :62f ,Z ach r i s son 1 986 , MS . ) . S hou ld t h e c o l lec t ion o fa n ima l b ones i ng rave 3o n L ängön b e i n te rp re ted a sb e ing a s a c r if ice? I th a sa l ready b een c ompa red b yH va r fne r( 1 957 :74 )w i th t wo g rave sf r om t h e c eme te ry o n Sma lnä se ti nL .L o s sen i nH ä r jeda len f r om c . 1A .D . No c e r ta in i n c idence o fS tone Age m a te r ia lc ou ld b ep roven a tt h es i te . Among t h e s em i inc ine ra ted a n t le r sa nd b one sf r om r e indee ra nd e l ko nt o po ft h et wo g rave sl a y a nu nf in i shed " s c rape r " ( g rave 2 3 )a nd af l ake o fq ua r tz i te ( g rave 3 1 )r e spec t ive ly . G rave 2 3h a sb een d a ted b yC 14 t oc . 7 5 A .D . ( on c a rbon ) , ad a t ing w h ich i sr ega rded a su nce r ta in . A cco rd ing t oC 14 t h ed a te o ft h eb one /an t le rc o l lec t ion o ng rave 3 1 w a sc .5 10 A .D . Mo reove r as l a te " po in t " a nd a f l ake o fq ua r tz i te w e re l y ing i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h eb u rn ta n ima lb one sa nd t h ea n t le r so n 3 90

t o p o f g rave 1 6 . T hus i n a l l t h ree c a ses c o l lec t ions o f a n ima l b ones c on ta ined s t one a r tefac t s -a so n L ängön -w h i le t h e re w e re n oh uman b one s . T he a n ima l b one s a nd t h e a n t le r sa r ei n te rp re ted a sb e ing s a cr i f ice sa nd t h ec eme te ry w h ich i sr e ckoned a mong t h e s o -ca l led l a ke g rave s , s hou ld i na l lp robab i l i ty b e a t t r ibu ted t o aS aam i h un t ing c u l tu re ( Amb ro s ian i , I r eg ren & L ah t ipe rä 1 984 ) . I n 1 983 a S tone A ge d we l l ing s i te o n L . V ika r s jön ( R . L jusnan ) i n H ede p ar ish , H ä r jeda len , w as e xcava ted b y s t af f f r om J äm t land C oun ty Museum , l e d b y J an S und s t röm ( unda ted r epo r t b y K .W i l lema rk ; J LM i nv .no . 2 6 .277 ) . L a te r e l emen ts i n c luded ap robab le g r ave , d a ted t ot h e 1 3 th c en tu ry v i at h e b u rn tf r agmen t s o f ac omb f r om t h i sc en tu ry . Mo reove rt h ec ons t ruc t ion c on ta ined n i ne f r agmen t so fs hee tb ronze , t wo n a i l s , ah ook a nd af r agmen t o fi r on , aw ho le " s c rape r " , t wo e dge f r agmen t s f r om o t he r" s c rape r s " , s ome v e ry s ma l lf l ake so ff l in t( s upp lemen ta ry d e te rm ina t ion sb yK je l K nu t sson ) , a nd c racked s t one . T he f l in t w a s b urn t , a nd l a y n ea r t h e s ur face w i th t h e b one s . ( Unfo r tuna te ly s i nce t h ef l in ti sb ur n tn om ic rowea ra na lyse sc ou ld b ee xecu ted . K nu t sson empha s ize s , h oweve r , t h a t i ti sn o t am a t te r o f s pa rk ing f l in t s o r t h e l i ke . ) A pa r tf r om b u rn th uman b one st h e re w e re b one so fs heep /goa t , s qu i r re l , f i sh -i n c lud ing m any f r om p ike -a nd b i rds ( La r je 1 984 ) . T he c ons t ruc t ion i si n te rpre ted a s b e ing a n on -Ch r i s t ian c r ema t ion g r ave ,p re sumab ly S aam i (W i l lema rk ,u nda ted ) . C oa r se ly c h ipped " a r rowhead s " a nd f l akes o fD a la s ands tone c l ea r ly b e longed t ot h e g r ave g ood s i n al a ke g rave f r om n o r ther nD a la rna , o n L . H o r rmund s jön i nT ran s t rand p a r i sh , w h ich c ou ld b ed a ted t ot h e 8 t h c en tury A .D . O the rI r on A ge g rave s w i th s t one a r tefac t s a nd f l akes a s g rave g ood s a r e k nown f r om t h is p rov ince , a pa r t f r om t ho se w h ich a r ee xc luded b yr e a son o ft h ee x is tence o fS tone A ge d we l l ing s i te si nt h ev i c in i ty ( Ser n ing 1 966 :18 ) . T he l a ke g rave sa tL .H o mnund s jön h ave b een l i nked w i th ah un t ing p opu la t ion ( Ser n ing 1 966 ) ,p re sumab ly S aam i( Hyens t rand 1 974 , 1 985 ) . I no rde rt oi nve s t iga te t h ep u rpo se o ft h e se l a te s t one a r efac t s am ic rowea ra na lys is w a s u nde r taken o n t h e " s c rape r " f r om L ängön . I tw a s c a r r ied o u t b y Noe l B roadben t , w ho c ons ide r s t h a t t h e re a r e s l igh t w ea r t r ace s a nd s ugge s t s t ha t t h e t oo l w a s u sed f o r a m a te r ia la sh a rd a sb i r chba rk ,o ro n ah a rd ma te r ia l s uch a sw ood f o ro n ly af ew m inu tes ( c f . B roadben t 1 985 ) . A s e cond a na lys i s , p e r formed b y K je l K nu t sson w i th a no the r t e chn ique ( c f . K nu t s son 1 985 , 1 986 ) , p roduced ad i f f e ren t r e su l t . Knu t sson c on s ide r s t h a tt h e a r tef ac th ad n o tb een u sed a ta l l , o rp o s s ib ly u sed f o rw o rk ing w i th m ea t , " a s a b u tcher ing t oo l o rf o rf l ay ing " , b u t s t a te s c a tego r ica l ly t h a ti tw a s n o t u sed o n ma te r ia l s uch a s wood , b one , a n t le r o r d ry h ide . K nu tsson emphaz ise s , h oweve r , t h a t h i s t e chn ique h a sb een mo s t ly t e s ted o nq ua r tz . T he r e su l t so ft h et wo a na ly se sf o l low b e low . T o s ummar ize : T he 1 2e xamp les o f al a te u se o fc h ipped s t one d e sc r ibed a bove s pan t h eI r on A ge f r om c . 1A .D . t os ome t ime i nt h eM idd le A ges ( i . e . 100 -1500 ) . T he re a r ed a t ing sa sl a te a s t h e M idd le A ges f r om a tl e a s t t h ree , p o ss ib ly f i ve o ft h e s i te s men t ioned a bove . S tone t oo ls o f h a rd r ock p robab ly w en t o u t o f u se a td i f f e ren t t imes i n d i f f e ren t p a r t s o f n o r ther nF enno scand ia . I ta ppea r s t h a ti nt h e ma jo r i ty o fc a se s , a pa r tf r om a r tef ac t s f l ake s t oo h ave b een f ound w h ich i nd ica te s al a te m anuf ac ture , n o to n ly al a te u se o fc h ipped s t one t oo ls . T h i sp rac t ice d oe sn o ts e em t ob ed ue t o al a ck o fm e ta l , s i nce e . g . i r on k n ive sw e re u sed p a ra l le lw i th s t one t o o l s .T he se w e re man if e s t ly s of unc t iona lt h a tt h e re w a sn or e a son t o r e p lace t h em . 3 91

T he e xamp le s men t ioned a bove o f al a te m anuf ac tu re a nd u se o fc h ipped s t one a r tef ac t s d e r ive f r om dwe l l ing s i tes , g rave s a nd a n o ven ( ? ) . A l l s e em t ob e l i nked w i th aS aam i e t hn ic a f f i l ia t ion .T he 1 2 s i te s s hown -s e et h em ap -a r e s p read o ve rF enno scand ia f r om t h ec oa s to fn or ther nmo s tN o rway a nd t h ei n te r io ro fn or th N orway a nd n o r th F in land t o t h e f o res ts o f c en t ra l Sweden , a s f a r s ou th a s n o r the rn D a la rna . T h i s a r ea r ough ly c o inc ides w i th t he S aam i a r ea o f t oday . A rchaeo log ica l , l i ngu is t ic a nd h i s tor ica l i nd ica t ion s t oge the r w i th r e su l t s o fb lood t e s t s p o in t t oa n e ven l a rge r S aam i a r ea i n a n t iqu i ty a nd t h eM idd le A ge s . Two r n ic rowea ra na ly se so ft h e s t one " s c rape r "f r om L ängön i nÄ nge rman land ,d a ted t o t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry , h ave g iven d i f f e ren t r e su l t s . I t s u se o n b i rchba rk , mea t o rr aw h ide h ave b een s ugges ted . O the ra na ly ses o fS tone Age " s crape r s " f r om Ä nge rman land a nd L ap land s how t h a td i f f e ren t t oo ls w e re u sed f o rd i f f e ren tp u rpo ses : f o r wo rk o n m ea t , h ide , b one /an t le r , o r wood ( Ryd s t röm 1 984 , B roadben t 1 985 ) . T he l a te s t one t oo ls o f h a rd r ock d on o ts e em t od i f f e ri na ppea rence f r om t h eo l de ro ne s . Ab road c u l tura l c on tex t l i nk s t h ese s t one a r tef ac t s f r om w ide ly s epa ra ted t imes a nd p l ace s ,f r om s eve ra lm i l lenn ia i nn or the rn F enno scand ia . * ANALYSIS OF QUARTZITE FLAKE 2 4946 :3 T äs jö s n , Ho t ing ,L ängön . T he a r t if ac ti s amac rof lake o fd a rk g r ay b anded q ua r tz i te o ff jä l lo r ig in .T h i ss t one t y pe i sc ommon ly f ound i n mo ra ine d epo s i t so ft h ef o re s ti n te r io r . T he f l ake h a s as t r ik ing p l a t fo rm w i th d i s t inc t ive t r aces o fp l a tform p repa ra t ion i nt h e f o rm o fe dge g r ind ing . T h i s t e chn ique w a s u sed t oi mprove t h e s t r ik ing q ua l i ty o ft h e p l a tfo rm a nd i sp roof t h a t t h ef l ake w a sp roduced f r om ac o re . A l l s u r face so ft h ef l ake a r et h er e su l to fp rev ious f l ak ing f r om t h i sc o re . T he f l ake s how sn ot r ace so fw ea the r ing o fa b ra s ion . T he d i s ta le nd o ft h ef l ake h a sb een r e touched i n to ac onvex e dge . O nt h el e f t ma rg in o f t h is e dge t h e re i sf i ne rr e touch w he rea st h er i gh tt wo t h i rd so ft h ee dge w a so n ly r ough ly f l aked . M ic ro scop ic i n spec t ion o ft h ee dge w i th am agn if ica t ion o f2 0X i nd ica tes t h a to n ly t h e l e f t , mo re f i ne ly r e touched , s e c t ion h a s b een u sed . Ac ompa r i son w i th a l l e dges o ft h e f l ake ,i n c lud ing u n re touched e dge s , s how st h a ts l igh t ma rg ina lc h ipp ing o ft h ee dge r im i si ne v idence . T h i sw ea ri su nde r 1mm i nh e igh ta nd i sc oncen t ra ted o nt h ep ro jec t ion s o f t h e e dge r im . E xpe r imen t s w i th s t one s c rape r s h ave s hown t h a t t h is k i nd o fe dge c h ipp ing c anno to ccu rw hen s o f tm a te r ia l s a r ew o rked , i . e . h ide s . E dge c h ipp ing i sv e ry t y p ica l o fw o rk o n h a rd ma te r ia l s , e spec ia l ly w ood , a nd o ccur s a f te r s ome m inu tes o f u se . Wo rk o n v e ry h a rd ma te r ia ls s uch a s b one o r a n t le r l e ads t oe dge c ru sh ing o f a d i s t inc t ive c ha rac te ra nd a ppea rance . Conc lus ions : T h is f l ake w a s manuf ac tu red a nd mod if ied . A wo rk ing e dge w a sp roduced o nt h ed i s ta l e nd o f t h e f l ake a nd t h e l e f t t h i rd o f t h is e dge w a s u sed . S l igh t t r aces o f m a rg ina l c h ipp ing o ft h e e dge r im s ugge s t t h a t t h e f l ake w a s u sed o n h a rd m a ter ia l , e . g . w ood , a l though f o r as ho r t p e r iod o f t ime , p robab ly o n ly s eve ra l m inu tes . A n a l te rna t ive

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e xp lana t ion w ou ld b e t h a tt h e t oo l w a s u sed o n ama te r ia l s uch a sb a rk . T he l ow e dge a ng le ,c a5 5d eg rees , w ou ld s uppo r tt h i si n te rp re ta t ion . E dge a ng le so f6 0 -75 d eg ree so r mo re a r e t yp ica l o f s c rape r s u sed o n w ood w he re e dge s t ab i l i ty i so f p a r t icu la r i mpo r tance . H ide s c rape r s t yp ica l ly h ave e dge a ng le s o f 5 0 -60 d eg rees s i nce e dge s ha rpnes s ( c u t t ing c apac i ty ) i s ap re requ i s i te . T h i s a ng le i sa l so s t ab le e nough f o rw o rk o n ma te r ia l s o fi n te rmed ia te h a rdnes s . T he e dge a ng le o ft h i s t oo l c omb ined w i th t h e w ea rt r aces s ugge s tt h a tt h ee dge w a su sed o n am a te r ia lo fi n te rmed ia te h a rdne s s s u ch a s b a rk . No te : S ome r e se rva t ion mus t b e made i n t h is a na lys is s i nce o n ly o ne a r t ifac t h as b een e xam ined . O n ly g ene ra lc ompa r i son sw i th o t he ra r t if ac t s o fs t one ( qua r tz a nd q ua r tz i te ) a r ep o ss ib le . T he c onc lu s ion s d rawn a r e t h e refo re o f ag ene ra l n a tu re a nd b a sed o n t h e o ve ra l lc ond i t ion o ft h i sp a r t icu la rt o o l . Umeä 1 986 .02 .13 . N oe l B roadben t C en ter f or A rc t ic Cu l tura l R e search Umeä Un ivers i ty

CO M MENTS ON AN ANALYSIS .OF A QUARTZITE " SCRAPER" f rom L ängön ,T äs jö p ar ish ,A ngerman land ( SH M 2 4946 :3 ) T he a r tef ac ti s al a rge f l ak eo fd a rk g r ey q ua r tz i te w i th d i s t inc ts t r ik ing p l a tfo rm r emnan t . Ac r u shed e dge o nt h er emnan ts how st h a tt h ef l ake w a s s t ruck f r om an odu le t r anpor ted b y i c e . T he q ua r tz i te i sd en se a nd r e la t ive ly h omogeneous w i th s t reak s o f l i gh te r " b recch ia ted q uar tz " . T he o ne l o ng s i de h a sd i s t inc ts e conda ry mod if ica t ion i nt h e f o rm o f au n ifac ia l s e r ies o fc h ips . T he q ua r tz i te h a s ar e la t ive ly h omogeneous f i ne -g ra ined m a t r ix w i th l a rge rq ua r tz g r a in s ,2 00 -300 µi ns i ze , s c a t te red e ven ly t h rough i t . Am ic rowea ra na lys is a cco rd ing t ot h ea bove w a s m ade o ft h e se l a rge rg ra ins a l ong t h e c i rcum f e rence o ft h ef l ake . Many g r a in se xh ib i ted p i t t ing b u tn ot r ace o fc u l tu ra l w ea r . T he p i t s a r ed ue t ow ea the r ing . N o te t h a tq ua r tz g ra in s o ft h i s t ype a r ev e ry s ens i t ive t o w ea ra nd a l lu sage l e ave sd i s t inc t ive t r ace s . T he a r tef ac t may h ave b een r e touched a ga in a nd t h en n o tu sed a ny mo re , o rp e rhap s u sed a s ab u tche r ing t oo l o rf o rf l ay ing . T he se a c t iv i t ie s l e ave o n ly w eak t r ace s a f te ru se . T he i mp lemen tw a s a s su red ly n o tu sed a sa t o o lo n ma te r ia ls uch a sb one ,w ood , a n t le r ,d ry h i de e t c . K je l Knu tsson Un ivers i ty o f Uppsa la *

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F igure 1 . T he s i te sd ea l tw i th i nt h ea r t ic le : 1Mor ten sne s , 2K je lmöy -K jööy , 3A s sebak te , 4G au te l i s , 5J u iken t tä , 6J a tu l in saa r i , 7V a rgha l sen , 8A bbo r rv iken , 9L ängön , 1 0 Sma lnä se t , 1 V ika r s jön , 1 2H o r rmund s jön . Map r ed rawn b yB eng t Hände l .

