Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia (Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions) 3030383881, 9783030383886

Citation preview

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors: R. W. Bussmann · N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana

F. Merlin Franco  Editor

Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions Series Editors Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia Saving Knowledge La Paz, Bolivia Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia Universidad Mayor de San Andrés La Paz, Bolivia

Ethnobotanical research in recent years has increasingly shifted into applied aspects of the discipline, including climate change research, conservation, and sustainable development. It has by now widely been recognized that “traditional” knowledge is always in flux and adapting to a quickly changing environment. Trends of globalization, especially the globalization of plant markets, have greatly influenced how plant resources are managed nowadays. While ethnobotanical studies are now available from many regions of the world, no comprehensive encyclopedic series focusing on the worlds mountain regions is available in the market. Scholars in plant sciences worldwide will be interested in this website and its dynamic content. The field (and thus the market) of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has grown considerably in recent years. Student interest is on the rise, attendance at professional conferences has grown steadily, and the number of professionals calling themselves ethnobotanists has increased significantly (the various societies—Society for Economic Botany, International Society of Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, International Society for Ethnobiology, and many regional and national societies in the field currently have thousands of members). Growth has been most robust in BRIC countries. The objective of this new series on Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions is to take advantage of the increasing international interest and scholarship in the field of mountain research. We anticipate including the best and latest research on a full range of descriptive, methodological, theoretical, and applied research on the most important plants for each region. Each contribution will be scientifically rigorous and contribute to the overall field of study. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15885

F. Merlin Franco Editor

Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia With 418 Figures and 1 Table

Editor F. Merlin Franco Institute of Asian Studies Universiti Brunei Darussalam Bandar Seri Begawan, Negara Brunei Darussalam

ISSN 2523-7489 ISSN 2523-7497 (electronic) ISBN 978-3-030-38388-6 ISBN 978-3-030-38389-3 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-030-38390-9 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Dedicated to the folk healers of Southeast Asia

Preface

Plants assume ethnobotanical importance only when they are associated with human societies. Use of plants as medicine, food, fodder, and cultural purposes all happen in specific cultural and landscape contexts. This is a major factor often ignored by biologists studying human-plant relationship. Touting a plant as an ethnobotanically important one without providing adequate information on the societies that use them, or the context of use, distorts the picture. Chapters included in this volume provide comprehensive information on the medicinal, food, cultural, and phytochemical values of selected plant species, along with the cultural context. Gleaning out these information from published literature was not an easy task as a good percentage of published articles merely mention the plant use without specifying the community and context of its use. Also, most literature do not provide an understanding on how plant use has changed over times. Our authors have taken extra care to ensure that these information are presented, wherever possible. Another highlight of this volume is that majority of our contributing authors are budding ethnobiologists. These youngsters are poised to emerge as torch bearers of ethnobiology in Southeast Asia, and the larger Asian continent. We hope that this volume would serve as an important reference material for academics, plant lovers, and members of local communities of Southeast Asia.

vii

Acknowledgments

This volume took birth with an invitation from Rainer W. Bussmann and Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, series editors of Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions. I thank both of them for providing me the opportunity to edit the volume and also the freedom to include sections on biocultural importance of the selected species. I express my sincere gratitude to all individual authors who have contributed to this volume. However, I should specifically place on record the important role played by Anisatu Z. Wakhidah, a young ethnobiologist from Indonesia. Her entry into the project came at a time when we had suffered a major setback with a few authors dropping out. She had helped me network with other ethnobiologists from Indonesia. Without her, this project would have taken longer to complete. For this volume, I had the privilege to work with an extremely efficient team at Springer Nature including Eric Stannard, Johanna Klute, and Sylvia Blago. The experience and patience of Johanna and Sylvia helped a lot in troubleshooting various unforeseen glitches that arose especially during the initial stages of the project. Special thanks to D. Narasimhan, former professor of botany at Madras Christian College, Chennai, and Santhana Ganesan of Singapore Botanical Gardens for their moral support and encouragement. I thank the Institute of Asian Studies at Universiti Brunei Darussalam for supporting me throughout this project. Though ethnobiology is an interdisciplinary subject, in Asia it is often considered as a part of the natural sciences due to the domination of a bioprospecting narrative. I am indebted to my home institute for appreciating the interdisciplinary value of this project and permitting me to work on this. F. Merlin Franco

ix

Contents

Volume 1 Part I

....................................

1

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Merlin Franco and Wendy A. Mustaqim

3

Part II

Country Profiles

Plant Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

Abrus precatorius L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

31

Acer laurinum Hassk. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rina Ratnasih Irwanto and Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam

43

Acorus calamus L. ACORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kreni Lokho and F. Merlin Franco

49

Acrothamnus suaveolens (Hook.f.) C.J.Quinn ERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

55

Aeschynanthus radicans Jack GESNERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rina Ratnasih Irwanto and Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam

59

.......................

65

..................

73

Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim and Reza Raihandhany Yus

79

.....................

89

Agathis borneensis Warb. ARAUCARIACEAE A. Nithaniyal Stalin and F. Merlin Franco

Agathis dammara (Lamb.) Poir. ARAUCARIACEAE Richard Francisco Clemente

Alpinia vanoverberghii Merr. ZINGIBERACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

xi

xii

Contents

Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst.) Hoffm. MARATTIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muhamad Muhaimin and Wendy A. Mustaqim Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

93

103

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. THYMELAEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

109

Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana Lauterb. ARAUCARIACEAE . . . . . . Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

127

Areca catechu L. ARECACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rina Ratnasih Irwanto and Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam

135

Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. ARECACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wawan Sujarwo and Ary Prihardhyanto Keim

143

Argemone mexicana L. PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

155

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishnamoorthy Devanathan and A. Nithaniyal Stalin

169

Asplenium nidus L. ASPLENIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muhamad Muhaimin

181

Bauhinia monandra Kurz FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

189

...........................

195

Biophytum umbraculum Welw. OXALIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anisatu Z. Wakhidah and Wendy A. Mustaqim

213

Calamus manillensis (Mart.) H. Wendl. ARECACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

219

Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson ANNONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim and Diny Hartiningtias

225

Canarium ovatum Engl. BURSERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marina Silalahi and Anisatu Z. Wakhidah

239

Cardiospermum halicacabum L. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

245

Castanopsis argentea (Blume) A. DC. FAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aisyah Handayani and Syafitri Hidayati

255

Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod. FABACEAE Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

Contents

xiii

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anisatu Z. Wakhidah and Wendy A. Mustaqim

261

Chloranthus elatior Link CHLORANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heri Santoso

269

........

275

Cibotium barometz (L.) J.Sm. CYATHEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniele Cicuzza

283

Cinnamomum burmanni (Nees & T.Nees) Blume LAURACEAE . . . . . . . . . Wawan Sujarwo and Ary Prihardhyanto Keim

289

Cinnamomum cebuense Kosterm LAURACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

297

Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal LAURACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

305

Cinnamomum sintoc Blume LAURACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aisyah Handayani and Syafitri Hidayati

311

.................................

317

.......................

323

Cratoxylum sumatranum (Jack) Blume HYPERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

333

Curcuma longa L. ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marina Silalahi

339

Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redouté ASPHODELACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kreni Lokho and Wendy A. Mustaqim

347

Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe DILLENIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

353

Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. ATHYRIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniele Cicuzza

359

Donax canniformis (G.Forst.) K.Schum. MARANTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marina Silalahi and Anisatu Z. Wakhidah

365

Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

373

Durio zibethinus L. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

379

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob ASTERACEAE Kryssa D. Balangcod and Ashlyn Kim D. Balangcod

Clitoria ternatea L. FABACEAE Marina Silalahi

Cordia dichotoma G.Forst. BORAGINACEAE A. Nithaniyal Stalin

xiv

Contents

Elaeagnus triflora Roxb. ELAEAGNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

387

....................

391

Erechtites valerianifolius (Link ex Spreng.) DC. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

401

Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rina Ratnasih Irwanto, Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, and Reza Raihandhany Yus

407

Etlingera alba (Blume) A.D. Poulsen ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

413

Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai & Nagam. ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . Krishnamoorthy Devanathan and Wendy A. Mustaqim

417

Eurycoma longifolia Jack SIMAROUBACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim, Reza Raihandhany Yus, and Muhammad Badrut Tamam

425

Ficus benjamina (L.) MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anisatu Z. Wakhidah, Dafi Al Anshory, and Wendy A. Mustaqim

439

Ficus minahassae (Teijsm. & de Vriese) Miq. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim and Wisnu H. Ardi

447

Ficus montana Burm.f. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

453

Ficus padana Burm.f. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, Wendy A. Mustaqim, and Rina Ratnasih Irwanto

459

Ficus racemosa L. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dewi S. Amboupe and Wendy A. Mustaqim

465

Ficus septica Burm.f. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

471

Flacourtia inermis Roxb. SALICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim and Reza Raihandhany Yus

479

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T.Aiton FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

485

Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle PHYLLANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

493

Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy CLUSIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

499

Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. EQUISETACEAE Muhamad Muhaimin and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Contents

xv

Garcinia mangostana L. CLUSIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

505

........................

517

Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

525

Gnetum gnemon L. GNETACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marina Silalahi

531

Gunnera macrophylla Blume GUNNERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kryssa D. Balangcod and Ashlyn Kim D. Balangcod

539

Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. OPHIOGLOSSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniele Cicuzza

545

Hippobroma longiflora (L.) G. Don CAMPANULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anisatu Z. Wakhidah, Syafroni Pranata, and Wendy A. Mustaqim

551

Homalanthus macradenius Pax & K.Hoffm. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

557

Hoya lacunosa Blume APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim and Wisnu H. Ardi

563

Hyptis capitata Jacq. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

567

Ixora philippinensis Merr. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

573

Gaultheria leucocarpa Blume ERICACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim and Eka Setiawan

Volume 2 Kaempferia galanga L. ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marina Silalahi

579

Leea manillensis Walp. VITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

587

.....................

593

Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

599

Lilium philippinense Baker LILIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teodora D. Balangcod and Ashlyn Kim D. Balangcod

605

Liquidambar excelsa (Noronha) Oken ALTINGIACEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aisyah Handayani and Syafitri Hidayati

613

Leptosolena haenkei C. Presl ZINGIBERACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

xvi

Contents

Lithocarpus jordanae (Laguna) Rehder FAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

619

Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. LAURACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rina Ratnasih Irwanto, Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, and Reza Raihandhany Yus

625

Lygodium circinnatum (Burm.f.) Sw. LYGODIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniele Cicuzza

633

Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. LYGODIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muhamad Muhaimin

639

Macaranga magna Turrill EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teodora D. Balangcod and Kryssa D. Balangcod

645

Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

651

...............

663

Medinilla pendula Merr. MELASTOMATACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

669

Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner MORACEAE Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, Wendy A. Mustaqim, and Rina Ratnasih Irwanto

Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Rchb. & Zoll. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

675

Melastoma malabathricum L. MELASTOMATACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

681

Melia dubia Cav. MELIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Nithaniyal Stalin

707

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim and Reza Raihandhany Yus

715

Musa balbisiana Colla MUSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

727

Mussaenda philippica A.Rich. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

733

Myrmecodia brassii Merr. & L.M.Perry RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

739

Myrmecodia lamii Merr. and L.M. Perry RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

745

Nepenthes maxima Reinw. ex Nees NEPENTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

751

Contents

xvii

Nothofagus brassii Steenis NOTHOFAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

757

Nothofagus starkenborghiorum Steenis NOTHOFAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

763

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz BIGNONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

769

.............

783

Pandanus antaresensis H.St.John PANDANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

791

Pandanus conoideus Lam. PANDANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

799

Pandanus julianettii Martelli PANDANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

807

Papuacedrus papuana (F.J. Mueller) H.L.Li CUPRESSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

817

Passiflora foetida L. PASSIFLORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dewi S. Amboupe and Wendy A. Mustaqim

825

Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth PIPERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anisatu Z. Wakhidah, Cindy Novianti, and Wendy A. Mustaqim

835

Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. THYMELAEACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim, Reza Raihandhany Yus, and Muhammad Badrut Tamam

843

Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

857

Phyllanthus emblica L. PHYLLANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, Wendy A. Mustaqim, and Rina Ratnasih Irwanto

863

Phyllocladus hypophyllus Hook.f. PODOCARPACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

873

Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese PINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy A. Mustaqim

881

....................................

889

..............................

901

Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. ex Lindl. PANDANACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Piper betle L. PIPERACEAE Marina Silalahi

Piper decumanum L. PIPERACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

xviii

Contents

Piper sarmentosum Roxb. PIPERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kreni Lokho and F. Merlin Franco

907

Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. PITTOSPORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

913

................

921

Plectocomia elongata Mart. ex Blume ARECACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, Wendy A. Mustaqim, and Rina Ratnasih Irwanto

927

Polygala paniculata L. POLYGALACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kreni Lokho and Wendy A. Mustaqim

933

Proiphys amboinensis (L.) Herb. AMARYLLIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anisatu Z. Wakhidah and Wendy A. Mustaqim

941

Rubus fraxinifolius Poir. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maverick N. Tamayo and Zenaida G. Baoanan

947

Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Blume VIBURNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marina Silalahi and Anisatu Z. Wakhidah

955

Saurauia bontocensis Merr. ACTINIDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

963

Saurauia elegans (Choisy) Fern.-Vill. ACTINIDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

969

Saurauia sparsiflora Elmer ACTINIDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

973

Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms ARALIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kreni Lokho and Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

977

........................

983

Shorea javanica Koord. & Valeton DIPTEROCARPACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anisatu Z. Wakhidah, I. Gusti Ayu Rai Sawitri, and Wendy A. Mustaqim

991

Smilax bracteata C. Presl. SMILACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

999

Platostoma palustre (Blume) A.J.Paton LAMIACEAE Heri Santoso

Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. THEACEAE Aisyah Handayani and Syafitri Hidayati

Sphaeropteris tomentosissima (Copel.) R. M. Tryon CYATHEACEAE . . . . . 1003 Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz. ANACARDIACEAE Wawan Sujarwo and Ary Prihardhyanto Keim

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009

Contents

xix

Staurogyne elongata (Nees) Kuntze ACANTHACEAE Aisyah Handayani and Syafitri Hidayati

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015

Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. f.) Bedd. BLECHNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Daniele Cicuzza Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 Anisatu Z. Wakhidah and Wendy A. Mustaqim Syzygium leucoxylon Korth. MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 Krishnamoorthy Devanathan and Jurgenne H. Primavera Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry MYRTACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim Tasmannia piperita (Hook.f.) Miers WINTERACEAE Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

. . . . . . . . . . 1041

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051

Taxus wallichiana Zucc. TAXACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059 Muhamad Muhaimin, Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, and Wendy A. Mustaqim Tetrastigma loheri Gagnep. VITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 Marina Silalahi and Anisatu Z. Wakhidah Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook.f. & Thomson MENISPERMACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

. . . . . . . . . 1071

Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079 Teodora D. Balangcod and Ashlyn Kim D. Balangcod Uncaria gambir (W.Hunter) Roxb. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085 Rina Ratnasih Irwanto, Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, and Reza Raihandhany Yus Uncaria lanosa Wall. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091 Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar Vaccinium barandanum S. Vidal ERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097 Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo Vaccinium myrtoides (Blume) Miq. ERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101 Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan Viburnum luzonicum Rolfe VIBURNACEAE Raf. Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107

Vitex negundo L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115 A. Nithaniyal Stalin Vitex parviflora A.Juss. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125 Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

xx

Contents

Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott ARACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131 Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, Wendy A. Mustaqim, and Rina Ratnasih Irwanto Photographs and Fundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137

About the Editor

F. Merlin Franco is an ethnobiologist working with the Institute of Asian Studies at Universiti Brunei Darussalam. He is passionate about the reciprocal relationship between human culture, language, and biodiversity (biocultural diversity), and the myriad ways in which it manifests. He collaborates with local communities of Asia on topics related to folk medicine, traditional ecological calendars, cultural keystone species, and biocultural landscapes. However, his work lays special emphasis on the cultures and landscapes of Borneo where he is based since 2012.

xxi

Contributors

Dewi S. Amboupe Plant Biology, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Science, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia Dafi Al Anshory Member of Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Research Center of Biology – LIPI, West Java, Indonesia Wisnu H. Ardi Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Garden, Indonesia Institute of Sciences, Bogor, Jawa Barat, Indonesia Ashlyn Kim D. Balangcod Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines Kryssa D. Balangcod Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines Teodora D. Balangcod Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines Zenaida G. Baoanan Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines Jonathan M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines Racquel C. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines Daniele Cicuzza Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam Richard Francisco Clemente College of Science, Bulacan State University, City of Malolos, Bulacan, Philippines Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines xxiii

xxiv

Contributors

Krishnamoorthy Devanathan Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India F. Merlin Franco Institute of Asian Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Negara Brunei Darussalam Aisyah Handayani Cibodas Botanic Gardens, The Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cianjur, Indonesia Natural Resources and Environment Management, Graduate School, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia Diny Hartiningtias Collaborative Campus Associate, School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Jakarta, Indonesia Syafitri Hidayati Department of Forest Resources Conservation and Ecotourism, Division of Plant Diversity Conservation, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia Rina Ratnasih Irwanto School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia Ary Prihardhyanto Keim Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia Kreni Lokho Department of Botany, Madras Christian College, Chennai, India Muhamad Muhaimin Cibodas Botanical Garden, Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, West Java, Indonesia Wendy A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia A. Nithaniyal Stalin Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Department of Botany, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Department of Botany, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Tamil Nadu, India Cindy Novianti School of Life Sciences and Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, West Java, Indonesia

Contributors

xxv

Syafroni Pranata Ecology Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, Indonesia Jurgenne H. Primavera Zoological Society of London, La Paz, Iloilo City, Philippines Heri Santoso Generasi Biologi Indonesia Foundation, Gresik, Indonesia I. Gusti Ayu Rai Sawitri Member of Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia Eka Setiawan Plant Biology Graduate Program, Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, IPB University, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia Marina Silalahi Prodi Pendidikan Biologi, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia Biology Education Department, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, West Jakarta, Indonesia Melanie S. Subilla Department of Forestry and Agroforestry, Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, Bontoc, Mountain Province, Philippines Wawan Sujarwo Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia Muhammad Badrut Tamam Generasi Biologi Indonesia Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Muhammadiyah Lamongan, East Java, Indonesia Maverick N. Tamayo Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Baguio, Philippines Anisatu Z. Wakhidah Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia Reza Raihandhany Yus Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia

Part I Country Profiles

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia F. Merlin Franco and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Introduction SE Asia comprises a mainland SE Asia (Enfield and Comrie 2015) and a maritime SE Asia, or archipelagos (Sutherland 2003). Mainland SE Asia is often identified with rice cultivation, while trade is seen as the major economic activity in the maritime countries (Sutherland 2003). The present-day land mass of SE Asia results from the convergence of the Australian, Pacific, and Eurasian plates (Zahirovic et al. 2014), and the biologically and geologically complex Wallacea (Eastern Indonesia) is at the center of this region of confluence (Hall 2011). The definition of SE Asia is a contentious one. Geographical SE Asia includes Northeast India, Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India, Taiwan, and parts of China lying south to the River Yangtze (Enfield and Comrie 2015; Michaud et al. 2016). Popular notion of SE Asia, however, includes the 11 countries of Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Singapore, Timor Leste, and Vietnam. This popular notion of SE Asia is a legacy of European colonialism in the region and excludes certain ethnic communities of Southwestern China, Taiwan, India, Myanmar, and Bangladesh who are essentially SE Asian by virtue of their language and culture (Michaud et al. 2016; Winzeler 2010). Although the volume originally intended to focus on the plants of ethnobotanical importance for highland communities of geographical SE Asia, it has to be reoriented to focus on popular SE Asia, owing to practical difficulties in compiling the list of all ethnic communities whose culture and language could be considered as SE Asian.

F. M. Franco (*) Institute of Asian Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Negara Brunei Darussalam e-mail: [email protected] W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_208

3

4

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Biocultural Diversity of the Highlands of SE Asia Evidences peg the presence of Homo sapiens in SE Asia to more than 40,000 years ago. Humans in the mainland region were largely speaking Austroasiatic languages until the expansion of the Chinese-, Tai-, Vietnamese-, Burman-, and Austronesianspeaking populations (Enfield and Comrie 2015). Communities of contemporary SE Asia could be broadly conceptualized as lowland and highland communities. Michaud et al. (2016) use the term “Southeast Asian Massif” to refer to the highland landscapes of SE Asia situated above 300 m.a.s.l. Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Thai-Malay peninsula, Myanmar, northern Thailand, Lao-Vietnam, and Cambodia are all known for their hills and hill tracts (Woodruff 2010). There are also around 750 volcanoes that are considered to be either active or potentially active in the region (Whelley et al. 2015). Many of the mountains of SE Asia are considered sacred by the local communities. Noteworthy examples include Mount Kinabalu (Sabah, Malaysia), Doi Ang Salung Chiang Dao, Doi Suthep, and Doi Kham (northern Thailand), Mount Rinjani (Lombok), Mount Agung (Bali), and Mount Semeru (Java) of Indonesia, and Haling-Halang of Cambodia (Bidder et al. 2016; Gottowik 2016; Swearer et al. 2004; McCann and Hsu 2014). Lowland areas of contemporary mainland SE Asia are seats of political power characterized by dense populations. They are also less linguistically and culturally diverse than the highland areas. Communities inhabiting the highland regions, on the other hand, are both politically and geographically marginalized (Enfield and Comrie 2015). There are 100,981,847 highland people acknowledged officially as inhabiting the SE Asian Massiff (Northeast India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Southwest China, and Taiwan) (Michaud et al. 2016). However, this figure is not definite due to the prevalence of multiple ethnicity taxonomies, exonyms, and transboundary communities, which furthers the marginalization inflicted on these people while also promoting apathy toward their cultures (Grothmann 2012; Michaud et al. 2016). Since state policies drive livelihood decision-making, expansion of urbanization, and industrial growth among highland SE Asian communities (Trincsi et al. 2014), it is important for these communities to be represented in policy-making processes concerning them. Highland communities of SE Asia have influenced their landscape, and flora and fauna through their cultural practices. Long-fallow swidden, rice terraces (Fig. 1), and hunting and foraging in the jungles are all examples of such practices. Within SE Asia, Laos possibly has the highest proportions of long-fallow swidden (Chan et al. 2018). Swidden cultivation has always been viewed with suspicion by policy makers and biodiversity conservationists who usually hail from the lowland regions of SE Asia, and hence lack a holistic understanding of the practice. Policy regimes have aggressively pushed for transitioning from swidden to alternative-intensified cropping systems. However, a review from Dressler et al. (2017) shows that although overall household incomes have increased, such policies have inflicted substantial negative impact on overall well-being of the communities. Contrary to popular expectations, such transitions have also led to loss of soil quality. From an ethnobiological perspective, swidden cultivation influences the vegetation

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

5

Fig. 1 Rice terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras. (© Lowell O Reynes)

composition of forests. The secondary forests regenerating from long fallows are of immediate economic importance to local communities, as they are rich in species used by local communities for food, medicines, and timber. In addition, swidden croplands also harbor rich agrobiodiversity (Lawrence et al. 1995; Marjokorpi and Ruokolainen 2003; Rerkasem et al. 2009). A loss of swidden cultivation would thus mean a loss of such species of ethnobiological importance for the local communities. SE Asia’s biocultural diversity is currently facing a major crisis. Much of SE Asia’s forests have been lost to deforestation. Commercial plantations, logging, hunting and trade, mining, habitat fragmentation by road construction, dam construction, drainage of wetlands, forest fires, pollution, invasive species, diseases, and climate change are all major drivers of deforestation in the region (Hughes 2017). While deforestation drives forest loss, it also impedes on the native customary rights of the local communities, alienating them from their forests and escalating local conflicts. It also deprives local communities of the ecosystem services including plants of ethnobotanical value (Laurance 1999). On the language diversity front, languages such as Thai, Lao, Khmer, Vietnamese, Chinese, and Malay, which receive political patronage, have continued to expand their speaker base, while other languages spoken in the region, especially the indigenous languages spoken by a relatively fewer number of people, face an existential crisis (Enfield 2011; Premsrirat 2007; Tondo 2009). Highland languages of SE Asia are confined to narrow altitudinal ranges (niches) (Scott 2009), making them vulnerable to endangerment and loss. A common pattern in SE Asia is the unidirectional diffusion of lowland languages into highland languages (Urban 2020). As a consequence, highland communities either turn bilingual or into speakers of politically powerful lowland languages. Indigenous communities such as the Kadazandusun (Sabah),

6

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Iban (Sarawak), and Semai (Peninsular Malaysia) of Malaysia have responded positively to language endangerment by initiating programs that educate children in their respective mother tongues (Kosonen 2005). The need of the hour is to put a permanent halt to deforestation, recognize native customary rights, and develop programs that help local communities revitalize their cultural and linguistic diversities.

Vegetation As SE Asia is located in the tropics that receive abundant rainfall and sunshine, the region is home to lush tropical rain forests rich in plant diversity. Three of the mega diverse countries viz. Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines are located in the region; Sabah of Malaysian Borneo and the Bird’s Head Peninsula area of New Guinea are among the five centers of plant diversity (Barthlott et al. 2005); IndoBurma, Philippines, Sundaland, and Wallacea have been designated as biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al. 2000); Indonesian New Guinea is a part of the global wilderness area (Mittermeier et al. 2003; Cámara-Leret et al. 2020). SE Asia’s tropical rain forests are broadly classifiable into two, namely, seasonal and ever-wet vegetation. Of these, the ever-wet vegetations form the larger proportion; ever-wet vegetations occurring at elevations less than 1000 m.a.s.l. are often grouped together as lowland tropical rain forests, and those occurring above 1000 m. a.s.l. as tropical montane rain forests (FAO 2000; Kartawinata 2016; Mongabay 2012; Ruangpanit 1995). Closer to sea level, both seasonal and ever-wet areas harbor specialized coastline vegetation such as mangroves. Coastal areas of SE Asia also exhibit dryland vegetation called beach forests (Fig. 2). In the insular part of SE Asia, beach forests are marked by some unique plants such as Ipomoea pes-caprae in the outermost zone and Barringtonia formation in the inner zone. The tree diversity is considerably low in this area (Göltenboth et al. 2006a). As we move inland toward the seasonal areas of SE Asia, there are several types of vegetation ranging from forests to grasslands. Yet, in the seasonal areas, some forests remain green throughout the year. For example, an isolated evergreen monsoon forest can be found in the very dry Baluran National Park, East Java (Lathifah et al. 2015). Deciduous forests are also encountered frequently in SE Asia, especially in areas with seasonal climate where there is clear distinction between dry and wet period (Kartawinata 2016; Ruangpanit 1995; Siregar and Yuswandi 2018; Zhu 2019). These forests are less complex compared to tropical nonseasonal rain forests. Dipterocarpus, Shorea, and Tectona are common to these forests (Ruangpanit 1995; Wikramanayake et al. 2020; Zhu 2019). A more extreme type of seasonal forest in SE Asia is savanna (Ruangpanit 1995). During the Last Glacial Period, a savanna corridor ran from Thailand, along the eastern half of Peninsular Malaysia, Karimata Strait, including a small portion of eastern Sumatra, the eastern half of Java, southern Borneo, south to southeast Sulawesi, and throughout Nusa Tenggara or Lesser Sunda Islands (Heaney 1991;

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

7

Fig. 2 Coastal vegetation showing a mix of beach forests and mangroves in Rote Island, Indonesia. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Bird et al. 2005). Sea levels rose after the Last Glacial Maximum, leading to the separation of Borneo from mainland SE Asia, Java, and Sumatra. Today, the savanna and grasslands are more frequent in the driest parts, for example, the eastern half of the Lesser Sunda Islands (vanSteenis 1972; Siregar and Yuswandi 2018) (Fig. 3). Montane seasonal forests also exist in mountainous areas such as in Timor (vanSteenis 1972). The ever-wet vegetations of SE Asia consist of lowland rain forests (including swamps), dryland ever-wet vegetation, mountain vegetation, subalpine vegetation, and also some alpine vegetation (Kartawinata 2016). Lowland tropical evergreen rain forest is one of the most abundant forests in SE Asia (Göltenboth et al. 2006b). Lowland swamp vegetation in SE Asia can be divided into two main categories, namely lowland freshwater and peat swamp (Fig. 4). A large part of SE Asian vegetation occurs on dry land. Dipterocarp, nondipterocarp, lowland heath forests, limestone, and ultrabasic vegetation types occur in the inland zones (Kartawinata 2016). Dipterocarp forest is among the dominant vegetation in the western part of insular (Fig. 5) and some part of continental SE Asia. The Bornean dipterocarp forests or mixed dipterocarp forests are rich in species diversity. Slik et al. (2003) showed that 21.9% of its species are dipterocarps, with Shorea being the most important genus. The lowland nondipterocarp forests of SE Asia are dominated by a few genera belonging to several plant families. For instance, Canarium (Burseraceae), Pometia (Sapindaceae), Syzygium (Myrtaceae), and Araucaria (Araucariaceae) dominate the lowland nondipterocarp forests from Sulawesi to New Guinea (FAO 2000). A unique ecosystem of SE Asia is lowland heath forests.

8

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 3 Lowland grassland mixed with isolated patches of seasonal forests in Sumba, Lesser Sunda Islands. (© Adhy W Setiawan)

Fig. 4 Peat swamp forests in Riau, Indonesia. In the front, the stoloniferous Hanguana anthelminthica occurs with peat swamp orchid Papilionanthe hookeriana, and the trees behind are the dipterocarp Shorea. (© Syafroni Pranata)

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

9

Fig. 5 Lowland mixed dipterocarp forests in Batang Toru, North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

This type of forests is known from the podzolized, nutrient-poor soils of Borneo and New Guinea. Heath forests occurring in Borneo and the islands of Bangka and Belitung in the southwest together comprise the Sundaland heath forests (Stibig et al. 2007; Loucks 2020) (Fig. 6). Heath forests of New Guinea are known for their distinct palm flora (Dransfield et al. 2000). Generally, in SE Asia, from 1000 m.a.s.l. and above, one could encounter mountainous vegetations (tropical montane rain forests). However, there is considerable variation due to mass elevation effect or Massenerhebung effect – the phenomenon where, in smaller islands of SE Asia, the vegetation zones occur at elevations lower than the comparatively larger islands (vanSteenis 1972). For example, mossy forests that usually occur above 2000 m.a.s.l. in the larger islands can descend as low as 572 m.a.s.l. in small isolated islands such as Bawean, East Java (Trimanto 2014) (Fig. 7). The montane vegetations are rich in plant diversity and are usually divided into lower (Fig. 8), mid (Fig. 9), and upper montane zones (Figs. 10, 11, and 12). Swamp and lake vegetations also occur in many places within these zones (Kartawinata 2016) (Fig. 13). A study on palm diversity reports a midelevation effect, where the midelevations exhibit the highest diversity (Bachman et al. 2004). Upper montane vegetations are marked by abundant mosses. However, in the drier areas, mosses can be absent and only lichens grow (vanSteenis 1972). There are also interesting domination patterns exhibited by certain taxa in SE Asian mountain vegetation. Pinus merkusii stands that can be found in many areas from Aceh to Kerinci, Sumatra, are among such unique vegetation. Pinus merkusii is

10

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 6 Sundaland heath forests in Belitung Island, Indonesia. The dominant tree species here is Melaleuca cajuputi. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Fig. 7 An example of Massenerhebung effect, showing the mossy forests – equal to montane forest – descending around 560 m.a.s.l. in Bawean, a small isolated island in the eastern part of Java Sea, Indonesia. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

11

Fig. 8 Lower montane forests in Mount Halimun, West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Fig. 9 Midmontane forests in Mount Gede-Pangrango, West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

12

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 10 Upper montane forests in Mount Gede-Pangrango, West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Fig. 11 Upper montane forests in the summit ridge of Mount Sesean, Toraja Highlands, South Sulawesi. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

13

Fig. 12 Vegetation on sandstone in the upper montane vegetation of the Arfak Mountains, Papua Barat, Indonesian New Guinea. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 13 Mountain lake vegetation in Gunung Tujuh, Jambi Province, Indonesia, the highest volcanic lake in SE Asia. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

14

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 14 Pinus merkusii stand in Kerinci Seblat National Park, Jambi Province, Sumatra. (© Diny Hartiningtias)

the only species of Pinus known to naturally occur in the southern hemisphere, in Kerinci (Cooling 1968; deLaubenfels 1988) (Fig. 14). Likewise, in the volcanic summit areas of East Java, there are many dense stands of Casuarina junghuhniana (vanSteenis 1972). In many parts of SE Asia, subalpine vegetations occur above the upper montane zones (Kartawinata 2016) (Figs. 15 and 16). The trees here are usually small with spreading branches. At times, certain plant groups such as the Anaphalis could dominate the vegetation in this zone (Kartawinata 2016) (Fig. 17). The elevation zone of this vegetation varies depending on the authors, but the lowest specified is 2500 m.a.s.l. (vanSteenis 1972) and the highest 4200 m.a.s.l. (Brongersma and Venema 1962; Hope 1976; Mangen 1993; Smith 1980). Myrtaceous and ericaceous plants are common in this vegetation zone (Mangen 1993). In the highest parts of SE Asia (>4000 m.a.s.l.), especially in New Guinea, pockets of alpine vegetations also exist (vanSteenis 1972; Hope 2014; Mangen 1993; Utteridge and Edwards 2009) (Figs. 18 and 19). The zone is characterized by dwarf shrubs, tussock grasslands, herbfields, mire, bogs, and heath vegetations. The grass Deschampsia klossii is common in alpine vegetations of Mount Jaya and Mount Trikora (Mangen 1993).

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

15

Fig. 15 Subalpine vegetation in the summit area of Mount Rantemario, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. (© Wisnu H Ardi)

Fig. 16 Subalpine shrubbery with isolated tree in the summit area of Mount Jaya, Papua Province, Indonesian New Guinea. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

16

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 17 Subalpine vegetation of Mount Pangrango, West Java, at some part dominated by Anaphalis javanica. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Fig. 18 Alpine vegetation of Mount Jaya, Indonesian New Guinea. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

17

Fig. 19 The highest point of SE Asia in Mount Jaya, Indonesian New Guinea. The highest point is usually covered by snow cap. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Botanical Gardens of Popular SE Asia The following summary is based on information available in the public domain (BGCI 2020; BGO 2020; BPK2TE PKTKR-LIPI 2016; CBD 2020; Go Baguio 2012; KR Bali 2020; Lailaty et al. 2016; LIPI 2018; Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Democratic Republic of Timor Leste 2018; Perbadanan Putrajaya 2020; PKTKR-LIPI 2020a; PhiTSanulokScanme 2018; Purnomo et al. 2015; Rahmansyah and Latupapua 2003; Surya et al. 2013; Tourism and Sports Office Rayong Province 2019; UBD BRC 2020; UPLB MNH ULB 2020). Botanical gardens play an important role in promoting awareness about plants and conservation (Chen and Sun 2018). In popular SE Asia, there are at least 101 extant botanical gardens. Indonesia has the highest number of botanical gardens (27), of which the most popular one is Bogor Botanical Gardens (Figs. 20 and 21), followed by Malaysia (19) and Thailand (18). Botanical gardens in SE Asia are set up on the basis of various core themes such as research and recreation. A few of them are either designated as ethnobotanical gardens or have separate ethnobotanical sections. In all, 20 out of the 101 botanical gardens are located above 700 m.a.s.l.; almost half of them are in Indonesia (9), where Wamena Biological Botanic Garden is the highest botanic garden in SE Asia (Fig. 22), followed by Vietnam (3), Malaysia (2) Philippines (2), Thailand (2), Vietnam (2), and Republic of Democratic Timor Leste (1). Seven of the highland botanical gardens are dedicated either entirely or at least in part to ethnobotanical researches, including species of medicinal, ornamental, spice, fruit, or other economic importance. In Thailand, the Queen Sirikit Botanical Garden of Chiang Mai (800 m.a.s.l.) has medicinal plant collections among the 3325

18

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 20 The Kenari Road in Bogor Botanic Garden, now known as Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanic Gardens, Indonesia Institute of Science, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Fig. 21 Main pool in the Bogor Botanic Garden, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A Mustaqim)

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

19

Fig. 22 The Wamena Biological Botanic Garden with a view of the central range of New Guinean mountains in behind. (© Prima W K Hutabarat)

cultivated species. In Vietnam, a “medicinal botanical garden” associated with the Sa Pa and Da Lat National Parks has been set up at an elevation over 1500 m.a.s.l. Malaysia has two botanical gardens that have ethnobotanical plants: Agrotechnology Park in MARDI Cameron highlands (1420 m.a.s.l.) for ornamental plants, and Tenom Orchid Centre and Agricultural Research (732 m.a.s.l.) for economically valuable plants. In Indonesia, four botanical gardens have major collections of ethnobotanical species: Solok Botanic Gardens of West Sumatra, Liwa Botanical Garden of Lampung, Bali Botanic Garden in Bali (Figs. 23 and 24), and Cibodas Botanic Garden in West Java (Figs. 25, 26, 27, and 28). Of these, collections at Solok Botanic Gardens and Liwa Botanical Garden focus on Indonesian spice plants and ornamental plants, respectively. A few botanical gardens in the lowlands have also attached prominence to species of ethnobotanical importance. The Singapore Botanic Gardens has a separate ethnobotany garden housing 300 species of plants important to the cultures of Malay Archipelago, Indochina, and South Asia. The garden consists of several thematic collections, including medicinal plants, fruit and vegetables, timber together with fibers and dyes, symbolism, and the Centre for Ethnobotany (Fig. 29) (SBG 2020). Bogor Botanical Gardens of Indonesia is another example (PKTKR-LIPI 2020b). Given the tremendous biocultural diversity of the region, plenty of opportunities exist for botanical gardens of the region to showcase plant species of ethnobotanical importance to the local cultures and promote awareness on their historical and contemporary relevance.

20

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 23 Traditional split gate at the “EkaKarya” Bali Botanic Garden, Tabanan, Bali, Indonesia. (© Muhamad Muhaimin)

Fig. 24 Tree ferns and some trees at the “EkaKarya” Bali Botanic Garden, Tabanan, Bali, Indonesia. (© Muhamad Muhaimin)

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

21

Fig. 25 Main office of Cibodas Botanic Garden, West Java, Indonesia. (© Muhamad Muhaimin)

Fig. 26 Gymnosperm collections in Cibodas Botanic Garden, West Java, Indonesia. (© Muhamad Muhaimin)

22

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 27 Nepenthes collections in Cibodas Botanic Garden, West Java, Indonesia. (© Dee D Al Farishy)

Fig. 28 Fern Park in the Cibodas Botanic Garden, West Java, Indonesia. The information boards often include the potential uses of the species. (© Muhamad Muhaimin)

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

23

Fig. 29 Centre for Ethnobotany at the Singapore Botanic Gardens. (© Santhana Ganesan)

Ethnobotanical Studies in SE Asia SE Asian ethnobotany could be traced back to literature on medicinal plants of the region (Dapar and Alejandro 2020). Hidayati et al. (2015) accessed 312 publications from popular SE Asia indexed in the Scopus and Web of Knowledge databases for the period 1960–2014. Their findings revealed that Indonesia produced the most number of studies (93), followed by Thailand (68), Malaysia (58), Philippines (42), Vietnam (31), Laos (29), and others (44). However, the actual number of literature pertaining to ethnobotany of SE Asia would vary if we expand the scope to grey literature. For instance, between 1990 and 2019, around 146 publications pertaining to ethnobiology were published in Thailand alone (Phumthum 2020). Arguably, the obsession of SE Asian ethnobiology on bioprospecting has impeded its advancement in the region (Hidayati et al. 2015), and there is plenty of scope for realizing theoretically grounded studies that enhance our understanding of the region’s biocultural diversity (Hidayati et al. 2015; Dapar and Alejandro 2020; Simbiak et al. 2019; Phumthum 2020). This volume is a compendium of information on the plants of the highlands of SE Asia that are of ethnobotanical importance to local communities. Our contributing authors have done a commendable job in providing a holistic understanding of plant–people relationship. However, sifting through the available literature for quality information has not been an easy task. A major handicap encountered was the failure of studies to report the name of the specific local communities that use the respective plant species, the specific dosage and combination of potions used, the cultural context of uses, and how they have changed/evolved over time. In this

24

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

context, we call upon fellow ethnobiologists cataloguing plants of ethnobiological importance to pay attention to the dynamic nature of the relationship between humans and plants, and its specific cultural contexts.

References Bachman S, Baker WJ, Brummit N, Dransfield J, Moat J. Elevational gradients, area and tropical island diversity: an example from the palms of New Guinea. Ecography. 2004;27:299–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0906-7590.2004.03759.x. Barthlott W, Mutke J, Rafiqpoor D, Kier G, Kreft H. Global centers of vascular plant diversity. Nova ActaLeopoldina. 2005;92:61–83. BGCI. Botanic Gardens Conservation International - Garden Search! 2020. https://tools.bgci.org/ garden_search.php. Retrieved 7 Aug 2020. BGO. The Botanic Garden Organization - QSBG-Queen SirikitBotani Garden. 2020. http://www. qsbg.org/qsbgenglishweb/index.html. Retrieved 5 Aug 2020. Bidder C, Kibat SA, Fatt BS. Cultural interpretation toward sustainability: a case of Mount Kinabalu. Procedia SocBehav Sci. 2016;224:632–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.05.454. Bird MI, Taylor D, Hunt C. Paleoenvironments of insular Southeast Asia during the last glacial period: a savanna corridor in Sundaland? QuaternSci Rev. 2005;24:228–42. BPK2TE PKTKR-LIPI. BidangPengembanganKawasanKonservasiTumbuhan Ex Situ: PusatKonservasiTumbuhanKebun Raya - LIPI. Kebun Raya Daerah Indonesia. 2016. http:// kebunrayadaerah.krbogor.lipi.go.id/. Retrieved 1 Aug 2020. (in Bahasa). Brongersma LD, Venema GF. To the mountains of the stars. London: Hodder & Stoughton; 1962. Cámara-Leret R, Frodin DG, Adema F, Anderson C, Appelhans MS, Argent G, Guerrero SA, Ashton PS, Baker WJ, Barfod AS, Barrington D, Borosova R, Bramley GLC, Briggs M, Buerki S, Cahen D, Callmander MW, Cheek M, Chen CW, Conn BJ, Coode MJE, Darbyshire I, Dawson S, Dransfield J, Drinkell C, Duyfjes B, Ebihara A, Ezedin Z, Fu LF, Gideon O, Girmansyah D, Govaerts R, Fortune-Hopkins H, Hassemer G, Hay A, Heatubun CD, Hind DJN, Hoch P, Homot P, Hovenkamp P, Hughes M, Jebb M, Jennings L, Jimbo T, Kessler M, Kiew R, Knapp S, Lamei P, Lehnert M, Lewis GP, Linder HP, Lindsay S, Low YW, Lucas E, Mancera JP, Monro AK, Moore A, Middleton DJ, Nagamasu H, Newman MF, NicLughadha E, Melo PHA, Ohlsen DJ, Pannell CM, Parris B, Pearce L, Penneys DS, Perrie LR, Petoe P, Poulsen AD, Prance GT, Quakenbush JP, Raes N, Rodda M, Rogers ZS, Schuiteman A, Schwartsburd P, Scotland RW, Simmons MP, Simpson DA, Stevens P, Sundue M, Testo W, Trias-Blasi A, Turner I, Utteridge T, Walsingham L, Webber BL, Wei R, Weiblen GD, Weigend M, Weston P, de Wilde W, Wilkie P, Wilmot-Dear CM, Wilson HP, Wood JRI, Zhang LB, van Welzen PC. New Guinea has the world's richest island flora. Nature. 2020;584:579–83. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2549-5. CBD. Convention on biological diversity. 2020. https://www.cbd.int/ Retrieved 5 Aug 2020. Chan N, Xayvongsa L, Takeda S. Livelihood activities of Swiddeners under the transition of Swidden agriculture: a case study in a Khmu Village, Northern Laos. In: Lopez M, Suryomenggolo J, editors. Environmental resources use and challenges in contemporary Southeast Asia. Asia in transition, vol. 7. Singapore: Springer; 2018. p. 231–46. https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-981-10-8881-0_11. Chen G, Sun W. The role of botanical gardens in scientific research, conservation, and citizen science. Pl Divers. 2018;40(4):181–8. Cooling ENG. Fast growing timber trees of the lowland tropics no. 4: Pinusmerkusii. London: University of Oxford; 1968. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD. Ethnobotanical studies on indigenous communities in the Philippines: current status, challenges, recommendations and future perspectives. J Compl Med Res. 2020;11(1):432–46.

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

25

deLaubenfels DJ. Pinaceae. FlMalesiana I. 1988;10(3):447–53. Dransfield J, Heatubun CD, Witono J. The palms of Mount Jaya. Palms. 2000;44(4):202–8. Dressler WH, Wilson D, Clendenning J, Cramb R, Keenan R, Mahanty S, Bruun TB, Mertz O, Lasco RD. The impact of swidden decline on livelihoods and ecosystem services in Southeast Asia: a review of the evidence from 1990 to 2015. Ambio. 2017;46:291–310. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s13280-016-0836-z. Enfield NJ. Linguistic diversity in mainland Southeast Asia. In: Enfield NJ, editor. Dynamics of human diversity: the case of mainland Southeast Asia. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics; 2011. p. 63–79. Enfield NJ, Comrie B. Mainland southeast Asian languages: state of the art and new directions. In: Enfield NJ, Comrie B, editors. Languages of mainland Southeast Asia: the state of the art. Berlin and Boston: Mouton de Gruyter; 2015. p. 1–27. FAO. Global Forests Resources Assessment 2000: Chapter 20. Asia: ecological zones. 2000. http:// www.fao.org/3/Y1997E/y1997e0p.htm. Accessed 21 Oct 2020. Go Baguio. Baguio Attractions - Baguio Botanical Garden. 2012. http://www.gobaguio.com/ botanical-garden-baguio-city.html#.XynqSIgzbIW. Retrieved 5 Aug 2020. Göltenboth F, Langenberger G, Widmann P. Beach forests. In: Göltenboth F, Timotius KH, Milan PP, Margraf J, editors. Ecology of insular Southeast Asia: the Indonesian archipelago. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2006a. p. 281–96. Göltenboth F, Langenberger G, Widmann P. Tropical lowland evergreen rainforests. In: Göltenboth F, Timotius KH, Milan PP, Margraf J, editors. Ecology of insular Southeast Asia: the Indonesian archipelago. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2006b. p. 297–384. Gottowik V. In search of holy water: Hindu pilgrimage to GunungRinjani on Lombok, Indonesia, as a multi-religious site. In: Dickhardt M, Lauser A, editors. Religion, place and modernity: spatial articulations in Southeast Asia and East Asia. Leiden: Brill; 2016. p. 205–43. Grothmann K. Migration narratives, official classifications, and lo-cal identities: the Memba of the hidden land of Pachakshiri. In: Huber T, Blackburn S, editors. Origins and migrations in the extended Eastern Himalayas. Leiden: Brill; 2012. p. 125–51. Hall R. Australia– SE Asia collision: plate tectonics and crustal flow. In: Hall R, Cottam MA, Wilson MEJ, editors. The SE Asian Gateway: History and Tectonics of the Australia– Asia Collision. GeologSoc Spec Pub. 2011;355:75–109. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP355.5. Heaney LR. A synopsis of climatic and vegetational change in Southeast Asia. Clim Chang. 1991;19:53–61. Hidayati S, Franco FM, Bussmann RW. Ready for phase 5 - current status of ethnobiology in Southeast Asia. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 2015;11:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002015-0005-7. Hope G. The vegetation of Mt Jaya. In: Hope G, Peterson JA, Allison I, Radok U, editors. The equatorial glaciers of New Guinea. Rotterdam: A.A.B.alkema; 1976. p. 113–72. Hope G. The sensitivity of the high mountain ecosystems of New Guinea to climatic change and anthropogenic impact. Arctic Antarc Alpine Res. 2014;46(4):777–86. https://doi.org/10.1657/ 1938-4246-46.4.777. Hughes AC. Understanding the drivers of Southeast Asian biodiversity loss. Ecosphere. 2017;8(1): e01624. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1624. Kartawinata K. Diversitasalamiekosistem Indonesia; Ungkapansingkatdengansajianfotodangambar. Jakarta: YayasanPustakaObor Indonesia; 2016. (in Bahasa) Kosonen K. Education in local languages: policy and practice in South-East Asia. In: First languages first: community-based literacy programmes for minority language contexts in Asia. Bangkok: UNESCO; 2005. p. 96–134. KR Bali. Kebun Raya Bali: Tanamanobat. 2020. https://www.kebunrayabali.com/tanaman-obat. html. Accessed 24 Oct 2020. Lailaty IQ, Muhaimin M, Handayani A, Efendi M, Nadhifah A, Noviady I. PotensitumbuhankoleksiKebun Raya Cibodassebagaiobat malaria masa depan. J Tumb Obat Indon. 2016;9(1):37–57.

26

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Lathifah SS, Rahmaniah R, Yuliani R, Resa RN, Fathurrahman A. Keanekaragamantumbuhan di hutan evergreen Taman NasionalBaluran, Situbondo, JawaTimur. ProsidingSemirata 2015 Bidang MIPA BKS-PTN Barat. Pontianak: Universitas Tanjungpura; 2015. p. 123–34. Laurance WF. Reflections on the tropical deforestation crisis. Biol Conserv. 1999;91(2–3):109–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(99)00088-9. Lawrence D, Leighton M, Peart D. Availability and extraction of forest products in managed and primary forest around a Dayak Village in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Conserv Biol. 1995;9(1):76–88. LIPI. MenilikKeindahanTanamanLangka di Kebun Raya “EkaKarya” Bali LIPI. 2018. http://lipi. go.id/berita/single/Menilik-Keindahan-Tanaman-Langka-di-Kebun-Raya-Eka-Karya-BaliLIPI/20260. Retrieved 1 Aug 2020. (in Bahasa). Loucks C. Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests: Sundaland heath forests. 2020. https:// www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/im0161. Accessed on 18 Oct 2020. Mangen JM. Ecology and vegetation of Mt Trikora New Guinea (Irian Jaya / Indonesia). Luxembourg: Musée National d'HistoireNaturelle de Luxembourg; 1993. Marjokorpi A, Ruokolainen K. The role of traditional forest gardens in the conservation of tree species in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodivers Conserv. 2003;12:799–822. https://doi.org/ 10.1023/A:1022487631270. McCann G, Hsu YC. Haunted headwaters: ecotourism, animism, and the blurry line between science and spirits. SHS Web of Conferences. 2014;12:01054. https://doi.org/10.1051/ shsconf/20141201054. Michaud J, Ruscheweyh MB, Swain MB. Historical dictionary of the peoples of the Southeast Asian Massif. 2nd ed. London: Rowman & Littlefield; 2016. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Democratic Republic of Timor Leste. Final country report of the land degradation neutrality target setting programme in Timor-Leste. Dili: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Democratic Republic of Timor Leste; 2018. Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, Brooks TM, Pilgrim JD, Konstant WR, da Fonseca GAB, Kormos C. Wilderness and biodiversity conservation. PNAS. 2003;100(18):10309–13. https:// doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1732458100. Mongabay. Types of Rainforests. https://rainforests.mongabay.com/0103.htm. 2012. Accessed on 12 Nov 2020. Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca GA, Kent J. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature. 2000;403(6772):853–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/35002501. Perbadanan Putrajaya. https://www.ppj.gov.my/en/second-menu/taman-botani. Retrieved 5 Aug 2020. PhiTSanulokScanme. Ban Rom KlaoPitsanuloke Botanic Garden by Royal Initiative. 2018. http:// www.phitsanulokscanme.com/en/ban-rom-klao-pitsanuloke-botanic-garden-by-royal-initiative/ . Retrieved 5 Aug 2020. Phumthum M. How far are we? Information from the three decades of ethnomedicinal studies in Thailand. Ethnobiol Conserv. 2020;9:21. https://doi.org/10.15451/ec2020-05-9.21-1-12. PKTKR-LIPI. PusatKonservasiTumbuhanKebun Raya - LIPI. 2020a. http://www.krbogor.lipi.go.id/. Retrieved 2 Aug 2020. (in Bahasa). PKTKR-LIPI. PusatKonservasiTumbuhanKebun Raya - LIPI: KoleksiTanamanObatKebun Raya Bogor. 2020b. http://krbogor.lipi.go.id/id/Koleksi-Tanaman-Obat-Kebun-Raya-Bogor.html. Accessed on 24 Oct 2020. Premsrirat S. Endangered languages of Thailand. Int J Sociol Lang. 2007;2007(186):75–93. https:// doi.org/10.1515/IJSL.2007.043. Purnomo DW, Magandhi M, Kuswantoro F, Risna RA, Witono JR. Pengembangankoleksitumbuhankebunrayadaerahdalamkerangkastrategikonservasitumbuhan di Indonesia. Bull Keb Raya. 2015;18(2):111–24. (in Bahasa) Rahmansyah M, Latupapua HJD. Establishment of Wamena biological gardens. Ber Biol. 2003;6(5):631–9. (in Bahasa)

Introduction to Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia

27

Rerkasem K, Lawrence D, Padoch C, et al. Consequences of swidden transitions for crop and fallow biodiversity in Southeast Asia. Hum Ecol. 2009;37:347–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745009-9250-5. Ruangpanit N. Tropical seasonal forests in monsoon Asia: with emphasis on continental Southeast Asia. Vegetation. 1995;121(1/2):31–40. SBG. Singapore Botanic Gardens: Bukit Timah Entrance: Ethnobotany garden. 2020. https:// www.3nparks.gov.sg/sbg/our-gardens/bukit-timah-core/ethnobotany-garden. Accessed 23 Oct 2020. Scott JC. The art of not being governed: an anarchist history of upland Southeast Asia. New Haven/London: Yale University Press; 2009. Simbiak M, Supriatna J, Walujo EB, Nisyawati. Current status of ethnobiological studies in Merauke, Papua, Indonesia: a perspective of biological-cultural diversity conservation. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(12):3455–66. Siregar M, Yuswandi AY. Alternatiflokasipengembangankebunrayadaneksplorasitumbuhanhutanmonsunmeranggasberbasispetadistribusitipehutan di Nusa Tenggara. BulKeb Raya. 2018;21(2): 67–82. Slik JWF, Poulsen AD, Ashton PS, Cannon CH, Eichhorn KAO, Kartawinata K, Lanniari I, Nagamasu H, Nakagawa M, van Nieuwstadt MGL, Payne J, Purwaningsih SA, Sidiyasa K, Verburg RW, Webb CO, Wilkie P. A floristic analysis of the lowland dipterocarp forests of Borneo. J Biogeogr. 2003;30:1517–31. Smith JMB. The vegetation of summit zone of Mount Kinabalu. New Phytol. 1980;84(3):547–73. Stibig HJ, Stolle F, Dennis R, Feldkötter C. Forest cover change in Southeast Asia - the regional pattern. Luxembourg: European Communities; 2007. Surya MI, Lailati M, Ekasari I, Nurlaeni Y, Astutik S, Normasiwi S, Gumilang AR, Junaedi DI, Mutaqien Z, Nurdiana DR, Rahman W, Destri, Rozak AH. Konservasitumbuhan di Kebun Raya Cibodassebagaipenyelamatkeanekaragamanhayatipegunungan di Indonesia. Lokakaryanasional “Keanekaragamanhayatisebagai modal dasarpembangunan” Hotel Borobudur 30– 31 October 2013. (in Bahasa). Sutherland H. Southeast Asian history and the Mediterranean analogy. J Southeast Asian Stud. 2003;34(1):1–20. Swearer DK, Premchit S, Dokbuakaew P. Sacred mountains of Northern Thailand and their legends. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books; 2004. Tondo FH. Kepunahanbahasa-bahasadaerah: Faktorpenyebabdanimplikasietnolinguistis. J Masy Bud. 2009;11(2):277–95. Tourism and Sport Office Rayong Province. Rayong Botanical Garden. 2019. http://www.surpriserayong.com/en/. Retrieved 5 Aug 2020. Trimanto. Vegetation analysis and tree biomass estimation of carbon stocks in seven montane forests of Bawean Island nature reserve. East Java Ber Biol. 2014;13(3):321–32. Trincsi K, Pham TTH, Turner S. Mapping mountain diversity: ethnic minorities and land use land cover change in Vietnam's borderlands. Land Use Policy. 2014;41:484–97. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.landusepol.2014.06.022. UBD BRC. Universiti Brunei Darussalam Botanical Research Center. 2020. http://brc.iber.ubd.edu. bn/index.php. Retrieved 5 Aug 2020. UPLB MNH ULB. UPLB Museum of Natural History University of the Philippines Los Baños. 2020. https://mnh.uplb.edu.ph/collections/hortorium. Retrieved 7 Aug 2020. Urban M. Mountain linguistics. Lang Linguist Compass. 2020;14:e12393. https://doi.org/10.1111/ lnc3.12393. Utteridge TMA, Edwards PJ. The subalpine and alpine flora of Mount Jaya (New Guinea): status and threats. Blumea. 2009;54:280–3. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651909X476292. vanSteenis CGGJ. The mountain flora of Java. Leiden: E.J. Brill; 1972. Whelley PL, Newhall CG, Bradley KE. The frequency of explosive volcanic eruptions in Southeast Asia. Bull Volcano. 2015;77:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-014-0893-8.

28

F. M. Franco and W. A. Mustaqim

Wikramanayake E, Boonratana R, Rundel P, Aggimarangsee N. Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests: Southeastern Asia: Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. 2020. https:// www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/im0202. Accessed 18 Oct 2020. Winzeler RL. The peoples of Southeast Asia today: ethnography, ethnology, and change in a complex region. Lanham: Alta Mira Press; 2010. Woodruff DS. Biogeography and conservation in Southeast Asia: how 2.7 million years of repeated environmental fluctuations affect today's patterns and the future of the remaining refugial-phase biodiversity. BiodiversConserv. 2010;19:919–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-010-9783-3. Zahirovic S, Seton M, Müller RD. The cretaceous and Cenozoic tectonic evolution of Southeast Asia. Solid Earth. 2014;5:227–73. https://doi.org/10.5194/se-5-227-2014. Zhu H. An introduction to the main forests vegetation types of mainland SE Asia (Indochina Peninsula). Guihaia. 2019;39(1):62–70.

Part II Plant Profiles

Abrus precatorius L. FABACEAE Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

Synonyms Abrus abrus (L.) Wright; A. cyaneus R.Vig.; A. maculatus Noronha; A. minor Desv.; A. pauciflorus Desv.; A. precatorius var. novo-guineensis Miq.; A. squamulosus E. Mey.; A. tunguensis Lima; Glycine abrus L.; Orobus americanus Mill.; Zaga latifolia Raf.; Z. parvifolia Raf. (ILDIS 2020; POWO 2020)

Local Names Indian liquorice (English); daun saga (West Java); saga, saga manis, soga rambat (Indonesian); kolondue (Kulisusu of Indonesia), kasaga-saga (Muna of Indonesia); saga telik (Javanese); akar saga (Malaysia); saga, kansasaga, bangati (the Philippines); ywe-nge (Myanmar); khua sae m, makam (Laos); ma klam taanu, klam khruea, ma khaam thao, ma klam taanuu (Thailand); angkreem, krem kram (Kompong Thom of Cambodia); daay cuw owflm tharo, cam tharo daay, daay tuw owng tuw (Vietnam) (Padua et al. 1999; Ross 2003; Priyadi et al. 2010).

Botany and Ecology Liana. Stem suffrutescent, puberulent when young, glabrous. Leaves evenpinnate, 10–15 cm long; leaflets 8–18 pairs, oblong to elliptic, 1–3
0.5–1 cm, unequally obtuse at base, entire at margins, obtuse-apiculate at apex, glabrous, appressed pubescent when young; nerves inconspicuous; petiole c. 1 cm long; petiolule c.

K. Devanathan (*) Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_101

31

32

K. Devanathan

1.5 mm long; stipule linear, c. 5 mm long. Racemes terminal or axillary, c. 10 cm long; peduncle c. 3 cm long; pedicel c. 3 mm long; bract deltoid, caducous; bracteole suborbicular, c. 1 mm across, appressed to calyx. Flowers c. 1 cm across, pink. Calyx campanulate, sparsely pubescent; tube c. 5 mm long, 5-toothed; teeth c. 1 mm long or obscure. Petals 5, clawed, glabrous, pink; standard petal broadly ovate, 1.2– 15
c. 0.8 cm; wing petals narrowly oblong, falcate, c. 8
3 mm; keel petals curved, c. 10
2 mm. Staminal sheath c. 8 mm long; stamens 9; filaments 2–3 mm long, subequal; anthers uniform, c. 1 mm long. Ovary linear-oblong, c. 8 mm long, pubescent, subsessile; style c. 0.5 mm long, incurved, glabrous; stigma capitates. Pod oblong, 3–5
1–1.5 cm, pilose, slightly inflated. Seeds 3–7, subglobose, 5– 7
4–5 mm, shining, stony, blood red with a black lateral blotch around the hilum or white with black blotch or entirely black (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Phenology: Abrus precatorius flowering and fruiting happens throughout the year. However, flowering peaks during November–January and fruiting peaks during March – May. Ecology: Abrus precatorius grows commonly in grasslands, scrub forests, dry deciduous forests and monsoon rain forests at elevation ranging from sea level to 1500 M ASL (Padua et al. 1999; IDILS 2020). Distribution: Abrus precatorius is native to Africa, Bangladesh, Borneo, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New South Wales, Pakistan, Queensland, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, and Western Australia. It is also introduced in Bahamas, Belize, Bismarck Archipelago, Bolivia, Brazil, Cayman Island, Colombia, Cook Island, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Florida, French Guiana, Galapagos, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Java, Leeward Island, Lesser Sunda Islands, Marquesas, Mauritius, Netherlands Antilles, New Caledonia, New Guinea, Nicaragua, Niue, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Rodrigues, Reunion, Samoa, Santa Cruz Island, Society Islands, Southwest Caribbean, Sumatera, Suriname, Tonga, TrinidadTobago, Tuamotu, Vanuatu, Venezuelan Antilles, Wallis-Futuna Island, and Windward Island (POWO 2020; ILDIS 2020).

Fig. 1 Abrus precatorius L. A twig with young fruits (© Krishnamoorthy Devanathan)

Abrus precatorius L.

33

Fig. 2 Abrus precatorius L. Inflorescence (© Krishnamoorthy Devanathan)

Fig. 3 Abrus precatorius L. Dehisced capsule (© Krishnamoorthy Devanathan)

Local Medicinal Uses Cambodia: Abrus precatorius seed powder decoction is administered orally to cure malaria in Cambodia (Ross 2003). Indonesia: Saga leaves in the form of decoction or direct heated without water or pulverized past are consumed to treat cough,

34

K. Devanathan

Fig. 4 Abrus precatorius L. Seeds (© Krishnamoorthy Devanathan)

urinary disorders, and postpartum ailments by the Sundanese community in West Java, Indonesia (Roosita et al. 2008; Bahtiar et al. 2017). Root and leaves decoction used as an emetic and for treating gonorrhoea, tonsillitis, and aphtha disorders by the Javanese people (Priyadi et al. 2010; Bahtiar et al. 2017). Abrus precatorius is used in the Indonesian traditional medicinal preparations such as jamu (Elfahmi et al. 2014). Single seed of kolondue is swallowed to treat abscesses and red, pussy eye disorders by Kulisusu ethnic people of Buton Island, Southeast Sulawesi (Mead 2017). Penisip along with belimbing (Cnestis platantha Griff.) and tabat barito (Ficus deltoidea Jack.) root decoction is used as traditional medicine for women’s health care in East Kalimantan (Falah and Hadiwibowo 2017). Thailand: Fresh leaves pound with oil and used as poultice (Mitra et al. 2007). Abrus precatorius ethnolic extract is administrated in the form of vaginal pessary to induce abortion (Nwodo and Botting 1983; Mitra et al. 2007).

Phytochemistry Phytochemical compounds present in Abrus precatorius have been studied well. Lefar et al. (1968) isolated fatty acids such as Octanoic, Dodecanoic, Tetradecanoic, Hexadecanoic, 9-Hexadecenoic, Octadecanoic, 9-Octadenenoic, 9,12-Octadecadienoic, 11-Eicosenoic, 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic, Docosanoic, 13-Docosenoic, Tetracosanoic, and 15-Tetracosenoic from the seeds. Gupta et al. (1969) isolated β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, and ursolic acid from the stems and leaves, and β-sitosterol and stigmasterol from the seeds. Humphreys (1969) identified a toxic compound Abrin from the seeds. The flavones hispidulin, cirsimaritin, precatorin I, precatorin II, precatorin III,

Abrus precatorius L.

35

abrusin, abrusin 200 -O-β-Dapiofuranoside, triterpenes of abrussaponin I and its analog, abrussaponin II, kaikasaponin I and its xylyl derivative, kaikasaponin III and its methyl ester, phaseoside IV, hypaphorine methyl ester alkaloids, abrine, hypaphorine, trigonelline and precatorine (Ghosal and Dutta 1971; Markham et al. 1989; Ma et al. 1998), and toxalbumin abrin (Kinamore et al. 1980) were isolated from the seeds. Bhardwaj et al. (1980) reported polymethoxyflavones, abrectorin, and desmethoxycentaureidin-7-O-rutinoside from the seed kernels. Nwodo and Botting (1983) and Nwodo (1991) revealed presence of oxytocic and uterotonic agents in the seed oil. Active metabolites including 8-C-glucosylscutelarein 6,7-dimethylether (abrusin), 200 -O-apioside (Markham 1989), triterpenes, sophoradiol and its acetate, abrisapogenol J, abrisapogenol G, hederagenin methyl ester (Kinjo et al. 1991) abrin, abrus agglutinin, glycyrrhizin, gallic acid, trigonelline, precatorine, lipolytic enzymes, glucine, coumestrans, resin asparagines, and sterols (Rajaram and Janardhanam 1992; Ross 2003) were isolated from the seeds. Kennelly et al. (1996) added two novel compounds cycloartane glycoside and abrusoside E from the leaves. Li et al. (2000) reported abrusin, chalcone and quinol as major metabolites present in A. precatorius. Anam (2001) reported two triterpene glycosides and their acetates derivatives, and Kim et al. (2002) added three novel triterpenoids from the aerial parts. Phytochemicals including seven triterpenes subprogenin D, 3-O-β-Dglucopyranosyl-(1!2)-β-Dglucopyranosyl subprogenin D, abrusgenic acid, triptotriterpenic acid B, abruslactone A, abrusogenin, abrusoside C (Chang et al. 1982; Xiao et al. 2012b), triterpene ketone, lupenone, 24-methylenecycloartenone, luteolin, and ursolic acid (Yonemoto et al. 2014) were isolated from the roots and aerial parts. Daniel (2006) recorded glycyrrhizin, triterpene glycosides (pinitol, abusosides A, B, C, cycloartane-type aglycone, abrutogenin), alkaloids (abrine, hypaphorine, choline, precatorine), tritepenes abrusgenic acid, abruslactone A, methyl abrusgenate, flavonoids vitexin, liquirtiginin-7-mono- and diglycosides and toxifolin-3-glucosides from the leaves; triterpene glycosides (abusosides A, B, C and glycosides (cycloartane-type, aglycone, abrutogenin), glycyrrhizin, abrasine and precasine besides abrine and related bases from the roots, and alkaloids (abrine, hypaphorine, choline, precatorine), fixed oils (oleic acid, linoleic acids), steroids (^a-sitosterol, stigmasterol, 5^a-cholanic acid, abricin, cholesterol), lectines (abrin a, b, c, d), flavonoids (abrectorin, aknone), glycosides (abranin, pelargonidin, cyaniding, delphinidin), anthocyanins, sapogenol, abrisapogenol J, sophoradiol, 22-O-acetate, hederagenin methyl ether, and kaikasaponin III methyl ester from the seeds (Attal et al. 2010). Verma et al. (2011) extracted gallic acid and glycyrrhizin from the seeds. Xiao et al. (2012a) identified Naringenin C-glucosides, isohemiphloin and its acetyl derivative, the flavone C-glucoside vitexin, polymethoxyflavones, hispidulin, cirsimaritin, eupatorin, and apigenin from the leaves and stems. Ragasa et al. (2013) reported abrusogenin, saturated monoglyceride and unsaturated triglyceride from the pericarps, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol mixture from the seeds and unsaturated triglyceride from the peduncles. Polyphenols, flavonoids, β-carotene,

36

K. Devanathan

glutathione, α-tocopherol, and ascorbic acid were identified from the leaves by Palvai et al. (2014). Preliminary phytochemicals such as alkaloids, antraquinones, carbohydrates, flavonoids, glycosides, hydrogen cyanide, oxalate, phenols, phytate, saponin, steroids, tannins, terpenoids, and vitamins such as vitamin E, vitamin A, vitamin C, niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine were recorded from the aerial parts of A. precatorius (Alli et al. 2011; Arora et al. 2011; Taur and Patil 2011; Shourie and Kalra 2013; Gnanavel and Saral 2013; Marimuthu et al. 2014; Bhumi and Savithramma 2014; Ikechukwu et al. 2015; Amit et al. 2018). Oladimeji et al. (2016) isolated 45 essential oil compounds, of which γ-cadinene, α-selinene, α-cubenene, β-caryophyllene, germacrene B, α-copaene and linalool, caryophyllene oxide, β-elemene, and α-caryophyllene are the principal components.

Antimicrobial and Other Properties Phytochemicals extracted from various parts of A. precatorius exhibit activities including antitumor (Subba Reddy and Sirsi 1969; Bhutia et al. 2009), neuromuscular effects (Wambebe and Amosun 1984), sperm antimotility activity (Ratnasooriya et al. 1991), severe diarrhea/significant gastro-intestinal motility activity (Nwodo and Alumanah 1991), Alzheimer’s disease (Zambenedetti et al. 1998), anthelmintic (Molgaard et al. 2001), anti-inflammatory activity (Anam 2001; Arora et al. 2011; Yonemoto et al. 2014; Bahtiar et al. 2017), alpha-amylase inhibition (Anam 2001; Bahtiar et al. 2017), antithrombin (Chistokhodova et al. 2002), antimalarial (Limmatvapirat et al. 2004; Menan et al. 2006), antiepileptic (Moshi et al. 2005), immunomodulator (Tripathi and Maiti 2005), antimicrobial (Zore et al. 2007), antihypoglycemic, antihypolipidemic (Nwanjo 2008), antifertility (Jahan et al. 2009), antidiabetic (Gbolade 2009; Boggula et al. 2018), Dalton’s lymphoma (Bhutia et al. 2009), hepatoprotective activity (Battua and Kumar 2009; Ikechukwu et al. 2015), immunostimulatory properties (Maiti et al. 2009), nephroprotective (Sohn et al. 2009a, b; Ae et al. 2009; Subrahmanyan et al. 2008; Attal et al. 2010; Verma et al. 2011; Garaniya and Bapodra 2014), anti-implantation activity (Okoko et al. 2010), antiasthmatic (Taur and Patil 2011; Taur et al. 2017), analgesic potential (Arora et al. 2011), bronchodilator activity (Mensah et al. 2011), antioxidant activity (Arora et al. 2011; Marimuthu et al. 2014; Palvai et al. 2014; Boggula 2017), antilice activity, antiandrogenic alopecia activity (Upadhyay et al. 2011a, b), porcine pancreatic α-amylase inhibitor (Yonemoto et al. 2014), liver protective (Wakawa and Franklyne 2015), antiasthmatic activity (Taur et al. 2017), and antihuman HIV-1 activity (Bahtiar et al. 2017). Abrin interacts with ribosome function (Jassim and Naji 2003), thus inhibiting protein synthesis (Dickers et al. 2003). A single molecule of abrin is enough to kill a eukaryotic cell (Ohba et al. 2004). Abrus precatorius seeds ingestion cause acute demyelinating encephalitis (Sahni et al. 2007), and the leaf toxin in the dose level of 250 mg/kg body weight causes lymphocytosis and hypercreatinaemia (Saganuwan et al. 2011). Extracts from the various parts of A. pricatorius show inhibition against clinical pathogens including Aspergillus niger, Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans,

Abrus precatorius L.

37

Epidermophyton floccosum, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Alli et al. 2011; Gawai et al. 2013; Ragasa et al. 2013; Shourie and Kalra 2013; Boggula et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Cooked seeds are used in the traditional cake preparation in former Pha (northeast region) Khanh (southeast region) regions of Vietnam (Thuan et al. 1987).

Biocultural Importance Thailand: Seeds are often used as objects of art, ornaments, or talisman, as beads in rosaries and necklaces. Mucous from the macerated seeds mixed with solder have been used in soldering jewellery (Padua et al. 1999). Vietnam: The seeds are traditionally used to make necklaces in northeast and southeast region (Thuan et al. 1987). Philippines: Seed paste has been used in poison darts and arrows (Padua et al. 1999). Indonesia: According to a Kulisusu old wives’ tale, the seeds are edible. However, consuming one seed is believed to bring trouble for 1 year, two seeds trouble for 2 years, and so forth (Mead 2017). Abrus precatorius is associated with Javanese, Kulisusu, and Sundanese community of Borneo and Java in their customary medicine including women health care.

Economic Importance Vines are used as a rope in harbor works and also cultivated as an ornamental plant in Thailand (Padua et al. 1999). Glycyrrhizin present in the leaves and roots is a potential alternate for the liquorice widely used as sweetener in the pharmaceutical and food industries (Solanki and Zaveri 2012). Essential oil from the leaves is a promising candidate in the treatment of cancer-related diseases, flavor and fragrance industry (Oladimeji et al. 2016). It is also a promising plant material for medicinal applications (Bahtiar et al. 2017).

References Ae L, Bnrl J, Nf N. Protective effect of Abrus precatorius seed extract following alcohol induced renal damage. Eur J Sci Res. 2009;25(3):428–36. Alli AI, Ehinmidu JO, Ibrahim YKE. Preliminary phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activities of some medicinal plants used in Ebiraland. Bayero J Pure Appl Sci. 2011;4(1):10–6. Amit S, Aparna S, Alka C. Phytochemical analysis and chemical fingerprinting of seeds of Abrus precatorius L. Chem Sci Trans. 2018;7(1):63–70. https://doi.org/10.7598/cst2018.1460.

38

K. Devanathan

Anam EM. Anti-inflammatory activity of compounds isolated from the aerial parts of Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae). Phytomedicine. 2001;8(1):24–7. Arora R, Gill NS, Kaur S, Jain AD. Phytopharmacological evaluation of ethonolic extract of the seeds of Abrus precatorius L. J Pharmacol Toxicol. 2011;6(6):580–8. Attal AR, Otari KV, Shete RV, Upasani CD, Nandgude TD. Abrus precatorius L.: a phytopharmacological review. J Pharm Res. 2010;3(11):2585–7. Bahtiar A, Vichitphan K, Han J. Leguminous plants in the Indonesian archipelago: traditional uses and secondary metabolites. Nat Prod Commun. 2017;12(3):461–72. Battua GR, Kumar BM. Hepatoprotective activity of Abrus precatorius Linn. Against paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Pharmacology. 2009;3:366–75. Bhardwaj DK, Bisht MS, Mehta CK. Flavonoids from Abrus precatorius. Phytochemistry. 1980;19:2040–1. Bhumi G, Savithramma N. Screening of pivotal medicinal plants for qualitative and quantitative phytochemical constituents. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2014;6(3):63–5. Bhutia SK, Mallick SK, Maiti S, Maiti TK. Inhibitory effect of Abrus abrin derived peptide fraction against Dalton’s lymphoma ascites model. Phytomedicine. 2009;16:377–85. Boggula N. Evaluation of in-vitro antioxidant activity of dried roots of Abrus precatorius. World J Pharm Res. 2017;6(3):1619–28. Boggula N, Reddy SRN, Alla TS, Farhana A, Battineni J, Bakshi V. Phytochemical evaluation and in-vitro anti bacterial activity of dried seeds of Abrus precatorius. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2017;44(1):101–7. Boggula N, Elsani MM, Kaveti VS. Pharmacognostic, phytochemical analysis and anti diabetic activity of dried leaves of Abrus precatorius – an in vivo approach. Int J Pharm Sci Drug Res. 2018;10(3):118–24. Chang HM, Chiang TC, Mak TCW. Isolation and structure elucidation of abruslactone A: a new oleanene-type triterpene from the roots and vines of Abrus precatorius L. J Chem Soc Chem Commun. 1982;20:1197–1198. Chistokhodova N, Nguyen C, Calvino T, Kachirskaia I, Cunningham G, Miles DH. Antithrombin activity of medicinal plants from Central Florida. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;81:277–80. Daniel M. Medicinal plants: chemistry and properties. New Hampshire: Science Publishers; 2006. Dickers KJ, Bradberry SM, Rice P, Griffiths GD, Vale JA. Abrin poisoning. Toxicol Rev. 2003;22:137–42. Elfahmi, Woerdenbagb HJ, Kayserc O. Jamu: Indonesian traditional herbal medicine towards rational phytopharmacological use. J Herbal Med. 2014;69:1–23. Falah F, Hadiwibowo N. Species identification of traditional medicinal plants for women’s health in East Kalimantan: lesson learned from local wisdom. Indones J For Res. 2017;4(1):49–67. Garaniya N, Bapodra A. Ethno botanical and Phytophrmacological potential of Abrus precatorius L.: a review. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(1):27–34. Gawai D, Das G, Rout GR. Phytochemical screening and comparative analysis of antimicrobial activity of root and leaf extracts of Tinospora coridifolia, Phyllanthus niruri and Abrus precatorious, important medicinal plants. J Med Plants Res. 2013;7(29):2208–13. https://doi. org/10.5897/JMPR2013.5136. Gbolade AA. Inventory of antidiabetic plants in selected districts of Lagos State, Nigeria. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;121:135–9. Ghosal S, Dutta SK. Alkaloids of Abrus precatorius. Phytochemistry. 1971;10:195–8. Gnanavel V, Saral AM. GC-MS analysis of petroleum ether and ethanol leaf extracts from Abrus precatorius Linn. Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 2013;4(3):37–44. Gupta NC, Singh B, Bhakuni DS. Steroids and triterpenes from Alangium lamarckii, Allamanda cathartica, Abrus precatorius and Holoptelea integrifolia. Phytochemistry. 1969;8:791–2. Humphreys DJ. The toxic factors of the seeds of Abrus precatorius. Phytochemistry. 1969;8:2397–400. Ikechukwu UR, Adeyi SRS, Hadiza MK, Lilian AC. Effect of methanol extract of Abrus precatorius leaves on male Wistar Albino rats induced liver damage using carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). J Biol Sci. 2015;15(3):116–23.

Abrus precatorius L.

39

International Legume Database & Information Service (ILDIS). 2020. https://ildis.org/cgi-bin/Araneus. pl?version~10.01&LegumeWeb&tno~1571&genus~Abrus&species~precatorius. Accessed 24 May 2020. Jahan S, Rasool S, Khan MA, Ahemad M, Zafar M, Arsahd M, Abbasi AM. Antifertility effects of ethanolic seed extract of Abrus precatorius L. on sperm production and DNA integrity in adult male mice. J Med Plant Res. 2009;3(10):809–14. Jassim SAA, Naji MA. Novel antiviral agents: a medicinal plant perspective. J Appl Microbiol. 2003;95:412–27. Kennelly EJ, Cai L, Kim NC, Kinghorn AD. Abrusoside E, a further sweet-tasting cycloartane glycoside from the leaves of Abrus precatorius. Phytochemistry. 1996;41(5):1381–3. Kim NC, Kim DSHL, Kinghorn AD. New triterpenoids from the leaves of Abrus precatorius. Nat Prod Lett. 2002;16(4):261–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/10575630290020596. Kinamore PA, Jaeger RW, de Castro FJ. Abrus and ricinus ingestion: management of three cases. J Clin Toxicol. 1980;17:401–5. Kinjo J, Matsumoto K, Inoue M, Takeshita T, Nohara T. A new sapogenol and other constituents in Abri semen, the seeds of Abrus precatorius L. Chem Pharm Bull. 1991;39:116–9. Lefar MS, Fireston D, Coleman EC, Brown N, Shaw D. Lipids from the seeds of Abrus precatorius. J Pharm Sci. 1968;57:1442–4. Li Y, Meselhy MR, Wang LQ, Ma CM, Nakamura N, Hattori M. Biotransformation of a Cglycosylflavone, abrusin 200 -O-β-D-apioside, by human intestinal bacteria. Chem Pharm Bull. 2000;48:1239–41. Limmatvapirat C, Sirisopanaporn S, Kittakoop P. Antitubercular and antiplasmodial constituents of Abrus precatorius. Planta Med. 2004;70:276–8. Ma CM, Nakamura N, Hattori M. Saponins and C-glycosyl flavones from the seeds of Abrus precatorius. Chem Pharm Bull. 1998;46:982–7. Maiti TK, Bhutia SK, Mallick SK. In vitro immunostimulatory propertiesof Abrus lectins derivedpeptidesin tumor bearingmice. Phytomedicine. 2009;16:776–82. Marimuthu K, Nagaraj N, Ravi D. Analysis of phytochemical constituents, antioxidant potential of Abrus precatorius seeds. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2014;28(1):43–6. Markham KR, Wallace JW, Babut YN, Krishnamurty V, Rao MG. 8-C-Glucosylscutellarein 6,7-dimethyl ether and its 200 -O-apioside from Abrus precatorius. Phytochemistry. 1989;28 (1):299–301. Mead D. A guide to some edible legumes of Indonesia. Sulang language data and working papers, topics in lexicography, no. 29, Sulawesi Language Alliance; 2017. http://sulang.org/. Menan H, Banzouzi JT, Hocquette A, Pelissier Y, Blache Y, Kone M, Mallie M, Assi LA, Valentin A. Antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of plants used in west African traditional medicine for the treatment of malaria. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;105:131–6. Mensah AY, Bonsu AS, Fleischer TC. Investigation of the bronchodilator activity of Abrus precatorius. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2011;6(2):9–13. Mitra R, Agricola S, Mitchell B, Orbell J, Gray C, Muralitharan MS. Medicinal plants of Thailand. APBN. 2007;11(8):508–18. Molgaard P, Nielsen SB, Rasmussen DE, Drummond RB, Makaza N, Andreassen J. Anthelmintic screening of Zimbabwenean plants traditionally used against schistomiasis. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;74:257–64. Moshi MJ, Kagashe GAB, Mbwambo ZH. Plants used to treat epilepsy by Tanzanian traditional healers. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:327–36. Nwanjo HU. Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of aqueous etracts of Abrus precatorius L. seeds in Streptozotocin induced diabetic Wistar rats. J Herbs Spices Med Plants. 2008;14 (1–2):68–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/10496470802341250. Nwodo OFC. Studies on Abrus precatorius seeds. I: uterotonic activity of seed oil. J Ethnopharm. 1991;31:391–4. Nwodo OFC, Alumanah EO. Studies on Abrus precatorius seeds. II: antidiarrhoeal activity. J Ethnopharmacol. 1991;31:395–8.

40

K. Devanathan

Nwodo OFC, Botting JH. Uterotonic activity of extracts of the seeds of Abrus precatorius. J Med Plant Res. 1983;47:230–3. Ohba H, Moriwaki S, Bakalova R, Yasuda S, Yamasaki N. Plant-derived abrin-a induces apoptosis in cultured leukemic cell lines by different mechanisms. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2004;195:182–93. Okoko IE, Osinubi AAA, Olabiyi OO, Kusemiju TO, Noronha CC, Okanlawon AO. Antiovulatory and anti-implantation potential of the methanolic extract of seeds of Abrus precatorius in the rat. Endocr Pract. 2010;16:554–60. Oladimeji AO, Babatunde O, Musa RT, M’civer FA, Lawal AT, Ogunwande IA. GC-MS analysis and cytotoxic activity of essential oils from the leaves of Abrus precatorius L. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2016;6(5):372–5. Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12(1). Medicinal and poisonous plants 1. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. Palvai VR, Mahalingu S, Urooj A. Abrus precatorius leaves: antioxidant activity in food and biological systems, pH, and temperature stability. Int J Med Chem. 2014. https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2014/748549. Plants of World Online (POWO). 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 24 May 2020. Priyadi H, Takao G, Rahmawati I, Supriyanto B, Ikbal Nursal W, Rahman I. Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java. A checklist including Sundanese names, distribution and use. Bogor: CIFOR; 2010. Ragasa CY, Lorena GS, Mandia EH, Raga DD, Shen CC. Chemical constituents of Abrus precatorius. Am J Essent Oils Nat Prod. 2013;1(2):7–10. Rajaram N, Janardhanam K. The chemical composition and nutritional potential tribal pulse, Abrus precatorius. Plant Food Hum Nutr. 1992;42(4):285–90. Ratnasooriya WD, Amarasekera AS, Perera NSD, Premakumara GAS. Sperm antimotility properties of a seed extract of Abrus precatorius. J Ethnopharmacol. 1991;33(1–2):85–90. Roosita K, Kusharto CM, Sekiyama M, Fachrurozi Y, Ohtsuka R. Medicinal plants used by the villagers of a Sundanese community in West Java, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;115:72–81. Ross IA. Medicinal plants of the world, vol. 1: Chemical constituents, traditional and modern medicinal uses. 2nd ed. Totowa: Humana Press; 2003. Saganuwan S, Onyeyili PA, Suleiman AO. Comparative toxicological effects of orally and intraperitoneally administered aqueous extracts of Abrus precatorius leaf in Mus musculus. Herba Pol. 2011;57(3):32–44. Sahni V, Agarwal SK, Singh NP, Sikdar S. Acute demyelinating encephalitis after jequirity pea ingestion (Abrus precatorius). Clin Toxicol. 2007;45:77–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 15563650601006116. Shourie A, Kalra K. Analysis of phytochemical constituents and pharmacological properties of Abrus precatorius L. Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 2013;4(1):91–101. Sohn SH, Lee EY, Lee JH, Kim Y, Shin M, Hong M, Bae H. Screening of herbal medicines for the recovery of acetaminophen induced nephrotoxicity. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2009a;27:225–30. Sohn SH, Lee H, Nam JY, Kim SH, Jung HJ, Kim Y, Shin M, Hong M, Bae H. Screening of herbal medicines for the recovery of cisplatin induced nephrotoxicity. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2009b;28:206–12. Solanki A, Zaveri M. Pharmacognosy, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Abrus precatorius leaf: a review. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2012;13(2):71–6. Subba Reddy VV, Sirsi M. Effect of Abrus precatorius L. on experimental tumors. Cancer Res. 1969;29:1447–51. Subrahmanyan D, Mathew J, Raj M. An unusual manifestation of Abrus precatorius poisoning: a report of two cases Abrus precatorius poisoning. Clin Toxicol. 2008;46:173–5. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/15563650601185134.

Abrus precatorius L.

41

Taur DJ, Patil RY. Mast cell stabilizing and anti-allergic activity of Abrus precatorius in the management of asthma. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2011;46–49. Taur DJ, Patil RN, Patil RY. Antiasthmatic related properties of Abrus precatorius leaves on various models. J Tradit Complement Med. 2017;30:1–5. Thuan NV, Phon PD, Niyomdham C. Legumineuses-Papilionoidees. In: Morat P, editor. Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam, vol. 23. Paris: Museum National D’Histoire Naturelle; 1987. Tripathi S, Maiti TK. Immunomodulatory role of native and heat denatured agglutinin from Abrus Precatorius. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2005;37:451–62. Upadhyay S, Dixit VK, Ghosh AK, Singh V. Effect of petroleum ether and ethanol fractions of seeds of Abrus precatorius on androgenic alopecia. Rev Bras Farm Braz J Pharm. 2011a;22(2):359–63. Upadhyay S, Ghosh AK, Singh V. Anti-lice activity of Abrus precatorius L. (FAM -Fabacae) seeds oil. Egypt Dermatol Online J. 2011b;7(2):4. http://www.edoj.org.eg. Verma D, Tiwari SS, Srivastava S, Rawat AKS. Pharmacognostical evaluation and phytochemical standardization of Abrus precatorius L. seeds. Nat Prod Sci. 2011;17(1):51–7. Wakawa HY, Franklyne EA. Protective effects of Abrus precatorius leaf extract against carbon tetrachloride- induced liver injury in rats. J Nat Sci Res. 2015;5(8):15–19. Wambebe C, Amosun SL. Some neuromuscular effects of the crude extract of the leaves of Abrus precatorius. J Ethnopharmacol. 1984;11(1):49–58. Xiao Z, Wang F, Yin H, Sun A, Li C, Li Q, Zhang S. A new flavanone glucoside from Abrus precatorius. Chem Nat Compd. 2012a;48:565–7. Xiao ZH, Wang FZ, Sun AJ, Li CR, Huang CG, Zhang S. A new Triterpenoid Saponin from Abrus precatorius Linn. Molecules. 2012b;17:295–302. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules17010295. Yonemoto R, Shimada M, Gunawan-Puteri MDPT, Kato E, Kawabata J. α-Amylase inhibitory triterpene from Abrus precatorius leaves. J Agric Food Chem. 2014;62:8411–4. https://doi.org/ 10.1021/jf502667z. Zambenedetti P, Giordano R, Zatta P. Histochemical localization of Glycoconjugates on microglial Cellsin Alzheimer’s disease brain samples by using Abrus precatorius, Maackia amurensis, Momordica charantia, and Sambucus nigra lectins. Exp Neurol. 1998;153:167–71. Zore GB, Awad V, Thakre AD, Halde UK, Meshram NS, Surwase BS, Karuppayil SM. Activitydirected fractionation and isolation of four antibacterial compounds from Abrus precatorius L. roots. Nat Prod Res. 2007;21:933–40.

Acer laurinum Hassk. SAPINDACEAE Rina Ratnasih Irwanto and Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam

Synonyms Acer cassiifolium Blume; Acer chionophyllum Merr.; Acer curranii Merr.; Acer decandrum Merr.; Acer javanicum Jungh.; Acer laurinum subsp. decandrum (Merr.) A. E. Murray; Acer laurinum var. petelotii Phamhoang, Ho; Acer macropterum T. Z. Hsu & H. Sun; Acer niveum Blume; Acer niveum f. cassiifolium (Blume) Schwer.; Acer niveum var. cassiifolium (Blume) Miq.; Acer niveum f. laurinum (Hassk.) Schwer.; Acer philippinum Merr.; Acer pinnatinervium Merr.

Local Names Indonesia: Camin dayang, madang kapeh panji, madang alu, tinggiran punai (West Sumatra); belah kayu, kerumbuk, lemuru gading, pancur mas, robah robah (North Sumatra); sadahoh (Kerinci); huru beas, huru kacang, huru kapas, huru madang, huru manuk, jalupang kuning, ki badag, ki cawensore, ki endog, ki regas, mangprang (West Java); lik putih, putih dodo, walik elar, walik putih, walik sana, wuru dapung, wuru kembang, wuru nila, wuru putih (Central Java); kumai (Kalimantan); ratun pong (Kepo’); ratun poso (Rembong); kaju wawi, wela masa (Ende); hau nitu (East Nusa Tenggara); dogo (Central Sulawesi); putih sihali, bunja (South Sulawesi). R. R. Irwanto (*) School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] A. S. D. Irsyam Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_56

43

44

R. R. Irwanto and A. S. D. Irsyam

Malaysia: Perdu (Sarawak) The Philippines: Baliag (Mountain Province), laing (Tagalog) Thailand: Kuam Timor: Landong, pelmetan, pena hau, wawi, welemasa

Botany and Ecology Acer laurinum is a tall deciduous tree growing up to 48 m with buttresses up to 2 m high. Branchlets green, glabrous. Axillary buds covered with scales. Leaves simple, decussate; petiole slender, 1.75–10 cm long, green, glabrous; blade elliptic to lanceolate, 10–23  4–7 cm, base rounded to obtuse, margin entire, apex acuminate to caudate, three- to five-nerved at the base, adaxial surface glossy dark green, abaxial surface whitish or light bluish gray. Inflorescence corymbose, borne at the axils of fallen leaves, flowers unisexual; peduncle 5–35 mm; pedicels 4–17 mm long. Calyx 5, free, overlapping in bud, 2.5–3 mm long, white. Corolla 5, free, 1.5–2.5 cm long, white. Stamens four to eight in one whorl, alternating with corolla, attached on the disk; filaments 5 mm long in male flowers and 2.2 mm long in female flowers, white, glabrous; anthers 0.75 mm long. Disk flat, glabrous to woolly; ovary superior, two-lobed, two-celled, 2 mm broad, densely woolly; styles 2, 1.5 mm long. Fruits samara, bright red; mericarps 2, 8–13 mm long, ovate; wings erect, 4–7  1–2.5 cm, asymmetrically obovate, hairy (Bloembergen 1948; Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1965; van Steenis 1972). A. laurinum is the lone species of Acer in the Malesia region (Figs. 1 and 2). The species is distributed in Nepal, Bhutan, India (Kashmir, Assam, Sikkim), Myanmar, South China, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi, and the Lesser Sunda Islands (Bloembergen 1948; Sidiyasa et al. 1989; Kessler et al. 2002). It is found in the lowland and montane forests at elevations of 700–2700 m above sea level (Bloembergen 1948; van Steenis 1972; Asrianny et al. 2019). In Thailand, it grows at 500–1500 m altitude; in Philippines, it is found growing at altitudes of 500 m level in Mt. Pangasugan (Santisuk 1998; Langenberger 2000). A. laurinum flowers from April to August (Nasution 1998). The flowering tree has sweet-smelling, honey-bearing flowers, and red-brown young leaves. Flowers are pollinated by bees and bumble-bees (van Steenis 1972). Ripe fruits are present from July to November and are dispersed by wind (Nasution 1998; Gumilang et al. 2018). In Maros, South Sulawesi, A. laurinum is a nesting tree for the giant honey bee, Apis dorsata binghami (Nagir 2016). The young leaves and fruits are food for Javan leaf monkey (Presbytis comata comata) and Javan langur (Trachypithecus auratus sondaicus) (Situmorang et al. 2006). In addition, the young leaves are also eaten by cuscus (Phalanger sp.) of Gunung Mutis, East Nusa Tenggara (Farida et al. 2005). A. laurinum has been proposed as a species for restoration programs in mountainous regions (2013).

