Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai [1st ed.] 9783030289461, 9783030289478

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Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors: R. W. Bussmann · N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

Ketevan Batsatsashvili · Zaal Kikvidze Rainer W. Bussmann  Editors

Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia Universidad Mayor de San Andrés La Paz, Bolivia

Ethnobotanical research in recent years has increasingly shifted into applied aspects of the discipline, including climate change research, conservation, and sustainable development. It has by now widely been recognized that “traditional” knowledge is always in flux and adapting to a quickly changing environment. Trends of globalization, especially the globalization of plant markets, have greatly influenced how plant resources are managed nowadays. While ethnobotanical studies are now available from many regions of the world, no comprehensive encyclopedic series focusing on the worlds mountain regions is available in the market. Scholars in plant sciences worldwide will be interested in this website and its dynamic content. The field (and thus the market) of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has grown considerably in recent years. Student interest is on the rise, attendance at professional conferences has grown steadily, and the number of professionals calling themselves ethnobotanists has increased significantly (the various societies— Society for Economic Botany, International Society of Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, International Society for Ethnobiology, and many regional and national societies in the field currently have thousands of members). Growth has been most robust in BRIC countries. The objective of this new MRW on Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions is to take advantage of the increasing international interest and scholarship in the field of mountain research. We anticipate including the best and latest research on a full range of descriptive, methodological, theoretical, and applied research on the most important plants for each region. Each contribution will be scientifically rigorous and contribute to the overall field of study. More information about this series at: https://www.springer.com/series/15885

Ketevan Batsatsashvili • Zaal Kikvidze Rainer W. Bussmann Editors

Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai With 627 Figures

Editors Ketevan Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia

Zaal Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia

Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia

ISSN 2523-7489 ISSN 2523-7497 (electronic) ISBN 978-3-030-28946-1 ISBN 978-3-030-28947-8 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-030-28948-5 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The use of plants by humans stretches back to the very beginning of human evolution, and Central Asia has been one of the focal points of the development of such uses and has long been a hotspot for the trade and exchange of plants and plantderived products along the Silk Road. Many important plant species have their origin in the mountain systems of the region, especially the Pamir, Tienshan, and Altai, which also represent important biodiversity hotspots in our days greatly affected by climate change. During most of the twentieth century, with much of the region under strict Soviet rule, this exchange had largely come to a halt, and communist indoctrination and repression have widely led to a loss in traditional knowledge. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, many Central Asian peoples have gained independence, and the documentation – and recuperation – of traditional knowledge has gained renewed importance, but few comprehensive efforts exist to make such knowledge available to a wider audience. With the present volume we aim to provide an in-depth introduction to the plant use knowledge of the peoples of Central Asia and the Altai. Following an introduction to the region, over 140 plant chapters feature a modern overview on taxonomy, local names, and information on the ecology and distribution of all species. The ethno-botanical information provides both an overview on historic uses as well as data from the most recent scientific studies of plant use in the region and contains the most up-to-date literature sources. We hope that the present volume will give both interested laypeople as well as professionals an opportunity to learn about the fascinating biodiversity and plant use culture of Central Asia and the Altai, and will spark interest in its further documentation, sustainable use, and conservation.

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Contents

Part I

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1

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Central Asia and Altai . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

3

Part II

Regions

Plant Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

Acer tataricum L. Acer truncatum Bunge SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zefang Wang, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

21

Achillea asiatica Serg. Achillea filipendulina Lam. Achillea millefolium L. Achillea setacea Waldst. & Kit. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Anzurat Akobirshoeva, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, and Anneleen Kool Achnatherum splendens (Trin.) Nevski POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lujia You, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

33

45

Aconitum leucostomum Vorosch. Aconitum soongaricum Stapf. Aconitum talassicum Popov Aconitum sp. RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

49

Agrimonia eupatoria subsp. asiatica (Juz.) Skalicky Agrimonia eupatoria L. Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

59

Ajuga turkestanica Briq. Ajuga sp. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Allium giganteum Regel Allium karataviense Regel. Allium rosenbachianum Regel Allium stipitatum Regel Allium suworowii Regel Allium tenuissimum L. Allium trautvetteranum Regel AMARYLLIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Mario Boboev, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Anneleen Kool, Bo Liu, Liqing Zhao, and Zhijie Ma

65

69

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Contents

Althaea nudiflora Lindl. Althaea officinalis L. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

87

Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthus retroflexus L. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

93

Ammopiptanthus mongolicus (Maxim. ex Kom.) S. H. Cheng FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

103

Anagallis arvensis L. Anagallis foemina Mill. PRIMULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

105

Anchusa azurea Mill. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

111

Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge ASPARAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

117

Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia annua L. Artemisia dracunculus L. Artemisia frigida Willd. Artemisia leucodes Schrenk Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Artemisia sieversiana Ehrh. ex Willd. Artemisia vulgaris L. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

119

Asparagus persicus Baker Asparagus sp. ASPARAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

135

Astragalus membranaceus Fisch. ex. Bunge FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

141

Berberis jamesiana Forrest & W.W. Sm. Berberis vulgaris L. BERBERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

149

Betonica foliosa Rupr. Betonica officinalis L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

157

Betula platyphylla Sukaczev BETULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yiyun Tang, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

161

Bidens triparita L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

169

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173

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mario Boboev, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Anneleen Kool, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

175

Buddleja alternifolia Maxim. SCROPHULARIACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Contents

ix

Campanula glomerata L. Campanula sp. CAMPANULACAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

177

Capparis spinosa L. CAPPARACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

185

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

191

Caragana stenophylla Pojark. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

197

Carum caucasicum Boiss. Carum carvi L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

199

Caryopteris mongholica Bunge LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

207

Centaurea behen L. Centaurea depressa M. Bieb. Rhaponticum repens (L.) Hidalgo ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

209

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219

Cichorium intybus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

221

Clematis orientalis L. Clematis sp. RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

227

Conium maculatum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

231

Convolvulus arvensis L. CONVOLVULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

235

Chrysanthemum chanetii H. Lév. ASTERACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Crataegus altaica (Loudon) Lange Crataegus songarica K. Koch Crataegus sp. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Cynanchum thesioides (Freyn) K. Schum. APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann Dactylorhiza umbrosa (Kar. & Kir.) Nevski Dactylorhiza sp. ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

239 245

247

Datura stramonium L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

253

Daucus carota L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

259

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Contents

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

267

Dianthus superbus L. Dianthus sp. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

271

Dictamnus angustifolius G. Don ex Sweet Dictamnus albus L. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

275

Dipsacus dipsacoides (Kar. & Kir.) Botsch. Dipsacus fullonum L. Dipsacus laciniatus L. CAPRIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

281

Elaeagnus angustifolia L. ELAEAGNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Ephedra equisetina Bunge Ephedra intermedia Schrenk ex C.A. Mey. Ephedra sinica Stapf Ephedra sp. EPHEDRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu, Anzurat Akobirshoeva, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

287

291

......

299

Eremurus regelii Vved. Eremurus sp. ASPHODELACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

305

Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hér. ex Aiton GERANIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

309

Eryngium caucasicum Trautv. Eryngium sp. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

313

Equisetum arvense L. Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. EQUISETACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Euphorbia esula L. Euphorbia fischeriana Stendel Euphorbia rapulum Kar. & Kir. Euphorbia sp. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Ferula assa-foetida L. Ferula kuhistanica Korovin Ferula moschata (H. Reinsch) Koso-Pol. Ferula violacea Korovin Ferula sp. APIACEAE . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Mario Boboev, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, and Hugo de Boer

317

325

Fragaria vesca L. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

333

Frangula alnus Mill. Rhamnus cathartica L. RHAMNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

339

Galagania fragrantissima Lipsky APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mario Boboev, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Anneleen Kool, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

345

Contents

xi

Galium septentrionale Roem. & Schult. Galium verum L. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

349

Gentiana cruciata L. Gentiana macrophylla Pall. Gentiana septemfida Pall. GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

355

Geranium collinum Stephan ex Willd. Geranium pratense L. GERANIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

361

Geum rivale L. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

367

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. FABACEAE . . . Lan Weiwei, Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

373

Gundelia tournefortii L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

383

Helichrysum maracandicum N. Pop. ex Kirp. Helichrysum sp. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

385

Hemerocallis minor Mill. ASPHODELACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

391

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393

Hippophae rhamnoides L. ELAEAGNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rui Xu, Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

397

Hyoscyamus niger L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

405

Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericum scabrum L. HYPERICACEAE . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

411

Heteropappus altaicus (Willd.) Novopokr. ASTERACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Inula britannica L. Inula helenium L. Inula orientalis Lam. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

419

Iris lactea Pall. IRIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

429

Juglans regia L. JUGLANDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Shoista Mubalieva, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, and Anneleen Kool

433

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Contents

Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica (Kom.) Silba. Juniperus sabina L. Juniperus semiglobosa Regel Juniperus seravschanika Kom. CUPRESSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Karelinia caspia (Pall.) Less. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann Lagochilus gypsaceus Vved. Lagochilus plagyacanthus Rupr. Lagochilus platycalyx Schrenk ex Fisch. & Mey. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Leonurus cardiaca L. Leonurus cardiaca subsp. turkestanicus (V.I. Krecz. & Kuprian.) Rech. f. Leonurus sibiricus L. LAMIACEAE . . . . Liping Qing, Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

443 453

455

459

Leymus chinensis (Trin. ex Bunge) Tzvelev POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yongtao Tian, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

465

Lilium pumilum Redouté LILIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

469

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473

Lithospermum officinale L. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

475

Lycopus europaeus L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

479

Limonium bicolor (Bunge) Kuntze PLUMBAGINACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Malus orientalis Uglitzk. Malus pumila Mill. Malus sieversii (Ledeb.) M. Roem. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

481

Melilotus albus Medik. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. LAMIACEAE . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

491

Melissa offcinalis L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

495

Mentha arvensis L. Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Mentha spicata L. Mentha 3 piperita L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Izatmo Kadirova, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, and Hugo de Boer Morus alba L. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Shoista Mubalieva, Anzurat Akobirshoeva, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, and Anneleen Kool

499

509

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xiii

Neopallasia pectinata (Pall.) Poljakov ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

517

Nepeta glutinosa Benth. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shifo Kurbonbekova, Akobir Mirzorahimov, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Anneleen Kool, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze

519

Nigella sativa L. RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

525

Onopordum acanthium L. Onopordum sp. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

529

Origanum vulgare L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

535

Orostachys fimbriata (Turcz.) A. Berger CRASSULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

541

Paeonia lactiflora Pall. PAEONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

543

...........................

549

Papaver orientale L. Papaver pavoninum Schrenk Papaver somniferum L. Roemeria refracta DC. PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

551

Panzeria lanata (L.) Sojá LAMIACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Paulia ovczinnikovii Korovin APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mario Boboev, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, and Rainer W. Bussmann

559

Peganum harmala L. NITRARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann and Ketevan Batsatsashvili

563

Picea schrenkiana Fisch. & C.A. Mey. PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

571

Pinus sylvestris L. var. mongolica Litv. PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

577

Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago major L. PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

585

Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco CUPRESSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

595

Polemonium caucasicum N.Busch. POLEMONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

597

xiv

Contents

Polygala hybrida DC. Polygala sp. POLYGALACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

599

Polygonum aviculare L. Polygonum coriarium Grig. POLYGONACEAE . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

603

...........................

611

Portulaca oleracea L. PORTULACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

617

Potentilla inclinata Vill. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

623

Prangos pabularia Lindl. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

629

...

633

................

649

...................

651

Reseda luteola L. Reseda lutea L. RESEDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

657

Rheum maximowiczii Losisnsk. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

661

Rhodiola pamiroalaica Boriss. CRASSULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shifo Kurbonbekova, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

665

Ribes nigrum L. Ribes rubrum L. GROSSULARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

669

Rosa canina L. Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

677

Rubia cordifolia L. Rubia tinctorium L. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

685

Rubus idaeus L. Rubus caesius L. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

689

...

697

Populus euphratica Oliv. SALICACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Prunus avium Mill. var. avium Prunus divaricata Ledeb. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Pulsatilla chinensis (Bunge) Regel RANUNCULACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann Quercus mongolica Fisch. ex Ledeb. FAGACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Rumex confertus Willd Rumex tianschanicus Losinsk. POLYGONACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Contents

xv

Sanguisorba officinalis L. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Saponaria officinalis L. Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

705

709

Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Kunrong Liu, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

713

Scabiosa songarica Schrenk Scabiosa sp. DIPSACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

715

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

719

Solanum nigrum L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yaxi Zou, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

725

Sorbus aucuparia L. Sorbus tianschanica Rupr. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

731

......................

741

Spinacia oleracea L. Spinacia turkestanica Iljin AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

743

...............

747

.........................

751

Tanacetum vulgare L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

755

Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

759

...........................

767

....................

773

Thalictrum foetidum L. Thalictrum isopyroides C.A. Mey Thalictrum minus L. Thalictrum sp. RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

775

Sphaerophysa salsula (Pall.) DC. FABACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Stipa baicalensis Roshev. Stipa capillata L. POACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann Tamarix chinensis Lour. TAMARICACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. TAXACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Tetraena mongolica Maxim. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Thymus marschallianus Willd. Thymus sp. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

781

xvi

Contents

Tribulus terrestris L. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

789

Trifolium pratense L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

795

Tussilago farfara L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

799

Typha orientalis C. Presl TYPHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

805

Urtica cannabina L. Urtica dioica L. URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wenqi Li, Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

811

Valeriana officinalis L. CAPRIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

821

Veratrum album L. Veratrum lobelianum Bernh. LILIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

827

Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. Verbascum songaricum Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Verbascum thapsus L. Verbascum sp. SCROPHULARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

835

Vicia cracca L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

845

Vinca erecta Regel & Schmalhausen APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

851

Viola odorata L. Viola suavis M. Bieb. VIOLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

855

Xanthium strumarium L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

861

Ziziphora bungeana Juz. Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. Ziziphora pedicellata Pazij et Vved. Ziziphora tenuior L. LAMIACEAE . . . Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

867

Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Ziziphus jujuba Mill. var. spinosa (Bunge) H.H. Hu ex H. F. Chow RHAMNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

873

Zygophyllum oxianum Boriss. Zygophyllum xanthoxylon (Bunge) Maxim. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

879

About the Editors

Dr. Ketevan Batsatsashvili graduated from the Faculty of Biology at Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University (TSU), Georgia, in 1999. She received her doctorate at Tbilisi State University in 2005 for the thesis “Lichens as bioindicators of air pollution in Tbilisi.” Dr. Batsatsashvili joined the Botany department at TSU as Doctoral Candidate from 2001 to 2005 and the Tbilisi Institute of Botany as Assistant Professor (now Institute of Botany of Ilia State University) since. From 2008 to 2012, she worked as Assistant Professor at the Institute of Ecology of Ilia State University and became Associate Professor of Botany in 2013. Her major research interests are lichens and plant diversity, biological monitoring of environmental stress, species extinction risk assessment, and ethnobiology. Dr. Batsatsashvili has authored and co-authored some 25 research papers and over 250 book chapters. Dr. Zaal Kikvidze graduated in 1978 from the Faculty of Biology at Tbilisi State University (Georgia) and defended his Ph.D. thesis “Functional properties of Na, K-ATPase” in 1983 at the Georgian National Academy of Sciences. He worked as a Researcher in the Georgian National Academy of Sciences and in the Institute of Teachers’ Training of Georgia and later graduated in the Certificate Course in Environmental Education at Jordanhill College, Strathclyde University, Glasgow, Scotland, UK. In 1993 he defended a Doctor of Science (Habil.) thesis “Structural and functional optimalization in biological systems” at the Georgian National Academy of Sciences of. Dr. Kikvidze worked as Associate Researcher at Chiba University (Japan), as xvii

xviii

About the Editors

Ramon-y-Cajal Fellow in the Consejo Superior de las Investigaciones Científicas (Spain), and Associate Professor at the University of Tokyo (Japan). The major lines of his research are plant community ecology, species diversity and geographical distributions on ecological gradients, rules of species coexistence and interactions among organisms, environmental education, ethno-ecology, and socio-ecology. Dr. Kikvidze published over 115 papers in scientific, educational, and scientific-popular journals and over 250 book chapters. Since 2006 he has been cooperating with Ilia State University and became Professor of Ecology in 2012. Dr. Kikvidze is Full Professor and Director of the Institute of Ethno-biology and Socio-ecology since 2014.

Dr. Rainer W. Bussmann earned his M.Sc. (Diploma) in Biology from Universität Tübingen, Germany, in 1993 and his doctorate from Universität Bayreuth, Germany, in 1994. He is an ethnobotanist and vegetation ecologist, and currently Co-director of Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia, as well as Principal Scientist at the Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany, Ilia State University, both of which he co-founded. Before retiring from Missouri Botanical Garden, Dr. Bussmann was director of the William L. Brown Center at Missouri Botanical Garden, William L. Brown Curator of Economic Botany, and Senior Curator. Before accepting the directorship of WLBC, he held academic appointments as Research Fellow in Geography and the Environment at the University of Texas at Austin from 2006 to 2007, as Associate Professor of Botany and Scientific Director of Harold Lyon Arboretum at the University of Hawaii from 2003 to 2006, and as Assistant Professor at the University of Bayreuth from 1997 to 2003, following a postdoc at the same institution from 1994 to 1997. He holds affiliate faculty appointments at Washington University St. Louis, USA; University of Missouri St. Louis, USA; Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, USA; Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Brazil; Universidád Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Perú; and at Ilia State University, Republic of Georgia, and serves as external thesis advisor at several other universities worldwide. His work focuses on ethnobotanical

About the Editors

xix

research and the preservation of traditional knowledge, in Bolivia, Peru, Madagascar, the Caucasus, and the Himalayas. To date, Dr. Bussmann has authored over 260 peer-reviewed papers and over 750 book chapters as well as and authored or edited over 35 books. Dr. Bussmann is a past President of the Society for Economic Botany and has served as board/council member of the International Society for Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, Botanical Society of America, and International Society of Ethnobiology. See more of his work on his website (https://www. savingknowledge.org/rainer-w-bussmann/) and download publications from ResearchGate (https://www. researchgate.net/profile/Rainer_Bussmann).

Contributors

Anzurat Akobirshoeva Pamir Botanical Garden, Khorogh, Tajikistan Mountain Societies Development Support Program, Khorogh, Khorogh, GBAO, Tajikistan Ketevan Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Mario Boboev Kulyab Botanical Garden, Kulyab, Tajikistan Dushanbe, Tajikistan Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Hugo de Boer The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Abdolbaset Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Izatmo Kadirova Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology, Tajik National University, Dushanbe, Tajikistan Manana Khutsishvili Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Zaal Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Anneleen Kool The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Shifo Kurbonbekova Institute of Botany, Dushanbe Botanical Garden, Dushanbe, Tajikistan Wenqi Li College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China Bo Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China xxi

xxii

Contributors

Kunrong Liu College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China Zhijie Ma College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China Inesa Maisaia Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Akobir Mirzorahimov Institute of Botany, Dushanbe Botanical Garden, Dushanbe, Tajikistan Shoista Mubalieva Institute of Botany, Dushanbe Botanical Garden, Dushanbe, Tajikistan Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia Liping Qing College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China Shalva Sikharulidze Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Yiyun Tang College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China David Tchelidze Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Yongtao Tian College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China Zefang Wang College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China Lan Weiwei College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China Rui Xu College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China Lujia You College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China Liqing Zhao College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China Yaxi Zou College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China

Part I Regions

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Central Asia and Altai Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Altai Introduction The Altai is a large mountain range in Middle Asia, forming part of Russia, China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan. It forms the upper catchments of rivers Irtysh and Ob. The northwest end of the lies is at 52
N and 84
and 90
E, extending southeast to about 45
N and 99
E. The name “Altai” can be translated as “Gold Mountain” in Mongolian. The northernmost part of the region is formed by the Sailughem Mountains (Kolyvan Altai) stretching northeast from 49
N and 86
E towards 51
600 N and 89
E. The mean elevation reaches 1500–1750 m. On the east and southeast, this range is flanked by the great plateau of Mongolia. The north western and northern slopes of the Sailughem Mountains are steep and hard to access. The highest peak is Belukha with summits at 4506 and 4440 m. The second highest peak of the range is part named Khüiten Peak in Mongolia with 4374 m. The Ek-tagh or Mongolian Altai separates the Khovd basin on the north from the Irtysh basin on the south, and is a R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_1

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4

R. W. Bussmann et al.

true border-range, rising from the Dzungarian depression (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). In southern Siberia and western Mongolia, the semi-deserts and steppes or taiga are dominated by a system of mountains, of which, however, only the Altai carries high alpine character. The northern part of the mountain, also known as Great or Russian Altai (up to 4506 m), stretched into the south of the Mongolian Altai (up to 4362 m) and in the Gobi Altai (up to 3957 m). In addition to the large plateaus, steppes are characteristic of the Altai. Most of these are grave fractures filled with massive gravel deposits (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994).

Geology The Siberian Altai is part of the collision zone of India into Asia. Massive fault systems run through the area, including the Kurai fault zone and the Tashanta fault zone. Rock types in the mountains are typically granites and metamorphic schists (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The Altai is also a geologically relatively young mountain range. The most intensive uplifts occurred in the Upper Pliocene, but also in the Quartary. The Altai owes its structures essentially to the Palaeozoic tectogeneses. At the farthest point are sub-Paleozoic rocks, mainly metamorphic slate of Cambrian, Silurian, and Devonian origin. The most intensely folded slates build up the main chains of the mountains and give them a characteristic appearance with their greenish to violet hue. Occasionally precambrian Magmatite and Metamorphite are exposed. The mountains were widely glaciated over the Quaternary glacial periods, with the snow limit an average of 1000 m lower than the current level. The Altai has many lakes formed during the Ice Age (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994).

Climate The Altai climate is generally continental, with long and cold winters. January temperatures range from 7
F in the foothills to 32
C in more shelterd parts of the East, with temperatures in the Chu steppe due to temperature inversion falling to 60
C. July temperatures are warm around 24
C and can reach up to 40
C on the lower slopes and in the steppe areas. In the west, especially at elevations between 1500 and 2000 m, annual rainfall reaches up to 500–1000 mm, and locally up to 2000 mm, with only 200–700 mm on the Eastern slopes (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). Due to its geographical location, the western and northern parts of the mountain receive relatively high precipitation. Total precipitation in the steppe hill country is still around 300 mm and can reach up to 1500 mm in the high mountain areas. In the interior of the mountains, the precipitation decreases. Situated in the middle of a winter-cold steppe zone and in the center of Asia, the continental climate in the Altai

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Central Asia and Altai

5

region is temperate with long and hard winters of 5–9 months and relatively short, warm to hot summers. There is widespread permafrost in all valleys sometimes several hundred meters thick. Similar to the northern edge of the Tienschan, we often encounter winter temperature reversals in the Altai. For example, the high altitudes between 1000 and 1300 m are characterized by milder winter temperatures than the mountain foothills. Also, winter temperatures in the central basins may be up to 20
C lower than at the adjacent slopes (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The current glaciation of the Altai is concentrated on the highest chain, with more than 1000 glaciers reported, covering about 900 km2. The largest glaciers have a length of 8–11 km. Some of the glacier tongues reach the higher parts of the forest stage in 1950–2000 m. The snow line rises from 2300 m in the precipitation-rich northwest to 3000–3300 m on the southern part of the Central and Southern Altai. All glaciers are heavily declining. The large rivers Irtysh and Ob have their origin in the Altai (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994).

Vegetation Due to the large climatic differences within the Altai range, it harbors a very varied mosaic of vegetation types. Although steppe vegetation is prevalent, it lacks around lake Telezek due to the high rainfall amounts this region receives. The lowermost parts of the Altai at 300–400 m are mostly characterized by Betula forests interspersed with dry pasture-like steppe areas, followed by deciduous forests up to 700 m. The forest steppes are mostly dominated by park-like Larix siberica formations. Above 1200 m, to around 1700 m, the vegetation changes to Pinus siberica, partly with Abies siberica and Picea obovata dominated taiga (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). In contrast to the Central Asian high mountains, forests in the Altai are far more widespread. Since the Altai is predominantly located in the middle of a forest-free landscape zone, forest vegetation does not appear until a certain altitude. The lower forest boundary is largely determined by the lack of precipitation, while the upper one is due to temperature. The lower timberline in the Western Altai is 350 m, in the South Altai 1000 m, and in Southeast Altai 1400–1800 m, while the upper timberline in the North Altai reaches 1500 m and in the South Altai 2300–2400 m reached (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The forests of the Altai consist essentially of five coniferous species: the Siberian larch (Larix sibirica), Siberian pine (Pinus cembra ssp. sibirica), Siberian spruce (Picea obovata), Siberian fir (Abies sibirica), and the common pine (Pinus sylvestris). Large-leaved deciduous trees are completely absent. Only small-leafed species, such as Betula pendula and aspens (Populus tremula), occur. The most important tree species is the larch, which dominates especially in the pronounced continental parts of the mountain range. It forms alone or together with Pinus cembra, but also colonizes in the upper mountain steppes on the northern slopes, resulting in a park-like landscape. The Larix forests are usually relatively light and

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have an undergrowth of Rhododendron dahuricum, Spiraea aquilegifolia, Rosa acicularis, and Cotoneaster melanocarpus (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The pine forests are only found only on the mountain edge on dry, sandy soil. In the rough, humid north, and northeast of the Altai, the dark pine forest taiga with the Siberian stone pine, spruce, and fir dominate. These forests contain mostly moss-rich areas with berry bushes (Vaccinium) and other evergreens. On the trees, there are often large numbers of bearded lichen (Usnea). The Siberian bergenia (Bergenia crassifolia) is widely distributed in the herbaceous layer. These forests have a higher share of deciduous species, especially shrubs, including Siberian mountain ash (Sorbus sibirica), Siberian bird cherry (Padus racemosa), Common viburnum (Viburnum opulus), but also aspen (Populus tremula) and Siberian clematis (Atragene sibirica). In the midst of the forest landscape, we find bluish mountain meadows and lush perennial plants, including Iris ruthenica, Trollius asiaticus, Adonis sibiricus, Polemonium caeruleum, Aconitum sp., Delphinium elatum, Archangelica decurrens, Sanguisorba alpina, Paeonia anomala, and Aquilegia sibirica (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). Above the closed forests the vegetation changes into a species rich forest tundra with Betula nana, Lonicera hispida, Cotoneaster uniflorus, Ribes fragrans, Aquilegia glutindulosa, Viola altaica, Viola biflora, Gentiana grandiflora, Anemone narcissiflora, Ranunculus altaicus, Kobresia myosuroides, and Kobresia schoenoides (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The alpine tundra covers most of the alpine zone, with Dryas octopetala, Saxifraga hirculus, Saussurea alpina, Juniperus sibirica and J. pseudosabina, Betula rotundifolia, Salix myrsinites, Salix arbuscula and S. reticulata, and many bog areas with Eriophorum humile (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994).

Central Asia Introduction In the south-east of Central Asia, the semi-desert and desert zones rise up into a system of three high mountains with mostly east-west trending chains. The northernmost of these mountain ranges, the Tienschan, extends east of Tashkent and north of the Fergana Basin far into China. In the south it is bounded by the Takla-Makan Desert in the Tarim Basin, to the north by mountain ranges south of the Fergana Basin, that is, the Alai with its western Sarranand range (Alai/Pamiro-Alai). The Pamir, the third highest mountain range, joins the Alai to the south and continues with the Hindu Kush in northern Afghanistan. At its southeastern edge, it leads with the Karakorum range and Trans-Himalaya. The Pamir is one of the highest mountain ranges in the world (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The Tienschan forms a complicated system of high mountain ranges, low mountain ranges, and basin shaped plateaus. A distinction can be made between the Northern Tien Shan, the Central Tien Shan, the Eastern Tien Shan in China, and

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the Western Tien Shan. The northern Tien Shan includes the high mountain ranges of the Kyrgyz Alatau (up to 4855 m), the Transili-Alatau (to 4973 m), and the Kungei Alatau (to 4770 m). This northern Tienschan system leads to the Altai in the east with the Dsungarian Alatau and the Tarbagataige mountains. The Central Tienschan is separated from the Northern Tienschan by the mighty Issyk-Kul basin with the 6200 km2 Issyk-Kul lake. This 1624 m high lake has a maximum depth of 702 m. The surrpinding mountains have the highest peaks of the entire Tienschan with Pik Pobeda (7439 m), Pik Chan-Tengri (6996 m). The central Tienschan consists largely of high-level valleys at 3500–4000 m, the so-called Syrten (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The neo-tectonic development of the Pamirs and also in southern parts of the Tienschans began in the second half of the Pliocene, when the uplift reached 3000 m. However, they reached more than 4000 m in the eastern central Tienschan and in Pamir and in some areas as much as 5000 m. The large basins are sinking areas and the tertiary and quaternary sediment layers in the central part of the Ferganabek kens are up to 5000 m deep. The Issyk Kul Basin features the 4500 m thick Kanozoic sediments. Earthquake activity shows us that the Central Asian high mountains have not yet calmed down. Earthquakes reaching 8–9 on the Richter scale have been observed. Tashkent lies over such a fracture zone. Heavy earthquakes with great destruction occurred here in the years 1868, 1924, 1938, and especially in 1966. The southern parts of the Western Pamirs have the most intense earthquake activity (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). Modern time glaciation starts around 3750 m altitude but is receding in the whole area. The glaciers reached down into the valleys during the maximum glaciation on the northern sides down to 1780 m and on the southern sides down to 2210 m. They formed troughs with depths of 500–700 m. Geomorphological dynamics of the Central Asian high mountains are still exceptionally high. Intensive physical and chemical weathering led to the erosion of large amounts of material. The loose rock piles, often several hundred meters high, are only in an unstable equilibrium. Smallest events can lead to huge mountain and rock falls (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994).

Climate The high mountains of Central Asia, due to their position in the interior of the Asian continent, have a strictly continental climate, in parts (Central Tienschan, Pamir) even an extremely continental climate. Upstream mountain systems shield them largely from the monsoon flow from East and Southeast Asia. Annual precipitation totals in the Central Tienschan range from 170 to 370 mm, in Western Tienschan 100–300 mm, and in the Eastern Pamir to 60–120 mm. In contrast, the annual amount of evaporation in the Central Tienschan is 350–750 mm, in the Western Tienschan 500–1100 mm, and in the Eastern Pamir 400–600 mm. As a result, arid to extremely arid conditions prevail in these high mountain areas. Only in the northern Tienschan there are humid conditions on the northern slope with 900 mm precipitation at high altitudes from 1500 to 2200 m. However, here the precipitation is

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Fig. 1 Dry inner mountain valley, Kyrgyzstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

decreasing with increasing altitude, so that there are again arid conditions in areas higher than 3000 m. In the western Pamiro-Alai precipitation reached a maximum of 2000 mm. These are the rainiest parts of the Central Asian high mountain ranges. Because of the strong evaporation in the summer, however, this must also be considered arid (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). In the Eastern Pamir, 75% of the precipitation falls during the main vegetation period. By contrast, in the relatively low western Pamiro-Alai the summer precipitation amounts to only 35%. The large basins in the interior of the mountains are characterized by extreme precipitation deficits being located in the rain shadow (Fig. 1). The rainfall in the Fergana basin or on the Issyk-Kul only amounts to 100– 120 mm. It falls almost exclusively in spring, during the summer months there is only a few millimeters of rainfall. The average annual temperature amplitude is 30– 35
C. It is characteristic of the northern Tienschan that temperature changes cause the lower montane zone (1300–1600 m) to have less harsh winter than the mountain foothills (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994) (Fig. 2).

Vegetation The plant cover of the mountains of Central Asia is extraordinarily diverse. Above the tree line, in the subnival and alpine areas, there are over 1650 different plant

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Fig. 2 Warm Northern Tien-Shan slopes, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

species, of which 670 species are adapted to the alpine stage. The amount of endemic species is also strikingly high. About 1200–1400 species are endemic. In the Pamir vegetation zones can vary greatly, and the delineation of the vegetation types is very difficult. There may, for example, well grow semi-desert species common to grassland steppe species (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The surface cover of the high-altitude plant communities in the extremely arid areas of the Eastern Pamirs is only 5–20%, and hilly areas are often completely free of vegetation. Another adaptation to the extreme site conditions is the extensive relocation of plant parts below the soil surface. In some species, the subterranean organs make up more than 95% (up to 98%), so only 2–5% of the plant organs appear above the surface. Man-made vegetation disruptions, even moderate overutilization, have a particularly serious and lasting effect on such ecosystems. In the genus Acantholimon, individual cushion plants can reach even an age of 1000 years (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). In the western Pamiro-Alai the Turkestan chain rises gradually from the steppe, rising west to east, to highs from 3000 to 5500 m. Below 700–800 m, at the mountain foothills on grey soils, we encounter a semi-desert landscape with annual plants and wormwood (Artemisia), which are already largely withered in mid-May. This is followed by the high-altitude grassy steppe, which is rich in short-lived species (ephemera), as well as grasses and sedges, to altitudes of 1600 m. Above, up to

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Fig. 3 Juniperus forests in the Northern Pamir, Kyrgyzstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

altitudes of 2000 m, on south-facing slopes, with chestnut-colored soil, we find beltgrass steppes with wild-almond dry-bush complexes (Amygdalus spinosissima), and pistachios (Pistacia vera) Spiraea (Spiraea sp.). Only above 2000 m to altitudes of 2800 m, a vegetation of juniper follows on the northern slope, which occasionally also shows the remains of fruit trees alternating with meadows and high-altitude meadows. In the high montane areas, there are very old growing junipers that reach heights from 5 to 10 m, Juniperus seravschanica, J. turkestanica, and J. semiglobosa (Figs. 3, 4, and 5). Above 2800–3400 m the substrate changes to black soils with summer pastures. Because of the steepness of the mountain slopes, however, large parts are almost unused. Dominant species of this vegetation, which already belong to the subalpine zone, are grasses like Alopecurus, Phleum, Poa, Festuca, and Agropyrum, interspersed with many sedges, and species of Aconitum, Tulipa, Ligularia, Pulsatilla, Primula, Anemone, and Gentiana (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The subsequent alpine stage, which reaches up to 3800 m high, no longer has a closed vegetation cover. Its conspicuous species are various wild tulips (Tulipa sp.), Pedicularis, Gentiana, Leontopodium ochroleucum, Swertia graciliflora, Papaver croceum, and Pulsatilla campanella. The last plants are found in the subnival stage to over 4000 m height (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994) (Fig. 6). The south part of the Turkestan chain shows a distinctly different vegetation pattern. Below the subnival and alpine zones from 2800 to 3400 m (i.e., the

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Fig. 4 Juniperus forests in the Northern Pamir, Kyrgyzstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 5 Juniperus glades in the Northern Pamir, with traditional Yurts, Kyrgyzstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 6 View from Juniperus forests to alpine zone in the Northern Pamir, Kyrgyzstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

subalpine level), high mountain vegetation with plants adapted to dry locations (xerophytes) can be found in mountainous areas. Characteristic species are those of the genera Onobrychis, Cousinia, Acantholimon, Arenaria, Scorzonera, Astragalus, Festuca, Koeleria, Agropryron, Poa. Among the most striking plants of this altitudinal zone are Eremurus spectabilis, Tulipa turkestanica, and Tulipa dasystemon. In the zone from 1800 to 2800 m, dry shrubs, especially Juniperus are found. Wild rose bushes are particularly characteristic, ranging from yellow to red to white in their flower colors, as well as yellowwood bushes (Zygophyllum megacarpum and Z. jerganense) as well as the wild-almond species Amygdalus spinosissima and A. bucharica. In addition, other important genera and species are Athraphaxis, Caragana, Rhamnus coriacea, the berberis Berberis oblonga, Colutea persica, Spiraea sp., Potentilla parviflora, Stipa, Eremostachys speciosa, Ferula ovina, Eremurus olgae, Lyiolyrion tataricum, and Astragalus (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The centrally located Serawchan chain has a diverse vegetation sequence. The forests on slopes up to 2000 m are dominated by Acer turkestanicum. Tree juniper are found in this area up to more than 3000 m. The southern Hissar chain shows a distinctly different plant cover. Below the subnival and alpine corridors with cryophytes, which occasionally occur up to 4000 m high, we find on southern slopes in 2900–3600 m high high-altitude xerophyte vegetation dominated by tragacanths (Astragalus sp.) and prickly Cousinia sp. Otherwise high-altitude steppes

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predominate at this level, and sometimes meadow-like stands in which the Estragon (Artemisia dracunculus) plays a dominant role, together with flowering high shrubs, for example, Ligularia sp. or Adonis turkestanicus. From 1200 to 2500 m, characteristic deciduous trees cover the slopes. In addition to the Turkestani maple (Acer turkestanicum), Sorbus persica and S. turkestanica, Cotoneaster hissaricus, Berberis sp., Rosa sp., and wild fruit trees are common. The lower slopes show often dens nut forest with Juglans fallax. Juniperus stands are mostly found from 2600 to 3200 m, with Juniperus seravschanica being dominant, and Lonicera species, roses, and dwarf medlars forming part of the bushes in the forests. However, it also includes tall perennials, such as the Ferula jaeschkeana and Prangos papularia, and the intensely red fruity rhubarb Rheum maximovicii. The forest-draped valley slopes have an impressive flora especially at 1800 m to about 2400 m altitude. As soon as the snow melts in early May to early June, the low Tulipa hissarica flowers and opens its yellow inflorescences simultaneously with the bluish white Scilla bucharica, the red-bellied lemons pomart Corydalis ledebouriana, and the yellowflowered Leontice alberti, Tulipa praestans, Fritillaria eduardii, Allium giganteum, and many other species (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). In the lower elevation valleys and at the foot of the high mountains at elevations of 900–1600 m, we encounter a vegetation reminiscent of the Schibljak of Southeastern Europe, consisting of pistachio trees, Judas leaf shrubbery, wild pomegranate (Punica granatum), lotus plum (Diospyros lotus), wild fig (Ficus carica), as well as Zizyphus jujuba and hackberry (Celtis caucasica). Along the rivers and creeks, there are plane trees (Platanus orientalis), often forming very old impressive groups (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The Talas Alatau resembles the Turkestan chain in its vegetational sequence. However, it is particularly exposed to the dry desert winds on his northern descent. The somewhat more northern position is noticeable because the ephemerous spring steppes already end at 800–900 m altitude. At this altitude, deciduous trees, including pistachios, fruit trees, dry bushes, Juglans forests, and maple forests can be observed in the midst of desert steppes, shrubs, and dry steppes. At an altitude of 1500 m, they are being replaced by Juniperus, which are already disappearing at 2800 m. Very occasionally, Abies tianschanica can be found on the northern slopes at 2200–2600 m. High mountain herb layers are common from 2300 to 2500 m, followed by high alpine vegetation to 3500 m. The alpine and subnival vegetation again shows a mixture of alpina and steppe elements, with Eremurus cristatus and Eremurus robustus, Iris korolkovii, and Iris sogdiana, which can form extensive herbaceous corridors avoided by grazing livestock, Fritillaria sp., Iris orchioides, Tulipa turkestanica, Tulipa krausiana, Tulipa kaufmanniana and T. albertii, Crocus sp., Scilla sp., and Colchicum sp. unfold in the melting snow, especially of yellow, white, red, and blue colors, such as Crocus korolkowii and C. alatavicus, Scilla puschkinioides, Colchicum luteum, and C. kesselringii (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). In the Fergana Valley to the east of the border of the Fergana chain with the peaks of about 4000–5000 m, and in the Alai and Transalai, the vegetation belts reach considerably higher, with Juglans and fruit tree forests rising over 2000 m, dry shrub

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to 3000 m, and the last juniper up to 3300 m. The subalpine and high alpine steppes reach 3600 m (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). A different type of vegetation structure can be found in Pamir mountain range, which has a mean height of 3500–4500 m and has an extremely arid-continental climate. The mountains are practically forest free. Trees are only found in the deepcut and thus slightly favored river valleys, which are usually located at high altitudes from 2000 to 3000 m. Riverine forests are built by various birch species (Betula), willow species (Salix), and poplar species (Populus ap.), seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides), Tamarix arceuthoides and Myricaria squamosa. Protected mountainous areas show occasional cold- and drought-resistant low shrubs of Juniperus sibirica and J. semiglobosa, as well Lonicera sp. In the eastern parts of the Pamir, the last plants were observed in the subnival stage at 5500 m altitude. Interesting species include Tanacetum xylorrhizum, Dracocephalum discolor, Eurotia ceratoides, Artemisia skorniakowi and A. lehmanniana, and Tanacetum pamiricum (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The western parts of the Pamirs, with precipitation values of 100–300 mm and an upper vegetation border of 4800–5300 m, have a different vegetation zonation with alpine cushions reaching to 3500 m. Characteristic representatives of this vegetation are Eurotia ceratoides, Saussurea sorocephala, and Potentilla pamirica (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). In the northern and central Tienshan, we find the famous wild fruit forests starting at altitudes of about 800 m and reaching up to 1400 m. Garden and fruit trees take up the largest part of the fertile valleys and slopes with their black soil. The most important wild fruit tree is Malus siversii. In addition to the apples, several species of wild pear (Pyrus sp.), wild apricot (Armeniaca vulgaris), wild cherries (Cerasus), and wild plum (Prunus sp.) species grow in these forests. It contains various species of maple (Acer sp.), Crataegus sp., Berberis sp., Lonicera sp., wild rose (Rosa sp.), Euonymus sp., wild cherries (Padus sp.), and (Ribes sp.) (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994) (Fig. 7). Large numbers of perennial flowers bloom in large variety. There is still sufficient moisture in the soil, especially in May and early July to sustain Tulipa kolpakovskiana and T. ostrowskiana, Paeonia hybrida, Dictamnus angustifolius, Ixiolirion tataricum, Iris albertii, Eremostachys speciosa as well as Inula grandis, l. helenium and Ligularia heterophylla, Eremurus sp., and Allium caeruleum (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994). The wild fruit forests are gradually being replaced by coniferous forests, but with a wide transition area. This transitional region (beginning 1200 m) is mainly characterized by aspens (Populus tremula) and firs (Figs. 8, 9, and 10) In these coniferous forests, deciduous trees can be observed up to altitudes of 2000–2100 m and are then replaced by juniper trees. Last wind shaved Tienschan spruce trees reach up to 2500 m, in other parts of the mountain even up to 3000 m altitude. In addition to the Tienschan spruce, one also encounters Abies semenovii. Mountain meadows cover the lower conifer zone, with Trollius altaicus, Rhodiola coccinea, Cortusa brotheri, Corydalis glaucescens, Gentiana krylovii or Viola altaica, as well Tulipa dasystemon and T. heterophylla, Primula sibirica, and

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Fig. 7 Deciduous forests, Tien-Shan, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 8 Picea schrenkeana forests, Tien-Shan, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Hegemone lilacina. The latter species also occur in the subalpine zone, which starts at 2400–2600 m. The Kungei Alatau shows a similar vegetation zonation, although the Issyk-Kul basin has high-continental trains (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994).

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Fig. 9 Picea schrenkeana, Tien-Shan, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 10 Upper Picea schrenkeana forests, TienShan, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

The Central Tienschan, on the other hand, has a high relief above 3000 m, where permafrost is widespread. In the river valleys, thickets of sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) are common. Up to altitudes of 3000 m, the shrubby Betula pamirica is

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dominant on such sites. Coniferous forest remnants still grow on the northern slopes. Above 3000–3400 low-lying specimens of Juniperus semiglobosa, often with bushes Caragana, may occur. Finally, Salix schugnanica can grow up to 3700 m. The alpine steppes reach a maximum height of 4200–4400 m with the sedge Carex nivalis and the catmint species Nepeta podostachys being common (Klotz 1989; Walter 1988; Walter and Breckle 1994).

References Klotz G. Hochgebirge der Erde und ihre Tier und Pflanzenwelt. Urania: Leipzig/Jena/Berlin; 1989. Walter H. Die Vegetation Osteuropas, Nord- und Zentralasiens. München: Urban & Fischer; 1988. Walter H, Breckle S. Ökologie der Erde: Bd. 3: Spezielle Ökologie der Gemäßigten und Arktischen Zonen Euro-Nordasiens. Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag; 1994.

Part II Plant Profiles

Acer tataricum L. Acer truncatum Bunge SAPINDACEAE Zefang Wang, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Acer truncatum Bunge: Acer cappadocium ssp. truncatum (Bunge) A.E. Murray; Acer laetum var. truncatum (Bunge) Regel: Acer lobelii ssp. truncatum (Bunge) Wesm.; Acer lobulatum Nakai; Acer lobulatum var. rubripes Nakai; Acer pictum ssp. truncatum (Bunge) A.E. Murray; Acer pictum var. truncatum (Bunge) C.S. Chang; Acer platanoides var. truncatum (Bunge) Gams; Acer truncatum fo. cordatum S.L. Tung; Acer truncatum var. acuminatum X.M. Liu; Acer truncatum var. beipiao S.L. Tung; Acer truncatum var. nudum Schwer

Local Names Acer truncatum: Chinese: 元宝枫 (Yuan bao feng); 平基槭 (Ping ji qi), 华北五角 槭 (Hua bei wu jiao qi) Z. Wang College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_10

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Botany and Ecology Acer tataricum: Trees or tall shrubs with smooth dark gray or nearly black bark and reddish or brownish shoots hairy when young; leaves 6–10 cm long, 3–7 mm wide, dark green above, slightly paler beneath, hairy along nerves, oblong-ovate (f. oblongofoium Rac) to suborbicular (f. rotundifolium Rac), entire or slightly 3-lobed, irregularly biserrate at margin, sometimes undulate (f. cuspidatum Pax), shallowly cordate at base, rarely truncate; petioles hairy, shorter than blades. Panicles dense, oval-corymbiform, with pubescent rhachis and pedicels covered with glands; flowers with yellowish sepals and white petals; samaras 3–4 cm long, with glabrous (f. typicum Blonsk. and f. decalvens Blonsk.) or pubescent (f. hebecarpum Blonsk. and f. pubigerim Blonsk.) nuts always beset with glands and tapering at base, wings dilated above, erect with nearly parallel outer margins (f. genuinum Rac.) or diverging at acute or nearly right angles (f. slendzinskii Rac). Flowering May–June, fruiting from September. Forest undergrowth and edges as individual trees or in small groups, gullies and ravines in forests, high river-banks, floodplains, riparian terraces, and shrubby thickets on mountain slopes. In the Ural, Iran (Shishkin and Boborov 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Acer truncatum: Trees, up to 20 m high, sometimes up to 30 m, with dense broad crown and dark brownish-gray to nearly black bark, longitudinally splitting when adult; leaves 5–12(18) cm long, 8–13(22) cm wide, dark green above, slightly paler and shiny beneath, glabrous or hairy along nerves beneath and bearded at an their angles, orbicular, broadly cordate at base, rarely truncate or broadly cuneate and if so only on short shoots, usually 5-lobed, rarely 3-, or 7-lobed, the 3 upper lobes subequal, the lower much smaller, all largely incised-dentate, teeth and apices thin-mucronate. Flowers large, greenish-yellow, opening before leaves; sepals obovate, obtuse; petals slightly narrower than and nearly as long as sepals, tapering to claw; samaras up to

Fig. 1 Acer platanoides (Sapindaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Acer tataricum L. . . .

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Fig. 2 Acer platanoides (Sapindaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Acer trautvetteri (Sapindaceae). Adjara, Georgia Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

4 cm long, with wings diverging at an obtuse angle or spreading. Flowering May, fruiting in September. Broadleaved and commonly mixed forests, rarely in large numbers, up to the subalpine belt in the Caucasus and Ural. Mostly in mountain forests, on stony slopes, scree, in crevices of rocks, along the banks of rivers and streams (Shishkin and Boborov 1949) (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14).

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Fig. 4 Acer sp. (Sapindaceae), household utensils, Svaneti, Georgia Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Cyclols; nitrogen-containing compounds (allantoin), organic acids: (malic, citric); carotenoids: (b-carotene, lutein, violaxanthin, neoxanthin); phenolcarboxylic acids: (coffee, p-coumaric, gallic, ellagic), tannins (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In traditional medicine, the leaves are used as remedy for scurvy and liver disease. The flowers and fruits are used to treat diarrhea and as antipyretic (Sokolov 1988). Acer species are very widely used in the Western part of Middle Asia. Acer platanoides is used for diseases of the liver, kidneys, and gastrointestinal tract: A water infusion and decoction of young leaves is used in jaundice, urolithiasis, as well as diuretic, antiemetic and for tonic means. Pulverized and crushed fresh leaves are applied to purulent wounds and ulcers. The fruits have an antipyretic effect. A water infusion and decoction of young leaves, bark, and fruits is applied for scurvy. A decoction and extract of the bark of Acer pseudoplatanus is used as astringent, the juice as a diuretic. A decoction and extract of the bark is used for scurvy (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017,

Acer tataricum L. . . .

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Fig. 5 Acer sp. (Sapindaceae), local cart, Svaneti, Georgia Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

2018; Bussmann 2017). The functional fatty acid-neuric acid contained in A. truncatum has medicinal value. In 1998, A. truncatum seed oil contained 5.8% of functional fatty acid, nervonic acid, according to the fatty acid test analysis of A. truncatum seed oil. Scientists in various countries have recognized that nervonic acid is the core natural component of nerve fibers and nerve cells in the brain, and it is the only double-effect magic substance that can repair nerve fibers that damage damaged brain and promote nerve cell regeneration. The health institutions from Shanghai combined with several large general hospitals for functional testing and clinical trials summed up the clinical trial reports and the patient’s effects and proved that after taking A. truncatum essential oil for 3 months, the stroke sequelae, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease Neurological diseases such as syndrome, cerebral palsy, brain atrophy, brain trauma, memory loss, the average display efficiency was 96.6%, and the effective rate was 92.8%.

Local Food Uses The sap of Acer truncatum can be used to produce syrup (Sokolov 1988). The lowers are sometimes used for tea (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017). A. truncatum oil contains high levels of vitamin E. According

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Fig. 6 Acer truncatum (Sapindaceae), Aohan League, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

Fig. 7 Acer truncatum (Sapindaceae), Aohan League, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

to the test center of Northwest A&F University, the vitamin E content of A. truncatum seed oil is 125.23 mg/100 g, which is much higher than imported olive oil and palm oil. It is also among the best in domestic edible vegetable oil. Vitamin E, also known as tocopherol, has anti-infertility, prevention of coronary heart disease and cancer. Vitamin E protects cells against oxidative stress caused by free radicals and improves cognitive function. At the same time, vitamin E itself is an excellent natural antioxidant, which has a positive effect on prolonging the shelf life of oils. Therefore,

Acer tataricum L. . . .

Fig. 8 Acer truncatum (Sapindaceae), Aohan League, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

Fig. 9 Acer truncatum (Sapindaceae), Aohan League, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

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Fig. 10 Acer truncatum (Sapindaceae), Aohan League, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

Fig. 11 Acer truncatum (Sapindaceae), Aohan League, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

A. truncatum seed oil is particularly resistant to storage. It cannot be rancid and deteriorated after being preserved for 3 years under normal temperature and protected by light, indicating that it has strong antioxidant stability.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Leaves as fodder for cattle, horses, and sheep. Decorative. The wood is used for furniture and musical instruments. The bark and leaves yield black dye (Sokolov 1988).

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Fig. 12 Acer truncatum (Sapindaceae), Aohan League, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

Fig. 13 Acer truncatum (Sapindaceae), Aohan League, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

All species are nectariferous and polliniferous plants. Acer laetum and Acer platanoides are used for dyeing: A dye solution is prepared from bark and leaves to obtain yellow, green, and beige colors. The wood is white, firm, and hard. It is used for diversified mill works and as construction material, as well as for joinery and turning operations, and is used in furniture and vehicle-production for manufacture of musical instruments, shovels, and axes (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 14 Acer truncatum (Sapindaceae), Aohan League, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

Acer truncatum yields good timber, hard wood, a special material for the textile industry, an excellent building, furniture, sculpture, and joinery. Bark fiber can be used for paper making and substitute cotton (Su 2018; Wang 2018).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Acer laetum C. A. Mey; Acer platanoides L.; Acer pseudoplatanus L.; Acer velutinum Boiss. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017.

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Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian). Su D. Acer truncatum Bunge is full of treasures. Land Greening. 2018;11(1):55–6. Wang X. Application research status and prospect of Acer truncatum Bunge seed oil rich in nervonic acid in China. China Oils and Fats. 2018; 1103-7969(2018)12-0093-04.

Achillea asiatica Serg. Achillea filipendulina Lam. Achillea millefolium L. Achillea setacea Waldst. & Kit. ASTERACEAE Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Anzurat Akobirshoeva, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, and Anneleen Kool

Synonyms Achillea asiatica Serg.: Achillea millefolium var. manshurica Kitam.; Achillea setacea subsp. asiatica (Serg.) Vorosch. Achillea filipendulina Lam.: Achillea eupatorium M. Bieb.; Achillea ficifolia M. Bieb.; Tanacetum angulatum Willd. B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] A. Akobirshoeva Pamir Botanical Garden, Khorogh, Tajikistan Mountain Societies Development Support Program, Khorogh, Khorogh, GBAO, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_11

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Achillea millefolium L.: Achillea alpicola (Rydb.) Rydb.; Achillea arenaria A. Heller; Achillea borealis subsp. arenicola (A. Heller) D.D. Keck; Achillea borealis subsp. californica (Pollard) D.D. Keck; Achillea californica Pollard; Achillea gigantea Pollard; Achillea lanulosa Nutt.; Achillea lanulosa subsp. alpicola (Rydb.) D.D. Keck; Achillea lanulosa var. alpicola Rydb.; Achillea laxiflora Pollard & Cockerell; Achillea megacephala Raup; Achillea millefolium subsp. borealis (Bong.) Breitung; Achillea millefolium subsp. occidentalis (DC.) Hyl.; Achillea millefolium var. alpicola (Rydb.) Garrett; Achillea millefolium var. arenicola (A. Heller) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. asplenifolia (Vent.) Farw.; Achillea millefolium var. borealis (Bong.) Farw.; Achillea millefolium var. californica (Pollard) Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. gigantea (Pollard) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper; Achillea millefolium var. litoralis Ehrend. ex Nobs.; Achillea millefolium var. maritima Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. megacephala B. Boivin; Achillea millefolium var. nigrescens E. Mey.; Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis DC.; Achillea millefolium var. pacifica (Rydb.) G.N. Jones; Achillea millefolium var. puberula (Rydb.) Nobs; Achillea nigrescens (E. Mey.) Rydb.; Achillea occidentalis (DC.) Raf. ex Rydb.; Achillea pecten-veneris Pollard; Achillea puberula Rydb.; Achillea rosea Desf.; Achillea subalpina Greene; Achillea sudetica Opitz; Chamaemelum millefoilum (L.) E.H.L. Krause. Achillea setacea Waldst. & Kit.: Achillea millefolium var. setacea (Waldst. & Kit.) W.D.J. Koch.

Local Names Achillea asiatica: Russian: Tыcячeлиcтник aзиaтcкий (Tysyachelistnik aziatskiy); Kyrgyz: Aзия кaз тaндaйы (Aziya kaz tandayy); English: Chinese yarrow, Mongolian yarrow (Sokolov 1993) Achillea filipendulina: Russian: Tыcячeлиcтник тaвoлгoлиcтный (Tysyachelistnik tavolgolistnyy); Uzbek: Dastarbosh; Kyrgyz: Taбылгы жaлбыpaктуу кaз тaндaй (Tabylgy zhalbyraktuu kaz tanday); Tajik: Buymodaron (Буймодарон), Hazorbarg (Ҳазорбарг); Pamiri: Zirdos (Зирдос), Zirdados (Зирдадос), Zirdathaws (Зирдасаӯс), Zirdadosk (Зирдадоск), Zardsarak (Зардсарак); English: Fern-leaf yarrow (Sokolov 1993)

A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] A. Kool The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected]

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Botany and Ecology Achillea asiatica: Perennial. Rhizome slender, creeping, branched; stems less numerous, less often solitary, grayish from long, fine, intertwined white hairs, (8) 25–50(90) cm high, erect or ascending from base, straight or flexuous, cylindrical, finely sulcate, simple or branched above, often with short leafy branches in axils of middle and upper cauline leaves. Leaves twice pinnately cut, oblong, less often oblong-linear, oblong or linear-lanceolate, green or grayish-green, more or less densely hairy, especially along narrow (0.5–0.75 mm wide); midrib with long, fine, white hairs, leaves of nonflowering branches long-petiolate, to 25 cm long and 0.5–1.5(5) cm wide; lower cauline leaves petiolate or subsessile, 7–20 cm long, 0.5–1.0(2.0–3.0) cm wide; middle and upper leaves sessile, 1–2 to 6(15) cm long and 0.4–1.2 cm wide; leaf segments numerous, approximate, usually 1.0–1.5 mm apart, less often to 3 mm; segments of middle cauline leaves 2–6(9) mm long and 2.5– 5.0 mm wide, usually slightly longer, semi amplexicaul (auricles), gradually reduced and more distant in leaves of nonflowering branches and lower part of lower cauline leaves; segments divided in 2–4 toothed lobes, teeth, or lobules 0.5–1.0(2.0) mm long, and 0.1–0.3 (0.5) mm wide, linear, lanceolate-linear, less often almost lanceolate, terminating in cartilaginous cusp. Capitula in lax, convex, usually unequal, compound corymbs. Receptacle convex to conical. Involucre poculiform, 3–4 mm long, 2.5–3 mm in diameter; involucral bracts pale, yellowish to pale green, ovate, outer involucral bracts oblong or lanceolate-oblong, with prominent midrib, weakly carinate, with brown, dark brown, less often pale brownish membranous border; bracts oblong-lanceolate, slightly shorter or almost as long as tubular florets, whitish, membranous, transparent along margin, sparsely hairy in upper part on outside. Ligules of outer florets pink, less often purple, very rarely white, 1.0–3.0(3.5) mm long, 1.5–2.5(3.0) mm wide, subelliptical or almost rotund, truncate at apex, somewhat distinctly obtusely 3-toothed. Achenes cuneately oblong, 2 mm long, apically truncate. Flowering July–August; fruiting August–September. Altai, Middle Asia, dry meadows, In flooded and dry bottom meadows, shrub thickets, forests, forest edges and glades, open mountain slopes, and less often in steppes, in old fields and pastures, by roadsides and in fields, rarely in crops, from forest to northern part of the steppe zone (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). Achillea filipendulina: Perennial. Rhizome woody; whole plant more or less densely pubescent from slightly appressed hairs; stems less numerous, less often solitary, (25)40–70(120) cm high, erect, ribbed-sulcate, straight or weakly flexuous, simple, less often sparingly branched, densely leafy, very rarely with short branches in axils of cauline leaves. Leaves pubescent, with frequent punctate-alveolate glandular hairs on both sides, wide, oblong-lanceolate, pinnately parted, with decurrent oblong lanceolate, or oblong, crenulate, and obtusely toothed large segments; midrib of leaves serrate-dentate; leaves on nonflowering branches long petiolate, up to 40 cm long; lower cauline leaves petiolate, middle 8–18 cm long, with (0.5)1.5– 2.0(3.0) cm-long middle segments, lower segments smaller, more remote; upper leaves sessile, smaller, uppermost about 1 cm long, filiform-linear, serrate-dentate or entire. Capitula with few or many flowers, in dense, large (to 10 cm in diameter),

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compound, convex, unequal corymbs. Receptacle convex to oblong-cylindrical. Involucre oblong-obconical, often with elongate base, or oblong cylindrical, 3–4 to 9–10 mm long and about 2 mm in diameter; involucral bracts deltoid-oblong, pubescent, pale; bracts oblong-lanceolate, much shorter than florets. All flowers tubular, or outer flowers short-ligulate, often irregular, with small (up to 1 mm long) three-lobed reniform rotund, bright yellow ligules. Achenes oblong, 1.5–1.75 mm long. Flowering June–July (September). Caucasus, Middle Asia, on gravel beds in river valleys, on stony, clayey, clayey-sandy soils along irrigation channels, springs and streams, as well as in old fields and open dry mountain slopes, in glades and along edges of mountain forests and shrub thickets. From foothill plains to upper part of the tree belts (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). The plant is common throughout Central Asia (including the Pamir-Alay and Tien-Shan), the Caucasus, and Iran (Abdusalyamova et al. 1988). Achillea filipendulina is found in mixed steppes, subalpine meadows and grasslands, submontane woodlands and on gravelly and rocky slopes at elevations ranging from 1000 to 3000 (-4000) m asl. In Tajikistan it occurs in Northern Tajikistan: on the slopes of the Mogoltau and Ura-tube mountains; Central Tajikistan: around Dushanbe, the Varzob basins, Luchov, the Tawildara and Obi Garm rivers, and the Gisar valley; Southern Tajikistan: the Vakhsh mountain range, Kulyab, Baljuwan; Eastern Tajikistan: the Rasht valley (Tajikabad), the Eastern Pamir around Murgab village, the Western Pamir around Khorog, and the Rushan mountain range (Abdusalyamova et al. 1988). Achillea millefolium: Perennial. Rhizome slender, creeping, branched; whole plant more or less covered with fine white hairs; stems few or solitary, usually weakly pubescent (finely floccose), (5)20–60(120) cm high, erect or ascending from base, erect, less often flexuous, simple or branched above, cylindrical, finely sulcate, with short leafy branches in axils of upper and middle cauline leaves. Leaves lanceolate, oblong-lanceolate, or almost linear, punctate-alveolate, twice or thrice pinnately cut, with numerous more or less remote segments (1.5–10 mm apart); lower cauline leaves and leaves of nonflowering branches 10–40 cm long, 0.8–5 cm wide, rachis 1–2 mm wide, leaves usually in upper part with solitary teeth between basal segments; lobes and teeth lanceolate, less often linear, 0.5–1.5 mm long, 0.3–0.4 (0.5) mm wide, terminating in short cartilagenous cusp. Capitula in numerous, unequal, compound corymbs, 2–15 cm in dia. Involucre oblong to almost ovoid, 3–4(6) mm long, (2)3–4(5) mm in dia; involucral bracts green, carinate, with prominent midrib, membranous along margin, often brownish; bracts ovate to oblong-elliptical, membranous, floccose above, with scattered hairs on dorsal surface. Ligules of outer florets white, pink, or red. (1)2–4 mm long, 1.5–3.0(4.5) mm wide, more or less rotund, 2–3-toothed at apex, limb a half as long as involucre; tubular florets up to 20, glandular-hairy on outside. Flowering July–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on dry forest edges, clearings, in open forests, on dry meadows, slopes, railroad embankments, along roads, on the outskirts of fields (Shishkin and Boborov 1961) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Achillea setacea: Perennial. Rhizome slender, creeping, branched; stems less numerous, less often solitary, grayish or grayish-green from fine, long, intertwined, white hairs, usually lanate-vilous below, (10)20–35(70) cm high, erect or ascending

Achillea asiatica Serg. . . . Fig. 1 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

from base, straight, sometimes weakly flexuous, simple or rarely weakly branched above, cylindrical, finely sulcate often with short leafy branches in axils of middle and upper cauline leaves. Leaves twice or thrice pinnately cut, linear-lanceolate, less often linear-oblong, grayish or grayish-green, less often gray, usually densely pubescent, especially in lower part of narrow (0.5–0.75 mm wide) midrib; leaves of nonflowering branches petiolate, 5–8 cm, less often to 35 cm long and 0.5–0.7 (1.6) cm wide; lower cauline leaves petiolate or subsessile, 6–10(15) cm long and 0.4–1.0 cm wide; middle and upper leaves sessile, 1.5–5.0(10.0) cm long, 0.2–0.8 (1.0–1.5) cm wide; leaf segments numerous, antrorse, usually approximate, often 1.0–1.5 mm apart, less often to 3 mm; segments of middle cauline leaves 2–4(9) mm long and 2–5 mm wide, usually longer at base of middle and upper leaves, semi amplexicaul (auricles), gradually reduced and remote in leaves of nonflowering branches and in lower part of lower cauline leaves; segments twice pinnately cut, each lobe with 2–5(7) lobules or teeth, 0.1–0.2 mm wide and 0.5–1(1.5) mm long, setose, linear, linear-lanceolate or less often lanceolate, terminating into more or less cartilaginous cusp. Capitula in dense, convex, compound, sometimes unequal corymbs, often subglobose in beginning of flowering. Receptacle convex to conical. Involucre oblong-cylindrical, less often oblong or ovoid-oblong, often weakly angular, 3–4(5) mm long and 1.5–2.5(3) mm in diameter; involucral bracts pale, greenish yellowish, more or less pubescent, weakly carinate, with prominent midrib; outermost involucral bracts deltoid or oblong-ovate, others oblong, with light brownish, less often brown or white, narrow, membranous border; bracts oblonglanceolate or lanceolate, shorter than tubular florets, whitish, membranous, transparent along margin, glabrous or with appressed white hairs in upper part on outside. Ligules of outer florets yellowish-white above, whitish below, 0.9–1.5 mm long, and 1–2 mm wide, subelliptical, less often almost rotund or elliptical, apically truncate and more or less distinctly obtusely-3-toothed. Achenes oblong-cuneate, about 2 mm long, truncate at apex. Flowering June–July (August); fruiting July–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in steppes, meadows, between bushes, on forest fringes, open glades, pastures, fallow lands, near roads, as weed in crops (Shishkin and Boborov 1961) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Achillea asiatica Serg. . . .

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Fig. 4 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (glucose, galactose, arabinose, inositol), organic acids (aconite, amber), essential oils (azulene, caryophyllene, eucalyptol, borneol, bornylacetate, pinene, limonene, a-thujone, terpineol, aljojoen, cadinene, camphene, camphor, copaene, cumIn aldehyde, cymol, eugenol, farnesene, furfural, gumulene,

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Fig. 6 Achillea ptarmicifolia (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Achillea latiloba (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

isoartemisiacetone, isobutyl acetate, limonene, menthol, myrcene, sabinene, a-terpinene, y-terpinene, terpinol-4, terpinolene), sesquiterpenoids (acetoxyartabsin, acetylbalkanolide, achillicine, achilline, austricine, balkhanide, dihydroacetoxytamatcine, hydroxyachilline, leucodine, millefine, millepholide), alkaloids (betaine, choline, trigonelline, achilleine), cyanogenic compounds, steroids (sitosterol, sitosterol acetate), phenolic compounds, tannins, phenolcarbonic acids (salicylic, coffee), coumarins, flavonoids (apigenine,

Achillea asiatica Serg. . . .

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Fig. 8 Achillea latiloba (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

luteoline, cosmosyne, luteoline, artemethine, kasticine, isoramnetine, vitexine, sertizine, orientine, quercetine, isovitoxine, apigenine, isoeryentin, vicenin), fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleicc), coumarins, terpenoids (azulene, geraniol, citral, menton, carvone, a-thuyone, achilline) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses Achillea millefolium is widely used as wound healing agent and included in a variety of official pharmacopoeiae. In the Altai, the leaves are chewed for toothache, and the plants are used as diuretic, antitumor, and wound-healing agent. In the Ural the decoction is used as hemostatic for internal bleeding and nosebleeds, as laxatives, for gastric problems, hemorrhoids, gastritis, stomach ulcers, kidney and urinary diseases, skin diseases, and burns. In Middle Asia, the leaves are used for rheumatism, bronchial asthma, heart disease, kidney disease, as diuretic, hemostatic and antipyretic as well as anthelmintic, for anemia, diarrhea, and amenorrhea. In the Northern Caucasus, an infusion and a decoction of the aerial parts and flowers of Achillea filipendulina are used as a treatment for diarrhea, dysentery, gastrointestinal diseases, gynecological diseases, and as an appetizer (Akobirshoeva 2006, 2009, 2012; Akobirshoeva and Kuznetsova 2013). To prepare an infusion, one teaspoon of the flowers or aerial parts is infused in 200 ml of boiled water for 15 min. For a decoction, two teaspoons of flowers or aerial parts are added to half a liter of water and boiled for 5 min. Sugar and honey are added to change the taste. To treat diarrhea and dysentery, half a glass of the infusion is taken before each meal for 7 days. A decoction of flowers is added to soups and taken in case of diarrhea or dysentery (Akobirshoeva and Dalmamatov 2015). A bath with a decoction is taken against gynecological diseases, such as colpitis, inflammation of the female genital organs, itching skin, or allergy in or around the vagina. To treat gynecological diseases (colpitis), it is used together with Capparis spinosa var. herbacea L. and Amaranthus retroflexus L. (Akobirshoeva and Dalmamatov 2015). It is also used to treat

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cardiovascular diseases (Dadoboeva 1967). A decoction of dried flowers is used as a children’s digestive aid, and also to treat stomach-ache and cough (Kurbanov 1992; Williams 2012). Achillea setacea is used for conjunctivitis and for diseases of the stomach. A leaf infusion is used in Middle Asia for diseases of the cardiovascular system, stomach problems, for hemorrhoids, amenorrhea, metrorrhagia, toothache, and as galaktogogue (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993). The plants are sold for medicinal purposes (Bussmann et al. 2017b).

Local Food Uses Achillea extracts are used to produce bitter liqueurs (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993). Achillea filipendulina: Boiled flowers are added to flour soup and are given to women after delivery (Akobirshoeva and Dalmamatov 2015).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for cattle, sheep, horses, and camels. Planted as ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993). Achillea filipendulina is widely used in pest management. For this purpose, 800 g of the aerial parts including the flowers is infused in 10 l of boiled water for 40 min. Before application, 40 g of soap is added to the infusion. The infusion is sprayed on vegetables and/or trees in the evening, before sunset. The aerial parts of the plant, including the flowers, are also put within the furrows of vegetables to deter pests (Isrorova 2018).

References Abdusalyamova LN, Djogoleva EP, Zapryagaeva VI, Karimov VV, Kinzkaeva GK, Kochkareva TF, Rasulova MR, Filatova NS, Chukavina AP, Sharipova BG, Yunusov SY. Flora of Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic, part IX. Leningrad: Nauka; 1988. p. 342–51. (in Russian). Akobirshoeva A. Family Asteraceae Dumort. And its importance in folk medicine of Rushan District. Proceedings of the I (IX) Conference of Young Botanists, Saint-Petersburg, May 21– 26; 2006. 231p. (in Russian). Akobirshoeva A. Biodiversity of medicinal plants of Rushan district and peculiarities of their use by natives. News of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan. Dep Biol Med Sci. 2009;4(169):58–64. (in Russian). Akobirshoeva A. Medicinal plants of Rushan district, GBAO, Tajikistan. St. Petersburg: LAP Academikerverlag GmbH & Co. KG; 2012. 105p. Akobirshoeva A, Dalmamatov S. Common medicinal plants and how to prepare them. In: Oudenhoven FV, Haider J, editors. With our own hands (a celebration of food and life in the Pamir mountains of Afghanistan and Tajikistan). Utrecht: LM Publishers; 2015. p. 357–60.

Achillea asiatica Serg. . . .

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Akobirshoeva A, Kuznetsova N. Ethnomedicine of Rushan district of Tajikistan (wild-growing herbs of Rushan district). J News Buryat Sci Centre Sib Dep Russ Acad Sci. 2013;1(13):218–27. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; XXVII, 2017, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Dadoboeva O. Medicinal plants of Northern Tajikistan. Dushanbe, Tajikistan, Khujand State University (summary of dissertation). 1967. (in Russian). Isrorova K. Aromatic plants (botany, biology, ecology, agricultural technology and pest management). Khorog: LOGOS Plus; 2018. p. 35. Kurbanov B. Medicinal plants. Dushanbe: Irfon Publications; 1992. p. 67. (in Russian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 26: Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961 (English 1995). 1072p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993, 352p. (in Russian). Williams K. Medicinal plants in Tajikistan: an alternative livelihood option. In: Proceedings of the X International People-Plant Symposium on Digging Deeper: Approaches to Research in Horticultural Therapy and Therapeutic Horticulture, Truro, NS, Canada. Acta Hortic. 2012;954:109–16.

Achnatherum splendens (Trin.) Nevski POACEAE Lujia You, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Achnatherum splendens (Trin.) Nevski: Lasiagrostis splendens (Trin.) Kunth; Stipa altaica Trin. ex Ledeb.; Stipa kokonorica K.S. Hao; Stipa schlagintweitii Mez; Stipa splendens Trin.

Local Names Chinese:

(Ji ji cao),

(Xi qi cao),

(Ji ji cao)

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Forming large, compact, tussock like tufts; culms 50–250 cm tall, numerous, erect, stout, smooth, with numerous remains of old leaf sheaths; leaves long, narrow, usually revolute, very rigid; ligule elongated, more or less pointed. Panicle L. You College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_12

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narrow, more or less contracted, 15–50 cm long, with subverticillate branches; spikelets 5–6 mm long, more or less purple -tinged, more rarely whitish (f. pallescens Roshev.). Glumes lance-elliptical, acute; the lower glume 5–6 mm long, the upper glume 1/4–1/5 shorter than the lower; lemma 5–6 mm long, densely pubescent all over the surface, with 2 teeth at the summit and an awn arising from between the teeth, and with a short callus at the base; awn twice as long as the lemma, straight or bent, very faintly twisted. Flowering in May–July. On steppes, often in sandy, stony, or saline soils; always associated with a high water table; rising in the mountains up to 3600 m. Ural, Siberia, Middle Asia (Rozhevits et al. 1934; Fig. 1).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Not eaten willingly by livestock but serves as fodder for cattle in winter and spring in pasture or in the form of hay cut in young state. However, in spite of its poor quality as fodder, it is of immense importance, as it does not suffer from drought and thus provides the sole feed in years unfavorable for other plants, while in winters with a high snow cover on pastures, it is one of the few plants which, owing to tall growth, are not damaged by the snow. It is also of outstanding economic importance for the inhabitants of dry steppes, as its stout, smooth, long culms are made into mattings, Fig. 1 Achnatherum splendens (Poaceae), Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

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floor-mats, fences, and walls for summer tents of nomads; it is also often used as fuel (Sokolov 1994). Achnatherum splendens can be used in papermaking (Du and Cao 2007; Zhang et al. 2006, 2017).

References Du JQ, Cao SH. Utilization and research status of Achnatherum splendens. Pratacul Anim Hus. 2007 1:1–2. Rozhevits RYu, Shishkin BK, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 2: Glumiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1973). 622 p, 50 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian). Zhang Y, Yao CL, Zhang HQ, Zhao X. Study on the pulping and papermaking properties of Achnatherma splendens. Hunan Paper Mill Phase. 2006 3:1. Zhang RH, Guo YZ, Da NT, Lu H, Wu CC, Wang JG, Zhao BY. Research progress on distribution, toxicity and control and utilization of natural grassland Achnatherum splendens. Chin J Grassl. 2017 3:1–4.

Aconitum leucostomum Vorosch. Aconitum soongaricum Stapf. Aconitum talassicum Popov Aconitum sp. RANUNCULACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Aconitum soongaricum Stapf.: Aconitum karakolicum Rapaics; Aconitum napellus subsp. soongaricum Regel.

Local Names Aconitum karakolicum: Russian: Aкoниткapaкoльcкий (Akonit karakol’skiy); Uzbek: Karakool parpisi; Kyrgyz: Иcыккoлуукopгoшуну (Isykkol uu korgoshchunu) (Fedorov 1984).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_13

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Aconitum soongaricum: Russian: Aкoнитджунгapcкий (Akonit dzhungarskiy) Uzbek: Zhoongar parpisi; Kyrgyz: Жунгap уукopгoшуну (Zhungar uu korgoshchunu) (Fedorov 1984). Aconitum talassicum: Russian: Aкoниттaлaccкий (Akonit talasskiy); Uzbek: Ok parpi; Kyrgyz: Taлac уукopгoшуну, Kapa бapпы (Talas uu korgoshchunu, Kara barpy) (Fedorov 1984)

Botany and Ecology Aconitum leucostomum: Perennial; rootstock a horizontal beaded chain of large conoid tubers 2–2.5 cm long, 0.7–1 cm thick; stem simple, erect, strong, glabrous (var. glabrum Steinb.) or sometimes very densely pubescent in upper part (var. pubescens Steinb.) to 70 cm high and to 6 mm thick in lower part; leaves in lower part of stem usually dying off before flowering, all except the uppermost leaves petiolate, the petioles of lower cauline leaves to 10 cm; leaf blade rounded-cordate, 5–9 cm long, 8–12 cm broad, dissected to base into 5 cuneate lobes, each divided into 2–3 broadly or narrowly lanceolate lobules with large teeth to 3 cm long and to 0.6 cm broad, the middle lobe ca. 1.5 cm broad in its undissected part; leaves rigid, quite glabrous on both surfaces, paler beneath; inflorescence a terminal raceme of large violet flowers, 3.5–4 cm long, 1.8 cm broad; pedicels terminally thickened, with 2 narrow-linear pubescent bracteoles; hood in fully developed flowers very distant from lateral tepals, arcuately curved, with a long beak, glabrous, or slightly pubescent, to 2 cm long, 1.5 cm broad at level of beak, to 0.9 cm high; lateral tepals rounded-ovate, sometimes slightly oblique, ca. 1.5 cm in diameter, slightly pubescent on both surfaces, ciliate-margined; lower unequal tepals to 1.5 cm long, 0.3–0.6 cm broad, also slightly pubescent on the outside, the largest with long hairs on the inside, the smallest glabrous; nectaries with a slightly curved claw, a large capitate spur, 2 mm long and as wide, and an inflated lamina to 3 mm broad with a smallish upcurved emarginate lip; stamens glabrous or with few hairs distally, broadened proximally; pistils 3, glabrous, frequently only one follicle developing. Flowering July-August. Altai, Middle Asia (Tien Shan), subalpine and forest meadows, fringes, bushes, banks of mountain rivers, in wet Larix and Larix-Betula forests, meadows, along the banks of rivers and streams, on open slopes: on forest clearings, in open coniferous forests, on the bottoms of ravines, in the lower-, middle- and upper mountain belts, sometimes in the foothills, 2100–2400 m (Komarov and Shishkin 1935). Aconitum soongaricum: Herbaceous perennial with tuber-like roots. Stems 70– 130 cm tall, simple or branched. Leaf blades circular-cordate in outline, 5–9 cm

Aconitum leucostomum Vorosch. . . .

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Fig. 1 Aconitum sp. (Ranunculaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

long, 8–12 cm wide, palmatisect with 5 segments divided to the base; segments pinnatifide with 2 or 3 linear lobes, lobes 3–5 mm wide. In florescence an apical raceme. Flowers irregular. Sepals 5, petaloid, violet; upper sepal hood-shaped, convex, with a long beak. Petals 2, each with a spur. Fruit a follicetum with 3 follicles. Seeds 4–5 mm. Flowering July-August. Altai, Middle Asia (Tien Shan), subalpine and forest meadows, fringes, bushes, banks of mountain rivers, in wet Larix and Larix-Betula forests, meadows, along the banks of rivers and streams, on open slopes: on forest clearings, in open coniferous forests, on the bottoms of ravines, in the lower-, middle-, and upper mountain belts, sometimes in the foothills, 2100–2400 m (Komarov and Shishkin 1935; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). Aconitum talassicum: Perennial; rootstock in the form of a chain of connate tubers, 10–20 mm across in broadest part, to 20 mm long; stem to 1.5 m, to 8 mm thick at base, rounded or slightly costate, erect, simple or slightly branched only at base of inflorescence, glabrous with some crisp hairs only in the inflorescence, uniformly leafy; all except the uppermost leaves with petioles 4–13 cm long, the leaf blade glabrous on both surfaces, pale green beneath, 7–11 cm long, 10– 16 cm broad, rounded-pentagonal in general outline, dissected almost to base into 3–5 cuneate segments, each segment divided into 2 or 3 lobes 1–6 cm long

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Fig. 2 Aconitum sp. (Ranunculaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

and 0.5–1 cm broad, with large acuminate teeth, the segments 2–3 cm broad in their undissected part; inflorescence a terminal, fairly dense raceme; flowers azure, to 3 cm long, 1.5 cm broad; peduncles and pedicels with a pubescence of small crisp hairs; hood usually removed from lateral tepals and recurved in fully developed flowers, 1.5–2 cm long, with an attenuate beak, to 1.7 cm broad at level of beak, 0.8–1.2 cm high, glabrous except for slight pubescence on the beak; lateral tepals orbicular, sometimes conspicuously oblique, 0.9–1.2 cm long, 1.5–2 cm broad, glabrous on the outside, with long sparse hairs on the inside, margin ciliate; lower tepals frequently varying greatly in width, the smallest 0.3–0.5 cm broad, 1.2–1.5 cm long, the largest 0.8–1.2 cm broad, 1.2– 1.3 cm long; all tepals glabrate on the inside, slightly pubescent on the outside; nectaries with a slightly curved claw, a hamately curved spur 1–2 mm long, and an inflated lamina 2.5–3 mm broad, terminating in a smallish upcurved bilobate

Aconitum leucostomum Vorosch. . . .

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Fig. 3 Aconitum sp. (Ranunculaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

lip; filaments broadened proximally, pilose distally, with or without teeth in middle part; pistils 3–4, glabrous or very slightly pubescent. Flowering JuneAugust. Middle Asia (Pamir, Tien Shan), on wet meadows, in valleys of rivers, on moraines, among Juniperus in the upper mountain belt (Komarov and Shishkin 1935; Figs. 7 and 8).

Phytochemistry Saponins, alkaloids (mezaconitine, axine, axinatine, lappaconitine, lappaconidine, excelzin, aconifine, zazgorin, acetylzoonhorine, phenyl-b-naphthylamine, neoline, norzongorine, acetylongoramine, zonagoramine, napelline, acetyllapelline, caracoline, neoline, delsosine, monticamine, songorine, napelline, acetylnapelline, isoboldine, karasamine and 1-benzoylkarasamin),

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Fig. 4 Aconitum sp. (Ranunculaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

coumarins, flavonoids, organic acids, carbohydrates, coumarins, vitamins (C), flavonoids (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia Aconitum extracts are used to treat tumors, rheumatism, and tuberculosis. In Kyrgyz medicine the infusion of the tubers in fermented horse milk or water is used tuberculosis, radiculitis, headaches, and cancer. An infusion of the roots of Aconitum talassicum is used to treat rheumatism and malaria (Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984). Aconitum spicatum is used in Nepal as antidote and analgesic (Kunwar et al. 2006, 2010). A decoction of Aconitum heterophyllum roots is used in Pakistan to cure diarrhea and to enhance memory (Sher et al. 2016). The dried roots are eaten

Aconitum leucostomum Vorosch. . . .

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Fig. 5 Aconitum sp. (Ranunculaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

by women during pregnancy to have a male child. In India the plant is used externally to treat wounds, cuts and boils, and headache and ingested to teat fevers, stomach aches and as anthelminthis (Singh et al. 2017). Aconotum balfourii roots are used to treat snakebites, boils, goits, scorpion stings, and insect bites (Singh et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine the species are used to treat wounds and ulcers. All species are highly toxic (Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984). In the Himalayas Aconitum is used to poison arrows.

56 Fig. 6 Aconitum sp. (Ranunculaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Aconitum nasutum (Ranunculaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

R. W. Bussmann et al.

Aconitum leucostomum Vorosch. . . .

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Fig. 8 Aconitum nasutum (Ranunculaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 3: Cyperaceae-Palmae Spathiflorae, Farinosae, Lilliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1964). 512 p, 30 b/w plates, 2 maps. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:27. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(49) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.

Agrimonia eupatoria subsp. asiatica (Juz.) Skalicky Agrimonia eupatoria L. Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Agrimonia eupatoria L.: Agrimonia asiatica Juz. Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb.: Agrimonia pilosa fo. davurica Nakai; Agrimonia pilosa fo. subglabra Nakai

Local Names Agrimonia eupatoria subsp. asiatica: Russian: Peпeйничeк aзиaтcкий (Repeynichek aziatskiy); Uzbek: Sariq choiy; Kyrgyz: Aзияуйгaкчacы (Aziya uygakchasy); English: Agrimony.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_14

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Botany and Ecology Agrimonia eupatoria subsp. asiatica: Perennial; rhizome generally robust; stems 30–140 cm high, firm, erect, usually branching above with elongate branches, very densely covered – like petioles – with long, coarse, spreading or slightly reclinate hairs, mixed with shorter and softer ones; leaves 6–30 cm long, 3.5–12 cm wide, sparsely or rather densely appressed-hairy above, green, densely and softly velutinous hairy beneath with a mixture of small yellow glands, grayish green; leaflets (large) 7–11, 2–8 cm long, 1.5–4 cm wide, elliptic or oblong-ovate, lateral leaflets sessile, the terminal petioluled, obtuse at base, strongly dentate nearly to base, with 6–10 teeth at each side, in lower leaves teeth obtuse, often rounded, in upper more acute; intercalary lobes small, with few teeth or subentire; stipules large, semi-cordate, strongly and acutely toothed. Inflorescence long, 9–25 cm long, up to 40 cm long in fruit, flowers (or fruits), few and remote in lower part, crowded above; bracts 3-partite, with acute lobes; flowers short-pediceled, 2–3(4) mm long, 10–12 mm in diameter; sepals ovate, acuminate; petals nearly two times longer than sepals, elliptic, dark yellow; hypanthium campanulate, with dense, ascending hairs almost as long as its breadth and rather deep furrows extending almost to two-thirds to three-fourths of its length; fruit drooping, 6–9 mm long and wide, upper part conspicuously convex, with prickles in few rows, the outer short, recurved, those following long, spreading or ascending, the innermost erect, ca. 4 mm long, longer than sepals. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on plains, mountain slopes, meadows, river banks, streams, on the fringes of deciduous Juglans forests, along roads and in garden. (Shishkin et al. 1941). Agrimonia eupatoria: Perennial. The rhizome more or less short, rather thick, simple or branching. The stems 30–100 cm high, generally solitary, erect, simple, or somewhat branching above, densely covered with long, coarse, spreading hairs and shorter and thinner, slightly crispy ones. All the leaves are cauline, the lower ones are scalelike, the middle adjacent as in a rosette, the upper abruptly diminishing remote, all leaves petioled and with rachises, covered like stem with two kinds of hairs, the lower and middle 9–30 cm long, twice as long as wide, with 5–9(13) larger leaflets and 6–10 smaller intercalary lobes. The leaflets are 2–6 cm long, 1–3 cm wide, sessile, elliptic, ovate or rhombic, strongly and acutely toothed, with 5–10 teeth at each side and as many simple lateral nerves, dark green above, sparingly appressed-hairy, whitish beneath with very dense silky-velvety pubescence, often mixed with very small subsessile glands, completely hidden by the simple hairs. The intercalary lobes are small, often 2–3 pairs in each gap between leaflets, entire or dentate. The stipules resembling intercalary lobes, obliquely ovate, acute, with few large teeth outside. The inflorescence is arranged in a spike formation, simple, very open and loose in lower part and more dense above, 10–30 cm long. The flowers in axils of small 3-part bracts, in fruit on very short recurved pedicles. The flower head is hairy, 2–3 mm long in flower, in fruit 4–5 mm long, longer than broad, deeply furrowed nearly to base. The sepals ca. 2 mm long, ovate-lanceolate, acute connivent postanthesis. The petals 4–6 mm long, 2–3 mm wide, ovate-lanceolate, yellow.

Agrimonia eupatoria subsp. asiatica (Juz.) Skalicky. . .

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The stamens 10–20, shorter than petals. The fruit drooping early, 5–8 mm long, 3–6.5 mm wide. The upper surface of fruit flat, with 4 rows of bristles, the outer ascending or sometimes spreading, the inner, longer, erect, 2–2.5 mm long. The flowering and fruiting time is June–August. Ural, Caucasus, in meadows, open forests, along the edges of roads, in abandoned fields (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Agrimonia pilosa: Perennial; rhizome horizontal, rather weak; stem 25–100 cm high, more or less delicate, not too densely covered with long spreading hairs unmixed with short ones; leaves remote (the lower withering at anthesis), 6–16 cm long, 5–9 cm wide, green on both sides, petioles and rachis pubescent like stem, darker above, glabrous or sparingly hairy, sparsely hairy beneath along nerves and with few or rarely rather many very small glands on the entire surface of leaves, often blood red in fall; leaflets 5–7(9), 2–6(7) cm long, 1–3 cm wide, rhombic or sometimes obovate, cuneately tapering at base, acuminate or sometimes obtuse at tip, large-toothed, with (3)4–5(7) large, acute or obtuse teeth and as many thin veins at each side; intercalary lobes few pairs, small, oblong-ovate, generally entire; stipules small, subentire, often semi-cordate. Inflorescence loose; flowers small, 6–8 mm in diameter; sepals ovate-lanceolate, mucronulate; petals oblong, two

Fig. 1 Agrimonia eupatoria (Rosaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

62 Fig. 2 Agrimonia eupatoria (Rosaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Agrimonia eupatoria (Rosaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Agrimonia eupatoria (Rosaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Agrimonia eupatoria subsp. asiatica (Juz.) Skalicky. . .

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times longer than sepals, pale yellow; hypanthia obconoid, deeply furrowerd nearly to base, slightly hairy, eglandulose or with solitary spreading glandular hairs; outer bristles obliquely curved above in fruit, the rest erect, partly connivent at tips; fruit small, 5  2.75 mm, erect for a long time, drooping only when fully ripe. Flowering June–July. In forests (broad-leaved and coniferous), groves, forest edges, shrubby formations, banks of rivers and lakes, meadows, ravines, clearings, burnt areas, roadsides. Ural, Siberia, Middle Asia, Mongolia (Shishkin et al. 1941).

Phytochemistry Agrimonia asiatica: Triterpenoids (ursolic acid), aromatic carboxylic (benzoic, gallic), tannins, catechins (catechins, epigallocatchine, gallocatechine, epicatechallallate, epigallocatechine, rallate), leucoanthocyanidins (leucodelphinidine), flavonoids (kappeprole, quercetine, luteoline, isoramnetine, rutine, hyperoside), steroids, triglycerides (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic acids) (Sokolov 1987). Agrimonia eupatoria: Tannins, catechins, carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, sucrose, polysaccharides, galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, xylose, ribose), organic acids (citric, malic, oxalic, tartaric), steroids, nitrogen-containing compounds (choline, nicotin acid), vitamins, phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, chlorine, ellagic), coumarins, tannins, catechins, flavonoids (quercetine, hyperoside, isokvetsitrine, astragaline, cyanidine, quercitine, rutine, luteoline, rlucoside, apigenine), aliphatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic alcohols, wax (palmitate and cetearyl alcohol stearate), fatty acids, triterpenoids, steroids, saponins, fatty acids (oily, linoleic, linolenic, palmitic) (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses Agrimonia asiatica: In Middle Asia, the species is used for diseases of the stomach, hemorrhoids, periodontal disease, rhinusitis, laryngitis, stomatitis, for skin diseases, and as diuretic (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Sokolov 1987). Agrimonia eupatoria: In Middle Asia, the species is used as astringent, tonic, diuretic, and also for malignant and benign tumors. In the Caucasus, the decoction is used for malaria, furunculosis, liver diseases, gallbladder, kidney problems, for stomatitis, gingivitis, and parodontosis. The leaf extract is employed in cases of internal bleeding, for ascites and helminthiases, bronchitis, and hemorrhoids. The flowers are used for hemorrhoids and skin lesions (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Sokolov 1987). Agrimonia pilosa is used in the Himalayas to treat diarrhea and snakebites (Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2010).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The green plant material is suitable for leather tanning and can be used as green and yellow dye for wool (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018; Sokolov 1987).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing; 2017. . XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants and quantitative ethnomedicine: a case study from Batadi and Darchula districts, far-west Nepal. J Nat Hist Mus. 2009;24(1):72–81. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Agrimonia eupatoria L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Shishkin BK Yuzepchuk SV, Fedorov AA. Flora of the USSR, vol. 10. Rosaceae-Rosoideae, Prunoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. 1941 (English 1971). 512 pages, 38 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Ajuga turkestanica Briq. Ajuga sp. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Ajuga turkestanica: Russian: Живучкa туpкecтaнcкaя turkestanskaya); Uzbek: Kapalak (Karalak) (Sokolov 1991).

(Zhivuchka

Botany and Ecology Subshrub with a robust root; stems 40–50 (60) cm long, stout, 3–5 mm in diameter, pale brown, sometimes reddish, rarely more or less whitish below, glabrous, grayish, in upper part finely and softly appressed-hairy like the leaves; leafless, woody and spinous branches usually absent; sterile shoots leafy above; leaves larger than in the preceding species, (30)45–60 mm long, (12)14–18 mm wide, oblong-elliptic or obovate, sometimes rhombic, only on short sterile branches occasionally oblonglanceolate, entire or rarely with 2–4 apical teeth, tapering at base; lower leaves shortpetioled, the upper sessile, amplexicaul; pubescence of leaves and other parts sparser than in the preceding species; flowers 25–40 mm long, purple; pedicels 3–4 mm long R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_15

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at flowering, later 6 mm; calyx campanulate or narrowly so, (8)10–12 mm long at flowering, 13–16 mm in fruit, covered all over with fine short appressed hairs, glaucous, the teeth narrowly lanceolate, nearly as long as calyx-tube, accrescent in fruit to nearly twice their length and becoming broadly lanceolate, foliaceous; corolla-tube long, broadly infundibular, finely appressed-hairy, 1–5 times as long as calyx; upper lip slightly developed, with 2 obtuse, hardly discernible lobes; lower lip very large, slightly glandular, the lateral lobes broadly lanceolate or ovate, diverging at an acute angle, deeply bipartite, 12–15 mm wide, the middle lobe long unguiculate, the lobules rounded, faintly undulate-dentate; filaments ribbonshaped in lower part, glabrous like the style; nutlets oblong-ovoid, 7–9 mm long, 3 mm wide, thinly longitudinally reticulate-rugose, with very large areola. Flowering April–July. Middle Asia, on clayey, stony, and gravelly slopes, rocks, scree, 2500 m above sea level (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1954) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Ajuga genevensis (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Ajuga genevensis (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Ajuga turkestanica Briq. . . .

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Fig. 3 Ajuga genevensis (Lamiaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Diterpenoids (ayugareptan, ayugareptanzone A/B), iridoids (aucubine, arpagide, ayugol, ayugoside, reptoside), steroids (osterol), oxysteroids (turkesterone, ecdysterone, cyasterone) (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses A leaf decoction is used as anti-inflammatory, for wounds, burns, tonsillitis, diseases of the stomach, and rheumatism (Sokolov 1991). The leaves of Ajuga brachystemon are used in India to treat fevers (Kumar et al. 2011), and Ajuga integrifolia leaves are masticated in Pakistan against throat ache and a decoction is given to women to ease labor (Sher et al. 2016). Ajuga remota is used in Kenya as antimalarial, anthelminthic, for colds and flu, and for stomach problems (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a, b).

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Local Food Uses The leaves are eaten in soups and as a salad (Sokolov 1991).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is used as fodder for cattle (Sokolov 1991). Ajuga remota is used in Kenya in veterinary medicine for cattle (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge and Bussmann 2006c).

References Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:8. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of Ear, Nose and Throat (ENT) diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:54. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya). J Ethnopharmacol. 2006c;108:332–9. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency (R.U.E.) in agro-ecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;7(2):71–87. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 20: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 389p, 28 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Allium giganteum Regel Allium karataviense Regel. Allium rosenbachianum Regel Allium stipitatum Regel Allium suworowii Regel Allium tenuissimum L. Allium trautvetteranum Regel AMARYLLIDACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Mario Boboev, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Anneleen Kool, Bo Liu, Liqing Zhao, and Zhijie Ma

Synonyms Allium giganteum Regel: Allium macleanii Baker; Allium procerum Trautv. ex Regel Allium karataviense Regel.: Allium cabulicum Baker, Allium singulifolium Rech.f., Allium karataviense var. granitovii Priszter, Allium karataviense subsp. henrikii Rukans Allium rosenbachianum Regel: Allium angustifolium Wendelbo Allium stipitatum Regel: Allium atropurpureum var. hirtulum Regel; Allium hirtifolium Boissier

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_16

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Allium tenuissimum L.: Allium pseudotenuissimum Skv.; Allium tenuissimum var. nalinicum Shan Chen

Local Names Allium giganteum: Tajik: модел (Model) Allium karataviense: Russian: Луккapaтaвcкий (Luk karatavskiy); Uzbek: Chuchka kuloq; Kyrgyz: Кapa Too пиязы (Kara Too piyazy); Tajik: моил (Moil), моилчармак (Moilcharmak) Allium rosenbachianum: Tajik: гуши бузак (Gushi buzak) Allium stipitatum: Tajik: Piyozi anzur (пиёзи анзур) Allium suvorovii: Russian: Лук Cувopoвa (Luk Suvorova); Uzbek: Yowoiy piyoz; Kyrgyz: Cувopoвпиязы (Suvorov piyazy) (Sokolov 1994) Allium tenuissimum: Mongolian: (Zama); Chinese: 细叶韭 (Xi ye jiu) Allium trautvetterianum: Tajik: бубанак (Bubanak)

Botany and Ecology Allium giganteum: Perennial; bulb ovoid, 4–6 cm thick; tunics rather numerous, grayish brown, splitting; scape robust, 80–150 cm long, rather inconspicuously nerved; leaves lorate, glaucous, 5–10 cm broad, smooth, one-third to one-half as long as the scape; spathe half as long as the umbel, short beaked; umbel spherical, M. Boboev Kulyab Botanical Garden, Kulyab, Tajikistan Dushanbe, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] H. de Boer · A. Kool The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] L. Zhao College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China Z. Ma College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected]

Allium giganteum Regel. . .

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densely many-flowered; pedicels subequal, 5 times the length of perianth, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth, light violet, obscurely nerved, 5 mm long, elliptic, obtuse, not changing after anthesis; filaments about half as long again as perianth segments, at base connate and adnate to perianth, subulate from triangular base, the base of inner filaments half as broad again; ovary sub-sessile, scabrous; capsule sub-globose, ca. 4 mm in diameter. Flowering April–May. Loose-textured slopes in the lower mountain zone in Middle Asia and Iran (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14). Allium karataviense: Perennial; bulb globose, 2–6 cm thick; tunics blackish or grayish, papery; scape stumpy, 10–25 cm long, sometimes buried in the soil up to the middle, shorter than the leaves; leaves commonly 2, rarely 1 or 3, lanceolate or often oblong or subelliptic, 3–15 cm broad, smooth-margined; spathe two-thirds as long to slightly shorter than the umbel, short acuminate; umbel spherical, densely many-flowered; pedicels equal, 3–4 times the length of perianth, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth light rosy-violet, with a darker nerve, 5–7 mm long, linear, obtuse, at length recurved and twisted; filaments slightly exceeding the perianth segments; at base connate and adnate to perianth, united higher up, subulate from triangular base, the base of inner filaments half as broad again; ovary stipitate, scabrous; capsule obcordiform, ca. 8 mm in diameter. Flowering April–May. Middle Asia, on limestone, on screes up to the mid-mountain belt (Komarov 1935). Allium rosenbachianum: Perennial; bulb globose, 1.5–2.5 cm thick; tunics blackish, papery; scape 50–70 cm long, ribbed by prominent nerves; leaves 2 or 3, linearlanceolate to broadly linear, 0.5–1.5 cm broad, nearly smooth-margined, much shorter than the scape; spathe short acuminate, one-half to two-thirds as long as the umbel; umbel spherical, loosely many-flowered; pedicels unequal, the central to half as long again, 3–9 times the length of perianth, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth dark violet, with a darker nerve, narrowly linear, gradually attenuate from base, acute, 7–10 mm long, at length recurved and twisted; filaments as long as perianth segments, adnate at base to perianth, united above into a ring, subulate from triangular base, the inner half as broad again; anthers violet; ovary short-stipitate, scabrous; capsule applanate-globose, 5 mm in diameter. Flowering in May. Loosetextured terraces in the middle mountain zone, in the shade of rocks and trees. Endemic to Middle Asia (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 15, 16, 17, and 18). Allium stipitatum: Perennial; bulb applanate-globose, 3–6 cm thick; tunics blackish, almost papery, enclosing a solitary large smooth bulblet; scape 60–150 cm long smooth; leaves 4–6, 2–4 cm broad, smooth-margined, hairy beneath, rarely glabrate; pedicels subequal, 3–6 times the length of perianth, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth lilac, distinctly nerved, 9 mm long, gradually attenuate from base, acute, at length recurved and twisted; filaments as long as perianth segments, adnate at base to perianth, united above into a ring, rather gradually subulate from triangular base, the base of inner filaments twice as broad; ovary short stipitate, scabrous; capsule applanate-globose, ca. 5 mm in diameter. Flowering May–June. Loosely textured slopes in the middle mountain zone. Endemic to Middle Asia (Komarov 1935). Iran, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Pakistan: submontane to montane loamy to rocky steppe slopes, among

72 Fig. 1 Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Allium giganteum Regel. . . Fig. 3 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), Pankisi Gorge, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Allium fistulosum (Amaryllidaceae), Pankisi Gorge, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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74 Fig. 6 Allium victoriale (Amaryllidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Allium victoriale (Amaryllidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Allium giganteum Regel. . . Fig. 8 Allium victoriale (Amaryllidaceae), pickled, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Allium schoenoprasum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Allium schoenoprasum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Allium giganteum Regel. . .

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Fig. 12 Allium karataviense (Amaryllidaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo: M. Boboev)

Fig. 13 Allium karataviense (Amaryllidaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo: M. Boboev)

trees and shrubs, in the shadow of large trees, on well-manured ruderal places (Fritsch 2016) (Figs. 19, 20, and 21). Allium suworowii: Herbaceous perennial plant to 1 m tall, with a spherical bulb. Bulb 2–3 cm in diameter, covered with grayish, cracked, almost coriaceous coat that sheathes the base of the stem. Stem 30–100 cm tall. Leaves 2–6, belt-like, much shorter than stem, 5–20 mm wide, margins rough. Inflorescence a dense, many flowered, semispherical or spherical umbel. Pedicels equal in length, 2–5 times longer than perianths, lacking bracts. Flowers with 6 tepals. Tepals 6, 4 mm long, linear, apex rounded, pink-violet with a darker vein. Stamens 6. Fruit a capsule, broadly ovate, 5 mm wide. Smooth ovary. Flowering May, fruiting June. Middle Asia, on silicate soil and gravel, also as weed 900–2300 m (Komarov 1935).

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Fig. 14 Allium sp. (Amaryllidaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Allium rosenbachianum (Amaryllidaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo: M. Boboev)

Allium tenuissimum: A perennial herb, aromatic, up to 30 cm tall. Bulbs clustered, subcylindric; tunic grayish violet or grayish brown to blackish brown, membranous, apex splitting; inner layers usually pinkish lilac. Leaves shorter than scape, 0.5–1(–2) mm wide, semiterete to subterete, smooth, rarely scabrous along ribs and at margin.

Allium giganteum Regel. . .

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Fig. 16 Allium rosenbachianum (Amaryllidaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo: M. Boboev)

Fig. 17 Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Scape 10–35(–50) cm, terete, finely angled, smooth, covered with leaf sheaths for ca. 1/4 its length. Umbel hemispheric to fascicled, laxly flowered. Pedicels subequal, 1.5–3 as long as perianth, smooth, rarely scabrous along angles, ebracteolate.

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Fig. 18 Allium rosenbachianum (Amaryllidaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo: M. Boboev)

Fig. 19 Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo: M. Boboev)

Perianth white or pinkish white, rarely purple-red; segments with dark purple, fine midvein; outer ones ovate-oblong to broadly so, 2.8–4  1.5–2 mm, apex obtuse; inner ones obovate-oblong, 3–4.2  1.8–2.7 mm, apex truncate to truncate-obtuse. Filaments ca. 2/3 as long as perianth segments, connate at base and adnate to perianth segments; outer ones  subulate; inner ones with basal ca. 2/3 broadened, ovateorbicular, entire. Ovary subglobose, without concave nectaries at base. Style not exerted. This species usually grows on slopes, pastures, sandy places at the elevation

Allium giganteum Regel. . . Fig. 20 Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo: M. Boboev)

Fig. 21 Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo: M. Boboev)

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near sea level to 2000 m. Widely distributed in Gansu, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Northern and Southern Jiangsu, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Northern Xinjiang (Altay Shan), and Zhejiang. Also occurs in Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and Russia. The species is most traditionally used in Central Inner Mongolia area. The dominant populations of Zama were formed in the extreme water shortage areas along the cliff edges in the Central and Western Inner Mongolia, Northern Shanxi, and Northern Shaanxi (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 22 and 23). Allium trautvetterianum: Perennial; bulb ovoid-globose, 2–3 cm thick; tunics grayish, almost papery; scape 50–60 cm long, ribbed by prominent nerves; leaves 2, lanceolate, 2–3 cm broad, smooth-margined, much shorter than the scape; spathe one-half to two-thirds as long as the umbel; umbel spherical, densely manyflowered; pedicels equal, 3–5 times the length of perianth, immersed at base in the thickened spongy top of the scape, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth light violet, obscurely nerved, 7–10 mm long, elliptic, obtuse, sub-coriaceous after anthesis; filaments slightly shorter than perianth segments, at base connate and adnate to perianth, subulate from triangular base, the base of inner filaments half as broad again; ovary short-stipitate, scabrous. Flowering in May. Rocky outcrops. Endemic to Middle Asia (Komarov 1935).

Fig. 22 Allium tenuissimum (Amaryllidaceae), local Mongolians grow Zama Allium tenuissimum on their roof, where no fierce competition with other species. (Photo: Runkuan Liu & Shuanlian Pu)

Allium giganteum Regel. . .

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Fig. 23 Wild semiarid habitat of Allium tenuissimum accompanied by Fabaceae sp. (Photo: Runkuan Liu & Shuanlian Pu)

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose, rhamnose, xylose, arabinose, oligosaccharides, cholesterol), steroids (atavirenine, alliorenine, diosrenine, caratavirenine, yukkarenine), fatty acids (linolenic, oleic, palmitic), aliphatic aldehydes, sulfurcontaining compounds, saponins, flavonol glycosides, vitamins, steroidal saponins, sapogenins (Sokolov 1994).

Local Medicinal Uses Allium giganteum: During the spring people use its fresh leaves in traditional foods such as ugro, oshi burida, otala, hirik, oshi tupa, and mastoba (Saidov 2001; Boboev et al. 2012, 2013, 2015). It provides a unique taste, and people believe it has health benefits (nutraceutical). Local people also dry its leaves and use it in different traditional foods as a spice during winter season. The bulbs are collected and pickled (Boboev et al. 2012, 2013, 2015). Onion pickles are very popular in Tajikistan (Saidov 2001).

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Allium karataviense: In Middle Asia, it is used for lung problems (Sokolov 1994). The decoction of bulbs is used in traditional medicine for pulmonary diseases and strong shortness in breath (Sakhobddinov 1948). Allium stipitatum: Used in traditional medicine, (Inamov 1971; Kochkareva and Chukavina 1985; Boboev et al. 2012, 2013, 2015). The plants are applied in folk medicine against skin diseases (Sokolov 1994). Plants are baked or cooked in honey and used against several diseases (Yur’eva and Kokoreva 1992). The bulbs have disinfectant properties and are used to treat rheumatism and high blood pressure and used as digestive tract booster (Ebrahimi et al. 2014). Allium sativum is used in Pakistan to treat blood pressure and menopausal problems and as aphrodisiac (Sher et al. 2016), for indigestion and goiter (Reang et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses Allium karataviense: In Tajikistan the whole plant is eaten (Sokolov 1994). Leaves and bulbs are widely used in traditional foods such as oshi burida, oshi tuppa, and alafjush (Boboev et al. 2013; Boboev et al. 2015). Allium rosenbachianum: Local people use fresh leaves as well as dried leaves depending on the season in Tajik national dishes such as oshi burida, ugro, umoch, otalla, birinjoba, and hirik (Saidov 2001; Boboev et al. 2015). Allium stipitatum: Young and undeveloped bulbs are pickled in aromatic vinegar (Tajik ‘pijozi anzur,” Uzbek “anzur pijoz,” Persian “mu-sir,” Dari “toshi”) and used as appetizer and with meals (Kochkareva and Chukavina 1985; Khassanov and Umarov 1989; Saidov 2001; Keusgen et al. 2006; Boboev et al. 2012, 2013, 2015). A variety of Allium species is widely used as food (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). Allium tenuissimum: A very widely used species: The inflorescence and seeds can be used as condiments. All kinds of livestock like to eat; it is an excellent forage plant. Zama is widely distributed, but most popular in Central Inner Mongolia, the Loess Plateau area. It comes from Mongolian phonetic translation, but after the spread of the Han people, it has become Zemeng, Zameng, and other similar names. This species has very fine and narrow leaves and is extremely drought-tolerant. Allium trautvetterianum: People use the leaves of this onion species fresh as well as dried depending the season. It is important in Tajik national foods, such as modeloba, oshi burida, oshi tupa, umoch, ugro, and mastoba (Saidov 2001; Boboev et al. 2015).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Allium giganteum: The plant produces a big umbel of flowers and is used in horticulture as an ornamental plant (Boboev et al. 2012, 2013).

Allium giganteum Regel. . .

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Allium karataviense: It is a highly appreciated ornamental plant for its beautiful inflorescence (Boboev et al. 2013, 2015). Allium stipitatum: Piyozi anzur is used as ornamental plant because of its flower umbels. However, overharvesting of bulbs from natural populations for different uses has resulted in inclusion of this species in the Red Book of Tajikistan (Boboev et al. 2012, 2013, 2015; Red Book Tajikistan 2017). Allium rosenbachianum: The plant is used as an ornamental (Boboev et al. 2015). Allium trautvetterianum: Very rarely offered as ornamental (Fritsch 2016). Since 2001 the plant is grown in the Kulob Botanic Garden.

References Boboev T, Boboev МТ, Qullaev S. Piyozi anzur. Kulob; 2012. 48 p. [In Tajik] Boboev T, Boboev МТ, Saidov K. Rastanihoi gizoi va davoii Tojikistoni Janubi va rohhoi parvarishu muhofizati onho. Kulob; 2013. 48 p. [In Tajik] Boboev T, Boboev МТ, Qullaev S, Yoqubov S. Rastanihoi gizoi va rohhoi parvarishi onho. Kulob; 2015. 27 p. [In Tajik] Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Ebrahimi R, Hassandokht M, Zamani Z, Kashi A, Roldan-Ruiz I, Van Bockstaele E. Seed morphogenesis and effect of pretreatments on seed germination of Persian shallot (Allium hirtifolium Boiss.), an endangered medicinal plant. Hortic Environ Biotechnol. 2014;55:19– 26. Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Allium paradoxum (M. Bieb.) G. Don; Allium ursinum L.; Allium victorialis L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Fritsch RM. A preliminary review of Allium subg. Melanocrommyum in Central Asia. 2016. Inamov AI. Luk stebel’chatyj – Allium stipitatum Rgl. i luk zarafshanskij – Allium saravscha-nicum Rgl. ikh biologija i vozmozhnost vvedenija v kul’turu v Samarkandskoj oblasti UzSSR. Samarkand: Avtoreferat dissertatsii; 1971. 24 pp. (in Russian).

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Keusgen M, Fritsch RM, Hisoriev H, Kurbonova PA, Khassanov FO. Wild Allium species (Alliaceae) used in folk medicine of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:18. Khassanov FO, Umarov TA. Dikorastushchie pishchevye vidy roda Allium L. Zapad-nogo TyanShanya. Uzb Biol Zhurnal. 1989;(6):24–25. [In Russian]. Kochkareva TF, Chukavina AP. Wildgrowing foodstaff plants of Khovalingsky region (Central Tadjikistan). Rastitel’nye Resursy. 1985;21(2):140–9. [In Russian] Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, vol 4. Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586 pp, 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Reang I, Goswami S, Pala NA, Kumar K, Bussmann RW. Ethnoveterinary applications of medicinal plants by traditional herbal healers in Reang tribe of south district Tripura, India. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 5-2; 2016. Red Book Tajikistan. Plantae. Dushanbe: Donoish; 2017. [Tajik, Russian & English). Saidov MK. Izuchenie, ispol’zovanie i okhrana pishevykh rastenij s epokhi Samanidov do nashego vremeni. [Study, utilization and protection of food plant from Samanid’s epoch till now]. Trudy Instituta Botaniki Akad; (2001). Nauk Respubliki Tadzhikistan, 59–63 [In Sakhobiddinov, S. S. (1948). Dikorastushchie lekarstvennye rasteniya SredneyAzii. Tashkent]. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian) Yur’eva NA, Kokoreva VA. Mnogoobrazie lukov i ikh ispol’zovanie. Moskva: MSKhA; 1992. 159 pp

Althaea nudiflora Lindl. Althaea officinalis L. MALVACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Althaea nudiflora Lindl.: Alcea nudiflora (Lindl.) Boiss. Althaea officinalis L.: Althaea kragujevacensis Pančic ex Diklic & Stevan.; Althaea micrantha Wiesb. ex Borbás; Althaea sublobata Stokes; Althaea taurinensis DC.; Althaea vulgaris Bubani; Malva althaea E.H.L. Krause; Malva maritima Salisb.; Malva officinalis (L.) Schimp. & Spenn. ex Schimp. & Spenn.

Local Names Althaea nudiflora: Russian: Aлтeйгoлoцвeтный (Altey golotsvetnyy); Uzbek: Oq gulhairy; Kyrgyz: Tукcузгулдуугулкaйыp (Tuksuz gulduu gulkayyr); English: Naked flowered hollyhock

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_17

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Althaea officinalis: Russian: Aлтeйлeкapcтвeнный (Altey lekarstvennyy); Uzbek: Dorivor gulhairi; Kyrgyz: Дapыгулкaн (Dary gulkan); English: Common marshmallow (Sokolov 1985)

Botany and Ecology Althea nudiflora: Perennial, 75–200 cm high; stems simple, mostly several, erect or rarely angularly curved at base, terete or slightly angled, unbranched, sometimes dingy-purple at base, rarely almost glabrous (f. subgiabra Iljin), commonly with scattered long-rayed stellate hairs, these interspersed in upper part of stem with more numerous small stellate hairs (f. pilosa Iljin); more rarely whole plant rather densely hairy, in lower part with dense coat of long-rayed stellate recurved hairs (f. hirsutissima Iljin); leaves long-petioled; petioles hairy, lower 14–28 cm long, greatly exceeding blade, middle slightly longer than to equal to blade, upper shorter than blade; leaf -blade large, round in outline, cordate at base, rather shallowly 7-lobed (upper 5-lobed, uppermost 3-lobed); lobes semiorbicular to suboblong, outer ones in lower leaves sometimes overlapping, obtuse, and crenate-dentate (f. obtusiloba Iljin), more rarely acute and sharply dentate (f. acutiloba Iljin); uppermost leaves much reduced in size, very shallowly cordate to subtruncate at base, with somewhat elongated central lobe; lower surface prominently netted-veined, stellate-pubescent, upper with more scattered stellate hairs or subglabrous; stipules 3- or 4-parted, pubescent, caducous; flowers in elongated raceme, about equal to subtending leaves; pedicels 0.5–3 cm long; epicalyx 10–15 cm long, parted to 6 or 7(5) oblong to oblong-ovate subacute segments; calyx 16–22 mm long, from less than 1/2–2 times length of epicalyx, divided to oblong subacute lobes; both epicalyx and calyx copiously stellate-hairy; corolla white, at base yellowish, when dry somewhat rosy-tinged with greenish base, 2/2.5 times length of calyx; petals broadly obovate or oblong-obovate, 3.5–6.5 cm long and 3–6 cm broad, distinctly notched at apex, attenuate claw densely woolly at base; fruit 16–22 mm in diameter, with conic or flattened hairy carpophore; carpels 28–34, strongly compressed, mostly ovate or almost round, 3.5–6 mm long and 5–6.5 mm across, back 1.5–2 mm broad, wings thin, radially wrinkled, glabrous, entire (angular at outlets of veins), 0.75–1.5 mm broad, extending throughout carpel except hairy beak; narrow dorsal channel stellate-hairy at bottom; sides around notch somewhat convex, glabrous, part between this raised section and glabrous wings densely covered with antrorse hairs, or very rarely hairs scarcely developed (f. leiocarpa Iljin); seed lunate, slightly elongate and often slightly hairy at upper end, rounded at lower end, scarcely channeled on back, 3–3.5 mm long and 2–3 mm broad, reddish-brown or almost gray, glabrous or densely pustulose, dull. Flowering end of May–September; fruiting July– September. Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, mountain steppes; steppe-like and exposed plant habitats; stony steppe slopes, dry meadows, rocks, screes, fallows, and fields of the mountain zone (Shishkin 1949) (Figs. 1 and 2). Althea officinalis: Perennial, 60–150 cm high, covered with many-pronged or substellate hairs, in upper part often velutinous-sericeous; rhizome branched, with rather fleshy thickish roots; stem erect, simple, or slightly branched, one to several,

Althaea nudiflora Lindl. . . . Fig. 1 Alcea rosea (Malvaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Alcea rosea (Malvaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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terete, lower part glabrous at flowering, sometimes dingy-purple, in thicker stems with interrupted longitudinal furrows passing at base into almost reticulate pattern with elongated loops; petioles usually much shorter than blade, 2–6.25 cm long; lower leaves broad-ovate to almost round or reniform, with cordate, rounded, or truncate base, mostly obtuse, often with one or two weak lobes on each side, wilting at flowering and fruiting; middle leaves similar, mostly rounded or truncate at base, more entire, 5–15 cm long and 3–12.5 cm broad; upper leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, acute, rounded, or broadly cuneate at base; all leaves irregularly crenate-dentate, usually more densely hairy beneath; stipules narrowly lanceolate or linear, caducous; flowers on pedicels 2–10 mm long, borne on many-flowered, rarely 2- or 3-flowered peduncle in axils of upper and middle leaves, peduncle (with flowers) equaling or slightly exceeding petiole, rarely to 12 cm long; solitary flowers on pedicels 2–4 cm long occasionally arise from axils in addition to peduncles; epicalyx of 8–12 linear segments connate only at base, 3–6 mm long, about half calyx length; calyx 6–12 mm long, divided to two-thirds into triangular-ovate acuminate lobes, half-length of corolla, enclosing fruit; corolla pale rose or almost white, rarely reddish-rose; petals 10(8)–20(21) mm long and 6–17 mm broad, broadly obovate to oblong obovate, shallowly notched at apex, sides of claw hairy-ciliate; staminal column and filaments sparsely scaberulous-papillose; fruit 7–8(10)mm across, of 15–25 carpels; carpels 3– 3.5 mm long, 2.5–3 mm across (view from the side), back 1–1.5 mm broad, with rather faint dorsal nerve and slight transverse wrinkles, with obtuse slightly rounded margins, densely covered throughout with stellate hairs; sides thin, glabrous and smooth, slightly wrinkled radially and hairy only in narrow marginal strip; seed dark brown, glabrous and smooth, reniform, 2.5 mm long and 1.75 mm broad. Flowering and fruiting July–August (September). Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on meadows, especially on salIn soils, in coastal thickets, on boggy areas, on banks of irrigation ditches and rivers, on solonchaks. (Shishkin 1949) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Alcea rosea (Malvaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Althaea nudiflora Lindl. . . .

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Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (glucose, sucrose, starch, pectIn pentoses, methylpentosans, uronic cids, pentosans, D-galacturonic acid, L-arabinose L-rhamnose, D-glucose, D-galactose, ralacturonic acid, xylose, rhamnose, galactose, arabinan, and galactan), organic acids (malic acid), essential oils, latex-like substances, steroids (phytosterol), nitrogen-containing compounds (betaine), vitamins (C, carotene), tannins (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses In traditional medicine as infusion used for tuberculosis, cough, bronchitis, as eye-wash in case of blepharitis, for the treatment of gastritis, enterocolitis, cystitis, and diarrhea. Also used to eliminate irritation during inflammatory and ulcerative processes of the mucous membranes, for skin tumors and furunculosis. In Azerbaijan, the plants are used for the treatment of scabies and allergic dermatoses, and as tea for colds and cough. In Tajikistan against vomiting (Sokolov 1985).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine used to treat inflammations of the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, and as anti-inflammatory. The stems yield coarse fibers. The leaves are used to dye wool red, bluish-black, gray, and dark purple. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1985).

References Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 15: Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. 1949 (English 1974). 565p, 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336p. (in Russian).

Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthus retroflexus L. AMARANTHACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Amaranthus hybridus L.: Amaranthus caudatus L.; Amaranthus chlorostachys var. hybridus S. Watson; Amaranthus chlorostachys Willd.; Amaranthus cruentus L.; Amaranthus edulis Speg.; Amaranthus leucocarpus S. Watson; Amaranthus leucospermus S. Watson; Amaranthus mantegazzianus Pass.; Amaranthus hecticus Willd.; Amaranthus hybridus var. chlorostachys Beck; Amaranthus hybridus var. quitensis (Kunth) Covas; Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.; Amaranthus laetus Willd.; Amaranthus paniculatus L.; Amaranthus quitensis Kunth; Amaranthus retroflexus subsp. quitensis (Kunth) Bolós & Vigo; Amaranthus retroflexus var. chlorostachys A. Gray; Amaranthus sanguineus L.; Amaranthus speciosus L.; Amaranthus strictus Willd.; Galliaria hybrida (L.) Nieuwl. Amaranthus spinosus L.: Amaranthus caracasanus Kunth, Amaranthus diacanthus Raf., Galliaria spinosa (L.) Nieuwl.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_18

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Local Names Russian: Щиpицa зaпpoкинутaя (Shchiritsa zaprokinutaya); Uzbek: Gultojihuroz, Eshakshura; Kyrgyz: Кaйpылгaн aмapaнт (Kayrylgan amarant); English: Redroot amaranth (Fedorov 1984).

Botany and Ecology Amaranthus cruentus / Amaranthus hybridus/Amaranthus palmeri: Annual, mostly pale green, sometimes reddish-tinged, 20–80 cm high; stem erect, simple or branched, grayish by dense short hairs, slightly angled; leaves rather large, ovaterhombic, obtuse or slightly notched at apex, smooth above, shortly hairy beneath, on the margin, and on the petiole, this is as long as or somewhat longer than the blade; flowers in glomerules crowded in a green dense and very compact paniculate inflorescence, disposed mainly at the summit of the stem, branched in lower part, oblong-cylindric or ovoid-pyramidal; bracts lanceolate, slenderly long-pointed, nearly twice as long as the perianth; tepals 5, surpassing the fruit, in staminate flowers lanceolate, in pistillate oblong-linear, spatulately enlarged toward apex, obtuse or retuse, mucronulate, whitish-membranous, the slender pale gray midrib mostly failing to reach the apex; stamens 5; capsule 1-seeded, circumscissile, shorter than perianth; seed 1-mm long, black or blackish-brown, very shining, sharpmargined. Flowering June–August. Ural, Caucasus: Altai, in kitchen gardens, fallow areas, along roads and rivers, often in settlements in irrigated fields, from the lowland to the mid-mountain belt, up to 2200 m (Komarov and Shishkin 1936; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Amaranthus spinosus: Stipules turned into sharp spines (Figs. 7, 8, and 9).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids, betacyanins (amaranthantine, isoamaratine, betanin, isobethane), and fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, stearin, linolenic) (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses Amaranthus cruentuus / Amaranthus hybridus/Amaranthus palmeri: The leaves are used in the Ural as diuretic and for dysentery. An infusion is used to treat colitis, intestinal colic, and as a laxative for constipation, as hemostatic to treat hemoptysis, and menstrual and hemorrhoid hemorrhages, as anti-protist and anti-bacterial, to treat guinea worm and jaundice, and to treat headaches (Fedorov 1984). Amaranthus viridis is used as astringent and emollient in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), as well as for urinary problems, eye pain, constipation, piles, snakebites,

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Fig. 1 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

cough, asthma (Umair et al. 2019), and for diarrhea (Kunwar et al. 2012). Amaranthus spinosus serves as vermifuge and diuretic, as well as used for dyspepsia, cataracts, and constipation (Umair et al. 2019).

Amaranthus hybridus L. . . . Fig. 5 Amaranthus sp. (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Kartli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Amaranthus hybridus var. paniculatus (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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98 Fig. 7 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Amaranthus hybridus L. . . . Fig. 9 Atriplex hortensis (Amaranthaceae) in a garden in Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Amaranthus hybridus (Amaranthaceae) broom in Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Food Uses Amaranthus cruentus / Amaranthus hybridus/Amaranthus palmeri: The young leaves are cooked as herb pie. Young stems are used as a source of vitamins. The seeds are eaten and contain fat 8.9%, protein 19%, and starch 41%. The leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984; Kunwar et al. 2012).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses As fodder for pigs (Fedorov 1984). The leaves are boiled with salt in Ethiopia to fatten livestock (Luizza et al. 2013). Used to make brooms (Fig. 10).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016a;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016b;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 6: Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 731 p, 55 b/w plates, 2 maps. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600.

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Ammopiptanthus mongolicus (Maxim. ex Kom.) S. H. Cheng FABACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Ammopiptanthus mongolicus (Maxim. ex Kom.) S. H. Cheng.: Ammopiptanthus nanus (Popov) S.H. Cheng; Pipanthus chinensis Przew.; Pipanthus mongolicus Maxim. ex Kom.; Pipanthus nanus Popov.

Local Names Chinese: 沙冬青 (Sha dong qing)

Botany and Ecology Evergreen shrubs, 1.5–2 m tall; bark yellowish brown. Stems terete, weakly ridged, gray puberulent at first, glabrescent. Leaves 1- or 3-foliolate; stipules small, triangular, adnate to petiole, silvery tomentose; petiole 4–15 mm; leaflets rhombic-elliptic or broadly elliptic to broadly ovate, 1.5–4  0.6–2.4 cm, densely silvery tomentose B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_19

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on both surfaces, lateral veins in conspicuous, base broadly cuneate to rounded, apex obtuse, often mucronate. Flowers 4–15, in short dense terminal racemes; bracts ovate, 5–6 mm, deciduous; pedicels ca. 1 cm, subglabrous, with 2 bracteoles at midpoint. Calyx 5–7 mm. Corolla yellow, ca. 2 cm, petals long clawed. Ovary stipitate, glabrous. Legume linear-oblong, 3–8  1–2 cm, flat, apex acute to obtuse; stipe 8–10 mm. Seeds 2–5, orbicular-reniform, about 6 mm in diam. Flowering April–June, fruiting May–August. Sand dunes, gravel slopes, terraces beside ravines. China, Middle Asia, Mongolia (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1954).

Local Medicinal Uses Anti-carcinogenic properties have been reported (Jia and An 2006).

References Jia L, An LZ. Effects of the extract of Ammopiptanthus mongolicus Cheng f. (JA1) on induction of apoptosis of HepG2 in vitro and its molecular mechanisms. Biomed Environ Sci. 2006;19(2):118–23. Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 20: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 389 p, 28 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Anagallis arvensis L. Anagallis foemina Mill. PRIMULACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Anagallis arvensis L.: Anagallis arvensis fo. coerulea (Schreb) Arechav.; Anagallis arvensis subsp. latifolia (L.) Arcang.; Anagallis arvensis subsp. phoenicea (Scop.) Schinz & R. Keller; Anagallis arvensis var. coerulea (Schreb.) Gren. & Godr.; Anagallis arvensis var. latifolia Lange; Anagallis arvensis var. phoenicea Gouan; Anagallis coerulea Schreb; Anagallis latifolia L.; Anagallis phoenicea Scop. Anagallis foemina Mill.: Anagallis arvensis subsp. caerulea Hartm.; Anagallis arvensis subsp. foemina (Mill.) Schinz & Thell.; Anagallis caerulea Schreb.

Local Names Anagallis arvensis: Russian: Oчныйцвeтпaшeнный (Ochnyy tsvet pashennyy); Uzbek: Savun ut, Savunak; KyrgyzКызгылт aнaгaллиc (Kyzgylt anagallis); English: Scarlet pimpernel (Sokolov 1985) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_20

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Anagallis foemina: Russian: Oчныйцвeтгoлубoй (Ochnyy tsvet goluboy); Uzbek: Savun ut, Savunak; Kyrgyz: Кoгултуp aнaгaллиc (Kogultur anagallis); English: Blue pimpernel (Sokolov 1985)

Botany and Ecology Anagallis arvensis: Annual or biennial, glabrous, 5–30 cm tall; stems often numerous, 4-angled, short-winged, decumbent or ascending, branched, the branches often fairly long; leaves opposite, rarely in threes, ovate or oblongovate, 0.6 (0.8)–1.3 (1.5) cm long, 0.2–0.8 cm broad, pale green, sessile, obtuse, black-dotted beneath, distant, somewhat spreading; flowers solitary; pedicels 1.2– 1.4 cm long, axillary, half as long again to twice as long as the leaves, almost reclinate in fruit; calyx 3.5 mm long, shorter than corolla; calyx segments lanceolate to lance-linear, 3 mm long, 0.5–0.7(1) mm broad, acute, hyaline-margined, entire; corolla reddish or sanguineous or latericious, 4.5–5 mm long, rotate, the limb 5-parted nearly to base; corolla lobes oval-ovate, 4.5 mm long, 2.7 mm broad, obtuse, finely glandular-ciliate on the margin (the cilia mostly 3 -celled); stamens 5; filaments 1.5 mm long, about one-third the length of corolla, bearded; ovary globose, 0.8 mm long; style filiform, 1.5 mm long; stigma obtuse; capsule globose, membranaceous, many-seeded, 3.5 mm long, circumscissile; seeds ovoidtrigonous, 1.3 mm long, 0.8 mm broad, minutely tuberculate, dull, dark brown to almost black. Flowering April–August, fruiting April–September. Ural, Caucasus, Central Middle Asia. On valleys, banks of rivers and lakes, meadows, floodplains, on dry stony slopes, and as weed in crops and on the outskirts of fields (Shishkin and Boborov 1952). Anagallis foemina: Annual; glabrous, (2) 5–30 cm tall; stems 4-angled, shortwinged, often decumbent or ascending, branched, the branches mostly elongated; leaves opposite, rarely in whorls of 3, sessile, ovate to oblong-ovate, 1–1.5 cm long, 0.4–0.8 cm broad, almost pointed, dark green, dotted beneath with minute black glands; flowers solitary; pedicels 1.5–2 cm long, slightly exceeding the leaves, axillary, nodding in fruit; calyx 4.5–5 mm long, slightly shorter than corolla; calyx segments 3.5–4 mm long, 1 mm broad, lanceolate to lance-linear, acute, hyalinemargined, entire; corolla azure, rotate, (4) 5–6 mm long, the limb 5-parted nearly to base; corolla lobes oval, 3.5–3.8 mm long, 1.7 mm broad, obtuse, denticulate on the margin, without glands, the hairs on the margin of petals 4-celled; stamens 5; filaments 2.5–3 mm long, about half the length of corolla, bearded; ovary globose, 0.7 mm long; style filiform, 2 mm long; stigma obtuse; capsule globose, membranaceous, 3.5 mm long, yellowish, many-seeded, circumscissile; seeds ovoid, trigonous, 1.5 mm long, 1.3 mm broad, dark brown to nearly black, finely tuberculate, dull. Flowering April–August, fruiting April–September. Ural, Caucasus, Central Middle Asia. On valleys, banks of rivers and lakes, meadows, floodplains, on dry stony slopes, and as weed in crops and on the outskirts of fields (Shishkin and Boborov 1952; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

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Fig. 1 Anagallis foemia (Primulaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Anagallis foemia (Primulaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Saponins (cyclamine), flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine, phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, p-coumaric, synapic, ferulic)) (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses A decoction of fresh material serves as diuretic, for jaundice, gynecological diseases, hernia, and as calmative for cough and dyspnea; In enemas as a laxative. In Middle Asia, the plant is used for tuberculosis, depression and nervous diseases, and fungal skin infections (Sokolov 1985). In India, the plant is used for rabies, leprosy, and cerebral problems (Kumar et al. 2011; Verma et al. 2007). In Ethiopia, eye problems are treated with a paste (Bussmann et al. 2011).

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Fig. 3 Anagallis foemia (Primulaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Anagallis foemia (Primulaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The flowers yield a yellow dye. All parts of the plant are poisonous and can lead to poisoning in horses and domestic birds (Sokolov 1985).

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References Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 18: Metachlamydeae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1952 (English 1967). 600 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian). Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Anchusa azurea Mill. BORAGINACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Anchusa azurea Mill.: Anchusa italica Retz.

Local Names Russian: Aнxузa итaльянcкaя (Ankhuza ital’yanskaya); Uzbek: Hukuz tili Kyrgyz: Итaлия aнxузacы (Italiya ankhuzasy), English: Italian bugloss, large blue alkanet (Sokolov 1990)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; multicapital; stem thick, erect, 40–100 cm high, usually spreadingpaniculately branching, with long, coarse, spreading bristles; radical leaves 10– 30 cm long, up to 5–6 cm wide, oblong- elliptic, gradually tapering at base, with R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_21

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Fig. 1 Anchusa azurea (Boraginaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

sparse but long and very coarse bristles; cauline leaves oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, median and upper leaves sessile, all acute and bristly. Inflorescence paniculate, partly leafy; cymes loose, few-flowered, very early straightening, only below with small bracts; pedicels distinct, bristly; thickening and elongating to 0.5–1 and even 1.5 cm in fruit; calyx in flower 7–10 mm long, subtubular, dissected to base into linear, acute, long-white-bristly lobes, becoming lanceolate and reaching 15(18) mm in fruit; corolla rather large, sky-blue, tube slightly longer than calyx, the limb 10– 15 mm across, nearly flat, with ovate-semiorbicular lobes; scales protruding, white, villous; style exserted from calyx after falling of corolla; nutlets large, ca. 7 mm long, trihedral-oblong, with abrupt ventral keel, rugose with large angular wrinkles on the inflated wall and sides, beakless, nearly obtuse, slightly tapering beneath under basal ring, brown. Flowering April–May. Middle Asia, fields, deserts, gardens, irrigation ditches, sometimes in crops in arid nonirrigated serozem, or montane chestnut soils (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1953; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Saponins, dyes (alkanin, anchusin), anchusa acid, resins, waxes, fatty acids (linolenic, stearidonic) (Sokolov 1990).

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Fig. 2 Anchusa azurea (Boraginaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses An infusion of the flowers is used to treat chest aches, neurasthenia, asthma, cough, and also used as febrifuge and laxative. As poultice, used as hemostatic and to treat wounds. In Iraq, a decoction of the flowers is used as a sedative, analgesic, sudorific, and diuretic (Sokolov 1990).

Local Food Uses Young leaves are eaten as a vegetable (Sokolov 1990).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Bees collect the nectar. The alkannins of the roots yield a beautiful red dye but has mostly been replaced by Rubia tinctoria. The flowers yield green dye (Sokolov 1990). Used as honey plant (Fayvush et al. 2017).

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Fig. 3 Anchusa azurea (Boraginaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Anchusa azurea (Boraginaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Armenia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017.

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Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 19: Tubiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 1974). 563 p, 40 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge ASPARAGACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Local Names Mandarin: 知母 (Zhi mu)

Botany and Ecology Rhizome 10  0.5–1.7 cm. Leaves 10–60  0.15–1 cm, glabrous, margin scabrid. Scape (20-)35–100 cm, glabrous. Raceme 10–50 cm; bracts ovate or ovate-orbicular, apex often long acuminate. Perianth segments pink, pale purple, or white, linear or narrowly oblong, 5–10  1–1.5 mm, persistent in fruit. Ovary ovoid, ca. 1.5  1 mm. Style ca. 1 mm. Capsule 0.8–1.5  0.3–0.6 cm including beaked apex, prominently 6-angled. Seeds black, narrowly oblong-elliptic, slightly curved, 7–12  2.5–3 mm. Flowering and fruiting June–September. Scrub, grassy slopes, steppes, sunny and sandy hillsides, also cultivated near sea level to 1500 m. Gansu, Guizhou, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan; cultivated in Taiwan and Mongolia (Komarov 1935).

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_22

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Local Medicinal Uses The rhizomes are used medicinally (Sokolov 1994). Anti-pathogenic microorganism experiments in vitro showed that Zhimu decoction had strong inhibitory effects on Staphylococcus and typhoid bacilli, and also on dysentery bacilli, paratyphoid bacilli, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Vibrio cholerae, Proteus, Diphtheria, Pneumococcus, beta-hemolytic Streptococcus and Candida albicans. The saponins in rhizomes of Anemarrhena asphodeloides can obviously reduce the increase of oxygen consumption caused by thyroxine and inhibit the activity of Na+, K+-ATPase. The effect of corticosteroids on rats can be prevented and treated by subcutaneous injection of extract 4 g/kg. Mizon inhibits the increase of plasma cortisol concentration and prevents adrenal atrophy. Shengdi Zhimu Gancao Decoction and hormone can reduce the side effects of hormone. Zhimu saponin (Smilax saponin) is similar to Zhimu decoction, which can significantly reduce the RT value of brain beta-receptor in mice with high thyroid hormone status but has no effect on affinity and can significantly improve the state. (5) The effect of Zhimu dry extract (6 g/kg) on blood sugar had no effect on normal rabbits, but alcohol extract could cause temporary increase of blood sugar. The water extract of Anemarrhena asphodeloides could reduce the blood sugar level of normal rabbits, especially on diabetic rabbits induced by tetramethoxyl. Other effects of Zhimu extract had no effect on the uterus of pregnant rabbits in vitro. Significant effect: Nicotinic acid contained in Anemarrhena asphodeloides can maintain skin and nerve health and promote elimination (Wansheng et al. 1998).

References Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 4: Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586 p, 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian). Wansheng C, Jun H, Li L, Chuanzhou Q. Studies on the anti-inflammatory activity of total polysaccharides of Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge. Academic Journal of Second Military Medical College. 1998;20(10):758–760.

Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia annua L. Artemisia dracunculus L. Artemisia frigida Willd. Artemisia leucodes Schrenk Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Artemisia sieversiana Ehrh. ex Willd. Artemisia vulgaris L. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. ASTERACEAE Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Artemisia annua L.: Artemisia chamomilla Winkl. Artemisia dracunculus L.: Artemisia aromatica A. Nelson; Artemisia dracunculina S. Watson; Artemisa dracunculoides Pursh; Artemisia dracunculoides var. B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_23

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dracunculina (S. Watson) S.F. Blake; Arteminsia dracunculus subsp. dracunculina (S. Watson) H.M. Hall & Clem.; Atremisia glauca Pall. ex Willd.; Artemisia glauca var. megacephala B. Boivin; Oligosporus dracunculus (L.) Poljakov Artemisia frigida Willd.: Artemisia frigida var. gmeliniana (Besser) Besser; Artemisia frigida var. williamsiae Welsh Artemisia leucodes Schrenk: Artemisia leucodes (Schrenk) Poljakov Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.: Artemisia capillaris fo. angustisecta Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. elegans (Roxb.) Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. kohatica (Klatt) Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. myriocephala Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. tenuifolia Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. villosa (Korsh.) Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. williamsonii Pamp.; Artemisia capillaris fo. scoparia (Waldst. & Kit.) Pamp.; Artemisia elegans Roxb.; Artemisia kohatica Klatt; Artemisia scoparia fo. sericea Kom.; Artemisia scoparia var. heteromorpha Kitag.; Artemisia scopariiformis Popov; Oligosporus scoparius (Waldst. & Kit.) Less.; Oligosporus scoparius (Waldst. & Kit.) Poljakov Artemisia sieversiana Ehrh. ex Willd.: Absinthium sieversianum (Ehrh. ex. Willd.) Besser; Artemisia chrysolepis Kitag.; Artemisia koreana Nakai; Artemisia moxa (Besser) DC; Artemisia scaposa Kitag.; Artemisia sieversiana fo. microcephala Pamp.; Artemisia sieversiana fo. nana Pamp.; Artemisia sieversiana var. blinii H. Lév.; Artemisia sieversiana var. grandis Pamp.; Artemisia sparsa Kitag.; Artemisia gigas H. Lév. & Vaniot Artemisia vulgaris L.: Artemisia opulenta Pamp.; Artemisia vulgaris var. glabra Ledeb.; Artemisia vulgaris var. kamtschatica Besser Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.: Artemisia viridis Blanco

Local Names Artemisia absinthium: Russian: Пoлыньгopькaя (Polyn’ gor’kaya); Uzbek: Erman, Achik erman; Kyrgyz: Эpмaншыбaк (Erman shybak); English: Common wormwood, absinthe (Sokolov 1993) Artemisia annua: Russian: Пoлынь oднoлeтняя (Polyn’ odnoletnyaya); Uzbek: Burgan; Kyrgyz: Биp жылдыкшыбaк (Bir zhyldyk shybak); English: Sweet sagewort, sweet wormwood, sweet annie, chinese wormwood (Sokolov 1993) Artemisia dracunculus: Russian: ПoлыньЭcтpaгoн (Polyn’ estragon); Uzbek: Sherolgin; Kyrgyz: Шыpaaлжыншыбaк (Shyraalzhyn shybak); English: Russian tarragon, wild tarragon, estragon, silky wormwood (Sokolov 1993) Artemisia leucodes: Russian: Пoлыньбeлoвaтaя (Polyn’ belovataya); Uzbek: Oq shuvoq; Kyrgyz: Aкшыбaк (Ak shybak) (Sokolov 1993) Artemisia scoparia: Russian: Пoлыньмeтёльчaтaя (Polyn’ metyol’chataya); Uzbek: Kizilburgan; Kyrgyz: Шыпыpгышыбaк (Shypyrgy shybak); English: Redstem wormwood (Sokolov 1993) Artemisia vulgaris: Russian: Пoлынь oбыкнoвeннaя (Polyn’ obyknovennaya); Uzbek: Oddiy erman Kyrgyz: Кaдимкикууpaй (Kadimki kuuray); English: Common mugwort

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Eclipta prostrata: Russian: Пoлыньзeлёнaя (Polyn’ zelyonaya); Kyrgyz: Maмыp шыбaк (Mamyr shybak); English: Wormwood (Sokolov 1993)

Botany and Ecology Artemisia absinthium: Perennial. Whole plant grayish from short approximate hairs, sericeous-tomentose. Root vertical, thick, perennial. Stem 60–100 cm high, herbaceous, erect, with short branches, leafy, sometimes basally with short nonflowering branches bearing long-petiolate leaves. Leaves with 6–9 cm long and 3–7 cm wide lamina broadly ovate, almost thrice pinnately dissected, terminal lobe lanceolate, short-acuminate; middle cauline leaves short petiolate, lacking lobes at base of petiole, twice pinnately dissected; upper leaves subsessile, simple pinnate or twice ternate; bracteal leaves ternate or simple, undivided, narrowly lanceolate; lobes of all leaves linear-oblong, scarcely acuminate, undivided or with few teeth, usually 3– 20 mm long and 1–4 mm wide. Capitula globose, 2.5–3.5 mm in diameter, drooping or spreading into narrowly paniculate inflorescence. Involucral bracts oblong-ovate, [outer] almost as long as inner bracts, hairy on spine, with wide scarious margin. Receptacle convex, hairy. Peripheral florets pistillate, usually 25, their corollas filiform-tubular; stigma lobes exserted from tube, linear, arcuate; disk florets numerous (usually 60), their corollas conical, glabrous, sometimes weakly hairy; anthers linear, apical appendages of anthers obtusely angular, with round apex, basal appendages short, obtuse; stigma lobes broadly linear, after flowering somewhat curved. Achenes about 1 mm long, oblong-cuneate, rather flat, finely sulcate, with a round, slightly convex at apex. Flowering July–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, steppes, on river banks, forest margins, fields, rocky areas, in crops and fields, in gardens, along irrigation ditches, around settlements as weed, on recent fallow lands, near roads, dwellings, in kitchen gardens and gardens, less often in crop fields, meadows, pastures, and forest edge; in forest, forest-steppe and steppe zones, as well as in mountains (Shishkin and Boborov 1961; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Artemisia annua: Annual. Plant aromatic, green, glabrous or with scattered, small, approximate hairs. Stems erect, ribbed, brownish or violet-brown, 30–100 cm high. Leaves alveolate-punctate-glandular; lower leaves petiolate, 3–5 cm long and 2– 4 cm wide, ovate, thrice pinnatley cut, their lobules oblong-lanceolate, short-acuminate, entire or with 1–2 teeth, 1–2 mm long and 0.5 mm wide; middle and cauline leaves twice pinnately cut; upper leaves sessile smaller and less compound; uppermost leaves bracteal, simple, or with fewer lateral lobes. Capitula globose, 2.0– 2.5 mm in diameter, numerous, divergent or drooping, on short peduncles, approximate on short branches, usually in long pyramidal paniculate inflorescence. Involucre glabrous. Outer involucral bracts linear-oblong, green; inner oval or almost round, with wide scarious border, lustrous. Receptacle convex, glabrous. Peripheral florets pistillate, 10–20, filiform, punctate-glandular; their stigma lobes narrowly linear, obtuse, exserted from corolla tube; disk florets bisexual, 12–30, their corollas cup-shaped, tubular, glabrous; anthers narrowly linear, apical appendages of anthers long, acute, basal appendages very short, subacute; style shorter than stamens, stigma

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Fig. 1 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Capadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Kartli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

lobes linear, straight, weakly divergent, apically ciliate. Achenes 0.6–0.8 mm long, oblongovate, flattened, with small round areola at apex, scarcely bordered. Flowering August–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, sandy areas, on rocks, solonetzous steppes, floodplain forests, river valleys and on their shores, fields, near settlements, along roads as weed (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). Artemisia dracunulus: Perennial. Rhizome woody, 0.5–1.5 cm thick, sparsely covered with rootlets and sometimes with well-developed stolons; whole plant glabrous, smooth, green, and less often hairy when young. Stems erect, solitary or few, 20–150 cm high, ribbed, usually branched, and lower branches sterile. Leaves undivided, linear-lanceolate or almost linear, 1.5–8.0 cm long and 1–10(14) mm wide; lowermost cauline leaves sometimes with 3 lobes at apex. Capitula numerous, globose, drooping, (2)2.5–4.0 mm in dia, at apices of stem and branches in racemes, forming paniculate inflorescence. Involucral bracts smooth, outer bracts oblong or sublanceolate, inner bracts round-oval, with wide scarious margin. Peripheral florets pistillate, usually 7; their corollas tubular, expanded toward base; stigma lobes narrowly linear, subacute, exserted from corolla tube, divergent; disk florets staminate, 11–14, their corollas conical, with 5 teeth; anthers linear, apical appendages of anthers obtuse-angled, subacute, basal appendages shorter, subobtuse; stigma of abortive pistil not lobed, funnel-shaped at apex. Achenes small, 0.6 mm long,

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somewhat flat, ovoid, finely sulcate, brown. Flowering July–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, alkaline meadows, near birch groves, river terraces of meadows, steep valley slopes and old fallow lands, forest-steppe and steppe zones, as well as meadow slopes, on solonetzous soils, floodplain meadows, forest edges, forests, thickets in steppes, meadow steppes, along river banks, river terraces, stony slopes, to the upper mountain belt, sometimes as weed. Widely planted in kitchen gardens (Shishkin and Boborov 1961; Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7). Artemisia frigida: Perennial. Whole plant densely covered with bifid, slender, appressed, silky hairs. Root woody, with perennial, woody spreading branches, which together with young sterile leafy shoots form more or less dense tussocks. Fertile stems rather numerous or few, 15–30 cm or 5–10 cm (var. parva (Krasch.) Poljak.) or even 30–50 cm (var. gmeliniana (Bess.) Poljak.) high, basally ascending or erect, usually strong, leafy, densely hairy, later glabrous or subglabrous in lower half. Leaves short-petiolate or sessile (var. argyrophylla (Ldb.) Kryl.) almost twice pinnate or sometimes temate, most often 1–2 cm long and 7–15 mm wide; lower pinnae, 2–3-fid or undivided, others crowded at leaf apex, pinnately divided or temate, with lanceolate-linear, acute lobes, 2–5 mm long and 0.5–1.0 mm wide; upper bracteal leaves palmately cut or temate. Capitula subglobose or globose, 3–4 (5) mm wide, divergent or drooping, in narrowly paniculate or racemose inflorescence. Involucral bracts with white scarious border; outer bracts oblong-elliptical, subobtuse, densely hairy, inner bracts linear-oblong, and hairy only along margin. Receptacle convex, hairy. Peripheral florets pistillate, 9–12, their corollas narrowly

Fig. 4 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

or almost filiform-tubular, with 2 teeth, glabrous, punctate-glandular; stigma lobes filiform-linear, exserted from corolla tube, weakly divergent; disk florets bisexual, 22–36, their corollas conical, yellow, less often purple-pink, glabrous, sometimes hairy (f. argyrophylla (Ldb.) Poljak.). Anthers linear, apical appendage of anthers linear-subulate, elongate, their basal appendages short, round; stigma lobes scarcely exserted from corolla, linear, apically ciliate, arcuate after flowering. Achenes 1 mm long, pyriform, somewhat flat, with scarcely visible fine ribs, brown, apically flat with border on one side. Flowering August. Steppe zone on rubbly stony slopes of [mud] volcanic cones, low hills, sometimes on sand dunes and terraces, edge of pine forests or, less often, in old fields and steppe meadows. Ural, Middle Asia, Mongolia (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). Artemisia leucodes: Biennial or annual. Densely covered with white, long, semierect hairs up to end of vegetative period. Root slender, vertical. Stems solitary or few, 30–60(70) cm high, 2–5 mm thick, erect, branched almost from base or in lower half, with more or less straight, upwardly directed branches. Lower cauline leaves petiolate, 3–7 cm long and 2.5–4.0 cm wide, with petioles as long as or longer than lamina, divided up to base into 3 palmately or pinnately parted lobes; terminal lobes lanceolate-linear, acute, 5–10 mm long and 1.0–1.5 mm wide; middle cauline leaves sessile, like auricles divided into ternate, simple, linear lobes; uppermost leaves undivided, sessile, linear-lanceolate. Capitula in lax spreading panicle, remote, less

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often approximate, 2–3, sessile, upright, ovoid-oblong, 5–7 mm long. Involucral bracts, excluding innermost, pubescent, outer bracts small, broadly deltoid or oval, inner larger, broadly lanceolate or oblong, with narrow, brown scarious border. Middle Asia, desert sands, as well as outcrops of sandstones and different gypsiferous deposits on sandy, gravelly, clayey slopes (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). Artemisia scoparia: Annual or biennial. Root slender, straight, vertical. Stem 30– 70 cm high, solitary, less often 2–3, erect, pubescent, later glabrous, reddish-violet or brown, strongly branched in middle and upper parts, with divergent branches. Young leaves pubescent, older ones glabrous; lower leaves petiolate, twice or thrice pinnately incised into linear lanceolate-acute lobes, withering before anthesis; middle cauline leaves sessile, 1–4 cm long, with narrowly linear or filiform-linear lobes. Capitula small, 1.5–2.0 mm long, ovate or broadly ovate, on short peduncles, divergent or drooping, on branches in secondary racemes forming pyramidal panicle. Involucral bracts glabrous, with scarious margin; upper bracts oval, inner larger, green, oblong or broadly lanceolate, glabrous, glaucous. Peripheral florets pistillate, 6, their corollas narrowly tubular, stigma lobes narrowly linear, acuminate, divergent; disk florets 6, staminate, their corollas conical, anthers linear, stigma of abortive pistil not lobed. Achenes 0.6 mm long, ovoid, somewhat flat, finely ribbed, brown. Flowering August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, alkaline steppe meadows, light sandy loamy and sandy soils, as weed in fields, pastures, old fields, open pine groves, and also in irrigated fields, along river valleys on rubbly slopes, in forest-steppe and desert zones, and also in lower mountain zone in steppes (Shishkin and Boborov 1961). Artemisia vulgaris: Perennial. Rhizome strong, in upper part thickened; stem herbaceous, erect, (45)65–160 cm high, angular-ribbed, more or less branched, usually brownish-violet, leafy, weakly hairy. Leaves green above, glabrous or not densely arachnoid hairy, grayish, arachnoid hairy beneath, lower-most leaves petiolate, rest sessile, 3–15 cm long and 1.5–11 cm wide, deeply pinnately dissected or pinnately cut into elliptical-lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, usually deeply incised or toothed, lobes 1–10 cm long and 2.5 cm wide; upper leaves small, floral bracts entire, linear. Capitula oblong or narrowly campanulate, 3–4 mm long and 1.5– 3.0 mm in diameter, slightly inclined, less often almost drooping, in dense racemes on secondary branches forming in general, more or less narrow or rather wide panicle. Involucre arachnoid hairy, involucral bracts scarious along margin, outer bracts ovate, acuminate, inner bracts longer, elliptical, and obtuse. Receptacle convex. Peripheral pistillate florets 7–10; their corollas narrowly tubular, stigma lobes narrowly linear, straight, erect; disk florets bisexual, (5)8–20, their corollas narrow, cup-shaped-conical, smooth, reddish-brownish; anthers linear, on rather long filaments, apical appendages of anthers acute, basal appendages subacute; stigma lobes at maturity slightly exserted from tube, arcuate, thickened upward, truncate, with long dense cilia. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, forest, partly forest-steppe and steppe zones, in coniferous-deciduous open deciduous forests, around forest glades, edges of forests, river valleys, ravins, gullies, mountain slopes, meadows, scrubs, fallow lands, near fields and dwellings, to the upper mountain belt, often as weed. Often cultivated (Shishkin and Boborov 1961).

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Eclipta prostrata: Annual. Stem 10–50 cm high, usually branched from base, ascending or prostrate, with fine appressed hairs, more densely above. Leaves oblong-lanceolate or oblong, sessile, serrate-toothed, teeth directed upward, sometimes only sinuate, covered with numerous fine appressed hairs. Capitula 6–8 mm wide; involucre of oblong, long, outer bracts and shorter, oblong-lanceolate, inner bracts; involucral bracts covered with fine appressed hairs, with thick, light-colored (yellowish), longitudinal veins. Ligulate florets short, half as long as involucre; bracts setose, ventrally pubescent. Achenes prismatic, somewhat swollen above, 2–3 mm long, 1.0–1.5 mm wide, smooth, without tubercles or sometimes with few inconspicuous tubercles along fine ventral rib, dark grayish-brown, along edges fringed, light yellowish-brown. Flowering June. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, meadows, steppes, river valleys, forests, sandy shores, gravelly slopes, rocks, fields, near settlements, as weed (Shishkin and Boborov 1961).

Phytochemistry Artemisia absinthium: Cyclitols (quiberachite), organic acids, essential oils (cadinene, guaiazulene, ketopelenolide a, ketopelenolide b, hydroxyketopelenolide, caryophyllene, selenene, a-pinen, nerol, tujone, tujol, p-cymene, camphene, cineole, phellandrene, geraniol, elemol, a-chymachalene, a-cadine, limonene, eucalptol, y-terpinene, linalool, isoborneol, camphor, a-bizabolol, hamazulene, methylhamazulene, ethylhamazulene, tuyen, sabinene, a-terpinene, ocimene, terpinolene, n-hexanol, nonanal, farnesene, lavandulol, a-curcumine, germacrene D, sabinol), sesquiterpenoids (absintine, anabsintine, artamarine, artamaridine, artamaridinine, artamarinin, artabsine, artbine, arabsine, anabsine, artemoline, absintolide, isoabsintine, ketopelenolide, artbine, arabine, arlatine, arenolide, parsirIn B, parsherIn C), lignans (lyrioresinol A, lyrioresinol C, sezartemine, episazeartemIn A, episepartemIn B, diazezartemine, sesamine, epieudesmine, fargesine, yangambin, epiangambine, diayangambine, askhantine, epiaschantine), flavonoids (artemetine, quercetine, kaempferol, isoramnetine, apigenin), fatty acids (lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachidic), carbohydrates (inuline), polyacetylene compounds, phenolcarboxylic acids, vitamins (C), steriods, coumnarins (scopoletine, umbelliferon), fatty acids (lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachidic), tannins (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia dracunculus: Essential oils (sabinene, methylhavicol, eugeol, cis-ocimene, trans-ocimene, cis-allocymene, trans-allocymene, linalool, limonene, geraniol, a-tuyen, a-pinene, p-pinene, camphene, sabinene, a-terpinene, p-cymol, y-terpene, trans-sabinenhydrate, cis-sabinenhydrate, terpinolene, terpinol, citronellyl acetate, geranilacetate, methyl-eugenol, elemycine, farnesen, spatulenol), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, chlorogenic, vanilline), coumarins (herniarine, artidine, aridiodiol, arethynol, scocarone, scopoletine, isocoumarin), flavonoids (quercetine, hyperoside, luteoline, kaempferol, biokovertsetine, rutine), steroids, tannins (Sokolov 1993).

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Artemisia annua/leucodes/vulgaris: Essential oils (cineole, limonene, terpinolene, fenchone, citral a, citral b, geraniol, aromadendrene, linalool, thujone, a-pinene, p-pinene, myrcene, p-cymol, a-thujone, p-thujone, camphor, terpinol-4, a-copene, cariophyllene, a-terpineol, borneol, bornylacetate, y-cadinene, vulgarol, camphene, a-terpinene, artemisiaketone, isoborneol), sesquiterpenoids (psilostahyine, psilostahyIn B and C), tritertepoids (a-amyrine, fernenol), steroids (sitosterol, stimasterine), coumarines (esculine, esculetine, umbelliferone, scopoletine, methylenedioxycoumarine) (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia frigida/scoparia: Essential oils (a-pinene, cineole, carvone, thujone, cadinene, furfural, caryophyllene, eugenol, isoeugenol, methyleugenol, sabinene, camphene, a-flalandrene, p-flalandrane, limonen, p-cymol, longicylen, longifene, santalene, a-chymachalene, 6-bisabolene, 6-cadinene, curcumin, camphor, carvone, linalool, borneol, thymol, cis-eugenol, trans-eugenol, scoparone, myrcene, cadinene, isoevgenol), phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic), coumarins (scoparone, dimethoxycoumarine, esketine, scopoletin), flavonoids (methylaromodendrine, ramnocitrine, eupalinine, cirsimaritin, eupatholithine, rutine, quercetine, kappeprol), organic acids (oxalic), steroids (sitosterol), tannins (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses Artemisia absinthium: In the Ural used for cancer of the liver, stomach, spleen, uterus, and leukemia. The root infusion is used for rheumatism and arthritis. In the Altai and Middle Asia, the leaves are used to treat lung diseases, angina, intestinal colics, tuberculosis, respiratory infections, and rhinitis. In the Northern Caucasus, the leaves decoction is used to treat gonorrhea, in Armenia diabetes mellitus. The flower infusion is used to treat ulcers of the intestine, epilepsy, hemorrhoids, fever, diarrhea, and enterocolitis and is in Azerbaijan used for furuncles (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993). Artemisia dracunculus: In Kazahkstan and other parts of Middle Asia, the leaves are used as poultice for excema and burns, and internally for tuberculosis, pneumonia, and bronchitis (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993). Artemisia annua/leucodes/vulgaris: Traditionally Artemisia vulgaris is used in Middle Asia as anthelmintic, for intestinal colics, diarrhea, and gastralgia. The extract and fresh leaves are also applied externally on wounds and burns. In the Altai extracts are used for testicle and uterus cancer. In Azerbaijan, an extract is used to treat fractures. In the Ural, Northern Caucasus and parts of Middle Asia Artemisia annua leaves are used as anthelminic, for respiratory infections, fever, dysentery, and externally for rheumatism and scabies (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993). Artemisia annua is used as anti-malarial in the Himalayas (Kunwar et al. 2009). Artemisia scoparia: In the Altai, the leaves are used to treat tuberculosis, pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, pharyngitis, angina, with liver disease, fever, anemia,

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rheumatism, and as anthelmintic. In Tajikistan the leaf ash is used as expectorant (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia frigida: A cold infusion of the herb is used as a diuretic and mild purgative. In Mongolian medicine, powders, infusion, and decoction are used for ulcers, infected wounds, lymphadenitis, and as baths for diseases of the joints. Internally, the infusion is used for fever, chronic alcoholism, tuberculosis, heart disease, hypoxia, cough (especially in old men), angina, tachycardia, neurasthenia, and epilepsy and is applied for gastralgia, intestinal colic, headache, and toothache, as astringent, anti-helminthic, to stimulate the appetite, with diarrhea, dysentery, and as diuretic (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia roxburghiana is used as antipyretic and tonic (Bhat et al. 2013). Some species are widely sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b).

Local Food Uses Artemisia absinthium: The leaves are used as spice, especially to produce aromatic liquor, and as bitter agent in the production of beer (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993; Fig. 8).

Fig. 8 Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 9 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), leaves ready to eat, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Artemisia dracunculus: The leaves are used in cheese production, as spice and for salads, and to make lemonade (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993; Figs. 9 and 10). Artemisia annua/frigoida/leucodes/vulgaris: The leaves are used as flavoring agent for liquors and as spice for cooking (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Artemisia absinthium: As fodder for sheep and rabbits. The plant is browsed by cows but gives the milk a very unpleasant taste. The leaves yield lemon yellow, dark green, and olive dyes for wool and silk. Planted as ornamental. Toxic, causes dermatoses when crushing and grinding the plant (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993). In Ethiopia, used to repel the evil eye (Luizza et al. 2013). Artemisia dracunculus: Fodder for cattle, horses, camels. Planted also as ornamental (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993). Artemisia annua/leucodes/vulgaris: Fodder for livestock, especially sheep, goats, and camels. A yellow dye for wool is produced from the leaves. Planted as

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Fig. 10 Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae), leaves ready to eat, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

ornamental (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1993). Artemisia scoparia: Fodder for small livestock. Used as ornamental (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia frigida: The oil is used for soap, and the species serves as winter fodder (Sokolov 1993). Artemisia japonica is used as incense (Bhat et al. 2013).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Artemisia annua L.; Artemisia fragrans Willd. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and

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loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa C, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 26: Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961 (English 1995). 1072 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Asparagus persicus Baker Asparagus sp. ASPARAGACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Russian: Cпapжa пepcидcкaя (Sparzha persidskaya); Uzbek: Tomirdori; Kyrgyz: Пepcия cпapжacы (Persiya sparzhasy); English: Persian asparagus (Sokolov 1994).

Botany and Ecology Perennial; stems glabrous, smooth, commonly flexuous, often entwining surrounding plants, mostly angled and strongly branched; branches arising at a right angle or even pendent; cladodes mostly in fascicles of 1–5(8), mostly unequal, 1–5 cm (usually 1.5–2 cm) long, slightly falcate or more often straight and spreading at a right angle, rarely ascending or descending, very thin or thickish; smooth; scale-like leaves commonly spurred; flowers on the main axis and on the branches; pedicels rather long, jointed (mostly considerably) above the middle; berry spherical, red,

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_24

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6–7 mm long. Flowering in May. Saline meadows and meadow solonchaks, thickets, in canyons, and chalk outcrops, and on forest edges and meadows (Komarov 1935; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Fig. 1 Asparagus setaceus (Asparagaceae), Bale, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Asparagus africanus (Asparagaceae), Bale, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Asparagus falcatus (Asparagaceae), Bale, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Steroids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, alkaloids, essential oils, vitamins, asparagine, saponins, steroid sapogenins, fatty acids (Sokolov 1994).

Local Medicinal Uses In Uzbekistan, Asparagus is used as panacea (Sokolov 1994). Asparagus filicinus is used for diarrhea in India (Bhat et al. 2013), Asparagus racemosus as galaktagogue, for tuberculosis, measles, diarrhea, epilepsy, liver problems, diuretic, and antispasmodic in the Himalayas (Kunwar et al. 2008, 2013; Raj et al. 2018). Asparagus falcatus is used as antifungal (Luizza et al. 2013). Asparagus officinalis serves for throat infections, chest pain, as facial wash and sun cream, and for stomach problems (Sher et al. 2016). Asparagus adscendens serves as galaktagogue (Singh et al. 2017).

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Fig. 4 Asparagus falcatus (Asparagaceae), Bale, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Asparagus persicus (Asparagaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The young shoots are widely eaten as vegetable (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017; Sokolov 1994). The roots of Asparagus racemosus are used to ferment milk (Kunwar et al. 2009).

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Fig. 6 Asparagus persicus (Asparagaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1994).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Asparagus officinalis L.; Asparagus verticillatus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 4: Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586 p, 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Kunwar RM, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Diversity, utilization and management of medicinal plants in Baitadi and Darchula districts, farwest Nepal. Initiation. 2008;2(1):157–64. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa C, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059.

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Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(49) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian).

Astragalus membranaceus Fisch. ex. Bunge FABACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Local Names Chinese: 蒙古黄耆 (Meng gu huang qi)

Botany and Ecology Perennial, closely akin to the preceding; differing in the glabrous calyx, with hairs practically confined to the teeth. Flowering June–July, fruiting July–August. More xerophytic, rarely occurring in deciduous forests, commonly in rather open dry habitats, mostly in pine forests on sandy soil, less common on gravelly southern slopes, in steppes and along sandy river banks, as a rule on well drained, sandy, rarely gravelly, soils. Not rising high up into the mountains. In the Far East reported for open oak woods. Siberia, Altai, Mongolia (Komarov and Shishkin 1946; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_25

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142 Fig. 1 Astragalus fragrans. (Fabaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Astragalus fragrans. (Fabaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

B. Liu and R. W. Bussmann

Astragalus membranaceus Fisch. ex. Bunge Fig. 3 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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144 Fig. 6 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

B. Liu and R. W. Bussmann

Astragalus membranaceus Fisch. ex. Bunge

Fig. 8 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Astragalus falcatus (Fabaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses The roots are used for the treatment of digestive disorders (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Sokolov 1987).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used as fodder (Sokolov 1987). The root gum is used in art (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Figs. 10, 11, 12, and 13).

Fig. 10 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), material for local art, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), material for local art, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 12 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), material for local art, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 13 Astragalus sp. (Fabaceae), local art, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 12: Leguminosae: Astragalus. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1946 (English 1965). 681 p, 50 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Berberis jamesiana Forrest & W.W. Sm. Berberis vulgaris L. BERBERIDACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Berberis jamesiana Forrest & W.W. Sm.: Berberis integerrima Bunge; Berberis jamesiana var. leucarpa (W.W. Sm.) Ahrendt; Berberis jamesiana var. leuocarpa (W.W. Sm.) Ahrendt; Berberis jamesiana var. sepium Ahrendt; Berberis leuocarpa W.W. Sm.; Berberis nummularia var. sinica C.K. Schneid.; Berberis oblonga Bunge. Berberis vulgaris L.: Berberis baluchistanica Ahrendt.

Local Names Russian: Бapбapиc цeльнoкpaйний (Barbaris tsel’nokrayniy); Uzbek: Kizil zirk; Kyrgyz: Бёpукapaгaт (Byoru karagat); English: Barbery (Fedorov 1984)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_26

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Botany and Ecology Berberis jamesiana: Shrub, 4 m tall; strongly branching, spiny, with brownish or purple angular branches; on lower sterile branches, spines tripartite or with at least one lateral tooth on each side; on other branches spines simple, large; leaves coriaceous, obovate or oblong, not more than 4–5 cm long, 13–18 mm broad subapically, entire or subentire often with large, acute teeth on young shoots; leaves cuneately tapering into a petiole; inflorescence a long axillary raceme, 5 cm long or more, with 12–20 flowers; sepals and petals obovate; style very short, stigma large, retained at maturity when fruits usually pendulous; berries obovate or oblong, purple-red, with bloom, 7–8 mm long. Flowering May–June, fruiting June–August. Middle Asia, on the banks of rivers and stony slopes of mountains, among Juniperus thickets, up to 1000–3300 m (Shishkin and Bobrov 1937). Berberis vulgaris: Deciduous shrubs up to 3 m tall. Stems long, with short branches bearing spines. Bark of second year stems smooth and gray in color. Bud scales fall off early. Leaves simple, usually obovate with one midvein and with short petioles, margins flat with shallow teeth tipped with small spines. Flowers in a raceme disposed from short shoots with 10–20 flowers each; anther filaments lack curved teeth. Berries are red to purple, round, juicy, and solid. Mainly under cultivation. Found throughout the Caucasus, Central Europe, Mediterranean, the Balkans, Russia, and Central Asia. Introduced to North America. Flowers and fruits from May to June. Berberis vulgaris is an important food for many small birds, which disperse the seeds in their droppings. The species is the alternate host species of the wheat rust fungus (Puccinia graminis), a grass-infecting rust fungus that is a serious fungal disease of wheat and related grains. Ural, Caucasus, on forest edges, in bush thickets, in mixed and deciduous forests, on stony slopes of mountains, from the lowland to the mid-mountain belt (Shishkin and Bobrov 1937).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (berberine, jatrorricin, palmatine, hydroxyacetine, magnoflorine, columbamine, isotetradrine, oblongine, methylberbamine, berberrubIn, oblongamine, berbamunine, hydroxyacanthine, talikmidine, isocoridine, glaucine, oxyacanthine, talimidine, isocoridine, isoboldine, reticuline), vitamins (C, carotene) (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses In Tajikistan a root infusion is used to treat cardiovascular diseases, gastric diseases, neurasthenia, rheumatism, fevers, and a poultice is used for inflammatory processes of fractures and bruises. In northern Tajikistan, the roots are used to treat wounds, bone fractures, rheumatism, radiculitis, heart pain, and stomach aches. In Kazakhstan, the extract of young branches is used for headache. The fruit infusion acts as

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anticoagulant. In Uzbekistan, the leaves are used as cardiotonic and antipyretic. All over the region the fruits are used as antipyretic, to relieve thirst. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat kidney stones, tuberculosis, chest pains, and headaches. An infusion of the fruits is used to treat constipation and wounds (Fedorov 1984). Also used to treat high blood pressure and skin problems (Sher et al. 2016; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). Berberis lyceum is used to heal wounds (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), conjunctivitis and diabetes (Singh et al. 2017), eye infections (Joshi et al. 2010), jaundice, fever, and urinary infections (Sher et al. 2016). Berberis asiatica serves for gastric problems, as anthelminthic, for diabetes and eye infections (Bhat et al. 2015; Joshi et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2011; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013), and also as mild laxative, especially for children (Joshi et al. 2010; Figs. 6 and 7). Fig. 1 Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten fresh and dried for use in sauces, for making jams and sweets, as well as spice (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984; Fig. 8).

Berberis jamesiana Forrest & W.W. Sm. . . . Fig. 5 Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), dried fruits for sale in market, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The bark yields yellow, golden, dark violet, dark blue, and olive dyes for wool and silk. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Berberis vulgaris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and

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Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants and quantitative Ethnomedicine: a case study from Batadi and Darchula districts, far-West Nepal. J Nat Hist Mus. 2009;24(1):72–81. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl 2009;7, 5–28. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Bobrov EG. 1937 (English 1970). Flora of the USSR, volume 7: Ranales to Rhoedales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. 615 p. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(49). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3 Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Betonica foliosa Rupr. Betonica officinalis L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Betonica officinalis L.: Betonica bjelorussica Kossko ex Klok.; Betonica brachydonta Klokov; Betonica fusca Klokov; Betonica glabrata K. Koch; Betonica peraucata Klokov; Stachys betonica Benth.; Stachys officinalis (L.) Trevis. ex Briq.

Local Names Betonica foliosa: Russian: Буквицa oлиcтвeннaя, Чиcтeцбуквицeцвeтный (Bukvitsa olistvennaya, Chistets bukvitsetsvetnyy); Uzbek: Tog kudusi; Kyrgyz: Жaлбыpaктуубeтoникa (Zhalbyraktuu betonika) (Sokolov 1991)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_27

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Botany and Ecology Betonica foliosa: Perennial, 75–100 cm high; stems coarse, with dense long hairs from base, with more scattered hairs above; leaves oblong-ovate, oblique at base, with rounded teeth, 13–15 cm long and 4–5 cm broad, the upper 5–6 cm long and 2–3 cm broad, serrate, the terminal lanceolate, entire, with scattered short hairs above, long-haired on the veins beneath; lower leaves short-petioled, upper leaves sessile; flowers sessile; verticillate 10–12-flowered, forming compact spikelike terminal inflorescences, only 1 or 2 lower verticillate distant; bracts lanceolate, 12–17 mm long, as long as or shorter than calyx; calyx tubular, covered with scattered short hairs, the tube 10–12 mm long, the teeth lanceolate, acute, 5–6 mm long; corolla lilac, the tube strongly exserted, 12–15 mm long, covered with scattered hairs from throat to middle; upper lip slightly curved, as long as the lower, hairy above; lower lip with broad-ovate middle lobe, the lateral lobes as long, obovate; filaments exserted; nutlets trigonous, longitudinally furrowed. Flowering June–August, fruiting July–September. Middle Asia, wood and scrub belt, wood openings, scrub and juniper woods (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1954; Figs. 1 and 2). Betonica officinalis: Perennial, 50–100 cm high; rhizome fibrous; stems erect, more or less covered with long stiff spreading hairs; lower leaves broad-ovate, deeply

Fig. 1 Betonica macrantha (Lamiaceae), Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & n.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Betonica foliosa Rupr. . . .

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Fig. 2 Betonica macrantha (Lamiaceae), Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & n.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

cordate at base, obtuse, coarsely crenate, 8–12 cm long and 3–5 cm broad, covered on both sides with scattered hairs; cauline leaves usually 2 pairs, the lower longpetioled, the upper short petioled; verticillates many-flowered, forming compact spikelike inflorescences, only some lower verticillate distant; bracts ovate, acute, as long as or shorter than calyx; calyx hirsute, the teeth triangular, acuminate, 2– 3.5 mm long; corolla purple, covered outside with short hairs, the tube exserted; upper lip ovate or oblong, sinuate or crenulate; lower lip with broad-ovate middle lobe and short oblong-ovate lateral lobes; filaments pubescent, exserted; nutlets oblong-ovoid, concave, glabrous. Flowering June–September, fuiting June–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, meadows, wood margins, open woods, and coppices (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1954).

Phytochemistry Triterpene saponins, steroids, flavonoids, alkaloids, nitrogen-containing compounds, phenylcarbonic acids (chlorogenic, niochlorogen, ochlorogenic), vitamins (C, K), iridoids (Sokolov 1991).

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Local Medicinal Uses In the Ural used for respiratory infections. The leaves are used to treat hysteria, hypertension, epilepsy, fainting, gout, jaundice, and rheumatism, gastrointestinal pain, hemoptysis, respiratory disease, inflammation of the kidneys and bladder, as laxative and as sedative (Sokolov 1991).

References Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 20: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 389 p, 28 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Betula platyphylla Sukaczev BETULACEAE Yiyun Tang, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Betula platyphylla Sukaczev: Betula ajanensis Kom.; Betula alba ssp. latifolia Regel; Betula alba ssp. mandshurica Regel; Betula alba ssp. tauschii Regel; Betula japonica Siebold ex H.J.P. Winkl.; Betula japonica var. mandshurica (Regel) H.J.P. Winkl.; Betula japonica var. rockii Rehder; Betula japonica var. szechuanica C.K. Schneid.; Betula latifolia Kom.; Betula mandshurica (Regel) Nakai; Betula mandshurica var. rockii (Rehder) Rehder; Betula mandshurica var. szechuanica (C.K. Schneid.) Rehder: Betula platyphylla var. japonica (Miq.) Hara; Betula platyphylla var. mandshurica (Regel) H. Hara; Betula platyphylla var. rockii (Rehder) Rehder; Betula platyphylla var. szechuanica (C.K. Schneid.) Rehder; Betula szechuanica (C.K. Schneid.) Jansen; Betula tauschii Koidz.; Betula verrucosa var. platyphylla (Sukaczev) Lindl. ex Jansen

Y. Tang College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_28

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Local Names Chinese: 粉桦- (En hua), 桦树 (Hua shu), 桦木 (Hua mu), 桦皮树 (Hua pi shu); English: Japanese white birch, Siberian silver birch

Botany and Ecology A tree to 20 m high, with white bark; branches smooth, partly glandular, rarely heavily glandular or euglandular; leaves squarely truncate, rounded truncate, or broadly cuneate at base, acuminate, simply or rarely doubly serrate, sparingly or scarcely resin-dotted and without pubescence in the axils of veins beneath, glabrous, on the margin sparsely hairy, 5–7 cm long, 3.5–6 cm broad, the smooth petiole 1.5– 2.5 cm long; fruiting aments cylindric, 2.5–3 cm long, 7–9 mm broad, the peduncle 1 cm long; lateral lobes of the bract divergent, rounded or truncate, the short middle lobe lanceolate; wings as broad as or slightly broader than the nutlet, projecting beyond it and nearly reaching the stigmas. Flowering in May. In pure and mixed stands; profiting from forest fires to increase its distribution area. Siberia, Mongolia (Bobrov and Komarov 1936; Fedorov 1984; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8).

Fig. 1 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Betula platyphylla Sukaczev Fig. 2 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Betula litwinowii (Betulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Betula platyphylla (Betulaceae), China, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

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Fig. 6 Betula platyphylla (Betulaceae), China, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

Fig. 7 Betula platyphylla (Betulaceae), China, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

Local Medicinal Uses A decoction and alcoholic extracts of buds and leaves are used as diuretic, and choleretic, for edemas, diseases of the kidney, inflammation of gall bladder and liver. The decoction is used as anthelminthic, as well as poultice in case of bad healing wounds and ulcers. Birch catkins, young shoots, leaves, and sap are used

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Fig. 8 Betula platyphylla (Betulaceae), China, Inner Mongolia. (Photo Bo Liu)

medicinally. Traditional medicine recommends birch sap to heal scurvy, also as a diuretic, a remedy for tonsillitis, bronchitis, and lung diseases, and also for blood cleansing. In Zemo Tsageri (Lechkhumi), broth made of birch buds is given to the sick with lung diseases, especially tuberculosis. Broth or tincture made of bark was used as mouthwash to heal tooth ache and also scurvy. A leaf and bark extract in water is used against dandruff and hair-loss. Leaf tea is used to cure colds, and as panacea. The bark is chewed for toothache. The catkins are applied to wounds, and the stem sap helps against goiter (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018). Betula utilis serves as antiseptic (Kunwar et al. 2013).

Local Food Uses Sap extracted from the stems can be drunk (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses A dye solution is prepared from bark, wood, and roots to obtain red-yellow, from leaves for grey-green and greenish-blue color and their shades. The solution is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as products from them. The wood is

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used to make lots of tools, including beer ladles, bowls, candlesticks, cups, dippers, mortars, plows, spinning wheels, spoons, tool handles, vessels to store alcohol and pickles, walking sticks, and yokes. It also serves for carts, furniture, and sleds, and the branches make good brooms (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Betula pubescens var. litwinowii (Doluch.) Ashburner & Mc. All. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bobrov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 p, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24.

Bidens triparita L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Bidens triparita L.: Bidens comosa (A. Gray) Wiegand; Bidens repens D. Don.; Bidens shimadai Hayata; Bidens tripartida var. quinqueloba Z.X. An.; Bidens tripartida var. repens (D. Don) Sherff; Bidens tripartida var. shimadai (Hayata) Yamam.

Local Names Russian: Чepeдa тpexpaздeльнaя (Chereda trekhrazdel’naya); Uzbek: Eteetkanak, Karakeez; Kyrgyz: Учбoлуктууитуйчaн (Uch boluktuu it uychan); English: Threelobe beggarticks (Sokolov 1993)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_29

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Botany and Ecology Annual. Stem erect (3)15–75(100) cm high, usually dichotomously branched, glabrous or sparsely pubescent. Leaves dark green, opposite (sometimes upper leaves alternate), toothed, usually three- to five-parted into lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate lobes or dissected, with larger terminal lobe-toothed, in turn either cut or divided, and with smaller lateral lobes, at base tapered to short, winged petiole; sometimes leaves (particularly in small reduced specimens or upper cauline leaves), entire, oblong-ovate or lanceolate, irregularly coarsely toothed to incised to different degrees or divided (dissected), mixed with simple, coarse- or incised-dentate ones. Capitula solitary or few, terminal, erect, as wide as long, measuring 6–15 mm (sometimes more). Outer involucral bracts green, oblong or linear-oblong, herbaceous, five to eight, tapering toward base, spinulose along margin, equaling capitulum or sometimes 2–3 times as long; inner bracts brownish yellow, oval, shorter; pales broadly linear, as long as florets and equaling achenes at fruiting (excluding awns). Ligulate florets usually absent; all florets tubular, yellowish-brown. Achenes cuneate, compressed, usually with one longitudinal rib on flat surface in middle, 5–8 (10) mm long, 2–3 mm wide, along margin covered with bright colored downward directed bristles, with two awns at apex, half as long as achenes, less often three or four awns, but then two of them longer than rest. Flowering July–September, fruiting July–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, marshes, wet meadows, banks (usually sandy) of rivers, streams, and reservoirs and as a weed in vegetable gardens, irrigated fields (Shishkin 1959; Figs. 1, 2 and 3). Fig. 1 Bidens tripartida (Asteraceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Bidens tripartida (Asteraceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Bidens tripartida (Asteraceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Flavonoids, coumarins, ascorbic acid, carotene, tannins, lactones, essential oils (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves used to treat respiratory diseases, scrofula, scurvy, scabies, bacterial and fungal skin diseases, poor digestion, toothaches, anemia, arteriosclerosis, anthrax, and tuberculosis and also to regulate the metabolism (Sokolov 1993). Also used as diuretic and for skin ailments (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018).

Local Food Uses The leaves are sometimes eaten (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018).

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References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 25: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1959 (English 1990). 666 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Buddleja alternifolia Maxim. SCROPHULARIACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Buddleja alternifolia Maxim.: Buddleja legendrei Gagnep.; Buddleja minima S.Y. Bao.

Local Names Mandarin: 互叶醉鱼草 (Hu ye zui yu cao)

Botany and Ecology Shrub 1–4( 9) m tall. Branchlets 4-angled to subterete, stellate tomentose, glabrescent; long branchlets delicate, declinate on apical parts. Leaves alternate; leaf blade short stellate tomentose on both surfaces or adaxially glabrescent, margin entire or undulately dentate. Leaves on long vegetative branchlets with petiole 1– 2 mm; leaf blade very narrowly elliptic to almost linear, 3–10  0.2–1.3 cm, base cuneate, apex acuminate to obtuse. Leaves on floriferous branchlets shortly petiolate B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_30

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to subsessile; leaf blade 5–15  2–10 mm, base cuneate to decurrent, apex rounded to obtuse. Inflorescences only on short lateral branchlets, paniculate cymes or glomerules, 1–4.5  1–3 cm; peduncle very short, usually with 2 leaflets at base. Flowers fragrant. Calyx campanulate, 2.5–4 mm, outside stellate tomentose and with some glandular hairs, inside with a few minute glandular hairs on apical half; lobes triangular, 0.5–1.7 mm. Corolla lilac, violet, or purple, with an orange throat, tube 6– 10  1.2–1.8 mm; lobes suborbicular to broadly ovate, 1.2–3  1.2–3 mm, both surfaces stellate tomentose but glabrescent. Stamens inserted at middle of corolla tube; anthers oblong, 1–1.8 mm. Ovary ovoid to subovoid, 1–2 mm, glabrous. Style 1 mm; stigma large, clavate. Capsules ellipsoid, 5  2 mm, glabrous. Seeds narrowly oblong, 1.5–2 mm, winged all around. Flowering March–July. Thickets on river banks, along dry river beds; 1500–4000 m. Mongolia (Wu and Raven 1996).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used as ornamental plant (Wu and Raven 1996).

References Wu ZY, Raven PH, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 15 (Myrsinaceae through Loganiaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1996. 387 p.

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch. APIACEAE Mario Boboev, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Anneleen Kool, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch.: Carum bulbocastanum Koch.; Carum persicum Boiss.

M. Boboev Kulyab Botanical Garden, Kulyab, Tajikistan Dushanbe, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] H. de Boer · A. Kool The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_31

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; pale green, entirely glabrous plant; tuber irregularly spherical; stem 40– 60 cm high, furrowed, straight, corymbiformly branching from middle, branches declinate; radical leaves long-petioled, their blade broadly triangular, ternate, its segments long-petioluled, the leaves spreading, bipinnatisect into oval pinnatipartite sections, with lanceolate 2 mm long, cuneate, mucronate lobules; cauline leaves sessile on short sheaths, bipinnatisect into straight spreading filiform lobules to 20 mm long, the upper leaves reduced to few filiform lobules. Umbels to 15 cm across, of 15–20 rays usually all spreading; involucre absent or of 1–2 short, linear leaflets; umbellets 20–30-flowered; pedicels irregular, erect, filiform, remaining filiform in fruit; involucels of many (6–10) lanceolate, cuneate-acuminate, spreading leaflets; all flowers fertile; calyx edenticulate; petals equal, broadly oval, notched for half their length, with inward curved tip, 1 mm long; stylopodium flattenedpulviniform; styles thin, curved outward, as long as stylopodium is wide; fruit linear, 4 mm long, much shorter than thin pedicels; ripe mericarps separating from each other and from carpophore, pentahedral, with prominent filiform ribs; resinous canals 1 between ribs; seeds slightly concave toward commissure. Flowering June–July. Gentle exposed mountain slopes, central belt, Middle Asia (Shishkin 1950).

Local Medicinal Uses The seeds are used to treat diarrhea, indigestion, and stomach ache in Pakistan (Sher et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses The seeds are used as spice in Pakistan (Sher et al. 2016).

References Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 p, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Campanula glomerata L. Campanula sp. CAMPANULACAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Campanula glomerata L.: Campanula aggregata Willd.; Campanula cephalotes Fisch. ex Schrank; Campanula cephalotes var. canescens Maxim ex Nakai; Campanula cervicarioides Schult.; Campanula congesta Vest ex Schult.; Campanula conglomerata Gueldenst.; Campanula elliptica Kit. ex Schult.; Campanula eocervicaria Nábelek; Campanula farinosa (Rochel ex Besser) Andrz. ex Besser; Campanula glomerata fo. canescens (Maxim. ex Nakai) Kitag.; Campanula glomerata fo. hispida Witasek; Campanula glomerata subsp. cephalotes (Fisch. ex Schrank) D.Y. Hong; Campanula glomerata subsp. daqingshanica D.Y. Hong & Y.Z. Zhao; Campanula glomerata subsp. elliptica (Kit. ex Schult.) O. Schwarz.; Campanula glomerata subsp. farinosa (Rochel ex Besser) Kirschl.; Campanula glomerata subsp. glabriflora Contandriopoulos, Quezel & A. Pamukcuoglu; Campanula glomerata subsp. hispida (Witasek) Hayek; Campanula glomeratasubsp.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_32

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Serotina (Wettst.) O. Schwarz; Campanula glomerata subsp. subcapitata Fed.; Campanula glomerata var. cervicarioides (Schult.) DC.; Campanula glomerata var. dahurica Fisch.; Campanula glomerata var. elliptica (Kit. ex Schult.) DC.; Campanula glomerata var. farinosa Rochel ex Besser; Campanula glomerata var. hispida (Witasek) Fomin; Campanula glomerata var. oblongata Trautv.; Campanula glomerata var. speciosa Hornem. ex A. DC.; Campanula glomerata var. umbrosa Trautv.; Campanula hirsuta Mart.; Campanula maleevii Federov in Komarov; Campanula speciosa Hornem.; Campanula subcapitata Popov; Marianthemum aggregatum (Willd.) Schrank; Sycodon glomerata (L.) Fourr.; Weitenwebera glomerata (L.) Opiz

Local Names Russian: Кoлoкoльчик cкучeнный (Kolokol’chik skuchennyy); Uzbek: Кungrok gul; Kyrgyz: Toптoлгoнкoнгуpoo гул (Toptolgon konguroo gul); English: Clustered bell flower (Sokolov 1991)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; plant with thick, partly woody rhizome; stems (15) 30–50 (80) cm, rather thick or relatively thin, straight, simple or sometimes weakly branching, inconspicuously angular-faceted, leafy, often reddish, covered with soft, rarely stiff but not bristly hairs, rarely subglabrous; leaves dense, finely crenate, green above, darker green beneath, pubescent like stem but hairs shorter, rarely subglabrous, sometimes pubescent only along nerves; radical and lower cauline leaves long-petioled, ovate-oblong or ovate lanceolate, with shallow cordate, rounded or obtuse base, acute or obtuse; upper leaves sessile, narrower and smaller, sometimes semi amplexicaul, nearly flat, not undulant; largest laminas over 10 cm long and 3 cm wide. Inflorescence narrow, interrupted, not branching, comprising compact terminal head and sometimes rather numerous dense axillary clusters of flowers; calyx with not markedly pubescent, green, lanceolate, acuminate teeth, one-fourth to one-third the length of the corolla, without appendages; corolla tubular-infundibular, glabrous or very faintly short-haired, outside, dark violet, 2.5 cm long, divided for one-third into oblong-ovate acuminate or obtuse ciliate-margined lobes; style not exserted. Flowering June–August. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, Altai, meadows, shrubby formations, forest glades in the taiga belt; in the south encountered in similar habitats, but rare in steppes; in the mountains of Siberia, it reaches the alpine belt (Shishkin and Boborov 1957; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Campanula glomerata L. . . . Fig. 1 Campanula sp. (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Campanula latifolia (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Campanula latifolia (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Phytochemistry Alkaloids, vitamins (C) (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses An infusion of the leaves is used as an oral rinse, for sore throat, hoarseness, and externally for erysipelatous inflammations and internally for headache (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018; Sokolov 1991; Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Fig. 4 Campanula sp. (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Campanula glomerata L. . . . Fig. 5 Campanula sp. (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Campanula sp. (Campanulaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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182 Fig. 7 Campanula rapunculoides. (Campanulaceae), Bovec¸, Slovenia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Campanula sp. (Campanulaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Campanula glomerata L. . . .

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References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 24: Dipsacaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Campanulaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1957 (English 1972). 370 p, 27 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian).

Capparis spinosa L. CAPPARACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Capparis spinosa L.: Capparis murrayana J. Graham

Local Names Capparis spinosa: Russian: Кaпepцыкoлючиe (Kapertsy kolyuchiye); Uzbek: Kovul; Kyrgyz: Tикeндуукoнузбaш (Tikenduu konuz bash); English: Caper bush (Sokolov 1985)

Botany and Ecology Perennial with vertical root up to 10–12 m long; stems numerous, prostrate, up to 1.5 m long; the stipules are straight or curved yellowish spines; leaves roundedobovate or elliptic, sometimes acuminate at apex, with short petioles, young leaves R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_33

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and branch tips often covered with white tomentose hairs. Flowers 5–8 cm in diameter, solitary, axillary, borne on pedicels which frequently exceed the length of the adjoining leaf; calyx of acuminate-ovate concave sepals bearing short hairs on the outside; petals up to 4 cm long, pale rose, white, or rarely light yellowish, gynophore 3–5 cm long; capsule oblong -obovate 2.5–4.5 cm long and 1.5–3 cm broad, tapering in lower part; seeds 3 mm across, grayish brown, punctate. Flowering May–August, fruiting June–August. Ural, especially in the southern Ural extensions and Crimea, Caucasus, Central Middle Asia. Found mostly on sandy soils, along the banks of rivers and lakes, sometimes on old fallow agricultural land, from the plains to the medium-mountain belt (Bobrov and Bush 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).

Phytochemistry Essential oils, flavonoids, vitamins (C, carotene), alkaloids (stakhydrine, sticjydrine), flavonoids (rutine, quercetine, kaempferol, rutenoside), isothiocyanates (glucleomine, lucocaparine), mustard oil (Sokolov 1985).