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F igure 2 . T he q ua r tz i te " s c rape r "f r om L ängön . ( 80 % o ff u l ls i ze ) . 1F ine rr e touch ,t r ace so fu se -wea r . 2C oa r se r e touch ,n ou se -wea r . 3S t r ik ing p l a t fo rm w i th p l a t fo rm p r epa ra t ion ( e dge g r ind ing ) . T h ree d i s t inc t ive f l ake s c a r so nd o r sa ls u r f a ce . D raw ing b yB eng t Händ e la f t er N oe lB roadben t .

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R eferences Amb ros ian i , B . , I r egren , E . & L ah t ipe rä , P . , 1 984 . G ravfä l t if ängs tmarken . U nder sökn ingar a vg ravf ä l ten p äS ma lnä se to ch K rankmär tenhögen , Här jeda len . R ik san t ikva r ieämbe te to ch S t a tens h i s to r i ska mu see rr appo r t 1 984 :6 . S to ckho lm . B audou , E . , 1 974 . S ame rna s i nvand r ing t i l l S ver ige u r a rkeo log isk s ynpunk t . S amef or skn ing id ag o ch imorgon . ( Nord iska musee t s j ub i leum ssympos ier . ) S tockho lm . - 1 981 . F ö ränd r inga r mom j äga rku l tu ren v id L u le ä l v . L u leä lvssympos ie t 1 -3 j un i 1 981 . Sh i f te rf r än L u leä lv sp ro jek te t 1 . Umeä . B roadben t , N .D . , 1 985 . A na lys is o f s c rape r w ea r : c ompar i sons o f f ou r s i tes o n t h e R ive rL u leä lv . E xcu r sus 1i nF o r sbe rg , L .S i te v ar iab i l i ty a nd s e t t lemen tp a t tern s . A r chaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t5 .U n ive r s i ty o f Umeä , 1 985 . C a rpe lan , C . , 1 966 . J u iken t tä .N or rbo t ten 1 967 . - e ta l . 1 975 . K em i jok i 8 000 -l a xä lv in or r . S ta tens h i s to r i ska mu seum u t s tä l ln ing s k a ta log . S tockho lm . H e l skog ,K . , 1 975 . G au t i l i s , ap ro toh i s tor ic s i t ei n, S ' k jomen . Manuscr ip t . Hva r fne r , H . , 1 957 . F ängs tmän o ch n ybyggare iA ngermanä lvens k ä l lomräden u nder j ärnä ldern . A rk iv f ö rN o r r länd sk H embygd sfo r skn ing 1 5 .H ä rnö sand . Hyen s t rand , A . , 1 974 . J ärn o ch b ebygge l se . S tud ier iDa larnas ä ld re k o lon i sa t ion s h i s tor ia . F a lun . - 1 985 . F ö rh is tor ia o ch mede l t id -s j u s k i sse r . H i s tor i ska N yhe ter 3 3 -Da larna . S t a ten sh i s to r i ska museum . S tockho lm . J ohansson , B .O .H . , 1 962 . V a rgha lsen , e n f ö rh is tor isk b op la t s v id Hornavan . F ornvännen . K leppe , E . J ohansen , 1 974 . S am iske j erna lders tud ier v ed V arangerf jorden . Mag i s te rg rad savhand l ing ia r keo log i .U n ive r s i te te t iB e rgen . Knu t sson , K . , 1 985 . Y t topograf iska s t ud ier a v f örh is tor iska s t enredskap . 3 . S vepe lek t ronm ik roskop i a v e xpe r imen te l la k va r t red skap . E xempe l p ä u r lakn ing , u tf ä l ln ing ,d efo rme r ing o ch m ekan i sk n ö tn ing .Tor 2 0 . - 1 986 . S IM -ana ly s is o fw ea rf e a tu re so ne xpe r imen ta lq ua r tz t oo ls . E ar ly Man N ew s . T üb ingen . L a r je , R . , 1 984 . A na ly s a v b enma ter ia le tf rän f orn lämn ing 2 9 , H ede s n , Här jeda len . A n läggn ing Io ch 2 .R appo r t8 . 10 .1984 . N a tu rh i s tor i ska R ik smu see t . ( O t ryck t . ) Me lande r ,J . , 1 986 . T o rkugna r .A c ta B o thn ien s ia O cc id en ta l i s8 . Umeä . Odne r , K . , 1 983 . F inner o g t e rf inner . E tn iske p rosesser id e t n ord l ige F enno S kand inav ia . O s lo O cca s iona lP ape r si nS oc ia lA n th ropo logy No . 9 .O s lo . O l sen , B . , 1 984 . S tab i l i te to g e nd r ing . P roduk s jon o g s amf unn iV aranger 8 00 f .K r 1 700 e .K r . Mag i s te rg rad ia r keo log i . U n ive r s i te te t iT rom s0 . - 1 985 . C ommen t s o n S aam i s , F inn s a nd S cand inav ian s i nH i s tory a nd P reh i s tory . Norweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 1 8 , 1 985 :1 -2 . R yd s t röm ,G . , 1 984 . T he F i re -C racked S tone Mound -A W in te rS e t t lemen t .P aper s i n N or thern A rchaeo logy . E d . E .Baudou . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t2 .U n ive r s i ty • o f Umeä . S em ing ,I . ,1 966 . Da larna sj ärnä ld er . S tockho lm . S i ir iä inen , A . , 1 964 . K em i jä rven J a tu l in saa r i . R ef e ra t : D ie I n se l J a tu l in saa r i i m S ee K em i jä rv i . S uomen Mu seo 7 1 . S imonsen , P . , 1 979 . J un tavadda o gA ssebak te -t ou t gravn inger p ä F innmark sv idda . A c ta B o r ea l ia ,B . H uman io ra . N o . 1 7 . T rom s0 mu seum . Wi l lema rk , K . , u . ä . R appor t . A rkeo log isk u nder sökn ing a v s t enä ldersbop la t s , f orn lämn ing n r2 9 , v id V ikar s jöns u t lopp iH ede s n , Här jeda lens k n ,J äm t land sl ä n . J äm t land sl ä ns mu seum . O s te r sund . Z achr is son , I . , 1 976 . L apps a nd S cand inav ians . A rchaeo log ica lF ind sf rom Nor thern S weden . E a r ly N o r r land 1 0 . S tockho lm . 3 96

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1 986 . R ev iew o f A th . A nde r son : T he S cand inav ian C o lon isa t ion o f t he No r th Swed i sh I n te r io r5 00 -1500 A .D .F ornvännen 8 1 . _ MS . S am isk t -ö s t l ig t -v ä s t l ig t . S am iska g rava r in o r ra S ve r iges i n land s om v i t tne sbö rd om i n temo rd iska k on tak te r u nde r v ik inga t id -t i d ig mede l t id . 1 7 :e n ord i ska a rkeo logmö t e t iA bo 1 985 . I SKOS . I np re ss .

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HILLFORTS, SUBSISTENCE AND ECONOMIC CENTRALISATION A.D. 300-500 IN EASTERN MIDDLE SWEDEN By Michael Olausson Department of Archaeology. University of Stockholm. S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden.

Introduction Excavation evidences show that during the late Roman and Migration period the construction of hillforts increased in eastern middle Sweden. Though precise definition of their function is yet impossible, in the article they are seen as an expression for economic specialization and a concentration of labourforce and means of production to local focal points, or specialized manufacturing places i.e. Helgo in Lake Malaren. Important changes in the burial customs are also taking place during the period, indicating tendencies towards a concentration of wealth and political power. Hillforts are regarded to play an important role in this development and many of them have served as defended sites of centrally controlled production and possibly also of storage. '[his article is based on early excavations of three hillforts in the regions of Uppland, Ostergotland and Vastmanland. Finds from these sites indicate different kinds of manufacturing and there are also occasional finds of objects which otherwise are associated only with rich burials and hoard finds. The aim is to see if the archaeological material supports the hypothesis of a link between the strongholds and the elite; including the question if the hillforts can be regarded as fortified magnate farm and in what respect they might have functioned as centralplaces. The economic role of the hillforts, their function in the overall productionsystem concerning farming, stockfarming and connecting areas will be discussed. The three hillforts are (fig. 1): Darsgarde in Uppland (No. 1), Gullborg in Ostergotland (No. 2), and Skovsta Skans in Vastmanland (No. 3). The investigation results from these sites have previously been briefly and incompletely presented. The material on Skovsta Skans has not been published previously. The topography of the three hillforts, the inner construction works, excavation findings and the interpretation of the finds will therefore be presented initially. No.1. Darsgiirde, Uppland The hillfort at the village of Darsgarde in Skederid parish, south-west of Norrtalje, was investigated as a rescue excavation during the years 1956 to 1962 by Bjorn Ambrosiani. The multivallate hillfort encloses 0.3 ha and is situated at the far end of a protruding part of SkederiAsen (The Skederi ridge) by VretAn (the Vret Creek) (Figure 2). The hillfort encloses the eastern part of a plateau. Outside the hillfort to the west there is a cemetery from the Iron Age (Norra Gravfiiltet). There is another cemetery from the early Iron Age on the south slope of the plateau (Sodra gravfaltet) and to the south of that a smaller cemetery with typical migration period graveforms. Ambrosiani investigated the southern cemetery entirely and part of the northern cemetery. Unfortunately it was not possible to investigate the migration period cemetery which was contemporary with the hillfort. 399

I nt h i sg roup o fa nc ien t monum en t st h e r ei sa l so ah il top s e t t lemen tf r om t h el a t eB ronze A ge .T h i ss e t t lemen tu nde r lay t h el a t e rh i l lfo r t . ( Amb ro s ian i 1 958 ,p .5 9 , 6 4 ) . T he f o r t i sb u i l t w i th a n i nne r w a l l 2 50 m l o ng , 6m w ide a nd 2m h i gh , t h a t s how s r ema in ing so f ad ry s tone w a l la nd a no u te rw a l lt h a ti sm ade i n ap l a in w ay , 1 40 m l o ng , 3m w ide a nd 1 . 5 m h igh . B efo re t h e i nve s t iga t ion o n ly o ne h ou se f ounda t ion w a s v i s ib le i nt h e f o r t . When t wo t h i rd s o f t h e f o r t ' s s u r f ace w a s i nve s t iga ted a no the r 1 8 h ouse f ounda t ion s w e r e f ound . T he h ou se s w e re s i tua ted b o th r ad ia l ly f r om t h e w a l l , a l ong w i th t h ew a l la nd i n ag roup i nt h ec en t ra lp a r to ft h ef o r t . Two w e l l sw e re f ound i n t h ec en t ra lp a r to ft h ef o r t .T he s i tua t ion a nd t h ec on s t ruc t ion o ft h eh ou se si sr ema rkab ly a d ju s ted t ot h en a tu ra lg eog raph ica lc ond i t ion s . T hey a r eo f ten b u i l tl i ke t e r race sw i th a s t one f oo ta r ound t wo o r mo r es i de s . I ns eve ra lc a se sp ro t rud ing p a r t so ft h er o ck w o rk s a sn a tu ra ll im i t s a nd s ome t ime s a l so p robab ly a ss uppo r tf o rt h ew a l l . T he r eh ave b een h ou se s b o th w i th i n ne rr oo fs uppo r t ing p o s t s a nd h ou se s w i th r oo fs uppo r t ing p o s t s i n t h e w a l ls . F ive h ou se s w a s o f s o c a l led l onghou se t yRe a nd t h r ee o f t h o se w e re c omp le te ly i n ve s t iga ted . T he l o nghou se s a r e 6 0 t o9 0 mz w i th o ne e xcep t ion . I n t h e h i ghe s t s po to ft h e f o r ti nt h e n o r th -ea s t c o rne r ah ouse t h a t m ea su re s 2 7 x1 0 mw a s f ound , i tw a s b u i l t o n at e r race a nd w i th a s t onefoo t . T h is h ouse h a s i nne r r oo f -suppo r t ing p o s t sa nd t wo h ea r th si nt h ew e s te rn h a lf . T hough mo s to ft h eh ou se sw e re c on s ide rab ly s ma l le r , 3 5 t o6 0 m2,t h es ma l le rh ou se s w e re mo s t ly p l a in b u i ld ing s . T he l a rge rp a r to ft h es ma l le rh ou se sd id n o th ave ah ea r th a nd t h ey c on ta ined f ew f i nd s . Two o ft h em c on ta ined n of i nd sa ta l l .T hey t o ta l ly l a cked t h eu sua l ly f ound p i ece so fb u rn tc l ay w i th i mp re s s ion sf r om t h ew a l l s , a sw e l la sa r ea s w i th b u rn tc l ay i nc onne c t ion t ot h ew a l l s . T he f i nd s a r e d om ina ted b y p o t te ry . T he re a r e b o th l a rge s t o rage v e s se l s a nd s ma l le r c on ta ine r s .T he p o t te ry i ng ene ra li so fg ood q ua l i ty . T he r ema in ing p a r to ft h ef i nd sa r e d i f f e ren tk i nd s o ft o o l s , k n ive s , a w l s , o ne s i ck le , s cy the , p lough sha r e a nd g r ind s tone s . O cca s iona ll o om -we igh t sa nd d i s ta f f -p u l ley sa nd ac oup le o f mou ld sf o rb ronzeca s t ing w e re a l so f ound . N of i nd so fw eapon sw e re made a nd t h e r ew e re o n ly af ew f i nd so fp e r sona lb e long ing s a nd c l o th ing i t em s , o n ly o cca s iona l i r onbuck le s a nd o ne b rooch , ( Sw . H u sby spänne ) . T he l a t te rd a ted t oa bou tA .D . 5 00 ( Amb ro s ian i 1 964 ,p .1 2 ) . T he l a rge s tp a r to ft h ef i nd sw e r e mad ei no ri nc onnec t ion t ot h el a rge s tl o nghou se . As u rp r iz ing ly s ma l la moun to fa n ima lb one s w e r ef ound . T he l a rge rp a r to fb one st h a t w e r ef ound w e r eb u rn tf r agmen t sa nd t h e r e fo rd i f f icu l tt od ef ine . C on sequen t ly o n ly t wo s p ec ie sh ave b een d ef ined -t h a ti sp ig a nd s heep ( Gu s tay s son 1 987 ) . A l l toge the r 1 3 C 14 -ana ly se s h ave b een m ade , a l l , e xcep t t wo , f r om b r ickwo rk s a nd g a teway -con s t ruc t ion s .T he d a t ing s ,w h ich a r eu nca l ib r a ted g oe sf r om A .D . 2 75 t oA .D . 4 80 , w i th am ean v a lue a r ound A .D . 3 70 . B jö rn Amb ro s ian i 's i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h er ema in sa nd t h ee xcava t ion r e su l t si st h a tt h e re h a sb een s e t t lemen t st h e re c on t inuou s ly f r om t h el a te B ronze a ge h i l l top s e t t lemen tu n t i l t h eh i l l fo r ts e t t lem en t ,w h ich e nd sa bou tA .D . 5 00 .A f t e rt h a tt h es e t t lemen t moved d own t ot h ep re sen t s i te o ft h ev i l lage ( Amb ro s ian i 1 964 , p .1 4 ) . T he m a in r ampa r th a s b een r e bu i l ts e ve ra lt ime s ,a mong o t he rt h ing s , ag a t eh a sb een f i l led . Amb ro s ian ic an t r a ce a t l e a s tt h r ee d i f f e r en tr e bu i ld ing p ha se si nt h ef i l led g a te a nd t h e ma in r ampa r t( Amb ro s ian i 1 958 ) . H ei su nce r ta in w he the rt h ei n ne ra nd t h eo u te rw a l lw e re b u i l ta tt h e s ame t ime . T he f o r ta nd i t sr ema in ing so fs e t t lem en t si sc ha r ac te r ized a s af o r t i f ied f a rm s tead ,i tw a s 4 00