Acer laurinum Hassk. Fig. 1 A branch of Acer laurinum from West Java, Indonesia, shows decussated leaves and glaucous abaxial surface. (© Zakaria Al Anshori)

Fig. 2 Herbarium specimen of Acer laurinum (FIPIA). (© Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam)

45

46

R. R. Irwanto and A. S. D. Irsyam

Biocultural Importance Information on the utilization of A. laurinum for medicinal purposes are unavailable. The species is popular for its timber properties (Heyne 1950; Nasution 1998; Muslich et al. 2013). The wood is used for house construction by people in the mountains where the species grows (Nasution 1998; Wahyuni et al. 2008). The Tengger tribe around Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, East Java, use the wood for building house frame (Hakim and Miyakawa 2013; Rochman et al. 2019). Meanwhile, the utilization of A. laurinum as wooden board and beam has been recorded from Gede Pangrango National Park and Halimun Salak National Park, West Java (Situmorang et al. 2006; Polosokan 2011). In the Hiang Indigenous Forest, Kerinci, Sumatra, the wood of A. laurinum is only used for firewood and charcoal (Andesmora et al. 2017). A. laurinum has bright reddish brown young leaves, glaucous abaxial leaf surface, and winged red fruits. These characteristics make it an potential ornamental plant (Nasution 1998; Gumilang et al. 2018).

Economic Importance The wood is moderately hard and strong, with a density of 400–720 kg/m3 at 15% moisture content (Nasution 1998; Krisdianto 2007). Anatomically, the wood has thin to moderately thick cell walls and cell lumens are rather wide. Thus, the fiber quality is classified into moderate or class II (Krisdianto 2007; Muslich et al. 2013). The wood of A. laurinum can be easily processed into various products such as box, crates, walking sticks, furniture, cabinet work, and music instruments (Nasution 1998; Krisdianto 2007; Ekasari 2014; Gumilang et al. 2018).

References Andesmora EV, Muhadiono M, Hilwan I. Ethnobotanical study of plants used by people in Hiang indigenous forest, Kerinci, Jambi. J Trop Life Sci. 2017;7(2):95–101. https://doi.org/10.11594/ jtls.07.02.02. Asrianny A, Paweka CB, Achmad A, Oka NP, Achmad NS. Species composition and vegetation structure of lowland forest in the complex of Bulusaraung Mountain, South Sulawesi. J Perennial. 2019;15(1):32–41. Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC. Flora of Java, vol. II. Groningen: N.V.P. Noordhoff; 1965. Bloembergen S. Aceraceae. In: van Steenis CGGJ, editor. Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, vol. 4. Jakarta: N.V. Noordhoff-Kolff; 1948. Ekasari I. Cibodas Botanic Garden’s timber tree collection and their use as furniture material. In: Shantiko B, Purnomo H, Irawati RH, editors. Proceedings of the symposium. Furniture, timber and forest ecosystem service value chains; 2013 Feb 14; IPB Convention Center, Bogor. Bogor: CIFOR; 2014. p. 72–8. Farida WR, Triono T, Handayani TH, Ismail. Food plants and nesting site of cuscus (Phalanger sp.) in Nature Reserve of Gunung Mutis, East Nusa Tenggara. Biodiversitas. 2005;6(1):50–4. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d060110.

Acer laurinum Hassk.

47

Gumilang AR, Widjaya AH, Lestari DA, Latifah D, Wardani FF, Damayanti F, et al. Acer laurinum Hassk. In: Lestari R, Ariati SR, editors. Flora Anemokori Hijaukan Bumi. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2018. p. 24–5. Hakim L, Miyakawa H. Plant tree species for restoration program in Ranupani, Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. Biodivers J. 2013;4(3):387–94. Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Indonesie. s-Gravenhage/Bandung: N.V. Uitgeverij W. Van Hoeve; 1950. Kessler PJA, Bos MM, Daza SECS, Kop A, Willemse LPM, Pitopang R, Gradstein SR. Checklist of woody plants of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea Suppl. 2002;14:1–160. Krisdianto. Anatomy and fiber quality of six lesser known wood species from South Cianjur, West Java. J Penelit Hasil Hutan. 2007;25(3):183–202. Langenberger G. Forest vegetation studies on the foothills of Mt. Pangasugan, Leyte, The Philippines. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit; 2000. Muslich M, Wardani M, Kalima T, Rulliaty S, Damayanti R, Hadjib N, et al. Atlas kayu Indonesia, vol. 4. Bogor: Pustekolah; 2013. Nagir MT. The distribution and characteristic of nesting site of Apis dorsata binghami Cockerell (Hymenoptera: Apidae) at Maros Forest, South Sulawesi [thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2016. Nasution RE. Acer L. In: Sosef MSM, Hong LT, Prawirohatmodjo S, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 5(3): Timber trees: lesser-known timbers. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1998. p. 39–40. Polosokan R. Keanekaragaman jenis pohon dan potensi pemanfaatan kayu oleh masyarakat di kawasan Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun Salak-Sukabumi. Berk Penel Hayati Edisi Khusus. 2011;5A:67–72. Rochman F, Lestari SR, Utomo DH, Purwanto, Juma Y, Arifah SN, Annisa Y. The utilization of plant diversity by Tengger Tribe around Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, East Java, Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2019;276:012042. https://doi.org/10.1088/17551315/276/1/012042. Santisuk T. A systematic study of the genus Acer (Aceraceae) in Thailand. Nat Hist Bull Siam Soc. 1998;46:93–104. Sidiyasa K, Sutisna U, Marfuah, Kalima T, Whitmore TC. Aceraceae. In: Whitmore TC, IGM T, Sutisna U, editors. Tree flora of Indonesia: checklist for Bali, Nusa Tenggara, and Timor. Bogor: Ministry of Forestry; 1989. p. 8. Situmorang SR, Artawan IM, Kurnia AM, Ridwantara I, Sopian. Information book on the flora of Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango. Cipanas: Balai TNGP; 2006. Van Steenis CGGJ. The mountain flora of Java. Leiden: E.J. Brill; 1972. Wahyuni I, Dwianto W, Amin Y, Darmawan T. Timber tree species in Cibodas Botanical Garden. J Ilmu Teknol Hasil Hutan. 2008;1(2):93–101.

Acorus calamus L. ACORACEAE Kreni Lokho and F. Merlin Franco

Synonyms Calamus aromaticus Garsault (POWO 2019).

Local Names Komburongoh (Dusun/Kadazan, Malaysia); proe a, proe kai (Hmong, Vietnam); waan nam (Thai), ter si pa door (Huay Bong village, Thailand) cha pa mae jae (Huay Hea village, Thailand), por bue lah (Huay pu ling village, Thailand); aya (Kaili inde of Indonesia), dringo (Maluku province, Indonesia), jarango (Indonesian); kamogna (Tagabawa, Phillipines), lobigan (Ybanag in Northern Cagayan Valley, Philippines), karomenga (Muslim Maranaos in Iligan City, Philippines); jerangau (Javanese-Malay, Malaysia), guo sanit (Rungus, Malaysia).

Botany and Ecology Botanical Descriptions: Perennial herb up to 80 cm tall (Fig. 1). Rhizome stout measures about 4–10  1–1.5 cm, aromatic, creeping and roots at the lower region of the rhizome. Comprises of several leaves usually mid-green, often reddish at base, ensiform and measuring about 70–100  1–2 cm. Leaf apex acuminate and midrib conspicuous on both sides. Peduncle are compressed, triangular measuring K. Lokho (*) Department of Botany, Madras Christian College, Chennai, India F. M. Franco Institute of Asian Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Negara Brunei Darussalam e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_147

49

50

K. Lokho and F. M. Franco

Fig. 1 Habit of Acorus calamus L. (© Dhatchanamoorthy Narayanasamy)

40–50 cm. Spathe are mid-green, acute, and leaflike measuring about 30–50 cm. Spadix are straight or slightly curved, erect, oblique, densely flowered, and narrowly conic to subcylindric, tapering toward the apex. Flowers are yellowish green measuring about 1.8–2 mm in diameter. Tepals oblong measuring 2.5–3  1–1.2 ( 1.4) mm, keeled, membranous, and the apex is hooded triangular. Filaments are oblong, flat measuring about 2–2.5  0.3–0.5 mm. Anthers are cream-colored, and 0.4–0.5 mm in diameter. Pollen grains are about 20 μm, exine shallow and remotely foveolate. Gynoecium are obconic-cylindric measuring 2.5–3.5  1–2.3 mm with conic and spongy apex. Stigmas are very small. Infructescence are 1.5–2 cm in diameter, straw-brown at maturity and the berries are densely arranged. Berry is oblong-obovoid, 1– to few seeded and 4–4.5  2–3 mm. Seed is oblong-ellipsoid to ovoid, 2.5–3  1–1.2 mm and without bristles. Testa is light brown, subsmooth, and slightly foveolate. Flowering is from April–September (Balakumbahan et al. 2010; eFloras 2008). Distribution and Habitat: In Borneo, it is found growing in marshy places from 200 to 1,500 m.a.s.l. Native to Alaska, Alberta, Altay, Amur, Bangladesh, British Columbia, Buryatiya, Cambodia, China, Connecticut, Himalaya, Hainan, Idaho, India, Inner Mongolia, Iowa, Irkutsk, Japan, Jawa, Kamchatka, Kansas, Kazakhstan, Khabarovsk, Kirgizstan, Korea, Krasnoyarsk, Kuril Is., Laccadive Is., Lesser Sunda Is., Maine, Malaya, Maldives, Manchuria, Manitoba, Masachusettes, Michigan, Minnesota, Mongolia, Montana, Myanmar, Nebraska, Nepal, New Brunswick, New Hampshire, New York, Northwest Territorie, Nova Scotia, Ohio, Ontario, Pennsylvania, Philippines, Primorye, Prince Edward Is., Qinghai, Québec, Sakhalin,

Acorus calamus L.

51

Fig. 2 Fruit of Acorus calamus L. (© Nithaniyal Stalin)

Saskatchewan, South Dakota, Sri Lanka, Sulawesi, Thailand, Tibet, Tuva, Uzbekistan, Vermont, Vietnam, Washington, West Siberia, Wisconsin, Xinjiang, and Yakutskiya (POWO 2019) (Fig. 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The Kaili Inde community use the plant for treating diarrhea and dysentery (Fathurrahman et al. 2016). The people in Serampas, Jambi use the plant for treating fever, rheumatic, and stomach-related problems (Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012). The local people in Nagori Simbou Baru use the stem for treating fever (Silalahi et al. 2015). Half a fingerlength of Acorus calamus (dringo) is mixed with nine leaves of Viola odorata (violtjes), three leaves of Achillea millefolium (daun seribu), the mace from two nutmegs (Myristica fragrans), half a fingerlength of Zingiber officinale (jahe merah), to prepare a medicine called obat penenang or calming medicine. It is said that Myristica fragrans and Acorus calamus helps in imparting the calming effect and Zingiber officinale helps in circulation (Gils and Cox 1994). Philippines: The fruit and leaf decoctions are used by Tagabawa community for treating relapse and headache (Waay-Juico et al. 2017). The plant is used by the local people of Agusan del Sur for treating cold (Arquion et al. 2015)

52

K. Lokho and F. M. Franco

The leaves are used in the Samar Island Natural Park for treating snake bite (Pinarok et al. 2015). The plant is used by the Ybanag Ethnic Minority in the Northern Cagayan Valley for wound healing, prevention of relapses, pre- and post-natal care for mothers and children (Cabauatan and del Rosario 2007). The Muslim Maranaos in Iligan City mix the pounded roots with coconut milk, wrap in banana leaf, and roast it. The mixture is then rubbed on the belly for stimulation of menstrual period and cycle (Olowa and Demayo 2015). Malaysia: The Javanese-Malay rub leaves mixed with garlic on the joints to prevent infant seizure and fruits for treating wounds (Ismail et al. 2002). In Sabah, the rhizome is used as insect repellent (Kulip 1997). In Sabah, the plant is used for treating insect stings by the Rungus, and as tonic by the Dusun Tambunan. It is also used for reliving stomach ache and fever (Kulip 2005). Myanmar: The Mon community of Myanmar use the rhizome for treating indigestion, colic, and diarrhea (Jianwitchayakul et al. 2018). Thailand: the roots are dried and consumed for its anti-asthmatic and anti-inflammatory properties (Anon 1964; Pongs-Boonrod 1950; Tantiwattana 1978); rhizome oil and crushed rhizome are applied on inflamed joints (Mitra et al. 2007; Phu-pattanaphong 1979; Pongs-Boonrod 1950). Tangjitman et al. (2013) recorded the uses of the plant from 14 different villages inhabited by Karen people of Northern Thailand. Out of the 14 villages, the use of plant for treatment of cold and cold-related symptoms were recorded from nine villages, whereas in Huay pu Ling, the villagers uses the stem for stomach ache.

Phytochemistry Rhizome and leaf extracts possess active principle A- and B-asarones that are responsible for high antimicrobial activities against yeast and other fungi (Devi and Ganjewala 2009; Phongpaichit et al. 2005). Antimicrobial screening with crude methanol extract shows high activity against filamentous fungi such as Trichophyton rubrum, Microsporum gypseum, and Penicillium marneffei (Phongpaichit et al. 2005). The rhizome extract improves diabetes which results in insulin releasing, insulin sensitizing, and alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activities in rats (Si et al. 2010). The ethyl acetate fraction of the plant has been shown to have potency for the treatment of diabetes in rats, without gaining of body wieght (Wu et al. 2009). Ethanolic extract of roots and rhizomes have shown significant results in the treatment of hyperlipidemia in albino rats; tannins and saponins could mitigate the potency of the extract (Parab and Mengi 2002). Leaf ethanolic extract when applied topically on rats shows better therapeutic benefits for wound healing than the standard povidion-iodine ointment (Jain et al. 2010).

Local Food Uses The Hmong people of Thailand boil the whole plant with chicken soup (Nguanchoo et al. 2014).

Acorus calamus L.

53

Biocultural Importance The rhizome is widely used throughout Southeast Asia in magico-religious ceremonies. Local communities in Sabah use the plant to get rid of evil spirits (Kulip 1997). Similar observation has been recorded from the people of Serampas, Jambi Indonesia, where the plant is used in various rituals to treat sick cattle, and for protection from bad spirits (Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012). Silalahi et al. (2015) and Kulip (2014) have recorded the same use from Nagori Simbou Baru in Indonesia and the Dusun people of Malaysia, respectively. The Semai Orang Asli of Kampung Batu, Malaysia, use the rhizome as talisman in rituals that promote healing (Ong et al. 2012).

References Anon B. Folklore medicinal school organization, Wat Pra Chetupon. Collection of Thai Folklore medicinal uses, part 3. Ampholpittaya. Bangkok; 1964. Arquion RD, Galanida CC, Villamor B, Aguilar HT. Ethnobotanical study of indigenous plants used by local people of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Asia Pac High Edu Res J. 2015;2(2):1–11. Balakumbahan K, Rajamani K, Kumanan K. Acorus calamus: an overview. J Med Plant Res. 2010;4(25):2740–5. Cabauatan JG, del Rosario RM. Ethnobotanical investigations among the Ybanag ethnic minority in the Northern Cagayan Valley, Philippines. Acta Manilana. 2007;55:23–36. Devi SA, Ganjewala D. Antimicrobial activity of Acorus calamus (L.) rhizome and leaf extract. Acta Biol Szeged. 2009;53(1):45–9. eFloras. Published on the Internet. 2008. http://www.efloras.org. Fathurrahman F, Nursanto J, Madjid A, Ramadanil R. Ethnobotanical study of “Kaili Inde” tribe in Central Sulawesi Indonesia. Emir J Food Agric. 2016;28(5):337–47. https://doi.org/10.9755/ ejfa.2015-06-463. Gils CV, Cox PA. Ethnobotany of nutmeg in the Spice Islands. J Ethnopharmacol. 1994;42:117–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(94)90105-8. Hariyadi B, Ticktin T. Uras: medicinal and ritual plants of Serampas, Jambi Indonesia. Ethnobot Res App. 2012;10:133–49. https://doi.org/10.17348/era.10.0.133-149. Ismail NA, Sabran SF, Mohamed M, Bakar MFA. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants used for healthcare by the Javanese-Malay community in Parit Jelutong, Batu Pahat,Johor, Malaysia. In: AIP conference proceedings: American Institute of Physics; 2002. 020048. https://doi.org/10. 1063/1.5050144. Jain N, Jain R, Jain A, Jain DK, Chandel HS. Evaluation of wound-healing activity of Acorus calamus Linn. Nat Prod Res. 2010;24(6):534–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786410802531782. Jianwitchayakul P, Aung SS, Aye T, Zarli M, Myint ZM, Mu AA. Investigation biodiversity ethnobotany in Mon State, Republic of the Union of Myanmar. สักทอง: วารสารวิทยาศาสตร์และเทคโนโลย (สทวท.). 2018; 6(1). https://research.kpru.ac.th/journal_ science/journal/29522019-07-07.pdf. Kulip J. A preliminary survey of traditional medicinal plants in the west coast and interior of Sabah. J Trop For Sci. 1997;10(2):271–4. Kulip J. Similarity of medicinal plants used by two native communities in Sabah, Malaysia. Acta Hortic. 2005;(675):81–5. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2005.675.10. Kulip J. The ethnobotany of Dusun people in Tikolod village, Tambunan district, Sabah, Malaysia. Reinwardtia. 2014;14(1):101–21. Mitra R, Agricola S, Mitchell B, Orbell J, Gray C, Muralitharan MS. Medicinal plants of Thailand. Asia Pac Biotech News. 2007;11(08):508–18.

54

K. Lokho and F. M. Franco

Nguanchoo V, Srisanga P, Swangpol S, Prathanturarug S, Jenjittikul T. Food plants in Hmong cuisine in Northern Thailand. Thai J Bot. 2014;6(2):131–45. Olowa L, Demayo CG. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants among the Muslim Maranaos in IliganCity, Mindanao, Philippines. Adv Environ Biol. 2015;9(27):204–15. Ong HC, Lina E, Milow P. Traditional knowledge and usage of medicinal plants among the Semai Orang Asli at Kampung Batu 16, Tapah, Perak, Malaysia. Stud Ethno-Med. 2012;6(3):207–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/09735070.2012.11886440. Parab RS, Mengi SA. Hypolipidemic activity of Acorus calamus L. in rats. Fitoterapia. 2002;73(6):451–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X. Phongpaichit S, Pujenjob N, Rukachaisirikul V, Ongsakul M. Antimicrobial activities of the crude methanol extract of Acorus calamus Linn. Songklanakarin J Sci Technol. 2005;27(2):517–23. Phu-pattanaphong. Thai medicinal plants. Part 2. New Thammada Publishing: Bangkok; 1979. Pinarok NAA, de Guzman GQ, Alejandro GJD. Inventory and ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants at Samar Island Natural Park, Philippines. Int J Pure Appl Biosci. 2015;3(4):101–8. Pongs-Boonrod S. Foreign-Thai medicine and materia medica. Bangkok: Kasem Bannakit; 1950. POWO. Plants of the world online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 12 Dec 2019. Si M, Lou J, Zhou CX, Shen JN, Wu HH, Yang B, et al. Insulin releasing and alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity of ethyl acetate fraction of Acorus calamus in vitro and in vivo. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;128:154–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.12.044. Silalahi M, Supriatna J, Walujo EB, Nisyawati. Local knowledge of medicinal plants in sub-ethnic Batak Simalungun of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2015;16(1):44–54. https://doi. org/10.13057/biodiv/d160106. Tangjitman K, Wongsawad C, Winijchaiyanan P, Sukkho T, Kamwong K, Pongamornkul W, et al. Traditional knowledge on medicinal plant of the Karen in northern Thailand: a comparative study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;150:232–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.08.037. Tantiwattana P. Herbal medicine. 2nd ed. Bangkok: Herbal Medicine Association of Thailand, Chula-Publishing; 1978. Waay-Juico MC, Cortuna GE, Evangelista SHM, Gatal RRD, Licuanan CIKS, Tapia FJC. Ethnobotanical practices of Tagabawa tribe on selected medicinal plants at Barangay Jose Rizal, Sta. Cruz, Davao del Sur, Philippines. J Complement Altern Med Res. 2017;4(3):1–12. https://doi. org/10.9734/JOCAMR/2017/38301. Wu HS, Zhu DF, Zhou CX, Feng CR, Lou YJ, Yang B, et al. Insulin sensitizing activity of ethyl acetate fraction of Acorus calamus L. in vitro and in vivo. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;123:288–92. https://doi.org/10.9734/JOCAMR/2017/38301.

Acrothamnus suaveolens (Hook.f.) C.J.Quinn ERICACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Leucopogon philippinensis (Merr.) Hosokawa; Leucopogon suaveolens Hook.f.; Styphelia obtusifolia J.J.Sm.; Styphelia philippinensis Merr.; Styphelia spicata J.J. Sm.; Styphelia suaveolens (Hook.f.) Warb.; Styphelia trilocularis J.J.Sm.; Styphelia vanderwateri Wernh.

Local Names Philippines: Bacay (Negros) (Sleumer 1964b).

Botany and Ecology Erect, rigid branched shrubs, up to 3 m high, older branches rugose by pulvini of fallen leaves, young twigs minutely hairy or nearly so. Leaves simple, numerous, crowded, imbricate, spirally arranged; petioles short, up to 0.7 mm long; blades oblong-lanceolate to narrow lanceolate, 5.7–13  1–2 mm, apex subacute to acuminate and sharp, many-nerved, smooth above, shining, glaucous beneath, longitudinally striate by the veins. Inflorescence terminal, up to 1 cm long and 5 mm across, rachis angular, 3–4- or up to 12-flowered, bracts rotundate or broadly ovate, c. 2 mm long, concave, apex acute or somewhat obtuse, margin somewhat hairy. Flowers sessile, 3.5–4 mm long; bracteoles 2, concave, ovate, 1–1.25  0.7–0.75 mm, obtuse to subacute, dorsally carinate, this puberulous. Sepals 5, erect, segments imbricate, ovate, 1.5–1.75  1–1.4 mm, margin ciliolate, apex obtuse, dorsally glabrous, W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_178

55

56

W. A. Mustaqim

margin ciliolate. Corolla subcampanulate, 2–2.6  3–3.5 mm at natural state, c. 3.25  4–4.5 mm when flattened, glabrous outside, inside hairy, lobes 5, narrowly lanceolate, c. 1.25  0.6–0.7 mm, villous inside. Stamens 5, alternate to petals, adnate to the corolla, c. 2 mm long, anthers oblong, 0.5–1 mm long. Ovary subglobose, glabrous, style simple, c. 1 mm long, stigma truncate. Fruit globose, 2.7–4 mm across, with hard putamen, (3–)4-celled, each 1-seeded. Seed ellipsoid, c. 1 mm long. Distribution and Ecology: This species is found in Northern Borneo, Philippines, Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, New Guinea, Australia, Solomon Islands, and New Zealand. It prefers to grow on exposed habitats, mossy thickets, on granite as reported from Arfak Mountains, Papua Barat, or as undergrowth of montane Eucalyptus and Podocarpus forests in Timor. A mountainous species found from 1800 to 4700 m asl. This species produces flowers throughout the year (ALA 2020; Crayn et al. 2020; Hooker 1852; Merril 1922; Pelser et al. 2011-onwards; POWO 2020; Quinn et al. 2005; Sleumer 1963, 1964a, b, Smith 1912, 1917; Wernham 1916) (Figs. 1 and 2). Fig. 1 Leafy branches of Acrothamnus suaveolens (Ericaceae). Papua Barat, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Flower-bearing branch of Acrothamnus suaveolens (Ericaceae). Papua Barat, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Acrothamnus suaveolens (Hook.f.) C.J.Quinn

57

Local Medicinal Uses Local people in Negros, the Philippines, use the roots of Acrothamnus suaveolens to treat hemorrhage (Sleumer 1964b).

References ALA. The Atlas of Living Australia: Acrothamnus suaveolens (Hook.f.) Quinn. 2020. https://bie. ala.org.au/species/https://id.biodiversity.org.au/name/apni/203416. Retrieved 11 May 2020. Crayn DM, Hislop M, Puente-Lelièvre C. A phylogenetic recircumscription of Styphelia (Ericaceae, Epacridoideae, Styphelieae). Aust Syst Bot. 2020;33:137–68. https://doi.org/ 10.1071/SB18050. Hooker. Icones plantarum. 9th vol. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longman, etc.; 1852. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.16059. Merril ED. New or noteworthy Philippine plants XVII. Phil J Sci. 1922;20(4):367–476. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines: Ericaceae (including Epacridaceae); 2011-onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Ericaceae.html. Retrieved 11 May 2020. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 11 May 2020. Quinn CJ, Brown EA, Heslewood MM, Crayn DM. Generic concepts in Styphelieae (Ericaceae): the Cyathodes group. Aust Syst Bot. 2005;18:439–54. https://doi.org/10.1071/SB05005. Sleumer H. Florae Malesianae Precursores XXXVII. Materials towards the knowledge of the Epacridaceae Mainly in Asia, Malaysia, and the Pacific. Blumea. 1963;12(1):145–171. Sleumer H. Florae malesianae precursores XXXVII. materials towards the knowledge of the Epacridaceae mainly in Asia, Malaysia, and the Pacific. Blumea. 1964a;12(1):145–71. Sleumer H. Epacridaceae. Fl Males Ser I. 1964b;6(3):422–44. Smith JJ. Epacridaceae. Nova Guinea. 1912;8:797–803. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.10923. Smith JJ. Nova Guinea. Nova Guinea. 1917;12:539–41. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.10923. Wernham HF. Epacridaceae. Trans Linn Soc II Bot. 1916;9:100–2.

Aeschynanthus radicans Jack GESNERIACEAE Rina Ratnasih Irwanto and Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam

Synonyms Aeschynanthus radicans var. lanuginosa Ridl.; Aeschynanthus radicans var. robustior C.B.Clarke; Trichosporum ovatum D.Don ex C.B.Clarke; Trichosporum radicans (Jack) Nees

Local Names Thailand: Thing thong hu (ทิ้งทองหู) (Nakhon Si Thammarat); nom mia (นมเมีย) (Trang). Malaysia: Akar berenas; akar setebal; akar kechubong ayer; akar rambai daun Indonesia: Kembang lipstik (Indonesia); lipseutik (Sundanese)

Botany and Ecology Aeschynanthus radicans is found growing as an epiphytic or lithophytic herb with adventitious roots on the stem; stems puberulent. Leaves simple, opposite; petiole 1–4.5 mm long, puberulent; blade orbicular, ovate to elliptic, 1–5  0.8–2.6 cm,

R. R. Irwanto (*) School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] A. S. D. Irsyam Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_57

59

60

R. R. Irwanto and A. S. D. Irsyam

base subcordate to obtuse, margin entire, apex apiculate or acute to acuminate, green on both sides, fleshy. Inflorescences axillary, 1-flowered; peduncle short, up to 3 mm long; bracts elliptic to ovate, 5–6 mm long; pedicels 7–14 mm long, puberulent. Calyx connate, zygomorphic, 5-lobed, green to dark purple, 19.5–26 mm long; tube slightly curved; lobes narrowly triangular, ovate, or oblong. Corolla inflated at base, connate, zygomorphic, bilabiate, 47.5–58 mm long; tube bright red outside, yellowish inside; lobes 5, unequal, bright red, lower lobes red with yellowish at base and darker red stripes; upper lobes oblong or ovate, 6.5–10  2–4 mm; lateral lobes ovate or deltoid, 7–10  6.2–7.5 mm; lower lobe elliptic or oblong, 6.5–10.7  5.6–7.7 mm, glands present. Stamens long and exserted, fertile stamens 4, didynamous, connate to corolla tube; filaments 15.5–24 mm long, reddish; anthers 2.1–2.5 mm long; staminode 1, inserted on the posterior wall of the corolla tube. Disk annular; ovary 14–28 mm long, puberulent; style 6–15 mm long, puberulent; stigma capitate, white. Fruits capsule, linear, 19–35 mm long. Seeds ellipsoid, 0.8–0.9 mm long, tuberculate; apical appendage filiform; hilar appendage filiform, bubble cells present at base (Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1965; Middleton 2007, 2016). A. radicans is a common member of the genus in Southeast Asia (Fig. 1). The species is widely distributed from Southern Thailand to Western Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Krakatau Islands, Java, and Borneo) and Central Malaysia (Bali and Southeast Sulawesi) (Sunarno and Rugayah 1992; Partomihardjo et al. 2004; Wiriadinata 2008; Kartonegoro and Potter 2014; Middleton 2016). However, it has been considered as locally extinct in Singapore (Chong et al. 2009; Middleton 2016). It is usually found in lowland forests, mountain forests, rocky places, and often along streams at 50–1750 m altitude (van Steenis 1972; Wai 2009). In Sumatra, it is known to occur at 100–2100 m altitude (Tjitrosoedirdjo et al. 2009). Besides, the

Fig. 1 Habitat of Aeschynanthus radicans from West Java, Indonesia. (© Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam and Zakaria Al Anshori)

Aeschynanthus radicans Jack

61

presence of A. radicans has also been recorded from peat swamp forest area in Kalimantan (Kartonegoro and Potter 2014). In Java, A. radicans flowers in December–March, and fruits from April to July (Situmorang et al. 2006). Morphologically, the genus Aeschynanthus has arcuate corolla tube, exserted anthers shedding pollen downward, strong protandry, and a nectary gland at the flower base. Based on its flower characters, the pollination is associated with birds (Middleton 2007; Williams 2014). The flower of A. radicans was also reported to be eaten by Javan leaf monkey (Presbytis comata comata), Javan langur (Trachypithecus auratus sondaicus), and Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch) in the Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, West Java (Situmorang et al. 2006). The seeds of A. radicans are dispersed by wind. The small size and the presence of appendages at both ends are adapted for wind dispersal mechanisms (Middleton 2007). But, the hilar appendage on their seed is inserted on bubble cells or elaiosome, which may serve as a food source to ants. Thus, ants also play an important role as seed dispersal agent (van Steenis 1972).

Local Medicinal Uses In Southeast Asia, the leaf-poultice of A. radicans is used to treat headache (Burkill 1935; Perry 1980; Uji 2002; Nasution 2003). The species was also listed as an important traditional medicinal plant in Dolok Tinggi Nature Reserve, North Sumatra, Indonesia (Elisah 2012). The leaves have been used to treat cough, asthma, and sore throat by the local community in the Dolok Tinggi Nature Reserve (Elisah 2012). Moreover, several species of Aeschynanthus are also been sold as medicinal plants in the Kabanjahe traditional market, North Sumatra. Their leaves are traditionally used to treat cancer and heart ailments (Silalahi et al. 2015).

Biocultural and Economic Importance A. radicans is commonly known as lipstick vine as its emerging red flower buds and tubular calyx resemble a tube of lipstick (Fig. 2) (Cui et al. 2009). Hence, the species is commonly cultivated as hanging plant by horticulturists, and the most traded cultivar is Aeschynanthus radicans “Monalisa” (Cui et al. 2009; Ulfah et al. 2016). Rahayu (2019) reported that the Ketori community of West Kalimantan, Indonesia, has been involved in collecting A. radicans from the forest and cultivate it as an ornamental plant. A study by Efendi et al. (2016) shows that the flower of A. radicans has economic potential as it contains carotenoids and anthocyanins. Decoction of flowers in water can be used to dye paper, although the color is pale (Efendi et al. 2016).

62

R. R. Irwanto and A. S. D. Irsyam

Fig. 2 Flowers of Aeschynanthus radicans from West Java, Indonesia, before (a) and after (b) anthesis. (© Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam & Zakaria Al Anshori)

References Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC. Flora of Java, vol. II. Groningen: N.V.P. Noordhoff; 1965. Burkill IH. Dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. vol. II (Plumbago-Z). London: The Crown Agents for the Colonies; 1935. Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore, native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research; 2009. Cui J, Chen J, Heny RJ. Regeneration of Aeschynanthus radicans via direct somatic embryogenesis and analysis of regenerants with flow cytometry. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol-Plant. 2009;45:34–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-008-9147-9. Efendi M, Hapitasari IG, Rustandi, Supriyatna A. Inventarisasi tumbuhan penghasil pewarna alami di Kebun Raya Cibodas. J Bumi Lestari. 2016;16(1):50–8. Elisah S. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat oleh masyarakat sekitar Cagar Alam Dolok Tinggi Raja [Thesis]. Medan: Universitas Sumatera Utara; 2012. Kartonegoro A, Potter D. The Gesneriaceae of Sulawesi VI: the species from Mekongga Mts. with a new species of Cyrtandra described. Reinwardtia. 2014;14(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.14203/ reinwardtia.v14i1.389. Middleton DJ. A revision of Aeschynanthus (Gesneriaceae) in Thailand. Edinburgh J Bot. 2007;64:363–429. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960428607004878. Middleton DJ. A revision of Aeschynanthus (Gesneriaceae) in Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia. Gard Bull Sing. 2016;68(1):1–63. https://doi.org/10.3850/S2382581216000016. Nasution RE. Aeschynanthus Jack. In: Lemmens RHMJ, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 12(3): Medicinal and poisonous plants 3. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 2003. p. 41–3. Partomihardjo T, Suzuki E, Yukawa J. Development and distribution of vascular epiphytes communities on the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia. S Pac Stud. 2004;25(1):7–26. Perry LM. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia: attributed properties and uses. London: The MIT Press; 1980. Rahayu S. Sustainable utilization of Hoya species and other bioresources in Ketori, Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2019;298:012039. https://doi.org/ 10.1088/1755-1315/298/1/012039.

Aeschynanthus radicans Jack

63

Silalahi M, Nisyawati, Walujo EB, Supriatna J, Mangunwardoyo W. The local knowledge of medicinal plants trader and diversity of medicinal plants in the Kabanjahe traditional market, North Sumatra, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:432–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2015.09.009. Situmorang SR, Artawan IM, Kurnia AM, Ridwantara I, Sopian. Information book on the flora of Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango. Cipanas-Cianjur: Balai TNGP; 2006. Sunarno B, Rugayah. Flora of Taman Nasional Gede Pangrango. Bogor: Herbarium Bogoriense; 1992. Tjitrosoedirdjo SS, Zakaria R, Nurainas. Notes on Aeschynanthus (Gesneriaceae) of Sumatra, Indonesia. Blumea. 2009;54:278–9. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651909X476283. Uji T. Plant diversity and their potential in Mount Halimun and surrounding areas in Mount Halimun National Park. Berita Biol. 2002;6(1):1–12. Ulfah SM, Dorly, Rahayu S. Flower development and pollen viability of Aeschynanthus radicans var. ‘Monalisa’ at Bogor Botanic Gardens. Buletin Kebun Raya. 2016;19(1):21–32. Van Steenis CGGJ. The mountain flora of Java. Leiden: E.J. Brill; 1972. Wai JS. Diversity of vascular plants on the cliffs and rocky ridges of Sankalakhiri Range in Betong District, Yala Province [Master thesis]. Hat Yai: Prince of Songkla University; 2009. Williams C. The rediscovery of a presumed nationally extinct Aeschynanthus. Gardenwise. 2014;43:10–1. Wiriadinata H. Plant diversity of “Gunung Lumut Protected Forest” Pasir District, East Kalimantan. Berita Biol. 2008;9(3):313–23.

Agathis borneensis Warb. ARAUCARIACEAE A. Nithaniyal Stalin and F. Merlin Franco

Synonyms A. beckingii Meijer Drees; A. endertii Meijer Drees; A. latifolia Meijer Drees; A. macrostachys Warb.; A. rhomboidalis Warb.; Abies sumatrana Desf.; Agathis beccarii Warb.; Pinus sumatrana Mirb.

Local Names Brunei Darussalam: Bindang, bamboeng, bengalen, pilan tulong (Brunei Malay), bulu (Iban), salang (Kedayan); Indonesia: bembueng (South Eastern Kalimantan), damar pilau (Dayak, Kalimantan), hedje (Sumatra), damar sigi, kayu sigi, ki dammar; Malaysia: damar minyak, kayu damar bukit, raja kayu, pengebal musang (Malay), bindang, bulok, manggilan, tumu (Sarawak), mengilan, salang tambunan (Sabah), manggilan (Dusun) (Whitmore 1980a).

A. Nithaniyal Stalin (*) Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Department of Botany, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Department of Botany, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Tamil Nadu, India F. M. Franco Institute of Asian Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Negara Brunei Darussalam e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_163

65

66

A. Nithaniyal Stalin and F. M. Franco

Botany and Ecology Description: Lofty evergreen monoecious tree growing up to 55 m tall, 3.5 m diameter (Fig. 1); broad emergent crown of large rigid first-order branches; stem with 20–30 m long bole in mature trees, exudes a golden resin when damaged; bark variable grey, light brown-black, finely dimpled to thinly scaly or rough, exfoliating with few epiphytes. Leaves sub-opposite, thick, coriaceous, light green, highly variable in a single tree; juvenile leaves ovate, elliptic-lanceolate, to 14
4 cm; mature leaves ovate, more or less acute apex, 6–12 cm by 2.0–3.5 cm, tapering at the base to a c. 5 mm petiole (Fig. 2). Most common foliage leaf c. 7 by 3 cm but branches with relatively long and narrow leaves often interspersed with the more usual type and more general on younger trees. Resin ducts in pairs, one above the other between most vascular strands rather than the prevailing solitary duct elsewhere in the genus. Mature pollen cones oblong, 4–7 cm by 20–25 mm, rounded at the apex, subtended by a 2–10 mm peduncle, the apex of the microsporophyll spoon shaped, 5.5–6.5 by 4–5 mm, the apex a broad semicircle. Mature seed cones oval, 6– 8.5 by 5.5–6.5 cm. Seed bract roughly triangular but well-rounded at the upper corners, a low thick ridge along the apical margin, a strongly hooked 6 mm scallop on one side of the base, the other side with no more than a kink, 26–28 by 36– 40 mm. Seed c. 12 by 9 mm, blunt at one upper corner and a broadly rounded wing c. 20 by 16 mm at the other corner (de Wilde 2014). Fig. 1 Growing plant of Agathis borneensis; (© F. Merlin Franco)

Agathis borneensis Warb.

67

Fig. 2 Close view of Agathis borneensis leaves; (© F. Merlin Franco)

Distribution: Agathis borneensis is native to the Southeast Asian countries of Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra), and Malaysia (Farjon 2013). Etymology: The name Agathís in Greek means “ball of thread”; specific epithet borneensis implies that it is a native of the island of Borneo. Ecology: Agathis borneensis is commonly found in tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia. It occurs from low lying kerangas (Sundaland heath) to upland tropical rainforests, at elevations up to 2400 m.a.s.l (Farjon 2013). Commonly grows on sandy peat soil, podzolized sands, or ultisols at low elevation in Borneo, forming extensive pure stands. Also thrives in wide range of soils such as sandy, limestone, ultra-basic rocks (igneous and meta-igneous), sedimentary rocks and histosols (Whitmore 1980a; Sesuni 2005; Suzuki 2010). A. borneensis is considered as the most attractive resin source for the bee species Geniotrigona thoracica, Lophotrigona canifrons, Heterotrigona erythrogaster, Tetragonilla collina, and Odontotrigona haematoptera in Borneo (Leonhardt and Bluthgen 2009). Rhizobium bacterial communities have been reported to be abundant in the rhizosphere (Oh et al. 2012). Conservation Status: Agathis borneensis faces major threats such as overexploitation and habitat degradation since 1930. Therefore, this species is categorized as “endangered” (Farjon 2013). Genetic diversity among natural populations, conservation, monitoring, and influence of environmental factors in the distribution this species in natural habitat conditions has been documented (Kitamura and Abdul Rahman 1992; Usmadi 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: Healers from the Belait, Tutong, Dusun, and Iban communities of Kiudang use a stem bark poultice to treat skin itches; an infusion is consumed to treat diabetes; root decoction is used to treat hypertension (Kamsani et al. 2020).

68

A. Nithaniyal Stalin and F. M. Franco

Malaysia: The indigenous people in Malaysian Borneo use an herbal tea made by boiling stem bark in water as febrifuge (Kulip 2003; Frezza et al. 2020). Kedayan people of Beaufort sell plant parts of A. borneensis as raw medicinal drug in the local markets of Pekanabalu, Penampang, and Ranau (Foo 2018). Wood powder is traditionally used as a remedy for headache and muscle pain called myalgia (Noor Rain et al. 2007). Temiar community in Kampung Husin of Perak use A. borneensis to treat diabetes and hypertension (Rachdiati and Zakariya 2018).

Phytochemistry Major chemical constituents reported from the essential oils of resin and stem bark of Agathis borneensis are α-pinene, δ-limonene, β-pinene, terpinen-4-ol, and α-terpineol. Heartwood oil contains ethyl benzene, benzaldehyde, hexanedioic acid dioctyl ester, bis 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, and stigmast-5-en-3-ol (3 beta,24S) as a major compound along with minor constituents of monoterpenes such as terpinen-4-ol and γ-terpinene (Jatri 2005; Fouziah 2011; Alet et al. 2012). Adam et al. (2017) identified sixty chemical constituents from the leaves and stem bark, and five major classes of terpenes such as monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, oxygenated diterpenes, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. Chemical constituents identified from the leaves are 1,2,4a,5,6,8a-hexahydro-1isopropyl-4,7-dimethyl-naphthalene, 1,4-pentadien-3-ol, 1-iodo-2-methylundecane, 2(1H)-phenanthrenone, 2,4,6-trimethyl-octane, abietate, androstenone, biacetyl, 4-methylene-2,8,8-trimethyl-2-vinyl-bicyclo [5.2.0]nonane, caryophyllene oxide, copaene, dodecane, farnesane, heptacosane, methyl-isobutyrate, naphthalene, n-heptadecane, n-hexacosane, n-octacosane, nor-pristane, n-pentacosane, n-pentadecane, n-pentadecanoic acid, n-tetradecane, octane, 2,3,3-trimethyl-octane, octyl ether, palmitic acid, trans-phytol, α-cubebene, and α–caryophyllene. Stem bark contains phytochemicals such as farnesol, 1,2,4a,5,6,8a-hexahydro-1-isopropyl4,7-dimethyl-naphthalene, 1,5,9,9-tetramethyl-1,4,7-cycloundecatriene, 4,4,5-trimethyl-2-hexene,3-ethyl-2,7-dimethyl octane, 6-dimethylcyclohexene, 8a(2H)phenanthrenol, 8-methylene, biacetyl, 4,11,11-trimethyl-8-methylene-bicyclo[7.2.0] undec-4-(Z)-ene, cetane, copaene, cyclohexene, eicosane, germacrene D, heptacosane, 3-ethyl-3-methyl-heptane, naphthalene, 1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a-octahydro-7-methyl-4methylene-1-(1-methylethyl)-(1α,4aα)-naphthalene, n-docosane, n-heptadecane, n-hexacosane, n-nonadecane, n-octacosane, nor-pristane, n-pentacosane, n-pentadecane, n-tetratriacontane, n-triacontane, octadecane, octadecyl iodide, sorbaldehyde, thiophene, α-caryophyllene, α-cubenene, β-caryophyllene, β-cubebene, methyl-β-Dmannofuranoside, and δ-cadinene (Adam et al. 2017; Frezza et al. 2020). Phytoconstituents present in the leaves and stem bark of A. borneensis show antitumor, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimalaria, anti-bacterial, and anesthetic activity because of the presence of α-copaene, β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene-

Agathis borneensis Warb.

69

oxide, 1S cis-calamenene, benzaldehyde, pimaric acid, germacrene D and δ-cadinene (Ghelardini et al. 2001; Tchoumbougnang et al. 2005; Jatri 2005; Park et al. 2011; Montanari et al. 2011; Oladimeji et al. 2016; Adam et al. 2017). Leaf extracts containing caryophyllene oxide and β-caryophyllene are shown to possess antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum D10 strain in pLDH assay (Noor Rain et al. 2007). Farnesol identified from the stem bark inhibits the growth of tumor cells; it also enhances the anticancer effect of bortezomib in the treatment of multiple myeloma. Stem extracts show strong antibacterial activity, inhibiting the growth of Bacillus subtilis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Vibrio paraharmolyticus (Lee et al. 2015; Rachdiati and Zakariya 2018).

Biocultural Importance A. borneensis is regarded as king of wood (“raja kayu”) in Borneo. In Borneo, it is widely believed that the wood has magical powers in repelling evil spirits (Adam et al. 2017). The resin was traditionally used by the Dayak communities of highland Borneo for lighting purposes (Sellato 2002).

Economic Importance A. borneensis yields a highly valuable timber (Sist et al. 2002). The resin exudate from stem bark is a popular Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) traded under the name copal. In Indonesian Borneo, the Dayak Ketori people harvest the resin and trade it as a NTFP (Rahayu 2019). In Malaysian Borneo, copal is exploited as an NTFP on a massive scale for commercial use (Coppen 1995; Seyfullah et al. 2018). The lumber are distinctive, highly sought after and commonly used in light construction, pulp, household utensils, woodwares, panel board, chop-stick, matches, millwork, veneers, fuel wood, and charcoal (Soerianegara and Lemmens 1994; Sesuni 2005). Commercial products manufactured from the timber logs include guitars, pianos, cabinets, furniture, pencil slat, boats, vats, and tanks (Whitmore 1980b; Sesuni 2005; Frezza et al. 2020). The trees are also widely used by industries in the production of varnish, lacquers, linoleum, plastic film products, ink, and plaster materials (Bowen & Whitmore 1980; Adam et al. 2017; Appanah and Weinland 1993; Muhaimin and Nurlaeni 2018). Yazdani et al. (2012) suggested that the sawdust of A. borneensis obtained from the milling industries in Brunei Darussalam could be used to produce alternate fuel due to its low nitrogen and ash content and high calorific value. Antiplasmodial properties of A. borneensis could lead to the development of antimalarial drugs (Razak et al. 2014).

70

A. Nithaniyal Stalin and F. M. Franco

References Adam AZ, Juiling S, Lee SY, Jumaat SR, Mohamed R. Phytochemical composition of Agathis borneensis (Araucariaceae) and their biological activities. Malays For. 2017;80:169–77. Alet FB, Assim ZB, bin Jusoh I, Ahmad FB. Chemical constituents of essential oils from resin and bark of Agathis borneensis. BJRST. 2012;2(1):28 32. Appanah S, Weinland G. Planting quality timber trees in peninsular Malaysia: a review. Kuala Lumpur: Forest Research Institute Malaysia, FRIM; 1993. p. 121–80. Bowen MR, Whitmore TC. Agathis - a genus of fast growing rain forest conifers. Commonw For Rev. 1980;59:307–10. Coppen JJW. Gums, resins and latexes of plant origin. Non-wood Forest products, vol. 6. Rome: FAO; 1995. de Wilde W. Flora Malesiana. Series I – Seed Plants, Myristicaceae 14; 2014. Advanced Books. Available at: http://ab.pensoft.net/articles.php?id¼1141. Farjon A. Agathis borneensis. The IUCN red list of threatened species. 2013:e.T202905A2757743. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T202905A2757743.en. Foo J. Involvement of local community in the sale of medicinal plants at Tamu Markets of West Coast Sabah. Acad Ther. 2018;88(1):35–47. https://doi.org/10.17576/akad-2018-8801-03. Fouziah A. Chemical constituents and biological activities of essential oils and extra activities from Agathis borneensis, Master thesis, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Sarawak; 2011. Frezza C, Venditti A, De Vita D, Toniolo C, Franceschin M, Ventrone A, Tomassini L, Foddai S, Guiso M, Nicoletti M, Bianco A, Serafini M. Phytochemistry, chemotaxonomy, and biological activities of the Araucariaceae Family – a review. Plan Theory. 2020;9:888. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/plants9070888. Ghelardini C, Galeotti N, Mannelli LDC, Mazzanti G, Bartolini A. Local anaesthetic activity of β caryophyllene. II Farmaco. 2001;56(5):387–9. Jatri SHBT. Chemical composition and biological activities of essential oils and extracts from Agathisborneensis, Bachelor thesis, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Sarawak; 2005. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kitamura K, Abdul Rahman MY. Genetic diversity among natural populations of Agathis borneensis (Araucariaceae), a tropical rain forest conifer from Brunei Darussalam, Borneo, Southeast Asia. Can J Bot. 1992;70:1945–9. Kulip J. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia. Telopea. 2003;10(1):81–98. Lee JH, Kim C, Kim SH, Sethi G, Ahn KS. Farnesol inhibits tumor growth and enhances the anticancer effects of bortezomib in multiple myeloma xenograft mouse model through the modulation of STAT3 signaling pathway. Cancer Lett. 2015;360(2):280–93. Leonhardt SD, Bluthgen N. A sticky affair: resin collection by Bornean stingless bees. Biotropica. 2009;41(6):730–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00535.x. Montanari RM, Barbosa LC, Demuner AJ, Silva CJ, Carvalho LS, Andrade NJ. Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of essential oils from verbenaceae species: alternative sources of (E)-caryophyllene and germacrene-D. Quimera. 2011;34(9):1550–5. Muhaimin M, Nurlaeni Y. Exudate-producing plants collection of Cibodas botanical garden and its uses. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2018;4(2):151–7. https://doi.org/10.13057/psnmbi/ m040209. Noor Rain A, Khozirah S, Mohd Ridzuan MA, Ong BK, Rohaya C, Rosilawati M, Zakiah I. Antiplasmodial properties of some Malaysian medicinal plants. Trop Biomed. 2007;24 (1):29–35. Oh YM, Kim M, Lee-Cruz L, Lai-Hoe A, Go R, Ainuddin N, Rahim RA, Shukor N, Adams JM. Distinctive bacterial communities in the rhizoplane of four tropical tree species. Microb Ecol. 2012;64:1018e1027. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-012-0082-2.

Agathis borneensis Warb.

71

Oladimeji AO, Babatunde O, Musa RT, M'civer FA, Lawal AT, Ogunwande IA. GC-MS analysis and cytotoxic activity of essential oils from the leaves of Abrus precatorius L. Gaertn. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2016;6(5):372–5. Park KR, Nam D, Yun HM, Lee SG, Jang HJ, Sethi G, Ahn KS. β-Caryophyllene oxide inhibits growth and induces apoptosis through the suppression of PI3K/AKT/mTOR/S6K1 pathways and ROS-mediated MAPKs activation. Cancer Lett. 2011;312(2):178–88. Rachdiati H, Zakariya NAB. 2018. Ethnobotanical survey phytochemical and antimicrobial screening on Temiar Community at kg. Husin, Jalong Tinggi, Sungai Siput (U), Perak West Malaysia. Der Pharma Chemica. 2018;10(1):26–9. Rahayu S. Sustainable utilization of Hoya species and other bioresourcesin Ketori, Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. IOP Conf Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2019;298:012039. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/298/1/012039. Razak MRMA, Afzan A, Ali R, Jalaluddin NFA, Wasiman MI, Zahari SHS, Ismail Z. Effect of selected local medicinal plants on the asexual blood stage of chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014;14(1):492. Sellato B. Non-timber forestproducts and tradein eastern Borneo. Bois Et Forêts Des Tropiques. 2002;271(1):37–49. Sesuni NB. Conservation of Bindang (Agathis borneensis Warb.): the soil physical edaphology. Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Sarawak; 2005. Seyfullah LJ, Beimforde C, Dal Corso J, Perrichot V, Rikkinen J, Schmidt AR. Production and preservation of resins – past and present. Biol Rev. 2018;93:1684–714. https://doi.org/10.1111/ brv.12414. Sist P, Sheil D, Kartawinata K, Priyadi H. Reduced-impact logging in Indonesian Borneo: some results confirming the need for new Silvicultural prescriptions. In: Forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model Forest. ITTO PROJECT PD 12/97 REV.1 (F). Indonesia: CIFOR; 2002. p. 26–38. Soerianegara I, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Timber trees: major commercial timbers. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 5 (1). Bogor: PROSEA; 1994. Suzuki E. Tree flora on freshwater wet habitats in lowland of borneo: does wetness cool the sites? Reinwardtia. 2010;13(2):199–210. Tchoumbougnang F, Zollo PA, Dagne E, Mekonnen Y. In vivo antimalarial activity of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum on mice infected with Plasmodium berghei. Planta Med. 2005;71(01):20–3. Usmadi D. Potential distribution of Agathis borneensis in Central Kalimantan Province. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2019;5(3):455–8. https://doi.org/10.13057/psnmbi/m050307. Whitmore TC. A monograph of Agathis. Plant Syst Evol. 1980a;135(1):41–69. Whitmore TC. Utilization, potential, and conservation of Agathis, a genus of tropical Asian conifers. Econ Bot. 1980b;34:1–12. Yazdani MG, Hamizan M, Shukur MN. Investigation of the fuel value and the environmental impact of selected wood samples gathered from Brunei Darussalam. Renew Sust Energ Rev. 2012;16:4965–9.

Agathis dammara (Lamb.) Poir. ARAUCARIACEAE Richard Francisco Clemente

Synonyms Abies dammara (Lamb.) Dum.Cours.; Agathis alba (Rumph. ex. Hassk.) Foxw.; Agathis celebica (Koord.) Warb.; Agathis hamii Meijer Drees; Agathis loranthifolia Salisb.; Agathis orientalis (Lamb.) Mottet; Agathis philippensis Warb.; Agathis pinus-dammara Poir.; Agathis regia Warb.; Dammara celebica Koord.; Dammara loranthifolia Link; Dammara rumphii C.Presl; Pinus dammara Lamb.

Local Names Philippines: Almáciga (Tagalog, Ilocano, Bikol, Hiligaynon); almaciga babae, ánteng, bagtík, baltík, gala-gala, úli (Tagalog); adiángau, dadúngoi (Bikol); ladiángau (Tagalog, Bikol); dadiángau (Bikol, Hiligaynon), aningát (Ibanag, Ivatan, Ilocano); alinsagó, alisango, aningá, bunsóg, sáleng, titan, títau, uningát (Ilocano); sálong (Ilocano, Hiligaynon); píno (Waray); anting, bidiángan (Hiligaynon); badiángau, bálau, biáyo, hahos, makáu, makan, sawong (Cebuano). Indonesia: Hate salo boboedo, ise, kama-l, kaláne, kèssi, kolano, oeneëla (Moluccas); ajoedamahoe, kajoe solo, dammar lulu, dammar malolo, kajoe damara, ongkoa, soga (Sulawesi); beboeloe-s, hamar pilau, damar minjak, pohon iamar, dammar raja (Bahasa Indonesia).

R. F. Clemente (*) College of Science, Bulacan State University, City of Malolos, Bulacan, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_102

73

74

R. F. Clemente

Botany and Ecology Description: Evergreen large tree up to 60 m tall and 1.8 m dbh. Bark is smooth and gray, 1–1.5 cm thick and exfoliating in large irregular plates, abundantly resinous. Juvenile leaves are 3–4 cm wide
up to at least 10 cm long, lanceolate or shorter and strongly acuminate (Figs. 1 and 2); mature shade leaves are oval, acute, about 2 cm wide
7 cm long; leaves from fully exposed branches well rounded at the apex, 4–5 cm long
1.5–2 cm wide; leaves on vigorous shoots and fertile branches tend to be narrower and often imperfectly formed. Male cones cylindric-oblong on a short peduncle about 3 mm long, about 2.5 cm long
8–10 mm in diameter; the apex of microsporophyll is rounded, about 1.2 mm long with broad depressed flange more than half the width of the exposed scale leaving a prominent hump on the basal side, apparently 3–6 pollen sacs per microsporophyll. Female cones globose, about 8 cm in diameter; exposed thickened and flanged end of the seed scale not more than two-thirds of the overall width, the scale margins rounded and flexible, a scallop on the lower third of each scale one of which is generally deeply cut to form a downward projection distant from the base, the whole scale 8 cm high
4 cm Fig. 1 Juvenile leaves of A. dammara. (© John Rey C. Callado)

Fig. 2 Juvenile leaves of A. dammara. (© John Rey C. Callado)

Agathis dammara (Lamb.) Poir.

75

wide. Seed is oval-shaped, attached to the center of the scale, at least 12 mm long
3 mm wide, a broad round wing attached to the third part of one side farthest from the cone axis and expanded further beyond the end of the seed and outward, about 14 mm high
16 mm wide, the opposite corner of the seed with a triangular projection representing a rudimentary wing. Phenology: Propagated by seeds, wind-pollinated. Distribution and Habitat: Common in the Philippines and Indonesia (Sulawesi and Moluccas). Occurs from lowland to upland tropical rainforests, up to 2,200 m.a.s.l. altitude. In the Philippines, it attains its best growth on well-drained slopes from 600 to 1,500 m.a.s.l. Growth is slow during the first years, then rapid. Needs bright shade light. Seeds falling off the mother tree will germinate around the area if the soil is cultivated. It can be found in association with the angiosperm families Dipterocarpaceae and/or Fagaceae in lowland to lower montane rainforest. This species is listed under Vulnerable (VU) category by IUCN Red List (Farjon 2013) and needs to be updated. According to Ella and Domingo (2012), in Palawan of Philippines, the species is in danger, facing extinction. Unsustainable tapping methods cause deaths of trees while others no longer produce ample amounts of resin. Although felling the tree for timber is banned or restricted, the over-mature trees, having a diameter of 160 cm dbh are dying fast.

Local Medicinal Uses It has been reported that the resin is used as a liniment and an unguent to deter leeches (Boer and Ella 2000). Also, the resin was burned by indigenous peoples of the Cordillera region of northern Luzon, Philippines to produce smoke that is inhaled to relieve bronchial asthma (Pennacchio et al. 2010), and for treating arthritis (Baculi et al. 2015); Drinking decocted roots for relapse experienced by women after giving birth has been documented by Miano et al. (2011) from Cebu Island.

Phytochemistry Resin: The surface resin exudate from cut barks is called as Manila copal or almaciga, Manila copal is composed mostly of amorphous-free resin acids and resenes. It also contains a neutral resin indifferent to alkalis and volatile oil. Water distillation of the resinous exudate of A. dammara yielded an essential oil rich in limonene (72%). Minor constituents present in amounts greater than 1% include α-pinene, p-cymene, terpinen-4-ol and α-terpineol (Lassak and Brophy 2008). The resin is officially used in Austrian, Danish, Finnish, German, Mexican, Russian and Spanish pharmacopeias (Quisumbing 1951). Leaf: Phytochemical screening of crude leaf extracts and resin revealed the presence of alkaloids, steroids, anthraquinones, flavonoids e.g. leucoanthocyanins and cyanidins, saponins, tannins and polyphenols (Gutierrez et al. 2013; Baculi et al. 2015; Frezza et al. 2020). The extract showed antibacterial properties against Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis and Proteus vulgaris. Biflavonoid agathisflavone

76

R. F. Clemente

is present. Other biflavonoid compounds isolated from A. dammara leaves have potential to treat Alzheimer’s disease (Irpan et al. 2014). The essential oil extracted from fresh leaves showed the presence of limonene, β-bisabolene and β-myrcene with significant antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Chen et al. 2015). Biflavones isolated from the leaf extracts are 7-O-methylcupressuflavone, 7,700 -di-O-methylagathisflavone, 7-O-methylagathisflavone, 4000 ,7-di-O-methylagathisflavone, 7,700 -di-O-methylcupressuflavone and bilobetin (Khan et al. 1972; Frezza et al. 2020). Experimental researches show that 15-carbonyl-mapping-agathis dammara-16alkene-19-acid, a patented compound (CN103113218A) has excellent inhibiting activity on various human body tumor cells.

Biocultural Importance In the Philippines, the resin is used locally as incense in religious ceremonies e.g. mass and worship, fuel for lamps and torches, caulking boats and smudges against mosquitoes (Boer and Ella 2000) and soaps (Laarman et al. 1995). The indigenous peoples of the Cordillera Region use it for treating arthritis and bronchial asthma (Baculi et al. 2015).

Economic Importance In Palawan, trees are exploited for resin which earns cash income for households (Celeste 2004). The resin is also used in manufacturing high-grade varnish, and other processes such as making patent leather and sealing wax. Resin has the potential to be used as biocoating in aluminum foil where it adheres strongly, appears glossy with no odor; the coating is hydrophobic, biodegradable, and non-toxic to P. aeruginosa (Mulyono and Adrianus 2012). This species is a highly valuable timber tree, traded internationally. It is recommended as a raw material for the pulp and paper industry because of its lengthy fibers (Halos and Principe 1978). A. dammara is known for many uses including airplane construction as a substitute for sitka and white spruce, sounding boards, pencils, and T-squares, picture frames, handle for tennis racket, veneer and plywood, venetian blinds, furniture and cabinet making, prosthesis (artificial limbs), and solid bent-wood products. Angagan et al. (2010) reported that almaciga was used by Isnags of Conner, Apayao in Northern Luzon, Philippines in furniture making and as building materials. Almaciga resin is collected by certain tribal communities as a non-timber forest produce (Conelly 1985; Laarman et al. 1995). It has been reported that Manila copal is cheaper than kauri resin obtained from Agathis australis (D.Don) Loudon. Trees are useful in agroforestry. Being ornamental, it can be planted as a roadside tree, as well as for urban greening.

Agathis dammara (Lamb.) Poir.

77

References Angagan JS, Buot IE Jr, Relox RE, Rebancos CM. Ethnobotany of the plant resources in Conner, Apayao, northern Luzon, Philippines. Journal Nature of Studies. 2010;9(1):31–8. Baculi R, Balangcod T, Gutierrez R, Pastor N. Puma-at T. Agathis dammara (lamb.) L. C. Rich from the Cordillera region, Philippines and its antibiotic properties. Khon Kaen; 2015. Boer E, Ella AB. Plant resources of South East Asia 18. Plants producing exudates 2000: 139-40. Celeste LR. Using suitable projects in adding value to nonwood forest products in the Philippines: the copal (Agathis philippinensis) trade in Palawan. Econ Bot. 2004;58(3):476–85. https://doi. org/10.1663/0013-0001(2004)058[0476:USPIAV]2.0.CO;2. Chen Z, He D, Deng J, Zhu J, Mao Q. Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of the essential oil from Agathis dammara (lamb.) rich fresh leaves. Nat Prod Res. 2015;29(21):2050–3. CN103113218. A Mapping-agathis dammara type diterpene compound, and preparation method and application thereof. https://patents.google.com/patent/CN103113218A/en. Accessed 24 June 2020. Conelly WT. Copal and rattan collecting in the Philippines. Econ Bot. 1985;39(1):39–46. Ella AB, Domingo EP. Almaciga (Agathis philippinensis Warb.): valuable but diminishing tree species in the Philippines. IUFRO World Series. 2012;30:75. Farjon A. Agathis dammara. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013. https://doi.org/ 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T202906A2757847.en. Frezza C, Venditti A, De Vita D, Toniolo C, Franceschin M, Ventrone A, Tomassini L, Foddai S, Guiso M, Nicoletti M, Bianco A. Phytochemistry, chemotaxonomy, and biological activities of the Araucariaceae Family – a review. Plan Theory. 2020;9(7):888. Gutierrez RM, Baculi R, Pastor N, Puma-at T, Balangcod T. Antibacterial potential of some medicinal plants of the cordillera region. Philippines; 2013. Halos SC, Principe EB. The vanishing almaciga (Agathis philippinensis) of Samar, Philippines [gymnosperms]. Information sur les Ressources Genetiques Forestieres (FAO)-Informacion sobre Recursos Geneticos Forestales (FAO). 1978. http://www.fao.org/3/l7530e/L7530E01.htm. Accessed 12 May 2020. Irpan Waliana EH, Juliawaty LD, Koyama K, Sasaki H, Kinoshita K, Syah YM, Hakim EH, Takahashi K. Biflavonoids from Agathis dammara growing in Indonesian tropical forest and their activity as inhibitor of BACE-1 enzyme. Bandung: Program Studi Kimia, FMIPA ITB, Jl. Ganesha no. 10; 2014. https://research.lppm.itb.ac.id/2014/11/05/drug-discovery-foralzheimers-disease-from-agathis-dammara-araucariaceae/. Accessed 12 May 2020. Khan NU, Ilyas M, Rahman W, Mashima T, Okigawa M, Kawano N. Biflavones from the leaves of Araucaria bidwillii hooker and Agathis alba Foxworthy (Araucariaceae). Tetrahedron. 1972;28(23):5689–95. Laarman JG, Stewart EJ, Dugan PC. The economics of extraction in Philippine forests: when timber turns to gold. Mt Res Dev. 1995:153–64. Lassak EV, Brophy JJ. The steam-volatile oil of commercial “almaciga” resin (Agathis philippinensis Warb.) from the Philippines. J Essent Oil Bear Plants. 2008;11(6):634–7. Miano RS, Alonso CA, Reuyan D, Picardal JP. Ethnobotanical inventory and assessment of medically-important plant roots in Cebu Island, Philippines. Asian J Biodiversity. 2011;2:81–102. Mulyono NO, Adrianus R. Biodegradable coating from Agathis alba. Int J Eng Sci Technol. 2012;4:4639–43. Pennacchio M, Jefferson L, Havens K. Uses and abuses of plant-derived smoke: its ethnobotany as hallucinogen, perfume, incense, and medicine: Oxford University Press; 2010. Quisumbing E. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Philippine Islands Technical Bulletin; 1951(16).

Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. EUPHORBIACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim and Reza Raihandhany Yus

Synonyms Aleurites ambinux Pers.; Aleurites angustifolia Vieill.; Aleurites commutata Geiseler; Aleurites cordifolia Steud.; Aleurites erratica O. Deg., I. Deg. & K. Humme; Aleurites integrifolia Vieill.; Aleurites javanica Gand.; Aleurites lanceolata Blanco; Aleurites lobata Blanco; Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. var. aulanii O. Deg. & I. Deg.; Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. var. katoi O. Deg., I. Deg. & B. C. Stone; Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. var. moluccana (sensu Airy Shaw); Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. var. remyi (Sherff) B. C. Stone; Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. var. serotina O. Deg. & Sherff; Aleurites pentaphylla Wall.; Aleurites remyi Sherff; Aleurites triloba J. R. Forst & G. Forst; Camirium cordifolium Gaertn.; Camirium oleosum Reinw. ex Blume; Croton moluccana auct. non L.; Jatropha moluccana L.; Juglans camirium Lour.

Local Names Indonesia: Kemiri – moentjang, muncang (Sundanese) – kemili (Gayo, Aceh) – gambiri, hambiri, kembiri (Batak) – buah kareh (buah keras, Mink.; Nias) – kemiling (Lampung) – kaminting (Banjar, Dayak) – dèrèkan, pidekan, miri (Java); kamèrè, komèrè, mèrè (Madura); kumbè (Belitung) – beau (West

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia R. R. Yus Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_165

79

80

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Sulawesi) – komundi (Lapandewa, Buton). Philippines: kalumban, kapili lumbang, lumbang bato (Tagalog) – biau (Bagobo, Cebu Bisaya) – kami (Sulu) – rumbang (Bisaya). English: candle nut, Indian walnut (Forster 1996; Hasanah et al. 2016; Heyne 1987; Nurdin et al. 2019; Silalahi and Mustaqim 2020; Stuppy et al. 1999).

Botany and Ecology Description: Monoecious tree, up to 25 m or sometimes up to 40 m tall. Trunk without buttresses. Bark red-brown, deeply-fissured. Indumentum varies on color, from greyish-silver to fulvous-silver, mostly pale silver, less often dark-ferruginous silver. Stipule present, cylindric, c. 1 mm long, soon caducous, scar circular. Leaves simple, alternate; petiole up to 16 or rarely to 22 cm long, rarely longer, 1.5–6 mm across; apex near the junction with the leaves with glands, glands producing sweet saps, 0.5–2 mm across; blades vary in shape, lanceolate, orbicular, ovate-trullate, or shallowly 3- or 5-lobed, 6–30 cm
3–28 cm, margin entire, main nerves 3–5, midrib with 4–8 main lateral veins, base broadly cuneate, obtuse, or rarely nearly cordate, margin shallowly repand-dentate or entire, apex acute to acuminate. Inflorescence conical or pyramidal thyrses, terminal, 4–27 cm
4–32 cm, axes densely fulvous hairy, peduncle 2–5 mm across at the base; bracts 2–4 mm long. Flowers unisexual, actinomorphic, fragrant. Male flowers: 5–9 mm
5–10 mm, on 4–12 mm long filiform pedicels, clad with stellate hairs; calyx lobes 2 or 3, 2.5– 3 mm
1.5–3 mm; petals white to cream, sub-spathulate or oblanceolate, 3.5– 9.5 mm
1.2–3 mm, glabrous; stamens 17–26, arranged in 4 whorls, filaments 0.8–1.5 mm long, outer filaments shorter, longer toward the center, inner filaments connate into a column, anthers 0.6–0.8 mm long, with scattered simple hairs or glabrous. Female flowers: larger than the female flowers, 6–11 mm
7–10 mm, on 2–6.5 mm long stout pedicels, clad with stellate hairs; calyx lobes 2–3, unequal, 3– 6 mm
2–5 mm; petals white to cream, oblanceolate or spathulate, 6– 11 mm
1.6–3 mm, glabrous or sometimes with few stellate hairs outside; ovary subglobose, 1.5–3 mm
2–4 mm, laterally compressed, 1–2 or rarely 3-loculed, densely stellate hairy, style cleft almost to the base, 0.5–2.6 mm long, glabrous or less often with transparent stellate hairs; disc gland rounded, small. Fruits drupaceous, laterally compressed, broadly ovoid-subglobose or transversally ovoid, 4– 4.5 mm
4–7 mm, with 4 or rarely 6 longitudinal ridges, slightly beaked at the apex. Seeds greyish, mottled brownish, broadly obovoid, 2–3.2 cm long, with copious endosperm. Phenology: Not recorded. Distribution and Ecology: This species is native to tropical Asia and Oceania, from India to Polynesia and New Zealand. At present, it is cultivated in many regions of the tropics. Grows well in various types of substrates from red loam to limestone, clay ground, sand, often on alluvial sites near the ocean. Young plant often found in

Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.

81

Fig. 1 Living plant of Aleurites moluccana (Euphorbiaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Flower-bearing twigs of Aleurites moluccana (Euphorbiaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

disturbed areas as a pioneer. It has also been found in semideciduous or evergreen forests. It grows from the lowland to an elevation at 1000 m above sea level. Outside its native range, this species also has become naturalized, such as in Argentina, South America (Airy Shaw 1981, 1982; Forster 1996; Keller et al. 2013; Li and Gilbert 2008; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; Stuppy et al. 1999) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

82

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Fig. 3 Flowers of Aleurites moluccana (Euphorbiaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses In Indonesia, this species has been used since a long time ago to treat hair loss (Arlene 2013). The bark is used by the local people of South Aceh, Sumatra to treat dysentery (Suwardi et al. 2020). In Sibanggor Julu of Mandailing Natal Regency, North Sumatera, the tree is cultivated for its febrifugal properties (Marpaung 2018). The Lampung people in Lampung Barat Regency pound seeds and rub it over injured areas to treat sprain (Leksikowati et al. 2020). The Osing of Licin in East Java use the bark, wood, seed, fruit, leaf, and sap for treating dysentery, mouth ulcer, diarrhea, hair loss, cavity, and dry skin (Khotimah et al. 2018). They also use the fruit for postpartum care after vaginal delivery (Ridianingsih et al. 2017). Local community near nature reserves in Kediri Regency of East Java, use the bark to treat severe abdominal pain and diarrhea; the wood resin is mixed with coconut milk to cure scrofula; young leaves are used to treat appendicitis (Setyawati 2009). In Pamekasan Regency of Madura, fruits are used as galactagogues (Zaman 2009). In Nangapanda Sub-District of East Nusa Tenggara, seeds are used to cure cough (Tima et al. 2020). Dayak people of Kalimantan rub the burnt fruits on their scalp as a hair vitalizer (Oktoba 2018). The same use has also been reported from the Wolio Sub-Ethnic in Baubau City of Southeast Sulawesi (Slamet and Andarias 2018). The Malay in Durian Sebatang Village, West Kalimantan use the pounded leaves to treat toothache (Wulandara et al. 2018). According to Dayak and Banjar people, drinking a fruit decoction could cure malaria (Kuswantoro 2017). In Lapandewa Village of Southeast Sulawesi, seeds are used for treating skin diseases (Hasanah et al. 2016). People of North Sulawesi use a mixture of Cocos nucifera (coconut), Curcuma longa (kunyit), and the leaves of A. moluccana to treat boils and ulcer (Arini 2017). In Sinjai Subdistrict of South Sulawesi, seeds are used to treat “pangkoko” disease. Seeds are smoothed together with the rhizome of Curcuma longa (turmeric) and roots of Imperata cylindrica (cogon grass) and spread over the fingers or toes (Sari 2017).

Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.

83

Phytochemistry Various phytochemical investigations have been carried out on this species (Castilho et al. 2019). Compounds identified from the heartwood include 13-O-Myristyl-20-Oacetyl-12-deoxyphorbol, scoparone, and β-sitostenone (Satyanarayana et al. 2001). The bark contains 12-hydroxy-13-methoxy-8,11,13-podocarpatrien-3-one, 3-acetylaleuritolic acid, spruceanol (Alimboyoguen et al. 2014), 3-acety aleuritolic acid, and scopoletin (Prabowo et al. 2013). Twigs and leaves contain eight terpenoids: (3α,5β,10a)-13-methoxypodocarpa-8,11,13-triene-3,12-diol, (5β,10a)-12,13dihydroxypodocarpa-8,11,13-trien-3-one, (5β,10α)-12-hydroxy-13-methoxypodoca rpa-8,11,13-trien-3-one, (5β,10α)-13-hydroxy-12-methoxypodocarpa-8,11,13-trien3-one, 12-hydroxy-13-methylpodocarpa-8,11,13-trien-3-one, ent-3β,14α-hydroxypi mara-7,9(11),15-triene-12-one, ent-3α-hydroxypimara-8(14),15-dien-12-one, and spruceanol (Liu et al. 2007). Four flavonoids have been isolated from the methanolic extract of dried leaves: swertisin and 200 -O-rhamnosylswertisin (Girardi et al. 2003; Morsch et al. 2002), and molucannin and C-glycosyl (Satyanarayana et al. 2001). Other compounds identified from the hexane fractions of the leaves include α-amyrin, β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, n-hentriacontane (Meyre-Silva et al. 1998), α-amyrenone, and β-amyrenone (Quintão et al. 2014). Fatty acids and δ-tocopherol are also reported from the seeds (Satyanarayana et al. 2001). Saponin contained in the bark inhibit the development of Aedes aegypti larvae (Irwan et al. 2007). Bark extracts also exhibit antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pyogenes (Abd and Mohamad 2010). Scopoletin isolated from the barks could inhibit the growth of Salmonella typhimurium (Prabowo and Agustina 2020). Husk extract has antibacterial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae (Abd and Mohamad 2010). Antibacterial activities against Escherichia coli and S. aureus have also been reported (Amaliyah 2019). Anti-quorum-sensing activity has been reported from the leaf extracts against Chromobacterium violaceum (Guzman and Padilla 2017). Dried leaf extracts are anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and heal wounds in mice (Cesca et al. 2012; Hoepers et al. 2015; Niazi et al. 2010). Antinociceptive activities are attributed to the flavonoid contents of the leaves (Quintão et al. 2011). Phytochemicals in leaves inhibit abdominal constriction in mice, post acetic acid treatment (MeyreSilva et al. 1998). Anti-pyretic activity has been reported on Wistar rat’s pyrexia after brewer’s yeast induction (Niazi et al. 2010). Methanol dried leaf extracts show antihyperlipidemic activity in rats (Pedrosa et al. 2002). The powdered nut extracts are effective against the growth of K. pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and S. pyogenes. In autoimmune inflammatory disease prevention, the extract is safe for prophylactic uses (Mpala et al. 2017). Seed extracts show antiproliferative activity (de Castilho 2019); it has no significant effects on the metabolic profile of Wistar rats (Ubeda et al. 2017). Despite its uses as spice, the use of seed as oral medicine should be avoided until further study has been done. The seed is believed to have an anti-obesity property. However, there are reports indicating the toxicity of the seed, including possible fatality (González-Stuart and Rivera 2017).

84

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Local Food Uses The nut is often cooked by people in South Aceh (Suwardi et al. 2020). The fruit is also used by the Batak Karo of North Sumatra, as one of the components of “terites soup.” Terites is a traditional food of Batak Karo, cooked with a juice of food partly digested by cattle (Purba et al. 2018). In Pekucen Subdistrict of Central Java, seeds are used to add flavor and aroma to the local cuisine. The seeds are pounded with other spices including garlic and coriander, and added to curry, meat, and fish (Apriliani et al. 2014). Aleurites moluccana is considered as one of the top three culinary spices in daily food by the local people of Kopen Dukuh Village, Banyuwangi Regency, East Java (Hakim et al. 2015).

Biocultural Importance Malayan people of Landak Regency use this species together with dozen other plant species, in the ceremony of tumbang negeri to prevent misfortune. Tumpang negeri consists of several rituals called sedekah kampung, mengantar tumpang, and menghanyutkan rakit for which this species is used. The fruit combined with Syzygium aromaticum (clove), Zea mays (corn), Curcuma xanthorrhiza (curcuma), Myristica fragrans (nutmeg), and Musa paradisiaca (banana) are washed away as an offering to the creator and ancestral spirits (Hasanah et al. 2014). Bark and wood along with other 18 species are used by Balinese Hindus in their traditional ceremonies called panca yadnya, meaning five holy offerings (Surata et al. 2015; Sardiana 2010). In the Renggeang Village of Limboro District, West Sulawesi, the fruits are used along with 20 other plants in traditional ceremonies such as wedding or seventh month of pregnancy, and aqiqah or shaving the baby’s hair after 7, 14, or 21 days of birth (Nurdin et al. 2019).

Economic Importance People of South Aceh in Sumatra use the seeds as a substitute for soap (Suwardi et al. 2020). Seeds are sources of bio charcoal that can be used as adsorbent. It can be used to adsorb Cr(VI) ion (Bautista et al. 2017). Seed oil is a potential source of biodiesel (Lima et al. 2011). Seed waste can adsorb the dyes methylene blue and rhodamine B. It is a cost-effective means to remove the cationic dyes (Postai et al. 2016). Oil is also an effective termite repellent. Pinewood treated using the oil is resistant to the Formosan termite (Coptotermes formosanus) (Nakayama and Osbrink 2010). The oil shows anti-corrosive property when applied to iron (Zouarhi et al. 2019). Seed powder could be used in scrub cream production (Rusmin 2020).

Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.

85

References Abd SO, Mohamad RR. Antibacterial activity of Aleurites moluccana (Euphorbiaceae) against some clinical isolates. Res J Biotechnol. 2010;5(3):25–30. Airy Shaw HK. The Euphorbiaceae of Sumatra. Kew Bull. 1981;36(2):239–374. Airy Shaw HK. The Euphorbiaceae of Central Malesia (Celebes, Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Is.). Kew Bull. 1982;37(1):1–40. Alimboyoguen AB, De Castro-Cruz KA, Shen CC, Li WT, Ragasa CY. Chemical constituents of the bark of Aleurites moluccana L. Willd. J Chem Pharm Res. 2014;6(5):1318–20. Amaliyah EA. Uji aktivitas antibakteri ekstrak etanol dan fraksi daun kemiri (Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.) terhadap bakteri Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538 dan Escherichia coli ATCC 2592 [undergraduate thesis]. Jember: Universitas Jember; 2019. Apriliani A, Sukarsa, Hidayah HA. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan sebagai bahan tambahan pangan secara tradisional oleh masyarakat di Kecamatan Pekuncen Kabupaten Banyumas. Scr Biol. 2014;1:76–84. (in Bahasa). Arini DID. The local knowledge of community in North Sulawesi on forest tress used as a traditional medicine. J Masy Bud. 2017;19:161–74. Arlene A. Ekstraksi kemiri dengan metode soxhlet dan karakterisasi minyak kemiri. J Tek Kim. 2013;2:6–10. Bautista APR, Sumalapao DEP, Villarante NR. Synthesis and characterization of epichlorohydrincrosslinked lumbang (Aleurites moluccana)-derived activated carbon chitosan composite as Cr (VI) bioadsorbent. Annu Res Rev Biol. 2017;21(1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.9734/ARRB/2017/ 38259. Castilho PF, Oliveira KMP, Dantas FGS. Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.: características gerais, farmacológicas e fitoquímicas. Evidência. 2019;19(2):275–92. (in Portuguese). Cesca TG, Faqueti LG, Rocha LW, Meira NA, Meyre-Silva C, de Souza MM, Quintão NLM, Silva RML, Cechinel Filho V, Bresolin TMB. Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and wound healing features in animal models treated with a semisolid herbal medicine based on Aleurites moluccana L. Willd. Euforbiaceae standardized leaf extract semisolid herbal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;143:355–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.06.051. de Castilho PF. Segurança do extrato aquoso das sementes de Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. em ensaios in vitro e in vivo [dissertation]. Dourados: Universidade Federal Da Grande Dourados; 2019. (in Portuguese). Forster PI. A taxonomic revision of Aleurites J. R. Forst. & G. Forst. (Euphorbiaceae) in Australia and New Guinea. Muelleria. 1996;9:5–13. Girardi LGJ, Morsch M, Cechinel-Filho V, Meyre-Silva C, Rodrigues CA. Isolation of flavonoids from Aleurites moluccana using chitosan modified with benzaldehyde (CH-Bz) as chromatographic support. Pharmazie. 2003;58:629–30. González-Stuart AE, Rivera JO. Toxicity of candlenut seed (Aleurites moluccanus), a purported herbal weight loss supplement. Pharmacologia. 2017;8(1):25–31. https://doi.org/10.5567/ pharmacologia.2017.25.31. Guzman JPMD, Padilla LV. Anti-quorum sensing activity of Tetracera scandens and Aleurites moluccana leaf extracts against Chromobacterium violaceum. Microbiol Res J Int. 2017;22 (1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.9734/MRJI/2017/37450. Hakim L, Batoro J, Sukenti K. Etnobotani rempah-rempah di dusun Kopen Dukuh, Kabupaten Banyuwangi. J Pemb Alam Lest. 2015;6:133–42. Hasanah U, Linda R, Lovadi I. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan pada upacara adat Tumpang Negeri Suku Melayu di Keraton Ismahayana Landak. J Protobiont. 2014;3:17–24. Hasanah N, Sudrajat HW, Damhuri. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat Desa Lapandewa Kaindea Kecamatan Lapandewa Kabupaten Buton Selatan. J Ampibi. 2016;1:14–20. Heyne K. Tumbuhan Berguna Indonesia. 2nd ed. Jakarta: Yayasan Sarana Wana Jaya; 1987. (in Bahasa).

86

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Hoepers SM, de Souza HGMT, Quintão NLM, Santin JR, Cechinel Filho J, Silva RML, Couto AG, da Silva KABS. Topical anti-inflammatory activity of semisolid containing standardized Aleurites moluccana L. Willd (Euphorbiaceae) leaves extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;173:251–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.07.024. Irwan A, Komari N, Rusdiana. Uji aktivitas ekstrak saponin fraksi n-butanol dari kulit batang kemiri (Aleurites moluccana Willd) pada larva nyamuk Aedes aegypti. Sains Kim Terap. 2007;1 (2):93–101. (in Bahasa). Keller HA, Stampella PC, Delucchi G, Hurrell JA. Vernicia fordii y Aleurites moluccanus (Euphorbiaceae) en la Argentina. naturalización y etnobotánica. Bol Soc Argent Bot. 2013;48 (3–4):553–61. (in Spanish). Khotimah K, Nurcahyati N, Ridho R. Studi etnobotani tanaman berkhasiat obat berbasis pengetahuan lokal masyarakat Suku Osing di Kecamatan Licin Banyuwangi. Biosense. 2018;1:36–50. Kuswantoro F. Traditional anti malaria plants species of Balikpapan Botanic Garden, East Kalimantan-Indonesia. ICBS Con Proc. Yogyakarta: Universitas Gadjah Mada; 2017. https:// doi.org/10.18502/kls.v3i4.690. Leksikowati SS, Oktaviani I, Ariyanti Y, Akhmad AD, Rahayu Y. Medicinal plant ethnobotany in local communities of Lampung tribe in West Lampung Regency. J Biol Sam. 2020;2:35–53. Li B, Gilbert MG. Aleurites J. R. Forster & G. Forster. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 11 (Oxalidaceae through Aceraceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/ Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2008. p. 265. Lima JRO, Gasparini F, Camargo NL, Ghani YA, da Silva RB, de Oliveira JE. Indian-nut (Aleurites moluccana) and tucum (Astrocaryum vulgare), non agricultural sources for biodiesel production using ethanol: composition, characterization and optimization of the reactional production conditions. In: Moshfegh B, editor. World Renewable Energy Congress – Sweden. Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press; 2011. p. 109–16. Liu HY, Li SJ, Ni W, Hao XJ, Li JZ, Hua Y, Xie BB, Qing C, Chen CX. Four new podocarpane-type trinorditerpenes from Aleurites moluccana. Helv Chem Acta. 2007;90:2007–13. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/hlca.200790209. Marpaung DRAK. Tumbuhan obat dan kearifan lokal masyarakat di sekitar kawasan TNBG, Desa Sibanggor Julu, Kabupaten Mandailing Natal. J Biosains. 2018;4:85–91. Meyre-Silva C, Mora TC, Biavatti MW, Santos ARS, Dal-Magro J, Yunes RA, Cechinel-Filho V. Preliminary phytochemical and pharmacological studies of Aleurites moluccana leaves [L.] Willd. Phytomedicine. 1998;5(2):109–13. Morsch M, Girardi LGJ, Cechinel-Filho V, Meyre-Silva C, Rodrigues CA. Separation of C-glycoside flavonoids from Aleurites moluccana using chitin and full N-acetylated chitin. Z Naturforsch. 2002;57c:957–9. Mpala LM, Chikowe GR, Cock IE. Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd. extracts inhibit the growth of bacterial triggers of selected autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Pharmacogn Commun. 2017;7 (2):83–90. Nakayama FS, Osbrink WL. Evaluation of kukui oil (Aleurites moluccana) for controlling termites. Ind Crop Prod. 2010;31:312–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2009.11.009. Niazi J, Gupta V, Chakarborty P, Kumar P. Anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activity of Aleuritis moluccana leaves. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2010;3(1):35–7. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Nurdin GM, Mardiana M, Suhdiah S. Kajian etnobotani Upacara Adat Mandar di Provinsi Sulawesi Barat Kabupaten Polewali Mandar di Kampung Renggeang. Bioma. 2019;1:16–23. Oktoba Z. Studi etnofarmasi tanaman obat untuk perawatan dan penumbuh rambut pada beberapa daerah di Indonesia. J Jamu Ind. 2018;3:81–8. Pedrosa RC, Meyre-Silva C, Cechinel-Filho V, Benassi JC, Oliveira LFS, Zancanaro V, Dal Magro J, Yunes RA. Hypolipidaemic activity of methanol extract of Aleurites moluccana. Phytother Res. 2002;16:765–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1046.

Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.

87

Postai DL, Demarchi CA, Zanatta F, Melo DCC, Rodrigues CA. Adsorption of rhodamine B and methylene blue dyes using waste of seeds of Aleurites moluccana, a low cost adsorbent. Alex Eng J. 2016;55:1713–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2016.03.017. Prabowo WC, Agustina R. Antibacterial activity of scopoletin from stem bark of Aleurites moluccana against Salmonella typhi. J Trop Pharm Chem. 2020;5(1):29–32. https://doi.org/ 10.25026/jtpc.v5i1.218. Prabowo WC, Wirasutisna KR, Insanu M. Isolation and characterization of 3-acetyl aleuritolic acid and scopoletin from stem bark of Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2013;5 (5):851–3. Purba EC, Silalahi M, Nisyawati. Gastronomic ethnobiology of “terites”da traditional Batak Karo medicinal food: a ruminant’s stomach content as a human food resource. J Ethn Foods. 2018;5:114–20. Quintão NLM, Meyre-Silva C, Silva GF, Antonialli CS, Rocha LW, Lucinda-Silva RM, Malheiros A, Souza MM, Chechinel Filho W, Bresolin TNM. Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. leaves: mechanical antinociceptive properties of a standardized dried extract and its chemical markers. Evid-Based Complement Alternat Med. 2011;2011:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/ 2011/179890. (Art. 179890). Quintão NLM, Rocha LW, Silva GF, Reichert S, Claudino VD, Lucinda-Silva RM, Malheiros A, De Souza MM, Cechinel Filho V, Bresolin TMB, Machado MS, Wagner TM, Meyre-Silva C. Contribution of α,β-amyrenone to the anti-inflammatory and antihypersensitivity effects of Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/ 2014/636839. (Art. 636839). Ridianingsih DS, Mahanal S, Dahlia. Ethnobotanycal study Community Osing District Banyuwangi beauty material for ethnobotany. Seminar Nasional Biologi, IPA dan Pembelajarannya I. Jember: Universitas Jember; 2017. p. 216–28. Rusmin. Formulasi dan uji mutu fisik sediaan lulur krim dari serbuk kemiri (Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.). J Kes Yamasi Makassar. 2020;4(1):47–57. Sardiana IK. Gumi Banten: unit pembibitan tanaman ritual (upakara) lembaga pengbadian kepada masyarakat Universitas Udayana. Maj Apl Iptek Ngayah. 2010;1:13–21. Sari N. Etnobotani tumbuhan yang digunakan dalam pengobatan Tradisional di Kecamatan Sinjai Selatan Kabupaten Sinjai Sulawesi Selatan [undergraduate thesis]. Makassar: Universitas Islam Negeri Alauddin Makassar; 2017. Satyanarayana P, Kumar KA, Singh SK, Rao GN. A new phorbol diester from Aleurites moluccana. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:304–6. Setyawati T. Ethnobotanical study in some nature reserve area in East Java. Ejour Litbangkes. 2009;2:114–23. Silalahi M, Mustaqim WA. Tumbuhan berbiji di Jakarta jilid 1: 100 jenis-jenis pohon terpilih. Jakarta: UKI Press; 2020. (in Bahasa). Slamet A, Andarias SH. Ethnobotany study and identification of medicinal plants of Wolio sub-ethnic in Baubau City Southeast Sulawesi. Proc Bio Educ Conf. 2018;15:721–32. Stuppy W, van Welzen PC, Klinratana P, Posa MTC. Revision of the genera Aleurites, Reutealis, and Vernicia (Euphorbiaceae). Blumea. 1999;44:73–98. Surata IK, Gata IW, Sudiana IM. Studi etnobotanik tanaman upacara Hindu Bali sebagai upaya pelestarian kearifan lokal. J Kaj Bali. 2015;5:265–84. Suwardi AB, Navia ZI, Harmawan T, Syamsuardi, Mukhtar E. Ethnobotany and conservation of indigenous edible fruit plants in South Aceh, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2020;21:1850–60. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d210511. Tima MT, Wahyuni S, Murdaningsih. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in Nangapanda, Ende, Nusa Tenggara Timur. J For Res. 2020;4:23–38. https://doi.org/10.20886/ jpkf.2020.4.1.23-38. Ubeda LCC, Araújo AC, Barbalho SM, Bueno PCS, Guiguer EL, de Sousa MSS, Dias FA, Modesto AL, Pinheiro RA, Marutani VH, Prando M. Effects of the seeds of Aleurites moluccana on the metabolic profile of Wistar rats. Pharm Innov. 2017;6(1):98–103.

88

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Wulandara FD, Rafdinal, Linda R. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat Suku Melayu Desa Durian Sebatang Kecamatan Seponti Kabupaten Kayong Utara. Protobiont. 2018;7:36–46. Zaman, MQ. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Kabupaten Pamekasan Madura Provinsi Jawa Timur [undergraduate thesis]. Malang: Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang; 2009. Zouarhi M, Abbout S, Benzidia B, Chellouli M, Hammouch H, Erramli H, Hassane SOS, Bettach N, Hajjaji N. Evaluation of a new formulation derived from Aleurites moluccana seeds oil as a green corrosion inhibitor for iron in acidic medium. Anal Bioanal Electrochem. 2019;11(12):1651–68.

Alpinia vanoverberghii Merr. ZINGIBERACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Synonyms Languas vanoverberghii Merr.