Fig. 1 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia employed to treat jaundice, and for its protistocidal activity. A decoction of bark of roots serves for neuroses, hypochondria, paralysis, diseases of the spleen, colds, and with dysmenorrhea, asthma, gastrointestinal problems, hepatitis, and to treat skin mycosis. Fresh plant material is used to remedy toothache, hemorrhoids, and in a dry, crushed form, as an antiseptic, on wounds, and for syphilis. In Armenia Capparis serves to treat rheumatism and brucellosis (Sokolov 1985). The plant is also used to treat typhoid and fever (Sher et al. 2016).

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Fig. 4 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The flower buds are pickled in the whole region to produce capers, a well-known seasoning for meat, as well as in sauces (Bussmann 2017; Sher et al. 2016; Sokolov 1985).

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Fig. 6 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine used externally for scabies in horses. The green plant material is used to dye silk in dark green tones. As fodder sheep and goats. The plant is used in honey production and as ornamental (Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1985).

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References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 p, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik: Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Britton; Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Shafer; Bursa djurdjurae Shull; Bursa fracticruris Borbás; Birsa grandiflora Kuntze; Bursa nana Borbás; Bursa occidentalis Shull; Bursa orientalis Shull; Bursa pastoris Weber ex F.H. Wigg.; Bursa penarthae Shull; Bursa rubella (Reut.) Decne; Bursa tuscaloosae Shell; Bursa viguieri Shull; Capsella agrestis Jord.; Capsella an˜ pestris (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella apetala Opitz; Capsella batavorum (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella bursapastoris subsp. bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.; Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. eu-bursa Briq.; Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. occidentalis (Shull) Maire; Capsella bursapastoris var. integrifolia DC.; Capsella bursa-pastoris var. minuta Post; Capsella concava (E.A. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella heegeri Solms; Capsella Hyrcana Grossh.; Capsella lycia Stapf; Capsella mediterranea (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.); Capsella patagonica (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella penarthae (Shull) Wilmott; Capsella polymorpha Cav.; Capsella rideralis Jord.; Capsella stanocarpa Timb.Lagr.; Capsella thomsonii Hook. f.; Capsella treviorum E.B. Almq.; Capsella R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_34

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turoniensis E.B. Almq.; Capsella viguieri Blaringhem; Crucifera capsella E.H.L. Krause; Iberis bursa-pastoris (L.) Willd.; Nasturtium bursa-pastoris Roth; Solmsiella heegeri (Solms) Borbás; Thlaspi bursa-pastoris L.

Local Names Russian: Пacтушья cумкa oбыкнoвeннaя (Pastush’ya sumka obyknovennaya); Uzbek: Ochambiti, zhag-zhag; Kyrgyz: Кoйчубaштык (Koychu bashtyk); English: Shepherd’s purse (Sokolov 1985)

Botany and Ecology Annual, covered with simple and branching hairs mainly below; stems (5)20–30 (60) cm tall, often solitary, rarely several, simple or branching; radical leaves petioled, rosetted, oblong- lanceolate, entire to pinnatipartite, with triangular or oblong-triangular, acute, forward directed lobes, cauline leaves few, sessile, oblong, lanceolate, the upper sublinear, sagittate at base. Raceme umbelliform at first, later elongating; pedicels 2–4 mm long (up to 2 cm in fruit); sepals oblong-ovate, 1–2.5 mm long; petals ovate, white, 1.5–3.5 long, 1–1.3 mm broad; silicles (2.5) 5–8 mm long, 4–5(8) mm broad in upper part, obtriangular-cordate, slightly emarginate at apex, notch generally up to 1 mm in depth. Persistent portion of style 0.25 mm long, rarely longer; valves triangular-boat-shaped, thin-walled, slightly carinate; seeds oval, flattened, yellowish brown, 1–2.5 mm long, 0.5–0.75 mm broad. Flowering March–May, fruiting April–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, weed everywhere in villages, roadsides, fences, vegetable gardens and fields (Bobrov and Bush 1939) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Fig. 1 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Vitamins (C, B2, K, carotene), carbohydrates (sucrose, sorbose, lactose, sorbitol, mannitol, adonite), organic acids (oxalic, tartaric, apple, pyruvic, sulphanil, protocatechic), stricides (a-sitosterol), saponins, alkaloids, nitrogen-containing compounds (choline,

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Fig. 4 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Capsella bursapastoris (Brassicaceae) Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

acetylcholine, oxytocine), coumarins (coumarine, dicoumarol), tannins, flavonoids (glycosides of quercetine, luteoline, diosmethine, rutine, diosmine, luteoline, rutinoside, lucolalactoside, lyutoline), fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

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Local Medicinal Uses Used as hemostatic (especially the root) and urinary diseases, as an astringent, diuretic, antiscorbutic, and with hematuria in Middle Asia to treat uterine bleeding, bleeding ulcers and stomach cancer, uterine cancer, and fibroids. The plant is also used as contraceptive (delays ovulation), dysentery and eye diseases, and has antibacterial properties. In the Altai, the plant is used for dysentery, gastritis, bleeding, tuberculosis, malaria, heart disease, liver problems, venereal diseases, vomiting, catarrhal diseases, metabolic disorders, and for the treatment of infected wounds. The extract lowers blood pressure strengthens the motility of the intestines and uterus and accelerates blood clotting (Sokolov 1985). Used as astringent 8Ur-Rahman et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses Capsella can be eaten as a salad, frequently with many other species, and with mashed potatoes, and for pickling (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1985). The seeds as mustard substitute (Sokolov 1985).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the plant helps to treat diarrhea and internal bleeding. Serves as fodder for rabbits (Sokolov 1985).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d.

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Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Portulaca oleracea L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524p, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian). Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Caragana stenophylla Pojark. FABACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Caragana stenophylla Pojark.: Caragana pygmaea var. pallasiana Kom.; Caragana steophylla var. parviflora Z. Wang & H.C. Fu

Local Names Chinese: 狭叶锦鸡儿 (Xia ye jin ji er)

Botany and Ecology A spiny shrub 15–70 cm high, with greenish-gray to golden-brown bark; shoots rather short, very thin, angled, pubescent when young; stipules and leaf rachises on long shoots hardening and persistent for several years, the stipules to 3 mm long, slender, acicular, the rachis to 7 mm long, stouter, straight or recurved; leaflets glaucescent-green, hairy or subglabrous, narrowly linear-lanceolate, tapering to a B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_35

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spinous point, rather closely conduplicate and hence apparently acicular, 4–11 mm long and 0.75–1.5 mm broad; pedicels solitary 5–10 mm long, overtopped by leaves, articulate below the middle; calyx glabrous, rarely sparsely hairy; campanulatetubular, 5–6.5 mm long; calyx-teeth triangular, acute, spinescent, one-quarter as long as tube; corolla yellow, 14–17 (20) mm long; standard with orbicular or broadly oboval limb, abruptly contracted into and 5 times as long as the claw; wings mostly markedly dilated and obliquely truncate at apex, the limb 2–2.5 times as long as claw, the spur-like auricle two-fifths half the length of claw; keel with limb mostly 1.5 times as long as, rarely twice as long as or sometimes equaling claw, the auricle short and obtuse; ovary always glabrous; pod 2–2.5 cm long and 2.5–3 mm broad. Flowering towards the end of April–September. Sandy and clayey steppes, dry riverbeds, stony and clayey slopes of mountains and gullies. Siberia, Mongolia (Komarov and Shishkin 1945).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Mostly grown as ornamental (Komarov and Shishkin 1971).

References Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 11: Papilionatea, Ceasalpinoideae, Mimosoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1945 (English 1971). 327p, 25 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Carum caucasicum Boiss. Carum carvi L. APIACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Carum carvi L.: Carvi careum Bubani Carum gracile Lindl.; Carum rosellum Woronow; Apium carvi Crantz.; Foeniculum carvi (L.) Link

Local Names Carum carvi: Russian: Tмин oбыкнoвeнный (Tmin obyknovennyy); Uzbek: Korazira; Kyrgyz: Кaдимкикapум (Kadimki karum); Chinese: 葛缕子 (Ge lü zi); English: Caraway (Sokolov 1988)

Botany and Ecology Perennial herb, root long, spindle-shaped. Upright stems to 35 cm tall, with fine ridges and rarely branched. Leaves up to 9 cm. long, with sheathing base and innately compound, primary lobes 4–7 pairs, deeply lobed. Basal leaves oblongelliptic, 1–2 pinnately compound. End segments ovate. The petioles are longer than B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_36

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the rachis. Stem leaves are sessile, born from an inflated sheath with membranous margins. Flowers are in umbels, rays smooth, a whorl of rough-textured linear leaves below umbels. Flowers with 4–6 bracteoles below, petals white, 1 mm long and tips curling inward. Before flowering, leaves are broadly divided in their outermost segments. Fruit round, 3 mm long, with a short cone at tip. Styles bending backwards. In meadows and old moraines. Found in Caucasus (Ciscaucasia, Dagestan, East and West and South Transcaucasia) and generally in Pontus range. Flowers and fruits in July. Cauicasus, grows in alpine vegetation up to 3300 m. Carum carvi: A perennial or biennial herb, erect and entirely glabrous. Root is spindle-shaped and fleshy. Stems 20–80 cm tall, angled and with ridges. Lower leaves narrow, triangular to oblong and 2-pinnately compound. End segments ovate and deeply lobed. The petiole is shorter than the rachis. Upper leaves sheathing around stem. Leaves with whitish membranous margins, deeply lobed and 2-pinnately compound. Inflorescence of 8–16 rays. Leaves absent from base of inflorescence. Flowers pinkish-white. Fruit to 4 mm long, oblong to ovoid, glabrous with ridges and a blunt tip. Fruit bears persistent styles that are recurved and short. Flowers and fruits from June to July. Found at the edges of open conifer forests, or mixed forests. Found in damp meadows, around houses and in fields, 1300–4000 m. This species is widely cultivated. Everywhere in Caucasus, most of Europe, North Africa and Far East and the Himalayas. Introduced to North America and New Zealand. Carum carvi prefers warm, sunny locations and well-drained soil rich in organic matter. In warmer regions, it is planted in the winter months as an annual. In temperate climates, it is planted as a summer annual or biennial. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, on floodplains, the dry valleys, meadows, glades, forest fringes, often on degraded land, along roads (Shishkin 1950) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (umbelliferosis), essential oils (a-pinene, camphenum, y-terpeneene, p-cymol, cadinene, carveol, dihydrocarvone, carvon, a-flalandrane, y-terpinen, mentol, terpine, myristicine, sabinene, a-flalandrane, limonene, y-terpinene, camphor, caryophyllene), coumarins, flavonoids (quercetine, isoramnetin), vitamins (C), flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine, isoquercetine, rutine), steroids (stigmasterol), phenylcarboxylic acids, coumarins (umbelliferone, scopoletine, herniarine) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Ural the seeds are used as sedative, expectorant, diuretic, with flatulence, as carminative, laxative, for bronchial asthma, fevers, and eczema (Sokolov 1988). Carum carvi fruits are used as hypotensive, stimulant, diuretic, antispasmodic,

Carum caucasicum Boiss. . . .

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Fig. 1 Carum caucasicum (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

antihelminthic mean (Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982). In folk medicine of Armenia, an infusion of the fruits is used for functional disorders of the gastrointestinal tract of nervous nature, for diseases of liver and gallbladder, as well as for the treatment of inflammation of the respiratory tract (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Nosal and Nosal 1991). Carum carvi is used for intestinal diseases; the decoction and infusion of the fruits are applied as laxative and for carminative means. Other use, a decoction of the fruits is also applied as sedative, expectorant, diuretic, and anthelminthic (Damirov et al. 1988). A tincture made from the seeds is used for heartburn and diarrhea (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1942; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017) and also for stomach problems (Sher et al. 2016). The extract is good for swellings, as antibacterial, anthelminthic, calmative, and for uterine problems (Kunwar et al. 2010).

Local Food Uses The seeds are widely used as spice, for sweets, for fermented cabbage and sausages (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Sokolov 1988) (Figs. 5 and 6).

202 Fig. 2 Carum caucasicum (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Carum caucasicum (Apiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Carum caucasicum Boiss. . . . Fig. 4 Carum carvi (Apiaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Carum carvi (Apiaceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Carum carvi (Apiaceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017a;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 2017b;16(1):7–24. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Armenian Academy of Science; 1988. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Science; 2001. (in Armenian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 1976. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing house of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 2010. (in Russian). Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Carum carvi L.; Carum caucasicum Boiss. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad: Armenian Academy of Science; 1991. (in Russian). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478p, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Science; 1982. (in Russian).

Caryopteris mongholica Bunge LAMIACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Caryopteris mongholica Bunge: Caryopteris mongholica var. serrata Maxim.

Local Names Mandarin: 蒙古莸 (Meng gu you)

Botany and Ecology Subshrub, 30–150 cm tall, aromatic, usually branched from base. Branchlets purplebrown, pubescent when young, glabrescent. Petiole ca. 3 mm; leaf blade linearlanceolate to linear-oblong, 0.8–4  0.2–0.7 cm, papery, abaxially densely gray tomentose, adaxially dark green and puberulent, margin entire or subentire. Cymes axillary. Calyx campanulate, ca. 3 mm, deeply 5-lobed, outside densely gray tomentose; lobes linear to linear-lanceolate, ca. 1.5 mm. Corolla blue-purple, 1–1.5 cm, tube ca. 5 mm, pilose in throat, lower lobe strongly fringed. Stamens and style B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_56

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exserted. Ovary glabrous. Fruit subglobose, glabrous. Nutlets with winged edges. Flowering and fruiting August–October. Dry open slopes, boulder strewn washes, open canyons; 1100–1300 m above sea level. MongoliaNei Mongol, Shaanxi, Shanxi [Mongolia].

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is planted as ornamental (Wu and Raven 1994).

References Wu ZY, Raven PH. Flora of China. Vol. 17 (Verbenaceae through Solanaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 1994. 342 p.

Centaurea behen L. Centaurea depressa M. Bieb. Rhaponticum repens (L.) Hidalgo ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Centaurea depressa M. Bieb.: Cyanus depressus (M. Bieb.) Soják Rhaponticum repens (L.) Hidalgo: Acroptilon australe Iljin; Acroptilon picris (Pall. ex Willd.) C.A. Mey.; Acroptilon repens (L.) DC.; Centaurea picris Pall. ex Willd.; Centaurea repens L.; Serratula picris (Pall. ex Willd.) M. Bieb.

Local Names Centaurea depressa: Russian: Bacилeкпpидaвлeнный (Vasilek pridavlennyy); Uzbek: Butakuz; Kyrgyz: Жaгaлaккёпбaшы (Zhagalak kyop bashy); English: Iranian knapweed (Sokolov 1993)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_37

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Botany and Ecology Centaurea behen: Perennial. Plants to 1.5 m high, covered with very short, papilliform and spiniform hairs mixed with weakly floccose arachnoid-hairs, weakly scabrous, sometimes subglabrous. Stems upright, branched above middle, with numerous capitula usually at different height. Basal and lower cauline leaves very large, with quite long petioles, oblong, undivided or lyrate, with terminal lobe much larger than fewer lateral lobes, irregularly toothed; middle and upper cauline leaves smaller, entire or very weakly toothed, sessile, base of lamina decurrent on stem as broad wings; apical leaves not close to base of capitulum. Involucre 13–17 mm in diameter, 23–27 mm long; involucral bracts acute, lacking appendages. Florets yellow. Achenes about 5 mm long, with pappus 6–7 mm long. Flowering July– August. Caucasus, Middle Asia, on stony slopes, meadows, along roads, sometimes in fields, to the mid-mountain belt (Borisova 1963) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Centaurea depressa: Perennial. Whole plant gray from somewhat dense, appressed, arachnoid-hairy tomentum; bases of arachnoid hairs of plant not expanded (under hand lens). Stems solitary, (10)20–60 cm high, scabrous, erect, branched almost from base or slightly above, sometimes from middle, with upward spreading, simple or less branched, scabrous branches. Basal and lower cauline leaves oblong, oblongoblanceolate, less often oblong-obovate, obtuse or subacute, entire or remotely small-toothed, sometimes lyrately pinnatifid, short-petiolate, others oblong to Fig. 1 Centaurea depressa (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Centaurea dealbata (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Centaurea dealbata (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

lanceolate linear, usually subacute or acute, mostly entire, sessile; middle cauline leaves 2.5–6.0(7.5) cm long and 0.5–1.2(2.0) cm wide. Capitula aggregated in paniculate or almost corymbose inflorescence. Involucre ovate, (13)15–17 mm long and 9–13 mm in diameter, glabrous; appendages of outer and middle involucral bracts roundish-triangular above coriaceous part, usually partially covering bract below, fimbriate, with triangular dark- or blackish-reddish brown spot in center, fimbriae silverwhite, lanceolate, more or less somewhat long; appendages of inner bracts smaller, brownish, short- fimbriate. Corolla of central florets lilac pink, of peripheral florets blue or bluish-violet, 5–8-fid, limb lobes of peripheral florets 416 oblong-ovate, linear-ovate, or lanceolate. Achenes ellipsoid-obovoid, 5.0–5.5 mm long and 2.5–2.8(3.0) mm wide; pappus 6–8 mm long, inner pappus 1/3 as long as outer one, of 20–23-scales. Flowering May–August, fruiting June–September). Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, as weed in crops, dry slopes, in valleys, to the middle mountain belt (Borisova 1963) (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).

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Fig. 4 Centaurea dealbata (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Rhaponticum repens: Perennial. Root string-like, very long (up to 6 m), with lateral, more or less horizontal or obliquely rising, long (up to 1 m and more) suckers. Stem single or few (2–3), 15–60(75) cm high, erect, ribbed, strongly branched almost from base or slightly above, grayish-arachnoid-hairy, occasionally subglabrous; underground part of stem blackish-brown, covered with brown or blackish scales. Leaves stiff, oblong to almost linear, with very small cusp, pinnatifid and with remote teeth to entire upper cauline, grayish arachnoid-hairy, sometimes almost lacking arachnoid pubescence, usually scabrous only along margin from acute, short, spiny hairs or obtuse spines, covered with punctate sessile glands, sessile, not decurrent to stem. Capitula solitary at tips of stem and lateral branches, in lax racemose-corymbose or paniculate inflorescence. Involucre oblong-ovate or ovate, 10–13 mm long and 5–7 (8) mm in diameter; appendages of involucral bracts scarious in outer and middle bracts, partially overlapping and not surpassing coriaceous part of inner bract, obtuse to acute, often weakly lacerate, short-hairy, narrow in innermost bracts, densely long-hairy, somewhat recurved, 3.0–4.5 mm long. Florets pink. Achenes (2.5) 3.0–4.0 mm long and (1.5) 2.0 mm wide; pappus 8–11 mm long. Flowering May– August, fruiting June–September. Altai, Middle Asia, on sub-alpine and alpine meadows, rately alpine tundra, often as weed in fields, Clayey, sandy, and stony

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Fig. 5 Centaurea cheiranthifolia (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Centaurea cheiranthifolia (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

steppes, on alkaline meadows and salt marshes, sandy-gravelly and rocky shores of rivers and lakes, stony and clayey mountain slopes, from lowlands to 2600–2800 m; as weed in crops, in old fields, roadsides, in residential areas (Borisova 1963).

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Fig. 7 Centaurea sp. (Asteraceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Latex, alkaloids, flavonoids (scotellarin, scutellarine, apigenine, querccetine, apigenine), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee, chlorogenic), tannins, saponins. Rhaponticum carthamoides: Phenylcarboxylic acids (p-hydroxybenzoic, protokatechovaya, vanillin, p-kumaric, coffee, ferulic, chlorogenic, neochlorogenic, isochlorogenic, p-kumaric, coffee, ferulic, chlorogenic, neochlorogenic, isochlorogenic), flavonoids (quercetine, patuleine, kaempferol, gossipetine, isoramnetine, quercetacetine, luteoline, apigenine), anthocyanins (cyanine, chrysanthemum), essential oils, organic acids (wine, lemon, oxalic, succinic, fumaric), steroids (sistosterin, stigmasterol, carthamen acetate, ecdysterone, integrosterone A, integrosteron, rapistosterone), vitamins (C, carotene) (Sokolov 1993).

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Fig. 8 Centaurea sp. (Asteraceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Centaurea behen: The leaves are used in Turkmenistan as an astringent, and the root decoction for neural diseases (Sokolov 1993). Centaurea depressa is used in Middle Asia for jaundice; depression, and eye diseases. Rhaponticum carthamoides is used in the Altai as restorative, for anemia, as antitoxic, and stimulant (Sokolov 1993).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves yield yellow and orange dyes for wool and silk. All species are used as ornamentals (Sokolov 1993).

216 Fig. 9 Centaurea sp. (Asteraceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Centaurea sp. (Asteraceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 28: Compositae, Tribes Cynareae and Mustisieae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1963 (English 1998). 810 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Chrysanthemum chanetii H. Lév. ASTERACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Chrysanthemum chanetii H. Lév.: Chrysanthemum erubescens Stapf; Chrysanthemum maximoviczianum var. aristatomucronatum Y. Ling; Dendranthema chanetii (H. Lév.) C. Shih; Dendranthema erubescens (Stapf) Tzvelev

Local Names Chinese: 小红菊 (Xiao hong ju)

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Plant 10–50 cm high, with thin, more of less branched rhizome, more or less covered with crisped simple and appressed bifid hairs. Stems usually few, erect or ascending, densely leafy, strongly branched above middle, very rarely simple. Leaves with numerous punctate glands, more or less covered with short crisped hairs to subglabrous, green above, pale green beneath; basal leaves up to 10 cm long and B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_38

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5 cm wide, with rather long petiole thickened at base, their lamina reniform to broadly ovate, near base straight truncate or weakly cordate, cuneately decurrent on petiole only at base, subobtuse, 3-lobed or pinnately lobed (or pinnately parted) up to a half, less often beyond, with 2–3 approximate lateral lobes on each side; segments or lobes oblong to broadly ovate, 5–12 mm wide, irregularly toothed or shallow lobed; cauline leaves smaller, with shorter petiole, and ovate or almost round lamina; uppermost leaves many, more or less toothed or lobed, cuneately narrowed into petiole. Capitula 2–15 (very rarely solitary), one on each branch surrounded by reduced bracteal leaves, in lax compound corymb. Involucre 6–10 mm in diameter and 2–4 mm long, more or less hairy; outer involucral bracts narrow-linear, with brownish membranous border near apex, oblong-linear, or linear, throughout with rather wide membranous border. Ligulate florets white or pinkish-white, with compressed but almost wingless corolla tube 1.2–1.5 mm long and ligule 8–15 mm long and 2–3 mm wide; corolla of tubular florets 1.8–2.4 mm long. Achenes 1.3–1.8 mm long, lacking corona. Flowering September–October. Rocks, stony slopes; up to lower mountain zone. Mongolia, Altai (Shishkin and Boborov 1961).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Planted as ornamental (Shishkin and Boborov 1961).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 26: Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961 (English 1995). 1072p.

Cichorium intybus L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Russian: Цикopий oбыкнoвeнный (Tsikoriy obyknovennyy); Uzbek: Sachratki; Kyrgyz: Кaдимкидapчын (Kadimki darchyn); English: Chicory (Sokolov 1993)

Botany and Ecology Perennials. Plants 20–150 cm high, green or glaucous-green; stem erect, usually more or less branched, branches often strongly divergent and slightly thickened toward apex, more or less setose or with crisped hairs, often glabrous or almost so. Leaves dorsally setose or crisped hairy, ventrally more or less crisped hairy; basal leaves usually persisting during flowering, truncinately pinnatipartite to undivided, but more or less toothed, gradually narrowed into winged petiole; cauline leaves (except lowermost; these similar to basal leaves) relatively less numerous and highly reduced, lanceolate-ovate to lanceolate, amplexicaul, with roundish or sagittate, often more or less toothed auricles. Capitula usually numerous, solitary or a few R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_39

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Fig. 1 Cichorium sp. (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

grouped together, terminal on stem and branches, and also in axils of middle and upper cauline leaves. Involucre 8–14 (–17) mm long; outer involucral bracts half to two-thirds as long as inner ones and usually more or less divergent, unequal in shape and length, relatively thin coriaceous in lower part, more or less ciliate along margin, more or less hairy on outer side, with simple or glandular hairs, often entirely glabrous; inner bracts usually more or less hairy or ciliate in upper part. Corolla 15–25 mm long, with varying shades of blue, sometimes whitish, rapidly discolored in water. Achenes 2–3 mm long, with 0.2–0.3 mm long pappus. Flowering July– October. Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, forest glades, grassy slopes, near roads, in the fields, near settlements, along stony and clay dry creek beds, up to 2000 m above sea level (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Carotenoids, coumarins (cichorian, esculetine, esculine, scopoletine, umbelliferone), fatty acids, latex, sesquiterpenoids (lactucine, lactukopicrin), triterpenoids (taraxasterol), carbohydrates (inuline, levulose, flucose, fructose, sucrose, intibin, levuline, fructosans, glucofructosans), organic acids, essential oils (benzothiazole,

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Fig. 2 Cichorium sp. (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

methanol oleate n-pentadecanoic, palmitic, oleic 0.9, linoleic), sesquiterpenoids (lactucine, lactukopicrine), alkaloids, vitamins (C, K, thiamine, riboflavine, nicotinic and pantothenic acid), phenolcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic, neohrogenic, isochlorogenic), tannins, flavonoids (apigenin, luteolene, quercitine, hyperine), anthocyanins (cyanidine, delfinidine) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses A leaf infusion is used in Middle Asia for the treatment of diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and as anti-inflammatory, astringent. The inflorescences are used to increase the appetite, improve digestion, to treat inflammation of the stomach, diseases of the large and small intestines, gall bladder, kidneys, as well as kidney and gallstones. The inflorescences are also used to treat swellings related to heart conditions The fresh leaf juice is used to improve digestion, stimulation of appetite, with stomach ulcers, gastritis, liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, with diseases of the spleen, kidneys, as diuretic, and for anemia. Externally the leaf extract is applied as poultice for rheumatism, arthritis, with wounds, ulcers, swellings, eczema, furunculosis, carbuncles, stomatitis, and conjunctivitis. In the Ural, the decoction of the roots

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Fig. 3 Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

serves as emollient for angina and pneumonia and as sedative for heart disease. The leaf ash is applied topically to eczema, chicken pox, and skin diseases, and the extract used as shampoo to strengthen the hair and as remedy for sunburns. The stem extract is used to treat malaria (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Sokolov 1993).

Local Food Uses The roots are used as coffee surrogate and flavoring agent for sweets (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Sokolov 1993).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is used as nematicide in agriculture. It is used as fodder for cattle, to increase milk yield (Sokolov 1993). Wounds of domestic animals are dressed with crushed Cichorium stems mixed with oil (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Cichorium intybus L. Fig. 4 Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Cichorium intybus (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Boborov EG, Tzvelev NN. Flora of the USSR, Volume 29: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1964 (English 2001). 832p, 34 plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Cichorium intybus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Clematis orientalis L. Clematis sp. RANUNCULACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Clematis orientalis L.: Clematis baltistanica Qureshi & Chaudhri; Clematis incisodentata Rich.; Clematis orientalis var. longifoliata Tamura; Clematis orientalis var. obtusifolia Hook. f. & Thomson; Clematis oveniae Harvey & Sonder; Clematis petersiana Klotzsch; Clematis thunbegii Steud.; Clematis triloba Thunb.; Clematis viridiflora Bertol.

Local Names Russian: Лoмoнoc вocтoчный, Клeмaтиc вocтoчный (Lomonos vostochnyy, Klematis vostochnyy); Uzbek: Ilan chup; Kyrgyz: Чыгыжeбeлгecи (Chygysh zhebelgesi); English: Oriental virgins-bower (Fedorov 1984)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_40

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Botany and Ecology Perennial, more or less densely crisp-pubescent or glabrate throughout; stem climbing, costate, sometimes reddish; leaves pinnatisect, light gray greenish, slightly thickish and rigid, greatly varying in shape, width, and degree of dissection of the ovate or oblong or lanceolate or linear primary lobes, these are usually ternately dissected into 2 short lateral and a longer median lobule, the lobules entire or dentate, obtuse or apiculate; flowers in smallish paniculate inflorescences, in axils of leaves; sepals 4, yellowish, often reddish on the outside, with a short tomentum on both surfaces (denser on the inside and at the margins), oblong-lanceolate or narrowly ovate-lanceolate, long-acuminate, frequently hamately curved at the apex, 1.5– 2.5 cm long; fruitlets compressed, with a thickened edge, pubescent; style 5– 10 cm long; filaments dilated toward base, more or less pubescent. Flowering July–August, fruiting July–October. Ural, Altai, along banks of rivers, canals, mudflows, meadows, in coastal forests (Shishkin and Bobrov 1937) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (clampine), triterpene saponins, coumarins, flavonoids, melissic acid, myricyl alcohol, caulosapogenin glycoside (Fedorov 1984). Fig. 1 Clematis vitalba (Ranunculaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Clematis orientalis L. . . . Fig. 2 Clematis vitalba (Ranunculaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Clematis vitalba (Ranunculaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses In Central Middle Asia, the leaf powder is applied to fractures. The extract is used to treat tuberculosis. As poultice, it is applied externally for itchy eczema. Especially in Tadzhikistan, it is applied to skin problems and used as an antidote for snakebites (Fedorov 1984). Clematis grata is used to treat dermatitis (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). Clematis buchaniana serves for skin ailments and Clematis montana for diabetes and urinary system problems (Bhat et al. 2013).

Local Food Uses The young leaves are boiled and eaten (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is planted as ornamental. It is used as fodder for small livestock (Fedorov 1984).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII. 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016a;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016b;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Shishkin BK, Bobrov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 7: Ranales to Rhoedales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1937 (English 1970). 615p. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Conium maculatum L. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Conium maculatum L.: Cicuta major Lam.; Cicuta officinalis Crantz; Conium cicuta Neck.; Conium maculatum Pall.; Coriandrum cicuta Crantz; Coriandrum cicuta Roth; Coriandrum maculatum (L.) Roth; Selinum conium (Vest) E.H.L. Krause; Sium conium Vest

Local Names Russian: Бoлигoлoвпятниcтый (Boligolov pyatnistyy); Uzbek: Sasik alaf; Kyrgyz: Убaлдыpкaн (Uu baldyrkan); English: Poison hemlock (Sokolov 1988)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_41

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Botany and Ecology Biennial, stem 60–180 cm high, branching, finely sulcate, like leaves glabrous, sometimes with glaucous bloom and reddish-brown spots in lower part; lower leaves petiolate, tripinnate, broadly triangular, 30–60 cm long, with primary, secondary and tertiary lobes petiolate, only the lowermost sessile, the tertiary ones oblong-ovate, deeply pinnatisect into ovate-lanceolate, acuminate lobules, sometimes with short whitish tip; median and upper leaves smaller and not as compound, subsessile, with narrow sheath. Umbels numerous, forming corymbiform-paniculate inflorescence, of 12–20 rays, slightly scabrous inside; involucre of ovate-lanceolate, narrowmargined obscurely crenate reflexed leaflets; leaflets of involucels 3–7, secund, connate at base, ovate-lanceolate, glabrous, with narrow scarious margin, shorter or slightly longer than rays; fruit subcylindrical or ovoid, 3–3.5 mm long; styles ca. 1 mm long, becoming curved, nearly twice as long as stylopodium. Flowering June–July. Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, as weed in pastures, forest fringes, wet meadows, flooded meadows, limestone slopes, in crops and fallow land, near dwellings, kitchen gardens, roadsides, hedges, dumps, walls of ravines and railroad tracks (Shishkin 1950).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (coniine, N-methylconium, conhydrine, methylpiperidine, congidron, N-methylpseudoconhydrine), polyacetylene compounds (falkarinone), phenocarboxylic acids (coffee), essential oils, flavonoids (diosmin), coumarins, anthocyanins (3-xylosyl galactose cyanideine, feruloyl), flavonoids (hesperidIn diosmine, luteline, quercetine), nitrogen-containing compounds (pipecolic acid), coumarins (bergapten, xanthate), anthocyanins, fatty acids (petroselin, petrozelidine, linoleic, palmitic, stearic, linolenium) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Western Ural, the leaf extract is used as an analgesic, sedative, anti-asthmatic, anticancer, for stomach problems, dysmenorrhea, syphilis, anticonvulsant, for epilepsy, pertussis, migraine headaches, cancer, and uterine fibroids (Sokolov 1988).

Local Food Uses In the Northern Caucasus, the young stems are pickled (Bussmann et al. 2016; Sokolov 1988).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is highly toxic (Sokolov 1988).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478p, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357p. (in Russian).

Convolvulus arvensis L. CONVOLVULACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Convolvulus arvensis L.: Convolvulus arvensis var. angustatus Ledeb.; Convolvulus arvensis var.crassifolius Choisy; Convolvulus arvensis var.hastulatus Meisn.; Convolvulus arvensis var. linearifolius Chiusy; Convolvulus arvensis var.sagittatus Ledeb.; Convolvulus arvensis var.sagittifolius Turcz.; Convolvulus arvensis var. villosus Choisy; Convolvulus chinensis Ker Gawl.; Convolvulus sagittiofolius Liou & Ling

Local Names Russian: Bьюнoкпoлeвoй (V’yunok polevoy); Uzbek: Kuy pechak; Kyrgyz: Чыpмoк (Chyrmok); English: Field bindweed (Sokolov 1990)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_42

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Botany and Ecology Perennial, sucker-forming plant; stems 20–100(120) cm high, usually few, twining, rarely spreading, glabrous or with scattered thin hairs above; leaves petiolate, ovateelliptic, elliptic, triangular, oblong or linear-oblong, hastate or sagittate-hastate at base, with broad entire or 1–2 toothed auricles, rarely rounded-cordate, glabrous or with scattered short hairs. Flowers 1–2(3) on axillary peduncles usually longer than leaves; sepals 4–6 mm long, oblong or oblong-obovate, often notched or with small teeth, glabrous, sometimes with ciliate margin, rarely with some hairs on surface; corolla 15–26 mm long, pink, rarely white, glabrous or with bands of hairs in upper part; capsule smooth, globose-ovoid, ca. 6–7 mm long, produced to small beak above; seeds dark gray or brown, slightly tuberculate. Flowering (April)May– September, fruiting June–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, on coastal meadows, along the banks of rivers, streams, on the slopes of ravines, gravelly slopes, garbage places, as weed in crops, vineyards, and vegetable gardens, near roads, from the lowlands to the middle-mountain belt (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1953) (Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (convolveline, convolvine, jalapine, tropine, pseudotropine, tropinone, cuscohygrine, hygrine), vitamins (C, E, carotene), phenolcarboxylic acids (ferulic, caffeic), coumarins (3-methyl-esuletin, umbelliferon, scopoletine), flavonoids Fig. 1 Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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(quercetin, kaempferol), saponins, tannins, steroids (stigmasterol), phenolcarbonic acids (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses In Mongolian medicine, the species is used to treat enuresis, eye diseases, pruritus dermatitis, and also used as a sedative. It is used topically for wounds, bruises, mastitis, and toothache. In Central Middle Asia, the juice is used for gallbladder problems, sometimes with severe pain, lung disease, bronchitis, liver and spleen problems, as diuretic, and topically to treat snakebites and scorpion stings, for the removal of freckles, and for the treatment of burns, ulcers, wounds, cuts, bruises, arthritis, sciatica, skin ulcers, and fungal skin diseases (Sokolov 1990).

Local Food Uses The leaves can be cooked and eaten, normally mixed with a large number of other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1990).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species serves as food for livestock.

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper

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L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 19: Tubiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 1974). 563 p, 40 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Crataegus altaica (Loudon) Lange Crataegus songarica K. Koch Crataegus sp. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Crataegus altaica (Loudon) Lange: Crataegus purpurea var. altaica Loudon; Crataegus sanguinea var. incisa Regel; Crataegus sanguinea var. inermis Kar. & Kir.; Crataegus wattiana var. incisa C.K. Schneid. Crataegus songarica K. Koch: Crataegus fischeri C.K. Schneid.

Local Names Russian: оярышник Hawthorn

однопестный

(Boyaryshnik

odnopestnyi);

English:

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_43

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Botany and Ecology Crataegus altaica: Small tree, 4–5 m tall, spines; annotinous shoots glabrous, lustrous, brownish red, beset with light lenticels; older shoots yellowish gray or reddish gray; stipules large, cordate or falcate, with large teeth terminating in a gland; leaves usually broadly triangular-oval to orbicular), from 3.5 cm (at base of flowering shoots) to 12 cm long, 2.5–10 cm broad, on the average 6.5 cm; leaves acute, broadly truncate, less often rounded, shallowly cordate, or rounded-cuneate at base, dull, glaucous-green above, lighter below, mostly subglabrous, less often sparsely puberulent above, shallowly 7–9-lobed, the lower horizontal lobes usually much larger than the others, sometimes subentire; rarely but throughout the distribution area there are specimens with leaves deeply lobed (especially on sterile shoots), nearly pinnatisect at base, sometimes even with remote lower lobes; leaf margin acutely dentate; inflorescences 20–50-flowered, glabrous; pedicels ca. 6.5 mm long; sepals triangular-lanceolate, curved, shorter than and appressed to the hypanthium, entire or with 1 or 2 small teeth; flowers white; stamens 20; anthers white; styles nearly always 5 (very rarely 4); ovary apex sparsely hairy. Fruiting abundantly, slightly nodding; fruits 8–12 mm in diameter, globose or slightly flattened above, rarely oblong, their color varying at maturity from ochre orange-yellow to orange-brown, with very soft, mealy, light yellow, tasty flesh. Flowering May–June, fruiting August–September. Ural, Altai, Middle Asia, on mountain slopes, in gorges, valleys, and open forests, from the middle mountain belt to the timberline (Yuzepchuk 1939) (Fig. 1). Crataegus. songarica: Tree, up to 10 m tall, with multiple trunks, each 5–9 cm in diameter. Bark reddish-gray to blackish with small cracks; young twigs green,

Fig. 1 Crataegus pentagyna (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Crataegus altaica (Loudon) Lange. . .

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Fig. 2 Crataegus taurica (Rosaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

glabrous or slightly hairy with spines up to 1.7 cm long; 1-year old twigs reddishbrown; older branches brown with smooth bark. Leaves petiolate, 6–8 cm long, 5–6 cm wide, broadly triangular to almost circular, 5–7-lobed, margins dentate. Inflorescence corymbiform with 28–35 flowers. Flowers up to 1.8 cm in diameter with 5 white petals. Fruits round pomes, dark red, with 2–3 seeds. With smooth, brown older branches and reddish-brown year-old twigs. Flowering May–June, fruiting August–September. Middle Asia (Pamir, Altai and Tien-Shan), in valleys, on mountain slopes, in the underbrush, up to 1800–2800 m above sea level (Yuzepchuk 1939) (Figs. 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Tannins, fatty acids, flavonoids (rutine), vitamins (C, B11, carotene), essential oils, catechins (epicatechine), leucoanthocyanins (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses The fruit infusion is used to treat problems of the central nervous system and the heart. A flower extract is used for rheumatism and the fruit tincture as hypotensive. In Middle Asia, a decoction is used to treat hypertension, dizziness, tachycardia, insomnia, heart diseases, and colds. The fresh fruits are used as laxative (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Joshi et al. 2010; Malik et al. 2018; Sokolov 1987) and often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b).

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Fig. 3 Crataegus taurcius (Rosaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Crataegus pentagyna (Rosaceae), fruits, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The fruits are edible, but consumption of large amounts can cause shortness of breath and heart failure (Sokolov 1987).

Crataegus altaica (Loudon) Lange. . .

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1987).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Crataegus curvisepala Lindm.; Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Malik K, Ahmad M, Bussmann RW, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Tariq A, Alqahtani A, Shahat A, Ullah R, Rashid N, Zafar M, Sultana S, Nasar Shah S. Ethnobotanty of hypertensive plants used in Northern areas of Pakistan. Front Pharmacol. 2018;9:789. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fphar.2018.00789. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, Volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425p, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps.

Cynanchum thesioides (Freyn) K. Schum. APOCYNACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Cynanchum thesioides (Freyn) K. Schum.: Alexitoxicon sibiricum (L.) Pobed.; Antitoxicum sibiricum (L.) Pobed; Asclepias sibirica L.; Cynanchum sibiricum (L.) R. Br.; Cynanchum sibiricum var. australe (Maxim.) Maxim. ex Kom.; Cynanchum sibiricum var. gracilentum Nakai & Kitag.; Cynanchum sibiricum var. latifolium Kitag.; Cynanchum thesioides var. australe (Maxim.) Tisang & P.T. Li; Rhodostegiella sibirica (L.) C.Y. Wu & D.Z. Li; Rhodostegiella sibirica var. australis (Maxim.) C.G. Wu & D.Z. Li; Vincetoxicum sibiricum (L.) Decne.; Vincetoxicum sibiricum var. australe Maxim.; Vincetoxicum sibiricum var. boreale Maxim.; Vincetoxicum thesioides Freyn

Local Names Chinese: 地梢瓜 (Di shao gua)

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_44

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; rootstock slender, ligneous, brown, with stringy horizontal offshoots; stems several, 15–40 cm long, simple or divaricately branched, slender, herbaceous, densely vested all round with short hairs; leaves linear to linear-lanceolate, 4–7 cm long, 0.3–0.4 cm broad, acuminate, cuneate at base, with prominent midrib, often revolute, densely covered on both sides with short hairs especially on veins and margin, the lower surface paler; petioles 1–2 mm long; umbels 5–6 per peduncle; 3–6-flowered; peduncles short, not exceeding the leaves; pedicels 2–3-times the length of flower; peduncles and pedicels pubescent; flowers 7–8 mm in diameter, yellowish-white; calyx segments oblong, obtuse, pubescent; corolla lobes oblongovate, obtuse, reflexed, glabrous, 3–4 mm long, 2–3 times the length of corona; corona membranous, deeply 5-parted; scales of corona lanceolate, obtuse, 2 mm long, alternate with 5 minute but distinct triangular teeth; appendage of anthers acute, attenuate at apex, ovate, 1 mm long, 1/2–2 times the length of anther, with sparse thick cilia; pollinia ovaloid; translator arms horizontal, short, enlarged at the point of attachment to pollinia; gland oval, somewhat shorter than pollinia, slightly narrowed toward base; stigma convex, 2-lobed; follicles fusiform, thick, 5–7 cm long and 0.8–1.8 cm broad, long- attenuate at the tip, covered with very short hairs; seeds ferruginous -brown, with dark brown granules scattered over the surface especially on the convex side, markedly flattened, sub-ellipsoid, 6–8 mm long, 3–4 mm broad, with a broad denticulate margin. Flowering June–August, fruiting July–September. Sandhills, pine woods, steppe and rocky slopes, and rock crevices., Siberia, Mongolia (Shishkin and Boborov 1952).

Local Medicinal Uses In Mongolian medicine the immature plants are used for acute and chronic gastritis (Sokolov 1985).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 18: Metachlamydeae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1952 (English 1967). 600p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Dactylorhiza umbrosa (Kar. & Kir.) Nevski Dactylorhiza sp. ORCHIDACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Dactylorhiza umbrosa (Kar. & Kir.) Nevski: Dactylorchis umbrosa (Kar. & Kir.) Wendelbo; Dactylorhiza chuhensis Renx & Taubenheim; Dactylorhiza incarnata subsp. turcestanica (Klinge) H. Sund.; Dactylorhiza knorringiana (Kreanzl.) Ikonn.; Dactylorhiza kotschyi (Rchb. f.) P.F. Hunt & Summerh.; Dactylorhiza merovensis (Grossh.) Aver.; Dactylorhiza persica (Schltr.) Soó; Dactylorhiza renzii Aver.; Dactylorhiza sanasunitensis (H. Fleischm.) Soó; Dactylorhiza umbrosa var. chuhensis (Renz & Taubenheim) Kreuz; Dactylorhiza umbrosa var. knorringiana (Kraenzl.) Soó; Dactylorhiza umbrosa var. longibracteata Renz.; Dactylorhiza umbrosa var. ochroleuca (Bornm.) Renz; Orchis hatagirea var. afghanica Soó; Orchis incarnata fo. ochroleuca Bornm.; Orchis incarnata var. knorringiana Kraenzl.; Orchis incarnata var. kotschyi Rchb. f.; Orchis knorringiana (Kraenzl.) Czerniak. ex Nikitin; Orchis kotschyi (Rchb. f.) Schltr.; Orchis merovensis Grossh.; Orchis orientalis subsp. turcestanica Klinge; Orchis persica Schltr.; Orchis sanasunitensis H. Fleischm.; Orchis turkestanica (Klinge) Klinge ex B. Fedetsch.; Orchis umbrosa Kar. & Kir. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_45

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Local Names Russian: Дaктилopизa тeнeвaя, Яpтышниктeнeвoй (Daktiloriza tenevaya, Yartyshnik tenevoy); Uzbek: Saleeb; Kyrgyz: Кoлoкoлуy apaлa (Kolokoluy arala) (Sokolov 1994)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; tubers 3–6-parted; stem (10) 30–50 (80) cm long, hollow, erect, stout, at base to 1.5 cm thick; leaves 4–12 (mostly 6 or 7), never spotted, lanceolate to linearlanceolate, acuminate, slightly spreading or more or less recurved; lower leaves (7) 10–30 cm long and 2–5 cm broad, very slightly narrowed toward base; upper leaves narrower, usually reaching the base of spike; spike cylindric or short-cylindric, densely many-flowered, 3–25 cm in diameter; bracts green or violet-tinged, narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, more or less spreading; lower bracts commonly equaling or more or less exceeding the flower, 2.5–4 mm long and 3–4.5 mm broad, the upper 1.2–1.8 cm long and 2.5–3 mm broad; flowers violet-purple or lilac -purple; lip at base faintly whitish, with a violet pattern consisting of a continuous line shaped like the Greek letter omega and a fine hachure inside the line, the remaining surface also dark-speckled; lateral sepals ovate-lanceolate, obtuse, (8)9–11(13) mm long and 3– 3.5(4) mm broad, inequilateral; median sepal 7–9(10–11) mm long and 2.5–3.5 mm broad, obtuse; petals about the length of the median sepal; lip minutely papillose above, rounded -rhomboid or rounded-obcordate, rarely rounded -cordate or suborbicular, very obscurely 3-lobed at apex or with a small obtuse median tooth, very rarely shortly 3-lobed, (7)8–10(12) mm long and (7)8–12(14) mm broad, narrowed toward base and broadest below the middle (i. e., nearer apex); spur cylindric, more or less curved, obtusish or obtuse, (10)12–15(18) mm long and 1.5–2.25 mm thick, always longer than the lip and mostly the length of ovary. Flowering May–June. Altai, Middle Asia, on wet hills, meadows, along the banks of mountain rivers, streams (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates, alkaloids, saponins, glycosides (loroglossine), lactones (Sokolov 1994).

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia, a tuber decoction is used to treat gastritis and kidney disease. In the Ural, used as a diuretic, as well as to treat fevers and gynecological diseases. The crushed tubers are mixed with lard and used for abscesses, or fresh applied for toothaches, and to stimulate hair growth. In Tajikistan, the decoction of the tubers is

Dactylorhiza umbrosa (Kar. & Kir.) Nevski. . .

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Fig. 1 Dactylorhiza euxinia (Orchidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

used treat convulsions, paralysis, stomach catarrh, kidney stones, and to stimulate blood production. The boiled roots are used to rejuvenate the elderly to treat tuberculosis. An infusion of the tubers is used to treat coughs, inflammation of the respiratory tract, to increase energy, to calm nerves, treat coughs, impotence, and gastrointestinal tract problems (Sokolov 1994). The bulb extract of Dactylorhiza hatagirea is widely used to treat cuts and wounds, especially to stop bleeding (Bhat et al. 2015; Kunwar et al. 2006, 2009, 2010, 2013; Singh et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses The tubers are used to produce soft drinks, ice-cream, and sweets (Sokolov 1994).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for livestock (Sokolov 1994).

250 Fig. 2 Dactylorhiza euxinia (Orchidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Dactylorhiza urvilleana (Orchidaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

R. W. Bussmann et al.

Dactylorhiza umbrosa (Kar. & Kir.) Nevski. . . Fig. 4 Dactylorhiza urvilleana (Orchidaceae), Borjomi-Kharagauli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Dactylorhiza fuchsii (Orchidaceae), BorjomiKharagauli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133– 44. Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 4: Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586p, 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:27. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in Far-West Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian).

Datura stramonium L. SOLANACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Datura stramonium L.: Datura bertolonii Parl. ex Guss.; Datura inermis Juss. ex Jacq.; Datura lurida Salisb.; Datura nigra Hassk; Datura parviflora Salisb.; Datura pseudostramonium Sieber ex Bernh.; Datura stramonium var. tatula (L.) Torr.; Datura tatula L.; Stramonium foetidum Scop.; Stramonium spinosum Lam.; Stramonium tatula (L.) Moench; Stramonium vulgatum Gaertn.

Local Names Russian: Дуpмaн oбыкнoвeнный, Дуpмaнвoнючий (Durman obyknovennyy, Durman vonyuchiy); Uzbek: Bangi divana; Kyrgyz: Кaдимкичoчкo жaнгaк (Kadimki chochko zhangak); English: Jimsonweed (Sokolov 1990)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_46

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Botany and Ecology Annual. Plant (12)20–100(120) cm tall, fetid. Root fusiform, with numerous slender branches, white. Stem simple or dichotomously branched above, green, glabrous; branches pubescent on inner side, usually diverging at acute angle. Leaves with petioles equaling lamina or about half as long; basal leaves up to 20 cm long and broad, ovate, acuminate, cuneate at base, margin with large unequal acute or acuminate teeth, simple, rarely incised, upper surface dark green, lighter beneath, both surfaces sparsely puberulent, slightly more densely underneath (or pubescent only underneath). Flowers solitary in bifurcations of stem and branches, on straight, erect, pubescent, 7–12 mm long pedicels. Calyx 4–6 cm long, pale green, 5-angled, tubular, slightly inflated, with 5 acuminate teeth. Corolla 6–10(12) cm long, white, infundibuliform, with long narrow tube and plicate broad limb, cleft into 5 (very rarely 6) short broadly triangular lobes, sharply tapering above into slender 5–8 mm long cusp. Ovary densely covered with soft bristles, style slender, long. Fruit ovoid or subglobose capsule, surrounded below by recurved persistent, calyx base, spiny, often sparsely so in lower part, spines distinctly longer and thicker at apex. Seeds reniform 3(3.5) nun long, black, with very finely pitted reticulate surface and large shallow indentations, mainly near bulging external margin. Flowering April– September, fruiting July–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, weedy, near human settlements, garbage, on wasteland, along roads, as weed in crops, to the mid-mountain belt. Sometimes cultivated (Shishkin and Boborov 1955) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Fig. 1 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Bale, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Datura stramonium L. Fig. 2 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Cusco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (scopolamine, hyoscyamine, hyosuine, tropine, acetyltropine, bellaradine, atropine, apoatropine, noratropine, noryosuyamine, tigloidin, meteloidine, belladonnanine, apogiosuine, 2,6-dihydroxytropane, tigloidine, meteloidin), lectins,

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steroids, phenylcarboxylic acids, flavonoids, steroids (28-isofucosterol, fucosterol, 28-isocytostadienol, citrostadienol, cholesterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, 24-ethylidene cholesterol), fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, palmitic, stearic, palmitooleic, arachidonic) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Altai, used for depression, convulsions, hiccups, stuttering, tetanus, whooping cough, epilepsy, mental illnesses, and externally for ulcers, burns, tumors, mastitis, conjunctivitis, erysipelas. In the Northern Caucasus, Datura is used for pleurisy and as anthelmintic. In the Ural the extract serves to treat asthma, rheumatism, arthritis, pleurisy, stomach ulcers, burns, toothache, and eczema (Sokolov 1990). The leaves are crushed and applied to abscesses with pus, deep thorns, infected swollen wounds. This will extract the thorn/pus (Bussmann et al. 2011). The leaves can be applied to boils and sores, and the flowers are used to remedy dandruff and hair loss (Joshi et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010). In Kenya, the extract is used for tonsillitis (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge and Bussmann 2006), and skin swellings (Njoroge et al. 2004; Njoroge and Bussmann 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the extract is used topically as antispastic and for woundhealing. The extract is used as insecticide for aphids, spider mites, bedbugs, and caterpillars. Highly toxic (Sokolov 1990).

References Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of Ear, Nose and Throat (ENT) diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:54. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of skin diseases among the Kikuyus of Central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:303–7. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency (R.U.E.) in agro-ecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;7(2):71–87.

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Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955 (English 1993). 745p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Daucus carota L. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Daucus carota L.: Carota stiva Rupr.; Caucalis carota Crantz; Caucalis daucis Crantz

Local Names Russian: Mopкoвьдикaя (Morkov’ dikaya); Uzbek: Yovoyi sabzi; Kyrgyz: Жaпaйы caбиз (Zhapayy sabiz); English: Wild carrot, Queen Anne’s lace (Sokolov 1988)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_47

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Botany and Ecology Biennial, rarely annual; root fusiform, commonly whitish; stem 25–100 cm high, furrowed, simple or branching above, like leaves scabrous-hairy (rarely subglabrous); leaves triangular, ovate or oblong, 14–20 cm long, 4–6 cm wide, 2–4-pinnate, lower with more or less long petioles, upper sessile on oblong sheath with white-scarious margin; lobules of last order ovate or oblong, obtuse, with short mucro, dentate or incised, margin slightly rolled downward, obtuse. Umbels 4–10 cm across, 50-rayed, rays scabrous-hairy, flowering umbels flat or convex, compact in fruit; involucre of many 3-partite or pinnate leaflets with narrow scarious margins in lower part, nearly as long as umbels; umbellets 1–2 cm across, many-flowered, leaflets of involucre many, linear-subulate or oblong or narrowly ovate, inner entire, nearly wholly membranous, outer nearly wholly herbaceous, with narrow scarious margins, often 3-partite or 3-toothed, rarely pinnate, all with more or less ciliate margin; flowers in part bisexual, otherwise staminate (particularly in lateral umbellets); middle umbellet, in center of umbel is reduced to a dark red (often cleistogamous) flower; calyx-teeth small but visible, triangular-ovate; petals white or yellow (sulfur-yellow when dry), rarely pink or purple, obcordate, villous inside, smooth or with remote hairs outside, notched, with inward curved lobule; peripheral petals enlarged, to 2–3 mm long, 2-lobed to middle; fruit 3–4 mm long, 1.5–2 mm wide. Flowering May–July. Ural, Caucasus, along roads, in orchards, gardens. Widely cultivated (Ketskhoveli et al. 1971; Makashvili 1991; Shishkin 1951) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Daucus carota L. Fig. 2 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), harvest in Tusheti, Georgia

Phytochemistry Essential oils (a-pinene, p-pinene, camphene, limonene, sabinene, a-flalandrene, fellandren, a-terpine, terpinene, p-cymene, dautzen, ylangene, curcumen, caryophyllene, chymachalene, y-cadinene, bizabolene, bergamotene, carotol, isoelemycine, geraniol, geranilacetate, myrcene, limonene, camphene, geraniol, geranilacetate, citronellol, sabinene, thymol, nopinene, citral, a-tuyen, y-terpinene, terpinylacetate, bornylacetate, p-karyophyllene, p-fellandrene, bergamotene, azarone, selenine, acorenone, elemycine, a-gurjunen, ar-curcumen), polyacetylene compounds (falkrinol, falkarindiol, acetylfalacarindiol), phenols (myristicine), coumarins, flavonoids (luteoline, quercetine, kaempferol, astragraph, apigenine, cyanidine, 5-hydroxyflavone, zapotinine, glucopyranoside, 7-rutinoside, diosmetine, chrysine), anthocyanins, steroids (p-sitosterol), fatty acids (palmitic, petroseline, oleic, linoleic, pelargonic, caprylic, lauric, stearic) (Sokolov 1988).

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Local Medicinal Uses The leaf extract is used as choleretic, laxative, diuretic, and anthelminthic (Sokolov 1988). The leaf extract is used as choleretic, laxative, diuretic, and anthelminthic (Sokolov 1988). Carrot is used as appetizer, laxative, diuretic, and stimulant (Hooper et al. 1937; Amin 2005; Sharififar et al. 2010; Amiri et al. 2014). This species is used to improve eyesight, to stimulate menstruation (amenorrhea), and for anemia (Hooper et al. 1937; Sharififar et al. 2010).

Local Food Uses The roots are eaten, and the leaves used as spice (Sokolov 1988). The seeds are put into vinegars, and seeds and leaves are used as spice used for various dishes (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1988). This species is used as a vegetable (Amin 2005) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves are used to extract geraniol for perfumes (Sokolov 1988). Fig. 5 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), carrot diversity, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

264 Fig. 6 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), carrot seeds, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), harvested carrots, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), carrot salad, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), purple carrots, close to wild variety, Istanbul, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Amin G. The most common medicinal plants in Iran. Tehran: Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Center; 2005. Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, Taghavizadeh Yazdi ME. Ethno-medicinal plants used to cure jaundice by traditional healers of Mashhad, Iran. Iran J Pharm Res. 2014;13(1):157. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Hooper D, Field H, Dahlgren BE. Useful plants and drugs of Iran and Iraq. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History; 1937. Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971– 2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sharififar F, Kouhpaieh A, Mottaghi MM, Amir Khosravi A, Pourmohseni Nasab E. Ethnobotanic study of medicinal plants in Sirjan, Kerman province. J Herbal Drugs. 2010;3:19–28. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285p, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl BRASSICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl: Descurainia sophia var. brachycarpa O.E. Schulz; Descurainia sophia var. sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl; Discurea sophia (L.) Schur; Hesperis sophia (L.) Kuntze; Sisymbrium parviflorum Lam; Sisymbrium persicum Spreng.; Sisymbrium sophia L.; Sisymbrium sophia var. brachycarpum Boiss.; Sisymbrium tripinnatum DC.; Sophia jobelii Rupr.; Sophia parviflora (Lam.) Standl.; Sophia sophia (L.) Britton

Local Names Russian: Дecкуpeния Coфьи (Deskureniya Sof’i); Uzbek: Shuvaran, sassyk kapa; Coфиядecкуpeнияcы (Sofiya deskureniyasy); English: Flixweed (Sokolov 1985)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_48

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Botany and Ecology Annual, canescent with short branched hairs, sometimes subglabrous (var. glabrata N. Busch); stem 15–80 cm high, erect, spreadingly branching; leaves 2- sometimes 3-pinnatipartite, with linear or oblong-linear acute lobules, (on solonetzic soils lobules thicker – var. salsuginea Schulz). Racemes many-flowered, in fruit 6– 40 mm long; sepals spreading; petals pale yellow, oblong, ca. 2–2.5 mm long, equal to or shorter than sepals, or longer (var. dolichopetala Schulz) or sometimes completely absent (var. apetala (Noulet) Schulz); fruiting pedicels thin, 7–14 mm long; siliques 10–30 mm long, ca. 1 mm thick, 10–14 in var. brachycarpa Boiss., 3– 4 cm in var. longisiliqua (Gruner) Schulz, slender, curved upward, tuberculate; seeds grayish-brownish, 1–1.25 mm long, 0.5–0.75 mm broad. Flowering May–August. Ural, Caucasus. Altai, Middle Asia, weedy and solonetzic places, near dwellings, roadsides, fields, meadows, and slopes (Bobrov and Bush 1939).

Phytochemistry Vitamins (carotene), sinigrin glycoside (mustard oil), flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin), fatty acids (linolenic, linoleic, arachic, erucic), triterpenols, sterols, diacylglycerides, and monoacylglycerides. Linolenic, linoleic, arachic, and erucic acids (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses The decoction is used as febrifuge especially in laryngeal diseases, measles, diarrhea, and dysentery, and also as a hemostatic. Fresh leaves are used to treat wounds (Sokolov 1985).

Local Food Uses In the Northern Caucasus, the seeds of the species are used as mustard replacement (Sokolov 1985).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the root decoction is used for diarrhea and helminthosis in cattle and horses (Sokolov 1985).

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References Bobrov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524p, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336p. (in Russian).

Dianthus superbus L. Dianthus sp. CARYOPHYLLACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Russian: Гвoздикa Гeльцepa (Gvozdika Gel’tsera); Kyrgyz: Гeльцep чeгe гул (Gel’tser chege gul) (Fedorov 1984)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; rootstock stringlike, 1–2 mm thick, creeping, giving rise to flowering stems and nonelongated sterile shoots; stems solitary to several, ascending at base, 15–60 cm long, glabrous, simple or mostly sparsely branched above; leaves linearlanceolate to linear, 4–8.5 cm long and 2–8.5 mm broad, asperous-margined, acute or the lower obtuse, 3–5-veined; flowers 1–9 on the stem, fragrant, on pedicels 2 cm long; calyx cylindric, 15–23 mm long and 4–5 mm broad, violet-tinged, scarcely attenuate toward summit; teeth lanceolate, acute, 4–5 mm long; petals pink, rosepurple or purple (var. rubicundus Ser.); limb bearded and green-spotted at base, fringed-dissected into filiform-linear segments 3–4 times as long as the width of the R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_49

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Fig. 1 Dianthus superbus (Caryophyllaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Dianthus superbus (Caryophyllaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

oblong undissected portion; capsule slightly exceeding calyx; seeds elliptic, 2.5 mm long and 1.5 mm broad. Flowering June–July. Ural, Altai, Middle Asia, on dry and floodplain meadows, in open forests, in mountains to above the forest belt (Komarov and Shishkin 1936) (Figs. 1 and 2).

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Phytochemistry Triterpene saponins, alkaloids, tannins (pyrocatechol), flavonoids (orientin, homoorientin) (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Altai, the roots are used to prepare a decoction to treat heart diseases. The extract is also applied to the scalp for strengthening the hair, and as washing for eyes and for skin dermatoses (Fedorov 1984).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species are planted widely as ornamentals. It is used as fodder for sheep (Fedorov 1984).

References Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 6: Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 731p, 55 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Dictamnus angustifolius G. Don ex Sweet Dictamnus albus L. RUTACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Dictamnus albus L.: Dictamnus fraxinella Pers.; Dictamnus himayanus Royle

Local Names Russian: Яceнeцузкoлиcтный (Yasenets uzkolistnyy); Uzbek: Togturbid; Kyrgyz: Ичкe жaлбыpaктуудиктaмнуc (Ichke zhalbyraktuu diktamnus); English: Burning bush (Sokolov 1988)

Botany and Ecology Dictamnus albus: Herb, 50–100 cm tall, upright, clump-forming, woody-based, herbaceous perennial which features rigid, vertical stems typically growing 2–40 tall. Stems are topped by terminal racemes of fragrant, 5-petaled, white or pink flowers R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_50

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Fig. 1 Dictamnus albus (Rutaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

(100 long) in late spring to early summer. Flowers give way to star-shaped seed heads which provide some ornamental interest if left on the plant. Elegant, glossy, odd-pinnate, light green leaves are attractive throughout the growing season and emit a pleasant lemony fragrance when rubbed or crushed. Foliage also contains an oil that causes allergic reactions (skin rash) in some individuals. In hot weather, old flowers or seed pods emit a flammable oil which, on a windless summer evening, can be ignited with a match resulting in a brief vapor burn which is harmless to the plant, hence the common name. Ural, Caucasus, along forest fringes, on grassy and stony slopes (Shishkin and Boborov 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Dictamnus angustifolius: Perennial; stems more or less densely long-hairy, often glabrous below or rarely short-hairy, 50–100 cm tall; leaves imparipinnate, with (3) 5–6(7) pairs of leaflets; leaflets usually large, oblong or oblong-elliptic, usually longattenuate above, acute, narrowly folded at margin, finely serrate, long-hairy beneath mainly along nerves and at base, sometimes completely glabrous, terminal leaflet cuneate-tapering at base, with narrowly winged petiolule; rachis more or less longhairy, nearly wingless. Inflorescence racemiform or racemiform-paniculate, distinctly glandular; bracts linear lanceolate, acute, more or less short-hairy; sepals lanceolate-linear, acute, more or less short-hairy, 7–8 mm long; petals lilac-pink, with purple nerves, (2.5)3.5–4.5 cm long, lanceolate or oblong, acute or obtuse, gradually tapering to long claw; filaments usually hairy; style usually glabrous; ovary more or less hairy, with long horns (in capsules (5)7–12 mm), on 1.5–2 mm

Dictamnus angustifolius G. Don ex Sweet. . .

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Fig. 2 Dictamnus albus (Rutaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

long stipe; seeds 4–5 mm long. Flowering May–July; Altai, Middle Asia, on steppe meadows, among shrubs, up to 1600–3000 m above sea level (Shishkin and Boborov 1949).

Phytochemistry Dictamnus albus: Essential oils (limonene, p-cymol, 1,8-cineole, estranol), terpenoids (fraxisellone), saponins, alkaloids (diktamnine, n-cimminian, isomaculosidine, haplophine, dubinidine, evoxine, skimianine, isodiktamnin, y-phararine, holine, trinelline), anthocyanins (rhamnoside, efinidine, rutine, diosmine, isocovercrine, hesperidine), flavonoids (rutine, quercetine, isocvetcitrIn myricetine, diosmine, isocovercrine, hesperidine), coumarins (psoralen, xanthotoxine, berrapten, aurapten) (Sokolov 1988). Dictamnus angustifolius: Organic acids, terpenoids (fraskinon), alkaloids (y-phagarine, isodicamnin, isopteine, skimianine, dictamnine, doubamin, dubinidine, haploperine), steroids (sitosterol), coumarins (umbelliferone, esculetine, scopoletine, psoralen, xanthotoxine, bergapten, isoimperatorin), flavonoids (quercetine, isokvertsitrine, rutine), tannins (Sokolov 1988).

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Fig. 3 Dictamnus albus (Rutaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Dictamnus albus: The leaves are used for inflammations of the urinary tract, amenorrhea, for epilepsy as antispastic, anthelmintic, abortive, and laxative. The root bark is used to treat leprosy, intermittent fever, scrofululosis, as an antispastic, antipyretic, astringent, anthelmintic, antiseptic, and diaphoretic (Sokolov 1988). Dictamnus angustifolius: In Middle Asia, the leaves are used to treat snakebites and increase the blood pressure. The seeds are used for urolithiasis, bowel disease, malaria, jaundice, dysmenorrhea, and convulsions. The root bark serves as diuretic, diaphoretic, astringent, anthelmintic, and also with intermittent fever, epilepsy, amenorrhea, and topically for the treatment of eczema, scabies, and allergies. The seeds are used to treat epilepsy (Sokolov 1988).

Local Food Uses Sometimes the plant is used as tea surrogate (Sokolov 1988).

Dictamnus angustifolius G. Don ex Sweet. . .

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The plant is toxic to livestock. When in contact with the human skin, the plant causes photodermatosis. The species are planted as ornamentals (Sokolov 1988).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Dipsacus dipsacoides (Kar. & Kir.) Botsch. Dipsacus fullonum L. Dipsacus laciniatus L. CAPRIFOLIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Dipsacus dipsacoides (Kar. & Kir.) Botsch.: Cephalaria beijiangensis Y.K. Yang, J.K. Wu & A. Sayit; Cephalaria dipsacoides Boiss. & Balansa; Dipsacus azureus Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Dipsacus xinjiangensis Y.K. Yang., J.K. Wu & T. Abdulla Dipsacus fullonum L.: Dipsacus fullonum var. sylvestris (Huds.) Schmalh.; Dipsacus sylvestris Huds.; Dipsacus sylvestris Mill.

Local Names Dipsacus dipsacoides: Russian: Bopcянкa лaзopeвaя (Vorsyanka lazorevaya); Kyrgyz: Кoгултуp тoпчубaш (Kogultur topchu bash); English: Teasel

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_51

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Dipsacus fullonum/Dipsacus laciniatus: Russian: Bopcянкa paзpeзнaя (Vorsyanka razreznaya); Uzbek: Tungiztarok; Kyrgyz: Кecиктуувopcянкa (Kesiktuu vorsyanka); English: Cutleaf teasel (Sokolov 1990)

Botany and Ecology Dipsacus dipsacoides: Biennial; stems 0.6–1.3 m, smooth, prickleless, with downturned bristles, confined to lower part, branching above; radical leaves entire, lanceolate, 40 cm long; lower leaves sessile, 15–30 cm long, 4–8 cm wide, proximally pinnatifid, with lanceolate decurrent lobes and terminal larger, rhombic lobe; upper leaves narrower and short, the uppermost lanceolate, linear or pinnatisect or sometimes dentate-incised at base. Heads subglobose, 2.5–4 cm long; involucral bracts stiff, spinous, subulate, nearly as long as head; paleae oblong, 12–14 mm long, whitish, cartilaginous, cuneate, slightly convex, dorsally subcarinate, pubescent, tapering into spinous acuminate awn one-third to one-half as long as paleae; flowers 13–15 mm, pink-violet or blue, hairy outside. Flowering July, fruiting August. Middle Asia, on gravelly slopes, in valleys, along mountain rivers, in the grassy steppes, up to 1000–1200 m above sea level (Shishkin and Boborov 1957). Dipsacus fullonum: Biennial; stems 0.5–2 m, erect, branching above, ribbed, prickly along ribs; radical leaves in rosettes short-petioled, oblong-obovate, 20– 30 cm long, usually glabrous, on both sides prickly, margin ciliate; cauline leaves opposite, basally connate, oblong-lanceolate, entire or serrate, prickly midrib and margins, margin not ciliate. Heads oblong-ovoid, 4–8 cm long; involucral bracts linear-lanceolate, glabrous, prickly, arcuate, unequal in length, the longest exceeding head; paleae ciliate, produced into erect spinous mucro, longer than flowers; flowers violet, rarely white, tube ca. 10 mm long; outer calyx acuminate above; calyx tetrahedral; achene ca. 5 mm long. Flowering June, fruiting August. Ural, Caucasus, in river valleys, thickets of shrubs, disturbed areas (Shishkin and Boborov 1957). Dipsacus laciniatus: Biennial; stems 0.5–1.5 m, erect, ribbed, prickly, branching above; radical leaves in rosette short-petioled, oblong-obovate, dentate or pinnatilobate, bristly on both sides; cauline leaves opposite, broadly connate into cuplike conceptacle, oblong, acuminate, lyrate-pinnatifid to pinnatipartite, irregularly dentate or incised-lobed, midrib prickly beneath, margin bristly. Heads oblongovoid, 5–8 cm long; involucral bracts subulate-lanceolate, usually shorter than head; appressed or at first recurved, margins and midrib prickly, paleae ciliate, longer than flowers; flowers pale lilac or white, ca. 13 mm long. Flowering June–July, fruiting August. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, among bushes, in river, valleys, near irrigation ditches, often as weed, in the mid-mountain belt (Shishkin and Boborov 1957) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

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Fig. 1 Dipsacus laciniatus (Dipsacaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (glucose, lactose), organic acids (lemon), triterpenoids (dipsacosides hederarenine), alkaloids (rencianine), vitamins (C), phenylcarboxylic acids (isochlororene, chlorogenic, coffee), tannins, coumarins (scopoletine, umbelliferon), flavonoids, saponins (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Traditionally an infusion of Dipsacus dipsacoides is used for with acute rheumatism, ulcers, stomach cancer, skin cancer, and fever. The roots of Dipsacus laciniatus are used to treat pulmonary tuberculosis and syphilis, as anesthetic for hemorrhoids, for snakebites, as anti-inflammatory, diuretic, fevers, ulcers, stomach cancer, and in the form of poultices for skin cancer. Dipsacus sylvestris leaves are used for gout,

284 Fig. 2 Dipsacus laciniatus (Dipsacaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Dipsacus laciniatus (Dipsacaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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rheumatism, tuberculosis, and skin diseases. The root decoction serves as diuretic, to treat tuberculosis, syphilis, eczema, and psoriasis, and the flowers and seeds are used to treat rabies (Sokolov 1990).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 24: Dipsacaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Campanulaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1957 (English 1972). 370p, 27 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Elaeagnus angustifolia L. ELAEAGNACEAE Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Elaeagnus angustifolia L.: Elaeagnus hortensis M. Bieb.; Elaeagnus hortensis var. orientalis (L.) Loudon; Elaeagnus incana Lam.; Elaeagnus inermis Mill.; Elaeagnus orientalis L.; Elaeagnus spinosa L.; Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.

Local Names Chinese: 沙枣 (sha zao)

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_52

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Botany and Ecology A shrub or small tree, 3–7 m high, with reddish-brown bark, unarmed or with sharp spines, 0.7–3 cm long; young branches and both leaf surfaces silvery-white, densely covered with stellate scales, or upper leaf surface grayish -green or green and almost without scales (var. virescens Sosn.); leaves lanceolate, oblong-linear, linear-lanceolate, sometimes elliptical-lanceolate, oval or oblong-ovate, 2.5–7 cm long, 0.4– 1.5 cm broad, obtuse or subacute, with petiole 0.5 cm long, or leaves large, 6.5– 10 cm long and 2–4 cm broad (f. culta Sosn.); flowers fragrant, 1–3 in leaf axils, on pedicels 2 mm long; perianth campanulate or broadly campanulate (f. culta Sosn.), silvery-white, densely covered with white scales and sparse, small yellowish glands; perianth-tube 5–6 mm long, 2.5–3 mm broad; lobes lanceolate, ovate or triangularlanceolate, acutish, yellow and glabrous inside, sparsely covered with small brownish glands, distinctly 3-nerved, slightly shorter than tube; stamens 4, with short filaments and oblong anthers; style elongate, about equaling perianth, curved in upper part; drupe rounded-ovaloid, rounded or subglobose (var. caspica Sosn.), 0.7– 1.4 cm long, 0.5–1 cm broad, or large, olive-shaped, 1.7–2 cm long, 1.3 cm broad (f. culta Sosn.), silvery when unripe, densely covered with scales, yellowish-brown when mature, with sparse brownish scales, subglabrous; stone oblong, oblong-ovoid or narrowly cylindric (f. culta Sosn.), obtuse or pointed at both ends. Flowering May–June. Sea coast, shores of rivers and lakes, desert river beds, floodplain woods, Russian olive-poplar tugais, marshy solonchak meadows, solonchaks, dunes, near downstream valleys in floodplains, among thin floodplain scrub, Haloxylon woods, borders of forest “island” sands, margins and hollows of hummocky sands, depressions among shifting sands, deflation basins, valleys between sand ridges, steppes, declivities of argillaceous steppes. Cultivated in gardens and parks. In mountains up to 700 m. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, Mongolia (Shishkin 1949) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Elaeagnus angustifolia (Elaeagnaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Elaeagnus angustifolia L.

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Fig. 2 Elaeagnus angustifolia (Elaeagnaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Phytochemistry Flavonoids, coumarins, alkaloids (eleanarine (tetrahydroharman), tetrahydroarmol), catechins, tannins, essential oils, sugars (fructose, sucrose, pectin), vitamins (C), steroids (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Elaeagnus angustifolia: The species is used in Kazakhstan as thermostatic. The leaves serve as anti-inflammatory, for colds and fever, as rinse for wounds and oral diseases, and as poultices for rheumatic pain and gout. In Tajikistan, an infusion is used to treat diseases of the stomach and colitis, as antipyretic, and to treat measles (Sokolov 1988). It is also used to treat diarrhea (Sher et al. 2016). Elaeagnus parviflora is used to treat colds and cough as well as bronchitis (Bhat et al. 2015). Elaeagnus rhamnoides fruits are used to treat diabetes, arthritis, and obesity (Sher et al. 2016). Elaeagnus umbellata is used for dermatological ailments (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018) and as anthelminthic (Sher et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses The fruit contains 10–55% protein, and high amounts of glucose and fructose, as well as a large amount of potassium and phosphorus salts. It is widely consumed, both in its natural state and as a seasoning, in soups, gruel, a kind of bread, and stewed fruit. The fruit is distilled into a very strong alcoholic drink which combines a wine-like flavor with the headiness of vodka.100 kg of fruit yields 12–13 l of alcohol.

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The leaves are used as tea substitute. The fruits are also used for making flour, bread, confectionery, porridge, compotes, pastries, syrup, and kvas (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1988).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is widely grown as ornamental and as honey plant. The honey is ambercolored and very aromatic. The gum is used for printing. It is suitable for tanning leather and to dye fabric brown and black. The wood is suitable in the construction of the underwater part of bridges, manufacturing musical instruments, joinery, and turning products. The leaves are used as fodder for sheep and goats (Sokolov 1988). Sometimes children are bathed in a fruit extract so that they would gain weight (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Pinus kochiana Klotzsch ex K. Koch. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 15: Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 565p, 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Ephedra equisetina Bunge Ephedra intermedia Schrenk ex C.A. Mey. Ephedra sinica Stapf Ephedra sp. EPHEDRACEAE Bo Liu, Anzurat Akobirshoeva, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Ephedra equisetina Bunge: Ephedra shennungiana Tang Ephedra intermedia Schrenk ex C.A. Mey.: Ephedra ferganensis V.V. Nikitin; Ephedra glauca Regel; Ephedra intermedia var. glauca Stapf; Ephedra intermedia var. persica Stapf; Ephedra intermedia var. schrenkii Stapf; Ephedra intermedia var. tibetica Stapf; Ephedra microsperma V.V. Nikitin; Ephedra persica (Stapf)

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] A. Akobirshoeva Pamir Botanical Garden, Khorogh, Tajikistan Mountain Societies Development Support Program, Khorogh, Khorogh, GBAO, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] H. de Boer The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_53

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V.V. Nikitin; Ephedra tesquorum V.V. Nikitin; Ephedra tiberica (Stapf) V.V. Nikitin; Ephedra valida V.V. Nikitin Ephedra sinica Stapf: Ephedra ma-huang Liu

Local Names Ephedra equisetina: Russian: Xвoйник xвoщeвой (Khvoynik khvoshchevoy; Uzbek: Zogoza, Kizilcha; Kyrgyz: Кыpкмуундaйчeкeндe (Kyrk muunday chekende); English: Ephedra (Sokolov 1994) Ephedra intermedia: Russian: Xвoйник cpeдний, Эфeдpa cpeдняя, Пуcтыннaя Эфeдpa (Kpvoynik sredniy, Efedra srednyaya, Pustynnaya efedra); Uzbek: Kizilcha, Chul kizilcha; Kyrgyz: Opтoчo чeкeндe (Ortocho chekende) (Sokolov 1994); Tajik: Zagoza (Зағоза), Zagora (зағора), Khoma (Хома), Khaoma (Хаома), Chekendi (Чекендт); Pamiri: Amojak (Амоҷак), Zimojak (Зимоҷак), Zimoj (Зимоҷ), Modrag (Модраг) Ephedra sinica: 草麻黄 (cao ma huang) (Sokolov 1994) English: Ephedra (Sokolov 1994)

Botany and Ecology Ephedra equisetina: Shrub to 1–5 m tall, with a thick gray stem and stout branches; branchlets straight, strict, smooth, finely sulcate, 1.5–2 mm in diameter, with internodes to 2 cm long; leaves in pairs, rudimentary, almost scarious, connate through one-third or more, shortly triangular above; staminate cones solitary or in twos or threes, disposed along the branchlets, 2–4-flowered, 4–5 mm long, subspherical; outer bracts rounded- ovate, obtusish, connate through one-third, thin, narrowly marginate; inner bracts round, longer; staminal column scarcely exserted; anthers 6–8, subsessile, very rarely with short filaments; ovulate cones borne, like the staminate, on stalks 1–2 mm long, 1-flowered; bracts 2 or 3 pairs, the lower broadly ovate, narrowly scarious-margined, connate through one-third; inner bracts connate through one-third; tubillus straight or slightly curved, entire or lobed; fruit globose, 6–7 mm long, red, fleshy; seeds round, convex on both faces, 4–6 mm long. Flowering June, fruiting June. Caucasus, Middle Asia, Altai, stony slopes in treeshrub belt of mountains (Iljin 1934).

K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]

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Ephedra intermedia: Shrub up to 1 m, the strict branches connivent at the top, subparallel, densely forking, with gray fibrillose bark; branchlets straight, opposite or verticillate, to 2–3 mm in diameter, glaucescent, smooth or finely scaberulous, the internodes short or elongated (to 5 cm long); leaves paired, rarely in threes or fours, rudimentary, connate at base, scarious, triangular, to 3.5 mm long; staminate cones crowded in inflorescences to 1 cm in diameter, disposed along the branches, ovoid, ca. 6 mm long, with 3 or 4 pairs of flowers; bracts rounded-ovate, narrowly scarious-margined, connate through one-third, ca. 2.5 mm long, the inner ones longer; staminal column slightly exserted, entire or divided down to base; anthers 6–8, commonly short-stalked; ovulate cones 2or 3-flowered, sometimes terminal; bracts 2 or 3 pairs, occasionally in whorls of 3, the lower ones (of 3 pairs) short, the middle ones (of 2 pairs) about as long as the inner ones, these connate up to or somewhat beyond the middle, broad, obtuse to subacuminate, narrowly scarious-margined, entire, the tube ca. 4– 5 mm long, twisted, ligulate at apex; fruit globose, ca. 6 mm long, fleshy, red; seeds slightly exserted, brown, 5–6 mm planoconvex. Flowering June, fruiting July. Middle Asia, Altai, stony slopes in tree-shrub belt of mountains (Iljin 1934). E. intermedia grows in Ferula, juniper, birch and poplar communities on rocky and gravely slopes at elevations of 2000–3200 m above sea level (Ovchinnikov 1957). Widespread throughout Central Asia – the Pamir-Alay and Tien-Shan ranges (Ovchinnikov 1957). In Tajikistan, it is distributed around the Zaravshan glacier, the Vakhsh mountain range, along the river Panj in the territory of Jorf village of Darvaz, in the Peter mountain range and along the Garmob river (Ovchinnikov 1957). Ephedra sinica: Subshrubs small, up to 40 cm, sparsely branched; woody stems short or prostrate; branchlets straight or curved, sometimes slightly involute, internodes (2.5–)3–4( 5.5) cm  ca. 2 mm, shallowly furrowed. Leaves opposite, connate for 1/3–2/3 their length, free part subulate to narrowly triangular, to 5 mm, apex sharply pointed. Pollen cones sessile or pedunculate, solitary or in clusters at nodes, rarely terminal; bracts in 4 pairs, margin very narrow, membranous, apex obtuse or subacute; anthers 7 or 8, sessile or shortly stipitate. Seed cones terminal or axillary, solitary, oblong-ovoid or subglobose, ca. 8  6–7 mm at maturity; bracts in 4 pairs, connate for 1/2–3/4 their length, red and fleshy at maturity; integument tube 1–2 mm, straight or slightly curved. Seeds usually 2, black-red or grayish brown, concealed by or equaling bracts. Pollination May– June, seed maturity flowering August–September. Waste and sandy places, plains, mountain slopes; 700–1600 m above sea level, Mongolia (Iljin 1934; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (pseudoephedrine, ephedrine), flavonoids, tannins, essential oils (cineole), vitamins (C) (Sokolov 1994).

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Fig. 1 Ephedra procera (Ephedraceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Ephedra sinica (Ephedraceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Ephedra sp. (Ephedraceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ephedra major (Ephedraceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The infusion of Ephedra sp. is used to treat acute rheumatism, scabies, malaria, ulcers, gastric diseases, altitude sickness, fever, heart diseases, and bronchial asthma (Sokolov 1994).

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Fig. 5 Ephedra major (Ephedraceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Ephedra gerardiana is used for diarrhea and chest problems in Pakistan (Sher et al. 2016). Ephedra intermedia: Twigs and roots are used for the treatment of gum and mouth cavity inflammation, toothache, and gynecological diseases such as colpitis and inflammation of the female genital organs. To prepare a cure for stomatitis, 100 g of twigs or roots are boiled for 10 min in 1 l of water and/or milk. The resulting decoction is used to rinse the mouth two times a day, in the morning and in the evening after the meal. Fresh twigs are crushed and cooked in a traditional oven, then mashed and mixed with milk and applied on the gums against stomatitis and periodontitis. A bath, using the decoction is taken against gynecological diseases (colpitis) (Akobirshoeva 2009, 2012; Akobirshoeva and Kuznetsova 2013; Akobirshoeva and Dalmamatov 2015; Ali and Akabirshoeva 2015). Locals believe that Ephedra has a detoxifying effect and uses it for disinfection (fumigation) of rooms (Hojimatov 1989). It is also used for bronchial asthma and hypertension. For that purpose, an infusion of dried twigs is used three times a day (Haidarov 1988).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Ephedra is used as a source of fuel. Ash, made from the green stems, is used in the preparation of snuff. Although the plant is considered poisonous by some herdsmen, it is grazed by sheep and goats (Vanselow 2011).

References Akobirshoeva A. Biodiversity of medicinal plants of Rushan district and peculiarities of their use by native people. News of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan. Dep Biol Med Sci. 2009;4(169):58–64. (in Russian). Akobirshoeva A. Medicinal plants of Rushan district, GBAO, Tajikistan. Saarbrücken: LAP Academikerverlag GmbH & Co. KG; 2012. 105 p. (in English). Akobirshoeva A, Dalmamatov S. Common medicinal plants and how to prepare them. In: Oudenhoven FV, Haider J, editors. With our own hands (a celebration of food and life in the Pamir mountains of Afghanistan and Tajikistan). Utrecht: LM Publishers; 2015. p. 357–60. Akobirshoeva A, Kuznetsova N. Ethnomedicine of Rushan District of Tajikistan (wild-growing herbs of Rushan District). J News Buryat Sci Centre Siberian Dep Russ Acad Sci. 2013;1 (13):218–27. Ali A, Akabirshoeva A. Status and potential use of medicinal plants in the Pamir region of Tajik and Afghan Badakhshan. In: Romeo R, Vita A, Manuelli S, Zanini E, Freppaz M, Stanchi S, editors. Understanding Mountain soils: a contribution from mountain areas to the international year of soils. Rome: FAO; 2015. p. 128–30. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4704e.pdf. Haidarov K. Medicinal plants of Tajikistan. Dushanbe: Irfon Publications; 1988. p. 88. (in Russian). Hojimatov M. Wild growing medicinal plants of Tajikistan. Dushanbe: Sovetskaya enciklopedia; 1989. 365 p. (in Russian). Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, volume 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1968). 244 p, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Ovchinnikov PN, editor. Flora of Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic, part 1. Moscow/Leningrad: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the United Soviet Socialist Republic; 1957. p. 74. (in Russian). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian). Vanselow KA. (2011) The high-mountain pastures of the Eastern Pamirs (Tajikistan) – An evaluation of the ecological basis and the pasture potential. Doctoral dissertation, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität, Erlangen-Nürnberg.

Equisetum arvense L. Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. EQUISETACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Equisetum arvense L.: Allostelites arvensis (L.) Börner; Equisetum arvense fo. arcticum (Rupr.) M. Broun; Equisetum arvense fo. boreale (Bong.) Klinge; Equisetum arvense fo. camprestre (Schultz) Klinge; Equisetum arvense fo. ramulosum (Ripr.) Klinge ex Scoggan; Equisetum arvense subsp. boreale (Bong.) Á. Löve; Equisetum arvense subsp. ramulosum (Rupr.) W.F. Rapp.; Equisetum arvense var. arcticum Rupr.; Equisetum arvense var. boreale (Bong.) Rupr.; Equisetum arvense var. campestre (Schultz) Rupr.; Equisetum arvense var. ramulosum (Schulz) Rupr.; Equisetum boreale Bong.; Equisetum calderi B. Boivin; Equisetum campestre Schultz; Equisetum saxicola Suksd. Equisetum telmateia Ehrh.: Equisetum majus Garsault.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_54

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Local Names Equisetum arvense: Russian: Xвoщпoлeвoй (Khvoshch polevoy); Uzbek: Kirk bugim; Kyrgyz: Taлaa кыpкмууну (Talaa kyrk muunu); English: Field horsetail (Sokolov 1994)

Botany and Ecology Equisetum arvense: This perennial plant produces fertile and infertile shoots that are deciduous. Each fertile shoot is unbranched and about 4–800 tall. It has a jointed central stalk that is light brown, terete, glabrous, and about ¼00 (6 mm) across in diameter; it also has 8–12 shallow longitudinal ridges that are separated by shallow grooves. At the conjunctions of its joints (up to 6), there are sheaths with black triangular teeth (scale-like leaves) along their upper rims. This stalk terminates in a spore-bearing cone about 1.5–3 cm long; the cone is lanceoloid-oblongoid in shape and rounded at its apex. The surface of the cone is mostly light brown, but it is covered with spore-bearing tubercles that have black, brown, and white markings. The fertile shoots develop during mid-spring, but they soon wither away after the cones have released their spores to the wind. The infertile (or vegetative) shoots have a very different appearance. They develop during mid- to late spring and persist until the fall. The infertile shoots are 1–5 cm tall; they have whorls of ascending branchlets along at least the upper two-thirds of their stems. The stems and branchlets of these shoots are slender, glabrous, and green. Each central stem is about 2– 5 mm. across, consisting of several joints (up to 20) along its length. At the conjunctions of its joints, there are short sheaths with several triangular teeth (scale-like leaves) along their upper rims; these teeth become dark brown or black with age. The sheaths are appressed to slightly spreading and green to brown. The joints of the central stem are terete with 10–14 longitudinal ridges; sometimes there are fewer ridges. Young whorled branchlets are similar to the central stem, except they are shorter and more slender (about 1 mm. across) with fewer ridges (3–4). Later, they can become almost as long as the central stem. The branchlets have sheaths at the conjunctions of their joints like the central stem, but they have fewer teeth along their upper rims. These branchlets are unbranched. An infertile shoot may produce a small infertile cone at its apex that aborts prematurely, but this is very unusual. Caucasus, Altai, Ural, Middle Asia, wet meadows, lake and river shores, wetlands (Iljin 1934; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Equisetum telmateia: Perennial; rhizome deep-buried, blackish, with scattered blackish tubers; stems 10–50 cm long; spring-produced fruiting stems brownish, succulent, promptly wilting; summer-produced stems green, sterile or exceptionally fertile (var. campestre Milde), branched, in the tundra forms no main stem developing (var. arcticum Rupr.), the narrow centrum surrounded by several narrower cavities; branches in whorls all the way up the stem or rarely confined to the lower part (var. boreale Milde), mostly ascending, simple, without cavities; teeth of branch sheaths green, with long mostly spreading tips; cone blunt. Flowering March–May.

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Fig. 1 Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Caucasus, Ural. Middle Asia, Altai, fields and fallows, sandy coasts, meadows (Iljin 1934; Fig. 4).

Phytochemistry Flavonoids (equisetrine, luteolin and glycosides of luteolin, quercetin, kaempferol), saponins (equisetonin), alkaloids (equisetin, nicotine) resins, organic acids (malic, aconitic, oxalic), silicic acid, vitamins (C, carotene), tannins (Sokolov 1994).

Local Medicinal Uses The species is used as diuretic, anti-inflammatory, astringent, hemostatic, disinfectant, to increase metabolism and treat skin wounds, kidney, and bladder diseases, edema, rheumatism, and stomach and intestinal tumors (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Sokolov 1994; Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). It is widely sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b; Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015).

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Fig. 2 Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Equisetum arvense L. . . .

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Fig. 4 Equisetum telmateia (Equisetaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, volume 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1968). 244 p, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Randriamiharisoa MN, Kuhlman A, Jeannoda V, Rabarison H, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianarivony T, Raktoarivony F, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Economic importance

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of medicinal plants sold in the markets of Antananarivo, Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:60. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian). Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Eremurus regelii Vved. Eremurus sp. ASPHODELACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Russian: Шиpиш Peгeля (Shirish Regelya); Uzbek: Shirach; Kyrgyz: Peгeльчыpaшы (Regel’ chyrashy); English: Foxtail lily (Sokolov 1994).

Botany and Ecology Perennial, 80–180 cm tall; roots fleshy, fusiform, up to 40 cm long; collar surrounded by hairy remnants of old leaves and membranous sheaths; leaves 6–15, obliquely ascending, glabrous, up to 5 cm broad, the margin smooth or rough; scape suberect or flexuous at the end, up to 1 cm thick; raceme dense, many flowered, up to 80 cm long; bracts linear-subulate, ciliate; flowering pedicels thickened at the end, obscurely jointed, commonly brownish-purple; fruiting pedicels arched-recurved; capsule appressed to scape; perianth funnelform-campanulate, up to 9 mm long; segments narrowly lanceolate, rose, with a broad dark brownish-purple band, the margin ferruginous-rimmed; stamens about twice the length of perianth; filaments R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_55

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cinnamon-brown; anthers reddish; style brown, recurved; capsule pointed at the top, coarsely membranous-rugose; seeds brown. Flowering April–May. Middle Asia, on gentle slopes (Komarov 1935; Takhtadjan 1954–2009).

Phytochemistry Polysaccharides (eremuran), alkaloids (eremursine), vitamins (C, carotene) (Sokolov 1994).

Local Medicinal Uses In folk medicine, the roots are powdered and used in the treatment of purulent blisters and tumors (Bussmann 2017; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014). Leaves, collected in spring, are used as depressant in colitis. Wound healing: A boiled mixture of powdered roots and honey is used for dislocations, fractures, furuncles, and carbuncles (Bussmann 2017; Ibadli 2005; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Young leaves, up to 4–5 cm long, are boiled in salt water, and then cooked with butter and eggs. Young leaves are used fresh, boiled, or fried. The leaves boiled in salted water are used with butter and eggs and people bake special cakes and pies. Roots are edible as well (Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). In spring, young leaves are used in food in boiled and fried (with oil and eggs) (Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1946; Ibadli 2005; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The roots yield high-quality glue, which is used in the shoe production and repair, and in the restoration of old books and manuscripts (Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952). A dye solution is prepared from the leaves to obtain green color. The solution is used for dyeing wool (Qasimov 1980). The roots contain 30% gum and glue is prepared from dried and powdered material, which is highly valued in the shoe business (Bussmann 2017; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Ibadli 2005).

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References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Armenia Academy of Sciences; 2001. (in Armenian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Academia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ibadli O. Medical plants (Asparagus L.). Baku: ASUCA; 2005. (in Azeri). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Armenia Academy of Sciences; 2010. (in Russian). Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 4: Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586 p, 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Eremurus spectabilis M. Bieb. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vol. 1–11. Yerevan: Armenia Academy of Sciences; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenia Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenia Academy of Sciences; 2014. (in Armenian).

Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hér. ex Aiton GERANIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hér. ex Aiton: Erodium chaerophyllum Steud.; Erodium cicutarium fo. chaerophyllum (Cav.) DC.; Erodium chaerophyllum var. arenicola (Steud.) Speg.; Erodium cicutarium var. triviale Trautv.; Erodium millefolium Kunth; Erodium moranense Kunth; Erodium pimpinellifolium Sibth.; Erodium praecox Willd.; Erodium triviale Jord.; Geranium arenicola Steud.; Geranium chaerophyllum Cav.; Geranium cicutarium L.; Geranium pimpinellifolium With.

Local Names Russian: Aиcтник oбыкнoвeнный (Aistnik obyknovennyy); Uzbek: Lailac tumshuk, qora mashaq; Kyrgyz: Цикутaдaйтуpнa тумшук (Tsikutaday turna tumshchuk); English: Redstem stork’s bill (Sokolov 1988) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_57

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Botany and Ecology Annual; plant covered with lamelliform hairs, more or less glandular; stems prostrate or ascending, 10–50 cm high; leaves oblong, pinnatisect, with pinnatipartite or pinnatisect segments decurrent on stem. Sepals 4–5 mm long, 7 mm in fruit, shortawned; petals pink-purple, 4–6 mm long; mericarps ca. 5 mm long, not tuberculate, pit surrounded by fold; beak 20–40 mm long. Flowering April–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on dry slopes, in steppes, semi-steppes, and as weed (Shishkin and Boborov 1949; Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry Organic acids (amber, tartaric, citric, malic), alkaloids and nitrogenic compounds (putrescine, tyramine, histamine), vitamins (C, K, carotene), phenols (pyrocatechine), phenolcarbonic acids (gallic, ellagic), tannins, flavonoids (quercetine), triterpene saponins, carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, raffinose), essential oils, anthocyanins (peonidine, malvidine, cyanidine, petuline) (Sokolov 1988).