burnt to the ground several times and was finally abandoned (Ambrosiani 1964, p. 14). No. 2. Gullborg, Ostergotland The hillfort Gullborg is situated in the parish of Tingstad, 1 km northeast of Tingstad church. Two farms are situated next to the fort, they are called Stora (large) and Lilla (small) Gullborg. These settlements were referred to the first time in 1382 and was written "gulborgh". The fort has obviously given name to the later settlements. The fort, sized 0.3 ha (fig. 3), is situated on a small rock and moraine plateau that juts out from the surrounding claysoil-plain. Gullborg has only one wall, it is about 125 m long with small breaks for protruding rock. The wall is between 3 and 10 m wide, the original width is approximated to 8 m and the height about 0.3 and 1.5 m. It has a preserved outer drystone wall up to 1.3 m high. The wall is mainly around the south and western sides of the fort. The remaining parts of the plateau are restricted by steep slopes. Both Gullborg and Darsgarde are good examples of typically Swedish hillforts. By the foot of the mountain there are remainings of a stone wall system (Sw. stenstrangsystem) that appears to have restricted the infield (Sw. inagomarken) from the outfield (Sw. utmark, hagmark). There are remains of a cattle track (Sw. fiigata) that leads to the hillfort. There are no cemeteries in the direct surroundings of the hillfort. Gullborg was partly. investigated by Bror Schnittger, in 1909, as a part of his extensive hillfort project in Ostergotland (Schnittger 1908). This project can be regarded as a continuation and further development of Oscar Almgrens important research on the hillfort Boberget in K9nungsund parish in 1906. Gullborg and Boberget are both situated in the eastern part of Ostergotland, in the western part of the so called Vikbolandet. This area contains 30 hillforts, where almost 15 of them has remains of settlements. Schnittger never investigated the wall. He dug four large and three small schafts covering a total area of 210 m2 of the central plateau (fig. 3). According to Schnittger large parts of the plateau are covered with culture-layers, containing "coal mixed with ashes, soil and large numbers of large stones" (Schnittger 1909; compare with Schnittger 1913). There are no information about constructions, houses and so forth or different layers. Only a small part of the findings are accounted for in Schnittger's survey (Schnittger 1909, 1913). The most representative findings are loom-weights made of clay, both of round and pyramide shape. Sandstone hones, grindstones, knives, scythes and pottery was found but no needles or distaff-pulleys. The pottery was both large storage containers as well as smaller containers and perforated containers (Sw. silkarl). The pottery was of good quality. The clothing accessoirs are represented by three cruziformed brooches (Sw. korsformiga spannen) made of bronze. Hunting tools and weapons are represented by arrowheads, shaped like lancets or transverse points. No finds of weapons were unambigious. One iron piece has been interpreted as beeing the point of a shieldboss and one piece of bronzework, possibly originating from a sword-sheath (Norden 1936). Among the finds there was also the mouth of a lightgreen glass container and the bottleneck from a lightgreen glassbottle and a spiral-wrought gold rod. The glasscontainer is the same kind as Eketorp glass 5 or 6 (Nasman 1984, pp. 57-61, p. 100). Finds.�orresponding to the Gullborg-container are found both in the lowland fort J;;ketorp in Oland (Level Eketorp II) and in a grave by Folkeslunda in LAnglot parish in Oland. There are also corresponding finds from a grave in Havor in Gotland and from the aboundant Hogomgraves in Medelpad. The glass from the Havorgrave is dated to 401

period VI:2 (Nerman 1935, p. 90). U.Nasman assumes that this type of glasscontainer was available already in the fourth century, but that the Swedish findings are possibly dated to the fifth century. They are assumed to have been produced in the area around the Black Sea. (Nasman 1984, p. 100, 60). The bottleneck from Gullborg is a very rare finding, one of the few Roman glassbottles that have been found in Scandinavia. The Gullborg-bottleneck is curved outwards and it has a torus around the bottleneck close to the opening. It is difficult to define but it resembles bottles from the third century (Doppelfeld 1966, pp. 54-55, illustrations 110 and 111). The spiral wrought gold rod (3.5 gr) could possibly be means of payment of some kind, similar findings have been made at several other locations for example the crafts-spot on Helgo in Lake Malaren and the hoardfind from Timboholm in Vastergotland (Janse 1922 and Stenberger 1964). A similar find was made during the excavation of the hillfort Boberget 1908. It was a piece of a heavy silver rod (7.6 gr) (Schnittger 1908, Norden 1936). Opposing the conditions in Darsgarde (above) a rather large quantity of animal bones are preserved at Gullborg. The larger part of this material are bones that have not been burnt. All common domestic animals are represented: cow, horse, pig, sheep, goat and dog. Undefinable bones from birds were also found and waste products from homcraft. Homes from sheep, cow, elk and red deer have been worked for different purposes (Hedelin 1987). Sc�.nittger never interpreted Gullborg. Gullborg like the rest of the investigated hillforts in Ostergotland were used in a general discussion about the hillforts and their function. The hillforts take an important part in Schnittger's discussions about the supposed fights fought between Swedes and Geates, mentioned in Beowulf (Schnittger 1913).

No. 3. Skovsta Skans, Viistmanland The fort is situated in the western part of the province, in Kopings parish one kilometer east of Hedstrommen. Most hillforts in the province are situated in the western part, several of those, i.e. Skovsta Skans, in connection to flat land. Concerning the construction of the fort and its topographical location, it is in many ways a fort typical of Vastmanland. A regional character and a local construction tradition can be distinguished. The hill forts are often located on low hills and plateaus with double or triple walls. The walls are often very wide and high with dry stone walls on both sides (Gothberg 1985). These characteristics are seldom to be found in upplandish and eastgeatish forts. The size of the forts do not differ from the average size between 0.2 and 0.4 ha. Skovsta Skans can be seen as an exception, it is one of the largest forts in the province with its 1.2 ha (Fig. 4).The fort has three ramparts in a circle that encloses a plateau of moraine and occasional parts of protruding rock. The inner wall is 140 m long, 4-5 m wide and between 2-3 m high. The middle wall is 250 m long, 3-4 m wide and 1-1.3 m high. The outer wall is 370 m long, 1.5-3.5 m wide and between 0.7 m high. Skovsta Skans was partly examined in 1929 by Ivar Schnell in connection to his important and extensive survey of forts in Vastmanland and in western Uppland. In an attempt to localise possible culture-layers he carried out smaller excavations in the larger part of the forts in the area. According to Schnell there were culture-layers only in Skovsta Skans. This statement can be doubted. According to Schnell there is a culture-layer only in the inner courtyard of Skovsta Skans 402

m ea su r ing 1 800 m2.1 8 m2 o ft h i sa r ea w a se xam ined , ma in ly a1 4 m2 l a rge s ha f ti nt h e e a s te rn a nd c en t ra lp a r tb yt h ee a s ter nw a l l ( s ee f i g . 4 ) . T he ma in s ha f tw a sl o ca ted t oa d ep re s s ion t h a tS chne l lr ega rded a s an a tu ra lr ubb i shp i t( Schne l l 1 929 ) . T he re i sn o i n fo rma t ion a bou tc on s truc t ions i nt h e f o r t . U nde r ac ove ro f am ix tu re o f s a nd a nd s o i li no ne l a ye rw i th f i nd s at h ick l a ye ro fs oo tw a sf ound i nt h ec en t ra lp a r to f t h es ha f t . I nt h es oo tl a ye rf i re -c racked s t one sa nd s mal a r ea so fb ur ned c l ay w a sf ound . I tw a s s i tua ted i nc onnec t ion t os eve ra ll a rge r o ck sa nd b ou lde r s . T he f i nd s a r e mo s t ly p o t tery o fg ood q ua l i ty . F ou rd i f f e ren t k ind s o fc on ta ine r s h ave b een s pec if ied -t wo l a rge s t o rage c on ta ine r sa nd t wo s ma l lc on ta ine r s . O ne o ft h el a rge s t o rage c on ta ine r sh a s av e ry c ha ra c te r i s t ic s u r f ace t r ea tmen t .T he c on ta ine rh a s as l ipped a nd t w igb ru shed s u r face ( f ig . 5 ) w i th v e r t ica l a nd h o r ison ta l l i nes . T he c on ta ine r i s a lmo s ti d en t ica lt ot h ep o t te ry i nt h eh i l l fo r tB a lde r sbo rg i nH a l la p a r i sh i nS öde rman land ( c ompa re w i th H e rme l in 1 929 ) . F ind s o f s im i la r p o t te ry c an a l so b e f ound i n h ou sefounda t ion I Vi nb u i ld ingg roup I o nH e lgö ( A r rhen iu s 1 964 ,p .2 79 -280 ,c ompa re w i th R e i sbo rg 1 981 ,p p . 1 27 ,p p . 1 47 a bou th ou seg roup I I a nd I V ) . T he f i nd s o f ab onespoon a nd as oc a l led s wo rd spea r l a r e r ema rkab le , s ome th ing t h a t S chne l ld id n o ta cknow ledge . F ina l ly ac oup le o fi r on f r agmen t sa nd p a r t so ft wo r ound l o om -we igh t sw e re f ound . I ti s r ema rkab le t h a t t h e re w e re n o f i nd s o f b one , t hough t h i s c an b e e xp la ined b y t h e e xcava t ion t e chn ique . I nt h ree t e s tp i t sc u l tu re laye r s a nd p o t te ryf ragmen t sw e re f ound ( s ee f i g . 4 ) . T he r e su l t s o ft h e f i nd s w e re n o ti n te rp re ted b y S chne l l , h e m e re ly c onc ludes t h a tt h ef i nd sc ome s f r om ar ubb i shp i t . H ed a te st h ef i nd ing st ot h eV ik ing A ge ( Schne l l 1 934 ,p .1 7 ) . D iscuss ion D e sp i te g r ea td i f f e rence si ne xam ina t ion t e chn ique ,t h es i ze o ft h es ha f t sa nd s oo n ,f a c t s w he re t h es ou rce s mus tb ec r i t ica l ly a na ly sed , Ir ega rd t h er e su l t sf r om t h et h ree h ilfo r t s a sv e ry i mpo r tan ta nd t h ey p rov ide t h r ee d i f f e ren tf unc t ion sf o rt h ef o r t s . S ome f unc t ion s a ppea ri n mo r et h an o ne f o r t( f ig . 6 ) . T he d a t ing i sd ec i s ive . A l l t h ree f o r t s c an b e d a ted t ot h e p e r iod A .D . 3 00 -500 . T he d a t ing me thods d i f f er , i nD a r sgä rde w e mo s t ly r e ly o n C 14 -da t ing s , w h i le t h e f i nd s e xep t f o r t h e H usby b rooch -a r e d i f f icu l t t od a te . T he o ppo s i te c ond i t ion a pp l ie s t o G u l lbo rg a nd S kov s ta S kan s , w he re t h e re a r e n o C 14 -da t ing s , b u t w he re t h e f i nd s a r e e a sy t od a te . T he c ruz iformed b rooche s o f b ronze f r om G u l lbo rg a r e w i thou t d oub t f r om t h e 5 th c en tu ry .T he g l a s scon ta ine ri sa l so d a ted t ot h ef i f th c en tu ry ( s ee a bove ) .T he p a r to ft h e g l a ssbo t t le i sf a r mo re d i f f icu l t t o d a te s i nce t h i s t ype o f b o t t le i sd a ted t o t h e t h i rd c en tury . I ti st hough e s sen t ia l t o m en t ion t h a t g l a ss o f ten i si n u se f o r al ong t ime ( Nä sman 1 984 , p . 2 1-25 ) . T he g o lden r od f i na l ly , w i th i t s p a ra l le ls t o t he T imboho lm -f ind sa nd t h ef i nd sf r om t h eM ig ra t ion p e r iod c r a f t sp lace a tH e lgö ,c onf i rm s t h ed a t ing sf o rG ulbo rg t ot h ef i f th c en tu ry . T he b one -spoon f r om S kov s ta S kan s ( f ig . 5 )w i th t wo p a ra l le ll i nes o nt h ef r on ta nd o n t h eb ack h a si t sc oun te rpar t si no cca s iona lg ravef ind ing sf r om t h eM ig ra t ion p e r iod a nd f r om t h ee a r ly V ende lp e r iod . T he s p read ing o ft ho se f i nd s i st yp ica l ly w e s te rn , w he re E ng land a nd N o rway a r ee s sen t ia lf i nd ing -a rea s ( A r rhen ius 1 980 ,p .2 49 -251) . Swed i sh f i nd s o fb one -spoon s h ave b een made i n Mede lpad a nd r e cen t ly e ven i nH ä l s ing land 4 03

( A r rhen iu s a , O l s son 1 985 ,P . 1 9 ) t h a ti si np rov ince st h a th ad s i gn i f ican tc onnec t ion s w e s twa rd s w i th No rway . T he se t y p ica l a n t le r /bone s poons f r om t h e M ig r a t ion p e r iod d oe s e ven h ave e qu iva lence s i nm e ta l l , o ne e xamp le i s ap a r to f as i lve r spoon t h a tw a s f ound i ng r ave X IV i nT una i nA l s ike p a r i sh i nU pp land ( A r rhen iu sa ) . O n ly o ne t h i rd r ema in so ft h es wo rd -pea r l( f ig .5 ) . I ti ss l igh t ly c on ica lw i th af l a tb o t tom a nd a na r ea t h a ti sn o tq u i te f l a ta r ound t h eh o le . T he t o pi sp a r t ly d amaged b yf i r e .T he g l a s s i sl i gh t -g reen w i th f a in t ly r ed r e t ice l la t h read s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h ep ea r l f r om S kov s ta S kan si se qu iva len tt ot h eo ne sf r om p ea r lho r izon P2i nt h eL unda c eme te ry i n L ovö p a r i sh i nL ake Mä la ren ( Pe t r6 1 984 ,p .6 1 ) .T he p ea r l si nt h i sh o r izon w a sd a ted t o t h ee a r ly p a r to ft h ef i f th c en tu ry . T he s wo rd -pea r l s s e em t oc ome f r om P e r s ia o r ig ina l ly ,b u tt h ey h ave o bv iou s ly c ome t o E u rope b efo re t h e t ime o f t h e H unns . A s wo rd -pea r l w a s f ound i n t h e a boundan t w ar r io r -g rave i nL i l la V ii nD ju r sda la p a r i sh i nn o r the rn Smä land . T he g r ave i sd a ted t o t h e t h i rd c en tu ry ( A .D . ) ( F ranz6n 1 983 , p . 2 3 -24 ; 5 6 f f . ) . T he s wo rd -pea r l p o s s ib ly f unc t ioned a sa n a mu le t tp l a ced o nt h eh and le o ft h e s wo rd , t h i sh a s b een d i scu s sed b y J .Werne r (We rne r 1 956 , 2 6 f f . ) . T he d a t ing o f t h e h i l lfo r t s t o 3 00 -500 A .D . , w i th a n empha s i s a r ound 4 00 A .D . i s r e la t ive ly c e r ta in . Wha t i sr a the r u nce r ta in , t hough , i s h ow t h e w a l l s a nd o the r c on s t ruc t ion s s t and i nr e la t ion t oe ach o the ra nd i ft h e f o r t s h ave b een u sed i no ne o r s eve ra ld i f f e ren tp ha se s ; H ow l o ng t h eb u i ld ing -pha se sh ave b een , a nd , f i na l ly f o rh ow l o ng p e r iod sh ave t h eh i l lfo r t sb een o u to fu se i nb e tween? D a r sgä rde h a sw i thou td oub th ad s eve ra lb u i ld ing p ha se s .A cco rd ing t o Amb ro s ian i ,t h e ma in w a l l h a s b een r e con s t ruc ted a tl e a s tf ou rt ime s , d u r ing a1 50 y ea rl o ng p er iod o f t ime . Amb ro s ian id oe sn o tm en t ion a ny c hange si nt h es e t t lemen t s ,b u t my v i ew i st h a ta t l e a s tt wo c on s t ruc t ion p ha se sc an b ed i s t ingu i shed ,w he re t h eb i gl o nghou se i sp a r to ft h e y ounge rp ha se . T he q ue s t ion o fw e the rt h er e con s t ruc t ion o ft h ew a l l sh ave c au sed a ny r e cons t ruc t ion o f t h e s e t t lemen t s , o r v i ce v e r sa , w i l l b e l e f t w i thou t a ny f u r the r c ommen t s . Av e ry i mpor tan t q ue s t ion c onnec ted t ot h i s i si fa nd t o w ha t e x ten t t h e a c t iv i t ie si nt h ef o r th ave c hanged o ve rt h ed i f f e r en tp e r iod s . S eve ra lo ft h ee xam ined f o r t ss how s i gn so fs eve ra lc on s t ruc t ion -pha se s ,d u r ing ap e r iod f r om 3 00 A .D t o5 00 A .D . E ke to rp o n O land h a s a tl e a s t t wo p ha se s a nd B obe rge t i n V ikbo lande ts e em st oh ave a tl e a s tt wo c on s t ruc t ion -pha se s ( A lmg r en 1 906 ,P . 2 1 -22 ) . I fG u l lbo rg h a sh ad mo re t h an o ne c on s t ruc t ion -pe r iod c an n o tb ed e te rm ined w i th t h e p r e sen tm a te r ia l . T he Func t ions a nd t he I mpor tance o f t he H i l lf or t s I ti sm en t ioned a bove t h a ta l t h et h r ee h i l lfo r t sa r el o ca ted c l o se t oc u l t ivab le s o i l ,s o i lt h a t w a sc u l t ivab le d u r ing t h eR oman a nd M ig ra t ion p e r iod s . A l lo ft h eh i l lfo r t s a rr a the rs ma l l . D a r sgä rde a nd G u l lbo rg , b o th 0 . 3 h al a rge ,r e p re sen t t h en o rma ls i ze o ft h ef o r t si nt h e Mä l a ren v a l ley a nd i nÖ s te rgö t land ( O lau s son i np r in t ) . E ven t h ough S kov s ta S kan si sl a rge r , w i th t h r ee w a l l s a nd 1 . 2h a , t h e s e t t lemen t s e em s t oh ave b een c oncen t ra t ed t ot h ea r ea i n s ide t h ei n ne rw al ,w i th in a na r ea o f0 . 2h a .T he s i ze o f t h e s e t t lemen t c ou ld p robab ly n o t f i t i n mo re t h an o ne f a rm -t h a t i so ne h ouseho ld . T he s t o rage p o s s ib i l i t ie sw e re l im i ted ,e ven t h ough t h ea r ea b e tween t h et wo o u te rw a l l s c ou ld s e rve a ss t o rage o ra ss t ab le s . 4 04