Local Names Akbab, takang (Kankanay/Bontok); kalawing (Bontok); kallawing (Kankanay) (Madulid 2001)

Botany and Ecology Description: The genus Alpinia is the largest and most widespread in the family Zingiberaceae (Kress et al. 2005). According to Kress et al. (2005), the common traits of evergreen herbs belonging to this genus are absence of abscission layer between the rhizome and leafy shoots, small lateral staminodes of flowers, reduced or absence of swellings at the sides of the base of the labellum, absence of extrafloral nectaries, and indehiscent or fleshy spherical fruits. A. vanoverberghii is a 1–8 m terrestrial herb without true stem. The pseudostem is 2–5 cm long. It has erect and drooping leafy shoot, yellowish brown, scaly and thick rhizomes (7–40 mm wide). Leaves are lance-shaped to oblong. The ligule is oblong, 10–15 mm long, glabrous, subcoriaceous, mid-green and apex rounded. The 35–40 cm long pendulous inflorescence has cylindrical flower bud, white flowers are arranged in rachis. Corolla lobes are linear-oblong. Labellum lobes are subulate or deltate. Flower bracts are not present. Ovary is ovoid to subovoid. Fruits are indehiscent, mid-green globose to R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_3

89

90

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

oblong capsule around 35–40 by 10–20 mm with calyx. Calyx apex is 1–3 dentate. The seeds are subglobose with white aril with sweet-sour flavor (Docot et al. 2019). Zhang et al. (2003, as cited by Kress et al. 2005) identified bees, birds, and bats as pollinators of Alpinias in tropical and subtropical forests. A long proboscis is an advantage among pollinators since the epigynous glands of the flower are at the base of 12–20 mm long corolla tube (Docot et al. 2019). Besides, the plant exhibits a floral mechanism called flexistyly referring to the upward or downward movement of slender styles in coordination with the dehiscence of emarginate anther to ensure pollination (Li et al. 2001 and Zhang et al 2003 as cited by John Kress et al. 2005). Phenology: Flowering occurs from March to July. Fruits are available starting August (Docot et al. 2019). Distribution and Habitat: Endemic to Luzon. Found in shaded and semi-shaded forest habitats (Castro 2006). Reported in Bakun, Kibungan, and La Trinidad (ChuaBarcelo 2014), Mountain Province (Bauco), and Ifugao (Pelser et al. 2011). Grows on hillsides and open slopes at 900–1300 m.a.s.l (Docot et al. 2019) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses and Phytochemistry The fruits are used to treat loose bowel movement (Chua-Barcelo 2014). They are chopped, boiled, and taken orally or eaten raw. The methanolic extract of the ripe fruit contains steroids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and polyphenols. It exhibited significantly higher 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity compared to vitamin E, ascorbic acid, and trolox (Barcelo 2015). According to Pietta (2000), phenolics such as flavonoids and polyphenols have higher antioxidant activity than vitamins. This is due to their greater ability to reduce free radical formation and to scavenge free radicals. Fig. 1 Alpinia vanoverberghii (Zingiberaceae). Fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

Alpinia vanoverberghii Merr.

91

Local Food Uses The fruits with a sweet-sour flavor are eaten raw (Docot et al. 2019). Aside from dessert, the fruits are also used in wine making in Benguet (Chua-Barcelo 2014). This may be due to the good health promoting benefits. For instance, wines rich in polyphenols and flavonoids may serve as sources of antioxidants that can prevent various diseases (Barcelo et al. 2015). In brief, the process involves addition of sugar and yeast to the extracted juice, which is then subject to fermentation. In Benguet, wines play an important role among the native inhabitants during special occasions such as weddings and birthdays.

References Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Barcelo R, Basilio A, Calsiyao ID, Mabesa CB, Palconete RM, Tobias JA. Antioxidant property and total polyphenol and flavonoid content of selected fruits and fruit wines. PeJARD. 2015;5:57–64. Castro I. A guide to families of common flowering plants in the Philippines. Philippines: The University of the Philippines Press; Quezon City, 2006. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. Docot RVA, Banag CI, Tandang DN, Funakoshi H, Poulsen AD. Recircumscription and revision of the genus Vanoverberghia (Zingiberaceae). Blumea. 2019;64:140–57. Kress JW, Liu A, Newman M, Li Q. The molecular phylogeny of Alpinia (Zingiberaceae): a complex and polyphyletic genus of gingers. Am J Bot. 2005;92(1):167–78. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Philippines: Bookmark Inc; Makati, Manila, 2001. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Zingiberaceae.html. Accessed 20 Aug 2019. Pietta P. Flavonoids as antioxidants. J Nat Prod. 2000;62:1035–42.

Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst.) Hoffm. MARATTIACEAE Muhamad Muhaimin and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Angiopteris acrocarpa de Vriese; Angiopteris alata Nadeaud; Angiopteris beecheyana de Vriese & Harting; Angiopteris chauliodonta Copeland; Angiopteris cochinchinensis de Vriese & Harting; Angiopteris commutata C.Presl; Angiopteris elongata Hieron.; Angiopteris lasegueana de Vriese; Angiopteris novocaledonica Hieron.; Angiopteris oldhamii Hieron.; Angiopteris presliana de Vriese; Angiopteris uncinata de Vriese; Diplazium heterophyllum Blume; Polypodium evectum G.Forst. (He and Christenhusz 2013; Rolleri 2003)

Local Names Indonesia: Paku gajah (general, Melayu), engel-engel, ingel-ingel, ingol (Batak), sibakkat-laggai (Mentawai), paku liman (Serampas), pakis munding, paku kebo (Sundanese), paku atei (Ot Danum), tereue (Pekurehua/Napu), tombila (Kaili). Malaysia: paku gajah. Myanmar: myin-kwar. Philippines: amampang (Agusan manobo), andawigay, salagisog (Binukid), fuluwangon (Tau-buid mangyan), maroba (Talaingod manobo), pakong kalabaw (Tagalog). Singapore: paku gajah. Thailand: wan kip raet (general), do ge ko (Karen), ma te doi (Mien), wan kipma, M. Muhaimin (*) Cibodas Botanical Garden, Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_183

93

94

M. Muhaimin and W. A. Mustaqim

kipma lorn (other northern). English: giant fern, elephant fern, king fern, Madagascar tree fern, mule’s foot fern, oriental vessel fern (Christenhusz and Toivonen 2008; Dapar et al. 2020; Gailea et al. 2016; Greene et al. 2020; Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012; He and Christenhusz 2013; Herianto et al. 2018; Oktaviana 2008; Panyaphu et al. 2011; PTKDLH 2015; Quattrocchi 2012; Shin 2017; Silalahi et al. 2015, 2018, 2019; Srisawat et al. 2016; Susiarti et al. 2009, 2018; Winter and Jansen 2003).

Botany and Ecology Description: Plants large, up to 7 m tall. Rhizome massive, erect, fleshy, forming a clump up to 1 m tall and 0.5–l m in diameter. Leaves clustered at the apex of rhizome, 2–5 m tall; petiole 1–1.5 m long, base swollen, with a pair of fleshy and rounded stipules, dark green with scattered whitish streaks, glabrous but when young more or less covered with appressed, soft, brown, linear scales and hairs that are soon deciduous; lamina arching, 2–3 (
6) m long, usually bipinnate, upper side dark green, slightly paler at underside; rachis green, sparsely and deciduously scaly like the petiole, especially on the underside; stipes of pinnae and pinnules swollen at the base; pinnae oblong-oblanceolate in outline, 1 m long or more, costa with adaxially curved and abaxially three grooves in cross section; pinnules 30–36 on a side, 2– 3 cm apart, lanceolate (wide or narrow), up to 20  2.5 cm, base rounded to cordate and inequilateral, margin crenate to serrate towards apex, apex acuminate to caudate, texture herbaceous; veins simple or forked, raised and translucent; recurrent veins or false veins slender, usually conspicuous between and parallel with lateral veins, extending nearly to costule. Sori short, submarginal in an irregular line 0.5–1.5 mm from the edge, on lateral veins, composed of a double row of 3–7 sporangia that dehisce by vertical slits to release several thousands of spores per sporangium; receptacular hairs branched, usually conspicuous. Spores trilete, globose, the surface low tuberculate to rugate (He and Christenhusz 2013; Rolleri 2002, 2003; Winter and Jansen 2003) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4). Fig. 1 Foliage of Angiopteris evecta (Marattiaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst.) Hoffm.

95

Fig. 2 Plants with one budding frond of Angiopteris evecta (Marattiaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Newly emerging frond of Angiopteris evecta (Marattiaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

There are two very similar species named Angiopteris angustifolia C.Presl and Angiopteris pruinosa Kuntze. Both are considered as synonyms of A. evecta, but we prefer to treat them as separate species. Angiopteris angustifolia differs in having linear to narrow lanceolate pinnules with dentate margin, while A. pruinosa differs in

96

M. Muhaimin and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 4 Stipule of Angiopteris evecta (Marattiaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

having pinnules with leathery texture and white waxy (pruinose) on the abaxial side. Some specimens of A. angustifolia have pinnule that are white waxy, but this trait seems inconsistent or only found in the distal pinnules or young specimens (Rolleri 2003). Distribution and Habitat: Angiopteris evecta has a wide geographical range from Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Southeast Asia, coastal Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia (Hassler and Schmitt 2020; He and Christenhusz 2013; Rolleri 2003; Winter and Jansen 2003). This species has already become invasive in several regions including Hawaii and some areas of Central America such as Costa Rica and Jamaica (Christenhusz and Toivonen 2008). This plant has a wide habitat preference, from dark primary rain forest to open secondary vegetations in both sunny and shaded places. It often occurs on shaded stream and river banks or steep clay slopes, along trails and edges of the forest, and in volcanic soils with abundant ashes. It grows from sea level to 1500 m asl (Christenhusz and Toivonen 2008; He and Christenhusz 2013; Rolleri 2003; Winter and Jansen 2003). Outside its native range, this plant can escape from cultivation and easily grow into new places because spores easily disperse through the wind up to 50 km away in suitable climatic conditions (Winter and Jansen 2003). Beside spores, this plant also reproduces vegetatively by forming proliferous buds in the fleshy stipules at the base of the petiole. The proliferous bud can grow into new plants when stipules fall off in a suitable environment (Christenhusz and Toivonen 2008).

Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst.) Hoffm.

97

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Of the five subethnic of the Batak tribe in North Sumatra, three subethnics use the leaves of Angiopteris evecta as a source of medicine. The subethnic Batak Simalungun uses A. evecta leaves to treat ulcer, while Batak Phakpak and Batak Toba use it to treat ulcer and fever (Silalahi et al. 2015, 2018, 2019). The Minangkabau people in Simpang Alahan Mati village, West Sumatra Province, use the decoction of the stipule to treat constipation (Kurniawan 2019). In Siberut Island, West Sumatra, the decoction of A. evecta and Diplazium esculentum leaves is drunk to treat backache for pregnant women. The decoction of the root mixed with Etlingera punicea and Hedychium coronarium inflorescence and Kaempferia galanga leaves are drunk to relieve heavy backache (Winter and Jansen 2003). The pounded leaves are used to treat itches by the Mentawai tribe in Siberut Island, West Sumatra (Hidayat 2005). The Melayu around Bukit Tigapuluh National Park uses the fiddlehead (bud leaves) to treat itches (Fakhrozi 2009). The Sundanese people in West Java use leaf extract to treat ulcer, the pounded leaves to cure wounds, bruise, and promote hair growth (Arizona 2011; Oktaviana 2008). The pounded rhizomes are used to treat fever by the Sundanese in Bodogol, Sukabumi, West Java (Susiarti et al. 2018). The Pekurehua tribe in Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, use the young leaves as a belt on the waist to cure sakit katumo (bruise and redness on the skin) (Susiarti et al. 2009). The local communities around Lindu Lake, Central Sulawesi, mostly Kaili tribe, use the rhizome extract to treat stray dog bites (Gailea et al. 2016). Malaysia: In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves are pounded and the extract is consumed to cure cough; root decoction is employed to arrest the discharge of blood after a miscarriage and as a tonic (Perry and Metzger 1980). The leaves are also used to treat dysentery, and spores to cure leprosy and skin disease (Umi Kalsom 2010). The Temuan tribe of Ulu Kuang Village use the pounded rhizome mixed with coconut oil against ringworm and Tinea versicolor, while the decoction of the roots is used to treat hematochezia (Azliza 2013; Azliza et al. 2012). The Temuan tribe in Broga village use the boiled water from small pieces of the rhizome to treat various cancers including liver, lung, and stomach. The pounded fiddlehead is used to treat ulcer by Mah Meri tribe in Sungai Judah village (Azliza 2013). Myanmar: The cream acquired from rhizome is used as a lotion for knee ache by the communities, mostly the Kayan people of Eden Village, Southern Shan State, Myanmar (Shin 2017). Philippines: The sap from rhizome and leaves are used in massage to strengthen the babies’ joints by Tau-Buid tribe, Mindoro Island. The squeezed shoots are mixed with water and used for bathing as a treatment for fracture by the Manobo tribe in Talaingod, Davao. In eastern Samar, root decoction is used as a galactagogue (PTKDLH 2015). The decoction of roots is drunk once to thrice a day to treat muscle pain, in postpartum care and recovery, backache, body ache, weakness, fatigue, cramp, and spasm by the Manobo tribe in Agusan del Sur Province (Dapar et al. 2020).

98

M. Muhaimin and W. A. Mustaqim

Thailand: The soaked rhizomes are used to treat diarrhea by Mien community in Sancharurn village, Nan Province, Thailand (Panyaphu et al. 2011). The decoction of the rhizome is applied to cure leprosy by local healers around Khao Luang Mountain Hills Region, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Southern Thailand (Srisawat et al. 2016).

Phytochemistry Many groups of chemical compounds have been reported to occur in the leaves including alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, monoterpenoids, polyphenols, saponins, sesquiterpenoids, steroids, triterpenoids, and quinones (Mismawati et al. 2015; Mustarichie et al. 2016; Rahmawati and Mustarichie 2018). Leaves contains 4,5-dihydro-4-hydroxy-5-methyl-1H-pyran-1-one, 4,5-dihydro-4-acetyl-5-methyl1H-pyran-1-one, angiopteroside, and stigmast-5-en-3-β-ol (Anggia et al. 2015). In addition, two flavonoids named violanthin and isoviolaxanthin have also been detected form this species (Aulakh et al. 2019). This species shows various bioactivities including antibacterial, anticancer, antihair loss, antituberculosis, anti-HIV, and antioxidant (Aulakh et al. 2019). One of the notable activities is anti-HIV activity by angiopteroside. This compound is responsible for the activity against HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. It is also the compound that leads to the cytotoxic activity of the plants against lung cancer cell-line (Chaco) (Taveepanich et al. 2005). Antioxidant activities have been reported from the rhizome, and it is also an effective chelating agent for Fe2+ (Hutadilok-Towatana et al. 2008). The leaf extracts are reported to have antioxidant activities (Mismawati et al. 2015). The ethanolic extract of the roots from this species has hypoglycemic activity (Hoa et al. 2009). The glucose-lowering activity also has been detected from the methanolic extracts of the whole plants. Leaves have antinociceptive properties (Sultana et al. 2014). Root, rhizome, and leaves extracts also display antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, and antibacterial for Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (Nilanthi et al. 2015). The presence of angiopteroside could be the source of the antialopecia activity of this species (Rahmawati and Mustarichie 2018). Tubers (rhizome) show antiplasmodial activity (Arnida et al. 2014, 2015). Leaves are shown to have antibacterial activities against Plasmodium falciparum (Anggia et al. 2015), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus (Thomas 2011). Leaves also display antiplatelet and anticoagulant activities (Kian 2006). The antituberculosis potential of this species is considerable at MIC 400 μg/ml (Chinsembu 2016; Mohamad et al. 2011), and it has been proposed to have potential (Sanusi et al. 2017). Inhibition of tyrosinase has also been reported from leaf extracts (Mismawati et al. 2015). Used as a component of household remedies in Thailand under the named Kheaw-Hom along with 18 other plant species, it has antibacterial property (Chusri et al. 2014). Various edible parts of this species have been investigated for nutritional contents. The gross energy per 100 g is around 397.94 kcal and protein per energy value is around 51.52 mg protein per kcal. The highest vitamin content is vitamin E with

Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst.) Hoffm.

99

27.5 mg per 100 g, followed by minor quantities of vitamin C and carotene. Some ionic minerals are detected including Ca, K, Mg, Na, Fe, and P (Pallabi et al. 2013).

Biocultural Importance In Serampas communities of Jambi, Sumatra, A. evecta is included in the category of uras plants. Uras refers to “a group of plants used for special purposes such as blessing a particular project or treating or protecting humans, livestock, and crops from ‘diseases’ and bad spirits.” Angiopteris evecta is used for ritual purposes to treat “diseased rice” alongside other 12 uras species (Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012). The Karen tribe in Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai Province, Northern Thailand, use the root or rhizome as a part of tonic medicine for the elephant (Greene et al. 2020).

Economic Importance The 9% of angiopteroside yield found in extract is considered as extremely high (Kamitakahara et al. 2018). The root extracts have potential for use in baldness treatment (Mustarichie et al. 2016). The plant also has potential to be developed as fish food (Pallabi et al. 2013).

References Anggia V, Bakhtiar A, Arbain D. Chemical constituents and antibacterial activities of leaves of Sumatran King Fern (Angiopteris evecta G. Forst HOFFM.). J Farm Indones. 2015;7(4):195–202. Arizona D. Etnobotani dan potensi tumbuhan berguna di Taman Nasional Gunung Ciremai, Jawa Barat [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2011. (in Bahasa). Arnida, Wahyono, Mustofa, Susidarti RA. In-vitro antiplasmodial activity and the chromatogram profile of active fraction of Central Borneo-type Angiopteris evecta tubers. Sch Acad J Pharm. 2014;3(4):339–43. Arnida, Wahyono, Mustofa, Susidarti RA, Sutomo. Aktivitas antiplasmodium in vitro dari hasil pemisahan KCV fraksi etil asetat umbi Angiopteris evecta Kalimantan Tengah. Prosiding Seminar Nasional dan Workshop ‘Perkembangan Terkini Sains Farmasi & Klinik 5’. Padang; 2015. p. 205–9. (in Bahasa). Aulakh MK, Kaur N, Saggoo MIS. Bioactive phytoconstituents of pteridophytes – a review. Indian Fern J. 2019;36:37–79. Azliza MA. A comparison of ethnobiological knowledge between the Mah Meri and Temuan tribes in Selangor [dissertation]. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya; 2013. Azliza MA, Ong HC, Vikineswary S, Noorlidah A, Haron NW. Ethno-medicinal resources used by the Temuan in Ulu Kuang Village. Ethno Med. 2012;6(1):17–22. Chinsembu KC. Tuberculosis and nature’s pharmacy of putative anti-tuberculosis agents. Acta Trop. 2016;153:46–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2015.10.004. Christenhusz MJM, Toivonen TK. Giants invading the tropics: the oriental vessel fern, Angiopteris evecta (Marattiaceae). Biol Invasions. 2008;10:1215–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-0079197-7. Chusri S, Sinvaraphan N, Chaipak P, Luxsanuwong A, Voravuthikunchai SP. Evaluation of antibacterial activity, phytochemical constituents, and cytotoxicity effects of Thai household

100

M. Muhaimin and W. A. Mustaqim

ancient remedies. J Altern Complement Med. 2014;20(12):909–18. https://doi.org/10.1089/ acm.2013.0173. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16(14):1–60. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Fakhrozi I. Etnobotani masyarakat suku melayu tradisional di sekitar Taman Nasional Bukit Tigapuluh: Studi kasus di Desa Rantau Langsat, Kec. Batang Gangsal, Kab. Indragiri Hulu, Provinsi Riau [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2009. (in Bahasa). Gailea R, Bratawinata AA, Pitopang R, Kusuma IW. The use of various plant types as medicines by local community in the enclave of the Lore-Lindu National Park of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Global J Res Med Plants Indigen Med. 2016;5(1):29–40. Greene AM, Panyadee P, Inta A, Huffman MA. Asian elephant self-medication as a source of ethnoveterinary knowledge among Karen mahouts in northern Thailand. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;259:1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112823. Hariyadi B, Ticktin T. Uras: medicinal and ritual plants of Serampas, Jambi Indonesia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2012;10:133–49. Hassler M, Schmitt B. Checklist of ferns and lycophytes of the world. 2020. https://worldplants. webarchiv.kit.edu/ferns/. Retrieved 26 May 2020. He ZR, Christenhusz MJM. Marattiaceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, Vol. 2–3 (Pteridophytes). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2013. p. 82–9. Herianto KZ, Nihayati E, Prayogo C. The plant wisdom of Dayak Ot Danum, Central Kalimantan. J Trop Life Sci. 2018;8(2):130–43. https://doi.org/10.11594/jtls.08.02.06. Hidayat S. Ramuan tradisional ala 12 etnis Indonesia. Jakarta: Penebar Swadaya; 2005. (in Bahasa). Hoa NK, Phan DV, Thuan ND, Östenson CG. Screening of the hypoglycemic effect of eight Vietnamese herbal drugs. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2009;31(3):165–9. https://doi. org/10.1358/mf.2009.31.3.1362514. Hutadilok-Towatana N, Chaiyamutti P, Panthong K, Mahabusarakam W, Rukachaisirikul V. Antioxidative and free radical scavenging activities of some plants used in Thai folk medicine. Pharm Biol. 2008;44(3):221–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/13880200600685592. Kamitakahara H, Okayama T, Praptiwi AA, Tobimatsu Y, Takano T. Two-dimensional NMR analysis of Angiopteris evecta rhizome and improved extraction method for angiopteroside. Phytochem Analys. 2018:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1002/pca.2794. Kian CT. A study of medicinal plants in Singapore [master thesis]. Singapore: National University of Singapore; 2006. Kurniawan R. Etnobotani pangan dan obat masyarakat minang di kecamatan Simpang Alahan Mati Pasaman Timur Sumatera Barat [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2019. Mismawati A, Suwannaket CS, Mignvanish W, Kuspradini H, Kusuma IW, Niamnont N. Phytochemical screening and bioactivity of Angiopteris evecta leaves from East Kalimantan. In: Proceeding of pure and applied chemistry international conference. Bangkok: King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi; 2015. p. 1–5. Mohamad S, Zin NM, Wahab HA, Ibrahim P, Sulaiman SF, Zahariludin ASM, Noor SSM. Antituberculosis potential of some ethnobotanically selected Malaysian plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133(3):1021–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.11.037. Mustarichie R, Indriyati W, Mukmin A, Ramdhani D. Activity of Angiopteris evecta for baldness treatment. J Chem Pharm Res. 2016;8(5):821–30. Nilanthi SMLD, Wijayarathna C, Hettiarachchi GHCM. Investigation of an in vitro antimicrobial activity of Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm. Res Rev J Chem. 2015;4(3):47–52. Oktaviana LM. Pemanfaatan tradisional tumbuhan obat oleh masyarakat di sekitar kawasan Cagar Alam Gunung Tilu, Jawa Barat [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2008. (in Bahasa). Pallabi K, Tag H, Das AK. Evaluation of the nutritional quality of four unexplored wild food plants from Arunachal Himalayas for the formulation of cost effective fish feeds. Int J Fish Aqua. 2013;5(5):92–7.

Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst.) Hoffm.

101

Panyaphu K, On TV, Sirisa-ard P, Srisa-nga P, ChansaKaow S, Nathakarnkitkul S. Medicinal plants of the Mien (Yao) in Northern Thailand and their potential value in the primary healthcare of postpartum women. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;135:226–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011. 03.050. Perry LM, Metzger J. Medicinal plants of east and Southeast Asia: attributed properties and uses. London/Cambridge: MIT Press; 1980. PTKDLH. Philippine Traditional Knowledge Digital Library on Health. Angiopteris evecta. 2015. https://www.tkdlph.com/index.php/component/search/?searchword¼Angiopteris%20evecta& ordering¼newest&searchphrase¼all&limit¼20. Retrieved 26 May 2020. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonims, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2012. Rahmawati RP, Mustarichie R. Determination of anti-alopecia compounds from water fraction of the Angiopteris evecta (G. Forst.) Hoffm. L roots. Drug Invent Today. 2018;10(9):1869–75. Rolleri CH. Caracteres diagnósticos y taxonomía en el género Angiopteris Hoffm. (Marattiaceae Bercht. & J.S. Presl) I, Los caracteres. Botánica. 2002;15(115):23–49. (in Spanish). Rolleri CH. Caracteres diagnósticos y taxonomía en el género Angiopteris Hoffm. (Marattiaceae Bercht. & J.S. Presl) II, Sinopsis de las especies. Botánica. 2003;16:116):1–23. Sanusi SB, Abu Bakar MF, Mohamed M, Sabran SF, Mainasara MM. Southeast Asian medicinal plants as a potential source of antituberculosis agent. Evid-Based Complement Alternat Med. 2017;2017:1–39. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/7185649. Art. 7185649. Shin T. Ethnobotanical study of plant resources in southern Shan State, Myanmar [dissertation]. Kanagawa: Nihon University; 2017. Silalahi M, Supriatna J, Walujo EB, Nisyawati. Local knowledge of medicinal plants in sub-ethnic Batak Simalungun of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2015;16(1):44–54. https://doi. org/10.13057/biodiv/d160106. Silalahi M, Nisyawati, Walujo EB, Mustaqim W. Etnomedisin tumbuhan obat oleh Subetnis Batak Phakpak di Desa Surung Mersada, Kabupaten Phakpak Bharat, Sumatera Utara. J Ilmu Dasar. 2018;19(2):77–92. (in Bahasa). Silalahi M, Nisyawati, Pandiangan D. Medicinal plants used by the Batak Toba Tribe in Peadundung Village, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(2):510–25. https://doi. org/10.13057/biodiv/d200230. Srisawat T, Suvarnasingh A, Maneenoon K. Traditional medicinal plants notably used to treat skin disorders nearby Khao Luang mountain hills region, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Southern Thailand. Int J Geogr Inf Syst. 2016;22:35–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/10496475.2015.1018472. Sultana S, Nandi JK, Rahman S, Jahan R, Rahmatullah M. Preliminary antihyperglycemic and analgesic activity studies with Angiopteris evecta leaves in swiss albino mice. World J Pharma Pharma Sci. 2014;3(10):1–12. Susiarti S, Purwanto Y, Windadri FI. Pengetahuan masyarakat Pekurehua di sekitar Taman Nasional Lore Lindu, Sulawesi Tengah tentang tumbuhan obat dan pemanfaatannya. Media Penelit Pengembang Kesehat. 2009;19(4):185–92. (in Bahasa). Susiarti S, Rahayu M, Rugayah. Diversity of Indonesian medicinal plant in the lowland forest, Bodogol and its surrounding of Mount Gede-Pangrango National Park, West Java. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2018;166:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/166/1/012021. Art. 012021. Taveepanich S, Kamthong N, Sawasdipuksa N, Roengsumran S. Inhibitory activities of angiopteroside for HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and lung cancer cell-line. J Sci Res Chula Univ. 2005;30(2):187–92. Thomas T. Antibacterial evaluation of Angiopteris evecta (G. Forst.) Hoffm. towards bacteria involved in cutis diseases. Int J Univers Pharm Life Sci. 2011;1:3):1–8. Umi Kalsom Y. Ferns of Malaysian rain forest: a journey through the fern world. Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia Press; 2010. Winter WPD, Jansen PCM. Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst) Hoffm. In: Winter WPD, Amoroso VB, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no 15(2): cryptograms: ferns and fern allies. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 2003. p. 58–60.

Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton APOCYNACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Cleghornia borneensis King & Gamble; Micrechites borneensis (King & Gamble) P.T.Li

Local Names Philippines: Lunas tag-uli (Minanubu), himag (Bisaya, Inati, Minanubu, Panay Bisayan), mindanawan (Bisaya)

Botany and Ecology Large branchlet woody climbers, glabrous liana, latex watery (Figs. 1a–c, 2a, b). Leaves petiole 5–9 mm long, blade elliptic to weakly obovate, apex acuminate, base rounded to obtuse, 8–15.2  2.4–6.8 cm, 2.1–3.8 as long as wide, 9–19 pairs of lateral nerves, somewhat prominent, glabrous, punctate beneath. Inflorescences axillary and/or terminal cymes, glabrous, 4.4–10.5 cm long, bract position variable; pedicels 2.2–4.4 mm long. Sepals ovate, apex acute to obtuse, 1.2–1.8  0.7–1 mm, 1.4–2.1 as long as wide, glabrous. Corolla yellow or cream; head ovoid, acute in bud, not strongly twisted; tube 5.3–6.1 mm long; lobes oblong, rounded, 2.5– 2.6 mm long, 0.4–0.5 as long as tube, 1.4–1.5 mm wide; glabrous outside, densely

M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_196

103

104

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Habit of Anodendron borneense showing young leaves (a), mature leaves (b), and mature stem with the label of local name by Agusan Manobo in the Philippines (c). (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Fig. 2 Mature stems (a) and sap or watery latex (b) of Anodendron borneense. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

pubescent inside. Stamens inserted at 0.3–0.6 mm from corolla base, which is c. 0.1 of tube length; anthers 1.4–1.8  0.3–0.5 mm, 2.8–5.3 as long as wide. Disk 5-crenate, 0.4–0.5 mm long, 1–1.3 as long as ovary. Ovary 0.4–0.5 mm long; style + pistil head 0.4–0.9 mm long. Fruit of almost parallel follicles, somewhat stipitate, 9–19 cm long, 5–6 mm wide. Seed grain 22–24  3.1–3.2 mm; beak 8–10.5 mm long; coma 3.4–3.7 cm long. A. borneense can be distinguished from other Anodendron species with its corolla lobes in bud not strongly twisted, 0.9–1.8 as long as wide and corolla tube >5 mm long; leaves 8–14 cm long (Middleton 1996). Mature vine tends to lose its leaves (Fig. 2).

Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton

105

Distribution: The genus Anodendron consists of 17 species (Middleton 2007) and is distributed from India, Sri Lanka, and China eastwards to Japan and southwards and eastwards through Southeast Asia to the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. A total of 15 Anodendron species were recorded in Southeast Asia. A. borneense has limited distribution, its native range being Borneo to the Philippines (Palawan). Phenology of this plant is still undetermined as the locals in Agusan province in the Philippines have not observed its flowering season (Dapar et al. 2020a). A. borneense could be a sterile species resulting in the absence of reproductive parts upon collection. However, A. borneense can be distinguished by its vegetative morphology as compared to other Anodendron species using floras and monographs (Middleton 1996, 2007; Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

Local Medicinal Uses A. borneense is among the most notable medicinal plants for the Manobo tribe in Agusan del Sur, Philippines. The stem and its sap are traditionally used as medicine (Dapar et al. 2020a). Drinking the watery stem sap or latex of A. borneense traditionally treats cancer, diabetes, ear infections, diarrhea, stomach trouble, ulcer, toothache, arthritis, rheumatism, pregnancy, body ache, weakness, fatigue, cramp, spasm, relapse, and poisoning as shown in Fig. 2b. This internal medication can be administered once a day or as needed in 1–3 glasses. Another internal medication that can be administered once or twice a day or as needed, is drinking 1/2–1 glass of local alcohol-tinctured or decocted stem of A. borneense. This plant can be a potential cure for colon and prostate cancer, cyst, tumor, diabetes, hypertension, pulmonary tuberculosis, diarrhea, stomach trouble, ulcer, toothache, swollen gums, arthritis, rheumatism, impotence, sterility, postpartum care and recovery, body ache, weakness, fatigue, cramp, spasm, relapse, gas pain, flatulence, sprain, and poisoning (Dapar et al. 2020a). The oil-infused stem can be applied directly to the abdomen during labor and delivery of pregnant women for ease and comfort. Drinking wine-tinctured stem can help men relieve problems of impotence and sterility (personal observation). Apart from internal medication, the plant can also be administered externally by applying coconut or efficascent oil-infused stem entirely to the affected part of the body. Dapar et al. (2020b) reported this preparation frequently used for burns, cuts, and wounds. This preparation can be done once or twice a day or as needed to treat scabies, warts, impetigo, typhoid fever, boils, skin eruptions, skin rashes and itchiness, arthritis, rheumatism, swellings, muscle pain, backache, body ache, weakness, fatigue, cramp, spasm, relapse, gas pain, flatulence, allergy, burns, cuts, wounds, sprain, animal and insect bites, and contacts with plants and animal parts (Dapar et al. 2020a). While this plant remedy can be useful in both internal and external applications, there were no experienced adverse or reported side effects among the Agusan Manobo. The plant locally referred to as himag in the Philippines may also refer

106

M. L. G. Dapar

to A. borneense, whose oil is traditionally used as medicine among the contemporary Negritos for all types of wounds (Cadeliña 1974). Himag stem decoction is also consumed by the Panay Bisayan for intermittent fever and cough stems (Clemeña and Galarpe 2017). The Filipino tribal healers in Agusan, Negros, Samar, Leyte, and Palawan believe that the male plant is more potent. But those forms could be sterile having no reproductive parts observed in its growth form. Like A. borneense, there are other Anodendron species restricted to specific location. For instance, Anodendron parviflorum (Roxb.) I.M.Turner is restricted to a single locality to Indonesia with no local name (Widodo and Luthfi 2017). This explains the dearth of local knowledge regarding its potential medicinal use (Widodo 2015).

Phytochemistry Dapar et al. (2020a) recently reported new medicinal plant use record for A. borneense by the Agusan Manobo. However, Anodendron parviflorum belonging to the same genus revealed a new triterpene ester, and other chemical constituents from its aerial parts have also been isolated. This chemical investigation is the first record of compound isolation under genus Anodendron which exhibited significant cytotoxic activity against human cancer cell lines (Ho et al. 2018). However, no existing studies on this plant has investigated it as a potential cure for problems of pregnancy, which was reported with high fidelity among Agusan Manobo. Another species of the same genus, Anodendron nervosum Kerr, has been reported as a potent source of antibacterial due to the presence of prenylbenzoic acid derivatives (Qin et al. 2014).

Biocultural and Economic Importance The watery white sap or latex yield a commercially valuable source of medication for stomach problems such as common ulcers, diarrhea, and vomiting (Fig. 2b). Due to its sticky watery sap, local people believe that the plant has wound healing potential. Stem saps are sold at a high price in some localities in the Philippines. Stems are traded by the locals for preparing wine tinctures and coconut oil infusion, for the effective treatment of various internal and external medications, respectively (Fig. 2a). Interestingly, traditional healers and some residents also report to have experienced the magical power of the vine to recombine its cut portion, when the cut ends are joined, allowing the sap to mix. Because of this observation, it is culturally believed that the plant possesses mystical power to reconnect people from afar and those who were lost or separated (personal observation).

Anodendron borneense (King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton

107

References Cadeliña R. Notes on the beliefs and practices of contemporary Negritos and the extent of their integration with the lowland Christians in southern Negros. Phil Q Cult Soc. 1974;2(1):47–60. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29791119. Clemeña JJA, Galarpe VRKR. Phytochemical profile of bark and leaf extracts of Jacquemontia paniculata (Convolvulaceae). Int J Biosci. 2017;11(3):95–101. https://doi.org/10.12692/ijb/ 11.3.95-101. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020a;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res App. 2020b;19:31. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18. Ho DV, Hoang HNT, Vo HQ, Nguyen HM, Raal A, Nguyen HT. A new triterpene ester and other chemical constituents from the aerial parts of Anodendron paniculatum and their cytotoxic activity. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2018;20(2):188–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286020.2017.1336163. Middleton DJ. A revision of Anodendron A.DC. (Apocynaceae). Blumea. 1996;41(1):37–68. Middleton DJ. Flora Malesiana. Series I, Volume 18. Foundation Flora Malesiana, Netherlands; 2007. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Apocynaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Apocynaceae.html. Accessed 12 May 2020. Qin XJ, Lunga PK, Zhao YL, Li JL, Yang XW, Liu YP, Luo XD. Antibacterial prenylbenzoic acid derivatives from Anodendron formicinum. Fitoterapia. 2014;92:238–43. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.fitote.2013.12.001. Widodo. Apocynoideae and Asclepiadaceae from Baturagung mountains (Mount Nglanggeran, Mount Mintorogo, Mount Parangan, Mount Gedang, Mount Ijo): initiation of characterization and conservation. In: Sajidan, Muryani C, Rindarjono G, et al., editors. Proceeding of national seminary on conservation and sustainable use of natural resources: a perspective of education, biology, geography, and environmental science. Surakarta: Sebelas Maret University; 2015. Widodo, Luthfi MJ. Characteristics of Anodendron paniculatum (Apocynaceae) in Mount Nglanggeran, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2017;18(2):645–51. https://doi.org/ 10.13057/biodiv/d180228.

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. THYMELAEACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Agallochum malaccensis (Lam.) O.K.; Agallochum malaicense Rumph.; Agallochum secundarium coinamense Rumph.; Aloexylum agallochum Lour.; Aquillaria agallochum Roxb.; Aquillaria agallocha Roxb. ex DC.; Aquilaria moluccensis Oken; Aquillaria ovata Cav.; Aquilariella malaccensis (Lam.) van Tiegh.; Aquillaria secundaria DC.

Local Names Indonesia: Gaharu; gaharu (Riau); garu (Dayak Kaharingan, Central Kalimantan); hau alim (Batak Toba, North Sumatra); kaju garu (Madurese); karas (South Bengkulu in Sumatra); ki karas (Sundanese); mengkaras (Sumatra); sekau nyivung (Penan in East Kalimantan). Malaysia: gaharu, karas, tengkaras; engkaras, gaharu (Dayak Iban, Melayu Sarawak, Sabah); gaharu (Tasek Bera, Pahang); gaharu, karas (Temuan, Selangor); galu’ (Tapah, Perak); pokok gaharu (Pahang). Myanmar: agar, thit-hmwe; akyaw, klaw (Kayin). Thailand: kritsana (Phattalung). Vietnam: r[aaf]m h[uw][ow]ng. English: agarwood, malayan aloeswood, malayan eaglewood (Chung and Purwaningsih 1999; DeFillips and Krupnick 2018; Donovan and Puri 2004; Fakhrozi 2009; Faridah Hanum and Hamzah 1999; Maneenoon et al. 2015; Mohamad 2010; Ong et al. 2012a, b; Purwaningsih 2011; Setyowati and Wardah 2007; Silalahi 2014; Slik 2009-onwards; Tawan 2004; Wiryono and Lipranto 2013; Zaman 2009).

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_169

109

110

W. A. Mustaqim

Botany and Ecology Description: Tree, up to 40 m or rarely to 49 m tall, trunk to 60 cm across. Buttresses sometimes present. Outer bark whitish-gray, smooth. Twigs pubescent, finally glabrous. Leaves simple, alternate, borne on 3–6 mm long petiole; blades oblonglanceolate to elliptic-oblong, 6–12
2.5–5.5 cm, vary from papery to leathery, base obtuse, acute, or attenuate, apex with distinct acumen up to 2 cm long, lateral veins 12–16 on each side of the midrib, tend to be irregular, obscure or flat above, raised beneath, intercostal venation obscure above, distinct beneath. Flowers arranged in variously positioned branched inflorescence, axillary, supraaxillary or terminal, peduncle 5–15 mm long, branches usually 2 or 3, each branch consists of umbellate inflorescence, flowers about 10. Flowers green to a dirty yellow, actinomorphic, on 3–6 mm long pedicels. Calyx forming a campanulate tube, pale green or green, 5–6 mm long, 10-ribbed, clad with minute hairs on the outside, glabrous inside; lobes reflexed, ovate-oblong, 2–3 mm long, densely hairy inside; petaloid appendages slightly incurved, ovate-oblong, c. 1 mm long; stamens 1–2 mm long, stalk absent, pubescent; style obscure, ended by a capitate stigma. Fruits pendulous, stalk usually indistinct; obovoid or narrowly so, 3–4
2.5 cm, cuneate at the base, apex rounded; subtended by persistent calyx, lobes up to 1 cm across, hairy at first, later glabrous, with a woody pericarp. Seeds ovoid, 10–11
6 mm including the beak, clad with red hairs, with tail-like funicle, funicle pubescent. Germination epigeal. Distribution and Ecology: This species is native to India, Myanmar, Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo, and the Philippines. The species is found predominantly in lowland to medium forests, but also reaching an elevation at 1500 or in the mainland South Asia up to 1000 m above sea level. It usually grows in secondary to primary vegetations, on mixed dipterocarp forests, ridges, evergreen forests, and less so in semi-evergreen forests. Substrates including sandstone-derived soils such as sandy loam or metamorphic-derived soils such as gneiss supports its growth. It can grow at pH around 6.7. In its habitat, the species has a scattered distributional pattern and has a low density at about 2.5 individuals per hectare. The rainfall intensity required ranges from 1500 to 6000 mm per year and minimum temperature at 14 °C and the maximum at 28 °C. The populations of this species in the wild are highly threatened, and the species is at a very high risk of extinction. The IUCN Red List currently lists this species as Critically Endangered. There are several important threats including harvesting activities, mining and quarrying activities, forest fire, habitat loss, and even the low germination rate to limited seed dispersal. The plant is listed under Appendix II CITES. This species produces flowers for a considerably longer period compared to other species of Aquilaria, from November to May (Chua 2008). The fruiting season lasts from May to June in a year (Chua 2008; Chung and Purwaningsih 1999; Dwianto et al. 2019; HarveyBrown 2018; Hou 1960; Pern et al. 2018; Slik 2009-onwards; Tawan 2004) (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4).

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. Fig. 1 Living plant of Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Leafy twigs of Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

111

112 Fig. 3 Inflorescence of Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae) with one flower open. Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 4 Fruits of Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

W. A. Mustaqim

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.

113

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Resin and barks are used to cure stomachache and also alleviate nausea by the Melayu people in Indragiri Hulu, Riau (Fakhrozi 2009). The bark is also used to cure vomiting in infants. The bark is pounded, boiled along with the rhizome of Acorus calamus, Zingiber cassumunar, and Curcuma domestica. The water is then filtered and drunk with Citrus retusa juice. The residues are smeared over sick children (Hartanto et al. 2014). In Barito Kuala District, Borneo, the Dayak Bakumpai people use this species to treat itches (Dharmono et al. 2013). The Dayak Kaharingan community in Central Kalimantan also use the stem in “ukup” (Purwaningsih 2011). The sap from the tree is used to cure wounds by the Dayak Kenyah Uma Baha, Kelay, Berau Regency, and East Kalimantan (Lonita et al. 2019). Malaysia: The Jah Hut Orang Asli at Kampung Pos Penderas, Pahang, burn the leaves and dried wood to treat various ailments in healing rituals (Ong et al. 2012b). The Semai Orang Asli people in Kampung Batu 16, Tapah, Perak, prepare a compound infusion for bathing. The sliced bark is added to the infusion which is used in postpartum healthcare (Ong et al. 2012a). The roots and barks are made into a decoction and drunk by the Temuan Tribe in Ayer Hitam Forests, Selangor, to cure various women’s diseases including postpartum care, and as a tonic during pregnancy (Faridah Hanum and Hamzah 1999). The burnt resins are used to cure stomachache by the Semelai people, Tasek Bera, Pahang (Mohamad 2010). Thailand: In the peninsular area of Phattalung Province, a wood decoction is consumed to alleviate fatigue, cure fever and dizziness, improve body strength, increase blood flow, and also as a cardio tonic (Maneenoon et al. 2015).

Phytochemistry The phytochemistry of A. malaccensis has been studied by numerous researchers and hundreds of chemical compounds have been identified. It should be noted that many publications have published the species under the synonym Aquilaria agallocha. Major secondary metabolites reported include alkaloids, benzophenones, coumarins, fatty acids, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, tocopherols, and xanthones (Batubara et al. 2018; Chen et al. 2012; Eissa et al. 2020; Nik Wil et al. 2014; Said et al. 2016). As one of the most important sources of agarwood, there are many researches on the phytochemistry yielding the discovery of numerous phytochemical compounds. These are α-agarofuran, α-bisabolol acetate, α-bulnesene, α-caryophyllene, α-cedrene, α-copaene, α-cubebene, α-funebrene, α-guaiane, α-gurjunene, α-(Z)-santalol acetate, β-agarofuran, β-acorenone, β-agarofuran, β-dihydro agarofuran, β-eudesmol, β-elemene, β-gurjunene, β-E-santalol acetate, β-selinene, β-vetivenene, γ-eudesmol, γ-gurjunenepoxide, Υ-muurolene, Υ-cadinene, agarol, agaroretrol, agarospirol, alloaromadendrene, alloaromadendrene epoxide, anisyl acetone, aquilanol A, aquilanol B,

114

W. A. Mustaqim

aquillochin, aquimavitalin, aromadendrenepoxide, baimux-3,11-dien-9-one, baimux3,11-dien-14-al, baimuxifuranic acid, baimuxinal, baimuxinic acid, benzyl acetone, calarene, chamaejasmone E, cis-nerolidol, copaene, cyclocolorenone, cyperotundone, daphnauranol D, dehydroabietane, dehydrofukinone, dehydrojinkoheremol, dihydroagarofuran, dihydrokaranone, dihydro-4-hydroxyagarofuran, dihydro-3,4-dihydroxyagarofuran, elemol, epi-γ-eudesmol, epoxy-β-agarofuran, eremophila-1(10), 11-dien, eremophila-9,11(13)-dien-12-ol, furfuryl alcohol, gmelofuran, guaia1(10),11-dien, isoagarotetrol, isoagarospirol, isoaromadendrene epoxide, iedene oxide-(II), isolongifolene, isolongifolen-5-one, jinkoheremol, jinkohol, jinkohol-II, karanone, kusunol, lauric acid, methyl abieta-8(14),9(11),12-trien-19-oate, methyl guaia-1(10), 11-dien-14-oate, methyl guaia-1(10),11-diene-15-carboxyiate, mono (2-ethylhexyl)ester, myristic acid, neopetasane, nerolidol, nootkatane, norketoagarofuran, oleic acid, oxoagarospirol, palmitic acid, pentadecanoic acid, selina-3, 11-dien-14-oic acid, selina-3,7(11)-diene, selina-4,11-diene-12,15-dial, eudesm-4ene-11,15-diol, sinenofuranol, stearic acid, syringaldehyde, tricyclo[5.2.2.0(1,6)] undecan-3-ol, valenca-1(10),8-dien-11-ol, vetaspira-2(11),6(14)-dien-7-ol, vetaspira2(11),6-dien-14-al, viridiflorol, valencene, E-α-bergamotene, E-nerolidol acetate, ar-curcumene, cis-jasmone, nor-ketoagarofuran, rel-(lR,2R)-9-isopropyl-2-methyl-8oxatricyclo[7,2.1.0]dodec-5-ene, rel-(lR,2R)-(9-isopropyl-2-methyl-8-oxatricyclo [7.2.1.0]dodeca-4,6-dien,2-(1,2,3,4,5,6,7.8,8a-octahydro-8,8a dimethyl-2-naphthy1)propanal, rel-(1aR,2R,3R,7bS)-1a,2,3,7b-tetrahydro-2,3-dihydroxy-5-[2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-7H-oxireno[f][1]benzopyran-7-one, rel-(1aR,2R,3R,7bS)-1a,2,3,7btetrahydro-2,3-dihydroxy-5-(2-phenylethyl)-7H-oxireno[f][1]benzopyran-7-one, rel-(1aR,2R,3R,7bS)-1a,2,3,7b-tetrahydro-2,3-dihydroxy-5-[2-(3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-7H-oxireno[f][1]benzopyran-7-one, rel-(2R8S,8aR)-2-(1,2,3, 5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-8,8u-dimethyl-2-nuphthyl)-prop-2-en-1-ol, re1-(2R,8S, 8aR)-2-(1,2,6,7,8,8a-hexahydro-8,8a-dimethyl-2-naphthyl)-propan-2-ol, rel-(3R, 7R,9R,10S)-9,10-dimethyl-6-methylene-4-oxatricyclo[7,4,0,0]tridec-1–en, rel(5R,6S,7R)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5,6,7-trihydroxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one, rel-(5R,6S,7R)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5,6,7-trihydroxy-2-[2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-4H-1-benzopyran4-one, rel-(5R,6S,7S,8R)-8-chloro-5,6,7,8tetrahydro-5,6,7-trihydroxy-2-[2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one, rel-(5R,6S,7S,8R)-8-chloro-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5,6,7-trihydroxy-2-[2-(3-hydroxy-4methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one, rel-(5R,7R,10R)-2-isopropylidene10-methyl-6 methylene-spiro[4.5]decan-7-ol, rel-(5R,10R)-2-isopropylidene-10methyl-spiro[4.5]dec-6-ene-6-carbaldehyde, (E)-undeca-8,10-dien-2-one, trans-αbergamotene, trans-longipinocarveol, (S)-4a-methyl-2-(1-methylethy1)-3.4.4a,5, 6,7-hexahydronaphthalene, (S)-4a-methyl-2-(1-methylethylidene) 1,2,3.4,4a,5,6,7octa-hydronaphthalene, (S)-4a-methyl-2-(1-methylethy1)-3.4.4a,5,6,7-hexahydronaphthalene, ()-l,10-epoxyguai-11-ene, ()-2α-hydroxyguaia-1(10),11-dien-14oic acid, ()-10-epi-g-eudesmol, ()-guaia-1(10),11-dien-14-al, ()-guaia-1 (10),11-dien-l4-ol, ()-guaia-1(10),11-diene-15-ol, ()-guaia-1(10),11-diene-15 carboxylic acid, ()-guaia-1(10),11-dien-14,2-olide, ()-guaia-1(10),11-dien-14oic acid, ()-methylselina-3,11-dien-14-oate, ()-rotundone, ()-selina-3,11dien-9-one, ()-selina-3,11-dien-14-al, ()-selina-3,11-dien-14-oic acid, (+)-1,

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.

115

5-epoxynorketoguaiene, (+)-9-hydroxyselina-4,11-dien-14-oic acid, (+)-guaia-1 (10),11-dien-9-one, (+)-methylselina-4,11-dien-14-oate, (+)-methyl 9-hydroxyselina-4,11-dien-14-oate, (+)-selina-3,11-dien-9-ol, (+)-selina-4,11-dien-14-al, (+)selina-4,11-dien-14-oic acid, (1R,6S,9R)-6,10,10-trirnethyI-11-oxatricyclo[7.2.1.0] dodecane, (1R,2R,6S,9R)-6.10,10-trimethyl-l1-oxatricyclo[7.2.1.0]ydroxyl-2-ol, (2R,4As)-2-(4a-methyl-l,2,3,4,4a,5,6,7-octahydro-2-naphthyl)-propan-2-ol, (4R,5 R,7R)-1(10)-spirovetiven-11-ol-2-one, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, 1,2-epoxidehumulene, 2-hydroxyguaia-l(10),11-dien-15-oic acid, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, 2(2-phenylethyl)-4H-chromen-4-one, 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, 2-(2-phenylethyl)-6-{[(5S,6S,7R,8S)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-6,7,8-trihydroxy-4-oxo-2-(2-phenylethyl)-4H-chromen-5-yl]oxy}-4H-chromen-4-one, 2-(2-phenylethyl)-6-{[(5S,6R,7R ,8S)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5,6,7-trihydroxy-4-oxo-2-(2-phenylethyl)-4H-chromen-8yl]oxy}-4H-chromen-4-one, 2-[2-(3-acetoxyphenyl)ethyl]-5,8-dimethoxy-4H-ch romen-4-one, 2-[2-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-6-methoxy-4H-chromen-4one, 2-[2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-4H-chromen-4-one, 2-[(2R,4aS)-1,2,3,4,4a,5, 6,7-octahydro-4a-methylnaphthalen-2-yl]propan-2-ol, 2,6-dimethoxy phenol (syringol), 2,14-epoxyvetispir-6-ene, 2,14-epoxyvetispira-6(14),7-diene, 3,4,5-trimethoxy-phenol, 30 ,40 ,5,7-tetra-hydroxyflavone, 3,4-dihydroxydihydroagarofuran, 3-phenyl-2-butanone, 4-hydroxydihydroagarofuran, 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy benzaldehyde, 4-((1E)-3-hydroxy-1-propenyl)-2-methoxyphenol, 5-hydroxy-7,40 dimethoxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-7,30 ,40 -trimethoxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-6 methoxy-2(2-phenyethyl)-chromone, 5,30 -dihydroxy-7,40 -dimethoxy-flavone, 5,6,7,8-tetrahy dro-5α,6β,7β,8α-tetradydroxy-2-[2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-4H-chromen-4-one, 5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5α,6β,7β,8α-tetradydroxy-2-[2-5,8-dihydroxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)4H-chromen-4-one, 5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5α,6β,7β-trihydroxy-8α-methoxy-2-(2-phen ylethy)-4H-chromen-4-one, 5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5α,6β,7β,8α-tetrahydroxy-2-[2-(2hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]-4H-chromen-4-one, 5,7,4-trihydroxyflavone, 6-hydroxy-2(2-phenylethyl)-4H-chromen-4-one, 6-hydroxy-2-[2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]-4Hchromen-4-one, 6-hydroxy-2-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]-4H-chromen-4-one, 6methoxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromones, 6-methoxy-2[2-(3-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]chromone, 6-methoxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)-4H-chromen-4-one, 6-methoxy-2-[2-(3methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-4Hchromen-4-one, 6-methoxy-2-[2-(3-methoxy-4-hydrophe nyl)ethyl]chromones, 6-methoxy-2-[2-(3-methoxy-4-hydrophenyl)ethyl]chromone s, 6-methoxy-2-[2-(3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]chromone, 6,7-dimethoxy2-(2-phenylethyl)-4H-chromen-4-one, 6,7-dimethoxy-2-[2-(4-methoxyphenyl)e thyl]-4Hchromen-4-one, 6,7-dimethoxy-2-[2-phenyl)ethyl]chromones, 6,7-dime thoxy-2-[2-(4methoxyphenyl)ethyl]-chromones, 6,8-dihydroxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)4H-chromen-4-one, 6,80 -dihydroxy-2,20 -bis(2-phenylethyl)-4H,4’H-5,50 -bichrome ne-4,40 -dione, 7-hydroxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)-4H-chromen-4-one, 7-hydroxy-8-me thoxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)-4H-chromen-4-one, 7-methoxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)-6{[(5S,6R,7R,8S)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5,6,7-trihydroxy-4-oxo-2-(2-phenylethyl)-4Hchromen-8-yl]oxy}-4H-chromen-4-one, 7-hydroxy-6-methoxy-2-[2-(4-methoxyphe nyl)ethyl]-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one, 7-(benzyloxy)-5-hydroxy-2-methylchromone, 8,12-epoxyeremophila-9,11(13)-diene, 8βH-dihydrogmelofuran, 9-hydroxyselina4,11-dien-14-oic acid, 12-deoxy-13-O-acetylphorbol-20-(90Z)-octadecenoate,

116

W. A. Mustaqim

12-O-(20E,40E)-6-oxohexa-20,40-dienoylphorbol-13-acetate, 12-O-(20E,40E)-60, 70-(erythro)-dihydroxytetradeca-20,40-dienoylphorbol-13-acetate, 12-O-(20E,40 E)-60,70-(threo)-dihydroxytetradeca-20,40-dienoylphorbol-13-acetate, 24(4R,5R, 7R)-11-hydroxyspirovetiv-1(10)-en-2-one, (2-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]-4H-chromen4-one, 5α,6β,7β,8α-tetraacetoxy-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-2-[2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl)]4H-chromen-4-one, (2R,3S)-2,3-dimethyl-2-(3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl)-cyclohexanone, (2R,4aS)-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,7-octahydro-4amethyl-2-(1-methylethenyl)-naphthalene, (3R,5aR,9S,9aS)-Octahydro-2,2,5a-trimethyl-2H-3,9a-methano-1-benzoxepi ne-9-carbaldehyde, (3R,5aS,9aR)-octahydro-2,2,5a-trimethyl-2H-3,9a-methano-1benzoxepine, (3R,5aS,9R,9aR)-octahydro-2,2,5a-trimethyl-2H-3,9a-methano-1-benzoxepin-9-ol, (4aS)-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,7-octahydro-4a-methyl-2-(1-methylethylidene) naphthalene, (5S,6R,7S,8R,7’R)-hydroxyisoagarotetrol, (5S,6R,7S,8R,7’S)-hydroxyisoagarotetrol, (5R,6R,7S,8R)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5,6,7,8-tetrahydroxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)-4H-chromen-4-one, (5S,6S,7R)-5,6,7-triacetoxy-2-[2-(2-acetoxyphenyl) ethyl]-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-4H-chromen-4-one, and (8aS)-1,2,3,7,8,8a-hexahydro-8amethyl-6-(1-ethylethyl)naphthalene (Ahmaed and Kulkarni 2017; Chen et al. 2012; Hashim et al. 2014; Hoon 2014; Liu et al. 2018; Ma et al. 2017; Nasution et al. 2019; Senarath et al. 2016; Wagh et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2018; Wu et al. 2012). The shoot also contain cucurbitacin (Chen et al. 2014). Leaves: Using hydrodistillation, Adam et al. (2018) isolated 20 essential oil compounds including α-cadinol, α-humulene, α-pinene, benzaldehyde, δ-cadinene, caryophyllene oxide, eudesmol, germacrene B, hexadecanal, n-hexadecanoic acid, norketoagarofuran, linoleic acid, nerolidol, cis-9-octadecenal, octenol, oxo-agarospirol, selina-3,11-dien-9-one, selina-3,11-dien-14-ol, phytol, and squalene. The hexane extracts has shown the presence of 2-methylnonadecane, 3-methyloctadecane, rotundone, selina3,11-dien-14-ol, selina-3,11-dien-9-one, and squalene. Other chemical compounds from the methanol extracts are acetophenone, oxo-agarospirol, 1-butylpentyl)-benzene, epi-α-cadinol, 2-(2-furfuryl)-5-methylpyrazine, γ-guaiene, γ-gurjunene, 2-hydroxy-benzaldehyde, 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol, jinkoh-eremol, kusunol, limonene, linalool, β-maaliene, myrcene, nonanal, nonane, octenol, oleic acid, phytol, sabinene, selina3,11-dien-14-ol, selina-3,11-dien-9-one, β-selinene, sinenofuranol, squalene, and α-tolualdehyde. Eissa et al. (2018) also carried out an identification of the leaf extracts which shows the presence of many other compounds including 1-nitro-9,10-dioxo-9,10dihydro-anthracene-2-carboxylic acid diethylamide, 1-pyrazolidinethiocarboxanilide, 4-ethyl-3-propyl-, 1,1,1,3,5,5,5-heptamethyltrisiloxane, 1,2-dihexylcyclopropene, 1,2,5oxadiazol-3-amine,4-(3-methoxyphenoxy), 1,4-bis(trimethylsilyl)benzene, 1,4-eicosadie ne, 1,6:3,4-dianhydro-2-deoxy-β-d-lyxo-hexopyranose, 1,6,10-dodecatrien-3-ol,3,7,11trimethyl-,(E)-, 1H-cycloprop[e]azulene, decahydro-1,1,7-trimethyl-4-methylene-, 2(4H)-benzofuranone,5,6,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,4,7a-trimethyl-, 2-hexadecene,3,7,11,15-te tramethyl-,[R-[R*,R*-(E)]], 2-propanol,1-chloro-,phosphate (3:1), 3-nonene, 4,8,12,16Tetramethylheptadecan-4-olide, 4(1H)-pteridinone, 2-amino-6-methyl-, 5-methyl-1,3diazaadamantan-6-one, 5-methyl-2-pyrazinylmethanol, 8-dodecenol, 9-borabicyclo [3.3.1]nonane, 9-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]-, 10-methyl-E-11-tridece-1-ol acetate, 13-te tradecen-1-ol acetate, 17-octadecynoic acid, methyl ester, D-erythro-pentose,2-deoxy-, cyclohexan-1,4,5-triol-3-one-1-carboxylic acid, α,α,4-trimethylbenzyl carbanilate, α-D-

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.

117

Mannopyranoside, methyl 3,6-anhydro-, acetic acid, behenic alcohol, bicyclo[3.1.1]he ptane,2,6,6-trimethyl-,[1R-(1α,2β,5α)]-, bicyclo[10.8.0]eicosane, cis-butanoic acid,3oxo-, propyl ester, carane,4,5-epoxy-,trans, cyclodecanol, decane,1-fluoro-, ditetradecyl ether, eicosane,9-octyl-, ethanone,2-(2-benzothiazolylthio)-1-(3,5-dimethylpyrazolyl)-, fumaric acid,2-chloropropyl tridecyl ester, fumaric acid,2-decyl tridecyl ester, hexane dioic acid, bis(2-ethylhexyl) ester, hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester, cis-9-hexadecenoic acid, isoheptadecanol, methyl N-(thioformyl)dithiocarbamate, octanal, phthalic acid,8chlorooctyl isobutyl ester, phthalic acid, butyl cycloheptyl ester, phthalic acid, dodecyl e thyl ester, phthalic acid, butyl hexyl ester, phytol, piperidine, 3,5-dimethyl-, silicic acid, diethyl bis(trimethylsilyl) ester, sulfurous acid,2-propyl undecyl ester, tetraacetyl-d-xylonic nitrile, tetradecanal, (5-Isopropyl-2-methylphenoxy)trimethylsilane, (3,7,7-trimethylbicyclo[2.2.1]hept-2-yl)-methanol, and [1,2,4]-triazolo[4,3-a][1,3,5]-triazine,5,7-diace tylamino-3-methyl-. The study on the anti-inflammatory activity of the leaf extracts was carried out again (Eissa et al. 2020) in which many other compounds have been found using GCMS and LC/Q-TOF-MS. The GCMS analysis yielded many detected chemical compounds including 1-ethynyl-1-cyclohexanol, 1,1,3,3-tetramethyl-1,3-disile tane, 1,2-dipentylcyclopropene, 3,4-dihydroxy-3,4-dimethylhexane-2,5-dione, 3,4,5,6,7pentahydroxy-1-phenoxyheptan-2-one, 4-cyclopropylmethylbenzonitrile, 4-ethyldecane, 5-methyl-2-(1-methylethylidene)cyclohexan-1-one oxime, 9-octadecenoic acid, 1H-imidazole-4-acrylamide, 2R,3S-9-[1,3,4-Trihydroxy-2-butoxymethyl]guanine, N-butylace tamide, N-hydroxycarbamic acid,2-(isopropoxycarbonylamino)ethyl ester, ethyl hexade canoate, methyl hexadecanoate, methyl N-amino-N-methylcarbamodithioate, pinane, and trimethylurea. Other chemical compounds identified using LC/Q-TOF-MS analysis include α-amyrin, α-tocopherol, β-sitosterol, acacetin, acacetin-O-rutinoside, apigenin, apigenin-C-hexoside (vitexin), aquisiflavoside, aquilarisinin, baicalein-O-glucuronide, coumaric acid, catechin, dihydroxycoumarin (esculetin), formononetin, glucopyranosyl sinapate, gwenkarin, hesperetin, homomangiferin, hydroxygenkwanin, iriphlofenone, [2-(2-O-actyΑ-L-rhamnopyranosyl), iriflophenone-2-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, iriflophenone, isorhamnetin-O-hexoside, isorhamnetin-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-O-dirhamnoside, kaempferol-O-glucuronide, kaempferol-O-neohesperidoside, lupeol, luteolin, luteolin-O-hexoside, malic acid, mangiferin/isomangiferin, myricetin, protocatechuic acid, quercetin, quercetin-O-hexoside, sabinene, sakuranetin, sissotrin, stigmasterol, succinic acid, syringaresinol, syringetin-O-hexoside, tetrahydroxyflavanone, velutin, and violanthin. Other literature (Hashim et al. 2016; Khalil et al. 2013; Li et al. 2015) record other compounds such as 1-tetradecanol, 1,2,3-propanetriol, monoacetate, 1,3-dihydroxy propanone, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-(4H)-pyran-4-one, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 6-ethyl-5-hydroxy-2,3,7-trimethoxynaphthoquinone, 9Z,12Z, 15Z-octadecatrienoic acid, β-sitostenone, apigenin-7,40 -dimethylether (¼5-hydroxy40 ,7-dimethoxyflavone), dodecyl acrylate, glycerine, isovanillic acid, luteolin-7,40 -dimethylether (30 ,5-dihydroxy-40 ,7-dimethoxyflavone), luteolin-7,30 ,40 -trimethyl ether (¼7, 30 ,40 -tri-O-methylluteolin), methylparaben, phenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, syringic acid, and vanillic acid. Ursolic acid has also been identified from leaf extract (Hedge et al. 2019). Volatile oil: The components of volatile oil have been reported by Tajuddin and Yusoff (2010), and Latib et al. (2018). The first group is monoterpene hydrocarbons

118

W. A. Mustaqim

including acetophenone, benzaldehyde, 2-hydroxy-benzaldehyde, and 4-phenyl-2butanone. The second group is sesquiterpene hydrocarbons including aromadendrene, β-maaliene, α-bulnesene, α-guaiene, α-muurolene, β-agarofuran, β-selinene, γ-guaiene, and γ-gurjunene. The third group is oxygenated sesquiterpenes including α-bisabolol, α-elemol, α-eudesmol, epi-α-bisabolol, epi-α-cadinol, nor-ketoagarofuran, n-hexadecanoic acid, 1,5-epoxy-nor-ketoguaiene, 2-hydroxyguaia-1 (10),11-dien-15-oic acid, 9-hydroxyselina-4,11-dien-14-oic acid, 9,11-eremophiladien-8-one, 10-epi-γ-eudesmol, agarospirol, bulnesol, caryophellene oxide, dehydrojinkoh-eremol, dihydrokaranone, epoxybulnesene, eudesmol, guaia-1 (10),11-dien-9-one, guaia-1(10),11-dien-15-ol, guaia-1(10),11-dien-15-al, guaia-1 (10),11-dien-15-oic acid, guaia-1(10),11-dien-15,2-olide, guaiol, humulene epoxide II, jinkoh-eremol, karanone, kusunol, oxoagarospirol, rotundone, selina-3,11-dien9-one, selina-3,11-dien-9-ol, selina-4,11-dien-14-oic acid, selina-3,11-dien-9-al, selina-3,11-dien-14-ol, selina-4,11-dien-14-al, selina,3,11-dien-14-oic acid, and sinenofuranol. Latib et al. (2018) identified other compounds including 1,10 -oxybis-2-propanol, 2-(2-hydroxypropoxy)-1-propanol, 2-hexadecanone, 4-phenyl-2-butanone, α-selinene, β-guaiane, dehydrojinkol-eremol, diethyl phthalate, diisooctyl phthalate, isopropyl myristate, jinkoh eremol, methyl dehydroabietate, methyl abietate, norketoagarofuran, pentadecanal, pentadecanoic acid, selina-3,11dien-9-ol, selina-3,11-dien-9-one, selina-3,11-dien-14-al, selina-3,11-dien-14-oic acid, tetradecanal, and tridecanoic acid. Bhuiyan et al. (2009) also identified 3-hydroxy-7-methoxy-2-naphthoic acid, 1H-cycloprop[e]azulen-4-ol, decahydro1,1,4,7-tetramethyl-,[1ar-(1aα,4β,4aβ,7α,7aβ,7bα)]-, 3-methoxy-6,7,8,9-tetrahydrodibenzofuran-2-ol, 5-isobutyramido-2-methyl pyrimidine, 6,9-octadecadiynoic methy ester, 7-isopropenyl-4a-methyl-1-methylenedecahydronaphthalene, 9-[4-[1,3-diphen yl-2-imidazolidinyl]-2,3-O-[1-methylethylidene]-β-d, α-cedrene oxide, alloaromaden drene oxide-(1), aristolene, cycloheptane, 4-methylene-1-methyl-2-(2-methyl-1-propen-1-yl)-1-vinyl-, diphenoxylic acid, eremophilene, hexadecanoic acid, isolongifolen e,9,10-dehydro-, longiverbenone, naphthalene,1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-1,8adime thyl-7-(1-methylethenyl)-,[1R(1α,7 β,8aα)]-, naphthen-1-acetic acid,8-methoxy-α-me thyl, neoisolongifolene,8,9-dehydro-, octacosane, patchoulene, propanoic acid,3(diisopropylphosphino)-, methyl ester, spathulenol, viridiflorol, and (6-hydroxyme thyl-2,3-dimethylphenyl)methanol. Hoque et al. (2018) identified N-benzyloxycarbonyl-lserine, methyl ester, ledene oxide-II, 2-octylcyclopropene-1-heptanol, and tetradecyn-1-ol. Ismail et al. (2013) identified some additional components from the oils including 2-epi-α-funebrene, 10-nor-calamenen, cis-β-guaiene, E-β-farnesene, allo aromadendrene epoxide, and thujopsenal. Essential oils from the leaves were found to contain 1-hexanol, 1-octanol, 2-decen-l-ol,(E)-, 2-ethyl hexanol, 3-hexyl hydrope roxide, 9-octadecenal,(Z)-, (6Z,9Z)-6,9-pentadecadien-1-ol, (E)-caryophyllene, (E)-αionone, (Z)-7-hexadecenal, β-ionone, benzoic acid, 2-ethylhexyl ester, benzyl salicylate, cis-3-hexanol, dec-(2E)-enal, n-heptadecane, n-tetradecane, n-tetradecanol, ne rylacetone, nonacosane, none-3-en-2-one, non-(2E)-enal, octadecanal, pentadecanal-, phytone, triacontane, tridecanal, valerianol, and vitispirane (Samadi et al. 2017). Ahmaed et al. (2017) investigated the incense smoke and the headspace volatile, and discovered 70 and 100 compounds, respectively. Many additional compounds

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.

119

including toluene, furfural, oxylene, phenol, p-methylasinol, salicyaldehyde, guaiacol, naphthalene, 2-butanone,4-phenyl, benzo propenoic acid methyl ester, p-ethyl guaiacol, 3-butanone-4-phenyl, p-vinylguaiacol, 2,6-dimethoxy phenol, vanillin, β-patchoulene, longifolen, α-cyperene, epi-cis-dihydroagarofuran, kessan, hedycaryol, cresol, and khusiol have also been isolated. Further study on incense smoke by Ismail et al. (2019a) shows the presence of p-methoxyphenol and tridecanol.

Bioactivity Available reports of bioactivities include the ability to affect the central nervous systems by acting as anesthetic, sedative, and sleep inducer. Other activities including analgesic, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, antidiabetic, antifungal, antihistamine, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antiulcer, antitumor, antimicrobial, anxiolytic, hepatoprotective, and laxative have also been reported (Adam et al. 2017; Alam et al. 2015, 2017; Chen et al. 2012; Hashim et al. 2016; Okugawa et al. 1993; Takemoto et al. 2008). Antimicrobial: The roots have antimicrobial properties. The ethanol extracts are active against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium (Canli et al. 2016). Stems have antihistamine effects and therefore reduce hypersensitivity (Kim et al. 1997), and also show anti-allergic anti-anaphylaxis activities in rats and in vitro analyses (Hashim et al. 2016). Grated wood shows anti-rheumatic activity (Chung and Purwaningsih 1999). Alcoholic extract of heartwood shows anticonvulsant and anxiolytic activities in mice (Alla et al. 2007). The heartwood demonstrates analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities in anti-inflammatory animal model using Wistar rats (Chitre et al. 2007; Hashim et al. 2016). Heartwood has impacts on central nervous systems (Hashim et al. 2016; Vakati et al. 2013). Wood decoction shows antibacterial activity against Shigella flexneri and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, while the extract of the heartwood acts against Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus (Chung and Purwaningsih 1999). Methanol and aqueous soluble extracts of the bark are active against Bacillus subtilis. Aqueous leaf extracts and aqueous soluble bark extracts inhibit the growth of Shigella flexneri and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Dash et al. 2008; Hashim et al. 2016). HEX extracts of leaves are active against Salmonella enterica and Staphylococcus aureus (Wan Ahmad et al. 2019). Antioxidant activities: Heartwood, wood, and leaves possess antioxidant properties (Hashim et al. 2016; Huda et al. 2009; Moosa 2010; Nik Wil et al. 2014). The flavonoid contents have been reported to have antioxidant property due to the presence of 5-hydroxy-7,30 ,40 -trimethoxyflavone, and antiproliferation activities against the cancer cell lines A375 responsible for human skin cancer (Liu et al. 2018). The ethyl acetate extract inhibits hemoglobin oxidation (Miniyar et al. 2008). In a study of raw tea material from North Sumatra, the leaves were found to have strong antioxidant activities (Surjanto et al. 2019). Anticancer and cytotoxic: Aqueous leaf extracts inhibit cyclophosphamideinduced toxicity in reproductive systems of male rats (Abdul Razak et al. 2019).

120

W. A. Mustaqim

Anticancer activities have been reported on HCT116, DLA, and EAC cancer cell lines (Mazumder et al. 2020). The stem bark shows anticancer properties against P388 lymphocytic leukemia cells and HCT116 colorectal cancer cell lines (Gunasekera et al. 1981; Hashim et al. 2016; Ibrahim et al. 2011). Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects have been reported by Adam et al. (2018). The leaves are hepatoprotective (Hashim et al. 2016; Vakati et al. 2013; Alam et al. 2017). Anti-inflammatory: The ethanolic extract of the leaves show anti-inflammatory activity against the induction of carrageenan (Apridamayanti et al. 2018). According to Eissa et al. (2018), the best anti-inflammatory activity is noticed in Soxhlet extracts, indicated by an inhibition value larger than 50%. According to Eissa et al. (2020), the anti-inflammatory property is due to the inhibition of lipoxygenase enzymes known as anti-LOX. Other activities: The leaf extracts also have antidiabetic properties (Hashim et al. 2016; Pranakhon et al. (2011). Leaf extract increases glucose uptake in diabetic rat muscle (Said et al. 2016). Ismail et al. (2019b) show that the leaf extracts are known to increase fertility and embryo development, especially during early stages, in rats. The vapor inhalation of the oil has been reported to have a sedative effect on mice (Takemoto et al. 2008). The oil, which is considered as one of the most important products, is also a mosquito repellent (Hashim et al. 2016; Zaridah et al. 2006).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: The Dayak Bakumpai people in Barito Kuala District use this species as an incense and midge in religious rituals (Dharmono et al. 2013). The people in Indragiri Hulu of Riau use this plant as source for resin and aromatic compounds (Fakhrozi 2009). The bark is used by the local people in South Bengkulu, Sumatra, for handicrafts such as baskets, ropes, and any woven products (Wiryono and Lipranto 2013). People in Tarakan, North Kalimantan, use the stem and leaves for many purposes including incense or perfume, herbal tea, medicine, and perfume oil (Abrori 2018). The use as incense (“ratus”) has also been reported from Pamekasan, Madura (Zaman 2009). The Penan people in East Kalimantan province have unique traditional knowledge regarding the botany of species, especially its ecology. They name the gaharuproducing trees as sekau according to their habitat. Aquilaria malaccensis, which has the most valuable resin, is called sekau nyivung. Nyivung most likely refers to the tree palm Oncosperma horridum. The locals believe that the presence of this palm species is an indicator of the presence of A. malaccensis towards upstream. Other palm species locally known as silat (Licuala vallida) and lotup are also considered as indicators for the presence of sekau nyivung. The Penan people also believe that they are not allowed to mention the word gaharu before and during the harvesting process (Donovan and Puri 2004). Malaysia: Resins are used as perfume in incense and joss sticks by Semelai people in Tasek Bera, Pahang. The Semalai people also use the resin in magic to divert rain (Mohamad 2010).

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.

121

Economic Importance Agarwood is a product of interaction between A. malaccensis and fungi such as Cunninghamella bainieri, Fusarium solani, and Lasiodiplodia theobromae. The fungal infection begins when the wood tissue is damaged either naturally or artificially (Rasool and Mohamed 2016). Some natural factors such as animal grazing, broken branches, infestations, pest, diseases, or even thunder contribute to the process. Traditional man-made injuries including bark removal, burning-chiseldrilling, cauterizing, cutting, holing, nailing, and physical wounding using ax or machete also cause infection. In modern days, fungi species are also artificially inoculated into the tree. Use of chemical substances such as salts, phytohormones, minerals, formic acid, CA-kit, and Agar-wit have also been reported (Tan et al. 2019). Agarwood has high economic value. “Gharuwood,” that includes Aquilaria hirta, has been exported from Peninsular Malaysia since the first century. There are fluctuations in magnum of trade. A tree can yield agarwood up to MYR20,000 (Burkill 1935; Gianno 1986). In 2015, the price of the agarwood in West Sumatra ranged from IDR75,000 to 10,000,000, depending on quality determined by the aromadendrene content. The highest prices come from what the trader know as grade “super AB,” with prices from IDR8,750,000 to 10,000,000 (Pasaribu et al. 2015). The leaf extract finds use in quail farming. It can be used to prevent atherosclerosis with an optimal dose at 100 mg/kg BW (Suhatri et al. 2014). The leaf extract is also a potential corrosion inhibitor in mild steel (Sin et al. 2016). The strong antioxidant properties of this species when used as a tea is of economic value (Surjanto et al. 2019). Agarwood is a very important commodity in the Middle Eastern countries. For example, in the United Arab Emirates, the plant’s chips are known as oudh. The country imports oudh from various countries of Southeast Asia, especially via Singapore. In retail, the prices of oudh vary based on their countries of origin; for Southeast Asian countries, chips originating from Myanmar fetched the highest price of AED 80,000 in 2007. Aquilaria malaccensis is the most important source of oudh in Myanmar (Antonopoulou et al. 2010). In the Arabian Peninsula, the price of one kilogram of low-quality oudh reaches $9,528 (AED 35,000), and the good ones can reach $129,316 (AED 475,000) (Naar 2018). In 2019, high-quality oudh sold at $3,000 per bottle contained 12 ml resin (Africanews 2019).

References Abdul Razak RNH, Ismail F, Md Isa ML, Abdul Wahab AY, Muhammad H, Ramli R, Raja Ismail RAS. Ameliorative effects of Aquilaria malaccensis leaves aqueous extract on reproductive toxicity induced by cyclophosphamide in male rat. Malays J Med Sci. 2019;26(1):44–57. https://doi.org/10.21315/mjms2019.26.1.4. Abrori FM. Ethnobiology study of agarwood (Thymelaeaceae) in Tarakan. J Borneo Saintek. 2018;1(2):58–65. (in Bahasa).

122

W. A. Mustaqim

Adam AZ, Lee SY, Mohamed R. Pharmacological properties of agarwood tea derived from Aquilaria (Thymelaeaceae) leaves: An emerging contemporary herbal drink. J Herb Med. 2017;10:37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2017.06.002. Adam AZ, Tajuddin SN, Sudmoon R, Chaveerach A, Abdullah UH, Mahat MN, Mohamed R. Chemical constituents and toxicity effects of leaves from several agarwood tree species (Aquilaria). J Trop For Sci. 2018;30(3):342–53. https://doi.org/10.26525/jtfs2018.30.3.342353. Africanews. The business of Oud, one of the world’s most expensive scents. 2019. https://www. africanews.com/2019/04/05/the-business-of-oud-one-of-the-world-s-most-expensive-scents/. Retrieved 5 Aug 2020. Ahmaed DT, Kulkarni AD. Sesquiterpenes and chromones of agarwood: a review. Malays J Chem. 2017;19(1):33–58. Ahmaed DT, Mohammed M, Masaad AM, Tajuddin SN. Investigation of agarwood compounds in Aquilaria malaccensis & Aquilaria rostrata chipwood by using solid phase microextraction. Biomed J Sci Tech Res. 2017;1(6):1–8. https://doi.org/10.26717/BJSTR.2017.01.000499. Alam J, Mujahid M, Badruddeen RMA, Akhtar J, Khalid M, Jahan Y, Basit A, Khan A, Shawwal M, Iqbal SS. An insight of pharmacognostic study and phytopharmacology of Aquilaria agallocha. J Appl Pharma Sci. 2015;5(8):173–81. https://doi.org/10.7324/ JAPS.2015.50827. Alam J, Mujahid M, Badruddeen JY, Bagga P, Rahman MD. Hepatoprotective potential of ethanolic extract of Aquilaria agallocha leaves against paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity in SD rats. J Tradit Complement Med. 2017;7(1):9–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2015.12.006. Alla T, Handral M, Nandakumar K, Venkatrao N, Shalam, Satyanaryana, Shantakumar SM. Anxiolytic and anticonvulsant activity of alcoholic extract of heartwood of Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. (Thymelaeceae) in mice. Pharmacologyonline. 2007;1:564–72. Antonopoulou M, Compton J, Perry LS, Al-Mubarak R. The trade and use of agarwood (oudh) in the United Arab Emirates. Selangor: TRAFFIC Southeast Asia; 2010. Apridamayanti P, Sanera F, Robiyanto. Antiinflammatory activity of ethanolic extract from karas leaves (Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk.). Pharm Sci Res. 2018;5(3):152–8. Batubara R, Hanum TI, Surjanto. Phytochemical and tannin content in two species of agarwood leaves from Mandailing Natal Regency North Sumatera Province. AIP Conf Proc. 2018;2049:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5082510. art 030009. Bhuiyan MNI, Begum J, Bhuiyan MNH. Analysis of essential oil of eaglewood tree (Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.) by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Bangladesh J Pharmacol. 2009;4:24–8. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjp.v4i1.851. Burkill IH. A dictionay of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula, 2 vols. London: Crown Agents for the Colonies; 1935. Canli K, Yetgin A, Akata I, Altuner EM. In vitro antimicrobial screening of Aquilaria agallocha roots. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2016;13(5):178–81. https://doi.org/10.21010/ ajtcam.v13i5.23. Chen HQ, Wei JH, Yang JS, Zhang Z, Yang Y, Gao ZH, Sui C, Gong B. Chemical constituents of agarwood originating from the endemic genus Aquilaria plants. Chem Biodivers. 2012;9:236–50. Chen CH, Kuo TCY, Yang MH, Chien TY, Chu MJ, Huang LC, Chen CY, Lo HF, Jeng ST, Chen LFO. Identification of cucurbitacins and assembly of a draft genome for Aquilaria agallocha. BMC Genomics. 2014;15(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-15-578. art 57. Chitre T, Bhutada P, Nandakumar K, Somni R, Miniyar P, Mundhana Y. Gore S and K. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of heartwood of Aquilaria agallocha in laboratory animals. Pharmacologyonline. 2007;1:288–98. Chua LSL. Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis) in Malaysia. NDF Workshop Case Stud: WG 1 – Trees: Case Stud. 2008;3:1–17. Chung RCK, Purwaningsih. Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk. In: Oyen LPA, Dung NX, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 19: essential-oil plants. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. p. 64–7. Dash M, Patra JK, Panda PP. Phytochemical and antimicrobial screening of extracts of Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. Afr J Biotech. 2008;7:3531–4.

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.

123

DeFillips RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Dharmono, Sofyan A, Wahyu, Warni H. Indigenous knowledge of Dayaks Bakumpai in Barito Kuala District on the management of plant diversity growing at streams and swamps. J Wetlands Environ Manag. 2013;1(1):25–32. https://doi.org/10.20527/jwem.01.01.01. Donovan DG, Puri RK. Learning from traditional knowledge of non-timber forest products: Penan Benalui and the autecology of Aquilaria in Indonesian Borneo. Ecol Soc. 2004;9(3):1–23. https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss3/art3/. art. 3. Dwianto Y, Kusumah SS, Darmawan T, Amin Y, Bahanawan A, Pramasari DA, Lestari E, Himmi SK, Hermiati E, Fatriasari W, Laksana RPB, Damayanti R. Anatomical observation and characterization on basic properties of Agarwood (Gaharu) as an Appendix II CITES. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2019;374:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/374/1/012062. art 012062. Eissa M, Hashim YZHY, Zainurin NAA. Aquilaria malaccensis leaf as an alternative source of antiinflammatory compounds. Int J Adv Sci Eng Inf Technol. 2018;8(4–2):1625–32. Eissa MA, Hashim YZHY, El-Kersh DM, Abd-Azziz SSS, Salleh HM, Isa LKM, Abd Warif NM. Metabolite Profiling of Aquilaria malaccensis leaf extract using Liquid Chromatography-Q-TOF-Mass spectrometry and investigation of its potential antilipoxygenase activity in-vitro. PRO. 2020;8(2):1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8020202. art 202. Fakhrozi I. Etnobotani masyarakat Suku Melayu Tradisional di sekitar Taman Nasional Bukit Tigapuluh: studi kasus di Desa Rantau Langsat, Kec. Batang Gangsal, Kab. Indragiri Hulu, Provinsi Riau [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2009. (in Bahasa). Faridah Hanum I, Hamzah N. The use of medicinal plant species by the Temuan Tribe of Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. Pertanika J Trop Agric Sci. 1999;22(2):85–94. Gianno R. The exploitation of resinous products in a lowland Malayan forest. Wallaceana. 1986;43:3–6. Gunasekera SP, Kinghorn AD, Cordell GA, Fansworth NR. Plant anticancer agents. XIX. Constituents of Aquilaria malaccensis. J Nat Prod. 1981;44:569–72. Hartanto S, Fitmawati, Sofiyanti N. An ethnobotanical study of Zingiberaceae based on local wisedom in Pangean, District of Kuantan Singingi, Riau. Biosaintifika. 2014;6(2):122–32. https://doi.org/10.15294/biosaintifika.v6i2.3105. Harvey-Brown Y. Aquilaria malaccensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e. T32056A2810130. 2018. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T32056A2810130.en. Retrieved 10 June 2020. Hashim YZHY, Ismail NI, Abbas P. Analysis of chemical compounds of agarwood oil from different species by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS). IIUM Eng J. 2014;15(1):55–60. Hashim YZHY, Kerr PG, Abbas P, Salleh HM. Aquilaria spp. (agarwood) as source of health beneficial compounds: A review of traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;189:331–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.06.055. Hedge K, Lobo AR, Gopikhrisna UV. Phytochemical investigation of the leaves extract of the plant Aquilaria malaccensis. Res J Pharmacog Phytochem. 2019;11(1):34–7. Hoon SJCS. In vitro cultures of Aquilaria malaccensis for agarwood production [dissertation]. Semenyih: University of Nottingham; 2014. Hoque MN, Mondal MF, Khan MMH. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oils from Aquillaria malaccensis in Bangladesh. Haya Saudi J Life Sci. 2018;3 (10):600–8. https://doi.org/10.21276/haya.2018.3.10.2. Hou D. Thymelaeaceae. Fl Malesiana I. 1960;6(1):1–48. Huda AWN, Munira MAS, Fitrya SD, Salmah M. Antioxidant activity of Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae) leaves. Phcog Res. 2009;1(5):270–3. Ibrahim AH, Al-Rawi SS, Majid AMSA, Rahman NNA, Salah KMA, Kadir MOA. Separation and fractionation of Aquilaria malaccensis oil using supercritical fluid extraction and the cytotoxic properties of the extracted oil. Procedia Food Sci. 2011;1:1953–9.

124

W. A. Mustaqim

Ismail N, Nor Azah MA, Jamil M, Rahiman MHF, Tajuddin SN, Taib MN. Analysis of high quality agarwood oil chemical compounds by means of SPME/GC-MS and Z-score technique. Malays J Anal Sci. 2013;3:403–13. Ismail F, Wahab AYA, Md Isa ML, Muhammad H, Ismail RASR, Abdul Razak RNH. The effects of Aquilaria malaccensis leaves aqueous extract on sperm of Sprague Dawley Rats towards early embryogenesis. Int Med J Malays. 2019a;18(2):59–67. Ismail N, Ibrahim M, Zareen S, Tajuddin SN, Rahiman MHF, Taib MN. Analysis of aroma profile of agarwood incense smoke by SPME and GC-FID combined with GC-MS. Asian J Plant Sci. 2019b;15:101–8. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajps.2016.101.108. Khalil AS, Rahim AA, Taha KK, Abdallah KB. Characterization of methanolic extracts of agarwood leaves. J Appl Ind Sci. 2013;1:78–88. Kim YC, Lee EH, Lee YM, Kim KH, Song B, Lee EJ, Kim HM. Effect of the aqueous extract of Aquilaria agallocha stems on the immediate hypersensitivity reactions. J Ethnopharmacol. 1997;1:31–8. Latib EHA, Najib MS, Mohd CMAC, Tajuddin SN. Analysis of different quality agarwood oil (Aquilaria malaccensis) and sensory study. J Telecommun Electron Comput Eng. 2018;10 (1–3):57–61. Li CT, Kao CL, Liu CM, Li WJ, Li HT, Wu HM, Huang CT, Chen CY. Secondary metabolites from the leaves of Aquilaria agallocha. J Adv Chem. 2015;11:3552–6. Liu CM, Perng MH, Chen CY. The antioxidation and antiproliferation activity of flavonoids from Aquilaria agallocha and Aquilaria sinensis. Biomed Res. 2018;29(10):2191–6. Lonita L, Hendra M, Hariani N. Jenis tumbuhan obat tradisional dari masyarakat Dayak Kenyah Uma Baha di Kecamatan Kelay Kabupaten Berau. Pro-Life. 2019;6(3):214–23. (in Bahasa). Ma CT, Eom T, Cho E, Wu B, Kim TR, Oh KB, Han SB, Kwon SW, Park JH. Aquilanols A and B, macrocyclic humulene-type sesquiterpenoids from the agarwood of Aquilaria malaccensis. J Nat Prod. 2017;80(11):3043–8. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00462. Maneenoon K, Khuniad C, Teanuan Y, Saedan N, Prom-in S, Rukleng N, Kongpool W, Pinsook P, Wongwiwat W. Ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional healers in Phatthalung Province, Peninsular Thailand. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002015-0031-5. art 43. Mazumder K, Biswas B, Raja IM, Fukase K. A review of cytotoxic plants of the Indian subcontinent and a broad-spectrum analysis of their bioactive compounds. Molecules. 2020;25:1–41. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25081904. art 1904. Miniyar PB, Chitre TS, Deuskar HJ, Karve SS, Jain KS. Antioxidant activity of ethyl acetate extract of Aquilaria agallocha on nitrite-induced methaemoglobin formation. Int J Green Pharm. 2008;1:116–7. Mohamad S. The ethnobotany of the Semelai community at Tasek Bera, Pahang, Malaysia: an ethnographic approach for re-settlement [dissertation]. Adelaide: The University of Adelaide; 2010. Moosa S. Phytochemical and antioxidant screening of extracts of Aquilaria malaccensis leaves. In: Proceedings of the Nuclear Malaysia R&D Seminar 12–15 Oct 2010. Bangi; 2010. Naar I. Scent of the Gulf: why Oud has become more precious than gold. 2018. https://english. alarabiya.net/en/life-style/art-and-culture/2016/06/17/Scent-of-the-Gulf-Why-oud-has-becomemore-precious-than-gold. Retrieved 5 Aug 2020. Nasution AA, Siregar UJ, Miftahudin, Turjaman M. Identification of chemical compounds in agarwood-producing species Aquilaria malaccensis and Gyrinops versteegii. J For Res. 2019;31:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-018-00875-9. Nik Wil NA, Mhd Omar NA, Ibrahim NA, Tajuddin SN. In vitro antioxidant activity and phytochemical screening of Aquilaria malaccensis leaf extracts. J Chem Pharm Res. 2014;6(12):688–93. Okugawa H, Ueda R, Matsumoto K, Kawanishi K, Kato A. Effects of agarwood extracts on the central nervous system in mice. Planta Med. 1993;59(1):32–6. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006959599.

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.