Fig. 1 Erodium cicutarium (Geraniaceae), Sierra Grazalema, Spain. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Local Medicinal Uses An extract of the whole plant serves to stop internal bleeding, and as anticonvulsant, in powdered form for abscesses and as wound healing agent. Baths are used to treat skin problems. In Iraq, a decoction of the whole plant is used for treatment. In Turkey, a decoction of the whole plant is used externally to treat pains (Sokolov 1988).

Local Food Uses The leaves are sometimes eaten, in mixture with other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the species is used as insecticide against larvae of insects (Sokolov 1988).

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f.

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Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonatum glaberrimum C. Koch.; Polygonatum orientale Desf. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Eryngium caucasicum Trautv. Eryngium sp. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Eryngium caucasicum Trautv.: Eryngium biebersteinianum Nevski; Eryngium caeruleum M. Bieb.; Eryngium pskemense Pavlov.

Local Names Russian: CинeгoлoвникБибepштeйнa (Sinegolovnik Bibershteyna); Uzbek: Kok tykan, koz tykan; Kyrgyz: Бибepштeйнтикeнбaшы (Bibershteyn tiken bashy); English: Bieberstein’s sea-holly (Sokolov 1988)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_58

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; with thick main root, stems up to 1 m high, usually solitary, spreadingbranching above, bluish, leafy; radical leaves many, herbaceous or slightly coriaceous, soft, early withering, long-petioled, the blades with cordate or rounded base, 4–6 cm long, 3–4 cm wide, oval, entire or 3-lobed, with oblong lobes; cauline leaves coriaceous, sessile, 1–4 cm long, 2–4 mm wide, deeply incised, with spinose-rooted lobes. Heads ca. 10 mm long and as wide; leaflets of involucre 4–6, linear-lanceolate, stiff, strongly declinate, 2–4 times as long as the heads, with 1–2 basal spines, sometimes bristly-spiny along margin, with spinose-acuminate apex; bracts subulate, the outer sometimes 3-toothed, longer than flowers; calyx-teeth oblong-lanceolate, acuminate; petals ca. 2 mm long; styles longer than sepals; fruit ca. 5 mm long, angular, scales lanceolate, long-acuminate, equal. Flowering May–July, fruiting July–September. Caucasus, Middle Asia, on pastures, fallow lands, on fields, in orchards, less often on stony slopes (Shishkin 1950; Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Essential oils, steroids (stigmasterine), terpenoids, polyacetylene compounds (falarinone, falkarinolone, falkarinol), carbohydrates (D-mannitol), flavonoids (rutine), fatty acids (palmitic, petroseline, linoleic, stearic) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses The roots are used in Middle Asia for scrofula and as a diuretic, and Azerbaijan for skin diseases. The plant is used as a blood cleanser and sedative, to treat edema, scrofula, gonorrhea, headaches, heart pain, and various tumors, pertussis, epilepsy, as cough medicine, diaphoretic, and diuretic. The roots are used to treat mushroom Fig. 1 Eryngium caucasicum (Apiaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Eryngium caucasicum (Apiaceae), Samtskhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

poisoning and bites from venomous animals (Sokolov 1988). It is also used as tea to treat urinary problems (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018).

Local Food Uses In Iran, the plant is eaten as a vegetable (Sokolov 1988).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/ 10.4172/2167-0412.1000266.

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Bussmann RW. (ed.) Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing International Publishing: Cham. 2017; XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478 p, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Euphorbia esula L. Euphorbia fischeriana Stendel Euphorbia rapulum Kar. & Kir. Euphorbia sp. EUPHORBIACEAE Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Euphorbia esula L.: Euphorbia croizatii (Hurus.) Kitag.; Euphorbia cyparissias L.; Euphorbia discolor Ledeb.; Euphorbia sistincta Stschegl.; Euphorbia eriophylla Kar. & Kir.; Euphorbia esula var. cyparioides Boiss.; Euphorbia esula var. latifolia (C.A. Mey. ex. Ledeb.) Ledeb.; Euphorbia glomerulans (Prokh.) Prokh.; Euphorbia gmelinii Steud.; Euphorbia jaxartica Prokh.; Euphorbia kaleniczenkii Czern. ex Trautv.; Euphorbia leoncroizatii Oudejans; Euphorbia lunulata Bunge; Euphorbia maackii Meinsh.; Euphorbia mandschurica Maxim.; Euphorbia minxianenesis W.T. Wang; Euphorbia nakaiana H. Lév.; Euphorbia octoradiata H. Lév. & Vaniot; Euphorbia subcordata C.A. Mey. ex Ledeb.; Euphoribia subg. Keraselma Neck. ex Rchb.; Euphorbia takouensis H. Lév. & Vaniot; Euphorbia tarokensis Hayata; B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_59

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Euphorbia uralensis Fisch. ex Link.; Euphorbia virgata Waldst. & Kit.; Keraselma (Neck. ex Rchb.) Raf.; Tithymalus esula (L.) Hill; Tithymalus glomerulans Prokh.; Tithymalus jaxarticus Prokh.; Tithymalus lunulatus (Bunge) Soják; Tithymalus mandshuricus (Maxim.) Soják; Tithymalus sect. Esula (Pers.) Prokh.; Tithymalus subcordatus Klotzsch & Garcke; Thithymalus subg. Keraselma (Neck. ex Rchb.) Prokh. Euphorbia fischeriana Stendel: Euphorbia fischeriana var. pilosa (Regel) Kitag.; Euphorbia pallasii Turcz.; Euphorbia pallasii Turcs. ex Ledeb.; Euphorbia pallasii var. pilosa Regel; Tithymalus fischerianus (Steud.) Soják.

Local Names Euphorbia esula: Russian: Moлoчaй cыpдapьинcкий (Molochay syrdar’inskiy); Uzbek: Sultama; Kyrgyz: Cыp-Дapыя cуттуучoбу (Syr-Daryya suttuu chobu) (Sokolov 1985) Euphorbia fischeriana: Mandarin: 狼毒 (Lang du) (Sokolov 1985) Euphorbia rapulum: Russian: Moлoчaй peпчaтый (Molochay repchatyy); Uzbek: Ikhrozh; Kyrgyz: Tуймoктуу cуттуучoп (Tuymoktuu suttuu chop) (Sokolov 1985)

Botany and Ecology Euphorbia esula: Cylindrical, branching, with long suckers; stems erect, roundedstriate, glabrous, bearing above 1–23 thin often curved axillary peduncles 1.5– 7.5 cm long, below with densely leafy, later elongating sterile branches; basal leaves dry-scarious, squamiform; cauline leaves sessile or hardly petiolate, gradually tapering at base, narrowly oblanceolate, 2–7 cm long, 2–8(13) mm wide (usually 7–12 times longer than wide), widest in upper third, obtuse, often short-mucronate from the hardly protruding midrib, entire, sometimes densely undulate at the slightly incurved margin, often crenate at apex, soft, later rigid, glabrous, dull green above, blue beneath, lower leaves spreading or even recurved, often short-petiolate, upper leaves antrorse, leaves on sterile branches 7–20 mm long, 2–2.5 mm wide. Terminal peduncles (6)8–13(14), 1.5–6 cm long, like axillary peduncles simple or once or twice forked; leaves of involucre linear- lanceolate or oblong-ovate, only rarely completely similar to the cauline leaves, 1–3 cm long, 1.5–3.5 mm wide (3–9 times longer than wide), acuminate; leaves of involucels 2, truncate or broadly cordate at base, rhombic-ovate or triangular-reniform, the lower 5–9 mm long, 8–17 mm wide, short-acuminate; cyathium campanulate, 2–2.5 mm long and broad, with short truncate fimbriate lobes; nectaries yellow or green, later becoming brown, shortly bicornuate, often nearly hornless; styles 1–1.5 mm long, connate only at base, bifid; schizocarp ovoid, 2.5–3.5 mm long, 2.8–3.8 mm wide, deeply trisulcate, glabrous, cocci orbicular, tuberculate, dorsally rugulose; seeds ovate, ca. 2 mm long, 1.8 mm wide, smooth, yellow-brown, with yellow reniform sessile appendage. Flowering June–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, along ditches and

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Fig. 1 Euphorbia agraria (Euphorbiaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

banks of rivers, among shrubs, on fields, along roads, especially on loamy soil, weed (Shishkin and Boborov 1949; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). Euphorbia fischeriana: Herbs, 15–45 cm tall. Root terete, usually branched, 20– 30  4–6 cm. Stem single, 5–7 mm thick. Leaves alternate; stipules absent; basal scale-leaves ovate-oblong, 1–2 cm  4–6 mm; petiole absent; leaf blades gradually larger upward, to oblong, 4–6.5  1–2 cm, base subtruncate, apex rounded or acute; lateral veins inconspicuous. Primary involucral leaves usually 5, similar to normal leaves, primary rays 5, 4–6 cm; secondary involucral leaves usually 3, ovate, ca. 4  2 cm; cyathophylls 2, triangular-ovate, ca. 2  2 cm, base subtruncate, apex acute. Cyathium sessile; involucre campanulate, ca. 4  4–5 mm, white pubescent, lobes rounded, white pubescent; glands 4, pale brown, rounded. Male flowers many, exserted from involucre. Female flower: ovary pedicel 3–5 mm, exserted from cup; ovary densely white pubescent; styles connate below middle, persistent; style arms unlobed, slightly emarginate at middle. Fruiting peduncle to 5 mm; capsule ovoid-globose, ca. 6  6–7 mm, white pilose. Seeds compressed globose, ca. 4  4 mm, gray-brown, adaxially striate, striae unclear; caruncle present, sessile. Flowering and fruiting May–July. Grasslands, dry lower mountain slopes, Pinus forests; 100–600 m above sea level. Siberia, Altai, Mongolia (Shishkin and Boborov 1949). Euphorbia rapulum: Perennial plants, up to 20 cm high (rarely up to 35 cm), with underground globular, sometimes branching tuber; stems erect, rather thick below,

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Fig. 2 Euphorbia agraria (Euphorbiaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Euphorbia condylocarpa (Euphorbiaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

distinctly attenuate above, spreading-branching, bearing axillary peduncles, without sterile branches; basal leaves ovate, sheathed; cauline leaves hardly petiolate or sessile, tapering and sometimes cordate at base, lanceolate-elliptic or spatulate, 3– 4.5 cm long, 1–2 cm wide, obtuse, entire, 1-nerved, glabrous or ciliate at margin. Inflorescence wide, paniculate; peduncles 2-branched at apex, only the upper sometimes 3-branched; terminal peduncles inconspicuous, 2–4, short, axillary peduncles

Euphorbia esula L. . . . Fig. 4 Euphorbia sp. (Euphorbiaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Euphorbia sp. (Euphorbiaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Euphorbia sp. (Euphorbiaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Euphorbia esula (Euphorbiaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Euphorbia esula (Euphorbiaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

fairly numerous, nearly spreading; leaves of involucre slightly smaller than the cauline; leaves of involucels 2, only very rarely 3 (in upper), linear-lanceolate or ovate, the lower 8–13 mm long, 3–6(10) mm wide; cyathium broadly campanulate, 2–4 mm in diameter, glabrous outside, hairy inside, lobes orbicular, more or less obtuse, densely ciliate at margin; nectaries reniform; styles 1–1.5 mm long, connate at base, bifid; schizocarp ovoid, 4.5–5.5 mm long, 4–5 mm wide, trisulcate, with

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nearly smooth orbicular cocci, glabrous, with thin pericarp; seeds compressedoblong, smooth, rufous-brown, with conical short-stalked appendage, furrowed inside. Flowering April, fruiting May. Middle Asia: On steppes, on stony barren soil (Shishkin and Boborov 1949).

Phytochemistry Diterpenoids (ingenol, eneol, decadienoyindenol, decatrienoylindenol, dodecatetraenoylenenol), latex, alkaloidsphenol carboxylic acids, flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine), triterpenoids (lupeol, cycloartenol), tannins, vitamins (C, E, carotene) (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses The powdered plant material is used to treat external tumors, tuberculosis, and syphilis. The milky juice is applied externally to remove warts and calluses, and to relieve leishmaniasis and scabies. A root broth is used as laxative, for jaundice and heart disease, and topically to treat rabies and wounds (Sokolov 1985). The latex is also used to treat warts (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Many species of Euphorbia are used medicinally. Euphorbia chamaesyce is used to treat constipation and dysentery in children (Bhat et al. 2013). Euphorbia hypericifolia is used to treat menorrhagia and diarrhea (Bhat et al. 2013). Euphorbia pilosa is used to treat constipation and is used as an emetic in cases of food poisoning (Bhat et al. 2013). Euphorbia macroceras serves for tooth pain (Bussmann et al. 2018). Euphorbia hirta is used for bronchial infections, asthma, and warts (Kumar et al. 2011; Kunwar et al. 2010). Euphorbia royleana latex is used to treat arthritis (Kunwar et al. 2010) and as antiseptic (Bhat et al. 2015). Euphorbia thomsoniana is employed in Pakistan for wet and dry eczema (Sher et al. 2016). Euphorbia dracunculoides is used against skin parasites, acne, snakebites, and epilepsy (Umair et al. 2019). Euphorbia prostrata has traditional uses for diarrhea, hepatic ulcers, eczema, bladder stones and is used as blood purifier (Umair et al. 2019). Euphorbia pilulifera serves for cough, bronchial asthma, diarrhea, indigestion, pain, burns, cuts, and wounds (Umair et al. 2019). Euphorbia helioscopia serves to treat fungal infections like athlete’s foot, eye sores, asthma, cholera, and constipation, and serves as anthelminthic (Umair et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses These plants can be used to dye silk and wool in black, yellow, and green. The seed oil can be used for paints. It is poisonous, especially seeds and roots. The latex irritates the skin and the mucous membranes (Sokolov 1985). In Pakistan, Euphorbia helioscopia is used to repel the devil and diseases (Sher et al. 2016).

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References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172: 133–144. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Euphorbia seguieriana Neck. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian). Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.

Ferula assa-foetida L. Ferula kuhistanica Korovin Ferula moschata (H. Reinsch) Koso-Pol. Ferula violacea Korovin Ferula sp. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Mario Boboev, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, and Hugo de Boer Synonyms Ferula assa-foetida L.: Ferula foetida Regel; Ferula foetida St.-Lag.; Scorodosma foetidum Bunge. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] M. Boboev Kulyab Botanical Garden, Kulyab, Tajikistan Dushanbe, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] H. de Boer The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_60

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Ferula kuhistanica Korovin: Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke. Ferula moschata (H. Reinsch) Koso-Pol.: Euryangium sumbul Kauffm.; Ferula sumbul (Kauffm.) Hook. f.; Sumbulus moschatus H. Reinsch. Ferula violacea Korovin: Ferula euggenii R. Kamelin.

Local Names Ferula assa-foetida: Russian: Фepулa вoнючaя (Ferula vonyuchaya); Uzbek: Sassyk kavrak, kovrak, sassyk kurayi; Kyrgyz: Жыттуу aлa гул (Zhyttuu ala gul), English: Giant fennel (Sokolov 1988). Ferula kuhistanica: Russian: Фepулa куxиcтaнcкaя (Ferula kukhistanskaya); Uzbek: Chair (Sokolov 1988) Ferula moschata: Russian: Фepулa cумбул (Ferula sumbul); Uzbek: Sumbul; English: Musk fennel (Sokolov 1988) Ferula violacea: Tajik: рошак (roshak).

Botany and Ecology Ferula assa-foetida: Perennial; root inflated, ovoid, monocarpic plant; stem thick, ca. 1 m tall, robust, branching in upper part to produce dense globular panicle; lower leaves alternate, upper disposed in few whorls; leaves soft, early withering, mostly glabrous above, more or less soft-haired beneath; radical leaves with short thick petioles; blade broad, ternately dissected, its lobes bipinnatisect into large oblong or oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, 15 cm long, 5 cm wide decurrent lobules, rounded at apex, entire or deeply cut into few, often entire segments; cauline leaves much smaller, upper reduced to sheaths; sheaths oval, flat, chartaceous, covered with curly hairs outside. Umbels variable, terminal sessile or on reduced pedicels, of 25 rays, spherical, 15–20 cm wide, lateral on long pedicels in groups of 3–6; umbellets 15-flowered, dense, hairy, without involucre; calyx edentate; petals pale yellow, nearly cream, oval, flat, 3.5 mm long; stylopodium elongate; stigmas flattenedcapitate; mericarps piano-compressed, with broad margin, pubescent, ellipsoid or globular-ovoid, emarginate, 16–22 mm long, 12–16 mm wide; ribs filiform, slightly protruding; canals very narrow, sometimes hardly distinguishable, numerous. Flowering March–April, fruiting April–May. Middle Asia, Iran, on loess, in forests, foothill plains, thickets (Shishkin 1951). Ferula kuhistanica: Monocarpic perennial; stem thick, sturdy, pale green, ca. 1 m high; leaves soft, soon wilting, glabrous above, hairy beneath, with sturdy, narrow petioles; lobules large, oblong-oval, decurrent entire. Umbels variable, terminal subsessile, of 25 rays, ca. 12 cm wide, rays thickening, lateral umbels on long pedicels, in clusters of three; umbellets 15-flowered, without involucre; calyx-teeth small, triangular; petals compressed, elliptic, yellow, with broad margin, 2 mm long, 11 mm wide, about as long as diameter of pedicels; ribs filiform, slightly protruding; canals solitary in furrows, 2–4 toward commissure. Middle Asia, on disturbed soils, slopes, screes, in thickets, from 900 to 3500 m above sea level (Shishkin 1951).

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Ferula moschata: Perennial; root thick, multicipital, its neck covered with fibers and remnants of petioles; stems few, medium-sized, slightly hairy at first, becoming subglabrous, thin, ca. 50 cm high, corymbiformly branching in upper part; branches alternate below, whorled above; leaves stiff, persistent, slightly hairy beneath; radical leaves oval-triangular, with long petioles joined to blade, blade tripinnatisect, sparse, its sections generally lanceolate or oblong, 20–30 mm long, 10–15 mm wide, entire or deeply dissected into more or less oval, acuminate lobules; cauline leaves with reduced blade, upper leaves reduced to narrow lanceolate sheaths. Umbels variable, terminal of 6–10 rays, 4–6 cm across, lateral single or in 2’s, much below level of terminal umbel; umbellets 10–15-flowered, with involucre of lanceolate leaflets; calyx toothed; petals yellow, 0.7 mm long, oblong-oval, with acuminate inward curved tip; mericarps 7 mm long, twice as long as stalks, piano-compressed; ribs filiform; canals narrow, solitary in furrows, 2 toward commissure. Flowering June, fruiting July. Middle Asia, on disturbed soils, slopes, screes, in thickets, from 900 to 3500 m above sea level (Shishkin 1951). Ferula violacea: Perennial monocarpic plants, scape is 100–150 cm long and has a specific smell. Leaves become violet upon drying, which is different from other species of Ferula. The inflorescence is a compound umbellate. Centrals umbels 7– 10 cm in diameter, radials 10–16 cm in diameter, 10–15 flowers. Petals yellow, 1.8 cm long and elliptical. Fruits 1.3–1.7 cm long, 5–7 mm, seeds brown. Flowering in May–June, seeds ripen in June–July. Grows in the northern, central and southern parts of Tajikistan. F. violacea is found in the mountain ranges of Hisor, Darvoz, Vakhsh and Hazratishoh. F. violacea grows at 1000–1900 m above sea level, mainly among Bukhara almond trees, in pistachio woodlands, among sumacs, on hay fields and on wild slopes (Flora of Tajikistan 1984; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (a-pinene, camphene, caren, limonene, karyophyllene, kalamenene, azulene), terpenoids (ferutidine, jasperine, feringine), phenolcarboxylic acids (ferulic acid), flavonoids (luteoline), coumarins (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia, Ferula leaves are used as anticonvulsant, choleretic, bronchial asthma, tuberculosis, diabetes, liver problems, syphilis, malignant tumors, vermifuge, for nervous diseases, and wounds, as well as dermatoses (Sokolov 1988). Ferula violacea is rich in vitamins and used to aid digestion and to treat gastrointestinal problems. F. violacea is also used as a medicine to treat digestive system disorders and as an anthelminthic against gastrointestinal worms (Boboev et al. 2013). Ferula narthex is used in Pakistan to improve eyesight and for digestive problems (Sher et al. 2016).

328 Fig. 1 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 2 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

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Fig. 3 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 4 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Local Food Uses Local people use leaves and stems in traditional foods. The smell of dried Ferula violacea is very pleasant and people use it during the winter in different meals. The fresh and young sprouts of Ferula violacea are widely used as a fresh vegetable.

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Fig. 5 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 6 Ferula violacea (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Leaves are used in preparing national Tajik dishes, e.g., Oshi burida, Otala, Birinjoba, and Mastoba (Boboev et al. 2013, 2015).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the plant is used for wound healing (Sokolov 1988).

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References Boboev T, Boboev МТ, Saidov K. Rastanihoi gizoi va davoii Tojikistoni Janubi va rohhoi parvarishu muhofizati onho. Kulob: Akademia Nauk; 2013, 48 p. [In Tajik]. Boboev T, Boboev МТ, Qullaev Sh, Yoqubov S. Rastanihoi gizoi va rohhoi parvarishi onho. Kulob: Akademia Nauk; 2015, 27 p. [In Tajik]. Flora of Tajikistan. Volume VII. Moscow/Leningrad: AS of Tajikistan SSR; 1984. [in Russian]. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 p, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Fragaria vesca L. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Fragaria vesca L.: Fragaria americana (Porter) Britton; Fragaria chinensis Losinsk.; Fragaria concolor Kitag.; Fragaria hortensis Duchesne; Fragaria mexicana Schltdl.; Fragaria minor Duchesne; Fragaria nemoralis Salisb.; Fragaria portentosa Piot. & Turpin; Fragaria silvestris Duchesne; Fragaria silvestris var. botryformis Duchesne; Fragaria silvestris var. variegata Duchesne; Fragaria vesca subsp. americana (Porter) Staudt; Fragaria vesca var. hortensis (Duchesne) Asch. & Graebn.; Fragaria vesca var. sylvestris L.; Fragaria vesca var. typica Asch. & Graebn.; Fragaria vulgaris var. rubra Ehrh.; Potentilla vesca (L.) Scop.

Local Names Russian: Зeмляникa лecнaя (Zemlyanika lesnaya); Uzbek: Yavoiy klubnay; Kyrgyz: Toкoйкoжoгaты (Tokoy kozhogaty); English: Woodland strawberry (Sokolov 1987) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_61

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Botany and Ecology Perennial, 520(30) cm high; rootstock horizontal or oblique, densely covered with decayed stipules and leaves, developing in axils of radical leaves, long stolons rooting on nodes; stems erect or ascending, barely exceeding radical leaves, covered in lower part with spreading hairs, more or less appressed in upper part; radical leaves longpetioled, covered with horizontally spreading hairs; leaflets 3, the middle shortpetioluled, ovate or rhombic, the lateral obliquely ovate, usually sessile, with 6–13 large triangular-subovate or suborbicular teeth on each side, terminating in a small reddish mucro, terminal tooth smaller than the adjacent teeth but exserted above them, leaflets dark green, diffusely appressed hairy at apex, glaucescent-green, diffusely appressed-silky-hairy beneath, with slightly protruding lateral veins; stipules lanceolate, long-acuminate, entire, appressed-hairy beneath. Inflorescence with reduced cauline leaves at base, corymbiform, few-flowered; pedicels long, appressed-hairy; flowers usually not more than 2 cm in diameter, usually bisexual; sepals triangular, acute or short-acuminate, appressed-hairy, spreading or recurved below in fruit, outer sepals linear or lanceolate; petals 4–8(l0) mm long, ovate or orbicular, clawed, usually white; stamens as long as or longer than pistil; torus glabrous or slightly hairy; fruit up to 2 cm long, ovoid, turbinate or subglobose, bright red when ripe. Flowering May, fruiting June. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in open forests, on dry grassy slopes. Widely cultivated (Shishkin et al. 1941) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (glucose, sucrose, arabinose), tannins, vitamins (B2, C, carotene), flavonoids, phenolic compounds, anthocyanins (peonidine, cyanidIn argonidine, diglycoside malvidine), essential oils (linalool, terpineol, citronellol), fatty acids, catechins (catechine, galocatechine), leukoanthocyanidins (Sokolov 1987). Fig. 1 Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Leaf and root decoction is used for fibroids of the uterus, tuberculosis, bronchial asthma, urolithiasis, jaundice, and hemorrhoids. The flowers serve to relieve insomnia, colds, diabetes, and diarrhea. The juice or leaf decoction is used for anemia, neurasthenia, chlorosis, as a tonic, for wound-healing, as anti-inflammatory, astringent, diuretic, for gastritis, rheumatism, scrofululosis, C-avitaminosis, rachitis, parodontosis, eczema, skin rashes, artherosclerosis, ulcerative gingivitis, and stomatitis (Sokolov 1987), and the leaves serve for urinary problems and diarrhea (Joshi et al. 2010). The fruit is astringent (Joshi et al. 2010). Fragaria indica seeds are used for throat inflammations (Sher et al. 2016). Fragaria nubicola is an astringent and diuretic (Kunwar et al. 2010) and also used for wound healing (Kunwar et al. 2009) and for ear ache (Bhat et al. 2013).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used as tea replacement, and the fruits are eaten fresh and for the production of jams, syrups, and pies (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1987) (Figs. 3 and 4).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves are eaten by cattle, sheep, and pigs. The flowers yield good honey (Sokolov 1987).

336 Fig. 3 Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae), compote, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Fragaria ananassana (Rosaceae), fresh fruits, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromatic Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special issue 1):43–6. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Yuzepchuk SV, Fedorov AA. Flora of the USSR, vol. 10. Rosaceae-Rosoideae, Prunoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1941 (English 1971). 512 p, 38 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Frangula alnus Mill. Rhamnus cathartica L. RHAMNACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Frangula alnus Mill.: Rhamnus frangula L.

Local Names Rhamnus cathartica; Russian: Жocтep cлaбитeльный (Zhoster slabitel’nyy); Uzbek: Togzhumroot; Kyrgyz: Ич aлдыpгычкapкмoюл (Ich aldyrgych kark moyul); English: Common buckthorn (Sokolov 1988)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_117

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Botany and Ecology Strongly branching diffuse shrubs or small trees up to 8 m tall, with scabrous splitting and peeling nearly black bark; branches spinose, opposite, with red-brown shiny bark, as in Prunus; buds oblong-ovoid, 3–7 mm long, violetbrown or brown; leaves opposite on juvenile shoots and fascicled on fertile branches, more or less chartaceous, bright green or grayish, dull or slightly glossy above, paler beneath, glabrous or sparingly pubescent at both faces, highly variable in shape, elliptic to orbicular but commonly oval, (2)3–5(6) cm long, (1.2)1.5–3(4) cm wide, short-acuminate, obtuse or mucronulate, broadly cuneate or rounded, rarely broadly cordate at base, generally crenateserrate, with strong petioles with 3 pairs of nerves much protruding beneath, arcuately converging at apex; petioles 1–2 cm long, strong. Flowers narrowly campanulate, 10–15 in fascicle, 4–5 mm long, on pedicels 5–8 mm long; calyx with triangular-lanceolate, acute, usually recurved lobes; fruit globulose, 6–8 mm in diameter, the ripe black, shiny, 3–10 together; seeds ovoid, 5 mm long, with narrow lateral slit, dorsally inflated, weakly planed at ventral side, coat thin, hard, indehiscent. Flowering May–June, fruiting August–September. Frangula alnus: Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on forest fringes, in the undergrowth of floodplaIn forests, along the banks of rivers and streams, on flooded and swampy meadows, gravelly slopes. Rhamnus cathartica: Tree, up to 8 m tall. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in the steppe, hills, in the undergrowth of dry broadleaved forests, banks of rivers, on riverside meadows, between pebbles and gravel, in ravines, up to 1700 m (Shishkin and Boborov 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Frangula alnus: Cyclitols (bornesite), alkaloids, anthraquinones (franguline A, chrysophanol, emodine, chrysophanol, glucofranguline A, glucofragnantanthron, glucofranguline dianthron, framguline emodine dianthron, chrysophanol, fiscion, Fig. 1 Rhamnus colchica (Rhamnaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Frangula alnus Mill. . . . Fig. 2 Rhamnus colchica (Rhamnaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Rhamnus colchica (Rhamnaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Rhamnus colchica (Rhamnaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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aloehemidine, judinantrone, chrysophanolanthran, fiscionantron, emoddinedantron), carbohydrates, essential oils, saponins, nitrogenic compounds (armepavine, frangulanine), vitamins (C, carotene), coumarins, tannins, naphthoquinones, alkaloids (franganine, frangufoline), flavonoids, leucoanthocyanins, phenulcarboxylic acids, catchins, fatty acids (Sokolov 1988). Rhamnus cathartica: Cyclitols (bornesite), flavonoids, carbohydrates, organic acids, alkaloids, anthraquinones (chrysofanol, franguline, glucofraguline, emodine), fatty acids, vitamins (C) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Frangula alnus: The roots are used in the Altai and Middle Asia for gastrointestinal diseases, gastralgia, intestinal colics. The bark is used to treat infected wounds. The fruits are employed as laxative. In the Ural the leaf decoction is used as abortive, for colics (Sokolov 1988), helminthiases, gout, tachycardia, dizziness, depressions, itching, migraine, and hepatitis. Rhamnus cathartica: In the Northern Caucasus, the roots are used to treat gastric and intestinal problems. The branch bark and leaves are used to treat wounds. The fruits are used as laxative and emetic (Sokolov 1988). The fruits of Rhamnus imeretina are used for digestive problems in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Rhamnus staddo serves as antimalarial in Kenya (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a), and for tuberculosis, malaria, fever, snake bites, and gonorrhea (Bussmann 2006). Rhamnus prinoides is used for ear, nose, and throat problems in Kenya (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b) and to treat sexually transmitted diseases (Njoroge 2009). Rhamnus virgatus is used in India to treat eczema and ringworm, and also as ourgative and emetic (Bhat et al. 2013).

Local Food Uses The fruits of Rhamnus imeretina are eaten in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2018). Rhamnus prinoides is used in Southern Ethiopia to make alcohol (Luizza et al. 2013) and to flavor beer and meat (Bussmann et al. 2011).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Frangula alnus: The wood is used for carvings, small utensils, furniture and to produce ashless coal. The leaves are fodder for sheep and goats. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1988). Rhamnus cathartica: The wood is used in carpentry. The fruits are used to dye wool reddish purple when mature, yellow when immature, and the leaves yield a green dye. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1988).

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References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:35. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa C, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antimalarial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:8. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat (ENT) diseases in Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:54. Njoroge GN. Ethnobotany Ethnotherapeutic management of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) and reproductive health conditions in Central Province, Kenya. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 2009;8(2):262–269 Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Galagania fragrantissima Lipsky APIACEAE Mario Boboev, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Anneleen Kool, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Galagania fragrantissima Lipsky: Euryangium sumbul Kauffm.; Ferula sumbul (Kauffm.) Hook. f.; Sumbulus moschatus H. Reinsch

M. Boboev Kulyab Botanical Garden, Kulyab, Tajikistan Dushanbe, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] H. de Boer · A. Kool The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_62

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Local Names Tajik: шибитак (Shibitak), шунук (Shunuk)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; entirely glabrous green plant, with spherical or ovoid tuber; stem to 1 m high, thin, with white striae, branching at middle to produce broad spreading panicle, branches thin, with short lateral branches; leaves thin, rapidly withering, with disagreeable odor, the radical petioled, with triangular blade, many times (3–4) pinnatisect into filiform, long, 1–2.5 cm long, 0.2–0.3 mm wide spreading lobules; cauline leaves similar, smaller, sessile on lanceolate coriaceous sheaths, with recurved margins; upper leaves reduced to small scales. Umbels of 4–6 compressed, unequal rays, the outer 2–3 times as long as the inner, to 25 mm long, glabrous; involucre of 5 lanceolate curved leaflets; umbellets 5–10-flowered, involucels similar to involucre; flowers on thin unequal pedicels; petals ovate, yellow, distinctly tapering at base; fruit obpyriform or nearly elliptic, with inconspicuous ribs; resinous canals 3 in each vallecula, 1 larger than the others, canals hardly visible in ripe fruit; stylopodium conical, styles thickish, reflexed, shorter than stylopodium; albumen inflated toward commissure. Flowering June–July. Herbaceous mountain slopes in the steppe belt. Middle Asia (Shishkin 1951).

Phytochemistry Essential oil; Coumarins; Flavonoids (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves and seeds are used to treat gastrointestinal disorders (Sokolov 1988).

Local Food Uses Fresh aerial parts are collected in large volumes during spring and sold in the markets. People use young leaves and aerial parts for preparing different traditional foods as such as Otala, Omoch, Oshi burida, Gandumjush, and others. People believe that the plant helps in digestion and strengthens the digestive system organs. In traditional medicine, it is used for elimination of flatulence. A mixture of seeds and stems is used to treat tumors and abscesses (Sokolov 1988).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The plants contain essential oil and are strongly aromatic, especially the fruits. The distillation of fresh specimens yields 0.019–0.3% of a pale-yellow essential oil with a sharp smell, used in the perfume industry (Sokolov 1988).

References Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, vol. 17. Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 p, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Galium septentrionale Roem. & Schult. Galium verum L. RUBIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Galium septentrionale Roem. & Schult.: Galium boreale subsp. septentrionale (Roem. & Schult.) H. Hara. Galium verum L.: Galium glabratum Klokov.

Local Names Galium septentrionale: Russian: Пoдмapeнник ceвepный (Podmarennik severnyy); Uzbek: Chakamoog; Kyrgyz: Tундукгaлиум (Tunduk galium); English: Northern bedstraw (Sokolov 1990). Galium verum: Russian: Пoдмapeнникнacтoящий (Podmarennik nastoyashchiy); Uzbek: Tilkisoomai; Kyrgyz: Кaдимкигaлиум (Kadimki galium), English: Yellow spring bedstraw (Sokolov 1990). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_63

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Botany and Ecology Galium septentrionale: Perennial. Rootstock long, slender, reddish brown. Stems 30–80 cm tall, single, rarely 2–6, straight, more rarely ascending, stout, simple or branched, glabrous, short-pubescent at nodes, lustrous, more rarely scabrous along ribs due to short stout setae; internodes long, considerably longer than leaves. Leaves in whorls of 4, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, (30)45–55(70) mm long, (4)7–8 (12) mm broad, long attenuated at apex, acute or subobtuse, 3-veined, glabrous or scabrous along margin and veins beneath, very rarely with denser soft pubescence beneath; floral leaves lanceolate, 3–8 mm long, 2–3 mm broad. Panicle broad, spreading, terminal and in axils of 3–4 upper nodes, on long, glabrous or setulosely pubescent peduncles and pedicels, the latter equaling flowers or 2–3 times as long. Corolla white, 3–4 mm across, its lobes elliptic, abruptly short-acuminate. Fruits 1.25–1.5 mm long, 1.5–2 mm broad, pubescent with not very dense, hooked hairs. June–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in the steppes, light deciduous forests, on dry meadows, forest glades, fringes, clearcuts, steppe slopes, limestone outcrops, sand and pebble banks of rivers and lakes, mainly on sandy soil, also as weed along the edges of fields, along roads, on railway embankments, often abundant (Shishkin and Boborov 1957; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Galium cruciatum (Rubiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Galium septentrionale Roem. & Schult. . . .

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Fig. 2 Galium cruciatum (Rubiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Galium odoratum (Rubiaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Galium verum: Perennial. Rootstock long, slender, creeping, short, thickened, branched. Stems one-several, 30–125 cm tall, 4-angled, straight, simple or with short, sterile shoots, glabrous or glabrous below with middle and upper internodes more or less densely pubescent or pubescent only under nodes and glabrous elsewhere. Leaves in whorls of 6–10–15, more or less approximate or distant, linear or

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Fig. 4 Galium sp. (Rubiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

filiform, (10)18–20(35) mm long, (0.5–1(1.5) mm broad, usually strongly revolute along margin, almost up to midrib or oblong-lanceolate, with barely revolute margin (var. sibiricum), with short cusp at apex, narrowed at base, upper surface dark green, lustrous, glabrous or with short, acute, antrorse setae or with similar setae only along margin, beneath light green, glabrous; floral leaves in whorls of 4–6; uppermost paired or solitary, very small, 3–5 mm long, 0.25–0.5 mm broad. Peduncles doubly ternately branched, many-flowered. Inflorescence paniculate, dense or broadly spreading (var. sibiricum) terminal on stems and upper branches, together with pedicels glabrous or scabrous due to acute, short setae. Corolla bright yellow, with honey odor, 3 mm across, with oblong, subobtuse lobes. Anthers yellow. Style bipartite from middle or slightly above. Fruits binate, rarely one mericarp underdeveloped, 1.5 mm long, glabrous or pubescent (var. sibiricum) finely unevenly tuberculate. Flowering June to September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, on floodplains, in dry and forest meadows, in steppes, between bushes, on the fringes of forests, in glades, along the banks of rivers and lakes, on stony places, the margins of swamps, fields, from the lowland to the upper mountain belt (Shishkin and Boborov 1957; Figs. 4 and 5).

Phytochemistry Galium verum: Iridods (monotropine, asperuloside, dafilloside, deacetylasperuloside), steroids, saponins, flavonoids (quercetine, rutine, kaempferol, apyrenin, palustroside, isoroyfoline, isorutine, cynaroside, 7-arabinosyl-glucoside, luteoline, riperoside), anthraquinones (raliosine, alizarine, purpurine, lucidine, pseudopurpurine, lucidIn imiveroside, methylanthraquinone, alizarine, 2-rydroxyanthraquinone, 2,2-dimethylnaphthopyran, naphthol, rubidIn fumarate), vitamins (C), tannins, coumarins, phenylcarbonatic acids (chloroarene) (Sokolov 1990).

Galium septentrionale Roem. & Schult. . . .

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Fig. 5 Galium verum (Rubiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Galium septentrionale: Saponins, steroids, tannins, coumarins, flavonoids, anthraquinones (alizarine, rubiadine, purpurine, lucidine, ruberithric acid), essential oils, triterpenoids (oleanolic acid), iridoids (asperuloside), vitamins (C) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Galium verum: In Mongolian traditional medicine used as antipyretic, for gastrointestinal diseases and diseases of the cardiovascular system, liver disease, as well as infectious diseases. Topically, the plant is used to treat infected wounds, bruises, cuts, and burns [2033] in Transbaikalia (infusion) – in diseases. In Kazakhstan, a decoction is used for respiratory infections. A poultice is applied to infected mammary glands, chronic ulcers, abscesses, and furuncles. The plant powder is used for dysentery, a liquid extract for diabetes and as antiemetic. In Middle Asia in general, the extracts are used to treat skin carcinoma, as diuretic, edema, for diarrhea, dyspepsia, intestinal colics, epilepsy, convulsions in children, for rheumatism (both orally and topically), for scrofula, skin diseases, skin ulcers, abscesses, and for wound healing. In the Altai, the plant is used for eczema, bleeding, diseases of the liver and bile ducts, female diseases, gout, as diaphoretic, diseases of the genitourinary organs, pneumonia, scurvy, as an analgesic, for pulmonary tuberculosis, angina, cough, and brucellosis (Sokolov 1990). Galium septentrionale: The leaf extract is used widely for conjunctivitis, malignant tumors, pneumonia, female illnesses and menorrhagia, and as diuretic (Sokolov 1990). Galium aparine is employed in the Himalayas for skin problems and as astringent, Galium asperifolium for dermatological problems (Bhat et al. 2013). Galium elegans is used for abscesses in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018).

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Local Food Uses Galium verum: The plant is used in cheese production as rennet substitute (Sokolov 1990).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Galium verum: The plant yields red, purple, pink, violet, orange, yellow, and greenyellow dyes for wool and silk. Fodder for cattle, horses, camels, however, toxic to sheep and goats when flowering. Sometimes planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1990). Galium septentrionale: The plant yields red, purple, pink, violet, orange, yellow, and green-yellow dyes for wool and silk. Fodder for sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. Sometimes planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1990).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 24: Dipsacaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Campanulaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1957 (English 1972). 370 p, 27 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian). Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Gentiana cruciata L. Gentiana macrophylla Pall. Gentiana septemfida Pall. GENTIANACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Gentiana cruciata L.: Tretorhiza cruciata (L.) Opiz Gentiana septemfida Pall.: Gentiana fimbriiplica K. Koch

Local Names Gentiana cruciata: Russian: Горечавка (goretsabka) (Russian); Azeri: хаджету (Chadshety); Armenian: бог (Bor) (Grossheim 1952) Gentiana septemfida: Aerbaijan: Yеddidilim аcıc¸ic¸əк; (Grossheim 1952). English: Gentian

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_64

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Botany and Ecology Gentiana cruciata: Perennial, glabrous, pale green; rootstock stout; stems erect or slightly ascending, coarse, 2–3 mm in diameter, 20–50(70) cm long, enveloped at base in fibrillose sheaths of old leaves; rosulate leaves 5–8, oboval lanceolate or subelliptic, narrowed toward base, 3–5-nerved, 3–8 cm long, 15–25 mm broad; cauline leaves numerous (up to 8–10 pairs), fairly close together, ovate-lanceolate, narrowed toward apex, subacute, 3-nerved, 4–8 cm long, 12–20 mm broad, scaberulous-margined, united in pairs into sheaths to 10–30 (45) mm long; flowers in clusters in the axils of upper leaves, forming 4–6 dense verticels; calyx thinly membranous, whitish, 6–8 mm long, a quarter to one-third the length of corolla, unsplit, the 4 triangular acute teeth 1–2 mm long or rarely longer; corolla 4-angled, blue, 20–35 mm long, 5–6 mm broad below the throat; corolla lobes oval triangular, acute or subacute, one sixth to a quarter the length of tube; plaits one third to half as long as the lobes, triangular, biparted at the top; ovary sessile; stamens distinct, with slender filaments; capsule oblong; seeds oblong-cylindric, ca. 1 mm long, brown, lustrous, finely oblong lyreticulate. Flowering July–August. Ural, Caucasus, wood margins, glades, scrub, meadows, and dry grassy slopes, from the lowlands to the subalpine zone (Shishkin and Boborov 1967; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Gentiana cruciata L. . . .

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Fig. 2 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Gentiana cruciata (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Gentiana macrophylla: Perennial, glabrous, pale green; rootstock stout; stems erect or slightly ascending, coarse, 3–6 mm in diameter, 40–70 cm long; stem base densely enveloped to 2–8 cm in fibrillose sheaths of old leaves, the internodes very unequal; most leaves basal, the lowermost with small blade, the others very large, up to 40 cm long, though mostly not exceeding 20 cm in length, 18–30 (45) mm broad, elongate-lanceolate, acute, subpetiolate, 3–5-nerved; cauline leaves 3 or 4 pairs, much shorter and narrower, 6–10(14) cm long, 6–10(25) mm broad, narrowly oblong, acutish, the uppermost 4–6 still shorter, crowded below, and enveloping but not overtopping the inflorescence; flowers crowded in dense manyflowered heads in the axils of the approximate upper leaves, rarely flower whorls subdistant; calyx thinly membranous, whitish, ca. 6 mm long, half the length of corolla, commonly split on one side to the middle or lower down; calyx teeth obsolescent or very short, triangular, acute, many times shorter than the tube; corolla 5-parted, tubular-campanulate, intensely bluish-violet, 16–20 mm long, 5 mm broad below the throat; corolla lobes triangular, acute, 2 mm long, 1/8 to 1/6 the length of

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tube; plaits very short, not exceeding about 1 mm, symmetrical; stamens distinct, with dilated filaments; ovary sessile; capsule oblong, acute; seeds brown, lustrous, wingless. Flowering July–August Steppes, and glades in light woods. Siberia, Mongolia (Shishkin and Boborov 1952). Gentiana septemfida: Perennial, glabrous. Rootstock stout, with thick stringy roots. Stems numerous, 15–40 cm long, ascending, rarely suberect, covered below in brown scales, rather densely leafy. Leaves sessile, 2–5 cm long, (6) 8–15(20) mm wide, sheating, ovate, ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate, attenuate toward the apex but obtusely tipped, 5-nerved. Flowers crowded in compact many-flowered subcapitate terminal inflorescences, rarely solitary, or in twos or threes, enveloped in smaller uppermost leaves; calyx campanulate, (10)18–19 (26) mm long, half the length of the corolla, calyx teeth as long as or somewhat shorter than tube, linear to linear-lanceolate, apex acute, margin subtruncate and minutely scabrous; corolla tubular-clavate, dark blue, (29)–40–(48) mm long, 15–(21) mm wide below the throat, corolla lobes ovate, obtusely acuminate, one seventh the length of tube; plaits half as long as the lobes, laciniate-fringed; stamens with distinct anthers and flat dilated filaments; style short. Capsule oblong, ca. 23 mm long, narrowed at both ends, the stipe half as long as the capsule; seeds cylindric-fusiform, ca. 1.5 mm long, minutely alveolate, wingless. In wood margins, meadows, gravelly and stony slopes, from the upper part of the timber zone to the alpine zone. Found in Crimea, Caucasus (Ciscaucasia, West, East and South Transcaucasia, Dagestan, rare in Talysh), the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor, Lesser Armenia, Kurdistan, and Iran. Gentiana septemfida requires a rich, moist soil and full sun. The species is distributed in all regions of the Greater Caucasus, Northern and Central Lesser Caucasus, and mountainous part of Nakhchivan. Grows in subalpine and alpine meadows, and in forest glades of the upper mountain belt. Flowering in July–August, fruiting in September–October (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961) (Shishkin and Boborov 1952; Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Gentiana septemfida (Gentianaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Gentiana cruciata L. . . .

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Local Medicinal Uses Gentiana cruciata: In the area traditionally used for epigastric pains, rabies, plague, as anti-febrile, anthelmintic, for wound-healing, rheumatoid arthritis, gout, and early chlorosis. Topically for purulent wounds. In the Middle Urals, the infusion is used for headache and as anthelmintic. In the Transcaucasus, the root decoction is used for diseases of the stomach, malaria, hemorrhoids, infertility, and as hemostatic (Sokolov 1990). The leaves are used for liver, gallbladder, and stomach ailments (Bussmann et al. 2018). Gentiana macrophylla/septemfida: The roots are prepared as water extract and the decoction is used to treat malaria and for stomach problems (Damirov et al. 1988). The leaves are prepared as tea and used as cholagogic, for stomach pain, liver and gallbladder ailments, and as astringent (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Gentiana cruciata: Used as bittering agent (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Gentiana septemfida: Can be used as ornamental in parks and gardens (Akhundov et al. 1989).

References Akhundov QF, Mahammadli BR, Asadov KS. Useful wild-growing plants. Baku: Maarif; 1989. (in Azeri). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Gentiana septemfida Pall. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Academy of Science; 1988. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 18: Metachlamydeae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1952 (English 1967). 600 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Geranium collinum Stephan ex Willd. Geranium pratense L. GERANIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Geranium collinum Stephan ex Willd.: Geranium collinum var. eglandulosum Ledeb.; Geranium collinum var. glandulosum Ledb.; Geranium pseudoaconitifolium Blatt.

Local Names Geranium collinum: Russian: Гepaнь xoлмoвaя (Geran’ kholmovaya); Uzbek: Anzhabor; Kyrgyz: Шaлбaйкaзтaмaны (Shalbay kaz tamany); English: Geranium (Sokolov 1988)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_65

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Botany and Ecology Geranium collinum: Perennial; rootstock thin; stems 1–3, 15–40 cm high, ascending or nearly erect, appressed-hairy mostly above, sometimes glandular, spreadingbranching; leaves 4–6 cm wide, orbicular, deeply (more than three-fourths) dissected, the lower into 5–7 lobes, the upper into 3–5, the lobes nearly rhombic and cut into 3–5 ovate or lanceolate lobules or teeth. Peduncles 5–15 cm long, axillary, bearing 2 pedicels 2–4 cm long, spreading in fruit, peduncles and pedicels pubescent, sometimes glandulose; bracts lanceolate, scarious; sepals oblong-ovate, 3–5nerved, pubescent, 8 mm long, shortly mucronate; petals 12–17 mm long, obovate, rounded above, pale, pink-violet, twice as long as sepals, claw short-hairy at base; filaments dilated, ciliate for nearly half; fruit beak-shaped, 3 cm long, with smooth short-hairy styles. Flowering May–June, fruiting June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, flooded meadows in the steppe and semidesert zones, grassy banks of valley rivers and lakes, often solonetzic meadows; desert zone, gardens and irrigation ditches, mountainous regions, lower mountain belt, especially near water, up to the woody-shrubby belt with preference also for moist habitats (Shishkin and Boborov 1949). Geranium pratense: Herb, about 80 cm tall. Ural, Altai, Middle Asia, in meadows, in valleys of mountain rivers, on damp forest floors (Shishkin and Boborov 1949).

Phytochemistry Geranium collinum: Phenols (pyrocatechine, pyrocatechol, pyrogallol), tannins, saponins, alkaloids, carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose, fructose, sorbose, arabinose, xylose, maltose), vitamins (C), phenolcarboxylic acids (gallon, ellaric), flavonoids (avicularine, quercetine, isoquercetrine, rutine, geranine, kaempferol) (Sokolov 1988). Geranium pratense: Carbohydrates (glucose, sucrose, fructose, raffinose), steroids, saponins, phenolcarbonic acids (gallic, dehydrodialyl, ellaric, gallate, galloyglucose), tannins (gerane, isogerane, gallic acids, gallotanines, ellarotanines), catechins (catechine, epicatechin), flavonoids (quercetine, kaempferol), alkaloids, vitamins (C, K, carotene), organic acids (calcium oxalate), anthocyanins (malvidine) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Geranium collinum: In Central Middle Asia, the decoction is used for gastrointestinal diseases and hemostatic in the postpartum period. Geranium pratense: In the Altai and Middle Asia used as astringent, disinfectant, and anti-inflammatory, for fractures, insomnia, epilepsy, fever, gastric and catarrhal diseases, menorrhagia, hemorrhoidal hemorrhages, and gastric enteritis. As baths to

Geranium collinum Stephan ex Willd. . . .

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Fig. 1 Geranium pilostemon (Geraniaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Geranium pilostemon (Geraniaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

treat nonhealing wounds, ulcers, abscesses, and rheumatism. Also used as rinse for stomatitis, gingivitis, and angina (Sokolov 1988) (Figs. 1 and 2). Geranium wallichianum is used in the Himalayas for colds, diarrhea, and eye problems (Bhat et al. 2013, 2015). Geranium ocellatum is used for fever and liver problems (Kumar et al. 2011). Geranium rotundifolium is used in Pakistan for stomach ache and jaundice (Sher et al. 2016) (Figs. 3 and 4).

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Fig. 3 Geranium rotundifolium (Geraniaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Geranium sylvaticum (Geraniaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses Geranium leaves are sometimes cooked and eaten (Bussmann et al. 2018).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Geranium collinum: The extract can be used as dye for wool and silk, and for tanning leather. Fodder for sheep and goats. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1988). Geranium pratense: The leaves yield a green dye for wool and silk. As fodder for livestock. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1988).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 14. Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Geum rivale L. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Russian: Гpaвилaт peчнoй (Gravilat rechnoy); Uzbek: Shirchai; Kyrgyz: Ийилгeнгулдугeум (Iyilgen guldu geum); English: Purple avens, water avens (Sokolov 1987).

Botany and Ecology Perennial, 25–75 cm high; rootstock thick, compact, brown, covered with relics of leaves; stems 1–3, erect, spreading-hairy and glandular, single or slightly branched at summit, usually dark red; radical leaves long-petioled, interruptedly lyratepinnatipartite, with 2–3 pairs of small, obovate, bidentate lobules on each side and a large, reniform or reniform-orbicular terminal lobe; cauline leaves short-petioled, tripartite, with small ovate stipules; all leaves appressed-hairy on both sides. Flowers usually 2–3 (rarely more), drooping, campanulate, erect post anthesis; calyx together with hypanthium brownish-red, glandular-hairy, with erect ovate-lanceolate sepals, R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_66

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Fig. 1 Geum rivale (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

adjacent to petals, outer sepals small, linear; petals nearly as long as sepals, convergent, reddish or yellowish white, with red-brown veins, petiole wide, notched at apex, abruptly tapering to a rather long claw (claw usually longer than the obreniform limb); receptacle slightly protruding from the campanulate hypanthium, strongly hairy, on 10–15 mm long gynophore; fruitlet heads nearly ovate, rigiduloushairy, with straight-spreading hairs; lower joint of style hairy at base, upper joint when young glandulose and spreading-hairy nearly to apex, as long as lower joint, lower joint in fruit twice as long as upper. Flowering May–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia (Tien Shan), in wet places, along rivers, streams, lakes, on moist meadows, in forests, among shrubs, up to the timberline (Shishkin et al. 1941) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Phenols (floroglucine), carbohydrates (glucose, arabinose, pectine, sucrose, raffinose), essential oils (eugenol), saponins, alkaloids, vitamins (C, carotene), tannins, phenylcarboxylic acids (ellagic, gallic, coffee, chlorogenic, kumaric), catechins, flavonoids (quercetine, kaempferol) (Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 2 Geum rivale (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The rhizomes are used for headache and insomnia, eye diseases, rheumatism, and hemorrhoids, stomach problems, dysentery, colitis, vomiting, intestinal colics. in Central Asia used against snake bites. A leaf infusion is used to treat periodontal disease, stomatitis, laryngitis, as hemostatic, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, for wound-healing, as diaphoretic, antimalarial, for liver disease, nephritis, cystitis, pulmonary tuberculosis, bronchial asthma, and cough (Bussmann et al. 2016; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1987). Sometimes sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2017) (Figs. 5 and 6).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Suitable as fodder for sheep, pigs, and horses. The species is used for tanning of leather, and as greenish dye for wool (Bussmann et al. 2016; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1987).

370 Fig. 3 Geum rivale (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 4 Geum rivale (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Geum rivale L. Fig. 5 Geum urbanum (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 6 Geum urbanum (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R:W. Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):25–34. Shishkin BK, Yuzepchuk SV, Fedorov AA. Flora of the USSR, vol. 10. Rosaceae-Rosoideae, Prunoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1941 (English 1971). 512 p, 38 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. FABACEAE Lan Weiwei, Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Glycyrrhiza glabra L.: Liquiritia officinarum Medik.; Glycyrrhiza glandulifera Waldst. & Kit.; Glycyrrhiza brachycarpa Boiss.; Glycyrrhiza violacea Boiss. & Noë; Glycyrrhiza pallida Boiss.; Glycyrrhiza alalensis X. Y. Li Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC.: Glycyrrhiza asperrima var. desertorum Regel; Glycyrrhiza asperrima var. uralensis (Fisch. ex DC.) Regel; Glycyrrhiza glandulifera Ledeb.; Glycyrrhiza shiheziensis X.Y. Li

L. Weiwei College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_67

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Local Names Glycyrrhiza glabra: Russian: Coлoдкa гoлaя (Solodka golaya); Uzbek: Kizilmiya, Chuchuk miya, Shirin miya; Kyrgyz: Tукузкызылмыя (Tukuz kyzyl myya); Chinese: 洋甘草 (Yang gan cao); English: Common licorice (Sokolov 1987) Glycyrrhiza uralensis: Russian: Coлoдкa уpaльcкaя (Solodka ural’skaya); Uzbek: Shirinmiya; Kyrgyz: Уpaлкызылмыяcы (Ural kyzyl myyasy); Chinese: 甘草 (Gan cao); English: Chinese liorice (Sokolov 1987)

Botany and Ecology Glycyrrhiza glabra: Perennial. Stems erect, robust, simple or branching, 50–80 (150) cm high, sparsely short-hairy and usually sparsely dotted with scattered glands or glandular prickles. Stipules lanceolate-subulate, small, deciduous at flowering. Petioles 1–3 mm long, short-pubescent and sparsely glandular. Leaves pinnate, ca. 5–20 cm long, with (2)3–8(9) pairs of leaflets; leaflets ca. 2–4 cm long, 1–2.5 cm wide, oblong-ovate, elliptic or lanceolate, more or less dotted with glands below, rarely dotted with glands above. Inflorescence a raceme rather loose, 5–8 (12) cm long; peduncles ca. 3–5(7) cm long, short-pubescent and slightly glandular. Flowers 8–11(12) mm long; calyx 5–6(7) mm long, more or less short-pubescent and glandular, with narrowly lanceolate teeth as long as tube or slightly longer, two upper teeth nearly half as long as the others; corolla whitish-violet, wings and lower part of standard often whitish; limb of standard ovate or elliptic, apex acute, gradually tapering to a short claw. Pods oblong, straight or slightly curve, ca. 2–3 cm long, 4–6 mm wide, glabrous or more or less densely beset with glandular prickles, valves firm, indehiscent or dehiscing late after the stems have dried. In steppes, semideserts, desert oases. It extends in mountains up to 1800 m. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in steppes, semideserts, deserts, along rivers, ditches, meadows, especially on solonetz soils, as weed in crops, up to 2000 m above sea level. In Central Asia, it is a noxious weed in cotton crops and in other cultivated plants (Komarov and Shishkin 1948). Glycyrrhiza uralensis: Perennial; stems erect, robust, simple or branching, 40–70 (100) cm high, short-pubescent, dotted with small glands or glandular prickles; stipules lanceolate-subulate, small, deciduous at flowering; leaves 10–25 cm long, petioles short-pubescent and glandular; leaflets (3)4–8-paired, ovate or elliptic, ca. 2–5(6) cm long, 5–3 cm wide, short pubescent beneath (sometimes also above) mainly along veins, more or less densely dotted with viscid glands, often shiny because of glandular excretions. Racemes dense, compact, 2–7 cm long. Peduncles 3–6 cm long, with axis of inflorescence covered with more or less short hairs and glands; flowers14–23 mm long; calyx 8–14 mm long, slightly saccate at base, teeth as long as tube or slightly longer (two upper teeth half as cut as the others), more or less short-pubescent and glandular; corolla violet with white; limb of standard oblong-ovate, elliptic or oblong-elliptic, rounded or slightly, emarginate at apex, gradually tapering into short claw; pods linear oblong, 2–4 cm long, 5–8 mm wide,

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falcately curved and transversely sinuate-torulose (from side of sutures), tightly crowded in compact heads, walls more or less pubescent, dotted with glands or beset with glandular prickles, sometimes only simple-hairy or only glandular or prickly. Flowering June–August. Ural, Altai, Middle Asia, in desert, steppes, foreststeppes, river floodplains, on the banks drying rivers, along irrigation ditches and ravines especially on solonetz soils, also as weed in crops, up to 3000 m above sea level (Komarov and Shishkin 1948) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Glycyrrhiza glabra: Alkaloids, carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, starch, mannitol), organic acids (fumaric, citric, tartaric, malic, oxalic, succinic, lemon, apple, wine), essential oils, fatty acids, triterpenoids (glycyrrhizic acid), steroids (sitosterol, diradrostigmasterol, estriol), phenylcarboxylic acids (ferulic, synapic, salicylic), coumarins (liquocoumarine, herniarine, umbelliferone), tannins, flavonoids (glyphoside, isoquercitine, quercetine, meratine, kaempferol, 3-glucobioside kaempferol, astragaline, isoramnetine, saponarethine, isoavrozide Fig. 1 Glycyrrhiza uralensis (Fabaceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo Bo Liu)

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Fig. 2 Glycyrrhiza uralensis (Fabaceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo Bo Liu)

(foleroside), liquiditetigenine, isolikviritigenine, genkvanine, folerogenine, aurozide, neoavrozide, isoneoavrozide, glabranine, pinocenebrine, prunetinliquiditritine, isocycluritine, liquiditetigenine, iso-ulcyritenine, neolikviritine, neizolikviritine, likurazid, isoglobroside, isouuraloside, uraloside, liquidoritide, rameniclaviritine, rhamnoiso-glycviritine, formononetine, glizglabrine, glabron, glabrine, glabridine, glabrol, 3-hydroxyglabrol, 4’-O-methyl glabridIn A, 3-methoxy glabridine, phaseolinisoflavone, gispaglabridIn A, gispaglabridIn B, ononine, licholalkones A and B, 4-hydroxychalcon, methylisoflavones, quercetine, kaempferol, apigenie), fatty acids, vitamins (C, carotene) (Sokolov 1987). Glycyrrhiza uralensis: Essential oils, carbohydrates (glucose, sucrose, pentoses, starch, pectins), organic acids (amber, fumaric, citric, malic, tartaric, oxalic), triterpenoids (glycyrrhizic acid, betulinic acid), steroids (sitosterol), nitrogencontaining compounds, coumarins (glycyrine, arylcoumarine), tannins, flavonoids (liquiditetigenine, iso-liquitirenienine, neolikviritine, neoisoliquiritine, liquidoritine, iso-ulvyritine, isouuraloside, uraloside, rlabroside, lacrazide, lycurazide, iso-llabroside, licoricone, lycoflavanol, coumutacenine, lyco-isoflavon A, lysoisoflavanone, glyphoside, saponarethine, vitexine, lyso-isoflavone B,

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. . . .

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Fig. 3 Glycyrrhiza uralensis (Fabaceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo Bo Liu)

iso-ylvinithirenine, formononetine, 7,40 -dihydroxyflavone, echinatine, rlabrol licoricidine, vetotol, lycoflavone, 7,4-dihydroxyflavone, formononetine, 4-apiosylglucoside liquiditetigenine, 7,4-digiconium liquidoritigenine, 6,8-di-glucoside apigenine), alkaloids, coumarins, vitamins (C, carotene), organic acids (fumaric, malic, amber, lemon, tartaric, malonic, gluconic; oxalic) (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses Glycyrrhiza glabra: The root extract is widely included in official herbal pharmacopoeia. In the traditional medicine in Middle Asia, the root is used as diaphoretic, analgesic, for wound healing, as restorative and tonic, with fevers, for respiratory infections, laryngitis, pulmonary tuberculosis, peptic ulcers, acute dyspepsia, dermatoses, in the diet of patients with diabetes mellitus, with urogynecological diseases, as aphrodisiac to enhance potency, for the detoxification after food poisoning, as remedy for scorpion stings, to treat benign tumors, leprosy, lymphogranulomatosis, and conjunctivitis. In Middle Asia, Glycyrrhiza root is used with milk for kidney

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and bladder problems, gastritis, and the root juice for burns. In Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, the decoction is used for chronic constipation and colitis and as emetic. In the Caucasus, the plant is used in the initial stages of diabetes mellitus. In Azerbaijan, the extract is used to treat measles, hemorrhoids, and hypertension. In Dagestan, the root powder serves as treatment for wounds (Sokolov 1987). The plants are used as laxative, emollient, and enveloping, and contains vitamin C (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). In medieval Armenian medicine, the juice from rhizomes was used to treat diseases of the nervous system, liver, kidneys, and bladder (Amirdovlat 1927; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Vardanyan 1979). In folk medicine of Armenia, it is used to treat angina, hypertension, gallstones, as well as food for diabetics (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014). A decoction of the root is used for cough as enveloping and expectorant, as well as sudorific and laxative (Fedorov 1949; Grossheim 1946). Liquorice water is given to the sick in case of chest colics (Tsutsunava 1960). The roots of liquorice are used to heal the cough (Mindadze 2013). It is used as an expectorant and diuretic remedy (Kuchukhidze and Jokhadze 2012). There were many plants used to heal the cough, yet the broth or tincture made of liquorice roots was considered the best. Both the fresh and dried plants used could be used (Mindadze and Chirgadze 2005). An infusion is used to treat cough (Sujashvili and Pitskheliauri 2005), against respiratory tract catarrh and to heal bronchial asthma, and as an expectorant (Genebashvili 1992). The decoction and condensed syrup from roots is used for stomachache, gasteralgia, gastric ulcer, hemorrhoids, liver disorders, muscle spasm, joint pain, measles, duodenum ulcer, cold, and bone fractures (Ghorbani 2005; Safa et al. 2013; Naghibi et al. 2014; Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). It is also used for stomach acidification, cough and sore throat, duodenal ulcer, muscular pains, nausea, diabetes, bruises of the body, hypertension, and hand and foot pains (Sadat-Hosseini et al. 2017; Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018; Maleki and Akhani 2018). In addition to roots, stems and leaves are also used. The roots are used to treat cough, and the roots are often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). In Pakistan, the roots are used for respiratory disorders (Sher et al. 2016). Glycyrrhiza uralensis: In Mongolian medicine, the root extract is used for the treatment of pneumonia, bronchitis, bronchial asthma, emphysema, pulmonary tuberculosis, exudative pleurisy, whooping cough, for regulation of digestion, with peptic ulcers, kidney and biliary diseases, bladder problems, anemia, paralysis and atherosclerosis, as a diuretic, anti-inflammatory, for infectious diseases, detoxification, and as tonic to promote longevity. Applications include the treatment of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, leprosy, cancer, anthrax, smallpox, and cardiac problems. In mixtures, Glycyrrhiza uralensis is used in Mongolia to treat vomiting, liver echinococcus, and blood diseases. It is also used to treat lung disease and throat illnesses caused by fever and thirst. It decreases fever, induces expectoration, and fortifies the body (Sokolov 1987).

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Local Food Uses Liquorice is used for different beverages (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). Powder from roots produces much and very stable foam and is used in the brewing industry and production of nonalcoholic soft drinks (Grossheim 1946; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The species contains a lot of sugar (glucose, sucrose), and the saponin glycyrrhizin is five times sweeter than sugar. The root extract is used as syrup for confectionary (Grossheim 1952). The roots are used as food (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The root extract can be used as syrup, and as a surrogate of sugar, as an ingredient in beverages, beer, kvass, and in making coffee, cocoa, marinades, compotes, and sweets like halva. In the Ural, it is also used as marinade for processing fish, and pickling cucumbers, cabbage, wet apples, and kale. In Kyrgyzstan, roasted roots serve as a substitute for tea (Sokolov 1987).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses As feed additive, it increases the meat and dairy productivity of cows, and the syrup is used to feed bees in winter. The plant can be used to tan leather and as dye for silk and wool, mostly as whitening agent. The stems yield coarse fibers. Sometimes the species is planted as ornamental. In veterinary medicine, the syrup is used as an expectorant (Sokolov 1987). Plants are used in traditional carpet weaving as a source of yellow dye and for silk-brown and green dyes (Grossheim 1952). A dye solution is prepared from roots and rhizomes to obtain yellow, lemon-yellow, orange-yellow, orange, brown-yellow, gray-yellow, yellow-green, snuff, khaki, coffee, and other different colors and shades. The dye is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Qasimov 1980; Grossheim 1946). The stems are fibrous and yield up to 13% fiber which is used for the production of tow rope of good durability. Coarse yarn can be produced for different items. At the end of summer, when pastures in the lower mountain belt have no other fodder plants, cattle and buffalos eat Glycyrrhiza very well (Grossheim 1952). It serves as a fodder plant for cattle in summer pastures and also in the composition of silage (winter livestock feed) (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The leaves serve to dye silk in yellow, brown, and green shades (Grossheim 1952).

References Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna: Academy of Science; 1927. (in Armenian). Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vol. 1–2. Moscow: Academy of Science; 1994–1996. (in Russian).

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Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):25–34. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing house of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Academy of Science; 2001. (in Armenian). Genebashvili M. Medicinal forest plants of the Caucasus, recreational and sightseeing zones of Georgia. Tbilisi: Academy of Science; 1992. (in Georgian Grossheim 1946). Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Harutyunyan H. Medieval Armenian phytotherapy herbs. Yerevan: Academy of Science; 1990. (in Armenian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Academy of Science; 2010. (in Russian). Khajoei Nasab F, Esmailpour M. Ethno-medicinal survey on weed plants in agro-ecosystems: a case study in Jahrom, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0128-9. Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 13: Leguminosae: Oxytropis, Hedysarum. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1948 (English 1972). 455 p, 26 b/w plates, 2 maps. Kuchukhidze J, Jokhadze M. Botany (medicinal plants). Tbilisi: Academy of Science; 2012. (in Georgian). Maleki T, Akhani H. Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal studies in Baluchi tribes: a case study in Mt. Taftan, southeastern Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;217:163–77. Mardjanyan KS. Stepanos Shahrimanyan’s botany of flora of Armenia. Yerevan: Academy of Science; 2008. (in Russian). Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Mindadze N. Traditinal medicinal culture of Georgian people. Tbilisi: Academy of Science; 2013. (in Georgian). Mindadze N, Chirgadze N. Traditions of Georgian folk medicine. Tbilisi: Kakheti; 2005. (in Georgian). Naghibi F, Esmaeili S, Malekmohammadi M, Hassanpour A, Mosaddegh M. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used traditionally in two villages of Hamedan, Iran. Res J Pharmacogn. 2014;1:7–14. Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad: Academy of Science; 1991. (in Russian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sadat-Hosseini M, Farajpour M, Boroomand N, Solaimani-Sardou F. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants in the south of Kerman. Iran J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;199:194–204.

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Safa O, Soltanipoor MA, Rastegar S, Kazemi M, Dehkordi K, Ghannadi A. An ethnobotanical survey on Hormozgan province, Iran. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2013;3:64–81. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vol. 1–7. Leningrad: Academy of Science; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Sujashvili N, Pitskheliauri I. Khevian dictionary. Tbilisi: Academy of Science; 2005. (in Georgian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Academy of Science; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Academy of Science; 2014. (in Armenian). Tsutsunava N. Medicinal plants of Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1960. (in Georgian). Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan: Academy of Science; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Gundelia tournefortii L. ASTERACEAE Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Plant large, glabrous or more or less arachnoid-hairy; root thick, containing latex; stem 30–60 cm high, rough and thick, simple or weakly branched above. Leaves coriaceous, stiff, large, oblong or oblong-lanceolate, pinnately divided or lobate, with more or less spiny-toothed lobes apically attenuate into spine, midrib thick and wide. Capitula clustered; general inflorescence (glomerule of capitula), globose-ovoid, surrounded by spiny bracteal leaves, 2–5 cm wide; bracts in individual capitula terminating into long coarse spine, exceeding capitula. Corolla purple; fruit (achenes) enclosed in a hull (sheath) formed by fused involucral bracts; nut-like “pseudo-fruit” gray or grayish-brown, about 1.2–1.5(1.7) cm long

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_147

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and 0.8–1.2 cm wide, apically with prickly spines. Flowering May–June; fruiting July. Caucasus, Middle Asia, dry stony slopes in foothills and as weed in nonirrigated crop fields (Shishkin and Boborov 1995).

Local Medicinal Uses The latex is used as purgative (causes vomiting) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Food Uses Achenes are eaten and contain oil; the young shoots and leaves are also edible (Sokolov 1993).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 26: Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961 (English 1995). 1072 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Helichrysum maracandicum N. Pop. ex Kirp. Helichrysum sp. Asteraceae Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Russian: Цмин caмapкaндcкий, Бeccмepтник caмapкaндcкий (Tsmin samarkandskiy, Bessmertnik samarkandskiy); Uzbek: Samarkand buznoch; Kyrgyz: Caмapкaнд oчпoc гулу (Samarkand ochpos gulu) (Sokolov 1993)

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Root woody, many-headed or short-many-headed, producing few (two to four) or more (six to ten) flowering stems, at base usually thickened from compactly surrounding living or dead leaves. Sterile stems usually few, with linear-lanceolate or linear-spatulate, petiolate leaves, rather abruptly transitional to triangular broadened base, forming prominent flocculose- or arachnoid-tomentose, bulbous thickening; base of lower leaves with prominent veins, often membranous and red; flowering stems (12)25–40(75) cm high, with linear or linear-lanceolate leaves, acuminate or cuspidate, sometimes falcate or irregularly curved, or straight and obliquely upright, R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_68

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semi-amplexicaul, basally with triangular notch, usually with prominent midrib beneath, greenish, grayish-green or yellow-brown, more often, more or less densely tomentose or flocculose, sometimes (particularly in sparsely hairy leaves) mixed with glandular hairs, in rare cases leaves densely lead-gray pubescent. Flowering stems weakly sulcate, woody, greenish or yellowish-brown, strongly or weakly arachnoid or flocculose, usually distinctly mixed with glandular hairs, or stems (in mature plants) brownish, with more dense glandular hairs, often almost leafless or with brown remains of withered leaves; sometimes flowering stems as also entire plant densely arachnoid-tomentose. Capitula hemispherical, spherical, campanulate or ellipsoid on densely tomentose (sometimes mixed with glandular hairs) peduncles, usually longer than or as long as capitulum (rarely peduncles not as long as capitula); young inflorescence often almost capitate and usually surrounded by a few bracteal leaves, more or less compact corymbose when mature, consisting of (6)15– 50 (rarely 100 and even more) capitula. Involucral bracts 50–60, lemon-yellow, more or less distinctly plicate, usually five-rowed, dorsally pubescent; outer bracts lanceolate, broad lanceolate, or elliptical, inner bracts more numerous, broad or oblong-spatulate; involucre usually spreading after fruiting or sometimes even cup-shaped. Florets about 60–75; pappus of 20–25 very fine, weakly barbed hairs almost as long as corolla (or slightly shorter), somewhat yellowish or whitish below, yellowish above. Flowering May–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in open Pinus forests, on forest edges, meadows, chalky and solonchak soils, sand dunes, in steppes and semideserts (Shishkin 1959) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates, organic acids (trtaric, oxalic), diterpenoides, latex, steroids (campesterine, sistosterol), coumarins (scopoletine, umbelliferone), flavonoids (naringenine, galangine, apigenine, luteoline, kaempferol, quercetine, isosalipurposide),tannins, quinones (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Altai and Middle Asia, the plant decoction is used to treat gastric problems, as a diuretic and laxative, for nephritis, cystitis, dyspepsia, vomiting, colitis, and as anthelmintic. In the Northern Caucasus, it serves for artherosclerosis, hypertension, rheumatism, gout, arthritis, respiratory diseases, venereal diseases, bites of rabid dogs, sciatica, and externally for eczema and dermatoses (Sokolov 1993). Also, used as diuretic (Bussmann et al. 2014), for heartburn and liver ailments (Fayvush et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017a, 2018), and are sold in medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b; Bussmann 2017). Helichrysum odoratissimum is used for anaplasmosis (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006) and as anthelminthic (Njoroge et al. 2004). Helichrysum flagellare for stomach ailments (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015) and scabies (Razafindraibe et al. 2013). Herlichrysum faradifani serves to treat

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Fig. 1 Helichrysum rubicundum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Helichrysum rubicundum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

gonorrhea, cough, asthenia, fever, hepatitis, and stomach ulcers (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015) and Helichrysum gymnocephalum is used for stomach ulcers, wounds, headaches, and cough (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015; Randrianarivony et al. 2017) (Figs. 4 and 5).

388 Fig. 3 Helichrysum sp. (Asteraceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Helichrysum sp. (Asteraceae), for sale in market, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Helichrysum sp. (Asteraceae), for sale in market, Batumi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The plant yields a yellow dye for wool and silk. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1993). Sometimes the plants are used as tobacco substitute (Bussmann et al. 2016).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW (2017). Helichrysum rubicundum (K. Koch) Bornm. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: Optimizing resource efficiency (R.U.E.) in agro-ecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;7(2):71–87. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya). J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:332–9. Rakotoarivelo NH, Kuhlman A, Rakotoarivony F, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda V, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used to treat the most frequent diseases in the Ambalabe rural commune. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11(68) Randriamiharisoa MN, Kuhlman A, Jeannoda V, Rabarison H, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianarivony T, Raktoarivony F, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Economic importance of medicinal plants sold in the markets of Antananarivo, Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:60. Randrianarivony TN, Ramarosandratana VA, Andriamihajarivo TH, Rakotoarivony F, Jeannoda V, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. The most used medicinal plants by communities in Mahaboboka, Amboronabo, Mikoboka, Southwestern Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0147-x. Razafindraibe HM, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used by women from Agnalazaha littoral forest (Southeastern Madagascar). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:73. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, vol. 25. Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1959 (English 1990). 666 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Hemerocallis minor Mill. ASPHODELACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Hemerocallis minor Mill.: Hemerocallis flava var. minor (Mill.) M. Hotta

Local Names Chinese: 小黄花菜 (Xiao huang hua cai)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; leaves shorter than to about equaling the stem, 7 mm broad; inflorescence simple; pedicels ranging in length from 7 to 54 mm; flowers pale yellow, solitary or 2 or 3, fragrant, 7–9 cm long; outer perianth segments 9–11 mm broad, the inner ones broader and more obtuse, membranous-margined, sparsely anastomosing; bracts small, lanceolate; capsule oblong, ca. 3–5 mm long. Flowering June–July. Wet meadows, elevated wet places with sandy soil; forest glades, mountain slopes, and scrub. Siberia, Mongolia (Komarov 1935). B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_69

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Local Medicinal Uses The species is used in traditional medicine for acute gastroenteritis, burns, parasitic diseases, female ailments, wounds, liver disease, and colitis (Sokolov 1994).

Local Food Uses The species is used as spice for meat and fish.

References Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 4: Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586 p, 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian).

Heteropappus altaicus (Willd.) Novopokr. ASTERACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Heteropappus altaicus (Willd.) Novopokr.: Aster altaicus Willd.; Heteropappus distortus Tamamsch.

Local Names Chinese: 阿尔泰狗娃花 (Ā’ěrtài gǒu wá huā); Mongolian: Baga-Haoning, Nidunqiqige, Geruchong

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Stems usually many, branches spreading almost always from base, with short branches in leaf axils, erect or ascending, 30–60 cm high, covered with thin upward directed hairs. Leaves 3–7 cm long, 4–7 mm wide, sessile, linear or linearly oblong, gradually narrowed toward base, obtuse or somewhat acute, pubescent with flexuous thin hairs on both surfaces and with numerous very fine shining glands; B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_70

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uppermost leaves gradually decreasing in size. Capitula numerous, together with ligules up to 3.5 cm wide, in corymbose paniculate inflorescences; involucral bracts three-rowed, finely hairy with rough hairs and sparsely glandular, outermost bracts linear and shorter than those of inner row. Ligulate florets pale blue or lilac, 2.0– 2.5 mm wide. Achenes 2–3 mm long, oblong-obovate, hairy; pappus whitish or pale brown, longer than achene, consisting of almost equal setaceous hairs in all achenes. Flowering July–August. Steppes, saline meadows, and gravel, stony slopes of low mountains. Siberia, Mongolia (Shishkin 1959) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Heteropappus altaicus (Asteraceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo: Bo Liu)

Fig. 2 Heteropappus altaicus (Asteraceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo: Bo Liu)

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Phytochemistry Rubber, saponins, terpenoids, alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses In Mongolian medicine, the species is used as an antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, for respiratory infections, against measles and smallpox, as an expectorant, and in wound healing (Sokolov 1993). Heteropappus altaicus can be used whole in Chinese medicine to allow detoxification, discharge purulent effects, to treat epidemic fever, headache, chest tightness, irritability, carbuncles, boils, and viper bites.

References Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 25: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1959 (English 1990). 666 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Hippophae rhamnoides L. ELAEAGNACEAE Rui Xu, Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Hippophae rhamnoides L.: Rhamnoides hippophae Moench; Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A. Nelson

R. Xu College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_71

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Local Names Russian: Oблeпиxa кpушинoвaя (Oblepikha krushinovaya); Uzbek: Chakand; Kyrgyz: Кaдимкичычыpкaнaк (Kadimki chychyrkanak); Chinese: 沙棘 (Sha ji), 醋柳 (Cu liu), 酸刺 (Suan ci), 黄酸刺 (Huang Suanci), 酸刺柳 (Suan ciliu), 黑刺 (Hei ci); English: Sea buckthorn (Sokolov 1988)

Botany and Ecology A shrub or small tree, 1.5–5 m high, with brownish-green, yellowish-brown or black bark, numerous branches and spines 2–7 cm long. Leaves linear or linear-lanceolate, 2–8 cm long, 0.2–0.8 cm wide, apex subobtuse, base more or less narrow, margins more or less revolute, dark grayish-green above, silvery-white suffused with brown or yellow below, covered with white and brown stellate scales. Staminate flowers in short minute spikes, 5–8 mm long, 4–6 mm wide, with 2-parted perianth, lobes ovate-orbicular, concave, greenish-brown, covered outside with numerous brown and sparse white stellate scales; stamens 4, half to two-thirds as long as perianth; anthers oblong-linear, almost sessile with very short filaments. Pistillate flowers 2–5 in axils of branchlets, on pedicels 0.5 mm long; perianth of pistillate flowers tubular, oblong-obovate, 2.5–4 mm long, 1–1.5 mm wide, brown, covered outside with stellate brown and few white scales, lobes obtuse, covered inside with rather long white hairs; pistil in lower part of perianth-tube; ovary glabrous, globose-ovaloid, about half length of perianth; style 0.5 mm long; stigma oblong, exserted. Fruit, a drupe, globose, ovaloid, globose-ovaloid or short-ellipsoid, 0.8–1 cm long, 0.3– 0.6 cm broad, glabrous, orange or reddish, succulent and aromatic; stone ovoidoblong, 4–7 mm long and 4–5 mm broad, dark brown, sometimes almost black, lustrous. In coasts, banks of lakes, mountain streams, and brooks. Riverside pebbles, pebbly springs, riverside shingle, willow and poplar woods on sands, upper limit of deciduous and lower limit of coniferous trees (up to 1800–2100 m), ravines, slopes, rocks, and bluffs. Caucasus (Ciscaucasia, Dagestan, West, East and South Transcaucasia, Talysh), Scandinavia, Central and Atlantic Europe, Mediterranean, Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor, Iran, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Northwestern China, Mongolia, and Tibet. Native to fixed dunes and sea cliffs in Europe and Asia. Hippophae rhamnoides has a well-developed root system that can maintain the soil on high slopes. The roots live in symbiosis with actinomycetes. This relationship permits fixation of nitrogen from the air. They also transform insoluble organic and mineral matters from the soil to more soluble states. The rhizomes sucker rapidly to produce new colonies. Ural, Altai, Middle Asia, on the banks and in the valleys of rivers, lakes, among shrubs, in gorges, on rocks and cliffs, from the plains to the upper mountain belt (Shishkin 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Hippophae rhamnoides L. Fig. 1 Hippophae rhamnoides (Elaeagnaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Hippophae rhamnoides (Elaeagnaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Hippophae rhamnoides (Elaeagnaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Hippophae rhamnoides (Elaeagnaceae), Inner Mongolia, Chine. (Photo Bo Liu)

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (glucose, fructose), phenulcarboxylic acids (prydroxybenzoic, gallic), catechins (epicatechine, galocatechine, epigallocatechin, gallate), flavonoids (isoramnetine, quercetine, kaempferol, myricetine), anthraquinones, fatty acids,

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Fig. 5 Hippophae rhamnoides (Elaeagnaceae), Inner Mongolia, Chine. (Photo Bo Liu)

Fig. 6 Hippophae rhamnoides (Elaeagnaceae), Inner Mongolia, Chine. (Photo Bo Liu)

triterpenoids (ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, cycloartenol, amyrine, lupeol, citrostadienol, oleanol, erythrodiol, uviol), nitrogen-containing compounds (serotonine), alkaloids (harmalol), cyclitols (quiberachite), steroids, tannins, vitamins (E, B2, C, carotene), phenulcarboxylic acids, fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Altai and Mongolia, the leaf extract is used for the treatment of colitis and diarrhea both in humans and livestock. In Middle Asia, poultices and lotions are made from the leaves and fruits to treat with rheumatism and gout. The flowers are used in Tajikistan as emollient. The fruit juice is used as an analgesic, for wound

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Fig. 7 Hippophae rhamnoides (Elaeagnaceae), Inner Mongolia, Chine. (Photo Bo Liu)

Fig. 8 Hippophae rhamnoides (Elaeagnaceae), Inner Mongolia, Chine. (Photo Bo Liu)

healing, vitamin supplement, ulcers and other diseases of the stomach, dysentery, and cancer, and as poultice for eczema, lupus and other skin diseases, burns and frostbite, to improve digestion, and to treat scurvy. The seeds are used as a laxative (Sokolov 1988). Oil from seeds and fruits is used for healing wounds and as an antiulcer agent (gastric and stomach ulcers). It is used in cancer therapy and in the treatment of burns and radiation injury of the skin. Fruits contain vitamin C. Fruits in the form of juice, water decoction, and syrup, as well as oil made of them are ingested to remedy the lack of vitamins. Buckthorn oil is ingested to treat gastric ulcers. A water infusion of the fruits and oil is externally used in stomatitis, different skin diseases and persistent wounds, as well as women’s diseases.

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The fruits are eaten as vitamin supplement and to treat diabetes (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten raw and are used for jams, juices, and sweet. They also serve as food coloring agent (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017; Sokolov 1988).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the plant is also applied for wound healing, with burns, and internally for gastroenterocolitis. The wood can be used for carpentry. The species are browsed by camels and are planted as ornamentals. A dye solution is prepared from leaves and young shoots to obtain black brown but from leaves yellow, orangeyellow, orange, green, brown, coffee, chestnut, turquoise, light-blue, sea-green, olive, and other different colors and shades are obtained (Qasimov 1980). The solution is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products. The shrubs with their silvery leaf and compact crown are used in gardens and parks. The wood is fine-grained, dense, enough strong, yellow and is used for fine joinery and turnery. The ash contains much potash. It is a good species for erosion prevention on slopes and roadsides (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017; Sokolov 1988).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Hippophae rhamnoides L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri).

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Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 15: Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 565 p., 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Hyoscyamus niger L. SOLANACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Hyoscyamus niger L.: Hyoscyamus agrestis Kit. ex Schult.; Hyoscyamus bohemicus F.W. Schmidt; Hyoscyamus niger var. annuus Sims; Hyoscyamus niger var. chinensis Makino

Local Names Russian: Бeлeнa чёpнaя (Belena chyornaya); Uzbek: Ming divana; Kyrgyz: Кapa мeндубaнa (Kara mendubana); Chinese: 天仙子 (Tian xian zi); English: Henbane (Sokolov 1990)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_72

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Botany and Ecology Biennial. Winter plant covered with soft, viscid, patent bloom; fetid. Root vertical up to 2(3) cm thick, branched, soft, sometimes almost spongy, rugose, with thickened collar. Stem 20–115 cm tall, 1.5(2) cm thick at base, green, simple only in weak stunted plants, but usually branched. Leaves soft, nonglossy, dark green above, grayish underneath, lighter, densely hairy along veins and margin; basal leaves (rosette) long petiolate, oblong-ovate or elliptical, sinuate-pinnatifid; cauline sessile, semi-amplexicaul, oblong-lanceolate, sinuate-lobed or deeply incised, with triangular or triangular-lanceolate, acuminate or acute, generally 4–5, lobes or teeth. Flowers sessile crowded at end of stem and branches in leafy helicoid cymes, elongated after flowering; floral leaves sessile, oblong, or narrowly lanceolate, with a few teeth or entire. Flowering calyx herbaceous, 10–22 mm long, tubular below, broadened and campanulate above middle, with broad triangular sharp teeth; fruiting calyx accrescent, 21–32 mm long, hardening, urceolate, broadening and densely patently pilose in lower part, with constriction above middle and rather widespread, short, aristate sharp teeth, (1/6)1/5–1/4(2/7) as long as tube. Corolla 2–4.5 cm long, infundibuliform, dull yellowish or rarely whitish, with purple reticulate veins, throat and upper part of tube purple-violet, lobes obtuse, somewhat unequal. Stamens unequal, 2 shorter, 3 longer, slightly exceeding throat; filaments inserted in middle of tube, pilose in lower part: ovary glabrous; style pilose in lower part. Capsule broad at base, closely enclosed within calyx, latter twice as long. Seeds numerous (up to 500) brownish gray, finely pitted. Flowering May–August, fruiting June–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia (except Pamir, ruderal, on vacant lots, garbage places, near settlements, along roads, in kitchen gardens, and as weed on arable land (Shishkin and Boborov 1955) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 1 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Flavonoids (spiroside, quercitrine, hyperoside, rutine), fatty acids (linoleic, palmitic, stearic, myristic, oleic, phospholipids), alkaloids (rioscyamine, rioscine, apogiascine, riospine, skimianine, scopolamine, apoatropine, a-belladonin, tropine), cyclitols (ficine), steroids (Sokolov 1990).

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Fig. 4 Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In the Altai, Hyoscyamus extract is used to treat anthrax, erysipelas, inflammations, diphtheria, as a sedative, anticonvulsant, analgesic for Parkinson disease, neuralgia, convulsions, headaches, bronchial asthma, pneumonia, and spasms of the bladder. Especially in the Mongolian Altai, the plant is used for tumors of the cervix, rectum, urethra, for cutaneous and venereal diseases, scabies, eczema, dermatomycosis, syphilis, as anthelmintic, as a sedative, for gout, furunculosis, respiratory infections, and pleurisy. In Central Asia, this plant is used as an analgesic, to treat tumors and earaches, and the seeds are burnt to treat toothaches and convulsions. As poultice, the leaves are used for abscesses (Sokolov 1990). Hyoscyamus extract is used to treat anthrax, erysipelas, inflammations, diphtheria, as a sedative, anticonvulsant, analgesic for Parkinson disease, neuralgia, convulsions, headaches, bronchial asthma, pneumonia, and spasms of the bladder. Especially in the Mongolian Altai, the plant is used for tumors of the cervix, rectum, urethra, for cutaneous and venereal diseases, scabies, eczema, dermatomycosis, syphilis, as anthelmintic, as a sedative, for gout, furunculosis, respiratory infections, and pleurisy. The plant is also used as an analgesic, to treat tumors and earaches, and the seeds are burnt to treat toothaches and convulsions. As poultice, the leaves are

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used for abscesses. The leaves are used as painkiller and sedative, remedy for asthma, hepatic stones, and rheumatism (Sokolov 1990). The leaves are locally used as an antifungal agent. The seeds are used to treat toothache (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018). In the Himalayas, decoctions of the fruits are used to treat epilepsy and headache, and the leaves, boiled with leaves of Plantago ovata, are used to treat backache and lumbago (Sher et al. 2016).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The plant is used as an insecticide (decoction, powder) for aphids, moths, and spider mites, and it is highly toxic (Sokolov 1990). Hyoscyamus is a very old ceremonial plant (Bussmann 2016), and the leaves are still locally used as hallucinogenic (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer; 2016. p. 163–9. Bussmann RW. (ed). Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing International Publishing:, 2017; XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955 (English 1993). 745 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericum scabrum L. HYPERICACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Hypericum perforatum L.: Hypericum nachitschevianicum Grossh.; Hypericum perforatum var. cinfertiflorum Debeaux; Hypericum perforatum var. microphyllum H. Lév. Hypericum scabrum L.: Drosanthe scabra (L.) Spach; Hypericum asperum Ledeb.

Local Names Hypericum perforatum: Russian: Звepoбoй пpoдыpявлeнный (Zveroboy prodyryavlennyy); Uzbek: Kizil-poicha; Kyrgyz: Кoзoнoкчoлуу capычaйчoп (Kozonokcholuu sary chay chop); English: St. Johnswort (Sokolov 1985) Hypericum scabrum: Russian: Звepoбoйшepoxoвaтый (Zveroboy sherokhovatyy); Uzbek: Dalachoi, Choichoop; Kyrgyz: Бoдуpлуу capычaйчoп (Bodurluu sary chay chop) (Sokolov 1985) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_73

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Botany and Ecology Hypericum perforatum: Perennial, glabrous throughout, green or sometimes glaucescent (var. songaricum (Rchb.) G. Woron.); stem erect, 2-edged, branched at top, 30–100 cm long; leaves oval or elliptic or oblong-ovate or oblong, 0.7–3 cm long, 0.3–1.5 cm broad, or broadly elliptic (var. songaricum (Rchb.) G. Woron.), subcordate, or rather narrow, oblong-linear or oblong (var. veronense (Schrank) Beck, and var. collinum G. Woron.), subobtuse, flat or more or less revolutemargined, furnished with numerous pellucid and few black glandular dots; flowers numerous, forming a broadly paniculate, almost corymbose inflorescence 7–11 cm long and 5–11 cm broad; bracts lanceolate, 0.5 cm long, acute; calyx deeply parted, 5 mm long, about 2–3 times shorter than corolla; sepals lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate (var. vulgare (Schimp. et Spann.) Neilr.), or linear, or linear-lanceolate (var. veronense (Schrank) Beck, and var. collinum G. Woron.), 4(5) mm long, 1 mm broad, as long as ovary (var. veronense (Schrank) Beck.) or longer (var. collinum G. Woron.), acute or acuminate, sparingly furnished with black glandular mostly oval dots, margin smooth or sparsely toothed; petals oblong to oblong-elliptic, inequilateral, 1.2–1.5 cm long, 0.5–0.6 cm broad, with numerous black glandular dots and lines on margin in upper part, surface with numerous yellow glandular dots, thin lines and stripes, or without black dots (var. vulgare (Schimp. et Spann.) Neilr.); stamens numerous, in 3 bundles; ovary ovoid, 3–5 mm long; styles 3, distinct, twice as long as ovary; capsule oblong-ovoid, 6 mm long, 5 mm broad, or small, 3–4 mm long and 3 mm broad, broad-ovoid or rounded-ovoid (var. collinum G. Woron.), brown, with yellow glandular longitudinal streaks and lines; seed 1 mm long, cylindric, brown, minutely pitted longitudinally. Flowering May–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia. Found in forests and bushland, on meadows, stony slopes, subalpine lawns, in mountain forests, steppes, on the outskirts of fields and among crops (Shishkin and Boborov 1937; Shishkin 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Hypericum scabrum: Perennial; stems numerous, 17–35 cm long, sometimes 10– 15 cm long (var. micranthum Boiss.), woody at base, mostly terete, ascending,

Fig. 1 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

virgate, brown or reddish, mostly branched at top, scabrous, covered with minute, rigid glandular tubercles, these sometimes projecting (var. hyssopifolium Boiss.), or almost smooth (var. glabrum B. Fedtsch.); leaves sessile, glaucescent, lanceolate or oblong-linear or linear or oblong, 0.9–2.5 cm long and 2.5 mm broad, or broadly oblong (var. hyssopifolium Boiss.); leaves of sterile shoots small, linear, 0.3–1 cm long, 1 mm broad, leaves obtuse, revolute-margined, pellucid-dotted, attenuate at apex and mucronate; flowers numerous, in a dense cymose corymb, 3–6(7.5) cm long, 1.5–6(9) cm broad; bracts oblong to oblong-linear, 1–2 mm long, 0.7 mm broad, acutish, scarious-margined, entire or occasionally denticulate; calyx 2–3 times shorter than petals, cleft to half 2–3 mm long, 1–1.5 mm broad, lobes unequal, ovate or lanceolate or oblong, 1–2 mm long, 0.5–1.3 mm broad, obtuse, scariousmargined, entire or denticulate, glandular or occasionally glandular; petals yellow, oblong, 6–8 mm long, 2–4 mm broad, or 4–6 mm long (var. micranthum Boiss.), tapering to a claw 2 mm long, at apex mostly with black capitate stipitate glands; stamens few, 6–10 in three bundles; ovary ovoid, 2.5 mm long; styles 3, twice as

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long as ovary; capsule oblong-ovaloid or oblong-ovoid, 7 mm long, 2–4 mm broad, 3 times length of calyx, acutish, brown, furrowed; seed 1.5 mm long, ovaloidcylindric, brown, longitudinally white-villous. Flowering May–July. Mostly found in the Caucasus, Altai, Central Middle Asia. Dry, stony, steppe and mountain slopes, and dry upland steppes, rocky outcrops, dry stony stream beds, arboraceous juniper and steppe belts, bramble thickets, up to 2700 m above sea level (Shishkin and Boborov 1937) (Figs. 4, 5, and 6). Fig. 4 Hypericum androsaemum (Hypericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Hypericum androsaemum (Hypericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Hypericum androsaemum (Hypericaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Mannitol 1.1–2%, essential oils (a-pinene, myrcene, cineole, capric aldehyde), saponins, alkaloids, vitamins (C, carotene), phenols (pyrogallol, floroglucin), phenylcarboxylic acids, tannins, flavonoids (quercetine, rutine, hyperine, isocercitrine, rutiozide, arabinoside, avicularyine), anthocyanins, anthraquinones (hypericine, prothegipericine, pseudo-adipergicine, coumarins (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses Hypericum perforatum is part of the pharmacopoeia of Russia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Poland, France, and Germany. The plant is used for its stimulating activity, heart and tissue regeneration and as a diuretic, for wound healing and as rheostatic, as well as with neurasthenia and neuralgia, and for gynecological diseases. Other traditional applications are stomach ulcers, increased acidity, gout, sciatica, rheumatism, hemorrhoids, nocturnal enuresis in children, and diarrhea. In Central Asia, the decoction is especially used as an astringent, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, tonic, as hemostatic, for kidney diseases, heart diseases, diarrhea, and hemoptysis. In the Ural, the plant is employed to treat cancer of the liver, stomach, and ovaries, and for the treatment of goiter, while in the Northern Caucasus, Hypericum juice serves to treat bronchial asthma, colds, stomach ulcers, and duodenal ulcers. In Karachaevo-Circassia, Hypericum serves for the treatment of hypertonia and the prophylaxis of scurvy. In Uzbekistan, the ash of the whole plants is used as ointment for skin diseases. The seeds have a strong laxative effect (Sokolov 1985). Infusions of flowers and leaves are used as an anti-depressant, diuretic, pain killer, wound healing, and as sedative and relaxant (Amin 2005; Ghorbani 2005). The leaves are used to treat nervous system problems and are used as sedative. The leaves and shoots act as anti-inflammatory, and to treat diarrhea, gum inflammations,

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hemorrhoids, and liver problems (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a). The species is often sold as medicine in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b). Hypericum scabrum is used in Tajikistan as tea to treat jaundice and otherwise similar to Hypericum perforatum (Sokolov 1985).