T he s t o rage p o s s ib i l i t ie s a tG u l lbo rg s e em s t oh ave b een v e ry l im i ted , c on s ide r ing t h e f a c tt h a tt h et e x t i le c r a f tw a ss p r ead o ve r al a rge r a nge . T he b e s t p roof s f o r s t o rage a c t iv i t ie s a r e f ound a tD a r sgä rde . I n c onnec t ion t o t h e l o nghou se st h e re a r es eve ra ls ma l lp l a in b u i ld ing s , s i zed 3 5 -60 m2.T hey c on ta ined v e ry f ew f i nd s , s ome h ouse s l a cked f i nd s a l l t oge the r . O n ly t wo o f t h em h ad h ea r th s . U nfo r tuna te ly t h e re h a s n o t b een a ny mac ro -fo s s i l e xam ina t ion t he c ou ld p rove t h e s t o rage h ypo the s i s . T he l a rge s t h ou se i n t h e s e t t lemen t , 2 70 I n' , s hou ld a l so b e m en t ioned i nc onnec t ion t ot h ep re sumed s t o rage -house s . T he c ons ide rab le s i ze o ft h i s h ouse , al a rge r i n ter va l b e tween e ach p a i r o f p o le -ho le s a nd l a s t b u t n o t l e a s t t h e m onumen ta lp o s i t ion i n s id et h ef o r t ,i n d ica t ed t h a ti ti s aem inen tb u i ld ing ( Sw .H a l lhu s ) . E ven i n t h is h ouse t h e re s hou ld b e s t o rage p o ss ib i l i t ie s . A t D a r sgä rde t h e s t o rage p o s s ib i l i t ie s h ave b een s ma l l i nc ompa r i son w i th l a rge rh i l l fo r t s b u tc ompa r ed t oo pen c on tempo r a ry s e t t lemen t si tw a sp robab ly c on s ide rab le . O ne e xcava ted u n i tf r om y ounge r R oman I r on A ge , t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod , i nE n s ta f a rm i nT äby p a r i sh c on ta ined f ou r h ou se s amoun t ing t o5 9Q m2 ( N ie l sen 1 987 , p p . 6 1 ) . T he 1 9 h ou se s i n t h ef o r ta tD a r sgä rde a moun t st o 150 mL . T h i se xamp le i sb yn om ean sc on sp icuou s .T he d i f f e rence sc an b ee xp la ined b yt h e s i ze o ft h ed i f f e ren ts e t t lemen t sr a the rt h an b yd i f f e r en tf unc t ion s ,b e tween h i l lfo r t sa nd o pen s e t t lemen t si nt h i s c a se . I ti st h e re fo re n o d i scu s s ion a bou t al a rge r s oc ia l u n i t , o re ven l e s sq ue s t ion a bou ta ny s y s tem o fr ed i s t r ibu t ion . I n t h e h i l lfo r t a tD a r sgä rde i ti sq u i te o bv iou s t h a t t h e mo s t i mpor tan t a c t iv i ty w a s a g r icu l tu ra l . I ti sp roved b y t h e f i nd s o f f a rm ing i mp lemen t s . B e s ide s f a rm ing , t h e i n hab i tan t s a tD a r sgä rde h ave a l so b een b r eed ing c a t t le -t hough i ti sd i ff i cu l tt os ay t o w ha t e x ten t , s i nce t h e b one -ma te r ia l i ss pa r se . B ronzec raf t h a s b een c a r r ied o u t i na l im i ted s c a le ,o bv iou s ly o n ly f o rh ou seho ld r equ i r emen t s . T he a c t iv i t ie sw i th in t h i sc r a f t h ave d ec l ined n o t iceab ly i fc ompa r ed t ot h ea c t iv i t ie si nt h eh il top s e t t lem en to ft h eL a te B ronze A ge . T he r eh ave a l so b een w eav ing a c t iv i t ie si nt h ef o r t -b u to n ly f o rh ou seho ld r equ i rem en t s i n t h is c a se a s w e l l . I n t h ese a spec t s t h e re a r e n o d i f f e rences b e tween t he h i l l fo r t se t t lemen ta nd a no pen s e t t lemen t( c ompa r ew i th N ie l sen 1 987 ) . T he h i l lfor t a tD a r sgä rde c an b e c ha rac te r ized b y a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ies w i th ac e r ta in s t o rage c apa c i ty -t h e mo s ti mpo r tan ta c t iv i ty a tG u l lbo rg , t h ough , s e em s t oh ave b een t e x t i le c r a f t . Al a rge amoun to fl o om -we igh t , a lmo s t 1 30 p i eces , w a sf ound a mong t h e f i nd sa t Gu l lbo rg . T he i d ea a bou tt e x t i le -c ra f ti ss uppo r ted b yt h ef a c tt h a tl a rge a moun t s o fl o om -we igh th ave b een f ound w i th in r e s t r ic ted e xcava t ion -a r ea sa nd t h ef a c tt h a tt h o se a r ea sh ave b een s epa ra ted f r om e ach o t he r . T h i st e ndency w ou ld p robab ly b e s uppo r ted i fa no the re x cava t ion w a st ot a ke p l a ce . T he h ypo the s is a bou t t e x t i le -c raf t ( f o r s a le? ) a tG u l lbo rg , among o the r p l ace s , i s s uppo r ted b y ac ompa r i son b e tween s e t t lemen tm a te r ia lf r om d i f f e ren ts e t t lemen t sf r om R oman I r on A ge t ot h e b eg inn ing o ft h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod -ma in ly i nt h e c en t ra l a nd n o r the rn p a r t so fÖ s te rgö t land . U nfo r tuna te ly n ot y p ica l s e t t lemen t sf r om t h eM ig ra t ion p er iod h ave y e tb een f ound . F ind so fw eav ing t o o l sa nd o t he rt e x t i le i mp lemen t s ,s u ch a s n eed le s , l o om -we igh t s a nd d i s ta f f -pu l leys , a ppea r s pa r se ly a ts e t t lemen t s a tF äge lbe rg a nd F o lä sa i n R appe s tad p a r i sh , f o r e xamp le ( A .Hedman , p e r s . c o rn . ) . T he s ame c ond i t ion s a pp ly t ot h er ema inde ro fs e t t lemen t sf r om t h eo lde rh on A ge ( R .Femho lm , p e r s . c o rn . ) . T he p i c tu re b ea r r e semb lance t o t h e c ond i t ions i n t h e p rov ince s i n Mä la rda len .

4 05

H e lgö i sa ne xcep t ion s i nce t h ey h ad b o th me ta l la nd t e x t i le c r a f ti nl a rge s c a le . T hese l oom -we igh t s h ave b ecome s ome k ind o f l e ad ing a r tef ac t f o r t h e h i l lfo r t s i n O s te rgö t land ,p a r t icu la r ly t ho se i nV ikbo lande t . At e x t i le p roduc t ion b a sed o np roduc t ion o fw oo li n al a rge rs ca le i mpl ie s mo r ee x ten s ive f a rm s . E a s te rn O s te rgö t land a nd V ikbo lande tw a s , f r om s eve ra la spec t s ,w e l l s u i ted f o r s t ockfa rm ing a nd woo lproduc t ion , a l so f r om a n a tu re -geog raph ica l p o in t o f v iew , a l ready d u r ing t h e B ronze A ge ( c ompa re w i th L a r s son 1 987 , p p . 3 5 ; S e l inge 1 987 ,p p . 7 9 a nd H yens t rand 1 982 , p .1 91) . F a rm ing d ur ing t h e R oman I r on A ge , i sb es t i lu s t ra ted b y t h e s o c a l led " s tone w a l l s ys tem " . T h is s ys tem w a s i n tens ive a nd h ad v e ry c l ea r b o rde r s b e tween f i e ld a nd meadow . T he s ys tem w a s b a sed o n ac omb ined p roduc t ion f r om f i e ld , m eadow a nd p a s ture r e la ted t o t he s i ze o f t he c a t t le -s tock (W idg ren 1 983 , p . 8 6 ; 1 986 ) . O ne i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e s y s tem i st h a t i tw a s b a sed o n p r iva te ly o wned l a nd w he re e ach f am i ly / f arm h ad t h e ir own f i e ld s a nd w he re meadow s a nd p a s tu re s w e re l ooked a f te r c oope ra t ive ly (W idg ren a ) . T he re a r e e x ten s ive r ema ins o fs t one w a l l s y s tem s i nV ikbo lande t , t hough n o ta sw e l l p reserved a s i nt h e c en t ra l p a r t s o f t h e p rov ince (W idg ren a a ) . I ti s mo re d i f f icu l t t o r e con s t ruc tt h es t one w a l ls y s tem h e re . I tw ou ld b ep o s s ib le t ot e s t Widg ren ' s mode lh e re a nd l ook f o r t h e r e la t ion b e tween t h e s t one w a l l s ys tem a nd i nhab i ted h i l lfo r t s l i ke Gu l lbo rg . T he d i f f icu l t ie s w i th t h er e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e s t one w a l l s y s tem i nV ikbo lande tc an b e d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t i ti sa dap ted t o s t ockfa rm ing a nd t h a t i tt h e reby d i f f e r s f r om t h e p reva len t p i c ture o f s t one w a l l s y s tem s , w h ich i sb a sed o n o the r r ema in s i nc en t ra l O s te rgö t land . T oa im t owa rd s mo re e x ten s ive f a rm ing w i th s t ock f a rm ing ,p ar t icu la r ly s heep -f a rm ing , a st h e ma in i n te re s ti ne a s te rn O s te rgö t land c an b er ega rded a s ar eg iona la t temp tt oa dap t t o l o ca l e co log ica l c i rcums tance s . T h is c r ea ted ar eg iona l c ha rac te r a nd r e su l ted i n woo l -p roduc t ion a nd t ex t i le -craf t . I t may a l so b e s een a s an ecessa ry c hange o f a s t agna t ing i n ten s ive f a r tn ing sy s tem . As y s tem t h a tw a sc hanged b yn ece s s i ty i no rde rt o ma s te r ac u r ren t c r i s is . T he c r is is d ur ing t h e M ig ra t ion p er iod h a s b een d i scussed d il igen t ly a nd w il b ed ea l tw i th l a te ro n . T he t e x t i le -p roduc t ion a t Gu l lbo rg i si n aw ide rv i ew p a r to f at r ansfo rma t ion t h a tt ook p l a ce d u r ing t h eM i rg ra t ion p e r iod ,a mong s to the rt h ing sd id t h ec r a f t -p roduc t ion b ecome c oncen t ra ted t o c er ta in a r ea s , i n s ide t h e f r ames o f magna te -fa rm s . H e lgö s hou ld b e r ega rded i nc onnec t ion t ot h i s . A t S kovs ta S kans t h e re a r e n o p roof s f o r a ny a g ra r ian a c t iv i t ie s . T h i s i sn o te v idence e nough , t hough ,t oc onc lude t h a ti td id n o th ave a ny f a rm ing a c t iv i t ie s a ta l l .T he f o r ti s s i tua ted i nc onnec t ion t of l a t l a nd w i th f e r t i le s o i l . I tc an r ep resen t at h i rd v a r ian to fa f o r t if ied magna te -fa rm . T h i s p lace g ives t h e i mp ress ion t ha t i tm igh t h ave b een o ne s e t t lemen t f o r al o ca l magna te . T he f i nd s c on ta in af ew p i eces o fl oom -we igh tw h ich i nd ica tes t h a t t h e w eav ing h a s b een d one o n ly f o rh ou seho ld n eed s . T he p o t tery f i nd s i nd ica tes t h a t t he s e t t lemen t c ou ld h ave b een l a rge . T he i mpo r tan t f i nd s h e re i st h e s wo rd -pea r l a nd t h e b one -spoon , t h e se f i nd s a r e b o th u nu sua l a nd a r i s toc ra t ic . T hese f i nd s make s ac onnec t ion b e tween h i l lfo r t -se t t lemen ta nd r i ch g rave sf u l ly p o s s ib le a nd n ece ssa ry . F a rm ing i mp lemen ts made o fi r on w e re f ound i nD a r sgä rde . S im i la r f i nd s h ave b een

4 06

m ade a tG u l lbo rg , s cy the sh ave b een f ound a mong s to t he rt h ing s . I ti sv e ry u nu sua l t o f i nd f a rm ing i mp lemen t si ns e t t lemen t sf r om t h eI r on A ge .T he f i nd sf r om D a r sgä rde a nd G u l lbo rg m igh t i nd ica te t h a t f o r t if ied magna te -fa rm s h ad e a s ie r a cce ss t o i r on i mp lemen t s . T he a cce s s c an b e e xp la ined b y t h e f a c tt h a t t h e m agna te s c on t ro l led t h e c hanne l so fd i s t r ibu t ion ,p roduc t ion s i te sa nd c r a f t smen a nd s m i th s . F a rm ing i mp lemen t s made o fw ood w a sp robab ly p r eva len t ,t h i sa pp l ie st ot h eE u ropean c on t inen td u r ing t h eM ig ra t ion p er iod a nd d u r ing t h ee a r ly M idd le A ge ( Duby 1 981 ,p p . 2 1) . I ts e em s a si ft h ep e r iod b e tween l a te R oman I r on A ge a nd t h eM ig ra t ion p e r iod d id i n s eve ra l a spec t s b r ing c hange st h a tg r ea t ly i mp roved f a rm ing i mp lemen t s , f o re xamp le . F a rm ing i mp lemen t sd i db ecome l o nge ra nd t h e r e fo r e mo r ee f f ic ien t( My rda l 1 982 )t h i s c on t r ibu ted t oa ne x tended p roduc t ion o fi r on . P a r t icu la r ly d u r ing t h eM ig ra t ion p e r iod , d i dt h ei r on p roduc t ion i n c rea se , mo s t ly i nt h ep rov ince si nN o r r land ( Magnu s son 1 986 ) . T he i n c r ea sed a cce s st ob e t te ri mp lemen t sc ou ld b ea ni mpo r tan tc on t r ibu t ing f a c to ri nt h e e conom ic a nd s oc ia l s t ra t i f ica t ion t h a tt ook p l ace i nt h e s oc ie ty , t h i s s t reng thened t h e d om ina t ing p o s i t ion t h a tt h e magna te sh ad . T he f o r t i f ied m agna te -f a rm s , t h a tt h e se t h ree h i l l fo r t sr ep r e sen t ,p robab ly d epended , t o d i f f e r ing e x ten t s ,o nd e l ive rance sf r om t h e s u r round ing s e t t lem en t s .E spec ia l ly t ob ea b le t os uppo r tt h e i rh ou seho ld s ,r e t inue sa nd c r a f t sm en . L oo t ing a nd p l unde r ing , w h ich o ccu r ed a mong a l l g e rman t r ibe sc ou ld h a rd ly p rov ide e nough t og e t as u rp lu s . I tw ou ld s oone rh ave r e l ied o n s ome k i nd o fp e rmanen ts y s tem o fd i f f e ren tt r ibu t e s ,o rb yd aywo rk ( c ompa re w i th G en t &D ean 1 986 ) .T he c on s t ruc t ion o fh i l lfo r t sd oe s i ni t se l fp rove t h e e x i s tence o f as o c ia l -po l i t ica l s t ruc tu re t h a th ad t h e c apab i l i ty t oo rgan ize a nd mob i l ize n e ce s sa ry c o l lec t ive l a bou rf o r ce s . I nc onnec t ion t ot h i si ti si mpo r tan tt ok now w ha ti sd i s t inc t ive f o rt h es oc ia ls t ru c tu r ea nd t h ep roduc t ion o rgan iza t ion a tH e lgö . T he re h a s b een ac oncen t ra t ion o fb o th man -powe r a nd m ean s o fp roduc t ion a r ound s e ve ra lh i l lfo r t s , a mong t h em G u l lbo rg a nd t ot h ec r a f t -spo tH e lgö . H e lgö h a sb een p a r t o f amagna te ' sc omp lex a nd h a s b een l o ca ted s t ra teg ica l ly b o th f o rd e f en se -pu rpo se s a s w el a sf o rt r an spo r ta t ion p u rpo se s ( o nt h eb o rde rb e tween U pp land a nd S öde rman land ) . T he i mpo r tance o ft h et r ade h a se a r l ie rb een s t re s sed . C ompa r ed w i th c r a f t , t r ad ing h ad l i t t le s i gn if i can ce . J udg ing f r om t h e g rave -ma te r ia l , n o magna te h a s b een r e s id ing a tH e lgö . T he l a ck o f s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion i n t h e g rave -ma te r ia l i s s t r ik ing ( Kyh lbe rg 1 982 , p p . 2 8 ) . A c onv inc ing i n t e rp re ta t ion o ft h es e t t lemen ta tH e lgö h a sb een m ade b yO la K yh lbe rg . H e b e l ieve st h a tc r a f t smen a nd as ma l lg roup o ff a rme r s ,w i th as t a tu se i the ra ss l ave so ra s t e nan t s( Sw . L andbo r )i n hab i ted t h ea r ea .T he p roduc t ion h a sb een l e ad b y as upe rv i so r , as oc a l led " b ry te " ( Kyh lbe rg a ) . D i r ec t ly c onne c ted t ot h ec r a f t spo tt h e r ei s ah i l lfo r t -w h ich h a sn o tb een e xcava t ed .T h i s s t reng then s t h ei mpo r tance o ft h i sp l ace . T he f unc t ion o fH e lgö w a sp robab ly b o th a sa c r a f t s -cen te ra nd a s as t o r age -cen te r , w he re i n come s f r om t r ibu te s a nd t a xe sh ave b een s t o r ed ( B .A r rhen iu s , p e r s . c o rn . ) . S ummary T he d i scu s sed h i l lfo r t s w a s p robab ly p a r t o f as y s tem w he re t h e se made o u t c en t ra l 4 07