125

Ong HC, Faezah AW, Milow P. Medicinal plants used by the Jah Hut Orang Asli at Kampung Pos Penderas, Pahang, Malaysia. Ethno Med. 2012a;6(1):11–5. Ong HC, Lina E, Milow P. Traditional knowledge and usage of medicinal plants among the Semai Orang Asli at Kampung Batu 16, Tapah, Perak, Malaysia. Ethno Med. 2012b;6(3):207–11. Pasaribu G, Waluyo TK, Pari G. Analysis of chemical compounds distinguisher for agarwood qualities. Indones J For Res. 2015;2(1):1–7. Pern YC, Lee SY, Ludin R, Mohamed R. Fruit morphological characteristics of cultivated Aquilaria Lam. (Thymelaeaceae) in Peninsular Malaysia. Malays Forester. 2018;81(2):123–8. Pranakhon R, Pannangpetch P, Aromdee C. Antihyperglycemic activity of agarwood leaf extracts in STZ-induced diabetic rats and glucose uptake enhancement activity in rat adipocytes. Songklanakarin J Sci Technol. 2011;33(4):405–10. Purwaningsih. Keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan obat di hutan rawa gambut Riam DurianKalimantan Tengah. Berk Penel Hayat Ed Khus. 2011;4D:31–7. (in Bahasa). Rasool S, Mohamed R. Understanding agarwood formation and its challenges. In: Mohamed R, editor. Agarwood: science behind the Fragrance. Berlin: Springer; 2016. p. 39–56. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-981-10-0833-7_3. Said F, Kamaludin MT, Theodorus. Efficacy of the Aquilaria malaccensis leaves active fraction in glucose uptake in skeletal muscle on diabetic wistar rats. Int J Health Sci Res. 2016;6(7):162–7. Samadi M, Abidin ZZ, Yunus R, Biak DRA, Yoshida H, Lok EH. Assessing the kinetic model of hydro-distillation and chemical composition of Aquilaria malaccensis leaves essential oil. Chin J Chem Eng. 2017;25(2):216–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjche.2016.09.006. Senarath WTPSK, Jayalath DT, Buddhapriya AN. Comparison of phytochemicals present in Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. (agarwood) and Gyrinops walla Gaertn. Imp J Interdiscip Res. 2016;2(11):440–3. Setyowati FM, Wardah. Diversity of medicinal plant by Talang Mamak tribe in surrounding of Bukit Tiga Puluh National Park, Riau. Biodiversitas. 2007;8(3):228–32. Silalahi M. Keanekaragaman tumbuhan obat pada berbagai satuan lanskap dan pemanfaatannya oleh sub-etnis Batak Toba di desa Peadundung, Sumatera Utara. In: Prosiding Seminar Nasional lntegrasi Keanekaragaman Hayati dan Kebudayaan dalam Pembangunan Berkelanjutan. Denpasar: Universitas Hindu Denpasar; 2014. p. 42–7. (in Bahasa). Sin HLY, Umeda M, Shironita S, Rahim AA, Saad B. Aquilaria malaccensis as a green corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in HCl solution. Int J Electrochem Sci. 2016;11:7562–75. https://doi.org/ 10.20964/2016.09.54. Slik JWF. Plants of Southeast Asia. 2009-onwards. http://www.asianplant.net. Retrieved 14 June 2020. Suhatri S, Putra DZ, Elisma E. Pengaruh pemberian ekstrak daun gaharu (Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.) terhadap aterosklerosis pada burung puyuh jantan (Coturnix-coturnix japonica). J Farm Higea. 2014;6(2):174–82. Surjanto, Batubara R, Hanum TI, Pulungan W. Phytochemical and antioxidant activity of gaharu leaf tea (Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk) as raw material of tea from middle Tapanuli Regency, North Sumatera Province. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2019;260:1–6. https://doi.org/ 10.1088/1755-1315/260/1/012101. art 012101. Tajuddin SN, Yusoff MM. Chemical composition of volatile oils of Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae) from Malaysia. Nat Prod Commun. 2010;5(12):1965–8. Takemoto H, Ito M, Shiraki T, Yagura T, Honda G. Sedative effects of vapor inhalation of agarwood oil and spikenard extract and identification of their active components. J Nat Med. 2008;62 (1):41–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-007-0177-0. Tan CS, Isa NM, Ismail I, Zainal Z. Agarwood induction: current developments and future perspectives. Front Plant Sci. 2019;10:122. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00122. Tawan CS. Thymelaceaceae. In: Soepadmo E, Saw LG, Chung RCK, editors. Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak, 5th vol. Kepong: Forest Research Institute Malaysia; 2004. p. 433–99. Vakati K, Rahman H, Eswaraiah MC, Dutta AM. Evaluation of hepatoprotective activity of ethanolic extract of Aquilaria agallocha leaves (EEAA) against CCl4 induced hepatic damage in rat. Sch J Appl Med Sci. 2013;1(1):9–12.

126

W. A. Mustaqim

Wagh VD, Korinek M, Lo IW, Hsu YM, Chen SL, Hsu HY, Hwang TL, Wu YC, Chen BH, Cheng YB, et al. Inflammation modulatory phorbol esters from the seeds of Aquilaria malaccensis. J Nat Prod. 2017;80:1421–7. Wan Ahmad WNA, Ali AM, Wan Mamat WNA, Mahmod NH. Evaluation of DPPH free radical scavenging, α-glucosidase inhibitory, and antimicrobial activities of Aquilaria malaccensis leaf extracts. J Agrobiotech. 2019;10(1):36–45. Wang S, Yu Z, Wang C, Wu C, Guo P, Wei J. Chemical constituents and pharmacological activity of agarwood and Aquilaria plants. Molecules. 2018;23:1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23020342. art 342. Wiryono, Lipranto. The diversity of locally useful plants in Batu Ampar village near Bukit Raja Mandara protected forest area in South Bengkulu District. J Manusia Ling. 2013;20(2):119–28. Wu B, Kwon S, Hwang GS, Pak JH. Eight new 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone (¼2-(2-phenylethyl)4H-1-benzopyran-4-one) derivatives from Aquilaria malaccensis agarwood. Helv Chim Acta. 2012;95:1657–65. Zaman MQ. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Kabupaten Pamekasan-Madura Provinsi Jawa Timur [undergraduate thesis]. Malang: Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim; 2009. (in Bahasa). Zaridah MZ, Nor Azah MA, Rohani A. Mosquitocidal activities of Malaysian plants. J Trop For Sci. 2006;18:74–80.

Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana Lauterb. ARAUCARIACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Synonyms Araucaria beccarii Warb., Araucaria cunninghamii subsp. papuana (Lauterb.) Silba (POWO 2020).

Local Names English: Papuan hoop pine; Indonesia: pinus laki (Indonesian standard), kiriwi (Wandammen), ningwik (Tambuni valley), makut (Pikpik), domooimerr, tororomooi (Dajo), jarujosuwa (Tanah merah), escera (Foie), nimola (Esa’ala), sin (Wamena, Jayawijaya); Papua New Guinea: pien (Pidgin), ungwa (Kapauku), sumgwa (Manikiong), alloa (Marconi River), flabbito (Wapi), d’li (Telefomin), sari (Bembi), bontuan (Kaigorin), wariri (Gurumbu).

Botany and Ecology Description: Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana is robust, massive tall tree growing up to 50–70 m tall, which dominate the canopy in the highlands of New Guinea (Fig. 1). Stem asymmetrically branched and without candelabra-type growth. Bark, particularly of younger plants, dark plum to red-brown, weathering on older plants to greyish brown or blackish brown. Juvenile leaves up to 27 mm long. Adult needles awl-shaped, about 1 cm long, sharp, acuminate, and curved forward. Pollen cones 9–10 cm long. Pollen cones produced in the middle part of the mature tree and seed cones in the upper part. Seed cones 7–12 cm long, 6–8 cm thick. Seed scales A. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_232

127

128

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 1 The robust, massive, and tall habit of Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana planted close to Baliem River, Jayawijaya at about 1600 m altitude. (© Ary P. Keim)

longer, base narrower, more acuminate at the apex (Van Royen 1980; De Laubenfels 1988; Farjon 1998, 2000, 2008; Eckenwalder 2009). Phenology: Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana planted in the garden fruit throughout the year (Fig. 2) (personal observation). Distribution and Habitat: Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana is found mainly throughout middle ranges of New Guinea, including Indonesian New Guinea (Papua and West Papua Provinces), and Papua New Guinea (Van Royen 1980; De Laubenfels 1988; Farjon 1998, 2000, 2008; Eckenwalder 2009). The species can also be found in some north coasts of mainland New Guinea and some islands just offshore the mainland such as Yapen and Fergusson Islands. We explored Yapen Island in 2006 and found A. cunninghamii var. papuana there in fairly lower altitudes less than 500 m above sea level (personal observation). Apparently the two varieties of A. cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. cunninghamii and A. cunninghamii var. papuana have strict distribution areas (Van Royen 1980; De Laubenfels 1988; Farjon 1998, 2000, 2008; Eckenwalder 2009). Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana is always found from the northern coasts up to middle ranges (mountains) of mainland New Guinea. So far, this variety has never been found in the southern coasts of mainland New Guinea. On the contrary, A. cunninghamii var. cunninghamii is always found in the Eastern Coast of

Araucaria cunninghamii var. . . .

129

Fig. 2 Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana in fruiting. (© Ary P. Keim)

Australia from northern part of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland) to Clarence River, northern New South Wales (Boland et al. 2006). This variety has never been found in mainland New Guinea. Thus, reports of A. cunninghamii being found in southern coasts of mainland New Guinea is most likely of the Australian A. cunninghamii var. cunninghamii. Apparently the mountains of the middle parts of mainland New Guinea, such as the mighty Jayawijaya Range in Indonesian New Guinea offer strong natural barrier for the dispersal of both varieties (Hope 1976). The seeds of both varieties are surrounded by membranous wings, which indicate they are dispersed by wind (Fig. 3) (see Van der Pijl 1969). Araucaria cunninghamii var. cunninghamii grows above various rainforest formations from 60 to 2745 m altitudes. In the Jayawijaya Range of Indonesian New Guinea, Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana is found from the Baliem Valley at about 1600 m altitude up to the Lower Mountain Forest (1700–2000 m altitudes) and Upper Montane Forests (2000 to 3000 m altitudes) in the vicinity of Lake Habbema (Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: There has been no record on the traditional medicinal usage of A. cunninghamii var. papuana. Nevertheless, we observed that the Dani of Baliem Valley, Jayawijaya Range, use the leaves for curing skin itchiness, wounds, and infections (personal observation).

130

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 3 Seeds of Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana embedded in scales and with membranous wings. (© Ary P. Keim)

Phytochemistry In general, the chemical constituents in A. cunninghamii are abietanes (Aspinall and McKenna 1968; Aslam et al. 2013) that are mainly composed of abietic acid, carnosic acid, and ferruginol. As a member of the genus Araucaria, the variety may contain numerous chemical compounds that can be grouped as biflavonoids, isoflavonoids, phenylpropanoids, lignans or furans, protein, terpenes, and polysaccharides (see Aslam et al. 2013 for details). Several chemical constituents are also known to be isolated from A. cunninghamii; cupressuflavone, 40 -monomethylamentoflavone, and 7,700 -dimethylcupressuflavone (Gadek and Quinn 1983). It is possible that the information on the phytochemistry of A. cunninghamii refers mostly to the widely cultivated Australian variety, A. cunninghamii var. cunninghamii. In contrast with the Australian variety, there has been no specific study on A. cunninghamii var. papuana (Setiadi et al. 2015); the reports are possibly from both the New Guinean and Australian varieties. The wood of A. cunninghamii contains 73.33% holocellulose, 46.39% cellulose, lignin 30.56%, 1.19% ethanol solubility, and 1.34% hot water solubility. The wood of A. cunninghamii is regarded as good quality to be used as raw material for pulp and paper. The potential usage for antifungal is claimed from A. cunninghamii planted in India by Sati and Joshi (2013). Apparently the leaf samples were harvested from individuals of A. cunninghamii var. cunninghamii, which were introduced to India from Australia as there is no species of Araucaria in the wild in the Indian Subcontinent (Biswas and Johri 1997; Eckenwalder 2009). Even though, the identification of the trees as

Araucaria cunninghamii var. . . .

131

A. cunninghamii is too rather doubtful as Sati and Joshi (2013) also mentioned that the people in the area, where the leaves were collected call the trees as “bunya”; “bunya” is the common name for A. bidwillii that is endemic to Australia, and sometimes is misidentified as A. cunninghamii (Boland et al. 2006). Antiviral activities have been attributed to A. angustifolia (Freitas et al. 2009). No research has ever been conducted on A. cunninghamii or its two extant varieties. Traditionally, Araucariaceae consists of two genera, Agathis and Araucariaceae (De Laubenfels 1988; Page 1990; Farjon 1998, 2000, 2008; Eckenwalder 2009). The third genera added recently is the Australian endemic genus Wollemia (Jones et al. 1995; Eckenwalder 2009; Christenhusz et al. 2011). The genera Agathis and Araucaria are known to produce good resins (Anderson and Munro 1969; Langenheim 2003). The resins of Araucaria have not been economically harvested as in Agathis, especially the best known resin producing species, A. dammara (Lagenheim 2003).

Local Food Uses Apart from the usage of bark, wood, and resin, there has been no report on both varieties of A. cunninghamii harvested as local food.

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: The Dani people of Baliem Valley, Jayawijaya Range in the central highlands of Indonesian New Guinea recognize two vernacular names for two different species of conifers, “sin” and “sina” “Sin” refers to Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana (Araucariaceae; see also Milliken 2006), whereas “sina” refers to Phyllocladus hypophyllus (Podocarpaceae). The Dani regard “sin” as “male” and “sina” as the “female” form of ‘sin’. The Dani regard A. cunninghamii var. papuana as sacred and many magical properties are attributed to this species. The same custom is also shared with the neighboring Yali (see Milliken 2006). We observed the Dani – if possible – are avoiding cutting down the trees particularly in the night (personal observation). The bark is used for thatching by the Yali people (Milliken 2006). It is apparently a practice that is rarely seen in Wamena and adjacent areas in the Baliem Valley now. The resin is used for torches (Powell 1976), glue (Sillitoe 1983), and also treated as a kind of incense and burned for various rituals including healing related ritual. The usage of the resin for incense has never been reported before (Fig. 4).

Economic Importance Indonesia: Like most of the conifers in the central highlands of Indonesian New Guinea, the wood is also highly prized by the Dani and mainly used for constructing houses (Purwanto and Walujo 1992; Arobaya and Pattiselanno 2007), despite the fact that this variety may share the same physical characteristic of the wood (particularly

132

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 4 Resin of Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana. (© Ary P. Keim)

heartwood) with the Australian variety (A. cunninghamii var. cunninghamii), which are fairly low in strength and durability, soft and low shrinkage with density varies from 410 to 610 kg/m3 (Boland et al. 2006) that is still generally regarded as light wood (see Soewarsono 1965; Reyes 1992; Lemmens 1995). Thus the wood is better to be used as plywood, highly regarded veneer, and as an excellent timber for indoor joinery (Boland et al. 2006). Nevertheless, the wood is relatively easy to be found and harvested in the Baliem Valley; thus, it is perfect as source of building materials for the increasing demand of building materials for the fast development in the Jayawijaya District, particularly in the capital Wamena. In the past, the Dani usually planted the trees near their houses, gardens, or plantations. However, due to their slow growing, now most people are planting the faster growing species, the introduced willow (apparently of the European Salix alba; Salicaceae). The elder people mentioned that willow was introduced to Baliem Valley by the Australian missionaries prior to the transfer of authority of the former Dutch New Guinea from the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) to Indonesia, which was on 1 May 1963. Yet, A. cunninghamii var. papuana is still being chopped down in the vicinity of Wamena and other city, Tiom that is the capital of the neighboring Lany Jaya District. Despite planted in many places in Baliem Valley, apparently the demand for building materials is noticeably to the threshold limit that population decline has become an inevitable fact; thus, the 2011 IUCN status of Least Concern for A. cumminghamii var. papuana (Thomas 2011) requires revision.

References Anderson DMW, Munro AC. Gum exudates from the genus Araucaria. Carbohydr Res. 1969;11:43–51. Arobaya AYS, Pattiselanno F. Jenis tanaman berguna bagi suku Dani di Lembah Baliem. Biota. 2007;12(3):192–5.

Araucaria cunninghamii var. . . .

133

Aslam MS, Choudhary BA, Uzair M, Ijaz AS. Phytochemical and ethno-pharmacological review of the genus Araucaria: review. Trop J Pharm Res. 2013;12(4):651–9. Aspinall GO, McKenna JP. Araucaria bidwillii gum part II1: further studies on the polysaccharide components. Carbohydr Res. 1968;7(3):244–54. Biswas C, Johri BM. The gymnosperms. Berlin: Springer; 1997. Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N, Hyland BPM, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, McDonald MW, Turner JD. Forest tress of Australia. 5th ed. Coolingwood: CSIRO Publishing; 2006. Christenhusz MJM, Reveal JL, Farjon A, Gardner MF, Mill RR, Chase MW. A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms. Phytotaxa. 2011;18:53–70. De Laubenfels DJ. Flora Malesiana Ser. 1. Vol. 10 (3): Coniferales. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic; 1988. Eckenwalder JE. Conifers in the world: the complete reference. Portland: Timber Press; 2009. Farjon A. World checklist and bibliography of conifers. 1st ed. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 1998. Farjon A. World checklist and bibliography of conifers. 2nd ed. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2000. Farjon A. A natural history of conifers. Portland: Timber Press; 2008. Freitas AM, Almeida MTR, Andrighetti-Fröhner CR. Antiviral activity-guided fractionation from Araucaria angustifolia leaves extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;126:512–7. Gadek PA, Quinn CJ. Bioflavones of the subfamily Callitroidea, Cupressaceae. Phytochemistry. 1983;22(4):969–72. Hope GS. Vegetation. In: Hope GS, Peterson JA, Radok U, Allison I, editors. The equatorial glaciers of New Guinea: results of the 1971–1973 Australian universities’ expeditions to Irian Jaya: survey, glaciology, meteorology, biology and palaeo-environments. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema; 1976. p. 113–72. Jones WG, Hill KD, Allen JM. Wollemia nobilis, a new living Australian genus and species in the Araucariaceae. Telopea. 1995;6(2–3):173–6. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Efendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Langenheim JH. Plant resins: chemistry, evolution, ecology and ethnobotany. Portland: Timber Press; 2003. Lemmens RHMJ. Plant resources of South East Asia (PROSEA) volume 5 part 2: timber trees, minor commercial timbers. Leiden: Backhuys; 1995. Milliken W. The ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2006. Page CN. Araucariaceae. In: Kubitzki K, editor. The families and genera of vascular plants. I. Pteridophytes and gymnosperms. Berlin: Springer; 1990. p. 294–9. Powell JM. Ethnobotany. In: Paijmans K, editor. New Guinea vegetation. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1976. p. 106–99. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 15 June 2020. Purwanto Y, Walujo EB. Etnobotani suku Dani di lembah Baliem-Irian Jaya: Suatu telaah tentang pengetahuan dan pemanfaatan sumber daya alam tumbuhan. In: Nasution RE, editor. Prosiding, Seminar dan Lokakarya Nasional Etnobotani. Jakarta: Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia; 1992. p. 132–48. Reyes G. Wood density of tropical tree species: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service station publication, vol. 88. Minnesota: University of Minnesota; 1992. Sati SC, Joshi S. Antifungal potentials of Araucaria cunninghamii sweet (Araucariaceae) plant extracts. Int J Pharmacol Toxicol Sci. 2013;3(1):15–21. Setiadi D, Susanto M, Fauzi MA. Analisa kimia kayu pada tanaman Araucaria cunninghamii Aiton ex D. Don. untuk bahan baku pulp. Jurnal Penelitian Tanaman Hutan. 2015;9(1):53–60. Sillitoe P. Natural resources exploited by the Wola in the manufacture of artefacts. Sci New Guinea. 1983;10:112–33.

134

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Soewarsono PH. The identification of the woods of some important Indonesian conifers. Rimba Indonesia. 1965;10(2/3):175–93. Thomas P. The IUCN red list of threatened species: Araucaria cunninghamii var. papuana. London: International Union for Conservation of Nature; 2011. Van der Pijl L. Principles of dispersal in higher plants. New York: Springer; 1969. Van Royen P. The alpine flora of New Guinea volume 1: general part. Vaduz: J. Cramer; 1980.

Areca catechu L. ARECACEAE Rina Ratnasih Irwanto and Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam

Synonyms Areca catechu var. alba Blume; Areca catechu var. batanensis Becc.; Areca catechu f. communis Becc.; Areca catechu var. longicarpa Becc.; Areca catechu var. nigra Giseke; Areca catechu var. silvatica Becc.; Areca cathechu Burm.f.; Areca hortensis Lour.; Areca macrocarpa Becc.

Local Names Thailand: Maak mia Vietnam: Cao; binh lang, t^ a n lang Cambodia: Sla Myanmar: Cun pan; kunti Malaysia: Pinang Indonesia: Pineng, pineung (Aceh); batang mayang, pinang, pining (North Sumatera); battang pinang (Minang kabau); bawah, ugai, urai (Lampung); pinang, gehat, kahat (Dayak); jambe (Sundanese); jambe, wohan (Java); penang (Madura); winu (Sumbawa), wenyi (Sawu); keu, ehu, glok (FIores); wua (Solor); tilade (Sangir); toru (Mandar); mamaan, tenga of wua, nyanga (North Sulawesi); luhuto, luguto (Gorontalo); alosi (Bugis), pua bua, mpua (Rote); pua, bua (Timor); bua, R. R. Irwanto (*) School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] A. S. D. Irsyam Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_58

135

136

R. R. Irwanto and A. S. D. Irsyam

hua, soi, pua, huako, kanai, hua yain (Seram); soin, yeli, fua, flut, fifin miha, bua (Buru); palin, mila, mela (Halmahera) Philippines: Bunga (Tagalog, Bisayas); takotob (Bikol); boa (Iloko) Srilanka: Puwak (Sinhala) India: Adakka, gua, supari Bhutan: Doma Solomon islands: Angiro Palau: Bua Yap: Bu New Ireland: Vua (Lamekot) Guam: Pugua Wandamen: Sawu (Heyne 1950; Brotonegoro et al. 2000; Orwa et al. 2009; Heatubun et al. 2012).

Botany and Ecology Solitary tree palm (Fig. 1), 12–30 m tall. Stem 15–25(–40) cm in diameter, marked with scars of fallen leaves in a regular annulated form, visible only when the palm is about 3 years old. Leaves 8–12 in crown, 150–270 cm long (including petiole); sheath tubular, 50–130 cm long, green outside; crownshaft 100–175 cm long, light green to green; petiole up to 15 cm long, channelled adaxially, rounded abaxially; leaflets 20–35 on each side of the rachis, linear-lanceolate, basal leaflets 109  9 cm, middle leaflets 100  11 cm, apical leaflets 68  9.5 cm, base tapering, truncate, apex incised-dentate, plicate beneath at base, with 2–3 or more, farinose beneath. Inflorescence infrafoliar, divaricate, 29–80 cm long, branched; rachillae numerous; prophyll caducous, 65–78  15–17 cm; peduncle short, 6  8 cm at the base; rachillae 10–40 cm long, with inconspicuous bracts. Male flowers: 4.0– 7.5  2–5 mm; sepals 3, connate near the base; petals 3, 6–7  2.5–4.0 mm, triangular, cream colored; stamens 12; filaments 1 mm long; anthers 1–2  0.5– 0.7 mm; pistillode to 3 mm long, trifid. Female flowers: 12–15  7–10 mm, triangular; sepals 3, imbricate, keeled, cream to green at anthesis, persistent; petals 3, 10–15  7–10 mm, cream; gynoecium 10  5 mm, stigma trifid; staminodes forming a ring, membranous. Fruits monolocular drupe, 5–7  2–4 cm, ovoid to ellipsoid, orange or scarlet when ripe; epicarp smooth, thin; mesocarp fibrous, thick; endocarp fibrous, thin (Fig. 2). Seeds 3.0–3.5  2.5–3.0 cm, subglobose to ovoid, more or less flat at the base layer (Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1968; Orwa et al. 2009; Heatubun et al. 2012). A. catechu has been widely distributed by humans throughout the tropical areas and the country of origin is not known (Van Steenis-Kruseman 1953; Heatubun et al. 2012). But, the species might have originated in Central Malesia, as the region hosts the greatest diversity of Areca (Brotonegoro et al. 2000). Most of Areca nut plants are mostly cultivated, although some grow wildly (Heyne 1950; Heatubun et al. 2012). It grows in areas of high rainfall and low altitudes, up to 1000 m above sea level and grows well as a mixed crop with fruit

Areca catechu L.

137

Fig. 1 Habit of Areca catechu. (© Zakaria Al Anshori)

trees (Orwa et al. 2009). However, in Java, it can be seen growing up to 1500 m above sea level. The optimum temperature is 14–36  C, and the rainfall is 750–4500 mm. Soil which has high organic carbon content and a pH range from acidic to neutral offer optimum conditions (Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1968; Orwa et al. 2009).

Local Medicinal Uses A. catechu is one of the important palm species in South East Asia. The roots, husks, leaves, fruits, and seeds are traditionally used in medicine (Van Steenis-Kruseman 1953). The seed or “nut” is the main part of A. catechu that is used as a medicine in ripe and unripe states (Burkill 1935; Peng et al. 2015).

138

R. R. Irwanto and A. S. D. Irsyam

Fig. 2 Fruit of Areca catechu. (© Zakaria Al Anshori)

Brunei Darussalam: The folk healers in Kiudang region add areca nut to medicinal decoctions to improve taste. The nut along with Cyrtandra penduliflora Kraenzl. is used in postpartum care. It is also used in postpartum care along with Dracaena chiniana I.M.Turner and Curcuma longa L. (Kamsani et al. 2020) Indonesia: The roots are used to treat urinary tract infection by the local people in Kutai Barat Regency, Kalimantan (Suryana and Widiyastuti 2009). Fruits are used to cure toothache, skin diseases, and against parasitic worm by the local people in Kubang Nan Raok village, West Sumatra (Ardan 2000). The powdered fruits are applied to treat toothache and scabies by the Angkola Tribe in Dolok Sibual-buali Nature Reserve, Tapanuli Selatan, North Sumatra (Munawaroh and Purwanto 2000). A decoction of unripe fruits and young shoots are drunk as tonic and aphrodisiac by the Talang Mamak tribe in Bukit Tiga Puluh National Park, Riau (Setyowati and Wardah 2007; Setyowati 2009). In Bali, pounded ripe fruits mixed with kemenyan (incense) and coconut oil are externally applied for gastritis. The ripe fruits are also used as diarrhea medication by the Balinese (Sangat 2000). Malaysia: The species has been widely used for medicine in Malaysia (Burkill 1935). Half-rotted husk decoction is used to treat dysentery by the Chinese people in Eastern Malaysia. Powdered roots mixed with Atalantia leaves and Citrus is administered for stomachache. A cigar made from its leaves along with leaves of Mimusops elengi is smoked for nose ulceration. Seed decoction is taken to treat intestine worms, diarrhea, gonorrhea, and herpes on stomach; a leaf decoction is applied as hot bath for children with diarrhea. Juice of young seeds is externally used for specks on the cornea and dimness of vision (Burkill 1935; Perry 1980). The Dayak Iban tribe of Borneo utilize the fruits as medication for sakit angin or colds (Christensen 2002). The unripe fruit is chewed with Piper betle leaves, Uncaria spp., rhizome of Acorus gramineus, rhizome of Kaempferia galanga, and kapur or lime. Later, the paste is externally applied over stomach. A heated stone is also placed on the stomach to give warmth to the patient (Christensen 2002). In

Areca catechu L.

139

addition, A. catechu has been commonly used as laxative and diuretic in the Indochina region; the epicarp of fruit is heated and pressed between toes to treat itch by local people in New Guinea (Perry 1980).

Phytochemistry Several alkaloids have been isolated from the seeds: arecoline, arecaidine (arecaine), guvacine, arecolidine, guvacoline, isoguvacine, and choline (Van Steenis-Kruseman 1953; Perry 1980). Arecoline and guvacoline are the major constituents of A. catechu (Holdsworth et al. 1998; Lord et al. 2002; Shih et al. 2010). Ripe seeds have a higher concentration of arecoline (0.12–0.24%) compared to the unripe ones (0.11–0.14%) (Chue et al. 2012). Arecoline has toxic effect on humans and animals, as its influence on the nervous system is similar to nicotine. It is known to cause paralysis (Perry 1980). Arecoline is also a promoter of oral submucosal fibrosis (OSF). OSF is a premalignant disorder that predominantly occurs in the countries with areca nut chewing traditions, especially in South and Southeast Asia (Pundir et al. 2010; Li et al. 2019). The disorder causes scars, tissue fibrosis, and lesions in the patient’s buccal mucosa which can transform into malignant condition (Li et al. 2019; Shih et al. 2019). In addition, arecoline has a cytotoxic effect in various types of human tissues and it can induce genetic damage (Shih et al. 2010; Peng et al. 2015; Li et al. 2019). Studies have also revealed the pharmaceutical potential of A. catechu seeds (Lee and Choi 1999; Abbas et al. 2013). The seed extract has antidepressant activity as it increases serotonin and noradrenaline levels in the rat hippocampus (Abbas et al. 2013). The seed extract can be used as anti-aging agent in cosmetic products, due to its capability to inhibit elastase activity in human skin (Lee and Choi 1999).

Biocultural Importance The tradition of Areca nut chewing is commonly known in the Eastern world and it is widely practiced from Madagascar, South Asia, Southeast Asia, to the Solomon Islands. The seeds of A. catechu is usually chewed with betel leaf (Piper betle L.) and lime (calcium hydroxide). Areca nut chewing can be considered as dental modification. It is the simplest method for tooth blackening, which is considered as a desirable trait in many cultures (Zumbroich 2009; Koesbardiati et al. 2015). In Southeast Asia, the tradition can be traced back for more than 2000 years ago. Recent archeological evidences suggest that the tradition is an Austronesian heritage (Koesbardiati et al. 2015). The oldest stained teeth was identified from a 4500 years old skeletal remains that was found in the Duyong Cave, Palawan, Philippines (Zumbroich 2009). In 2016, an Iron Age stained tooth from Southern Vietnam (400–100 BC) was analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. The study detected arecoline in the tooth enamel (Krais et al. 2017). Other

140

R. R. Irwanto and A. S. D. Irsyam

archeological remains of stained teeth have also been found in Sumba (Melolo) and Flores (Liang Bua, Lewoleba) (Koesbardiati et al. 2015). A. catechu is also used to dye traditional textile and daggers. The fruit has been used as red coloring agent for batik and cotton in Java island (Heyne 1950; Widiawati 2018). Burkill (1935) noted that the fruits were used to coloring the blade of keris, a traditional dagger. A. catechu also has religious values in South East Asia. The young inflorescence are utilized for decorations at gawai (annual festival) and other ceremonies by the Dayak Iban tribe of Borneo (Christensen 2002). In Balinese culture, the fruits are used as kwangen for ceremonies of new born baby and 6-month-old baby (Sutara 2009). The fruits are also used during kasada ceremony in Mount Bromo, East Java, by the Tenggerese people (Soejono 2000). The fruits of A. catechu are a requirement of Tolakinese marriage rituals in Kendari, Southeast Sulawesi. The marriage ritual comprises of five steps, namely metiro (viewing), mondutudu (preliminary proposal), mondongo niwule (the actual proposal), and imowindahako (marriage ceremony) (Awad and Shaleh 2018). A man will offer a fabric parcel containing betel nut, money, and jewelry to his potential bride during metiro. Later, in niwulemondongo niwule, the groom will deliver betel nut, money, clothes, jewelry, and cosmetics to the bride’s family as a commitment (Awad and Shaleh 2018). In Malaysia, some local people believe that the smoke from burning husks can offer protection from evil spirits. The fragrant inflorescence and spathe are also used as an ornament for Malay wedding ceremonies. The seeds are reported to be made into toys in Malaysia, and the spathe into hats in the Philippines (Burkill 1935).

Economic Importance The husks yield commercially valuable activated carbon (Orwa et al. 2009). Seeds can be used as dye and tanning material. Areca nuts are commonly sold in the local markets (Franco et al. 2020).

References Abbas G, Naqvi S, Erum S, Ahmed S, Atta-ur-Rahman DA. Potential antidepressant activity of Areca catechu nut via elevation of serotonin and noradrenaline in the hippocampus of rats. Phytother Res. 2013;27(1):39–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.4674. Ardan AS. Penggunaan tumbuhan obat oleh masyarakat Desa Kubang Nan Raok (Sumatera Barat). In: Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, editors. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Etnobotani III; 1998 May 5–6. Denpasar: LIPI Press; 2000. p. 132–8. Awad FB, Shaleh M. Integrating counseling values in marriage ritual of Tolakinese Culture Society in Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2018;175:012175. https://doi.org/10.1088/17551315/175/1/012175. Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC. Flora of Java, vol. III. Groningen: N.V.P. Noordhoff; 1968.

Areca catechu L.

141

Brotonegoro S, Wessel M, Brink M. Areca catechu L. In: van der Vossen HAM, Wessel M, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia 16: stimulants. Leiden: Backhuys Publisher; 2000. p. 51–5. Burkill IH. Dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula, vol. I (A-Codiaeum). London: The Crown Agents for the Colonies; 1935. Christensen H. Ethnobotany of the Iban and Kelabit. Denmark: University of Aarhus; 2002. Chue AL, Carrara VI, Paw MK, Pimanpanarak M, Wiladphaingern J, van Vugt M, Lee SJ, Nosten F, McGready R. Is areca innocent? The effect of areca (betel) nut chewing in a population of pregnant women on the Thai–Myanmar border. Int Health. 2012;4(3):204–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inhe.2012.05.001. Franco FM, Chaw LL, Bakar N, Abas SNH. Socialising over fruits and vegetables: the biocultural importance of an open-air market in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-0356-6. Heatubun CD, Dransfield J, Flynn T, Tjitrosoedirdjo SS, Mogea JP, Baker WJ. A monograph of the betel nut palms (Areca: Arecaceae) of East Malesia. Bot J Linn Soc. 2012;168:147–73. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2011.01199.x. Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Indonesie. s-Gravenhage/Bandung: N.V. Uitgeverij W. Van Hoeve; 1950. Holdsworth DK, Jones RA, Self R. Volatile alkaloids from Areca catechu. Phytochemistry. 1998; 48(3):581–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(98)00016-8. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256: 112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Koesbardiati T, Murti DB, Suriyanto RA. Cultural dental modification in prehistoric population in Indonesia. Bull Int Assoc Paleodontol. 2015;9(2):52–60. Krais S, Klima M, Huppertz LM, Auwärter V, Altenburger MJ, Neukamm MA. Betel nut chewing in Iron Age Vietnam? Detection of Areca catechu alkaloids in dental enamel. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2017;49(1):11–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2016.1264647. Lee KK, Choi JD. The effects of Areca catechu L. extract on anti-aging. Int J Cosmet Sci. 1999;21:285–95. Li YC, Cheng AJ, Lee LY, Huang YC, Chang JTC. Multifaceted mechanisms of areca nuts in oral carcinogenesis: the molecular pathology from precancerous condition to malignant transformation. J Cancer. 2019;10(17):4054–62. https://doi.org/10.7150/jca.29765. Lord GA, Lim CK, Warnakulasuriya S, Peters TJ. Chemical and analytical aspects of areca nut. Addict Biol. 2002;7(1):99–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/13556210120091455. Munawaroh E, Purwanto Y. Pengetahuan dan pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat oleh Suku Angkola, di sekitar Cagar Alam Dolok Sibual-buali, Tapanuli Selatan, Sumatera Utara. In: Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, editors. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Etnobotani III; 1998 May 5–6. Denpasar: LIPI Press; 2000. p. 446–50. Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. 2009. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/treedbs/ treedatabases.asp Peng W, Liu YJ, Wu N, Sun T, He XY, Gao YX, Wu CJ. Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae): a review of its traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;164:340–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.02.010. Perry LM. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia: attributed properties and uses. London: The MIT Press; 1980. Pundir S, Saxena S, Aggrawal P. Oral submucous fibrosis a disease with malignant potential – report of two cases. J Clin Exp Dent. 2010;2(4):e215–8. Sangat HM. Lontar Usada: Suatu kajian etnofarmakologi. In: Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, editors. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Etnobotani III; 1998 May 5–6. Denpasar: LIPI Press; 2000. p. 291–308. Setyowati FM. Tumbuhan obat dan kosmetika di Taman Nasional Bukit Tiga Puluh. In: Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, editors. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Etnobotani IV; 2009 May 18. Bogor: LIPI Press; 2009. p. 372–80.

142

R. R. Irwanto and A. S. D. Irsyam

Setyowati FM, Wardah W. Diversity of medicinal plant by Talang Mamak tribe in surrounding of Bukit Tiga Puluh National Park, Riau. Biodiversitas. 2007;8(3):228–32. Shih YT, Chen PS, Wu CH, Tseng YT, Wu YC, Lo YC. Arecoline, a major alkaloid of the areca nut, causes neurotoxicity through enhancement of oxidative stress and suppression of the antioxidant protective system. Free Radic Biol Med. 2010;49:1471–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. freeradbiomed.2010.07.017. Shih YH, Wang TH, Shieh TM, Tseng HY. Oral submucous fibrosis: a review on etiopathogenesis, diagnosis, and therapy. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(12):2940. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20122940. Soejono. Studi pemanfaatan tumbuhan dalam upacara Kasada di Gunung Bromo, Jawa Timur. In: Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, editors. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Etnobotani III; 1998 May 5–6. Denpasar: LIPI Press; 2000. p. 241–4. Suryana M, Widiyastuti Y. Observasi tanaman obat di Kabupaten Kutai Barat, Kalimantan. In: Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, editors. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Etnobotani IV; 2009 May 18. Bogor: LIPI Press; 2009. p. 282–7. Sutara PK. Keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan yang digunakan dalam upacara kelahiran anak dan umur 6 bulan pada masyarakat Hindu di Bali. In: Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, editors. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Etnobotani IV; 2009 May 18. Bogor: LIPI Press; 2009. p. 526–32. Van Steenis-Kruseman MJ. Select Indonesian medicinal plants. Jakarta: Organization for Scientific Research in Indonesia, Publication Department; 1953. Widiawati D. The utilization of Batik pattern and natural dyes as valuation of the local value in Batik Society. J Sosioteknologi. 2018;17(2):208–19. Zumbroich TJ. “Teeth as black as a bumble bee’s wings”: the ethnobotany of teeth blackening in Southeast Asia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:381–98. https://doi.org/10.17348/era.7.0.381-398.

Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. ARECACEAE Wawan Sujarwo and Ary Prihardhyanto Keim

Synonyms Arenga gamuto Merr.; Arenga griffithii Seem. ex H.Wendl.; Borassus gomutus Lour.; Caryota onusta Blanco; Gomutus rumphii Corrêa; Gomutus saccharifer (Labill. ex DC.) Spreng.; Gomutus vulgaris Oken; Saguerus gamuto Houtt.; Saguerus pinnatus Wurmb; Saguerus rumphii (Corrêa) Roxb. ex Fleming; Saguerus saccharifer (Labill. ex DC.) Blume

Local Names Chinese: Guang lang, suo mu, sha tang ye zi, tang shu; Burmese: taung, taung-ong; Cambodian: chuek, chrae; English: areng palm, arenga palm, black-fiber palm, black sugar palm, gomuti palm, sagwire-palme, sugar palm, toddy palm; India: thangtung, thanglung (Mizoram), alam panai (Tamil); Indonesia: anau, enau, hanau, inau, nau, biluluk, peluluk, kabung, kabung enau, ijuk, juk, bergat, mergat (languages in Sumatra from Acehnese to Malay), aren, enau, kaung, kawung, lahang, lirang, nanggung (Javanese), aren, atép, kawung, kaung, lahang, taren (Sundanese), enau, jaka, kawung, nau, yabaka (Balinese), aren, nau, no (Madurese), akol, akel, akere, aren, areng, inru, indu, juro (languages in Sulawesi from Bugis, Macassarese to Minahassa), naun (Bima, Western Lesser Sunda Islands from Lombok to Sumbawa), moka, moke, tuwa, tuwak (Eastern Lesser Sunda Islands from Flores to Timorese), gomuto, sebo (Moluccas, Ternate), gamuto, gomuto, nawa

W. Sujarwo (*) · A. P. Keim Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_173

143

144

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

(Moluccas, Ambon), lubu (Moluccas, Hitu), nawa (Moluccas, Banda), saguer (Moluccas, Portuguese Creole in Moluccas and Macassar); Khmer: chuek, chrae; Malaysia: berkat, bakeh (Semang), enau, habong, henau, inau, kabong, nau; Philippines: hidiók (Bikol), bagtbat, bagóbat, bat-bt, iliók, idióg, idiók, onay, unau (Cebu Bisaya), rapitan (Iloko), hiliók (Manabo), hidiók, igók (Panay Bisaya), irók (Sambali), kbo-négro, kong, kuing (Tagalog); Thai: aren, chok, kaong tao, luk chid; Vietnamese: bung bang, doac dot.

Botany and Ecology Description: Arenga pinnata is a tall, unbranched, solitary palm from 12 to 20 m high with a stout trunk of 30–60 cm diameter. The trunk is marked with rather distinct bases of broken leaves and long black fibers, topped by a dense crown of leaves. The leaves are 6–10 m long, ascending, pinnate, the basal part of the petiole covered with a sheath of stout, black fibers. The leaflets are up to 160 on each side, linear, 1.5–1.8 m long, the tip lobed and variously toothed, the base 2-auricled, the lower surface white or pale. The inflorescence is axillary, usually unisexual, and pendulous with a stout peduncle bearing female flowering spikes at the top, and male flowering spikes lower down the peduncle and appearing later. Flowers are trimerous with a 3-lobed tubular corolla. There are up to 11,500 male flowers per inflorescence, greenish-yellow with many stamens; female flowers up to 1,500 per inflorescence with a globose, trilocular ovary. The fruit is a rounded or ellipsoid drupe, about 5– 7 cm in diameter, green when immature turning yellow and gradually black and contain from two to three black seeds (Backer and van den Brink 1968; Mogea et al. 1991; Smits 1996; Lim 2012). Arenga pinnata is one of the 24 species in the genus Arenga (Dransfield et al. 2008). Systematically, the genus Arenga (together with Caryota and Wallichia) was once the members of the unique subfamily of Coryphoideae (Uhl and Dransfield 1987). Currently, the genus and the other two genera are included in the subfamily of palm-leaf palms, the Coryphoideae under the tribe of Caryoteae (Dransfield et al. 2005, 2008). The species is a solitary single stemmed monoecious hapaxanthic tree palm (Dransfield and Mogea 1984). Although the stems are rarely branched, they can be seen in some individuals found in West Java and believed to be as the results of disruptions in the development of the meristems (see Keim et al. 2012). Phenology: The flowering and fruiting time are throughout the year, and the flowers are insect pollinated; after approximately a year, the flowers develop into mature fruit (Dransfield and Mogea 1984; Keim 1997). Keim et al. (2012) observed that male flowers at anthesis are mainly visited by two species of bees: Apis cerana and A. indica. Flies, wasps and even butterflies are also reported to visit during anthesis. The propagation is mostly through seeds. The germination time is relatively long, about 1 year; however, some breeders in Garut, West Java, are able to germinate the seeds in approximately 2–3 months (see Keim et al. 2012). During 3–6 years after germination, the palm forms a rosette of leaves but no stem yet. In the following 5–

Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.

145

10 years, in some cases to 12 years, the palm develops a trunk with a total of approximately 50 leaves (Mogea et al. 1991). Distribution and Habitat: Assam, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, and Thailand (POWO 2020). The center of origin is suggested to be in Borneo or Sumatera, most likely of Indonesian Borneo (2/3 part of the island) or Sumatera (Mogea et al. 1991). In the Sundaland, the diversity of the genus is noticeable (Dransfield 1981, 1987). Fossil of Arenga has been recorded from Miocene deposit in Borneo (Moore 1973). The first appearance of the tribe Caryoteae is probably in West Gondwanaland, from where it spread and centered in the area which later becomes Sundaland after the collision of Laurasia with the Australia/New Guinea shard of Gondwanaland (Dransfield 1981). Arenga pinnata can grow well in various habitats, from lowland tropical rainforest up to fairly montane forest around 1400 m altitudes (Mogea et al. 1991; Lim 2012). Keim et al. (2018) reported A. pinnata planted in Wamena, Jayawijaya Range at about 1700 m altitude. The plants grow well, but apparently have never been seen in flowering or fruiting although the “ijuk” seems to grow well. The species is almost always seen planted (Fig. 1). It is exceptionally rare to see the species in the wild. The largest plantation of A. pinnata in Indonesia, apparently also in Southeast Asia is in the Sub district of Pageur Ageung, District of Tasikmalaya, Indonesian Province of West Java. The plantations cover several hills and surrounded by lowland tropical rainforests and the altitude is around 556 m (Keim et al. 2012). This apparently to

Fig. 1 Arenga pinnata is cultivated in Balinese home gardens (© Wawan Sujarwo)

146

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

show that despite the species ability to adapt in various habitats, A. pinnata mostly prefer the lowland, humid areas with full sun.

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The first records on the medicinal purposes of A. pinnata by Europeans was by Rumphius in Ambon, the Moluccas (1741). Rumphius reported that the roots are used by the people of the Moluccas to cure a disease related with diuretic (i.e., urinating) disorder or disease (later known as kidney stone disease or urolithiasis). The roots were also used for curing stomach problems, such as dysentery. The Arenga pinnata based herbal medicine for diuretic, stomachic, and various other illnesses then was known as “oebat sagueer” or “sagueer” medicine. The Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese drink decoction of roots (particularly the young roots) as medicine for urolithiasis (Heyne 1927; Endreswari 2003; Sujarwo et al. 2015), exactly as Rumphius had recorded in seventeenth century Moluccas. Indeed, for centuries the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese have been using the petiole and roots in their traditional medicines as hemostatic, cicatrizant, and diuretic. Furthermore, they also believe that consumption of sugar made from A. pinnata in the form of a traditional and homeopathic remedy is believed to revitalize the body (Lim 2012; Sujarwo et al. 2015). Malaysia: The Malays in Malay Peninsula used the young roots for treating kidney stones; the mature or old roots are administered as medicine for toothache; the alcoholic liquid produced through fermenting the sap harvested from the inflorescence called “tuak” was used as dissolving liquid for the herbal materials (Heyne 1927; Burkill 1935; Lim 2012). Philippines: The local people in the Philippines regard the stems and petioles to be diuretic and antithermic (Perry 1980). The root has been deemed stomachic and pectoral. Root decoction is held beneficial to the lungs, assists digestion, and improves appetite. The “ijuk” or the black fibers found in leaf-sheath are styptic and used as a hemostatic and cicatrizant for applying to wounds.

Phytochemistry Endosperm: Antidiabetic (Tarigan et al. 2020). Fruit (Fig. 2): Analgesics, AntiInflammatory, Anti-nociceptive (Sovia and Anggraeny 2019; Li et al. 2020). Sap: Antidiabetic (Hafiz et al. 2010), Antimicrobial (Hafiz et al. 2010), Antioxidant (Yunos et al. 2017). Seed: Antimicrobial (Kaban et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The most important food related usage of A. pinnata is the starch produced from the pith of the stem (Fig. 3). The starch itself is basically food stored for the entire flowering and fruiting stages (Miller 1964; Uhl and Dransfield 1987;

Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.

147

Fig. 2 Fruits of Arenga pinnata (© Wawan Sujarwo)

Fig. 3 Starch of Arenga pinnata (© Ary P. Keim)

Mogea et al. 1991). In Java, the starch is usually harvested from individuals which do not produce good quantity of sweet nectar harvested from the inflorescence (or known in Indonesian as ‘nira’) when the palm is around 8–10 years of age (Keim et al. 2012). Currently, the A. pinnata starch industry has been regarded nonprofitable as it is time consuming, and the selling price for a kilogram of starch is much cheaper than a kilogram of palm sugar. As a consequence, the A. pinnata starch industries in West Java are largely abandoned (Keim et al. 2012). Nevertheless, the starch from A. pinnata is still used both traditionally as well as in food industries in Indonesia, especially the traditional food and drinks such as the “cendol” (a kind of traditional Javanese jelly), the “ongol-ongol” (also a kind of

148

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

Fig. 4 Endosperm of Arenga pinnata (© Ary P. Keim)

traditional Javanese and Sundanese jelly), and as an ingredient in meatballs and instant noodles. The market for the A. pinnata starch still holds some promise and in some areas in Garut and Tasikmalaya Regencies in West Java Provinces, the plantations of A. pinnata exclusively established for the starch production are still surviving (Keim et al. 2012). The other source of food is the endosperm, a fairly chewy jelly endosperm well known in Indonesia as “kolang-kaling” (Fig. 4) (Miller 1964; Uhl and Dransfield 1987; Mogea et al. 1991; Quattrocchi 2017). There are various vernacular names for the endosperm, one of them is “curulug,” a Sundanese name. The endosperm or “kolang-kaling” is rich in fibers with about 16 grams of dietary fibers per 100 grams of endosperm (Duke 1989). “Kolang-kaling” is always sold in the local markets in Indonesia. Its sale and consumption however peaks during the Islamic month of Ramadan as it is mainly consumed in the form of jellies in beverages prepared and consumed in the evenings for breaking fast by the local Muslims. The farmers have even changed their focus from harvesting the sap for sugar palm to the harvest of “kolang-kaling” (Keim et al. 2012). South-East Asia: “Kolang-kaling” is also harvested and consumed for the same purpose in Malaysia and the Philippines. The young (not yet fully developed) endosperms are also eaten as vegetable or dessert in various places in Southeast Asia. The young crown top or terminal bud called “palm cabbage” is also eaten as a salad or cooked (Lim 2012; Sujarwo et al. 2015, 2016).

Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.

149

Biocultural Importance Arenga pinnata is one of several species of palms culturally important to the Austronesians. Almost all parts of the plant are used (Miller 1964; Mogea et al. 1991; Elberson and Oyen 2009; Quattrocchi 2017). Indonesia: The importance of Arenga pinnata in Austronesian civilization is evident in Java, the most populous island in Austronesia where it is depicted in the fourteenth and fifteenth century temples (Jago and Panataran Temples) in East Java built by the Majapahit – the largest empire Austronesians ever had (Kieven 2013). In these temples, Arenga pinnata was carved together with the other palm species of cultural importance for the Austronesians and also Melanesians such as Cocos nucifera, Areca catechu, and Borassus flabellifer (Kieven 2013). The palm itself is regarded as sacred by many tribes in Indonesia. In the past, the Bataks in Northern Sumatera always plant A. pinnata in the front of their houses for protecting them against the evil spirits (Junghuhn 1847; Azhar et al. 2019). The Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese also share the belief on the supernatural power of A. pinnata. They harvest the “sada lanang” (male palm midribs) of the leaves of A. pinnata and use it as a talisman against the evil spirits, especially by the pregnant and nursing mothers (Rahadini and Rahmat 2018). The midribs from coconut leaves are regarded as “female palm midrib” and possess less supernatural power. The supernatural power of the “sada lanang” of A. pinnata is still believed by the people in Java even though they have already embraced Islam. The “sada lanang” is used as marker when reading the Quran as reported from Cianjur, West Java (Gunawan et al. 2018). Interestingly, Rumphius (1741) wrote that the tradition of making the alcoholic liquid tapped from inflorescences of A. pinnata or known as tuak (tuac) in Ambon was said to be brought by the Javanese from Semarang. Thus, it is most likely that A. pinnata was introduced from Java to the Moluccas, including the traditions and customs related to the harvesting and usages of the plant. The usage of roots for curing the urinating disease has also been introduced by the Javanese and Balinese to the Moluccans. Furthermore, the customs and traditions related to A. pinnata are undoubtedly Austronesian. The same is also regarding the harvesting of starch from A. pinnata that is common among the Austronesians and found in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, with Indonesia as the center of the diversity in the usage of the starch. The other product harvested from A. pinnata that has both economic and cultural importance is the “ijuk,” which are black fibers produced from the disintegrated margin parts of the leaf-sheath (Uhl and Dransfield 1987; Dransfield and Beentje 1996). In the Moluccas, it is called “gamuto” or “gomuto” (hence the origin of the English and Indian names for “ijuk” and the plant itself, “gomuti”). “Ijuk” have been mainly used for string and thatching (Mogea et al. 1991). The roof and various parts of the traditional Austronesian houses and buildings (including palaces and temples) were once made from “ijuk” (Fox 2006). The water-resistant nature of the “ijuk” leads to its use in land slide protection and water purification (Keim et al. 2012). The ‘ijuk’ are also used to clear water for religious purposes by the Muslims and the Hindus (particularly in Bali and West Lombok). The Balinese and Baduy people of West Java are the popular tribes that use the “ijuk” and almost all parts of the plant

150

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

(leaves, leaf midribs, fruits, seeds, and sap); they use it for many purposes, from religious offerings to the roof of their buildings. The Balinese use it as roof for their temples (Sujarwo et al. 2020). Most of Sundanese in West Java prohibit showing the seeds of A. pinnata (Mogea et al. 1991), a custom which is regarded here as conservation friendly. As A. pinnata is mainly dispersed by Asian Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphrodites; see Van der Pijl 1969), the local belief of prohibiting showing the seeds can be interpreted here as protecting the locations of palm civets, thus protecting the civets from the hunters. The Sundanese use the bark of A. pinnata as building materials for irrigation and pond walls as they are regarded as strong, durable, and water resistant (Keim et al. 2012). Arenga pinnata is currently included in the conservation of the Sumatran Orang Utan (Pongo abelii) and particularly the critically endangered species of Orang Utan species from Tapanuli, North Sumatra, Pongo tapanuliensis (Martini et al. 2011; Reese 2017).

Economic Importance Arenga pinnata is one of several economically important palm species in the Malesian region, along with the other palms such as palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer), betel nut palms (Areca catechu), coconut (Cocos nucifera), corypha (Corypha utan), sago (Metroxylon sagu), salak fruit (Salacca zalacca), and various species of rattans, particularly of Calamus spp. (Miller 1964; Uhl and Dransfield 1987; Mogea et al. 1991; Quattrocchi 2017). The most important economic product of A. pinnata is still the sugar palm harvested from the sap. Indonesia is the main producer of the sugar palm even since the colonial time (then as Dutch East Indies; see Heyne 1927). Recently, the sap has found more economic value as the source of bioethanol (Elberson and Oyen 2009). Second to the sap is the “ijuk” (or in Europe is also called “gomuti”), the black fibers produced from the disintegrated leaf-sheath margins (Fig. 5). Indonesia has been known to be one of the important producers of “ijuk” since the colonial time (then as Dutch East Indies) with conspicuous volume of export. The fibers (“ijuk”) have been traditionally used by the Indonesians for roofs, strings, households (such as brooms), religious purposes (part of the offerings in Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese customs), and hydrology related purposes such as irrigations, pond walls, and flooding protection (Mogea et al. 1991; Lim 2012; Keim et al. 2012; Sujarwo et al. 2019; Sujarwo et al. 2020). It is even used in fishery as the breeding site for giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy), which is regarded as the most expensive freshwater fish in Indonesia and Southeast Asia for hundreds of years (Weber and de Beaufort 1922). Current researches indicate that the fibers are exceptionally good for composites due to their strength, durability, and water-resistant nature (Sahari et al. 2012; Ishak et al. 2013). The “ijuk” has even been used in automotive industries and mainly for brake pads and car seats (Prasetyo 2013). The fibers from places in West Java have been exported to the automotive industries in Japan, South Korea, and some countries in Europe, particularly Germany and Italy (Keim et al. 2012). The hard part of the fibers has also been exported to France for fashion industries (Keim et al. 2012). The species provides a great

Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.

151

Fig. 5 Black fibers of Arenga pinnata (© Wawan Sujarwo)

number of products and benefits to its users such as baskets, bioethanol, brooms, brown sugar, brushes, capes, cigarette paper, drinking cup, flavor stimulant (for cakes, pastries, pancakes, toast, sandwiches, cereals, beverages, fruit juices, dessert toppings), furniture material, hats, musical instruments like drums, natural fibers, natural filament, roof material, ropes, tool handlers, vinegar, water pipes, wine, etc. (Lim 2012; Mogea et al. 1991; Sastra et al. 2006).

References Azhar I, Risnasari I, Muhdi, Srena MF, Riswan. The utilization of sugar palm (Arenga pinnata) by the people around Batang Gadis National Park area. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2019;305:012016. Backer CA, van den Brink RCB. Flora of Java, volume 3, spermatophytes only. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff; 1968. Burkill IH. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay peninsula. London: Governments of the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States; 1935. Dransfield J. Palms and Wallace’s line. In: Whitmore TC, editor. Wallace’s line and plate tectonics. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1981. p. 43–56. Dransfield J. Bicentric distribution in Malesia as exemplified by palms. In: Whitmore TC, editor. Biogeographical evolution of the Malay archipelago. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1987. p. 60–72.

152

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

Dransfield J, Beentje H. Lexicon palmarum: a compendium of botanical terms in five languages. Marly-le Roi and Kew: Champflour and Royal Botanic Gardens Kew; 1996. Dransfield J, Mogea JP. The flowering behaviour of Arenga (Palmae: Caryotoideae). Bot J Linn Soc. 1984;88:1–10. Dransfield J, Uhl NW, Asmussen CB, Baker WJ, Harley MM, Lewis CE. A new phylogenetic classification of the palm family, Arecaceae. Kew Bull. 2005;60:559–69. Dransfield J, Uhl NW, Asmussen CB, Baker WJ, Harley MM, Lewis CE. Genera Palmarum: the evolution and classification of palms. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2008. Duke JA. Arenga pinnata (Wurm.) Merr. (Arecaceae). In: Duke JA, editor. Handbook of nuts. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1989. p. 30–3. Elberson W, Oyen L. Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata): potential of sugar palm for bio-ethanol production. Leiden: FACT Foundation; 2009. Endreswari S. Arenga. In: Lemmens RHMJ, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resource of South East Asia (PROSEA): medicinal and poisonous plants no. 12 (3). Leiden: Backhuys Publication; 2003. p. 81–2. Fox JJ. Inside Austronesian houses: perspectives on domestic design for living. Canberra: Australian National University Press; 2006. Gunawan R, Ramadhan UG, Iskandar J, Partasasmita R. Local knowledge of utilization and management of sugar palm (Arenga pinnata) among Cipanggulaan people of Karyamukti, Cianjur. Biodiversitas. 2018;19(1):93–105. Hafiz ATM, Sarayati AMS, Julenah AN, Azrin ARN, Diana I, Fitri SR. Determination of antimicrobial and antidiabetic activities of Arenga pinnata Merr. Selangor: Proceedings of the Seminar on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants; 2010. p. 121–3. Heyne K. De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch Indië, vol. 1. 2nd ed. Batavia: Department van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch Indië; 1927. Ishak MR, Sapuan SM, Leman Z, Rahman MZA, Anwar UMK, Siregar JP. Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata): its fibres, polymers and composites. Carbohydr Polym. 2013;91:699–710. Junghuhn F. Die Batta-länder auf Sumatra, vol. 1. Berlin: Reimer; 1847. Kaban J, Reveny J, Tarigan J, Zebua NF. Sulfation of plam seed (Arenga pinnata Merr.) galactomannan: antimicrobial activity and toxicity test. Rasayan J Chem. 2018;11(1):294–9. Keim AP. Preliminary study on Caryotoid palms (Arecaceae: Caryoteae). Reading: University of Reading; 1997. Keim AP, Yusuf R, Purwaningsih, Darnaedi D, Triono T. Revitalisasi aren (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) (Palmae; Caryoteae) sebagai alternative bahan pemanis alami dalam rangka mendukung kemandirian gula nasional: Kajian di Provinsi Jawa Barat. In: Syakir MS, editor. Aren untuk pangan dan alternative energi terbarukan. Balikpapan: Prosiding Seminar Nasional Aren; 2012. p. 33–46. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Effendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhmmadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. p. 2018. Kieven L. Following the cap-figure in Majapahit temple reliefs: a new look at the religious function of East Javanese temples, 14th and 15th centuries. Leiden: Brill; 2013. Li F, Huo J, Zhuang Y, Xiao H, Wang W, Huang L. Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of the ethanol extract of Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. Fruit. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;248:112349. Lim TK. Edible medicinal and non-medicinal plants, volume 1, fruits. Dordrecht: Springer; 2012. p. 280–4. Martini E, Roshetko JM, Van Noordwijk M, Rahmanulloh A, Mulyoutami E, Joshi L, Budidarsono S. Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata) for livehoods and biodiversity conservation in the orang utan habitat of Batang Toru, north Sumatera: mixed perspective for domestication. Agrofor Syst. 2011;86(3):1–17. Miller RH. The versatile sugar palm. Principes. 1964;8(4):115–51. Mogea J, Seibert B, Smits S. Multipurpose palms: The sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.). Agrofor Syst. 1991;13:111–29.

Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.

153

Moore HE. The major groups of palms and their distribution. New York: L.H. Bailey Hortorium, New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences; 1973. Perry LM. Medicinal plants of east and Southeast Asia: attributed properties and uses. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Press; 1980. POWO. Plants of the world online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2020. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 5 May 2020. Prasetyo D. Pemanfaatan serat ijuk sebagai bahan gesek alternative kampas rem. Jurnal Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan. 2013;1(4):1–8. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of palms: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2017. Rahadini A, Rahmat R. Philosophical meaning of the myth of pregnant and nursing mothers at Dawuhan village, Banyumas. EduLite J Engl Educ Lit Cult. 2018;3(2):188–95. Reese A. Newly discovered orangutan species is also the most endangered. Nature. 2017;551 (7699):151. Rumphius GE. Herbarium amboinense, vol. 1. Amsterdam: Franciscus Changuion; 1741. Sahari J, Sapuan SM, Zainudin ES, Maleque MA. Sugar palm tree: a versatile plant and novel source for biofibres, biomatrices and biocomposites. Polym Renew Resour. 2012;3(2):61–77. Sastra HY, Siregar JP, Sapuan SM, Hamdan MM. Tensile properties of Arenga pinnata fiberreinforced epoxy composites. Polym Plast Technol Eng. 2006;45(1–3):149–55. Smits WTM. Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. In: Flach M, Rumawas F, editors. Plant resources of South East Asia no. 9, plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates. Bogor: Prosea Foundation; 1996. p. 53–8. Sovia E, Anggraeny D. Sugar palm fruits (Arenga pinnata) as potential analgesics and antiinflammatory agent. Mol Cell Biomed Sci. 2019;3(2):107–14. Sujarwo W, Keim AP, Savo V, Guarrera PM, Caneva G. Ethnobotanical study of Loloh: traditional herbal drinks from Bali (Indonesia). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;169:34–48. Sujarwo W, Arinasa IBK, Caneva G, Guarrera PM. Traditional knowledge of wild and semi-wild edible plants used in Bali (Indonesia) to maintain biological and cultural diversity. Plant Biosyst. 2016;150(5):971–6. Sujarwo W, Caneva G, Zuccarello V. Bio-cultural traits and cultural keystone species, a combined approach: An example of application about plants used for food and nutraceutical purposes in aga villages in Bali, Indonesia. Hum Ecol. 2019;47(6):917–29. Sujarwo W, Caneva G, Zuccarello V. Patterns of plant use in religious offerings in Bali (Indonesia). Acta Bot Bras. 2020;34(1):40–53. Tarigan JB, Barus DA, Dalimunthe A, Perangin-Angin S, Nguyen TT. Physicochemical properties of Arenga pinnata Merr. endosperm and its antidiabetic activity for nutraceutical application. J Adv Pharm Technol Res. 2020;11(1):1–5. Uhl NW, Dransfield J. Genera Palmarum: a classification of palms based on the work of Harold E. Moore Jr. Lawrence: L.H. Bailey Hortorium and the International Palm Society; 1987. Van der Pijl L. Principles of dispersal in higher plants. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1969. Weber M, De Beaufort LF. The fishes of the indo-Australian archipelago, vol. 4. Leiden: E.J. Brill; 1922. Yunos NJ, Sulaiman A, Yusuf NA, Ghazali DR. Antioxidant capacity of vacuum evaporation of palm syrup (Arenga pinnata). Sci Int (Lahore). 2017;29(2):155–9.

Argemone mexicana L. PAPAVERACEAE Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

Synonyms Argemone alba Raf.; A. alba var. leiocarpa Fedde; A. leiocarpa Greene; A. leiocarpa var. mexicanoides Fedde; A. leiocarpa var. ochroleucoides Fedde; A. mexicana var. anacanthoidea Fedde; A. mexicana f. leiocarpa (Greene) Ownbey; A. mexicana var. parviflora Kuntze; A. mucronata Dum.Cours. ex Steud.; A. sexvalvis Stokes; A. spinosa Gaterau; A. spinosa Moench; A. versicolor Salisb.; Echtrus mexicanus (L.) Nieuwl.; E. trivialis Lour.; Papaver mexicanum (L.) E.H.L.Krause (POWO 2020)

Local Names Chelang keringan, pokok popi (Malaysia), celangkringan, druju (Javanese), deruju (Indonesia), fin naam (Bangkok, Thailand), kachumba, kasubang-aso (Iloko of Philippines), diluariu (Tagalog of Philippines), gai cua, mufi cua, caf gai hoa vafng (Vietnam), khaya (Myanmar) (Khanh 2020).

Botany and Ecology Description: Herbs, up to 60 cm high; branchlets glabrous, with yellow latex, armed. Leaves alternate, oblong to obovate, 5–9.5
3–5 cm, amplexicaul at base, pinnatisect, spinulous-dentate at margins, acutely spinescent at apex; glaucous;

K. Devanathan (*) Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_104

155

156

K. Devanathan

Fig. 1 A twig with capsules of Argemone mexicana L. (© Devanathan Krishnamoorthy)

sessile. Flowers terminal, solitary, c. 5 cm across, golden yellow (Fig. 1); pedicel c. 6 mm long. Sepals 3, caducous. Petals 6, two whorls, obovate; outer petals c. 2.5
1.5 cm; inner petals c. 3
2 cm, cuneate at base, entire at margins, obtuse at apex. Stamens 45–50; filaments c. 3 mm long. Ovary oblong, c. 1.5
0.5 cm, ovules numerous; stigma subsessile, 5-lobed, purple. Capsule oblong, 3.5– 4.5
1.5–2 cm, 3–7-ribbed, spinescent, apically dehiscing by 3–7 valves (Fig. 2). Seeds numerous, c. 2 mm across, black-brown, pitted (Fig. 3). Phenology: Flowering and fruiting throughout the year. Distribution: Argemone mexicana is native to Central America and Western Australia. Introduced and naturalised throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It grows well in wastelands, roadsides and arable fields as a weed at elevations ranging from Sea level to 3000 m.a.s.l. (POWO 2020). The genus name Argemone comes from the Greek word meaning “cataract of the eye” after its traditional use for the treatment of cataract. The specific epithet mexicana is derived from its country of origin (Dave’s Garden 2020). Though it is poisonous to animals, the stems are eaten by the lemurs in Madagascar (Lafleur and Gould 2009; CABI 2020), and the seeds are eaten by several birds in Puerto Rico (CABI 2020).

Argemone mexicana L.

Fig. 2 Flower of Argemone mexicana L. (© Devanathan Krishnamoorthy)

Fig. 3 Seeds of Argemone mexicana L. (© Devanathan Krishnamoorthy)

157

158

K. Devanathan

Local Medicinal Uses In Myanmar, whole plant extract is used for the treatment of edema, roots to alleviate skin diseases, and seeds as laxative and expectorant (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018). Roots are used in the treatment of rheumatism in Vietnam. It is also used as an abortifacient in the Philippines (Khanh 2020). Argemone mexicana is also used in the treatment of Dermatosis in Java and to cure Wart in Java and Philippines (Duke 2020). Besides, Argemone mexicana is also traditionally used to alleviate several disorders including tumors, warts, skin diseases, inflammations, rheumatism, jaundice, leprosy, microbial infections, malaria and styptic in various parts of the world (Brahmachari et al. 2013; Franco and Narasimhan 2012).

Phytochemistry Whole plant and seeds are the most extensively screened parts of A. mexicana. The alkaloids berberine and protopine (Santos and Adkilen 1932; Bose et al. 1963; Chang et al. 2003a) are the two major phytochemicals present in the A. mexicana. Whole plant: Phytochemicals identified from the whole plant include norsanguinarine, norchelerythrine, cryptopine, ()-cheilanthifoline, ()-β-scoulerine methohydroxide, and ()-α- & β-stylopine methohydroxide (Haisova and Slavik 1975); isoquinolone: oxyhydrastinine (Hussain et al. 1983); protopine: argemexicaine A, argemexicaine B, and allocryptopine; benzo(c) phenanthridines: ()-6-acetonyldihydrochelerythrine, norchelerythrine, O-methylzanthoxyline, sanguinarine, ()-6-acetonyldihydrosanguinarine, arnottianamide, ()-angoline, and chelerythrine; protoberberine type alkaloids: ()-tetrehydroberberine, dehydrocheilantifoline (Chang et al. 2003a); alkaloids: tannic, caffeic, ferulic acids (Singh et al. 2010a); quaternary isoquinoline alkaloids: dehydrocorydalmine, jatrorrhizine, columbamine, and oxyberberine (Singh et al. 2010b); benzylisoquinoline alkaloid: argemexirine; protoberberine alkaloids: DL-tetrahydrocoptisine and dihydrocoptisine (Singh et al. 2010c). Seeds: Seeds of A. mexicana contain phenolic compounds: 5,7,20 ,60 -tetrahydroxyflavone and 5,7-dihydroxychromone 7-neohesperidoside (Bhardwaj et al. 1982); flavone: luteolin; flavanone: eriodictyol (Harborne and Williams 1983); triglyceride: sn-glycerol-1-eicosa-9, 12-dienoate-2-palmitoleate-3-linoleate (Saleh et al. 1987); isoquinoline alkaloids: dihydropalmatine hydroxide, and protopine (Gupta et al. 1990), berberine (Gupta et al. 1990; Fletcher et al. 1993), dihydrosanguinarine, and sanguinarine (Fletcher et al. 1993). Argemone oil extracted from its seeds contain fatty acids: myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and ricinoleic acid (Badami and Gunstone 1962); long-chain fatty acid: argemonic acid (Rukmini 1975); other fatty acids: 9- and 11-oxo-octacosanoic and 11-oxotriacontanoic acids (Gunstone et al. 1977) and 11-oxo-octacosanoic acid and 11-oxo-triacontanoic acid (Fletcher et al. 1993).

Argemone mexicana L.

159

According to Harborne and Williams (1983), seeds of A. mexicana do not contain argemixitin which was reported before. Roots: Kukula-Koch and Mroczek (2015) isolated berberine, protopine, chelerithrine, sanguinarine, coptisine, palmatine, magnoflorine, and galanthamine from the roots of A. mexicana. Aerial parts: Phytochemicals isolated from the aerial parts include protopine, α-Allocryptopine (Israilov and Yuhusov 1986; Capasso et al. 1997); berberine (Israilov and Yuhusov 1986; Elizondo-Luevano et al. 2020); scoulerine, cheijanthifoline, reticuline, and isocorydine (Israilov and Yuhusov 1986); monohydric alcohol: triacontan-11 ol; dihydric alcohol: triacontane-6,1 L-diol (Sangwan and Malik 1998); benzophenanthridine-type alkaloids: N-demethyloxysanguinarine and pancorine; benzylisoquinoline-type alkaloids: (+)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1-(2-hydroxymethyl-3,4dimethoxyphenylmethyl)-6,7 methylenedioxyisoquinoline (or (+)-argenaxine), (+)higenamine and (+)-reticuline; other biochemicals compounds: α-tocopherol, phytol, stigma-4-en-3,6-diene, adenine, adenosine, and isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Chang et al. 2003b); protopine alkaloid: protomexicine; isoflavonoid: mexitin; nonalkaloids: 8-methoxydihydrosanguinarine, 13-oxoprotopine, rutin and quercetrin (Singh et al. 2012); stigmasterol (Nayak et al. 2016) and jatrorrhizine (Elizondo-Luevano et al. 2020). Leaves: Phytochemical screening of leaves yielded n-alkane constituents such as octadecane, nonadecane, eicosane, heneicosane, docosane, tricosane, tetracosane, pentacosane, hexacosane, heptacosane, octacosane, nonacosane, triacontane, hentriacontane, dotriacontane, tritriacontane, and tetratriacontane (Bhattacharjee et al. 2010b). In addition, allocryptopine, protopine and berberine (Simoes-Pires et al. 2014; More et al. 2017) have also been isolated from the leaves. Flower: Rahman and Ilyas (1962) extracted isorhaninetin and two glycosides: isorhamnetin-3-glucoside and isorhamnetin-7-diglucoside from the flower. Brahmachari et al. (2010) isolated hentriacontane-3,20-diol from the petals. Other phytochemical constituents isolated from various parts of A. mexicana include tannin, resin, argemone oil (Bose et al. 1963); long-chain diol: mexicanol; long-chain hydroxy acid: mexicanic acid (Dinda and Banerjee 1987); isoquinoline alkaloids, papaverine (Capasso et al. 2006); alkaloids: 13-oxoprotopine, protomexicine, 8-methoxydihydrosanguinarine, dehydrocorydalmine, jatrorrhizine, and 8-oxyberberine (Singh et al. 2016); and silver nano-particles (Kamalakannan et al. 2016).

Bioactivities Phytochemicals from various parts possess bioactivities including anti-drug abuse agent (Capasso et al. 1997), anticancer activity against human nasopharyngeal carcinoma (HONE-1) cancer, human gastric cancer, human colon cancer cells (Chang et al. 2003b; Gali et al. 2011; Singh et al. 2016; More and Kharat 2016;

160

K. Devanathan

Hussain et al. 2018), anti-stress and anti-allergic (Bhalke and Gosavi 2009), antioxidant (Perumal et al. 2010; Bhardwaj et al. 2011; Apu et al. 2012; Asuntha et al. 2015; Kushtwar and Anurag 2016), anti-gastric ulcer (Das et al. 2011), hepatoprotective (Das et al. 2009; Adam et al. 2011; Sourabie et al. 2012; Bhat et al. 2014), analgesic and sedative (Anarthe and Chaudhari 2011), anxiolytic (Anarthe and Chaudhari 2011; Arcos-Martínez et al. 2016), wound-healing (Patil et al. 2001; Dash and Murthy 2011; Saravanan et al. 2017), clot lysis/thrombolytic (Apu et al. 2012), anti-diabetic (Nayak et al. 2011), aldose reductase (Gupta et al. 2014), hypoglycaemic (Rout et al. 2011), antimalarial (Simoes-Pires et al. 2014), anti-status epilepticus and anti-oxidative stress (Asuntha et al. 2015), antiurolithiatic (Chilivery et al. 2016), larvicidal (Rothe et al. 2016), biopesticide (Das and Sukul 1988; Singh et al. 1993; von Weizsäckerl 1995; Chitra et al. 1997; Saxena and Tabassum 2000; Shaukat et al. 2002), and inhibiting electrically induced contractions (Piacente et al. 1998). Secondary metabolites from A. mexicana show various microbial activities including antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus (Alagesaboopathi and Kalaiselvi 2012; More et al. 2017), B. subtilis (Bhattacharjee et al. 2006; Rahman et al. 2009; Abubacker and Ramanathan 2012; Bhardwaj et al. 2012; Saranya et al. 2012; Rajalakshmi et al. 2016; Andleeb et al. 2020), Clostridium botulinum, C. perfringens (Rahman et al. 2009), Enterobacter aerogenes (Andleeb et al. 2020), Enterococcus sp. (Singh et al. 2009), Escherichia coli (Bhattacharjee et al. 2006, 2010a; Rahman et al. 2009, 2011; Singh et al. 2009; Pandey and Karanwal 2011; Abubacker and Ramanathan 2012; Alagesaboopathi and Kalaiselvi 2012; Bhardwaj et al. 2012; Saranya et al. 2012; Alemayehu and Desalegn 2016; More et al. 2017; Andleeb et al. 2020), Klebsiella pneumoniae (Osho and Adetunji 2010; Bhattacharjee et al. 2010a; Alagesaboopathi and Kalaiselvi 2012; Saranya et al. 2012; Andleeb et al. 2020), Listeria monocytogenes (Rahman et al. 2009), Pectobacterium carotovarum (Saravanan et al. 2017), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Bhattacharjee et al. 2006, 2010a; Rahman et al. 2009; Singh et al. 2009; Pandey and Karanwal 2011; Abubacker and Ramanathan 2012; Bhardwaj et al. 2012; Sahu et al. 2012; Saranya et al. 2012; Kamalakannan et al. 2016; More et al. 2017), P. putida (Saravanan et al. 2017), Proteus mirabilis (Saranya et al. 2012), Salmonella typhi (Singh et al. 2009; Saranya et al. 2012; Saravanan et al. 2017), S. typhimurium (Rahman et al. 2009), Shigella dysenteriae (Apu et al. 2012), Staphylococcus aureus (Bhattacharjee et al. 2006, 2010a; Rahman et al. 2009; Singh et al. 2009; Osho and Adetunji 2010; Pandey and Karanwal 2011; Abubacker and Ramanathan 2012; Alagesaboopathi and Kalaiselvi 2012; Apu et al. 2012; Bhardwaj et al. 2012; Saranya et al. 2012; Alemayehu and Desalegn 2016; More et al. 2017; Saravanan et al. 2017; Andleeb et al. 2020), S. epidermidis (Bhardwaj et al. 2012), Streptococcus aglaciatae (Alemayehu and Desalegn 2016), Shigella sp., Staphylococcus sp., and Salmonella sp. (Rahman et al. 2011), and Vibrio cholerae (Saravanan et al. 2017; Andleeb et al. 2020). Antifungal activity has been reported against Aspergillus flavus (More and Kharat 2016), A. fumigates (Andleeb et al. 2020), A. nigar (More and Kharat 2016; Andleeb et al. 2020), Candida albicans (Apu et al. 2012; Bhardwaj et al. 2012), C. stellatoidea (Osho and Adetunji 2010), Mucor indicus (More and Kharat 2016),

Argemone mexicana L.

161

Penicillium notatum (More and Kharat 2016), Alternaria solani, A. cajani, Bipolaris sp., Cercospora sp., C. cajani, Curvularia sp., Fusarium udum, Helminthosporium sp., Sphaerotheca sp., and Ustilago cynodontis (Singh et al. 2010a), Fusarium moniliforme (Kushtwar and Tripathy 2017). Antiviral activities have been reported against HIV (Chang et al. 2003a; Sabde et al. 2011), white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) (Palanikumar et al. 2018). Anti-trophozoites activity has been noted against Entamoeba histolytica (Elizondo-Luévano et al. 2018), Plasmodium falciparum (Willcox et al. 2007; Willcox 2011; Simoes-Pires et al. 2014), Trichomonas vaginalis (Elizondo-Luevano et al. 2020). Other bioactivities include anthelmintic: Ascaridia galli, Pheretima posthuma (Abdul Majeed et al. 2011), Haemonchus contortus (Jasso-Díaz et al. 2017). Nematicidal: Meloidogyne incognita (Saleh et al. 1987; Das and Sukul 1988), M. javanica (Shaukat et al. 2002); anti-parasiti: Numidilipeurus lawrensis (Kumar et al. 2002); antitick or acaricidal activity: Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Ghosh et al. 2015); larvicidal: Aedes aegypti (Linn) (Sakthivadivel and Thilagavathy 2003; Warikoo and Kumar 2013), A. albopictus (Kamalakannan et al. 2016), Culex quinquefasciatus (Granados-Echegoyen et al. 2018; Sakthivadivel et al. 2012); molluscicidal: Biomphalaria glabrata (Meléndez and Capriles 2002), Lymnaea acuminata (Singh and Singh 1999) and anti-termitic activity against Coptotermes formosanus (Elango et al. 2012). Though A. mexicana is a valuable medicinal plant, secondary metabolites from it are known to have toxic effects on animals including humans. Toxic effects on both human and animals include cardiovascular manifestations such as dyspnea, edema, hepatic enlargement, and pulmonary congestion (Sanghvi et al. 1960), epidemic dropsy or genotoxic activity (Sanghvi et al. 1960; Vaidya et al. 1980; Dalvi 1985; Verma et al. 2001; Ansari et al. 2004, 2005; Ghosh and Mukherjee 2016), stimulating heart, respiration, skeletal muscles, and blood pressure (Bose et al. 1963), depression, edema and death (Norton and O’Rourke 1980; Pahwa and Chatterjee 1989), hepatotoxic (Dalvi 1985), antispermatogenic (Gupta et al. 1990), testicular or fertility disorders (Mishra et al. 2009), reproductive and developmental disorders (Tamboli et al. 2010).

References Abdul Majeed S, Taju G, Nathiga Nambi KS, Menaka H. Anthelmintic activity of Argemone mexicana leaves extract against Pheretima prosthuma and Ascardia galli. Res J Pharm Biol Chem Sci. 2011;2(3):773–7. Abubacker MN, Ramanathan R. Antibacterial activities of Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae) leaf extract on pathogenic bacterial strains. Drug Invent Today. 2012;4:385–7. Adam SIY, Idris IA, Abdelgadir EH, Ahmed RH, Kamal EE. Evaluation of hepatoprotective activity of Argemone mexicana aerial part extracts on CCL4 induced liver damage in Wistar rats. Br J Pharmacol Toxicol. 2011;2(5):251–6. Alagesaboopathi C, Kalaiselvi N. Antimicrobial activities of the root, stems and leaf extracts of Argemone mexicana L. Int J Biosci. 2012;2:61–8.

162

K. Devanathan

Alemayehu K, Desalegn T. Antibiotic effects of Argemone mexicana (Papaveraceae) against field crops and pathogens causing mastitis in dairy cattle in three districts of Amhara Region, Ethiopia. J Adv Biol Biotechnol. 2016;5(1):1–9. Anarthe S, Chaudhari S. Neuropharmacological study of Argemone mexicana L. J App Pharm Sci. 2011;1:121–6. Andleeb S, Alsalme A, Al-Zaqri N, Warad I, Alkahtani J, Bukhari SM. In-vitro antibacterial and antifungal properties of the organic solvent extract of Argemone mexicana L. J King Saud Univ Sci. 2020;32:2053–8. Ansari KM, Chauhan LKS, Dhawan A, Khanna SK, Das M. Unequivocal evidence of genotoxic potential of argemone oil in mice. Int J Cancer. 2004;112:890–5. Ansari KM, Dhawan A, Khanna SK, Das M. In vivo DNA damaging potential of sanguinarine alkaloid, isolated from argemone oil, using alkaline comet assay in mice. Food Chem Toxicol. 2005;43:147–53. Apu AS, Al-Baizyd AH, Ara F, Bhuyan SH, Matin M, Hossain MF. Phytochemical analysis and bioactivities of Argemone mexicana Linn. leaves. Pharmacologyonline. 2012;3:16–23. Arcos-Martínez AI, Muñoz-Muñiz OD, Domínguez-Ortiz MA, Saavedra-Vélez MV, VázquezHernández M, Alcántara-López MG. Anxiolytic-like effect of ethanolic extract of Argemone mexicana and its alkaloids in Wistar rats. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2016;6(4):476–88. Asuntha G, Raju YP, Sundaresan CR, Rasheed A, Chowdary VH, Vandana KR, Satish Babu K, Prasad KVSRG. Effect of Argemone mexicana (L.) against lithium-pilocarpine induced status epilepticus and oxidative stress in Wistar rats. Indian J Exp Biol. 2015;53(1):31–5. Badami RC, Gunstone FD. Vegetable oils. X. Examination of component acids of Argemone mexicana seed oil by reversed-phase chromatography. J Sci Food Agric. 1962;13:255–7. Bhalke RD, Gosavi SA. Anti-stress and antiallergic effect of Argemone mexicana stems in asthma. Arch Pharm Sci Res. 2009;1:127–9. Bhardwaj DK, Bisht MS, Jain RK, Munyal A. Phenolics from the seeds of Argemone mexicana. Phytochemistry. 1982;21:2154–6. Bhardwaj M, Surekha, Duhan JS. Free radical-scavenging and antimutagenic potential of acetone, chloroform and methanol extracts of leaf of Argemone mexicana. Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 2011;2:455–64. Bhardwaj M, Duhan JS, Kumar A. Surekha. Antimicrobial potential of Argemone mexicana: an in vitro study. Asian J Microbiol Biotechnol Environ Sci. 2012;14:353–7. Bhat SH, Shrivastava R, Malla MY, Iqbal M, Anjum T, Mir AH, Sharma M. Hepatoprotective activity of Argemone mexicana Linn against toxic effects of carbon tetrachloride in rats. World J Pharm Res. 2014;3(3):4037–48. Bhattacharjee I, Chattarjee SK, Chattarjee K, Chandra G. Antibacterial potentiality of Argemone mexicana solvent extracts against some pathogenic bacteria. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2006;101:645–8. Bhattacharjee I, Chattarjee SK, Chandra G. Isolation and identification of antibacterial components in seed extracts of Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae). Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2010a;3:547–51. Bhattacharjee I, Ghosh A, Chowdhury N, Chatterjee SK, Chandra G, Laskar S. n-alkane profile of Argemone mexicana leaves. Z Naturforsch. 2010b;65:533–6. Bose BC, Vijayvargiya R, Saifi AQ, Sharma SK. Chemical and pharmacological studies on Argemone mexicuna. J Pharm Sci. 1963;52(12):1172–5. Brahmachari G, Roy R, Mandal LC, Ghosh PP, Gorai D. A new long-chain secondary alkanediol from the flowers of Argemone mexicana. J Chem Res. 2010;11:656–7. Brahmachari G, Gorai D, Roy R. Argemone mexicana: chemical and pharmacological aspects. Braz J Pharmacogn. 2013;23(3):559–75. CABI. Invasive species compendium. 2020. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/6878. Accessed 2 June 2020. Capasso A, Piacente S, Pizza C, De Tommasi N, Jativa C, Sorrentino L. Isoquinoline alkaloids from Argemone mexicana reduce morphine withdrawal in guinea pig isolated ileum. Planta Med. 1997;63:326–8.

Argemone mexicana L.

163

Capasso A, Piacente S, Tommasi ND, Rastrelli L, Pizza C. The effect of isoquinoline alkaloids on opiate withdrawal. Curr Med Chem. 2006;13(7):807–12. https://doi.org/10.2174/09298670677 6055616. Chang YC, Hsieh PW, Chang FR, Wu RR, Liaw CC, Lee KH, Wu YC. Two new protopines argemexicaines A and B and the anti-HIV alkaloid 6-acetonyldihydrochelerythrine from formosan Argemone mexicana. Planta Med. 2003a;69:148–52. Chang YC, Chang FR, Khalil AT, Hsieh PW, Wu YC. Cytotoxic benzophenanthridine and benzylisoquinoline alkaloids from Argemone mexicana. Z Naturforsch. 2003b;58:521–6. Chilivery RK, Alagar S, Darsini TP. In vitro anti-urolithiasis potentials of Argemone mexicana L. leaves. Curr Clin Pharmacol. 2016;11(4):286–90. https://doi.org/10.2174/157488471166 6161010143649. Chitra KC, Rao SJ, Rao PK. Efficacy of plant extracts for controlling cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii). Indian J Agri Sci. 1997;67(3):134–5. Dalvi RR. Sanguinarine: its potential as a liver toxic alkaloid present in the seeds of Argemone Mexicana. Experientia. 1985;41:77–8. Das S, Sukul NC. Nematicidal effect of the oil from the seeds of Argemone mexicana. Environ Ecol. 1988;6(1):194–7. Das PK, Sethi R, Panda P, Pani SR. Hepatoprotective activity of plant Argemone mexicana (Linn) against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Int J Pharm Res Dev. 2009;8:1–20. Das PK, Pillai S, Kar D, Pradhan D, Sahoo S. Pharmacological efficacy of Argemone mexicana plant extract, against cysteamine-induced duodenal ulceration in rats. Indian J Med Sci. 2011;65 (3):92–9. Dash GK, Murthy PN. Evaluation of Argemone mexicana L. leaves for wound healing activity. J Nat Prod Plant Resour. 2011;1:46–56. Dave’s Garden. 2020. https://davesgarden.com/guides/botanary/search.php?searchtext¼ Argemone. Accessed 2 June 2020. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Dinda B, Banerjee J. Aliphatic compounds from Argemone mexicana. Chem Ind (Lond). 1987;12:419–20. Duke. Dr. Duke’s phytochemical and ethnobotanical databases. 2020. https://phytochem.nal.usda. gov/phytochem/ethnoPlants/show/569?qlookup¼argemone+mexicana&offset¼0&max¼20& et¼. Accessed 2 June 2020. Elango G, Abdul Rahuman A, Kamaraj C, Bagavan A, Abduz Zahir A, Santhoshkumar T, Marimuthu S, Velayutham K, Jayaseelan C, Vishnu Kirthi A, Rajakumar G. Efficacy of medicinal plant extracts against Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus. Ind Crop Prod. 2012;36:524–30. Elizondo-Luévano JH, Castro-Ríos R, Sánchez-García E, Hernández-García ME, Vargas-VillarrealJ, Rodríguez-Luis OE, Chávez-Montes A. In vitro study of antiamoebic activity of methanol extracts of Argemone mexicana on trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica HM1-IMSS. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7453787. Elizondo-Luevano JH, Verde-Star J, González-Horta A, Castro-Ríos R, Hernández-García ME, Chávez-Montes A. In vitro effect of methanolic extract of Argemone mexicana against Trichomonas vaginalis. Korean J Parasitol. 2020;58(2):135–45. https://doi.org/10.3347/ kjp.2020.58.2.135. Fletcher MT, Takken G, Blaney BJ, Alberts V. Isoquinoline alkaloids and keto-fatty acids of Argemone ochroleuca and A. mexicana (Mexican poppy) seed. I. An assay method and factors affecting their concentration. Aust J Agric Res. 1993;44:265–75. Franco FM, Narasimhan D. Ethnobotany of the Kondh, Poraja, Gadaba and Bonda of the Koraput Region of Odisha, India. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld; 2012. p. 40. Gali K, Ramakrishnan G, Kothai R, Jaykar B. In-vitro anti-cancer activity of methanolic extract of leaves of Argemone mexicana Linn. Int J PharmTech Res. 2011;3:1329–33.

164

K. Devanathan

Ghosh I, Mukherjee A. Argemone oil induces genotoxicity in mice. Drug Chem Toxicol. 2016. https://doi.org/10.3109/01480545.2015.1135339. Ghosh S, Tiwari SS, Kumar B, Srivastava S, Sharma AK, Kumar S, Bandyopadhyay A, Julliet S, Kumar R, Rawat AKS. Identification of potential plant extracts for anti-tick activity against acaricide resistant cattle ticks, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae). Exp Appl Acarol. 2015;66:159–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10493-015-9890-7. Granados-Echegoyen CA, Chan-Bacab MJ, Ortega-Morales BO, Vásquez-López A, LagunezRivera L, Diego-Nava F, Gaylarde C. Argemone mexicana (Papaverales: Papavaraceae) as an alternative for mosquito control: first report of Larvicidal activity of flower extract. J Med Entomol. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjy159. Gunstone FD, Holliday JA, Scrimgeour CM. Fatty acids, part 51. The long-chain oxo acids (argemonic acid) in Argemone mexicana seed oil. Chem Phys Lipids. 1977;20:331–5. Gupta RS, Dixit VP, Dobhal MP. Antifertility studies of isoquinoline alkaloids with special emphasis on structure activity relationship. Fitoterapia. 1990;61(1):67–71. Gupta S, Singh N, Jaggi AS. Evaluation of in vitro aldose reductase inhibitory potential of alkaloidal fractions of Piper nigrum, Murraya koenigii, Argemone mexicana and Nelumbo nucifera. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol. 2014;25(2):255–65. Haisova K, Slavik J. On the minor alkaloids from Argemone mexicana L. Collect Czechoslov Chem Commun. 1975;40:1576–8. Harborne JB, Williams CA. Flavonoids in the seeds of Argemone mexicana: a reappraisal. Phytochemistry. 1983;22:1520–1. Hussain SF, Nakkady S, Khan L, Shamma M. Oxyhydrastinine, an isoquinolone alkaloid from the Papaveraceae. Phytochemistry. 1983;22(1):319–20. Hussain T, Bajpai S, Saeed M, Moin A, Alafnan A, Khan M, Kamal MA, Ganash M, Ashraf GM. Potentiating effect of ethnomedicinal plants against proliferation on different cancer cell lines. Curr Drug Metab. 2018;19(7):584–95. Israilov IA, Yuhusov MS. Alkaloids of four Agremone species. Khim Prir Soedin. 1986;2:204–6. Jasso-Díaz G, Hernández GT, Zamilpa A, Pérez CMB, Bribiesca JER, Mendo OH, Arroyo HS, González-Cortazar M, de Gives PM. In vitro assessment of Argemone mexicana, Taraxacum officinale, Ruta chalepensis and Tagetes filifolia against Haemonchus contortus nematode eggs and infective (L3) larvae. Microb Pathog. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2017.05.048. Kamalakannan S, Ananth S, Murugan K, Kovendan K, Ramar M, Arumugam P, Chandramohan B, Balachandar V. Bio fabrication of silver nanoparticle from Argemone mexicana for the control of Aedes albopictus and their antimicrobial activity. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2016;17 (14):1285–94. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389201017666161026093716. Khanh TC. Argemone mexicana (PROSEA). Plant Resources of South-East Asia. 2020. https:// uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Cardiospermum_halicacabum_(PROSEA). Accessed 2 June 2020. Kukula-Koch W, Mroczek T. Application of hydrostatic CCC–TLC–HPLC–ESI-TOF-MS for the bioguided fractionation of anticholinesterase alkaloids from Argemone mexicana L. roots. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2015;407:2581–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-015-8468-x. Kumar S, Singh SK, Baslas RK, Ghildiyal JC, Saxena AK. Lousicidal properties of few aqueous plant extracts. Indian Vet J. 2002;79:1136–40. Kushtwar RS, Anurag. Evaluation of antioxidant activity of aerial part of Argemone mexicana Linn. Int J Pharm Anal Res. 2016;5(1):234–8. Kushtwar RS, Tripathy S. Study on antifungal activity of aerial part of Argemone mexicana Linn. World J Pharm Res. 2017;6(6):1025–31. Lafleur M, Gould L. Feeding outside the forest: the importance of crop raiding and an invasive weed in the diet of gallery forest ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) following a cyclone at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. Folia Primatol. 2009;80:233–46. Meléndez PA, Capriles VA. Molluscicidal activity of plants from Puerto Rico. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2002;96(2):209–18. Mishra V, Saxena DK, Das M. Effect of argemone oil and argemone alkaloid, sanguinarine on Sertoli-germ cell coculture. Toxicol Lett. 2009;186(2):104–10.

Argemone mexicana L.