Local Food Uses The flowers serve as tea surrogate (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Sokolov 1985).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, Hypericum is employed as an anthelmintic. The flowers can be used to dye wool in silk in golden, yellow, and green tones. The whole plant is toxic for sheep and can be lethal when causing hypertrophic liver cirrhosis and nephritis. Photosensitization has been observed in white sheep (Sokolov 1985).

References Amin G. The most common traditional medicinal plants of Iran. Tehran: Tehran University of Medical Sciences Publication; 2005. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68.

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Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 15: Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 565 p., 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Shishkin BK, Bobrov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 7: Ranales to Rhoedales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1937 (English 1970). 615 p., 11 Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Inula britannica L. Inula helenium L. Inula orientalis Lam. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Inula britannica L.: Conyza britannica (L.) Rupr.; Inula britannica var. tymiensis Kudô; Inula serrata Gilib.; Inula tymiensis Kudô Inula helenium L.: Aster helenium (L.) Scop.; Corvisartia helenium (L.) Mérat; Helenium grandiflorum Gilib. Inula orientalis Lam.: Codonocephalum grande (Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) B. Fedetsch.; Inula grandis Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Inula macrophylla Kar. & Kir.

Local Names Inula britannica: Russian: Дeвяcилбpитaнcкий (Devyasil britanskiy); Uzbek: Chachalbosh; Kyrgyz: Capыбaшкapындыз (Sary bash karyndyz); English: British yellowhead, meadow fleabane, yellow starwort (Sokolov 1993) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_74

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Inula helenium: Russian: Дeвяcилвыcoкий (Devyasil vysokiy); Uzbek: Kora andiz; Kyrgyz: Бийиккapындыз (Biyik karyndyz); English: Elecampane (Sokolov 1993) Inula orienalis: Russian: Дeвяcилкpупнoлиcтный (Devyasil krupnolistnyy); Uzbek: Sari andiz, Ok andiz; English: Large-leaved elecampane (Sokolov 1993)

Botany and Ecology Inula britannica: Perennial. Plant 15–65 cm tall, appressed-hairy or lanate, covered with multicellular, long, white, thin hairs, often basally thickened. Rhizome cylindrical, 1–2 mm wide, nodulous, obliquely creeping; stem erect, longitudinally ribbed, ascending, simple or branched above, sometimes reddish in lower part. Lower leaves elliptical or lanceolate, occasionally ovate, 4–11 cm long, 1–2.5 cm wide, on 1–5 cm long petiole; middle and upper leaves oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, 2.5–9.0 cm long, 0.6–2.2 cm wide, sessile, with cordate amplexicaul base, sometimes auriculate, all leaves acute, entire or with fine occasional teeth and short spinules along margin, glabrous, or sparsely hairy above, densely glandularhairy beneath. Capitula usually less numerous, two to five (very rarely 25), in lax corymbs, sometimes solitary, 3.0–4.5(5) cm wide, with lanceolate acute, 0.7–1.5 (2.5) cm long, 1–5 mm wide floral leaves; peduncles slender, 1.0–4.5 cm long. Involucre 1.3–2.0(2.2) cm wide, of numerous bracts; involucral bracts equal, acute, recurved; outer bracts linear-lanceolate, 8 mm long, 0.8 mm wide, outwardly green, appressed-hairy; middle bracts, as also outer, 0.6 mm broad, in upper part green, smooth, in lower part pubescent; inner bracts yellowish-white, membranous, linear, 0.4 mm wide, glabrous, with sparse, long cilia, all bracts covered with golden glands; very rarely involucral bracts enlarged, exceeding ligulate florets. Ligulate florets 1.5–1.6 cm long, two times as long as involucral bracts, yellow, with corolla tube as long as or slightly shorter than pappus, ligules linear, 1 cm long, 0.7 mm wide, threeveined and with three deltoid, acute teeth, in upper part sparsely glandular; tubular florets yellow, usually as long as pappus, five-toothed, teeth equal, outwardly covered with golden glands. Achenes linear-oblong, 1 mm long, 0.2 mm wide, brown, basally somewhat, narrowed, longitudinally ribbed, with straight, white, upward-appressed, bicellular hairs, in upper part sometimes with fine glands, pappus dirty white, 4–5 mm long, of 15–16 bristles, basally unevenly short-connate. Flowering June–September. Ural, Altai, Middle Asia, on forest glades, clearings, forest fringes, meadows, along the banks of rivers, streams, lakes, estuaries, on riverine sands, as weed in the fields, up to the mid-mountain belt (Shishkin 1959). Inula helenium: Perennial. Plant 30 cm–2.5 m high; rhizome woody; nodulous, with strong odor. Stem erect, 0.6–1.2 cm thick, longitudinally sulcate, densely pubescent with white multicellular hairs, with short branches in upper part. Petiole 18–35 cm long. Leaves irregularly small-toothed-serrate, somewhat rugose above, sparsely puberulent, yellowish- or grayish-velutinous below; basal and lower cauline leaves oblong-elliptical, 40–50 cm long, 15–25 cm wide, apex short-acuminate. Middle leaves ovate-lanceolate, 15–35 cm long, 5–18 cm wide, apex acuminate, sessile, base cordate, amplexicaul; upper leaves lanceolate, apex acute, (3.5)6–9 cm

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long, (1)1.8–4.0 cm wide. Capitula (6)7–8 cm wide, less numerous, on thick 6–10 cm long peduncles, axillary, in the middle with broadly lanceolate, 3 cm long and 1 cm wide bract, in lax raceme or corymb. Involucre 2.5–4.5 cm wide with numerous imbricate bracts; outer bracts herbaceous, broad-lanceolate or ovate, 1.0–1.3 cm long, 4.5–5.0 mm wide; middle bracts spatulate, almost spoon-shaped. Florets golden yellow; peripheral florets ligulate, 3.2–3.7 cm long, corolla tube 6–7 mm long, ligules narrow-linear, 2.6–3.0 cm long; tubular central florets obconical, 1.0–1.2 cm long. Achenes prismatic, brown, glabrous, 3–5 mm long, 0.5 mm wide, longitudinally ribbed; pappus brownish white, 2–3 times as long as achenes, with numerous bristles. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in Pinus forests, deciduous forests, shrublands, meadows, meadow steppes, forest glades, along mountain rivers, 570–2000 m (Shishkin 1959). Inula orientalis: Perennial. Plant 15–50 cm high, all mildly rough-pubescent, covered by long, slender, multicellular hairs. Stem solitary, erect or somewhat bent, longitudinally ribbed, densely leafy, sometimes reddish below. Leaves thin, entire or inconspicuously finely glandular-toothed, pubescent on both sides; basal leaves sparse, obovate, 1.2–3.0 cm long, 0.4–0.6 cm wide, obtuse, on 0.3–0.5 cm long petioles; lower leaves oblanceolate or oblong-spatulate, 6–13 cm long, 2.5– 3.5 cm wide, obtuse, basally narrowed into thick, 4–5(6) cm long petiole; upper leaves oblong-lanceolate, sometimes ovate, 4–10 cm long, 2–3 cm wide, at base cordate, amplexicaul and decurrent, with adnate auricles, sessile, short-acuminate. Capitula solitary, 6–7 cm wide. Involucre 3.0–3.5 cm wide, many-rowed; outer bracts lanceolate-subulate, 0.9–11.0 cm long, 1.3 mm wide; inner bracts scaly, linear, almost subulate, 1.2 cm long, 1 mm wide, glabrous only in upper part, outer bracts densely covered with brown or blackish, 2.0–2.5 mm long, multicellular erect hairs; ligulate florets bright yellow, almost two times as long as involucral bracts, with 4 mm long tube, as long as pappus, ligules 1.9–2.0 cm long, 2 mm wide, narrowly lanceolate, four- or five-veined and with three fine teeth, on outer side and particularly in lower part covered with scattered white multicellular hairs; tubular florets 5– 6 mm long, slightly longer than pappus, one-fifth to one-fourth as long as ligulate florets, glabrous, five-toothed, teeth acute. Achenes linear-oblong, 2.5 mm long, 0.5 mm wide, longitudinally ribbed, glabrous; pappus two times as long as achenes, of 13 bristles. Flowering July–August. Middle Asia, on steppes, in gorges, on stony screes, weed in wheat crops, 1500–2800 (3100) m (Shishkin 1959).

Phytochemistry Inula britannica: Essential oils, sesquiterpenoids (britanine, hydroxyepatolide, isotelecine, zeoteleukine, senecioyloxyisoalantolactone, cis-artemisiopholine), saponins, alkaloids, tannins, sesquiterpenoides, phenolcarboxylic acids (salicylic, p-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechoid, vanilla, lilac, p-hydroxyphenylacetic, p-coum aric, coffee, ferulic), coumarins (escueteine, scopoletine), flavonoids (eupafoline, patuleine, quercimeritrin, nepitrine, isokvetsitrine, patulintrine, quercetagetine, quercetine, luteoline) (Sokolov 1993).

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Inula helenium: Sesquiterpenoids (allantolactone, isoalantolactone, dihydroisoalantholactone, tetrahydroalantholactone, hydroxyalantholactone, oxoalanthole-lactone, asperiline, konfertine, costunolide, inunolide, otosenine), carbohydrates (glucose, inuline), essential oils (allantolactone, isoalantolactone, dihydroisoalantolactone, azulene, camphor, alant, and acetic acid), triterpenoids (friedeline, damaradienol), steroids (stigmasterol, sitosterol), saponins, fatty acids (linoleic, linolenic, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, palmitooleic), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, chlorogenic), coumarins (scopoletine, umbelliferone), flavonoids (quercetine, kaempferol), vitamins (C, E, carotene) (Sokolov 1993). Inula orientalis: Carbohydrates (inuline, fructosans), sesquiterpenoids (allantolactone, isoalantolactone, randin, raniline, irlan, iraline, randuline, grandcine, igalan, igaline, ilalol, grandine), alkaloids, vitamins (C), tannins, phenolcarboxylic acids (cinnamic), fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, linoleic, oleic, stearic, palmitoleic, lauric, caprylic, pellaronic), steroids (sitosterol), organic acids (fumaric, butyric, propionic, acetic) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses Inula britannica: In the whole region the infusion is used to treat cystitis, diabetes, jaundice, respiratory catarrh, bone tuberculosis, rheumatism, and hemorrhoids and is used as a vermifuge, hemostatic, for uterine bleeding, and to improve the appetite. In Mongolian medicine, the decoction is used as tonic, restorative, for stimulating the metabolism, and as anthelmintic. The juice serves as antitussive and topically for wound healing. In the Ural, the plant is used for liver diseases, in Turkmenistan, for diseases of the stomach. In Kyrgyzstan, the infusion is used to improves digestion, as diaphoretic, and diuretic (Sokolov 1993). Inula helenium: In traditional medicine the plant is sued widely to treat diabetes, problems of stomach and pancreas, gall bladder, acute respiratory infections, gastric ulcers, hemorrhoids, liver cirrhosis, pneumonia, bronchitis, bronchial asthma, angina, gastrointestinal diseases, malaria, cystitis, tuberculosis, rheumatism, radiculitis, tonsillitis, laryngitis, psoriasis and acne, and is also used for wound care (Sokolov 1993). Flowers in the form of a water infusion (tea) are applied as expectorant in bronchitis, cold, inflammation, and tuberculosis. Root and flowers are prepared as water infusion and used in diseases of gastrointestinal tract as emollient and for stomachache. An infusion of leaves and roots is used as diuretic in dropsy. Powder from dry roots is applied to trophic ulcers, and is used as ointment to furuncles, carbuncles, and septic wound (Damirov et al. 1988; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Makashvili 1991; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The roots are used to heal eye pains by external application; elecampane is also used to heal renal disorders (Tsutsunava 1960). Stumps were collected in autumn, stringed on threads, and air-dried (Eliava 1920). A broth from the roots and leaves sweetened with sugar was used to reduce fever and help stomach pains. Elecampane was also used to heal upper respiratory tract diseases (Kuchukhidze and Jokhadze 2012). The roots, seeds, and oil of elecampane were used to heal renal disorders, urinary incontinence,

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nosebleed, and tachycardia. The modern medicine uses the rhizomes of this plant for lung diseases as an expectorant. It also enhances metabolism. In Adjara (Kobuleti District), it is still in use against snakebites and the local name can be translated as “the remedy against snake bite”. The rhizome of elecampane is washed and then crushed. Then water is added and squeezed, the filtrate is given to the snakebite to drink. Once drunk, the sick starts vomiting. Meanwhile the leaves of elecampane are boiled in a vinegar or wine, put on the bitten place and bandaged. By the traditional belief, the zigzagged white lines on the leaves of elecampane is an infallible sign that this plant can cure snake bites (Sharadze 1961). A root decoction is used to treat gastro-intestinal disorders, as well as respiratory tract infections and asthma. Leaves and roots are used as panacea and to treat cough (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Inula orientalis: In Middle Asia, the root decoction is used to treat with brucellosis, tuberculosis, diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, gastric ulcer, female diseases, rheumatism, skin diseases, scabies, and is also employed as anthelmintic (Sokolov 1993). Inula racemosa is used to treat stomach problems, dysentery, and blood pressure (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010). Inula capa serves to remedy urinary retention (Bhat et al. 2013).

Local Food Uses Inula helenium: In the western Ural, the leaf oils are used for aromatization of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, for candies, baked goods, jellies, and puddings. The root is boiled and eaten (Sokolov 1993). Can be used as source for obtaining sugar due to availability of inulin in the roots (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1946).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Inula britannica: Fodder for camels and sheep (Sokolov 1993). Inula helenium: The oils are used to make soaps and perfumes. The plant yields a blue dye for wool and silk. Planted also as ornamental. (Sokolov 1993). A dye solution is prepared from roots and flowers to obtain yellow, golden-yellow, brightyellow, brown-orange, coffee, olive, grey-green, dark blue, bluish-brown, and other different colors and shades and used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Qasimov 1980; Grossheim 1946). The leaves are sometimes smoked (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; 2018; Bussmann 2017). Inula orientalis: In veterinary medicine, the root decoction serves to remedy coughing, constipation, scabies, brucellosis, and the leaf oils are used for ascaridosis of pigs and as general anthelmintic. The plant yields yellow dyes for wool and silk. Can be used as fodder for livestock (Sokolov 1993) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

424 Fig. 1 Inula helenium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Inula helenium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Inula britannica L. . . . Fig. 3 Inula helenium (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Inula helenium (Asteraceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Inula helenium (Asteraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Inula helenium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII. 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2) https://doi. org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Maaraif; 1988 (in Russian). Eliava S. Short notes about the wild medicinal and otherwise useful plants of our country. Tbilisi: City Union Publisher; 1920. (in Georgian). Flora of Azerbaijan, volumes. I–VIII. Baku, AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N., Kharadze A., Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols., Tbilisi, “Metsniereba”; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kuchukhidze J, Jokhadze M. Botany (medicinal plants). Tbilisi: Ilia State University; 2012. (in Georgian) Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (special issue 1):28–42. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Metsniereba: Tbilisi; 1991. (in Georgian)

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Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sharadze L. The use of wild plants in traditional medicine of Adjara. State Museum of Adjara SSR: Batumi; 1961. (in Georgian) Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 25: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1959. 666 pages(English 1990) Sokolov P.D. editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian). Tsutsunava N. Medicinal plants of Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1960. (in Georgian).

Iris lactea Pall. IRIDACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Iris lactea Pall.: Iris oxypetala Bunge

Local Names Chinese: 白花马蔺 (Bai hua ma lin)

Botany and Ecology Perennial, 25–40 cm tall; rhizome rather stout, to 10 mm in diameter, beset with ropy root fibers; stems up to 35 cm long, sometimes very short, compressed, firm within; radical leaves in clusters, covered at base with rigid vestiges of leaf sheaths, thickish and rigid, grayish-green, linear, up to 50 cm long, greatly exceeding the stems; spathe valves green, lanceolate, long-acuminate, the margins white hyaline; pedicels as long as or slightly longer than perianth; perianth tube persistent in fruit and forming the beak; segments many times the length of tube; outer segments slightly B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_75

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Fig. 1 Iris carthalinae (Iridaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Iris colchica (Iridaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

reflexed, pale lilac or whitish, obtuse or acutish (var. chinensis Maxim.), the limb gradually narrowed into claw; inner segments but slightly shorter and narrower than the outer, bluish-lilac; style branches lilac; style crests oblong-ovate, attenuate or pointed; stigmas minutely triangular-lobate; capsule elongate-ovaloid, up to 5 cm long, sub-hexagonal, the beak up to 5 mm long. Flowering May–July. Dry sandy places around lakes, meadows, clay-solonetz soils in steppes, and solonetz meadows. Siberia, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Himalayas (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses In Mongolian medicine used as anti-emetic, and for infectious and viral diseases. Also as anthelminthic, for wound healing, and when eyes become yellow, dries lymph disease, and treats stomach and large intestine fever (Sokolov 1994).

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Local Food Uses Some species like Iris pseudacorus are used as coffee replacement (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves of this iris species are of some forage value, this being of particular significance in view of the marked salt resistance (Sokolov 1994).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 4: Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586 p., 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Iris pseudacorus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian).

Juglans regia L. JUGLANDACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Shoista Mubalieva, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, and Anneleen Kool

Synonyms Juglans regia L.: Juglans regia var. chinensis D. DC.; Juglans duclouxiana Dode; Juglans fallax Dode; Juglans kamaonia (C. DC.) Dode; Juglans orientis Dode; Juglans sinensis (C. DC.) Dode.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] S. Mubalieva Institute of Botany, Dushanbe Botanical Garden, Dushanbe, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] H. de Boer · A. Kool The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_76

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Local Names Russian: Гpeцкий opex (Gretskiy orekh); Uzbek: Yong’oq; Kyrgyz: Гpeкжaнгaгы (Grek zhangagy); English: Walnut (Fedorov 1984).

Botany and Ecology A big tree, up to 20 m high, with a straight upright trunk to 1.5–2 m and even up to 4–7 m in diameter, dark gray fissured bark, and a large spreading crown. Leaves compound, alternate, usually with 3–5 pairs of leaflets, these elongate-ovate, slightly crenate, apex acuminate, glabrous above, hairy below in the axils of veins. Male flowers in drooping catkins with lanceolate bracts; flowers 6-lobed, stamens 12–18, equaling the perianth lobes. Female flowers terminal in clusters of 2 or 5; these flowers sessile with a small-toothed outer perianth and a glabrous inner perianth. Fruit with a greenish exocarp, glabrous; nut yellowish, ovoid, slightly pointed, reticulately rugose, sometimes obtusely ridged, usually with rather thin shell and a large kernel. On banks of streams, bottoms of ravines and valleys, and mixed broadleaved woods on mountain slopes. Found in the Caucasus (West, South and East Transcaucasia, Talysh), Central Asia (Montane Turkmenistan, Balkan Peninsula, and Iran. A tree species native to the region stretching from the Balkans eastward to the Himalayas and southwest China. The largest forests are in Kyrgyzstan, where trees occur in extensive, nearly pure walnut forests at 1000–2000 m above sea level, particularly at Arslanbob in Jalal-Abad Province. It is widely cultivated across Europe. Juglans regia is native to the mountain ranges of Central Asia, extending from Xinjiang province of western China, parts of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and southern Kirghizia and from lower ranges of mountains in Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, northern India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, through Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and Iran to portions of Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and eastern Turkey. In these countries, there is a great genetic diversity, in particular ancestral forms with lateral fruiting. During its migration to western Europe, the common walnut lost this character and became large trees with terminal fruiting. A small remnant population of Juglans regia trees have survived the last glacial period in Southern Europe, but the bulk of the wild germplasm found in the Balkan peninsula and much of Turkey was most likely introduced from eastern Turkey by commerce and settlement several thousand years ago. Flowering April–May, fruiting September. Ural, Caucaus, Middle Asia, Altai, mountain river banks, rarely on slopes (Boborov and Komarov 1936) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry a-hydrojuglone, juglone, b-hydrojuglone, flavonoids (hyperoside, quercetin, arabinoside), vitamins (A, C, B1, E, carotene), tannins, essential oils, fatty acids (linoleic, oleic acids), coumarins (gallic and ellagic acids) (Fedorov 1984).

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Fig. 1 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The bark and leaves are used in infusion to treat wounds, chronic eczema, dermatomycoses, furuncles, and lupus. In Iran, the bark tincture serves to treat hemorrhoids. A decoction of the fruits is used to relieve high arterial pressure, cardiac diseases, and as mouthwash for gingivitis. The fruit bark juice is used for external ulcers, eczema, and itchy dermatosis. The leaf infusion is drunk for diabetes, scrofula, rickets, used as a vermifuge and externally for skin diseases, as well as for venereal diseases, gastrointestinal problems, and tuberculosis. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014; 2016a, b; 2017; 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984). In the Himalayas, walnuts are used for toothache (Bhat et al. 2015). The bark is used in Pakistan to clean teeth. The seeds are used to stimulate the immune system and reduce cholesterol, throat inflammations, and to improve bone health (Sher et al. 2016). In India, the bark and fruit shells are also used to clan the teeth and to treat wounds, cuts, and pyorrhea (Singh et al. 2017). The bark also serves for skin aliments, wounds, and allergies in Nepal, as well as for the treatment of tuberculosis and as anthelminthic (Kunwar et al. 2006a, b).

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Fig. 2 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The seeds are widely eaten and used for sweets and cooking (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014; 2016a, b; 2017; 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984) (Fig. 5).

Juglans regia L. Fig. 4 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), fruits, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses The bark can be used to dye wool and silk in yellow and brown. It is also used for tanning leather. The wood is used in carpentry, for furniture, household utensils, and musical instruments. In veterinary medicine, it is used to treat gastrointestinal diseases (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014; 2016a, b; 2017; 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984). The bark is used in Pakistan to paint the lips (Sher et al. 2016) (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11).

Fig. 6 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), household utensils, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), household utensils, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Juglans regia L. Fig. 8 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), wardrobe, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), shells for sale, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), dying wool, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 11 Juglans regia (Juglandaceae), ready to eat, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Juglans regia L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham, Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Boborov EG, Komarov VL. (English 1970). Flora of the USSR, volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, subclass I: archichlamydeae, order Piperales-Polygonales. Akademia Nauk: Leningrad; 1936. 593 pages, 49 b/w plates Bussmann RW (ed). Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer Cham, Springer International Publishing XXVII, 2017; 746p. (ISBN 978–3–319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti,

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Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromatic Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, Families Magnoliaceae - Limoniaceae, vol. 1. Akademia Nauk: Leningrad; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian) Kunwar et al. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya- a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. 2006a. Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:27. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Etnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(49). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.

Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica (Kom.) Silba. Juniperus sabina L. Juniperus semiglobosa Regel Juniperus seravschanika Kom. CUPRESSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica (Kom.) Silba.: Juniperus turkestanica Kom. Juniperus sabina L.: Sabina officinalis Garcke Juniperus semiglobosa Regel: Juniperus sabina var. jarkendensis (Kom.) Silba; Juniperus schuganica Kom.; Juniperus tianschanica Sumnev. Juniperus seravschanika Kom.: Juniperus kulsaica V.D. Dimitrev; Juniperus polycarpos var. seravschanica (Kom.) Kitam.; Juniperus zaaminica V.D. Dimitrev; Sabina seravschanica (Kom.) Nevski

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_77

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Local Names Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica Russian: Moжжeвeльниктуpкecтaнcкий (Mozhzhevel’nik turkestanskiy); Uzbek: Urik archa, Balik archa; Kyrgyz: Opук apчa, Жaпaлaк apчa (Oruk archa, Zhapalak archa) (Eisenman et al. 2012) Juniperus sabina: Russian: Moжжeвeльниккaзaцкий (Mozhzhevel’nik kazatskiy); Uzbek: Archa; Kyrgyz: Кapa apчa (Kara archa); English: Savin Juniperus semiglobosa: Russian: Moжжeвeльникпoлушapoвидный (Mozhzhevel’nik polusharovidnyy); Uzbek: Saur archa; Kyrgyz ame: Caуp-apчa (Saur-archa); English: Russian Juniper (Eisenman et al. 2012) Juniperus seravschanica: Russian: Moжжeвeльникзepaвшaнcкий (Mozhzhevel’nik zeravshanskiy); Uzbek: Qora archa; Kyrgyz: Кызыл apчa, Кapa apчa (Kyzyl archa, Kara archa) (Eisenman et al. 2012)

Botany and Ecology Juniperus pseudosabina: Tree up to 18 m (averaging 8 m) or low shrub up to 2 m tall; crown dense; bark brownish-gray, thinly scaling; branches suberect to horizontally drooping; leafy branchlets erect, 1.5–2 mm thick; leaves 2 mm long, oval, sharp-pointed, with a prominent dorsal gland, rarely glandular, prominently keeled and obtuse-tipped; fruit juicy, with a high sugar content, globose or oblong, 10– 15 mm long, 8–10 mm broad, black, glossy, slightly pruinose; seeds oblong to globose-oblong, tapering toward base, obtusely rounded at apex, sometimes slightly concave at the middle, rarely flat, very rarely short-pointed, 6–10 mm long, 5–7 mm broad, with a dark shiny strip in upper part and lateral grooves, the woody coat very thick. Some trees are aged 300–500 years. Middle Asia (Pamir-Alai and Tien Shan), forming juniper woods by itself or mixed with Juniperus semiglobosa, at altitudes of 900–3,200 m (Iljin 1934). Juniperus sabina: Trailing shrub, dioecious; branches partly decumbent, partly ascending; leaves strongly odoriferous; acicular leaves lance-linear, spiny-pointed; imbricated leaves lustrous, rhombic to rhombic-lanceolate, acute to subobtuse, with a keel and an oval gland on the black; aments ovaloid, with round scales, pale yellow; fruits solitary, profuse, small, 6–8 mm long and 5–6 mm broad, roundedovate, brownish, pruinose, of 4–6 scales; seeds mostly 2, though occasionally 1, 3, 4, or 6, ovoid, prominently keeled on the abaxial side. Ural, Middle Asia, Caucasus, Altai. Growing on wind-blown sand, chalk, rocks, exposed southern slopes, and stony slopes of hills and low mountains, more often in the steppe than in the forest belt. (Iljin 1934). Juniperus semiglobosa: Erect tree up to 10 m tall, with a rather loose and narrow often weeping head; branchlets slender, pendulous; acicular leaves terete, with a white median band above, lustrous, long-pointed; imbricated leaves rhombic, obtuse, with an oblong dorsal gland, tightly appressed to the branchlets; flowers dioecious; fruits semiglobose, flatly truncate at the top, black, with scattered mealy

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bloom, 6–7 mm in diameter; seeds 4, ca. 5 mm long and 3 mm broad, flatfish, cuneate or with convex abaxial surface and lateral grooves. Middle Asia, growing partly by itself, partly together with other juniper species, forming thin juniper woods on dry mountain slopes, moraine deposits, and lakeshore terraces. (Iljin 1934). Juniperus seravschanika: Tree 5–10 m tall, with reddish or reddish-gray bark; crown dense; branchlets rather slender and relatively short, 1.5 mm thick, slightly, moniliform or not so, yellowish- green or glaucescent; leaves oblong, acute, with an oblong gland; fruits ca. 1.2 cm in diameter, subglobose, strongly pruinose, very hard, with a woody pericarpic layer; seeds 2 or 3, rarely 4, erect, flat or trigonous-ovaloid, 6–7.5 mm long, the lateral ones (both when only 2) broad, convex and almost smooth on the back, the middle ones wedged in between them, longitudinally furrowed, or else all three seeds ovaloid, with an obtusish point; young seeds white, often distinctly marginate owing to two furrows; mature seeds dark-colored, sometimes with persistent lateral grooves and marginate. Middle Asia, forming juniper woods in the lower and middle parts of the forest zone, in pure stands or mixed with Juniperus semiglobosa (Iljin 1934).

Phytochemistry Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica: Essential oils (pinene, camphene, borneol, camphor), sugars, resins, favonoids (Eisenman et al. 2012). Juniperus sabina: Cyclolignans (podophyllotoxin), essential oils (pinene, cadinene, terpinene, terpinolene, camphene, cedrol), tannins, vitamins (C), sugar, juniperin, resins, pentosan, organic acids (Eisenman et al. 2012). Juniperus semiglobosa: Essential oils (sabinene, cedrol, pinene, myrcene), sugar, sesquiterpenes, pigments (Eisenman et al. 2012). Juniperus seravschanica: Essential oils (pinene, camphene, myrcene, cedrene), tannins, yellow pigments, sugar, vitamins (C), diterpenes, sesquiterpenes (Eisenman et al. 2012).

Local Medicinal Uses Juniperus pseudosabina var. turkestanica: The fruit decoction is used as mouthwash for gingivitis, eczema, skin diseases, and internally as diuretic (Eisenman et al. 2012). Juniperus sabina: An infusion of the fruits is used for urogenital diseases, kidneys and bladder problems, kidney stones, liver diseases, rheumatism, scurvy, jaundice, stomach ulcers, and to improve the appetite. A decoction of the roots is used for stomach ulcers, bronchitis, tuberculosis, kidney stones, skin illnesses, and arthritis. The bark infusion is also used for male impotence. The cones and green branches are used as baths for rheumatism (Eisenman et al. 2012) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

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Fig. 1 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Omalo, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Omalo, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Juniperus oxycedrus (Cupressaceae), Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Juniperus sabina: The plant is used for diseases of the skin. A powder from the leaves is used externally for the treatment purulent ulcers. Fresh crushed leaves are pulverized and applied with sweet butter on scabies and for the elimination of warts (Alakbarli 2006). A water infusion is used against worm in small doses (Alakbarli 2006). The fruits are used as diuretic, for prostate problems, urinary problems, and to treat toothache. The leaves are used to treat skin problems. The roots are employed for blood cleansing, as detoxicant, for gallbladder ailments, and urinary system problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017) (Figs. 5 and 6). Juniperus semiglobosa: The fruits are used to increase appetite, aid in digestion, as diuretic, disinfectant of the urinary system, anti-inflammatory, for pneumonia, as analgesic, and expectorant. The oils are used for skin problems (Eisenman et al. 2012). Juniperus seravschanica: Smoke from burning branches is used in Middle Asia for rheumatism. Powdered material is inhaled to treat headaches. The oil is used for wounds and skin diseases. Internally an infusion of dry fruits is used for urogenital problems, scurvy, liver disease, rheumatism edema, and nervous disorders. Fresh fruits are eaten to treat stomach ulcers and to increase the appetite. The bark decoction is used as choleretic to treat jaundice. The root infusion is used to remedy stomach ulcers, bronchitis, tuberculosis, kidney stones, treat arthritis, and male impotency. A decoction of the fruits and green branches is used as bath for rheumatism (Eisenman et al. 2012) (Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10).

Fig. 5 Juniperus sabina (Cupressaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), Verwall, Austria. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Juniperus sp. (Cupressaceae), Ala Dagh, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Juniperus sp. (Cupressaceae), Omalo, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Juniperus sp. (Cupressaceae), Omalo, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Juniperus oxycedrus (Cupressaceae), Omalo, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Juniperus sabina: The plant is used for dyeing. A dye solution is prepared from needless young shoots and immature fruits to obtain olive color. The dye is used for dyeing wool and silk in yellow and grey shades (Qasimov 1980), and for scented soaps (Grossheim 1952). The leaves serve as diuretic and for dermatological problems in veterinary medicine (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2011, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Alakbarli FU. Medical manuscripts of Azerbaijan. Baku: Heydar Aliyev Foundation; 2006. (in Azeri). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Juniperus communis L.; Juniperus sabina L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.

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Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Eisenman SW, Zaurow DE, Struwe L, editors. Medicinal plants of Central Asia: Uzbekistan and Kyegyzstan. Stuttgart: Springer Scientific; 2012. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, volume 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1968). 244 p., 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri).

Karelinia caspia (Pall.) Less. ASTERACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Karelinia caspia (Pall.) Less.: Karelinia caspia fo. angustifolia Smoljan.; Karelinia caspia fo. ovalifolia Smoljan.; Pluchea caspia (Pall.) O. Hoffm. ex Paulson; Serratula caspia Pall.

Local Names Chinese: 花花柴 (Hua hua chai)

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Stem up to 1.5 m high, erect, cylindrical, ribbed, leafy up to inflorescence, corymbosely branched mainly above, glaucous, glabrous or puberulent; branches alternate, almost of equal length, scabrous. Leaves 2–6 cm long and 0.5–1.5 cm wide, simple, alternate, sessile, oblong, acuminate, glabrous, scabrous, margin uneven, B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_78

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upper leaves basally cordate, semiclasping-auriculate. Capitula 1.3–2.0 cm long and 0.8–2.0 cm wide, heterogamous, many-flowered, in clusters of two to nine in terminal corymbs; peduncles 7–25 mm long and 1 mm wide, scabrous. Involucre cylindricalcampanulate, 13–15 mm long and 7–10 mm wide, six- or seven-rowed; bracts stiff (almost coriaceous), appressed, imbricate, light brown, sometimes reddish at apex, inside glabrous, outside with heavy, short, appressed, gray hairs, ciliate, cilia longer on inner bracts; outer bracts ovate or ovate-oblong, 5–8 mm long and 3–4 mm wide, middle ones lanceolate, 10 mm long and 2 mm wide, inner ones almost linear, 11– 15 mm long and 1 mm wide, acuminate. Receptacle flat, with long hairs. Florets tubular, glabrous; peripheral florets pistillate, many-whorled, fertile, reddish, 11– 12 mm long, with filiform, more or less unequally, four-toothed corolla, the tube 10 mm long and 0.5 mm wide in upper part; style as long as tube, slender, flat, glabrous, with bifid stigma; stigma lobes short, slender, flat, 3–5 mm long, exserted, slightly divergent, reddish, glabrous. Central florets bisexual, sterile, 10–20, reddish, with five-toothed corolla, 10–12 mm long and 1 mm wide in upper part, teeth 1 mm long, lanceolate, acuminate; anthers oblong, 2 mm long and 0.3 mm wide, glabrous, syngenesious, surrounding style, with short entire basal appendages, filaments of stamens 5–6 mm long and 0.25 mm wide, flat, glabrous, epipetalous at base; style 15 mm long, filiform, 0.3 mm wide, with closely spaced small papillae up to half of its length; stigma bifid, with short (0.5 mm long), erect and touching, reddish papillate lobes; ovary cylindrical, 1.5 mm long and 0.3 mm wide, somewhat compressed, smooth, glabrous. Achenes 1.5–2.0 mm long and 0.3 mm wide, dark-brown, terete, somewhat curved, tapering towards base, three-angled, basally with a ring, glabrous; pappus white, 9–14 mm long, basally sinuous, one rowed, in pistillate florets consisting of numerous, very fine, tiny, often serrate hairs, in bisexual florets of finely serrate hairs, slightly barbate thickened at apex. On wet solonchak and solonetz [saline soil types] meadows, solonetz depressions, along banks of rivers, and salt lakes among sands, on edges of sand dunes. Middle Asia, Iran, Mongolia (Shishkin 1959).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Consumed a little by sheep, goats, and camels in winter (Shishkin 1959).

References Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 25: Compositae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1959 (English 1990). 666 p.

Lagochilus gypsaceus Vved. Lagochilus plagyacanthus Rupr. Lagochilus platycalyx Schrenk ex Fisch. & Mey. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Lagochilus plagyacanthus Rupr.: Lagochilus iliensis C.Y Wu & S.J. Hsuan; Lagochilus keminensis Isakov

Local Names Lagochilus gypsaceus: Russian: Зaячьягубa гипcoвaя (Zayach’ya guba gipsovaya); Uzbek: Bozulbang (Sokolov 1991) Lagochilus platyacanthus: Russian: Зaйцeгубплocкoкoлючий (Zaytsegub ploskokolyuchiy); Kyrgyz: Жaлпaктикeндуу aктикeн (Zhalpak tikenduu ak tiken) (Sokolov 1991)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_79

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Lagochilus platycalyx: Russian: Зaйцeгубплocкoчaшeчный, Зaячьягубa шиpoкoчaшeчнaя (Zaytsegub ploskochashechnyy, Zayach’ya guba shirokochashechnaya); Kyrgyz: Жaзычeйчoкчoлуу aктикeн (Zhazy cheychokcholuu ak tiken) (Sokolov 1991)

Botany and Ecology Lagochilus gypsaceus: Subshrub. Stems 30–40 cm high, woody at the very base, erect, often branched, with white, shiny bark, villous, subsequently becoming glabrous. Leaves petiolate, villous, rhomboid or wide-ovate in outline, 3–5-lobed, base cuneate; lobes oval or large-dentate. Inflorescences verticillate with 4–6 flowers. Bracteoles awl-shaped, 3-sided, stiff. Flowers sessile. Calyx campanulate with spinescent lobes. Corolla 2-lipped, white or pink, with brown veins, 20–25 mm long. Fruits glabrous nutlets, 4–5 mm long. Corolla 1–1.5 times longer than the calyx. Differs from related species by having villous stems. Middle Asia, on stony, gravelly slopes, in the foothills (Shishkin and Borisova 1954). Lagochilus platyacanthus: Herbaceous perennial. Stems 15–45 cm, branching from the base, covered with bristly hairs. Leaves pinnatisect with lineal or ovate lobes, ciliate-margined. Lower leaves rhomboid, winged-petiolate; upper leaves more rounded. In florescence a verticillate with 4–8 flowers; bracteoles lanceolate to linearlanceolate, stiff-spinescent, densely covered with glandular hairs. Calyx narrowly campanulate, tomentose, with ovate or triangular teeth. Corolla pale pink, 2-lipped, twice as long as calyx, upper lip 2 or 3 lobed. Fruits brown nutlets. Bracteoles 7–12 mm long. Middle Asia, on stony gravelly slopes, in the mid-mountain belt (Shishkin and Borisova 1954). Lagochilus platycalyx: Perennial, 20–50 cm high; stems herbaceous, erect, simple or branched, covered with fine 1–2-jointed hairs; leaves rhomboid in outline, pinnatisect nearly to midvein, the segments lobed or dissected, ovate, oblong or linear, obtuse or rounded at apex or short-subulate, covered above with scattered patent hairs, fringed equally below, but more densely so on the veins beneath; petioles broad, winged; semiverticels 4–6-flowered; bracts 3–7 mm long, covered with fine 2–3-jointed and short thick patent hairs; calyx with a flat throat, narrowly campanulate, covered with appressed 1–2-jointed hairs; teeth short, subtriangular, sometimes confluent, 13 mm long and to 16 mm broad at base; tube 20–25 mm long; corolla pale pink, with dark nerves, as long or one-and-a-half times as long as calyx; upper lip shortly bifid, the lobes long-haired outside; lower lip notched, with broad lobes, the lateral lobes elongated, oblong. Flowering May–June. Middle Asia, on stony gravelly slopes, dry steppes, in the mid-mountain belt (Shishkin and Borisova 1954).

Phytochemistry Essential oils, diterpenoids (larohyline), vitamins (C, carotene), tannins, carbohydrates, organic acids (lemon), essential oils, alkaloids (stachydrine), phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic, coffee), flavonoids, tannins (Sokolov 1991).

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Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia, a decoction is used as sedative, antihypertensive, and anticonvulsant, as well as hemostatic (Sokolov 1991).

References Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, volume 21: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 p., 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian).

Leonurus cardiaca L. Leonurus cardiaca subsp. turkestanicus (V.I. Krecz. & Kuprian.) Rech. f. Leonurus sibiricus L. LAMIACEAE Liping Qing, Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Leonurus cardiaca subsp. turkestanicus (V.I. Krecz. & Kuprian.) Rech. f.: Leonurus turkestanicus (V.I. Krecz. & Kuprian.) Rech. f. Leonurus sibiricus L.: Leonurus manshuricus Yabe; Leonuris sibiricus var. grandiflora Benth.

L. Qing College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_80

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Local Names Leonurus cardiaca: Russian: Пустырник (pucteirik) (Sokolov 1991) Leonurus turkestanicus: Russian: Пуcтыpниктуpкecтaнcкий (Pustyrnik turkestanskiy); Uzbek: Arslon kuirug; Kyrgyz: Tуpкcтaндулoйчaлкaны (Turkstan duloy chalkany); Chinese: 突厥益母草 (Tu jue yi mu cao); English: Turkestan motherwort (Sokolov 1991)

Botany and Ecology Leonurus cardiaca: Perennial, glabrous, with woody rhizome; stems 50–200 cm long, branched, with short crisp hairs on the ribs; leaves glabrous; cauline leaves on petiole 7–12 cm long, ovate or broad-ovate in outline, the lowest 5-partite, the middle usually 3-fid, with broad oblong toothed segments; leaves in inflorescence elliptical, ovate at base, with 2 large lateral teeth, the petiole 1.5–2 cm long; inflorescence long, with distant whorls; bracts subulate, short-haired; calyx glabrous, 5–6 mm long, the teeth subulate, triangular at base, 3–3.5 mm long, the 2 lower teeth recurved; corolla pink, 9–9.5 mm long; upper lip white-haired outside, sometimes glabrous; nutlets 2.5–3 mm long. June–September. Ural, Caucasus, ruderal habitats (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1954) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Leonurus sibiricus: Annual or biennial, with a woody root; stems numerous, 30– 60 (100) cm long, with sulcate faces, covered with short appressed hairs, branching in upper part, rarely from base; leaves ovate in outline, cuneate at base, trisected into narrow oblong-rhombic segments, these dissected into linear tripartite lobules; floral leaves rhomboid, trisected into linear segments, the middle segments usually 3-fid; upper side of leaves scabrous, the lower side hairy on the prominent veins; lower leaves marcescent; inflorescence long, with distant whorls; bracts subulate, shorter than calyx, covered with short appressed hairs; calyx tubular-campanulate, 8– 9 (12) mm long, with long hairs in middle part; teeth short, the upper three upright, 1.5–2 mm long, abruptly attenuate from triangular base to a subulate point, the lower two twice as long, slightly spreading; corolla 15–20 mm long, pink, the upper lip galeate, the lower lip straight, two-thirds the length of the upper; nutlets 2.5 mm long. Flowering June–September. Stony and steppe slopes, pine forests, rarely as weed. Siberia (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1954). Leonurus turkestanicus: Perennial, glabrous, with woody rhizome; stems numerous, more rarely solitary, branching, 70–200 cm long, with glabrous faces; leaves glabrous (only the floral with appressed gray hairs), on petiole not exceeding half the leaf length, orbicular or ovate in outline, with square or subcordate base, 6–10 cm long and 4–6 cm broad, dissected to two-thirds into rather broad cuneate segments, these cut in turn into broadly lanceolate lobes; leaves in inflorescence oblongrhomboid, with cuneate base, 2-fid, with lanceolate lobes; inflorescence long, loose; bracts subulate, with fine appressed hairs; calyx 7–9 mm long, gibbous, covered with short appressed hairs, the teeth subulate pointed, triangular at base, 4 mm long, the two lower spreading, 5–6 mm long, connate higher up; corolla pale

Leonurus cardiaca L. . . . Fig. 1 Leonurus quinquelobatus (Lamiaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Leonurus quinquelobatus (Lamiaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Leonurus sibiricus (Lamiaceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo Bo Liu)

Fig. 4 Leonurus sibiricus (Lamiaceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo Bo Liu)

pink, 9–12 mm long; upper white-tomentose; nutlets 2–2.5 mm long. Flowering May–June. Middle Asia, in mountain forests (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1954).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (stachydrine), flavonoids, essential oils, tannins, saponins, resins, bitter substances (Sokolov 1991).

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Local Medicinal Uses A decoction used to treat heart, stomach and nervous system diseases, hypertension, hysteria, epilepsy, tachycardia, gastrointestinal, and female diseases, also used as soporific, anti-inflammatory, diaphoretic, and laxative. Especially in Mongolian medicine, the leaf extract is used for typhoid, dysentery, vomiting, diarrhea, food poisoning, and as antipyretic. Also, the plant is used for the treatment of diarrhea, fever, poisoning, and blood and bile disorders (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2018; Sokolov 1991), and are sold in local medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2017).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 20: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 389 p., 28 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Leymus chinensis (Trin. ex Bunge) Tzvelev POACEAE Yongtao Tian, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Leymus chinensis (Trin. ex Bunge) Tzvelev: Agropyron chinense (Frin.) Ohwi; Agropyron pseudoagropyrum (Trin. ex Grieseb.) Franch.; Agropyron uninerve P. Candargy; Aneurolepidum chinense (Trin.) Kitag.; Aneurolepidum chinense (Trin.) Ohwi; Aneurolepidum pseudoagropyrum (Trin. ex Grieseb.) Nevski; Elymus auritus Keng; Elymus chinense (Trin.) Keng; Elymus chinense fo. altus Melderis; Elymus chinense fo. macrochaetus Melderis; Elymus chinense var. pumilus Melderis; Elymus pseudoagropyrum (Trin. ex Griseb.) Turcz.; Leymus auritus (Keng.) Á. Löve; Leymus divaricatus (Drobow) Tzvelev; Leymus pseudoagropyrum (Trin. ex Grieseb.) Tzcelev; Triticum chinense Trin.; Triticum pseudoagropyrum Trin. ex Grieseb.

Y. Tian College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_81

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Local Names Chinese: 羊草 (Yang cao)

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Culms 40–80 cm tall; sheaths smooth; leaves glaucous-green, scabrous on the upper surface and on the margins, and sometimes covered with scattered hairs, smooth underneath, flat, up to 0.5–0.8 cm broad, or subinvolute. Spikes linear, 8– 16 (19) cm long, often interrupted below, rachis hispid on the angles; spikelets solitary in terminal part and at the base of the spike, in 2’s in the middle part (more rarely, in weak spikes, all spikelets solitary), 1–2 cm long, 5–8-flowered, glaucousgreen, slightly divergent. Glumes linear-subulate, (0.5) 0.6–0.8 cm long, 1-nerved; lemmas lanceolate, 0.8–0.9 cm long, tapering into an awn-point 0.5–2 mm long. Flowering June–August. Steppes, steppe meadows. Caucasus, Middle Asia, Siberia, Mongolia (Rozhevits et al. 1934) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used for grazing and sometimes for paper making (Rozhevits et al. 1934). Fig. 1 Leymus chinensis (Poaceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo: Bo Liu)

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Fig. 2 Leymus chinensis (Poaceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo: Bo Liu)

References Rozhevits RY, Shishkin BK, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 2: Glumiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1973). 622 p., 50 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Lilium pumilum Redouté LILIACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Lilium pumilum Redouté: Lilium potaninii Vrishcz; Lilium pumilum var. potaninii (Vrishcz) Y.Z. Zhao; Lilium sinensium Gand.; Lilium tenuifolium Fisch. ex Hook.

Local Names Chinese: 山丹 (Shan dan)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; bulb white, narrowly ovaloid, 2.5–4 cm long, 1.5–4 cm broad; stem slender, smooth or rough by short hairs, 18–80 cm long; leaves numerous, linear, gather on the upper part of stem, upright, 3–10 cm long, 1–3 mm broad, slightly

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_82

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Fig. 1 Lilium monadelphum (Liliaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

revolute, obscurely denticulate, prominently 1-nerved and minutely papillose beneath; flowers faintly aromatic, nodding, in bud smooth or slightly pubescent, bright red, spotless or nearly so, solitary or in a 2–6-flowered raceme; pedicels 2– 5 cm long, recurved; very close to flower, with 1–3 subulate bracts; perianth segments strongly reflexed, oblong-lanceolate; anthers 6–8 mm long, bright red; capsule erect, oblong-ovaloid, 2–3 cm long, bluntly ribbed, truncate. Flowering June–July. Exposed mountain slopes, in sparse plant communities. Siberia, Mongolia (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Sometimes Lilium bulbs are ground and applied to wounds. Used also to increase urination, to decrease edema and to promote phlegm. The flowers are used for hemostatis, to dry out lymph, to treat wounds, and for menorrhagia (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

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Fig. 2 Lilium monadelphum (Liliaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The bulb is edible (Sokolov 1994). Similar food uses have bene reported from the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1994).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 4: Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586 p., 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lilium ledebourii (Baker) Boiss. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian).

Limonium bicolor (Bunge) Kuntze PLUMBAGINACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Limonium bicolor (Bunge) Kuntze: Statice bicolor Bunge; Statice bungeana Boiss.; Statice florida Kitag.; Statice sinesium Gand.; Statice varia Hance

Local Names Mandarin: 二色补血草 (Er se bu xue cao)

Botany and Ecology Herbs, perennial, 20–50 cm tall. Taproot red-brown to dark brown; bark unbroken. Caudex simple or 2–4-branched, covered with persistent petioles. Leaves basal, rarely 1–3 along axis of inflorescences, usually conspicuous to anthesis; petiole wide; leaf blade spatulate to oblong-spatulate, 3–15  0.3–3 cm including petiole, base attenuate, apex  rounded. Inflorescences solitary or 2–5, each from a different B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_83

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leaf rosette, paniculate; main axis usually 3- or 4-angular, sometimes sulcate, or rarely cylindrical at base; sterile branches usually simple, on basal part or at forks of rachis; spikes with 3–5( 9) spikelets, axis 2-angular; spikelets 2- or 3( 5)-flowered; bracts oblong-ovate, 2.5–3.5 mm, herbaceous part ovate to oblong; first bractlet 6– 6.5 mm. Calyx funnelform, 6–7 mm; tube ca. 1 mm in diam.; limb pink to pale purple, becoming white, 3–3.5 mm in diam. But apical flowers with limb 6–7 mm in diam.; lobes short and wide, apex rounded to rarely fugaciously soft awned. Corolla yellow. Flowering May–July, fruiting June–August. Calcareous or sandy soil. Mongolia (Fedorov 1984; Shishkin and Boborov 1952).

Local Medicinal Uses A decoction and infusion of the root of Limonium meyeni is used as astringent, anastaltic, and cicatrizant (Bussmann 2017; Damirov et al. 1988; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Brooms are bound from aboveground parts of some species for sweeping yards and streets. Tanning: Used for tanning (Akhundov et al. 1989). A dye solution is prepared from stems and roots to obtain yellow, lemon-yellow, golden-yellow, orange-yellow, brown-yellow, brown, snuff, olive, coffee, pink, grey-green, and other different colors and shades. The dye is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Qasimov 1980; Grossheim 1946). Very good nectariferous plants, producing much nectar (Akhundov et al. 1989).

References Akhundov QF, Mahammadli BR, Asadov KS. Useful wild-growing plants. Baku: Maarif; 1989. (in Azeri). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Maarif; 1988. (in Russian). Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku; Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian) Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Limonium meyeri (Boiss.) Kuntze. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 18: Metachlamydeae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1952 (English 1967). 600 p.

Lithospermum officinale L. BORAGINACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Lithospermum officinale L.: Lithospermum officinale var. stewartii Kazmi; Margarospermum officinale (L.) Decne.

Local Names Russian: Bopoбeйник лeкapcтвeнный (Vorobeynik lekarstvennyy); Uzbek: Ilonchoop; Kyrgyz: Дapытapaнчычoп (Dary taranchy chop); English: European stoneseed (Sokolov 1990)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_84

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; stems 50–100 cm high, with short, appressed down or nearly smooth, usually with thin, spreading branchlets above, sometimes paniculately branching; leaves dense, lanceolate, 5–10 mm wide, rarely oblong-lanceolate, long-acuminate, with 1 median and 2 lateral nerves, prominent beneath, with sparse appressed hairy down, lower leaves squamiform. Flowers in short scorpioid cymes in racemes or umbels in upper branching part of stem, dense at first, in fruit strongly elongate, loose and erect; flowers white or yellowish-white, mostly small; calyx ca. 4 mm long, its lobes linear, whitebristly, elongating to 10 mm in fruit; corolla slightly protruding from calyx, its tube slightly downy outside, the limb broadly campanulate, 4–5 mm across, with oblong, obtuse lobes; scales in throat short, downy; fruit stalks thin, erect, distinct, 2–5 mm long; nutlets white, lustrous, smooth, ovoid or oblong, ca. 3 mm high. Flowering April–June. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in dry meadows, on forest fringes, among bushes, on limestone and loess slopes, as weed in the fields, on fallow land, up to 3000 m (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1953).

Phytochemistry Cyclitols (bornesite), organic acids (apple, maleic, amber, fumaric), steroids (sisterol), phenylcarboxylic acids (rosemary, lithospermic), tannins (ellaic acid), flavonoids (juteoline, rutine), carbohydrates (glucose, fructose), cyanogenic compounds (lispermocide), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee, cinnamon), naphthoquinones (shikonine, acetylshikonine), fatty acids, vitamins (E) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia, used as poultice for bruises and cuts, and in the Ural, the extract is used to treat kidney and bladder diseases (Sokolov 1990).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for cattle and goats (Bussmann et al. 2011; Sokolov 1990).

References Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28.

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Lycopus europaeus L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Russian: Зюзник eвpoпeйcкий (Zyuznik evropeyskiy); Uzbek: Khorok, Tadzh; Kyrgyz: Eвpoпa ликoпуcу (Evropa likopusu); English: Gypsywort (Sokolov 1991)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; rhizome stringlike, articulate; stolons long, slender; stems 25–80 cm long, glabrous or with scattered short hairs, more rarely with dense soft hairs, simple or slightly branched, erect or ascending at base, 4-angled, sulcate, with long creeping shoots at base; leaves oblong-elliptical or rarely lance-elliptical, narrowed to a short petiole, irregularly and coarsely sinuate-dentate or coarsely serrate, opposite, minutely punctate -glandular and short-haired along the veins on both sides (more densely beneath), more rarely with dense soft hairs or glabrous at least on the upper side; flowers numerous, in compact axillary whorls, subtended by linear-subulate bracts 4–5 R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_85

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(6) mm long; calyx 2.8–3 mm long, unevenly divided, somewhat glandular and ciliate, the teeth to 1.8 mm long, linear-lanceolate, terminating in a long subulate point, about equaling or exceeding corolla; corolla 4-lobed, yellowish-white, the tube longer than calyx-tube, with sparse short hairs outside, ciliate inside at base of stamens, equally lobed except for broader uppermost lobe, mostly with purple speckles; stamens exserted, rarely shorter than corolla (var. minor Herd,); nutlets flattened, obovoid truncate, glabrous or with few glands. May–August (September). Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, along rivers, lakes, on fringes, clear cuts, marshy meadows, among bushes, up to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin and Borisova 1954).

Phytochemistry Organic acids (tartaric, citric, malic), essential oils, diterpenoides, triterpenoids (ursolic acid), steroids (sitosterol), saponins, alkaloids, vitamins (C, carotene), phenylcarboxylic acids (rosemary, chlorogenic), tannins, coumarins, flavonoids (apigenine, luteoline), carbohydrates (stachyose), anthocyanins (cyanine, pellargonine), cardenols (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Northern Caucasus and Azerbaijan, the leaf infusion is used for heart disease and pulmonary tuberculosis, as sedative, antipyretic, as well as with rheumatism. It is also used for diarrhea and as poultice for wounds, to reduce swelling, and as a hemostatic for uterine bleeding (Sokolov 1991).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for sheep and goats (Sokolov 1991).

References Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, volume 21: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 p., 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian).

Malus orientalis Uglitzk. Malus pumila Mill. Malus sieversii (Ledeb.) M. Roem. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Malus orientalis Uglitzk.: Malus montana Uglitzk.; Malus orientalis subsp. montana (Uglitzk.) Likhonos Malus pumila Mill.: Malus communis Poir.; Malus dasyphylla Borkh.; Malus dasyphylla var. domestica Koidz.; Malus domestica Borlk.; Malus domestica subsp. pumila (Mill.) Likhonos ex Likhonos; Malus niedzwetzkyana Dieck ex Koehne; Malus pumila var. domestica (Borkh.) C.K. Schneid.; Malus sylvestris subsp. mitis Mansf.; Pyrus malus L.; Pyrus malus var. pumila Elwes Malus sieversii (Ledeb.) M. Roem.: Malus hissarica (Kudr.), Malus kirghisorum (Al. Theod. et Fed.), M. niedzwetzkyana (Dieck), Malus turkmenorum (Juz. et M. Rohr.)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_86

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Local Names Malus orientalis: Russian: Яблоня (Jablani)

Botany and Ecology Malus orientalis: Medium-sized or more or less tall tree, to 10–15 m tall; branches usually unarmed; young shoots dark brown, somewhat tomentose, when adult dark gray with sparse lenticels; leaves 3–8 cm long, 1.5–3.5 cm broad, of variable shape, ovate-lanceolate, oblong, short-elliptic, or suborbicular, usually cuneately tapering at base, obtuse, less often acuminate with inconspicuous or rather short mucro, entire at base, otherwise serrate dentate, less often crenate-serrate, usually with very large acute or subobtuse teeth in upper part, thickish; young leaves scattered-hairy above, densely white-tomentose below, the adult hairy above only along the veins, otherwise quite glabrous, with strongly impressed lateral veins, rather densely, sometimes rather sparsely grayish tomentose below, usually very prominently veined; petioles 0.5–3 cm long, as long as the blade, thickish or rather slender, more or less tomentose; flowers 4–6 per umbel, ca. 4 cm in diameter, with densely tomentosevillous pedicels 8–12 mm long; hypanthium obconical, very densely tomentose; sepals rather short, narrowly triangular, acute, spreading, densely tomentose outside, subglabrous or slightly tomentose inside; petals obovate, narrowing to a conspicuous claw; styles about as long as stamens, tomentose at base, otherwise glabrous; stigmas clavate, narrow; fruits globose, 2–3 cm in diameter, with short, densely tomentose pedicels 1–2.5 cm long. Flowering April–May. Caucasus, Middle Asia in broadleaved, mixed forests, along fringes, banks of rivers, in the mountains up to 2000 m (Komarov and Shishkin 1935). Malus pumila/Malus sieversii: Small or often rather large trees with spreading crown, divaricate branches, and robust annotinous shoots; leaves mostly large, of variable shape, mostly ovate with rounded base, crenate-serrate, with persistent pubescence on both sides (much less strong above), short-petioled; flowers large, white or pink, usually darker on the outside, with rather short or short whitetomentose pedicels; hypanthium and calyx densely tomentose; fruits usually large, more than 3 cm in diameter, short-stalked. Flowering April–May Middle Asia, in broad-leaved and coniferous forests, in floodplaIn forests, in the mountains up to 3000 m. Widely cultivated (Komarov and Shishkin 1935) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Phytochemistry Dyridrohalcones (floridzine, phloretine), carbohydrates (sucrose, pectine), organic acids, vitamins (C, carotene), phenol carboxylic acids (chlorogenic), catechins (epicatechine, catechine), flavonoids (hyperine, quercetine, isoquercitrine, rutine, naringenine), anthocyanins (cyanidine), leukoanthocyanidins (Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 1 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 2 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Malus orientalis: The sour fruits are used to strengthen digestion and for the treatment of chronic diarrhea, and acute enteritis. (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987). In teh Caucasus, apples are often used as panacea (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Malus orientalis: Used in food and raw, but more often for baking and for making alcohol, kvass, for lemonades and soft drinks, and for cidermaking, as well as for making vinegar. The leaves are a surrogate for tea (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987). The fruits are eaten, used to produce alcohol and Svanetian vinegar, and are an

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Fig. 3 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 6 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

ingredient for Svanetian salt (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Malus pumila: Widely eaten as fruit (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1987) (Figs. 9, 10, and 11).

486 Fig. 7 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. W: Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), garden, Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Malus orientalis Uglitzk. . . . Fig. 9 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), market, Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), market, Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 11 Malus pumila (Rosaceae), market, Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Malus orientalis: The bark yields source of yellow, green, brown and black dyes for wool. The wood is used for ornamental works in carpentry, turning and carving. Fruits and leaves eaten by pigs and wildlife (Sokolov 1987). The wood is used to make snowshoes (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971– 2011. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 3: Cyperaceae-Palmae Spathiflorae, Farinosae, Lilliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1964). 512 p., 30 b/w plates, 2 maps. Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425 p., 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps.

Melilotus albus Medik. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Melilotus albus Medik.: Melilotus albus Desr.; Melilotus leucanthus Koch ex DC. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.: Brachylobus officinalis (L.) Dulac.; Melilotus arvensis Wallr.; Melilotus graveolens Bunge.; Melilotus officinalis fo. suaveolens (Ledeb.) H. Ohashi & Tateishi; Melilotus pallidus Besser ex Ser.; Melilotus suaveolens Ledeb.; Sertula officinalis (L.) Kuntze; Trifolium officinale L.

Local Names Melilotus albus: Дoнниклeкapcтвeнный (Donnik lekarstvennyy) (Sokolov 1987) Melilotus officinalis: Russian: Дoнниклeкapcтвeнный (Donnik lekarstvennyy); Uzbek: Kashkar beda; Kyrgyz: Дapыкaшкa бeдe (Dary kashka bede); English: Yellow sweetclover (Sokolov 1987) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_87

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Botany and Ecology Melilotus albus: Biennial, rarely annual; stems erect, 0.5–1.5 m long, sometimes slightly reddish in lower part, short-hairy above; stipules subulate, entire, very rarely the lower dentate; obtuse, dentate nearly from base, with 8–12 dentations on each margin, sparingly short-hairy beneath, the lower obovate-rhombic or cuneate, the upper oblong-lanceolate; raceme loose, 4–6 cm long, greatly elongating in fruit; flowers white, 4–7 mm long, on pedicel 1–1.5 mm long; calyx 2 mm long, the lanceolate acuminate teeth half as long as tube; standard slightly longer than wings, these as long as tube; standard slightly longer than wings, these as long as keel; ovary sessile, lanceolate, 3- or 4-ovuled; style one and a half times as long as ovary; pod turning dark, 3–3.5 mm long, 2–2.5 mm broad, and ca. 2 mm thick, somewhat blunted at the top, more or less distinctly reticulate-rugose by rather few slender veins; seeds 1 or 2, rarely 3, yellow, smooth or minutely tuberculate. Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on river floodplains, coastal sands, moist meadows, fallow lands, especially clayey and solonetz soils, sometimes as weed (Komarov and Shishkin 1945). Melilotus officinalis: Biennial; stems erect, 0.5–1 m long, sometimes longer, hairy in upper part; stipules lanceolate, acuminate, entire, the lowermost sometimes with 1 or 2 dentations; leaflets of lower leaves obovate to orbicular, obtuse, the upper lanceolate, unequally dentate, with 10–13 teeth on each margin, puberulent beneath; raceme 4–10 cm long, 30–70-flowered; pedicels to 1.5 mm long; flowers yellow, nodding, 5–7 mm long; calyx ca. 2 mm long, the triangular-lanceolate teeth halflength of calyx, the keel somewhat shorter; ovary lanceolate, glabrous; distinctly stipitate, commonly 6- (rarely 4- or 8)-ovuled; style slightly curved, about one and a half times as long as ovary; pod 3–4 mm long, 2 mm wide, and ca. 1.5 mm thick, ovaloid, obtuse at the top, with persistent style, short stipitate, grayish, glabrous, transversely wrinkled; seed 1 (rarely 2), greenish yellow. Flowering May–June, fruiting June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, Altai meadows, sometimes on solonetzic soils, cultivated fields, fallows, roadsides (Komarov and Shishkin 1945) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Phenolic carboxylic acids (melilot, coumaric, o-kumaric), coumarins (dicumarol, melilotin, melilotic acid, melilotocide), pterocarpans (medikarpine), flavonoids, vitamins (C, E, carotene), fatty acids, alkaloids (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses Traditionally the leaves are used for fever, colds, as diuretic, and externally for wound healing. The roots serve to treat thrombosis (Sokolov 1987). The decoction of aerial parts of this plant was used as remedy for inflammation, hypercholia,

Melilotus albus Medik. . . .

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Fig. 1 Melilotus officinalis (Fabaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

hypoglycemia, and hypotension (Naghibi et al. 2014). Decoction and juice of aerial parts and leaves are used for hypoglycemia, hypotension, coagulation, wounds, hypertonia (Mosaddegh et al. 2016). Melilotus indicus is used as emollient, for diarrhea, swellings, intestinal problems, as carminative, and for skin rashes (Umair et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses The green plant material is used for flavoring beer and snuff. The leaf extract can be used for bitter vodka. (Sokolov 1987).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The stems yield coarse fibers suitable for making ropes and sacks. A water extract of the plant serves as insecticide and rodicide. The flowers yield good honey. Fodder for all species of farm animals and poultry. The oil obtained from the leaves contains coumarin and is used for flavoring tobacco. Planted as feed crop. Very good honey plants (Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 2 Melilotus officinalis (Fabaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W: Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 11: Papilionatea, Ceasalpinoideae, Mimosoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1945 (English 1971). 327 p., 25 b/w plates, 2 maps. Mosaddegh M, Esmaeili S, Hassanpour A, Malekmohammadi M, Naghibi F. Ethnobotanical study in the highland of Alvand and Tuyserkan, Iran. Res J Pharmacogn. 2016;3:7–17. Naghibi F, Esmaeili S, Malekmohammadi M, Hassanpour A, Mosaddegh M. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used traditionally in two villages of Hamedan, Iran. Res J Pharmacogn. 2014;1:7–14. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.

Melissa offcinalis L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Melissa offcinalis L.: Melissa bicornis Klokov

Local Names Russian: Meлиcca лeкapcтвeннaя (Melissa lekarstvennaya); Uzbek: Limonuit; Kyrgyz: Дapымeлиccacы (Dary melissasy); English: Lemon balm (Sokolov 1991)

Botany and Ecology Perennial, 30–125 cm high, with soft short hairs all over; stems erect, branched, quadrangular; leaves petiolate, ovate, to 6 cm long, 3 cm broad, the upper cuneate, the lower cordate at base, crenate-toothed, subglabrous, sometimes with glandular hairs or punctate glands beneath; verticillate 3–5–10–flowered, distant, in the axils of R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_88

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upper leaves; bracts elliptical or oblong, petiolate, not exceeding the flowers; calyx campanulate, hairy, the upper lip broad, flat, subemarginate, with 3 short acuminate teeth, the 2 lower teeth triangular-lanceolate; fruiting calyx 5-angled; corolla whitish or pinkish, 13–15 mm long, one-and-a-half times to twice as long as calyx, glabrate; upper lip almost flat; stamens 4, the lower longer, curved and connivant under the upper lip; nutlets ovoid, strongly narrowed toward base, brownish, smooth, 1.5– 2 mm long. Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, forest fringes, in wet shady ravines, near settlements, as weed, up to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin and Borisova 1954) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (geranial, citronellal, caryophyllene, limonene, linalool, linaloolene, rosene, isogeranial, pulegol, isopulegol, methylsalicylate, safranal, terpineol, lavandulylvalerate, farnesene, linalyl acetate, fellandre), vitamins (C, B1, B2, carotene), phenulcarboxylic acids (rosemary, coffee, chlorogenic, protocatechal, ferulic), flavonoids (luteoline, ramranazine), coumarins, triterpneoids (ursolic acid), fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic) (Sokolov 1991).

Fig. 1 Melissa officinalis (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Melissa officinalis (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Widely used in Eurasia and included in official pharmacopoeia. In Middle Asia, used as leaf decoction for neuralgia, heart failure, bronchitis, digestive disorders, diarrhea, hemostasis, tracheobronchitis, otitis, arthritis, pharyngitis, for migraines, insomnia, gynecological diseases, gout, dizziness, and anemia, as sedative, and as galaktogogue. As bath and compresses for with rheumatism, bruises, burns, furunculosis, and oral rinse for parodontosis (Sokolov 1991). The leaves and shoots are used to make a calming tea for nervous problems (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used to flavor beverages.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The essential oils are used for perfumes (Sokolov 1991).

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References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 21: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 p., 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian).

Mentha arvensis L. Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Mentha spicata L. Mentha 3 piperita L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Izatmo Kadirova, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, and Hugo de Boer

Synonyms Mentha arvensis L.: Calamintha arvensis (L.) Garsault., Mentha agrestis Sole, Mentha alberti Sennen, Mentha angustifolia Schreb. Mentha arvensis ssp. parietariifolia (Becker) Briq.; Mentha arvensis var. villosa (Benth.) S.R. Stewart; Mentha austriaca Jacq.; Mentha lapponica Wahlenb.; Mentha parietariifolia Becker ex Steud. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] I. Kadirova Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology, Tajik National University, Dushanbe, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] H. de Boer The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_89

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Mentha longifolia (L.) L.: Mentha asiatica Boriss., Mentha caucasica Gand., Mentha kopetdaghensis Boriss., Mentha sylvestris L., Mentha vagans Boriss Mentha spicata L.: Mentha crispa L.; Mentha crispa Schrad. ex. Willd.; Mentha pudina Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.; Mentha spicata var. undulata (Willd.) Lebeau; Mentha spicata var. viridis L.; Mentha viridis (L.) L. Mentha x piperita L.: Mentha citrata Ehrh.

Local Names Mentha arvensis: Tajik: Hulba, Pudina Mentha longifolia: Russian: Mятa лecнaя (Myata lesnaya); Uzbek: Yalpeez Kyrgyz: Жaлбыз (Zhalbyz); English: Asian mint (Sokolov 1991)

Botany and Ecology Mentha arvensis: Perennial; rhizome creeping; stems 15–50 (100) cm long, mostly prostrate, more rarely erect, assurgent or decumbent, simple or mostly branched, with elongated shoots, sometimes reddish, usually villous-pubescent with retrorse hairs or subglabrous; leaves ovate, ovate-oblong, oblong-elliptical to lance-oblong, 2–7 cm long, 1–3.5 cm broad, acute, serrate-dentate, short-petioled or the upper sessile, rounded or cordate or cuneate base, hairy and glandular on both sides or subglabrous; bracts linear-lanceolate or lanceolate, ciliate and hairy, acute, about equaling or slightly exceeding the pedicels; verticillate distant, usually numerous and many-flowered, spherical; pedicels hairy, rarely glabrous; calyx campanulate, ca. 2.5 mm long, often violet, hairy, with glabrous throat, the teeth erect, short, triangular, one-third the length of the tube, acute; corolla broadly tubular, lilac or rose-lilac, hairy outside and inside, 3.5–5 mm long, the tube included or slightly exserted to twice as long as calyx, the lower lobe obtuse, subtruncate, the uppermost broadest, emarginate; stamens equaling the corolla or slightly exceeding the tube; nutlets globose, ca. 1 mm long and as broad, obtuse at apex, smooth, not keeled. Flowering and fruiting from April–August (Kinzikaeva 1988). Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in shady forests, on the banks of the rivers, in meadows, fields, marshy areas, to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin and Berisova 1954). Europe to Kamchatka and Nepal (WCSP 2019). Tajikistan: M. arvensis grows in most parts of Tajikistan as a weed in rice and cotton fields and in wet places near rivers and streams from 850 to 2000 m (Kinzikaeva 1988). Mentha longifolia: Perennial, with creeping rhizome; stems erect, branched or nearly simple, 30–100 (180) cm long, usually sharply 4-angled, whitish, densely covered (especially in upper part) with short soft usually retrorse hairs, sometimes tomentose-hairy with subreflexed woolly hairs or sparsely hairy; leaves sessile or the lower short-petioled, ovate-oblong to oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate, (3)5–15 cm long, 1.5–5 cm broad, often rather thick, acute or acuminate, more rarely triangular,

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Fig. 1 Mentha longifolia (Lamiaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

mostly unevenly and coarsely serrate dentate, smooth, glaucescent or cinereous above, rather densely covered with soft appressed hairs, sometimes at length glabrescent, white-tomentose or lanate, rounded or subcordate at base, amplexicaul; floral leaves resembling the bracts, linear-subulate; peduncles pubescent; verticillate approximate at ends of stems and branches; inflorescences dense, leafless, spiciformcylindrical, pointed at summit, 3–5 cm long; lower verticillate sometimes distant; pedicels densely tomentose hairy; calyx campanulate, about as long as pedicel and corolla tube, soft-haired to base, the teeth linear-subulate, connivent in fruit, about as long as the tube; corolla 4–5 mm long, rose-lilac or lilac, sparsely and finely pubescent outside, glabrous inside, the tube about as long as the lobes, upper lobe oblong-ovate, emarginate or crenate, the other lobes narrower, oblong, obtuse; stamens included in corolla; nutlets alveolate, rounded and hairy at apex, ovoid. Flowering July–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, banks of rivers, lakes, edges of bogs, ditches, meadows, gorges, in damp deciduous woods, ravines, banks of streams and canals, on limestone, in mountains up to 2500 m (Shishkin and Borisova 1954) (Figs. 1 and 2). Mentha spicata: Perennial; stems erect, 40–90 cm long, glabrous or nearly so, green; sterile shoots only underground; leaves subsessile to sessile or short-petioled, glabrous or nearly so, ovate-oblong or oblong-lanceolate, sharply and unevenly serrate or dentate, acuminate, faintly netted-veined; inflorescences slender,

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Fig. 2 Mentha longifolia (Lamiaceae), garden, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

cylindrical, spike-like, compact, interrupted; verticillate distant or the upper approximate; floral leaves resembling the bracts, not exceeding the calyx; calyx glabrous, slightly constricted at throat in fruit, the teeth triangular, equal, slightly connivant. Flowering July–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, banks of rivers, meadows, in fields (Shishkin and Borisova 1954) (Figs. 3 and 4). Mentha 3 piperita: Perennial; rhizome horizontal; stems 30–100 cm long, assurgent at base, erect, branched, often reddish, glabrous or with sparse short setiform hairs mostly on the angles; leaves with petiole 6–8 mm long, ovate-oblong to sublanceolate, 3–8 cm long, 1.5–2 cm broad, glabrous or with short setiform hairs on the veins beneath, dark green, densely punctate-glandular beneath, sharply dentate with long uneven teeth, rounded at base, acuminate; floral leaves resembling the cauline, smaller; inflorescences at ends of stems and branches, capitate-spicate, short and broad, interrupted at base; bracts narrow, setaceous, ciliate, glabrous at base, the lower longer than verticillate, the upper shorter; calyx tubular, glabrous, violettinged, punctate-glandular, the teeth erect, not connivant in fruit, ciliate, one-third the length of the tube; corolla glabrous, the tube whitish, about as long as calyx, the limb pink or lilac; stamens shorter than corolla, style exserted; nutlets obovoid, ca. 0.75 mm long, 0.5 mm broad, dark brown, glandular at apex. Flowering July– September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, often cultivated, in gardens, sometimes naturalized (Shishkin and Borisova 1954) (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).

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Fig. 3 Mentha spicata (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Mentha spicata (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Mentha arvensis: Essential oils (pinene, limonen, caryophyllene, cadinene, sabinene, sabinenhydrate, terpene, camphene, terpinolene, tuyen, fellandren, caren, cymol, santen, thujone, pulegon, piperitone, menthone, menton, isomenton, piperithenone, isopulegon,

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Fig. 5 Mentha  piperita (Lamiaceae), garden, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

carvomenton, carvone, entofuralactone, mentofuran, 2-isopropylcyclopentanone, menthylcyclohexane, linalool, linalyl acetate, octanol, nonadien, cineole, citronellol, nerol, geraniol, furfural), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, ferulic, p-coumaric), anthocyanins, fatty acids (Sokolov 1991). Mentha longifolia/Mentha spicata: Carbohydrates (stachyose), essential oils (menton, isenton, camphene, pinene, myrcene, limonene, pulegon, carvone, piperite, piperitenone, allocymene, cymene, piperitene, citral, linalool, menthol, terpineol, linalyl, menthyl, isomenton, neomenthol, neoisanthal, carvacrol, thymol, phenol), triterpene saponins, cardenolides, vitamins (C, E, K, carotene), coumarins, flavonoids (quercetine, gesperidine, isoroyfoline, metoside, pipertosidide, luteoline, apigenin, acacetine, rhiodictyol), triterpenoids (ursolic and oleanolic acid, uviol, erythrodiol), steroids, phenylcarboxylic acids (rosemary, chlorogenic, coffee), flavonoids (luteoline, apigenine, acacetin, diosmIn rutinoside, hesperetin, eriodictyol), anthocyanins, tannins, fatty acids (oleic, palmitic, stearic, linoleic, linolenic) (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses All species are widely used as infusion as spasmolytic, diuretic, antipyretic, with gastric disorders as diarrhea and gastric colics, as anti-inflammatory, for woundhealing, geostatic, for gastritis, dysentery, diarrhea, gastric colic, gastralgia,

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Fig. 6 Mentha  piperita (Lamiaceae), garden, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

respiratory infections, whooping cough, mastitis, and toothache (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1991), and often sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b). Mentha arvensis is used for indigestion and diarrhea (Kumar et al. 2011). The plant is widely used in folk medicine in Tajikistan. It increases appetite, improves digestion, reduces the acidity of gastric fluid, weakens or stops pain and cramps of the stomach and intestines (Nuraliev 1989). It is used to treat dysentery, diarrhea, gastritis, dyspepsia, and gastrointestinal colic. An infusion of herbs and decoction of the leaves is used to treat coughs, pulmonary tuberculosis and as an expectorant for diseases of the upper respiratory tract (Nuraliev 1989). A decoction of leaves is used to normalize the menstrual cycle, reduce pain, and during menopause to reduce the discomfort associated with hormonal changes (Nuraliev 1989). Mentha longifolia is used in Pakistan to treat indigestion and diarrhea (Sher et al. 2016). Mentha spicata is used for asthma and as diuretic in Nepal (Kunwar et al. 2013).

Local Food Uses Mint is widely used as tea (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017) and often sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b).

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Fig. 7 Mentha  piperita (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the leaves are used for mastitis in cows. Fodder for goats, sheep, and horses (Sokolov 1991).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Mentha aquatica L.; Mentha longifolia L.; Mentha pulegium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia

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(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Kinzikaeva GK, editor. Flora of Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic, vol. 9. Moscow-Leningrad: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR; 1988. (in Russian). Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Nuraliev YN. Medicinal properties of plants and vegetables. Dushanbe: Maorif Publications; 1989. (in Russian). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 21. Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 p, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian). WCSP. World checklist of selected plant families. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2019. Published on the Internet. http://wcsp.science.kew.org/. Retrieved November 12, 2019.

Morus alba L. MORACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Shoista Mubalieva, Anzurat Akobirshoeva, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, and Anneleen Kool

Synonyms Morus alba L.: Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.; Morus arabica Koidz., Morus atropurpurea Roxb.; Morus australis Poir.; Morus chinensis Lodd., Morus indica L.; Morus intermedia Perr.; Morus macrophylla Hort. ex Steud., Morus multicaulis Perr.; Morus pumila Balb. Morus tatarica L.

Local Names Russian: Шeлкoвицa бeлaя (Shelkovitsa belaya); Uzbek: Oq toot; Kyrgyz: Aктыт (Aktyt); Tajik: Tut (Тӯт); Pamiri: Tud (Тӯд), Tut (Тӯт); English: White mulberry (Fedorov 1984). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] S. Mubalieva Institute of Botany, Dushanbe Botanical Garden, Dushanbe, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_90

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Botany and Ecology Tree, 15–20 m tall, branches grayish-brown. The bark of the trunk and lateral branches is gray, light gray or gray-brown with longitudinal cracks. Fast growing shoots longer (80–100 cm) with larger leaves than slower growing branches. These are much shorter than the first (10–15 cm) with smaller and coarser leaves. Buds ovoid or broadly ovoid, sessile, with a length of 6–6.5 mm, width 3.8–4.3 mm. The deciduous leaves are alternate, entire, sometimes lobed, their length varies from 90–110 mm with a width of 70–100 mm. Petiole 45–55 mm long, 1.0–2.0 mm thick. Male catkins 10– 25 mm long, with a short hairy pedicel. Female catkins shorter, 5–15 mm long, styles glabrous. Fruits 10–25 mm, fleshy, usually white. Seeds ca. 2 mm long, light brown (Mubalieva 2010). Leaves ovate, truncate or rounded or subcordate at base, acute at apex, on young shoots mostly undivided, on fruiting and annotinous branches lobed or sinuate, crenate-dentate with rounded teeth, thin, soft, mostly glabrous; fruiting perianth light-colored, glabrous outside; stigma papillose, not villous; fruit white (var. vulgaris Bureau) or purple-black (var. tatarica Seringe ¼ Morus tatarica Pall.). Flowering April–June. Ural, Caucasus, often cultivated, along rivers and lakes, forests, up to 1500 m (Boborov and Komarov 1936). Common in many areas of Central Asia, Northern India, Afghanistan, Iran, the Caucasus, Turkey, China, and many other countries. According to Smolski, the origin of white mulberry is considered to be China, Manchuria, and Korea. Mulberry is widely naturalized and cultivated in all areas of Tajikistan from 800 m to 2400 m asl., except Murgab region. Mulberry trees are cultivated in gardens, on roadsides, and on mountain slopes. They prefer dry and sandy soils (Mubalieva 2010) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (betulic acid), steroids (sitosterol), vitamins (B1, B2, C, E), flavonoids (malberrine, cyclomalberrine), phenols (resorcine), tannins, flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine, rutin), steroids (sistosterol), organic acids (oxalic, tartaric, lemon, amber, apple), fatty acids (enanthic, myristic, palmitosine, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic) (Fedorov 1984). A. Akobirshoeva Pamir Botanical Garden, Khorogh, Tajikistan Mountain Societies Development Support Program, Khorogh, Khorogh, GBAO, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] A. Kool The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected]

Morus alba L. Fig. 1 Morus alba (Moraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Morus alba (Moraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Morus alba (Moraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia, the bark serves in decoction to treat hypertension, urinary diseases, angina, dysentery, anemia, as diuretic, as hemostatic for uterine bleeding, and as expectorant. The latex is used in wound healing, as laxative and anthelmintic. In Azerbaijan, Mulberry is used to treat diabetes. In the Ural, the species is used to remedy vomiting, pulmonary diseases, and fever (Fedorov 1984). The roots are used to treat sore throat and cough, and as brain and heart stimulant in India (Raj et al. 2018), and for cough, constipation, snakebites, for hyperglycemia, ulcers, and tonsilitis in Pakistan (Umair et al. 2019). Fruits, leaves, and roots are used for medicinal purposes. The fruits are used to enhance immunity and as an anthelmintic. They are used as a prophylactic against colds and a variety of infectious diseases. It is also used for its positive effect on the stomach and intestines, and to treat enterocolitis, gastritis with low acidity, dysbacteriosis, and dysentery (Akobirshoeva 2012; Sharma et al. 2000; Talyshinsky 1972). Unripe berries are used against heartburn. Mulberry leaves are applied against diseases of the oral cavity (stomatitis) and throat. It is used as a mild diuretic to help with kidney diseases (Yusufbekov 1969). The fruits are recommended against constipation. A decoction of the bark is used to normalize blood pressure, calms the nervous system, help with depression, and in stressful situations (Akobirshoeva et al. 2008). Mulberry fruit is also used to treat mental and physical overload as a restorative. Green fruits are used for diarrhea and ripe dried fruits are used for diseases of the throat and gastric tract. In folk medicine of the Western Pamir, the stems are used against hypertension and inflammation of the kidneys (Akobirshoeva et al. 2008). An infusion of the fruit is taken for kidney disease and spleen problems (Mubalieva 2010).

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten fresh, and dried for use in sauces, sweets, and the production of alcohol (Fedorov 1984). The fruits are eaten raw, and used for jams and the production of alcohol (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018) (Figs. 4, 5, and 6).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The wood is used in construction, for ships, furniture, and musical instruments, as well the production of paper. The leaves are the main forage for silkworms. The bark yields a yellow, yellowish red, and greenish dye for wool and silk. (Fedorov 1984). The leaves are used to feed silkworms, and the wood is used in construction, for tool handles and musical instruments (panduri) (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018). Mulberry leaves are sold in medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b). Mulberry is a widely used plant. Almost all parts of the plant are used. Leaves are used for feeding silkworms. Fresh and dried fruits are used as food, and fruits,

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Fig. 4 Morus alba (Moraceae), harvest, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Morus alba (Moraceae), harvest, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

leaves, branches, bark, and wood are important in the informal economy. Young branches are used for weaving baskets (Mubalieva 2010). The density of mulberry wood is 600–700 kg/cubic meter, which is comparable to beech wood. Mulberry wood has an appealing color and texture, and is valued by age, the older the tree, the more valuable the wood, and things made of such wood are exclusive. In some

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Fig. 6 Morus alba (Moraceae), harvest, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

villages, young branches of mulberry are used to weave baskets for household needs and fishing. Wood of middle-aged individuals is used for the manufacture of musical instruments. It is also used to make household items, such as spoons, scoops, saucers (Yusufbekov 1969; Usmanov et al. 1975; Mubalieva 2010). Mulberry wood is also used as a source of yellow dye for dying fabrics (Mubalieva 2010).

References Akobirshoeva A. Medicinal plants of Rushan district, GBAO, Tajikistan. Saarbrücken: LAP Academikerverlag GmbH & Co. KG; 2012. 105 p. Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, vol. 5. Dicotyledoneae, subclass I: Archichlamydeae, order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 p, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33.

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Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Mubalieva SM. Mulberry in the Tajik Pamirs [PhD dissertation]. Khorog: Khorog State University; 2010. (in Russian). Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Sharma A, Sharma R, Machii H. Assessment of genetic diversity in a Morus germplasm collection using fluorescence-based AFLP markers. Theor Appl Genet. 2000;101(7):1049–55. Talyshinsky GM. Biochemical studies of fruits and leaves of autotetraploid forms of mulberry. The News of Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan Soviet Socialistic Republic. Department of Biological Sciences. Baku: Elm Publishing; 1972. p. 6–7. (in Russian). Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Usmanov UM, Gaibullaev GK, Iskandarov GK. Form diversity of mulberry fruit in Northern Tajikistan. Thematic collection of Scientific theses of Zonal Research Institute of Horticulture and Viticulture named after I.V. Dushanbe: Michurin; 1975. p. 44–51. (in Russian). Yusufbekov HY. About the significance of the mulberry for farmers in the mountainous regions of Tajikistan. J Agric Tajikistan. 1969;9:62–4. (in Russian).

Neopallasia pectinata (Pall.) Poljakov ASTERACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Neopallasia pectinata (Pall.) Poljakov.: Artemisia pectinata Pall.; Artemisia pectinata var. typica Pamp.; Artemisia pectinata var. yunnanensis Pam.; Artemisia yunnanensis (Pamp.) Krasch.; Neopallasia tibetica Y.R. Ling; Neopallasia yunnanensis (Pamp.) Y.R. Ling

Local Names Chinese: 栉叶蒿 (Zhi ye hao)

Botany and Ecology Annual. Root slender, vertical. Stems most often few or solitary, erect, ascending only at base, 12–40 cm high, violet or brown, more or less densely covered with bifid flexuous hairs, with strongly reduced or sometimes elongate branches from leaf

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_91

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axils, less often almost simple. Leaves green, usually glabrous, smooth, sessile, with flat, gradually expanded base, lamina oblong, pinnately pectinate, their lobes stiff, filiform-subulate, with short, spine-like, cartilaginous, acuminate apex, undivided or with 1–2 similarly narrow lobes; lower and middle cauline leaves 1.5–3.0 cm long and 0.5–1.0 cm wide; upper bracteal leaves somewhat shorter and narrower. Capitula sessile or subsessile, ovate, 3–4(5) mm long, in axils of upper leaves, in groups of few or solitary on branches, forming more or less dense, almost spicate or narrowly paniculate inflorescence. Involucral bracts oval, smooth; herbaceous, with wide, whitish, scarious border; outer bracts somewhat shorter and narrower than inner. Receptacle narrowly conical, glabrous. Peripheral florets pistillate, fertile, usually 3– 4, their corollas narrowly tubular, not lobed, white membranous, other florets bisexual, of which 4–8 at base of receptacle fertile, remaining florets at apex of receptacle, sterile, their corollas tubular, with 5 teeth, bluish or pinkish. Achenes 1.2–1.5 mm long, ellipsoid, somewhat flat, narrow, triangular, dark brown, finely sulcate, in lower part of receptacle in a single closed row. Flowering August. Loamy and loamy-sand plains in desert-steppe zone. Siberia, Middle Asia, Mongolia (Shishkin and Boborov 1961).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Sometimes used as fodder (Shishkin and Boborov 1961).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 26. Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961 (English 1995). 1072 p.

Nepeta glutinosa Benth. LAMIACEAE Shifo Kurbonbekova, Akobir Mirzorahimov, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Anneleen Kool, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, Zaal Kikvidze, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Manana Khutsishvili, Inesa Maisaia, Shalva Sikharulidze, and David Tchelidze Synonyms Nepeta glutinosa Benth.: Glechoma glutinosa (Benth.) Kuntze; Nepeta badmadarica Lipsky

S. Kurbonbekova · A. Mirzorahimov Institute of Botany, Dushanbe Botanical Garden, Dushanbe, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] H. de Boer · A. Kool The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_92

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Local Names Tajik: Shikastaband (Шикаста банд); Pamiri: Khichifkhor (Хичифхор)

Botany and Ecology Perennial, forming large tufts, 40–70 (and probably more) cm high, with strong ladanum odor; root sturdy, to 2–3 cm across, often twisted or bent, woody, splitting at end into fibers, passing into rhizome at the top, densely covered all over with imbricated brown squamiform lanceolate or ovate nerved and toothed leaves 0.8– 1.8 cm long; stems strong, to 4–5 mm thick, erect or slightly ascending, rarely branching, covered below with imbricated leaves squamiform, densely leafy above, with long glandular hairs and numerous sessile glands; axillary branches slender, partly short, sterile, and partly elongate, floriferous; all leaves sessile, with broad semi-amplexicaul base, the lower brownish, others pale green, viscous with a usually dense cover of long glandular hairs intermixed with sessile glands, the middle largest, 1.3–3 cm long, 0.8–2.2 cm wide, cordate-ovate, the upper ovate, all acute; the veins coarse, impressed above, very prominent beneath, terminating in unequal teeth (large usually alternating with small), all acute, mostly curved; flowers in (2)4– 5-flowered semiverticels in axils of 4–8 upper pairs of leaves, the lower on peduncles 3–5(10) mm long, remote, the upper subsessile, approximate, sometimes almost confluent; all leaves subtending inflorescence resembling the cauline but the upper smaller, sometimes shorter than calyx, ovate, lanceolate or obovate-lanceolate, with few small teeth; pedicels 1–2.5 mm long; bracts and leaves subtending semiverticels narrowly lanceolate to linear, nerved, approximately half as long as calyx; calyx 8– 12 mm long, 2–3 mm wide, erect, obconical, with (13)15 very prominent thick nerves, like other parts of inflorescence (except corolla) densely covered with sessile glands and jointed (2–8-celled) glandular hairs; throat oblique; teeth ovate-triangular to lanceolate-triangular, the upper 1/4–1/3 as long as tube, the lower slightly longer and narrower, 1/3–2/5 as long as tube; corolla bluish or azure, glandular, sparsely so outside, most copiously on limb, 18–22 mm long, twice the length of calyx, the long slender tube much exserted and gradually expanding into Lip, not forming any distinct neck; upper lip erect, 2.5–3 mm long, cleft to slightly below middle into N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] M. Khutsishvili · I. Maisaia · S. Sikharulidze · D. Tchelidze Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

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obtuse lobes, ca. 2 mm wide; lower Lip half as long again as the upper, its middle lobe reniform, ca. 2.5 mm long, 4–5 mm wide, coarsely crenate-incised, the lateral lobes similar to lobes of upper Up in size and shape; stamens with anthers diverging at nearly a right angle, the upper 2/3 as long as upper lip; lower stamens much shorter, barely reaching the base of upper lip, with slightly smaller anthers; style nearly equaling the upper lip; individuals occur with only female flowers in which the rudiments of the stamens are included in the tube; nutlets ellipsoid, tapering at both ends, pointed at apex, greenish-brown to cinnamon-brown, transversely rugulose, 2–3 mm long, 1–1.3 mm wide. Flowering July–August, fruiting from August. Alpine belt, 3500–4200 m in steppe plant communities. Middle Asia (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1954) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Nepeta glutinosa (Lamiacae), Tadjijistan. (Photo G. Miravalova)

Fig. 2 Nepeta glutinosa (Lamiacae), Tadjijistan. (Photo G. Miravalova)

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Fig. 3 Nepeta sp. (Lamiacae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Phenylpropanoids (rosemarinic, faselic and cofeiltartronic acid), Flavones (isoroifolin, linarin, skolimosid) (Olennikov and Akobirshoeva 2016; Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses The plant has antioxidant, antimicrobial, and sudoriferous properties. The areal part of the plant is used in folk medicine for the treatment of broken bones, dislocation of joints, rheumatism, respiratory system, and gastrointestinal tract problems. The fresh plant material is collected at flowering time and prepared as herbal tea, tincture, decoction, oil, infusion, ointment, and powder (Shirinbekov et al. 2012). The genus contains a large number of important medicinal species. Nepeta ciliaris is used in India against fever (Bhat et al. 2013). Nepeta racemosa is used as medicinal tea in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2014). Nepeta cataria is used in Pakistan for indigestion and diarrhea (Sher et al. 2016).

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Cattle do not eat the plant is because of specific smell and taste. Nepeta mussinii is used as tea in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Olennikov DN, Akobirshoeva A. Phlavanoids and phenilpropanoids of Nepeta glutinosa and Ziziphora pamiroalaica. Сhem Nat Compd. 2016;5:775–7. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shirinbekov O, Davlatmamadov S, Mirzoev O. Medicinal herbs of Badakhshan and their use, Dushanbe. Irfon. 2012;125–127. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae–Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. p. 200. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, vol. 20: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. 1954 (English 1976). p. 389, 28 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Nigella sativa L. RANUNCULACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Nigella sativa L. Nigella cretica Mill.