p o in t s i nt h e s e t t lemen t -h ie ra rchy w i th an umbe ro fs ubo rd ina te e nc losed u nfor t if ied s e t t lemen t so ro pen s e t t lemen t s .D e sp i te t h i si ti sn o tc er ta in t h a tt h eh i l l fo r t sw he re " t he c en t ra lp laces " i nt h e a r ea . T he se f o r t s c ou ld , i nt u rn , b e s ubo rd ina te t o a no the r u n i t , magna te -f a rm , o pen o rf o r t if ied , o rp o s s ib ly t oa no the rh i l lfo r t . T he h i l lfo r t s ,i ne a s te rn Ö s te rgö t land i nV ikbo lande t , h ave ac l ose r e la t ion sh ip t ot h e s t one w a l l s y s tem , b o th s pa t ia la nd c h rono log ica l ly . T he l a rge n umbe ro fd i f f e ren ts e t t lemen t si nt h e a r ea c ou ld s e rve a s as u i tab le t e s t -a rea f o rf u r the ri nve s t iga t ion s . A l so t h ec en t ra la nd w e s ter np a r t s o fU pp land c ou ld s e rve a s as im i la rt e s t -a rea . My v iew i st h a ti ti sc o r rec t a nd p o ss ib le t o make ac onnec t ion b e tween t h e d i scu ssed h i l lfor t s a nd t he g roup o f r i ch g raves , among t hose t h e w eapong rave s . T he r ep re sen ta t iv i ty o ft h e c a se mu s to fc ou r se b et a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion a nd t h e s our ce s mu s ta l so b ec r i t ica l ly a na lyzed . T he s pa t ia l a nd c h rono log ica l r e la t ion b e tween t h eh i l lfor t s , t h e w eapong rave s a nd t h e h oa rd f ind si ss t i l l ap rob lem t h a tr ema ins t ob e s o lved . I ti sn eces sa ry t ok eep t h em ind o pen t owa rd st h ec onsump t ion o fd i f f e ren tm e ta l s . I ta pp l ies t oj ewe l le ry , w eapons a nd t oo ls a nd t ot h ed i f f e ren tk ind so fc on sump t ion o rh ow w ea l th w a sd e s t royed . T h i si so f u tmo s t i mpo r tance s i nce s eve ra l a u tho r s c onnec t t h e c oncep t o f h i l lfo r t s w i th , f o r e xamp le , h oa rdf ind s . T hose t wo p henomenons h ave , b y Mä r ten S tenbe rge r ( 1933 , 1 964 ) , b een r ega rded a st wo i mpo r tan tm an if es ta t ion so ft h ec r i s i sd u r ing t h eM ig ra t ion p e r iod . M . S tenbe rge r r ep resen t s a n e x t reme i nt h e d i scus s ion , b ecause h e t r ace s c r i s i s a nd d eva s ta t ion i nd e ser ted h ousefounda t ion -a rea so n O land a nd G o t land . War ,h oa rd ing o f t r ea su re sa nd a nc ien tf o r t sb ecome s ynch ronuou sp henomenon . D an C a r l s son c an b es a id t or ep re sen tt h eo the re x t reme . C a r ls son h a sr educed t h ec r i s i s t o al e ve lw he re i tw a sb a re ly n o t icab le .H ec l a ime st h a tt h ep rob lem i s ma in ly i nd i f f e ren t man if e s ta t ion so f ar e a r rangemen to fc on s t ruc t ion w i th n ew b u i ld ing types a sa ne f f ec t ( Ca r l s son 1 979 , p p . 3 9 , p p . 1 25 ) . B e tween t ho se t wo v i ews a r eo fc ou r se s eve ra la u tho r sw i th o the rv i ews .T he c r i s is w a s r e cen t ly d i scussed f r om t h e v i ew o ft h e c onsequen se s o f t h e J us t in ian p lague ( F l ink 1 987 ) . S eve ra lp o l len d i ag ram sp rove t h a tt h el a nd scape w a sb ecom ing o ve rg rown a nd s eve ra l l o ca ls e t t lemen t -exam ina t ion sw he re t h e s e t t lemen t ss how ac on t inu i ty d u r ing t h ee n t i re o lde r I r on A ge a nd t h e re a r e n o o r f ew C 14 -va lue s f r om t h e p e r iod 5 00 -600 A .D . I n s eve ra lc a se s ,p a r t icu la r ly i ns e t t lemen t si nN o r r land ,d ot h e s e t t lemen t sc ea se t oa ppea r e n t i re ly d u r ing t h i sp e r iod . A no bv iou sd ec l ina t ion a nd as t agna t ion i nt h ei n ten s ive f a rm ing s y s tem t o ok p l ace f r om a bou t5 00 A .D .i nt h ec en t ra lp a r to ft h ea g r icu l tu ra ld i s t r ic to fÖ s te rgö t land ,a cco rd ing t o Widg ren (W idg ren 1 983 ,p p . 9 0 ) . D u r ing t h i sp e r iod g r ea tc hange st a ke p l ace i nb u r ia lc u s tom s . T he e x ten s ive a nd r i ch ly v a r ied b ur ia l c us tom s a nd t h e g ravefo rm s d ur ing t h e R oman I r on a ge i sg radua l ly r ep laced b y mo re s t anda rd ized a nd u n ifo rm b u r ia l c u s tom s ( Benne t t 1 984 , p p . 4 1) . A t t h e s ame t ime w ea l th b ecomes c oncen t ra ted t of ew g rave sa si nt h ec hambe r -g rave st h a t a ppea red d ur ing t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod ( c ompa re w i th L amm 1 973 , p p . 6 4 ) . F rom t h e m idd le o ft h ep e r iod a nd t owa rd st h ee nd d oe st h ec u s tom w i th g r ave mound sa ppea r ,f o r e xamp le U ppsa la H öga r . ( I nN o r r land d id t h ec u s tom w i th g rave mound ss t r ike t h rough a l ready d u r ing R oman h on A ge ) . As i gn if ican t c hange i nf une ra l r i tua ls w a s t ob ury a n ima l s t oge the r w i th h uman s . T he magna te s i n t roduced h un t ing w i th p rey -b i rds . I n 4 08

o cca s iona lg rave st h e re a r eb u r ied p r eyb i rd s( V re tema rk 1 984 ) . T he s pa t ia lr e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h eh i l lfo r t sa nd t h ew eapon -g raves i sv ery a mb iguou s . I n as u rvey t hey c o inc ide i n Mä la rda len , i n ö s te rgö t land a nd i n S ka rabo rg i n V ä s te rgö t land . T he re a r e , o n t h e o the r h and , n o w eapong rave s i nt h e a r ea o fT ju s t i n Smä land whe r et h e r ea r es eve ra lh i l lfo r t s .T he w eapong rave sa r em a in ly c oncen t ra ted t o a r ea s whe re t h e re a r en oh ilfo r t s( c ompa re w i th S e l l ing 1 945 ) . I ns eve ra la r ea si nÖ s te rgö t land a nd i nc en t ra la nd e a s te rn Mä l arda len t h e re a r et e ndenc ie s t owa rd s ar egu la rd i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ew eapon -g rave s .T h is c an b ei n te rp re ted a s ad iv i s ion b e tween p o l i t ica la nd s o c ia lu n i t s( Compa re H edeage r &K r i s t ian sen 1 981 ,p p . 11 ) . T he e nv i ronmen t o f t h e w a r r io rg rave s , i n Mä la rda len f o r e xamp le , a r e d i f f icu l t t o i n te rp re t . Ih ave d one as u rvey t h a ts how t e ndenc ie st owa rd s as t anda rd iza t ion w i th o f ten v e ry s imp le e qu ipmen t . T hey c an b e s a id t or ep re sen tm embe r so ft h e magna tes 'r e t inu s " Com i ta tus " ( c ompa re w i th H edeage r 1 980 , p p . 3 8 , H edeage r&K r i s t ian sen 1 981 , p p . 8 1 ) . O ne i mpo r tan t f a c to ri nc onnec t ion t ot h i s i st h e d e s t ruc t ion o fo b jec t s d u r ing t h e c r ema t ion . Ag ood e xamp le o ft h is i st h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e b u r ia l -g if t s i nt h e w es tern mound a tU ppsa la h öga r .I ti sq u i te c l ea rt h a tt h ef i nd sa r ev e ry r i ch . B e s ides t h e s imp le rw eapong rave s t h e re s e em st ob e as ma l l a moun to fv e ry r i ch l a rge g rave -mound s a nd v e ry r i ch s ke le ton -g raves , c hambergraves . S eve ra l o f t he c hambe r -g rave ss eem st oh ave b een p lunde red s ho r t ly a f te rt h eb u r ia l ,w eapon s s e em st o h ave b een p a r t icu la r ly d e s i rab le . T he q ue s t ion t h en i sh ow t h eh i l lfo r t sr e la te t ot h ee nv i ronmen to ft h ew a r r io rg rave sa nd t h e e l i te . T he c onnec t ion t h a t h ave b een made b e tween t h e d i scu ssed h i l lfo r t s a nd t h e c u s tom o ft h e magna te sd on o th ave t oa pp ly t ot h ee n t i re ma te r ia lo fa nc ien tf o r t s . A . Hyens t rand h a sd i v ided t h e 1 000 r eg i s te red s wed i sh h i l lfo r t si n to t wo c a tego r ie s : f o r t s w i thou tf i nd s ( s oc a l led r e fuge f o r t s , s w . t i l lf lyk t sbo rga r ; " F luch tbu rgen " ) , a nd f o r t if ied c r a f t smans f o r t s ( Hyens t rand 1 984 , p .8 9 , 9 1 ) . A pa r tf r om t h e f a c tt h a t t h i s d iv is ion i s f a rt oo r ough , t h e re i sn o s uppor ti nt h ea r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l t od ow ha tH yens t rand d oes when h e r e la te s t h e p resence o fi nhab i ted f o r ts , d ur ing t h e d i scu ssed p e r iod , t o o r ig ina t ing o f ,w ha th ec a l l s ,l o ca lc r a f t s ( Hyen s t rand a ) . T he h i l lfor t s t h a t a r e b e ing d i scussed i nt h is a r t ic le s how av a r ie ty i nt h e ir e conom ic f unc t ion s , p o s s ib ly a l so v a r ia t ion i nt h e i r s oc ia l /po l i t ica l s t a tu s a nd i nf luence o ve rt h e s u r round ing t e r r i to ry ( f ig . 6 ) . O n ly o ne o ft h ef o r t sc an b ec onnec ted t ot h eo ccur rence o f c r a f t sman ssh ip , Gu l lbo rg i nÖ s te rgö t land ,t h er ep re sen ted c ra f t sb e ing a n t le ra nd t e x t i le c r a f t . S of a rt h e re i sn op roof o ff o r t s w he re m e ta l -c ra f th a s b een p e r fo rmed i n al a rge r s c a le t h an t oc over h ouseho ld n eed s . I ti sp o ss ib le , t hough , t h a t f o r t s t h a t a r e d i rec t ly c onnec ted t o ac ra f t s -p lace c ou ld b e v a r ie t ies t o t h is , H e lgö f o r e xamp le . I ti sa l so p o ss ib le t h a t af ew mo r e e xam ined f o r t s i nV ikbo lande t i nO s te rgö t land c ou ld s how a p i c tu re s im i la rt oG u l lbo rg c once rn ing t h et e x t i le -c ra f t . T he c r i t iz ism o ft h e s ou rce s a r e , a si sm en t ioned a bove , o fu tmos ti mpo r tance . I fo pen s e t t lemen t sa r ec ompa red t of o r t i f ied o ne s , ac l ea rp a t te rn c an b es e en a nd my v i ew i st h a t t h i ss hou ld b et a ken i n to s e r iou sc on s ide ra t ion . T he h ypo the s i s a bou t l a rge r s t o rage c apac i ty i n s eve ra l h i l lfo r t s c ompa red t o o pen s e t t lemen t sh ave b een d i ff i cu l tt of i nd a ny p roof f o ri nt h ed i scu s sed m a te r ia l .T he s t o rage c apac i ty o fD a r sgä rde i sn o tp a r t icu la r ly s i gn if ican t i fi ti sc ompa red t oc on tempo ra ry o pen s e t t lemen t s . A cce ss t o s t o rage - a nd s t ab le -room c ou ld h ave b een o f g rea t i mpo r tance t oS kov s ta S kans . T he h ypo the s i s a bou t s t o rage c apac i ty f o ro ne h ouseho ld 4 09