165

More NV, Kharat AS. Antifungal and anticancer potential of Argemone mexicana L. Medicines. 2016;3(28):1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines3040028. More NV, Kharat KR, Kharat AS. Berberine from Argemone mexicana L. exhibits a broadspectrum antibacterial activity. Acta Biochim Pol. 2017;64(4):653–60. https://doi.org/10.18388/ abp.2017_1621. Nayak P, Kar DM, Maharana L. Antidiabetic activity of aerial parts of Argemone mexicana L. in alloxan induced hyperglycaemic rats. Pharmacologyonline. 2011;1:889–903. Nayak PS, Kar DM, Nayak SP. Isolation and characterization of Stigmasterol from chloroform fraction of aerial part of Argemone mexicana L. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2016;7(12):25–9. Norton JH, O’Rourke PK. Oedema disease in chickens caused by Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana) seed. Aust Vet J. 1980;56:187–9. Osho A, Adetunji T. Antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Argemone mexicana Linn. J Med Plant Res. 2010;4(1):19–22. Pahwa R, Chatterjee VC. The toxicity of Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana L) seeds to rats. Vet Hum Toxicol. 1989;31(6):555–8. Palanikumar P, Benitta DJD, Lelin C, Thirumalaikumar E, Michaelbabu M, Citarasu T. Effect of Argemone mexicana active principles on inhibiting viral multiplication and stimulating immune system in Pacific white leg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei against white spot syndrome virus. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2018.02.011. Pandey A, Karanwal V. A study of extract optimization and effect of metal ions on antibacterial properties of Argemone mexicana. Asian J Plant Sci Res. 2011;1:43–8. Patil MB, Jalalpure SS, Ali A. Preliminary phytochemical investigation and wound healing activity of the leaves of Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae). Indian Drugs. 2001;38:288–93. Perumal P, Sekar V, Rajesh V, Gandhimathi S, Kumar RS, Nazimudin KHS. In vitro antioxidant activity of Argemone mexicana roots. Int J PharmTech Res. 2010;2:1477–82. Piacente S, Capasso A, De Tommasi N, Jativa C, Pizza C, Sorrentino L. Different effects of some isoquinoline alkaloids from Argemone mexicana on electrically induced contractions of isolated guinea pig ileum. Phytother Res. 1998;11:155–7. POWO. Plants of world online. 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 2 June 2020. Rahman W, Ilyas M. Flower pigments. Flavonoids from Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae). J Org Chem. 1962;27:153–5. Rahman MM, Alam MJ, Sharmin SA, Rahman MM, Rahman A, Alam MF. In vitro antibacterial activity of Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae). Chiang Mai Univ J Nat Sci. 2009;8:77–84. Rahman MS, Salehin MF, Jamal AHM, Parvin A, Alam MK. Antibacterial activity of Argemone mexicana L. against water borne microbes. Res J Med Plant. 2011;5:621–6. Rajalakshmi P, Pugalenthi M, Vadivel V. In vitro and inhibitory activity of pathogens on leaves of Argemone mexicana L. and Premna tomentosa L. Int J Herb Med. 2016;4(5):84–90. Rothe SP, Gandhi R, Maheshwari AA. Screening of local plant species for larvicidal activity. Int J Adv Res Innov Idea Educ. 2016;2(5):1077–82. Rout SP, Kar DM, Mandal PK. Hypoglycaemic activity of aerial parts of Argemone mexicana L. in experimental rat models. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2011;3(5):533–40. Rukmini C. New, unusual long chain fatty acid (argemonic acid) from Argemone mexicana. J Am Oil Res Soc. 1975;52:171–3. Sabde S, Bodiwala HS, Karmase A, Deshpande PJ, Kaur A, Ahmed N, Chauthe SK, Brahmbhatt KG, Phadke RU, Mitra D, Bhutani KK, Singh IP. Anti-HIV activity of Indian medicinal plants. J Nat Med. 2011;65:662–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-011-0513-2. Sahu MC, Debata NK, Padhy RN. Antibacterial activity of Argemone mexicana L. against multidrug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, isolated from clinical samples. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2012;2(2):800–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2221-1691(12)60316-5. Sakthivadivel M, Thilagavathy D. Larvicidal and chemosterilant activity of the acetone fraction of petroleum ether extract from Argemone mexicana L. seed. Bioresour Technol. 2003;89:213–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-8524(03)00038-5.

166

K. Devanathan

Sakthivadivel M, Eapen A, Dash AP. Evaluation of toxicity of plant extracts against vector of lymphatic filariasis, Culex quinquefasciatus. Indian J Med Res. 2012;135(3):397–400. Saleh MA, Rahman FHA, Ibrahim NA, Taha NM. Isolation and structure determination of new nematicidal triglyceride from Argemone mexicana. J Chem Ecol. 1987;13:1361–70. Sanghvi LM, Misra SN, Bose TK. Cardiovascular manifestations in Argemone mexicana poisoning (epidemic dropsy). Circulation. 1960;21:1096–106. Sangwan NK, Malik MS. A long chain alcohol from Argemone mexicana. Phytochemistry. 1998;49:755–6. Santos AC, Adkilen P. The alkaloids of Argemone mexicana. J Am Chem Soc. 1932;54(7):2923–4. Saranya MS, Arun T, Iyappan P. In vitro antibacterial activity and preliminary phytochemical analysis of leaf extracts of Argemone mexicana Linn – a medicinal plant. Int J Curr Pharm Res. 2012;4(3):85–7. Saravanan R, Senthilkumar K, Dhachinamoorthi D, Uma Mahesh P, Vamsi Krishna G, Venkata Pavani K. Microbial activity of the Argemone mexicana Linn (Papavraceae). Res J Pharm Technol. 2017;10(3):852–6. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-360X.2017.00159.7. Saxena R, Tabassum B. Aqueous weeds extract: an ecohealthy approach for nematode management. Curr Nematol. 2000;11:29–33. Shaukat SS, Siddiqui IA, Khan GH, Zaki MJ. Nematicidal and allelopathic potential of Argemone mexicana, a tropical weed. Plant Soil. 2002;245:239–47. Simoes-Pires C, Hostettmann K, Haouala A, Cuendet M, Falquet J, Graz B, Christen P. Reverse pharmacology for developing an anti-malarial phytomedicine. The example of Argemone mexicana. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist. 2014;4:338–46. Singh S, Singh DK. Effect of Molluscicidal components of Abrus precatorius, Argemone mexicana and Nerium indicum on certain biochemical parameters of Lymnaeu acuminate. Phytother Res. 1999;13:210–3. Singh HNP, Prasad MM, Sinha KK. Efficacy of leaf extracts of some medicinal plants against disease development in banana. Lett Appl Microbiol. 1993;17(6):269–71. Singh SK, Pandey VD, Singh A, Singh C. Antibacterial activity of seed extracts of Argemone mexicana L. on some pathogenic bacterial strains. Afr J Biotechnol. 2009;8(24):7077–81. Singh S, Singh A, Jaiswal J, Singh TD, Singh VP, Pandey VP, Tiwari A, Singh UP. Antifungal activity of the mixture of quaternary alkaloids isolated from Argemone mexicana against some phytopathogenic fungi. Arch Phytopathol Plant Protect. 2010a;43(8):769–74. Singh S, Singh TD, Singh VP, Pandey VB. Quaternary alkaloids of Argemone mexicana. Pharm Biol. 2010b;48(2):158–60. Singh S, Singh TD, Singh VP, Pandey VB. A new benzylisoquinoline alkaloid from Argemone mexicana. Nat Prod Res. 2010c;24(1):63–7. Singh S, Pandey VB, Singh TD. Alkaloids and flavonoids of Argemone mexicana. Nat Prod Res. 2012;26(1):16–21. Singh S, Verma M, Malhotra M, Prakash S, Singh TD. Cytotoxicity of alkaloids isolated from Argemone mexicana on SW480 human colon cancer cell line. Pharm Biol. 2016;54(4):740–5. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2015.1073334. Sourabie TS, Ouedraogo N, Sawadogo WR, Yougbare N, Nikiema JB, Guissou IP, Nacoulma OG. Evaluation of the anti-icterus effect of crude powdered leaf of Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae) against CCl4-induced liver injury in rats. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2012;3:491–6. Tamboli S, Arora S, Bhatnagar U, Vishwase G, Singh M. Reproductive and developmental toxicity evaluation of a purified Arabinogalactan-Protein (AGP) composition in Wistar rats. Fitoterapia. 2010;81:276–83. Vaidya AB, Rajagopalan TG, Kale AG, Levine RJ. Inhibition of human pregnancy plasma diamine oxidase with alkaloids of Argemone mexicana-berberine and sanguinarine. J Postgrad Med. 1980;26:28–33. Verma SK, Dev G, Tyagi AK, Goomber S, Jain GV. Argemone mexicana poisoning: autopsy findings of two cases. Forensic Sci Int. 2001;115:135–41. von Weizsäckerl P. The yield of weeds. ILEIA Newsl. 1995;11(3):6–7.

Argemone mexicana L.

167

Warikoo R, Kumar S. Impact of Argemone mexicana extracts on the cidal, morphological, and behavioral response of dengue vector, Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitol Res. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-013-3528-7. Willcox M. Improved traditional phytomedicines in current use for the clinical treatment of malaria. Planta Med. 2011;77:662–71. Willcox ML, Graz B, Falquet J, Sidibé O, Forster M, Diallo D. Argemone mexicana decoction for the treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2007. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2007.05.017.

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam MORACEAE Krishnamoorthy Devanathan and A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Synonyms Artocarpus brasiliensis Gomes; A. integrifolia var. glabra Stokes; A. integrifolius var. heterophylla (Lam.) Pers.; A. jaca Lam.; A. maxima Blanco; Artocarpus nanca Noronha; A. philippensis Lam.; Polyphema jaca (Lam.) Lour.; Sitodium cauliflorum Gaertn.; Saccus heterophyllus (Lam.) Kuntze (POWO 2020; Hassler 2020).

Local Names Cambodia: Khnaôr; Indonesia: nangka, nongko (Javanese); Laos: miiz, miiz hnang; Malaysia: nanko (Kadazandusun), nangka (Dusun, Malay); Philippines: langka, nangka nanka; Myanmar: mak-lang, mung-dung, ndung, pa-noh, panwe, peinne, peignai; Thailand: khanun (central Thailand), makmi (north-eastern Thailand), banun (Chiang Mai); Vietnam: mít (Soepadmo 1991; Ahmad and Ismail 2003; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018; Stuart 2018).

K. Devanathan (*) Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India A. N. Stalin Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Department of Botany, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Department of Botany, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Tamil Nadu, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_67

169

170

K. Devanathan and A. N. Stalin

Botany and Ecology Description: Evergreen trees, up to 25 m high, with milky latex (Fig. 1). Bark gray-brown, rough to scaly. Leaves alternate, oblong-elliptic to obovate, 7– 20
3.5–10 cm, cuneate at base, entire at margins, rounded or obtuse or shortly acute at apex; glabrous, coriaceous, leathery; petiole c. 1.7 cm long; stipules ovate, 1.5–8
0.5–3 cm, cauducous, leaving persistent scar. Inflorescence cauliflorous; male heads oblong to ellipsoid, 3–8
1–3 cm long (Fig. 2); female heads borne singly or in pairs distal to the position of male heads, cylindrical to oblong, 5–12
3–4 cm, subtended by a spathaceous bract (Figs. 3 and 4); bracts c. 4–6
2–3 cm, thick, coriaceous, deciduous; peduncle cylindric, 1.5–4 cm long, fleshy. Flowers: sterile and fertile flowers closely embedded on a central, fleshy, cylindric receptacle; fertile male flowers: perianth tubular, 1–1.5 mm long, bilobed. Stamen 1; filament flattened, c. 0.7–1 mm long; anther oblongovaoid, 0.3–0.5 mm long; sterile flowers: perianth solid, bract like; fertile female flowers: perianth tubular, c. 2 mm long, protruding, fused on both ends, apex 3–7-angled; ovary globose-obovoid, c. 0.3 mm across; styles and stigmas spathulate or ligulate. Syncarp oblong, 30–80
20–50 cm, short pyramidal

Fig. 1 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. tree bearing fruits. (© K. Devanathan)

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam

171

Fig. 2 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. male heads. (© K. Devanathan)

Fig. 3 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. female heads. (© K. Devanathan)

protuberances or warts outside (Fig. 1); perianth thick, fleshy, yellow. Seeds elliptic to oblong, 2–4
2–2.5 cm, brown, endocarp horny, exocarp subgelatinous.

172

K. Devanathan and A. N. Stalin

Fig. 4 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. tender fruit. (© K. Devanathan)

Phenology: Peak flowering during December–February and fruiting peaks in April– June. Distribution: Artocarpus heterophyllus is indigenous to India. Introduced into Bangladesh, Borneo, Brazil, Cameroon, China, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Fiji, Gambia, Gulf of Guinea Islands, Hainan, Haiti, Hawaii, Jamaica, Laos, Leeward Islands, Lesser Sunda Islands, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, New Caledonia, Peru, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Réunion, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Southwest Caribbean, Sri Lanka, Sulawesi, Trinidad-Tobago, Venezuela, Vietnam, and Windward Islands (POWO 2020). The genus name Artocarpus is derived from Greek word “artos – bread and karpos – fruit,” and the specific epithet heterophyllus is derived after its variable leaves (Dave’s Garden 2020). It grows wild in evergreen forests in Western Ghats of Southern India, at altitudes ranging from 400 to 1200 m above sea level; the history of domestication is unknown. However, now it is introduced and naturalized many tropical countries especially to the SouthEast Asian region (Soepadmo 1991).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: Shredded leaves are soaked in cold water and drunk to relieve sore throat. Fresh leaves boiled with cooking oil and applied topically to alleviate skin infections by Dusun and Malays (Holdsworth 1991; Ahmad and Holdsworth 2003; Ahmad and Ismail 2003). Cambodia: Milky juice is applied externally to treat glandular swelling and for snake bites. Bark and wood are used as nervous sedative,

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam

173

convulsions, and the pith consumed as abortifacient. Ripe fruits are used as a laxative; roasted seeds believed to have aphrodisiac properties. Seed starch given for biliousness (Soepadmo 1991; Stuart 2018). Indonesia: Pounded leaf and bark is applied topically as postpartum remedy by the Sundanese community in West Java (Roosita et al. 2008). Myanmar: Root decoction is used to treat asthma, diarrhea, and fever; stem bark, and bark sap used as poultice to alleviate ulcer and abscesses, and the seeds are used to treat indigestion (Soepadmo 1991; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018; Stuart 2018). Laos: Powdered bark and leaf decoction is used to increase lactation and for neonatal navel healing by Kry community (Lamxay et al. 2011). Philippines: Burned ash obtained from the combination of leaves, maize, and coconut shell is used as natural cicatrizant to alleviate ulcer; roasted fresh leaf is applied topically to cure wounds. Tender and ripened fruits are used as astringent and demulcent, respectively. Fruit is also used to mitigate ache caused by inflammation (Soepadmo 1991; Batugal et al. 2004; Stuart 2018). The combination of A. heterophyllus, nayabas (Psidium guajava L.), and kaimito (Chrysophyllum cainito L.) leaves decoction is drunk thrice to cure diarrhea by Higaonon tribe of Rogongon, Mindanao (Olowa et al. 2012). Ripe fruits are eaten before breakfast to treat ascariasis disease by the Ati Negrito indigenous people in Guimaras Island (Ong and Kim 2014). Leaves are also used as poultice to treat sore by Subanens community in Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur (Morilla et al. 2014). Burned fresh leaf ash mixed with coconut oil paste applied to alleviate wounds and ulcers (Soepadmo 1991; Stuart 2018; Suba et al. 2019). Thailand: Plant is used as galactagogue (Buntuchai et al. 2017). Vietnam: The Van Kieu ethnic community use bark and leaf decoction as remedy for postpartum depression, lactation, fever, abdominal pain, and as an antidote (Lee et al. 2018).

Phytochemistry Artocarpus heterophyllus fruits are rich in vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, potassium, iron, sodium, zinc, protein, carbohydrate, fiber, steroid, glycoside, flavonoid, alkaloid, phenolics, tannin, saponin, stilbenes, terpenoid, and major fatty acids like capric, myristic, lauric, palmitic, oleic, stearic, linoleic, and arachidic acids (Anjali et al. 2018; Ranasinghe et al. 2019; Waghmare et al. 2019). Jacalin is the major active constituent represented over 50% in seeds which has versatile applications in immunobiological research (Kabir 1998). Phytochemicals reported from leaves, stem, bark, and roots are: betullic acid sapogenins, cycloartenone, cycloartenol, cycloartenyl acetate, cycloheterophyllin, ß-sitosterol, heteroflavanones A, heteroflavanones B. heterophylol, ursolic acid, and tannin (Hari et al. 2014; Vazhacharickal et al. 2015). Several other useful bio-compounds have also been identified: artocarpine, artocarpin, artocarpesin, artocarpetin, artocarpetin A, artocarpetin B, artocarpanone, artocarpanoneone A, artoindonesianin F, cycloartocarpanone A, artonin A, artonin B, artoflavone, cycloheterophyllin, morin, dihydromorin, oxydihydroartocarpesin, cynomacurin, cyanomaclurin,

174

K. Devanathan and A. N. Stalin

cudraflavone A, isoartocarpin, cyloartocarpin, cycloartinone, norartocarpetin, heteroartonin A, kuwanone T, 25-hydroxycycloart-23-en-3-one, dadahol A, morachalcone A, artoheterophyllin B, cycloheterophyllin, isocycloheterophyllin, moracin C, β-carotene, α-carotene, β-zeacarotene, α-zeacarotene, and crocetin (Chandrika et al. 2005; Prakash et al. 2009; Rao and Mukhopadhyay 2010; Yao et al. 2016). The phytochemicals identified from A. heterophyllus have a wide range of therapeutic properties such as antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, antitumor, antihypertensive, antidiarrhoeal, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antimalarial, antioxidant, anticariogenic, anticholinergic, antifungal, antineoplastic, antityrosinase, analgesic, laxative, hypoglycemic, spasmolytic, wound healing effects, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, and antiaging properties (Baliga et al. 2011; Periyanayagam and Karthikeyan 2013; Munira 2014; Biworo 2015; Prakash et al. 2016; Praveen et al. 2016; Nguyen et al. 2016; Bhattacharjee and Dutta 2017; Ajiboye et al. 2018; Daud et al. 2020). Various plant parts of A. heterophyllus show a wide range of bioactivity against microbes. Leaf extract shows antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella enterica, Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus faecalis, and S. aureus (Loizzo et al. 2010). Seed extracts of four different solvents inhibited the growth of bacteria such as Enterobacter faecalis, Haemophilus sp., Yersinia sp., E. coli, B. subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Cephalosporium sp., and fungal strains of Aspergillus niger, Penicillium notatum, and Candida albicans (Shanmugapriya et al. 2011; Siritapetawee et al. 2012). Similarly, heartwood showed potential activity against B. subtilis, Streptococcus mutans, S. pyogenes, S. aureus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis (Septama and Panichayupakaranant 2015). Studies on leaf petiole extracts obtained through hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol extraction showed inhibition of Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. mutans, C. albicans, A. niger, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Ragasa et al. 2004; Kurian et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses A. heterophyllus fruits are widely utilized by several communities in Southeast Asia. Generally, tender fruits are cooked as vegetable, pickled, canned in brine or curry; ripe fruits are eaten fresh and used to make various local delicacies, chutney, paste, jam, jelly, honey, and candies. Fruit pulps are used as flavoring agents in ice creams and beverages. Boiled or roasted seeds are eaten as dry salted, used as table nuts and for baking along with wheat flour (Soepadmo 1991). Indonesia: fruit is used to prepare famous local food called “dodol” and “kolak” in Java (Soepadmo 1991). Sweet dessert es campur and a cocktail es teler are prepared from ripe fruits (The Age 2005; Indonesian food recipes 2009). Kripik nangka or nangka craker made from fried dry ripe fruit and seeds boiled with salt called beton are also popular (Kramer et al. 2013). Tender fruits are used to make curry called gulai nangka in Sumatra, and the Javanese traditional stew called gudeg in Central Java (Indonesia

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam

175

Secret Kitchen 2011; Pimentious 2014; Schonhardt 2017; Latao 2020). Philippines: Ginataang langka a traditional Filipino vegetable stew prepared using tender fruits, coconut milk, and spices is eaten with rice. Seafood and meat are also cooked along with ginataang langka. Filipinos use ripe fruits to make a cold dessert called halohalo which is also used in turon preparation (Nako 2020). Vietnam: A sweet dessert soup called chè is prepared from the fruits. Fruit puree is used as a pastry fillings and a toping on xôi ngọt, a sweet sticky rice preparation. Young fruits eaten as stir fried or stewed with meat (Anonymous 2020).

Biocultural Importance Artocarpus heterophyllus wood tar is used in the traditional practice of teeth blackening by Malay community of Southeast Borneo and the Isneg aboriginals of Luzon in Philippines (Grabowsky 1884; Vanoverbergh 1972; Zumbroich 2009). The heartwood is used to carve drum barrels of gamelan, a traditional musical instrument of Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese of Indonesia; soft wood is used to make body of the Kutiyapi, a type of boat lute in the Philippines (Morton 1987; Latao 2020). Tree is grown in front of every house to attract good sprit in Java, Indonesia. They also believe that the shadow of the tree is a comfortable gathering place for ghosts. In contrast, aboriginals of Nusa Tenggara of Indonesia believe that the nangka tree keep evil spirits away from home (Latao 2020). A natural yellowish brown dye obtained from the heartwood and roots is locally known as ka nun, ma ka nun, mak mea, nun, ka noo, payoisa or nako in Thailand. Chipped wood and Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz barks are boiled with water and the filtrate is traditionally used as dye to obtain greenish-khaki color in Thailand (Subansenee 1995). In Myanmar, dye extracted from bark is used to color Buddhist monks robes (Lwin 1995). Wood is of spiritual significance as it is used to make Buddhist statues in temples of Vietnam (Viet Hung Wooden House 2018).

Economic Importance Artocarpus heterophyllus is an important cash crop for many agrarian communities of Southeast Asia. Next to the India and Sri Lanka, Southeast Asian countries such as Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam are the largest Jackfruit producers of the world (Sawe 2017). The timber is used for making furniture, construction materials, windows, turnery, masts, doors, oars, implements, and musical instruments. Roots from the mature tree are highly valuable for carving and picture framing purposes (Soepadmo 1991). Natural dye obtained from the wood and roots is a minor NTFP in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam (Richardson 1995). Canned or preserved jackfruit value added products including vegetable, pickle, brine or curry, fryums, jam, jelly, honey, and candies were exported to various countries by canneries in Peninsular Malaysia (Soepadmo 1991). Jackfruit industries of Vietnam export value added products from the fruit

176

K. Devanathan and A. N. Stalin

such as flour, noodles, papad, ice cream, and canned tender fruit vegetable (Goldenberg 2014). Leaves and fruit wastes are used to feed cattle and other livestock (Soepadmo 1991).

References Ahmad FB, Holdsworth DK. Medicinal Plants of Sabah, East Malaysia – part I. Pharmac Bio. 2003;41(5):340–6. Ahmad FB, Ismail G. Medicinal plants used by Kadazandusun communities around Crocker range. ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC). 2003. http://www. arbec.com.my/pdf/art1janmar03.pdf Ajiboye BO, Ojo OA, Adeyonu O, Imiere O, Emmanuel Oyinloye B, Ogunmodede O. Ameliorative activity of ethanolic extract of Artocarpus heterophyllus stem bark on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Adv Pharm Bull. 2018;8:141–7. Anjali KM, Joseph S, Neethu EK, Rajeev KR, Kavya V, Sugbharathi M. Preliminary phytochemical, physicochemical and biochemical analysis in seeds of Artocarpus heterophyllus lam. Int J Res Pharm Pharmaceut Sci. 2018;3(3):10–5. Anonymous. Jackfruit. Wikipedia; 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackfruit. Accessed 15 June 2020. Baliga MS, Shivashankara AR, Haniadka R, Dsouza J, Bhat HP. Phytochemistry, nutritional and pharmacological properties of Artocarpus heterophyllus lam. (jackfruit): a review. Food Res Int. 2011;44:1800–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.02.035. Batugal PA, Jayashree K, Young LS, Oliver JT. Medicinal Plants research in Asia, volume 1: the framework and project Workplans. Serdang: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute – Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (IPGRI-APO); 2004. Bhattacharjee C, Dutta A. Nephroprotective activity of bark of Artocarpus heterophyllus lam. Int J Biomed Adv Res. 2017;8(6):259–63. https://doi.org/10.7439/ijbar.v8i6.3907. Biworo A. Antidiabetic and antioxidant activity of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) extract. J Med Bioeng. 2015;4(4):318–23. https://doi.org/10.12720/jomb.4.4.318-323. Buntuchai G, Pavadhgul P, Kittipichai W, Satheannoppakao W. Traditional Galactagogue foods and their connection to human Milk volume in Thai breastfeeding mothers. J Hum Lact. 2017; 33(3):552–9. Chandrika UG, Jansz ER, Warnasuriya ND. Analysis of carotenoids in ripe jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) kernel and study of their bioconversion in rats. J Sci Food Agri. 2005;85:186–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.1918. Daud NNNNM, Septama AW, Simbak N, Rahmi EP. The phytochemical and pharmacological properties of artocarpin from Artocarpus heterophyllus. Asian Pacific J Trop Med. 2020;13(1):1–7. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Dave’s Garden. 2020. https://davesgarden.com/guides/botanary/search.php?search text¼Artocarpus. Accessed 10 June 2020. Goldenberg S. Jackfruit heralded as ‘miracle’ food crop. In: The guardian, London; 2014. https:// www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/apr/23/jackfruit-miracle-crop-climate-change-foodsecurity. Accessed 17 June 2020. Grabowsky FJ. Das Feilen und Färben der Zähne bei den Bewohnern Südost-Borneos, speziell den Malaien der Distrikte Batang Alai und Laboean-Amas. Das Ausland. 1884;7:125–6. Hari A, Revikumar KG, Artocarpus DD. A review of its phytochemistry and pharmacology. J Pharma Search. 2014;9:1): 1–7. Hassler M. World plants: Synonymic checklists of the vascular Plants of the World (version Nov 2018). In: Roskov Y, Ower G, Orrell T, Nicolson D, Bailly N, Kirk PM, Bourgoin T, DeWalt RE, Decock W, Nieukerken EV, Penev L. (editors). Species 2000 & ITIS catalogue of life, 2020-04-

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam

177

16 Beta. Digital resource, Naturalis, Leiden; 2020. http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/details/ species/id/e10283265.a7e2e52fc.472672fee3bb2c. Accessed 10 June 2020. Holdsworth D. Traditional medicinal Plants of Brunei Darussalam part I. Bukit Udal. Int J Pharmacog. 1991;29(4):245–50. Indonesia Secret Kitchen. Gudeg Jogja recipe; 2011. http://indonesiasecretkitchen.blogspot.com/ 2011/07/gudeg-jogja-recipe.html#!/2011/07/gudeg-jogja-recipe.html. Accessed 15 June 2020. Indonesian food recipes Mixed shaved ice dessert – Es Campur 2009. https://archive.is/2013012 6122942/http://indonesianfoodrecipe.com/mixed-shaved-ice-dessert-es-campur/mixed-shavedice-dessert-es-campur/#selection-325.0-325.36. Accessed 15 June 2020. Kabir SJ. A jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) seed-derived lectin of versatile applications in immunobiological research. J Immu Methods. 1998;212:193–211. Kramer ALN, Koen W, Davidsen K. Tuttle concise Indonesian dictionary: Indonesian-English English-Indonesian: Tuttle Publishing; 2013. ISBN 9781462910861 Kurian S, Joseph L, Josekumar VS. Phytochemical evaluation, GC-MS analysis and antimicrobial activity of the leaves petiole of Artocarpus heterophyllus lam. Asian J Pharm Pharmacol. 2018;4(3):280–7. Lamxay V, de Boer HJ, Björk L. Traditions and plant use during pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum recovery by the Kry ethnic group in Lao PDR. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7(14):1–16. Latao. Lotao’s jackfruit: insights into its long history, surrounding myths and Today’s usage; 2020. https://www.lotao.com/en/theme-world/jackfruit.html. Accessed 17 June 2020. Lee C, Kim SY, Eum S, Paik JH, Bach TT, Darshetkar AM, Choudhary RK, Hai DV, Quang BH, Thanh NT, Choi S. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by local Van Kieu ethnic people of bac Huong Hoa nature reserve, Vietnam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018; https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2018.11.006. Loizzo MR, Tundis R, Chandrika UG, Abeysekera AM, Menichini F, Frega NG. Antioxidant and antibacterial activities on foodborne pathogens of Artocarpus heterophyllus lam. (Moraceae) leaves extracts. J Food Sci. 2010;75:291–5. Lwin KM. Non-wood Forest products in Myanmar. In: Durst PB, Bishop A, editors. Beyond timber: social, economic and cultural dimensions of non-wood Forest products in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: Proceedings of a Regional Expert Consultation, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP); 1995. p. 227–34. Morilla LJG, Sumaya NHN, Rivero HI, Madamba MRSB. Medicinal Plants of the Subanens in Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines. In: International conference on food, biological and medical sciences (FBMS-2014). Bangkok; 2014. Morton J. Jackfruit. In: Morton JF, editor. Fruits of warm climates. Winterville: Creative Resource Systems, Inc.; 1987. Munira S. Antioxidant and antidiarrhoeal activities of methanolic extract of Artocarpus heterophyllus seed. Int J Pharm Drug Anal. 2014;2(10):890–5. Nako O. Ginataang Langka (Jackfruit in Coconut Milk). In: Filipino Chow; 2020. http://www. filipinochow.com/ginataang-langka-jackfruit-coconut-milk. Accessed 15 June 2020. Nguyen H, Nguyen H, Le Nguyen CH. Phytochemical, nutritional, laxative and hypoglycemic activity evaluation of seeds of jackfruit (Artocarpous heterolphyllus lam.). J Bot Sci. 2016; 5(4):47–51. Olowa LF, Torres MAJ, Aranico EC, Demayo CG. Medicinal plants used by the Higaonon tribe of Rogongon, Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines. Adv Env Bio. 2012;6(4):1442–9. Ong HG, Kim YD. Quantitative ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants used by the Ati Negrito indigenous group in Guimaras Island, Philippines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;157:228–42. Periyanayagam K, Karthikeyan V. Cardio protective effect of the leaves of Artocarpus heterophyllus lam. On Daphnia magna. Innov J Health Sci. 2013;1(3):1–5. Pimentious. Gulai Nangka (Indonesian Unripe Jackfruit Curry); 2014. http://www.pimentious. com/2015/04/gulai-nangka-indonesian-unripe.html. Accessed 15 June 2020. POWO. Plants of world online; 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 10 June 2020. Prakash O, Kumar R, Mishra A, Gupta R. Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit): an overview. Pharmacog Rev. 2009;3:353–8.

178

K. Devanathan and A. N. Stalin

Prakash O, Srivastava R, Kumar R. Hepatoprotective activity of Artocarpus heterophyllus lam. Leaves against thioacetamide induced hepatotoxicity on wistar albino rats. Int Res J Pharm. 2016;7(4):24–9. https://doi.org/10.7897/2230-8407.07434. Praveen D, Chowdary PR, Thanmayi G, Poojitha G, Aanandhi MV. Antioxidant and analgesic activity of leaf extracts of Artocarpus heterophyllus. Res J Pharm Tech. 2016;9(3):257–61. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-360X.2016.00047.0. Ragasa CY, Jorvina K, Rideout JA. Antimicrobial compounds from Artocarpus heterophyllus. Philippine J Sci. 2004;133(2):97–101. Ranasinghe RASN, Maduwanthi SDT, Marapana RAUJ. Nutritional and health benefits of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus lam.): a review. Int J Food Sci. 2019;6:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/ 2019/4327183. Rao GV, Mukhopadhyay T. Artoindonesianin F, a potent tyrosinase inhibitor from the roots of Artocarpus heterophyllus lam. Indian J Chem. 2010;49:1264–6. Richardson SD. Non-wood Forest products: a regional overview. In: Durst PB, Bishop A, editors. Beyond timber: social, economic and cultural dimensions of non-wood Forest products in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: Proceedings of a Regional Expert Consultation, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP); 1995. p. 13–34. Roosita K, Kusharto CM, Sekiyama M, Fachrurozi Y, Ohtsuka R. Medicinal plants used by the villagers of a Sundanese community in West Java, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;115:72–81. Sawe BE. World Leaders in Jackfruit Production. Economics: world Atlas; 2017. https://www. worldatlas.com/articles/world-leaders-in-jackfruit-production.html. Accessed 17 June 2020. Schonhardt S. 40 Indonesian foods we can't live without. CNN Travel; 2017. https://edition.cnn. com/travel/article/40-indonesian-foods/index.html. Accessed 15 June 2020. Septama AW, Panichayupakaranant P. Antibacterial assay-guided isolation of active compounds from Artocarpus heterophyllus heartwoods. Pharm Biol. 2015;53(11):1608–13. Shanmugapriya K, Saravana PS, Payal H, Mohammed SP, Bennai W. A comparative study of antimicrobial potential and phytochemical analysis of Artocarpus heterophyllus and Manilkara zapota seed extracts. J Pharm Res. 2011;4(8):2587–9. Siritapetawee J, Thammasirirak S, Samosornsuk W. Antimicrobial activity of a 48-kDa protease (AMP48) from Artocarpus heterophyllus latex. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2012;16:132–7. Soepadmo E. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. Plant resources of Southeast Asia (PROSEA): Edible fruits and nuts; 1991. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Artocarpus_heterophyllus_ (PROSEA). Accessed 10 June 2020. Stuart GU. Philippine medicinal plants; 2018. http://www.stuartxchange.org/Langka. Accessed 12 June 2020. Suba MD, Arriola AH, Alejandro GJD. A checklist and conservation status of the medicinal plants of mount Arayat National Park, Pampanga, Philippines. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(4):1034–41. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d200414. Subansenee W. Major non-wood Forest products of Thailand. In: Durst PB, Bishop A. (editors) Beyond timber: social, economic and cultural dimensions of non-wood Forest products in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of a Regional Expert Consultation, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP), Bangkok; 1995. pp. 201–214. The Age. Es teller 2005. https://www.theage.com.au/lifestyle/es-teler-20050719-ge0j8b.html. Accessed 15 June 2020. Vanoverbergh M. Isneg – English vocabulary. Honolulu: University Press of Hawai’i; 1972. Vazhacharickal PJ, Sajeshkumar NK, Mathew JJ, Kuriakose AC, Abraham B, Mathew RJ, Albin AN, Thomson D, Thomas RS, Varghese N, Jose S. Chemistry and medicinal properties of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus): a review on current status of knowledge. Int J Inn Res Rev. 2015;3(2):83–95. Viet Hung Wooden House. Gỗ mít nài; 2018. http://nhagoviethung.com/viewproduct/1817_ gomitnai.htm. Accessed 15 June 2020 (in Vietnamese).

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam

179

Waghmare R, Memon N, Gat Y, Gandhi S, Kumar V, Panghal A. Jackfruit seed: an accompaniment to functional foods. Braz J Food Technol. 2019;22:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1590/19816723.20718. Yao X, Wu D, Dong N, Ouyang P, Pu J, Hu Q, Wang J, Lu W, Huang J, Moracin C. A phenolic compound isolated from Artocarpus heterophyllus, suppresses lipopolysaccharide-activated inflammatory responses in murine raw 264.7 macrophages. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17:1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17081199. Zumbroich TJ. ‘Teeth as black as a bumble bee’s wings’: the ethnobotany of teeth blackening in Southeast Asia. Ethnobot Res App. 2009;7:381–98.

Asplenium nidus L. ASPLENIACEAE Muhamad Muhaimin

Synonyms Asplenium ellipticum (Fée) Copel.; Asplenium ficifolium Goldm.; Neottopteris elliptica Fée; Neottopteris nidus (L.) J.Sm.; Neottopteris ovata J.Sm. ex Fée; Neottopteris stenocarpa Fée; Neottopteris vulgaris J.Sm.; Thamnopteris nidus (L.) C. Presl; Polypodium giganteum Noronha (POWO 2020).

Local Names English: Bird nest fern; Indonesia: pakis sarang burung (general); Sum.: sakai rambat lemon (Malay, Jambi), sake (Sakai), sakek, sikarambat, simbar tukup; Jav.: kadaka (Sundanese); Kal.: akayar (Dayak Kanayatn), empulukng (Dayak Benuaq), hajah, lokot, ngkajang, paku kajang (Dayak Jangkang Tanjung), paku raja, rajang (Dayak Desa, Dayak Iban, Dayak Seberuang), ransak balun (Dayak Mentebah), sulur rajang (Dayak Iban), tengkapa (Kutai, Dayak Basap); E. Nusa Tenggara: tikel (Manggarai); Malaysia: daun semun, paku langsuyar, paku pandan, semum; Singapore: rumah langsuyar (Malay); Philippines: adad-pa (Bontoc), dapong babae, gadlauin, laksak (Alangan), pakpak-lawin (Tagalog); Thailand: kaprok hang sing, kaprok hua long (south-eastern), katae tai hin (north-eastern); Vietnam: rangbe, tố điêu (Angriyantie 2010; Diba et al. 2013; Ferdy et al. 2017; Iswandono et al. 2015; Mandia 2004; Matius 2019; Meliki et al. 2013; Mulyadi et al. 2014;

M. Muhaimin (*) Cibodas Botanical Garden, Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_224

181

182

M. Muhaimin

Ong and Nordiana 1999; PTKDLH 2015; Rizki et al. 2019; Rusea 2003; Sangat et al. 2000; Suharjito et al. 2014; Supiandi et al. 2019; Supriati et al. 2013; Syah et al. 2014; Takoy et al. 2013; Van Sam et al. 2008; Weihreter 2014).

Botany and Ecology Description: Rhizome short, stout, erect or ascending, epiphytic, bearing a rosette of leaves at the apex, appearing like a nest, below the leaves usually with a large mass of roots which bear copious, persistent, brown root hairs; apex of rhizome clothed with thin clathrate scales up to 2 cm
3 mm, margins amply ciliate, black to purplebrown. Leaves simple, coriaceous; petiole up to 5 cm long, pale yellow to black; lamina narrowly elliptical, 1–1.5 m
6–30 cm, gradually narrowed towards both ends, margin entire, grass-green; midrib strongly raised above, flat below, dark brown in the older leaves, veins prominent and close, once (sometimes twice) forked near the midrib and then running parallel to unite again near the margin to form submarginal veins about 0.5 mm distant from the margin. Sori elongate along veins in the upper half of the lamina underside, extending as close (about 1 mm apart), parallel, brown lines from near the midrib up to halfway (sometimes more) the margin; indusium about 0.5 mm wide, reflexed at maturity; sporangium small, stalked, annulus with 20–28 thickened cells. Spores with irregular, thickened wing, translucent light brown when fresh, turning darker brown (Rusea 2003). Distribution and Habitat: This species occurs throughout the Old World tropics, from East Africa through India, Sri Lanka, throughout South-East Asia to Taiwan, Australia, Tahiti, and Hawaii. In Malesia, A. nidus is by far the commonest and the only epiphytic Asplenium growing in lowland open habitats. Although A. nidus grows naturally as an epiphyte, it can thrive terrestrially (Rusea 2003). This plant can be found from the coastal area to the mountain at 2500 m above sea level (Mansur et al. 2004) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The Sakai ethnic community in Mandau district, Riau, uses the roots of Asplenium nidus to treat dysentery, and leaves to relieve fever. In Bukit Tiga Puluh National Park area, Sumatra, the Malays use the leaves to cure fever (Sangat et al. 2000). The local communities in Kanagarian Mangguang, Pariaman city, West Sumatra, use the ground rhizome to treat certain skin diseases and boiled leaves for traditional bath for postpartum care (Rizki et al. 2013). The communities in West Pasaman, West Sumatra, use the leaves as a potion against fever (Rizki et al. 2019). A concoction consisting of A. nidus, Graptophyllum pictum, Imperata cylindrica, and Gardenia jasminoides leaves are used to treat heartburn symptoms in Suka Rami village, Air Nipis district, Bengkulu (Supriati et al. 2013). The Baduy people in Kanekes village, Lebak, Banten, use the boiled leaves to treat sprue and stop bleeding (Suansa 2011). The young leaves are used to treat lumbago or back pain

Asplenium nidus L.

183

Fig. 1 Typical life form of Asplenium nidus (Aspleniaceae). Bodogol, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Foliage of Asplenium nidus (Aspleniaceae) showing the undersurface of leaves. Bodogol, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

by Bolaangmongondow community in around Kotamobagu district, Bolaangmongondow regency, North Sulawesi (Sangat et al. 2000). The Dayak people in some areas of West Kalimantan use the leaves to relieve headache (Diba et al. 2013). The Dayak Iban in some parts of Kalimantan use the leaves to treat dandruff (Meliki et al. 2013), swelling (Pradityo et al. 2016), nosebleed (Sinaga

184

M. Muhaimin

et al. 2016), and young leaves to relieve fever (Yusro et al. 2014). The Dayak Seberuang in Forest Ensabang village, Sintang regency, West Kalimantan, use the plant to treat ulceration (Takoy et al. 2013). The roots of Tetrastigma lanceolarium, Helminthostachys zeylanica, Asplenium nidus, and shoots of I. cylindrica are mixed, boiled, and drunk in the morning and late afternoon to treat typhus by Kutai and Dayak Basap in Long Nah village, Kutai Timur, East Kalimantan (Suharjito et al. 2014). The boiled leaves are used to relieve dizziness by Dayak Kanayatn in Nekbare village, Bengkayang regency, West Kalimantan. The Dayak Mentebah in Nanga Dua village, Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan, use the cooked leaves as a compress to treat tumor, nausea, and urinary pain (Weihreter 2014). The Dayak Jangkang Tanjung in Ribau village, Sanggau regency, West Kalimantan, use the leaves to treat wound and dandruff (Sari et al. 2015). The leaves are used to reduce gout pain by the Dayak Kenyah Uma Baha in Kelay district, Berau regency, East Kalimantan (Lonita et al. 2019). The pounded shoots are used to treat ulcer by the Dayak Desa in Pakak village, Sintang regency, West Kalimantan (Supiandi et al. 2019). Malaysia: The Malays in Machang district, Kelantan, Peninsular Malaysia, use A. nidus in some traditional medicines; the leaves are pounded and mixed with grated coconut, and the juice expressed is a wash for healthier hair free of dandruff and split ends (Ong and Nordiana 1999). The Malays also apply the pounded leaves and as a lotion on forehead for fever (Ling et al. 2009; Perry 1980). In Terengganu, the Malay use the plant in the Malay traditional bath, mandi serom, which is useful for postpartum recovery (Othman et al. 2014). The Sakai people of north Pahang use the decoction of the plant for reducing labor pain and to cure fever (Rusea 2003). Philippines: Decoction of roots is used to treat blood clotting in Quezon province. In Pampanga province, a leaf decoction is used to treat kidney ailments. In Bontoc, the boiled leaves are used to treat skin diseases, fever, and cough (PTKDLH 2015). Thailand: The leaves are crushed and applied on the head to treat headache by communities in Narathivas province, Thailand (Kitirattrakarn and Anantachoke 2005). Vietnam: The indigenous communities in Ben En National Park apply the crushed leaves and stems over strained muscle (Van Sam et al. 2008). Indigenous communities in the traditional market of Son La province trade the leaves for its medicinal value to treat rheumatism, arthritis, and strained muscle (Nguyen et al. 2019). Lao PDR: Three sympatric ethnic groups, the Brou, Saek, and Kry, living in the Annamite Mountains use A. nidus for medicinal purposes. The decoction of whole plants is used to heal diarrhea and the decoction of leaves is used to treat beriberi by the Brou people. The decoction of the roasted stems is used to cure diarrhea, and the boiled stems and leaves are used to cure wounds by the Saek people. The Kry community uses the leaves as a secondary ingredient for steamsauna or steambath in postpartum healthcare (de Boer et al. 2012).

Phytochemistry An α-amino acid, homoserine, has been detected in the leaves of A. nidus (Berg et al. 1954). Some flavonoids found in the plant include ()-Epiafzelechin-3-O-β-D-allopyranoside, gliricidin-7-O-hexoside, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-

Asplenium nidus L.

185

gentiobiosie-7,40 -bisglucoside, kaempferol-3-O-diglucoside, kaempferol-3,7diglycoside, kaempferol-3-O-vicianoside, myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside, and quercetin-7O-rutinoside (Jarial et al. 2018; Ling et al. 2009; Nugraha et al. 2020). In the Philippines, histochemical tests of leaves showed the presence of alkaloid, tannin, and oxalic acid (Rusea 2003). Terpenoids and anthraquinones are also present in the leaves (Tahir et al. 2017). Bioactivities reported include oxytocic (Ling et al. 2009; Rusea 2003), antibacterial (Jarial et al. 2018; Kandou and Pandiangan 2018; Lai et al. 2009; Nath et al. 2013; Tahir et al. 2017), antiviral (Tahir et al. 2015, 2017), antifungal (Chan et al. 2018), anticancer, antioxidant (Jarial et al. 2018), and anticonvulsant (Faral et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses The shoots of A. nidus are consumed as vegetable by the Manggarai community of East Nusa Tenggara in Indonesia (Iswandono et al. 2015).

Biocultural Importance and Other Uses The plants are used to repell caterpillars on cattle by the local communities in Mulia Rajat village, Tanah Karo, North Sumatra (Asmaliyah et al. 2010). The Dayak Benuaq of West Kutai in East Kalimantan, Indonesia use the plant in rituals such as beliatn sentiu and beliatn bawo related to healing or health recovery including pregnancy (Matius 2019). The Alangan Mangyan ethnic community in Mount Halcon of Mindoro Island, Philippines, uses A. nidus for several purposes. The piled leaves of A. nidus and various species of banana are used as roofs and walls to construct temporary shelter during hunting expeditions. The piled leaves are also used to form bed cushions, pillows, or emergency umbrella (Mandia 2004).

Economic Importance Asplenium nidus can be grown as an ornamental plant. In Indonesia and Philippines, this species is considered as an important ornamental plant. In the Philippines, this species is also used in orchid potting. The reported medicinal values are of interest to the pharmaceutical industry (Rusea 2003).

References Angriyantie L. Etnobotani dan potensi tumbuhan berguna di Kampung Keay, Kabupaten Kutai Barat, Kalimantan Timur [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2010. (in Bahasa) Asmaliyah WEE, Utami S, Mulyadi K, Yudhistira SFW. Pengenalan tumbuhan penghasil pestisida nabati dan pemanfaatannya secara tradisional. Palembang: Puat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Produktivitas Hutan; 2010. (in Bahasa)

186

M. Muhaimin

Berg AM, Kari S, Alfthan M, Virtanen AI. Homoserine and α-aminoadipic acid in green plants. Acta Chem Scand. 1954;8:358. https://doi.org/10.3891/acta.chem.scand.08-0358. Chan YS, Cheah YH, Chong PZ, Khor HL, Teh WS, Khoo KS, Ong HC, Sit NW. Antifungal and cytotoxic activities of selected medicinal plants from Malaysia. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2018;31(1):119–27. de Boer HJ, Lamxay V, Björk L. Comparing medicinal plant knowledge using similarity indices: a case of the Brou, Saek and Kry in Lao PDR. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141(1):481–500. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.03.017. Diba F, Yusro F, Mariani Y, Ohtani K. Inventory and biodiversity of medicinal plants from tropical rain forest based on traditional knowledge by ethnic dayaknese communities in West Kalimantan Indonesia. Kuroshio Sci. 2013;7(1):75–80. Faral HMB, Macaraig RB, Mojares PMB, Caramat RJD, Abando DD, Balangi LM, Aguila SC, Villalobos OA. The anticonvulsant activity of Asplenium nidus L. (Polypodiaceae) methanolic crude leaf extract in chemically induced tonicclonic convulsions on Swiss mice. The STETH. 2018;12:18–34. Ferdy R, Usman FH, Sisillia L. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat oleh masyarakat Desa kayu Aradi Kecamatan Menyuke kalimantan. J Hutan Lestari. 2017;5(2):452–9. (in Bahasa) Iswandono E, Zuhud EAM, Hikmat A, Kosmaryandi N. Pengetahuan etnobotani Suku Manggarai dan implikasinya terhadap pemanfaatan tumbuhan hutan di Pegunungan Ruteng. J Ilmu Pertanian Ind. 2015;20(3):171–81. (in Bahasa) Jarial R, Thakur S, Sakinah M, Zularisam AW, Sharad A, Kanwar SS, Singh L. Potent anticancer, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of isolated flavonoids from Asplenium nidus. J King Saud Univ. 2018;30(2):185–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.11.006. Kandou FE, Pandiangan D. Aktivitas antibakteri ekstrak metanol Tumbuhan Paku Adiantum capillusveneris dan Asplenium nidus terhadap bakteri Gram Negatif Escherichia coli dengan metode difusi agar. J MIPA Unsrat. 2018;7(1):25–8. https://doi.org/10.35799/jm.7.1.2018.19010. (in Bahasa) Kitirattrakarn T, Anantachoke C. Herbs from peat swamp forests in Narathivas, Thailand. Acta Hortic. 2005;680:73–81. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2005.680.9. Lai HY, Lim YY, Tan SP. Antioxidative, tyrosinase inhibiting and antibacterial activities of leaf extracts from medicinal ferns. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2009;73(6):1362–6. https://doi.org/ 10.1271/bbb.90018. Ling KH, Kian CT, Hoon TC. A guide to medicinal plants: an illustrated, scientific, and medicinal approach. Singapore: World Scientific; 2009. Lonita L, Hendra M, Hariani N. Jenis tumbuhan obat tradisional dari masyarakat Dayak Kenyah Uma Baha di Kecamatan Kelay Kabupaten Berau. J Pro-Life. 2019;6(3):214–23. https://doi.org/ 10.33541/jpvol6Iss2pp102. (in Bahasa) Mandia EH. The Alangan Mangyan of Mt. Halcon, Oriental Mindoro: their ethnobotany. Philippine Q Cult Soc. 2004;32(2):96–117. www.jstor.org/stable/29792551. Mansur M, Kohyama T, Simbolon H, Partomihardjo T, Tani T. Distribusi vertikal dan horizontal Asplenium nidus L. di Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun, Jawa Barat. Berita Biol. 2004;7 (1&2):81–6. https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi.v7i1&2.2061. (in Bahasa) Matius P. Tumbuh-tumbuhan yang digunakan untuk upacara ritual beliatn pada suku Dayak Benuaq di Kutai Barat. Samarinda: Mulawarman University Press; 2019. (in Bahasa) Meliki, Linda R, Lovadi I. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat oleh Suku Dayak Iban Desa Tanjung Sari Kecamatan Ketungau Tengah Kabupaten Sintang. J Protobiont. 2013;2(3):129–35. (in Bahasa) Mulyadi, Tavita GE, Yusro F. Kajian Etnobotani Tumbuhan Obat di Desa Panding Jaya Kecamatan Ketungau Tengah Kabupaten Sintang. J Hutan Lestari. 2014;2(1):134–41. (in Bahasa) Nath K, Bhattacharya MK, Sen A, Kar S. Antibacterial activity of frond extract of Asplenium nidus L., a threatened ethnomedicinal fern of north East India. Int J Pharmacogn Phytochem Res. 2013;28(2):1169–72. Nguyen TS, Xia NH, Van Chu T, Van Sam H. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in traditional markets of son La province, Vietnam. Forest Soc. 2019;3(2):171–92. https://doi. org/10.24259/fs.v3i2.6005.

Asplenium nidus L.

187

Nugraha AS, Triatmoko B, Wangchuk P, Keller PA. Vascular epiphytic medicinal plants as sources of therapeutic agents: their ethnopharmacological uses, chemical composition, and biological activities. Biomolecules. 2020;10(2):181. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10020181. Ong HC, Nordiana M. Malay ethno-medico botany in Machang, Kelantan, Malaysia. Fitoterapia. 1999;70(5):502–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(99)00077-5. Othman R, Abdul Razak NI, Ishak N. Mandi serom or herbal traditional bath practices among traditional Malay midwives at east coast of Malaysia. Proceeding the 5th international conference on natural products for health and beauty. Phuket: Natural Product Research Center of Excellence, Prince of Songkla University; 2014. p. 258–62. Perry LM. Medicinal plants of east and Southeast Asia: attributed properties and uses. Cambridge: The MIT Press; 1980. POWO. Plants of the World Online. 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 25 June 2020. Pradityo T, Santoso N, Zuhud EAM. Etnobotani di Kebun Tembawang Suku Dayak Iban, Desa Sungai Mawang, Kalimantan Barat. Media Konservasi. 2016;21(2):183–98. (in Bahasa) PTKDLH. Philippine Traditional Knowledge Digital Library on Health. Asplenium nidus. 2015. https://www.tkdlph.com/index.php/component/search/?searchword¼Asplenium%20nidus& ordering¼newest&searchphrase¼all&limit¼20. Retrieved 26 May 2020. Rizki R, Sari TM, Leilani I. Jenis tumbuhan mangrove yang dimanfaatkan masyarakat sebagai bahan obat di Kanagarian Mangguang Pariaman. In: Mukhtar E, Syamsuardi PT, Munir E, editors. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Biodiversitas dan Ekologi Tropika Indonesia. Padang: FMIPA Andalas University; 2013. p. 111–5. (in Bahasa). Rizki R, Nursyahra N, Fernando O. Study of weeds as traditional medicinal plants used by indigenous people of west Pasaman, Indonesia. J Trop Hortic. 2019;2(2):81–5. https://doi.org/ 10.33089/jthort.v2i2.21. Rusea G. Asplenium L. In: Winter WPD, Amoroso VB, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no 15(2): cryptograms: ferns and fern allies. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 2003. p. 60–4. Sangat HM, Zuhud EAM, Damayanti EK. Kamus penyakit dan tumbuhan obat Indonesia. Jakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia; 2000. (in Bahasa) Sari A, Linda R, Lovadi I. Pemanfaatan Tumbuhan Obat Pada Masyarakat Suku Dayak Jangkang Tanjung Di Desa Ribau Kecamatan Kapuas Kabupaten Sanggau. PRO. 2015;4(2):1–8. (in Bahasa) Sinaga E, Tobing ISL, Pravita RV. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat oleh Suku Dayak Iban di Dusun Meliau Kalimantan Barat. Jakarta: Global Science Publishing House; 2016. (in Bahasa) Suansa NI. Penggunaan pengetahuan etnobotani dalam pengelolaan Hutan Adat Baduy [undergradute thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2011. (in Bahasa) Suharjito D, Darusman LK, Darusman D, Suwarno E. Comparing medicinal plants use for traditional and modern herbal medicine in long Nah Village of East Kalimantan. Bionatura. 2014;16(2):95–102. Supiandi MI, Mahanal S, Zubaidah S, Julung H, Ege B. Ethnobotany of traditional medicinal plants used by Dayak Desa community in Sintang, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(5):1264–70. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d200516. Supriati R, Juniarti T, Astuti RRS. Tumbuhan Obat yang dimanfaatkan oleh Masyarakat Desa Suka Rami Kecamatan air Nipis Kabupaten Bengkulu Selatan. Konservasi Hayati. 2013;9(2):33–43. (in Bahasa) Syah J, Usman FH, Yusro F. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat yang dimanfaatkan masyarakat Dusun Nekbare Desa Babane Kecamatan Samalantan Kabupaten Bengkayang. J Hutan Lestari. 2014;2(3):419–26. (in Bahasa) Tahir MT, Wai YC, Ibrahim N. Antibacterial, cytotoxicity and antiviral activities of Asplenium nidus. J Chem Pharm. 2015;7(7):440–4. Tahir MM, Hassan NS, Dyari HRE, Yaacob WA, Ibrahim N. Phytochemistry, antibacterial and antiviral effects of the fractions of Asplenium nidus leaves aqueous extract. Malays Appl Biol. 2017;46:207–12.

188

M. Muhaimin

Takoy DM, Linda R, Lovadi I. Tumbuhan berkhasiat obat suku dayak seberuang di kawasan hutan Desa Ensabang Kecamatan Sepauk Kabupaten Sintang. PRO. 2013;2(3):122–8. (in Bahasa) Van Sam H, Baas P, Keßler PJA. Traditional medicinal plants in Ben En national park, Vietnam. Blumea. 2008;53(3):569–601. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651908X607521. Weihreter E. Traditional knowledge, perceptions and forest conditions in a Dayak Mentebah community, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Working paper 146. Bogor: CIFOR; 2014. Yusro F, Mariani Y, Diba F, Ohtani K. Inventory of medicinal plants for fever used by four dayak sub ethnic in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Kuroshio Sci. 2014;8(1):33–8.

Bauhinia monandra Kurz FABACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Bauhinia kappleri Sagot; Bauhinia krugii Urb.; Bauhinia porosa Boivin ex Baill.; Bauhinia punctiflora Baker; Caspareopsis monandra (Kurz) Britton & Rose; Monoteles paradoxa Raf.

Local Names English: Butterfly flower, cow’s foot, Napoleon’s plume, pink bauhinia, pink butterfly tree, pink orchid tree, poor man’s orchid, St. Thomas tree Philippines: Alibangbang

Botany and Ecology Description: Small, fast-growing, evergreen tree or shrub, ca. 3–15.2 m high and 0.5 m in diameter (Fig. 1). Bark smooth, gray, become scaly, reddish-brown on older trees. Leaves shaped like butterfly wings, rounded, split 1/3 to 1/2 length, forming two equal lobes. Flowers large, 5-petaled orchid-like, racemose; petals, 4 spoonshaped petals, pink, dotted with red to purple markings, fifth petal reddish to purple. Flowers ca. 6.4–10.2 cm in diameter, one fertile stamen per flower; calyx splitting along one side. Fruits dark, dehiscent pods, 2.5 cm wide, 15.2–30.5 cm long, pointed at the apex. While still on the tree, fruits split open with force, scattering the seeds. As Bauhinia species has several subspecies and varieties, molecular data are useful to resolve its complex identity (Dapar et al. 2020a). M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_217

189

190

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Habit of Bauhinia monandra. (© P. Cruz) Fig. 2 Bauhinia monandra fruiting twig. (© P. Cruz)

Phenology: Bauhinia monandra starts flowering when 3–4 years old from seed (Vosso 2002). Flowering and fruiting were observed to occur all year round (Little and Wadsworth 1964) (Fig. 2). Distribution and Habitat: The species grows natively in North and West Madagascar (POWO 2020). Origin is known in the cultivated state as the closest relatives

Bauhinia monandra Kurz

191

from South America, suggesting it could be Neotropic. B. monandra grows all over Malaysia and widely cultivated in the tropics having showy flowers (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). B. monandra is commonly found in the tropical regions and grown in the West Indies (Connor 2002). This tree was thought to have naturalized throughout the islands with the absence of hybrids or geographical races.

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: Pucot et al. (2019) listed B. monandra as an anti-cancer plant based on their review of medicinal plants used by indigenous peoples in Mindanao. Other than Southeast Asia, B. monandra is used in the treatment of diabetes in Nigerian traditional medicine (Nworie and Okorie 2018) and Brazilian folk medicine (Menezes et al. 2007; Macêdo et al. 2008). A mixture of this native species and other Bauhinia species are generally applied for the treatment of ailments besides diabetes (Holdsworth 1990; Da Silva et al. 2000; Mendes et al. 2006; Dapar et al. 2020b).

Phytochemistry Ferrari et al. (2019) reported the phytoconstituents present in Bauhinia monandra for the first time. These compounds are lup-20(29)-en-3β,24-diol, and methyl galloate along with β-sitosterol obtained from the methanolic extract of B. monandra stem bark. Additionally, a minor constituent, lup-20(29)-en-3β,24-diol, was isolated from the genus Bauhinia for the first time (Ferrari et al. 2019). Many studies have revealed numerous pharmacological activities from different Bauhinia (Holdsworth 1990; Da Silva et al. 2000), including the antioxidant potential of B. monandra (Nworie and Okorie 2018). In Nigeria, B. monandra seeds are naturally rich sources of vitamin A and contain linoleic, fatty, and myristic acids (Keay 1989). In North America, experimentally induced diabetes in rats were once administered with B. monandra extract showing antidiabetic potential (McCune and Johns 2002). This antidiabetic activity could be associated with its antioxidant compounds (Anosike et al. 2012). Nworie and Okorie (2018) assessed the methanolic leaf extract of B. monandra for antioxidant activity using DPPH free radical scavenging assay, hydrogen peroxide scavenging assay, and ferrous ion chelating ability test. Results revealed that B. monandra possessed significant antioxidant potential, possibly due to its phenolic phytoconstituents. In summary, the hypoglycemic properties of B. monandra and other Bauhinia species (Silva and Cechinel-Filho 2002) could be arising from the flavonoids such as glycones or glycosides (Cechinel-Filho 2009; Menezes et al. 2007). The genus Bauhinia has been reported to contain bioactive compounds with several pharmacological activities (Cechinel-Filho 2009).

192

M. L. G. Dapar

Local Food Uses Bauhinia monandra is consumed as a nutritional source of vitamin A (Balogun and Fetuga 1985), especially its seeds (Connor 2002).

Economic Importance Bauhinia monandra is usually planted for its colorful flowers and decorative vegetation (Connor 2002). Fern (2014) reported the everyday ornamental use of B. monandra for its attractive flowers. Bauhinia species are commonly used in ornamental gardens (Anhwang et al. 2005).

References Anhwang BA, Ajibola VO, Oniye SJ. Composition of bulk, trace and some rare earth elements in the seeds of Moringa oleifera (Lam) Detarium microcarpum (Guill and Perr) and Bauhinia monandra (Kurz). J Food Technol. 2005;3(3):290–3. Anosike CA, Obidoa O, Ezeanyika LUS. The anti-inflammatory activity of garden egg (Solanum aethiopicum) on egg albumin-induced edema and granuloma tissue formation in rats. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2012;5:62–6. Balogun A, Fetuga BL. Fatty acid composition of seed oils of some members of the Leguminosae family. Food Chem. 1985;17(3):175–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-8146(85)90066-4. Cechinel-Filho V. Chemical composition and biological potential of plants from the genus Bauhinia. Phytother Res. 2009;23(10):1347–54. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.2756. Connor KF. Bauhinia monandra Kurz. In: Vozzo JA, editor. Tropical tree seed manual. Agriculture Handbook, vol. 721. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; 2002. p. 324–6. Da Silva KL, Biavatti MW, Leite SN, Yunes RA, Monache FD, Filho VC. Phytochemical and pharmacognostic investigation of Bauhinia forficata Link (Leguminosae). Z Naturforsch C J Biosci. 2000;55:478–80. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020a;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal appraisal and conservation status of medicinal plants among the Manobo tribe of Bayugan City, Philippines. Biodiversitas. 2020b;21(8):3843–56. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d210854. Fern K. Bauhinia monandra Kurz. In: Useful tropical plants database. 2014. https://tropical. theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id¼Cinnamomum+mercadoi. Accessed 4 June 2020. Ferrari J, de Oliveira DM, Aragão NM. Phytochemical constituents isolated from the stem bark of Bauhinia monandra. Floresta e Ambiente. 2019;26(1):1–6. https://doi.org/10.1590/21798087.150285. Holdsworth DK. Traditional medicinal plants of Rarotonga, Cook Islands part I. Int J Crude Drug Res. 1990;28:209–18. Keay RWJ. Trees of Nigeria. Oxford, UK: Clarendo Press; 1989. p. 74–8. Little Jr EL, Wadsworth FH. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agriculture Handbook, no. 249. Washington DC: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; 1964.

Bauhinia monandra Kurz

193

Macêdo MFS, Sisenando HAAACN, Queiroz JDF, Argolo ACC, Saturnino ACRD, Coelho LCBB, et al. Determining the genotoxicity of an aqueous infusion of Bauhinia monandra leaves. Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2008;18(4):509–16. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-695X2008000400002. McCune LM, Johns T. Antioxidant activity in medicinal plants associated with the symptoms of diabetes mellitus used by the indigenous peoples of the North American boreal forest. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;82:197–205. Mendes BG, Machado MJ, Falkenberg M. Screening of glycolipids in medicinal plants. Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2006;16:568–75. Menezes FS, Minto ABM, Ruela HS, Kuster M, Sheridan H, Frankish N. Hypoglycemic activity of two Brazilian Bauhinia species: Bauhinia forficata L. and Bauhinia monandra Kurz. Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2007;17(1):8–13. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-695X2007000100003. Nworie KM, Okorie NA. Phytochemicals Distribution and antioxidant potential of Bauhinia monandra (Linn.) leaves extract. Res J Med Plants. 2018;12(2):78–83. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Fabaceae – Caesalpinioideae (¼ Leguminosae). In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/ FabaceaeCaesalpinioideae.html. Accessed 4 June 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 4 June 2020 Pucot JR, Manting MME, Demayo CG. Ethnobotanical plants used by selected indigenous peoples of Mindanao, the Philippines as cancer therapeutics. Pharmacophore. 2019;10(3):61–9. Silva KL, Cechinel-Filho V. Plantas do gênero Bauhinia: composição química e potencial farmacológico. Química Nova. 2002;25(3):449–54. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-404220020 00300018. Vosso. J, editor. Tropical tree seed manual. In: https://rngr.net/publications/ttsm. Washington DC: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; 2002.

Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod. FABACEAE Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

Synonyms Caesalpinia angustifolia Salisb.; C. sapang Noronha; C. sappan L. (POWO 2020)

Local Names Cambodia: Sbaèng; Indonesia: kayu secang, soga jawa (Javanese), secang (Maluk, Sundanese); Laos: fang pa, faang dèèng; Malaysia: sepang (Kedah, Sabah, East Kalimantan); Myanmar: teing-nyet; Philippines: sibukaw (Ati, Ati Negrito, Subanen), sibukao (Bisaya, Tadyawan, Tagalog), sapang (Bisaya, Ilokano, Tagalog), Sedocaw (Higaonon); Thailand: faang, faang som (Kanchanaburi), ngaai (Kanchanaburi, Karen), sa moon diang (Mien); Vietnam: vang, vang nhuôm, tô môc (Madulid et al. 1989; Zainon et al. 2001; Rubite et al. 2001; Eusebio and Umali 2004; Sam et al. 2004, 2008; Shyun and Ali 2004; Panyaphu et al. 2011; Olowa et al. 2012; Batubara and Mitsunaga 2013; Ong and Kim 2014; Pizon et al. 2016; Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016; Falah and Hadiwibowo 2017).

Botany and Ecology Description: Small trees, up to 20 m high. Bark pale gray, brown lenticelate; branchlets with recurved prickles, brow-tomentulose; stipules 3–4 mm long, caducous (Fig. 1). Leaves bipinnate, 25–40 cm long; pinnae 8–14 pairs; leaflets 8–20 pairs in

K. Devanathan (*) Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_108

195

196

K. Devanathan

Fig. 1 Flowering twig of Biancaea sappan (© J. Stephan)

each pinna, opposite, ovate, 1–2.4
0.6–1 cm, asymmetrically obtuse at base, entire at margins, obtuse-emarginate at apex, subsessile, glabrous. Inflorescences a panicle, supra-axillary and terminal; bracts lanceolate, 5–10 mm long, attenuate, puberulent, caducous. Flowers many, c. 1 cm across, yellow; pedicels 1–2 cm long, pubescent (Fig. 2). Sepals 5, broadly oblong, 0.8–1
0.5–0.8 cm, concave, ciliate at margins, glabrous; anterior sepal larger. Petals 5, suborbicular, c. 1
0.8–1 cm; standard petal smaller, red tinged. Stamens 10, exserted; filaments c. 1.5 cm long, hairy at base; anthers oblong, c. 1.5 mm long, glabrous. Ovary oblong, grayish-pubescent, 3–6 ovuled; style filiform. Pods obliquely oblong, 5–10
3–4 cm, beaked at apex, puberulent, glabrous when mature, pale green, reddish brown when mature, woody, flattened, sessile (Fig. 3). Seeds 2–4, ellipsoid–oblongoid, 1.5–2
0.8–1.2 cm, blackish brown. Phenology: Peak flowering is from June to December and fruit sets from December to May. Distribution: Biancaea sappan is native to Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is also introduced into Bismarck Archipelago, Borneo, China Hainan, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, Malaya, Maluku, Mauritius, Mozambique, New Guinea, Nigeria, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Réunion, Sulawesi, Sumatera, Taiwan, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaïre (POWO 2020). Ecology: Biancaea sappan thrives well in hilly areas with clay and calcareous soil up to mid elevations. In Vietnam, it grows in secondary forests, forest margins,

Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod.

Fig. 2 Flowers of Biancaea sappan (© J. Stephan)

Fig. 3 Pods of Biancaea sappan (© J. Stephan)

197

198

K. Devanathan

limestone hills, road sides, and cultivated near villages (Sam et al. 2004). It is also recorded to grow along river banks in Malaysia (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Maluk of Sumbawa, West Nusa Tenggara, use secang to treat dysentery, tuberculosis, skin disease, rheumatism, and cough (Batubara and Mitsunaga 2013). Malaysia: Heartwood of sepang is traditionally used in the treatment of stomach ulcer or stomach cancer by the local people of Kuala Nerang, Kedah (Zainon et al. 2001; Shyun and Ali 2004). Indigenous people of Sabah drink sepang bark decoction as a tea for the treatment of tuberculosis and lumbago (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016). Sepang bark pith decoction is taken orally during pregnancy and before childbirth by the native people of East Kalimantan (Falah and Hadiwibowo 2017). Philippines: Decoction from the chopped stem is administered internally to cure anemia by the Ati tribe in Nagpana, Barotac Viejo, Iloilo province (Madulid et al. 1989). Wood decoction is consumed or applied externally to alleviate sprain by the Tadyawan and Tagalog people (Rubite et al. 2001). It is used in traditional medicine to treat hemorrhage (Eusebio and Umali 2004). Stem decoction is consumed to alleviate tuberculosis by the Higaonon of Rogongon, Iligan City, Mindanao (Olowa et al. 2012). The Ati Negrito of Guimaras Island drink stem decoction to alleviate asthma, sudden cough, and in postpartum recovery. Stem pith decoction is drunk to treat fracture, dislocation, and internal bleeding. Roasted leaves are applied externally as poultice to alleviate fracture, dislocation, and headache (Ong and Kim 2014). The subanen drink a concoction of medicinal plants including sibukaw (B. sappan) stem, nonang (Cordia dichotoma) stem, thebu menubo (Saccharum violaceum) stem, and thedyaw pula (Musa sp.) roots frequently for 3 days to treat tuberculosis (Pizon et al. 2016). Thailand: Bark decoction is consumed to cure diarrhea and to improve blood circulation by the Mien (Yao) of Northern Thailand (Panyaphu et al. 2011). Wood decoction is used in the treatment of pulmonary diseases, and as emmenagogue, expectorant, and blood tonic (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016). Vietnam: Indigenous people of Ben En National Park drink leaves and root decoction with honey to cure diarrhea. Chewed fresh leaf paste is applied on the affected part to alleviate hemostasis (Sam et al. 2008). Biancaea sappan is also used in traditional treatments to cure hemoptysis, postpartum hemorrhages, as well as emmenagogue and hemostatic (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016). Wood is used in the treatment of hemostasis and diarrhea in Vietnam and Laos (Sam et al. 2004).

Phytochemistry Heartwood and seeds are the most extensively explored parts of the B. sappan in terms of phytochemical constituents. Brazilin, brazilein, and hematoxylin are the major phytochemical compounds present in the heartwood (Hikino et al. 1977; Xie et al.

Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod.

199

2000; Fu et al. 2008; Liu et al. 2009; Washiyama et al. 2009; Tong et al. 2013; Uddin et al. 2015; Tu et al. 2016; Handayani et al. 2017). Several researchers added new phytochemicals including sappanchalcone (Nagai et al. 1984; Fu et al. 2008; Seo et al. 2020), tetraacetylbrazilin, protosappanin A (Xu et al. 1994; Fu et al. 2008; Zhao et al. 2008; Liu et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2017), hematein (Oh et al. 2001), 4-OMethylsappanol (Niranjan Reddy et al. 2003), 10 ,40 -dihydro-spiro[benzofuran-3 (2H),30 -[3H-2]benzopyran]-10 ,60 ,60 ,70 -tetrol and 3-[[4,5-dihydroxy-2(hydroxymethyl) phenyl]-methyl]-2,3-dihydro-3,6-benzofurandiol (Safitri et al. 2003), neoprotosappanin, protosappanin A dimethyl acetal, protosappanin E-2, neosappanone A (Nguyen et al. 2005), 30 -Deoxy-4-O-methylepisappanol, sappanone B, palmitic acid, (+)-(8S,8’S)-bisdihydrosiringenin, 3-deoxysappanchalcone, (+)-lyoniresinol, 3-deoxysappanone B, protosappanin B, isoprotosappanin B, 30 -O-methylbrazilin (Fu et al. 2008), 3,8-dihydroxy 4,10-dimethoxy-7-oxo-[2] benzopyrano[4,3-b] benzopyran, 3-deoxysappanchalcone, 3-deoxysappanone B, rhamnetin, protosappanin C, 3,7-dihydroxy-chroman-4-one, dimethyl adipate, daucosterin (Shu et al. 2008; Seo et al. 2017), 4-O-methylepisappanol, 30 -deoxysappanol, 3-deoxysappanone B, 4-Omethylsappanol (Xu et al. 2012), sappanone A, sappanone B, 3-deoxysappanone B, sappanol, episappanol, 4-Omethylsappanol, 30 -deoxy-4-O-methylsappanol, 4Omethylepisappanol, 4-(7-hydroxy-2,2-dimetyl-9βH-1,3,5-trioxa-cyclopenta[α] naphtalen-3α-methyl)-benzen-1,2-diol, 7,30 ,40 -trihydroxy-3-benzyl-2H-chromene (Jeong et al. 2012; Uddin et al. 2015), neoprotosappanin, protosappanin E, (Chu et al. 2013), (6aS,11bR)-7,11b-dihydro-6H-indeno[2,1-c]chromene-3,6a,10,11-tetrol (Mitani et al. 2013), protosappanin B (Tong et al. 2013), caesalpin J, 1-hydroxy-7methylxanthone, 1,5-dihydroxyxanthone, 1,7-dihydroxyxanthone, and butein (Zhao et al. 2014b). Other phytochemical constituents reported from heartwood include homoisoflavan: 7,30,40-trihydroxy-3-benzyl-2H-chromene; phenolic compounds: 4-Omethylsappanol, 4-Omethylepisappanol, 30 -deoxy-4-O-methylsappanol, intricatinol, caesalpin J (Zhao et al. 2008), caesalpiniaphenols A, caesalpiniaphenols B, caesalpiniaphenols C, caesalpiniaphenols D, quercetin-3,7-di-O-methyl ether, 3-deoxysappanone B, sappanone A, 10,11-dihydroxydracaenone C, quercetin30 ,40 -di-O-methyl ether, 30 -deoxysappanone B, 30 -deoxysappanone A (Cuong et al. 2012), caesalpiniaphenol E, caesalpiniaphenol F (Min et al. 2012), epicaesalpin J, 7,10,11-trihydroxydracaenone (Zhao et al. 2014b); methoxychalcone compound: isoliquiritigenin 20 -methyl ether; aromatic compounds: 4-O-methylsappanol, caesalpine J, pluchoic acid (Jeong et al. 2009); 3-deoxysappanchalcone, rhamnetin (Liu et al. 2009), protosappanin B, protosappanin C, protosappanin D, protosappanin E (Washiyama et al. 2009; Sasaki et al. 2010), isoliquiritigenin 20 -methyl ether (Lee et al. 2010), (S)-3,7-dihydroxychroman-4-one (Lai et al. 2011); biphenyl dimmers: caesappanin A, caesappanin B (Shu et al. 2011); furanoditerpenes: caesanines A, caesanines B, caesanines C, caesanines D (Zhang et al. 2013b), 3-deoxysappanchalcone (Kim et al. 2014); protosappanins: Caesappin A, Caesappin B, 3,9-dihydroxy-8-methoxy-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-6-one, and 3,8,9thihydroxy-6H-benzo[c]chromen-6-one (Wang et al. 2014); 3,4-di-O substituted

200

K. Devanathan

homoisoflavonoid: 30 ,4-di-O-methylepisappanol; xanthone derivate: 2-methoxy-3hydroxyxanthone (Zhao et al. 2014a) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) (Jun et al. 2015, Lee and Park 2018, Suwan et al. 2018. Terpenoids are the major phytochemical present in the seeds. Various types of terpenoids extracted from the seeds of B. sappan are as follows: cassane-type diterpenes: phanginin A, phanginin B, phanginin C, phanginin D, phanginin E, phanginin F, phanginin G, phanginin H, phanginin I, phanginin J, phanginin K (Yodsaoue et al. 2008, Tran et al. 2015, Bao et al. 2016), caesalsappanins A, caesalsappanins B, caesalsappanins C, caesalsappanins D, caesalsappanins E, caesalsappanins F, caesalsappanins G, caesalsappanins H, caesalsappanins I, caesalsappanins J, caesalsappanins K, caesalsappanins L (Ma et al. 2015; Bao et al. 2016), phanginin Q, phanginin R, Phanginin S, caesalsappanin M, caesalsappanin N, caesalpinilinn, (Bao et al. 2016), tomocins A, tomocins B, tomocins C, tomocins D, tomocins E, tomocins F, tomocins G, tomocins H (Nguyen et al. 2016a), caesalppans A, caesalppans B, caesalppans C, caesalppans D, caesalppans E, caesalppans F, caesaldekarin K, demethylcaesaldekarin C, taepeenins H, taepeenins I, caesalpinistas A, caesalpinistas B, cordylane C, deoxycaesaldekarin C (Xu et al. 2016), tomocin I (Nguyen et al. 2016b), caesalsappanin R, caesalsappanin S (Zhu et al. 2017); cleistanthane diterpenes: tomocinon, tomocinol A, tomocinol B (Hai et al. 2013); furanoditerpenoids: norcaesalpinin J, 20 -norcassane hydroperoxide, phangininoxys B, phangininoxys C (Wu et al. 2014); dimeric cassane diterpenoids: caesalpanins A, caesalpanins B, caesalpanins C (Wang et al. 2020b) and other phytochemicals such as methyl 20-hydroxyvinhaticoate, caesanines B, phanginin A (Wang et al. 2020b); and glycosides: Caesateroside A, Caesateroside B, Caesateroside C (Wang et al. 2020a).

Bioactivity Phytochemicals present in B. sappan exhibited significant therapeutic activities against various diseases and disorders. Phytochemicals from heartwood and seeds possess the following activities including anti-inflammatory(Hikino et al. 1977; Hong et al. 2002; Bae et al. 2005; Hu et al. 2009; Washiyama et al. 2009; Min et al. 2012; Yang et al. 2012; Chen and Zhang 2014; Kim et al. 2014; Lee et al. 2015a; b; Nirmal and Panichayupakaranant 2015; Tewtrakul et al. 2015b; Mueller et al. 2016; Chowdhury et al. 2019), antimotility activity (Shih et al. 1990), improve the halothane altered immune function (Choi et al. 1997), anticomplementary activity (Oh et al. 1998), hepatoprotective activity (Moon et al. 1992, Srilakshmi et al. 2010, Kadir et al. 2014), anti-atherogenic activity (Oh et al. 2001), anticancer (Hong et al. 2002; Ueda et al. 2002; Bae et al. 2005; Kim et al. 2005, 2012, 2015b; Shu et al. 2011; Yang et al. 2012; Hung et al. 2013, 2014; Lee et al. 2013; Guo et al. 2013; Wu et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2014; Ma et al. 2015; Tran et al. 2015; Bao et al. 2016; Handayani et al. 2017; Kang et al. 2018; Hao-Yue et al. 2019; Seo et al. 2020;

Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod.

201

Wang et al. 2020a), anti-oral cancer (Yodsaoue et al. 2008; Lee et al. 2010, 2011; Xu et al. 2016), anti-skin cancer (Liang et al. 2013), anti-metastatic cancer (Hsieh et al. 2013), anti-breast cancer (Tao et al. 2013; Bukke et al. 2018; Jenie et al. 2018), antipancreatic cancer (Hai et al. 2013, Nguyen et al. 2016a), anti-ovarian cancer (Inprasit et al. 2014), anti-cervical cancer (Inprasit et al. 2014; Kitdamrongtham et al. 2013), vasorelaxant activity (Xie et al. 2000; Hu et al. 2003; Zhao et al. 2006; Shen et al. 2008; Sasaki et al. 2010; Tong et al. 2013; Yan et al. 2015), antioxidant activity (Badami et al. 2003; Safitri et al. 2003; Palasuwan et al. 2005; Jeong et al. 2009; Manosroi et al. 2015; Nirmal and Panichayupakaranant 2015; Uddin et al. 2015; Shi et al. 2020a; b), xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitory activity (Nguyen et al. 2004, 2005), anti-gluconeogenic activity (You et al. 2005), anti-platelet activity (Lee et al. 2005; Jagroop 2014), immunosuppressive activity (Ye et al. 2006; Wu et al. 2008, 2010; Zhang et al. 2013a), neuroprotective activity (Shen et al. 2007; Zeng et al. 2012, 2015a, b; Wang et al. 2017; Wan et al. 2019), anti-chronic diseases activity (Choi et al. 2007, Guo et al. 2013, Kim et al. 2015a,), anti-hepatocellular carcinoma disorder (Zhong et al. 2009), anti-arginase activity (Shin et al. 2011), anti-arthritis (Wang et al. 2011; Wu et al. 2011; Chu et al. 2013; Jung et al. 2015a; b; Kim et al. 2015c; Choo et al. 2017), anti-melanogenesis activity (Chang et al. 2012), anticellular tyrosinase activity (Chang et al. 2012; Hridya et al. 2015), anti-matrix metalloproteinase activity (Toegel et al. 2012), nitric oxide scavenging activity (Cuong et al. 2012; Zhao et al. 2014b; Wang et al. 2020b), anti-skin photoaging (Lee et al. 2012; Hwang and Shim 2018), anti-thrombotic activity (Chang et al. 2013), anti-melanin activity (Mitani et al. 2013), inhibitor of IκB kinase (IKK) activity (Jeon et al. 2014), immunosuppressive activities (Li et al. 2015), metal chelating activity (Manosroi et al. 2015), nephroprotective (Jia et al. 2016; Kang et al. 2016), antiasthma (Liu et al. 2016), gastroprotective activity (Chellappan et al. 2016), anti-amyloidogenic activity (Tu et al. 2016), anti-osteoporosis (Huang et al. 2017), lifespan-extending activity (Lee et al. 2017), anti-atherosclerosis (Huang et al. 2018), chondroprotective (Weinmann et al. 2018), antianxiety disorders (Wang et al. 2019), and antidiabetic activity (Sudirman et al. 2020). Although B. sappan phytochemicals have high medicinal value, negative influence on human health have also been reported. Sireeratawong et al. (2010) reported cytotoxicity effects; Xu and Yin (2015) reported the topical application of extracts induces contact allergy in human, while brazilein causes reproductive toxicity (Yuan et al. 2016). Biochemicals present in B. sappan show better inhibition against various clinical pathogens including bacterial species: Bacillus subtilis (Nirmal and Panichayupakaranant 2015), Escherichia coli, (Nirmal and Panichayupakaranant 2015; Suwan et al. 2018), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Seo et al. 2017), Propionibacterium acnes (Nirmal and Panichayupakaranant 2014; Settharaksa et al. 2019), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Nirmal and Panichayupakaranant 2015), Salmonella typhimurium (Nirmal and Panichayupakaranant 2015), Staphylococcus aureus (Nirmal and Panichayupakaranant 2015; Xia et al. 2017; Suwan et al. 2018; Settharaksa et al.

202

K. Devanathan

2019; Temrangsee et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2013b; Zuo et al. 2014, 2015; Gao et al. 2015; Lee and Park 2018), methicillin-resistant S. aureus (Kim et al. 2004; Xu and Lee 2004; Temrangsee et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2013b; Zuo et al. 2014, 2015; Jun et al. 2015; Xia et al. 2017), β-Lactamase producing S. aureus (Xia et al. 2017), S. epidermidis (Nirmal and Panichayupakaranant 2015; Settharaksa et al. 2019), Streptococcus intermedius (Puttipan et al. 2017), and S. mutans (Puttipan et al. 2017, 2018; Suwan et al. 2018); plasmodium: chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum (Ma et al. 2015), Plasmodium falciparum (Zhu et al. 2017); virus: HIV-1 integrase (Tewtrakul et al. 2015a), influenza virus (Liu et al. 2009; Jeong et al. 2012; Yang et al. 2012), Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus (Arjin et al. 2020); fungal species: Beauveria bassiana, (Niranjan Reddy et al. 2003), Candida albicans (Suwan et al. 2018); helminths: Dactylogyrus intermedius (Huang et al. 2013) and Hymenolepis nana (Liang et al. 2013). Extracts also show repellent activity against cockroaches (Acero et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Water mixed with few drops of wood extract is used as a revitalizing drink in Thailand (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016). Wood extract of B. sappan is locally used as a natural pink coloring agent for coloring foods and drinks in Indonesia (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016; Mead 2017).

Biocultural Importance The natural dye extracted from the B. sappan root, stem, and fruits are used as a traditional dyeing agent in many Southeast Asian countries. The red dye from the stem and yellow dye from the root is used to dye cotton, wool, and silk cloths in the Philippines (Subansenee 1995). The fruit paste is mixed with iron to obtain black dye (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016). Leaves are traditionally used to accelerate banana and mango ripening (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016).

Economic Importance Extracts from the heartwood are used as a natural dye in histopathology (Bhakta et al. 2013), photosensitizer to fabricate titanium dioxide nanoparticle-based dye-sensitized solar cells (Ananth et al. 2014) and natural additive in cold storage of pork sausage (Jin et al. 2015; Seo et al. 2019). Sappan wood was globally used as a major source of valuable red dye until nineteenth century. Still it is used to obtain natural red yellow and black dye in small scale by few Southeast Asian countries (Lwin 1995; Sam et al. 2004; Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016; Mead 2017). Biancaea sappan wood is collected as a protected non-wood forest product (NWFP) in Thailand for its aromatic property (Subansenee 1995). Wood color, fragrance, and fine polish properties makes

Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod.

203

B. sappan wood a popular material for wood carving in Laos and Vietnam (Sam et al. 2004). In Philippines, this species is used for bio-fencing and its wood is used for making handicrafts, violin bows, and wooden nails (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016). Wood is used as a natural food coloring agent (Subansenee 1995; Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016; Mead 2017) and leaves are used as a natural ripening agent (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016). It is estimated that the domestic use of B. sappan wood in Indonesia during 1983 and 1984 was 3.06 tonnes and 3.37 tonnes, respectively (Zerrudo and Ibnu 2016).

References Acero LH, Cruz MEP, Tuy FS. Sappan (Caesalpinia sappan) seeds in the control of cockroach (Periplenata americana). Int J Pharm Med Biol Sci. 2019;8(4):123–7. https://doi.org/10.18178/ ijpmbs.8.4.123-127. Ananth S, Vivek P, Saravana Kumar G, Murugakoothan P. Performance of Caesalpinia Sappan heartwood extract as photo sensitizer for dye sensitized solar cells. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Mol Biomol Spectro. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2014.08.083. Arjin C, Pringproa K, Hongsibsong S, Ruksiriwanich W, Seel-audom M, Mekchay S, Sringarm K. In vitro screening antiviral activity of Thai medicinal plants against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. BMC Veter Res. 2020;16(102):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12917-020-02320-8. Badami S, Moorkoth S, Rai SR, Kannan E, Bhojraj S. Antioxidant activity of Caesalpinia sappan heartwood. Biol Pharm Bull. 2003;26(11):1534–7. Bae IK, Min HY, Han AR, Seo EK, Lee SK. Suppression of lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase by brazilin in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. European J. Pharmacol. 2005;513:237–42. Bao H, Zhang LL, Liu QY, Feng L, Ye Y, Lu JJ, Lin LG. Cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic effects of cassane diterpenoids from the seeds of Caesalpinia sappan in cancer cells. Molecul. 2016;21 (791):1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21060791. Batubara I, Mitsunaga T. Use of Indonesian medicinal plants products against acne. Rev Agri Sci. 2013;1:11–30. https://doi.org/10.7831/ras.1.11. Bhakta D, Lulu S, Jayaraman G, Babu S, Siva R. Interaction of plant pigment brazilin with synthetic and natural DNA: spectroscopic and in silico perspective. Interdiscip Sci Comput Life Sci. 2013;5:53–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12539-013-0148-y. Bukke AN, Hadi FN, Babu KS, Shankar PC. In vitro studies data on anticancer activity of Caesalpinia sappan L. heartwood and leaf extracts on MCF7 and A549 cell lines. Data Brief. 2018;19:868–77. Chang TS, Chao SY, Ding HY. Melanogenesis inhibition by homoisoflavavone sappanone A from Caesalpinia sappan. Int J Mol Sci. 2012;13:10359–67. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms130810359. Chang Y, Huang SKH, Lu WJ, Chung CL, Chen WL, Lu SH, Lin KH, Sheu JR. Brazilin isolated from Caesalpinia sappan L. acts as a novel collagen receptor agonist in human platelets. J Biomed Sci. 2013;20(4):1–14. Chellappan DR, Purushothaman AK, Pemiah B. Gastroprotective potential of hydro-alcoholic extract of Pattanga (Caesalpinia sappan Linn.). J Ethnopharmacol. 2016; https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.081. Chen CL, Zhang DD. Anti-inflammatory effects of 81 Chinese herb extracts and their correlation with the characteristics of traditional Chinese medicine. Evid Base Complement Alt Med. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/985176. Choi SY, Yang KM, Jeon SD, Kim JH, Khil LY, Chang TS, Moon CK. Brazilin modulates immune function mainly by augmenting T cell activity in halothane administered mice. Planta Med. 1997;63:405–8.

204

K. Devanathan

Choi BM, Lee JA, Gao SS, Eun SY, Kim YS, Ryu SY, Choi YH, Park R, Kwon DY, Kim BR. Brazilin and the extract from Caesalpinia sappan L. protect oxidative injury through the expression of heme oxygenase-1. BioFact. 2007;30:149–57. Choo YY, Tran PT, Min BS, Kim O, Nguyen HD, Kwon SH, Lee JH. Sappanone A inhibits RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis in BMMs and prevents inflammation-mediated bone loss. Int Immunopharmacol. 2017;52:230–7. Chowdhury MA, Choi M, Ko W, Lee H, Kim SC, Oh H, Woo ER, Kim YC, Lee DS. Standardized microwave extract of Sappan Lignum exerts anti-inflammatory effects through inhibition of NF-κB activation via regulation of heme oxygenase-1 expression. Mol Med Rep. 2019;19:1809–16. Chu MJ, Wang YZ, Itagaki K, Ma HX, Xin P, Zhou XG, Chen GY, Li S, Sun SQ. Identification of active compounds from Caesalpinia sappan L. extracts suppressing IL-6 production in RAW 264.7 cells by PLS. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;148:37–44. Cuong TD, Hung TM, Kim JC, Kim EH, Woo MH, Choi JS, Lee JH, Min BS. Phenolic compounds from Caesalpinia sappan heartwood and their anti-inflammatory activity. J Nat Prod. 2012; https://doi.org/10.1021/np3003673. Eusebio JE, Umali BE. Inventory, documentation and status of medicinal plants research in the Philippines. In: Batugal PA, Kanniah J, Young LS, Oliver JT, editors. Medicinal plants research in Asia, volume 1: the framework and project workplans. Serdang: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute – Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (IPGRI-APO); 2004. Falah F, Hadiwibowo N. Species identification of traditional medicine plants for women’s health in East Kalimantan: lesson learned from local wisdom. Indonesian J Forest Res. 2017;4(1):49–68. Fu L, Huang X, Lai Z, Hu Y, Liu H, Cai X. A new 3-benzylchroman derivative from Sappan Lignum (Caesalpinia sappan). Molecul. 2008;13:1923–30. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules 13081923. Gao X, Wang T, Zhang Z, Cao Y, Zhang N, Guo M. Brazilin plays an anti-inflammatory role with regulating Toll-like receptor 2 and TLR 2 downstream pathways in Staphylococcus aureusinduced mastitis in mice. Int Immunopharmacol. 2015;27:130–7. Guo J, Li L, Wu Y, Yan Y, Xu X, Wang S, Yuan T, Fang L, Du G. Inhibitory effects of Brazilin on the vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration induced by PDGF-BB. American J. Chinese Med. 2013;41(6):1283–96. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0192415X13500869. Hai NX, Mai NTT, Thy NA, Nhi NTY, Dao PTA, Phuoc HT, Trong PNH, Phu DH, Nhan NT, Ueda J, Awale S. Cleistanthane diterpenes from the seed of Caesalpinia sappan and their antiausterity activity against PANC-1 human pancreatic cancer cell line. Fitoterapia. 2013; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2013.08.018. Handayani S, Susidarti RA, Jenie RI, Meiyanto E. Two active compounds from Caesalpinia sappan L. in combination with cisplatin synergistically induce apoptosis and cell cycle arrest on WiDr cells. Adv. Pharm. Bull. 2017;7(3):375–80. https://doi.org/10.15171/apb.2017.045. Hao-Yue M, Cheng-Qiang W, Hui H, Zan-Yang Y, Yao T, Gen L, Yu-Qi Y, Li L, Lei P, Hong-Yi Q. Ethyl acetate extract of Caesalpinia sappan L. inhibited acute myeloid leukemia via ROS-mediated apoptosis and differentiation. Phytomed. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j. phymed.2019.153142. Hikino H, Taguchi T, Fujimura H, Hiramatsu Y. Antiinflammatory principles of Caesalpinia Sappan wood and of Haematoxylon Campechlanum wood. Planta Med. 1977;31:214–20. Hong CH, Hur SK, Oh OJ, Kim SS, Nam KA, Lee SK. Evaluation of natural products on inhibition of inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) and nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in cultured mouse macrophage cells. J Ethnopharmacol. 2002;83:153–9. Hridya H, Amrita A, Sankari M, Doss CGP, Gopalakrishnan M, Gopalakrishnan C, Siva R. Inhibitory effect of brazilein on tyrosinase and melanin synthesis: kinetics and In silico approach. Int J Biol Macromol. 2015; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.07.064. Hsieh C, Tsai P, Chu C, Chang F, Chang L, Wud Y, Lin S. Brazilein suppresses migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Chem Bio Interac. 2013;204:105–15.

Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod.

205

Hu CM, Kang JJ, Lee CC, Li CH, Liao JW, Cheng YW. Induction of vasorelaxation through activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by brazilin. European J. Pharmacol. 2003;468:37–45. Hu CM, Liu YH, Cheah KP, Li JS, Lam CSK, Yu WY, Choy CS. Heme oxygenase-1 mediates the inhibitory actions of brazilin in RAW264.7 macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;121:79–85. Huang AG, Yi YL, Ling F, Lu L, Zhang QZ, Wang GX. Screening of plant extracts for anthelmintic activity against Dactylogyrus intermedius (Monogenea) in goldfish (Carassius auratus). Parasitol Res. 2013;112:4065–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-013-3597-7. Huang Q, Meng RY, Yang YW, Li M, Wang F, Shen WW, Deng XW, Zhou SG, Xue Y, Gao QM. Protosappanin a inhibits osteoclastogenesis via reducing oxidative stress in RAW264.7 cells. Int J Clin Exp Pathol. 2017;10(7):7498–510. Huang Y, Qi Y, Du JQ, Zhang DF. Protosappanin A protects against atherosclerosis via antihyperlipidemia, anti-inflammation and NF-κB signaling pathway in hyperlipidemic rabbits. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2018;21:33–8. https://doi.org/10.22038/IJBMS.2017.18840.5029. Hung TM, Hai NX, Nhan NT, Quang TT, Quan TL, Cuong TD, Dang NH, Dat NT. Cytotoxic activity of new phenolic compounds from Vietnamese Caesalpinia sappan. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2013;77(12):2378–82. Hung TM, Dang NH, Dat NT. Methanol extract from Vietnamese Caesalpinia sappan induces apoptosis in HeLa cells. Bio Res. 2014;47(20):1–5. Hwang HS, Shim JH. Brazilin and Caesalpinia sappan L. extract protect epidermal keratinocytes from oxidative stress by inducing the expression of GPX7. Chinese J. Nat. Med. 2018;16 (3):203–9. Inprasit J, Ruangnoo S, Itharat A. In vitro cytotoxic activity of Sa-Tri-Lhung-Klod remedy and its herbal ingredients on ovarian and cervical carcinoma cell lines. J Med Assoc Thail. 2014;97 (8):149–55. Jagroop IA. Plant extracts inhibit ADP-induced platelet activation in humans: their potential therapeutic role as ADP antagonists. Purinergic Signal. 2014;10:233–9. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11302-013-9393-0. Jenie RI, Handayani S, Susidarti RA, Udin LZ, Meiyanto E. The cytotoxic and antimigratory activity of Brazilin-Doxorubicin on MCF-7/HER2 cells. Adv Pharm Bull. 2018;8(3):507–16. https://doi.org/10.15171/apb.2018.059. Jeon J, Lee JH, Park KA, Byun HS, Lee H, Lee Y, Zhang T, Kang K, Seok JH, Kwon HJ, Han MD, Kang SW, Hong JH, Hur GM. Brazilin selectively disrupts proximal IL-1 receptor signaling complex formation by targeting an IKK-upstream signaling components. Biochem Pharmacol. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2014.04.004. Jeong GS, Lee DS, Kwon TO, Lee HS, An RB, Kim YC. Cytoprotective constituents of the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan on glutamate-induced oxidative damage in HT22 cells. Biol Pharm Bull. 2009;32(5):945–9. Jeong HJ, Kim YM, Kim JH, Kim JY, Park JY, Park SJ, Ryu YB, Lee WS. Homoisoflavonoids from Caesalpinia sappan displaying viral neuraminidases inhibition. Biol Pharm Bull. 2012;35 (5):786–90. Jia Y, Zhao J, Liu M, Li B, Song Y, Li Y, Wen A, Shi L. Brazilin exerts protective effects against renal ischemia-reperfusion injury by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway. Int J Mol Med. 2016;38:210–6. Jin SK, Ha SR, Choi JS. Effect of Caesalpinia sappan L. extract on physico-chemical properties of emulsion-type pork sausage during cold storage. Meat Sci. 2015;110:245–52. Jun SH, Cha SH, Kim JH, Yoon M, Cho S, Park Y. Silver nanoparticles synthesized using Caesalpinia sappan extract as potential novel nanoantibiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Nanosci Nanotechnol. 2015;15:5543–52. Jung EG, Han KI, Kwon HJ, Patnaik BB, Kim WJ, Hur GM, Nam KW, Han MD. Antiinflammatory activity of sappanchalcone isolated from Caesalpinia sappan L. in a collagen-

206

K. Devanathan

induced arthritis mouse model. Arch Pharm Res. 2015a; https://doi.org/10.1007/s12272-0150557-z. Jung EG, Han KI, Hwang SG, Kwon HJ, Patnaik BB, Kim YH, Han MD. Brazilin isolated from Caesalpinia sappan L. inhibits rheumatoid arthritis activity in a type-II collagen induced arthritis mouse model. BMC Compl Alter Med. 2015b;15(124):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12906-015-0648-x. Kadir FA, Kassim NM, Abdulla MA, Kamalidehghan B, Ahmadipour F, Yehye WA. PASSpredicted hepatoprotective activity of Caesalpinia sappan in thioacetamide-induced liver fibrosis in rats. Sci World J. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/301879. Kang L, Zhao H, Chen C, Zhang X, Xu M, Duan H. Sappanone A protects mice against cisplatininduced kidney injury. Int Immunopharmacol. 2016;38:246–51. Kang Y, He P, Wang H, Ye Y, Li X, Xie P, Wu B. Brazilin induces FOXO3A-dependent autophagic cell death by disturbing calcium homeostasis in osteosarcoma cells. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00280-018-3633-5. Kim KJ, Yu HH, Jeong SI, Cha JD, Kim SM, You YO. Inhibitory effects of Caesalpinia sappan on growth and invasion of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;91:81–7. Kim EC, Hwang YS, Lee HJ, Lee SK, Park MH, Jeon BH, Jeon CD, Lee SK, Yu HH, You YO. Caesalpinia sappan induces cell death by increasing the expression of p53 and p21WAF1/ CIP1 in head and neck cancer cells. American J Chinese Med. 2005;33(3):405–14. Kim B, Kim SH, Jeong SJ, Sohn EJ, Jung JH, Lee MH, Kim SH. Brazilin induces apoptosis and G2/M arrest via inactivation of histone deacetylase in multiple myeloma U266 cells. J Agric Food Chem. 2012;60:9882–9. Kim JH, Choo YY, Tae N, Min BS, Lee JH. The anti-inflammatory effect of 3-deoxysappanchalcone is mediated by inducing heme oxygenase-1 via activating the AKT/mTOR pathway in murine macrophages. Int Immunopharmacol. 2014;22:420–6. Kim KJ, Yoon KY, Yoon HS, Oh SR, Lee BY. Brazilein suppresses inflammation through inactivation of IRAK4-NF-_B pathway in LPS-induced Raw264.7 macrophage cells. Int J Mol Sci. 2015a;16:27589–98. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161126048. Kim SH, Lyu HN, Kim YS, Jeon YH, Kim W, Kim S, Lim JK, Lee HW, Baek NI, Choi KY, Lee J, Kim KT. Brazilin isolated from Caesalpinia sappan suppresses nuclear envelope reassembly by inhibiting barrier-to-autointegration factor phosphorylations. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2015b;352:175–84. Kim J, Lee HK, Chang TS, Kang KS, Hwang GS. Inhibitory effect of brazilin on osteoclast differentiation and its mechanism of action. Int Immunopharmacol. 2015c;29:628–34. Kitdamrongtham W, Manosroi A, Akazawa H, Gidado A, Stienrut P, Manosroi W, Lohcharoenkal W, Akihisa T, Manosroi J. Potent anti-cervical cancer activity: synergistic effects of Thai medicinal plants in recipe N040 selected from the MANOSROI III database. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;149:288–96. Lai WC, Wang HC, Chen GY, Yang JC, Korinek M, Hsieh CJ, Nozaki H, Hayashi KI, Wu CC, Wu YC, Chang FR. Using the pER8:GUS reporter system to screen for phytoestrogens from Caesalpinia sappan. J Nat Prod. 2011;74:1698–706. Lee YJ, Park Y. Anisotropic snowman-like silver nanoparticles synthesized by Caesalpinia sappan extract and n vitro antibacterial activity. J Nanosci Nanotechnol. 2018;18:3880–7. Lee GY, Chang TS, Lee KS, Khil LY, Kim D, Chung JH, Kim YC, Lee BH, Moon CH, Moon CK. Antiplatelet activity of BRX-018, (6aS,cis)-Malonic acid 3-acetoxy-6a9-bis-(2-methoxycarbonylacetoxy)-6,6a,7,11b-tetrahydro-indeno [2,1-c]chromen-10-yl ester methylester. Thrombosis Res. 2005;115:309–18. Lee YM, Jeong GS, Lim HD, An RB, Kim YC, Kim EC. Isoliquiritigenin 20-methyl ether induces growth inhibition and apoptosis in oral cancer cells via heme oxygenase-1. Toxicol In Vitro. 2010;24:776–82. Lee YM, Kim YC, Choi BJ, Lee DW, Yoon JH, Kim EC. Mechanism of sappanchalcone-induced growth inhibition and apoptosis in human oral cancer cells. Toxicol In Vitro. 2011;25:1782–8.

Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod.

207

Lee YR, Noh EM, Han JH, Kim JM, Hwang JK, Hwang BM, Chung EY, Kim BS, Lee SH, Lee SJ, Kim JS. Brazilin inhibits UVB-induced MMP-1/3 expressions and secretions by suppressing the NF-κB pathway in human dermal fibroblasts. European J. Pharmacol. 2012;674:80–6. Lee DY, Lee MK, Kim GS, Noh HJ, Lee MH. Brazilin inhibits growth and induces apoptosis in human glioblastoma cells. Molecul. 2013;18:2449–57. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules 18022449. Lee H, Kang SW, Byun HS, Jeon J, Park KA, Kang K, Seo W, Won M, Seok JH, Han MD, Shen HM, Hur GM. Brazilin limits inflammatory responses through induction of prosurvival autophagy in rheumatoid fibroblast-like synoviocytes. PLoS One. 2015a; https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0136122. Lee S, Choi SY, Choo YY, Kim O, Tran PT, Dao CT, Min BS, Lee JH. Sappanone A exhibits antiinflammatory effects via modulation of Nrf2 and NF-κB. Int Immunopharmacol. 2015b;28:328–36. Lee EB, Xing MM, Kim DK. Lifespan-extending and stress resistance properties of brazilin from Caesalpinia sappan in Caenorhabditis elegans. Arch Pharm Res. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12272-017-0920-3. Li C, Zhang H, Gao D, Ma Q, Li Z, Dai J, Zhang M, Si C. Aqueous extract of Caesalpinia sappan decelerates allograft rejection by inducing imbalance between CD4+ CD25+ T cells and Th17 cells. Int J Clin Exp Med. 2015;8(5):7107–15. Liang CH, Chan LP, Chou TH, Chiang FY, Yen CM, Chen PJ, Ding HY, Lin RJ. Brazilein from Caesalpinia sappan L. antioxidant inhibits adipocyte differentiation and induces apoptosis through Caspase-3 activity and anthelmintic activities against Hymenolepis nana and Anisakis simplex. Evid Base Compl Alt Med. 2013; https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/864892. Liu AL, Shu SH, Qin HL, Lee SMY, Wang YT, Du GH. In vitro anti-influenza viral activities of constituents from Caesalpinia sappan. Planta Med. 2009;75:337–9. Liu X, Yu D, Wang T. Sappanone A attenuates allergic airway inflammation in ovalbumin-induced asthma. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2016;170:180–6. https://doi.org/10.1159/000448331. Lwin KM. Non-wood forest products in Myanmar. In: Durst PB, Bishop A, editors. Beyond Timber: Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions of Non-Wood Forest Products in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of a Regional Expert Consultation 28 November–2 December, 1994. Bangkok: FAO/RAP; 1995. Ma G, Wu H, Chen D, Zhu N, Zhu Y, Sun Z, Li P, Yang J, Yuan J, Xu X. Antimalarial and antiproliferative cassane diterpenes of Caesalpinia sappan. J Nat Prod. 2015; https://doi.org/ 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00317. Madulid DA, Gaerlan FJM, Romero EM, Agoo EMG. Ethnopharmacological study of the Ati tribe in Nagpana, Barotac Viejo, Iloilo. Acta Manilana. 1989;38:25–40. Manosroi A, Akazawa H, Kitdamrongtham W, Akihisa T, Manosroi W, Manosroi J. Potent antiproliferative effect on liver cancer of medicinal plants selected from the Thai/Lanna medicinal plant recipe database “MANOSROI III”. Evid Base Compl Alt Med. 2015; https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2015/397181. Mead D. A guide to some edible legumes of Indonesia. Sulang Language Data and Working Papers: Topics in Lexicography, no. 29; 2017. Min BS, Cuong TD, Hung TM, Min BK, Shin BS, Woo MH. Compounds from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan and their anti-inflammatory activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2012;22:7436–9. Mitani K, Takano F, Kawabata T, Allam AE, Ota M, Takahashi T, Yahagi N, Sakurada C, Fushiya S, Ohta T. Suppression of melanin synthesis by the phenolic constituents of sappanwood (Caesalpinia sappan). Planta Med. 2013;79:37–44. Moon CK, Park KS, Kim SG, Won HS, Chung JH. Brazilin protects cultured rat hepatocytes from Brcc1,-induced toxicity. Drug Chem Toxic. 1992;15(1):81–91. Mueller M, Weinmann D, Toegel S, Holzer W, Ungera FM, Viernstein H. Compounds from Caesalpinia sappan with anti-inflammatory properties in macrophages and chondrocytes. Food Funct. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1039/c5fo01256b. Nagai M, Nagumo S, Eguchi I, Lee SM, Suzuki T. Sappanchlcone from Caesalpinia sappan L., the proposed biosynthetic precursor of Brazilin. Yakugaku Zasshi. 1984;104(9):935–8.

208

K. Devanathan

Nguyen MTT, Awale S, Tezuka Y, Tran QL, Watanabe H, Kadota S. Xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity of Vietnamese medicinal plants. Biol Pharm Bull. 2004;27(9):1414–21. Nguyen MTT, Awale S, Tezuka Y, Tran QL, Kadota S. Xanthine oxidase inhibitors from the heartwood of Vietnamese Caesalpinia sappan. Chem Pharm Bull. 2005;53(8):984–8. Nguyen HX, Nguyen NT, Dang PH, Ho PT, Nguyen MTT, Can MV, Dibwe DF, Ueda J, Awale S. Cassane diterpenes from the seed kernels of Caesalpinia sappan. Phytochemistry. 2016a; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2015.12.018. Nguyen HX, Nguyen NT, Dang PH, Thi PH, Nguyen MTT, Can MV, Dibwe DF, Ueda JY, Matsumoto K, Awale S. A new Cassane-type diterpene from the seed of Caesalpinia sappan. Nat Prod Commun. 2016b;11(6):723–4. Niranjan Reddy VL, Ravikanth V, Jansi Lakshmi VVNS, Suryanarayan Murty U, Venkateswarlu Y. Inhibitory activity of homoisoflavonoids from Caesalpinia sappan against Beauveria bassiana. Fitoterapia. 2003;74:600–2. Nirmal NP, Panichayupakaranant P. Anti-Propionibacterium acnes assay-guided purification of brazilin and preparation of brazilin rich extract from Caesalpinia sappan heartwood. Pharm Biol. 2014;52(9):1204–7. Nirmal NP, Panichayupakaranant P. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory activities of standardized brazilin-rich Caesalpinia sappan extract. Pharmaceut Bio. 2015;53(9):1339–43. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2014.982295. Oh SR, Kim DS, Lee IS, Jung KY, Lee JJ, Lee HK. Anticomplementary activity of constituents from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan. Planta Med. 1998;64:456–8. Oh GT, Choi JH, Hong JJ, Kim DY, Lee SB, Kim JR, Lee CH, Hyun BH, Oh SR, Bok SH, Jeong TS. Dietary hematein ameliorates fatty streak lesions in the rabbit by the possible mechanism of reducing VCAM-1 and MCP-1 expression. Atherosclerosis. 2001;159:17–26. Olowa LF, Torres MAJ, Aranico EC, Demayo CG. Medicinal plants used by the Higaonon tribe of Rogongon, Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines. Adv Environ Bio. 2012;6(4):1442–9. Ong HG, Kim YD. Quantitative ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants used by the Ati Negrito indigenous group in Guimaras island. Philippines J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;157:228–42. Palasuwan A, Soogarun S, Lertlum T, Pradniwat P, Wiwanitkit V. Inhibition of heinz body induction in an invitro model and total antioxidant activity of medicinal Thai plants. Asian Pacific J Cancer Prev. 2005;6:458–63. Panyaphu K, On TV, Sirisa-ard P, Srisa-nga P, ChansaKaow S, Nathakarnkitkul S. Medicinal plants of the Mien (Yao) in Northern Thailand and their potential value in the primary healthcare of postpartum women. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;135:226–37. Pizon JRL, Nuñeza OM, Uy MM, Senarath WTPSK. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by the Subanen tribe of Lapuyan, Zamboanga del Sur. Bull Env Pharmacol Life Sci. 2016;5(5):53–67. POWO. Plants of World Online; 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 10 Aug 2020. Puttipan R, Wanachantararak P, Khongkhunthian S, Okonogi S. Effects of Caesalpinia sappan on pathogenic bacteria causing dental caries and gingivitis. Drug Discov. Therap. 2017;11(6):316–22. Puttipan R, Chansakaow S, Khongkhunthian S, Okonogi S. Caesalpinia sappan: a promising natural source of antimicrobial agent for inhibition of cariogenic bacteria. Drug Discov Therap. 2018;12(4):197–205. Rubite RR, Sia IC, Co L, Ylagan L. Ethnopharmacologic documentation of selected Philippine Ethnolinguistic Groups: the Mangyan (Tadyawan) People of Mindoro Island. Unpublished; 2001. http://www.tkdlph.com/index.php/files/9/ethno-research/42/mindoro%20Island%20-% 20. Accessed 15 Aug 2020. Safitri R, Tarigan P, Freisleben HJ, Rumampuk RJ, Murakami A. Antioxidant activity in vitro of two aromatic compounds from Caesalpinia sappan L. BioFact. 2003;19:71–7. Sam HV, Nanthavong K, PJA K. Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. Blumea. 2004;49:201–349. https://doi.org/10.3767/ 000651904X484298. Sam HV, Baas P, Kebler PJA. Traditional medicinal plants in Ben En National Park, Vietnam. Blumea. 2008;53:569–601. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651908X607521.

Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod.

209

Sasaki Y, Suzuki M, Matsumoto T, Hosokawa T, Kobayashi T, Kamata K, Nagumo S. Vasorelaxant activity of Sappan Lignum constituents and extracts on rat aorta and mesenteric artery. Biol Pharm Bull. 2010;33(9):1555–60. Seo H, Kim S, Mahmud HA, Islam MI, Nam KW, Lee BE, Lee H, Cho ML, Shin HM, Song HY. In vitro antitubercular activity of 3-deoxysappanchalcone isolated from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. Phytother Res. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.5890. Seo JK, Parvin R, Yim DG, Zahid MA, Yang HS. Effects on quality properties of cooked pork sausages with Caesalpinia sappan L. extract during cold storage. J Food Sci Technol. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-019-03965-6. Seo HW, No H, Cheon HJ, Kim JK. Sappanchalcone, a flavonoid isolated from Caesalpinia sappan L., induces caspase-dependent and AIF-dependent apoptosis in human colon cancer cells. Chem Bio Inter. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2020.109185. Settharaksa S, Monton C, Charoenchai L. Optimization of Caesalpinia sappan L. heartwood extraction procedure to obtain the highest content of brazilin and greatest antibacterial activity. J Integ Med. 2019;17:351–8. Shen J, Zhang H, Lin H, Su H, Xing D, Du L. Brazilein protects the brain against focal cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury correlating to inflammatory response suppression. European J Pharmacol. 2007;558:88–95. Shen J, Yip S, Wang Z, Wang W, Xing D, Du L. Brazilein-induced contraction of rat arterial smooth muscle involves activation of Ca2+ entry and ROK, ERK pathways. European J. Pharmacol. 2008;580:366–71. Shi X, Tao G, Ji L, Tian G. Sappanone A protects against myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury by modulation of Nrf2. Drug Desi Develop Therap. 2020a;14:61–71. Shi X, Tao G, Ji L, Tian G. Sappanone A alleviates hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced cardiomyocytes injury through inhibition of mitochondrial apoptosis and activation of PI3K–Akt–Gsk-3β pathway. Biosci Rep. 2020b;40:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1042/BSR20192442. Shih IM, Chiang HS, Yang LL, Wang TL. Antimotility effects of Chinese herbal medicines on human sperm. J Formos Med Assoc. 1990;89(6):466–9. Shin W, Cuong TD, Lee JH, Min B, Jeon BH, Lim HK, Ryoo S. Arginase inhibition by ethylacetate extract of Caesalpinia sappan lignum contributes to activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Korean J Physiol Pharmacol. 2011;15:123–8. https://doi.org/10.4196/ kjpp.2011.15.3.123. Shu SH, Han JL, Du GH, Qin HL. A new flavonoid from heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 2008;33(8):903–5. Shu SH, Deng AJ, Li ZH, Qin HL. Two novel biphenyl dimers from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan. Fitoterapia. 2011;82:762–6. Shyun CY, Ali RM. Inventory, documentation and status of medicinal plants research in Malaysia. In: Batugal PA, Kanniah J, Young LS, Oliver JT, editors. Medicinal plants research in Asia, volume 1: the framework and project workplans. Serdang: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute – Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (IPGRI-APO); 2004. Sireeratawong S, Piyabhan P, Singhalak T, Wongkrajang Y, Temsiririrkkul R, Punsrirat J, Ruangwises N, Saraya S, Lerdvuthisopon N, Jaijoy K. Toxicity evaluation of sappan wood extract in rats. J Med Assoc Thail. 2010;93(7):50–7. Srilakshmi VS, Vijayan P, Vasanthraj P, Dhanaraj SA, Chandrashekhar HR. Hepatoprotective properties of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. Heartwood on carbon tetrachloride induced toxicity. Indian J Exp Biol. 2010;48(9):905–10. Subansenee W. Major non-wood forest products of Thailand. In: Durst PB, Bishop A, editors. In: Beyond timber: social, economic and cultural dimensions of non-wood forest products in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of a Regional Expert Consultation 28 November–2 December, 1994. Bangkok: FAO/RAP; 1995. Sudirman J, Sampara N, Mawang S, Passe R, Aswan R, Ahmad M. The analysis of reducing blood glucose levels of diabetics with diabetes mellitus by giving a secang wood stew (Caesalpinia sappan L.) to menopausal women in Makassar City. Enferm Clin. 2020;30(2):506–9.

210

K. Devanathan

Suwan T, Wanachantararak P, Khongkhunthian S, Okonogi S. Antioxidant activity and potential of Caesalpinia sappan aqueous extract on synthesis of silver nanoparticles. Drug Discover Therap. 2018;12(5):259–66. Tao L, Li J, Zhang J. Brazilein, a compound isolated from Caesalpinia sappan Linn., induced growth inhibition in breast cancer cells via involvement of GSK-3b/b-Catenin/cyclin D1 pathway. Chem Bio Interac. 2013;206:1–5. Temrangsee P, Kondo S, Itharat A. Antibacterial activity of extracts from five medicinal plants and their formula against bacteria that cause chronic wound infection. J Med Assoc Thail. 2011;94 (7):166–71. Tewtrakul S, Chaniad P, Pianwanit S, Karalai C, Ponglimanont C, Yodsaoue O. Anti-HIV-1 integrase activity and molecular docking study of compounds from Caesalpinia sappan L. Phytother Res. 2015a;29:724–9. Tewtrakul S, Tungcharoen P, Sudsai T, Karalai C, Ponglimanont C, Yodsaoue O. Antiinflammatory and wound healing effects of Caesalpinia sappan L. Phytother Res. 2015b;29:850–6. Toegel S, Wu SQ, Otero M, Goldring MB, Leelapornpisid P, Chiari C, Kolb A, Unger FM, Windhager R, Viernstein H. Caesalpinia sappan extract inhibits IL1b-mediated overexpression of matrix metalloproteinases in human chondrocytes. Genes Nutr. 2012;7:307–18. https://doi. org/10.1007/s12263-011-0244-8. Tong XZ, Zhu H, Shi Y, Xu HT, Wang B, Zhao JH. An LC/MS/MS method for simultaneous quantization of two homoisoflavones: Protosappanin B and brazilin with hypoglycemic activity in rat plasma and its application to a comparative pharmacokinetic study in normal and streptozotocin-treated rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;148:682–90. Tran MH, Nguyen MTT, Nguyen HD, Nguyen TD, Phuong TT. Cytotoxic constituents from the seeds of Vietnamese Caesalpinia sappan. Pharma Bio. 2015;53(10):1549–54. https://doi.org/ 10.3109/13880209.2014.986686. Tu Y, Ma S, Liu F, Sun Y, Dong X. Hematoxylin inhibits amyloid β-protein fibrillation and alleviates amyloid-induced cytotoxicity. J Phys Chem B. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1021/acs. jpcb.6b06878. Uddin GM, Kim CY, Chung D, Kim KA, Jung SH. One-step isolation of sappanol and brazilin from Caesalpinia sappan and their effects on oxidative stress-induced retinal death. BMB Rep. 2015;48(5):289–94. Ueda J, Tezuka Y, Banskota AH, Tran QL, Tran QK, Harimaya Y, Saiki I, Kadota S. Antiproliferative activity of Vietnamese medicinal plants. Biol Pharm Bull. 2002;25 (6):753–60. Wan YJ, Xu L, Song WT, Liu YQ, Wang LC, Zhao MB, Jiang Y, Liu LY, Zeng KW, Tu PF. The Ethanolic extract of Caesalpinia sappan heartwood inhibits cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in a rat model through a multi-targeted pharmacological mechanism. Front Pharmacol. 2019;10(29):1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.00029. Wang YZ, Suna SQ, Zhou YB. Extract of the dried heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan L. attenuates collagen-induced arthritis. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;136:271–8. Wang Z, Sun JB, Qu W, Guan FQ, Li LZ, Liang JY. Caesappin A and B, two novel protosappanins from Caesalpinia sappan L. Fitoterapia. 2014;92:280–4. Wang LC, Liao LX, Zhao MB, Dong X, Zeng KW, Tu PF. Protosappanin A exerts antineuroinflammatory effect by inhibiting JAK2-STAT3 pathway in lipopolysaccharide-induced BV2 microglia. Chinese J. Nat. Med. 2017;15(9):674–9. Wang X, Xiu Z, Du Y, Li Y, Yang J, Gao Y, Li F, Yin X, Shi H. Brazilin treatment produces antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like effects in mice. Biol Pharm Bull. 2019;42(8):1268–74. Wang M, Tan J, Chen J, Xie T, Lin LM, Zhong LL, Cai XJ, Wu QS. Three new ester glycosides with cytotoxic activity from the seeds of Caesalpinia sappan. Nat Prod Res. 2020a; https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14786419.2020.1721488. Wang DS, Nie W, Jiang TT, Ding LF, Song LD, Wu XD, Zhao QS. Caesalpanins A-C, three dimeric Cassane diterpenoids from the seeds of Caesalpinia sappan L. Chem Biodivers. 2020b; https:// doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.202000103.

Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod.

211

Washiyama M, Sasaki Y, Hosokawa T, Nagumo S. Anti-inflammatory constituents of Sappan Lignum. Biol Pharm Bull. 2009;32(5):941–4. Weinmann D, Mueller M, Walzer SM, Hobusch GM, Lass R, Gahleitner C, Viernstein H, Windhager R, Toegel S. Brazilin blocks catabolic processes in human osteoarthritic chondrocytes via inhibition of NFKB1/p50. J Orthopaed Res. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1002/ jor.24013. Wu J, Hou JB, Zhang MM, Zou YP, Yu B. Protosappanin A, an immunosuppressive constituent from a Chinese herb, prolongs graft survival and attenuates acute rejection in rat heart allografts. Transplant Proc. 2008;40:3719–22. Wu J, Zhang M, Jia H, Huang X, Zhang Q, Hou J, Bo Y. Protosappanin A induces immunosuppression of rats heart transplantation targeting T cells in grafts via NF-κB pathway. NaunynSchmied Arch Pharmacol. 2010;381:83–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-009-0461-5. Wu SQ, Otero M, Unger FM, Goldring MB, Phrutivorapongkul A, Chiari C, Kolb A, Viernstein H, Toegel S. Anti-inflammatory activity of an ethanolic Caesalpinia sappan extract in human chondrocytes and macrophages. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;138(2):364–72. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2011.09.011. Wu HF, Zhu YD, Sun ZH, Yuan JQ, Wei H, Zhang XP, Tian Y, Yang JS, Ma GX, Xu XD. Norcassane- and cassane-type furanoditerpenoids from the seeds of Caesalpinia sappan. Fitoterapia. 2014;98:22–6. Xia Z, Li D, Li Q, Zhang Y, Kang W. Simultaneous determination of brazilin and protosappanin B in Caesalpinia sappan by ionic-liquid dispersive liquid-phase microextraction method combined with HPLC. Chem Cent J. 2017;11(114):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-017-0342-9. Xie YW, Ming DS, Xu HX, Dong H, But PPH. Vasorelaxing effects of Caesalpinia sappan involvement of endogenous nitric oxide. Life Sci. 2000;67:1913–8. Xu HX, Lee SF. The antibacterial principle of Caesalpinia sappan. Phytother Res. 2004;18:647–51. Xu YY, Yin J. Contact dermatitis caused by brazilin in Caesalpinia sappan. Contact Dermatitis. 2015;73:182–93. Xu H, Zhou ZH, Yang JS. Compounds from Caesalpinia sappan L. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 1994;19(8):485–6. Xu P, Guan S, Feng R, Tang R, Guo D. Separation of four homoisoflavonoids from Caesalpinia sappan by high-speed countercurrent chromatography. Phytochem Anal. 2012;23:228–31. Xu X, Yuan J, Zhou X, Li W, Zhu N, Wu H, Li P, Sun Z, Yang J, Ma G. Cassane diterpenes with oxygen bridge from the seeds of Caesalpinia sappan. Fitoterapia. 2016;112:205–10. Yan Y, Chen Y, Lin Y, Guo J, Niu Z, Li L, Wang S, Fang L, Du G. Brazilin isolated from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan L induces endothelium-dependent and -independent relaxation of rat aortic rings. Acta Pharmacol Sinic. 2015;36:1318–26. Yang F, Zhou WL, Liu AL, Qin HL, Lee SMY, Wang YT, Du GH. The protective effect of 3-deoxysappanchalcone on in vitro influenza virus-induced apoptosis and inflammation. Planta Med. 2012;78:968–73. Ye M, Xie W, Lei F, Meng Z, Zhao Y, Su H, Du L. Brazilein, an important immunosuppressive component from Caesalpinia sappan L. Int Immunopharmacol. 2006;6:426–32. Yodsaoue O, Cheenpracha S, Karalai C, Ponglimanont C, Chantrapromma S, Fun HK, KanjanaOpas A. Phanginin A–K, diterpenoids from the seeds of Caesalpinia sappan Linn. Phytochemistry. 2008;69:1242–9. You EJ, Khil LY, Kwak WJ, Won HS, Chae SH, Lee BH, Moon CK. Effects of brazilin on the production of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate in rat hepatocytes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:53–7. Yuan ZY, Lei F, Chai YS, Wu H, Zhao S, Wang YG, Feng TS, Li HY, Li HY, Zhan HL, Xing DM, Du LJ. Reproductive toxicity of brazilein in ICR mice. Chinese J. Nat. Med. 2016;14(6):441–8. Zainon AS, Faridz ZF, Rizal MK, Fadhilah ZW, Abdullah I. Ethnobotanical study in Kuala Nerang, Kedah. In: Shyun CY, Mohtar M, Bramaniam V, Samah ZA, editors. Towards bridging science and herbal industry: proceedings of the seminar on medicinal and aromatic plants, 12–13 Sept 2000. Kuala Lumpur: Forest Research Institute Malaysia; 2001. p. 120–7.

212

K. Devanathan

Zeng KW, Zhao MB, Ma ZZ, Jiang Y, Tu PF. Protosappanin A inhibits oxidative and nitrative stress via interfering the interaction of transmembrane protein CD14 with Toll-like receptor-4 in lipopolysaccharide-induced BV-2 microglia. Int Immunopharmacol. 2012;14:558–69. Zeng KW, Yu Q, Song FJ, Liao LX, Zhao MB, Dong X, Jiang Y, Tu PF. Deoxysappanone B, a homoisoflavone from the Chinese medicinal plant Caesalpinia sappan L., protects neurons from microglia-mediated inflammatory injuries via inhibition of IκB kinase (IKK)-NF-κB and p38/ ERK MAPK pathways. European J Pharmacol. 2015a;748:18–29. Zeng KW, Liao LX, Zhao MB, Song FJ, Yu Q, Jiang Y, Tu PF. Protosappanin B protects PC12 cells against oxygen–glucose deprivation-induced neuronal death by maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis via induction of ubiquitin-dependent p53 protein degradation. European J. Pharmacol. 2015b;751:13–23. Zerrudo JV, Ibnu Utomo B. Caesalpinia sappan. In, Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA), 2016. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Caesalpinia_sappan_(PROSEA). Accessed 16 Aug 2020. Zhang M, Zhang S, Wu J, Sun Y, Li L, Du W, Liu J, Hou J, Yu B. The immunosuppressant protosappanin a promotes dendritic cell-mediated expansion of alloantigen specific tregs and prolongs allograft survival in rats. PLoS One. 2013a;8(6):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0066336. Zhang J, Abdel-Mageed WM, Liu M, Huang P, He W, Li L, Song F, Dai H, Liu X, Liang J, Zhang L. Caesanines A_D, new cassane diterpenes with unprecedented N bridge from Caesalpinia sappan. Org Lett. 2013b;15(18):4726–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/ol402058z. Zhang Q, Liu JL, Qi XM, Qi CT, Yu Q. Inhibitory activities of Lignum Sappan extractives on growth and growth-related signaling of tumor cells. Chinese J Nat Med. 2014;12(8):607–12. Zhao YN, Pan Y, Tao JL, Xing DM, Du LJ. Study on cardioactive effects of Brazilein. Pharmacol. 2006;76:76–83. https://doi.org/10.1159/000089721. Zhao H, Bai H, Wang Y, Li W, Koike K. A new homoisoflavan from Caesalpinia sappan. J Nat Med. 2008;62:325–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-008-0231-6. Zhao H, Wang X, Li W, Koike K, Bai H. A new minor homoisoflavonoid from Caesalpinia sappan. Nat Prod Res. 2014a;28(2):102–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2013.847439. Zhao MB, Li J, Shi SP, Cai CQ, Tu PF, Tang L, Zeng KW, Jiang Y. Two new phenolic compounds from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan L. Molecul. 2014b;19:1–8. https://doi.org/10.3390/ molecules19010001. Zhong X, Wu B, Pan YJ, Zheng S. Brazilein inhibits survivin protein and mRNA expression and induces apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells. Neoplasma. 2009;56(5):387–92. https://doi.org/10.4149/neo_2009_05_387. Zhu NL, Sun ZH, Hu MG, Wu TY, Yuan JQ, Wu HF, Tian Y, Li PF, Yang JS, Ma GX, Xu XD. New cassane diterpenoids from Caesalpinia sappan and their antiplasmodial activity. Molecul. 2017;22(1751):1–7. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22101751. Zuo GY, Han ZQ, Hao XY, Han J, Li ZS, Wang GC. Communication synergy of aminoglycoside antibiotics by 3-Benzylchroman derivatives from the Chinese drug Caesalpinia sappan against clinical methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Phytomed. 2014; https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.phymed.2014.03.004. Zuo GY, Han ZQ, Han J, Hao XY, Tang HS, Wang GC. Antimicrobial activity and synergy of antibiotics with two biphenyl compounds, protosappanins A and B from Sappan Lignum against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2015;67:1439–47.

Biophytum umbraculum Welw. OXALIDACEAE Anisatu Z. Wakhidah and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Biophytum apodisciaz (Turcz.) Edgew. & Hook.f.; Biophytum sessile (Buch.-Ham. ex Baill.) Knuth; l Oxalis apodisciaz Turcz.; Oxalis gracilenta Kurz; Oxalis petersiana (Klotzsch) C.Müll.; Oxalis sessilis Buch.-Ham. ex Baill.

Local Name Indonesia: Rumput kebar; babonit, nibuwat-perut (Andjai and Kebar Valley Papua Barat); banondit (Papua); rumput kebar, kutjinggan (Javanese) (Imbiri et al. 2000; Riyadi et al. 2019; Sawen 2012; Unitly and Inara 2011).

Botany and Ecology Description: Small perennial herbs, 4–15 cm long. Stem simple, cylindrical, slender, clad with dense and recurved hairs, hairs dense at the apical part. Stipules thread-like. Leaves crowded at the stem apex, 1–3.5 cm long, glabrous to clad with scattered and recurved hairs, especially on the nodes, petiole pulvinate at the base, rachis sender, leaflets opposite, 4–10 pairs, leaflets often overlapping each other, 2–8  2–5 mm wide, terminal leaflets obovate, more or less asymmetric, midrib excentric, other leaflets orbicular-elliptic to triangular, midrib median, apex obtuse

A. Z. Wakhidah (*) Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_106

213

214

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

to rounded, base asymmetric to almost symmetric, glabrous or with ciliate hairs along the margin, lateral nerves distinct, perpendicular to the midrib. Inflorescence umbellate, sessile or in Malesian region sometimes with peduncle up to 1.5 cm long, peduncle clad with appressed hairs, bearing several 5-merous flowers. Pedicels ca. 3 mm long. Sepals ovate-lanceolate, 3–5  0.75–1.5 mm, acute, subglabrous to sparsely hairy, becoming 5–8-nerved in the fruiting stage, exceeding the fruit and longer than pedicels. Petals yellow in the lower half, orange and upward, or orange, lanceolate, 5–6  1 mm. Filaments and style divided into two groups, episepalous (LF) and epipetalous (SF); LF filaments 1–1.25 mm and 1.5–2 mm long, SF filaments 1 and 2 mm long, glabrous; ovary 0.5–1.5  0.5–1 mm; LF styles 1–1.5 mm long, with flattened and crenate stigma; SF styles 0.5 mm long, with flattened and bifid stigma; ovule 4–5 per locule. Fruit capsule, ellipsoid-obovoid, 3–4  2–2.5 mm, ribs with ciliate apex. Seeds 3–4 per locule, 0.75  0.25 mm, with two longitudinal ridges, ridges connected by transverse rows of tubercles. Distribution and Habitat: This is a widespread species distributed from tropical Africa and Madagascar, east to South and Southeast Asia to China and Indochina, throughout Malesia except for Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, and Borneo. The species grows from lowland to 1500 m in Southeast Asia or higher in China reaching 1600 m.a.s.l. The species prefers a drier climate, that is, with pronounced dry season. It grows in exposed habitat, with abundant sunlight. It has been reported that such preference leads to its absence in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, and Borneo. It also explains the restricted distribution in West Java, where the plants have been found only north of Bandung. In Malesia, the plants produce flowers and fruits throughout the years (Veldkamp 1972; Liu and Watson 2008) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Living plant of Biophytum umbraculum (Oxalidaceae). (© Sambodo P. 2012)

Biophytum umbraculum Welw.

215

Fig. 2 Recently excavate individuals Biophytum umbraculum (Oxalidaceae). (© Sambodo P. 2012)

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The people of Papua drink whole plant decoction to improve fertility in women (Imbiri et al. 2000; Unitly and Inara 2011; Sawen 2012; Riyadi et al. 2019). Besides that, it is also used to normalize menstrual cycles in women who have recovered from cysts. In cases where the menstrual cycle occurs once every 14 days, the decoction restores the cycle to 28–30 days (Wajo and Jentewo 2009; Unitly and Inara 2011). Some Papua people also use this plant as a stamina booster. For example, they would drink a tea made from the plant extracts after a day's work in the rice fields (Sawen 2012). Papuan people in Kebar Valley use all parts of the plant as cattle fodder and to increase animal fertility (Sawen 2012). Thailand: The Karen Community in the northern Thailand uses the plant to treat urethral stones and hemorrhoids. It is used by mixing the plant with Mimosa pudica’s root then made into a decoction (Tangjitman et al. 2013).

Phytochemistry The whole plant contains saponin, alkaloid, flavonoid, tannin, phenolic, triterpenoid, steroid, glycoside that act as anti-cholesterol and antioxidants (Imbiri et al. 2000; Sambodo et al. 2012; Sawen 2012; Tangjitman et al. 2013; Sembiring and Darwati 2014; Sambodo et al. 2015). The leaves and stem contain alkaloids that acts as antibacterial (Lense 2011), saponin, tannin, phenolic, flavonoid, glycoside that act as anthelmintic (Baaka et al. 2017), antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antifungal agents (Lisangan et al. 2014; Darwati et al. 2019). The chemical compounds present improve fertility both in males and females. In males, the extract of kebar grass increases spermatogenesis including the number of spermatogonia,

216

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, and spermatids (Glamour et al. 2018; Lefaan 2014). The treatment of a 5% percent infusion of this plant increases the average number of spermatocyte cells in Mus musculus (Lefaan 2014). Saponins and calcium in this plant improve the viability of spermatozoa and triggers sperm mobility to become very active, which allows fertilization to occur (Azlina 2009). In females, the provision of kebar grass extract increases the development of follicles because of the saponin, a basic ingredient for the synthesis of steroid hormones, which improves the performance of the reproductive system. The boiled water of kebar grass increases the weight of the ovary and stimulates follicular development (Wajo 2005). Two vitamins A and E, 17 amino acid also have a positive influence on female reproduction (Simatauw and Unitly 2019). Vitamin A plays an important role in ovum cell formation, while vitamin E can prevent miscarriage (Unitly and Inara 2011). The active compounds in kebar grass also function as phytoestrogens, which can replace the role of endogenous estrogen (Simatauw and Unitly 2019). The other chemical compounds reported from this plant are isoflavon, polyphenol, hyperoside, quercitrin, quercetin, phenol, triterpenoid (Mohammad et al. 2018) and three flavone-C-glycosides named cassiaoccidentalin, isovitexin, and isoorietin (Pham et al. 2013).

Economic Importance Indonesia: The dried whole plant has been sold in marketplaces as a fertility medicine to conceive and also solve various other reproductive problems in humans. It is also said to be exported to Europe (Toyiban 2019). It has also been widely used in Sumatra, West Java, and Central Java, indicated by the high demand for the plant in those regions (Wajo and Jentewo 2009).

References Azlina. Pengaruh pemberian ekstrak rumput kebar (Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch) terhadap fertilitas tikus jantan (Rattus norvegicus L) [master thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2009. p. 85. (in Bahasa). Baaka A, Widayati I, Noviyanti. Ekstrak air rumput kebar (Biophytum petersianum Klotzch) sebagai penghambat perkembangan telur cacing gastrointestinal ruminansia secara in vitro. J Sain Vet. 2017;35(1):102–10. (in Bahasa). Darwati I, Nurcahyanti A, Trisilawati O, Nurhayati H, Bermawie N, Wink M. Anticancer potential of kebar grass (Biophytum petersianum) an Indonesia traditional medicine. International Conference on Food Science and Technology. 2019;1–8. Glamour S, Hidayat S, Prianto A, Widjiati W. The Difference of Integrin ανβ3 Expression, Leukemia Inhibitory Factors and Superoxide Dismutase Serum Concentration in the Provision of Kebar Extract (Biophytum petersianum Klotczh), Metformin, and their Combination to Mouse models of Endometriosis. JBTR. 2018;4(1):1–8. Imbiri ANNH, Wanggai F, Maturbongs RA. Ekologi rumput kebar (Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch) di Kecamatan Kebar, Manokwari, Irian Jaya. Beccariana. 2000;2(2):44–7. (in Bahasa).

Biophytum umbraculum Welw.

217

Lefaan PN. Pengaruh infusa rumput kebar (Biophytum petersianum) terhadap spermatogenesis mencit (Mus musculus). J Sain Vet. 2014;32(1):55–67. (in Bahasa). Lense O. Biological screening of selected traditional medicinal plants species utilized by local people of Manokwari, West Papua Province. Nusantara Biosci. 2011;3(3):145–50. Lisangan MM, Syarief R, Rahayu WP, Dharmaputra OS. Antifungal activity of kebar grass leaf extracts on the growth of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus in food model media. Int J Sci Basic App Res. 2014;17(2):116–28. Liu Q, Watson MF. Oxalidaceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 11 (Oxalidaceae through Aceraceae). Beijing/St Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden; 2008. p. 1–6. Mohammad S, Iman S, Intanurfemi HB, Ahmad Y, Saidin. Nutrient composition and secondary metabolite of rumput kebar (Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch). RJOAS. 2018;12(84):327–32. Pham AT, Nguyen C, Malterud KE, Diallo D, Wangensteen H. Bioactive flavones-C-glycosides of the African medicinal plants Biophytum umbraculum. Molecules. 2013;18:10312–9. Riyadi, Humaidah N, Kalsum U. Pengaruh perbedaan dosis tepung rumput kebar (Biophytum petersianum) terhadap performance reproduksi kelinci betina lokal. J Rekasat Pet. 2019;2 (1):160–3. (in Bahasa). Sambodo P, Prastowo J, Indarjulianto S. Aktivitas larvasidal ekstrak ethanol rumput kebar (Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch) terhadap Aedes aegypti. J Ilm Perternakan. 2012;7(1):8– 10. (in Bahasa). Sambodo P, Tethool AN, Rumetor SD. Efek antikolestrol fraksi n-heksana rumput kebar pada hewan model hiperlipidaemia. J Kedok Hew. 2015;9(1):59–60. (in Bahasa). Sawen D. Potensi tanaman obat banondit (Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch) sumber pakan hijauan di Lembah Kebar Papua Barat. Pastura. 2012;2(1):34–6. (in Bahasa). Sembiring B, Darwati I. Identifikasi komponen kimia aksesi rumput kebar (Biophytum petersianum) asal Papua dan Jawa. Bul Littro. 2014;25(1):37–44. (in Bahasa). Simatauw AZ, Unitly AJA. Gambaran siklus estrus tikus Rattus norvegicus terpapar asap rokok setelah diterapi ekstrak etanol rumput kebar (Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch). Rumphius Pattimura Biol J. 2019;1:1):1–7. (in Bahasa). Tangjitman K, Wongsawad C, Winijchaiyanan P, Sukkho T, Kamwong K, Pongamornkul W, Trisonthi C. Traditional knowledge on medicinal plant of the Karen in northern Thailand: a comparative study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;150:232–43. Toyiban. Produk herbal Papua laris di Eropa. 2019. http://www.antaranews.com/berita/1184203/ produk-herbal-papua-laris-di-eropa. Retrieved 11 May 2020. Unitly AJA, Inara C. Potensi rumpur kebar (Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch) dalam meningkatkan kinerja reproduksi. Pros Sem Nas Pengembangan Pulau-Pulau Kecil. 2011:329–33. (in Bahasa). Veldkamp JF. Oxalidaceae. Fl Malesiana I. 1972;7(1):151–78. Wajo MJ. Pengaruh pemberian ekstrak rumput kebar melalui air minum terhadap fertilitas ayam buras [undergraduate thesis]. Manokwari: Universitas Negeri Papua; 2005. p. 69. (in Bahasa). Wajo MJ, Jentewo WF. Pengaruh pemberian ekstrak “rumput kebar” (Biophytum petersianum Klotzsch) melalui air minum terhadap kualitas semen ayam buras. J Ilm Peter. 2009;4(1):49– 56. (in Bahasa).

Calamus manillensis (Mart.) H. Wendl. ARECACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Synonyms Daemonorops manillensis Mart.; Palmijuncus manillensis (Mart.) Kuntze

Local Names Litoko (Ilokano); bayabong, bunlak, tumaron (Manobo); lintokan, sarani (Bagobo) (Madulid 2001).

Botany and Ecology Description: A large, climbing, slender, and spiny palm. The leaves are large linearlanceolate pinnate leaflets about 16 in. long  4 to 5 cm wide, pinnate and stout, hooked, rather sparse spines (Coronel 2011). The spiny stems with hard leaf sheath grow long up to 20 m or more. The terminal whip measures 2 m long (Madulid 2017). Inflorescence is yellow and leaf opposed. Fruits are branched and arching racemes, about 3 cm long, light cream, oblong or globose, 2 cm in diameter, scaly and yellowish berry with dark markings; flesh acidic and semitransparent (Merril 1912). Phenology: Late May to November are harvesting months of the fruits (Tesoro n.d.) most especially August to September (Alicay and Balatico 2018). Fruiting season is from November to January (Baja-Lapis 2009). Distribution and Habitat: Endemic to the Philippines. Found in forests at low and medium altitudes (Coronel 2011), in humid dipterocarp forests throughout the

R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_7

219

220

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

country (Tesoro n.d.) at 600–1000 m (Pelser et al. 2011). Reported in Luzon: Cagayan, Nueva Vizcaya, Quezon (Pelser et al. 2011), Ifugao and Mountain Province (Baja-Lapis 2009), Benguet: Itogon, Sablan and Tuba (Chua-Barcelo 2014), Dinagat (Fernando 1990), Mindoro (Baja-Lapis 2009), Mindanao: Davao, Agusan, Surigao (Pelser et al. 2011), and Misamis Oriental (Baja-Lapis 2009). Conservation Status: Near threatened (Pelser et al. 2011). This may be due to its commercial importance that resulted in unsustainable harvest, combined with lack of conservation efforts to preserve rattan resources in the country (Tesoro n.d.). In addition, anthropogenic activities have led to destruction of its natural habitats (Fernando 1990) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Calamus manillensis (Arecaceae). Tree bearing fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

Fig. 2 Calamus manillensis (Arecaceae). Fruits in clusters, opposite leaves, and spiny stem. (© R. Barcelo)

Calamus manillensis (Mart.) H. Wendl.

221

Fig. 3 Calamus manillensis (Arecaceae). Scaly and yellowish fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

Phytochemistry The edible portion (per 100 g) contains 79 g water, 88 kcal energy, 0.6 g protein, 1.2 g fat, 18.6 g carbohydrates, 0.5 g crude fiber, 19 mg calcium, 10 mg phosphorus, 1.7 mg iron, 0.06 mg thiamin, 0.01 mg riboflavin, 0.9 mg niacin, and 5 mg ascorbic acid (Coronel 2011). Alicay and Balatico (2018) report the presence of 19.55 g/100 g carbohydrates, 8.48 mg/100 g sodium, 1.44 g/100 g ash content, 0.35 g/100 g protein, 0.19 g/100 g total fat, and 0.17 mg/100 g iron. Secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds are also present (Barcelo 2015; Galvez 2017). The fruits exhibit higher DPPH radical scavenging activity than quercetin (Galvez 2017), vitamin E, ascorbic acid, and trolox (Barcelo 2015).

Local Food Uses The fleshy part (pulp) except seeds and exocarp are eaten raw commonly with salt (Alicay and Balatico 2018) and also made into jellies (Coronel 2011). Also processed into various commercial products such as wine, vinegar, and sour flavorings. The pulp when cooked with sugar can be made into candies. Pickles are made from fruits soaked in vinegar (Baja-Lapis 2009). Besides candies and wine, jams can also be prepared (Chua-Barcelo 2014).

Biocultural and Economic Importance Butic and Ngidlo (2003, cited by Magcale-Macandog) described muyong-payoh system as an indigenous strategy applied by the local inhabitants in Ifugao province in order to conserve forest resources, improve farming systems, and watershed

222

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

conditions. A “muyong” is an important component of an agroforestry system consisting of various natural resources growing in a forest or woodlot that provide not only basic ecosystem services but also protection of the land from erosion and run off. The species in a muyong include wild native fruit trees, bamboo, palm, climbing rattan among others. The combination of indigenous plants such as C. manillensis, Areca catechu (betel nut), and Ficus minahasse in a muyong is based on economic and cultural values (Magcale-Macandog et al. 2013; MagcaleMacandog 2018). In the local agroforestry systems of the municipality of Lagawe, Ifugao, Calamus spp. are cultivated as edible food sources in woodlots through interplanting with Ficus and coffee cultivars (Klock 1995). Meanwhile, rattans are also grown in woodlots managed by each household and forest goods such as edible fruits are harvested to provide food as part of the main agroecosystem of the social-ecological system in Banaue municipality. Families earn additional income through selling rattan fruits and handicrafts (Castonguay et al. 2016). C. manillensis is of socioeconomic and cultural importance to inhabitants of Ifugao. The round cane, skin peel, and core are used in making furniture, baskets, and handicrafts (Madulid 2002; Tesoro n.d.). Handicrafts made from rattan are used during various occasions or activities. These are: hakacha and ughat used for fishing in a river, pfalag of palay used to transport rice grains, innanga a heddle stick used by men as rain cover or cape, lechaw a hat for heat or rain protection, halichong a container for crops and a rain coat for women, pallongan for separating hull from grain through blowing of air, buklut a basket for locust, and gamugamun that is used in birth rituals (Ngohayon et al. 2010; Taguiling 2013). The plant is cultivated for ornamental purposes (Merril 1912). The fruits when dried and canes can be used in decoration especially in flower arrangement. Besides these, the fruits are used in offertory (Chua-Barcelo 2014). The fruit scales and leaf sheaths serve as natural colorant and dye by extracting the juice in water and applied to textile and handicrafts. Other miscellaneous uses include creative products such as decors for vases, pencil holders, and ash tray. Fences can be made using the thorns on the leaf sheaths together with whip-like structures of its climbing organs (BajaLapis 2009).

References Alicay C, Balatico FV. Fruits of the future: characterization of indigenous fruits of Cagayan valley. Asia Pac J Multidiscip Res. 2018;6(4):52–9. Baja-Lapis AC. Specialty rattans of the ASEAN. Blumea. 2009;54:39–43. Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Castonguay A, Burkhard B, Muller F, Horgan F, Settele J. Resilience and adaptability of rice terrace social-ecological systems: a case study of a local community’s perception in Banaue, Philippines. Ecol Soc. 2016;21(2):15. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-08348-210215. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38.

Calamus manillensis (Mart.) H. Wendl.

223

Coronel R. Important and underutilized edible fruits of the Philippines. Philippines: UPLBFI and DA-BAR; 2011. Fernando E. Diversity and conservation status of the Philippine rattans. RIC Bull. 1990;9(2):7–21. Galvez MA. Folkloric medicinal fruits of Ifugao contain phytochemicals with antioxidant properties. Upland Farm J. 2017;25(1). https://ufj-ifsu.org/folkloric-medicinal-fruits-of-ifugao-con tain-phytochemicals-with-antioxidant-properties/. Accessed 18 Sept 2019. Klock J. Indigenous woodlot management and ethnobotany in Ifugao, Philippines. Int Tree Crops J. 1995;8(2–3):95–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/01435698.1995.9752937. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, Vol. 2. Philippines: Bookmark Inc.; 2001. Madulid D. A pictorial guide to the noteworthy plants of Palawan. Philippines: Palawan Tropical Forestry Protection Programme; 2002. Madulid D. Calamus manillensis. The Philippine Star. 2017. https://www.pressreader.com/philip pines/the-philippine-star/20170506/282029032136851. Accessed 16 Jan 2020. Magcale-Macandog D. Understanding the dynamic interactions and environmental problems in the Muyong-Payoh system of Banaue, Ifugao, Philippines through participatory rural approaches. Philipp BIOTA. 2018;48:1–18. Magcale-Macandog D, Bragais M, Mojica L, Tingson K, Liquigan MBC. Floristic composition and stand structure of “Muyong” systems in Banaue, Ifugao, Philippines. IAMURE Int J Ecol Conserv. 2013;8:45–64. Merril E. A flora of Manila. Manila: Bureau of Printing; 1912. Ngohayon J, Taguiling N, Dulay M, Ildefonso R, Ngohayon S, Ngidio R, Valdez C, Pascual I, Bumidang CA. IFSU Main Report: biophysical and socio economic characterization for climate vulnerability assessment for the province of Ifugao. 2010. https://issuu.com/mdgf1656/docs/ ifsu_main_report. Accessed 16 Jan 2020. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Arecaceae.html. Accessed 18 Sept 2019. Taguiling N. Macrofloral biodiversity conservation in Ifugao. Eur Sci J. 2013;4:469–82. Tesoro F. Rattan resources of the Philippines their extent, production, utilization and issues on resource development. n.d.. http://www.fao.org/3/y2783e/y2783e15.htm. Accessed 18 Sept 2019.

Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson ANNONACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim and Diny Hartiningtias

Synonyms var. odorata: Canangium mitrastigma (F.Muell.) Domin; Canangium odoratum (Lam.) Baill. ex King; Canangium scortechinii King; Fitzgeraldia mitrastigma F.Muell.; Unona cananga Spreng.; Unona odoratissima Blanco; Unona leptopetala DC.; Unona ossea Blanco; Uvaria axillaris Roxb.; Uvaria gaertneri Dunal; Uvaria javanica Thunb.; Uvaria odorata Lam.; Uvaria ossea (Blanco) Blanco; Uvaria subcordata Miq; Uvaria trifoliata Gaertn. – var. fruticosa (Craib) Sincl.: Canangium fruticosum Craib; Canangium odoratum forma pumilum Steenis; Canangium odoratum var. fruticosum (Craib) Corner

Local Names Cambodia: Chhkè srèng. Indonesia: kenanga (general; also in Batak Angkola; Dayak Tamambaloh in Sintang; Tidung people in Tarakan; Surakarta and Sukoharjo in Central Java; Garut in West Java; Nganjuk and Sukapura in East Java) – kananga (Bugis, Sunda) – kanghit (East Kalimantan) – kayu kenanga (Dayak Desa, Sintang) – kupa apale (West Sumatra) – kanango (Pariaman, West Sumatra) – lalingiran (North Sulawesi) – sandat (Serangan Island and Bali) – sepalen (Maluku). Malaysia: chenanga, kenanga, kenanga utan (wild plant), ylang-ylang. Myanmar: kadapgnam, kadat-ngan, kedatngan, kedatnyan, sagasein or saga-sein. W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia D. Hartiningtias Collaborative Campus Associate, School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Jakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_164

225

226

W. A. Mustaqim and D. Hartiningtias

Philippines: ilang-ilang, alang-ilang – alangilan (Zamboaga del Sur) – ilang-ilang (Bohol, Cebu, Leyte, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Quezon). Thailand: fereng, kradang naga – kradangnga-thai (central) – kradangnga-songkhla (central, var. fruticosa) – sabannga-ton (northern). Vietnam: g[oj]c Ian t[aa]y, ho[af]ng lan, ylang ylang. English: cadmia, perfume tree, ylang-ylang (Al Liina et al. 2017; Anggraini et al. 2018; Ayuningtyas and Hakim 2014; DeFillips and Krupnick 2018; Faiqoh et al. 2018; Falah and Hadiwibowo 2017; Fitria et al. 2019; Hariana 2013; Haryanti et al. 2015; Hasibuan 2011; Hidayat et al. 2010; Hulyati et al. 2014; Jessup 2007; Oktoba 2018; Putri et al. 2014; Supiandi et al. 2019; Tan et al. 2015; TKDLPH 2016; Wijayanti 2017; Yusuf and Sinohin 1999).

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrub or tree, to 40 m tall. Trunk to 75 cm across, with smooth bark, pale grey. Branches rather pendulous, hairy when young, finally glabrous. Leaves simple, alternate, on 1–2 cm long petiole; blades oblong, elliptic, or ovate, 8–29  3.5–14 cm, base truncate to obtuse, often oblique, apex acuminate or acute; lateral veins 7–15 on each side of the midrib; mature leaves usually with whitish hairs on midrib and lateral veins. Inflorescence cymose or racemose, on short woody branches or from the axil of leaves, peduncle 2–5 mm long, flowers solitary to 20 per inflorescence, pendulous; pedicels 1–5 cm long, bracteoles minute, one basal, one near the middle. Flowers showy and strongly fragrant, around c. 9 cm across; sepals 3, ovate, 0.7 mm long, basally connate, acute, apex reflexed, pubescent. Petals green, becoming yellow with age, inside with brown blotch at the base, segments 6, arranged in 2 whorls, valvate, linear-lanceolate or linear, 5–8  0.5–1.8 cm, inner petals slightly smaller than outer petals, hairy. Stamens numerous, 130–170, surrounding the stigma on the receptacle, oblonglanceolate, 0.7–1 mm long, connective acute at the apex, hairy. Carpels 10–15, c. 4 mm long, minutely and sparsely hairy when young; ovules 10–14, stigma clavate, hairy, inner side deeply grooved. Fruit monocarps, on 1.2–1.8 cm long stipe, blackish or purple-black at maturity, oblong or oblong-obovoid, globose, or ovoid, 1.5–2.3  c. 1 cm, glabrous, each contain 2–12 pale brown seeds. There are two varieties recognized for this species: var. odorata marked by its tree life form growing up to 6–33 m in height, and var. fruticosa marked by its shrub life form growing up to 1–2 m tall. Distribution and Habitat: This species is native from India to SE Asian mainland and throughout the Southeast Asian archipelago. It is also distributed in northeastern Australia and Fiji, although the native state of the species in many areas is quite unclear, such as in the Philippines. The var. fruticosa is presumably native to Thailand, Malaysia, and several areas in Indonesia. This species is predominantly a lower elevation plant up to 850 m.a.s.l either in secondary forests, riverside, teak forests, or gaps in undisturbed vegetation. In cultivation, plants can be grown at an elevation up to 1200 m.a.s.l. The seeds are dispersed by animals that eat the fruits including monkeys, birds, bats, and squirrels. The plant is also cultivated for

Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson

227

ornamental purposes. The flowering season varies in different areas. For example, in Java, there are three to four peak flowering seasons while in Peninsular Malaysia there are only two peaks. In Java, the most abundant flowers are produced at the end of the rainy season (Jessup 2007; Li and Gilbert 2011; Pelser et al. 2011; Sinclair 1955; Slik 2009-onwards; Turner 2018; Yusuf and Sinohin 1999) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Flowering branches of Cananga odorata (Annonaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Flower of Cananga odorata (Annonaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

228

W. A. Mustaqim and D. Hartiningtias

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Local communities in South Kalimantan brew the dried flowers and consume it to treat malaria, malaria-like symptoms, and asthma (Reynaldi et al. 2019). The roots are used for pregnancy and postpartum care by the Dayak Ngaju tribe in Mantangai, Central Kalimantan (Rohmat et al. 2019). It has been also reported that the flowers are used to treat fever by the communities around Bukit Kelam Nature Park, West Kalimantan (Yusro et al. 2020). Flowers are used as insect repellent by Banjar people in South Kalimantan (Ningsih et al. 2016). Sick children in North Maluku are bathed with bark decoction to improve overall health (Susiarti et al. 2015). The practice is also reported from Dayak tribes in Central Kalimantan (Wardah and Sundari 2019). Balinese people use flowers to promote hair growth (Oktoba 2018). The pounded fresh flowers and leaves are used to treat pox by the Sambori villagers in West Nusa Tenggara (Junaidin et al. 2017; Zulharman et al. 2015). In West Halmahera of Maluku Archipelago, the bark is used in deworming (Wakhidah et al. 2017). Malaysia: The species is used to treat diabetes and as postpartum medicine in Terengganu (Abdulrahman et al. 2018). In Kampung Mak Kemas, the bark is grated and applied topically as a remedy for itchy skin (Ong et al. 2011). Philippines: In Nueva Vizcaya, the bark is pounded or poulticed, and directly applied to cure sprain. It is also used to cure hernia. The scrapped bark is cooked, mixed with oil, and then applied to the abdomen by the local people in Quezon. In both Nueva Vizcaya and Nueva Ecija, the leaves are boiled, added with petroleum, and used to remove underarm odor. In Leyte, leaf extract is added with salt, and used to treat a skin disease called pugo. A similar mixture is also used by the people in Davao for the same purpose. In Bohol Province, pounded leaves are externally applied for skin diseases. The flowers are pounded, mixed with coconut oil, and rubbed over scalp by the people in Zamboanga del Sur (TKDLPH 2016). Thailand: Cananga odorata is used for medicinal purposes by the Karen people (Phumthum et al. 2020).

Phytochemistry The phytochemistry of this species is well-studied. The studies have been carried out either on the essential oils or the extracts of various parts. Studies on essential oils are more predominant. Alkaloids, aliphatic compounds, coumarins, phenylpropanoids, nitrogenic compounds, protein and amino acids, saponins, steroids, tannins, and terpenoids have been reported (Indrakumar et al. 2012; Tan et al. 2015). Reports for the most diverse range of chemical compounds come from the flowers, which is not surprising since flowers are the most useful part. Leaves, flowers, and fruits: Chemical compounds identified from these three parts include 1,8-cineole, α-humulene, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, β-pinene, α-cadinol, germacrene D, and limonene. Leaves and flowers: Compounds found in both the leaves and the flowers include α-amorphene, α-copaene, α-ylangene, β-bourbonene, β-cubebene,

Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson

229

δ-cadinene, δ-elemene, (E)-hex-2-enol, (E,E)-farnesol, (Z)-hex-3-enol, camphene, caryophyllene oxide, eugenol, geraniol, and linalool. Leaves and fruits: Compounds reported to occur in leaves and fruits include (Z)-β-ocimene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, α-terpineol, α-tujene, γ-terpinene, n-hexanol, p-cymene, monoterpenes (E)-β-ocimene, myrcene, sabinene, terpinen-4-ol, and terpinolene. Leaves: Some compounds are also reported to occur exclusively in the leaves: 2-octanone, 4-terpineol, α-bulnesene, α-cubebene, α-gurjunene, α-muurolene, α-terpineol acetate, β-copaene, β-elemene, β-phellandrene, β-terpineol, γ-cadinene, γ-terpineol, t-cadinol, (E)-hex-2-enal, (E,Z)-farnesal, d-limonene, trans-geraniol, aromadendrene, bornyl acetate, bicyclogermacrene, camphor, caryophyllene epoxide, dihydrocarveol acetate, dihydrolinalool, diisobutyl phthalate, geranial, globulol, isobornyl acetate, linalool acetate, linalyl acetate, sesquiterpenes (E,E)-farnesal, spathulenol, and viridiflorol. Flowers: Phytochemicals that have been recorded from the flowers are far more numerous than leaves or fruits: α-bisabolol, α-cedrene, α-cadinene, α-eudesmol, α-muurolol, α-pinene oxide α-thujene, β-bisabolol β-bisabolene, β-eudesmol, β-myrcene, β-trans-ocimene, δ-cadinol, ε-cadinene, ε-muurolene, τ-cadinene, τ-cadinol, τ-muurolene, p-cresol, p-cresyl acetate, p-methylanisole, t-muurolol, cis-asarone, cis-calamenene, cis-calamenene + δ-cadinene, cis-guaiene, cis-linalool oxide, epi-α-cadinol, trans-β-ocimene, trans-β-guaiene, trans-anethol, transcalamenene, trans-linalool oxide, trans-linalool oxide acetate, trans-nerolidol, (E)-γ-bisabolene, (E)-cinnamyl acetate, (E)-nerolidol, (E,E)-farnesene, (E, E)-α-farnesene, (E,E)-farnesol, (E,E)-farnesyl acetate, (Z)-α-santalol, (Z)-β-farnesene, (Z)-3-hexenyl benzoate, (Z)-nerolidol, (2E,2Z)-farnesal, (2Z,6E)farnesyl acetate, 1,4-dimethoxybencene, 1,4-dimethylbenzene, 1,10-diepi-cubenol, 1-epi-cubenol, 1-methoxy-1-propylbenzene, 1-phenyl-2-propen-1-ol, 1-phenylallyl acetate, 1H-indole, 2-hexenyl acetate, 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol, 2-methoxy-4methylphenol, 2-methoxyphenol, 2-phenylethyl acetate, 2-phenyl-1-nitroethane, 3,4-dimethoxytoluene, 3-buten-2-ol benzoate, 3-hexen-1-ol, 3-hexen-1-ol benzoate, 3-hexenyl acetate, 3-hexenyl benzoate, 3-methyl-2-buten-1-yl benzoate, 3-methyl2-buten-1-ol, 3-methyl-2-buten-1-yl acetate (prenyl acetate), 6-methyl-5-hepten2-one, 4-(2-propenyl)-phenol, 4-allyl-phenyl-acetate, 4-methoxy benzaldehyde, 4-methoxyphenyl acetate, 4-methoxyphenylmethyl acetate, 4-methylbenzaldoxime, 5-indanol, 7-epi-α-eudesmol, 8-cedren-13-ol, alloaromadendrene, anethol, aromadendrene oxide-(1) and (2), benzaldehyde, benzyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, benzyl cinnamate, benzyl salicylate, benzylaldehyde, benzyl-n-butyrate, bicycloelemene, bisabolene, butyl benzoate, cadina-1,4-diene, calamene, calamenene, cedrol, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl alcohol, citronellyl acetate, copaborneol, cubenol, cyperene, diethyl 1,5-pentanedioate, dihydro-eugenol acetate, dodecane, elemol, eremophyla-1(10),7-diene, ethyl benzoate, farnesyl acetate, geranyl acetate, geranyl benzoate, guaiol, heptanal, hexadecanoic acid, humulene epoxide, humulene epoxide II, indole, isoeugenol, isogermacrene D, jejunol, levoglucosenone, methyl 2-methoxybenzoate, methyl 3-methyl butanoate, methyl 4-methoxybenzoate, methyl anthranilate, methyl benzoate, methyl caprylate, methyl eugenol, neral, nerol, merolidol, muurolol T, neryl acetate, phenylethyl benzoate,

230

W. A. Mustaqim and D. Hartiningtias

phenylacetonitrile, phenylpropanoids, plinol a, plinol d, safrole, selina-4(15),5diene, sesquisabinene B, tetracosane, tetradecanal, thujene, tricosane, undecane, and zonarene. The volatile oil components differ according to the stages of flower development. Of the 92 compounds that were recorded, 51 compounds were identified during the full blooming stage; the most important components are β-caryophyllene, followed by L-aromadendrene and β-cubebene. In addition to phytochemicals previously mentioned as occurring in the flowers, few others have also been identified from the volatile components of the flowers. These include (E)-2-hexen-1-ol acetate, (E, E)-farnesal, (E,Z)-α-farnesene, (S)-α-methoxybenzeneacetic acid, (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol acetate, (Z,E)-α-farnesene, (+)-epi-bicyclosesquiphellandrene, (+)-α-longipinene, ()-1,2-ethanediol,1,2-diphenyl-,(R*, R*), ( )-β-bisabolene, [S-(R*,S*)]-5-(1,5dimethylhexen-4-yl)-2-methyl-1,3-cyclohexa-1,3-diene, D-germacrene, L- l-calamenene, 1,2-dimethoxy-4-(2-propenyl)-benzen, 1,2-ethanediol 1-benzoate, 1,4-cadinadiene, 2hydroxy-3-cyanopyridine, 3-ethylidenecycloheptene, 4,9-cadinadiene, 10,10-dimethyl2,6-dimethylenebicyclo[7.2.0]undecan-5-β-ol, α-bergamotene, α-bourbonene, αcaryophyllene, α-citral, α-farnesene, α-funebrene, α-limonene, α-selinene, α-toluenol, β-bourbonene, β-caryophyllene oxide, β-citral, β-linalool, β-geraniol, β-gurjurene, β-myrcene, β-pinene, γ-caryophyllene, p-anisyl acetate, p-kresol, p-tolualcohol, cis-α-bisabolene, benzeneacetaldehyde, benzoic acid,ethyl ester, bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane 2-cyclopropylidene-1,7,7-trimethyl, bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2ene,3,6,6-trimethyl, bicyclo[4.4.0]dec-1-ene 2-isopropyl-5-methyl-9-methylene, cinnamyl acetate, citral b, cyclohexene,1-methyl-5-(1-methylethenyl), elixene, estragole, farnesal, farnesyl alcohol, geraniol acetate, geranylgeraniol, germacrene D-4-ol, hexyl acetate, isoledene, isoterpinolene, junenol, lavandulyl acetate, and methyl heptenone. Several compounds are known from the flowers at the bud stage including canangalignan I–II, canangaterpene I–IV, and (3R,3aR,8aS)-3-Isopropyl-8amethyl-8-oxo-1,2,3,3a,6,7,8,8aoctahydroazulene-5-carbaldehyde. A compound named γ-muurolene identified from flower is also present in the fruit. Besides, several additional chemical compound groups have also been identified from the extracts of other plant parts, including alkaloids, glucosides, megastigmane glycosides, lactones, lignans, phytosterols, phenylpropanoids, and terpenoids. Bark: The bark contains 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, O-methylmoschatoline, liriodenine, sampangine, and ushinsunine N-oxide (6aS, 7R). Stem and leaf extracts: contain two lactones named canangodine and isosiphonodine; liriodine and sampangine. Leaf: Leaf and branches extract contain canangone. Further study of the leaves show the presence of (+)-isolariciresinol 3a-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 3-O-robinoside, (+)syringaresinol 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 10-O-p-Coumaroyl, breyniaionoside A, canangafruticoside A–E, canangaionoside, citroside A, corchoionoside C, kaempferol 3-O-neohesperidoside, and quercetin 3-O-neohesperidoside. Fruits: Phytochemicals identified from fruits include (+)-ushinsunine-β-N-oxide, N-trans-feruloyltyramine, α-pyronene, γ-eudesmol, γ-eudesmol 11-R-L-rhamnoside, cananodine, cleistopholine, cryptomeridiol 11-R-L-rhamnoside, lyscamine, and tujanol. Seeds: Seed extracts yielded (+)-nornuciferine, (+)-n-acetylnornuciferine, (+)-ushinsunine-β-N-oxide, ( )anaxagoreine, ( )-anonaine, ( )-asimilobine, ( )-norushinsunine, (+)-reticuline, ( )-

Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson

231

ushinsunine, β-sitosterol, N-trans-feruloyltyramine, trans-cinnamic acid, cleistopholine, liriodenine, lyscamine, and stigmasterol (Benini et al. 2012a, b; Brokl et al. 2013; Brophy et al. 2004; Caloprisco et al. 2002; Cheng et al. 2012; Gaydou et al. 1986; Giang and Son 2016; Hsieh et al. 1999, 2001; Katsui et al. 2017; Kristiawan et al. 2008; Matsumoto et al. 2014a, b; Matsunami et al. 2010; Nagashima et al. 2010; Qin et al. 2014; Rahman et al. 2005; Rao et al. 1986; Stashenko et al. 1993, 1995, 1996; Tan et al. 2015; Yang and Huang 1988; Zollo et al. 1998).

Bioactivities Bioactivities reported include anti-inflammatory, antibiofilm, antidiabetic, antihyperglycemic, anti-melanogenesis, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antivector, anxiolytic, cognitive function enhancement, insecticidal, insect repellent, relaxing, sedative, and spermatotoxic (Chalcat et al. 1997; Cheng et al. 2012; Kuspradini et al. 2016; Mallavarapu et al. 2016; Matsumoto et al. 2014a; Pujiarti et al. 2012; Rahman et al. 2005; Tan et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2016). Antimicrobial: Antimicrobial activities of essential oils or plant extract have been reported against many species of bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Essential oil inhibits growth of the Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus cereus, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus polymyxa, Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus-β-haemolyticus, Streptococcus aureus (including the methicillin-resistant S. aureus ATCC700699), Streptococcus lutea; Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella paratyphi A and B, Salmonella typhi B, Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella flexneri, Shigella sonnei; and the fungi Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus krusli, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans (including ATCC 48274), Rhizopus oryzae, Rhodotorula glutinis ATCC 16740, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (including ATCC 2365), Schizosaccharomyces pombe ATCC 60232, and Yarrowia lipolytica ATCC 16617 (Kuspradini et al. 2016; Tan et al. 2015). Bark extracts inhibit the growth of many Gram-positive bacteria including Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium, Propionibacterium acnes, Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina lutea, and Streptococcus-β-haemolyticus; Gram-negative bacteria including Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Shigella boydii, Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella flexneri, Shigella shiga, Shigella sonnei; fungi including Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus versicolor, Candida albicans; and protozoan named Plasmodium falciparum FcB1 strain. The leaf extracts exhibit inhibitory activities against: the Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus; several Gram-negative bacteria including Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholera; the fungi Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes; and the protozoan Plasmodium falciparum FcB1 strain (Rahman et al. 2005; Tan et al. 2015). Other activities: Leaf essential oils show insecticidal effect against Sitophilus zeamais (Cheng et al. 2012). Essential oil also kills the mosquitoes Aedes aegypti, Anopheles dirus, and Culex quinquefasciatus (Soonwera 2015). Potential medicinal properties also have been reported. Anxiolytic effect on mice has been recorded from the essential oils mainly

232

W. A. Mustaqim and D. Hartiningtias

due to benzyl benzoate content (Zhang et al. 2016). The compounds 3R,3aR,8aS)-3isopropyl-8a-methyl-8-oxo-1,2,3,3a,6,7,8,8a-octahydroazulene-5-carbaldehyde and canangaterpene can inhibit melanogenesis, and are suggested for potential use in managing skin disorders (Matsumoto et al. 2014a).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: The oil is popular in Indonesia to increase euphoria and to reduce anxiety during sex. Bed of newlyweds is adorned with Cananga odorata on the wedding night (Holt 1999). Flowers and/or bark are used in traditional ceremonies and worship in many areas in Indonesia. In Bali, the flowers are used in Hindu religious ceremonies, for example in Serangan Island (Putri et al. 2014), Tabanan, and Buleleng (Ristanto Rh et al. 2020), and Truyan village (Artha et al. 2016). Being yellow in color, cananga flowers symbolize Mahadewa or Lord Shiva for whom they make daily offerings (canang sari) of the flower (Ristanto Rh et al. 2020). The flowers are also used in traditional ceremonies by local communities near the Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, East Java (Wijayanti 2017), in Seblang, Gelar Songo, and Kebo-keboan ceremonies by the Using tribe in Banyuwangi, East Java (Nurchayati and Ardiyansyah 2018). The flowers are used during birth and funeral ceremonies to bathe the body as a symbol of honor by the Aceh tribe (Rahimah et al. 2018; Sunanda et al. 2020). In South Kalimantan, the Banjar tribe uses flowers for the batapung tawar, mandi-mandi, barenteng ceremonies (Ningsih et al. 2016). The flowers are used in a bathing ceremony called Balimau to welcome the fasting month by the Pariaman people in West Sumatra (Hulyati et al. 2014); and by the Tidung people in Tarakan, North Kalimantan province (Fitria et al. 2019); traditional ceremony for the deceased in Surakarta area, Central Java (Faiqoh et al. 2018); and traditional ceremonies marking the first month in Islamic calendar in Nganjuk, East Java (Ayuningtyas and Hakim 2014). The flowers are often used in wedding ceremonies by the Angkola tribe in Padang Bujur village, North Sumatra (Hasibuan 2011), and in Kampung Adat Dukuh, West Java (Hidayat et al. 2010). This species enjoys the highest importance value in the traditional wedding ceremony of the people around the Surakarta Palace, Central Java (Anggraini et al. 2018); it is also used in a traditional ceremony on the seventh month of pregnancy called mitoni (Al Liina et al. 2017). The Dayak Desa in Sintang, West Kalimantan tuck Cananga odorata bark, leaf, and roots on their body during battles (Supiandi et al. 2019). The plant is also used as an ornamental and aromatic plant by the Dayak Tamambaloh people in Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan (Haryanti et al. 2015). Local people in East Kalimantan apply the water squeezed from the young leaves on face to soften the skin (Falah and Hadiwibowo 2017). The Baduy tribe uses the flower as a perfume by mixing it with coconut oil (Kaffah 2019). The use of this species for cosmetic purposes is also recorded in Serat Centhini, the Javanese classical literature of the early nineteenth century (Sukenti et al. 2004). Flowers are used in water bath during the siraman ceremony as part of Javanese wedding rituals (Supriyati et al. 2017); the use is also

Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson

233

observed around the Sedudo Waterfall, East Java (Pahlevi 2016). In Javanese culture, cananga flowers are often used in traditional rituals to represents human needs (translated as kenengo in the Javanese language), to obtain wisdom and nobleness of ancestors and adapt to the surroundings (Mardhatillah 2017). The bark is beaten to make coarse rope in Sulawesi (Manner and Elevitch 2006). The stem is used for house construction in Bali (Sujarwo and Keim 2017) and North Halmahera (Simanjuntak et al. 2015). The Kuri tribe uses the trees for making handicraft and hunting gears (Samberi et al. 2019). Malaysia: For cosmetic uses, a mix of cananga oil and coconut oil called macassar oil is used for hairdressing and for reducing scalp odor. The Malay Villagers in Terengganu use the leaves to reduce body odor. They consume a potion made from leaves with lime, sugar, and salt (Ong et al. 2011). Vietnam: The flowers are used in various traditional ceremonies (de Beer 1993).

Economic Importance Apart from its ornamental value (Rugayah 2014), Cananga odorata is a very important economic commodity. Cananga odorata is well known for its oil traded as cananga oil or ylang-ylang oil (ICS-UNIDO 2003). It is widely used in the perfume industry (MTRI 2011), in soap, and as flavors in foods (candies, icings, baked goods, soft drinks, and chewing gum) (Burdock and Carabin 2008). Cananga oil is extracted from fresh yellow cananga flowers by steam distillation. This practice is in existence since 1860 in the Philippines (Burdock and Carabin 2008), later the practice also commenced in Indonesia. In Southeast Asia, Java is considered the second most important location for the production of cananga oil besides Philippines (Yusuf and Sinohin 1999). In Indonesia, cananga oil industries obtain cultivated flowers from Java Island (Manner and Elevitch 2006). It has been an export commodity to many western or other Asian countries for a long time (e.g., 1935– 1936) (USBFDC 1937).

References Abdulrahman MD, Ali AM, Fatihah HNN, Khandaker MM, Mat N. Traditional medicinal knowledge of Malays in Terengganu, Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Nat J. 2018;70:349–64. Al Liina AS, Fauziah HA, Nurmiyati N. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan upacara ritual adat kelahiran di Desa Banmati, Kecamatan Tawangsari, Kabupaten Sukoharjo. Biosfer J Bio Pend Bio. 2017;2(2):24–8. (in Bahasa). Anggraini T, Utami S, Murningsih. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan yang digunakan pada upacara pernikahan adat Jawa di sekitar Keraton Kasunanan Surakarta Hadiningrat. J Biol. 2018;7(3):13–20. (in Bahasa). Artha PYG, Saptasari M, Mahanal S. Studi etnobotani masyarakat lokal Desa Trunyan Provinsi Bali untuk matakuliah etnobotani di perguruan tinggi. In:Rahardjanti A, Mahmudati N, Pantiwati Y, Waluyo L, Susetyarini E, Rofieq A, Wahyono P, Hindun I, editors. Prosiding Seminar Nasional II: Biologi, Pembelajaran, dan Lingkungan Hidup Perspektif Indisipliner. Malang: UM Press; 2016. p. 45–54. (in Bahasa).

234

W. A. Mustaqim and D. Hartiningtias

Ayuningtyas P, Hakim L. Etnobotani upacara penyambutan bulan sura di komplek wisata alam Air Terjun Sedudo, Nganjuk. J Biotropika. 2014;2(1):31–8. (in Bahasa). Benini C, Mahy G, Bizoux JP, Wathelet JP, du Jardin P, Brostaux Y, Fauconnier ML. Comparative chemical and molecular variability of Cananga odorata (lam.) Hook. F. & Tomson forma genuina (ylang ylang) in the Western Indian Ocean Islands: implication for valorization. Chem Biodivers. 2012a;9(7):1389–402. Benini C, Ringuet M, Wathelet JP, Lognay G, du Jardin P, Fauconnier ML. Variations in the essential oils from ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata [lam.] Hook F. & Tomson forma genuina) in the Western Indian Ocean islands. Flavour Fragr J. 2012b;27(5):356–66. Brokl M, Fauconnier ML, Benini C, Lognay G, du Jardin P, Focant JF. Improvement of ylang-ylang essential oil characterization by GCGC-TOFMS. Molecules. 2013;18(2):1783–97. Brophy J, Goldsack R, Forster P. Essential oils from the leaves of some Queensland Annonaceae. J Essent Oil Res. 2004;16(2):95–100. Burdock GA, Carabin IG. Safety assessment of ylang–ylang (Cananga spp.) as a food ingredient. Food Chem Toxicol. 2008;46:433–45. Caloprisco E, Fourneron JD, Faure R, Demarne FE. Unusual lactones from Cananga odorata (Annonaceae). J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50(1):78–80. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0105079. Chalcat JC, Garry RP, Menut C, Lamaty G, Malhuret R, Chopineau J. Correlation between chemical composition and antimicrobial activity. VI. Activity of some African essential oils. J Essent Oil Res. 1997;9(1):67–75. Cheng J, Yang K, Zhao NN, Wang XG, Wang SY, Liu ZL. Composition and insecticidal activity of the essential oil of Cananga odorata leaves against Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). J Med Pl Res. 2012;6(19):3568–72. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR12.136. de Beer JH. Non-wood forest products in Indochina, focus: Vietnam. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 1993. deFillips RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. Phytokeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Faiqoh N, Nisa SK, Nurmiyati. Tumbuhan-tumbuhan dalam kajian etnobotani adat kematian di eks-Karisidenan Surakarta. J Biosains. 2018;4(1):1–9. (in Bahasa). Falah F, Hadiwibowo N. Species identification of traditional medicine plants for women’s health in East Kalimantan: lesson learned from local wisdom. Indones J For Res. 2017;4(1):49–68. Fitria W, Sinaga J, Sugiono AM, Abrori FM. Ethnobiology study of plants and animals were used in Iraw Tengkayu ceremony in Tarakan, North Kalimantan, and its potencies as a biology resources. Biopedagogia. 2019;1(1):51–9. Gaydou EM, Randriamiharisoa R, Bianchini JP. Composition of the essential oil of ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata Hook Fil. et Thomson forma genuina) from Madagascar. J Agric Food Chem. 1986;34:481–7. Giang PM, Son PT. GC and GC-MS analysis of the fresh flower essential oil of Cananga odorata (lam.) Hook. f. et Th. var. fruticosa (Craib) J. Sincl. Amer J Essent Oil Nat Prod. 2016;4(4):9–11. Hariana HA. 262 Tumbuhan obat dan khasiatnya. Jakarta: Penebar Swadaya; 2013. (in Bahasa). Haryanti ES, Diba F, Wahdina. Ethnobotany of useful plant society around the area model KPH Kapuas upstream (case study Tamao Village, district Embaloh Hulu West Kalimantan). J Hut Lest. 2015;3(3):434–45. (in Bahasa). Hasibuan MA. Etnobotani masyarakat Suku Angkola (Studi kasus di desa Padang Bujur sekitar Cagar Alam Dolok Sibual-buali, Kabupaten Tapanuli Selatan, Sumatera Utara) [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2011. (in Bahasa). Hidayat S, Hikmat A, Zuhud EAM. Ethnobotanical study of local people at Dukuh cultural village Garut regency. West Java Med Konserv. 2010;15(3):139–51. Holt S. Natural approaches to promote sexual function, part 2: stimulants and dietary supplements. Altern Complement Ther. 1999;5:279–85. Hsieh TJ, Chang FR, Wu YC. The constituents of Cananga odorata. J Chin Chem Soc. 1999;46(4):607–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/jccs.199900084.

Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson

235

Hsieh TJ, Chang FR, Chia YC, Chen CY, Chiu HF, Wu YC. Cytotoxic constituents of the fruits of Cananga odorata. J Nat Prod. 2001;64:616–9. Hulyati R, Syamsuardi, Arbain A. Studi etnobotani pada tradisi balimau di Kota Pariaman, Sumatra Barat. J Bio UA. 2014;3(1):14–9. (in Bahasa). ICS-UNIDO. Medicinal plants and their utilization. Rome: United Nations Industrial Development Organization and the International Center for Science and High Technology; 2003. Indrakumar I, Selvi V, Gomathi R, Karpagam S. Phytochemical analysis of leaf extracts of Calophyllum inophyllum L. and Cananga odorata (lam.) Hook. F. & Thomson. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci. 2012;3(2):35–7. Jessup LW. Annonaceae. In: Wilson AJG, editor. Flora of Australia volume 2, Winteraceae to Platanaceae. Melbourne: ABRS/CSIRO Publishing; 2007. p. 18–57. Junaidin US, Astina IK, Handoyo B. Kesesuaian lahan budidaya tanaman obat dengan aplikasi sistem informasi geografis di Kawasan Suku Sambori Kabupaten Bima. J Nat Sci Eng. 2017;1(3):110–9. Kaffah AS. Etnobotani tumbuhan bahan kosmetik Suku Baduy Dalam dan Suku Baduy Luar di Kecamatan Leuwidamar Kabupaten Lebak Provinsi Banten [undergraduate thesis]. Malang: Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim; 2019. Katsui H, Sugimoto S, Matsunami K, Otsuka H, Lhieochaiphant S. Lignan diesters of canangafruticoside a from the leaves of Cananga odorata var odorata. Chem Pharm Bull. 2017;65(1):97–101. Kristiawan M, Sobolik V, Allaf K. Isolation of Indonesian Cananga oil by instantaneous controlled pressure drop. J Essent Oil Res. 2008;20(2):135–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2008. 9699975.hal-02655771. Kuspradini H, Putri AS, Sukaton E, Mitsunaga T. Bioactivity of essential oils from leaves of Dryobalanops lanceolata, Cinnamomum burmannii, Cananga odorata, and Scorodocarpus borneensis. Agric Agric Sci Procedia. 2016;9:411–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2016.02.157. Li B, Gilbert MG. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 19 (Cucurbitaceae through Valerianaceae, with Annonaceae and Berberidaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/ Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2011. p. 700–1. Mallavarapu GR, Gurudutt KN, Syamasundar KV. Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) oils. In: Preedy VR, editor. Essential oils in foof preservation, flavor and safety. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press; 2016. p. 865–3. Manner HI, Elevitch CR. Cananga odorata (ylang-ylang) ver. 2.1. Species profiles for Pacific Island agroforestry; 2006. Mardhatillah T. Etnobotani ritual manusuk sima di Kota Kediri [undergraduate thesis]. Kediri: Universitas Nusantara PGRI; 2017. (in Bahasa). Matsumoto T, Nakamura S, Nakashima S, Fujimoto K, Yoshikawa M, Ohta T, Ogawa K, Matsuda H. Lignan dicarboxylates and terpenoids from the flower buds of Cananga odorata and their inhibitory effects on melanogenesis. J Nat Prod. 2014a;77(4):990–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/ np401091f. Matsumoto T, Nakamura S, Fujimoto K, Ohta T, Ogawa K, Yoshikawa M, Matsuda H. Structure of constituents isolated from the flower buds of Cananga odorata and their inhibitory effects on aldose reductase. J Nat Med. 2014b;68(4):709–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-014-0843-y. Matsunami K, Nagashima J, Sugimoto S, Otsuka H, Takeda Y, Lhieochaiphant D, Lhieochaiphant S. Megastigmane glucosides and an unusual monoterpene from the leaves of Cananga odorata var. odorata, and absolute structures of megastigmane glucosides isolated from C. odorata var. odorata and Breynia officinalis. J Nat Med. 2010;64(4):460–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418010-0434-5. MTRI (Ministry of Trade Republic Indonesia). Indonesian essential oil: the scent of natural life. Jakarta: Ministry of Trade Republic Indonesia; 2011. Nagashima J, Matsunami K, Otsuka H, Lhieochaiphant D, Lhieochaiphant S. The unusual canangafruticosides A–E: five monoterpene glucosides, two monoterpenes and a monoterpene glucoside diester of the aryldihydronaphthalene lignan dicarboxylic acid from leaves of

236

W. A. Mustaqim and D. Hartiningtias

Cananga odorata var. fruticosa. Phytochemistry. 2010;71(13):1564–72. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.phytochem.2010.06.009. Ningsih RT, Gunawan, Pujawati ED. Kajian pemanfaatan tumbuhan bunga pada masyarakat Suku Banjar di Kecamatan Karang Intan Kalimantan Selatan. Bioscientiae. 2016;13(1):37–45. Nurchayati N, Ardiyansyah F. Study ethnobotany of using ethnic at Banyuwangi regency. Jurnal Biologi dan Pembelajaran Biologi. 2018;3(2):87–101. Oktoba Z. Studi etnofarmasi tanaman obat untuk perawatan dan penumbuh rambut pada beberapa daerah di Indonesia. J Jamu Indon. 2018;3(3):81–8. (in Bahasa). Ong HC, Zuki RM, Milow P. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants among the Malay villagers in Kampung Mak Kemas, Terengganu, Malaysia. Stud Ethno-Med. 2011;5:175–85. Pahlevi MI. Kajian etnobotani ritual siraman Air Terjun Sedudo Kabupaten Nganjuk. [undergraduate thesis]. Kediri: Universitas Nusantara Persatuan Guru Republik Indonesia; 2016. (in Bahasa). Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011-onwards. http:// www.philippineplants.org. Retrieved 8 Jul 2020. Phumthum M, Kantasrila R, Kaewsangsai S, Balslev H, Inta A. Ethnomedicinal plant knowledge of the Karen in Thailand. Plan Theory. 2020;9(813):1–9. Pujiarti R, Ohtani Y, Widowati TB, Wahyudi K, Heralth NK, Wang CN. Effect of Melaleuca leucadendron, Cananga odorata, and Pogostemon cablin oil odors on human physiologicla responses. World Res J. 2012;3(2):100–5. Putri RI, Supriatna J, Walujo EB. Ethnobotanical study of plant resources in Serangan Island, Bali. Asian J Conserv Biol. 2014;3(2):135–48. Qin XW, Hao CY, He SZ, Wu G, Tan LH, Xu F, Hu RS. Volatile organic compound emissions from different stages of Cananga odorata flower development. Molecules. 2014;19:8965–80. https:// doi.org/10.3390/molecules19078965. Rahimah R, Hasanuddin H, Djufri D. Kajian etnobotani (upacara adat Suku Aceh di Provinsi Aceh). Jurnal Biotik. 2018;6(1):53–8. (in Bahasa). Rahman MM, Lopa SS, Sadik G, Harun-or-Rashid IR, Khondkar P, Alam AHMK, Rashid MA. Antibacterial and cytotoxic compounds from the bark of Cananga odorata. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:758–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2005.08.011. Rao JUM, Giri JS, Hanumaiah T, Rao KVJ. Sampangine, a new alkaloid from Cananga odorata. J Nat Prod. 1986;49(2):346–7. https://doi.org/10.1021/np50044a029. Reynaldi, Rahmadi A, Arryati H. Etnobotani tanaman obat oleh masyarakat Dayak Bakumpai di Desa Muara Ripung Kecamatan Dusun Selatan, Kabupaten Barito Selatan, Provinsi Kalimantan Selatan. J Sylva Sci. 2019;2:1044–52. Ristanto Rh SA, Rismayati AI, Rimadana A, Datau R. Etnobotani: tumbuhan ritual keagamaan hindubali. Jurnal Pendidikan Biologi. 2020;5(1):96–105. https://doi.org/10.31932/jpbio.v5i1.642. Rohmat S, Nisyawati, Rahayu SE. Diversity of medicinal plants for pregnancy and postpartum care of Dayak Ngaju tribe in Mantangai sub-district, Kapuas regency, Central Kalimantan. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2019;1317:1–8. Rugayah. Annonaceae from Wawonii Island, South East Sulawesi. J Biol Indones. 2014;10(1):67–76. Samberi S, Moeljono S, Marwa J. Ethnobotany study on the utilization of tree species by the ethnic kuri community in the district of Teluk Wondama. Cassowary. 2019;2(2):162–75. Simanjuntak R, Zuhud EAM, Hikmat A. The ethnobotany of O Hongana Ma Nyawa community in Wangongira Village, North Halmahera Regency. Med Konser. 2015;20(3):252–60. Sinclair J. A revision of the Malayan Annonaceae. Gard Bull Singapore. 1955;14(2):149–516. Slik JWF. Plant of Southeast Asia: Cananga odorata. 2009–onwards; Retrieved July 8, 2020, from http://www.asianplant.net/Annonaceae/Cananga_odorata.htm Soonwera M. Efficacy of essential oil from Cananga odorata (Lamk.) Hook.F. & Thomson (Annonaceae) against three mosquito species Aedes aegypti (L.), Anopheles dirus (Peyton and Harrison), and Culex quinquefasciatus (say). Parasitol Res. 2015;114:4531–43. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s00436-015-4699-1.

Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson

237

Stashenko EE, Martinez JR, MacKu C, Shibamoto T. HRGC and GC-MS analysis of essential oil from Colombian ylang ylang (Cananga odorata hook fl. Et Tomson, forma genuina). J High Resolut Chromatogr. 1993;16(7):441–4. https://doi.org/10.1002/jhrc.1240160713. Stashenko EE, Torres W, Morales JRM. A study of the compositional variation of the essential oil of ylangylang (Cananga odorata Hook Fil. et Tomson, forma genuina) during flower development. J High Resolut Chromatogr. 1995;18(2):101–4. https://doi.org/10.1002/jhrc.1240180206. Stashenko EE, Prada NQ, Martínez JR. HRGC/FID/NPD and HRGCMSD study of Colombian ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) oils obtained by different extraction techniques. J High Resolut Chromatogr. 1996;19:353–8. Sujarwo W, Keim AP. Ethnobotanical study of traditional building materials from the island of Bali, Indonesia. Econ Bot. 2017;71(3):224–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-017-9385-z. Sukenti K, Guhardja E, Purwanto Y. Kajian etnobotani Serat Centhini. J Trop Ethno. 2004;1(1): 83–100. (in Bahasa). Sunanda R, Hasanuddin, Nurmaliah C. Etnobotani pada masyarakat Kecamatan Setia Bakti Kabupaten Aceh Jaya. J Ilm Mah Keg dan Ilm Pend Unsyiah. 2020;5(1):324–9. Supiandi MI, Mahanal S, Zubaidah S, Julung H, Ege B. Ethnobotany of traditional medicinal plants used by Dayak Desa Ceommunity in Sintang, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(5):1264–70. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d200516. Supriyati E, Rahmi F, Nurmiyati. Kajian etnobotani pada tradisi pernikahan Wilayah Klaten Provinsi Jawa Tengah. J Riau Biol. 2017;2(2):112–8. (in Bahasa). Susiarti S, Rahayu M, Royyani MF. Pengetahuan dan pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat masyarakat Tobelo Dalam di Maluku Utara. Media Penel Pengemb Kes. 2015;25:211–8. (in Bahasa). Tan LTH, Lee LH, Yin WF, Chan CK, Kadir HA, Chan KG, Goh BH. Traditional uses, phytochemistry, and bioactivities of Cananga odorata (ylang-ylang). Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2015;2015:1–30. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/896314.art.896314. TKDLPH. Philippine traditional knowledge digital library on health. 2016; Retrieved July 31, 2020, from https://www.tkdlph.com/. Turner IM. Annonaceae of the Asia-Pacific region: names, types and distributions. Gard Bull Singapore. 2018;70(1):409–744. https://doi.org/10.26492/gbs70(2).2018-11. USBFC (United States Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce). World trade notes on chemicals and allied products, vol. 11. Washington, DC: Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce; 1937. Wakhidah A, Pratiwi I, Azzizah IN. Studi pemanfaatan tumbuhan sebagai bahan obat oleh masyarakat Desa Marimabate di Kecamatan Jailolo, Halmahera Barat. J Pro-Life. 2017;4(1):275–86. (in Bahasa). Wardah, Sundari S. Ethnobotany study of Dayak society medicinal plants utilization in Uut Murung District, Murung Raya Regency, Central Kalimantan. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2019;298:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/298/1/012005. Wijayanti RE. Etnobotani upacara adat di sekitar Taman Nasional Bromo Tengger Semeru dan pemanfaatannya sebagai buku ilmiah populer [undergraduate thesis]. Jember: Universitas Jember; 2017. (in Bahasa). Yang TH, Huang WY. The alkaloid of Cananga odorata (I), isolation of a new base, ushinsunine N-oxide. J Chin Chem Soc. 1988;35(4):305–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/jccs.198800045. Yusro F, Pranaka RN, Budiastutik I, Mariani Y. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat oleh masyarakat sekitar Taman Wisata Alam (TWA) Bukit Kelam, Kabupaten Sintang, Kalimantan Barat. Jurnal Sylva Lestari. 2020;8(2):255–72. (in Bahasa). Yusuf UK, Sinohin VO. Cananga odorata (Lamk) Hook.F. & Thomson. In: Oyen LPA, Dung NX, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 19. Essential-oil plants. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. p. 70–4. Zhang N, Zhang L, Feng L, Yao L. The anxiolytic effect of essential oil of Cananga odorata exposure on mice and determination of its major active constituents. Phytomedicine. 2016;23(14):1727–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2016.10.017.

238

W. A. Mustaqim and D. Hartiningtias

Zollo P, Biyiti L, Tchoumbougnang F, Menut C, Lamaty G, Bouchet P. Aromatic plants of tropical Central Africa. Part XXXII. Chemical composition and antifungal activity of thirteen essential oils from aromatic plants of Cameroon. Flavour Fragr J. 1998;13(2):107–14. https://doi.org/10. 1002/(SICI)1099-1026(199803/04)13:23.0.CO;2-G. Zulharman, Yaniwiadi B, Batoro J. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat dan pangan masyarakat Suku Sambori Kabupaten Bima Nusa Tenggara Barat Indonesia. Natural. 2015;3(2):198–204. (in Bahasa).

Canarium ovatum Engl. BURSERACEAE Marina Silalahi and Anisatu Z. Wakhidah

Synonyms Canarium melioides Elmer; Canarium pachyphyllum G.Perkins (POWO 2020).

Local Names Indonesia: Kenari (general), pega burung (jambi); Philippines: pili, pilaui (general), liputi (Tagalog); English: kernel, walnuts (Bone et al. 2013; PEC 2018; Ramona 2019).

Botany and Ecology Description: This large tree reaches a height of about 35 m, and is a meter or more in diameter. The leaves are alternate, pinnate, and about 30 cm long with usually three pairs of opposite leaflets and a terminal leaflet. The leaflets are ovate-oblong, 12–20 cm long and 3–7 cm wide, smooth and shiny on both sides, pointed at the apex and rounded or obtusely pointed at the base. The flowers are clustered and are borne on large compound inflorescences. The fruit is ovoid, 4–5 cm long, 2–2.5 cm wide, entirely smooth, drupe-like. It consists of green or brown thin resinous pulp and contains thick shelled triangular seed (Lanting Jr and Palaypayon 2002). M. Silalahi (*) Prodi Pendidikan Biologi, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia Biology Education Department, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, West Jakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] A. Z. Wakhidah Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_71

239

240

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

Distribution and Habitat: This species is native to Philippines (POWO 2020). In the Philippines, it is common in primary forests at low and medium altitudes. It grows particularly in Cagayan Province of northern Luzon; in the Bicol region including Masbate; and in some areas of eastern Visayas and southern Mindanao regions (Coronel 1994; Lanting Jr and Palaypayon 2002). The plant also occurs in Indonesia and grows well in Maluku and Southeast Sulawesi (Coronel 1996). It also has been introduced in other countries of New World area, notably in Hawaii (USA) and Brazil (Coronel 1994). The plant grows well on both light and heavy soils. It also thrives over a wide range of climatic conditions, growing successfully from sea level to an elevation of 400 m asl. It has also been reported to grow and fruit well in the highlands, although in Florida it did not tolerate cool periods and slight frost. Mature trees can resist strong winds. Trees are found mostly in the forest, in home gardens, and on the roadside (PEC 2018) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: The saheng (oleoresin) is used as a stimulant; a rubefacient (an external skin application causing redness of the skin); and as an antirheumatic when applied externally. Poultices are used for swellings of the legs. Oleoresin, prepared in the form of ointment, is applied on indolent ulcers (Lanting Jr and Palaypayon 2002). Fig. 1 Living plants of Canarium ovatum (Burseraceae). (Alor, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (© M. Silalahi))

Canarium ovatum Engl. Fig. 2 Leaves of Canarium ovatum (Burseraceae). (Alor, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (© M. Silalahi))

Fig. 3 Immature fruits of Canarium ovatum (Burseraceae). (Alor, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (© M. Silalahi))

241

242

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

Fig. 4 Mature fruits of Canarium ovatum (Burseraceae). (Alor, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (© M. Silalahi))

The bark of Canarium ovatum is used by local community in Claver, Surigao Del Norte, to cure fever (Demetillo et al. 2019).

Phytochemistry Chemical investigations of the dichloromethane extracts of the leaves of Canarium ovatum Engl. yielded β-amyrin (1a), α-amyrin (1b), epi-β-amyrin (2a), epi-α-amyrin (2b), epi-lupeol (2c), β-carotene (3), and lutein (4), while the twigs yielded 1a-1b. Dichloromethane extracts of fruits yielded triacylglycerols (5); the mesocarp also yielded 1a, 1b, 1,2-dioleylglycerol (6), and monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids; the nutshell contains 6; and the kernel also yielded monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids (Ragasa et al. 2015). Ethanolic extract of the pulp contains biologically active compounds such as sterols, triterpenes, flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, glycosides, and tannins (Salvador-Membreve et al. 2018).

Bioactivities In mice, ethanolic extract of fruit pulp shows immunostimulatory activity (Salvador-Membreve et al. 2018). Consumption of phenol-rich pomace drink may enhance plasma antioxidant and polyphenol status in humans (Arenas and Trinidad

Canarium ovatum Engl.

243

2017). Leaf extract of Canarium ovatum has been used for the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles (CO-AgNPs) in an eco-friendly manner. CO-AgNPs inhibited the growth of the bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Arya et al. 2016). Antioxidant and anticancer activities of Canarium ovatum pulp have also been confirmed (Cajuday et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Philippines: Young shoots are edible and are usually used in cooking and in making green salads. The fruit kernel can be eaten raw, roasted, fried, or sugar-coated. The kernel is also used as an ingredient in cakes, puddings, and ice creams (Coronel 1996).

Biocultural Importance In Philippines, the sprout is boiled with iron sulfate (“vitriol”) to blacken teeth by the Ibanag people who live along the banks of the lower Cagayan River below Gattaran (Zumbroich and Salvador-Amores 2009).

Economic Importance Indonesia: Canarium ovatum produces copious fruits. Its leaves are easy to decompose and enrich the soil. The trees grow big and tall with wide canopy. These traits led to the selection of the tree by farmers of Hutumury Village in Ambon City as shelter trees for nutmeg plant (Myristica fragrans) (Bone et al. 2013; Salampessy et al. 2017). The wood is used to make popular key holders (Gonzalez and Bunoan 1947). Philippines: The tree is an important nut-producing species. The fruit pulp yields an oil that can be used in the manufacture of soap and other products (Coronel 1996). The plant seed has a hard and stony shell that makes it an excellent fuel for cooking (Gonzalez and Bunoan 1947). The plant is used as fence tree and a verdant shade tree for lawns. It is a good living wind break for other crops such as bananas and papayas. Its resin-rich wood is an excellent firewood (Coronel 1996).

References Arenas E, Trinidad T. Acute effects of thermally processed pili (Canarium ovatum, Engl.) pomace drink on plasma antioxidant and polyphenol status in humans. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2017;7(5):467–76. Arya G, Kumar N, Gupta N, Kumar A, Nimesh S. Antibacterial potential of silver nanoparticles biosynthesised using Canarium ovatum leaves extract. IET Nanobiotech. 2016;11(5):506–11.

244

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

Bone I, Salampessy ML, Febryano IG, Siahaya ME. Local knowledge community in the selection of shelter trees in dusung nutmeg: case study on Hutumury Village in Ambon City. Int Spices Conf. 2013:178–84. Cajuday LA, Membreve DMS, Serrano JE. Evaluation of the antioxidant and anticancer activities of Canarium ovatum (Burseraceae) pulp extracts. Int J Biosci. 2017;11(3):247–56. Coronel RE. History and current status of pili nut (Canarium ovatum) production in the Philippines. In Stevens ML, Bourke RM, Evans BR, editors. South Pacific indigenous nuts-proceedings of a workshop 31 October – 4 November 1994 Le Lagon Resort, Port Vila, Vanuatu. 1994, p. 134–39. Coronel RE. Pili nut Canarium ovatum Engl. Rome: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute; 1996. Demetillo MT, Betco GL, Goloran AB. Assessment of native medicinal plants in selected mining area of claver Surigao Del Norte, Philippines. J Med Plant Res. 2019;7(2):171–4. Gonzalez LG, Bunoan JC Jr. Variability of pili trees grown in the College of Agriculture. Philipp Agric. 1947;31:60–5. Lanting Jr MV, Palaypayon MV. Forest tree species with medicinal uses. College: Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau Department of Environment and Natural Resources; 2002;4031(11):18. PEC. Plant use English contributors. Canarium ovatum (PROSEA). PlantUse English 2018. Published on the Internet. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/e/index.php?title¼Canarium_ ovatum_(PROSEA)&oldid¼328513. Retrieved 19 Sept 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020 Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 19 Aug 2020. Ragasa CY, Torres OB, Gutierrez JMP, Kristiansen HPBC, Triterpenes SCC. Acylglycerols from Canarium ovatum. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2015;5(4):94–100. Ramona F. Diversitas dan Potensi Kelelawar Megachiroptera sebagai disperser dan polinator di Hutan Harapan. Jam J Bio Site. 2019;4(1):1–11. (In Bahasa). Salampessy ML, Febryano IG, Bone I. Pengetahuan ekologi masyarakat lokal dalam pemilihan pohon pelindung pada sistem agroforestri tradisional “Dusung” Pala di Ambon. J Pen Sos Ekon Hut. 2017;14(2):135–42. Salvador-Membreve DM, Cajuday LA, Serrano JE, Baldo DEB. Immunomodulatory properties of ethanol extract of Canarium ovatum (Burseraceae) pulp. Trop J Pharm Res. 2018;17(8):1565–9. Zumbroich TJ, Salvador-Amores A. When black teeth were beautiful-the history and ethnography of dental modifications in Luzon, Phillipines. Int J Asian Stud. 2009;10(1):125–69.

Cardiospermum halicacabum L. SAPINDACEAE Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

Synonyms Cardiospermum acuminatum Miq.; C. glabrum Schumach. & Thonn.; C. inflatum Salisb.; C. luridum Blume; C. moniliferum Sw. ex Steud.; Corindum halicacabum (L.) Medik.; Rhodiola biternata Lour (POWO 2020).

Local Names Balloon vine, heart pea (English); ketipes (Javanese); paria gunung (Sundanese); cenet (Malay, Western Sumatra); peria bulan, uban kayu, bintang berahi (Malaysia); parol-parolan (Tagalog of Philippines); kana (Cebu Bisaya of Philippines); pariaaso (Iloko of Philippines); kok kra om (central Thailand); pho om (Pattani of Thailand); luupleep khruea (northern Thailand); tầm phong, chùm phong (Vietnam); kaka painu (Fataluku of East Timor); kala-myetsi, malame, moot maiboa (Mon of Myanmar) (Padua et al. 1999; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018; Rojo and Pitargue 2020).

Botany and Ecology Description: Climbers (Fig. 1); branchlets angular, puberulous. Leaves alternate, bipinnate, 5.5–8 cm long; terminal leaflets ovate to lanceolate, 2–3
0.6–2 cm; lateral leaflets ovate to lanceolate, 1.3–2
0.8–1 cm, cuneate at base, irregularly – deeply

K. Devanathan (*) Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_109

245

246

K. Devanathan

Fig. 1 Habit of Cardiospermum halicacabum (© K. Devanathan)

incised at margins, acute – acuminate at apex, membranous, pubescent; petiole c. 2.5 cm long; petiolule c. 0.8 cm long. Racemes axillary in elongated peduncle, c. 7.5 cm long; pedicel c. 2 mm long. Flowers c. 3 mm across, uni- or bisexual, white (Fig. 2). Sepals 4; outer 2, suborbicular, c. 1
1 mm; inner 2, obovate, c. 2
1.4 mm. Petals 2 + 2, white; lower oblong, c. 2.5
1.8 mm; upper oblong to obovate, c. 3.2
2 mm; basal scale c. 2 mm long; apical crust puberulous. Stamens 8; filaments c. 2 mm long, densely pilose. Ovary oblong, c. 2.5 mm long; stigma 3-fid, sessile. Capsule broadly ovate to orbicular, sharply 3-angled, c. 1.5
2 cm, winged, pubescent (Fig. 3). Seeds 3, globose, c. 3 mm, black with white spot. Phenology: Peak flowering and fruiting during September–March. Distribution: Cardiospermum halicacabum is generally distributed in tropical regions of America, Africa, and Asian continents. It is also found introduced and naturalized in Alabama, Albania, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Ascension, Bermuda, Christmas Islands, Cook Islands, East Aegean Islands, Greece, Illinois, Indiana, Iraq, Kentucky, Korea, Kriti, Missouri, New Caledonia, New York, Niue, North Carolina, South China Sea, Spain, Tennessee, Tonga, Turkey, Vanuatu, Virginia, Wallis-Futuna Islands, and Yugoslavia (POWO 2020). Cardiospermum halicacabum grows in a wide range of habitats such as coastal plains, flood plains, marshy and dry habitats. It also grows well on acidic and basic soils. It is commonly found in waste places, along bushes, arable lands, scrub forests, dry deciduous forests and moist deciduous forests elevation ranging from sea level to 1000 m above sea level (Padua et al. 1999).

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: Leaf decoction or paste are either taken internally or applied externally to cure rheumatism in Philippines (Padua et al. 1999; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018; Rojo and Pitargue 2020). Myanmar: Local peoples of Myanmar use whole plant to treat rheumatism, fever, and tumors. Decoction of whole plant is taken along with

Cardiospermum halicacabum L.

247

Fig. 2 Flowers of Cardiospermum halicacabum (© K. Devanathan)

Fig. 3 Twig with capsules of Cardiospermum halicacabum (© K. Devanathan)

sugar or jaggery to treat urinary disorders, laryngitis, fever, aches, and pains. Bundle of five types of fennel soaked in a decoction of whole plant with jaggery and roasted salt preparation is taken thrice per day to treat aches, edema, eye disorders, gastric problems, heart disease, indigestion, muscle fatigue, throat problems, urinary disorders, uterine ailments, and weakness. Boiled aerial parts are eaten as diuretic. Leaf juice with mother’s milk is applied around the eyes or as eye drops to treat eye disorders such as anemia, sore eyes, and cataracts. Traditional preparation thanakha (C. halicacabum fresh leaf paste) is applied on the face and body to alleviate skin disorders due to ringworm, discoloration, acne, and menstrual irregularities rashes. Sun dried paste of dry leaf powder and garlic clove (equal volume) is inhaled to clear nasal passages, bronchitis, and also rubbed on the tongue and mouth to heal sores due to food allergies. Sun dried leaf and garlic paste is dissolved in gingelly oil and applied topically to alleviate skin disorders (scabies, eczema), edema, varicose veins, anemia, chills, fever, thrush, indigestion, and bloating in infants (DeFilipps and

248

K. Devanathan

Krupnick 2018). Roots are also used as laxative, diuretic, emetic, purgative, and diaphoretic. Indonesia: In Indonesia and Philippines, roots are used to cure catarrh of the bladder and urinary tract (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018; Rojo and Pitargue 2020). Leaves are used in the treatment of bladder, buboes, conjunctivitis (pink eye), and as analgesics or painkillers (Anodyne) in Java (Duke 2020). Leaf powders are used as cool fomentation to alleviate nervous headaches. Leaves are used to treat various eye disorders in Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. In some Southeast Asian countries, leaves are also used for washing clothes and the head (Rojo and Pitargue 2020).

Phytochemistry Cardiospermum halicacabum whole plant contains phytochemicals such as phlobatannin, phlobaphene (Desai and Sethna 1954); methyl 4, 4-dimethoxy 3-(methoxymethyl) butyrate (Chisholm and Hopkins 1958); proanthocyanidin, apigenin, and stigma sterol (Dass 1966); saponin, tannins, berberine (Gopalakrishnan et al. 1976; Lewis and Lewis 2003); pinitol, glucouronides, luteolin, chrysoeriol (Rao and Gunasekhar 1987; Tifikar and Musthaq 1993); antisickling (Gurib-Fakim and Sewraj 1992); rutin (Babu and Krishnakumari 2005); and flavones, phenolic acids (Daniel 2006). Murugan et al. (2011) identified steroids, sugars, triterpenes, alkaloids, phenolic groups, saponins, and amino acids as major phytochemicals in C. halicacabum. Seed oil is rich in cyano lipids (Mikolajczak et al. 1970) triterpenoids (Ferrara et al. 1996) and fatty acids such as erucic acid, oleic acid, eicosonic acid, octanoic acid, and n-hexadecanoic acid (Jayanthi et al. 2012; Shareef et al. 2012). Flavanoids and phenolic acid derivatives including quercetin-3-O-α-l-rhamnoside, kaempferol3-O-α-L-rhamnoside, apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide, apigenin 7-O-β-D-glucuronide methyl ester, apigenin 7-O-β-D-glucuronide ethyl ester, chrysoeriol, apigenin, kaempferol, luteolin, quercetin, methyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzoate, p-coumaric acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroquinone, protocathehuic acid, gallic acid, indole-3carboxylic acid, pentadecanoie acid, protocatechualdehyde, hentriacontanol, calycosin, and rutin were also reported from C. halicacabum (Chen et al. 2013; Cheng et al. 2013). Jeyadevi et al. (2013a) identified cyclohexane-1,4,5-triol-3-one1-carboxylic acid, 1-hydroxytetradecane, 11-trimethyl-8-methylene, caryophyllene, N-methyl tomatidine, 3-methylbutanamide, phenylethyl alcohol, alpha-octadecene, neophytadiene, hexadecene, nonadecene, heptadecane, 1,2-benzenedi carboxylic acid, benzene acetic acid, 14-methyl-8-hexadecyne, benzaldehyde, 1-tert-butyl-2methoxy-4-methyl-3, 5-dinitrobenzene, phytol, beta-phenethylphenyl acetate, 2-phenylethyl ester, hexadeconoic acid, octadeconoic acid, 2-nitro-2(30-hydroxybutyl) cyclododecanone, and 9-octadecenoic acid. Menichini et al. (2014) recognized apigenin, luteolin, and apigenin-7-O-glucoside as the predominant constituents present in the aerial parts and seeds.

Cardiospermum halicacabum L.

249

Extract from C. halicacabum shows better antimicrobial activity against clinical pathogenic bacterial and fungal strains such as Escherichia coli, Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter faecalis, Shigella sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and Trichophyton rubrum (Jeyadevi et al. 2013a; Gaziano et al. 2018; Gaziano et al. 2019; Punniyakotti et al. 2020). The extract also shows better macrofilaricidal activity against larvae of Brugia pahangi (Khunkitti et al. 2000) and Strongyloides stercoralis (Boonmars et al. 2005). It shows ovicidal, larvicidal, and repellent activity against vector mosquito species such as Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, and Culex quinquefasciatus (Govindarajan 2011a; Govindarajan 2011b; Govindarajan and Sivakumar 2012a; Govindarajan and Sivakumar 2012b). Leaf extract is proven to enhance sperm concentration, motility, and testosterone in rat model (Peiris et al. 2015). It also exhibited significant activities against various disorders, acting as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, antifertility, antispasmodic (Pillai and Vijayamma 1985; Sadique et al. 1987; Vetrichelvan et al. 2000; Sheeba and Asha 2009; Sheud et al. 2011; Huang et al. 2011; Sharma and Bhalerao 2018), antimalarial (Neill and Hunt 1992), antidiarrheal (Di Carlo et al. 1993; Rao et al. 2006), antipyretic (Asha and Pushpangadan 1999), antioxidant (Sheeba and Asha 2006; Veeramani et al. 2010; Pratheeshkumar and Kuttan 2010; Huang et al. 2011; Sheud et al. 2011; Cheng et al. 2013; Krishnamurthy et al. 2014), antidiabetic (Veeramani et al. 2010; Sharma and Bhalerao 2018), antiviral (HIV and HBV co-infection) (Murugan et al. 2011), antivenom (Chandra et al. 2011), anxiolytic (Kumar et al. 2011), arthritic inflammation (Ganesan et al. 2011; Jeyadevi et al. 2013b), antifungal (Shareef et al. 2012), antihyperglycemic (Veeramani et al. 2012), nephroprotective (Parameshappa et al. 2012), Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases (Menichini et al. 2014), glucocorticoid-like activity (Martini et al. 2016), hepatoprotective (Lee et al. 2017), and anticancer activity (Li et al. 2019; Duan et al. 2020).

Local Food Uses Cardiospermum halicacabum leaves are cooked as green vegetable in many regions of the Southeast Asia including the Moluccas Islands. Oil from the seeds is also used as edible oil (Hedrick 1919; Rojo and Pitargue 2020).

Economic Importance Cardiospermum halicacabum is extensively cultivated as green vegetable in Myanmar (Hedrick 1919). The stems are used to make baskets, and the seeds are used as beads. Leaves are used to washing clothes and as shampoo in some of the Southeast Asian countries (Rojo and Pitargue 2020).

250

K. Devanathan

References Asha VV, Pushpangadan P. Antipyretic activity of Cardiospermum helicacabum. Indian J Exp Biol. 1999;37:411–6. Babu KCV, Krishnakumari S. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compound, Rutin in Cardiospermum halicacabum leaves. Anc Sci Life. 2005;25(2):47–9. Boonmars T, Khunkitti W, Sithithaworn P, Fujimaki Y. In vitro antiparasitic activity of extracts of Cardiospermum halicacabum against third-stage larvae of Strongyloides stercoralis. Parasitol Res. 2005;97:417–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-005-1470-z. Chandra DN, Prasanth GK, Singh N, Kumar S, Jithesh O, Sadasivan C, Sharma S, Singh TP, Haridas M. Identification of a novel and potent inhibitor of phospholipase A2 in a medicinal plant: crystal structure at 1.93 Å and surface Plasmon resonance analysis of phospholipase A2 complexed with berberine. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2011;1814:657–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.bbapap.2011.03.002. Chen J, Wei JH, Cai SF, Miao WS, Pan LW. Study on chemical constituents of Cardiospermum Halicacabum. Zhong Yao Cai. 2013;36(2):228–30. Cheng HL, Zhang LJ, Liang YH, Hsu YW, Lee IJ, Liaw CC, Hwang SY, Kuo YH. Antiinflammatory and antioxidant flavonoids and phenols from Cardiospermum halicacabum. J Tradit Complement Med. 2013;3(1):33–40. https://doi.org/10.4103/2225-4110.106541. Chisholm MJ, Hopkins CY. Fatty acids of the seed oil of Cardiospermum halicacabum. Can J Chem. 1958;36:1537–40. Daniel M. Medicinal plants: chemistry and properties. Plymouth: Science Publishers; 2006. Dass AK. Chemical examination of Cardiospermum halicacabum. Bull Botanical Survey India. 1966;8:357. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Desai KB, Sethna S. Chemical investigation of the roots of the Indian medicinal plant, Cardiospermum halicacabum. Chem Abstracts. 1954;50:391. Di Carlo G, Autore G, Izzo AA, Maibline P, Mascolo N, Viola P. Inhibition of intestinal motility and secretion by flavonoids in mice and rats: structure- activity relationship. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1993;45:1054–9. Duan X, Liao Y, Liu T, Yang H, Liu Y, Chen Y, Ullah R, Wu T. Zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized from Cardiospermum halicacabum and its anticancer activity in human melanoma cells (A375) through the modulation of apoptosis pathway. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol. 2020;202:111718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2019.111718. Duke. Dr. Duke’s phytochemical and ethnobotanical databases. 2020. https://phytochem.nal.usda. gov/phytochem/ethnoPlants/show/293?et¼. Accessed 30 May 2020. Ferrara I, Schettino O, Montesano D. Triterpenoids from Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Phytother Res. 1996;10:192–4. Ganesan K, Sehgal PK, Mandal AB, Sayeed S. Protective effect of Withania somnifera and Cardiospermum halicacabum extracts against Ccllagenolytic degradation of collagen. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2011;165:1075–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-011-9326-8. Gaziano R, Campione E, Iacovelli F, Marino D, Pica F, Francesco PD, Aquaro S, Menichini F, Falconi M, Bianchi L. Antifungal activity of Cardiospermum halicacabum L. (Sapindaceae) against Trichophyton rubrum occurs through molecular interaction with fungal Hsp90. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2018;12:2185–93. https://doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S155610. Gaziano R, Campione E, Iacovelli F, Pistoia ES, Marino D, Milani M, Francesco PD, Pica F, Bianchi L, Orlandi A, Marsico S, Falconi M, Aquaro S. Antimicrobial properties of the medicinal plant Cardiospermum halicacabum L: new evidence and future perspectives. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2019;23:7135–43. Gopalakrishnan C, Dananjayan R, Kameshwaran L. Pharmacological actions of Cardiospermum halicacabum. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 1976;20:203–8.

Cardiospermum halicacabum L.

251

Govindarajan M. Evaluation of indigenous plant extracts against the malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi (Liston) (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitol Res. 2011a;109:93–103. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s00436-010-2224-0. Govindarajan M. Mosquito larvicidal and ovicidal activity of Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. (family: Sapindaceae) leaf extract against Culex quinquefasciatus (say.) and Aedes aegypti (Linn.) (Diptera: Culicidae). Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2011b;15(7):787–94. Govindarajan M, Sivakumar R. Adulticidal properties of Cardiospermum halicacabum plant extracts against three important vector mosquitoes. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2012a;16(3):95–104. Govindarajan M, Sivakumar R. Repellent properties of Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. (family: Sapindaceae) plant leaf extracts against three important vector mosquitoes. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2012b;2(8):602–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2221-1691(12)60105-1. Gurib-Fakim A, Sewraj MD. Studies on the antisickling properties of extracts of Sideroxylon puberulum, Faujasiopsis flexuosa, Cardiospermum halicacabum, and Pelargonium graveolens. Planta Med. 1992;58(7):648–9. Hedrick UP. Sturtevants edible plants of the world: The Southwest School of Botanical Medicine; 1919. http://www.swsbm.com. Huang MH, Huang SS, Wang BS, Wu CH, Sheu MJ, Hou WC, Lin SS, Huang GJ. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of Cardiospermum halicacabum and its reference compounds ex vivo and in vivo. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133:743–50. Jayanthi G, Sathishkumar T, Senthilkumar T, Jegadeesan M. Essential oil from the seeds of Cardiospermum halicacabum L. var. microcarpum. Asian J Pharm Biol Res. 2012;2(3):177–9. Jeyadevi R, Sivasudha T, Ilavarasi A, Thajuddin N. Chemical constituents and antimicrobial activity of Indian green leafy vegetable Cardiospermum halicacabum. Indian J Microbiol. 2013a;53(2):208–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-012-0333-4. Jeyadevi R, Sivasudha T, Rameshkumar A, Kumar LD. Anti-arthritic activity of the Indian leafy vegetable Cardiospermum halicacabum in Wistar rats and UPLC–QTOF– MS/MS identification of the putative active phenolic components. Inflamm Res. 2013b;62:115–26. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s00011-012-0558-z. Khunkitti W, Fujimaki Y, Aoki Y. In vitro antifilarial activity of extracts of the medicinal plant Cardiospermum halicacabum against Brugia pahangi. J Helminthol. 2000;74:241–6. Krishnamurthy VN, Sudhakar KB, Latha L. Preliminary phytochemical and wound healing activity of Cardiospermum helicacabum Linn. Sci Revs Chem Commun. 2014;4(3):101–8. Kumar R, Murugananthan G, Nandakumar K, Talwar S. Isolation of anxiolytic principle from ethanolic root extract of Cardiospermum halicacabum. Phytomedicine. 2011;18:219–23. Lee DS, Keo S, Cheng SK, Oh H, Kim YC. Protective effects of Cambodian medicinal plants on tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced hepatotoxicity via Nrf2-mediated heme oxygenase-1. Mol Med Rep. 2017;15:451–9. Lewis WH, Lewis E. Immune system and cell modifiers, medical botany. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley Publishers; 2003. Li C, Wang Y, Zhang H, Li M, Zhu Z, Xue Y. An investigation on the cytotoxicity and caspasemediated apoptotic effect of biologically synthesized gold nanoparticles using Cardiospermum halicacabum on AGSgastric carcinoma cells. Int J Nanomedicine. 2019;14:951–62. Martini C, Zanchetta E, Ruvo MD, Nalesso A, Battocchio M, Gentilin E, Uberti ED, Vettor R, Zatelli MC. Cushing in a leaf: endocrine disruption from a natural remedy. Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101:3054–60. Menichini F, Losi L, Bonesi M, Pugliese A, Loizzo MR, Tundis R. Chemical profiling and in vitro biological effects of Cardiospermum halicacabum L. (Sapindaceae) aerial parts and seeds for applications in neurodegenerative disorders. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem. 2014;29(5):677–85. Mikolajczak KL, Smith CR, Tjarks LW. Cyanolipids of Cardiospermum halicacabum L. and other sapindaceous seed oils. Lipids. 1970;5(10):812–7.

252

K. Devanathan

Murugan K, Prabu RV, Sangeetha S, Al-Sohaibani S. Antiviral activity of Cardiospermum Halicacabum L. extract against co-infecting agents HIV and HBV. Int J Geogr Inf Syst. 2011;17:403–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10496475.2011.605515. Neill AL, Hunt NH. Pathology of fatal and resolving Plasmodium berghei cerebral malaria in mice. Parasitology. 1992;105:165–75. Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no 12(1). Medicinal and poisonous plants 1. Leiden: E Backhuys Publishers; 1999. Parameshappa B, Basha MSA, Sen S, Chakraborty R, Vinod Kumar G, Vidya Sagar G, Sowmya L, Raju KK, Kumar PKRS, Lakshmi AVSM. Acetaminophen-induced nephrotoxicity in rats: protective role of Cardiospermum halicacabum. Pharm Biol. 2012;50(2):247–53. Peiris LDC, Dhanushka MAT, Jayathilake TAHDG. Evaluation of aqueous leaf extract of Cardiospermum halicacabum (L.) on fertility of male rats. Biomed Res Int. 2015; https://doi. org/10.1155/2015/175726. Pillai NR, Vijayamma N. Some pharmacological studies on Cardiospermum Halicacabum Linn. Anc Sci Life. 1985;5(1):32–6. POWO- Plants of World Online. 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 28 May 2020. Pratheeshkumar P, Kuttan G. Cardiospermum halicacabum inhibits cyclophosphamide induced Immunosupression and oxidative stress in mice and also regulates iNOS and COX-2 gene expression in LPS stimulated macrophages. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2010;11:1245–52. Punniyakotti P, Panneerselvam P, Perumal D, Aruliah R, Angaiah S. Anti-bacterial and anti-biofilm properties of green synthesized copper nanoparticles from Cardiospermum halicacabum leaf extract. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00449-020-02357-x. Rao CV, Gunasekhar D. Chemical examination of Cardiospermum halicacabum. Acta Indica Chem B. 1987:169–70. Rao NV, Prakash KC, Kumar SM. Pharmacological investigation of Cardiospermum halicacabum (Linn) in different animal models of diarrhoea. Indian J Pharm. 2006;38(5):346–9. Rojo JP, Pitargue FC. Cardiospermum halicacabum (PROSEA). Plant Resources of South-East Asia. 2020. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Cardiospermum_halicacabum_(PROSEA). Accessed 28 May 2020. Sadique J, Chandra T, Thenmozhi V, Elango V. Biochemical modes of action of Cassia occidentalis and Cardiospermum halicacabum in inflammation. J Ethnopharmacol. 1987;19:201–12. Shareef H, Rizwani GH, Mahmood S, Khursheed R, Zahid H. In vitro antimicrobial and phytochemical analysis of Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Pak J Bot. 2012;44(5):1677–80. Sharma AS, Bhalerao SA. Review of Ethnobotanical, phytochemical and pharmacological profile of Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. International Journal of Pharmaceutics & Drug Analysis. 2018;6(3):371–6. Sheeba MS, Asha VV. Effect of Cardiospermum halicacabum on ethanol-induced gastric ulcers in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;106:105–10. Sheeba MS, Asha VV. Cardiospermum halicacabum ethanol extract inhibits LPS induced COX-2, TNF- and iNOS expression, which is mediated by NF-B regulation, in RAW264.7 cells. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124:39–44. Sheud MJ, Houe WC, Linb SS, Huang GJ. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of Cardiospermum halicacabum and its reference compounds ex vivo and in vivo. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133:743–50. Tifikar A, Musthaq A. Chemical investigation of the genus Cardiospermum. Forensic Sci Int. 1993;5:67–9. Veeramani C, Pushpavalli G, Pugalendi KV. In vivo antioxidant and hypolipidemic effect of Cardiospermum Halicacabum leaf extract in Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol. 2010;21(2):107–25.

Cardiospermum halicacabum L.

253

Veeramani C, Al-Numair KS, Alsaif MA, Chandramohan G, Al-Numair NS, Pugalendi KV. Protective effect of Cardiospermum halicacabum leaf extract on glycoprotein components on STZ-induced hyperglycemic rats. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2012;5(12):939–44; https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S1995-7645(12)60178-3. Vetrichelvan T, Narasimhan CL, Venkatramani R. Anticonvulsant action of petroleum ether fraction of Cardiospermum halicacabum against electroshock induced convulsion in rats. Anc Sci Life. 2000;19(3&4):174–5.

Castanopsis argentea (Blume) A. DC. FAGACEAE Aisyah Handayani and Syafitri Hidayati

Synonyms Castanea argentea (Blume) Blume; Castanea argyrophylla H. Buek; Castanea divaricata Oerst.; Castanea martabanica Wall.; Fagus argentea Blume

Local Names Berangan (Indonesian); saninten (Sundanese); sarangan (Javanese), kandik kurus (Sumatera); ko laem (Thai)

Botany and Ecology Castanopsis argentea (Fagaceae): is a species natively distributed in Assam, Borneo, India, Jawa, Myanmar, Sumatera, and Thailand (POWO 2019). It is a large tree growing up to 15–30 m in height, with a diameter up to 100 cm. The tree has a characteristic dark gray fissured bark (Heyne 1987; Puri 2001). Leaf shapes vary from elliptic to ovate, 10–18  5–8 cm, slippery leaf surface, greenish above, silvery brown below, with silvery hairs or scales. Single leaf with alternate

A. Handayani (*) Cibodas Botanic Gardens, The Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cianjur, Indonesia Natural Resources and Environment Management, Graduate School, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia S. Hidayati Department of Forest Resources Conservation and Ecotourism, Division of Plant Diversity Conservation, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_8

255

256

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

position, spirally arranged with hairy stipules that fall easily (Rugayah and Sunarno 1992). Castanopsis argentea flowers in August–October and fruits during November–February (Soepadmo and van Steenis 1972). Male flowers are arranged in thread-shaped strands of 15–25 cm long. Female flowers grow aloof, and are 5– 15 cm long, 2–4 mm in diameter, and are whitish yellow. The fruit is a spiny cupule with three seeds inside (Fig. 1). Diameter of fruits 3–4 cm; spines 1–1.5 cm; diameter of seeds 2–2.5 cm. Castanopsis argentea grows well in primary or old secondary forest on dry fertile soil (Puri 2001), at altitudes from 150 to 1400 m above sea level (Soepadmo and van Steenis 1972). However, its optimal altitudinal range is between 1400 and 1500 m above sea level (Heriyanto et al. 2016). It is possibly a keystone species of mountain ecosystems. The species harbors wildlife, especially birds and mammals, and is also a popular nesting tree (Heriyanto et al. 2016). Hasibuan et al. (2017) noted that in Mount Gede Pangrango National Park, C. argentea is a source of food for birds such as scarlet-headed flowerpecker (Dicaeum trochileum) and those from the Pycnonotidae family. Ihsanu et al. (2014) found that Castanopsis argentea is also as source of food for the leaf monkey (Trachypithecus auratus) in the Mount

Fig. 1 Herbarium collection of Castanopsis argentea in Cianjur Herbarium Hortus Botanicus Tjibodasensis – Cibodas Botanic Gardens. (© Aisyah Handayani)

Castanopsis argentea (Blume) A. DC.

257

Ciremai National Park. The silvery gibbon (Hylobates moloch), an endemic primate of Java, also depends on this tree for food and nesting (Kartono et al. 2002; Iskandar et al. 2007). The slow loris (Nycticebus coucang) of the Baduy protected forests has been recorded to consume this species for food (Wirdateti et al. 2004). In addition to supporting wildlife, C. argentea also supports many plants and organisms. In the Mount Gede Pangrango National Park, C. argentea serves as the host of an important medicinal plant Ficus deltoidea. F. deltoidea is an epiphyte that makes effective use of the rough and large peeling bark of C. argentea (Agustina et al. 2015). Hasibuan and Jenuarista (2019) found that in Halimun Salak National Park, the dead or decayed wood of C. argentea offers habitat for economically important mushrooms such as Microporus affinis (as food source), Stereum Ostrea (source of antimicrobials), and Trametes versicolor (source of antioxidant). Since 2018, C. argentea has been listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red list (Barstow and Kartawinata 2018). This species is threatened by the widespread conversion of lowland forests to oil palm plantation (cases in Sumatera) and also by the logging of the species itself for timber. The loss of habitat is estimated to have caused at least a 50% decline in population size over the last three generations. Another threat faced by the species is the reduction in natural regeneration capabilities. The overharvesting of fruits results in reduced seedling population (Barstow and Kartawinata 2018). Therefore, this species has been recommended for ex-situ conservation through collection and multiplication (Fig. 2) (Surya et al. 2017).

Fig. 2 Living collection of Castanopsis argentea in ex-situ conservation area, Cibodas Botanic Gardens. (© Aisyah Handayani)

258

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Local Medicinal Uses The bark of C. argentea is used as antidandruff by the Sirnasari community of Halimun Salak National Park (Zulnely et al. 2004).

Local Food Uses Castanopsis argentea is edible with a highly desirable taste (Fig. 3) (Soepadmo and van Steenis 1972). It is promoted as an edible nut for cultivation in eastern Java. The fruits are harvested by local people around Mount Gede Pangrango National Park, which affects its natural regeneration capability (Heriyanto et al. 2016). Sundanese people around Mount Gede Pangrango National Park area, especially in Cibodas resorts, generally consume Castanopsis argentea seeds (Purnawan 2006). Castanopsis argentea seeds are also source of food for the Sundanese community in buffer zone of Mount Halimun Salak National park (Sawitri and Subiandono 2011) and also for other Sundanese people at the Kampung Adat Urug and Kasepuhan Cipatat Kolot in Bogor (Pratama et al. 2019). Similarly, the Baduy community also eat raw C. argentea nuts (Suansa 2011). Thus, the nuts are an important source of energy and nutrition for the local communities (Hidayat and Fijridiyanto 2002).

Phytochemistry Abdullah (2012) found the total phenolic content in fresh seeds to be high with 465.97 + 0.85 mg GAE/100 g. The fresh seeds are high in concentration of total phenols and other phytochemicals, than the cooked ones. This highlights the importance of cooking process. Fig. 3 Seed of Castanopsis argentea in Cianjur Herbarium Hortus Botanicus Tjibodasensis – Cibodas Botanic Gardens. (© Aisyah Handayani)

Castanopsis argentea (Blume) A. DC.

259

Biocultural Importance It is one of the chief construction materials of the Baduy community (Wardah 2003; Suansa 2011). The Baduy people consider Castanopsis argentea as a species that grows well in leuweung kolot (Wardah 2003), which is the Baduy sacred forest (primary forest) protected from land use conversion. The Baduy conserve the leuweung kolot by restricting access to the site (Suparmini et al. 2013). This has resulted in the presence of viable populations of Castanopsis argentea in the sacred forests of the Baduy community. The Sundanese community in Kasepuhan Citorek and Ciptarasa, who inhabit the Mount Halimun National Park (GHNP) also use the wood of C. argentea for construction purposes (Rahayu and Harada 2004; Sawitri and Subiandono 2011). Heyne (1987) noted that in Sukanagara of West Java, the black dye obtained from the bark of Castanopsis argentea is used to color rattans.

Economic Importance C. argentea is used for timber (Mark et al. 2014), but information on the harvested volume is not available. The timber is used for building construction, furniture, boat construction, and to make musical instruments (Liu et al. 1991).

References Abdullah MA. Phytochemical composition of fresh and cooked of chestnut (Castanopsis argentea), pangium (Pangium edule), and pra (Elasteriospermum tapos) seeds. Diss., Universiti Teknologi MARA. 2012. Agustina A, Zuhud EAM, Darusman LK. Karakteristik Habitat Mikro Tabat Barito (Ficus deltoidea Jack) Pada Tumbuhan Inangnya. Jurnal Penelitian Hutan dan Konservasi Alam. 2015; 12(1):89–104. https://doi.org/10.20886/jphka.2015.12.1.89-104. Barstow M, Kartawinata K. Castanopsis argentea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T62004506A62004510. 2018. Accessed 23 July 2018. Hasibuan RS, Jenuarista ST. Distribution of mushrooms in the resort Cikaniki at Mount Halimun Salak National Park. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2019;394(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/ 1755-1315/394/1/012045. Hasibuan RS, At M, Majid IA. Keanekaragaman Jenis Burung di Resort Tapos Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango. Research report. 2017. p. 16–24. Heriyanto NM, Sawitri R, Subandinata D. Kajian Ekologi Permudaan Saninten (Castanopsis argentea (Bl.) A. DC.) di Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango, Jawa Barat. Buletin Plasma Nutfah. 2016;13(1):34–42. https://doi.org/10.21082/blpn.v13n1.2007.p34-42. Heyne K. Tumbuhan Berguna Indonesia, vol. 2. Jakarta: Forest Research and Development Centre: Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia; 1987. p. 849–51. Hidayat S, Fijridiyanto IA. Pemanfaatan Tumbuhan Secara Tradisional di Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun. Berita Biologi. 2002;6(1):125–30. https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi.v6i1.1178.

260

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Ihsanu IA, Setiawan A, Rustiati EL. Studi Perilaku Makan dan Analisis Vegetasi Pakan Lutung Jawa (Trachypithecus auratus) di Taman Nasional Gunung Ciremai. Jurnal Sylva Lestari. 2014;1(1):17–22. https://doi.org/10.23960/jsl1117-22. Iskandar E, Alikodra HS, Kyes RC, Mansjoer SS, Bismark M. Habitat and population of the Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch Audebert, 1797) at Gunung Halimun-Salak National Park, West Java. Bogor: Graduate School of IPB University; 2007. Kartono AP, Prastyono P, Maryanto I. Variasi Aktivitas Harian Hylobates moloch (Audebert, 1798) Menurut Kelas Umur di TN Gunung Halimun, Jawa Barat. Berita Biologi. 2002;6(1):67–73. https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi.v6i1.1171. Liu P, Chen F, Yang J. Identification, properties and uses of some Southeast Asian woods. Yokahama/Beijing: Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry & ITTO. 1991. p. 201. Review by Baas P. In: Iawa Bull (NS);12:418. Mark J, Newton A, Oldfield S, Rivers M. A working list of commercial timber tree species. Technical report. Richmond: Botanic Gardens Conservation International; 2014. POWO (Plants of the World Online). Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2019. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 18 Nov 2019. Pratama MF, Dwiartama A, Rosleine D, Abdulharis R, Irsyam ASD. Documentation of Underutilized Fruit Trees (UFTs) across indigenous communities in West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(9):2603–11. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d200924. Puri RK. Bulungan ethnobiology handbook. Bogor: Center of International Forestry Research; 2001. Purnawan BI. Inventarisasi Keanekaragaman Jenis Tumbuhan di Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango. Skripsi. Bogor: Undergraduate Program, IPB University; 2006. Rahayu M, Harada K. Peran Tumbuhan Dalam Kehidupan Tradisional Masyarakat Lokal di Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun Jawa Barat. Berita Biologi. 2004;7(1–2):17–23. https://doi.org/ 10.14203/beritabiologi.v7i1&2.1231. Rugayah BS, Sunarno B. Flora Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango. Bogor: Herbarium Bogoriense, Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Biologi; 1992. Sawitri R, Subiandono E. Karakteristik dan Persepsi Masyarakat Daerah Penyangga Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun-Salak. Jurnal Penelitian Hutan dan Konservasi Alam. 2011; 8(3):273–85. https://doi.org/10.20886/jphka.2011.8.3.273-285. Soepadmo E, van Steenis CGGJ. Fagaceae. Flora Malesiana Series 1, Spermatophyta. 1972; 7(1):265–403. Suansa NI. Penggunaan Pengetahuan Etnobotani dalam Pengelolaan Hutan Adat Baduy. Bogor: Undergraduate Program, IPB University; 2011. Suparmini S, Setyawati S, Sumunar DRS. Pelestarian Lingkungan Masyarakat Baduy Berbasis Kearifan Lokal. Jurnal Penelitian Humaniora. 2013;18(1):8–22. Surya MI, Kurnita NI, Setyaningsih L, Ismaini L, Muttaqin Z. Perbanyakan Castanopsis argentea secara in vitro. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2017;3(1):10–5. https://doi.org/10.13057/ psnmbi/m030103. Wardah W. Utilisation of plant diversity resources by Baduy-Dalam (Inner Baduy) Community around South Mount Kendeng, Lebak District, Southern Banten. Berita Biologi. 2003;6(6). https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi.v6i6.1204. Wirdateti LE, Setyorini S, Handayani TH. Pakan dan Habitat Kukang (Nycticebus coucang) di Hutan Lindung Perkampungan Baduy, Rangkasbitung-Banten Selatan. Biodiversitas. 2004;6 (1):45–9. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d060109. Zulnely ES, Dahlian E, Kulsum U. Komponen Aktif Dua Puluh Jenis Tumbuhan Obat di Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun. Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan. 2004;22(1):43–50.

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. APIACEAE Anisatu Z. Wakhidah and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Centella boninensis Nakai ex Tuyama; Centella coriacea Nannf.; Centella glochidiata (Benth.) Drude; Centella hirtella Nannf.; Centella tussilaginifolia (Baker) Domin; Centella ulugurensis (Engl.) Domin; Centella uniflora (Colenso) Nannf.; Trisanthus cochinchinensis Lour.; Chondrocarpus asiaticus Nutt.; Chondrocarpus triflorus Nutt.; Glyceria asiatica Nutt.; Glyceria triflora Nutt.; Hydrocotyle abbreviata A. Rich.; Hydrocotyle abyssinica Gand.; Hydrocotyle artensis Montrouz.; Hydrocotyle asiatica L.; Hydrocotyle asiatica var. monantha F. Muell.; Hydrocotyle brasiliensis Scheidw.; Hydrocotyle brevipedata St.-Lag.; Hydrocotyle brevipes DC.; Hydrocotyle dentata A. Rich.; Hydrocotyle ficarifolia Stokes; Hydrocotyle ficarioides Lam.; Hydrocotyle glochidiata Benth.; Hydrocotyle hebecarpa DC.; Hydrocotyle inaequipes DC.; Hydrocotyle indivisa Banks & Sol. ex Hook.f.; Hydrocotyle lunata Lam.; Hydrocotyle lurida Hance; Hydrocotyle nummularioides A.Rich.; Hydrocotyle pallida DC.; Hydrocotyle reniformis Walter; Hydrocotyle sarmentosa Salisb.; Hydrocotyle sylvicola Cordem.; Hydrocotyle thunbergiana Spreng.; Hydrocotyle tussilaginifolia Baker; Hydrocotyle ulugurensis Engl.; Hydrocotyle uniflora Colenso; Neosciadium glochidiatum (Benth.) Domin.; Trisanthus cochinchinensis Lour. (POWO 2020)

A. Z. Wakhidah (*) Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_72

261

262

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

Local Names Brunei Darussalam: Penggaga (Brunei Malay), pegaga (Dusun). Cambodia: trachiek kranh, trochiak tranh (Khmer). Indonesia: daun kaki kuda, pegagan, antanan, antanan gede (Sundanese); apapaga, papaga (Bataknese); pegage (Dayak in West Borneo); talinga-linga, tapak kuda, tungke-tungke (Bugis in South Sulawesi); gagan-gagan, rendeng (Javanese); kolotide manora (Ternate); dogauke, gogauke, andanan (New Guinea); kepiduh (Balinese); peduh, tongkak (Manggarai in East Nusa Tenggara); kuku kuda (Lombok in West Nusa Tenggara). Malaysia: pegaga, daun pegaga (Peninsular Malaysia). Myanmar: minkuabin. Philippines: tapingan daga, hahap halo (Bisaya), sipkukong (Luzon), tangila a lopa (Maranaos ethnic), takip kuhol (Mindanao). Singapore: pegaga. Thailand: chuy po co la do, bua bok (Thai); pa na e khaa doh (Karen, Mae Hong Son); phak waen (Peninsular). Vietnam: rau má nhà, rau má (Van Kieu). English: indian pennywort, asiatic pennywort, gotu cola, gotukola (Angagan et al. 2010; Anggraeni et al. 2016; Tapundun et al. 2015; Chamratpam and Homchuen 2005; Changyoung et al. 2019; Haryanti et al. 2015; Iswandono et al. 2015; Muraqmi et al. 2015; Nisyapuri et al. 2018; Oktavia et al. 2017; Olowa and Demayo 2015; Ong et al. 2012; Rahayu and Andini 2019; Rubio and Naïve 2018; Utami et al. 2019; Walker 2017).

Botany and Ecology Description: Stoloniferous perennial herbs, stem creeping, younger parts of the plant hairy. Leaves arranged in a rosette, petiole 0.5–10 cm or rarely up to 40 cm long, sheathing at the base, glabrous or puberulous, lamina reniform, suborbicular, 1–7 cm across, not peltate, margin crenate or crenate-dentate, palminerved, main veins 5–7, prominent on both surfaces. Flowers arranged in umbellate inflorescences, these solitary or up to 5 together, subtended by nearly 3-mm-long bracts; peduncle shorter than petioles of subtending leaves, 0.2–2 cm long. Inflorescence usually bearing 3 flowers, with the central flower sessile and the two laterals pedicellate, involucres 2, ovate, 3–4 mm long by 1.5–3 mm wide, persistent until fruiting stages. Calyx teeth minute. Petals white or tinged with rose, 1–1.5 mm long by 0.75 mm wide, red. Fruit laterally compressed, with narrow commissure, mericarps about 2 mm long by 1.5 mm wide, sub-hairy when young. Distribution and Ecology: This is a cosmopolitan plant distributed throughout the tropic regions of the world. In Southeast Asia, this species is widespread; at least it has been found throughout the Malesian phytogeographical regions. The plants grow on a wide range of elevations, starting at 1 m.a.s.l., and ascend to 2500 m.a.s.l. Various type habitats have been recorded for this species including streambanks, between stones on pathways, walls, damp sites, from exposed to slightly shaded situations. Plants produce flowers year around and fruiting is said to be from April to October (Buwalda 1949; Hargono et al. 1999; She and Watson 2005) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

263

Fig. 1 Living plant of Centella asiatica (Apiaceae). (© WA. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Flowers and leaves of Centella asiatica (Apiaceae). (© WA. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: Leaves are eaten raw, or an infusion is consumed by the local people in Kiudang to treat hypertension; healers in Kiudang administer leaf decoction to treat indigestion (Kamsani et al. 2020).

264

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

Cambodia: The entire plant is used as a febrifuge by people in Phnom Kulen plateau (Walker 2017). Indonesia: The leaves of C. asiatica have been widely used as medicine by various ethnic groups in Indonesia. The local people of Karangrejo, Malang, and East Java use it as an ingredient of the genjahan formulation which is an efficacious galactagogue (Wulandari and Azroaningsih 2014). The leaves are also used to treat hypertension by the people of Lombok, Madura, as well as the Seko tribe of Central Sulawesi (Rahayu and Andini 2019; Destryana and Ismawati 2019; Tapundun et al. 2015). The Manggarai community in East Nusa Tenggara use the leaves as ulcer medicine (Eni et al. 2019). Local communities in West Kalimantan, Central Java, and East Java use it to reduce body heat and as a stamina enhancer (Sari et al. 2014; Utami et al. 2019; Sholichah and Alfidhdhoh 2020). The Dayak Pesaguan of West Borneo as well as the Saibatin community of Lampung believe in the efficacy of leaves as a senile medicine (Due et al. 2014; personal observation). The Togian people in Central Sulawesi use it to soothe itching sensation. Malaysia: The whole plant is used to treat stomachache by people of Kaingaran, Sabah (Kulip et al. 2005). The leaves or the whole plant is made into decoction by Temuan tribe to treat hypertension. Besides, this plant has been evaluated for treating hypertension in the traditional medicine of Malaysia (Ozturk et al. 2018; Sholehah et al. 2018). Centella asiatica water extract is applied on wounded skin and scab by the Temiar people of Kelantan state. Leaf poultice can treat sores, and fresh leaf paste is applied externally for fever. The Temiar women folk claim that the leaves of Centella asiatica are also good to promote overall health during postpartum (Zaki et al. 2019). The leaves are eaten fresh, as it is believed to cure memory loss, and also act as anti-aging medicine, by the local people of Kampung Taun, Kota Belud Sabah (Awang-Kanak et al. 2002). It is also reported that the local people of Masjid Ijok in Perak State use the infusion of the whole plant to delay aging (Ramli et al. 2015). Philippines: Isnag community use this plant as antidote for scorpion bites (Angagan et al. 2010). Its leaves are eaten raw by Maranaos community to lower hypertension and treat diabetes. Leaf decoction is believed to cure cough, lower fever, and also act as a diuretic. Leaf extract is applied topically to cure wounds (Olowa and Demayo 2015). The folk healers in North Cotabato, Mindanao, use decoction made from leaves to treat anemia. Besides, the leaves are also eaten raw to lower hypertension (Rubio and Naïve 2018). Thailand: All parts are used as an ingredient of a concoction to treat muscular pain, cold, bruise, mouth ulcers, and wounds and as a hemostatic by Karen people of northern Thailand (Tangjitman et al. 2013). The whole plant is mixed with Piper nigrum, Kaempferia spp., Cyperus rotundus, and honey. This decoction is also consumed as a tonic to prolong life by people of Udon Thani, Ngong Kai, and Ngong Bua Lampoo Province in upper northeastern part of Thailand (Chamratpam and Homchuen 2005). Vietnam: The whole plant is used to treat uterus fibromyoma and gonorrhea by the Van Kieu community. It is mixed with steamed Mussaenda hoaensis leaves, whole plant of Mimosa pudica, and roots of Smilax corbularia made into a decoction and taken orally (Changyoung et al. 2019). Whole plant is believed to have detoxification properties and used to alleviate urinary ailments by the local people of Ben En National Park, Thanh Hóa. Plant parts are chewed raw and then swallowed (Hoang et al. 2008).

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

265

Phytochemistry Leaves contain alkaloids, glycoside, terpenoids, steroids, flavonoids, tannins (Zainol et al. 2003; Arumugam et al. 2011), saponins, triterpenoid (Kristina et al. 2009), and also glycosides as well as reducing sugars (Rahman et al. 2012). The presence of these components imparts antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-diabetic, and anti-Alzheimer properties to the plant (Arumugam et al. 2011; Rahman et al. 2012; Zainol et al. 2003). According to Hargono et al. (1999), the most important triterpenoid compounds are asiaticoside, madecassoside, asiatic acid, and madecassic acid. These phytochemicals effect wound-healing properties through bacteriostatic activity and stimulation of the reticuloendothelium. Two phenolic acids were reported named chlorogenic acid and phydroxy-benzoic acid which possess anti-Alzheimer and antioxidant properties (Orhan et al. 2013). Centella asiatica shows inhibition of AChE activity as observed in different brain regions. Also, organically cultivated plants contain the maximum amount of secondary metabolites after a month of harvest and show the best memory-enhancing activity (Bhattacharya et al. 2017). Some essential oils are reported such as copaene (22%), alloaromadendrene (7.6%), β-caryophyllene (7.1%), α-humulene (6.7%), and β-cubebene (5.9%). Asiaticoside could act as an anti-inflammatory agent (Tang et al. 2011). Apigenin has antibacterial, antiulcerative, and antispasmodic properties, while luteolin acts as antiallergic, antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, and antispasmodic (Bhandari et al. 2007). Centella asiatica is also a promising narcotic analgesic. Whole plant ethanolic extract exhibits anti-stress properties (Hargono et al. 1999). In addition, this plant turns out to have anti-fertility properties, with potential to be developed as natural contraceptive. Yunianto et al. (2017) reveal that Centella asiatica extract inhibits the activity of lipocalin enzyme and sorbitol dehydrogenase which are the two main proteins involved in spermatogenesis process.

Local Food Uses Centella asiatica leaves are generally consumed as vegetable or made into juices. The leaves are consumed as vegetable by the local people of Jombang, East Java, and Kapuas Hulu in West Borneo and by the Saibatin sub-tribe in Lampung of Indonesia (Haryanti et al. 2015; Sholichah and Alfidhdhoh 2020; personal observation). The same has also been reported from Northeast Thailand, and Malaysia (Awang-Kanak et al. 2002; Suksri et al. 2005; Ong et al. 2012). Leaves are also processed into softdrinks in Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Some sugar is also added for taste (Hargono et al. 1999).

Biocultural Importance This plant is considered as an ornamental plant by people of Kapuas Hulu in West Borneo (Haryanti et al. 2015).

266

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

Economic Importance Dried plants are exported from Indonesia by traditional drug manufacturers. This amounted to 19–125 tons a year during 1991–1994. In the Philippines, this plant has been reported to serve as a pollen source for honeybees (Hargono et al. 1999). Leaves are sold in the local markets of Brunei Darussalam (Franco et al. 2020).

References Angagan JS, Buot IE, Relox RE, Rebancos CM. Ethnobotany of the plants resources in Conner Apayao, northern Luzon, Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2010;9(1):31–8. Anggraeni R, Silalahi M, Nisyawati. Studi etnobotani masyarakat subetnis Batak Toba di Desa Peadungdung, Sumatera Utara, Indonesia. Pro-Life. 2016;3(2):129–42. (in Bahasa). Arumugam T, Ayyanar M, Pillai YJK, Sekar T. Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of leaf and callus extracts of Centella asiatica. Bangladesh J Pharmacol. 2011;6:55–60. Awang-Kanak F, Bakar MFA, Moeryati M. Ethnobotanical survey on plants used as traditional salad food (ulam) in Kampung Taun Gusi, Kota Belud Sabah, Malaysia. AIP conference proceedings. 2002; 020024:1–6. Bhandari P, Kumar N, Gupta AP, Singh B, Kaul VK. A rapid RP-HPTLC densitometry method for simultaneous determination of major flavonoids in important medicinal plants. J Sep Sci. 2007;30:2092–6. Bhattacharya RD, Parmar KM, Itankar PR, Prasad SK. Phytochemical and pharmacological evaluation of organic and non-organic cultivated nutritional Centella asiatica collected after different time intervals of harvesting. South Afr J Bot. 2017;112:237–45. Buwalda P. Umbelliferae. Fl Malesiana I. 1949;4(2):113–40. Chamratpam S, Homchuen S. Ethnobotany in upper northeastern Thailand. Proc WOCMAP Bioprospect Ethnopharmacol. 2005;1:67–74. Changyoung L, Soo-Yong K, Sangmi E, Jin-Hyub P, Tran TB, Darshetkar AM, Choudhary RK, Do VH, Bui HQ, Nguyen TT, Sangho C. Ethnobotanical study on medical plants used by local Van Kieu ethnic people of Bac Huong Hoa Nature Reserve, Vietnam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2019;231:283–94. Destryana RA, Ismawati. Etnobotani dan penggunaan tumbuhan liar sebagai obat tradisional oleh masyarakat suku Madura. J Food Technol Agroind. 2019;1(2):1–8. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Due R, Syamswisna, Marlina R. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat suku dayak pesaguan dan implementasinya dalam pembuatan flash card biodiversitas. J Pend Pemblj UNTAN. 2014;3(2):1–15. (in Bahasa). Eni NNS, Sukenti K, Muspiah A, Rohyani IS. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat komunitas hindu Desa Jagaraga, Kabupaten Lombok Barat, Nusa Tenggara Barat. Biotropika – J Trop Bio. 2019;7(3):121–8. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Franco FM, Chaw LL, Bakar N, Abas SNH. Socialising over fruits and vegetables: the biocultural importance of an open-air market in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-0356-6. Hargono D, Lastari P, Astuti Y, van den Bergh MH. Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. In: de Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 12(1): medicinal and poisonous plants 1. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. p. 190–4. Haryanti ES, Diba F, Wahdina. Etnobotani tumbuhan berguna oleh masyarakat sekitar kawasan KPH model Kapuas Hulu. J Hut Lest. 2015;3(3):434–45. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Hoang VS, Baas P, Keßler PJA. Traditional medicinal plants in Ben En National Park, Vietnam. Blumea. 2008;53:569–601.

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

267

Iswandono E, Zuhud EAM, Hikmat A, Kosmaryandi N. Pengetahuan etnobotani Suku Manggarai dan implikasinya terhadap pemanfaatan tumbuhan hutan di Pegunungan Ruteng. J Ilm Pert Indon. 2015;20(3):171–81. (in Bahasa). Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kristina NN, Kusumah ED, Lailani PK. Analisis fitokimia dan penampilan polapita protein tanaman pegagan (Centella asiatica) hasil konservasi in vitro. Bul Littro. 2009;20(1):11–20. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Kulip J, Indu JP, Mison R. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in the village of Kaingaran in Sabah, Malaysia. J Trop Biol Conserv. 2005;1:71–7. Muraqmi A, Anam S, Ramadhanil P. Etnobotani masyarakat Bugis di Desa Lempe Kecamatan Dampal Selatan Kabupaten Tolitoli. Biocelebes. 2015;9(2):42–53. (in Bahasa). Nisyapuri FF, Iskandar J, Partasasmita R. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Desa Wonoharjo, Kabupaten Pangandaran, Jawa Barat. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2018:4(2);122–32. (in Bahasa). Oktavia GAE, Darma IDP, Sujarwo W. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di kawasan sekitar Danau Buyan-Tamblingan, Bali. Buletin Kebun Raya. 2017;20(1):1–16. (in Bahasa). Olowa L, Demayo CG. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants among the Muslim Maranos in Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines. Adv Environ Biol. 2015;9(27):204–15. Ong HC, Norliah, Sorayya M. Traditional knowledge and usage of edible plants among the Temuan villagers in Kampung Tering, Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2012;11(1):161–5. Orhan IE, Atasu E, Senol FS, Ozturk N, Demirci B, Das K, Sekeroglu N. Comparative studies on Turkish and Indian Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (gotu kola) samples for their enzyme inhibitory and antioxidant effect ad phytochemical characterization. Ind Crop Prod. 2013;47:316–22. Ozturk M, Altay V, Latiff A, Shareef S, Shaheen F, Iqbal Choudhry M. Potential medicinal plants used in the hypertension in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia. In: Ozturk M, Hakeem K, editors. Plant and human health, vol. 1. Cham: Springer; 2018. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 8 Apr 2020. Rahayu SM, Andini AS. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in sesaott forest, Narmada, West Lombok. Biosantifika. 2019;11(2):234–42. Rahman MM, Sayeed MSB, Haque MA, Hassan MM, Islam SMA. Phytochemical screening, antioxidant, anti-alzheimer and anti-diabetic activities of Centella asiatica. J Nat Prod Plant Resour. 2012;2(4):504–11. Ramli, et al. Traditional knowledge of a practitioner in medicinal plants of Masjid Ijok Village, Perak, Malaysia. Stud Ethnomed. 2015;9(1):59–66. Rubio MM, Naïve MAK. Ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional healers in North Cotabato, Mindanao, Philippines. J Biol Environ Sci. 2018;13(6):74–82. Sari RY, Wardenaar E, Muflihati. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Dusun Serambai Kecamatan Kembayan Kab. Sanggau Kalimantan Barat. J Hut Lest. 2014;2(3):379–87. (in Bahasa Indonesia). She M, Watson MF. Centella. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 14 (Apiaceae through Ericaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden; 2005. p. 18. Sholehah AR, Wan Rohani WT, Ramle A, Mohd TA, Jamilah MS, Razifah MR. Hypertension genes among Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia and ethno-medicinal plant. Asian J Med Biomed. 2018;2:1):1–11. Sholichah L, Alfidhdhoh D. Etnobotani tumbuhan liar sebagai sumber pangan di Dusun Mendiro, Kecamatan Wonosalam, Jombang. J Ilm Pert Indon. 2020;25(1):111–7. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Suksri S, Premcharoen S, Thawatphan C, Sangthongprow S. Ethnobotany in Bung Khong Long non-hunting area, Northeast Thailand. Kasetsart J (Nat Sci). 2005;39(3):519–33. Tang B, Zhu B, Liang Y, Bi LHZ, Chen B, Zhang K, Zhu J. Asiaticoside suppresses collagen expression and TGF-β/Smad signaling through inducing Smad7 and inhibiting TGF-βRI and TGF-βRII in keloid fibroblasts. Arch Dermatol Res. 2011;303:563–72.

268

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

Tangjitman K, Wongsawad C, Winijchaiyanan P, Sukkho T, Kamwong K, Pongamornkul W, Trisonthi C. Traditional knowledge on medicinal plant of the Karen in northern Thailand: a comparative study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;150:232–43. Tapundun AS, Anam S, Pitopang R. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat pada suku Seko di Desa Tanah Harappan, Kab. Sigi, Sulawesi Tengah. Biocelebes. 2015;9(2):66–86. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Utami NR, Rahayuningsih M, Abdullah M, Haka FH. Etnobotani tanaman obat masyarakat sekitar di Gunung Ungaran, Jawa Tengah. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2019;5(2):205–8. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Walker T. An examination of medicinal ethnobotany and biomedicine use in two villages on the Phnom Kulen plateau. Undergraduate research awards. 2017;36:70. Wulandari RA, Azroaningsih R. Etnobotani jamu gendong berdasarkan persepsi produsen jamu gendong di Desa Karangrejo, Kecamatan Kromengan, Kabupaten Malang. J Biotrop. 2014;2 (4):198–202. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Yunianto I, Kamar BNA, Noor MM. Antifertility properties of Centella asiatica ethanolic extract as a contraceptive agent: preliminary study of sperm proteomic. Asian Pac J Reprod. 2017;6 (5):212–6. Zainol MK, Abd-Hamid A, Yusuf S, Muse R. Anti-oxidative activity and total phenolic compounds of leaf, root and petiole of four accessions of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. Food Chem. 2003;81:575–81. Zaki, et al. Traditional usage of medicinal plants by Temiar tribes in the State of Kelantan, Peninsular Malaysia. For Soc. 2019;3(2):227–34.

Chloranthus elatior Link CHLORANTHACEAE Heri Santoso

Synonyms Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Sweet ex Wall.; Chloranthus officinalis Blume; Chloranthus salicifolius C.Presl.; Chloranthus sumatranus Miq.; Cryphaea erecta Buch.-Ham. (POWO 2020).

Local Names English: Tall Chloranthus Indonesia: Karas tulang (Standard Indonesian), manik, muni, pulu dengen, sukattan, kerastulang, uyuh-uyuhan (Javanese), horas tulang (Sundanese), karas tulang (Baduinese), garaman gajah, harostulang, lelada-rima, sebah, (Sumatera) Malaysia: Sambau paya, sigueh puteh, rami hutan, keras tulang, dikut-dikut, langut-langut, kelabit, luai, lalamak, lambayu, lud, mongkitir Philippines: Barau-barau, pangutug, vimug, sunulampong, belekbut

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrubby herb, subshrubs to 2 m tall, rarely epiphytic,
aromatic when crushed. Stems terete, glabrous. Leaves opposite; petiole 5–13 mm; leaf blade broadly elliptic or obovate to long obovate or oblanceolate, 10–20  4– 8 cm, rigidly papery, glandular, glabrous, base cuneate, margin serrate (Fig. 1),

H. Santoso (*) Generasi Biologi Indonesia Foundation, Gresik, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_239

269

270

H. Santoso

apex gradually narrowed to caudate; lateral veins 5–9 pairs. Spikes terminal, dichotomously or racemosely branched, rearranged in panicles, long pedunculate; bracts triangular or ovate. Flowers white, small. Stamens 3; connectives confluent and ovoid, not elongate, apical part 3-lobed; central lobe larger, with a 2-loculed anther; lateral lobes smaller, with a 1-loculed anther each; thecae at central or apical parts of connective. Ovary ovoid. Fruit green when young, white at maturity, obovoid, ca. 5 mm (Shu 1999; Verdcourt 1986; Middleton et al. 2020). Distribution and Ecology: Continental Asia, from Nepal to Yunnan and Andaman Island, and throughout Malesia to New Guinea (including New Britain and New Ireland). Found in primary and secondary forests (Fig. 2), along with Pandanus and palms, Araucaria, and Nothofagus-Castanopsis in montane forest, often on limestone, sometimes riverine or in boggy areas, mainly lowland (Verdcourt 1986). The plant is threatened with extinction in the wild due to habitat destruction (Plantuse

Fig. 1 Chloranthus elatior. (© Martono)

Fig. 2 Chloranthus elatior in wild. (© Martono)

Chloranthus elatior Link

271

2020). Chloranthus elatior is found at its habitat in Mt. Kelud, Java, even after eruption (Na’im SWS 2014).

Local Medicinal Uses A tea made from the leaves or roots has a long history of medicinal use in Indonesia and Malaysia. The Kampung Naga community in Tasikmalaya of West Java (Aristiani 2014) and Kasepuhan Sobang community in Banten (Nurmalasari et al. 2012) use kerastulang in folk medicine. Leaf extracts are used to cure venereal diseases. A powder from the boiled and dried roots is rubbed on the body to treat fever. A drink made from the boiled branches is said to prevent conception (Plantuse 2020). In Java, its root is boiled and consumed to treat joint pain and rheumatic ailments (Handayani 2015).

Phytochemistry The phytochemical investigation on the whole plants of Chloranthus elatior reported 18 compounds (Zhang et al. 2016, Sun et al. 2012) including chlorantholides (Wang et al. 2012), shizukolidol (Kawabata et al. 1984), 4α,8β-dihydroxyeudesm-7(11)-en12,8-olide (Xiao et al. 2010), 15-nor-14-oxolabda-8(17),12E-dien-18-oic acid (Sultan et al. 2008; Xiao et al. 2010), 4-epicommunic acid (Bohlmann et al. 1980), 13-hydroxylabda-8(17),14-dien-18-oic acid (Hieda et al. 1983), 14,15-dinor-13oxolabda-8(17),11E-dien-18-oic acid (Mendes et al. 2005), aromadendrane4β,10α-diol (Goldsby and Burke 1987), bornyl p-coumarate (Han and Huang 1993), erythro-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)propane-1,2-diol (Takeshita and Sato 1989), β-hydroxypropiovanillone (Lin et al. 1994), flavokawain A (Detsi et al. 2009), and 7,40 -di-O-methylnaringenin (Vasconcelos et al. 1998).

Local Food Uses Leaves are used to make tea in Lebak, Banten (Wardah 2003). Before Camellia sinensis was planted in Java, the Javanese used the dried leaves and roots, while the Sundanese used only the dried roots to make teas (Nurmalasari et al. 2012). Young leaves are eaten by local people in Mojokerto and Blitar, East Java (personal observation).

Economic Importance After the Dutch colonial government promoted the growing and use of tea (Camellia sinensis) in the nineteenth century, use of Chloranthus elatior for tea has virtually ceased, although it is still used for medicinal purposes. Tea from Chloranthus elatior

272

H. Santoso

leaves is reported to be very pleasant and fragrant (Nurmalasari et al. 2012). Because of its fragrant flowers and leaves, and its good response to shaping, it is also grown as an ornamental plant in Indonesia (Plantuse 2020).

References Aristiani M. Kajian etnobotani masyarakat Kasepuhan Sobang di Kabupaten Lebak, Banten. B.Sc Thesis, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor; 2014. (in Bahasa). Bohlmann F, Jakupovic J, King RM, Robinson H. New ent-atisirenic- and ent-kaurenic acid derivatives from Helianthus species. Phytochemistry. 1980;19:863–8. Detsi A, Majdalani M, Kontogiorgis CA, Hadjipavlou-Litina D, Kefalas P. Natural and synthetic 20-hydroxy-chalcones and aurones: synthesis, characterization and evaluation of the antioxidant and soybean lipoxygenase inhibitory activity. Bioorg Med Chem. 2009;17:8073–85. Goldsby G, Burke BA. Sesquiterpene lactones and a sesquiterpene diol from Jamaican Ambrosia peruviana. Phytochemistry. 1987;26:1059–63. Han GQ, Huang QL. Two new cinnamic acid derivatives from Magnolia biondii Pamp. Chin. Chem Lett. 1993;4:33–4. Handayani A. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan berkhasiat obat oleh masyarakat sekitar Cagar Alam Gunung Simpang, Jawa Barat. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2015;1(6):1425–32. (in Bahasa). Hieda T, Mikami Y, Obi Y. Microbial transformation of manool and (12Z)-labda-8(17),12,14-triene by Rhodococcus erythropolis JTS-131. Agric Biol Chem. 1983;47:787–94. Kawabata J, Fukushi Y, Tahara S, Mizutani J. Structures of novel sesquiterpene alcohols from Chloranthus japonicus (Chloranthaceae). Agric Biol Chem. 1984;48:713–7. Lin RC, Skaltsounis AL, Seguin E, Tillequin F, Koch M. Phenolic constituents of Selaginella doederleinii. Planta Med. 1994;60:168–70. Mendes CC, Cruz FG, Guedes MLS, Roque NF. Terpenes from Mikania aff. jeffreyi (Asteraceae). Z Naturforsch. 2005;60b:875–9. Middleton DJ, Lindsay S, Taylor N. Proposal to reject the name Chloranthus elatior (Chloranthaceae). Taxon. 2020;69(1):201. Na’im SWS. Keanekaragaman tumbuhan dan populasinya di Gunung Kelud pasca erupsi. B.Sc thesis, UIN Sunan Gunung Jati, Bandung:2014. (in Bahasa). Nurmalasari N, Sukarsa S, Hidayah HA. Studi Kasus pemanfaatan tumbuhan sebagai obat-obatan tradisional oleh masyarakat adat Kampung Naga di Kabupaten Tasikmalaya. Biosfera. 2012;29(3):141–50. (in Bahasa). Plantuse. Facilitated by Plant Resource of South-East Asia (Prosea). Published on the Internet. 2020. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/. Retrieved 4 Aug 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens. Published on the Internet. 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 2 Aug 2020. Shu JLS. Chloranthus Flora of China 4 1999;4:133–8. Sultan MZ, Jeon YM, Moon SS. Labdane-type diterpenes active against acne from pine cones (Pinus densiflora). Planta Med. 2008;74:449–52. Sun SL, Yan H, Li XH, Zheng XF, Liu HY. Terpenoids from Chloranthus elatior. Nat Prod Bioprospect. 2012;2:156–9. Takeshita M, Sato T. Synthesis of optically active 1-phenyl-1,2-propanediol by use of baker’s yeast. Chem Pharm Bull. 1989;37:1085–6. Vasconcelos JMJ, Silva AMS, Cavaleiro JAS. Chromones and flavanones from Artemisia campestris subsp. maritima. Phytochemistry. 1998;49:1421–4. Verdcourt B. Flora Malesiana, ser. I, vol. 10(2) (Chloranthaceae): 1986:129–34. Wang F, Zhou DS, Wei GZ, Ren FC, Liu JK. Chlorantholides A–F, eudesmane-type sesquiterpene lactones from Chloranthus elatior. Phytochemistry. 2012;77:312–7.

Chloranthus elatior Link

273

Wardah. Pemanfaatan keanekaragaman sumberdaya tumbuhan oleh masyarakat Baduy-dalam di sekitar Gunung Kendeng Selatan, Kabupaten Lebak, Banten bagian selatan. Beriia Biologi. 2003;6(6):2003. (in Bahasa). Xiao ZY, Wang XC, Zhang GP, Huang ZL, Hu LH. Terpenoids from roots of Chloranthus spicatus. Helv Chim Acta. 2010;93:803–10. Zhang M, Liu D, Fan G, Wang R, Lu X, Gu Y, Shi QW. Constituents from Chloranthaceae plants and their biological activities. Heterocycl Commun. 2016;22(4):175–220.

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob ASTERACEAE Kryssa D. Balangcod and Ashlyn Kim D. Balangcod

Synonyms Chromolaena barranquillensis (Hieron.) R.M.King & H.Rob.; Chromolaena clematitis (DC.) Pruski; Chromolaena odorata f. squarrosa (Koster f.) Sunita Garg; Chrysocoma volubilis Vell.; Eupatorium atriplicifolium Vahl; Eupatorium barranquillense Hieron.; Eupatorium brachiatum Sw. ex Wikstr.; Eupatorium clematitis DC.; Eupatorium conyzoides Vahl; Eupatorium conyzoides f. angustiflorum Cuatrec.; Eupatorium conyzoides var. extensum Hieron.; Eupatorium conyzoides var. floribundum (Kunth) Hieron.; Eupatorium conyzoides f. glabratum Hassl.; Eupatorium conyzoides var. glabrescens Steetz; Eupatorium conyzoides var. heterolepis Griseb.; Eupatorium conyzoides var. incanum Baker; Eupatorium conyzoides var maxiniliani Baker; Eupatorium conyzoides var. pauciflorum Baker; Eupatorium conyzoides var. phyllocephalum Sch.Bip. ex Baker; Eupatorium conyzoides var. scaberulum Hassl.; Eupatorium conyzoides var. tambillense Hieron.; Eupatorium divergens Less.; Eupatorium floribundum Kunth; Eupatorium graciliflorum DC.; Eupatorium incisum A.Rich.; Eupatorium klattii Milsp.; Eupatorium odoratum L.; Eupatorium odoratum var. brachiatum (Sw. ex Wikstr) DC.; Eupatorium odoratum var. cubense DC.; Eupatorium

K. D. Balangcod (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] A. K. D. Balangcod Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_240

275

276

K. D. Balangcod and A. K. D. Balangcod

odoratum var. mallotophyllum B.L.Rob.; Eupatorium odoratum var. pauciflorum (Baker) Hieron.; Eupatorium odoratum f. scandens Kuntze; Eupatorium sabeanum Buckley; Eupatorium stigmatosum Meyen & Walp.; Osmia atriplicifolia Sch.Bip.; Osmia clematitis (DC.) Sch.Bip.; Osmia conyzoides Small; Osmia divergens (Less.) Sch.Bip.; Osmia floribunda (Kunth) Sch.Bip.; Osmia graciflora (DC.) Sch.Bip.; Osmia odorata (L.) Sch.Bip.

Local Names English: Sunflower family, Christmas bush, Jack in the bush, communist weed, Siam weed, devil weed, bitterbush, common floss flower, Indonesia: Rumput belalang (Bahasa Indonesia) Philippines: Agonoy, hagonoy, gonoy, huluhagonoi (Tagalog)

Botany and Ecology Description: Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob (Fig. 1), locally known as hagonoy (Tag.) in the Philippines, and Siam weed in English, is an herbaceous perennial that grows to about 1–3 m high. It forms a dense, tangled undergrowth growing up to about 2–6 m with its paired branches growing from the main stem (Fig. 1). Its older stem at the base are woody and brown, its tips are green and soft. The leaves are ovate-triangular, 5–12 cm long and 3–7 cm wide growing in opposite pairs along its stem and branches (Fig. 2). The flowers are clustered into 10–35 flowers has 5–6 whorls of involucre bracts up to 1 cm long. According to Moody et al. (1984), the colors of the flowers are white bluish-lilac (Fig. 3). The seeds are narrow and oblong with white hairs (Fig. 4) that turn brown as the seeds dry (Zahara 2019). Fig. 1 Chromolaena odorata in the wild forming impenetrable tangles. (© Kryssa Balangcod)

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob Fig. 2 Chromolaena odorata leaves and phyllotaxy. (© Teodora Balangcod)

Fig. 3 An inflorescence of Chromolaena odorata, the individual flowers of the panicle is in bloom. (© Kryssa Balangcod)

277

278

K. D. Balangcod and A. K. D. Balangcod

Fig. 4 An infructescence of Chromolaena odorata, the seeds are narrow and oblong with white hairs. (© Kryssa Balangcod)

Distribution: Chromolaena odorata is a native of a Central and South America (Mgobozi et al. 2008). It has a wide tolerance to various climates allowing it to spread throughout Asia, North, and South America as well as North and South Africa (Kriticos et al. 2005). C. odorata has the ability to thrive in a wide range of soil in the tropics, with a short juvenile stage. Phenology: The flowers of C. odorata usually bloom during the dry season. The prolific seeds have strong ability to resprout after burning during land preparation, making it one of the most invasive species.

Local Medicinal Uses Although an invasive weed, different parts of this plant are used to treat wounds, burns, skin infections. Among the Pagadianons of Pagadian City, Philippines, C. odorata leaves is crushed and used to treat boils and tumorous inflammatory conditions known as kulebra (Agapin 2020). According to Chakraborty et al. (2011), the young leaf extract is also used for wound treatment in Indonesia. Additionally, the authors also record that in Indonesia, a tea is also made from leaf decoction for stomach aches, hypertension, cholesterol, and vertigo. Throughout Vietnam, the leaf aqueous extract is used to treat different skin conditions such as soft tissue wounds, burns, and skin infections (Vaisakh and Pandey 2012).

Phytochemistry Phenolic compounds of this plant include protocatechuic, p-hyrdoxybenzoic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and vanillic acids. Flavonones, flavonols, flavones, chalcones, acacetin, eupatilin, luteolin, naringenin, kaempferil, quercetin, quercetagetin, and sinensetin were also detected which are considered to be good antioxidants (Phan et al. 2001; Barua et al. 1978; Wollenweber et al. 1995; Suksamrarn et al. 2004;

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob Table 1 Contents of both fresh and dried leaves of Chromolaena odorata

Content (%) Ash Crude fat Fiber Moisture Crude protein Carbohydrate

279 Fresh leaves 2.5 0.10 10.76 59.5 6.56 20.58

Dried leaves 11 11 15 15 18 31

Pisutthanan et al. 2006; Hung et al. 2011; Ezenyi et al. 2014; Emani et al. 2015). Other components that are slightly present in this plant include alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, Z Aurone, Z Chalcone, Z Flavone, Z Flavonol; while moderately present components are phytates and tannins; and the component found to be highly present is saponins (Akinmoladun et al. 2007). In Table 1, Fresh and dried leaves were both analyzed for their content (Ngozi et al. 2009). In Vietnam, Zhang et al. (2012) isolated 17 compounds from the leaves: (1) 1,2methylenedioxy-6-methylanthraquinone, (2) 5aα,6,9,9aβ,10-pentahydro-10β-hydroxy7-methylanthra[1,2-d][1,3]dioxol-5-one, (3) 3-hydroxt-1,2,4-trimethoxy-6-methylanthraquinone, (4) 3-hydroxy-1,2-dimethoxy-6-methylanthraquinone, (5) 7-methoxy-7epi-medioresinol, (6) odoratin, (7) 3β-acetyloleanolic acid, (8) ursolic acid, (9) ombuin, (10) 4,20 -dihydroxy-40 50 60 -trimethoxychalcone, (11) (–)-pinoresinol, (12) austrocortinin, (13) tianshic acid, (14) cleomiscosin D, (15) (–)-medioresinol, (16) (–)-syringaresinol, and (17) cleomiscosin A. In the same study, it was found that the aqueous leaf extract from this plant also contains flavonoids such as salvigenin, kaempferide, sakuranetin, betulenol, 2-5-7-3 tetra-o-methyl quercetagetin, isosakuranetin, tamarixetin, essential oils such as geyren, β-eubeden and bornyl acetate, two chalcones and odoratin and its alcoholic compound, saponin, tannins, triterpenoids, organic acids, and other trace substances.

Bioactivities According to Vaisakh and Pandey (2012), this plant has anticancer, antidiabetic, antihepatoxic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties (Sirinthipaporn and Jiraungkoorskul 2017). Other medicinal uses of this plant include the following: analgesic, antipyretic, treatment of rheumatic fever, and similar conditions (Owoyele et al. 2008).

Economic Importance It is considered as a major agronomic problem in many tropical countries as its population rapidly expands during rainy seasons (Fig. 1), shading out indigenous vegetation (Lin et al. 2009). It also exhibits high allelopathy (Witkowski and Wilson 2001). However, it can also have economic value to farmers since it is beneficial in

280

K. D. Balangcod and A. K. D. Balangcod

the recycling of minerals (Timbilla and Braimah 1993). In Vietnam, a product from the aqueous extract of the leaves, called eupolin, has been licensed as treatment for wounds and burns (Vaisakh and Pandey 2012).