Local Names Russian: Чepнушкa посевная (Chernushka posevnaya); Uzbek: Sedana; Kyrgyz: Ceйдaнa ундoocу (Seydana undoosu); English: Black cumin (Fedorov 1984)

Botany and Ecology Herb, 15–40 cm tall. Annual. Leaves 2–3 cm long. Bi- or tripinnately dissected into short linear divergent lobules. The sepals are oblong, 1–1.5 cm long, obtuse, basally narrowing into a short stalk. Petal-nectaries with a short stalk, slightly R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_93

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hairy, with the upper lip oblong, tapering upwards into a linear cusp, slightly shorter than the lower lip, the latter part of the middle, or deeper into 2 base apically with callous thickenings at the apex. Anthers are obtuse or slightly acuminate. 1.5 cm long, dorsally rounded with a ribbed longitudinally beaked as long as the ovary. The seeds have a three-edged shape. The plant is found in cultivated in fields, gardens, and steppe slopes. Ural, Caucasus, on steppes, in fields and gardens (Shishkin and Boborov 1937) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Vitamins (C), steroids (cholesterol, stigmasterol, a-spinasterol, sitosterol), triterpene saponins, coumarins, quinones (thymoquinone), fatty acids, essential oils (thymoquinone, cymene, carvacrol, trans-anethole, 4-terpineol and longifoline), flavonoids (quercetin, camphorol), alkaloids (Fedorov 1984).

Fig. 1 Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae), Leutkirch, Germany. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae), Leutkirch, Germany. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The fruits and seeds are used in the Ural and Northern Caucasus to slows the heart rate, for bronchial asthma, urinary disorders, liver disease, stomach disorders and gallbladder problems, and as diuretic (Fedorov 1984). Used also for coughs and colds (Kunwar et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses The seeds are often used as spice, especially in baking (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

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Fig. 3 Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae), Leutkirch, Germany. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 1. Families Magnoliaceae–Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. p. 460. (in Russian). Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Nigella sativa L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 7. Ranales to Rhoedales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1937 (English 1970). p. 615.

Onopordum acanthium L. Onopordum sp. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Onopordum acanthium L.: Acanos spina Scop.

Local Names Russian: Taтapник oбыкнoвeнный (Tatarnik obyknovennyy); Uzbek: Okkarrak; Kyrgyz: Кaдимкикoкo тикeн (Kadimki koko tiken); English: Dobkey thistle (Sokolov 1993)

Botany and Ecology Capitula homogamous, homochromous, many-flowered, unisexual, solitary or numerous, terminal, occasionally axillary. Involucre ovate, oblong-globose or globose; involucral bracts imbricate, lanceolate or cuneate, apically without or with long or R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_94

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short spines, appressed, divergent or strongly deflected, sometimes more or less uncinate, narrow or broad, coriaceous or stiff, more or less thick, hollow or flat, subglabrous, pubescent or glandular-hairy. Receptacle fleshy, deeply alveolate, alveoli membranous along margin and sinuately irregularly toothed. Corolla 5-fid, slightly open, saccate, purple, violet, pink, yellowish, or white. Filaments glabrous or weakly glandular, lacking simple hairs; apical appendages of anthers linearly cuneate or subulate, basal appendages shortly caudate, undivided, cuneate, truncate or straight and narrower, sometimes weakly lobed. Style long; style branches 1/5–1/3 as long as style, usually folded and entirely or partly exserted from corolla. Achenes oblong or obovate, sometimes more or less compressed, indistinctly or distinctly 3–4-quetrous, with distinct or indistinct ribs, on sides with oblique or parallel transverse-wrinkles or tubercles, with many or few, longitudinal, thin veins and furrows, 4–7 mm long, dark brown or lightand dark-gray with darker, sometimes black spots, marbled; upper scar of attachment with thin edge, usually angular, with distinct or inconspicuous tubercle, hilum straight or slightly oblique, entirely or partly hidden under thick callose appendage; pappus fragile, falling off entirely, consisting of 2–3, occasionally many rows of equal bristles, of which, in many species, one row with longer and thicker bristles than others. All florets ciliolate, smooth, barbate or plumose above, connate in broader, angular, thick, waxy ring. Biennial, occasionally perennial, herbs, stemless or with erect, tall or short, solitary stem, simple or branched from middle or weakly branched only above, spiny-winged, with large, spinose, green or pubescent leaves. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in disturbed areas, deposits, fields, forest glades, in gorges, on steppe slopes, old fields and in crops as weed to 2100 m (Borisova 1963) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (choline, stachidrine), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee, chlorogenic), coumarins (esculine), flavonoids (apigenin, quercetine, luteoline, onopordine, chrysoriol, eriodictiol, isoramnetine, apigenine, cyanidine), organic acids (quinine, amber), triterpene saponins, tannins, sesquiterpenoids (arthiopicrin, onporopicryrine), vitamins (C), carbohydrates (fructose, sucrose), steroids (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia and the Altai used as expectorant, anti-asthmatic, and diuretic. Topically as bath and poultice for scabies, dermatoses, ulcers, lupus, rheumatism. In the Ural and Caucasus, the decoction serves to remedy problems of the kidney and urinary system, and for wound healing. The decoction is used treat inflammation of the bladder and urinary system, bronchial asthma, pertussis, scrofula, hypostasis of various origins, common colds, hemorrhoids, also as a blood cleanser, and for treating skin diseases, purulent wounds, ulcers, and furuncles (Sokolov 1993) (Figs. 5 and 6).

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Fig. 1 Onopordum acanthium (Asteraceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Onopordum acanthium (Asteraceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The young leaves are used as vegetable. The seed oil can be used like sunflower oil (Sokolov 1993).

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Fig. 3 Onopordum acanthium (Asteraceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Onopordum acanthium (Asteraceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The plant yields a purple dye for wool and silk. Planted as ornamental. Fodder for camels and donkeys (Sokolov 1993).

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Fig. 5 Onopordum acanthium (Asteraceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Onopordum acanthium (Asteraceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, vol 28. Compositae, tribes Cynareae and Mustisieae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1963 (English 1998). p. 810. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. p. 352. (in Russian)

Origanum vulgare L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Origanum vulgare L.: Micromeria formosana C. Marquand; Origanum creticum Lour.; Origanum dilatatum Klokov; Origanum glaucum Rech. f. & Edelb.; Origanum gracile C. Koch.; Origanum kopetdaghense Boris.; Origanum normale D. Don.; Origanum puberulum Klokov; Origanum tyttanthum Gontsch.; Origanum vulgare subsp. gracile (C. Koch) Letsw.; Origanum vulgare subsp. viride (Boiss.) Hayek; Origanum vulgare L. subsp. vulgare; Origanum vulgare var. formosanum Hayata; Origanum vulgare var. glaucum (Rech. f. & Edelb.) Hedge & Lamond; Origanum vulgare var. puberulum Beck; Origanum vulgare var. viride Boiss.; Origanum watsonii Schlagint. in T.A. Schmidt

Local Names Russian: Душицa oбыкнoвeннaя (Dushitsa obyknovennaya); Uzbek: Jambil; Kyrgyz: Кaдeмкикoкчaйчoп (Kademki kok chay chop), English: Oregano, wild marjoram, Greek oregano (Sokolov 1991) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_95

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Botany and Ecology Perennial, scabrous or subglabrous; rhizome oblique; stems 30–60 (90) cm high, erect, often branching at base, sometimes purple-tinged and pubescent; leaves petiolate, oblong or oblong-ovate, acute, 2–4 cm long, remotely small-toothed, light green beneath, sparsely glandular mostly beneath, almost euglandular above; inflorescences corymbose-paniculate, spreading, many-flowered, to 15 cm long and to 10 cm broad, composed of cylindrical-oblong or oblong-lanceolate spicules, these elongating in fruit; bracts longer than calyx, ovate-elliptical or oblong, acute, usually dark purple (like calyx and many upper leaves) more rarely green; calyx ca. 3 mm long, glabrous or with sparse hairs, the teeth triangular-lanceolate, two-fifths to one-half the length of the tube, the ring of hairs in throat nearly equaling the teeth; corolla 5–10 mm long, light purple or lilac-rose, sometimes white, the tube exserted; two stamens exserted, the other two shorter; style exserted; nutlets orbicular, brown in maturity, naked, ca. 0.5 mm long, obtusely 3-angled. Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus Alta, Middle Asia, in meadows, rocky areas, sunny grass-covered slopes, glades, and steppe meadows (Shishkin and Borisova 1954) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (pinen, seinine, tuyen, sabinen, chimen, cyanoneol, cumene), triterpenoids (ursolic acid), alkaloids, vitamins (C, B1, B2), phenyl carboxylic acids (rosmarinic), flavonoids (luteoline), steroids (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses Widely used as washing for dermatoses, furuncles, arthritis and rheumatism, and internally to treat disorders like hepatitis, diarrhea, dyspepsia, bronchial asthma, respiratory diseases, stomach ailments, colds, and gynecological problems. Used externally as poultice and in bathes for eczema, infected skin diseases, and to wash wounds (Sokolov 1991). The leaves and shoots are used as medicinal tea to treat lung and kidney problems (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017). In the Himalayas Oregano leaves are used to treat colds, cough, bronchitis, swellings, and toothache (Bhat et al. 2015), as well as diarrhea (Kumar et al. 2011).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used as spice and tea surrogate (Sokolov 1991). The leaves are uses as condiment and spice, as tea, and also to clarify beer. Leaves and shoots are eaten mixed with a large number of other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Origanum vulgare L.

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Fig. 1 Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses Yields yellowish-green dyes for wool and silk. Fodder for goats and sheep. The oil is valuable for the paint industry. Good honey plant (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1991). The leaves and stems yield a brown dye (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Oregano is widely sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b). In the Himalaya, utensils are washed in Origanum water to clean them and give them a nice odor (Thakur et al. 2014).

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Agasyllis latifolia (M. Bieb.) Boiss. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Todd. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum all.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Portulaca oleracea L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017i. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017j.

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Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017k. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Tilia begoniifolia Steven. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017l. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017m. Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe–Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha–Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe–Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 21. Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). p. 520, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 6. Families Hippuridaceae–Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. p. 200. (in Russian). Thakur KS, Kumar M, Bawa R, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an altitudinal gradient in Bharmour Forest Division, District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh, India. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/946870.

Orostachys fimbriata (Turcz.) A. Berger CRASSULACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Orostachys fimbriata (Turcz.) A. Berger: Cotyledon fimbriata Turcz.; Cotyledon fimbriata var. ramosissima (Maxim.) Maxim.; Orostachys fimbriata var. grandiflora F.Z. Li & X.D. Chen; Orostachys fimbriata var. shandongensis F.Z. Li & X.D. Chen; Orostachys jiuhuaensis X.H. Guo & X.L. Liu; Orostachys ramosissima (Maxim.) V.V. Byalt; Sedum fimbriatum (Turcz.) Franch.; Sedum frimbriatum var. ramosissimum (Maxim.) Fröd.; Sedum limuloides Praefer; Sedum ramosissimum (MAxim.) Franch.; Umbilicus fimbriatus (Turcz.) Turcz.; Umbilicus ramosisimus Maxim.

Local Names Chinese: 瓦松 (Wa song)

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_96

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Botany and Ecology Biennial, with rosettes of crowded leaves during first year of flowering; rosette leaves oblong, with white spines, broadening at base into white, cartilaginous, broad, spiny-dentate, lunate appendage; in the second year during anthesis, stem 10–15 cm high, the leaves alternate, remote, with spines but not dentate, linear or lanceolate, 1–3 cm long; inflorescence a dense raceme often branching from base; bracts spiny-acuminate; flowers usually long-pediceled, shorter-petioled in upper part of inflorescence; calyx with acuminate, oblong, green lobes 1–3 mm long; petals connate at base, reddish, lanceolate, entire, short-acuminate, 5–6 mm long; stamens usually shorter than or as long as petals; hypogynous scales quadrate or broadly spatulate; follicles oblong, with slender beak: 1/4 as long as fruit; seeds small, ovoid, numerous. Flowering in August. Stony soils in steppes. Siberia, Mongolia (Yuzepchuk 1939).

Local Medicinal Uses Sometimes used to treat diarrhea (Yuzepchuk 1939).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Sold as ornamental.

References Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, vol. 9. Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). p. 425, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps.

Paeonia lactiflora Pall. PAEONIACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Paeonia lactiflora Pall.: Paeonia albiflora Pall.; Paeonia albiflora var. trichocarpa Bunge; Paeonia chinensis L. Vilmorin; Paeonia lactiflora var. trichocarpa (Bunge) Stern; Paeonia lactiflora var. villosa M.S. Yan & K. Sun; Paeonia sinensis Steud.; Paeonia yui W.P. Fang

Local Names Chinese: 芍药 (Shao yao)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; thickened roots fusiform, grayish-brown; stems glabrous, with 1 or several flowers, 60–100 cm or higher; leaves biternate, the lobes petiolate or lateral lobes sessile, lanceolate or elliptic, mostly acuminate, margin with scarcely discernible dense cartilaginous forward pointing crenules; some bracts divided like leaves B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_97

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or entire. Flowers white or very seldom red (var. hirta Huth); petals 5–8 or more; stamens golden yellow; fruitlets 3–6, at first straight, later hamately diverging; seeds oval, black. Flowering May–June, fruiting in September. Dry open stony slopes, open valleys, riverbanks, scrubland, and sparse wood margins. SIberia, Mongolia (Shishkin and Bobrov 1937) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Paeonia macrophylla (Paeoniaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo: R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Paeonia macrophylla (Paeoniaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo: R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Paeonia macrophylla (Paeoniaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo: R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Organic acids: (benzoic); Essential oils; Monoterpenoids: (peoniflorin, albiflorin, oxypeoniflorin, benzoylpeoniflorin, peoniflorienone); Triterpenoids; Steroids: (sitosterol); Quinones (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses An infusion of the root is drunk for improvement of appetite and digestion. An extract in alcohol is used to treat diseases of the stomach, especially gastric ulcers, hemorrhages and diarrhea. The bark of the root is used as water infusion for regulation of the menstruation cycle. A water extract of the root is used for nervous diseases like epilepsy (Bussmann 2017; Damirov et al. 1988; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The alcoholic extract is also applied as tonic in anemia, as antitussive, antifebrile, sedative and analgesic, against rheumatism and podagra. The roots of Paeonia emodi are widely used in the Himalayas to treat body weakness (Sher et al. 2016), whooping cough, diarrhea, spasms and uterine problems (Bhat et al. 2013) (Figs. 4 and 5).

Local Food Uses In Mongolia the roasted roots and leaves are used as tea substitute (Sokolov 1985).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Plants as ornamental (Sokolov 1985).

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Fig. 4 Paeonia macrophylla (Paeoniaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo: R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Paeonia macrophylla (Paeoniaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo: R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1.

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Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Maaraif; 1988. (in Russian). Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Paeonia tenuifolia L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Bobrov EG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 7. Ranales to Rhoedales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1937 (English 1970). p. 615. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. p. 336. (in Russian).

Panzeria lanata (L.) Sojá LAMIACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Panzeria lanata (L.) Sojá: Panzeria alaschanica var. minor C. Y. Wu & H. W. Li; Panzeria kansuensis C. Y. Wu & H. W. Li

Local Names Chinese: 绒毛脓疮草 (Rong mao nong chuang cao)

Botany and Ecology Perennial, with a stout woody taproot; stems numerous, 15–30 cm long, densely covered with silky hairs forming a transparent floccose tomentum; leaves petiolate, thin, rounded in outline, 3–3.5 cm across, dissected to base or sometimes to the middle into 5 rather broad cuneate segments, these cut in turn into lanceolate sub-obtuse lobes; floral leaves smaller, trisected, with large toothed segments, the B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_98

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upper side green, obscurely covered with sparse hairs and glands, the lower side grayish-green with long silky hairs, the veins prominent, glabrous; inflorescence spiciform, rather dense; bracts rigid, flanked with long silky hairs; calyx tubularcampanulate, 14–18 mm long, densely covered, especially beneath, with implexed silky hairs; upper teeth 4 mm long, the lower 7 mm long, narrowly triangular at base, finely subulate-pointed; corolla yellow, 30–36 mm long, the upper lip rather densely covered with silky hairs; nutlets 2–2.5 mm long. Flowering in July. Stony and steppe mountain slopes. Siberia, Mongolia (Shishkin and Borisova 1954).

Phytochemistry Iridoids, phenolcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic, neochlorogenic, coffee), flavonoids, organic acids apple, essential oils, alkaloids (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses In Mongolian medicine, used for anuria and metorrhagia. The taste is sweet and the potency is oily. It is used for the following: as a diuretic, for dysmenorrhia, epilepsy, rheumatism, podagra, all eye diseases, for treatment of ulcers and inflammation of the uterus, for liver, stomach, and intestinal diseases, and for heart disease (Sokolov 1991).

References Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 21. Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). p. 520, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 6. Families Hippuridaceae–Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. p. 200. (in Russian).

Papaver orientale L. Papaver pavoninum Schrenk Papaver somniferum L. Roemeria refracta DC. PAPAVERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Roemeria refracta DC.: Papaver refractum K. F. Ginther

Local Names Papaver pavoninum: Russian: Maкaвлиний (Mak pavliniy); Uzbek: Lola qizg’aldak; Kyrgyz: Кызгaлдaк aпийими (Kyzgaldak apiyimi); English: Peacock poppy (Fedorov 1984) Papaver somniferum: English: Opium poppy

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_99

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Botany and Ecology Papaver orientale: Perennial; stem 40–90 cm, erect, few-branched, often simple, densely spreading-hispid-villous below; setae white; leaves large, up to 30 cm long, radical leaves long-setose-petioled; blade oblong, simply pinnatisect, with large number of segments; segments oblong or more often lanceolate, acute, rarely entire, often acutely dentate, terminating into a large seta, lower leaves separate, the upper approximate, the uppermost fusing into an acutely dentate gradually acuminate terminal lobe; cauline leaves similar to radical, reduced; uppermost sessile; pedicels long, thick, nearly white from appressed rigid setae. Flower buds ovate or broadly oval, 2–3 cm long, covered with spreading white setae; sepals two or three; sepals large, red; petals four or six, suborbicular, up to 9 cm long, orange-hot red, with a square black spot above their base; filaments dark, slightly expanded above; anthers oblong, violet; capsule glaucous, glabrous, obovate, 2–3 cm long; disk flat, with (11) 13-scarious rays, shortly denticulate, obtuse, subtruncate, rigid. Flowering June–July. Caucasus, on stony meadows (Fedorov 1949; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Shishkin and Boborov 1937) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Papaver pavonium: Annual; stem 20–30 (up to 50) cm high, erect, large, more or less branching, with rigid spreading bristles; radical leaves long-petioled, bipinnatisect, green, slightly bristled; blade ovate, with remote segments; segments subsessile or short-petioled, ovate, pinnatisect or incised into short, oblong or ovate, often dentate, rarely entire, blunt or acute lobes with flat or barely involute margins, terminating in a bristle; cauline leaves essile or subsessile, tripartite; segments pinnatisect into lanceolate acute lobes or lobules, with thick acute sections. Flower buds oval or ovate, 10–15 mm long, sometimes subglobular, with spreading bristles, sometimes rufous-villous, with conspicuous more or less long, hollow apical horns; petals bright red, with black basal arch, 2–5 cm long, broad, rounded; stamens numerous, filaments black, slender, filiform, usually markedly longer than ovary; anthers dark violet or black, pollen blue; capsules 5–10 mm long, oval, sometimes (small) subglobular, ribbed, with semispreading white bristles along, sometimes Fig. 1 Glaucium corniculatum (Papaveraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Glaucium corniculatum (Papaveraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

between, ribs; stigma convexhemispherical, with 4–11, most often 5–8 rays; disk usually small, narrower than capsules; stamen girdle broad; seeds gray, minute, reticulatealveolate; alveoli very narrow, difficult to distinguish at a magnification of 10, with undulateflexuous walls. Flowering April–May. Ural, Altai, on very small gravel (Shishkin and Boborov 1937). Roemeria refractata: Annual; stem 10–60 cm high (often 20–40 cm), rarely simple, more often with loosely spreading branches, angular-orbicular, with soft white or bristly hairs, rarely glabrescent, upright; leaves large, radical and lower cauline leaves petioled, upper leaves sessile, sparingly hairy, 2–3-pinnatisect into oblong or lanceolate or linear, obtuse, sometimes slightly bristly lobes. Flower buds oval or ovate, glabrous or hispid, large, up to 2 cm long; corolla bright red; petals broad, orbicular-flabelliform, 1.5–4 cm in diameter, with basal black spot sometimes white-margined distally; pedicels usually elongated, 5–15 cm long, fruiting pedicels erect, usually recurved; siliques thin, 3–10 cm long, 2–4 mm broad, attenuate, erect, often smooth, rarely appressed-hispid, dehiscing by 3–4 (rarely 2 or 5–6) mucronate valves longer than the stigma; stamens numerous, filaments slender, black, anthers oblong, brownish yellow; seeds gray, alveolatereticulate, reniform. Flowering April–May. Caucasus, Middle Asia on dry slopes, roadsides (Shishkin and Boborov 1937).

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Fig. 3 Papaver oreophilum (Papaveraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (a-allocryptopine, protopine, roemeridine, carboline) (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses Papaver orientale is used for gastro-intestinal problems: A water infusion of the petals is used as enveloping and emollient agent in. Fresh juice from flowers and leaves is used externally on wounds (Damirov et al. 1988). Papaver somniferum is used for gastro-intestinal problems too. An infusion of immature green capsules as tea is used to treat diarrhea, while a decoction of dry capsules helps gastric diseases. The decoction of dry capsules is also used as hypnagogic, but seeds are chewed against cough (Fedorov 1984). The juice from the petals of Papaver somniferum is used for heatstroke (in children), and as rinse for eye problems (Fedorov 1984) (Figs. 7, 8, and 9).

Papaver orientale L. . . .

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Fig. 4 Papaver oreophilum (Papaveraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The leaves of Papaver sp. are sometimes cooked, together with a large number of other species, and eaten in spring as herb pie (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Papaver orientale: The petals are used as tea surrogate (Fedorov 1984). The internal part of immature capsules is used raw (Grossheim 1946). Papaver somniferum seeds are powdered for baking.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Papaver orientale is extremely decorative during flowering. Papaver somniferum: A dye solution is prepared from the flowers to obtain purple color. The solution is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Qasimov 1980). Opium poppy has a very long use as magic plant (Bussmann 2016).

556 Fig. 5 Papaver orientale (Papaveraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Papaver orientale (Papaveraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Papaver orientale L. . . . Fig. 7 Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R. W. Bussmann and N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer; 2016. p. 163–9. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 pp. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Maaraif; 1988. (in Russian). Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae–Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. p. 460. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing House of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Papaver orientale L.; Papaver somniferum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 7. Ranales to Rhoedales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1937 (English 1970). p. 615.

Paulia ovczinnikovii Korovin APIACEAE Mario Boboev, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Local Names Tajik: кравчак (Kravchak)

Botany and Ecology Kravchak is 50–100 cm tall, with tubular stems with many branches. Leaves 2–3 cm long, have with different shapes depending on arrangement. Lower leaves broad, upper leaves small. Umbels 5–6 cm long, with 20–27 rays per umbel. Pedicels thin, rough. Petals up to 1.5 mm long. Fruits up to 2.5 mm long, ovoid, slightly rough, brown. Seeds brown and rough. Flowering in May (Flora of Tajikistan 1957–1991) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). M. Boboev Kulyab Botanical Garden, Kulyab, Tajikistan Dushanbe, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] H. de Boer The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_100

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560 Fig. 1 Paulia ovczinnikovi (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 2 Paulia ovczinnikovi (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 3 Paulia ovczinnikovi (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

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Fig. 4 Paulia ovczinnikovi (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Fig. 5 Paulia ovczinnikovi (Apiaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo M. Boboev)

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves and seeds are used to treat gastrointestinal diseases (Boboev et al. 2015).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves and roots are widely used in national foods. People use it as a spice, for medical purposes, and for preparing traditional spring dishes like Otala, Omoch, Oshi Burida, and Alafjush (Boboev et al. 2015).

References Boboev T, Boboev МТ, Qullaev S, Yoqubov S. Rastanihoi gizoi va rohhoi parvarishi onho. Kulob: Academy of Sciences; 2015. 27p [In Tajik]. Flora of Tajikistan. vols. I–Х. Moscow-Leningrad: AS of Tajikistan SSR (in Russian). 1957–1991.

Peganum harmala L. NITRARIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann and Ketevan Batsatsashvili

Synonyms Peganum harmala L.: Harmala multifida All.; Harmala peganum Crantz; Harmala syriaca Bubani; Peganon harmalum (L.) St.-Lag.; Peganum dauricum L.

Local Names Russian: Гapмaлa oбыкнoвeннaя (Garmala obyknovennaya); Uzbek: Isiriq; Kyrgyz: Aдыpшaмaн (Adyrshaman); English: Syrian rue (Sokolov 1988)

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (harmine, harmaline, harmalol, peganine, vasicinone, deoxypeganine, pegamine, peganidine, peganol, dipegene). (Sokolov 1988).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_101

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Botany and Ecology Perennial. The radix is up to 2 mm long, producing few stems. The stems are 20– 50 cm high, straight or flexuose, spreading, strongly branching, glabrous, smooth, slightly sulcate. The stipules of lower leaves more distinct, small, lanceolate, sometimes incised. The leaves are ovate, 3–6 cm long, dissected into 3–5 lanceolate-linear acuminate lobes 1–3.5 cm long, 1.5–3 mm wide lobes slightly incised. Flowers 1–3 apical at many branches, on 1–2 cm long pedicels thickened at apex. The calyx deeply 5-sect, lobes linear, 1.5–2 cm long sometimes slightly incised or nearly ternate. The corolla pale yellow. The petals are elliptic, obtuse, 1.5–2 cm long, 6– 9 mm wide. The capsules are globose, slightly flattened above, distinctly 3-valved, 0.6–1 cm in diameter. The seeds are numerous, and dark brown. The plant can be found in the southern steppe zone, in semi-deserts and deserts, usually found in farming areas near huts or pastureland, oases. In the mountain ranges and reaching the submontane belt. Caucasus, Middle Asia, Ural, Altai. On dry slopes, ruderal habitats, sandy banks of rivers and lakes, and very often on overgrazed pastures. In Fig. 1 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), flower, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

lower and middle mountain belts, on an elevation 400–1800 m. Flowers from May to June, and fruits from July to August. (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971; Shishkin and Boborov 1949; Takhtadjan 1954) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia used as analgesic especially for sciatia, in baths to treat rheumatism, scabies, and other skin diseases. A decoction is used for colds, malaria, fever, syphilis, neurasthenia, epilepsy, and as a mouth wash for gum disease. The smoke of the burning herb is applied for headaches and epilepsy. In Tajikistan, the smoke is used to treat paralysis. The seed decoction treats asthma and syphilis, and it is used as diuretic and diaphoretic. The leaves are used as a poultice to treat swellings (Sokolov 1988). Syrian Rue has anti-inflammatory, analgesic, stimulant, diuretic, diaphoretic, insecticidal, anthelmintic, abortive properties, stimulates the central nervous system. Stem, seeds, and roots are all used medicinally. Usually the plant serves to treat epilepsy and Parkinson’s disease, colds, malaria, fever, syphilis, rheumatism, scabies and skin diseases, as well cataracts. From seeds and aboveground parts of Syrian rue, one can extract harmin, which is used as remedy for the treatment of several nervous system disorders and epilepsy. Mixed with wine and other herbs the seeds are used to relief unpleasant cardiac sensations (Amirdovlat 1927; Isotova et al. 2010;

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Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Vardanyan 1979; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Seeds contain harmaline and flowers and stems contain peganine (Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). M. Heraci (Harutyunyan 1990) indicated the use of the seeds to lower high temperature; Amasiaci (Amirdovlat 1927) mentioned that the seeds were mixed with wine and used for epilepsy and rheumatism. He mentioned that this plant is intoxicant. Mixed with honey and applied externally it strengthens the eyesight; internally it is used as expectorant and diuretic, for cough, throat diseases, and “fears.” The plant is considered a contraceptive, abortive, and menstruating remedy. It helps to relieve congestion, dries and improves ulcers, and helps bone pain, pus blisters, and mange (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001). The infusion of Peganum is used as diuretic and sudorific. The smoke of burnt dried Peganum is inhaled to treat headache (Fedorov 1949). The seeds are used to treat cardiac pains, muscle spasm, food poisoning, rabies, and as snake repellent in Turkmen Sahra region. They are administered in the form of smoke, demulcent, or as taken orally like pills (Ghorbani 2005). Powder and decoction of seeds are used to cure toothache, gynecological infections, and menstruation disorders (Mosaddegh et al. 2012). The local people of Saravan (SW Iran) use macerated leaves or seed powder for healing effects on diabetes and has antiseptic and wound healing properties (Sadeghi et al. 2014). The raw fruit capsules are used for treatment of malaria and smoke of capsules and seeds as an antiseptic and air freshener (Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). In Taftan area (SW Iran), the aerial parts, flowers, leaves, and roots are used to treat stomachache, toothache, hypertension, rheumatism, kidney stone, bladder stone, bee stings, scorpion stings, and hand and foot pains (Maleki and Akhani 2018).

Local Food Uses The seeds are used as a spice (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The smoke is used to protect from the evil eye (Sokolov 1988). The seeds contain fatty oils suitable for lighting and paint preparation. An extract of the seeds sometimes is used as source of bright red and yellow dye for coloring wool, silk, and cotton. The oils of seeds are used in production of soaps and varnishes. As a powerful insecticide the plant extract has large use in agriculture (Grossheim 1952). A dye solution is prepared from the seeds to obtain orange, orange-yellow,

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brown-orange, orange-coffee, orange-red, pinkish, grey-orange, and other different colors and shades. The solution is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Qasimov 1980; Grossheim 1946). Dry Peganum is hung in visible places as protection against devil eye. Dried Peganum leaves and fruits are smoked by anybody who wants to protect themselves from evil eye (Alalbarov 2008). The whole plant yields a yellowish-brown and pinkish dye. In Middle Asia it is used for coloring skullcaps (Grossheim 1952). The seed capsules of harmel are threaded and made into decorations that are hang on the walls to protect against devil eyes. The seeds and capsules are burned, and the smoke is used to repel the devil eyes and bad spirits (Ghorbani 2005; Maleki and Akhani 2018). Peganum is a well-known ritual plant (Bussmann 2016) and is widely used to repel the evil eye, for example, by hanging it on doors, or burning it as incense (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). This practice is also common in the wider region, for example, Pakistan (Sher et al. 2016) (Figs. 3 and 4).

Fig. 3 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), protection against evil eye. Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Peganum harmala (Nitrariaceae), protection against evil eye. Turkey. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Alalbarov AU. One thousand and one secret of the East. Baku: Nurlan; 2008. (in Russian). Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1927. (in Armenian). Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology. Heidelberg: Springer; 2016. p. 163–9. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Peganum harmala L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, volumes. I–VIII. Baku, AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2001. (in Armenian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Russian). Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68.

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Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing House of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Academia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Russian). Harutyunyan H. Medieval Armenian phytotherapy herbs. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1990. (in Armenian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2010. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971– 2011. (in Georgian). Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Maleki T, Akhani H. Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal studies in Baluchi tribes: a case study in Mt. Taftan, southeastern Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;217:163–77. Mardjanyan KS. Stepanos Shahrimanyan’s botany of Flora of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2008. (in Russian). Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used in Kohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:80–95. Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1991. (in Russian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sadeghi Z, Kuhestani K, Abdollahi V, Mahmood A. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:111–8. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vol. 1–11. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1954– 2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2014. (in Armenian). Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1982. (in Russian). Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Picea schrenkiana Fisch. & C.A. Mey. PINACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Picea schrenkiana Fisch. & C.A. Mey.: Abies schrenkiana (Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) Lindl. & Gord.; Picea morinds subsp. tianschanica (Rupr.) Berezin; Picea obovate var. schrenkiana (Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) Carrière; Picea prostrata Isakov; Picea robertii P. Vipper; Picea schreinkiana subsp. tianschanica (Rupr.) Bykov; Picea schrenkiana var. tianschanica (Rupr.) W.C. Cheng & S.H. Fu; Picea tianshanica Rupr.

Local Names Russian: EльШpeнкa (El Shrenka); Uzbek: Heизвecтнo; Kyrgyz: Archa; English: Schrenk’s spruce (Eisenman et al. 2012)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_102

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Botany and Ecology Tree to 40 m tall, with a narrowly cylindric top; branches often pendulous; bark dark gray; young branchlets glabrous; leaves 4-angled, acute, 2–5 cm long (approximately twice as long as in P. obovata), with white waxy stomatic bands; cones large, subcylindric, 7–10 cm long and 2.5 cm thick, green when young; scales rounded at apex, entire or irregularly crenate, the margin in middle part apparently truncate; seeds and their wings brownish, the length including wing up to 16 cm. Middle Asia, forming compact forests on steep mountain slopes. On mountain slopes from 1000 to 3500 m (Iljin 1934) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Vitamins (C), essential oils (camphene, myrcene, bornyl acetate), flavonoids, diterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, steroids (sitosterol, campesterol) (Eisenman et al. 2012).

Fig. 1 Picea schrenkeana (Pinaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Picea schrenkiana Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Fig. 2 Picea orientalis (Pinaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Picea orientalis (Pinaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses An infusion of needles and cones is used to treat persistent common colds, and as bath for rheumatism. An infusion of young branches in alcohol is used to treat tuberculosis. The bark is ground and applied as poultice for furuncles (Eisenman et al. 2012). Picea smithiana is used to treat cuts and sores (Bhat et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses The needles are eaten for their content of vitamin C., and the resin is used as masticate instead of chewing gum (Eisenman et al. 2012). The pollen of Picea orientalis is eaten for bronchitis, while a spruce needle concoction is drunk to cure tuberculosis and ulcers. The resin is applied to wounds (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Spruce used in construction, especially for roof shingles and planks. Spruce along with fir and pine was used to make rafts, a traditional ancient handicraft. Spruce wood was considered the best material for making roof boards The wood serves also for tool handles, sleds, and walking sticks, as well as for roof shingles, walls, and household utensils (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Picea orientalis (L.) Peterm. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–144. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Eisenman SW, Zaurow DE, Struwe L, editors. Medicinal plants of Central Asia: Uzbekistan and Kyegyzstan. Stuttgart: Springer Scientific; 2012. Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, Volume 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad; 1934 (English 1968). 244p, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Pinus sylvestris L. var. mongolica Litv. PINACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Pinus sylvestris L. var. mongolica Litv.: Pinus sylvestris var. manguiensis S.Y. Li & K.T. Adair; Pinus yamazutai Uyeki

Local Names Chinese: 樟子松 (Zhang zi song)

Botany and Ecology Tree, with an erect trunk, 20–40 m tall; top round; bark light reddish brown, fissured, on branchlets yellowish, scaly; leaves 5–7 cm long, glaucescent; male flowers gathered in an ovaloid- conical or oblong cluster, the scales entire; cones solitary or in 2s or 3s, borne on recurved peduncles, maturing in the second year; mature cones gray, dull, ovaloid conical; epiphysis sub rhombic, 4–6 -edged, the edges B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_103

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Fig. 1 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: R. Bussmann)

connivent toward the recurved umbo; seeds small, rounded- oblong, blackish or gray, the wing three times the length of the body. Flowering in June. Throughout its distribution area, common pine forms compact woods, chiefly on sandy soils. Together with spruce, etc., it also occurs on podsolic soils in mixed or coniferous woods almost everywhere. In the steppe region, it is confined to riverside sands and limestone; it does not ascend onto the water divides. In the North, it favors particularly wind-blown glacial sands and slopes of land elevations. In the Siberian mountains it prefers dry sunny slopes with gravelly soil. It also occurs under other conditions, but then it is in a more or less depressed state. It lives up to 400 years. The pine occurs commonly in the piedmontane strip of the SE Urals and the Altai and Mongolia where it does not penetrate deep into the mountains, but keeps to its W. and N. edges; it does not generally rise above 800 m, rarely up to 1000 m. Outside the contiguous distribution area, common pine grows in the Caucasus, from the Kuban River to Dagestan and from Abkhazia, through Svanetia and Rach area to Manglisi (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Iljin 1934; Qasimov 1980; Takhtadjan 1954) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Pine-needles are in most cases used as an expectorant, diaphoretic and diuretic. An extract is used as vitamin supplement, and healing of burns. The resin is used for turpentine and colophony (Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952;

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Fig. 2 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: R. Bussmann)

Fig. 3 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Gubanov et al. 1976; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Pine contains large group of vitamins – K, B1, C, A. tannins, and resin (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). A decoction of needles and young shoots is used externally in skin diseases, rheumatism, and podagra (Alekperov 1992; Alalbarov 2008; Damirov et al. 1988). A needle decoction is applied as emollient to relieve cough. A pine extract is prepared from needles and used for treatment of wounds, and also added to water while taking a bath (Alekperov 1992; Alalbarov 2008; Damirov et al. 1988). In Svaneti Pinus kochiana was used to stop bleeding. In Lechkhumi, sick children were bathed in the broth of pine Pinus needles and leaves of Pyracantha coccinea M.Roem. (Burduli 2010). Pine needles and seeds were used for medicinal purposes (Tsutsunava 1960). Pine cones, as well as resin, were used to heal eczema and scabs. Pine oil serves to relief skin allergies, burns, and fungal infections. The cones are

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cooked in honey and taken as cure for asthma, bronchitis, lung infections, and tuberculosis. A decoction of needles helps urinary problems and serves as diuretic, as well as for tuberculosis and ulcers. Pine roots are also used to treat tuberculosis. Pollen is eaten dried to help bronchitis and inhaled for sinusitis. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). Pinus roxburghii is used widely for asthma and bronchitis, and the resin also for sores (Bhat et al. 2013; Joshi et al. 2010). The plan serves also as nerve tonic and antiseptic, for skin ulcers, and as hemostatic (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013). Sometimes the resin is used to treat snakebites (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). Similar uses are reported for Pinus tinctoria (Kunwar et al. 2010). Pinus patula needles are used to treat diarrhea (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006).

Fig. 4 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Male cones collected and dried. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Pollen for sale. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Pinus sylvestris L. var. mongolica Litv. Fig. 6 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Syrup made from flowers. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 7 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Syrup. Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo: R. Bussmann)

Fig. 8 Pinus kochiana (Pinaceae). Chewing-gum made from resin and inner bark. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Local Food Uses Local people make honey and jam from young pine cones. This is also used as medicine for cough (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). In Tusheti children cut off the bark of young pine trees called “zhina” and eat the slimy inner layer called “mots’I,” which is sweet and tasty (Bochoridze 1993). The resin is used as masticate (instead of chewing gum). Leaves and young cones are sometimes eaten (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Pine is used in construction, especially for posts, and roof shingles. In Tusheti pine was the only species used for buildings. Pine logs were also used in bridge construction (Bochoridze 1993). Pine along with spruce and fir was used to make rafts, a traditional ancient handicraft, for example, in Borjomi gorge with rich forest resources and the river Mtkvari (Kura) as a log conveyor. Traditional patterns of procedure existed for each stage of raft construction works. Pine was considered the best species to make “k’evri,” a large threshing tool. Pine with other tree species was used in traditional cart making for harnesses; it was also used for sleighs. In Tusheti pine was used to make “geja,” a large elongated vessel made of a whole log and used in beer and vodka production, for collection of water, cattle feeding, etc.; “q’velis sats’uravai,” a wooden vessel for cheese drainage (Bochoridze 1993). Pine and spruce were used to make front board of “panduri,” a string musical instrument widespread in Georgia. These conifers were also used to make “changi,” a musical instrument like a harp, which is only found in Svaneti. Along with other tree species pine is used as firewood (Bochoridze 1993). Pinewood was also used to make tool handles, spinning wheels, sleds, shelving, looms, lanterns, household utensils, grain storage chests, furniture, and bows, while the branches served to make arrows. The bark and resinous wood are often used as fire starter (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Alalbarov AU. One thousand and one secret of the East. Baku: Nurlan; 2008. (in Russian). Alekperov FU. Comparative analysis of medicinal plants of medieval (XIII–XVIII centuries) and modern Azerbaijan. Baku: Ornak; 1992. (in Russian). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Pinus kochiana Klotzsch ex K. Koch. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. Bochoridze G. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1993. (in Georgian).

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Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vol. 1–2. Moscow: Academy of Science; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Burduli M. Traditional Georgian folk medicine. Akhaltsikhe: Academy of Science; 2010. (in Georgian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Academy of Science; 1988. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, vols. I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow: Academy of Science; 1976. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Academy of Science; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow: Academy of Science; 1976. (in Russian). Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, Volume 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1968). 244p, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya). J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:332–9. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vol. 1–7. Leningrad: Academy of Science; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vol. 1–11. Yerevan: Academy of Science; 1954–2009. (in Russian).

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Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Academy of Science; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Academy of Science; 2014. (in Armenian). Tsutsunava N. Medicinal plants of Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1960. (in Georgian). Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow: Academy of Science; 1982. (in Russian). Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan: Academy of Science; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago major L. PLANTAGINACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Plantago lanceolata L.: Plantago lanceolata fo. eriophora (Hoffmanns & Link) Beck; Plantago lanceolata var. sphaerostachya Mert. & W.D.J. Koch; Plantago sinuata Lam. Plantago major L.: Plantago borysthenica Wissjul.; Plantago dregeana Decne; Plantago gigas H. Lév.; Plantago intermedia Gilib.; Plantago jehohlensis Koidz.; Plantago latifolia Salisb.; Plantago macronipponica Yamam.; Plantago major fo. scopulorum (Fr. & Broberg) Pilg.; Plantago major subsp. pleiosperma Pilg.; Plantago major var. borysthenica Rogow; Plantago major var. gigas (H. Lév.) H. Lév.; Plantago major var. jehohlensis (Koids.) S.H. Li; Plantago major var. kimurae Yaman.; Plantago major var. paludosa Bég.; Plantago major var. pauciflora (Gilib.) Bég.; Plantago major var. sawadai Yamam.; Plantago major var. sinuate (Lam.) Decne.; Plantago officinarum Crantz; Plantago pauciflora Gilib.; Plantago sawadai (Yamam.) Yamam.; Plantago sinuata Lam.; Plantago villifera Kitag. R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_104

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Local Names Plantago lanceolata: Russian: Пoдopoжниклaнцeтoлиcтный (Podorozhnik lantsetolistnyy); Uzbek: Nishtarsimon bargizub, Zabturum Kyrgyz: Бaкa жaлбыpaк (Baka zhalbyrak); English: Narrowleaf plantain (Sokolov 1990) Plantago major: Russian: Пoдopoжникбoльшoй (Podorozhnik bol’shoy); Uzbek: Zupturoom, Buzchi, Bakayaprok Kyrgyz: Чoнбaкa жaлбыpaк (Chon baka zhalbyrak); English: Common plantain, broadleaf plantain (Sokolov 1990)

Botany and Ecology Plantago lanceolata: Perennial. Plant 8–70 cm tall, with well-developed tap root and with several or numerous (25–30) erect or ascending scapes. Leaves ellipticlanceolate, lanceolate, or linear-lanceolate, 3–5(7)-veined, gradually narrowed toward base and apex, acute, with short or fairly long petioles; entire, rarely sparsely dentate, glabrous or densely hairy or lanate. Scapes distinctly longitudinally sulcate, usually pubescent, upward appressed hairy. Spikes dense, compact, capitate or cylindrical, 0.5–7 cm long. Bracts ovate or elliptic, membranous, with distinct herbaceous keel not reaching the tip of bracts, short or long acuminate, equaling or exceeding calyx, glabrous or sparsely hairy. Calyx lobes 2.5–3.5 mm long, membranous, all with distinct herbaceous keel, glabrous, rarely more or less hairy along back, 2 anterior calyx lobes connate, forming a broad, shortly bilobed scale with 2 keels. Corolla lobes ovate or oblong-ovate, acuminate, about 1.2 mm long. Capsule elliptic, about 3 mm long, 2-seeded. Seeds oblong or oblong-elliptic, 157 with one side convex, the other sulcate. Flowering April to September (October). Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in dry meadows, on grassy, open slopes, vacant lots, along roads, on open soil deposits, on the banks of rivers (Shishkin 1953) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), Iran. (Photo Farzaneh Khajoei Nasab)

Plantago major: Herbaceous perennial. Leaves in basal rosettes, broad-elliptic to broad-ovate, 4–21 cm long, 3–14 cm wide, 3–9 parallel veins, sheathing petiolate. Inflorescences dense, erect, narrow-cylindric spikes, 5–15 cm tall; peduncles 15– 70 cm tall; bracts ovate, acute. Corolla greenish or yellowish white with 4 reflexed lobes. Fruit a 2-seeded, circumscissile capsule. Seeds 1–-5 mm long, densely reticulate. Flowering June–August, fruiting August–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai,

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Fig. 4 Plantago major (Plantaginaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Middle Asia, on vacant lots, garbage places, near settlements, on forest meadows, glades, banks of reservoirs, along roads (Shishkin 1953) (Figs. 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Iridoids (aucubine, aububoside, melittoside, catalepol), alkaloids, flavonoids (apyrenine, luteoline, scutellarine, baikaleine, luteoline, baikalin, apienylene, rispiduline, romotratinine, nepitrin, ramnopyranoside, methoxyflavone), steroids (sitosterol, stimasterine, cholesterol, campesterine), fatty acids (linoleic), carbohydrates (pectic acid, mannitol, sorbitol), phenols (tyrosol), phenolcarboxylic acids (lilac, vanillic, hydroxbenzoic, ferulic, p-cumaric, rentisine, salicylic, benzoine, cinnamic, chloroenic), steroids (sitosterol, stigmasterol, cholesterol, campesterol), nitrogen-containing compounds (allantoine) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Plantago lanceolata: In Middle Asia and the Altai, the leaf extract is used as contraceptive and for gonorrhea. The roots are used to treat cystitis, gastric problems, tuberculosis, headache, and snakebites. In the Northern Caucasus, the leaf decoction

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Fig. 5 Plantago major (Plantaginaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

serves to treat tuberculosis, pleurisy, wounds, as spasmolytic, expectorant, for enteritis, enterocolitis, gastric ulcers, liver disease, malaria, bronchitis, whooping cough, bronchial asthma, acute respiratory diseases, anemia, hemorrhoids, and scrofululosis. Topically, as cataplasm the leaves are used for furuncles, ulcers, infected wounds, and edema (Sokolov 1990). The leaf extract is used as contraceptive and for gonorrhea. The roots are used to treat cystitis, gastric problems, tuberculosis, headache, and snakebites. In the Northern Caucasus, the leaf decoction serves to treat tuberculosis, pleurisy, wounds, as spasmolytic, expectorant, for enteritis, enterocolitis, gastric ulcers, liver disease, malaria, bronchitis, whooping cough, bronchial asthma, acute respiratory diseases, anemia, hemorrhoids, and scrofululosis. Topically, as cataplasm the leaves are used for furuncles, ulcers, infected wounds, and edema. Plantago has a weak expectorant effect (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). The leaves are used to treat digestive problems, wounds, gastritis, stomach ailments and are used as anti-inflammatory (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The plant is used as emollient in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), as well as against diarrhea (Sher et al. 2016). The leaves are used as a demulcent to treat dermal wounds, cutting, dermal inflammation, and wart (Ghorbani 2005). Powdered seeds are used for coughs and powdered leaves are used for hemorrhages, infections, wounds, and pains (Naghibi et al. 2014).

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Decoction, infusion, and raw form of leaves and seeds are used to strengthen the body, treat the enuresis in children, constipation, common cold, and anemia (Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018). Poultice made from leaves are used for headaches and seeds boiled in water for common cold (Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). Soaked leaves and seeds in water are used for scabies, sore throat, wounds, hemorrhage, and infection (Mosaddegh et al. 2016). The plant is also used as emollient (Umair et al. 2019). In Tajikistan Plantago major leaves are used for gonorrhea, the roots for fever of snakebites. In the Altai, the leaf extract is mixed with milk for kidney and respiratory infections and tuberculosis, enuresis, diarrhea, anthrax, lung cancer, and as powder for wound-healing. In the Caucasus the leaves and roots are employed for, gastritis, colitis, and enterocolitis, tuberculosis, and pleurisy, and as an expectorant for bronchitis, bronchial asthma and pertussis, as well as for epilepsy in children. In Uzbekistan the leaf juice is used fresh for gonorrhea, and in Turkmenustan for furunculosuis and as expectorant (Sokolov 1990). The leaves are used for gonorrhea, the roots for fever of snakebites. In the Altai the leaf extract is mixed with milk for kidney and respiratory infections and tuberculosis, enuresis, diarrhea, anthrax, lung cancer, and as powder for wound-healing. In the Caucasus the leaves and roots are employed for gastritis, colitis, and enterocolitis, tuberculosis, and pleurisy, and as an expectorant for bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and pertussis, as well as for epilepsy in children. Plantago has a weak expectorant effect (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). The leaves are used to treat wounds, as hemostatic, for cough, digestive disorders, gastritis, and as anti-inflammatory. The roots are used to treat stomach ailments (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2018; Bussmann 2017). In the Himalayas, the leaves and seeds are used for diarrhea and indigestion (Kunwar et al. 2010). The infusion of leaves and seed is used as demulcent of cuttings, wart, and orally for cough and as expectorant for respiratory system problems (Ghorbani 2005; Mosaddegh et al. 2016). Decoction of seeds are used to treat constipation, common cold, and cough and for strengthening babies (Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). Decoction or infusion of seeds is used to strengthen the body, treat enuresis in children, common colds, anemia, lumbago, and leg pain (Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018) (Figs. 7 and 8). Plantago depressa is used for cuts and wounds (Bhat et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2017), and also for constipation (Singh et al. 2017). Plantago himalaica for dysentery (Bhat et al. 2013). Plantago palmata serves as antiparasitic and for throta swellings (Luizza et al. 2013).

Local Food Uses Dried and ground Plantago major is used for cooking sauces, as seasoning for soup, in meat and fish dishes, and sugared with milk (Sokolov 1990). The leaves and shoots are sometimes cooked and eaten, normally with other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

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Fig. 6 Plantago major (Plantaginaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), fresh harvested, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for cattle, sheep, and camels. The whole plant is rich in tannins and is often used for tanning (Sokolov 1990).

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Fig. 8 Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae), drying for winter, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Echium maculatum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Academia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Khajoei Nasab F, Esmailpour M. Ethno-medicinal survey on weed plants in agro-ecosystems: a case study in Jahrom, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0128-9. Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa C, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39. Mosaddegh M, Esmaeili S, Hassanpour A, Malekmohammadi M, Naghibi F. Ethnobotanical study in the highland of Alvand and Tuyserkan, Iranian. Res J Pharmacogn. 2016;3:7–17. Naghibi F, Esmaeili S, Malekmohammadi M, Hassanpour A, Mosaddegh M. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used traditionally in two villages of Hamedan, Iranian. Res J Pharmacogn. 2014;1:7–14. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 23: Bignoniaceae – Valerianaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 2000). 891p, 39 b/w plates. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Etnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328p. (in Russian). Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco CUPRESSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco: Biota falcata Lindl.; Biota orientalis (L.) Endl.; Platycladus stricta Spach; Thuja chengii Bordères & Gaussen; Thuja orientalis L. Thuja orientalis var. argyi Lemée & H. Lév.

Local Names Chinese: 侧柏 (Ce bai); Farsi: Patta

Botany and Ecology A tree; buds pubescent; leaves of long shoots linear or lanceolate; leaves of short shoots ovate -rhombic or elliptic-orbicular, with shallow dentation, all pale green; buds pubescent; rachis of young catkins pubescent; pedicels with scattered hairs; R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_105

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capsule smooth, glaucescent, 3-valvular. Flowering in April. Caucasus, Iran, Middle Asia.

Phytochemistry α-Pinene, sabinene, 3-carene, limonene and cedrol

Local Medicinal Uses The resin of the bark, under the name “buriarmeni,” is considered a remedy for syphilis. In traditional Chinese medicine, the leaves are credited with bitter stomachic, refrigerant, astringent, diuretic, tonic, and antipyretic properties. A decoction or the juice of the leaves has been used to relieve all kinds of bleeding, gastric ulcers, gonorrhea, and colds. The seeds are prescribed as a sedative, tranquillizer, antitussive, and hemostatic. In Indo-China the ground leaves are used as an emmenagogue and antitussive, the seeds as a tonic, sedative, tranquillizer, and aphrodisiac. A decoction of the twigs is prescribed to treat dysentery, skin affections, and cough. Chronic oral administration of the seed extract to mice improved impaired memory acquisition and disturbed memory retention in a dose-dependent way. Other proven effects of leaf extracts include the hemostatic properties, in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity, and an activity similar to that of vitamin K. In an antibacterial screening, the aqueous leaf extract inhibited the growth of gram-positive bacteria and significantly inhibited aflatoxin production of Aspergillus parasiticus on products such as rice, wheat, maize, and groundnut. Methanol extracts of leaves and cones inhibited the growth of Candida albicans. Immunosuppressant activity was observed in mice fed with a diet containing 10% seed oil (Aggarwal 2001).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The wood is used in carpentry.

References Aggarwal S. Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco. In: van Valkenburg JLCH, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia No 12(2): medicinal and poisonous plants 2. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 2001. p. 439–41.

Polemonium caucasicum N.Busch. POLEMONIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Polemonium caucasicum N.Busch.: Polemonium caeruleum subsp. caucasicum V.E. Avet.

Local Names Russian: Cинюxa кaвкaзcкaя (Sinyukha kavkazskaya); Kyrgyz: Кaвкaзпoлeмoну (Kavkaz polemonu) (Sokolov 1990)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; stem erect, leafy, glabrous, with short-glandular hairs only above, 50– 95 cm high; leaves imparipinnate, with 5–11 pairs of lanceolate, acute, sessile leaflets, glabrous on both surfaces, sometimes with few, very short hairs along R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_106

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midrib above. Inflorescence compressed with few branches, sometimes a simple raceme; branches of inflorescence, pedicels and upper part of stem with glandular hairs; calyx with short glandular hairs, 8.5–10 mm long, its lobes oblong or oblonglanceolate, acute, longer than or as long as tube, 4.75–5 mm long, 3 mm wide at base; corolla blue, large, 16–21 mm long, 9–13.5 mm wide, its tube shorter than calyx, with rounded lobes; anthers oval, filaments shorter than corolla; styles shorter than or as long as corolla; capsule 4–5 mm long, broadly obovate, subglobose, with 8–14 seeds per locule; seeds pyriform, rimmed by wings broadening above, brown or cinammon brown, 2.5–3 mm long, 1–1.5 mm wide. Flowers middle of June– August (September), fruiting August–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, open slopes in foothills, ledges, upper part of forest belt, subalpine belt, from 1350 to 2150 m (Yuzepchuk and Shishkin 1953).

Phytochemistry Triterpene saponins, triterpene glycosides, organic acids, essential oils, fatty acids (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses An infusion is used to treat fevers, as a sedative and to treat syphilis. A decoction is used as a bath to treat spazmophilia. An infusion of the leaves is used (Sokolov 1990).

References Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328p. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 19: Tubiflorae. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad; 1953 (English 1974). 563p, 40 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Polygala hybrida DC. Polygala sp. POLYGALACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Polygala hybrida DC.: Polygala comosa var. altaica Chodat; Polygala comosa var. hybrida (DC.) Petelin.

Local Names Russian: Иcтoдгибpидный (Istod gibridnyy); Kyrgyz: Apгыниcтoд (Argyn istod); English: Milkwort (Sokolov 1988)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; root thick; stems 15–40(50) cm high, numerous, erect or curved below, slightly pubescent or subglabrous; leaves coriaceous, thick, slightly inrolled at margin, upper leaves oblong-lanceolate to linear, lower leaves smaller and wider, R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_107

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lanceolate or obovate-lanceolate. Racemes dense, the young with apical pappus of protruding bracts; middle bracts longer than or as long as pedicels, lateral bracteoles as long as or shorter than pedicels, wide, lanceolate, acuminate; pedicels up to 3 mm long, later curved; flowers pale blue, rarely pink-lilac or even whitish, with faint purple tinge; wings 6–9 mm long, 4–5 mm wide, ovate or elliptic, netted veined, obtuse or obtusely acuminate; corolla almost as long as wings; capsules oblongobcordate, 5 mm long, 4 mm wide, on short stipes ca. 0.75 mm long, with shallow incision above, winged at margin, glabrous; seeds cylindrical-ellipsoid, pubescent; aril barbed at apex. Flowering June–August. Ural, Altai, Middle Asia, on meadows, meadow steppes, on stony places, gravelly slopes, banks of rivers, streams, coniferous and deciduous forests, along their edges, in subalpine meadows to the upper mountain belt, in gardens (Shishkin and Boborov 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (maltose, glucose, fructose), organic acids (methyl salicyl), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee, synapic, ferulic), flavanoids (quercetine, kaempferol) (Sokolov 1988).

Fig. 1 Polygala comosa (Polygalaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Polygala sp. (Polygalaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 3 Polygala sp. (Polygalaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses In the mongolian Altai as expectorant in case of tuberculosis, croup, pneumonia, cough, angina, oral diseases, and as remedy for the bots of rabid dogs, would healing. In the Ural used as expectorant, diuretic, tonic, diaphoretic in bronchial asthma, pneumonia, and rheumatism. In high does as purgative. In the whole region, the infusion of the herb is used to treat heart and gastrointestinal illnesses (Sokolov 1988).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used as substitute for tea (Sokolov 1988).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine as poultice to treat snakebites. Fodder for livestock (Sokolov 1988).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988, 357 p. (in Russian).

Polygonum aviculare L. Polygonum coriarium Grig. POLYGONACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Polygonum aviculare L.: Polygonum aequale Lindm.; Polygonum agreste Sumner; Polygonum aphyllum Krock; Polygonum araraticum Kom.; Polygonum arenastrum Boreau; Polygonum aviculare subsp. aequale (Lindm.) Asch. & Graebn.; Polygonum berteroi Phil.; Polygonum heterophyllum Lindm.; Polygonum retinerve Vorosch.; Polygonum striatum K. Koch; Polygonum uruguense H. Gross. Polygonum coriarium Grig.: Aconogonon bucharicum (Grig.) Holub; Aconogonon coriarium (Grig.) Soják; Acocnogonon coriarium subsp. bucharicum (Grig.) Soják; Pleuropterophyrum bucharicum (Grig.) Nevski; Polygonum bucharicum Grig.

Local Names Polygonum aviculare: Russian: Гopeцптичий (Gorets ptichiy); Uzbek: Kiziltasma; Kyrgyz: Toшoлгoнкымыздык (Tosholgon kymyzdyk); English: Yard knotweed (Fedorov 1984). R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_108

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Polygonum coriarium: Russian: Гopлeцдубильный (Gorlets dubil’nyy); Uzbek: Taran dubil’nyy; Kyrgyz: Aшaткычкымыздык (Ashatkych kymyzdyk) (Fedorov 1984)

Botany and Ecology Polygonum aviculare Annual; stem erect, ascending, or decumbent; branches mostly long, suberect, divergent, those on decumbent stems appressed to the ground; the whole plant 10–40 cm high, the lowest internodes 1-cm long; leaves variable in size but alike in shape, broadly spatulate or broadly elliptic to oboval-oblong or liguliform, rarely narrow-oblong or sublinear, obtuse to subacute, grayish-green or glaucescent; flowers 1–5, all distinctly axillary, not approximate near the ends of branches; perianth divided to the middle, obconical (turbinate) in lower part, the pale green segments narrowly white- or roseate -margined; achene often surpassing the perianth, trigonous, mostly 2 or rarely to 3 mm long, ovaloid at base, the straight angles forming a pyramid or an acute tip, mostly black or occasionally castaneous, the faces rather obscurely striate or punctate, slightly lustrous. Flowering May–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in pastures and disturbed areas (Boborov and Komarov 1936). Polygonum coriarium: Perennial; stem to 1–1.5 m long, profusely divaricately branched; leaves ovate to ovate-lanceolate, ca. 6–10 cm long and 2.5–5 cm broad, broadly cuneate or rounded at base, rather densely appressed-hairy beneath or rarely on both surfaces, rarely glabrous; inflorescence a large, dense, many-branched panicle, the branches nodding in fruit; perianth white, (2) 2.5–3.6 mm long, elongating in fruit to 4 mm; achene 3–4.5 (4) mm long, exserted to not more than 0.5 mm or more rarely as long as the perianth. Flowering June–August. Middle Asia, on slopes of mountains to the upper part of the forest belt and in subalpine meadows to 1800–3000 m (Boborov and Komarov 1936) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Catechins, flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine), carbohydrates, anthocyanines (delphinide, emoine), steroids, catcheins, saponins, alkaloids, organic acids (oleic, oxalic, malic, citane, lemon), vitamins (C, carotene), phenolic compounds, tannins, phenolcarbonic acids, coumarins (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Altai the plants are used to treat arthritis, cough, liver and urinary diseases, and tuberculosis. In Middle Asia the infusion used to treat stomach spasms, intestinal infections, diarrhea, as tonic, hemostatic, and diuretic. The plant is used in a bath to treat bacterial and fungal skin diseases and rashes. The fresh herb is put on tumors, wounds, and skin ulcers (Fedorov 1984). A decoction of dry Polygonum is used in intestinal disorders, together with Anthemis candididissima, to heal hemorrhoidal

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Fig. 1 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 2 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

bleedings and bloody diarrhea (Grossheim 1942). Polygonum aviculare is applied as hot pack poultice externally to injuries and tumors (Damirov et al. 1988). Pulverized green parts of the plant and mixed with egg white are applied to furuncles, cuts, hard healing wound, and ulcers. The whole plant is used as medicine. Originally it was first crushed with a stone, and then crushed alum was added, mixed together, and applied to the skin to treat sores. The plant was also used to treat liver disorders: the whole plant was boiled in water and the resulting decoction was given sweetened to patients (Melikishvili 1976). A P. aviculare decoction was thought to the best remedy to cure gastro-intestinal diseases (Mindadze and Chirgadze 2005). The whole plant was used to prepare a treatment for sores, and crushed herb was mixed with crashed alum and applied to the affected area of skin (Melikishvili 1976). A decoction of roots and leaves was taken internally to treat disorders of the liver, including cirrhosis, and diarrhea, and the leaves were used to treat urinary problems and served as diuretic (Melikishvili 1976), gastrointestinal tract (Mindadze and Chirgadze 2005). An infusion or powder of leaves and stem are used as laxative and treatment of skin abscesses (Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018) and the aerial parts are used to treat diabetes, colic and antidiarrhea (Amiri and Joharchi 2013). The leaves are used as diuretic, for kidney and urinary system problems (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017h; Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c; Bussmann et al. 2017a, b, 2014; Fedorov 1949; Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971; Kuchukhidze and Jokhadze 2012; Lapachi 1999; Makashvili 1991; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017). Polygonum plebeium is used as galaktogogue, for eczema, pneumonia, and as liver tonic (Umair et al. 2019), as well as cough and diarrhea (Verma et al. 2007). Polygonum capitatum treat boils, burns, and herpes (Singh et al. 2017). Polygonum hydropiper is used for dysentery (Raj et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses The young shoots are boiled like spinach, always with a large number of other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984). The aboveground parts until flowering are used boiled. The

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plant can also be used dried form for cooking dovga (is a soup cooked from curdled milk (yogurt), various greens, a small amount of rice and egg. In some regions of the country also a small amount of peas is added. It is considered good for digestion and for intestinal cramps). Leaves of the plant are used as one of the ingredients added to plov (a common dish in the east. In Azerbaijan rice is boiled on a small fire until soft, in combination with other ingredients like meat, birds, fish, dried fruits, greens, beans). Such dish possesses constipating properties and is often cooked with the purpose to treat intestinal disorders (Damirov et al. 1988).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves yield green, blue, and yellow dyes for wool and silk. Used as fodder (Fedorov 1984). Polygonum aviculare is used in poultry farming. The seeds are good feed for poultry, mainly for geese (Akhundov et al. 1989). A dark blue color is obtained from the root for dyeing wool (Qasimov 1980). Good nectariferous plant, producing much nectar (Akhundov et al. 1989).

References Akhundov QF, Mahammadli BR, Asadov KS. Useful wild-growing plants. Baku: Maarif; 1989. (in Azeri). Amiri MS, Joharchi MR. Ethnobotanical investigation of traditional medicinal plants commercialized in the markets of Mashhad, Iran. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2013;3:254–71. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f.

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Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593p, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Metsniereba; 1988. (in Russian). Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing House of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Academia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971– 2011. (in Georgian). Khajoei Nasab F, Esmailpour M. Ethno-medicinal survey on weed plants in agro-ecosystems: a case study in Jahrom, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0128-9. Kuchukhidze J., Jokhadze M. Botany (medicinal plants). Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 2012. (in Georgian).

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Lapachi Ts. Healing with plants in Baraleti, Samtskhe (Historical collection), vol. III. Tbilisi: Tbilisi State University; 1999. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Melikishvili M. Dye, medicinal and food plants Sagarejo District. Bulletin of the State Museum of Georgia XXIX – A. Tbilisi: Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Georgian). Mindadze N, Chirgadze N. Traditions of Georgian folk medicine. Tbilisi: Kakheti; 2005. (in Georgian) Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Etnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Populus euphratica Oliv. SALICACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Populus euphratica Oliv.: Balsamiflua euphratica (Olivier) Kimura; Populus ariana Dode; Populus diversifolia Schrenk; Populus litwinowiana Dode; Populus transcaucasica Jarm. ex Grossh.; Turanga euphratica (Olivier) Kimura

Local Names Chinese: 胡杨 (Hu yang)

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_109

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Botany and Ecology A tree; leaves of long shoots linear, entire; leaves of short shoots rounded-deltoid, almost straight at base, acute, with five teeth on each margin; buds pubescent; staminate catkins 3–4 cm long, the rachis densely clothed with appressed erect teeth; pedicels hairy, 1–1.5 mm long; anthers blackish-violet; rachis of pistillate catkins glabrous or with few scattered rather long hairs; ovary and young fruit quite glabrous; leaves greener than those of P. diversifolia. Flowering March–April. Riverbanks and often saline soils in proximity of rivers. Middle Asia. (Boborov and Komarov 1936) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used widely as firewood and for household artifacts (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Sokolov 1985).

Fig. 1 Populus sp. (Salicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Populus euphratica Oliv. Fig. 2 Populus sp. (Salicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Populus sp. (Salicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Populus sp. (Salicaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593p, 49 b/w plates. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae - Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336 p. (in Russian).

Portulaca oleracea L. PORTULACACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Portulaca oleracea L.: Portulaca consanguinea Schltdl.; Portulaca fosbergii Poelln.; Portulaca intermedia Link ex Schltdl.; Portulaca latifolia Hornem.; Portulaca marginata Kunth; Portulaca neglecta Mack. & Bush; Portulaca officinarum Crantz

Local Names Russian: Пopтулaк oгopoдный (Portulak ogorodnyy); Uzbek: Semiz ut; Kyrgyz: Oгopoдпopтулaгы (Ogorod portulagy); English: Purslane. (Fedorov 1984)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_110

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Botany and Ecology Annual. The stem (7) 10–30 cm long, glabrous, fleshy, prostrate, mostly appressed to the soil or ascending, branched from base. The leaves are alternate, sessile, cuneately narrowing towards the base, fleshy. The flowers are solitary or in clusters of 2 or 3, in the stem crotches, or in the leaf axils. The sepals are herbaceous, obtusely keeled. The petals (4–6) are free or connate at base, united with the calyx, obovate, and yellow. The stigmas are linear. The stamens 8–15, free or adnate at base to petals. The capsule is ovoid or globular, 5–8 mm long. The plant can be found in sand deposits on riverbanks, fields, weed-infested places around villages, and gardens. In ruderal habitats, near roads and cultivated fields. Up to middle mountain belt, on an elevation up to 1200 m. Flowering June to July, fruits from July to September (Komarov and Shishkin 1936) (Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, catecholamines (noradrenaline, dopamine), oxalic acids, coumarins, flavonoids, cardiac and anthraquinone glycosides, proteins, fatty acids (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia, the herb is used as a choleretic, antipyretic, for hepatitis, nephritis, cystitis, intestinal ulcers, bloody diarrhea, intestinal infections (Fedorov 1984). Traditional medicine usually used the green parts of the plant and its seeds to treat impotence, stroke, urinary tract infections, psoriasis, liver, and stomach. The fresh juice has anthelmintic properties and quenches thirst. Drinking “milk” made from Fig. 1 Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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crushed seeds will help in healing tumors of the digestive tract. The intravenous injection of plant-derived preparations enhances the heart rhythm, narrows blood vessels, and raises blood pressure. Ii is recommended to eat Portulaca in the early stages of 2-type diabetes. Crushed seeds mixed with honey reduce the frequency of asthma attacks. A tincture is recommended as poultice for muscle cramps. Leaf juice soothes itching caused by insect bites. Fresh or marinated purslane regulate the blood platelet formation (Amirdovlat 1927; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Vardanyan 1979). Contains vitamin C, carotene, alkaloids, proteins, and organic acids (Grossheim 1952; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950; Takhtadjan 1954; Zurebiani 1978; Gubanov et al. 1976; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). Pulverized leaves of the plant and a decoction of seeds are used in diarrhea, treatment of dysentery and as antipyretic (Alalbarov 2008). Pulverized leaves used as poultice to treat bee stings and skin tumors. The plant is also used as general panacea to strengthen the organism (Grossheim 1942; Fedorov 1949). In India the plant is used as blood purifier, for fever and headaches (Verma et al. 2007), in Africa for typhoid (Njoroge et al. 2004).

Local Food Uses Well-known food plant, which is used fresh and marinated. Young plants are used cooked, as spice in soups and sauces, and like spinach with oil, vinegar, and garlic (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). The fruits have cooling properties and are used in food in raw in salads or boiled. Is one of the sources of vitamin C (Grossheim 1942). Young shoots of Portulaca oleracea are used in the Causcasus to make mkhali/ phkhali (a herb and walnut spread). The plant is used alone in Kartli and Kakheti (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; Melikishvili 1976; Javakhishvili 1986; Mindadze and Chirgadze 2005), and in combination with ch’inch’ari (Urtica dioica L.) in Samtskhe-Javakheti (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b; 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017), as well as in a mixture of various herbs.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses According to local belief, common purslane put in the bed can help to avoid nightmares. A dye solution is prepared from the flowers to obtain violet and grey colors and is used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980).

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References Alalbarov AU. One thousand and one secret of the East. Baku: Nurlan; 2008. (in Russian). Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1927. (in Armenian). Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Todd. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017i. Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vol. 1–2. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonatum glaberrimum C. Koch.; Polygonatum orientale Desf. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984, 460 p. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, volumes I–VIII. Baku, AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan; 2001. (in Armenian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow; 1976. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing House of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Academia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Russian). Harutyunyan H. Medieval armenian phytotherapy herbs. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1990. (in Armenian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2010. (in Russian). Javakhishvili I. Materials for history of household and crafts, vol. 5: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (in Georgian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 6: Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 731p, 55 b/w plates, 2 maps. Mardjanyan KS. Stepanos Shahrimanyan’s “Botany of Flora of Armenia”. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2008. (in Russian). Melikishvili M. Dye, medicinal and food plants Sagarejo District. Bulletin of the State Useum of Georgia XXIX – A. Tbilisi: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Georgian). Mindadze N, Chirgadze N. Traditions of Georgian folk medicine. Tbilisi: Kakheti; 2005. (in Georgian). Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency (R.U.E.) in agro-ecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;7(2):71–87. Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1991. (in Russian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri).

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Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR., vol. 1–7. Leningrad: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vol. 1–11. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2014. (in Armenian). Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1982. (in Russian). Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian). Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35. Zurebiani B. Food plants of Svaneti. Sakartvelos soplis meurneoba, 9. Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1978. (in Georgian).

Potentilla inclinata Vill. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Potentilla inclinata Vill.: Potentilla adscendens Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd.; Potentilla canescens Besser

Local Names Russian: Лaпчaткa ceдoвaтaя (Lapchatka sedovataya); Kyrgyz: Aгыштуктуукaзтaмaн (Agysh tuktuu kaztaman); English: Ashy cinquefoil (Sokolov 1987)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_111

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; rootstock sturdy, multicipital, covered with brown relics of stipules; stems 15–50 cm high, erect or ascending at base, covered like petioles and pedicels with long soft hairs, branching above middle; radical and lower cauline leaves palmately 5-(7)-parted; upper cauline leaves 3- to 5-paired, short-petioled; stipules ovate or ovate-lanceolate, acute; leaflets oblong-obovate, long-cuneate at base, uniformly incised-dentate to the very base, with margins not reflexed, sparsely appressedhairy and green above, finely gray-tomentose mixed with sparse long straight hairs beneath. Flowers small, 10–15 mm in diameter, in loose corymbiform paniculate inflorescence, thin-pedicelled; calyx densely gray-tomentose and finely pubescent; outer sepals oblong-linear, inner sepals ovate, acute, nearly equal to the outer in length; petals slightly longer than sepals, weakly emarginate at apex, yellow; stamens ca. 20, with oblong-ovate anthers; fruitlets small, longitudinally rugose; style almost as long as fruitlets. Flowering June–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on steppes, stony slopes, in the thickets, on dry meadows, fallow lands, on the outskirts of fields, along roads, up to the mid-mountain (Shishkin et al. 1941) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Organic acids, essential oils, triterpenoids (quinic acid, tormentozide), phenols (pyrocatechol, pyrogallol, floroglucine) phenolcarbonicacids (gallic, coffee, p-coumaric, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic), catechins (catechine, gall lactechine, epigal lactechine, galocatechIn rallate, epigallocatechIn gallate), flavonoids (kaempferol), anthocyanins (cyanidine), fatty acids (lauric, pentadecane, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic vitamins (C) (Sokolov 1987).

Fig. 1 Potentilla sp. (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Potentilla sp. (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Root decoctions are used in Middle Asia for diarrhea, stomatitis, angina, internal bleeding, ulcers, burns, wet eczemas, periodontal disease, menorrhagia, diarrhea, and hematuria. ulcerative colitis, kidney disease, menorrhagia, diarrhea, hematuria, and laryngitis, and topically as ointment for wounds, skin and lip cracks, burns (Sokolov 1987). Potentilla is a very widely used medicinal genus. Potentilla fulgens is used for diarrhea, gum diseases, spasmolytic and sometimes anticancer (Joshi et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2017), Potentilla gerardiana for wounds (Kumar et al. 2011, 2013). An extract of Potentilla erecta has a vasoconstrictor effect, is used for burns, diarrhea, and other skin diseases and diseases of the oral cavity. An alcoholic tincture made from the rhizomes is used for intestinal and pulmonary problems, and to stop uterine bleeding. It also relieves dysentery, diarrhea, tuberculosis, joint pain, rheumatism, liver disease and is used for the treatment of heart disease. The extract issued also as analgesic, expectorant, and antibiotic for wounds. A leaf tincture is also used for stomach and intestinal inflammation, and to stop bleedings, and Potentilla erecta and Potentilla reptans are used for diseases of the throat and mouth cavity: A decoction and liquid extract of the rhizome is used as gargle for angina, gum bleeding, inflammation of the mouth cavity, throat, pharynx, and in stomatitis. A decoction and liquid extract of the rhizome is used for baths, and powdered rhizome is applied to burns and hemorrhages. A decoction used internally for diarrhea and dysentery. All plant parts are hemostatic, vaso-hypertonic, astringent, diuretic and show anthelmintic properties (Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017) (Figs. 3 and 4).

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Fig. 3 Potentilla erecta (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Potentilla erecta (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine Potentilla canescens is used as a rheostatic and for diarrhea and as anthelmintic. Used to yield red, black, fawn and brown dyes for wool. Suitable for leather tanning. Fodder for cattle, goats, sheep. Potentilla canescens is toxic (Sokolov 1987).

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References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1 Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;9:24. Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch; Potentilla reptans L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Shishkin BK, Yuzepchuk SV, Fedorov AA. Flora of the USSR, Volume 10: Rosaceae-Rosoideae, Prunoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1941 (English 1971). 512p, 38 b/w plates, 2 maps. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987, 326 p. (in Russian).

Prangos pabularia Lindl. APIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Prangos pabularia Lindl.: Cachrys pabularia Herrnst. & Heyn; Koelzella pabularia (Lindl.) Hiroë; Prangos culindrocarpa Korovin; Prangos lamellata Korovin

Local Names Russian: Пpaнгoc кopмoвoй (Prangos kormovoy); Uzbek: Tulky kuyruq; Kyrgyz: Toют aюучaчы (Toyut ayuu chachy) (Sokolov 1988)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_112

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; plant 60–175 cm high, completely glabrous or subglabrous; root thickened, penetrating deep into the ground, stems angular, branching strongly from middle, thickly covered with brown hairy leaf remnants; radical leaves in dense cluster directed upward, their petioles short at first (ca. 5 cm), later longer (ca. 20 cm); blades of leaves oblong, 30–70 cm long, 6–12 cm wide, pinnatipartite, with bipinnatipartite lobes; terminal lobes 8–15(20) mm long, linear-filiform, directed forward, or slightly spreading. Inflorescence of 10–20 rays; leaflets of involucre and involucels linear-lanceolate; fruit oblong-ovoid or oblong-cylindrical, 15–18(20) mm long, 8–9 mm wide; wings membranous from base, wider than diameter of wingless fruit, corrugated-plicate, with 10–12 folds; valleculae tuberculate. June–July. Middle Asia, tall herbaceous mountain meadows, often forming uninterrupted thickets, also shrubby formations and stony slopes, 900–3200 m (Shishkin 1950) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Prangos pabularia (Apiaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Phytochemistry Coumarins (osthol, oxypeucedanin, imperatorin, prangenin, prangenidin), alkaloids (prangosine), terpenoids, essential oils (humulene, bicyclogermacrene, spathulenol, germacrene, pinene) (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses The decoction is used to treat scabies, and the ash is used to treat wounds (Sokolov 1988).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the decoction is used to disinfect the mouth, kill ticks, and fleas (Sokolov 1988).

References Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 16: Umbelliflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1950 (English 1973). 478p, 37 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Prunus avium Mill. var. avium Prunus divaricata Ledeb. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Prunus avium Mill. var. avium: Cerasus padus (L.) Delabre; Padus germanica Borkh.; Padus racemosa (Lam.) Gilib.; Padus vulgaris Borkh.; Prunus padus L.; Prunus racemose Lam. Prunus divaricata Ledeb.: Prunus cerasifera L.; Prunus cerasifera subsp. myrobalana (L.) C.K. Schneid.; Prunus domestica var. myrobalana L.; Prunus domestica var. myobalana Ser.; Prunus sogdiana Vassilcz.

Local Names Padus avium: Russian: Чepёмуxa oбыкнoвeннaя (Cheryomukha obyknovennaya); Kyrgyz: Кaдeмкимoюл (Kademki moyul); English: Bird cherry (Sokolov 1987). Prunus divaricata: Алыча (aleitsa) (Russian). English: Cherry plum (Sokolov 1987) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_113

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Botany and Ecology Prunus avium: Tree, to 23(35) m high, producing no root suckers, with glabrous shoots and strict branches forming an ovoid crown; bark blackish, splitting transversely; leaves elongate-ovate or elliptic, with cuneate or orbicular base, abruptly tapering to a mucro, 16 cm long, 8 cm wide, at first usually densely hairy beneath, when adult glabrous above, over entire surface or only slightly pubescent along veins, to completely glabrous beneath, rarely glabrous; teeth biserrate, with terminal cartilaginous mucro; petioles 2–5 cm long, generally 2.5 cm, with two glands in upper part; stipules linearly glandular-dentate. Flowers in few-flowered umbels of leafless buds, inner scales of the latter recurved at flowering; pedicels glabrous, (2) 2.5–6 cm; hypanthia cyathiform; sepals obtuse, recurved, usually entire, often carmine red like scales of flower buds; corolla 2.5- mm in diameter, white; fruit globose, in wild cherry ca. 1 cm long, dark red to nearly black, generally bitter (var. amara D. Sosn.) with soft juicy pulp; stone globose or ovoid, smooth. Flowering April–May, fruiting June. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia (Tien Shan), along the banks of rivers, forest edges, in mixed forests, up to the timberline (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Prunus divaricata: Shrub; tree (often many-stemmed) or shrub (l.5)4–10(l5) m high, with more or less spiny, broadly flexuous, thin, erect or drooping branches; young shoots reddish brown, perennial branches dark gray; winter buds glabrous, rarely slightly pubescent, oblong-ovoid, small; leaves of annual shoots alternate, on spurs, approximate, in subsessile fascicles; petioles (0.5) 1–1.5(2.3) cm long, glabrous, rarely sparingly pubescent, eglandulose; lamina oval or oval-ovate to oval-lanceolate (1)4.5–6(10) cm long, (0.5)2–4(6) cm wide, gradually acuminate, narrowly or broadly cuneate at base, with finely, obtusely, rarely acutely, sometimes doubly serrate-dentate, eciliate margin, glabrous above, densely, rarely slightly tomentose or pubescent along veins beneath. Flowers opening somewhat before the leaves, sessile on spurs or annual shoots of preceding year, on rather long (0.4)1–1.6(2.2)

Fig. 1 Prunus cerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Prunus cerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Prunus cerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

cm, usually glabrous, rarely sparsely haired pedicels; calyx tube glabrous, rarely barely pubescent, short-cylindrical or cylindrical-campanulate, 1.5–3 mm long, with recurved ovate teeth; petals white, very rarely pinkish, ovate, or oval-ovate, sometimes spatulate, obtuse or acute, sometimes notched at apex, 5–15 mm long, 3– 10 mm broad; ovary and style glabrous, very rarely inconspicuously pubescent in lower part; fruit globose, ovoid, oblong-ovoid, obovoid, (0.8)1.8–2.8(3.5) cm in diameter, yellow, pale red, or rose to dark wine-red, with the exception of hybrid forms, always glabrous, with faint lateral furrow; stones not free, ovoid or ovateovoid to acuminate, sometimes truncate at base, light brown, whitish, with smooth or scarious surface, sometimes pitted and sulcate in the sutures, dorsal suture a narrow, interrupted or uninterrupted furrow, ventral suture obtuse or acute, sometimes broadened, with two lateral furrows. Flowering March–April, fruiting August– September. Caucasus, Middle Asia, in gorges, on stony slopes, up to 2000 m (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12).

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Fig. 4 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Prunus x domestica (Rosaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Prunus avium: Tannins, carbohydrates (raffinose, galactose, fructose, glucose, sucrose, pectine), nitrogen-containing compounds (amygdaline, hydrocyanic acid), essential oils, vitamins (C, E, carotene), phenulcarboxylic acids (coffee, synapic,

Prunus avium Mill. var. avium. . . Fig. 6 Prunus x domestica (Rosaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Prunus laurocerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Tbilsi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Prunus laurocerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Tbilsi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 9 Prunus laurocerasus (Rosaceae), garden, Tbilsi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 10 Prunus persica (Rosaceae), garden, Austin, Texas. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

ferulic, p-coumaric), flavonoids (quercetine, kaempferol, cyanodine), triterpenoids (lupeol, steroids: sitosterol), flavonoids (hyperoside, astragaline, quercetine) (Sokolov 1987). Prunus divaricata: Vitamins (C), flavonoids (quercetine, kaempferol, rutine, avicularine), Anthocyanins (peotidine, rutinoside, pelargonidine, cyanidine), carbohydrates (sucrose, pectine), fatty acids (Sokolov 1987).

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Fig. 11 Prunus persica (Rosaceae), garden, Austin, Texas. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 12 Prunus persica (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Prunus avium: A bark decoction is used as a tonic and sedative, for headaches, heart diseases, gastrointestinal problems, the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases, malaria, respiratory infections, and spasms of the stomach. The leaf decoction serves for dysentery. A tincture can be used to treat rheumatism (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Prunus divaricata: In the Talysh, and in northern Tajikistan and Turkmenistan, the leaves are used in acute respiratory diseases. The fruits are used in Iran as a laxative, in the Caucasus the fruit extract is used for wound-healing (Sokolov 1987). A fruit extract of this plant is used internally, and also as soaking therapy, to relieve cough and angina. In the Talish, resin extracted from the stems is used for the same purpose

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(Grossheim 1942; Fedorov 1949). The plant extract is used internally as tonic and antiscorbutic agent, and as bath to treat wounds. It is used widely against blastema (Grossheim 1943). Fruit juice is mixed with Potentilla reptans leaf extract to remedy bee stings (Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The leaves are used in acute respiratory diseases. The fruits are used in Iran as a laxative, and the fruit extract is used for woundhealing (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Food Uses Prunus avium: The fruits are eaten and used to produce alcohol (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Prunus divaricata: One of the most important wild fruit trees of the Caucasus. Widely distributed in the forests of the whole Caucasus (Grossheim 1952). The fruits are eaten raw. Unripe fruits are widely consumed throughout the Caucasus, as a favorite seasoning for soups. The fruits are also dried, and used as jam, candy, for jellies, pie fillings, and sweets (Grossheim 1952). The fruits are eaten raw and used for sauces (Tkhemali) and jams, compotes, and marinades. Ripe and unripe fruits are used as spice for soups, for thin sheets of sour plum puree, sauces, compotes, jam, juices, and oils (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan, 2007). The fruits contain pectins, carotene, sugars, vitamin C, citric acid, and malic acid (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Fruits are used both in fresh and dried form in cooking different national dishes. They are especially added to kofta (meatballs), arishta (noodles), and fish dishes. Jam, compote, and jelly are made of the fruits, which are also marinated. This makes good seasoning for dishes and contributes to increase the appetite and fast digestion. T’q’emali is widely used to make sour sauce also called “t’q’emali” which is used for meat, pastry, fish, etc. Fruits (not very ripe) are collected, boiled in water, smashed, rubbed on a sieve to remove peel and stones, then boiled again to make thick semi-liquid; coriander, summer savory, basil, parsley are finely chopped and poured into the pot with t’q’emali. The mass is salted, cooled, poured into glass bottles and stored. T’q’emali is also used to make “t’q’lap’i,” flat pieces of dry fruit lather. Ripe fruits are put into a pot and crushed by hand, then put into an oven. Once boiled the pot is taken out of the oven and the mass is rubbed on a sieve to remove peel and stones, then boiled again to make a thick mass. The mass is then poured onto a wooden board and dried under the sun; when one side is dry the mass is turned over to dry the other side. A meal called “ch’riant’eli” is also made of t’q’emali: Unripe fruits (1–2 bowls) with already solid stones are collected, boiled in a pot, cooled, smashed by hands, rubbed on a sieve to remove peel and stones. The mass is seasoned in the following way: ts’iteli mkhali (also called ch’riant’lis mkhali, beet leaves) or titmavala mkhali (Amaranthus retroflexus shoots) are boiled, drained, finely chopped, put one handful into boiled mass and steered; two chopped onion bulbs and greens: coriander, summer savory, dill, basil, balsam herb. The fruits are also used to make alcohol (Batsatsashvili 2017a, b, c, d, e; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971; Makashvili 1991; Takhtadjan 1954; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017) (Figs. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20).

Prunus avium Mill. var. avium. . . Fig. 13 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 14 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), ready to eat, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 15 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), production of tkemali sauce, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 16 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), production of tkemali sauce, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 17 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), production of tkemali sauce, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Prunus avium: The wood is used for turning and furniture. The leaf powder is used in veterinary medicine for the treatment of slow healing wounds, as well as insecticide. The leaves can be used as fodder for reindeer, sheep, and goats. The wood is

Prunus avium Mill. var. avium. . .

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Fig. 18 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), production of tkemali sauce, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 19 Prunus divaricata (Rosaceae), production of tkemali sauce, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

used for musical instruments (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1987). Prunus divaricata: The seed oil can be used to extract essential oils for perfumes and soap. The wood is suitable for carpentry. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1987).

644 Fig. 20 Prunus  domestica (Rosaceae), market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 21 Traditional potstill for alcohol production, Pshavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 22 Prunus persica (Rosaceae), market, Alma Ata, Kasakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 23 Prunus spinosa (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 24 Prunus spinosa (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The seed oil can be used to extract essential oils for perfumes and soap. The wood is suitable for carpentry. Planted as ornamental. The wood is very heavy, persistent, hard. Suitable for solid carpentry (Grossheim 1952). The tree has a heavy and hard wood, which is used for preparing small utensils. Cherry plum is a good honey and decorative plant and also used for afforestation and landscaping (Grossheim 1952). This is a hardy fruit species that makes a good stock for grafting plum, apricot,

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peach, and other fruits (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Considered to be good nectareous plant, producing much nectar (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). A dye solution is prepared from the bark and leaves to obtain yellow and beige colors and used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Qasimov 1980; Sokolov 1987) (Figs. 21, 22, 23, and 24).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Mentha aquatica L.; Mentha longifolia L.; Mentha pulegium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Prunus divaricata Ledeb. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Smilax excelsa L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vol. 1–2. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 2017c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517 Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, volumes I–VIII. Baku, AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing House of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Herbs of the Caucasus. Baku: Azerbaijani Branch of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1943. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Academia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Makashvili A. Botanical dictionary. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1991. (in Georgian). Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch; Potentilla reptans L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vol. 1–7. Leningrad: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Sokolov PD (ed.) Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Akademia Nauk, Leningrad, 1987;326 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vol. 1–11. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Pulsatilla chinensis (Bunge) Regel RANUNCULACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Pulsatilla chinensis (Bunge) Regel: Anemone chinensis Bunge; Anemone pulsatilla var. chinensis (Bunge) Funet & Gagnep

Local Names Chinese: 白头翁 (Bai tou weng)

Botany and Ecology Perennial, 7–25 cm high; rootstock vertical or somewhat oblique, producing 1 or 2 stems; stems erect, their pubescence similar to but somewhat less dense than on petioles; radical leaves appearing before flowering, with long petioles covered with dense rather soft spreading hairs, broad-ovate or cordate in outline, ternate, with

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_114

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broad-obovate segments, the lateral subsessile, apically deeply 2–3-incised into rounded coarsely dentate lobules, the terminal segment long-petioled, tripartite with frequently shallowly 2–3-incised lobes; leaf blade densely appressed-pilose beneath, remotely appressed-pilose above; involucral leaves deeply tripartite, lobes mostly entire oblong, obtuse and with a small apical tuft of hairs; peduncles rather short, tomentose; flowers erect, half-open, campanulate; tepals 6, 2.5–4.5 cm long, 1–1.3 cm broad, subacute, blue-lilac or violet, with accumbent hairs on the outside; fruitlets ca. 4 mm long, with long (46 cm) slender flexuous awns (styles) covered with dense spreading hairs, tips glabrous. Flowering in May. Dry meadows and stony meadow slopes. Altai, Mongolia (Shishkin and Boborov 1937).

Local Medicinal Uses Pulsatilla chinensis is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. Bai Tou Weng is thought to clear toxicity and to lower fever. It is most commonly taken as a decoction to counter infection within the gastro-intestinal tract. The root is anodyne, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, astringent, and sedative. The root is an effective cure for bacterial and amoebic dysentery. It is also used in the treatment of malaria, nose bleeds, and hemorrhoids and is used externally to treat Trichomonas vaginitis. The root is harvested in the autumn or before the plant comes into flower in the spring, it can be dried for later use. The root contains the lactone protoanemonin which has an irritant and antibacterial action. Protoanemonin is destroyed when the root is dried. The fresh herb is a cardiac and nervous sedative, producing a hypnotic state with a diminution of the senses followed by a paralyzing action. A constituent similar to digitalis can be extracted from the whole herb with the roots removed. This is cardiotonic (Shishkin and Boborov 1937).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 7: Ranales to Rhoedales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1937 (English 1970). 615p.

Quercus mongolica Fisch. ex Ledeb. FAGACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Quercus mongolica Fisch. ex Ledeb.: Quercus crispula Blume; Quercus crispula var. grosserrata (Blume) Miq.; Quercus crispula var. manschurica Koidz.; Quercus grosserrata Blume; Quercus kirinensis Nakai; Quercus liaotungensis Koidz.; Quercus mongolica ssp. crispula (Blume) Menitsky; Quercus mongolica var. grosserrata (Blume) Rehder & E.H. Wilson; Quercus mongolica var. kirinensis (Nakai) Kitag.; Quercus mongolica var. liaotungensis (Koidz.) Nakai; Quercus mongolica var. macrocarpa H. Wei Jen & L.M. Wang; Quercus mongolica var. manschurica (Koidz.) Nakai; Quercus sessiliflora var. mongolica (Fisch. ex Ledeb.) Franch.; Quercus wutaishanica Mayr.

Local Names Chinese: 蒙栎 (Meng gu li;) English: Mongolian oak

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_115

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Botany and Ecology Tree to 10 m; young shoots glabrous; annotinous branchlets lustrous, reddish-brown; buds elongate -ovoid, large, 0.7–1 cm long; petioles 0.3–0.4 cm long; leaves firm, sub-coriaceous, obovate or elongate, 8–15 and sometimes up to 20 cm long, 7–10 and to 15 cm broad, strongly narrowed toward the somewhat cordate base; terminal lobe short, obtuse; lateral lobes 7–13 pairs, broad, obtuse or rarely acuminate, the upper ones very short and often barely perceptible; sinuses 1/2–1/10 the breadth of the blade; upper surface quite glabrous, lustrous, green; lower surface at first pubescent, finally glabrous or with few hairs along the veins; lateral veins straight or slightly curved, in relation to blade length approximate, as many as lobes; tertiary veins subparallel, forming a rather loose network with regular alveoles; pistillate flower and fruits sessile, 2–6 together; cup thick, hemispherical, enclosing the acorn to 1/2–1/3, ca. 1.5 cm in diameter; scales of cup thick, convex, densely pubescent, with appressed tips, the lower rounded-ovate, the upper linear; acorn broadcylindric, 1.5–2 cm long and 1–1.5 cm in diameter. Flowering in May. Hills, foothills, river valleys, sometimes crags; forming extensive forests, especially on southern slopes. Mongolia, Siberia (Boborov and Komarov 1936; Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Quercus leucotrichophora and Quercus oblobgata are widely used as medicine in the Hilamayas, especially for the treatment of fever, stomach ache, as laxative and refrigerant, and for leukorrhea (Singh et al. 2017). Quercus floribunda and Quercus semecarpifolia serve to treat bedwetting and kidney stones in Pakistan (Sher et al. 2016). Quercus castanopsis is used to treat neck pain (Raj et al. 2018).

Fig. 1 Quercus iberica (Fagaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Quercus iberica (Fagaceae), male flowers, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Quercus iberica is used to treat diabetes. A liquid extract from acorns lowers blood sugar (Damirov et al. 1988). The decoction of the bark has astringent, antiinflammatory properties. In traditional medicine, a broth of oak bark, leaves, and stem sap are used as antidiarrheal and to heal rhinitis, poisoning, renal and spleen problems and can be applied against toothache (Kopaliani 2013). Acorns were used mostly as internal medicine as an antidiarrheal and also were used to stop bleeding from the throat (Tsutsunava 1960). Oak bark, birch, and ash were used at toothache and scurvy (Mindadze 2013).

Local Food Uses The ground acorns are used as coffee substitute. Also used for timber and as windbreak (Fedorov 1984). Quercus iberica leaves are used for cucumber pickling. Powdered fruits are mixed with flour and seeds for preparing gin and other alcohol (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). The bark contains tannins, organic acids (Davitadze 1983; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Gegeshidze 1956; Takhtadjan 1954–2009; Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984– 1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). The leaves are used as seasoning in marinating vegetables (Grossheim 1946). The acorns are sometimes dried and ground to produce flour (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The acorns serve as fodder for animals, especially pigs. The wood is used for construction and carpentry (Fedorov 1984; Grossheim 1952). An extract of bark, leaves, and stem juice can be used to cure tooth problems and diarrhea in

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Fig. 3 Quercus iberica (Fagaceae), roof beams, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Quercus iberica (Fagaceae), acorns in local market, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

livestock (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Figs. 3 and 4).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Quercus iberica Steven ex M. Bieb. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 p, 49 b/w plates. Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vol. 1–2. Moscow: Academy of Sciences; 1994–1996. (in Russian).