o r , i ns ome c a se s ,t h ee n t i re d i s t r ic th ave b een d i scu s sed b yH .Gen ta nd C .Dean ( 1986 ) , ( a l so R .Brad ley 1 984 ; B .Cun l if f e 1 984 ) d o n o ta pp ly t oa ny a nc ien t Swed i sh f o r t , t h i s c ou ld p a r t ly b ed ue t oi n su ff i c ien te mp i r ic ma te r ia l . I ts e em sa si ft h ec oncen t ra t ion t owa rd sa g r icu l tu ra la c t iv i t ie sa tD a r sgä rde a nd G ulbo rg w a s i mpo r tan t , p a r t icu la r ly i ft h e f i nd s o f f a rm ing i mp lemen t s -made o f i r on -i s c ons ide red , p ar t icu la r ly s i nce t hose f i nd s make s t h e se p lace s d i s t inc t ly d i f f e ren t f r om o the rs e t t lemen t s .I nG u l lbo rg s t ock fa rm ing s e em st oh ave b een o fi mpo r tance a sw e l la s f a rm ing .T r ibu te sa nd g i f t so fw oo lf r om t h es u r round ing d ependen tu n i t sc ou ld h ave h ad i mpor tance . N ew e xam ina t ions c ou ld p roove i fg ra in w e re b rough t i n f r om t h e s u r round ing a r ea a sw e l l . Macrofo ss i le e xam ina t ion s h ave b een made i nD anebury i n E ng land a nd t h ey s how t h a tt h eg ra in sh ave b een t h re shed a nd p ee led b efo re t h ey w e re b rough ti n to t h eh i l lfo r t( J one s 1 984 ) . Ac onnec t ion b e tween h i l lfo r t -se t t lemen t sa nd t h ee l i t ei s mad ei nt h ea r t ic le .T h i sc an b e d oub ted c on s ide r ing t h ef a c tt h a t Swed i sh h i l l fo r t sa r ep l a ced f a rf r om e ach o t he ra nd a l so f a ra way f r om r i ch g rave sa nd " na tu ra l ly "c en t ra lp l ace s . Ac en tra lp l acemen ti nt h ea r ea d oe sn o tm ean t h a ti ti si n te rp re ted a u toma t icaly a s as o c ia l /po l i t ica lc en t re -o nt h eo t he r h and -i fi ti ss i tua ted i n t h e o u t sk i r t s o f t h e a r ea i td oe s n o t h ave t o m ean t h a t i t s i mpo r tance b ecome s s e conda ry . Ag ood i lu s t ra t ion o ft h is i sh ow t h e Swed i sh mano r s d u r ing t h eM idd le A ge sw e re p l aced ( c ompa re w i th S po r rong 1 985 ) . I nU pp land ,f o re xamp le , t h e re a r eh i l lfo r t sw i th h ou sefounda t ion so rc u l tu r e laye r st h a t a r es i tua ted i nt h eo u t sk i r t sa sw el a si nf a rm land .T h i sa l so a ppl ie st ot h eh i l l fo r t sw he re n of i nd ing sw e re m ade ( O lau s son f o r thcom ing ) . T he f a c tt h a tt h ei nhab i ted f o r t sa ppea r i nf a rm land m ay b er ega rded a so bv ious .I ti su nce r ta in i ft h et h ree d i scu s sed h ilfo r t sc an b er ega rded a sc en tra lp lace s . I ft h e s i ze o ft h e h i l lfo r ti st h e d ec i s ive p a rame te r , t ho se t h ree c an c e r ta in ly n o tb ep a r to ft h a td i scu s s ion .T he l a rge h i l l fo r t si nc en t ra la nd w e s te rn U pp land w ou ld b e t a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion i ft h is w a s t r ue . R amunde r sbo rgen i n Ö s te rgö t land i sl o ca ted 5 . 5k i lome t re sf r om G u l lbo rg a nd i sa bou t3 0h al a rge ,w ou ld b e c on s ide red t ob e f a r mo re i mpo r tan tt h an G u l lbo rg . T hough , t h er e i sn oc u l tu re laye ra t R amunde r sbo rgen . I fw ec on s ide rt h ef i nd ing s a st h e s t a r t ingpo in tf o rt h i sd i scu ss ion , t ho se t h ree f o r t sc an d ef in i te ly b e r ega rded a s c en t ra lp lace s . If i nd i th a rd t o b e l ieve , t hough , t h a t t h e se h i l lfor t s i nf luenced v e ry l a rge t e r r i to r ies . T hey m igh th ave f unc t ioned a sl o ca lc en te r s , s ubo rd ina te t os ome l a rge r c en t re , o r a s ap ar t o f as e t t lemen t -comp lex t h a t c r ea tes a c en t re . T he a rgumen t t h a t t h e h i l lfo r t s c ou ld n o t h ave b een c en t ra l p laces b ecau se o f t h e i r p e r iphe ra lp l acemen ts hou ld b ed i scu ssed o n ly w hen i ti sc l ea rt h a ta r chaeo log i s t so f ten l ook s f o r ac en t ra lp lace i n v a in , w i thou t f i r s t h av ing d ec ided wha t i s mean t b y " cen t ra lp lace " . Aga ins t t h is o p in ion i ti st h e refo re i mpor tan t t o p o in t o u t t h a t t h e p e r iphe ra lp a r t so f ap rov ince h ad a ni mpo r tan tr o le i nd i s t r ibu t ion a nd c on tac t s ,t h a ti si n p l ace sw he re h i l lfo r t sa r eo f ten f ound ( c ompa r ew i th H a se lg rove 1 986 ; G ran t 1 986 ; G en t &D ean 1 986 ) . Why w a s D a r sgä rde a bandoned ( p robab ly )j u s tb efo re 5 00 A .D .? I th ad g one t h rough s eve ra lr e con s t ruc t ion p ha se s ,t h i si nd ica te st h ei mpo r tance o ft h ep lace . Wha th appened t ot h e Swed i sh h i l lfo r t sd u r ing t h ep er iod 3 00 A .D . t o5 00 A .D .? Why w a s s ome o ft h e f o r ts d ese r ted a nd s o me o f t h em r eused? ( compa re w i th E ng s t röm 1 984 a bou t T o r sbu rgen ) . Mä r ten S tenbe rge r ( and s eve ra l o the r s ) h ave m a in ta ined t h a t t h e c r is is d u r ing t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod a nd t h e h i l lfo r t s a r e s ynch ronuou s p henomenon , b u t t h e o ppos i te c an b e a s se r ted . E ven t hough w e l a ck e mp i r ica l ly j u s t if ied c h rono logy a bou t h i l lfo r t s , t h e r e su l t s f r om t h e l a rge r p a r t o f t h e C 14 -da t ing s o f t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod 4 10

h ilfo r t s s how t h a tt h ey w e re i nu se b e fo r et h ec r i s i s ,t h a ti sa r ound 5 00 A .D .T he p e r iod b e tween 3 00 A .D . a nd 4 00 A .D . i sd om ina t ing . S ou rce -c r i t ica l ly t h e re a r e g rea t d ef ic ien s ie s b u t t h e r e su l t s s o f a r g i ve r i se t o v e ry i n te re s t ing n ew q ue s t ions a nd h ypo the se s . I fw ec ompa re t h i sm a t e r ia lt oa ne a r l ie rp e r iod ,t h eR oman I r on A ge w i th t h ea ppea rance o fw eapon -g rave sf o re xamp le ,w ef i nd t h a tt h ey s e em t or e a ch ac l imax b yt h ee nd o ft h e t h i rd c en tu ry a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e f ou r th . A f te rt h a tt h e re i sa n e v iden td ec l ine i n , a mong s to t he r sÖ s te rgö t land ( Oxen s t ier na 1 958 ) . As im i la rp i c tu r ec an p o s s ib ly a l so b e s e en i nU pp land ( c ompa re w i th C la r 6u s 1 981 ) .T h i sp i c tu r ei sb o th a mb iguou sa sw e l la s f ul o fc on t rad ic t ion s . A no the ri n te rp re ta t ion i st h a tt h ew eapong rave sd u r ing t h eR oman I r on A ge r e p re sen t s s ymbo l ic a nd r i tua lc onf l ic t sd u r ing ap e r iod o fe conom ic d eve lopmen ta nd s t ab i l iza t ion , w h i le t h ef o l low ing p e r iod t h e " h i l l fo r tp e r iod "i nd ica te si n s tab i l i ty a nd i n c rea s ing s o c ia l c onf l ic t sa sw e l la sa c tua lc onf l ic t s . P a r t ly o ppo s ing t ot h i si st h ef a c tt h a tt h el a rge rp a r t o ft h eh i l lfo r t s w e re r e p re sen ted b efo re t h ec r i s i s a nd n o td u r ing t h ec r i s i s , —d u r ing t h e p e r iod w hen w ee xpec tt of i nd t h em . T he s i gn if icance o f t h e h i l lfo r t s s eem s t o b e c oncen t ra ted t o t h e p e r iod w hen t h e p roduc t ion s y s tem o ft h e s t one w a l l s r e ache s i t s p eak d u r ing t h e f i f th c en tu ry . Af ew f o r t s ,E ke to rp I f o re xamp le , s e em st oo ve r lap t h ep eakpe r iod a nd t h ec r i s i s . A s ar e su l t o ft h e c r i s i s d u r ing t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod a nd i n c rea sed s oc ia l c onf l ic t s t h e p e r iod c ou ld b ed e sc r ibed a s ap e r iod o fp o l i t ic c en t ra l iza t ion a nd ar educed a moun to f f o r t sa s ac on sequen ce .

4 11

F ig .

1 . T he d i s tr ibu t ion o fh i l lfor t si nS ou the rn Sweden e xcep tt h e i s land o fG o t land . A f te rH yen s t rand 1 984 .

4 12

F ig .

2 . T he h i l l fo r t a tD a r sgä rde ( No 1 )w i th t h e s . k . No r ther n C eme te ry f r om t h e R oman I r on A ge . S ca le c .1 : 2400 .

F ig . 4 . T he h i l lfo r tS kov s ta S kan s ( No 3 ) . S ca le c .1 : 2400 .

F ig . 3 . T he h i l l fo r tG u l lbo rg ( No 2 ) . S ca le c .1 : 2400 .

4 13

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4 14

F unc t ion

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4 15

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R ef erence s A lmg ren , 0 . , 1 906 . U nde r sökn inga rp äV ikbo lande t2 . Medde land en f rdn Ö s t ergö t land s F ornm inne sf ö ren ing . Amb ro s ian i ,B . , 1 958 .D a r sgä rde skomp lexe t -E np re l im inä rr appo r t .F ornvännen . - 1 958 . K e ram ikbop la t sen p äH amnb r inken v id D a r sgä rde . TOR V o lV . - 1 964 . F o rn lämn inga r o ch b ebygge lse . S tud ier iA t tunda land s o ch S öde r tö rns f ö rh i s to r ia . A r rhen ius , B . , 1 964 . S umma r ie s c once rn ing t h e p o t tery f r om t h e c en t ra l b u i ld ing c omp lex .I nE xcava t ion sa tH e lgö I . Ho lmqv i s t , W &A r rhen iu s ,B . ( ed s . ) . - 1 980 . D ie Z e i t s te l lung d e s G rabe s X IV v on T una , K i rchsp ie l A ls ike , U pp land . P raeh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t5 5 :2 . B enne t t , A . , 1 984 . T he M ig ra t ion P e r iod i nt h e Mä la ren r eg ion . S achsen S ympos ion S kara 1 983 . B rad ley ,R . , 1 984 .T he s oc ia lf ounda t ion o fp reh i s tor ic B r i ta in . C a r l s son ,D . , 1 979 .K u l tur land skape t su t veck l ing p dG o t land . C la r6u s , C . , 1 980 . V apeng rava rf r än ä l d re j ä rnä lde r iMä la r land skapen . S t enc i l , S tock h o lm . C un l if fe , B . , 1 984 . D anebury ; a n I r on Age H i l lfo r t i n H ampsh i re Vo l I I I . CBA R e search R epor tn o5 2 . D oppe lf e ld , 0 . , 1 966 .R öm i sche su nd F ränk i sche sG la si nK ö ln . D uby , G . , 1 981 . K r igare o ch b önder . D en e urope i ska e konom ins f ör s ta u ppsv ing 6 00 -1200 . E ngs t röm , J . , 1 984 . T or sbu rgen . T o lkn ing a v e n Go t länd sk f ornbo rg . AUN 6 . A rchaeo log ica lS tud ie s . U ppsa la U n ive r s i ty o fN or th -European A rchaeo logy . F l ink , G . , 1 987 . Ö land s s t en s t räng som räden o ch d en J u s t in ian ska p e s ten .B ebygge l se h i s tor i sk T id sk r if tn r1 . F ranz6n , B . , 1 983 . E n v apeng rav f r än L i l la V i , D ju r sda la s ocken iSmä land u nde r r ome r sk j ä rnä lde r .S t enc i l , S tockho lm . G en t , H . & D ean , C . , 1 986 . C a tchmen t A na lys is a nd S e t t lemen t H ie ra rchy : aC a se S tudy f r om P re -Roman B r i ta in . I n : C en t ra lP lace s ,A rchaeo logy a nd H i s tor y ( e d . E . G ran t ) . G ran t ,E . , 1 986 . H i l l -Fo r t s , C en t ra lP lace sa nd T e r r i to r ies . I n : C en t ra l P lace s ,A r chae o logy a nd H i s to ry ( e d . E .G ran t ) . Gu s taysson , S . , 1 987 . O s teo log isk a na lys a v b enma te r ia l f r än R aä 1 6 , D a r sgä rde , S kede r id s n , U p . O pub l . r appo r t . G ö thbe rg , H . , 1 985 . F ornbo rga r o ch f ombo rg smu ra r . E n u nde r sökn ing m ed u tgäng s p unk tf r än V ä s tman land o ch v ä s t ra U pp land .S t enc i l , . U ppsa la . H a se lg rove , C . , 1 986 . C en t ra lP lace s i nB r i t i sh I r on Age S tud ie s : AR ev iew a nd s ome P rob lem s .I nC en t ra lP lace s ,A rchaeo logy a nd H i s tor y ( e d .E .G ran t ) . H edeage r , L . , 1 980 . B es ied lung , s oz ia le S t ruk tu r u nd p o l i t i sche O rgan i sa t ion i n d e r ä l te ren u nd j ünge ren K a i se r ze i tO s tdänema rk s .P raeh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr i f t5 5 ,H ef t1 . H edeage r , L . & K r is t iansen , K . , 1 981 . B end s t rup e n f y r s teg rav f r a 2 e ld re r ome r sk j ema lde r ,d ens s o c ia le o gh i s to r i ske m i l j0 . KUML . H ede l in , H . , 1 987 . O s teo log i sk a na ly s a v b enma te r ia l f r än Gu l lbo rg , T ing s tad s n , Ö g . O pub l .r appo r t . H e rme l in , 0 . , 1 929 . Om S öde rman land sf ombo rga r .F ornvännen . Hyen s t rand , A . , 1 982 . F o rn t ida s amhä l ls forme r o ch a rkeo log i ska f o r skn ing sp rog ram . R ik san t ikvar ieämbe te t . Dokumen ta t ion sbyrdn . - 1 984 .F a s ta f o rn lämn inga ro ch a r keo log i ska r eg ione r .R ik san t ik var ieämbe t e tR appor t 1 984 :7 . J an se , O .R . , 1 922 .L et r ava i ld el ' or e nS uede al ' epoque Mg rov ing ienne . P a r i s . J ones , M .K . , 1 984 . T he p lan t r ema ins . I n D anebu ry : a n I r on Age H i l l -fo r t i n H ampsh i re . E d . B .Cun l if f e . CBA R e search R epor tn o5 2 .

4 16

K yh lbe rg , 0 . , 1 982 . C h rono lg ica l a nd t opog raph ica l a na lys i s o f t h e c eme te r ies a nd s e t t lemen t s .I n : E xcava t ion sa tH e lgö V I I I . L amm ,J . P . , 1 973 . R ika g rava rf r än f o lkvand r ing s t id o ch v i ldnga t id iH ä l s ing tuna . RAÄ r appor t UV 1 984 :2 . L a r s son ,T . , 1 987 . B o sä t tn ing o ch e konom i iö s t ra Ö s te rgö t land u nde ry ng re b ron sä lde r . B ebygge l seh i s tor i sk T id sk r if tn r1 . Magnu sson , G . , 1 986 . L äg tekn i sk j ä rnhan te r ing iJ äm t land s l ä n . J ernkon tore t sB erg s h i s tor i ska S k r if t ser ie N r2 2 . My rda l ,J . , 1 982 . J o rdb ruk s red skap a vj ä rn f ö re 1 000 .F ornvännen . N e iman ,B . , 1 935 .D ie V ö lkerwand erungze i tG o t land s . N ie l sen , A -L . , 1 987 . H u s iMä la rda len f r än y ng re b ron sä lde rt i l l f o lkvand r ing s t id . E t t f ö r sök t i l lf unk t ion sana ly s .S t enc i l . S tockho lm . N o rden ,A . , 1 938 . Ö s t ergö t land sj ärnä lder 1 : 2 . N ä sman , U . , 1 984 . G la s o ch h ande l is enromer sk t i do ch f o lkvand r ings t id . E ns t ud ie k r ing g la sf rän E ke torp I , O land , S ver ige . AUN 5 .A rchaeo log ica lS tud ie s , U ppsa la U n iver s i ty ,I ns t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy . O l s son , E . , 1 985 . R ika g r ava rf r än f o lkvand r ing s t id o ch v ik inga t id iH ä l s ing tuna . RAÄ R appor t UV 1 984 :2 . O xens t iema ,E . , 1 958 .D ie ä l tere E i zenze i ti mÖ s t ergö t land . P e t re , B . , 1 984 . A rkeo log i ska u nde r sökn inga rp äL ovö ,d e l4 .A c ta U n iver s i ta t is S tock h o lm ien s i s .S tud ie si nN or th -European A r chaeo logy 1 0 . R e i sbo rg , S . , 1 981 . T he p o t tery f r om B u i ld ing G roup 3a nd 4 .I n : E xcava ion sa tH e lgö V I I . S chne l l , I . ,1 929 .F ä l tan t eckn ingar o ch r i tn ingar f rän u nder sökn ingen a vS kov s ta S kan s , ATA , Dnr 3 791 129 . - 1 934 . F ombo rga rna iV ä s tman land sL än . S chn i t tge r , B . , 1 908a . Ö s te rgö t land s f o mbo rga r . E t t u tka s t t i l l d e ra s u nde r sökn ing . Medd e land en f rän Ö s t ergö t land sF ornm inne sf ören ing . - 1 908b . Unde r sökn inga r p ä B obe rge t 1 908 . Medde landen f rän Ö s tergö t land s F ornm inne sf ören ing . - 1 909 . Ö s te rgö t land s f o rnbo rga r , G rävno t ise r . Medde landen f rän Ö s tergö t land s F ornm inne sf ö ren ing . - 1 913 . D ie v o rge sch ich t l ichen b u rgwä l le i n S chweden . O puscu la A rchaeo log ica O scar i i Mon t e l io S ep tuagenar io d i ca ta . S e l inge , K . -G . , 1 987 . R ev ide rad k a r ta -r ev ide rad f o rn t id? Om g ravfä l to ch b ebygge l se p äV ikbo lande t .B ebygge l seh i s tor i sk T id sk r if tN r1 . S e l l ing , D . , 1 952 . Smä länd ska v apenfynd f r än r ome r sk j ämä lde r . Medd e landen f rän J önköp ings L än s H. e mbygd sf örbund XXV . S t enbe rge r ,M . , 1 933 .O land u nd er ä ld rejä rnä ld er . - 1 964 .D e tf orn t ida S ver ige . S po r rong , U . , 1 985 . Mä la rbygd . A g ra r b ebygge lse o ch o d l ing u r e t t h i s tor isk t g eog ra f i sk t p e r spek t iv . K u l turgeograf i ska I ns t i tu t ionen , S tockho lms U n iver s i t e t , Medd e land en S e r ie B 6 1 . We rne r ,J . , 1 956 .B e i t räge z u rA rchäo log ie d e sA t t i laRe iche s .B ayer i sche A kadem ie d er W is senschaf ten ,A bhand lungen NF , H3 8A -B . W idg ren , M . , 1 983 . S e t t lemen t a nd f a rm ing s y s tem s i nt h e e a r ly I r on Age . As t udy o f f o ss i l a g ra r ian l a nd scape s i nÖ s te rgö t land , Sweden . S tockho lm S tud ie s i n Human G eography 3 . - 1 986 .B ebygge l sefo rm o ch m a r lde t t ighe te ru nde rj ä rnä ldem . YMER 1 986 . V re tema rk ,M . , 1 984 . P reh is to r ic F a lcon ry i n Sweden . S ach sen S ympos ion S kara 1 983 .

4 17

A THREE -DECADE PROJECT

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

PROJECT

— THE

LOVÖ

B y B o P e tr D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy .U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm . S -106 9 1 S tockho lm , Sweden . T he L ovö P ro jec ts t a r ted i n1 958 u nde rt h ea u sp ice so ft h eI n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm .I tw a st h rough t h ei n i t ia t ive o fP rof e s so rG re ta A rw id s son a nd o fD r .B er i t Wa l lenbe rg t h a tt h ep ro je c tc ame i n to b e ing . F ie ldwo rk w a sc a r r ied o u ta tt h eb eg inn ing i nt h ef o rm o ft r a in ing e xcava t ion sw i th t h e e mpha s i so nt h ep rob lem so fs e t t lemen td eve lopmen ti nt h eL a te I r on A ge .T he ma te r ia l w a s p ub l ished b y G re ta A rw id sson ( 1962 a nd 1 968 ) a nd b y J . P .Lamm ( 1972 a nd 1 973 ) . I n 1 974 P rof es so r Ma t sP . Ma lme rg ave t h er e spon s ib i l i ty f o rt h eL ovö P ro jec tt o me . I t b ecame at r emendou sj ob b u ta tt h es ame t ime r ewa rd ing a nd s t imu la t ing , -a nd i th a sn o t y e tc ame t oa ne nd . L ovö — a p ro to type a rea T he re c an b e f ew a r ea s t h a to f f e rb e t te r s t udy p os s ib i l i t ie s f o ra r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch t h an L ovö . T he i s land , w h ich c ompr ices a pp . 2 3 s qua re km i sc en t ra l ly s i tua ted i nt h e E a s te rn p a r to fL ake Mä la ren n ea rt h el a rge B ronze A ge s e t t lemen to fH alunda ,a nd a l so c l o se t ot h ei s land so fH e lgö a nd B jö rkö w i th i t st own o fB i rka .I t si n su la rn a tu r ec r ea te s an a tu ra lt e r r i to r ia ll im i tf o rt h es t udy o fh uman e co log ica la nd a dm in i s t ra t ive s t ruc tu re s . A s s uch L ovö h a si t so wn a dm in i s t ra t ive t o lf t( dozen )c on s i s t ing o ft we lve v i l lage s , a nd i t s own p a r i sh w i th t h ec hu rch i nt h em idd le .E ven i nt h eB ronze A ge L ovö w a s ac l o sed a r ea w i th al a goon l ike i n land l a ke o nt h em idd le o ft h ei s land ,r ound t h ee dge o fw h ich w e re d we ll ing s . B ecau se o ft h e u pwa rd t i l t ing o ft h el a nd a nd t h et opog raph ica lv a r ia t ion o ft h ed i s t r ic t w i th moun ta inous , mo ra ine , a nd c l ay v a l ley a r ea s , L ovö h a sb een e xp lo i ted a td i f f e ren t p e r iod s a nd a ga ins t ab a ckg round o f v a ry ing e conom ic c i rcum s tances . S o t h e re a r e r ema in s f r om b o th e a r ly h un t ing a nd t r app ing c u l tu res , a nd f r om p ermanen t ly s e t t led p a s to ra la nd a g r icu l tu ra lc ommun i t ie s . T hank st ot h ef a c tt h a tL ovö h a sn o tb een e xp lo i ted u pt on ow t ot h e s ame e x ten ta st h e r e s to ft h eS tockho lm a r ea t h ep reh i s to r ic r ema ins h ave b een l e f tl a rge ly u n touched , a nd t h i s i s af u r the rr ea son f o rL ovö 's s u i tab i l i ty a s ap ro to type h ypo the s i s te s t ing a r ea f o r r e sea r ch i nt h e Mä la ren V a l ley . R e search s t ra tegy a nd s e lec t ion o f me thods A r chaeo log ica lf i e ldwo rk i s ,a s ar u le , d emand ing o nt ime , e xpen se a nd h a rd w o rk , a nd s e ldom g i ve sa n swe r st ot h ep rob lem sf o rmu la ted . I th a st h e refo re b een e s sen t ia lt op l an a nd c a r ry o u t t h e f i e ldwo rk w i th c i rcum spec t ion . L ong te rm e xcava t ions o f at ime c on sum ing n a tu re , s uch a st h et o ta lr e sea rch o fl a rge c eme te r ie sf r om t h eL a te I r on A ge , h ave t os ame e x ten tb een i n te r spe r sed w i th t r ia le xcava t ion so fB ronze Age d wel ing s i te s w h ich h ave o f ten c ame t ol i gh tu nde rt h ec eme te ry a r ea . T h i s a nd o the re xamp le sh ave made i n te rp re ta t ion o fs e t t lemen td eve lopmen to ve rt h ec en tu r ie sp o s s ib le . 4 19

When Is ucceeded a sp ro jec tl e ade ri n1 974 Ic ho se t od o at o ta le xcava t ion o ft h el a rge L unda c eme te ry ( RAA 2 7 ) w he re r e sea r che sh ad a l ready b een s t ar ted . T he i d ea w a s t o g e tr e a l ly g ood r e f e rence m a te r ia lf r om t h eL a te I r on A ge g rave s ,w h ich w ou ld c on t r ibu te t ot h e e s tab l i shmen to f al o ca l c hrono logy , a tl e a s tf o rL ovö . T he c e me te ry r ep re sen t s b u r ia l sf r om af a rm d u r ing t h ep e r iod c .3 75 -1050 A .D . w i th u nb roken c on t inu i ty u p t o c .8 00 A .D . 1 55 g rave sh ave b een e xcava ted a l toge the r . T he e xcava t ion o ft h eL unda c eme te ry g ave u nexpec ted ly p o s i t ive r e su l t sa nd s haped u p a s am ic ro -ana ly s i s ,w h ich w a st e s ted a ga in s tt h es u r round ing f a rm sa nd t h e i rc eme te r ie s -as em i -m ic ro -s tudy . A s ar e su l to fb o th t h em ic ro -s tudy a nd t h e s em i -m ic ro -s tudy t h e i d ea o f s t udy ing s e t t lemen t d eve lopmen t o n L ovö a s awho le w a s d eve loped -i . e . a mac roana lys i s . T h is t h ree t ie rs t udy t ook i n ma in ly t h eL a te l i on Age b u ta l so i n c luded t h e B ronze Age t h rough t he dwe l l ing -s i tes t ha t c ame t o l i gh t u nde r t h e h on Age c eme tery . S tud ies o f t h e p rob lem s o f t h e B ronze Age w ere c omp le ted w i th a n i nves t iga t ion o f an umbe ro fc a i rn s a nd s t one -se t t ing s o fB ronze A ge t ype i no rde rt o i mp rove o u rk now ledge o fs o c ia la nd r e l ig iou sc ond i t ion sa nd t e r r i to r ia lc i rcum s tance s . An umbe ro fm ino ri nve s t iga t ions o fS tone A ge d we l l ing s i te sw e re a l so d one , a sw a s a t r ia le xcava t ion o f aMed ieva l ( ? ) s i te a nd w i th in t h eo ne a nd o n ly f o r t if i ed s i te o nL ovö . R esea rche s t h e refo re c ove r al a rge c hunk o ft h e s e t t lemen t h i s to ry o fL ovö -f r om t h e S tone Age , B ronze Age , h on A ge a nd M idd le A ges , t hough f o r t he mos t p a r t c oncen t ra t ing o nt h eL a te B ronze A ge a nd t h eL a te I r on A ge . T he w o rk h a sb een c a r r ied o u tp a r t ly t h rough e xcava t ion e xe r c i se sf o rt h et r a in ing o fa r chaeo log i s t sa tt h eI n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fS tockho lm , a nd p a r t ly t h rough r e sea rch e xcava t ions w he re a l toge the r s ome 3 0 a r chaeo log is t s h ave b een emp loyed . I th as b een a g rea t a dvan tage -a nd i mpo r tan tt oo -t oh ave b een a b le t od ec ide a nd p l an t h e wo rk my se lf .I n t h i sw ay t h ep ro jec tc an b es a id t ob e ao ne -man c oncer n . T he me thod sc ho sen ,a pa r tf r om w ha th a sa l ready b een s a id a bou tt h et h ree t ie ra na ly s i s , w e re c a r r ied o u tp a r t ly b y m eans o fa r chaeo log ica l t o ta le xcava t ion a nd p a r t ly b yt r ia l i nve s t iga t ion s . A l l t h e r e sea r ch i sr e la ted t o t h e c a refu l ly f o rmu la ted p rob lem s a nd o rgan i sed h ypo the ses w o rked o u tb efo rehand . T he se h ave g one f o rwa rd i na cco rdance w i th t h ew ay t h er e sea r ch h a sp rog re s sed , d eve loped a nd c hanged . Ma in t h eme s w h ich may b em en t ioned i nc onnec t ion w i th t h ei n ve s t iga t ion sa r et h eq ue s t ion sc once rn ing ,f o r i n s tance , c h rono logy , e conomy /eco logy , r epresen ta t iv i ty , c on t inu i ty a nd s oc ia l c ond i t ion s . S uch me thod s a s C 14 a na lys is , p ho spha te a na lys is , p o l len a na lys is a nd o s teo log ica l a na ly s i s h ave b een o fi mmea su rab le h e lp . Q ua te rna ry g eo log ica l , c u l tu ra l g eog raph ica l a nd h i s to r ica lr e sea r ch h ave a l so b een u sed ,a sh a s moder ns a te ll i te i n fo rma t ion . A rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins a nd e xcava t ion o b jec t ives A pp . 8 80 o ft h e mo re t h an 1 000 a r chaeo log ica lr ema in so nL ovö a r eg rave s , ma in ly f r om t h eL a te I r on A ge . T he g rave sl i eg rouped i nc eme te r ie s , u sua l ly l o ca l ly c onnec ted w i th h i s to r ica l ly k nown v i l lage s i te s . 3 6c eme te r ie sh ave b een r eg is te red ,d iv ided u pb e tween 1 2f a rm o rv i l lage u n i t s . E ach u n i th a sa na ve rage o f 3c eme te r ie sa nd e ach c eme te ry h a s a n a ve rage o f 2 5 g raves . T hese a r e u sua l ly i n t he f o rm o f r ound , t u r fed -ove r s t one -se t t ing s a nd mounds b u t o the r f o rm s a r e a l so t o b e f ound e g . s qua re a nd r e c tangu la rs t one -se t t ing sa sw e l la st r iangu la ro ne s . F ive r une s tones a nd ar un ic i n sc r ip t ion o n ar ock s l ab a r e k nown , a s a r e an umbe ro f p i c tu re -s tone f r agmen t sf r om t h eM ig ra t ion p e r iod . 4 20

T he re i s af o r t if ied s i te o nL ovö . B y m ean s o f at r ia l t r ench i nt h e f o r tw a l li th a s b een p o s s ib le p a r t ly t or e con s t ruc tt h ep a l i ssade . F ou rC 14 a na lyse s h ave s hown t h a tt h ef o r t w a sb u rn td own d u r ing t h eM ig ra t ion p e r iod . F rom t h eB ronze A ge a nd t h ee a r l ie s tp a r to ft h eI r on Age t h e re a r es ome 3 0 s p read o u t c a i rns a nd s t one -se t t ing s . T hey a r e s i tua ted o nt h eh i l l tops , s ome t imes e xpo sed t owa rd s t h eb ays u sed i np reh i s to r ic t ime s , a nd o fv a ry ing s i ze -a ny th ing f r om s eve ra l me te r st o 1 2m e te r si nd i ame te r . Mo s to ft h em a r eo u to nt h es ou the rn p a r to fL ovö . I ti sa l so t h e re t h a t mo s t o ft h e d we l l ing s i tes f o rm t h e B ronze A ge h ave b een f ound . T hey a r e u sua l ly i n t h e f o rm o f n a r row t e r races o u t t owa rd s t h e S .E . s i des o f t h e i mped imen t( i s land so fh i ghe r mo ra ine g round )a ta pp . 2 5m e te r s 'h e igh ta bove s e a leve l . F i re -c racked s t one sw i th h igh p ho spha te v a lue so ccu ro nt h e s u rf ace l e ve lo fh ab i ta t ion s i te s . S ome t e n s uch B ronze A ge s i tes h ave b een f ound b u t t h e re a r e p robab ly mo re . S ome S tone A ge d we l l ing s i te sh ave a l so c ome t ol i gh t . O u r p ic tu re o f a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins o n L ovö i s t herefo re r i ch ly v a r ied a nd i n ves t iga t ion s h ave s hown t h a tt h e re a r ec ons ide rab ly mo re s i te s t h an t ho se w h ich a r e v i s ib le a nd h ave b een r eg i s te red . O ne e xamp le , f o ri n s tance , i st h a t u nde r 8o ft h e 1 0 c eme te r ie sf r om t h eL a te I r on A ge d wel ing s i te sf r om t h eB ronze A ge h ave b een f ound . T he c ho ice o fr e sea r ch o b je c t ive h a sa lway sb een p receded b ys t ud ie so fp rev iou ss ou r ce ma te r ia l , b yp rob lem -se t t ing a nd b y t h ef o rmu la t ion o fh ypo the se s . C er ta in c eme te r ie s h ave u nde rgone t o ta l i nve s t iga t ion b u t , o n t h e o the r h and , t h e re h a s b een am in ima l a moun t o fe nc roachmen t o n d we l l ing s i te s , a nd t h en o n ly i no rde r t oa n swe r s pec if ic q ue s t ion s . T he a im o ft h ep ro jec to r ig ina l ly w a st os t udy t h e s e t t lemen td eve lopmen to f t h eL a te I r on Age t h rough r e sea r ch o n t h e g rave ma te r ia l a nd t wo c eme te r ie s ( RAA 5 6 a nd RAA 5 7 ) o n t h eN .E . p a r to fL ovö . T he rea f te ro u rg oa lh a sb een e x tended t oc ove r t h e who le o ft h ep reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen td eve lopmen to ft h ea r ea . E xcava t ion o f t he e ar l ies t r e ma ins — t races o f h un t ing , t rapp ing a nd f i sh ing I nc onnec t ion w i th i nve s t iga t ions f r om t h eL a te I r on A ge a tt h eg r ea tL unda c e me te ry a s ma l ld we l l ing s i te f r om t h eP i t ted Wa re C u l tu re c ame t ol i gh t .T he s i te h ad b een o ve r la id b y b o th aB ronze A ge dwe l l ing s i te a nd b y I r on A ge g rave s . An a r ea o f 7 0 m w a s i nve s t iga ted f r om w h ich t h e f o l low ing o b jec t s w e re f ound : 1 97 P i t ted Wa re s he rd s , a l a rge s c rape r , t wo h amme r s tone sa nd ab one h a rpoon f r agmen t .T he f i nd sc ame t ol i gh t o n a na ppa ren t ly o rde r ly f l oo rs u r f ace w h ich h ad b een c l ea red o fs t one s ,a pp .4 . 5mw ide a nd a tl e a s t 8m i nl e ng th , f r om w h ich i nt h e S .E . p a r t a ppea red ap o s t -ho le s t rong ly s uppo r ted b y s t ones , 9 0 cm d eep . T he d iame te r o ft h e p os t i sr e ckoned t oh ave b een 5 0 -60 cm . Mo s t o f t he p o t she rd s w e re f ound a d jacen t t o t h e p o s t -ho le . N o o the r p os t -ho le sw e re f ound i nt h ev i c in i ty .T he se r ema in sc an p robab ly b ei n te rp re ted a st r a ce s o f at empo ra ry s ea l -hun t ing s t a t ion . T he d we l l ing p lace l i e s 2 7 .8 -2 8 .3 m e te r s a bove s e a leve l , wh ich may c o r re spond t ot h ep e r iod b efo re c .2 200 B .C . Ano the r ,a nd p o s s ib ly e a r l ie rd we l l ing p l ace ,i st hough tl i ke ly f r om t h ee v idence o ft h r ee k ee l -shaped s r ape r so fq ua r tz w h ich a ppea red a t al e ve lo f3 1 me t e r sa bove s e a leve l .T he s c rape r sc ame f r om t h e mo ra ine g rave ls n ea r aB ronze Age c a i rn ( RAA 1 5 ) w h ich w a s b e ing i nve s t iga ted . Meanwh i le i tc anno tb er u led o u tt h a tt h e re i s ac onnec t ion b e tween t h ec a i rn . a nd t h e s c rape r s , s i nce as im i la rs c rape rh a s b een f ound o n an ea rby dwe l l ing s i te ( RAA 1 3 ) w h ich , a cco rd ing t o f i nd ma te r ia l a nd h e igh t a bove s ea leve l ( 24 m ) s hou ld b ed a ted t ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic o rE a r ly B ronze Age . T he p o s s ib le h ab i ta t ion s i te a r ound t h e RAA 1 5c a irn h a so n ly b een s ub jec ted t ot r ia le xcava t ions ,f r om w h ich i th a s b een l e a rn t t ha t t h ere i s n o c u l ture laye r a nd n o h e igh tened p hospha te v a lue . 4 21