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Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidz Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Academy of Sciences; 1988. (in Russian). Davitadze A. From history of Georgian traditional transport: traditions of timber processing in Adjara. Batumi: Sabchota Adjara; 1983. (in Georgian). Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gegeshidze M. Georgian traditional transport – traditional land transport. Tbilisi: Publishing House of the Georgian Academy of Sciences; 1956. (in Georgian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi: Publishing Center; 2013. (in Georgian). Mindadze N. Traditional medicinal culture of Georgian people. Tbilisi: Academy of Sciences; 2013. (in Georgian). Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(49) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.

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Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vol. 1–7. Leningrad: Academy of Sciences; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vol. 1–11. Yerevan: Academy of Sciences; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsutsunava N. Medicinal plants of Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1960. (in Georgian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan: Academy of Sciences; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Reseda luteola L. Reseda lutea L. RESEDACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Russian: Peзeдa жёлтeнькaя (Rezeda zhyolten’kaya); Uzbek: Sayok; Kyrgyz: Capы peзeдa (Sary rezeda); English: Weld (Sokolov 1985)

Botany and Ecology Reseda luteola: Biennial; stems usually solitary, rarely several, erect, simple or sometimes branching above, later sulcate-angular, glabrous, densely leafy, 30– 130 cm tall, with erect strict branches; all leaves entire, sessile, linear or narrowly lanceolate-linear or narrowly spatulate, lower leaves oblanceolate-oblong, subobtuse, gradually tapering at base, with 2 small spiniform teeth, glabrous. Inflorescence very long (13–42 cm, in fruit up to 62 cm), narrow, dense, spicate,

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_116

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Fig. 1 Reseda luteola (Resedaceae), Capparokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

erect, sometimes branching in lower part; bracts persistent, triangular-aculeate, broad at base; flowers 4-merous, small, subsessile, yellow; pedicels thickened, at the beginning rather short, 1.5–2 mm long, up to 1 mm thick, expanding above toward the calyx; sepals 4, shorter than petals, persistent, ovate-oblong, unequal, the upper larger, obtuse, ca. 2 mm long; petals 3.5–4 mm long, obovate-cuneate, the upper 5–7-partite, the lateral 2- to 4-partite, the lower usually deeply bipartite; stamens 20–30, filaments glabrous, persistent; capsules dense, small, strict, 3– 4 mm long, 3.5–4 mm broad, compressed, obovoid-globose, deeply 6-grooved, acutely tridentate, teeth convergent, triangular-acuminate, broad at base, usually reddish at top; seeds minute, 1 mm, grayish brown, smooth, glabrous, glossy. Flowering May, fruiting July–September. Southern Urals, Caucasus, Central Middle Asia, on dry hills and grassy slopes, banks of rivers, in the gorges, and in fields as a weed (Boborov and Bush 1939; Fig. 1). Reseda lutea: Biennial or perennial; stems erect or ascending, 30–85 cm tall, branching, villous-scabrous; leaves 3- to 5-partite, only the lower leaves sometimes entire; lobes entire or 2- to 3-partite, usually oblong-lanceolate, upper leaves linear, median lobes in lower leaves often broad, suborbicular-lyrate. Racemes pyramidal, short, later elongating, 21–35 cm long, rachis glabrous; sepals 6, 2– 3.5 mm long, linear-lanceolate, nearly as long as petals, persistent in fruit; petals 6, yellow, 3–5 mm long, the upper blade 3-partite, middle lobe linear-spatulate, half as long as the lateral, lateral lobes crescent-shaped, more or less remotely denticulate; stamens 10–24, deciduous, filaments slightly scabrous, broader at top; pedicels rather long, 3–7 mm long; capsule erect, cylindrical, ovoid-oblong, triquetrous, shortly and acutely 3-toothed, 7.5–16 mm long, 3.5–6 mm broad, broadly open at tip, villous-scabrous or smooth along ribs; seeds large, smooth, black, glossy, 1–1.7 mm long, 1–1.3 mm broad. Flowering June–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, and Central Middle Asia, on dry areas on clay and sandy soils, sometimes in fields (Boborov and Bush 1939).

Reseda luteola L. . . .

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Phytochemistry Essential oils, coumarins, xanthones (rhodoxanthine), flavonoids (luteoside, kaempferol), alkaloids (luteanine), isothiocyanates (benzylsenevol), vitamins (C, E, carotene), phenylcarboxylic acids (p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillinic, p-cumaric), tannins, fatty acids (Sokolov 1985).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Caucasus (Karachay-Cherkessis) used for heart disease, and diuretic and diaphoretic. In Middle Asia as an infusion as anthelmintic, diuretic and diaphoretic (Sokolov 1985).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The flowers are used as yellow and orange-yellow dye for silk. The seed oil can be used as lacquer and in painting. Serves as fodder for sheep. As fodder for livestock (Sokolov 1985).

References Boborov EG, Bush NA. Flora of the USSR, volume 8: Capparidaceae, Cruceriferae and Resedaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1970). 524 p, 34 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian).

Rheum maximowiczii Losisnsk. POLYGONACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Russian: Peвeнь Maкcимoвичa (Reven’ Maksimovicha); Uzbek: Rovach, Chukhra; Kyrgyz: Чукуpук (Chukuruk); Tajik: чукри, ревоч – (Chukri, Revotsh) (Fedorov 1984)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; stem 40 cm to 1 m tall, erect, reddish, branched, leafless, flattened, sulcate, variously rough with warts to smooth, the branches arising at an angle of about 45 and forming a large pyramidal inflorescence; leaves suborbicular, broader than long, reniform at base, slightly undulate and spinous marginally, with 3 principal veins, the lateral veins marginal to first ramification; blade to 50 cm long and 60 cm broad, the upper surface glabrous, the lower rough-verrucose on the veins; petiole glabrous, less than half the length of the blade, slightly concave above, rough especially above and at base, rarely smooth; flowers in groups; petioles long, jointed in lower part; R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_118

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Fig. 1 Rheum rhabarbarum (Polygonaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Rheum rhabarbarum (Polygonaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

perianth segments subequal, 3 mm long, 1 mm broad, greenish; stamens with large long anthers; fruit large, 20 mm long, 15 mm broad, broad-oval; achene ovate, rugose, fleshy, lilac-brown; wings as broad as the achene, cordate at both ends, at first bright red, becoming lilac-red, the nerve marginal; perianth segments appressed to the fruit. Flowering June. Middle Asia, on shallow soils and stony and rocky slopes, to the upper mountain belt (Boborov and Komarov 1936). It grows in the northern, central and southern parts of Tajikistan (Flora of Tajikistan 1957–1991; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, rafinose), phenols (pyrogallol, carvacrol), phenolic acids (coffee, gallic), catchins, coumarins, leukoanthocyanidins, anthraquinones (emodine, frangula-emodine), vitamins (C. carotene (Fedorov 1984).

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Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia used for the treatment of gastric ulcers. A decoction is used to treat diarrhea and is used as a tonic, antipyretic, and hypotensive to prevent anemia and to detoxify. The petiole of this rhubarb is the main part that is used. It quenches thirst and is useful to treat cardiac arrythmia, rubella, hepatitis, and fever. Its rootstock is used to treat flu and colds as well as inflammation of the airways (Fedorov 1984).

Fig. 3 Rheum rhabarbarum (Polygonaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Rheum rhabarbarum (Polygonaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Rheum rhabarbarum (Polygonaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The leaves are sometimes used as tea substitute, and to color beer. The petioles are cooked for jam and soups. Among Tajik people the petiole of rhubarb is popular as an edible vegetable. The petiole is used for making compote, jam, and wine (Fedorov 1984; Figs. 4 and 5).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves and roots are used for the tanning of leather and to dye wool and silk in light yellow, pink, brown, and black (Fedorov 1984).

References Boborov EG, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 5: Dicotyledoneae, Subclass I: Archichlamydeae, Order Piperales-Polygonales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 593 p, 49 b/w plates. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Flora of Tajikistan. vols. I–Х. Moscow-Leningrad: Academt of Science of Tajikistan Soviet Socialist Republic (1957–1991) (in Russian).

Rhodiola pamiroalaica Boriss. CRASSULACEAE Shifo Kurbonbekova, Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Hugo de Boer, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Rhodiola pamiroalaica Boriss.: Sedum pamiroalaicum (Boriss.) C.-A. Jansson

Local Names Tajik: Zarbekh (Зарбех); Pamiri: Tiloi wiyesh (Tилои виеш) S. Kurbonbekova Institute of Botany, Dushanbe Botanical Garden, Dushanbe, Tajikistan e-mail: [email protected] A. Ghorbani Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] H. de Boer The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_119

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Botany and Ecology Perennial with strong root; rhizomes woody, thick 1.5–3 cm in diameter. Stems and leaves squamiform at maturity, overlapping; triangular-lanceolate acutish, membranous, (4) 6–8 mm long; (1.5) 3–6 mm wide. The stems ascending, 10–20 (30) cm tall 2 mm in diameter. In the lower alternating leaves, linear or linear-lanceolate to lanceolate, base widened, sessile, thick, 0.7–1.5 cm long, 1.5–2 mm wide, entire, acutish. Inflorescence compact, rarely lax corymbose-paniculate and 0.5–1 cm long, 1–1.5 (2) cm wide; pedicelled flowers unisexual, 4 mm long, greenish-yellow; petals blunt, lanceolate or linear, 4 mm long, yellowish. Alpine areas, river valleys, along streams, on pebbles, stony, gravelly slopes, slopes, in the rocks of the mountains, in the shrubs of shrubs, on wet mountain slopes, from 1250 to 2500 m, often thickets, Middle Asia, Mongolia (Yuzepchuk 1939). Flowering in June–July, fruiting in June– August (Ovchinnikov 1985). The plant grows in the highlands; on stony and gravelly places, on scree and in rock cracks, on pebbles, on fine-gravel-and-gravelly slopes, along streams, among sedges, in grassy spots, together with Nepeta pamirensis at 2100–4800 m above sea level (Ovchinnikov 1985; Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates: (glucose, fructose, sucrose, sedoheptulose); organic acids: (oxalic, malic, amber, citric); terpenoids: (rosiridin, rosiridol); essential oils; Steroids: (a-sitosterol); alkaloids, aromatic compounds (rosavin, cinnamon alcohol, rosin); phenols: (tyrosol, salidroside); phenol carbonic acids; tannins; flavonoids: (rhodionine, rhodionidine, rodalin, rhodiolgidin, kaempferol, astragalin, 7-rhamnoside kaempferol, tricine, 5-glucoside and tricine 7-glucoside, rhodionine, rhodiosin, rhodiolin, acetylrodalgin, 8-methylgerbacetin); anthraquinones (Sokolov 1990).

Fig. 1 Rhodiola pamiroalaica (Crassulaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo S. Kurbonbekova)

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Fig. 2 Rhodiola pamiroalaica (Crassulaceae), Tadjikistan. (Photo S. Kurbonbekova)

Local Medicinal Uses In Mongolian medicine used for bone fractures, skin diseases, as antipyretic, and fortifying agent; topically for the treatment of wounds (Sokolov 1990). Root and rootstocks of R. pamiroalaica contain phenols, aromatic compounds, carbohydrates, organic acids, salidroside, terpenoids, and essential oils. The roots and rootstock are raw materials for pharmaceutical applications and are collected at the end of the flowering season. Roots and rootstocks of R. pamiroalaica are used in alternative medicine to improve cognitive functioning and develop the immune system. In folk medicine an infusion and decoction of the roots and rootstock is use as tonic and as a fortifying agent for the treatment of diseases such as hormonal disorders in women and diseases of the nervous system. R pamiroalaica is also used to treat symptoms of fatigue and it is neuroprotective (Akobirshoeva 2012; Ikonnikov 1979; Kumarov 1939; Vedensky 1957).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1990). As fodder crop for cattle, sheep, goats, and yaks. It is used as a fodder crop for cattle, sheep, goats, and yaks (Ovchinnikov 1985).

References Akobirshoeva A. Medicinal plants of Rushan district, GBAO, Tajikistan. Saarbrücken: LAP Academikerverlag GmbH & Co. KG; 2012. 96 p. (in English). Ikonnikov SS. Identification book of vascular plants of Badakhshan. Leningrad: Nauka; 1979. 400 p. (in Russian).

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Kumarov VL, editor. Flora of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, vol. 9. Moscow/Leningrad: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR; 1939. 447 p. (in Russian). Ovchinnikov PN, editor. Flora of Tajik soviet Socialist Republic, vol. 4. Moscow/Leningrad: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR; 1985. p. 232–4. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990, 328 p. (in Russian). Vedensky AI. Flora of Kyrgyzstan, vol. 8. Frunze: Publishing House of the Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences of the USSR; 1957. (in Russian). Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425 p, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps.

Ribes nigrum L. Ribes rubrum L. GROSSULARIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Ribes nigrum L.: Botrycarpum nigrum (L.) A. Rich.; Grossularia nigra (L.) Rupr.; Ribes cyathiforme Pojark.; Ribes nigrum var. europaeum Jancz.; Ribes nigrum var. pauciflorum (Turcz. ex Ledeb.) Jancz.; Ribes olidum Moench; Ribes pauciflorum Turcz. ex Ledeb. Ribes rubrum L.: Ribes rubrum var. sativum Rchb.; Ribes rubrum var. scandicum Jancz.; Ribes rubrum var. sylvestre DC. ex Barland.; Ribes sativum (Rchb.) Syme; Ribes scandicum Hedl.; Ribes spicatum E. Robson; Ribes sylvestre (Lam.) Mert. & Koch; Ribes sylvestre Syme; Ribes vulgare Lam.; Ribes vulgare var. sylvestre Lam.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_120

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Local Names Ribes nigrum: Russian: Cмopoдинa чёpнaя (Smorodina chyornaya); Uzbek: Kora smorodina, korakat; Kyrgyz: Чыныкapaгaт (Chyny karagat); English: Black currant (Sokolov 1987); English: Black Currant Ribes rubrum: English: Red Currant

Botany and Ecology Ribes nigrum: Shrub 1–1.25 m high; shoots pubescent, initially pale, becoming light brownish toward end of summer; leaves dull, glabrous above, pubescent along the veins below, to 10 (12) cm broad, 3-, less often 5-lobed, the lobes usually broadly triangular, the middle lobe often elongated; racemes 3–5 (8) cm long, 5- to 10-flowered; pedicels glabrous or pubescent, 3–8 mm long; bracts 1–2 (3) mm long, varying from oval to linear-lanceolate; flowers 7–9 mm long, lilac or pinkish gray, mostly densely pubescent outside; hypanthium hemispherical-campanulate, as broad or 1.5 times as broad as high; sepals recurved, subacute, rather broad (2–2.25 times longer than broad); style usually entire; berry ca. 10 mm in diameter, sometimes brown or greenish. Flowering May–June, fruiting July. Ural, Middle Asia in wet forests, along river banks, on wet meadows, up to 2000 m above sea level (Alalbarov 2008; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Qasimov 1980; Takhtadjan 1954; Yuzepchuk 1939). Ribes rubrum: Shrub to 1 m high; shoots glabrous or more or less beset with glandular hairs, covered with smooth pale yellow bark; leaves usually deeply cordate, 3- or 5-lobed, with acute, coarsely dentate lobes, mostly glabrous on both sides, lustrous, less often pubescent below or glandular-hispid along the veins; petioles glabrous or glandular-hispid, often reddish; racemes erect, 2–5 cm long, loose, 3–8 (10)-flowered, nodding in fruit; axis and long (512 mm) pedicels glabrous or glandular; flowers rather large, greenish, often with purple petals and macular sepals; berry 8–11 mm in diameter, sometimes oblong. Flowering May–June, fruiting July–August. Ural, Altai. In forests, on the fringes, slopes, and in river valleys (Alalbarov 2008; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Qasimov 1980; Takhtadjan 1954; Yuzepchuk 1939; Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Rubus nigrum: Flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine, myricetine), essential oils (sabinen, phenol, naphthol, carene, karyophyllene, cymene, linalool, geraniol, limonene, pellandrene, methyl salicylate, benzaldehyde, methyl ethyl benzoate), iridoids (asperuline), cyanogenic compounds, catechins (catechine, rallocatechine); carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, sucrose, pentosans), vitamisn (C), phenolcarbon and other carboxylic acids (coffee, chlorogenic, neochlorenovene, n-kumaric,

Ribes nigrum L. . . .

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Fig. 1 Ribes nigrum (Grossulariaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Ribes nigrum (Grossulariaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

o-kumaric, protocatechine, quinine), leukoanthocyanidins (leukodelphinidine, leucocyanidine), anthocyanins (cyanidine, delphinidine, rutinoside, pelargidine) (Sokolov 1987).

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Local Medicinal Uses Ribes nigrum: The leaf decoction is used as for and as astringent in Ural. The leaf decoction is used as diuretic for kidney and urinary tract problems, as diaphoretic, anti-inflammatory, for scrofula and dermatitis, gout, for respiratory infections, bronchitis, and pertussis, as well as venereal diseases. The fresh juice serves as antiscorbutic. Black currant berries are one of the rich sources vitamin C and are widely used both fresh as well as in the form of various products: juices, syrups, jams, and blackcurrant liqueur (Grossheim 1952). The leaf decoction is used as for and as astringent in the Altai. The leaf decoction is used as diuretic for kidney and urinary tract problems, as diaphoretic, anti-inflammatory, for scrofula and dermatitis, gout, for respiratory infections, bronchitis, and pertussis, as well as venereal diseases. The fresh juice serves as antiscorbutic (Sokolov 1987). Ribes rubrum: In the Ural a leaf decoction is used against rheumatism, and as antiscorbutic. Species from this genus have a large use in scientific and traditional medicine. For medicinal use leaves, berries and sprouts are preferred. Berries act as antiscorbutic and have diuretic and sudorific effects. Fresh berries are used for syrup used to change the taste of medicines. The berries are also used for stomach and duodenal ulcers, inflammatory diseases of the urinary tract, and the treatment of cardiac rhythm disorders. They are used for avitaminosis, anemia, nerve irritation, inflammation or stones of kidneys and bladder, eczema and other skin diseases, as well as for strengthening the blood vessels, blood pressure regulation, atherosclerosis, spastic colitis and intestinal inflammation. The berries have an analgesic, diuretic, gall-controlling, cholesterol-lowering, and anticancer property. The leaf extract is used for rheumatism, gout, tuberculosis of lymph nodes, and constipation in children (Amirdovlat 1927; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Vardanyan 1979; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Leaves and berries contain vitamin A, B1, C, P, organic acids, sugars, pectin, and essential oils (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Fresh juice of currant mixed with honey in small quantities is used as an anti-inflammatory remedy, especially for throat inflammations. For acute inflammation of the skin (rashes, burns caused by poisonous plants), fresh juice of ripe berries is applied to the damaged skin, which immediately brings relief (Amirdovlat 1927; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Vardanyan 1979).

Local Food Uses Ribes nigrum: It is very valuable for the abundant vitamin C in its berries. The berries are eaten raw and are used for making jam, syrup, jelly, canned food, candy, marinades, refreshing drinks, fruit wine, infusions, and liqueur. The leaves are used

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Fig. 3 Ribes biebersteinii (Grossulariaceae), ready to eat, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ribes bibersteinii (Grossulariaceae), jam, Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

for vegetable preservation and sometimes as a tea substitute. The leaves can be used for flavoring kvass (Sokolov 1987). Often eaten as a local wild fruit (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The leaves are used as tea (Sokolov 1987). Ribes rubrum: The leaves can be used for flavoring kvass, the fruits are made eaten raw and used for jam, marmalade, sweets, fillings for sweets and pies, jelly, syrup,

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compote, and marinades (Sokolov 1987). The fruits are eaten and prepared as compote, juice, and jam. The leaves are used as spice when pickling vegetables. Berries can be used fresh and processed as syrup, juices, jam, comfitures, for preparing liquors, lemonade, tea, and as spice. The leaves are used in pickling because they help to keep vegetables solid. Using currant in food helps to remove diatheses salts and toxins from the body (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Figs. 3 and 4).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine Ribes nigrum. Serves as diaphoretic, diuretic, and antirheumatic. Can be browsed by cattle. The fruits can be used to dye wool red (Sokolov 1987).

References Alalbarov AU. One thousand and one secret of the east. Baku: Nurlan; 2008. (in Russian) Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna: Academy of Sciences; 1927. (in Armenian). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Ribes alpinum L.; Ribes orientale Desf.; Ribes petraeum Wulfen; Ribes uva-crispa L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vol. 1–2. Moscow: Academy of Sciences; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Academy of Sciences; 2001. (in Armenian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow: Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow: Academy of Sciences; 1976. (in Russian). Harutyunyan H. Medieval Armenian phytotherapy herbs. Yerevan: Academy of Sciences; 1990. (in Armenian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Academy of Sciences; 2010. (in Russian). Mardjanyan KS. Stepanos Shahrimanyan’s “Botany of Flora of Armenia”. Yerevan: Academy of Sciences; 2008. (in Russian). Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad: Academy of Sciences; 1991. (in Russian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri) Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vol. 1–7. Leningrad: Academy of Sciences; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vol. 1–11. Yerevan: Academy of Sciences; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Academy of Sciences; 2014. (in Armenian). Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow: Academy of Sciences; 1982. (in Russian). Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian) Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425 p, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps. Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan: Academy of Sciences; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Rosa canina L. Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Rosa canina L.: Rosa ciliatosepala Blocki; Rosa corymbifolia Borkh.; Rosa dumentorum Thuill.; Rosa montezumae Humb. & Bonpl. ex Thory. Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle: Rosa fedtschenkoana Regel; Rosa hissarica Slob.; Rosa maracandica Bunge.

Local Names Rosa canina: Russian: Шипoвник coбaчий, Poзa coбaчья (Shipovnik sobachiy, Roza sobach’ya); Uzbek: Itburun; Kyrgyz: Итмуpун (It murun); English: Dog rose (Sokolov 1987). Rosa webbiana: Russian: ШипoвникФeдчeнкo, Poзa Фeдчeнкo (Shipovnik Fedchenko, Roza Fedchenko); Uzbek: Namatak;Kyrgyz: Фeдчeнкo итмуpун (Fedchenko it murun) (Sokolov 1987) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_121

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Botany and Ecology Rosa canina: High, sparse, branching shrub with arcuate branches; bark green or red-brown, usually without glaucous bloomj prickles often sparse or remote, on main shoots, in pairs or whorled, with very broad base, compressed, falcately curved (very rarely suberect), smaller on fertile shoots and usually rather abundant; leaves glabrous or with few hairs on rachis above, green or glaucescent; stipules narrow, only in terminal leaves slightly broadened, with distally divergent auricles, glandular-ciliate; leaflets of different shapes, often elliptic, 1.5–6 cm long, acuminate, acutely serrate, with thin-acuminate teeth curving upward, simple or with 1–2 secondary teeth terminating in a gland, smooth or at times sparsely glandular along veins beneath. Flowers solitary, 3, 4 or 5(20) in corymbiform inflorescence, on more or less long, glabrous or sparingly pubescent pedicels, as long to twice as long as hypanthium, often as long as fruit, 0.5–2.5 cm long, smooth (rarely with sparse stalked glands); sepals medium-sized, with lateral pinnules and terminal appendage, recurved after flowering and usually caducous long before ripening of fruit, well separated from disk; corolla 2–8 cm in diameter; petals usually pale pink or white, sometimes rather bright pink; disk flat or concave, sometimes distinctly conical; hypanthium mouth not exceeding one-fourth the diameter of the disk; style long, sparsely hairy or glabrous, folded in a raceme; style heads often conical; fruit globose, or elongate-ovoid, smooth, bright or pale red. Flowering May–July. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, in open forests, along the fringes, on steppe slopes, in shrubland, in the valleys, along rivers, and streams, on clearcuts, pastures, wastelands, along roads, in the lower- and mid-mountain belts (Shishkin et al. 1941; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Rosa webbiana: Shrub, 1 m high; prickles often erect, sometimes slightly directed upward, remote or in pairs, in part very robust, gradually broadened at base, others rather thin, abruptly and strongly broadened at base, usually shorter than (very rarely as long as) the larger leaflets, whitish or straw yellow; (with the exception of turions) acicular prickles absent; leaves 2–10 cm long; leaflets generally 7–9, orbicular, obovate or elliptic, orbicular or slightly tapering at base, obtuse, orbicular or acute Fig. 1 Rosa pimpinellifolia (Rosaceae), Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Rosa canina L. . . . Fig. 2 Rosa pimpinellifolia (Rosaceae), Ushguli, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Rosa canina (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Rosa canina (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Rosa canina (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

at apex, 1–3 cm long, glabrous above or barely pubescent, frequently lightly appressed-hairy, glandulose or with glands only along midrib; beneath; teeth often simple, 8-2 at each side; stipules mostly broad with triangular, more or less glandular divergent auricles. Flowers as a rule solitary, rarely 2–3, 4–6 cm in diameter; pedicels 0.5–3 cm, glabrous or pubescent; hypanthia globose or ovoid, smooth or with few glands and acicular prickles; sepals as long as, longer, or (rarely) shorter than petals, entire, generally with a broadened appendage, outer sepals glabrous or pubescent, frequently glandular-hispid; petals white or pink; hypanthium mouth twice as wide as the adjacent disk; style lanate, stigma head globose, or conical; fruit globose or ovate, often pendulous, fleshy, red, crowned by persistent prostrate or ascending sepals. Flowering June–July. Middle Asia, on forest edges, dry stony slopes, in valleys along rivers and creeks, in shrubland, in the mid-mountain belt (Shishkin et al. 1941).

Phytochemistry Tannins, vitamins (C, E, carotene, lycopene, violaxanthine, anteraxanthine, zeaxanthine, rubixanthine), fatty acids (linoleic, linolenic, oleic, palmitic), triterpenoids (eglantoside), phenolcarbonic acids (gallic, gentisinic, coffee, p-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric, lilac, vanilla, ferulic, salicylic, ellagic), essential oils, flavonoids (hyperoside, astragaline, kaempferol, tylirizide, coumarol), fatty acids (lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, arachinic, behenic, lignoceric, cerotinic), steroids (sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, cholesterol, sitosteriloleate) carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, xylose, arabinose), anthocyanins, leukoanthocyanidins (Sokolov 1987).

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Local Medicinal Uses A root decoction is used to treat gallbladder problems, urolithiasis, malaria, liver disease, spleen problems, hypertension, cystitis, intermittent fever, heart disease, and can be used on infected wounds. In Middle Asia the root bark extract is used to treat bites of rabid dogs. A leaf decoction is used for diarrhea, dyspepsia, rheumatism, enteritis, colitis, as analgesic for gastralgia, scarlet fever, typhoid, diarrhea, nephritis, pulmonary tuberculosis, as analgesic for colics, gastralgia, and during childbirth Fruit decoctions help to alleviate diarrhea, stomach cramps, gastritis, cystitis, nephritis, urIne and cholelithiasis, anemia, respiratory infections, pneumonia, ulcers, and diabetes and are used as antipyretic, astringent, hemostatic, and anthelmintic, as well as wounds and burns. Also acts as a diuretic (Sokolov 1987). Fruits of all species are used to produce tea to cure kidney and gallbladder problems, colds and cough, as well as supplementing vitamins Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c; Bussmann 2017). Rosa sericea is used for headache and liver problems (Bhat et al. 2013; Figs. 6, and 7).

Local Food Uses Jam, compote, gulsuyu (flower water), gul sherbet (flower sherbet), and gulab (infusion of rose petals in water, slowly cooked and the liquid evaporated. Used for aromatization of drinks, sweets, jams. Juice from fresh fruits rich in vitamin C. All of these are used as flavor and aromatic additions in making different dishes, juice, and confectionery. Fruits and flowers also used to produce alcohol, are added to flavor beer, and are consumed as tea. Jams are also produced from fruits (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, c; Bussmann

Fig. 6 Rosa canina (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 7 Rosa pimpinellifolia (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

2017). The fruits can be prepared as compotes, jam, soft drinks, and roasted as surrogate for coffee (Sokolov 1987).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The fruits and bark are used for tanning leather, and the seed oil can be used for paints. The oils from the petals are used in cosmetics and soaps. Grown as ornamental (Sokolov 1987). A dye solution is prepared from fruits turned into gall to obtain brown, grey, coffee, black, grey-coffee, snuff, brown-orange, and other different colors and shades. This solution is used for dyeing wool, cotton, and silk yarn as well as its products (Burduli 2010; Qasimov 1980; Grossheim 1942). Beautiful shrubs used for parks and gardens. Aromatic cushions are made of petals. Roses are used for ceremonial purposes as fragrance (Grossheim 1942).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rosa canina L.; Rosa iberica Stev.; Rosa villosa L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Burduli M. Traditional Georgian folk medicine. Akhaltsikhe: Ucnauri; 2010. (in Georgian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing: Cham; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – Georgia. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing house of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Shishkin BK, Yuzepchuk SV, Fedorov AA. Flora of the USSR, volume 10: Rosaceae-Rosoideae, Prunoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1941 (English 1971). 512 p, 38 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Rubia cordifolia L. Rubia tinctorium L. RUBIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Rubia tinctorium L.: Rubia tinctoria Salisb.

Local Names English: Madder (Sokolov 1990)

Botany and Ecology Perennial herbs. Rootstock woody, cylindrical, long branched, thickened at the base and at the nodes, multiheaded, developing several stems, like root, provided with reddish persistent bark. Stems up to 1.5 m (and more) tall, climbing, clinging, R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_122

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strongly branched, 4-angled. Covered below with spinules, always glabrous, initially greenish, later whitish, dying completely in autumn. Leaves in 2–3 lower nodes petiolate, more or less brownish or reddish, usually paired, opposite, other light green. Middle leaves are often equal at internodes, at first thin, then thick or even stiff with thick prominent middle vein, often also with smaller veins, upper surface usually glabrous. Flowering branches numerous. Flowers are small, terminal, and axillary forming many flowered panicles; lower floral leaves are large, leaves gradually decrease in size. The corolla is 1.5–2 mm long, greenish yellow. Fruits at first reddish brown, black when completely mature, juicy, 5–8(9) mm long. In riverside woody-shrub undergrowth, in gorges, along canals and irrigation canals, in gardens and along fences (Shishkin 1953).

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids: (rubiconine, rubylic acid), coumarins, anthraquinones (alizarine, rubiyadine, purpurine, lucidine, pseudopurpurine, ruberithrinone, rubidIn munistine, galiozine, anthraxinone, antraquinone, ananthinone, methoxyanthraquinone, methylanthraquinone, nordamnocanthole, quinizarine, fiscion, moleurine), iridoides (asperuloside, deacetylasperuloside), flavonoids (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses The decoction is used for the treatment pneumonia, tuberculosis, rhinitis, liver and kidney diseases, respiratory infections, diseases of the digestive system, headache, rickets, arthritis, and for wound care. The plant is included in many mixtures in Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine. In the Northern Caucasus the roots and fruits are used medicinally. The plant itself is used to heal headache when ground and mixed with egg yolk (Sokolov 1990). Crushed and dried roots are mixed with honey and used externally for rheumatism, and for sore bones and muscles. Crushed roots, mixed with egg are applied sore muscles. A decoction of the roots is ingested for in kidney problems, especially stones. The roots and fruits are used medicinally. The plant itself is used to heal headache when ground and mixed with egg yolk. The roots are used to heal jaundice (Tsutsunava 1960). Madder is used to heal many diseases in traditional medicine: juice squeezed out of fresh roots heals jaundice and gout. For rheumatism fresh or dried roots are ground, mixed with honey and the ointment applied to hands and legs. The same powder mixed with egg yolk is applied to heal bruises (Kutateladze 1945). Drugs made of madder help dissolve kidney and bladder stones (Kuchukhidze and Jokhadze 2012). Rubia manjith is used in the Himalayas as astringent, tonic, for kidney stones and to lower the blood pressure (Bhat et al. 2013), as well as burns, boils, other dermatological problems, headache, and digestive disorders (Singh et al. 2017).

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Local Food Uses In the far West of the area Rubia leaves are sometimes eaten, always together with other plants (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses A red dye is obtained from root and rhizome for dyeing wool and its products (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1990). The same can be obtained from Rubia wallichiana (Kunwar et al. 2009; Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Rubia tinctorium (Rubiaceae), dried plant material for dying, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R:W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Rubia tinctorium (Rubiaceae), wool dies with Madder, Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R:W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Kuchukhidze J, Jokhadze M. Botany (medicinal plants). Tbilisi: Sakmedgasmi; 2012. (in Georgian). Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobotany Research and Application 2009;7:5–28. Kutateladze I. The resources of medicinal and some technical plants in Georgia. Tbilisi: Sakmedgasmi; 1945. (in Georgian). Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 23: Bignoniaceae – Valerianaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 2000). 891 p, 39 b/w plates. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13(49) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian). Tsutsunava N. Medicinal plants of Georgia. Tbilisi: Sabchota Sakartvelo; 1960. (in Georgian).

Rubus idaeus L. Rubus caesius L. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Rubus caesius L.: Rubus caesius subsp. leucosepalus Focke; Rubus caesius subsp. turkestanicus (Regel) Focke; Rubus caesius var. turkestanicus Regel; Rubus psilophyllus Nevski; Rubus turkestanicus (Regel) Pavlov

Local Names Rubus caesius: Russian: Eжeвикa cизaя (Ezhevika sizaya); Uzbek: Parmanchak, Maimunzhon; Kyrgyz: Кoгултуp кapa булдуpкoн (Kogultur kara buldurkon) English: European dewberry (Sokolov 1987) Rubus idaeus: Russian: Maлинa oбыкнoвeннaя (Malina obyknovennaya); Uzbek: Parmanchak, Malina; Kyrgyz: Кaдимкидaнкууpaй (Kadimki dan kuuray); English: Red raspberry (Sokolov 1987) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_123

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Botany and Ecology Rubis caesius: Shrub, 50–250 cm high; annotinous shoots arcuately spreading, branched and rooting in the fall at summit, cylindrical, with glaucous bloom, usually glabrous; prickles numerous, unequal in size and shape, small, straight or curved, partly setiform, often with stalked glands; leaves ternate; stipules broadly lanceolate; petioles pubescent, aculeate, indistinctly canaliculate above; leaflets pale green, with coarse, irregular, and often incised teeth, remotely pilose at both sides; terminal leaflet nearly two times longer than its petiolule, ovate-rhombic, acute, sometimes 3-lobed, lateral leaflets very short-petioluled, often 2-lobed. Flower-bearing branches rather long, spreading, with rather numerous prickles and glands; inflorescence ranches often long and slender; flowers rather large; sepals green, pilose, often glandular, appressed to fruit; petals broadly elliptic, white; stamens nearly as long as style; ovaries glabrous; fruit often abortive, large, black, covered with a glaucous dull bloom; drupelets few, large, flattened. Flowering June–July, fruiting August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in forests, ravines, among shrubs, on clearings, on the banks of rivers and streams, in meadows, on stony slopes, in gardens, orchards, along roads, up to the upper-right belt (Shishkin et al. 1941). Rubus idaeus: Shrub, 50–120 cm high; shoots erect, drooping at apex, cylindrical, glaucescent, short-hairy; prickles sparse or usually dense, conical at base, reddish brown; leaflets 3–5, rarely 7; stipules filiform; petioles canaliculate; leaflets glabrescent above or sparsely simple- or stellate-hairy, white-tomentose beneath, rather finely and irregularly serrate; terminal leaflet oblong-ovate, rounded or cordate at base, acuminate, long-petioluled, lateral leaflets subsessile. Flower-bearing branches short, with leaves ternate; flowers in few-flowered axillary racemes and in a terminal corymbiform-paniculate inflorescence; sepals greenish-grayish, recurved in fruit; petals oblong or spatulate, whitish, erect; stamens hardly as long as style; ovaries tomentose-pilose; fruit globose, red, often yellow; drupelets pilose; stones short, rounded. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia (Tien Shan), in woods, on the fringes of forests, clearings, on the banks of rivers, forest meadows, ravines, among bushes, on mountain slopes, up to the timberline. Widely cultivated (Shishkin et al. 1941).

Phytochemistry Rubus caesius: Organic acids (lemon, isolemic, oxalic, apple), vitamins (C, E, carotene), carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, mannose, xylose, sucrose), phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic acid), tannins, catechins (epicatechinf), flavonoids, leukoanthocyanidins, anthocyanins (pelaronidine, cyanidine, rutinoside), fatty acids (palmitic, linoleic, oleic, pentadecyl, linolenic acids) (Sokolov 1987). Rubus idaeus: Coumarins (ellagic acid), phenolcarbonic acids (gallic), catechins (catechine, epicatechine), vitamins (C, E, carotene), phenylcarboxylic acids (coumaric, vanilline, coffee, gallic, gentisinic), Catechins (catechine, epicatechine), flavonoids (quercetine, kaempferol, hyperoside, isoquercitine, apseline, astragaline,

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rhamnoside), leukoanthocyanidins, fatty acids (palmitic; palmitoleic, stearic, linoleic, linolenic, arachinic, eicosanic, behenic), carbohydrates (xylitol, glucose, fructose, sucrose), steroids (phytosterol), essential oils (a-pinene, a-flalandrene, limonene, a-terpinolene, sabinene, transkaryophyllene, gumulene), tannins (gallotanine, ellatanine), anthocyanins (cyanidine) (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses Rubus caesius: Used as antipyretic and hemostatic. The root decoction is diuretic and anti-inflammatory and used for liver diseases and colitis, as hemorrhoidal, and for hemorrhages, for colitis, diarrhea, and dysentery. The leaves are used to remedy gastritis, diarrhea, as anthelmintic, to enhance intestinal motility, for anemia, and externally for skin problems like eczema, chronic ulcers, purulent wounds, as gargle for angina, pharyngitis, and ulcerative stomatitis. Fresh leaves are applied as poultice for the treatment of wounds and dermatoses, and trophic ulcers. The immature fruits are astringent and mildly laxative. They are used for diarrhea and dysentery in children, gastritis, acute respiratory diseases, hemoptysis and are used as soothing and restorative, especially during the menopause (Grossheim 1952; Ketskhoveli et al. 1971–2011; Sokolov 1987; Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Rubus idaeus: In the Altai, the root extract is used for fevers and respiratory infections. Raspberry leaf tea with immature fruits and flowers is used for respiratory diseases. Fresh leaves are applied as poultice to fresh wounds. The leaf infusion is also used for diarrhea, gastritis, enteritis, hemorrhages, menorrhagia, pneumonia, in cases of dermatitis, and for oral infections. The flower decoction serves for gastralgia and respiratory infections, and topically for acne, eye diseases, and erysipelas. In Middle Asia the flower tincture was traditionally used as an antidote for the bites of snakes and scorpion stings (Sokolov 1987). The root extract is used for fevers and respiratory infections. Raspberry leaf tea with immature fruits and flowers is used for respiratory diseases. Fresh leaves are applied as poultice to fresh wounds. The leaf Fig. 1 Rubus fruticosus agg. (Rosaceae), Braganc¸a, Portugal. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Rubus fruticosus agg. (Rosaceae), Braganc¸a, Portugal. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Rubus fruticosus agg. (Rosaceae), Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

infusion is also used for diarrhea, gastritis, enteritis, hemorrhages, menorrhagia, pneumonia, in cases of dermatitis, and oral infections. The flower decoction serves for gastralgia and respiratory infections and topically for acne, eye diseases, and erysipelas. In Middle Asia the flower tincture was traditionally used as an antidote for the bites of snakes and scorpion stings (Sokolov 1987). The fruits and leaves are used to treat wounds, anemia, colds, and inflammations, the leaves for colds (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 4, 5, and 6).

Rubus idaeus L. . . . Fig. 4 Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Rubus saxatilis: The leaves are used in Middle Asia for angina, headache, pain, gynecological problems, hemorrhoids, epididymitis, metabolic disorders, nephrolithiasis, acute respiratory diseases, gout, for gastrointestinal diseases, hernia. A flower infusion and tincture is used for scurvy, hemorrhoids, and eye diseases (Sokolov 1987). Rubus is a widely used medicinal plant genus. In the Himalayas, a root paste of Rubus nepalensis is used to treat burns and scads, while the fruits of Rubus niveus are used to treat dysmenorrhea and snakebites (Bhat et al. 2013, 2015). Rubus ellipticus leaves are used to treat fevers and diarrhea (Kunwar et al. 2010). Young shoots are chewed for treatment of throat infections, a paste of root and leaves is applied for treatment of skin diseases, and boils, and the stem is used as toothbrush (Singh et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Rubus caesius/Rubus idaeus: The leaves serve as tea surrogate, the fruits are eaten fresh and cooked for jams, syrup and distilled for alcohol (Sokolov 1987). The flowers and fruits are eaten, the leaves are used as tea (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Figs. 7, 8 and 9). Rubus saxatilis: The flowers and flower buds are used as surrogate for hops. The fruits are eaten raw and cooked as, compotes, syrups, for kvass, seasonings, and jelly. The ground seeds serve as seasoning for food (Sokolov 1987).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Rubus caesius: The fruit extract is used as violet and red-violet, blue, purple, brownish-violet, and dark pink color dye for wool. The leaves yield a brown dye, the flowers a yellow dye. Fodder for cattle, chicken. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1987). Fig. 7 Rubus fruticosus agg. (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Rubus idaeus and Rubus fruticosus agg. (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae), market, Telavi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Rubus idaeus: The fruit extract is used as violet and red-violet, blue, purple, brownishviolet, and dark pink color dye for wool. The leaves yield a brown dye, the flowers a yellow dye. Fodder for cattle, chicken. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1987). The leaves are used in baking to cover the base of the stove (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1).

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Ketskhoveli N, Kharadze A, Gagnidze R. Flora of Georgia, 16 vols. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1971–2011. (in Georgian). Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Shishkin BK, Yuzepchuk SV, Fedorov AA. Flora of the USSR, volume 10: Rosaceae-Rosoideae, Prunoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1941 (English 1971). 512 p, 38 b/w plates, 2 maps. Singh S, Bhat JA, Malik ZA, Youssouf M, Bussmann RW, Kunwar RM. Sacred groves in Western Himalaya, India: community-managed nature refuges for conservation of biodiversity and culture. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(15) https://doi.org/10.17348/era.18.15.1-21. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Rumex confertus Willd Rumex tianschanicus Losinsk. POLYGONACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Rumex confertus Willd: Rumex alpinus var. subcalligerus Boiss.

Local Names Rumex confertus: Russian: Щaвeлькoнcкий (Shchavel’ konskiy); Uzbek: Ot quloq; Kyrgyz: Aткулaк (At kulak); English: Russian dock: (Fedorov 1984) Rumex tianschanicus: Russian: Щaвeльтяньшaнcкий (Shchavel’ tyan’shanskiy); Kyrgyz: Aткулaк (At kulak) (Fedorov 1984)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_124

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Botany and Ecology Rumex confertus: Perennial; stem erect, 60–20 cm long, sulcate, leafy; lower leaves oblongly triangular-ovate, obtuse, cordate at base, wavy-margined, hispid on the veins beneath, 15–25 cm long, 6–12 cm broad, the petiole as long as or longer than the blade, channeled above; inflorescence narrow cylindric, dense, with approximate whorls, almost leafless; pedicels jointed at or just below the middle; valves roundedcordate, obtuse, or acutish (var. cordifolius (Horn.) Gurke), reticulate, crenate on the margin, mostly broader than long, 6–7 mm across, one of them with a more developed tubercle. Flowering May–June. Ural, Caucasus, Siberia, Middle Asia, meadows, slopes, groves, forest glades (Boborov and Komarov 1936; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Rumex tianschanicus: Perennial; stem stout, firm, hollow, coarsely sulcate, branched; inflorescence broad-paniculate; cauline leaves broad-ovate, attenuate to a pointed apex, rounded-cordate at base, 17–25 cm long, to 15 cm broad, slightly undulate marginally; blade thin, prominently veined, light green or glaucescent; petioles short, flat below the blade, keeled in lower part; flowers in loose few-flowered whorls; pedicels slender, infundibularly enlarged at summit, unequal, half as long again to 3 times as long as the fruit, jointed at base; tepals thin in fruit, cordate, acutish, deeply cordate at base, slightly compressed, uneven-margined, Fig. 1 Rumex alpinus (Polygonaceae), Verwall, Austria. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Rumex confertus Willd. . . Fig. 2 Rumex alpinus (Polygonaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Rumex alpinus (Polygonaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Rumex alpinus (Polygonaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Rumex confertus (Polygonaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

6–8 mm broad, 6–7 mm long, one of them with a rather large oval callosity, the others without developed callosities; achene acuminate, light brown, 2 mm long. Middle Asia, along mountain streams, in river dolines, meadows and on slopes, 900– 3000 m (Boborov and Komarov 1936; Figs. 6 and 7).

Phytochemistry Organic acids (oxalic acid), vitamins (В1, В2, С, К, carotene), tannins, coumarins (ellagic acid), flavonones (quercetine, hyperine, rutine, giperine), anthraquinones (chrysophilenol, emodine, aloe-emodine, rheine), anthocyanins (cyanidine, delphinidine) (Fedorov 1984).

Rumex confertus Willd. . . Fig. 6 Rumex crispus (Polygonaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Rumex sp. (Polygonaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses The infusion of Rumex confertus is used externally for scabies, fungal skin diseases and rashes, ulcers, and wounds, is drunk for scurvy, and used as an astringent for diarrhea (Fedorov 1984). The plant is also used for intestinal and pneumonic diseases. Leaves are used to treat diarrhea. Sometimes rice is boiled on a small fire until soft, in combination with other ingredients like meat, birds, fish, dried fruits, greens, beans. “Evelikli ash” is cooked from dried leaves which are eaten with sour milk as astringent antidiarrheal remedy, to increase appetite, as well as for pneumonic diseases (Damirov et al. 1988). Fresh leaves are valued for their high vitamin content. A decoction of fruits increases appetite and helps in cases of anemia, scurvy, and avitaminosis (Damirov et al. 1988). Rumex tianschanicus: In Uzbekistan, leaves are crushed and applied externally to an abscess (Fedorov 1984). Rumex dentatus and Rumex nepalensis are used as astringents and for skin irritations (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), R. nepalensis also for joint pain and paralysis (Kunwar et al. 2009), dysmenorrhea and stomach problems (Bhat et al. 2013). Rumex hastatus serves as hemostatic to quickly stop bleeding in cuts (Bhat et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2011) and to treat nettle stings (Bhat et al. 2013).

Local Food Uses The young shoots and leaves are often boiled and eaten. (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984), however, normally mixed with other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for cattle, horses, and pigs (Fedorov 1984).

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In:

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Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan Academy of Acience; 1988. (in Russian). Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.

Sanguisorba officinalis L. ROSACEAE Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Sanguisorba officinalis L.: Sanguisorba glandulosa Kom.; Sanguisorba officinalis var. glandulosa (Kom.) Vorosch.

Local Names Russian: Кpoвoxлёбкa aптeчнaя (Krovokhlyobka aptechnaya), Uzbek: Sangvizorba, Dorivor kukat, Dorivor krovoklebka, Kyrgyz: Дapыкaнcopгуч (Dary kansorguch); Chinese: 地榆 (di yu); English: Great burnet (Sokolov 1987) B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_125

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Botany and Ecology Perennial, 20–100 cm high; root robust, developing radical rosette of leaves and mostly solitary stem which branches above; radical leaves long-petioled, with numerous, usually 7–25 petiole leaflets and usually with stipules arranged at their base; leaflets oblong-ovate or elliptic, cordate or truncate at base, rounded at apex, serrate-dentate, with 10–12 large generally acuminate teeth at each side, thick, dark green above, shiny, glaucescent beneath, dullish, glabrous like entire plant; stems erect, ribbed, hollow, with several adjacent cauline leaves at base, leaflets rapidly diminishing in number [upward], upper cauline leaves small, sessile. Flowers in oval or short-cylindrical heads, 15–30 mm long, on long erect peduncles, dark brown-red or nearly black-purple, bisexual; bracts oblongovate, brownish, membranous, pubescent, longer than hypanthium; sepals elliptic or ovate, one and a half to two times longer than hypanthium; filaments red, usually not longer than sepals; anthers small, dark red; stigma with short villi; fruiting hypanthia with thick, obtuse, slightly wingeribs. Flowering June–August. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, Altai, meadows, steppe meadows and shrubby formations, open grassy slopes, ravines and outcrops, forest edges, edges of bogs, banks of streams (Shishkin et al. 1941; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).

Fig. 1 Sanguisorba minor (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Sanguisorba officinalis L. Fig. 2 Sanguisorba minor (Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Sanguisorba officinalis (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Sanguisorba officinalis (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Sanguisorba officinalis (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Tannins (pyrogallic acids), saponins, stearins, organic acids gallic, ellagic, oxalic, ascorbic), triterpenes and triterpene glycosides, gallotannins, carotene, essential oils (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses Used as an astringent and hemostatic, to treat gastrointestinal diseases, tuberculosis, hemoptysis, uterine bleeding, and as poultice to heal wounds (Sokolov 1987).

References Shishkin BK, Yuzepchuk SV, Fedorov AA. Flora of the USSR, volume 10: Rosaceae-Rosoideae, Prunoideae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1941 (English 1971). 512 p, 38 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Saponaria officinalis L. Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert CARYOPHYLLACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Saponaria officinalis L.: Lychnis officinalis (L.) Scop.; Silene saponaria Fr. ex Willk. & Lange. Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert: Saponaria hispanica Mill.; Saponaria oxidonta (Boiss.) Boiss.; Saponaria segetalis Neck; Saponaria vaccaria L.; Saponaria vaccaria var. grandiflora Fisch. ex DC.; Saponaria hispanica subsp. pyramidata (Medik.) Holub; Vaccaria oxydonta Boiss.; Vaccaria pyramidata Medik.; Vaccaria pyramidata subsp. grandiflora Hayek; Vaccaria pyramidata var. grandiflora Cullen; Vaccaria segetalis (Neck.) Garcke ex Asch.; Vaccaria vaccaria (L.) Britton; Vaccaria vulgaris Host.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_126

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Local Names Vaccaria hispanica: Russian: Tыcячeгoлoвпиpaмидaльный Tыcячeгoлoвпoceвнoй (Tysyachegolov piramidalnyy, Tysyachegolov posevnoy); Uzbek: Qora mug; Kyrgyz: Aйдaмa минбaш (Aydama min bash); English: Cow cockle (Fedorov 1984)

Botany and Ecology Saponaria officinalis. Perennial, glabrous, stem erect, simple or in upper part branched, terete, 30–90 cm long; leaves oblong, oval-lanceolate or elliptic, 3 -veined, acute, 5–12 cm long and 1–4 cm broad, with sharply scabrous margin, shortpetioled; inflorescence loosely corymbose-paniculate; pedicels short; bracts linear-lanceolate; calyx cylindric, 15–18 mm long and 4–5 mm broad, puberulent; teeth unequal, ovate, mucronate from obtuse apex; petals white or roseate; limb oblong-obovate, emarginate or sometimes entire, with small coronal scales; capsule oblong-ovate; seeds numerous, small, reniform, finely tuberculate. Flowering June– August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, coppices, woods, and river valleys (Komarov and Shishkin 1936). Vaccaria hispanica: Perennial, smooth, glaucescent; stem erect, much branched above, 30–70 cm long; leaves ovate-lanceolate to ovate, acute, opposite, slightly connate at base, 20 9 cm long and 5–40 mm broad, mostly 3 -veined, sessile; pedicels 1–6 cm long; calyx pale green or yellowish, 13–15 mm long and 5–9 mm broad, with 5 green winged ribs; teeth acute, with white scarious margin; petals pink, one and a half times as long as calyx; limb obovate, dentate; capsule ovaloid, 4-loculed at base; seeds globose, minutely tuberculate. Flowering May–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, meadows, glades; as weed in fields and young fallows. (Komarov and Shishkin 1936). Also used to treat gallbladder ailments (Kumar et al. 2011).

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia, a poultice is used to treat tumors and as an analgesic (Fedorov 1984).

Local Food Uses The roots are used to make soap (Fedorov 1984).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Often cultivated as ornamental. Vaccaria seeds are toxic (Fedorov 1984).

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References Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 6: Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 731 p, 55 b/w plates, 2 maps. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60.

Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk. ASTERACEAE Kunrong Liu, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk.: Cachrys seseloides (Hoffm.) M. Bieb.; Johrenia seseloides (Hoffm.) Koso-Pol.; Laser divaricatum (Turcz.) Thell.; Ledebouriella divaricata (Turcz.) Hiroë; Ledbouriella seseloides (Hoffm.) H. Wolff; Rumia seseloides Hoffm.; Siler divaricatum (Turcz.) Benth. & Hook. f.; Stenocoelium divaricatum Turcz.; Trinia dahurica Turcz. ex Besser; Trinia seseloides (Hoffm.) Ledeb.

Local Names Chinese: 防风 (Fang feng), 北防风 (Bei fang feng), 关防风 (Guan fang feng), 牛防 风 (Niu fang feng), 云防风 (Yun fang feng); Mongolian: Zheligengni), Miao: Rui ba rong suo; Yi: Mo pa xiong zai; English: Radix sileris K. Liu College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_127

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Botany and Ecology Plants 30–80 cm high. Rootstock to 2 cm thick. Basal leaves numerous; petioles flattened, with ovate sheaths; leaf blades oblong-ovate to broad-ovate, 14–35  6–8 ( 18) cm, 2-pinnate; pinnae 3–4 pairs, petiolulate; ultimate segments linearlanceolate or cuneate-obovate, 3-lobed at apex, 2–5  0.5–2.5 cm. Leaves reduced upwards. Umbels numerous, ca. 6 cm across; peduncles 2–5 cm; rays 5–7, 3–5 cm; bracteoles 4–6, ca. 3 mm, acuminate; umbellules 4–5-flowered. Petals ca. 1.5 mm. Fruit 4–5  2–3 mm, tuberculate when young, becoming smooth when mature. Flowering August–September, fruiting September–October. Scrub, hillsides, grasslands, stony slopes; 400–800 m. Mongolia, Siberia (Shishkin 1951).

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids; Steroids: Coumarins; Chromones; Alkaloids; Tannins. Flavonoids (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses In Mongolian medicine the root is used as appetite stimulant. (Sokolov 1988), as one of the famous medicinal materials in northeast China. It induces sweating, helps removing phlegm, works as analgesic, and is used for treating cold, headache, body joint pain, neuralgia, and other diseases.

Local Food Uses The root is used as spice for meat and fish (Sokolov 1988).

References Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 17: Umbelliflorae (continued) Peucedaneae-Dauceae & Nyassaceae, Cornaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1951 (English 1974). 285 p, 25 plates with b/w line drawings; 2 b/w fold-out maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).

Scabiosa songarica Schrenk Scabiosa sp. DIPSACACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Scabiosa songarica Schrenk: Trochocephalus songaricus Á. Löve & D. Löve.

Local Names Russian: Cкaбиoзa джунгapcкaя (Skabioza dzhungarskaya); Uzbek: Zhoongor scabiozasi; Kyrgyz: Жунгap бeшиликчoбу (Zhungar beshilik chobu) (Sokolov 1990)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; root woody, with 2–3 heads; stems 40–60(100) cm, with 4–7 internodes, short-haired throughout, densely covered with long hairs below; petioles of radical and lower cauline leaves shorter than laminas, the latter leaves R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_128

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lanceolate, entire, sometimes barely pinnate; cauline leaves opposite, pinnatifid, the terminal lobe much larger, lanceolate; leaves covered on both sides with short and long hairs. Heads 2.5–3 cm across; involucral bracts narrowly lanceolate, 1– 1.5 cm long, densely long-bristled; flowers pale, yellowish violet, pubescent outside, radial, outer flowers 2 cm long, heads in fruit globose, 3–3.5 cm across; outer calyx 12–13 mm, more than half as long as tube pitted-grooved, appressedbristly, the lower third densely covered with long white bristles; corona 5 mm wide, 20–24 nerved; calyx teeth and bristles twice as long as corona is wide. Flowering and fruiting June. Central Asia, herb and bunchgrass steppes and foothills (Shishkin and Boborov 1957; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).

Fig. 1 Scabiosa caucasica (Dipsacaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Scabiosa caucasica (Dipsacaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3 Scabiosa caucasica (Dipsacaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Scabiosa caucasica (Dipsacaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Organic acids, saponins, steroids, alkaloids, vitamins (C), flavonoids, coumarins, tannins, phenolcarbonic acids, coumarins (Sokolov 1990).

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Fig. 5 Cephalaria media (Dipsacaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses A decoction is used in Middle Asia to treat respiratory infections and colds (Sokolov 1990).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 24: Dipsacaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Campanulaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1957 (English 1972). 370 p, 27 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.: Silybum maculatum (Scop.) Moench; Carduus marianus L.; Circium maculatum Scop.

Local Names Azerbaijan: Аdi аlаqаnqаl; Russian: Pacтopoпшa пятниcтaя (Rastoropsha pyatnistaya) English: Spotted milk thistle (Sokolov 1993)

Botany and Ecology Annual or biennial herb, to 1.5 m tall, often only 30 cm tall. Stems straight, with ridges, covered in powdery substance. Leaves 80 cm long, shiny with white spots and up to 80 cm. long. Both forming a basal rosette and alternating stem, these R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_129

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Fig. 1 Silybum marianum (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

lanceolate to elliptic, pinnately lobed, lobes prickly. Upper leaves smaller, simpler, and with short petioles and clasping stem. Flowers to 6 cm in diameter, solitary on each stalk, Bracts with 4–6 spiny tips on their margins. Florets pink violet to white, many on each flower. Achenes elliptic, 7.3 mm long. Dark reddish brown, pappus hairs unequal white or yellowish. Old fields, roadsides, fallow cultivated lands. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on wastelands, along the edges of roads, on the abandoned fields (Borisova 1963; Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4).

Phytochemistry Latex, lignanes (silidine, silimonine, isosilibine), organic acids (fumaric), alkaloids, flavonoids (taxifoline, dehydrosilybine, silibine, silichristine, silymarin, dihydroxyflavananol, silichristine, taxifoline, quercetine, dehydrosilybine, isosilicristine, dihydrocampherol, silandrine, silimonine, silidianin, naringenine, apigenine, eriodictiol, chrysoeryol, siligermine, neosiligermIn A, neosiligermIn B), fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, linolenic, palmitic, stearic, arachine, behenic, myristic, palmitic), carbohydrates (rhamnose, xylose, arabinose, glucose, galacturonic acid), steroids (sitosterol, cholesterol, campesterin, stigmasterol), nitrogen-containing compounds (betaine), vitamins (tocopherols), phenolic compounds (Sokolov 1993).

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Fig. 2 Silybum marianum (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Silybum marianum (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Included in many official herbal pharmacopoaeiae. The decoction is widely used for hepatitis, peritonitis colitis, as choleretic, hemostatic, and a laxative. The seeds are used to treat jaundice, hepatitis, chronic coughing, hemoptysis, gallstones,

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Fig. 4 Silybum marianum (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

inflammation of the gall bladder and bile duct, liver and spleen diseases, fevers, hemorrhoids. The juice from the leaves is used as a choleretic, diuretic and to treat colitis and constipation. A decoction of the root is used to treat stomach problems (Sokolov 1993). A decoction and infusion of the seeds is used as choleretic in inflammation of liver and gallbladder, cholelithiasis, and jaundice. The decoction and infusion of seeds is also used for spleen problems, hemorrhoids, and as anastaltic when patients are spitting blood. Root and leaves are used to remedy fever and dropsy (Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1942; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses In early spring young soft stems are cleaned of the skin is eaten raw. Young leaves are eaten with vinegar and oil as salad. Seeds (raw and fried) are eaten for blood purification (Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1942; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). The oil of the seeds is used as food (Figs. 5 and 6).

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Fig. 5 Silybum marianum (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Silybum marianum (Asteraceae), harvested seeds, Guria, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The young leaves are fodder for cattle (Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1942; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017). Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1993).

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References Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR, volume 28: Compositae, Tribes Cynareae and Mustisieae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1963 (English 1998). 810 p. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing house of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Solanum nigrum L. SOLANACEAE Yaxi Zou, Bo Liu, and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Solanum nigrum L.: Solanum humile Lam.; Solanum nigrum var. atriplicifolium G. Mey.

Local Names Russian: Пасленчерный (Paslentserneii); Chinese: 龙葵 (Long kui); North of China: 黑天天 (He tian tian), South of China: 苦葵 (Ku kui), Northeast of China: 黄天天 (Huang tian tian), Northwest of China: 红葵 (Hong kui), English: Black nightshade (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990)

Y. Zou College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_130

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Botany and Ecology Erect or widely spreading annual to short-lived perennial, sometimes forming dense clumps up to 2 m across and 1.5 m high, (5)25–70(150) cm tall, sometimes flushed with purple, pubescent to villous with simple, curved, usually appressed, eglandular or glandular hairs, glabrescent. Branches  angular to narrowly winged, the edges smooth or with widely spaced short teeth or prickle-like hairs. Leaves solitary or sometimes paired; petiole 0.3–6.5 cm long,  narrowly winged distally; lamina 2–14  0.7–7.3 cm, elliptic to ovate-lanceolate or ovate, base sub-truncate or rounded to cuneate, oblique,  decurrent into the petiole, apex acute or obtuse,  acuminate, entire to sinuate-dentate, both surfaces  pubescent, with more numerous hairs along the veins and towards the margins, glabrescent. Cymes lateral, unbranched, lax and often extended, (3)5–10-flowered; peduncle 0.3–2 cm long, slender, erect or ascending, in fruit occasionally elongated a little, ascending to deflexed; pedicels 3–8.5 mm long, slender, decurved to ascending, in fruit elongated to 12 mm, deflexed. Calyx 1.2–2.5 mm long, campanulate, in fruit elongated to 3.5 mm; lobes 0.3–1.2  0.3–1.2 mm, obovate, semi-elliptic or ovate to  triangular, rounded to acute, sparsely pubescent with more numerous hairs towards the apex outside, in fruit enlarged to 3  2 mm, appressed or scarcely reflexed. Corolla white, cream or yellowish, with or without a conspicuous yellow-green eye, rarely flushed with purple or pale blue, (4)5–7(9) mm across, rotate or stelliform; lobes 1.5– 4  0.8–2.3 mm, oblong or ovate to lanceolate, rarely linear,  acute, puberulous outside. Stamen filaments 0.3–1.5 mm long; anthers 1.5–2.5(2.8) mm long, oblong. Ovary 1 mm in diameter,  globose to ellipsoid, glabrous; style 2–4.5 mm long, straight or sigmoidal, the stigma level with the tip of the anthers or protruding by up to 2 mm. Fruits often dull, black or purplish-black to yellow-green, opaque, 6– 10 mm in diameter, usually broadly ovoid, smooth, usually without sclerotic granules, glabrous, edible when mature. Seeds with light bone-color and sometimes flushed with purple, 1.7–2.4 mm long,  obovate in outline, minutely pitted all over (Shishkin and Boborov 1955; Figs. 1, 2 and 3). Fig. 1 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: R. Bussmann)

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Fig. 2 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae). Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: R. Bussmann)

Fig. 3 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae). Flowers. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The juice of fresh plants and fruits together with sour milk is used for healing sordid wound and abscess (Damirov et al. 1988). Leaves, stems, and fruits are prepared as infusion and decoction and used in diseases of respiratory organs as sedative and expectorant. Intestinal diseases: The infusion and decoction of leaves, stems, and fruits is used as laxative. An infusion of fruits is used as diuretic in dropsy and edemas, and as antipyretic in malaria. The fruits serve as vitamin supplement in scurvy (Grossheim 1942; Fedorov 1949). The stems and roots are chewed to relieve toothache and inflammations of the gums (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). In Pakistan the species is used to treat leprosy (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), as well as breast cancer, diarrhea, febricity, ulcers, chicken

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pox, hyperglycemia, piles, cardiac pain, sore eyes, cuts, and wounds (Umair et al. 2019), gastralgia and infertility (Sher et al. 2016). In the Himalayas Solanum nigrum is employed for diarrhea, vomiting, asthma, fever, bronchitis, cuts and wounds, and involuntary urinary discharge (Raj et al. 2018), while the species serves for typhoid treatment in Kenya (Njoroge et al. 2004). In traditional Indian medicine the species serves as antidote for opium) ingestion, boils, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, ear complaints, eye complaints, fever, goiter, heart ailment, jaundice, liver complaints, inflammation of (scrotum, kidney and bladder), sores, nostril complaints, piles, rheumatism, skin diseases, sprain, stomach ache, swelling, throat trouble, ulcers in the mouth and urine complaints (Verma et al. 2007), and the fruits are used for heart disease (Kunwar et al. 2012).

Local Food Uses Mature fruits with sweetish taste are used in food raw (limited) (Bussmann et al. 2011), and to make jam. Young leaves are used like spinach (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1946; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae). Fruits. Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo: N. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Handicraft and Other Uses A dye solution is prepared from flowers, leaves, and fruits to obtain yellow and orange colors and used for dyeing wool yarn as well as products made of wool (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Qasimov 1980).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Solanum nigrum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW. (ed.). Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham, Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Academy of Sciences; 1988. (in Russian). Fedorov AA. The herbs applied in traditional medicine of the Talysh. Baku: Publishing House of AS of USSR; 1949. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, volumes. I–VIII. Baku, AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing House of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku; Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian).

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Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Akademia Nauk; 1952. (in Russian). Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant species in far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600. Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency (R.U.E.) in agro-ecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;7(2):71–87. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955 (English 1993). 745 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian). Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: The medicinal flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Sorbus aucuparia L. Sorbus tianschanica Rupr. ROSACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Sorbus aucuparia L.: Aucuparia sylvestris Medik.; Mespilus aucuparia (L.) Scop.; Pyrenia aucuparia (L.) Clairv.; Pyrus aucuparia (L.) Gaertn.; Pyrus rossica A. D. Danilov; Sorbus altaica Koehne; Sorbus amurensis Koehne; Sorbus anadyrensis Kom.; Sorbus boissieri C. K. Schneid.; Sorbus camschatcensis Kom.; Sorbus glabrata (Wimm. & Grab.) Hedl.; Sorbus pohuashanensis (Hance) Hedl.; Sorbus polaris Koehne

Local Names Sorbus aucuparia: Рябина (rjabina) (Russian) (Sokolov 1987) Sorbus tianschanica: Russian: Pябинa тяньшaнcкaя (Ryabina tyan’shanskaya); Uzbek: Kizilchetan; Kyrgyz: Tяньшaньчeтини (Tyan’shan’ chetini); English: Tian Shan mountain ash (Sokolov 1987) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_131

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Botany and Ecology Sorbus aucuparia: Tree. 4–20 m tall, with ovate crown, more or less ascending branches, grayish, smooth bark, and pubescent juvenile twigs. Buds 9–18 mm, ovoid-conical, tomentose. The leaves 9–30  4–18 cm, pinnate. The leaflets 4–9 paired, 1.2–9  0.6–2.7 cm in shape, serration. The inflorescence is 8–17 cm in diameter, dense, many-flowered, and wooly pubescent at first. The flowers 8–15 mm in diameter. The fruit is subglobose, scarlet, or yellow-orange, with a few inconspicuous lenticels. The seeds are lanceolate. The seeds are slightly curved, 2–4 mm. The plant can be found in the woods, pine forests, rocky igneous slopes, usually from 1500 to 2500 m Ural, Caucasus, on forest fringes, glades, river banks, less often in meadows, on rocky rocky places and cliffs, up to the timberline. Widely planted (Yuzepchuk 1939; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Sorbus tianschanica: Tree 3–5 m high or shrub; young branches olive-brown or red-brown, slightly pubescent, the lenticels inconspicuous; buds acute, densely pubescent, sometimes subglabrous; leaves typically 6-paired, 10–14(22) cm long, quite glabrous or with hairy petioles; leaflets slightly coriaceous, lanceolate, mucronate, with 16–18 erect, appressed, short teeth on each side, light green below; inflorescence to 15 cm in diameter, with red glabrous branches; flowers 1.5–2 cm in diameter; stamens short; ovary densely lanate at the apex; styles mostly 5, sometimes 2–4; mature fruits dark red with glaucous bloom, to 12 mm in diameter. Flowering May– July, fruiting August–September. Middle Asia, mountain forests and shrub thickets near the upper timberline (Yuzepchuk 1939).

Fig. 1 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Khevsureti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (lupeol, betuline, 23-hydroxibetuline, ursolic acid, a-amirine), cyanogenic compounds, phenylcarboxylic acids (chlorogenic, isochlororene, coffee, p-kumaric), flavonoids (rutine, astraaline, kaempfero, isocvcitritrine, quercinthine, isoquercitine, meratine, hyperoside), anthocyanins, carbohydrates (glucose,

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Fig. 4 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 5 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

fructose, sucrose, L-sorbose, sorbitol, mannitol), organic acids (apple, lemon, wine, sorbic, ursolic, oleanolic), vitamins (C, B 2, E, carotene), catechins (epicatechIn gallate, epigallocatechine, epirallocatechallate), phenolcarbonic acids (coffee, chlorogenic, pseudochlorogenic, neochlorogenic, isochlorogenic, ferulic, oumaric), tannins, leucocyanidins, fatty acids (Sokolov 1987).

Sorbus aucuparia L. . . .

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Fig. 6 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses A decoction of the flowers is used to remedy with liver disease, kidney and urinary tract infections, problems of the gastrointestinal tract, for metabolic disorders, hemorrhoids, colds, and coughs. The fruits serve as diuretic, laxative, hemostatic, contraceptive, and for malignant tumors. Especially in the Western Ural fruit extracts are used to treat diseases of the liver, kidneys, ascites, diarrhea, rheumatism, metabolic disorders, hypovitaminosis, whooping cough, throat diseases, and glaucoma and are applied externally for wound-healing (Sokolov 1987). In the wider region, Sorbus aucuparia is used for complex therapies in thyrotoxicosis, diabetes, hypertension and atherosclerosis, decreased immunity, gastritis with low acidity, hypertension, and anemia. The fruit juice contributes to strengthening the walls of blood vessels, but significantly increases blood clotting (Sokolov 1987). The plant has antitumor, antisclerotic, anti-inflammatory, hypotensive, pressure regulating properties, regulates digestion, promotes the removal of heavy metals and radioactive materials from the body, and affects the body’s hematopoietic activity (Amirdovlat 1927; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976, Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Vardanyan 1979; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). The leaves contain bitter that contribute to formation and removal of bile (Grossheim 1952; Mikhailovich 1950–1957; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965; Makalatia 1934; Takhtadjan 1954– 2009). Sorbus aucuparia is used for colds. A water infusion of fruits is used as sudorific and antipyretic. The juice of fresh fruits or a water infusion of dried fruits is applied in gastro enteric diseases, especially in dysentery and as laxative. The juice of fresh fruits, or a water infusion and decoction of dried fruits, is also used as diuretic, for the treatment of diabetes, and against hemorrhoids. A water extract has anastaltic properties. Fruits, both dried and fresh, are used as vitamin supplement

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(Damirov et al. 1988). Sorbus sp. fruits, flowers, and leaves are in use as antidiarrheal, anti-inflammatory, a remedy for abdominal distention; the flowers are used to heal urolithiasis, while ripe fruits can help atherosclerosis (Kopaliani 2013). A leaf decoction is used to relieve cramps, and the fruit tincture is applied to relieve heart problems, hypertension, and applied to disinfect wounds, and for digestive disorders. Sometimes they can be found in local markets (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The fruits are also used to treat cough and colds (Bhat et al. 2013).

Local Food Uses Fruits are edible fresh form only after the first frost. The fruits are eaten fresh and used to make sweets. In the Caucasus the fruits are used to make alcohol, and as replacement for tea and coffee (Sokolov 1987). Sorbus aucuparia fruits are used usually after the first frost or dried (Sokolov 1987). From fresh fruits jam, marmalade, kvass, wine, and vinegar are prepared, and the fruits are used for some cakes, brandy and liquor, as well as tea (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). Fruits contain sugars, organic acids, carotene, vitamin C. P. tannins, essential oils, etc. The seeds contain glycosides and amygdaline (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). In Tusheti rowan ცირცელი tsitrseli fruits become sweet in late autumn and are used to prepare jams and juice after the first frost (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). Sorbus fruits are fermented to make alcohol, as well as added to beer, eaten fresh (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1987; Figs. 7 and 8).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the fruits are used in The Ural to treat diarrhea in calves. The wood is used in carpentry, for furniture, and for musical instruments. The bark is used to dye wool and silk in red-brown and black tones. Sorbus aucuparia has reddish wood that is hard and flexible and is used for furniture and musical instruments. Honey and decorative plant, perspective species for reforestation and landscaping. Sorbus aucuparia is also used for dyeing. Black color is obtained from young branches. This is a beautiful tree, mainly in the period of flowering and fruiting, as well as in autumn with bright coloration of the leaves (Sokolov 1987). Good nectariferous plant, producing much nectar and pollen (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). All parts of plant and especially the bark contain tannins and are used to cure leather (Grossheim 1946; Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). The fine-grained wood is firm, solid, and used in turnery. Different national musical instruments are made of it. The wood is used to manufacture furniture, tool handles, and for household utensils, and also in construction, especially for fences (Batsatsashvili

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Fig. 7 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), drying for winter, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae), jam, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The wood of the mountain ash is quite heavy, resistant, firm, dense, elastic, caustic, thin layer, reddish colors that are well polished. Burns, bright, but strongly smokes; good quality charcoal. Used in the manufacture of rollers, blocks, cylinders, machine teeth, and small carpentry. Often used for making musical instruments and furniture (Grossheim 1952).

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In veterinary medicine, the fruits are used in Middle Asia to treat diarrhea in calves. The wood is used in carpentry, for furniture, and for musical instruments. The bark is used to dye wool and silk in red-brown and black tones (Sokolov 1987).

References Amirdovlat A. Angitats anpet. Vienna; 1927. (in Armenian). Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Sorbus aucuparia L.; Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vol. 1–2. Moscow; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku; 1988. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan. Volumes I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan; 2001. (in Armenian). Gammarman A, Grom I. Wild medicinal plants of the USSR. Moscow; 1976. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku: Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow; 1952. (in Russian). Gubanov I, Krilova I, Tikhonova V. Wild useful plants of the USSR. Moscow; 1976. (in Russian). Harutyunyan H. Medieval Armenian phytotherapy herbs. Yerevan; 1990. (in Armenian).

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Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow; 2010. (in Russian). Kopaliani L. Forest plants of Georgia (trees, shrubs, herbs). Kutaisi: Publishing Center; 2013. (in Georgian) Makalatia S. Khevi; 1934. Tbilisi: Sakhelgami. 8მაკალათია ს. 1934. ხევი. ტფილისი: სახელგამი in Georgian.) Mardjanyan KS. Stepanos Shahrimanyan’s “Botany of Flora of Armenia”. Yerevan; 2008. (in Russian). Nosal M, Nosal I. Medicinal plants and methods for their use by people. Leningrad; 1991. (in Russian). Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vol. 1–7. Leningrad; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vol. 1–11. Yerevan; 1954–2009. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan; 2014. (in Armenian). Turova A, Sapojnikova E. Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use. Moscow; 1982. (in Russian). Vardanyan S. Pharmacology in ancient Armenia. Hist Philol J. 1979;2:179–94. (in Armenian). Yuzepchuk SV. Flora of the USSR, volume 9: Rosales and Sarraceniales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1939 (English 1971). 425 p, 30 plates with b/w line drawings, 2 b/w fold-out maps. Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Sphaerophysa salsula (Pall.) DC. FABACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Sphaerophysa salsula (Pall.) DC.: Astragalus violaceus Basil.; Phaca salsula Pall.; Swainsona salsola (Pall.) Taubert in Engler & Prantl

Local Names Kazak: Buyan; Chinese: 苦马豆 (Ku ma dou)

Botany and Ecology Perennial, clothed with scattered short appressed hairs (leaves glabrous above); stems ‘erect, 30–70 cm long, with appressed branches; stipules lanceolate, acute, 2 mm long; leaves imparipinnate, 4–9.5 cm long; leaves 6–10 pairs, elliptic to oblong-oval, obtuse, mucronulate, 5–15 mm long and 2–7 mm broad, the petiole

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_132

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0.6 mm long; flowers numerous, short-pediceled; racemes terminal, oblong, 4–10 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad, equaling or exceeding leaves; bracts lanceolate, acute, shorter than pedicel; calyx 4–5 mm long and 2–3 mm broad; teeth short, broadly triangular, acute; corolla red; standard orbicular, retuse, 1.3–1.5 cm long and 1 cm broad; wings falcate-oblong, curved, 1.4 cm long, about equaling keel, with oblong auricles; ovary covered with short appressed hairs; pod stipitate, glabrous or with scattered hairs, rounded-oblong to globose, nodding, 1-locular, 2.5–3.5 cm long and 1.8–2 cm broad; seeds 1.5 mm long, rounded-reniform, brown, smooth, dull. Flowering April–August. Loess, sandy, solonetz, and solonchak steppes, hummocky sands, coastal solonetzes, and puffic solonchaks, solonetz meadows, saline clayey riversides, gardens, borders of fields, irrigation ditches. Caucasus, Middle Asia (Komarov and Shishkin 1946).

Local Medicinal Uses The plant is used in the treatment of hypertension. Especially the roots are used in gynaecology (Komarov and Shishkin 1946).

References Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 12: Leguminosae: Astragalus. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1946 (English 1965). 681 p, 50 b/w plates, 2 maps.

Spinacia oleracea L. Spinacia turkestanica Iljin AMARANTHACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Spinacia oleracea: Russian: Шпинaт (Shpinat); Uzbek: Tikan; Kyrgyz: шпинaты (Shpinaty); English: Spinach (Fedorov 1984) Spinacia turkestanica: Russian: Шпинaттуpкecтaнcкий (Shpinat turkestanskiy); Uzbek: Chuchka tikan; Kyrgyz: Tуpкcтaншпинaты (Turkstan shpinaty); English: Wild spinach (Fedorov 1984)

Botany and Ecology Spinacia oleracea: Annual or biennial, 25–50 cm high, glabrous, unbranched or branched, light green; radical and lower stem leaves long-petioled; lower and middle leaves triangular-hastate, sometimes with rather elongated lateral lobes, or oblongovate, entire, very rarely with occasional teeth, obtuse, usually minutely mucronulate, always tapering to a petiole; upper leaves and occasionally the middle R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_133

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ones often acute, oblong, cuneate at base; staminate flowers in an interrupted spiciform-paniculate inflorescence, 4-merous, with 4 stamens, pistillate flowers in dense sessile axillary glomerules, the individuals flowers not united in fruit and falling separately in maturity. Cultivated and sometimes naturalized. (Komarov and Shishkin 1936). Spinacia turkestanica Annual, 10–60 cm high, glabrous, very diffusely farinaceous; root slender; stem simple or slightly branched and then mostly with elongated branches in lower part, often stoutish; radical and lower cauline leaves with very long petioles, runcinate, with a larger triangular-hastate terminal lobe and oblong or linear lateral lobes, usually mucronulate at apex; upper leaves with shorter petioles, often merely triangular-hastate, sometimes 1 or 2 uppermost lanceolate; inflorescence of staminate plants a panicle composed of axillary and terminal interrupted and almost leafless spikes; pistillate inflorescence leafy; perianth of staminate flowers with 4 oblongoval segments, sometimes with 2 or 3 teeth at summit; anthers borne on strongly exserted filaments; pistillate flowers in the axils of nearly all leaves except the radical, with hornlike outgrowths, united in fruit into a spiny-corniculate aggregate of mostly 4–6, measuring 10–15 mm in diameter, smooth or rugose; horns commonly lanceolate, 3-angled, channeled above, mostly 5–8 mm long, very rarely broadly triangular -ovate and to 3–4 mm long. Flowering April–May. Middle Asia, as weed in cotton fields and other irrigated crops, to 1800 m. Sometimes cultivated (Komarov and Shishkin 1936; Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Spinacia oleracea (Amaranthaceae), freshly harvested, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Spinacia oleracea L. . . .

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Phytochemistry Organic acids (oxalic acid), coumarins, alkaloids, vitamins (В1, В2, С, carotene) (Fedorov 1984).

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves are used as a carminative (Fedorov 1984).

Local Food Uses Eaten raw, and boiled as herb stew, in soup, salads, with mashed potatoes, and in sauces. (Fedorov 1984), frequently however in combination with a large number of wild vegetables (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Fodder for sheep and camels (Fedorov 1984).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Corylus avellana L.; Corylus colurna L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Oberna lacera (Steven) Ikonn.; Oberna wallichiana (Klotzsch) Ikonn. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum

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alpinum all.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Portulaca oleracea L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rumex acetosa L.; Rumex acetosella L.; Rumex confertus Willd.; Rumex conglomeratus Murray; Rumex crispus L.; Rumex tuberosus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Solanum nigrum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017i. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017j. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Symphytum caucasicum M. Bieb. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017k. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017l. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–312. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 6: Centrospermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1936 (English 1970). 731 p, 55 b/w plates, 2 maps. Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Eremurus spectabilis M. Bieb. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017.

Stipa baicalensis Roshev. Stipa capillata L. POACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Stipa baicalensis Roshev.: Stipa attenuata P.A. Smirn. Stipa capillata L.: Aristidia avenacea Guett. ex Houtt.; Stipa capillaris Gromov ex Trautv.; Stipa erecta Trin.; Stipa juncea Lam.; Stipa lagascae Guss.; Stipa thessala Hausskn.; Stipa ucranica Lam.; Stipa ukranensis Lam.

Local Names Chinese: 狼针草 (Lang zhen cao)

Botany and Ecology Stipa baicalensis: Perennial. Tufts rather dense; culms 50–70 cm tall, more rarely 15–20 cm (var. desetorum Roshev.) or 80–100 cm (f. robusta Roshev.), glabrous, smooth; leaf sheaths shorter than the internodes, glabrous, smooth, the uppermost B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_134

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partly enveloping the inflorescence; leaves 15–30 cm long, setaceous-involute, 0.4–0.7 mm in diameter, long-acuminate, on the outside glabrous, smooth, more rarely sharply scabrous (var. scabrida Roshev.), on the inside more or less denselypubescent; ligule to 1.5 mm long. Inflorescence 10–30 cm long, narrow, contracted; glumes narrowly lanceolate, long-acuminate, 2.2–3.2 cm long; lemma (11) 12–14 mm long, more rarely 15–18 mm (var. macrocarpa Roshev.), with rows of hairs not reaching up to the summit, and with a long-ciliate crown below the awn; awn 11–20 cm long, more rarely 7–8 cm (var. desertorum Roshev.) or 21–28 cm (var. macrocarpa Roshev.), twice-geniculate, twisted below, naked or sharply scabrous all the way up. Flowering July–August. Mixed-grass steppes and steppe meadows. Siberia, Mongolia (Rozhevits et al. 1934). Stipa capillata: Erect or widely spreading annual to short-lived perennial, sometimes forming dense clumps up to 2 m across and 1.5 m high, (5)25–70(150) cm tall, sometimes flushed with purple, pubescent to villous with simple, curved, usually appressed, eglandular, or glandular hairs, glabrescent. Branches  angular to narrowly winged, the edges smooth or with widely spaced short teeth or prickle-like hairs. Leaves solitary or sometimes paired; petiole 0.3–6.5 cm long,  narrowly winged distally; lamina 2–14  0.7–7.3 cm, elliptic to ovate-lanceolate or ovate, base sub-truncate or rounded to cuneate, oblique,  decurrent into the petiole, apex acute or obtuse,  acuminate, entire to sinuate-dentate, both surfaces  pubescent, with more numerous hairs along the veins and towards the margins, glabrescent. Cymes lateral, unbranched, lax and often extended, (3)5–10-flowered; peduncle 0.3–2 cm long, slender, erect or ascending, in fruit occasionally elongated a little, ascending to deflexed; pedicels 3–8.5 mm long, slender, decurved to ascending, in fruit elongated to 12 mm, deflexed. Calyx 1.2–2.5 mm long, campanulate, in fruit elongated to 3.5 mm; lobes 0.3–1.2  0.3–1.2 mm, obovate, semi-elliptic or ovate to  triangular, rounded to acute, sparsely pubescent with more numerous hairs towards the apex outside, in fruit enlarged to 3  2 mm, appressed or scarcely reflexed. Corolla white, cream or yellowish, with or without a conspicuous yellowgreen eye, rarely flushed with purple or pale blue, (4)5–7(9) mm across, rotate or stelliform; lobes 1.5–4  0.8–2.3 mm, oblong or ovate to lanceolate, rarely linear,  acute, puberulous outside. Stamen filaments 0.3–1.5 mm long; anthers 1.5–2.5 (2.8) mm long, oblong. Ovary 1 mm in diameter,  globose to ellipsoid, glabrous; style 2–4.5 mm long, straight or sigmoidal, the stigma level with the tip of the anthers or protruding by up to 2 mm. Fruits often dull, black or purplish-black to yellow-green, opaque, 6–10 mm in diameter, usually broadly ovoid, smooth, usually without sclerotic granules, glabrous, edible when mature. Seeds with light bonecolor and sometimes flushed with purple, 1.7–2.4 mm long,  obovate in outline, minutely pitted all over (Rozhevits et al. 1934).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Useful as fodder for animals (Sokolov 1994).

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References Rozhevits RYu, Shishkin BK, Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, volume 2: Glumiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1973). 622 p, 50 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian).

Tamarix chinensis Lour. TAMARICACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Tamarix chinensis Lour.: Tamarix gallica var. chinensis (Lour.) Ehrenb.; Tamarix juniperina Bunge; Tamarix pentandra Pall.; Tamarix ramosissima Lededb.

Local Names Mandarin: 柽柳 (Cheng liu)

Botany and Ecology Trees or shrubs, 3–6( 8) m tall. Branchlets dense, often pendulous, red-purple, slender. Leaves green, those of vegetative branches slightly spreading, oblonglanceolate or narrowly ovate, 1.5–1.8 mm, abaxially carinate at base, often thinly membranous, apex acute; those of vegetative branches in upper part subulate or

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_135

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ovate-lanceolate, 1–3 mm, abaxially carinate, base attenuate, apex acuminate, incurved. Flowers blooming 2 or 3 times each year. When blooming in spring, racemes lateral in pendulous, ligneous, growing branchlets of previous year, 3–6 cm  5–7 mm, few flowered, lax, and pendulous; peduncles short or nearly absent, with or without bracts; bracts linear-oblong or oblong, equaling or slightly exceeding pedicels, apex acuminate; pedicels shorter than calyx, slender; flowers 5-merous; sepals 5, narrowly ovate, 0.8–1.3 mm, slightly shorter than petals, outer 2 carinate abaxially, margin slightly entire, apex mucronate; petals 5, pink, usually ovate-elliptic or elliptic-obovate, rarely obovate, ca. 2 mm, slightly exceeding calyx, persistent in fruit; disk purple-red, fleshy, 5-fid; lobes obtuse or retuse at apex; stamens 5, exceeding petals; filaments inserted between disk lobes; ovary conic; styles 3, clavate, ca. 1/2 as long as ovary. Capsule conic. When blooming in summer and autumn, racemes 3–5 cm, smaller than those in spring, forming terminal large panicles on branches of current year; flowers 5-merous, slightly smaller than those in spring, dense; bracts green, linear to linear-conic or narrowly triangular, smaller and narrower than those of spring flowers, longer than pedicels, abaxially raised at base, base attenuate, margin entire, apex acuminate; calyx triangular-ovate; petals pink, straight or slightly oblique outward, much exceeding calyx; disk 5-lobed, or subdivided into 10 lobules; stamens 5, equaling or ca. 2 as long as petals; anthers obtuse; filaments inserted between disk lobes; styles clavate, 2/5–3/4 as long as ovary. Flowering April–September. River plains, seashores, moist salty places, sandy places. Mongolia (Shishkin 1949; Sokolov 1985) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4). Fig. 1 Tamarix ramosissima (Tamaricaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Tamarix chinensis Lour. Fig. 2 Tamarix ramosissima (Tamaricaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 3 Tamarix ramosissima (Tamaricaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

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Fig. 4 Tamarix ramosissima (Tamaricaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Local Medicinal Uses Tamarix chinensis: The leaves are analgesic, antipyretic, antivinous, carminative, depurative, diuretic, febrifuge. Aids measles rash surfacing. The wood is used in the treatment of anthrax-like sores. Tamarix aphylla is used for wound treatments, boils, eye infections, colds, and cough (Umair et al. 2019). Tamarix dioica serves for piles, cough, diarrhea, as antiseptic, for spleen and liver problems (Umair et al. 2019).

References Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, volume 15: Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 565 p, 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985. 336 p. (in Russian). Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.

Tanacetum vulgare L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Tanacetum vulgare L.: Chrysanthemum boreale (Fisch. ex DC.) B. Fedtsch.; Chrysanthemum tanacetum Vis.; Chrysanthemum vulgare (L.) Bernh.; Chrysanthemum vulgare subsp. boreale (Fisch. ex DC.) Voroscho.; Chrysanthemum vulgare var. boreale (Fisch. ex DC.) Makino ex Makino & Nemoto; Pyrethrum vulgare (L.) Boiss.; Tanacetum boreale Fisch. ex DC.; Tanacetum crispum Steud.; Tanacetum umbellatum Gilib.; Tanacetum vulgare subsp. boreale (Fisch. ex DC.) Kuvaev; Tanacetum vulgare var. boreale (Fisch. ex DC.) Trautv. & C.A. Mey.

Local Names Russian: Пижмa oбыкнoвeннaя (Pizhma obyknovennaya); Uzbek: Oddi dastarbosh; Kyrgyz: Кaдимкитaнaцeтум (Kadimki tanatsetum); English: Tansy (Sokolov 1993) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_136

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Botany and Ecology Perennial. Plants 30–150 cm tall, with creeping, more or less branched rhizome. Stems solitary or rather numerous, erect, extensively leafy, usually more or less branched only at apex. Leaves sparsely hairy (to glabrous), with short simple hairs, sometimes modified into bifid, with numerous punctate-glandular hairs; basal leaves withering early; cauline leaves to 20 cm long and 8–10 cm wide, lower on rather long petiole thickened at base, upper sessile or subsessile; lamina oblong or oblongovate, pinnately parted or cut up to narrow-winged axis, with pinnately lobed, less often pinnately parted segments; terminal segments or lobes ovate to linearlanceolate, usually up to 5 mm wide, more or less toothed or entire, short acuminate. Capitula (5)10–70(100), in fairly dense, compound corymbs. Involucre 5–8 mm in diameter, 4–6 mm long, more or less hairy to subglabrous; involucral bracts herbaceous, with rather narrow (but more or less broadening at apex), light colored or brownish, membranous border, outer ovate-lanceolate, inner oblonglanceolate. Corolla of tubular florets 1.5–2.4 mm long, slightly smaller in outer pistillate florets. Achenes 1.2–1.8 mm long and about 0.5 mm wide, corona 0.2–0.4 mm long. Flowering July to October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai. Middle Asia, meadows, scrubs, steppes, riverbanks, thinned forests, as a weed along roadsides, along borders of fields, and old fields, up to the middle mountain zone (Shishkin and Boborov 1961; Fig. 1).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (a-thujone, b-thujone, L-camphor, thujol, borneol, pinene), favonoids (luteolin, quercetin, apigenin, diosmetin), tannins, alkaloids (Sokolov 1993).

Fig. 1 Tanacetum vulgare (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Medicinal Uses The flowers are used as decoction as a vermifuge, carminative, and choleretic, to heal wounds, tuberculosis, fevers, gastrointestinal diseases, as antipyretic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and to treat stomach acidity, to increase appetite, bile and sweat production, blood pressure, and decrease heart rates. In the Northern Caucasus, a decoction is used for headaches, and externally to treat rheumatism (Sokolov 1993).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, volume 26: Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961 (English 1995). 1072 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg: Leontodon taraxacum L.; Leontodon vulgare Lam.; Taraxacum dens-leonis Desf.; Taraxacum mexicanum DC.; Taraxacum officinale var. palustre Blytt; Taraxacum retroflexum H. Lindb.; Taraxacum subspathulatum A.J. Richards; Taraxacum sylvaticum R. Doll.; Taraxacum taraxacum (L.) H. Karst.; Taraxacum tenejapense A.J. Richards; Taraxacum vulgare Schrank

Local Names Russian: Oдувaнчиклeкapcтвeнный (Oduvanchik lekarstvennyy); Uzbek: Koki, Momakaimok, Gulkoku; Kyrgyz: Дapыкaкымы (Dary kakymy); English: Dandelion (Sokolov 1993).

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_137

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Botany and Ecology Perennial plants; 5–50 cm high, with more or less thick, usually vertical root; root collar more or less woolly, less often glabrous. Leaves 10–25 cm long and 1.5–5.0 cm wide, pinnatipartite or pinnatilobate, with more or less deflexed, often toothed, lateral lobes and larger terminal lobes, less often undivided, sinuatetoothed, scatteredly hairy to entirely glabrous. Scapes with more or less profuse arachnoid-hairy tomentum. Involucre 13–20 mm long, green, outer involucral bracts broadly lanceolate to lanceolate-linear, more or less recurved, almost as wide as inner or wider, without scarious border or with very narrow membranous border, without cornicle; inner involucral bracts oblonglinear, one and one-half times or less as long as longest outer bracts without cornicle, less often with indistinct cornicle. Florets yellow with profuse long hairs in the middle part of corolla; peripheral florets usually with dark stripes on the lower side of ligules. Achenes light brown or brownish, body of achenes 3–4 mm long, covered with acute tubercles in upper half; cone 0.4–0.6 mm long, beak 7–12 ram long; pappus 6–8 mm long, white. Flowering April–June. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, meadows, gardens and parks, near roads, weed (Boborov and Tzvelev 1964) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Taraxacum confusum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg Fig. 2 Taraxacum confusum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Taraxacum confusum (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (sucrose, raffinose, fructose, inuline, arabinose, xylose), vitamins (B1, B2, C, carotene), phenolcarboxylic acids (coffee, pyocumite, ferulic, vanillic,), coumarins (coumarine, scopoletin, esculetine), flavonoids (gentsiobiozide, quercetin, nonine, cosmosine, luteoline), steroids (stigmasterol, sitosterol, campesterol, cycloartanol, androsterine, homoandrosterine, homotaracsasterine, kuyanol, taraxasterine), lactones (taraxacoside), fatty acids (linolenic, melissa, palmitic, oleic, linoleic, caprylic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, cerotinic), quinones (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses The species is included in many official herbal pharmacopoeiae in wider Europe. In the whole region, the plant is used as bitters, for diseases of the hepatobiliary system and organs of the gastrointestinal tract, for diabetes, atherosclerosis, anemia, rheumatism, arthritis, as expectorant, anti-inflammatory, as a sedative, laxative, anthelmintic, for tuberculosis, bronchitis, bronchial asthma, kidney and bladder diseases. It used topically for varicose veins, skin diseases, acne, eczema, for warts, and insect bites. In the Altai, the leaves are used in infusion to treat diarrhea, anorexia, liver disease, and stomach colics (Sokolov 1993). The flowers are used as remedy for colds, the leaves for gallstones, as laxative and diuretic, and for oral inflammations and toothache. The roots are used for liver problems, and the whole plant serves as medicinal tea (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952). In India, the root extract is used for migraine, headaches, as blood purifier, and for hepatitis (Bhat et al. 2013) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).