Q ua r tz -p roduc ing dwe l l ing -s i te l o ca t ion s h ave b een f ound i n an umbe ro fp l ace si nt h e L ake Mä la ren a r ea b u tn oa na ly s is h a sy e tb een c a r r ied o u t . E xcava t ion o f t he e ar l ies t a grar ian r e ma ins — t emporary s e t t lemen t Wi th t h e u pwa rd t i l t ing o ft h el a nd c ame as t age w he r e t h e s u r f ace o fL ovö b ecame s o l a rge t h a tc o lon iza t ion c ou ld t a ke p l ace . S e t t lemen t may o r ig ina l ly h ave b een t empo r a ry . T he e a r l ie s t C 14 v a lues a r e f r om d we l l ing s i te s RAÄ 1 3 a nd RAA 2 7 a nd a r e f r om c . 2 000 B .C . ( c a l ib ra ted ) . A r chaeo log ica ld a t ing m e thod s( i nc lud ing s c ien t if i co ne s )a r es t il much t o oi n a ccu ra te f o r ad ef in i te j udgemen tt ob e made a st ow he the rt h ee a r l ie s th ab i ta t ion s i te sa r et empo ra ry o r h ave b een i nc on t inuou su se . A dwe l l ing s i te o ft h is t ype ,p a r t ly i nve s t iga ted ,i st ob ef ound a tS öde rby , RAÄ s i te 1 3 . T he a g ra r ian e l emen t h e re c ons i s ts o f t h ree q ue rns a nd a g r ind s tone , af l in t s i ck le f r agmen t( a l so t h ef r agmen to f af l in td agge r ) a nd t h et e e th o fs heep a nd c a t t le . T he f i nd s ugges t s aL a te N eo l i th ic d a te b u t t h e dwe l l ing s i te l i es 2 4 me te r s a bove s ea leve l . A cco rd ing t ol a te s tr e sea rch r e su l t s o n t h e u pwa rd t i l t ing o fl a nd i nt h e Mä la ren a r ea ( M i l le r 1 982 )t h i sl e ve li sd a teab le t ot h eE a r ly B ronze A ge ,o rt ot h et ime b efo re t h el a s t L i to r ine t r an sg re ss ion i . e . c . 1 800 -1600 B .C . T he s i te d oe s n o t s eem t o h ave b een c ove red o ve rb y w a te ra nd t h i s make s d a t ing t ot h ee nd o ft h e E a r ly B ronze A ge mo re p robab le . T he re i sa no the rd we l l ing s i te o n ly s ome 5 0mf r om t h i s s i te . C 14 d a t ing p u t s t h i sa tt h eL a te B ronze A ge . T he re i sp o s s ib ly ac on t inu i ty o fs e t t lemen th e re b u tt h e re a r e f ew d ef in i te d a t ing s a nd t h i si s ac ons tan tp rob lem w hen i n te rp re t ing t h ec h rono log ica l r ange o ft h ed we l l ing s i te s . A no the rd we l l ing s i te w h ich s how s s im i la rt e ndenc ies i st h e B ronze A ge s i te a tL unda RAÄ 2 7 . T he re a r e s eve ra l C1 4v a lues f r om t h e b o t tom l a ye ro ft h e s i te w i th ad a t ing f r om t h eE a r ly B ronze A ge . O the rv a lue sc ome w i th in t h eL a te B ronze A ge ( Pe t it 1 982 , p . 5 8 ) . We s t i l lk now a l lt oo l i t t le a bou ta r tef ac t se g .p o t te ry ,o ns i te sf r om t h eE a r ly B ronze A ge t ob e a b le t os ay w he the r d we l l ing s i tes w i th t h e a bove -men t ioned c ha rac ter i s t ics a r e c on t inuou sf r om t h eE a r ly B ronze A ge . E xcava t ion o f t he B ronze Age — c a t t le -ra is ing a nd t err i tor ia l d iv is ions R ema in sf r om t h eB ronze A ge c on s i s to fs ome I 0d we l l ing s i te s , s ome 3 0( ? )g r ave sa nd t h ree i n c idence so fc up -ma rk s .T he h ab i ta t ion s i te sa nd t h ef i nd so fc up -ma rk sh ave c ome t ol i gh ta s ar e su l to ft h e p ro jec tw o rk d one d u r ing t h ep e r iod 1 975 -1985 . N od we l l ing s i tes o rf i nd so fc up -ma rk sw e re k nown o nL ovö e a r l ie r . I nve s t iga t ions c ompr ise l im i ted e xcava t ion o fo ccupa t ion s i te s i n s ome J O l o ca l i t ie s s p read o ve rL ovö . Mo s to ft h e se a r ea t ah e igh to fc .2 5 me te r sa bove s ea leve lb u tb o th l owe r ( 1 8 m ) a nd h ighe r ( 3 1 m ) l e ve l s o ccur . T he h ab i ta t ion s i te s a r e s i tua ted ma in ly a l ong t h e s he lv ing b ay w h ich d u r ing t h eB ronze Age s t re tched i n to t h em idd le o fL ovö . T he d wel ing s i te sa r er e la t ive ly s ma l la nd c on s i s t ma in ly o ff i nd so ff i r e -c racked s t one s a nd p o t she rd s . T he p ho spha te c on ten ti sh igh ,w h ich m ay s ugge s ta n ima lp roduc t ion . A t t h el a rge s to ccupa t ion s i te ,L unda RAÄ 2 7 ,o ve r2 000 p o t she rd sh ave b een f ound . T he re a r e s eve ra lh ou se f ounda t ion s ,p o s t -ho le s ,t e r race s , h ea r ths a nd f i re -c racked s t one s , e t c . w i th in t h e a pp . 4 0x70 m dwe l l ing -s i te a r ea ( Pe t r6 1 982 , 1 984A ) . A s f o r t h e o the r h ab i ta t ion s i te s ,w he re o n ly l im i ted i nves t iga t ions h ave b een c a r r ied o u t ,t h e re i sl a rge ly t h es ame s i tua t ion a sf a ra sa r tef ac t s a nd p ho spha te c on ten ti sc once rned .

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O nL ovö t h e re a r es om 3 0g r ave so fs uch t y pe sa sc an b ed a ted t ot h eB ronze A ge o rt h e e a r l ie s tp a r to ft h eI r on A ge .T hey a r eu sua l ly p l aced s i ng ly a nd s i tua ted o nt h ec r e s to fa h i l l a nd e xpo sed t owa rds t h e t h en -ex tan t s ea a nd l a ke s y s tem . T h i s f a c t h a s l e d t ot h e i d ea st h a tt h e se g rave sm ay c on sc ious ly h ave f o rmed t e r r i to r ia lb ounda r ie so rt e r r i to r ia l m a rke r s( Pe t r6 1 981 a nd 1 982 ) . T he d i rec t ion o fe xpo su re o ft h ese g raves h a st h e re fo re b een s t ud ied ( i b id . ) . S ome 1 0o ft h e se g r ave sh ave b een i nve s t iga ted a nd af u r the r 1 0o r s oo fB ronze A ge o rE a r ly I r on A ge t y pe w h ich a r ei n c luded i nc eme te r ie s . T he e a r l ies t C 14 -da t ings f r om t h e g rave s i n h i l l top p os i t ion a r e f r om c . 100 B .C . ( c a l ib ra ted v a lue f r om g rave A 2a t RAA s i te 1 2a tS öde rby ) .A ni r on a rm -r ing o fB ronze A ge t ype w a s f ound i n t h is g rave ( Pe t ré 1 982 , p . 6 1 a nd 1 984B ) . T he o the r h i l l top g r ave sh ave y i e lded C 14 d a t ing so rf i nd d a t ing su pt ot h ey ea r sa r ound t h ey ea r0 .A l lt h e g r ave s s of a ri nve s t iga ted h ave b een c r ema t ion sw i th o n ly o ne i nd iv idua l . Whe re s ex a nd a ge c ou ld b ed i scer ned o s teo log ica l ly t h ey h ave b een o fa du l t ma le s . B ronze A ge s o c ie ty o n L ovö t h e refo re s hows u p o ccupa t ion s i te s a nd g rave s f r om t h e s ame p er iod .H i l l top g rave sa r ea l so f ound f r om t h ep re -Roman I r on a ge . B u tt h eg rave s a r ef ew a nd i ti sc l ea rt h a to n ly c e r ta in p eop le h ave b een b u r ied i ns uch g rave s -p e rhap s t h eh ead o ft h e f am i ly i ns u cce ss ion f r om c . 100 B .C . -c . 0( 35 y ea r s / ind iv idua l x3 0 g r ave s =1 050 y ea r s ) . T he B ronze A ge l a nd scape a nd i t sc hanges ,i n c lud ing t h eu pwa rd t i l t ing o ft h el a nd ,h a s b een s t ud ied i no rde r mo re e a s i ly t ob e a b le t oi n te rp re t t h e e conomy o fB ronze A ge s o c ie ty . Ac l ea r -cu tc onnec t ion c an b es e en b e tween t h el o ca l i sa t ion o ft h eh ab i ta t ion s i te s a nd an umbe ro fv a r iab le sw he re p rox im i ty t og l ac ia l c l ay , s he lv ing p ro tec ted c r eek o r b ay s y s tem s , a nd s un -expo sed t e r race sa round t h e2 5 me te rl e ve l , c an b ei n c luded . T he w ide spread g raz ing a nd f odde rp o ten t ia lo ft h el a rge w a te r meadow so ft h eB ronze Age , w h ich t h rough t h e u pwa rd t i l t ing o ft h e l a nd f o rm t h e p resen t -day a c reage s u r face , i s s e en a s v e ry s i gn if ican t ( Pe t r6 1 984 B , p . 1 6 ) . T he re w e re t hus e x ten s ive g raz ing r e sou rce sd u r ing t h eB ronze Age a nd t h e ma in e conomy w a sp robab ly c a t t le -ra is ing ,a s p o l len a na ly s i sa l so s ugge s t s .T he l a nd scape d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge wou ld h ave b een a n o pen o ne ,w i th p l en ty o fg r a s sa nd j un ipe rb ushe sb u tf ewe rt r ee s . I mmed ia te ly b efo re t h ep e r iod a r ound t h eb i r th o fC h r i s tt h el a nd scape c l o sed i na ga in a nd t h ec u rve f o rd i f f e ren tt y pe so fc rop r i se s . A g r icu l tu re b ecome s mo re i mpo r tan t . B y t h en t h el a nd scape h ad a l ready b een d iv ided u pi n to d i f f e ren tt e r r i to r ies a nd t h eh i l l top g r ave ss y s tem c ame t oa ne nd . I nves t iga t ion o f o rgan ised f arm a nd v i l lage s oc ie ty o f t he I ron A ge Much t ime h a s b een d evo ted t oI r on A ge r e sea rch o n L ovö . Q ue s t ions o fc h rono logy , p opu la t ion ,a nd f a rm a nd v i l lage s t ruc tu re a sw e l la sc on t inu i ty a spec t sh ave b een s t ud ied mo s t . T he ma te r ia lc ons i s t s ma in ly o fe xcava ted g raves f r om t h eM ig ra t ion a nd V ende l p e r iod s . As ma l ln umbe ro fV ik ing g rave sa r ea l so i n c luded . S ome 2 80 g rave sa l toge the r f r om t h eL a te I r on A ge h ave b een i nve s t iga ted .E xcava t ion sh ave t a ken p l ace i n1 6o ft h e 3 6c eme te r ies b u to n ly t wo o ft h e se c eme te r ies h ave b een t o ta l ly i nve s t iga ted ( RAA 5 7 V iken a nd RAA 2 7 L unda ) . T he V iken c eme te ry w a s t h ef i r s tt ob ee xcava ted w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o ft h ep ro jec t . T he r e su l t , w h ich i n c luded t h ree r i ch c hambe red g rave s , o ne w i th w eapon s , a nd a n u nu sua l n umbe ro fb u tche r ed a n ima lr ema in s a mong t h e b one s i nt h eg rave s , h a s b een i n te rp re ted ,a tl e a s tf o rt h eM ig ra t ion p e r iod ,a s as e t t lemen tu n i tf o rt h o se f r om t h eh ighe r r ank so fs oc ie ty ( Lamm 1 973 ) . E ven t h en ea rby H emme tc eme te ry , RAÄ 5 6 ,f r om t h eV ik ing p er iod , s how su nusua l ly 4 23

r i ch a nd v a r ied b one ma te r ia l . T h i si n c lude sa ne x t rao rd ina ry n umbe ro fd og s ,i n c lud ing an umbe ro fd i f f e ren t s pec ie s , f r om t h i s p a r t icu la rc eme tery ( Pe t it 1 984 , p .1 44 ) . T he c eme te ry i sp robab ly c onnec ted w i th t h eV ik ing p e r iod p a r to ft h ef a rm , a nd d u r ing t h e M ig ra t ion a nd V ende l p e r iod s t ook t h e p lace o f t h e V iken c eme te ry m en t ioned p rev iou s ly .T en o ft h e4 0H emme tc eme te ry g r ave sh ave b een e xcava ted ( Pe t r6 1 978 ) . T he l a rge L unda c eme te ry , RAÄ 2 7 , w a s e xcava ted b e tween 1 971 a nd 1 978 . F ew c e me ter ies i nt h e Mä la ren a r ea h ave b een a b le t o make s uch ac on t r ibu t ion t ol o ca l c h rono logy a st h i so ne . O fp a r t icu la ri mpo r tance i st h e amended c omb c h rono logy f r om c .4 00 -800 A .D . B u t o the r c h rono log ica l l e ve ls f o r b ead s , b ronze o rnamen t s , g rave r i tua l , e t c . h ave a l so b een wo rked o u t ( Pe t r6 1 984 A a nd 1 984C , p . 1 35 ) . T he L unda c h rono logy h a s , d u r ing r ecen t y ea r s , b een t e s ted p a r t ly a ga ins t t h e s u r round ing c eme te r ie sa nd p a r t ly a ga in s to the rc eme te r ie si nt h e Mä la ren a r ea .T he a im i st ow o rk o u t ag ene ra lc h rono logy f o rt h e Mä la ren V a l ley . S ince t h eL ovö p ro jec th a s b een u nde rw ay f o r al ong t ime , w i th c on sequen te x ten s ive e xcava t ion st h e re h a sb een p l en ty o fo ppo r tun i ty o ve rt h ey ea r st or e -exam ine h ypo the se s i nt h e l i gh t o fp rac t ica lr e su l t s . E xcava t ion s h ave g i ven r e levan t a nd p o s i t ive a nswe r s w i th a dequa te r e su l t s t o many h ypo the ses a nd p rob lem s . B u t an umbe ro ft h e r e su l t s h ave b een , n ever the le ss , s u rpr is ing , u nfo re seen , a nd s ome t imes s imp ly b ew i lde r ing . A1