Fig. 4 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Food Uses The roasted roots are used as coffee surrogate and included in sweets and as flavoring agents. The young leaves are eaten as salad (Sokolov 1993). The herbs are only gathered in early spring, during summer, and even autumn, until tomatoes,

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Fig. 7 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 8 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

eggplants, spinach, and cucumbers can be harvested. By this time, the ingredients of pkhali (mostly weeds) loose softness, tenderness, and taste; they become rough already producing seeds and probably for this reason they are not collected by late autumn. In early spring, they taste very differently than in summer. While making pkhali, some finely minced kitchen herbs are added after boiling the main herbs: a little dill (კამა), a little tseretso dill (ცერეცო), a little p’rasa პრასა, coriander, parsley,

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celery, green onions, estragon, and mint. All these herbs are mixed with finely crushed walnuts; the boiled pkhali will be minced, desirably on a wooden gobi (wide shallow bowl with a flat bottom), and seasoned with herbs, walnuts; add salt and pepper by your taste (Javakhishvili 1986). The flowers are boiled with sugar as substitute for honey. The leaves and shoots are eaten as salad, and in chave and pkhali (herb pie), cooked with eggs and yoghurt as soup, and as tea (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is used as fodder for livestock (Sokolov 1993). The stems are used by children to make whistles (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, c, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Boborov E.G., Tzvelev N.N. 1964 (English 2001). Flora of the USSR, volume 29: Compositae; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad. 832 pages, 34 plates; Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus, vol. XXVII. Cham: Springer; 2017, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromatic Plants. 2016a;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016b;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016c;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian) Javakhishvili I. Materials for history of household and crafts, vol. 5: Food and drinks. Tbilisi: Metsniereba; 1986. (in Georgian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993, 352 p. (in Russian)

Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh. TAXACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Taxus baccata (L.) Borkh.: Taxus wallichiana Zucc.

Local Names Chinese: 红豆杉属 (Hong dou shan shu); English: Common yew.

Botany and Ecology Perennial; tree up to 20 m tall and about 1 m in diameter; bark reddish-gray, smooth or flaky; leaves to 3.5 cm long and 2 mm broad, dark green and lustrous above, pale and dull beneath, the margins slightly revolute; fruits red, globose, open at the top; seeds very hard, ovoid, brown, with small spots; fleshy aril bright raspberry-colored, juicy,

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_138

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Fig. 1 Taxus baccata (Taxaceae), male cones, Tbilisi. Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Taxus baccata (Taxaceae), female cones, Tbilisi. Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

sweet-tasting. Flowering March–May. In the Crimea, Caucasus, in mountain woods, from the seashore up to 1700 m above sea level (Iljin 1934) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (taxin), essential oils.

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Fig. 3 Taxus baccata (Taxaceae), female cones, Tbilisi. Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves are used in traditional medicine against rabies and heart ailments. It can be used for diseases of the cardiovascular system (Isotova et al. 2010; Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Seeds contain essential and fatty oils (Budantseva 1994–1996; (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Grossheim 1952; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). The water decoction of needles is used internally in heart diseases and as gastric remedy. A water decoction of needles is used externally as antirheumatic (Damirov et al. 1988). The species is also used for fractures and headache (Bhat et al. 2013, 2015). Taxus wallichiana is used for asthma, bronchitis, epilepsy, hiccup, diarrhea, and headache (Bhat et al. 2015; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010).

Local Food Uses The red fruit mantle is edible, and eaten raw or as jam, while all other parts of the tree are highly toxic (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The fine-grain yellowish-red or brownish-red wood, with a rather narrow layer of white or yellowish sapwood, is very hard and durable. It provides good material for carpentry and turning. The bark yields a glue which is used for bird catching. The leaves are deadly poisonous to horses, cows, and goats. Common yew has high quality wood, which is used in construction and furniture (Grossheim 1952). A dye

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solution is prepared from fruits and wood to obtain violet color. The solution is used for dyeing wool (Qasimov 1980). It is a good nectariferous plant, producing much nectar (Grossheim 1946). The wood is very hard and used for tool handles. It also serves as posts in constantly wet areas (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017a, b; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

References Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1) Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vols. 1–2. Moscow; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1). Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5 Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku; 1988. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant resources of the Caucasus. Baku; Publishing house of AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1946. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Iljin, M. M. (English 1968). Flora of the USSR, volume 1: Archegoniatae and Embryophyta; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad; 1934. 244 pages, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow; 2010. (in Russian). Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti, C, Chowdhary, CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobotany Research and Application 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar, R.M., Burlakoti, C., Chowdhary, C.L., Bussmann, R.W.. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):28–42.

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Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Taxus baccata L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer international publishing; 2017. Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vols. 1–7. Leningrad; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan; 2007. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vol. 1–2. Yerevan; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Tetraena mongolica Maxim. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Local Names Mandarin: 四合木 (Si he mu)

Botany and Ecology Shrub, 40–80 cm tall, heavily branched. The old branches are dark purple to brownish red, glabrate while recent branchlets are yellowish white, with T-shaped trichomes. Stipules white, ovate, membranous. Leaves on old branches fascicled and on current branchlets nearly opposite, sessile; leaflet blades grayish blue, oblanceolate, 5–7  2–3 mm, both surfaces with T-shaped trichomes, margin entire, apex acute with short sharp tip. Flowers axillary, solitary. Pedicel 2–4 mm. Sepals 4, grayish, ovate to elliptic, ca. 3  2.5 mm, with T-shaped trichomes. Petals 4, white, elliptic to rotund, ca. 2  1.5 mm. Stamens 8, in 2 whorls, outer ones shorter; filament with white membranous appendages at base. Ovary 4-carpellate. Fruit pendulous, 4-valved. Schizocarp linear-ovoid to crescent-shaped, 5–6 mm,

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_139

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with 4 carpels. Seeds oblong-ovoid, muriculate. Flowering May–June, fruiting July– October. Mostly on river terraces, low mountains in steppes, desert areas, especially in Mongolia.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The wood is very oily because it is rich in triglycerides and thus a favorite firewood. The species is endangered due to overuse (Wang et al. 2007).

References Wang G, Lin Q, Xu Y. Tetraena mongolica maxim can accumulate large amounts of triacylglycerol in phloem cells and xylem parenchyma of stems. Phytochemistry. 2007;68:2112–7. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2007.04.040.

Thalictrum foetidum L. Thalictrum isopyroides C.A. Mey Thalictrum minus L. Thalictrum sp. RANUNCULACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Thalictrum foetidum L.: Thalictrum minus var. foetidum (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson; Thalictrum minus var. glandulosum Koch; Thalictrum vaginatum Royle Thalictrum minus L.: Thalictrum caffrum Eckl. & Zeyh.; Thalictrum kochii Fr.; Thalictrum transsilvanicum Schur

Local Names Thalictrum foetidum: Russian: Bacилиcтниквoнючий (Vasilistnik vonyuchiy); Uzbek: Sassik sanchikoot; Kyrgyz: Cacыктapмaлчoп (Sasyk tarmal chop); English: Foetid meadow rue (Fedorov 1984) Thalictrum isopyroides: Russian name: Bacилиcтникизoпиpoидный (Vasilistnik izopiroidnyy); Usbek: Sanchikut; Kyrgyz: Tepeнкecиктуутapмaлчoп (Teren kesiktuu tarmal chop) (Fedorov 1984) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_140

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Thalictrum minus; Russian: Bacилиcтникмaлый (Vasilistnik malyy); Uzbek: Sanchyq ut; Kyrgyz: Кичинeкeйтapмaлчoп (Kichinekey tarmal chop), English: Small meadow-rue (Fedorov 1984)

Botany and Ecology Thalictrum foetidum: Perennial; entire plant covered with short glandular pubescence mainly developed on underside of leaves and consisting of short spreading hairs and small glands, very rarely the plant almost glabrous or covered with isolated small glands; stem (15)20–50 (65) cm high, often violet proximally, with evenly spaced leaves; leaves 3–4-pinnate, petiolate or subsessile, with 1–4 cm exstipulate petioles, the blade broadly triangular, to 10–20 cm long and about as broad; leaflets small, orbicular, rounded-ovate or obovate, sometimes slightly cordate, trilobate, with ovate entire and obtusely 2–3-dentate lobes, the leaflets 2–15 mm broad; flowers small, often nutant, in a loose panicle; pedicels 0.5–3(4) cm; perianth segments 4–5, ovate, 3–4 mm long, 1–2 mm broad, violet; stamens numerous, 2.5–3 times as long as pistils; filaments slender, 3–5 mm long; anthers yellow, linear, acuminate, 2–3 mm long; pistils 8–12; ovary 1 mm long, sessile; style 0.5–2 mm long; fruitlets sessile, ovoid or ovoid- oblong, flattened, 2–3.5 mm long, 1.5–2.5 mm broad, glandular-pubescent, longitudinally ribbed; beak ca. 1 mm long, straight or slightly curved. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on stony slopes, cliffs, pebbles, limestone, forest fringes, along rivers, in the subalpine and alpine belts (Shishkin and Boborov 1937). Thalictrum isopyroides: Perennial; stem 15–40(50) cm high, simple, rarely branched, glabrous and smooth, as is the entire plant; leaves exstipulate, glaucousgreen, 3–4-pinnate, few (usually 2 or 3), crowded in lower part of stem, petiolate or subsessile, the blade broadly triangular or triangular in outline; leaflets small, smooth, ovate-lanceolate, dissected almost to base into 2–3 obtusely pointed entire lobes, 3–8 mm long, 0.75–3.5 mm broad; inflorescence sparse, diffuse, the long (1.5 cm) slender pedicels almost horizontal, sometimes to 10 cm; perianth segments 4, 1–3 mm long, (0.5)1–1.5 mm broad, oval, subobtuse or subobtusely pointed; stamens 5–8, greenish brown, 4–6 mm long; filaments undilated; anthers linear, subacute, 1–2 mm long; pistils usually 3, rarely 2 or 4–6, one-third to half the length of the stamens; ovary 1 mm long, sessile; style 0.5 mm long; fruitlets sessile, oblongovoid, 3.5–5 mm long, 1.5 mm broad, distinctly and obtusely ribbed (ribs 3 on each side, not counting the median ribs), beak very slightly curved, ca. 0.75 mm long. Caucasus, Middle Asia, on rocks, gravelly and rocky slopes, to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin and Boborov 1937) (Figs 1, 2, and 3). Thalictrum minus: Perennial, usually glabrous and smooth; stem 30–120 (150) cm high, erect, sometimes geniculate, with evenly spaced spreading leaves; root fibers gray; leaves exstipulate, rarely stipulate, petiolate (only upper leaves sessile), 3–4pinnate, broadly triangular in general outline, 7–30 cm long and as broad; in the steppe and forest-steppe race (T. collinum Wallr.) leaflets coriaceous suborbicular, rounded-ovate, or rounded-obovate [in outline], basally rounded, distally obtusely tridentate or trilobate, with 2–3-dentate lobes, small to 1.5 cm long and as broad,

Thalictrum foetidum L. . . .

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Fig. 1 Thalictrum foetidum (Ranunculaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Thalictrum foetidum (Ranunculaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

with a network of very prominent veins beneath, margins very slightly convolute; in the meadow-forest Siberian variety (T. sibiricum L; T. kemense Fries) leaflets coriaceous, larger – averaging ca. 2.5–3 cm long and ca. 2 cm broad, sometimes more than 4 cm long and as broad – rounded-obovate or obovate, basally rounded, distally usually coarsely tridentate, green, but slightly duller beneath and with a rather inconspicuous network of veins; the variety growing in the forest part of the

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Fig. 3 Thalictrum foetidum (Ranunculaceae), Racha, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Ural area and East Siberia (T. globiflorum Ldb.) leaflets very thin, delicate, membranous, obovate or ovate, rounded-cuneate, distally coarsely trilobate or tridentate, green above, glaucous with inconspicuous network of veins beneath, 2–3.5 cm long, 1.2–2 cm broad; in several varieties (T. ledebourianum C.A.M) smallish leaflets distinctly cuneate; flowers usually nodding, in an oval or pyramidal many-flowered panicle, greenish-reddish; pedicels 5–10(20) mm; perianth segments 3–4 mm long, 1.5–2 mm broad, ovate; stamens 10–15, pendent, 7–8 mm long, with slender filaments; anthers linear, obtuse or subacute; pistils 5–8; ovary 1 mm long, sessile; fruitlets 2.5–4 mm long, 1–2 mm broad, sessile, ovoid or ovoid-ellipsoid, distinctly oblong-ribbed, beak straight, ca. 0.7 5–1 mm long. Flowering June–July. Ural, Altai, in dense forests, along the edge of the forest, steppes, meadows, ravines (Shishkin and Boborov 1937) (Figs. 4 and 5).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (beberine, talphine, talline, isoboldin, fetidine, talipetidine, berbamine, thalicmine, thalicmidine, thalicmitrine, tolmetin, argemonine, thalisopine, thalisopidine, dehydrothalicmine, thalicmine, thalicminine, cryptopine, magnoflorine), cyanogenic compounds, tannins, flavonoids, organic acids, coumarins (Fedorov 1984).

Thalictrum foetidum L. . . .

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Fig. 4 Thalictrum minus (Ranunculaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Thalictrum minus (Ranunculaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses The species are generally used in Middle Asia and the Altai to treat ulcers and gastric diseases (Fedorov 1984). Thalictrum foetidum: The leaves are used as an antiemetic. It is also used to treat epilepsy, jaundice, edema, tuberculosis, nose bleeds, gastrointestinal ailments, colds, and gynecological diseases. As poultice, it is used to treat bruises, wounds, abscesses, and rheumatism. A decoction of the roots is used as remedy for diarrhea, ulcers, and liver and kidney diseases. A tea of the seeds and herb is used for headache, dizziness, and bronchitis (Fedorov 1984). Thalictrum isopyroides: In Tajikistan, a tea made from the leaves parts is used to treat fever, chest pain, and as an anticonvulsive, for epilepsy, jaundice, tachycardia, nose bleeds, tuberculosis, gastrointestinal problems, and feminine diseases. A decoction of the roots is drunk to treat stomach ulcers, liver and kidney disease, and high blood pressure. A seed decoction is used to treat dizziness, high blood pressure,

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bronchitis, and edema. An infusion of the plant is used to treat diarrhea, jaundice, malaria, epilepsy and lung tuberculosis, and externally to treat skin diseases (Fedorov 1984). Thalictrum minus: An infusion of the herb is used to treat various diseases: skin, diarrhea, hepatitis, malaria, epilepsy, tuberculosis, fevers, and is also used as a hemostatic (Fedorov 1984). Thalictrum foliosum is used in the Himalayas for diarrhea, as purgative and diuretic, febrifuge, and eye problems, and for cuts and wounds (Joshi et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2011). Thalictrum cultratum is used for stomach problems and diarrhea (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010, 2013).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is used as fodder for cattle and planted as ornamental (Fedorov 1984).

References Fedorov AA, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 1. Families Magnoliaceae – Limoniaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1984. 460 p. (in Russian). Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromatic Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special issue 1):43–6. Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 7 Ranales to Rhoedales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1937 (English 1970). 615 p.

Thymus marschallianus Willd. Thymus sp. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Thymus marschallianus Willd.: Thymus loevyanus auct.; Thymus pannonicus auct.; Thymous pannonicus subsp. marschallianus Soó

Local Names Russian: Tимьян Mapшaллoв (Tim’yan Marshallov); Uzbek: Kaklikoot, Toshchop; Kyrgyz: Кaдимкикийик oту (Kadimki kiyik otu) (Sokolov 1991)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; woody stems short or often obsolescent; sterile shoots assurgent at base or erect; flowering branches 12–37 cm (mostly ca. 25 cm) long, covered under the inflorescence with long spreading hairs, in lower part with short recurved hairs; R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_141

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leaves sessile, oblong-elliptical, (12.5)15–24(30) mm long, 2.5–5(7.5) mm broad, cuneate at base, subacuminate, light green, thin, sparsely ciliate at margin and at base, glabrous or sometimes sparsely hairy (f. hirsutus Klok. et Shost.); lateral veins rather indistinct; glands numerous but small and rather indistinct; inflorescence usually elongate, up to 15(18) cm long, interrupted, with up to 7 or more distant whorls; pedicels nearly as long as calyx, hairy; calyx campanulate,(2)2.25–2.75 (3) mm long in flower, mostly ca. 2.5 mm, 3–3.5 mm in fruit, with a short hairy tube; upper teeth sharp-angled, subequal, long-ciliate; corolla infundibular, ca. 5 mm long, pale lilac, with indistinct tube; nutlets globose, 0.5–0.7 mm in diameter, almost black. Flowering: second half of May–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, rocky meadows, forest steppes, on sandy soils, outcrops of crystalline rocks (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961; Makalatia 1933; Qasimov 1980; Shishkin and Borisova 1954; Takhtadjan 1954–2009) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 1 Thymus collinum (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Thymus vulgare (Lamiaceae), Manglisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Thymus marschallianus Willd. . . .

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Fig. 3 Thymus vulgare (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Thymus vulgare (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Essential oils (carvacrol, thymol, pinene, cymene, limonene, linalyl acetate, cineole, geraniol, citral, linalool, borneol, terpineol, pinacetate, camphene, citronellol, nerrolidol, eukaliptol, bornilacetate, nerilacetate, citronellal, ursolic and oleanolic, terpinene, tsingiberen) (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia and the Altai, Thyme infusions are used for diseases of the upper respiratory tract, fever, bronchitis, whooping cough, bronchial asthma, fever, headache, to treat stomatitis and toothaches, and as bath for gynecological diseases,

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neurodermatitis, and eczema, and for wounds (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1991). Thymus kotschyanus is used for disinfection of the oral cavity, as anthelmintic, remedy for respiratory diseases, and as hypotensive (Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Young stem and leaves contain tannins, organic acids, vitamin C, essential oils, saponins, and thymol (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Budantseva 1994–1996; Bussmann 2017; Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Thymus caucasicus is used for diseases of the upper respiratory passages and lungs. A water infusion of the aboveground parts is applied as expectorant, antitussive, as well as diuretic. The same decoction is used externally as gargle for angina and foul smell in the mouth (Damirov et al. 1988). The water infusion of the aboveground parts is also used internally to treat apnea, hypertonia, and as anthelmintic (Damirov et al. 1988). Thymus collinus has anti-inflammatory properties. A decoction and water infusion of the aboveground parts is applied internally to treat colds and as an expectorant (Grossheim 1942). Thymus caucasicus and T. collinus are used as an expectorant to heal diseased upper respiratory tract (Kuchukhidze and Jokhadze 2012). The dry leaves of thyme are used to relieve spasms and crams. Also, its tincture based on spirit was used against rheumatism (Roloff 1887). The leaves are also used for cough and hypertension (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018). Thymus serpyllum is used in Pakistan to treat lung disease and asthma (Sher et al. 2016), as well as an expectorant, carmative, antiseptic, anticonvulsive, for whooping cough, kidney and eye problems (Joshi et al. 2010) (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).

Local Food Uses The leaves are used as spice and as tea surrogate (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Sokolov 1991). Fig. 5 Thymus vulgare (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Thymus caucasicus (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Thymus caucasicus (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Thymus caucasicus Willd. ex Benth.; Thymus collinus M. Bieb.; Thymus kotschyanus Boiss. & Hohen. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Budantseva AL, editor. Plant resources of Russia and neighboring countries, vols. 1–2. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1994–1996. (in Russian). Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:5. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Damirov IA, Prilipko LI, Shukurov DZ, Kerimov YB. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Metsniereba; 1988. (in Russian). Flora of Azerbaijan, vols. I–VIII. Baku: AS of Azerbaijani SSR; 1950–1961. (in Russian). Gabrielyan E. Herbal medicine national register. Yerevan: Akademia Nauk; 2001. (in Armenian). Grossheim AA. Medicinal plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Publishing house of Azerbaijani Branch of AS; 1942. (in Russian). Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Isotova MA, Sarafakova NA, Mkscho BI, Ionova AA. Great encyclopedia of traditional medicine. Moscow: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2010. (in Russian). Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromatic Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special issue 1):43–6. Kuchukhidze J, Jokhadze M. Botany (medicinal plants). Tbilisi: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2012. (in Georgian). Makalatia S. Tusheti. Tbilisi: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1933. (in Georgian). Qasimov MA. Dye plants of Azerbaijan. Baku: Azerbaijan State Publishing House; 1980. (in Azeri). Roloff A. Wild plants of the Caucasus. Tiflis; 1887. (in Russian). Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Borisova AG. Flora of the USSR. vol. 21. Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 pages, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD. Plant resources of the USSR, vols. 1–7. Leningrad: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1984–1993. (in Russian). Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian). Takhtadjan AL. Flora of Armenia, vols. 1–11. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1954– 2009. (in Russian).

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Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild edible plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2007. (in Armenian). Tsaturyan T, Gevorgyan M. Wild medicinal plants of Armenia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 2014. (in Armenian). Zolotnitskaya S. Medicinal resources of the flora of Armenia, vols. 1–2. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences; 1958–1965. (in Russian).

Tribulus terrestris L. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Tribulus terrestris L.: Tribulus bimucronatus Viv.; Tribulus lanuginosus L.; Tribulus saharae A. Chev.; Tribulus terrestris var. sericeus Andersson ex Svenson

Local Names Russian: Якopцы cтeлющиecя (Yakortsy stelyushchiyesya); Uzbek: Temirtikan; Kyrgyz name: Toшoлмo мыктикeн (Tosholmo myk tiken); English: Puncturevine

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_142

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Botany and Ecology Annual; root thin, annual, straight; stems 10–60 cm long, branching, spreading, covered like petioles and pedicels with hairs of two kinds: long-spreading and short-appressed, the whole plant appearing glaucescent; leaves paripinnate, opposite, 3–5 cm long, 1.5– 2 cm wide, with small acute stipules; leaflets 6–8 pairs, oblong, 4–10 mm long, glabrous above, with long white appressed hairs beneath. Flowers axillary, solitary, small, few along stem, on 4–10 mm long pedicels; sepals ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, ca. 4 mm long, 1.5 mm wide; corolla yellowish; petals obovate, somewhat truncate, 5– 7 mm long, ca. 3 mm wide; style short; fruit composed of 5 stellately disposed angular fruitlets, beset outside with large and acute 2 or 4 prickles, as well as tubercles and bristles. Flowering April–May, fruiting June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, Altai, weedy and waste places, among crops, pebbly deposits and sands in river valleys (Shishkin and Boborov 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Phytochemistry Flavonoids, alkaloids (harman, harmine), saponins (diosgenin, gitogenin, ruscogenin), vitamins (C), tannins, fatty acids. Fig. 1 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Tribulus terrestris L. Fig. 2 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia, decoctions and infusions are used as a purgative, diuretic, and tonic, for gonorrhea, headaches, and eye inflammations, and for strong side pains. The roots are boiled in milk for the treatment of malaria. The juice is used to treat gastritis and stomach acidity, and as diuretic. A milk decoction is used in Central Asia as fortifying agent in cases of malaria and as tea substitute. In the Caucasus, the decoction of the leaves serves as diuretic, for diarrhea, dysentery, gonorrhea, and eye diseases (Sokolov 1988). Concentrated decoction of the aerial parts is used for treating hemorrhoids, kidney stones, and constipation (Ghorbani 2005). Decoction of leaves is used for

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kidney pain (Safa et al. 2013). Decoction of the whole plant is used for reducing fever, appetizing agent, urinary duct inflammation, treatment of whooping cough, gonorrhea in men, kidney and bladder stones, bladder infection, inflammation of the prostate, male sexual stimulant, and increasing sperm volume (Sadeghi et al. 2014; Khajoei Nasab and Esmailpour 2018). Use of decoction of seeds for kidney stones, urinary duct complaints, and as diuretic is very common in the traditional medicine of Iran (Mozaffarian 2013; Khajoei Nasab and Khosravi 2014). The plant is used also for treating diarrhea, irregular menstruation, wounds, and dyspepsia in Pakistan (Umair et al. 2019).

References Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. Khajoei Nasab F, Esmailpour M. Ethno-medicinal survey on weed plants in agro-ecosystems: a case study in Jahrom, Iran. Environ Dev Sustain. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0128-9. Khajoei Nasab F, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;154:190–7. Mozaffarian V. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants of Iran. Tehran: Farhang Moaser; 2013. Sadeghi Z, Kuhestani K, Abdollahi V, Mahmood A. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region, Baluchistan, Iran. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:111–8. Safa O, Soltanipoor MA, Rastegar S, Kazemi M, Dehkordi K, Ghannadi A. An ethnobotanical survey on hormozgan province, Iran. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2013;3:64–81. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 14. Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 pages, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian). Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.

Trifolium pratense L. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Trifolium pratense L.: Trifolium pratense var. sativum Schreb.

Local Names Russian: Клeвep лугoвoй, Клeвep кpaный (Klever lugovoy, Klever krasnyy); Uzbek: Sebarga; Kyrgyz: Шaлбaa уйбeдecи (Shalbaa uy bedesi); English: Red clover (Sokolov 1987)

Botany and Ecology Perennial, root profusely branched, with bacterial nodules on ultimate ramifications; plants, especially in the taiga belt, sometimes almost rosulate by profusion of basal leaves; stems (actually terminal branches in absence of a developed main axis) mostly R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_143

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2–5, ascending (hence plant somewhat sprawling), 15–40 cm long, at first patuloushairy, especially under the nodes, finally with scattered hairs; stipules ovate, elongateacuminate, sometimes hairy; leaves 3-foliolate, the lower long-petioled, the upper short-petioled; leaflets more densely hairy beneath, the lower broad-obovate, the upper elliptic or ovate; heads mostly 1 or 2 at ends of stems, rounded-oblong or ovoid, 30– 70-flowered, usually subtended by terminal leaves and their enlarged stipules, rarely pedunculate; flowers 11–14 mm long, sessile; calyx tubular-campanulate, light green or brownish, 10-nerved, in upper part hirsute; calyx-teeth narrow, erect, the lowest much longer than the others; corolla light to dark-carneous, sometimes lilac, rarely plain white, the claws united into nectariferous tube, 7–10 mm long; standard cuneate or spatulate, obtuse, emarginate, wings with saccate projections at base of claw, these clasping the tube; ovary sessile, 1- or 2-ovuled; pod commonly 1-seeded, ovoid, in upper part membranous and lustrous, in lower part dull and slightly wrinkled; seed ovoid, flattened, yellowish or brown. Flowering May–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, moderately wet and dry meadows, open forests and forest margins, often field borders and paths (Iljin 1934) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Trifolium pratense (Fabaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Trifolium pratense (Fabaceae), Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Phytochemistry Cyanogenic compounds, vitamins (C, E, K, carotene), coumarins (coumestrol), flavonoids (pratenseine, formononetine, genisteine, daidzeine, biochanIn quercetine, genisteine, biochannine, formononetine, flavonols, isoflavones, isoquercitrine, kaempferol, isoramnetine, populene, tripoline, ononine), fatty acids (capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic), pterocarpans (trifolirizine), carbohydrates (galactose, arabinose, xylose, mannose, raffinose, maltose, isomaltose), steroids (sitosterol), saponins, phenylcarboxylic acids (p-coumaric, chlorogenic, melilotic), coumarins (coumarine) (Sokolov 1987).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Caucasus, a leaf infusion is used for gynecological diseases, scrofula, and wound healing. A tincture is prepared for gout, and as remedy for poisoning. In KarachayCherkessia, a water-alcohol tincture is used to treat pulmonary tuberculosis and hernias. In Middle Asia, the fresh leaves are used externally as hemostatic, hypertension, stenocardia, anemia, uterine bleeding, leukorrhea, shortness of breath, coughs, painful menstruation, and for wound-healing. The leaf juice is used for scrofula, abscesses, burns, skin tumors, as emollient, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, for rheumatic pain, hypertension, and headache (Bussmann et al. 2016; Sokolov 1987).

Local Food Uses The fresh leaves are eaten as salad and boiled like spinach in Kyrgyzstan and in the Caucasus, mostly as admixture to other species. In other areas in Middle Asia, the leaves are used as substitute for tea (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h; Bussmann et al. 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1987).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves yield a greenish and yellow dye for wool. The species is used as fodder for all types of livestock; however, extensive consumption can be poisonous to cattle and especially pigs (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017; Sokolov 1987).

References Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a.

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Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann, RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, vol. 1. Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1968). 244 pages, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326 p. (in Russian).

Tussilago farfara L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Local Names Russian: Maть-и-мaчexa oбыкнoвeннaя (Mat’-i-machekha obyknovennaya); Uzbek: Okkaldirmok; Kyrgyz: Кaдимки oгoйЭнe (Kadimki ogoy ene); English: Coltsfoot (Sokolov 1993)

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Rhizome long, creeping; flowering shoots 10–25 cm high, covered with scaly, appressed, ovate-lanceolate, acute leaves, mostly purple-violet. Basal leaves appear after anthesis, long-petiolate, roundish-cordate, 10–25 cm wide, angular, with irregular teeth, coriaceous, floccose on both sides, but later glabrous above, whitishtomentose with soft hairs. Capitula solitary, 2.0–2.5 cm in diameter, drooping. Florets golden yellow; pappus 4–5 times as long as achenes. Flowering April– May Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, widely distributed; found on young alluvial R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_144

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Fig. 1 Tussilago farfara (Asteraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 2 Tussilago farfara (Asteraceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

deposits, both clayey and sandy, or leached soils, on slopes along bottoms of ravines and on railroad embankments; also distributed in middle mountain zone on rock outcrops and along banks of mountain streams and rivers (Shishkin and Boborov 1961) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (inuline, raffinose, sucrose, mukopectine, pectine), latex, steroids (sitosterol, stigmasterine), alkaloids (tussilagine, senesionine, senkirkine, petazitenine, symphitine), essential oils, vitamins (C), tannins, sesquiterpenoids (tussilagon, hydroxytussilane), flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetine, rutine, hyperoside), fatty acids (caprylic, pelargonic, capric, undecano, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachine, dodecene, tridecanoic, tridecene, tetradecene, pentadecene, pentadecanoic,

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hexadecene, heptadecanoic, heptadecene, octadecene, octadecadiene, octadecatriene), phenolcarboxylic acids (ferulic, p-hydroxybenzoic, coffee) (Sokolov 1993).

Local Medicinal Uses The species was originally included in a large number of official herbal pharmacopoeia but more recently removed due to possible toxicity and carcinogenic activity. Traditionally used in the whole region as an expectorant and suppressant for cough, respiratory diseases, bronchial asthma, emollient, anti-inflammatory, for tracheitis, laryngitis, bronchopneumonia, bronchial asthma, and bronchitis. It is used topically as poultice for infected wounds, skin ulcers, burns, periodontitis, and to treat tumors, abscesses, and furuncles. Juice from fresh leaves and roots is used to treat tuberculosis and malaria, and as a choleretic and diaphoretic. The decoction is used to treat tracheitis, kidney and bladder diseases, the gastrointestinal tract, loss of appetite, fever, erysipelatous skin inflammation, scrofula, hair loss, and abscesses. Fresh juice from the leaves is inhaled into the nostrils to eliminate sinus colds. The juice of leaves is also mixed with powdered sugar to treat tuberculosis (Sokolov 1993). In modern traditional medicine, it is widely used, especially for colds and cough, bronchitis, as an expectorant, but also for lung problems and as vasodilator, for flu Fig. 3 Tussilago farfara (Asteraceae), freshly harvested, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Tussilago farfara (Asteraceae), drying, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

treatments, and for wounds (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, 2018). It is often sold in local medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2017b). (Paniagua-Zambrana) (Figs. 3 and 4).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The species is used in veterinary medicine for diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, to stimulate appetite and improve digestion, as an expectorant, respiratory diseases, and for wound care. It is a good fodder for cattle (Sokolov 1993).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2016c;86(2):3517. https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 26. Compositae Giseke (altern. Asteraceae Dumort). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1961 (English 1995). 1072 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian).

Typha orientalis C. Presl TYPHACEAE Bo Liu and Rainer W. Bussmann

Synonyms Typha orientalis C. Presl: Typha latifolia var. orientalis (C. Presl) Rohrb.; Typha orientalis var. brunnea Skvortsov in Baranov & Skortsov; Typha shuttleworthii Lehm.; Typha shuttleworthii ssp. orientalis (C. Presl) Graebn.; Typha shuttleworthii var. orientalis (C. Prsel.) Rohrb.

Local Names Chinese: 东方香蒲 (Dong fang xiang pu)

Botany and Ecology Perennial; stems 100–200 cm, stout, terete; leaves broadly linear, up to 20 mm broad, broader than in other USSR species; staminate part of inflorescence commonly contiguous with the pistillate part; filament of stamens 2–3 times as

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_145

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long as the anthers, these up to 3 mm long; pistillate part slightly longer than the staminate, at maturity to 2.5 cm thick, cylindric, softly downy, blackish brown (thus readily distinguishable from the other species); ovary one-fourth to one-third the length of the stipe, this 3–4 mm long; stigma lanceolate or rhombic, greatly surpassing the perianth hairs. Flowering June–July. On river banks, backwaters, lakes, bogs, sites of peat cutting, and clays. In the Caucasus, Siberia, Middle Asia (Iljin 1934).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (hemicellulose, pentosans, starch, sucrose, fructose, glucose, galactose, isomaltose, maltose, maltotriose, raffinose, rhamnose, ribose), triterpeinoids, lignin, flavonoids (isorhamnetin, quercetol, kaempferol), catechins (epicatechin, afzelechin, D-catechin), leukanthocyanins, fatty acids (Sokolov 1994).

Local Medicinal Uses Traditionally an infusion is used to treat intestinal problems. The fibers and pollen are applied against bleeding and to treat infected wounds and burns (Sokolov 1994). Typha angustata is used to remedy diarrhea, mumps, measles, and gonorrhea (Umair et al. 2019); Typha elephantina is used for problems of the urinary system, as galactagogue, and for internal bleeding (Raj et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses The rootstock contains a large amount of edible starch. The pollen is also being collected and eaten (Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1994).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves are employed in cooperage and for weaving of baskets, mats, and rugs. The whole plants are used for papermaking and are ensilaged for feed. The inflorescence hairs are used for the production of cellulose, as packing and filling material; when mixed with wool, they are used in the manufacture of felt for hat making. It is also used as decorative plant (Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1994) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

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Fig. 1 Typha angustifolia (Typhaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana) Fig. 2 Typha angustifolia (Typhaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

808 Fig. 3 Typha angustifolia (Typhaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

Fig. 4 Typha angustifolia (Typhaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

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Fig. 5 Typha angustifolia (Typhaceae), Kvemo Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. PaniaguaZambrana)

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Iljin MM. Flora of the USSR, vol. 1. Archegoniatae and Embryophyta. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1934 (English 1968). 244 p, 14 b/w plates, 2 maps. Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002018-0208-9. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271 p. (in Russian). Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.

Urtica cannabina L. Urtica dioica L. URTICACEAE Wenqi Li, Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Urtica cannabina L.: Urtica cannabina fo. angustifolia Chu Urtica dioica L.: Urtica tibetica W.T. Wang; Urtica galeopsifolia Wierzb. ex Opiz

W. Li College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_146

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Local Names Russian: Кpaпивa двудoмнaя (Krapiva dvudomnaya); Uzbek name: Gazanda, Kichitki oot, Chayan oot; Kyrgyz name: Чaлкaн (Chalkan); Chinese: 异株荨麻 (Yi zhu qian ma); English: Stinging nettle (Fedorov 1984).

Botany and Ecology Urtica cannabina: Perennial herbs, 70–200 cm tall, covered with pubescence and stings. Rhizomes creeping, stems erect, often nearly spineless, sometimes sparse or densely burred and slightly puberulent, with a few branches. Leaves are opposite, 4–14 cm long, 3.5–14 cm wide, palmate 3-lobed or 3-lobed, lobes again divided pinnatipartitely. Petiole 2–8 cm long and pubescent; stipules 4 per segment, free, 5–15 mm long, pubescent on both sides, lanceolate or broads. Flowers unisexual, monoecious or dioecious, in spikelike cymes, axillary; female inflorescences in the lower axillary, conical, 5–8 cm long, obliquely spreading, male inflorescences in the upper axillary often mixed with female flowers; female inflorescences in the upper axillary are often spike-like, sometimes with a few branches 2–7 cm long, erect or oblique. Male flowers with short pedicels, 1.2– 1.5 mm in diameter, perianth segments 4-lobed, connate to the middle, lobes ovate, puberulent outside; stamens 4, ovary cup-shaped, pistil degrading nearly bowl-shaped, about 0.2 mm long, nearly sessile, pale yellow or white, transparent. Specially, female inflorescences have very short pedicels with narrow ovate, smooth, sharp apex, slightly flat, 2–3 mm long, grayish-brown at ripening, with obvious or indistinct brown-red spots on the surface; persistent perianth segments 4-lobed, enlarged after anthesis, enclosed fruits, ovaries connate in the lower third, nearly membranous, two oval-shaped inside with obtuse apex, 2–4 mm long, spiny hairs 1–4 and thin outside. Its outer oval or long oval 3–4 times shorter than inner, often with a bristle outside (Figs. 1 and 2). Urtica dioica: Perennial. Rootstock creeping underground; stems erect, 60–100 cm long, glabrous or sparingly pubescent, with a dense coating of stinging hairs especially at the nodes. The leaves are ovate-cordate, coarsely serrate with incurved teeth, mostly cordate at base. Acuminate at apex. Stipules free, oblong, scarious, up to 12 mm long. The plants are dioecious; the inflorescences are long; they are also branched and covered with simple hairs and scattered stinging hairs. The bracts of the flowers are small. The fruit is 1.25–1.5 mm long and extends beyond the kernel. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia. The plant can be found along roadsides, as a weed among crops and near human habitations and in damp woods (Boborov and Komarov 1936) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

Local Medicinal Uses Urtica dioica: Nettle is widely used in allopathic and traditional medicine. Fresh leaves can be used for joint pain. An alcoholic tincture of leaves and stems is a remedy for skin diseases and serves as antiseptic. The tincture of dry leaves is useful for diathesis. Nettle tea is used as sedative and to lower blood pressure. The plant helps

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Fig. 1 Urtica cannabina (Urticaceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo Bo Liu)

Fig. 2 Urtica cannabina (Urticaceae), Inner Mongolia, China. (Photo Bo Liu)

to prevent bleeding, gallbladder problems, and is a diuretic, and anti-inflammatory. It also has estrogen effects, lowers the level of cholesterol in the blood, and regulates digestion and carbohydrate exchange. Nettle has positive effects on the cardiovascular

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Fig. 3 Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

system; in cases of anemia, it increases the hemoglobin in the blood and promotes healing of damaged tissues. Nettle preparations are used in dermatology, helping to heal eczema, psoriasis, acne, oily seborrhea, and serve for hair loss therapies. The tincture of nettle is useful for radiculitis, rheumatism, kidney infections, bladder inflammation, liver disease, and hemorrhoids (Amirdovlat 1927; Burduli 2010; Eliava 1920; Gasitashvili 1962; Genebashvili 1992; Jikia 1991; Kuchukhidze and Jokhadze 2012; Lapachi 1999; Melikishvili 1976; Metreveli 2011; Mindadze 2013; Mindadze and Chirgadze 2005; Roloff 1887; Savaneli 2011; Shengelia 1983; Tsagareishvili 1999; Tsutsunava 1960; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001; Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Vardanyan 1979; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). Leaves and stem contain organic acids, starch, sugars, and vitamins A, K, B2, and C. Seeds contain fatty oils (Grossheim 1952; Budantseva 1994–1996; Sokolov 1984–1993; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). A water infusion and decoction of

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Fig. 5 Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

nettle is applied in diseases of liver, biliary tract, stone diseases, chronic constipation, and as diuretic (Mehtiyeva and Zeynalova 2013). The water infusion is used for hemorrhoid, uterine, pneumonic, and intestinal hemorrhages (Damirov et al. 1988). A water infusion and decoction is also used in dysentery, hemorrhoids, and podagra. A decoction from leaves is used to strengthen hair growth. The leaves have diuretic, purgative, expectorant, anastaltic, anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and antipyretic properties (Alalbarov 2008; Damirov et al. 1988). A decoction and powder of leaves is used as a diuretic, laxative, expectorant, vasoconstrictor, and hemostatic to treat internal bleeding and hemorrhoids, and also to treat rheumatism, stomach diseases, diabetes, and chronic ulcers. It is used in a bath to treat various types of swelling. The roots and fruits are used to treat diarrhea. The leaves are used in a wash to treat hair loss (Fedorov 1984). Urtica dioica is also used for sciatica, rheumatism, boils, and skin ailments, as diuretic, for jaundice, as astringent and anthelminthic, and to treat kidney bleeding (Bhat et al. 2015; Joshi et al. 2010; Njoroge et al. 2004). Sometimes the plant is used to treat fractures and blood pressure instabilities (Kunwar et al. 2010, 2013). In Pakistan, the plant is used to treat headache, fever, and myalgia (Sher et al. 2016), and as emollient (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). Urtica ardens is also used for sciatica, rheumatism, boils, and skin ailments (Bhat et al. 2015). Urtica massaica serves as antimalarial and to treat ear infections (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a, b, c).

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Local Food Uses Leaves of both species contain significant quantities of vitamins A, C, and K. Soups, kuku (an omelet with various greens (sometimes with add meat or fish). Often eaten with sour milk. This dish is believed to strengthen the organism and stimulate libido, especially if eaten with cinnamon and fried onions), kutab (a mixture of herbs baked in thinly rolled dough in a frying pan. In some regions of the country, white cheese or cottage cheese is added. Before eating it, the dish it is greased with butter and often eaten with yoghurt), kirs (dumplings filled with nettle and walnut boiled in salt water), and other national dishes are made of fresh leaves. Juice is extracted from young shoots and leaves and used raw. Usually young leaves are used fresh with salt and dried leaves and stems are used as a spice for soups and salads. Nettles’ antiseptic quality helps maintain food freshness. It is use to fill fish for frying and can be put on meat (Grossheim 1952; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). Especially in mountain regions, young Urtica leaves are often eaten as salad or boiled for herb pies, especially in spring, and often mixed with a large number of other species (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b, 2018; Kunwar et al. 2009).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Leaves are used as fodder (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, c, 2017a, b). Leaves are used in traditional carpet weaving as source of green dye and roots as yellow dye. It is possible to make absolutely harmless green dye for the food industry (Grossheim 1952). Fresh nettle extract increases resistance of plants to diseases and is used in the fight against insects of plants from families Rosaceae and Fabaceae. It stimulates the chlorophyll production in leaves. From ancient times, magical properties were attributed to Nettle. It was believed that items made from nettles keep the house clean of evil forces. In order to cultivate the land nettles are hung from fences, and also kept as amulet (Amirdovlat 1927). Nettle is most useful when the plant is still green, but already has seeds. Nettle was used in ancient times in the economy, given the fiber, prepared the bags, ropes, and nets. A dye solution is prepared from leaves to obtain green, gray-green, yellow, green-brown, greenish-pink, greenish-coffee, greenish-brown, and other different colors and shades. The solution is used for dyeing wool fabric. In the past, ropes and coarse fabrics (sacking) were made of it (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Urtica massaica is used to treat dietary deficiencies in cattle (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b).

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Valeriana officinalis L. CAPRIFOLIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Valeriana officinalis L.: Valeriana alternifolia Bunge; Valeriana alternifolia fo. angustifolia (Kom.) Kitag.; Valerana alternifolia fo. verticillata (Kom.) S.X. Li; Valeriana alternifolia var. angustifolia (Kom.) S.H. Li; Valeriana baltica Pleijel; Valeriana chinensis Kreyer ex Kom.; Valeriana coreana Briq.; Valeriana coreana subsp. leiocarpa (Kitag.) Vorosch.; Valeriana dubia Bunge; Valeriana exaltata J.C. Mikan; Valeriana fauriei Briq.; Valeriana fauriei var. leiocarpa (Kitag.) Kitag.; Valeriana leiocarpa Kitag.; Valeriana nipponica Nakai ex Kitag.; Valeriana officinalis subsp. baltica Á. Löve & D. Löve; Valeriana officinalis subsp. exaltata Soó; Valeriana officinalis var. latifolia Briq.; Valeriana palustris Kreyer; Valeriana pseudofficinalis C.Y. Cheng & H.B. Chen; Valeriana stubendorfii fo. angustifolia Kom.; Valeriana stubendorfii fo. verticillata Kom.; Valeriana stubebdorfii Kreyer ex Kom.; Valeriana subbipinnatifolia A.I. Baranov; Valeriana tianschanica Kreyer ex Hand.-Mazz.

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_148

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Local Names Russian: Baлepиaнa лeкapcтвeннaя (Valeriana lekarstvennaya); Uzbek: Asaroon; Kyrgyz: Дapымышыктaмыp (Dary myshyk tamyr); English: Valerian (Sokolov 1990)

Botany and Ecology Perennial. Rhizome very short, indistinct, rarely up to 1–1.5 cm long, with numerous funiform fibrous roots and, often, depending on soil conditions with more or less prominent underground or, less frequently, on surface stolons (f. stolonifera), from 0.5 to 20 cm long, forming daughter plants at apex. Stems solitary or several, straight and stout, cylindrical, hollow, simple, branched only in inflorescence, greatly varied in size, from 10 to 200 cm, but usually 40–100 cm high, and up to 2 cm in diameter near base, sulcate, pubescent mainly in lower part and along nodes with short, coarse hairs or completely glabrous, green or violet red in lower third, with 4–7 (up to 14) leaf nodes. Leaves usually opposite, but occasionally alternate (fo. alternifolia) and sometimes in whorls of 3–4 (fo. verticillata) even on the same plant, lower leaves petiolate, upper sessile, odd pinnate, with 1–13, but usually with 3–9 pairs of lobes (segments), terminal lobe especially in lower cauline leaves, often larger and broader than lateral lobes, and on longer petioles, in which case leaf lyrate-pinnate, first leaves of sprouts and shoots rosettes, whereas occasionally lower cauline leaves undivided, sometimes all leaves completely undivided or only with isolated, short, asymmetric lobes (var. integrifolia Ldb.); lobes (segments) on short petioles, sessile or decurrent along rachis of leaf (especially upper segments), from broadly ovate (and often nonequilateral) to narrowly linear (F. angustifolia), obtuse or acute completely entire or dentate, teeth minute and isolated or coarse and remote, on both sides or only on one (often lower) margin; moreover, on the same plant, shape of segments varies greatly in leaves from base to apex of plant; in basal leaves, segments always broader and more prominent dentate than upper leaves, and in upper cauline, leaves segments narrow, linear or lanceolate, sessile and mostly entire; leaves glabrous or pubescent in varying degrees with very short, less noticeable or long, setaceous, appressed or upright hairs, predominantly along veins and beneath, but always more or less ciliate or setoseciliate along margin of segments; veins thin and less noticeable beneath at places (in shady plants), or coarse, sharply projecting in the form of ribs; size of leaves varying to the same extent as size of entire plant; lower basal leaves attain half the height of plant, segments of leaves in largest specimens 10 cm long and 6–7 cm wide. Inflorescence mostly large, corymbose, with one terminal or, often with additional 2–3 pairs of axillary, trichotomous lateral cymes, lax and broad, flat or compact and spherical, at nodes setosely pubescent, somewhat expanded at fruiting. Bracteoles linear-lanceolate, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, herbaceous, always more or less coarsely ciliate along scarious margin. Corolla usually 4– 5 mm long, infundibuliform, from purely white to dark pink and smoky violet. Fruits oblong or oblongovate, 2.5–4.5 mm long and 1–1.8 mm wide, completely glabrous or

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strongly or weakly pubescent on both sides or only one side, with 10–12 rayed pappus, almost one and a half times as long as achene. Flowering from first half of May to August. Fruiting from July to September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, on meadows, along the banks of rivers and marshes, in forests, on forest edges, glades, among shrubs, in ravines, sometimes on rocks and in tall grass, Juniperus shrub, and as weed in gardens, and widely cultivated (Shishkin 1953) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (valeranone, valen, mehrtenol, malaliol, myrhenyl isovalerate, valenol, camphene, a-pinene, b-pinene, limonene, p-cymene, kessane), phenylcarboxylic acids (coffee, chloroenic, isochlorogenic), diosmetine, flavonoids (luteoline, apyrenine, quercetine, quercetine, diosmethine), fatty acids (caproic, capric, caprylic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, erucic, behenic, docosadenoic, palmitooleic), carbohydrates (glucose, sucrose, valeroside A), organic acids (isovaleric, valerian, isovaleric), irioids (valtrate, acevaltrate, isovaleryloxyhydroxy-dicadridate) (Sokolov 1990).

Fig. 1 Valeriana tiliifolia (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Valeriana tiliifolia (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Valeriana tiliifolia (Plantaginaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses Valerian is commonly included in official herbal pharmacopoeia. Traditionally in the region, the plant is used with chronic functional disorders of the central nervous system, hysteria, epilepsy, seizures, acute excitations, migraine, and neuralgia, neurodermatitis, as antiseptic, with chronic coronary problems, for treatment and prevention in early stages of angina pectoris, hypertensive disease, heart disease, diseases of the liver and bile ducts, diseases, dysentery and typhoid-paratyphoid, endocrine gland disorders, toothache, and to remove freckles. In Middle Asia, root infusions are used with asthenia, sciatica, dizziness, fainting, tetanus, paralysis, spasmophilia, scarlet fever, weakness of vision, rheumatism, gastric colic in children; for the improvement of appetite, with diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhoids, hiccups, with tuberculosis, bites of rabid animals, and as eyewash (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990).

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About 20 species of the genus Valeriana grow in the Caucasus and Ural, but most of them lack the active ingredients of Valeriana officinalis (Grossheim 1952; Sokolov 1990). The roots are used as anti-inflammatory, for cough, colds, heart and nervous system problems, pleuritis, pneumonia, and for skin problems (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, 2018; Bussmann 2017). The roots are widely collected and sold (Bussmann et al. 2017b). A variety of Valeriana species, especially Valeriana jatamansii and Valeriana wallichii are widely used in the Himalayas as sedative, tonic, and anthelminthic (Kunwar et al. 2010; Sher et al. 2016; Singh et al. 2017).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, Valeriana is used as infusion as sedative (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b, 2017a, c; 2018; Bussmann 2017).

References Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017a;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):25–34. Bussmann RW, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus – the region. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Grossheim AA. Plant richness of the Caucasus. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences; 1952. (in Russian). Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-West Nepal: a pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059.

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Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 23: Bignoniaceae – Valerianaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1953 (English 2000). 891p, 39 b/w plates. Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhabitants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Etnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328 p. (in Russian).

Veratrum album L. Veratrum lobelianum Bernh. LILIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Veratrum lobelianum Bernh.: Veratrum album subsp. virescens Gaudin; Veratrum album var. lobelianum Koch

Local Names Russian: Чeмepицa Лoбeля (Chemeritsa Lobelya); Uzbek: Maralkulok; Kyrgyz: Лoбeлмapaлкулaгы (Lobel maral kulagy) (Sokolov 1994)

Botany and Ecology Veratrum album/Veratrum lobelianum: Perennials; rhizome short, stout, with numerous stringy roots; stem erect, stout, terete, 70–170 cm long, 2–3 cm thick, clothed at base in disintegrated leaf sheaths, often fibrillose, the upper part of stem R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_149

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Fig. 1 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), young shoots in spring, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

and inflorescence pubescent; leaves numerous, plaited, covered beneath with short hairs, the lower broadly elliptic, short-acuminate, 15–25 cm long, 10–15 cm broad, gradually diminishing in size acropetally, the uppermost lanceolate; inflorescence paniculate, 20–60 cm long; pedicels several times shorter than perianth segments, 2– 3 mm long, pubescent; bracts rounded-ovate to rarely ovate, short-acuminate, several times the length of pedicel, 3–5 mm long; bracts whitish or yellowishgreen, ca. 2.5 cm in diameter, open; leaves elliptic, narrowed at both ends, roundtipped, serrulate, slightly pubescent outside, 8–13 mm long, 4–6 mm broad; inner segments narrower and longer than the outer; stamens shorter than perianth segments; capsule ovoid, ca. 2.5 cm long and 1 cm broad. Flowering June–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in forests, meadows, bushland (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (zorubiervine, isorubiervosine, veratroilzigadenine, veraline), carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, rhamnose, galactose, mannose) (Sokolov 1994).

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Fig. 2 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), young shoots in spring, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), young shoots in spring, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In the Altai and Middle Asia, the species is used for the treatment of scabies, for rheumatism, hemorrhoids, jaundice, arthritis, gout, and sciatica (Sokolov 1994). Leaves and stems are sometimes used to treat digestive system problems (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018) (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8).

830 Fig. 4 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), dense stands on alpine pastures, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Veratrum album L. . . . Fig. 6 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 8 Veratrum lobelianum (Liliaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses In veterinary medicine, the species is used as an insecticide against parasites (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018; Sokolov 1994).

References Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T, Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:237–313. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24.

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Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Komarov VL. Flora of the USSR, Volume 4: Liliiflorae, Microspermae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1935 (English 1968). 586p, 44 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of Russia and adjacent states: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 8. Families Butomaceae – Typhaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1994. 271p. (in Russian).

Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. Verbascum songaricum Schrenk ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Verbascum thapsus L. Verbascum sp. SCROPHULARIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Verbascum densiflorum Bertol.: Verbascum thapsiforme Schrad.

Local Names Verbascum songaricum: Russian: Кopoвякджунгapcкий (Korovyak dzhungarskiy); Uzbek: Sigir kuyruq; Kyrgyz: Жунгap aюукулaгы (Zhungar ayuu kulagy); English: Songaric mullein (Sokolov 1990) Verbascum thapsus: Russian: Кopoвяк oбыкнoвeнный (Korovyak obyknovennyy); Kyrgyz: Aюкулaк (Ayu kulak); English: Common mullein (Sokolov 1990)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_150

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Botany and Ecology Verbascum songaricum: Biennial. Plant densely white-tomentose throughout, pubescent shedding later in flakes. Stem 60–120 cm tall, erect, simple, leafy; leaves tomentose, also glandular-hairy above; radical leaves long-petiolate, lamina 8–16 cm long, ovate or ovate-oblong, short-acuminate, with somewhat decurrent, broadly cuneate auricles at the base; upper leaves decurrent or with cordate base, amplexicaul. Inflorescence long cylindrical spicate raceme; flowers few in each cluster. Bracts of middle flowers scarcely exceeding flowers, bracts of lateral flowers shorter; all bracts tomentose, with very minute glands. Pedicel of middle flower 2– 4 mm long in early flowering, with 2 bracteoles. Calyx 5–8 mm long, divided into linear lobes almost to base. Corolla yellow, about 15 mm across, tomentose outside; inner side of upper corolla lobes slightly villous at base. Two anterior stamens longer with upper half of filaments white-tomeritose; anthers all similar, reniform. Style thickened above. Capsule broadly ellipsoid or obovoid, obtuse, densely stellatepubescent. Flowering June–July. Middle Asia, endemic, on stony mountain slopes (Shishkin and Boborov 1955). Verbascum thapsus: Biennial. Plant densely covered with persistent, ash-white, rarely light yellowish, tomentum. Stems erect, leafy, more or less winged. Radical leaves with 3–6 cm long petioles; lamina oblong, 15–30 cm long, 5–10 cm broad, obtuse or short-mucronate, crenate or subentire; cauline leaves with shorter petioles or sessile, decurrent; upper leaves sessile, short, acuminate. Inflorescence dense, terminal spicate raceme, subcylindrical, unbranched; flowers in clusters of 4–7 in lower part of raceme, of 1–4 in the upper part. Bracts rounded at base, lanceolate, acuminate, shorter than floral cluster in fruit. Pedicels thick, short, almost adnate to inflorescence axis. Calyx divided almost to base, with lanceolate lobes. Corolla yellow, 12–20 mm across, with very distinct pellucid glands. Stamens 5, all fertile; filaments of two anterior stamens at early flowering stage suberect, slightly longer and thicker than filaments of other stamens, glabrous or white-villous; anthers of two anterior stamens shortly decurrent. Style filiform. Capsule ellipsoid or obovoid, slightly longer than calyx. Flowering June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, in meadows, forest openings, mainly on sandy soils, as weed on waste land, on riverbanks (Shishkin and Boborov 1955).

Phytochemistry Verbascum densiflorum: Carbohydrates (galactose, rhamnose, glucose, arabinose, xylose, ribose, stachyose, verbascose, augose, sucrose penta-lactoside, sucrose, rhexagalactoside, pectin), iridoids (aukubosid, catalpol, harpard, harpazosid, lateriosid, isocatalpol, catalepol, methylcalalpol), saponins, alkaloids, coumarins, tannins, flavonoids (apirenine, luteoline, quercetine, diosmine, rutinoside tamarixetine), vitamins (C), phenolcarboxylic acids (dihydroxycinnamic, ferulic, p-coumaric, protocatechoid, p-rydroxybenzoic, vanillic), fatty acids (myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachine, linncerol, tapsinic) (Sokolov 1990).

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Verbascum thapsus: Iridoids (aukubine), carbohydrates (glucose galactose, sucrose, pectine, biose, raffinose, mannotriose, verbascose), saponins, alkaloids, steroids (verbasterine, socatalpol, catalepol), flavonoids, tannins, steroids (a-phytosterol, sitosterol, ergostanen), vitamins (C), triterpenoids, phenolcarboxylic acids (veratrous), fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic, behenic) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Verbascum densiflorum: The leaf decoction is used as a sedative, anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic and analgesic, for hypertension, acute respiratory infections, as an expectorant, emollient, for whooping cough, bronchopneumonia, gastritis, colitis, enteritis, liver and spleen diseases, diabetes, and topically as analgesic for furunculosis, burns, hemorrhoids, eczema, and itching dermatoses (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b; Sokolov 1990) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). Verbascum thapsus: A leaf decoction is used as light sedative, as bath and washing for hemorrhoids, scrofululosis, rachitis, wound healing, and eye diseases. In Armenia, the leaf extract is mixed with milk to treat tuberculosis. The roots are used as antipyretic, diuretic, for kidney stones and gout, and kidney edema. In the Altai, the roots and leaves are used for dysentery and chronic cystitis, and with honey for Fig. 1 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

838 Fig. 2 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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Fig. 4 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Ushguli, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Fig. 7 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

respiratory infections. Poultices are applied to wounds (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b; Sokolov 1990). In India, the species is used for asthma, bronchitis, ulcers, tumors, piles, and as analgesic (Bhat et al. 2015), and in Pakistan, it is used for wound healing and lumbago (Sher et al. 2016) (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).

Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. . . . Fig. 8 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Fig. 9 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

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Fig. 10 Verbascum sp. (Scrophulariaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Verbascum densiflorum: In veterinary medicine, the leaves are used as diuretic, galactagogue, and externally as antiseptic and for wound healing. The plant yields yellow and red dyes for wool and silk. It is used as an insecticide in the Ural. It is toxic to livestock, especially when seeding, but is can be boiled and used as cattle feed to increase the fat content in milk. Sometimes the species is planted as ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b; Sokolov 1990).

References Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo

Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. . . .

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(Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016b;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2167-0412.1000266. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 22: Solanaceae and Scrophulariaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1955 (English 1993). 745p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328p. (in Russian).

Vicia cracca L. FABACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Vicia cracca L.: Ervum cracca (L.) Trautv.; Vicia cracca fo. canescens Maxim.; Vicia cracca subsp. heteropus Freyn; Vicia cracca var. canescens (Maxim.) Fransch. & Sav.; Vicia cracca var. japonica Miq.; V. dahurica Turcz., Vicia heteropus Freyn; Vicia ilacina Ledeb.; Vicia macrophylla B. Fedtsch.

Local Names Russian: Гopoшeкмышиный (Goposhek myshinyy); Kyrgyz: Жaпaйыжep бууpчaк (Zhapayy zher buurchak); English: Bird vetch (Sokolov 1987)

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_151

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Botany and Ecology Perennial; plant 30–150 cm tall, completely glabrous or sparingly pubescent; rootstock with rather long hypogeal stolons; stems usually branching, climbing, ribbed; rachis ending in large strongly branched tendrils; stipules 6–10 mm long, semisagittate in lower leaves, linear and entire in upper leaves, sometimes 1–2-toothed (var. dahurica Turcz.); leaflets 6–10(12)-paired, linear-lanceolate or oblonglanceolate, 1.5–3 cm long, 1–4 mm wide, acuminate or obtuse at apex (var. aequalis Serg.), with few oblique nerves, nerves branching at both sides or only beneath, sometimes densely canescent-hairy (var. canescens Maxim.). Peduncles usually not longer than leaves, rarely hardly longer (var. pseudocassubica Klet et Rinht.); racemes 20–40-flowered; flowers 10–13 mm long; calyx short-campanulate, lower teeth much longer than the upper but still much shorter than tube; corolla lilac or violet, rarely white (var. albiflora Trautv.); limb of standard as long as claw; keel and wings much shorter than standard; pods oblong-rhombic, compressed, 15–20 mm long, glabrous, on stipes usually not exceeding calyx; seeds 4–8, globose, nearly black or maculate, hilum one-fourth to one-third of the circumference. Flowering May–July. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, in open forests, birch thickets, bushland, on meadows, glades, and as weed in crops (Komarov and Shishkin 1948) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Nitrogen-containing compounds (vycianine, hydrocyanic acid), vitamins (C, carotene), flavonoids (kaempferol), anthocyanins (delphinidine, petunidine, malvidine) (Sokolov 1987). Fig. 1 Vicia cracca (Fabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Vicia cracca L. Fig. 2 Vicia cracca (Fabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Vicia cracca (Fabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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848 Fig. 4 Vicia cracca (Fabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Vicia cracca (Fabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 6 Vicia cracca (Fabaceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia, Vicia is used to treat Botkin’s disease, edema, emollient, for wound healing, and as hemostatic. The leaf tincture serves for diarrhea and as diuretic. Fresh and dried leaves are prepared as poultice for prolapse of the rectum and inflamed hemorrhoidal nodes (Sokolov 1987).

Local Food Uses Young shoots are eaten when cooked (Sokolov 1987).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves yield a yellow dye for wool. The plant is used as fodder for livestock. The seeds can be eaten by poultry (Sokolov 1987).

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References Komarov VL, Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 13: Leguminosae: Oxytropis, Hedysarum. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1948 (English 1972). 455p, 26 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; Volume 3. Hydrangeaceae-Haloragaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1987. 326p. (in Russian).

Vinca erecta Regel & Schmalhausen APOCYNACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Botany and Ecology Perennial; rootstock ligneous, horizontal, covered with scales; roots firm, stringy; stems erect, simple, two to many from common rootstock, 30–40 cm long; leaves elliptic or ovate to suborbicular, 4–5 cm long, 2–2.5 cm broad, narrowed at both ends, acute, glabrous, or densely covered on the margin and on the whole surface with very short hairs (var. hirsuta B. Fedtsch.), sessile, with several prominent longitudinal veins; Lowers solitary in leaf axils; pedicels 3–5 cm long, shorter than leaves, glabrous or densely hairy (var. hirsuta), contorted in fruit; flowers large, pale azure, or white within, rose outside, the tube violet; calyx segments 7.5–10 mm long, half or more than half the length of tube, linear-lanceolate, ciliate or rather densely hairy; with thick oblong teeth at base; corolla tube 15–20 mm long, narrow, abruptly enlarged about the middle, densely hairy within the upper part; corolla lobes elliptic, obovate or oblong, acute to obtuse, glabrous or the margin short ciliate at apex; stamens inserted at the middle of tube; anthers oblong, broad, half as long as the dilated part of filament; filaments inflexed, gradually narrowed towards base, geniculate at point of insertion; connective galeiform, dorsally white-bearded at R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_152

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apex; follicles 3–5 cm long, 0.6–0.7 cm broad, oblong, short-acuminate, terminating in a point recurved toward dorsal suture, longitudinally striped, glabrous or densely hairy (var. hirsuta); seeds few, 1–3 per follicle, cylindric, 12–13 mm long, brown to cinnamon colored, densely and coarsely tuberculate, the longitudinal furrow enlarged at base. Flowering March–April and fruiting May–June. Middle Asia, on serozems, fine-grained and coarse-skeletal soils, less often on stony-rubble, sandy slopes, from the plains to the mid-mountain belt, sometimes in Juniperus thickets. Uncommon, found in small populations (Shishkin and Boborov 1952) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Alkaloids (ervamine, vincadifformine, vincanidine, vikanine, ervinine, vincomamine, reserpine, tombozine, vincaridine, ervincine, kopshinin, vincarine, ervinidine, coppsinilam, acumammidine, acumamine, acumammycine, ververvine, vinervinine, isorezerpiline, pseudovicinsine, ergine, vincanicine, vanervidine, ervincidine, apovincamine, quebraxin, earbynamine, aspidospermidine, copsone, ververvinin, herburnamonine, ervincinine, vincaricine, ervinceine, erwincinine, erwinidinine, ervamycine, norfluorocouarine, ertsine, vinorine, methylacouammine, epoxicopsinine, vinerinine, oxocopsinine, venalstonine, minovintcinine, carbamine, erzinamine, vincan, reserpineine, venalstonIn minorine, erectine, erzine, vincine, oakammycine, vincarine, Fig. 1 Vinca major (Apocynaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Vinca major (Apocynaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Vinca hederacea (Apocynaceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

vincanildine, winervine, acumammidine, erwine, vinerIn (erysinine), vineridine, acumamine, pseudococopinine, maidine, ververvinin, ervinidine, ervinidinine, ervamine, vincadifformine, vincaricine, vincaridine, erwincinine, ericinine, ervamycine, ervinceine, vincine, acetylvinrin, pleocarpamine, copsynylamine, vincarinine, vincamethrine, ervincidine, vineridine, benzoyltombosine, coppsinine, pseudo-kapsinin, oxokopsinine, vikaninet), triterpenoids (ursolic acid) (Sokolov 1990).

Local Medicinal Uses Decoctions of the aboveground parts are used to treat fever. A decoction of the roots is used as an emetic. The leaves are used as tea to treat diarrhea, gastrointestinal disorders, headaches, dizziness, and as a mouthwash for toothache. As poultice, the fresh leaves are applied to wounds. Highly toxic (Sokolov 1990).

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References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, Volume 18: Metachlamydeae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1952 (English 1967). 600p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 5. Families of Caprifoliaceae – Plantaginaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1990. 328p. (in Russian).

Viola odorata L. Viola suavis M. Bieb. VIOLACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Viola suavis M. Bieb.: Viola pontica W. Becker

Local Names Russian: Фиaлкa пpиятнaя (Fialka priyatnaya); Uzbek: Gunafsha; Kyrgyz: Жaгымдуу aлa гул (Zhagymduu ala gul); English: Russian violet (Sokolov 1985)

Botany and Ecology Viola odorata / Viola suavis Perennials; rhizome rather thick, short-jointed; stolons to 20–35 cm long, shorter and sturdier than in V. odorata, mostly subterranean flowering in the first year and then rooting and producing leaf-rosette and flowers; leaves round-reniform, cordate or broadly cordate-ovate, broadest in lower third, R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_153

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Fig. 1 Viola suavis (Violaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

with deeply cordate base, obtuse or acutish at apex, crenate, puberulent, light green; petioles 20–25 cm long, covered with hairs; stipules 23 cm long, elongatelanceolate, pale green, long-fimbriate, subglabrous; flowers large, blue or pale violet, white at center to middle of petals; peduncle with two large fimbriate bracts at middle of peduncle or just below; sepals oblong, obtuse, rather short appendages appressed to peduncle; petals elongate -obovate or (lower petal) broad-obovate, lateral bearded and like the lower notched; spur whitish, 3–4 mm long, thick; ovary glabrous; style with horizontal beak; capsule large, globose, with scattered short hairs, flowering in April. Viola odorata L.: Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia (Tien Shan). Grows mostly in broad-leaved forests, forest meadows, grassy slopes of the foothills, on mountain meadows up to 1500 m, and in gardens and occasionally as a weed. Viola suavis Bieb.: Known from Ural, Caucasus, Central Middle Asia and found in forests and on their fringes, on grassy slopes in mountain valleys, along the banks of streams, usually in shady places up to the mid-mountain belt (Shishkin 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).

Phytochemistry Triterpenoides (friedeline, epifridolanol), alkaloids, flavonoids (cetine, quercetine, kaempferol, acacetine), leucoanthocyanidins (leicocyanidine), triglycerides, saponins (ine the roots), some essential oils in the leaves and flowers (nonadienal, nonadienol, hexanol, heptenol, octenol, eugenol, undecan-2-one, isoborneol, tsingiberen, a-curcumen, a-ionone, dihydro-a-ionone, 3-ionone, dihydro-3-ionone, a-ionol, diethylphthalate vanilline), steroids (sitosterol), vitamins (C, carotene) (Sokolov 1985).

Viola odorata L. . . .

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Fig. 2 Viola suavis (Violaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Fig. 3 Viola suavis (Violaceae), Almaty, Kazakhstan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)

Local Medicinal Uses The whole plants are used as diaphoretic, antipyretic, and as a diuretic, choleretic, and anti-inflammatory agent, especially for urolithiasis, gout, and rheumatism. Viola is also employed as an expectorant and diaphoretic, and traditional uses for tuberculosis, pneumonia, bronchitis, pleurisy, treatment of cancer, excretion of warts, and nervous disorders (calming, headaches, hysteria, seizures, epilepsy, nervous attacks, palpitations, and insomnia) have been mentioned. The plant serves as remedy for spastic cough, whooping cough, scrofula, and skin diseases as well as for enuresis. The whole plant tincture has been used for throat cancer, tumors of the intestine and uterus, pertussis, and

858 Fig. 4 Viola tricolor (Violaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 5 Viola odorata (Violaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 6 Viola odorata (Violaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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articular rheumatism. The root extracts are employed as expectorant, as well as emetic, laxative, choleretic, and antipyretic, for cancer of the uterus and with jaundice in children. Especially in the Caucasus, Viola is often used for fatigue and heart disease. The fresh juice and flowers serve for cough. Syrup is prepared to be used as diuretic, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, and to induce sweating. Especially the roots extract serves as emetic and laxative, for coughs, runny nose, eye diseases, and throat and stomach problems. In Turkmenistan, decoction with sugar is used to treat heart disease (Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1985). Viola suavis: Syrup is prepared to be used as diuretic, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, and to induce sweating. Especially the roots extract serves as emetic and laxative, for coughs, runny nose, eye diseases, and throat and stomach problems (Sokolov 1985). Viola pilosa is used in Pakistan to treat menopausal hormonal imbalances and improve the eyesight (Sher et al. 2016) and Viola canescens is used in India as expectorant, antipyretic, for colds and pulmonary ailments, ear pain, and skin diseases (Bhat et al. 2015; Joshi et al. 2010).

Local Food Uses In the Caucasus, the flowers are used to replace tea. Viola odorata is toxic in large doses, causing diarrhea and vomiting (Sokolov 1985). Viola leaves, due to their toxicity are always consumed together with other plants, are widely eaten in mountain regions (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017a, b).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Viola is also used for honey production and planted as ornamental. The flowers and leaves serve as raw materials for obtaining essential oils used in perfumes. Viola is also used for honey production and planted as ornamental (Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1985).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Berberis vulgaris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Chenopodium album L., Chenopodium foliosum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017c.

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Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Lamium album L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017d. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malva sylvestris L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017e. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Polygonum alpinum All.; Polygonum aviculare L.; Polygonum carneum C. Koch; Polygonum hydropiper L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017f. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rubia tinctorium L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017g. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Stellaria media (L.) Vill. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017h. Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017i. Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017;16(1):7–24. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6. Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Alizade V, Aleksanyan A, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017a. Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Batsatsashvili K, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Viola arvensis L.; Viola odorata L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017b. Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha, Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059. Shishkin BK. Flora of the USSR, Volume 15: Malvales, Parietales, Myrtiflorae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 565p, 33 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use. Volume 2. Families Paeoniaceae – Thymelaeacea. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1985, 336p. (in Russian).

Xanthium strumarium L. ASTERACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Xanthium strumarium L.: Xanthium americanum Walter; Xanthium cavanillesii Schouw; Xanthium chasei Fernald; Xanthium chinense Mill.; Xanthium curvescens Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium cylindricum Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium echinatum Murray; Xanthium echinatum var. cavanillesii (Schouw) O. Bolòs & Vigo; Xanthium echinellum Greene ex Rydb.; Xanthium globosum C. Shull; Xanthium inaequilaterum DC.; Xanthium indicum var. inaequilaterum (DC.) Miq.; Xanthium inflexum Mack. & Bush; Xanthium italicum Moretti; Xanthium japonicum Widder; Xanthium mongolicum Kitag.; Xanthium natalense Widder; Xanthium orientale L.; Xanthium oviforme Wallr.; Xanthium pensylvanicum Wallr.; Xanthium pungens Wallr.; Xanthium sibiricum Patrin ex Widder; Xanthium sibiricum var. jingyuanense H.G. Hou & Y.T. Lu; Xanthium sibiricum var. subinerme Widder; Xanthium speciosum Kearney; Xanthium strumarium subsp. cavanillesii (Schouw) D. Löve & Dans.; Xanthium strumarium subsp. sibiricum (Patrin ex Widder) Greuter;

R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_154

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Xanthium strumarium var. canadense (Mill.) Torr. & A. Gray; Xanthium strumarium var. cavanillesii (Schouw) D. Löve & Dans.; Xanthium strumarium var. glabratum (DC.) Cronquist; Xanthium strumarium var. japonicum (Widder) H. Hara; Xanthium varians Greene; Xanthium wootonii Cockerell

Local Names Russian: Дуpнишник oбыкнoвeнный (Durnishnik obyknovennyy) Uzbek: Guzatkon, Patanak Kyrgyz: Кaдимкимaнкoo (Kadimki mankoo) English: Common cocklebur, Rough cocklebur (Sokolov 1993)

Botany and Ecology Annual. Stem 15–20 cm high, grayish-green, erect, stiff, branched, sometimes simple, pubescent, glandular above. Leaves petiolate, cordate, three- to five-lobed, unequally coarsely toothed, on both sides with fine appressed hairs or setose. Involucre enclosing achenes ellipsoidal or oval, saccate, green or grayish-green, often reddish, less often almost brownish, 10–15 mm long and 5–9 mm wide, tapered to base and apex, finely pubescent with appressed hairs, unevenly covered with occasional spines not extending to apex, 2–3 mm long, slender, thickened at base. Straight, at apex uncinate, weakly puberulent; beaks usually straight, sometimes falcate, conical-acute, almost equal, inclined or convergent. Flowering July– September. Introduced weed, widely distributed particularly in the southern regions; found near dwellings, roadsides, on vacant lands, along banks of rivers and irrigation channels, in fields of cotton and other crops; vegetable gardens (Shishkin 1959) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Phytochemistry Carbohydrates (pentosans), organic acids (wine, fumaric, apple, amber), essential oils (limonene, cymene, pinene, terpinolene, carveol, ionone, caryophyllene, xanthatine, xanthosine, xanthine, xanthanol, isoxantanol, xanthoxine, xanthumine, xanthumanol, xanthinosine, tomentozine, dezatseksoksantinumine), steroids (sitosterol), alkaloids, vitamins (B1, carotene), tannins, flavonoids, fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, palmitic, stearic), sulfur-containing compounds, phenolcarbonic acids (coffee), sesquiterpenoids (xanthumine), alkaloids, phenols (cinarin), steroids (sitosterol, stromasterine, camposterol), saponins (xanthistrumarine), phenolic compounds, fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, palmitic, stearic, oleic) (Sokolov 1993).

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Fig. 1 Xanthium strumarium (Asteraceae), Samegrelo, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Local Medicinal Uses In Middle Asia, a leaf decoction is used to treat respiratory infections, dysentery, skin diseases, and toothache. The root decoction is used to remedy cancer, fevers, thyroid problems, dysentery, and urinary diseases. The seed and root decoction are also used for dysentery, scrofula, and bladder diseases. The alcoholic tincture is drunk to treat goiters, rheumatism and colds, and is also used as a diaphoretic, antipyretic, and sedative. The whole plant in infusion us used to treat cancer, stimulate digestion, treat stomach spasms, liver inflammation, jaundice, bronchitis, pertussis, painful menstruation, kidney stones, and goiter. Applied externally, the infusion is used to treat eczema, itchy dermatosis, insect bites, skin diseases, furuncles, pimples, and fungal skin diseases (Sokolov 1993). In Pakistan this introduces species is used to treat malaria, skin ulcers, spinal trauma, indigestion, small pox, scrofulous, and tumors (Umair et al. 2019), while it is used in India for boils, wound, cooling, eye diseases, head ache, herpes, malaria, piles, rheumatism, ringworm, tooth ache, ulcer, and urine complaints (Verma et al. 2007). In Nepal, the species serves for earache, diarrhea, and skin ailments (Kunwar et al. 2009, 2010).

864 Fig. 2 Xanthium strumarium (Asteraceae), Samegrelo, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Xanthium strumarium (Asteraceae), Samegrelo, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Local Food Uses The seed oil is suitable for cooking (Sokolov 1993).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses The leaves and roots yield yellow, yellow-green, and green dyes for wool and silk. Fodder for horses and goats. Poisonous to pigs, cattle, and chickens (Sokolov 1993).

References Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-West Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28. Kunwar RM, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in Farwest Nepal: their indigenous uses and pharmacological validity. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4 (special issue 1):28–42. Shishkin, B.K. Flora of the USSR, volume 25: compositae; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad; 1959 (English 1990). 666 p. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 7. Family Asteraceae (Compositae). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1993. 352 p. (in Russian) Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu university, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Ziziphora bungeana Juz. Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. Ziziphora pedicellata Pazij et Vved. Ziziphora tenuior L. LAMIACEAE Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze Synonyms Ziziphora tenuior L.: Faldermannia tenuior (L.) Ter-Chatsch; Ziziphora acutifolia Montbred & Aucher ex Benth.

Local Names Ziziphora bungeana: Russian: Зизифopa Бунгe (Zizifora Bunge); Uzbek: Kiyik ut; Kyrgyz: Кoкoмepeн (Kokomeren) (Sokolov 1991) Ziziphora clinopodioides: Russian: Зизифopa пaxучкoвиднaя (Zizifora pakhuchkovidnaya); Uzbek: Kiyik ut; Kyrgyz: Кoкoмepeн (Kokomeren) (Sokolov 1991) Ziziphora pedicellata: Russian: Зизиopa цвeтoнoжeчнaя (Zizifora tsvetonozhechnaya) Uzbek: Kiik ut; Kyrgyz Гулcaпчaлуукoкoмepeн (Gulsapchaluu kokomeren) (Sokolov 1991) R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_155

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Ziziphora tenuior: Russian: Зизифopa тoнкaя (Zizifora tonkaya): Uzbek: Chul yalpiz; Kyrgyz: Ичкe кoкoмepeн (Ichke kokomeren)

Botany and Ecology Ziziphora bungeana: Strongly scented subshrub; root woody, flexuous; rhizome also woody, branched; stems numerous, 12–30 cm long, rather stiff, somewhat ascending at base of suberect, simple or branched, erect or curved, rarely flexuous, densely covered with short recurved hairs, whitish in upper part with more copious indumentum; leaves 0.5–1.5 cm long, 1.5–2.5 mm broad, narrowly lanceolate, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, narrowed at both ends, acute or rarely obtuse at apex, entire, subglabrous or more often with bloom-like pubescence on both sides or only beneath, distinctly punctate-glandular, usually with 2–3 veins on each side, usually prominent beneath; petiole to 4 mm long, densely covered with very short hairs; floral leaves resembling the cauline but much smaller, often linear-lanceolate to sublinear, mostly ascending and appressed to calyx or horizontally spreading but usually not recurved, the margin not ciliate; inflorescences at ends of stems and branches, capitate, mostly hemispherical, rather loose, relatively many-flowered; pedicels to 1.5–3 (4) mm long; calyx ca. 5 mm long, narrow, canescent with a dense cover of very short hairs (visible only with a magnifying glass) and with scattered translucent punctate glands; calyx-teeth subacute, often somewhat spreading at anthesis, erect in fruiting stage and thus readily distinguishable; corolla to 8 mm long, about half as long as calyx, pink, the tube scarcely exserted, the limb fairly large. Flowering July–August. On exposed rocky sites, mountain outcrops, stony, gravelly or clayey slopes, grassland and meadow steppes. Ural, Caucasus, and Altai (Shishkin and Borisova 1954) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Ziziphora clinopodioides: An aromatic subshrub; rhizome stout, woody, branched; stems numerous, 8–40 cm long, usually erect or rarely somewhat ascending, simple or slightly branched at base, usually more or less flexuous, hairy, the hairs short and Fig. 1 Ziziphora serpyllacea (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Ziziphora bungeana Juz. . . . Fig. 2 Ziziphora serpyllacea (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 3 Ziziphora serpyllacea (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ziziphora serpyllacea (Lamiaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 5 Ziziphora clinopodioides (Lamiaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

recurved in lower part, more numerous and spreading near inflorescence; leaves 6– 25 mm long, 3–12 mm broad, broadly elliptical, ovate or oblong-ovate, narrowed at base to petiole, short-acuminate at apex, entire or obscurely and remotely toothed, glandular-punctate, sparsely puberulent (mainly on the veins beneath) or mostly subglabrous, usually with 4 veins each side of midrib, slightly prominent beneath, the petiole one-fifth to one-quarter the length of blade, to 5 mm long, short-haired; floral leaves resembling the cauline but smaller, ciliate in lower part, the lower often reflexed; inflorescences at ends of stems, capitate, subspherical, compact, 1.5–3 cm in diameter; calyx 5–7 mm long, covered outside with rather short spreading hairs (these not exceeding half the calyx diameter), mostly rubescent on one side or sometimes dark purple all over, the teeth acute, very much shorter than the tube; corolla 10–12 mm long, about one-and-a-half times as long as calyx, rose-lilac or pale lilac, short pubescent outside, the tube nearly twice as long as the large limb, not at all or slightly exserted. Flowering June–August. Stony and rocky river banks; stony and gravelly slopes of mountains and hills. Ural, Altai (Figs. 5 and 6). Ziziphora pedicellata: Similar to the previous species, herb, 20–40 cm tall. Middle Asia, on stony, gravelly slopes, up to the middle mountain belt (Shishkin and Borisova 1954). Ziziphora tenuior: Annual herb, 5–20 (25) cm high; stem simple or branched, often branched from the root collar; branches short to fairly long, usually subdivaricate; stem and branches rather densely covered with short curved hairs, suffused with red in lower part or all over; leaves of the sterile part of stem usually few and distant, 0.7–2.5 cm long, 0.1–0.6 cm broad, linear-lanceolate or lanceolate, narrowed at base, mostly shortpetioled, acute or long-acuminate, glabrous or scabrous, the upper softly or stiffly hairy, marcescent; floral leaves resembling the cauline, greatly exceeding the flowers, the upper rarely as long as or shorter than calyx, short- or long-ciliate at least in the lower part, prominently veined beneath, strictly upright to subdivaricate; few- to moderately many-flowered, distant or the upper (sometimes all) subapproximate, often borne all along stem and branches; inflorescences loose to fairly dense, leafy, oblong or long-cylindrical, spike-like, 2–22 cm long; flowers 0.8–1 cm long,

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Fig. 6 Ziziphora clinopodioides (Lamiaceae), Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

short-pedicelled; calyx narrowly long-cylindrical, 0.5–0.75 cm long, covered with short or mostly fairly long stiff spreading hairs, the teeth short, ovate-triangular; corolla-tube slender, slightly exserted; anthers small, usually with a small declined clavate appendage at base. Flowering May–August. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, dry river banks, steppes, semideserts, also as weed (Shishkin and Borisova 1954).

Phytochemistry Essential oils (borneol, camphor, pinene, myrcene, terpinolene, piperitone cineole, citral, piperenone, camphene, limonene, terpinene, cymol, menthol, isopulegon, thymol), vitamins (C), flavonoids, coumarins, fatty acids (palmitic, olivic, stearic, linoleic, linolenic), saponins, coumarins, flavonoids (Sokolov 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses In the region the leaves of Ziziphora sp. are used widely used as remedy for gastric problems. In the Altai, Ziziphora clinopodioides and Ziziphora pedicellata serve for treating colds and toothaches. In Kyrgyzstan, the infusion is used as remedy for heart diseases and as anthelmintic. Extracts and infusions of leaves are also used for

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hypertonia, for cardiac and climacteric neurosis, rheumacarditis, and rheumatic endomyocarditis of children. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat gastric colic, nausea, to stimulate the appetite, and as a diuretic. An extract of the flowers is used to treat gastritis and vomiting (Plant Resources of the USSR 1991). (Sokolov 1991). Ziziphora clinopodioides is used Kyrgyzstan as an infusion and decoction to treat tachycardia, gastralgia, and heart illnesses. The juice from the plant is used as anthelmintic. In the Altai, a tincture is used to treat colds, rheumatism, and scrofula, as well toothaches (Plant Resources of the USSR 1991). Ziziphora pedicellata is used in Middle Asia, especially Kazakhstan, as decoction to act as diuretic and as poultice for wounds. In Uzbekistan, an infusion is used as a hypotensive and for headaches. A decoction of Ziziphora tenuior is used for intestinal problems, diarrhea, colitis, and cardiac support (Sokolov 1991).

Local Food Uses The leaves of all species are used as tea surrogate and as spice for fish dishes. (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Sokolov 1991).

References Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S, Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Ziziphora serpyllacea M. Bieb. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. XXVII, 746p. (ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1) Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Shishkin BK, Borisova AG Flora of the USSR, volume 21: Labiatae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1954 (English 1976). 520 p, 32 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 6. Families Hippuridaceae-Lobeliaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1991. 200 p. (in Russian)

Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Ziziphus jujuba Mill. var. spinosa (Bunge) H.H. Hu ex H. F. Chow RHAMNACEAE Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Ziziphus jujuba Mill.: Ziziphus sativa Gaertn; Ziziphus vulgaris Lam, Rhamnus zizyphus L. Ziziphus jujuba Mill. var. spinosa (Bunge) H.H. Hu ex H. F. Chow: Ziziphus sativa var. spinosa (Bunge) C.K. Schneid.; Ziziphus spinosa (Bunge) H.H. Hu ex F.H. Chen.; Ziziphus vulgaris var. spinosa Bunge

Local Names Russian: Унaби (Unabi); Uzbek: Unaby, Chylon jiida; Kyrgyz: Кaдимкиунaби (Kadimki unabi); Chinese: 枣 (Zao); English: Jujube, Chinese date (Sokolov 1988) B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_156

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Botany and Ecology Ziziphus jujuba: Shrub or mall tree, 3–8 m tall. Spreading-branching spinose plants, branches angularly flexuose, glabrous, red-brown, with paired large acute prickles up to 3 cm long, and with thin erect greenish biseriately, leafy shoots (1–3 on each) like a compound leaf; leaves coriaceous, glabrous, dark green above, shiny, obliquely oblong- ovate to broadly lanceolate usually obtuse, rounded or slightly cordate at base, obtusely and finely dentate, short-petiolate or subsessile, with small stipules at base. Flowers stellate, 3–4 mm in diameter, in dense glomerules on very short peduncles, peduncles, sepals 5, ovate-triangular; petals 5, greenish-yellow, obovate, clawed at base. Fruit globulose, 1–1.5 cm long (in cultivated forms up to 3 cm long, often oblong-oval), to dark cinnamon, reddish-orange to red-purple shiny. Flowering from June–July, fruiting from August. Caucasus, Middle Asia, on dry, gravelly, stony slopes, in open forests, up to 1500 m. Uncommonly, occurs in small populations and as solitary individuals (Shishkin and Boborov 1949) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 1 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 2 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids (betulinic acid), leucopelergonidine, tannins, alkaloids (mauritine A, mucronine D, nummularine A, nummularine B, jubanine A, jubanine B), leucoanthocyanins, carbohydrates, organic acids (apple, succinic, wine), saponins, alkaloids (coclaurine, isoboldine, juzifine, juzirine, protopine, berberine), coumarins, catechins, flavonoids, carbohydrates, organic acids (amber), triterpenoids (betulonic, oleanolic, olive, ziziphic acid), steroids, saponins, vitamins (C, B1, folic acid, K, carotene), phenolcarboxylic acids (n-coumaric), coumarins, catechins, steroids (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses Up to the end of the nineteenth century, it was highly valued in Europe in medicine where the fruits (Baccae jujubae, jujube, Brustbeere, and breast berry) and preparations made from them were used as emollients in the treatment of throat and catarrhal infections. (Sokolov 1988).

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Fig. 3 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 4 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

In Middle Asia used as a laxative, sudorific, and anti-inflammatory, hypotensive, expectorant, emollient, anti-asthmatic, as hemostatic, and cystitis. Topically the extract is used for stomatitis. The fruits are used as sedative. The fruits are used for catarrh of the upper airways, fevers, and to treat intestinal infections. The root bark is used as a stimulant and the fruits have antibacterial action. In Middle Asia, a

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decoction of the fruit is used for anemia, chest pains, asthma, coughs, smallpox, diarrhea, and as an analgesic for diseases of the liver, kidneys, and intestines and also as hypotensive (Sokolov 1988). Ziziphus nummularia is used in Pakistan as tonic, for hyperglycemia, constipation, throat problems, colds, and scabies (Umair et al. 2019), and in India the species is used to remedy boils, colds, diarrhea, gum inflammation, and tonsilitis (Verma et al. 2007). Ziziphus mauritiana serves to treat chicken pox, ulcers, diarrhea, asthma, toothaches, and jaundice (Umair et al. 2019). In India, the species is used to remedy Blood purifier, cholera, colic, diarrhea, digestion, dysentery, eye diseases (conjunctivitis), hair loss, fever, head ache, edema, rheumatism, scorpion sting, sores, spleen complaints, stomach ache, ulcer, wound, and whooping cough (Verma et al. 2007). In Nepal, it is used as Root extract as antimycobacterial, anticontraceptive, analgesic,and antidiabetic (Kunwar et al. 2009).

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten, mostly dried. The fruits contain sugar that is both nutritious and tasty. Since ancient times the plant has been cultivated in gardens throughout its entire distribution area, especially in the East where there are several cultivated strains. (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018; Sokolov 1988) (Fig. 5).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses Used to tan leather and to dye wool and silk yellow. The wood is used for tool handles. The leaves can be used to feed silkworms. Planted as ornamental (Sokolov 1988).

Fig. 5 Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae), market, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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References Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002016-0110-2. Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33. Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobotany Research and Application 2009;7:5–28. Shishkin, B.K., Boborov, E.G. 1949 Flora of the USSR, volume 14: Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales; Akademia Nauk, Leningrad. (English 1974). 616 p, 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant resources of the USSR: flowering plants, their chemical composition, use; volume 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian) Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4. Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora of Banares Hindu university, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.

Zygophyllum oxianum Boriss. Zygophyllum xanthoxylon (Bunge) Maxim. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Bo Liu, Rainer W. Bussmann, Ketevan Batsatsashvili, and Zaal Kikvidze

Synonyms Zygophyllum oxianum Boriss.: Zygophyllum fabago var. oxianum Kitam.

Local Names Russian: Пapнoлиcтник aмудapьинcкий (Parnolistnik amudar’inskiy); Uzbek: Tujatovan, It tovon, Chinese: 霸王 (Ba wang); English: Beancaper (Sokolov 1988)

B. Liu University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Minzu University of China, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] R. W. Bussmann (*) Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] K. Batsatsashvili Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Z. Kikvidze 4-D Research Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Batsatsashvili et al. (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia and Altai, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28947-8_157

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Botany and Ecology Zygophyllum oxianum: Herbaceous perennial, with robust roots, stems woody, 30– 50 cm tall, branching mostly aboveground, branches densely striate, more or less appressed to stem, slightly curved, internodes 5–6 cm long; stipules large, (4)5– 7 mm long, ovate, obtuse; lower leaves large, with petioles shorter than blade, leaflets of lower leaves large, asymmetrical, obliquely ovate or orbicular, 2.5–4 cm long, 1.5–3.5 cm wide, obtuse; leaflets of upper leaves much smaller. Pedicels 10– 12 mm long; flowers and fruits in upper part of stem, generally longer than leaves, usually 1–2, axillary, all erect; calyx with 5 sepals, three oval, 8 mm long, 4–5 mm wide, broad-membranous at margin, the other two 6 mm long, 4 mm wide, ovate, narrowly membranous at margin; petals white, orange from base up above the middle, ca. 10 mm long, 3 mm wide, oblong, rounded at apex; stamens 10, orange, 10–12 mm long, with large oblong anthers; staminal scales ca. 4 mm long, oblonglanceolate, fimbriate at margin and apex, papillate at surface; ovary ovoid, with erect filiform style nearly twice as long as ovary; receptacle oblique; fruits many, cylindrical, slightly tapering at base, 1.5–2(2.5) cm long, 5–7 mm wide, 5-locular, with 5 acute ribs and 5 concave grooves; seeds numerous, ca. 2.5 mm long, ca. 2 mm wide, orbicular-ovate, smooth, gray. Flowering March–April and fruiting May– August. Middle Asia, Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, on clayey, solonetzic and solonchak soils, sandy hills, saline loamy soils, mostly on floodplains, and in oases of desert and semidesert zones and as weed on roads and wastelands, up to the middle mountaine belt (Shishkin and Boborov 1949). Zygophyllum xanthoxylon: Shrub, strongly branching, branches flexuous, spreading, often spinous, with grayish bark covered with whitish bloom, and with rigid lemon-yellow wood; stipules very small, membranous, triangular-orbicular; leaves small, with 2 fleshy leaflets, opposite on young branches, clustered on old branches; petioles 4–8 mm long, thin; leaflets thick, 3–7 mm long, 2–3 mm wide, small, oblong-spatulate or obovate, obtuse at apex, cuneate at base, slightly shorter than petioles. Buds globose; flowers 1–2, axillary, on 7–8 mm long thin pedicels, lemonyellow, 4-merous; sepals 4, orbicular-oval, 5 mm long, 4 mm wide, thick, green, rounded at apex, narrowly white- and hyaline membranous at margin; petals 4, 8– 9 mm long, 5–6 mm wide at apex, orbicular or orbicular-ovate, obtuse, with very short ca. 1 mm long claw; four of which longer, 10–12 mm long; staminal scales linear-oblong, fimbriate at apex, 4–5 mm long; ovary 3-locular, very rarely 2-locular, trihedral; style filiform, slightly longer than stamens; capsules (15)18–25 mm wide and long, on thick 7–10 m long pedicels, globose, dehiscent, depressed at apex and base, wings 3, broad, thinly membranous, finely nerved, two to three times as broad as cell; seeds 1–3 in each cell, 8 mm long, 3 mm wide, oblong, glabrous, olivecolored, faintly spongy-vesiculose at surface. Flowering March–April, fruiting May–September. On mountain slopes, very dry gypsiferous soils and conglomerates. Endemic in Central Asia (Shishkin and Boborov 1949).

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Phytochemistry Alkaloids (harman, harmine, zygophabagine), carbohydrates, triterpene saponins (zygophilosides), tannins, triterpenoids, catechins, flavonols, essential oils, vitamins (C, K), phenolic carboxylic acids (p-coumaric), coumarins (scopoletin), flavonoids (quercetine, kaempferol), fatty acids (Sokolov 1988).

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves are used in the region diseases of the urinary system, rheumatism, as anthelmintic, for syphilis, and as laxative. In Central Middle Asia, a decoction is used for furuncles and wounding healing. In the Ural and Caucasus, the leaves are prepared as anthelmintic and for wound-healing. In Middle Asia poultices are made of fresh leaves are used to treat abscesses, as well as to heal wounds. An infusion of the leaves is used as a vermifuge and to treat fatigue and weak heart function. The root decoction is used to treat rheumatism, wounds and furuncles. A poultice of powdered root with sheep fat is used to treat wounds. The taste is bitter and the potency is cool and blunt. It is used in Mongolia for the following: as a diuretic, treating inflammation, liver cirrhosis, ulcers, healing wounds, and for degeneration of liver and bile, ascites tumors (Sokolov 1988).

Local Food Uses The flower buds are marinated as capers (Sokolov 1988).

References Shishkin BK, Boborov EG. Flora of the USSR, vol. 14. Geraniales, Sapindales, Rhamnales. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1949 (English 1974). 616 p., 39 b/w plates, 2 maps. Sokolov PD, editor. Plant Resources of the USSR: Flowering plants, their chemical composition, use, vol. 4. Families of Rutaceae-Elaeagnaceae. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk; 1988. 357 p. (in Russian).