References Agapin JSF. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Pagadian City, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines. Philippine J Sci. 2020;149(1):83–9. Akinmoladun AC, Ibukun EO, Dan-Ologe IA. Phytochemicals constituents and antioxidant properties of Chromolaena odorata. Sci Res Essay. 2007;2(6):191–4. Barua RN, Sharma RP, Thyagarajan G, Hertz W. Flavonoids of Chromolaena odorata. Phytochemistry. 1978;17:1807–8. Chakraborty AK, Rambhade S, Patil UK. Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & H. Rob.: an overview. J Pharma Res. 2011;4(3):573–6. Emani L, Ravada S, Meka B, Garaga M, Golakoti T. A new flavanone from the leaves of Chromolaena odorata. Nat Prod Commun. 2015;10:1555–9. Ezenyi IC, Salawu OA, Kulkarni R, Emeje M. Antiplasmodial activity-aided isolation and identification of quercetin-40 - methyl ether in Chromolaena odorata leaf fraction with high activity against chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Res. 2014;113:4415–22. Hung TM, Cuong TD, Dang NH, Zhu S, Long PQ, Komatsu K, et al. Flavonoid glycosides from Chromolaena odorata leaves and their in vitro cytotoxic activity. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2011;59:129–31. Kriticos DJ, Yonow T, McFayden RE. The potential distribution of Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed) in relation to climate. Weed Res. 2005;5:246–54. Lin H, Cao M, Stoy PC, Zhang Y. Assessing self-organization of plant communities – a thermodynamic approach. Ecol Model. 2009;220:784–90. Mgobozi MP, Somers MJ, Dippenaar-Schoeman AS. Spider responses to alien plant invasion and management. J Appl Ecol. 2008;45:1189–97. Moody K, Munroe CE, Lubigan RT, Paller EC Jr. Major weeds of the Philippines. Laguna: Weed Science Society of the Philippines, University of the Philippines College; 1984. p. 328. Ngozi IG, Jude IC, Catherine IC. Chemical profile of Chromolaena odorata L. (King and Robinson) leaves. Pakistan J Nutrition. 2009;8(5):521–4. Owoyele B, Oguntoye S, Dare K, Ogunbiyi BA, Aruboula EA, Soladoye A. Analgesic, antiinflammatory and antipyretic activities from flavonoid fractions of Chromolaena odorata. J Med Plant Res. 2008;2(9):219–25. Phan TT, Wang L, See P, Grayer RJ, Chan SY, Lee ST. Phenolic compounds of Chromolaena odorata protect cultured skin cells from oxidative damage: implication for cutaneous wound healing. Biol Pharm Bull. 2001;24(12):1373–9. Pisutthanan N, Liawruangrath B, Liawruangrath S, Bremner JB. A new flavonoid from Chromolaena odorata. Nat Prod Res. 2006;20:1192–8. Sirinthipaporn A, Jiraungkoorskul W. Wound healing property review of Siam weed, Chromolaena odorata. Pharmacogn Rev. 2017;11(21):35–8. https://doi.org/10.4103/phrev.phrev_53_16. Suksamrarn A, Chotipong A, Suavansri T, Boongird S, Timsuksai P, Vimuttipong S, et al. Antimycobacterial activity and cytotoxicity of flavonoids from the flowers of Chromolaena odorata. Arch Pharma Res. 2004;27:507–11. Timbilla JA, Braimah H. A survey of the introduction, distribution and spread of Chromolaena odorata in Ghana. In: Proceedings of the 3rd international Chromolaena workshop. Nairobi: International Centre for Research in Agroforestry; 1993. p. 14–8. Vaisakh MN, Pandey A. The invasive weed with healing properties: a review on Chromolaena odorata. Int J Pharma Sci Res. 2012;3(1):80–3.

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob

281

Witkowski ET, Wilson M. Changes in density, biomass, seed production and soil seed banks of the nonnative invasive plant, Chromolaena odorata, along a 15-year chronosequence. Plant Ecol. 2001;152:13–27. Wollenweber E, Dorr M, Muniappan R. Exudate flavonoids in a tropical weed Chromolaena odorata (L.). R.M. King & H. Robinson. Biochem Syst Ecol. 1995;23:873–4. Zahara M. Description of Chromolaena odrata L.R.M King and H. Robinson as medicinal plant: a review. IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng. 2019;506:012–22. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/ 506/1/012022. Zhang ML, Irwin D, Li XN, Sauriol F, Shi XW, Wang YW, Huo CH, Li LG, Gu YC, Shi QW. PPARy agonist from Chromolaena odorata. J Nat Prod. 2012;75(12):2076–81. https:// doi.org/10.1021/np300386d.

Cibotium barometz (L.) J.Sm. CYATHEACEAE Daniele Cicuzza

Synonyms Balantium glaucescens (Kunze) Link; Cibotium assamicum Hook.; Cibotium baranetz Christ; Cibotium djambianum Hassk.; Cibotium glaucescens Kunze; Cibotium glaucophyllum C.Presl; Dicksonia assamica (Hook.) Griff.; Dicksonia barometz (L.) Link; Aspidium barometz (L.) Willd.; Nephrodium barometz (L.) Sweet; Polypodium barometz L.

Local Names Penawar jambi, Scythian lamb, Golden chicken fern, paku ayam mas, bulu pusi, Woolly fern, 金毛狗.

Botany and Ecology Description: Cibotium is a small genus, belonging to the Cibotiaceae family, with 11 species all distributed in the tropical and subtropical region of the old world. The plant has a large dimension easy to recognize and the large leaves (Fig. 1), makes it easy to recognize inside botanic gardens or in its natural habitat. Cibotium barometz is a large fern which can reach 3 m high. It has a massive rhizome, densely covered with golden yellow hairs (Fig. 2). The stipes are very thick, between 1.5 and 2 cm in diameter, and it can reach up to 1.5 m long; covered with dense shining and golden yellow hairs. The density of the hairs decrease toward the terminal part of the stipe. The lamina is large, up to 2 m in length, more D. Cicuzza (*) Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_63

283

284

D. Cicuzza

Fig. 1 The typical Cibotium leaf. The large lamina of this species can reach up to 2 m, including the stipe. (© Phyo KayKhine)

than 1 m in width. The species is easy to recognize also by the color of the lamina. The upper side has a dark green color whereas the lower side of the lamina has a light silvery, green color. This color, thanks to the plant dimension and the size of its lamina, can be spotted from a distance, particularly since the species is usually observed along the forest edge or in open sites. The lamina is bipinnate with the largest pinna at the base of the lamina, from 75 cm long to 25 cm wide. The numerous pinnule are deeply lobed with a margin that can be entire at the base to dentate at the terminal part. The small veins are distinct and forked reaching the pinnula margin. Sori are on the lower part of the lamina and at the edge of the pinnula. Each pinnula lobe can have two to three pairs of sori. They are protected by a very peculiar and nice indusia. The indusia has a bean, oval, shape when they are not mature and at maturity, they open with a single long aperture along the longer side of it. When open, the two sides are unequal with the larger one on the outer side and the smaller phasing the mid nerve (Lindsay and Middleton 2012) (Fig. 3). Phenology: The species does not have a cyclic reproductive phenology. Within a population, there are always one individual reproductively fertile. However, we do not have reliable studies on the phenology of this species, and therefore within its wide range of distribution, the species can have some phenological activity.

Cibotium barometz (L.) J.Sm.

285

Fig. 2 The sori disposition are usually on the margin of the first pinnule of the pinna, starting from three pairs to one. (© Phyo KayKhine)

Distribution and Habitat: The fern is easy to recognize thanks to its great dimension. It grows on open hill slopes and along stream banks. It can be observed as well in secondary forest or at the margin of tree plantation of farms. Even though it grows on open hill slopes, they prefer to be in a humid habitat, and therefore they require a constantly drained and humid soil. When the plant is well established, the population can create a thick layer difficult to penetrate. It grows from 500 m up to lower montane forest at 1000–1500 m above sea level. They associate their presence with evergreen forest and avoid tropical habitat with a marked season where soil can remain dry for a long period of time, for example, limestone outcrops (Lindsay and Middleton 2012). In tropical areas where forest is converted into agricultural fields, C. barometz are collected and sold in the market, a practice that determines the reduction if not the local extinction of this species. This phenomenon has been documented in Peninsula Malaysia during the 1980s when the palm oil plantation expanded considerably (Ong and Nordiana 1999). Despite that this species is considered as of Least Concern as per the IUCN evaluation, a decrease in its population at the global level has been noticed (Zhang et al. 2008; Nguyen et al. 2009). Therefore, a better assessment is needed in order to clarify the real status of the Cibotium barometz population.

286

D. Cicuzza

Fig. 3 Characteristic reddish hairs cover the rhizome and the basal part of the plant stipe. (© Phyo KayKhine)

Local Medicinal Uses Cibotium barometz has been used as traditional medicine for a long period of time (Praptosuwiryo et al. 2011). The rhizome is usually rather thick and densely covered with long hairs of bright golden color. This part is used by the Malays of Machang in Kelantan, Malaysia, as a styptic to stop bleeding (Ong and Nordiana 1999).

Phytochemistry For its long tradition of use, Cibotium barometz has been studied intensively, and several biochemical compounds have been discovered: pterosins, terpenoids, steroids, flavones, glucosides, aromatic, and pyrone compounds (Wu et al. 2007) Furthermore, several pharmacological effects, such as antihemorrhagic, bacteriostatic, antiosteoporotic, anticancer, and hepatoprotective, have been recently tested (Xu et al. 2012). Other biochemical components discovered in C. barometz are onitin (2’O-ß-D glucoside and alloside). The rhizome oil contains palmitic acid and linoleic acid. C. barometz with other selected fern species, such as tree ferns Cyathea

Cibotium barometz (L.) J.Sm.

287

latebrosa, Drynaria quercifolia, etc., have a particularly high level of phenolic compounds with strong primary antioxidant property and at the same time weak concentration of secondary oxidants (How Yee and Yau Yan 2011). Furthermore, this species has strong scavenging activity of ascorbic acid, ferric ion reducing power, and inhibition of lipid peroxidation (Lai and Lim 2011).

Biocultural Importance The species is easy to recognize and with its goldish hairy rhizome and the large silver color leaves has been used as an ornamental plants from China to Indonesia (Sumatra) (Praptosuwiryo et al. 2011). The overexploitation over a long period of time has reduced the frequency of occurrence of this plant in local markets. Its ornamental use is therefore only limited to botanic gardens and fern amateurs. The cultural use of this plant is numerous. In Peninsular Malesia, the rhizome hairs were traditionally used to stuff pillows and cushions. However, when the hairs become too dry, they can irritate the skin. This major drawback along with the affordable modern pillows has reduced this practice (Haji Mohamed and Khoon Meng 2011). European scientists, when they observed the rhizome of this species for the first time, believed it to be some kind of creature halfway between plant and animal, which had the stem attached to its navel. Therefore, it was associated to the legend regarding a “vegetable lamb of Tartary,” or “Scythian lamb,” which also gives the fern its specific epithet barometz. In the early seventeenth century, a belief was recorded that when the vegetable lamb grew up and came to life, it would eat all vegetation growing around it before dying. In the late seventeenth century, even the German natural historian Kaempfer, a surgeon of the Dutch East India Company, believed that the Scythian lamb came from the skins of aborted Karakul lambs. In fact, its status as a plant was not properly clarified until the eighteenth century. In Malaysia, racketeers might have perpetuated the legend of the golden chicken fern.

References Haji Mohamed AM, Khoon Meng W. Golden chicken, vegetable lamb: between fact and fancy. Garden. 2011;3(6):10–1. Lai HY, Lim YY. Evaluation of antioxidant activities of the methanolic extracts of selected ferns in Malaysia. Int J Environ Sci Dev. 2011;2(6):442–7. Lindsay S, Middleton DJ. Ferns of Thailand, Laos and Cambodia 2012 onwards. http://rbg-web2. rbge.org.uk/thaiferns/ Nguyen T, Le TS, Ngo DP, et al. Non-detriment finding for Cibotium barometz in Viet Nam. 2009.; https://www.cites.org/eng/node/44137 Ong HC, Nordiana M. Malay ethno-medico botany in Machang, Kelantan, Malaysia. Fitoterapia. 1999;70(5):502–13. Praptosuwiryo TN, Pribadi DO, Puspitaningtyas DM, et al. Inventory the tree fern genus Cibotium of Sumatera: ecology, population size, and distribution in Nort Sumatera. Biodiversitas. 2011;12 (4):204–11.

288

D. Cicuzza

Wu Q, Yang XW, Yang SH, et al. Chemical constituents of Cibotium barometz. Nat Prod Res Dev. 2007;19:240–3. Xu JX, Wang YL, Wang JJ, et al. Chemical constituents of Cibotium barometz and their bioactivities: a review. Nat Prod Res Dev. 2012;1:1–10. Zhang XC, Jia JS, Zhang GM. Non-detriment finding for Cibotium barometz in China. NDF workshop case studies. 2008.WG 2 – perennials.

Cinnamomum burmanni (Nees & T.Nees) Blume LAURACEAE Wawan Sujarwo and Ary Prihardhyanto Keim

Synonyms Cinnamomum ammannii Lukman.; Cinnamomum chinense Blume; Cinnamomum dulce (Roxb.) Nees; Cinnamomum hainanense Nakai; Cinnamomum macrostemon Hayata; Cinnamomum miaoshanense S.Lee & F.N.Wei; Cinnamomum mindanaense Elmer; Cinnamomum nitidum (Roxb.) Hook.; Cinnamomum thunbergii Lukman.; Laurus burmanni Nees & T.Nees; Laurus dulcis Roxb.; Laurus nitida Roxb.; Persea dulcis (Roxb.) Spreng.; Persea nitida (Roxb.) Spreng.

Local Names English: Indonesian cinnamon, Indonesian cassia, Java cassia, fagot cassia, padang cassia, Batavia cassia, korintji cassia, cassia vera; Indonesian: kayu manis; Malay: kayu manis, kulit manis

Botany and Ecology Description: Cinnamomum burmanni is a small slender to fairly large tree, evergreen, and up to 30 m tall (Fig. 1), having subopposite leaves. The petiole is 0.5– 1 cm long, with a blade that is oblong-elliptical to lanceolate, 4–14 cm  1.5–6 cm; pale red and finely hairy when young (usually grown at higher elevation). Older leaves are glabrous, glossy green above and glaucous pruinose below. Inflorescence is a short axillary panicle. Flowers are borne on 4–12 mm long pedicel, perianth W. Sujarwo (*) · A. P. Keim Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_174

289

290

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

Fig. 1 Cinnamomum burmanni. (© Wawan Sujarwo)

Fig. 2 Leaves and Inflorescence of Cinnamomum burmanni. (© Wawan Sujarwo)

4–5 mm long, and after anthesis the lobes tear off transversely about half way. Stamens about 4 mm long, staminodes 2 mm, fruit (berry) is ovoid, about 1 cm long (Fig. 2) (Dao et al. 1999). Kostermans (1964) recognized several varieties of

Cinnamomum burmanni (Nees & T.Nees) Blume

291

C. burmanni, which are no longer followed. Cinnamomum burmanni and Cinnamomum cassia are two species found as cohabitants in Indonesia; due to their morphological similarities, the two species are often confused for each other. Phenology: The flowering time is observed to fall in the rainy season approximately from October to February (Kostermans 1983, 1995). The fruits ripen around May to June. As the bark is the most important part of the tree harvested for the cinnamon, the flowering and fruiting time is more important to propagation for sustainable plantation than for harvesting. Distribution and Habitat: Bangladesh, Borneo, China South-Central, China Southeast, Hainan, Indonesia (Java, Lesser Sunda Island, Sulawesi, Sumatera), Myanmar, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam (POWO 2020). Cinnamomum burmanni are found mainly in Indonesia and Malaysia. The species has been cultivated throughout the Indonesian Archipelago from Sumatera to Timor Islands, particularly in Sumatera and Java. The center of origin of this species has long been debated. But the presence of ancient plantation of the species around the Kerinci areas in the Indonesian Provinces of Jambi and West Sumatera suggests Kerinci or at least Central-West Sumatera as the center of origin. Hence, the origin of international trade name korintji cassia. Cinnamomum burmanni is well adapted to various kinds of habitats from coastal forests, lowland tropical rainforests, up to lower montane forests at approximately 2,000 m asl altitude. Since the origin of the species is strongly suggested in the vicinity of Kerinci in the highlands of Central-West Sumatera, the species is believed here to be of a fairly mountainous plant. The growth of the species is slower in higher altitudes. However, the bark tends to be thicker and, thus of better quality and economic value (Ravindran et al. 2004).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The medicinal uses of Cinnamomum burmanni in Indonesia is legendary. The Balinese use leaf decoction for treating heartburn, fever, cough, sore throat, hypertension, and for stimulating the appetite (Sujarwo et al. 2015). Also, bark decoction of C. burmanni is traditionally used by the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese for curing influenza and colds (Kloppenburg-Versteegh 1934; SangatRoemantyo 1990; Sangat-Roemantyo and Riswan 1990; Beers 2001).

Phytochemistry Bark: Antibacterial (Shan et al. 2007), Antidiabetic (Hasibuan et al. 2012), Antihyperglycemic (Hasibuan et al. 2016), Antimetastatic (Lestari et al. 2017), Antimicrobial (Awang et al. 2013), Antipyretic (Zainol et al. 2014). Fruit: Antioxidant (Huang et al. 2011). Leaves: Antibacterial (Praptiwi et al. 2015). Stem: Antibacterial (Praptiwi et al. 2015).

292

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

Local Food Uses South-East Asia: The bark of Cinnamomum burmanni are known in various languages in Indonesian Archipelago as kayu manis. It has been known as a spice for flavoring and sweetening the food in Southeast Asia for ages (Hasanah et al. 2004; Seidemann 2005). The bark has been used and traded as sweetener long before the sugar cane-based industries were established. In recent time, the powder made from grinded bark of C. burmanni has emerged as substitute for white sugar among diabetics.

Biocultural Importance South-East Asia: Cinnamomum burmanni occupies an important place in the cultures of people in Southeast Asia and beyond. Besides an important source of food flavoring, the bark of this species is also used as a part of incense and has been burned probably since the dawn of human civilization, a custom, which is still existed and practiced to this present day. In Indonesia, the custom of burning incense (bark of C. burmanni) is largely practiced, especially in Java. Known as kayu manis, bark has been an important part of Javanese incense (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990). In other words, the bark of C. burmanni provides natural aromatherapy for the people in Indonesian Archipelago, particularly the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese. The bark has been internationally traded as an important spice at least since the time of Minanga Kingdom of West Sumatra and Jambi around Seventh century AD (Coedes 1930). Later C. burmanni was planted in massive plantations in Kerinci area by the Minanga Kingdom, later continued by the Dharmasyara Kingdom and Srivijaya Empire (Ibnu Rustah 1869, 1891, 1892, 2003; Ibnu Rustah and Al Jakubi 1870; Coedes 1918, 1930, 1968; Muljana 2006). The bark of C. burmanni has been traded as an important spice presumably in about the same time, and with the same values as the legendary Eastern Indonesian spices: Clove (Syzygium aromaticum; Myrtaceae), candlenut (Aleurites moluccana; Euphorbiaceae), and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans; Myristicaceae). Furthermore, the centers of cultivations and trades of the Indonesian cinnamon have always been in Sumatera as has been immortalized in padang cassia, one of its international trading names.

Economic Importance South-East Asia: Cinnamomum burmanni is mainly traded in the form of dried dark brown bark, and internationally known as Indonesian cinnamon. Basically, all plant parts are aromatic, but only the bark is commercially exploited. It is harvested at the beginning of the rainy season when the bark can be peeled easily (Fig. 3). Until recently, the bark and leaf oils of Indonesian cassia have been regarded as having little commercial significance, as the entire cassia oil production for commerce is derived almost entirely from Chinese cassia and cinnamon oil from Ceylon

Cinnamomum burmanni (Nees & T.Nees) Blume

293

Fig. 3 Stem and Bark of Cinnamomum burmanni. (© Wawan Sujarwo)

cinnamon (Hasanah et al. 2004). However, the importance of the Indonesian cassia is getting stronger in cinnamon world markets due to steady supply, improved quality, and the good quantity of essential oil and safrole. The oil extracted from the barks and leaves of C. burmanni contains 96.28 to 99.7% safrole (Chen et al. 1997); this makes it as an important source of essential oil and safrole (Li-Xi and Bi-Qiang 1997; Ravindran et al. 2004). The main importing countries are the USA, Germany, and the Netherlands. Indonesia has been the major player in the world trade of C. burmanni even when the country was still a Dutch colony or known as the Dutch East Indies (Heyne 1927; Pickersgill 2005). To this present day, the largest quantity of cinnamon used and traded in the USA is harvested from C. burmanni. In Indonesia, most of the bark produced is exported, and domestic consumption is very little. Nevertheless, the volume of domestic consumption has significantly increased recently due to the Covid-19 pandemic; kayu manis or bark of C. burmanni is believed aid in preventing and combating the virus. It is mostly prepared as one component in various traditional herbal drinks such as wedang uwuh (personal observation). “Wedang Uwuh” is the legendary Javanese Yogyakarta herbal drink in which the major components are sappan (Caesalpinia sappan; Fabaceae), ginger (Zingiber officinale; Zingiberaceae), and Indonesian cinnamon (Kloppenburg-Versteegh 1934).

References Awang AFIB, Susanti D, Taher M. Antimicrobial activity and synergic effect of Cinnamomum burmanni’s essential oil and its isolated compound (Cinnamaldehyde). Kuala Lumpur: International Conference on Chemical, Agricultural and Medical Sciences; 2013. p. 26–9. Beers SJ. Jamu: the ancient Indonesian art of herbal healing. Hong Kong: Periplus; 2001. Chen BQ, Xu Y, Zeng FX, Yu XJ, Ding JKD, Wu Y. Studies on the introduction and chemical constituents of essential oil of Cinnamomum burmanii f. heyneanum. Acta Bot Yunnan. 1997;14:105–10. Coedes G. Le Royaume de Crivijaya. Bulletin de l’ École Franc¸aise d’ Extrême-Orient. 1918;18:1–36.

294

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

Coedes G. Les inscriptions malaises de Çrivijaya. Bulletin de l’ École Franc¸aise d’ Extrême-Orient. 1930;30:29–80. Coedes G. The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. Honolulu: Center Press; 1968. Dao NK, Hop T, Siemonsma JS. Plant resources of South East Asia 13, spices. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. Hasanah M, Nuryani Y, Djisbar A, Mulyono E, Wikardi E, Asman A. Indonesian cassia (Indonesian cinnamon). In: Ravindran PN, Babu KN, Shylaja M, editors. Cinnamon and cassia: the genus Cinnamomum. London: CRC Press; 2004. p. 185–98. Hasibuan MS, Yasni S, Bintang M, Ranti AS. Toxicity study of antidiabetics functional drink of Piper crocatum and Cinnamomum burmanni. HAYATI J Biosci. 2012;19(1):31–6. Hasibuan MS, Yasni S, Bintang M, Ranti AS. Antihyperglycemic activity of Piper crocatum leaves and Cinnamomum burmanni bark mixture extract in Streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J Math Fund Sci. 2016;48(2):178–91. Heyne K. De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch Indië, vol. 1. 2nd ed. Batavia: Department van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch Indië; 1927. Huang S, Pan Y, Gan D, Ouyang X, Tang S, Ekunwe SIN, Wang H. Antioxidant activities and UV-protective properties of melanin from the berry of Cinnamomum burmanni and Osmanthus fragrans. Med Chem Res. 2011;20:475–81. Ibnu Rustah AU. Izviestiia o khoziarakh. Leiden: E.J. Brill; 1869. Ibnu Rustah AU. Al Mujallad al-sābiʻ min kitāb al-Aʻlāq al-nafīsah. Leiden: E.J. Brill; 1891. Ibnu Rustah AU. Kitāb al-A’lāk an-Nafīsa. Leiden: E.J. Brill; 1892. Ibnu Rustah AU. Encyclopaedia Iranica. New York: C.E. Boswort; 2003. Ibnu Rustah AU, Al Jakubi AJW. Bibliotheca geographorum Arabicorum (in Arabic and Latin). Leiden: E.J. Brill; 1870. Kloppenburg-Versteegh J. Wenken en raadgevingen betreffende het gebruik van Indische planten Vruchten, Enz. Semarang: Semarang Servire Katwijk; 1934. Kostermans AJGH. Bibliographia Lauracearum. Bogor: Herbarium Bogoriense; 1964. Kostermans AJGH. The South Indian species of Cinnamommum Schaeffer (Lauraceae). Bull Bot Sur India. 1983;25:90–133. Kostermans AJGH. Cinnamomum. In: Dassanayake MD, editor. A revised handbook to the Flora of Ceylon, vol. 9. New Delhi: Amerind Publishing; 1995. p. 112–29. Lestari B, Muntafiah L, Walidah Z, Jenie RI. A comparison of antimetastatic activity between Nerium indicum and Cinnamomum burmanni on 4T1 cells. Indones J Cancer Chemoprevent. 2017;8(2):83–9. Li-Xi W, Bi-Qiang C. A discussion about the botanical name of xia-ye-gui. Acta Bot Yunnan. 1997;19:27–8. Muljana S. Sriwijaya. Yogyakarta: LKIS; 2006. Pickersgill B. Spices. In: Prance G, Nesbitt M, editors. The cultural history of plants. London: Routledge; 2005. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 05 May 2020. Praptiwi IM, Fathoni A, Wulansari D, Agusta A. Antibacterial screening of the culture of endophytic fungal extracts isolated from cinnamon stick (Cinnamomum burmanni [Nees & T. Nees] BLUME). Teknol Indonesia. 2015;38(1):33–41. Ravindran PN, Babu KN, Shylaja M. Cinnamon and cassia: the genus Cinnamomum. London: CRC Press; 2004. Sangat-Roemantyo H. Ethnobotany of the Javanese incense. Econ Bot. 1990;44:413–6. Sangat-Roemantyo H, Riswan S. Javanese medicinal plants: their distribution and uses. Denpasar: International Congress on Traditional Medicines and Medicinal Plants; 1990. Seidemann J. World spice plants: economic usage, botany, taxonomy. Heidelberg: Springer; 2005.

Cinnamomum burmanni (Nees & T.Nees) Blume

295

Shan B, Cai YZ, Brooks JD, Corke H. Antibacterial properties and major bioactive components of cinnamon stick (Cinnamomum burmanni): activity against foodborne pathogenic bacteria. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55:5484–90. Sujarwo W, Keim AP, Savo V, Guarrera PM, Caneva G. Ethnobotanical study of Loloh: traditional herbal drinks from Bali (Indonesia). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;169:34–48. Zainol Q, Hidayat EM, Peryoga SU. Antipyretic effect of Cinnamomum burmanni (Nees & T.Nees) Blume infusion in fever-induced rat models. Althea Med J. 2014;1(2):81–5.

Cinnamomum cebuense Kosterm LAURACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Local Names English: Cebu cinnamon Philippines: Kalingag, kaningag

Botany and Ecology Medium-sized tree, ca. 6–8 m. Bark, root, and crushed leaves aromatic with a characteristic smell of cloves (eugenol), sassafras (safrole), or a combination of these odors (Figs. 1 and 2). Twigs terete, ca. 1–5 mm diameter glabrous. Branchlets and bark smooth; terminal buds small, glabrous, not perulate. Leaves opposite, leathery, smooth, pale green, elliptic to ovate, ca. 16 cm long and 11 cm wide; base obtuse; apex acuminate; lateral veins ascend toward the leaf tip, intercostal veins scalariform; mature blades glabrous; margin entire. Inflorescences axillary (Fig. 3); panicles ca. 17 mm long, puberulous; paniculate cymose, branching, flowers of the ultimate branch arranged in cyme; rachis angular; bracts persistent. Flowers bisexual, trimerous, appressed hairy, receptacle tube shallow. Petals smooth and scarcely exerted. Fruit smooth, narrowly ellipsoid to obovoid ca. 2 cm long, ovoid to globose seated on cupule, drupaceous, epicarp waxy, glabrous, pericarp thin or thick, often fragrant. Seeds 1 per fruit, smooth, glabrous; endosperm absent; germination hypogeal (Fig. 4). Etymologically, this species was named for its type locality (Sitio Cantipla, Barangay Tabunan, Cebu City), where it was collected as described by Kostermans

M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_216

297

298

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Leaves of Cinnamomum cebuense. (© P.B. Pelser and J.F. Barcelona)

Fig. 2 Young leaves of Cinnamomum cebuense. (© L.M. Paguntalan)

in 1986. Cinnamomum cebuense is one of 21 Cinnamomum species with complex morphology found in the Philippines, of which 16 species are known to be endemic (Kostermans 1986). The native range of C. cebuense is Cebu, Philippines (POWO 2020). This endemic species in the Philippines is abundant in Cantipla, Cebu mountain forest, ca. 800 m. C. cebuense is considered as “endangered” based on the updated national

Cinnamomum cebuense Kosterm

299

Fig. 3 Flowering twigs of Cinnamomum cebuense. (© L.M. Paguntalan)

list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order (DENR-DAO) No. 2017-01 (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: Cinnamomum cebuense is famous in its native place in Cebu. Residents commonly utilize the bark for stomach troubles by chewing directly or drinking its decoction (Global Trees Campaign 2020). Cinnamons are considered as multifaceted medicinal plants for their uses against a variety of ailments, including stomachache, headache, and toothache (Alimpoos et al. 2018).

Phytochemistry Del Fierro et al. (2012) investigated the secondary metabolites present in Cinnamomum cebuense for the first time. Major constituents were identified and isolated from different parts of C. cebuense. The bark contains safrole and eugenol, leaves have polyphenol, and roots contain trilinolein. Ragasa et al. (2013)

300

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 4 Fruits of Cinnamomum cebuense. (© W. Granert)

investigated constituents present in C. cebuense by silica gel chromatography. Results showed that the bark of C. cebuense possess novel compounds of monoterpene and sesquiterpene, along with other known compounds like phenolics; leaves contain sesquiterpenes and triterpenes. Eugenol is one of the main phytochemical of Cinnamomum species including C. cebuense, possessing pharmacological properties (Del Fierro et al. 2012). It was found to be cytotoxic against HL-60 leukemia cells (Hirata et al. 2005), promyelocytic leukemia cells (Yoo et al. 2005), U2OS human osteoblastic cells (Ho et al. 2006), and colon cancer cells (Jaganathan et al. 2011). Moreover, eugenol was also discovered to have potent analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anesthetic, and antioxidant properties (Pramod et al. 2010). The active metabolization of eugenol in hepatocytes can form a reactive intermediate quinine methide, which is known for its cytotoxic potentials (Thompson et al. 1991). Eugenol is also a potent inhibitor of tumor growth (Jaganathan et al. 2010). Safrole, another phytochemical present in essential oils of Cinnamomum species, is also present in C. cebuense (Bacon 1909; Concha and Cruz 1966; Jantan and Goh 1990; Stubbs et al. 2004; Jantan et al. 2004; Lv et al. 2010; Ali et al. 2010). Undesirably, safrole was found to have a hepatocarcinogenic effect (Liu et al. 1999), which could significantly increase hepatocellular carcinomas (Wislocki et al. 1977). Huang et al. (1999) showed that safrole has fumigant and contact

Cinnamomum cebuense Kosterm

301

toxic effect. However, Reynertson et al. (2005) discovered that preparing traditional cinnamon tea could degrade and get rid of safrole. Espineli et al. (2014) evaluated the cytotoxic nature of various compounds of C. cebuense. Cytotoxic compounds against colon carcinoma and non-cancer Chinese hamster ovary cells were: humulene, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamaldehyde, and monoterpene. Another compound, sesquiterpene, was found to be cytotoxic against non-small cell lung adenocarcinoma (A549). Alimpoos et al. (2018) report C. cebuense as a potential anti-proliferative agent of cancer cells. Other constituents of C. cebuense were also found to have antimicrobial activity against bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis, and fungi such as Candida albicans and Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Espineli et al. 2014). The inhibition activity of α-terpineol against B. subtilis remarkably surpassed that of the standard antibiotic chloramphenicol.

Local Food Uses Cinnamomum cebuense has a variety of local food uses. The aromatic bark and leaves of C. cebuense can be used as food flavorings and spices as well as in making beverages, pastries, confectioneries, and food supplements (Forest Products Research and Development Institute 2017).

Economic Importance The Forest Products Research and Development Institute (2017) listed Cinnamomum cebuense as one of the three commonly known and economically important cinnamon species in the Philippines. C. cebuense aromatic bark and leaves are collected from the wild for culinary and medicinal purposes in the Philippines. Some merchants and traders sell dried aromatic parts of C. cebuense in Cebu markets and nearby provinces for culinary, food, supplement, pharmaceutical, cosmeceutical, and personal health care products.

References Ali NAM, Rahmani M, Shaari K, Ali AM, Ee CLG. Antimicrobial activity of Cinnamomum impressicostatum and C. pubescens and bioassay-guided isolation of bioactive (E)-methyl cinnamate. J Biol Sci. 2010;10:101–6. https://doi.org/10.3923/jbs.2010.101.106. Alimpoos MRG, Baguio JN, Bilbao GCD, Cañada L, Enerio K, Jocom NM, et al. Antiangiogenic and morphological effects of Cinnamomum cebuense Kosterm. leaf extracts on Anas platyrynchos L. embryonic development using an in vivo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. Int J Biosci. 2018;13(1):338–48. https://doi.org/10.12692/ijb/13.1.338-348. Bacon RF. Philippine terpenes and essential oils, III. Philipp J Sci. 1909;4:114–5.

302

M. L. G. Dapar

Concha JA, Cruz FP. A preliminary study in the essential oil content of Cinnamomum mercadoi Vidal. Abst J Phil Pharm Assoc. 1966;52:68. Del Fierro RS, Maquilang QMA, Sanjorjo RAS, Tradio MD, Shen CC, Ragasa CY. Secondary metabolites from Cinnamomum cebuense. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6:2146–9. https://doi.org/ 10.5897/JMPR11.1379. Espineli DL, Agoo EMG, Del Fierro RS, Shen CC, Ragasa CY. Cytotoxic and antimicrobial compounds from Cinnamomum cebuense Kosterm. (Lauraceae). Pharm Chem J. 2014;48 (9):600–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11094-014-1157-9. Forest Products Research and Development Institute. Philippine cinnamon. In: Department of Science and Technology. 2017. https://www.forestfoundation.ph/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/ Philippine-Cinnamon.pdf. Accessed 12 June 2020. Global Trees Campaign. Cebu cinnamon. In: Threatened Trees. 2020. http://www.globaltrees.org/ tp_cebu.htm. Accessed 14 May 2020. Hirata O, Hirata A, Murakami Y, Shoji M, Sakagami H, Fujisawa S. Induction of cytotoxicity and apoptosis and inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 gene expression by eugenol-related compounds. Anticancer Res. 2005;25(5):3263–9. Ho YC, Huang FM, Chang YC. Mechanisms of cytotoxicity of eugenol in human osteoblastic cells in-vitro. Int Endod J. 2006;39(5):389–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2591.2006.01091.x. Huang Y, Ho SH, Manjunatha KR. Bioactivities of safrole and isosafrole on Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). J Econ Entomol. 1999;92(3):676–83. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/92.3.676. Jaganathan SK, Mondhe D, Wani ZA, Pal HC, Mandal M. Effect of honey and eugenol on Ehrlich Ascites and solid carcinoma. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2010; https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/989163. Jaganathan SK, Mazumdar A, Mondhe D, Mandal M. Apoptotic effect of eugenol in human colon cancer cell lines. Cell Biol Int. 2011;35:607–15. https://doi.org/10.1042/cbi20100118. Jantan I, Goh SH. The essential oils of Cinnamomum mollissimum. J Trop For Sci. 1990;2(3):252–9. Jantan I, Ayop N, Ali NAM, Ahmad AS, Yalvema MF, Muhammad K, et al. The essential oils of Cinnamomum rhyncophyllum Miq. as natural sources of benzyl benzoate, safrole and methyl (E)- cinnamate. Flavour Fragr J. 2004;19(3):260–2. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.1301. Kostermans AJGH. Cinnamomum (Lauraceae) Part 1. Ginkgoana. 1986;6:30–68. Liu TY, Chen CC, Chen CL, Chi CW. Safrole-induced oxidative damage in the liver of SpragueDawlet rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 1999;37(7):697–702. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0278-6915(99) 00055-1. Lv GP, Huang WH, Yang FQ, Li J, Li SP. Pressurized liquid extraction and GC-MS analysis for simultaneous determination of seven components in Cinnamomum cassia and the effect of sample preparation. J Sep Sci. 2010;33(15):2341–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/jssc.201000208. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Lauraceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Lauraceae.html. Accessed 12 June 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens: Kew; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 12 June 2020 Pramod K, Ansari SH, Ali J. Eugenol: a natural compound with versatile pharmacological actions. Nat Prod Commun. 2010;5(12):1999–2006. Ragasa CY, Espineli DL, Agoo EMG, Del Fierro RS. Chemical constituents of Cinnamomum cebuense. Chin J Nat Med. 2013;11(3):264–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1875-5364(13)60026-6. Reynertson KA, Balick MJ, Lee R, Raynor W, Pelep Y, Kennelly EJ. A traditional method of Cinnamomum carolinense preparation eliminates safrole from a therapeutic Pohnpean tea. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:269–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.06.040. Stubbs BJ, Specht A, Brushett D. Essential oil of Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Nees and Eberm.variation in oil composition throughout the tree in two chemotypes from eastern Australia. J Essent Oil Res. 2004;16:9–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2004.9698636. Thompson DC, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Moldeus P. Metabolism and cytotoxicity of eugenol in isolated rat hepatocytes. Chem Biol Interact. 1991;77(2):137–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/00092797(91)90069-j.

Cinnamomum cebuense Kosterm

303

Wislocki PG, Miller EC, Miller JA, McCoy EC, Rosenkranz HS. Carcinogenic and mutagenic activities of safrole, 10 -hydroxysafrole, and some known or possible metabolites. Cancer Res. 1977;37:1883–91. Yoo CB, Han KT, Cho KS, Ha J, Park HJ, Nam JH, et al. Eugenol isolated from the essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllata induces a reactive oxygen species-mediated apoptosis in HL-60 human promyecytic leukemia cells. Cancer Lett. 2005;225(1):41–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. canlet.2004.11.018.

Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal LAURACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms No synonyms are recorded for this name.

Local Names Philippines: Kalingag tree (English), kalingag (Tagalog, Pampangan, Manobo, Samar-Leyte Bisaya), kalin˜ gad (Pampangan), kanila (Bikol, Iloko, Pangasinan), kalingak (Tagalog), kandoroma (Iloko), kanilaw (Bikol), kaningag (Bisaya, Cebuano, Manobo), karin˜ gag (Bisaya), karin˜ ganat (Negrito), kasiu (Iloko), kuliuan (Negrito), makalin˜ gag (Tagalog), marobo (Samar-Leyte Bisaya), samiling (Tagalog), similing (Tagalog), uliuan (Negrito).

Botany and Ecology Tree, 6–15 m high (Fig. 1). Bark, twigs, roots, thick, and aromatic. Leaves opposite or sub-opposite, smooth, pale green, subglaucous beneath, shining above; base cuneiform; ovate-oblong to broadly lanceolate, occasionally subelliptic, 8–20 cm long, 4–6 cm wide, pointed at both ends, leathery margin, borne upon dark flattened petioles, 5–15 mm long. Blade 3-plinerved. Outer bark rough, irregularly postulated; inner bark yellowish, strongly aromatic. Inflorescence erect, growing from the uppermost leaf axils, ca. 10 cm long. Calyx canescent and turbinate. Petals smooth and scarcely exerted. Fruit smooth, narrowly ellipsoid, ca. 2 cm long, surrounded to M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_74

305

306

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Habit of Cinnamomum mercadoi kalingag trees found in Esperanza, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. (© M. L. G. Dapar)

the middle by a persistent calyx. As compared to other Cinnamomum Schaeff species, the size, shape, and texture of the leaves are variable (Santos 1930). Endemic to the Philippines, distributed in the Babuyan Islands, northern Luzon, and Mindanao at low and medium altitude forests, sometimes ca. 2000 m (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). C. mercadoi was listed as “vulnerable” in the 1998 IUCN red list of threatened species (WCMC 1998) and considered as “other threatened species” based on the updated national list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order (DENR-DAO) No. 2017-01 (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

Local Medicinal Uses The bark of Cinnamomum mercadoi is widely used in traditional medicine in the Philippines (Tan 1980). The plant bears essential oil used locally as medicine (Uphof 1959). It was traditionally chewed as a remedy for stomach troubles and respiratory problems including tuberculosis (Brown 1920). This indigenous plant is a folkloric

Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal

307

relief for headache, diarrhea, flatulence, digestive disorder, and rheumatism (Palis 1995; Langenberger et al. 2009). The bark can help in digestive and respiratory problems when taken internally (Alzina 1668). It has rubefacient property as an effective remedy for headaches and rheumatism (Brown 1920; Guerrero 1921; Lanting and Palaypayon 2002). C. mercadoi can also be chewed by the patients having stomach troubles and tuberculosis (Quisumbing 1978). Zulaybar et al. (2009) reported the Mamanua tribe of Surigao del Norte, Philippines, using C. mercadoi leaves as expectorant, to aid digestion and to relieve flatulence. Local farmers in Leyte, Philippines, traditionally use C. mercadoi as an antidiarrheal (Langenberger et al. 2009). Recently, C. mercadoi has emerged as an attractive medicinal plant used by the largest ethnic tribes in the Philippines known as the Manobo, in Agusan del Sur (Dapar et al. 2020a). Based on the latest ethnobotanical exploration, C. mercadoi was found to have the maximum fidelity level against stomach trouble and one of the highest use values and cultural importance values among the medicinal plants used by the Agusan Manobo. Drinking three to five glasses of decoction or local alcoholtinctured bark, branch, and roots is an effective treatment for amoebiasis, cancer, hypertension, cough, diarrhea, stomach trouble, ulcer, stomach acidity, kidney problem, urinary tract infection, weakness, fatigue, cramp, and spasm. Also, applying coconut oil infusion of bark, branch, and roots is traditionally practiced in the treatment of cuts and wounds (Dapar et al. 2020b). Both internal and external administrations may be done once or twice a day or as needed, with no experienced adverse or reported side effects.

Local Food Uses Cinnamomum mercadoi has a strong sassafras odor, and the taste makes it a popular spice, flavoring agent, as an ingredient of root beers (DENR 2017). Sometimes, the bark is used as a condiment to substitute for cinnamon (Fern 2014) (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 Cinnamomum mercadoi leaves. (© M. L. G. Dapar)

308

M. L. G. Dapar

Phytochemistry The earliest investigation of Bacon (1909) on C. mercadoi revealed the presence of oleoresin, resin, and mainly essential oil with safrole as the first chemical constituent identified from the bark. More investigations found safrole and volatile oil in the roots, barks, and leaves (Concha and Cruz 1966), sapogenin in the leaves and seeds (Anzaldo et al. 1958), and alkaloids in the leaves (Santos et al. 1981). A preliminary screening of C. mercadoi methanolic extracts revealed novel compounds for the treatment of infectious diseases (Torres et al. 2003; Zulaybar et al. 2009). Torres et al. (2003) further investigated the phytochemicals and biological activities of C. mercadoi. Phytochemical screening showed the presence of saponins, condensed tannins, an unsaturated lactone ring, and leucoanthocyanins. Their experiment using modified acute oral toxicity test in mice resulted in a lethal dose (LD50) of 5.2723 + 0.2218 g/kg when administered orally in male strong A mice. However, the crude methanolic extract of C. mercadoi exhibited analgesic activity at 500 and 1000 mg/kg, which was comparable to aspirin. This analgesic potential of C. mercadoi may explain its folkloric basis against headaches and rheumatism. However, the anti-inflammatory activity of the bark was not supported using the carrageenin-induced edema method. Fuentes et al. (2010) conducted antibacterial and antioxidant tests using leaf and bark methanolic extracts. Results showed that the bark extract is a more potent antioxidant than the leaf extract based on the free radical DPPH scavenging activity. The scavenging activity of the bark was even better than ascorbic acid, but comparable to synthetic antioxidant butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA). The result of the total phenolic content displayed a higher amount on the bark compared to the leaf extract. However, both bark and leaf did not exhibit ferrous ion chelating activity. Gorgonio and Fuentes (2011) evaluated the antidiarrheal activity of the C. mercadoi leaf and bark methanolic extracts using castor oil-induced diarrhea and gastrointestinal transit of charcoal meal in albino mice. Results showed that the bark and not the leaf extracts have the antidiarrheal effect, which was comparable to the standard drug loperamide. C. mercadoi also exhibited antibacterial activity. It was shown that the bark methanolic extracts showed antibacterial potential against gram-positive bacteria, Bacillus subtilis (Fuentes et al. 2010), and Staphylococcus aureus (Torres et al. 1999; Fuentes et al. 2010). Testing the extract against other gram-positive bacteria, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa showed no antibacterial activity but exhibited strong antifungal activity against Microsporum canis (Torres et al. 2003). Cinnamic aldehyde was found to be an active antifungal agent (Singh et al. 1995). The essential oil of C. mercadoi extracted by hydrodistillation demonstrated high susceptibility to S. aureus, Candida albicans, and Fusarium moniliforme but moderately to E. coli (Villanueva et al. 1999). Oil fractions also showed high susceptibility to isolated S. aureus from wounds and urine while moderately susceptible to E. coli isolated from urine. Other cinnamon species were also reported to have similar pharmacological activity. Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume was found to have trans-cinnamaldehyde

Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal

309

and 0-methoxycinnamaldehyde, which exhibited antifungal activity against azoleresistant and azole-sensitive Candida species (Quale et al. 1986). C. zeylanicum was also reported to inhibit the activity of bacterial endotoxin (Azumi and Tanamoto 1997). Some Cinnamomum were also studied as potent antioxidants and antibacterial agents (Chaudry and Tariq 2006; Joshi et al. 2009; Shahwar et al. 2010; Sultana et al. 2010).

Economic Importance This indigenous plant is one of the three commonly known cinnamon species with economic importance in the Philippines, according to Forest Products Research and Development Institute (2017).

References Alzina FI. Historia natural del sitio, fardilidad y calidad de las islas e indios de Visayas. Manila: Colegio Médica-Farmacéutico de Filipinas, Inc.; 1668. Anzaldo FE, Marañon J, Ancheta SF. Screening of Philippine plants for steroidal sapogenins, III. Philipp J Sci. 1958;87(3):191–5. Azumi SAT, Tanamoto K. A novel inhibitor of bacterial endotoxin derived from cinnamon bark. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1997;234(2):506–10. Bacon RF. Philippine terpenes and essential oils, III. Philipp J Sci. 1909;4(2):114–5. Brown WH. Minor products of Philippine forests. Manila: Bureau of Forestry; 1920. Chaudry NMA, Tariq P. Antimicrobial activity of Cinnamomum cassia against diverse microbial flora with its nutritional and medicinal impacts. Pak J Bot. 2006;38(1):169–74. Concha JA, Cruz FP. A preliminary study in the essential oil content of Cinnamomum mercadoi Vidal. Abst J Phil Pharm Assoc. 1966;52:68. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020a;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dapar MLG, Demayo CG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020b;19:31. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Kalingag. In: Expanded National Greening Program. 2017. https://ngp.denr.gov.ph/index.php/12-arb/1186-arb-kalingag. Accessed 14 May 2020. Fern K. Cinnamomum mercadoi S. Vidal. In: Useful Tropical Plants Database. 2014. http://tropical. theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id¼Cinnamomum+mercadoi. Accessed 14 May 2020. Forest Products Research and Development Institute. Philippine cinnamon. Department of Science and Technology. 2017. https://www.forestfoundation.ph/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/PhilippineCinnamon.pdf. Accessed 14 May 2020. Fuentes RG, Diloy FN, Tan IL, Balanquit BJR. Antioxidant and antibacterial properties of crude methanolic extracts of Cinnamomum mercadoi Vidal. Philipp J Nat Sci. 2010;15:9–15. Gorgonio SRP, Fuentes RG. Antidiarrheal activity of Cinnamomum mercadoi methanolic leaf and bark extracts. Philipp J Nat Sci. 2011;16(1):43–7. Guerrero LM. Medicinal uses of Philippine plants. Philipp Bur For Bull. 1921;22:149–246.

310

M. L. G. Dapar

Joshi B, Lekhak S, Sharma A. Antibacterial property of different medicinal plants: Ocimum sanctum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Xanthoxylum armatum, and Origanum majorna. Kathmandu Univ J Sci Eng Technol. 2009;5(1):143–50. Langenberger G, Prigge V, Martin K, Belonias B, Sauerborn J. Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry. Agrofor Syst. 2009;76:173–94. Lanting MV Jr, Palaypayon CM. Forest tree species with medicinal uses. DENR recommends, vol. 11. Laguna: Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College; 2002. p. 24. Palis HG. Non-timber forest products in Manupali watershed, Bukidnon, Philippines. ERDBDENR Terminal Report, Los Baños, Laguna; 1995. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL (eds.). Lauraceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Lauraceae.html. Accessed 14 May 2020. Quale JM, Landman D, Zaman MM, Burney S, Sathe SS. In vitro activity of Cinnamomum zeylanicum against azole-resistant and sensitive Candida species and a pilot study of cinnamon for oral candidiasis. Am J Chin Med. 1986;24(2):103–9. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0192415X96000153. Quisumbing E. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Manila: Bureau of Printing; 1978. p. 321–2. Santos PK. Leaf and bark structure of some cinnamon trees with special reference to the Philippine species. Philipp J Sci. 1930;43:305–65. Santos, AC, Aguilar-Santos G, Obligacion M, Olay LP, Fojas, FR (eds.). In: Philippine plants and their contained natural products: biological and pharmacological survey. 1981. http://scinet. dost.gov.ph/union/Downloads/ALfredo%20C.Santos%20Phil%20Plants%20and%20their%20 Contained(library)_253.pdf. Accessed 14 May 2020. Shahwar D, Rehman S, Ahmad N, Ullah S, Raza MA. Antioxidant activities of the selected plants from the family Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae and Balsaminaceae. Afr J Biotechnol. 2010;9(7): 1086–96. Singh HB, Srivastava MB, Singh AB, Srivastava AK. Cinnamon bark oil, a potent fungi toxicant against fungi causing respiratory mycoses. Allergy. 1995;50(12):995–9. Sultana S, Ripa FA, Hamid K. Comparative antioxidant activity study of some commonly used spices in Bangladesh. Pak J Biol Sci. 2010;13:340–3. Tan ML. Philippine medicinal plants in common use: their phytochemistry and pharmacology, vol. 41. Quezon City: Alay Kapwa Kilusang Pangkalusugan; 1980. p. 31. Torres RC, Ontengco DC, Balgos NS, Villanueva MA, Lanto EA, Cruz CS, Ambal WO, Estrella RR. Essential oil content and antibacterial activity of some Philippine plants. Philipp Technol J. 1999;24(1):79–90. Torres RC, Sison FM, Ysrael MC. Phytochemical screening and biological studies on the crude methanol extract of Cinnamomum mercadoi, Vidal. Philipp J Sci. 2003;132(1):27–32. Uphof JCT. Dictionary of economic plants. J. Cramer: Weinheim; 1959. Villanueva MA, Torres RC, Manalo CO, Balgos NS, Ontenco DC, Lanto EA, et al. Chemical and antimicrobial studies of Cinnamomum mercadoi Vidal. Philippine Council for Health Research and Development Library. 1999. http://www.herdin.ph/index.php/component/herdin/?view¼research& cid¼38237. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). Cinnamomum mercadoi. In: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 1998. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T33330A9777350.en. Accessed 14 May 2020. Zulaybar T, Papa I, Edradan MR, Cruzado RM, Edradan GR, Ongluico NP. Preliminary screening of methanolic extracts of Kalingag (Cinnamomum mercadoi Vidal) and Talisay (Terminalia catappa) against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Trans Nat Acad Sci Tech. 2009;31(1):75.

Cinnamomum sintoc Blume LAURACEAE Aisyah Handayani and Syafitri Hidayati

Synonyms Cinnamomum calophyllum Nees; Cinnamomum camphoratum Blume; Cinnamomum cinereum Gamble; Cinnamomum coriaceum Cammerl.; Cinnamomum laxiflorum Meisn.; Cinnamomum pseudosintok Miq. Persea sintoc (Blume) Bisch.

Local Names Sintok (Indonesia); huru sintuk (Sundanese); waru sintok (Javanese)

Botany and Ecology Cinnamomum sintoc (Lauraceae) is a tree species, growing up to 40 m in height, with diameters reaching 70 cm (Fig. 1). The bark is gray-brown in color (Fig. 2) and is reddish inside with a strong characteristic aroma (Wuu-Kuang 2011). The leaves are green and oval shaped, the leaf surface shiny, with its nervation pattern clearly visible. When squeezed, the leaves give off an aroma similar to that of cloves. The flowers are white to pale yellow (Fig. 3); the fruit is bulbous and oval-shaped, A. Handayani (*) Cibodas Botanic Gardens, The Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cianjur, Indonesia Natural Resources and Environment Management, Graduate School, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia S. Hidayati Department of Forest Resources Conservation and Ecotourism, Division of Plant Diversity Conservation, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_11

311

312

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Fig. 1 Living collection of Cinnamomum sintoc in Cibodas Botanic Gardens (© Aisyah Handayani)

Fig. 2 The bole of Cinnamomum sintoc (collection of Cibodas Botanic Gardens) (© Aisyah Handayani)

measuring 1.8  0.8 cm. The red colored inner surface of the bark, the red colored roots, and the characteristic aroma of the bark help in distinguishing C. sintoc from other species of the genera. In addition, the bark also exudes glue (Fiqa and Yulistyarini 2010).

Cinnamomum sintoc Blume

313

Fig. 3 Flowering Cinnamomum sintoc in Cibodas Botanic Gardens (© Aisyah Handayani)

Cinnamomum sintoc is distributed in Indonesia (Java, Kalimantan, and Sumatra), Thailand, and Malaysia (Wiart 2006). In Java, C. sintoc is generally found growing at an altitude of 700–1700 m above sea level; the tree grows well in open conditions that permit enough sunlight (Hidayat 2006). Optimal population of C. sintoc population in Gunung Ciremai National Park is in the lowland (500–1000 m above sea level) and submontane zones (1000–1500 m above sea level) (Ismail et al. 2018). C. sintoc prefers natural conditions that are not too hot, neutral pH, and has moderate soil moisture (Hidayat 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Cinnamomum sintoc is one of the rare medicinal plants in Java (Hidayat 2006). Its bark is finely grounded to make parem, a traditional medicine that is used to prepare an ointment for topical application. Bark of C. sintoc is commonly used in health care by Javanese women in the Surakarta Palace, Central Java. C. sintoc bark is used as herbal medicine in postpartum health care. The bark is also an ingredient of jamu and borehan that is administered to promote lactation in new mothers. Jamu is a health drink made from one or more species of medicinal plants. Borehan refers to the herbs smeared all over the body (Shanthi and Izzati 2014). C. sintoc bark is also

314

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

an ingredient of jamu sehat wanita that is consumed by women as a general tonic and to promote immunity (Sangat and Larashati 2002). It is also reported to be used as a drug for diarrhea, a number of digestive diseases, and also as an anthelmintic in Jerantut, Pahang, and elsehwere (Eswani et al. 2010; Lemmens et al. 1995). In West Java, the local people around Cibodas resort – Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park are reported to use the bark, stem, and leaves of C. sintoc in the treatment of ascariasis, rheumatics, dysentery, and sprue (Purnawan 2006). The local people in the vicinity of Sari Bumi Kusuma Company forest of Borneo use the leaves of C. sintoc leaves to alleviate toothache (Hidayat and Hardiansyah 2013).

Phytochemistry Cinnamomum sintoc is a popular source of essential oils. Iskandar and Supriyatna (2008) noted that the essential oil of C. sintoc bark collected from Cibodas of West Java, Indonesia, contains eugenol (38.38%), myristicin (13.54%), and safrole (10.17%) as the major compounds. The result of essential oil analysis of C. sintoc from a mountain forest of peninsular Malaysia showed that the most abundant component of the bark oil was linalool (23.8%), which is also a major component in twig oil (52.9%). The major components of leaf oil were safrole (23.4%) and γmuurolene (13.5%). The wood oil was similar to the bark oil in the content of aldehydes but the concentration of each component varied (Jantan et al. 2005). Jantan et al. (2005) also noted that the major component of C. sintoc leaf oil from the hill forest were geranial (36.5%) and neral (25.2%), while the lowland forest sample had linalool (17.4%) as the most abundant component. The major component of the lowland forest C. sintoc sample were eugenol (87.5%) in bark oil and 72.6% in wood oil, but the sample from hill forests had safrole (56.1%) as the major component. The differences in chemical composition of C. sintoc essential oil is either due to the ontogenetic variations or intraspecific chemical differences (chemical races) within the species (Jantan et al. 2005). Cinnamomum sintoc bark contains 1.1% essential which is proven to have antiinflammatory properties (Sumiwi et al. 2015). The secondary metabolite compounds in C. sintok leaves were flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids steroids, and tannins. Kumalasari et al. (2019) found the antioxidant and antihyperlipidemic activities of C. sintoc leaf extracts of great potential. The essential oil from the root bark of C. sintoc is known to be effective at a concentration of 48.69 μg/mL against the fungi Pleurotus ostreatus (Jemi et.al 2019).

Local Food Uses Cinnamomum sintoc bark has a fragrant smell comparable to that of Cinnamomum burmanii. In Java, therefore, it is commonly used as a flavoring agent.

Cinnamomum sintoc Blume

315

Biocultural Importance The Baduy people of Banten, Java, use the wood of C. sintoc for construction purposes (Wardah 2003). Notes from Sangat-Roemantyo (1990) on the ethnobotany of the Javanese incense shows that the bark of C. sintoc is one of raw materials used for making incense. Javanese cultures use incense as a sacred component of many traditional ceremonies and ancient rites. They use incense as a medium to connect with their ancestors and God. C. sintoc is one of the materials widely used in Malay funeral rites. It is used for bathing the corpse while preparing it for funeral (Yusof et al. 2017). It functions both as a soap and shampoo, by helping in the removal of fecal and nail dirts; it also neutralizes the foul smell from the corpse. The mortician also uses C. sintok water to eliminate odors and to prevent infections that may be contracted when handling the corpse (Yusof et al. 2017).

Economic Importance Owing to the presence of eugenol oil, the species is widely used in cosmetics (Hidayat et al. 2016). Dry whole plant material of C. sintoc is traded in Tapin Regency of South Kalimantan Province for IDR 7000/kg (Jumali 2006).

References Eswani N, Kudus KA, Nazre M, Noor AA, Ali M. Medicinal plant diversity and vegetation analysis of logged over hill forest of Tekai Tembeling Forest Reserve, Jerantut, Pahang. J Agric Sci. 2010;2(3):189. Fiqa AP, Yulistyarini T. Study of population and ecology of Cinnamomum sintoc Blume at forest area of Mount Kelud-East Java. 2010. Available from: www.minyakatsiriindonesia.wordpress. com/budidayasintok/abban-putri-fiqa-dan-titutyulistyarini/. Accessed 31 May 2018. Hidayat S. Tumbuhan Obat Langka di Pulau Jawa, Populasi dan Sebaran. Bogor: Pusat Konservasi Tumbuhan Kebun Raya – LIPI; 2006. Hidayat S. Asosiasi Spesies Tumbuhan Obat Langka di Beberapa Kawasan Hutan Taman Nasional, Pulau Jawa. J Biol Indones. 2017;8(2):279–82. Hidayat D, Hardiansyah G. Studi Keanekaragaman Jenis Tumbuhan Obat di Kawasan IUPHHK PT. Sari Bumi Kusuma Camp Tontang Kabupaten Sintang. Vokasi. 2013;8(2):61–8. Hidayat S, Cahyaningsih R, Safarinanugraha D, Fijridiyanto IA, Karyantara ID. Jalur Wisata Tumbuhan Obat di Kebun Raya Bogor. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2016. Iskandar Y, Supriyatna S. Chemical composition of volatile oil from Cinnamomum sintoc stem barks. In: Proceedings of the international seminar on chemistry, Jatinangor. 2008. p. 601–3. Ismail AY, Kosasih D, Novitasari D. Identifikasi dan Sebaran Jenis Cinnamomum sintoc BL dengan Menggunakan Sistem Informasi Geografi (SIG) di Resort Cilimus dan Mandirancan Taman Nasional Gunung Ciremai. Wanaraksa. 2018;11(01). Jantan I, Yalvema MF, Ayop N, Ahmad AS. Constituents of the essential oils of Cinnamomum sintoc Blume from a mountain forest of Peninsular Malaysia. Flavour Fragr J. 2005;20(6):601– 4. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.1495. Jemi R, Nuwa, Octaviani E. Antifungal activity of essential oil from root bark of sintok wood (Cinnamomum sintoc Blume) against Pleurotus ostreatus. In: AIP conference proceedings, vol. 2175, no. 1. AIP Publishing; Tangerang, Indonesia, 2019.

316

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Jumali. Kajian Potensi dan Perumusan Strategi Pengembangan Tumbuhan Obat Berbasis Bioregonal di Kabupaten Tapin. Bogor: Graduate School, IPB University; 2006. Kumalasari A, Handayani W, Siswoyo TA. Phytochemical screening and activities study of sintoc leaves (Cinnamomum sintoc bl.) extracts as antioxidant and antihyperlipidemic. Berkala Sainstek. 2019;7(1):24–7. https://doi.org/10.19184/bst.v7i1.9683. Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 5(2): Timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 1995. Purnawan BI. Inventarisasi Keanekaragaman Jenis Tumbuhan di Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango. Bogor: Undergraduate Program, IPB University; 2006. Sangat HM, Larashati I. Some ethnophytomedical aspects and conservation strategy of several medicinal plants in Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2002;3(2):231–5. Sangat-Roemantyo H. Ethnobotany of the Javanese incense. Econ Bot. 1990;44(3):413–6. https:// doi.org/10.1007/bf03351034. Shanthi RV, Izzati M. Studi Etnobotani Pengobatan Tradisional untuk Perawatan Wanita di Masyarakat Keraton Surakarta Hadiningrat. Biosaintifika. 2014;6(2):61–9. Sumiwi SA, Subarnas A, Supriyatna S, Abdasah M, Muchtaridi M. Analysis of chemical composition and its analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of essential oil of sintoc bark (Cinnamomum sintoc bl.) using in vivo methods. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2015;5(2):58–65. Wardah W. Utilisation of plant diversity resources by Baduy-Dalam (Inner Baduy) Community around South Mount Kendeng, Lebak District, Southern Banten. Berita Biologi. 2003;6(6). Wiart C. Plants of Asia and the Pacific. London: Taylor and Francis Group, LLC; 2006. Wuu-Kuang S. Taxonomic revision of Cinnamomum (Lauraceae) in Borneo. Blumea. 2011;56:241–64. Yusof MY, Abd Rahim RA, Yahaya F, Hassa P, Noh AMM, Abidin MZHZ. Funeral management in the Malay world: local knowledge and practices. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2017;7(IS):72–7.

Clitoria ternatea L. FABACEAE Marina Silalahi

Synonyms Clitoria albiflora Mattei; Clitoria bracteata Poir.; Clitoria mearnsii De Wild.; Clitoria philippensis Perr.; Clitoria spectabilis Salisb.; Clitoria tanganicensis Micheli; Clitoria ternatea f. fasciculata Fantz; Clitoria ternatea var. major Paxton; Clitoria ternatea var. pleniflora Fantz; Clitoria ternatensium Crantz; Clitoria zanzibarensis Vatke; Deguelia javanica (Miq.) Taub.; Derris javanica Miq.; Lathyrus spectabilis Forssk.; Nauchea bracteata Dupuis ex Descourt.; Nauchea ternatea (L.) Descourt.; Phaseolus clitorius Noronha; Pterocarpus javanicus (Miq.) Kuntze; Ternatea indica J.St.-Hil.; Ternatea ternatea (L.) Kuntze; Ternatea vulgaris Kunth (POWO 2019)

Local Names Indonesia: Bunga/kembang telang (general), bunga teleng (Balinese), bunga teleng, kembang menteleng (Javanese), bunga biru (Lombok), bunga biru, bunga kelentit (Sumatra), bunga talang, temanraleng (Sulawesi). Malaysia: bunga telang, bunga klentik, telang, (general), anchan (Siamese), bunga biru (Ulunese). Myanmar: aug-mai-hpyu, aung-me-nyo, pe-nauk-ni. Philiphines: samsamping. Thailand: anchan (Northeast). Vietnam: dậu biếc. English: butterfly pea, blue pea (Budiasih 2017; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2008; Imayanti et al. 2019; Luu-dam et al. 2016; Maghirang et al. 2018; Miyaura et al. 2015; Mohammed et al. 2011; Rahayu and Andini 2019; Rak et al. 2019; Rosli et al. 2015). M. Silalahi (*) Prodi Pendidikan Biologi, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia Biology Education Department, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, West Jakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_113

317

318

M. Silalahi

Botany and Ecology Description: Woody vine, twining, attaining 1–3 m in length. Stems slender, cylindrical, with lines of minute trichomes. Leaves alternate, 5–7-foliolate; leaflets opposite, 1.5–4.5
1–3.5 cm, elliptical or less frequently ovate or oblong, chartaceous, the apex rounded, obtuse, sometimes retuse or mucronate, the base obtuse, the margins entire; upper surface dark green, dull, puberulent, with the midvein sunken; lower surface pale green, dull, puberulent, with prominent venation; rachis 2–7 cm long; petiolules minute, pubescent; petioles 2–4 cm long, pubescent, with the base thickened; stipels filiform, 1.5 mm long; stipules lanceolate, pubescent, ca. 4 mm long. Flowers solitary, on short peduncles; pedicel 1 cm long, pubescent, with a pair of bracteoles in the middle. Calyx campanulate, 1.5–2.2 cm long, green, puberulent, the lobes lanceolate-ovate, 8–10 mm long, with the midvein conspicuous; corolla blue-violet, the standard broadly ovate, 3.5–5 cm long, retuse, with the base pale yellow and the center pale yellow inside. Legume 9–11
1 cm, oblong, ribbed along both margins, the apex acuminate. Seeds numerous, 5–6 mm long, oblong, flattened, dark brown (Acevedo-Rodríguez 2005) (Fig. 1). Phenology: Clitoria ternatea flowers and fruits throughout the year (AcevedoRodríguez 2005). Distribution and Habitat: In disturbed areas, such as pastures or roadsides. Native to Africa but found widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics of the New World (Acevedo-Rodríguez 2005).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: Leaf infusion/ poultice is used to treat pimples and eye infection; flower extract used in postpartum care, maintain general health and cure eye infection; root decoction consumed for maintaining general health (Kamsani Fig. 1 Leaves and flower of Clitoria ternatea L. (Fabaceae). (© Devanathan Krishnamoorthy)

Clitoria ternatea L.

319

et al. 2020). Indonesia: Flowers are used to make baby’s eyes clear by the Betawi ethnic people (Marpaung 2020). Flowers are also used to treat eye infection by local communities in Lombok (Eni et al. 2019) and Bali (Oktavia et al. 2017), and to treat abscess by people around Sesaot forest West Lombok (Rahayu and Andini 2019). The Togian ethnic community in central Sulawesi use the leaves to treat fever and the flowers to treat abscess (Tabeo et al. 2019). Malaysia: The Siamese community in Kelantan use whole plant uses to treat infections, burning sensation, urinary tract disorder, edema, antidote, tumor, snake bite, indigestion, cough, headache, eye diseases, and arthritis (Rak et al. 2019). Myanmar: The powder of whole plant and the powder of Aristolochia indica are mixed and administered internally to neutralize snake venom. Crushed leaf is placed on abscess on the tip of the finger and bound with moist bandage to treat infection. Root mixed with roots from other medicinal plants is used to prepare medicines to treat edema. Roots are also roasted, made into a powder, and taken with warm water to treat inflammation of the liver, inflammation of the spleen and general edema. Used in making medicines to prevent miscarriage and to treat lumps on the throat, passing and hemorrhaging of blood, vitiligo, and cataracts. Juice from the male root is taken with cold milk to treat chronic coughing. Bark root is used as purgative and diuretic. Flowers are crushed together with milk and the extract is used to paint circles around the eyes to treat sore eyes associated with infant diseases. Fruit juice from the green fruit can be dropped into nostrils to cure migraines. Seeds used to treat inflammation of the testes and hiccups (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2008). Vietnam: K’Ho-Cil people in Lam Dong province use the whole part for relieving constipation and for the treatment of diarrhea (Nguyen et al. 2020).

Phytochemistry Leaves: Leaves contain β-sitosterol, kaempferol-3-monoglucoside, kaempferol-3rutinoside, kaempferol-3-neohesperiodoside, kaempferol-3-O-rhamnosyl-(1,6)-glucoside, kaempferol-3-O-rhamnosyl-(1,6)-galactoside, and kaempferol-3-O-rhamlnosyl(1,2)-Ochalmnosyl-(1,2)-O-[rhamnosyl-(1,6)]-glucoside (Morita et al. 1977). The leaves of white flowered plant have higher anthocyanin than those with blue flowers (Jayachitra and Padma 2010). Flowers: Flowers contain tannin, phlobatannin, carbohydrate, saponin, triterpenoid, phenol, flavonoid, flavanol, glycosides, proteins, alkaloids, anthraquinones, anthocyanins, cardiac glycosides, stigmast-4-ene-3,6-dione, essential oils, and steroids (Al-Snafi 2016). The concentration of anthocyanin is higher in fresh flower extract than the processed powder. The boiling of the flowers causes anthocyanin degradation (Purwaniati and Yuliantini 2020). The glycoside flavanol from flowers are kaempferol 3-O-(200-O-a-rhamnosyl-600-O-malonyl)-β-glucoside, quercetin 3-O-(200-O-a-rhamnosyl-600-O-malonil)-β-glucoside, and myricetin 3-O(200.600-di-O-a-rhamnosyl)-β-glucoside (Kazuma et al. 2003). The flower yields compounds of delphinidin derivative such as ternatin B3, ternatin D3, rutin, quercetin 3-O-dirhamnoside, manghaslin quercetin 3-[2G]-rhamnosylrutinoside, ternatin B2, ternatin B4, ternatin C2, and ternatin D1 (Nair et al. 2015). Seeds: The ethanol extract of seeds contain sterols, alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, tannins, carbohydrates,

320

M. Silalahi

proteins, phenolic compound, and flavonoids (Kalyan et al. 2011). Antifungal proteins with a molecular mass of 14.3 kDa have been isolated from C. ternatea seeds (Ajesh and Sreejith 2014). Roots: The roots contain the norneolignan compounds clitorienolactones A–C, triterpenoid, and taraxerol (Vasisht et al. 2016). Clitorienolactones A and B enhance memory and inhibit acetylcholinesterase (Vasisht et al. 2016). (Z)-9,17-octadecadienal and n-hexadecenoic acids inhibit monoamine oxidase, therefore they have potential as antidepressant, against anxiety, and cognitive disorders in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases (Margret et al. 2015). The alcohol extracts of aerial part and roots of C. ternatea increase rat brain acetylcholine content and acetyl cholinesterase activity like pyritinol (standard cerebrum protective drug) (Taranalli and Cheeramkuzhy 2000). C. ternatea root water extract was administered at a dose of 100 mg/kg for 30 days for neonatal rats and young adults, significantly increasing the acetylcholine content in hippocampi, compared to controls (Rai et al. 2002). Flavanol glycosides 3,5,40 -trihydroxy-7-methoxyflavonol-3-O-β-d-xylopyranosyl-(1,3)-O-β-d-galac topyranosyl (1,6)-O-β-d-glucopyranoside have antimicrobial activity (Yadava and Verma 2003), while delphinidin and malvidin have activities inhibiting various types of cancers (Morris 2009). C. ternatea seed protein inhibits growth of microbes such as Micrococcus luteus, Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus albidus, Cryptococcus laurentii, Candida albicans, Candida parapsilosis, Curvularia sp., Alternaria sp., Cladosporium sp., Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus sp., and Sclerotium sp. (Ajesh and Sreejith 2014). Leaf extract inhibits growth and morphogenesis of Aspergillus niger with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.8 mg/mL and minimum concentration fungicide (MCF) of 1.6 mg/mL (Kamilla et al. 2009).

Local Food Uses Indonesia. The Sidoarjo community in East Java province use flowers as food coloring and nutraceutical (Imayanti et al. 2019). Malaysia. Some communities in Malaysia use flowers as natural dyes to prepare traditional or local dishes, i.e., nasi kerabu and kueh tekan (Ezzudin and Rabeta 2008; Rosli et al. 2015). The nasi kerabu is traditional Malay cuisine in Kelantan, while the kueh tekan is a traditional dessert for local people in Batu Pahat, Johor (Ganesan et al. 2019). Philippines. The local communities in Palawan use the legume as a mixture in traditional food called dinengdeng, while flowers are used in salad (Maghirang et al. 2018). Vietnam. The local communities in Northern Vietnam use flowers as food coloring for sticky rice dishes (Luu-dam et al. 2016).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: The Bali Aga use C. ternatea flowers for offerings (canang) in religious ceremonies (Miyaura et al. 2015) and is a symbol of the vagina of a woman’s body (Wijana et al. 2019).

Clitoria ternatea L.

321

Economic Importance Indonesia. C. ternatea flowers have been traded as natural food coloring agents (Imayanti et al. 2019) and materials for religious ceremonies. Thailand: The local community in Nam Nao National Park uses C. ternatea flowers as ornament and food coloring; flowers are sold in the local market (Jarernsuk et al. 2015). The flowers have been used as a source of purple dyes in the textile industry for coloring cotton and silk in Northeast Thailand (Junsongduang et al. 2017).

References Acevedo-Rodríguez P. Vines and climbing plants of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contr US Nat Herb. 2005;51:254–5. Ajesh K, Sreejith. A novel antifungal protein with lysozyme-like activity from seeds of Clitoria ternatea. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2014;173:682–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-014-0880-8. Al-Snafi AE. Pharmacological importance of Clitoria ternatea – a review. IOSR J Pharm. 2016;6 (3):68–83. Budiasih KS. Kajian potensi farmakologis bunga telang (Clitoria ternatea). Prosiding Seminar Nasional Kimia, FMIPA, UNY, Indonesia. 2017. p. 201–206. (in Bahasa). DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2008;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Eni NNS, Sukenti K, Aida M, Rohyani IS. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat komunitas Hindu Desa Jagaraga, Kabupaten Lombok Barat, Nusa Tenggara Barat. Biotropika. 2019; 7(3):121–8. (in Bahasa). Ezzudin MR, Rabeta MS. A potential of telang tree (Clitoria ternatea) in human health. J Food Res. 2008;2(5):415–20. Ganesan S, Sabran SF, Mazlun MH. Plant diversity assessment and traditional knowledge documentation of home gardens in Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2019;269:012018. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/269/1/012018. Imayanti RA, Rochmah Z, Aisyah SN, Alfaris MR. Pemberdayaan masyarakat dalam pengolahan Bunga telang di Desa Panggreh Kecamatan Jabon. Kabupaten Sidoarjo: CIASTECH; 2019. p. 77–82. Jarernsuk S, Dadookain K, Jongjitvimol T. Economic value and utilization of biodiversity in local communities at Nam Nao National Park, Phetchabun Province. NU Int J Sci. 2015;12(2):1–12. Jayachitra A, Padma PR. Non-enzymic antioxidant activity of Clitoria ternatea leaf extracts in vitro. Biosci Biotechnol Res Asia. 2010;7(1):209–18. Junsongduang A, Sirithip K, Inta A, Nachai R, Onputtha B, Tanming W, Balslev H. Diversity and traditional knowledge of textile dyeing plants in Northeastern Thailand. Econ Bot. 2017;71(3):241–55. Kalyan BV, Kothandam H, Palaniyappan V, Praveen AR. Hypoglycaemic activity of seed extract of Clitoria ternatea Linn in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Phcog J. 2011;3(19):45–8. Kamilla L, Mansor SM, Ramanathan S, Sasidharan S. Effects of Clitoria ternatea leaf extract on growth and morphogenesis of Aspergillus niger. Microsc Microanal. 2009;15:366–72. https:// doi.org/10.1017/S1431927609090783. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020; 256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kazuma K, Noda N, Suzuki M. Malonylated flavonol glycosides from the petals of Clitoria ternatea. Phytochemistry. 2003;62:229–37. Luu-dam NA, Ninh BK, Sumimura Y. Ethnobotany of colorant plants in ethnic communities in Northern Vietnam. Anthropology. 2016;4:158. https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-0915.1000158.

322

M. Silalahi

Maghirang RG, Oraye CD, Antonio MA, Cacal MS. Ethnobotanical studies of some plants commonly used as vegetables in selected provinces of the Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2018;17(2):30–43. Margret AA, Begum TN, Parthasarathy S, Suvaithenamudhan S. A strategy to employ Clitoria ternatea as a prospective brain drug confronting monoamine oxidase (MAO) against neurodegenerative diseases and depression. Nat Prod Bioprospect. 2015;5:293–306. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s13659-015-0079-x. Marpaung AM. Tinjauan dan manfaat bunga telang (Clitoria ternatea L.) bagi kesehatan manusia. J Funct Food Nutraceutical. 2020;1(2):1–23. (in Bahasa). Miyaura R, Ohno T, Maenaka H, Sumiartha K, Yamaguchi H. A particular silhouette of humaninfluenced coconut trees in Hindu Bali, Indonesia: an ethnobotanical field note. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2015;14:405–21. Mohammed S, Zin NM, Wahab HA, Ibrahim P, Sulaiman SF, Zahariluddin ASM, Noor SSM. Antituberculosis potential of some ethnobotanically selected Malaysian plant. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133:1021–6. Morita N, Arisawa M, Nagase M, Hsu H, Chen Y. Studies on the constituents of Formosan leguminosae. I. The constituents in the leaves of Clitoria ternatea L. Yakugaku Zasshi. 1977;97:649–53. Morris JB. Characterization of butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea L.) accessions for morphology, phenology, reproduction and potential nutraceutical, pharmaceutical trait utilization. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2009;56:421–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-008-9376-0. Nair V, Bang WY, Schreckinger E, Andarwulan N, Cisneros-Zevallos L. Protective role of ternatin anthocyanins and quercetin glycosides from butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea Leguminosae) blue flower petals against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in macrophage cells. J Agric Food Chem. 2015;63:6355–65. Nguyen XMA, Bun SS, Ollivier E, Dang TPT. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by K’Ho-Cil people for treatment of diarrhea in Lam Dong Province, Vietnam. J Herb Med. 2020;19:100320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2019.100320. Oktavia GAE, Darma IDP, Sujarwo W. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di kawasan sekitar danau Buyan-Tamblingan, Bali. Bull Kebun Raya. 2017;20(1):1–18. (in Bahasa). POWO. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2019. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Purwaniati AAR, Yuliantini A. Analysis of total anthocyanin content in telang flowers preparations (Clitoria ternatea) with pH differential method using visible spectrophotometry. Farmagazine. 2020;7(1):18–23. Rahayu SM, Andini AS. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Sesaot Forest, Narmada, West Lombok, Indonesia. Biosaintifika. 2019;11(2):234–42. Rai KS, Murthy KD, Karanth KS, Nalini K, Rao MS, Srinivasan KK. Clitoria ternatea root extract enhances acetylcholine content in rat hippocampus. Fitoterapia. 2002;73:685–9. Rak AE, Tharmadurai K, Khanam Z, Omar SAS, Appalasamy S. Diversity of plants species abundantly consumed in traditional practice of Siamese community of Kelantan, Malaysia. Int Conf Adv Sci Innov. 2019; https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.18-7-2019.2288671. Rosli N, Ismail Z, Lepun P. Plants used as natural dye by the Orang Ulu ethnics in Asap Koyan Belaga Sarawak, Malaysia. Int J Curr Res. 2015;7(8):19770–5. Tabeo DF, Ibrahim N, Nugrahani AW. Etnobotani Suku Togian di Pulau Malenge Kecamatan Talatako, Kabupaten Tojo Una-Una, Sulawesi Tengah. Biocelebes. 2019;13(1):30–7. (in Bahasa). Taranalli AD, Cheeramkuzhy TC. Influence of Clitoria ternatea extracts on memory and central cholinergic activity in rats. Pharm Biol. 2000;38(1):51–6. Vasisht K, Dhobi M, Khullar S, Mandal SK, Karan M. Norneolignans from the roots of Clitoria ternatea L. Tetrahedron Lett. 2016;57:1758–62. Wijana N, Rahmawati PI, Setiawan GAN, Mulyadiharja S. Plants of body symbols in tri mandala Tenganan Pegringsingan Village, Karangasem (in ethnobotany learning perspective). Int J Nat Sci Eng. 2019;3(1):1–11. Yadava RN, Verma V. Antimicrobial activity of a novel flavonol glycoside isolated from the roots of Clitoria ternatea Linn. Asian J Chem. 2003;15:842–6.

Cordia dichotoma G.Forst. BORAGINACEAE A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Synonyms Cordia brownii A.DC.; C. griffithii C.B.Clarke; C. indica Lam.; C. latifolia Roxb.; C. loureiroi Roem. & Schult.; C. obliqua Willd.; C. premnifolia Ridl.; C. suaveolens Blume; C. tremula Griseb.; C. wallichii G.Don; Gerascanthus dichotomus (G.Forst.) Borhidi; Varronia sinensis Lour.

Local Names Laos: ‘Man, ‘man khôk Malaysia: Petekat, sekendai, sekendal (Peninsular) Myanmar: Hpak-mong, kal, kasondeh, thanatpet, thanut, tun-paw-man Indonesia: Kendal (Javanese, Balinese in Java), nunang (Kalimantan, southwestern Sumatra, Malays in Sumatra), toteolo (Halmahera in Maluku), tomatangtang, nimang, manonang Philippines: Anonang (Dinalupihan in Bataan), anonang-bakir, anunang, saloyong, sinaligan (Ilocos Sur in Luzon), guma (Balabac in Palawan) Thailand: Mandong (Nakhon Ratchasima in Isan), phakmong (Shan), manmu, manma, paw man (Lampang). (Wong 1995; Aguilar 2001; Stuart 2017; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018)

A. Nithaniyal Stalin (*) Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Department of Botany, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Department of Botany, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Tamil Nadu, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_75

323

324

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Botany and Ecology Description: Trees (Fig. 1), to 15 m tall, deciduous; stem bark smooth, become fissured with age. Leaves alternate, variable, ovate to oblong-ovate or elliptic-ovate, entire or undulate at margins, acuminate or rounded at apex, cordate or cuneate at base, 6–15 cm
5–8 cm, membranaceous to coriaceous, glabrous to sparsely hairy; petiole 1.5–5 cm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence terminal or on slender lateral branches with 2–4 leaves (Fig. 2), subcorymbose to subthyrsoid, lax, with pseudodichotomous branching, 5–11 cm long, with 10–many flowers. Flowers dimorphic, sessile. Calyx campanulate, 3–5 mm
3–4 mm, opening irregularly at the apex, hairy, accrescent; lobes 5, unequal, triangular ca. 6 mm long. Corolla cylindricalcampanulate, white, yellowish-white, or green, tube 3 mm long; lobes 4–6, oblong, spreading and reflexed. Stamens as many as corolla lobes, inserted at corolla, long exserted. Filaments of staminate flowers ca. 3.5 mm, filaments of bisexual flowers 1–2 mm. Style united portion 1–1.5 mm, first branches ca. 1 mm, second branches 2–3 mm; stigma spatulate. Ovary superior, 4–locular, 1 ovule per locule. Fruit a drupe (Fig. 3), ovoid, 1–2.5 cm long, yellowish-white, orange or pinkish when ripe, 1–3-seeded, outer mesocarp pulpy and sticky, mucilaginous, surrounded by persistent calyx. Seed ovoid, flattened, up to 6 mm long (Riedl 1997; Lemmens et al. 1995). Distribution: Cordia dichotoma occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of the World. The species is widely distributed in Southeast Asian countries such as

Fig. 1 Habit of Cordia dichotoma. (© Nithaniyal Stalin A)

Cordia dichotoma G.Forst.

325

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Cordia dichotoma in slender lateral branches. (© Nithaniyal Stalin A)

Fig. 3 Close view of Cordia dichotoma fruits. (© Nithaniyal Stalin A)

Cambodia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Timor, Singapore, and Vietnam. Also, found in India to Southern China, Taiwan, Solomon Islands, Japan (Ryukyu Islands), North-eastern Australia, and New Caledonia (Wong 1995; Maxwell 2009; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018).

326

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Etymology: Cordia is named after German botanist Valerius Cordus scarlet; dichotoma means the branching pattern is always in pairs. Ecology: Cordia dichotoma naturally occurs in the coastal hills, inland fringes of mangroves, primary and secondary forests, thickets, riverine zone and sometimes planted in subhumid regions at the elevation ranging from 500 to 1500 m altitude. They are strong pioneer plants capable of tolerating range of soils, thrive on deep, moist, sandy loams, except dry or gravelly soils, and grow widely in areas with the annual rainfall ranging from approximately 500–3000 mm (Aguilar 2001). C. dichotoma act as food plant for the shining oak-blue (Arhopala micale) larvae that actively feeds on leaves for its development (Edwards et al. 2001). In Bangkok, the grey-bellied tree squirrel (Callosciurus caniceps) feeds on the ripened fruits and disperse the seeds through endo-zoochory (Sommung and Hawkeswood 2016). Conservation Status: Cordia dichotoma has a wide range of distribution with stable population and does not experience any major threats. Therefore, the species is designated under Least Concern (LC) based on the assessment of Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) Global Tree Specialist Group (BGCI and IUCN-SSC GTSG 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses All plant parts of Cordia dichotoma are used in folk medicine by traditional communities of the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, and Myanmar (Aguilar 2001). Philippines: Leaf decoction of anonang (C. dichotoma) is taken orally to treat tuberculosis by the communities of Higaonon of Rogongon, Mindanao and selected Barangay at Palanan, Isabela (Olowa et al. 2012; Baleta et al. 2016). Leaf extract of anunang (C. dichotoma) is infused over injured person by the local people in Mt. Manunggal and its adjacent areas (Abaquita and Buot 2013). Traditional Healers in Laguna, Luzon, use the leaf decoction of anonang to cure postpartum fever (Fiscal 2017). The Ayta people of Dinalupihan, Bataan use the leaf decoction of anonang or peel extracts to treat fever and also externally apply the scrapped peel to heal skin conditions such as heat boils (Tantengco et al. 2018). The Ayta people in Porac, Pampanga Province use anonang as remedy for diarrhea and edema (Ragragio et al. 2013). The anonang stem bark concoction is used as goiter medication by the Talaandig tribe in Valencia city, Bukidnon (Odchimar et al. 2017). Subanen tribe consume leaf decoction to get relief from dyspepsia in Ozamis City, Mindanao (Alduhisa and Demayo 2019). The root decoction is drunk to relive cough by the Subanon tribe in villages of Ramon Magsaysay, Zamboanga del Sur (Morilla and Demayo 2019). Myanmar: The powdered wood of Aquilaria malaccensis is mixed with honey, rolled in thanat-pet (C. dichotama) leaves and smoked like a cigarette to strengthen the heart and stomach by the local communities in Pin Sein Pin, Southern Shan State (Shin 2017). The leaf juice of thanatpet is administered for its cooling effect to treat migraine, inflammation, and swellings. The stem bark of thanat-pet is taken as a decoction to treat dyspepsia, diarrhea, dysentery, fever, headache, stomach-ache, and catarrh (Perry 1980; Aguilar 2001; Lanting and Palaypayon 2002; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018). Indonesia: In Java, a

Cordia dichotoma G.Forst.

327

tonic prepared from the stem bark of kendal (C. dichotoma) is used to treat dysentery. Powdered bark is used to cure mouth ulcers and strengthen teeth. Also, the leaves and fruits are used as remedy for cough, uterus and ulcerative colitis (Priyanka and Shrikant 2014; Sason and Sharma 2015).

Phytochemistry Cordia dichotoma is endowed with plenty of phytochemicals such as phenolics, flavonoids, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, tannins, triterpenes, and phenylpropanoid derivatives in all the plant parts with several biological properties. Bhattacharya and Saha (2013) tested the leaf extracts of Cordia dichotoma for ethno-contraceptive use in postcoital female albino rats and identified two major phytoconstituents: apigenin and luteolin responsible for reversible contraceptive activity. Leaves also showed the presence of biochemicals such as hentricontanol, hesperidine, octasanole, lupeol, α-amyrin, β-sitosteryl-3β-glucopyranoside-60 -O-palmitate, isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside, quercetin-3-O-2G-rhamnosylrutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-robinoside, kaempferol-3-Orutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-2G-rhamnosylrutinoside, methyl rosmarinate, rosmarinic acid, nervonyl 4-hydroxy-trans-cinnamate ester, β-sitosterol, robonine, rutin, betulin, dihydrorobenetin, arabinoglucan, and Υ-Linolenic acid (Matias et al. 2015; Ragasa et al. 2015; Oza and Kulkarni 2017). Ganjare et al. (2011) isolated apigenin, an important pharmaceutical compound from the bark of C. dichotoma that could be used as potential remedy for ulcerative colitis and colic pain. Other phytoconstituents such as allantoin, α-amyrin, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, lupeol, 30 ,5-dihydroxy-40 -methoxyflavanone-7-Oalpha-L-rhamnopyranoside, and 17 fatty acid methyl esters have been identified from stem bark (Tiwari and Srivastava 1979; Hussain and Kakoti 2013; Nariya et al. 2018). The seeds of C. dichotoma showed significant anti-inflammatory activity due to the presence of α-amyrin and taxifolin-3-5- di-rhamnoside (Srivastava and Srivastava, 1979; Jamkhande et al. 2013). Studies reported betulin, octacosanol, lupeol-3rhamnoside, β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol-3glucoside, hentricontane, hesperetin7-rhamnoside, robinin, rutin, rutoside, datiscoside, hesperidin, dihydrorobinetin, coumarins, saponins, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid palmitic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, behenic acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid from fruits, kernel, and seeds (Hussain and Kakoti 2013; Jamkhande et al. 2013; Oza and Kulkarni 2017). A decade of studies on C. dichotoma reveal that the leaves, fruits, and seeds possess many therapeutic activities such as anthelmintic, analgesic, antidiabetic, antiulcer, anticancer, antifertility, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, aphrodisiac, degenerative disorders, demulcent, expectorant, diuretic, hypolipidemic, hepatoprotective, immunomodulator, and wound healing (Patel et al. 2011; Hussain and Kakoti 2013; Jamkhande et al. 2013; Nariya et al. 2013; Sharma et al. 2015; Mohamed and Elkhamisy 2018; Ibrahim et al. 2019). Antimicrobial activity of methanol and butanol extracts of the C. dichotoma bark showed significant inhibition against two gram negative bacteria Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, two gram positive bacteria Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus and three common pathogenic fungi Aspergillus niger,

328

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

A. clavatus, and Candida albicans (Nariya et al. 2011). Ethanol extract of the leaves also showed antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Vibrio cholerae, Streptococcus epidermis, and Escherichia coli (Sharker et al. 2009).

Local Food Uses Edible leaves of Cordia dichotoma (thanapet) are traditionally eaten and grown as garden crops by the Pa-O ethnic community in Shan, Myanmar (Patel et al. 2011). C. dichotoma (anonang-bakir) is an important indigenous food plant for the local people in Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippines (Antonio et al. 2011).

Biocultural Importance Cordia dichotoma trees have long been associated with diversified needs of Higaonon, Ayta, Pa-O, Shan, and Intha communities of Philippines and Myanmar for the food, health, nutrition, local livelihoods, and to cure specific human ailments. Cordia dichotoma (mandong) tree is considered as the floral mascot of Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province, Thailand (Patel et al. 2011). Cordia dichotoma (kendal) has also been declared as the floral mascot of Kendal Regency, Central Java, Indonesia (Rahayu et al. 2017). Kendal wood is used to make boats to travel adjacent villages by local people in GiliIyang Island, Dungkek, East Java (Susiarti and Rugayah 2019).

Economic Importance Cordia dichotoma is considered as a multipurpose tree and hence traditionally cultivated by the various communities in South and Southeast Asia for food, medicine, and livelihood. Thanatpet (C. dichotoma) are largely cultivated as cash crop by the indigenous communities of Pa-O in hillside villages and Intha in Inle Lake, Shan State. The processed leaves are used as substitute for cigar wrappers (Burmese cheroots) and traded in the domestic markets through Taunggyi city. The production had reached 31,000 ton in 2017, as reported by Census and Economic Information Center (Aguilar 2001; Matsuda 2016). Anonang trees are cultivated as source of timber, fodder, tannins, fuel, and to make agricultural implements in Buhi, Camarines Sur and Batangas, Luzon (Salazar 1987; Ilao 1997). Fibers made from inner bark of tree (bast) are used to make ropes and the leaves are traditionally used to wrap the fish prior to cooking. The white gelatinous substances obtained from the fruits are used as glue (Stuart 2017). The fruits are used as vegetable and pickled for consumption by kiratas and hindu-gujjar tribes in Shivalik Zone of Himalaya (Kumar and Duggal 2019). Pickles made from C. dichotoma (phoa-po-chi) are traded under the brand name of “wei pao” in Taiwan and “sweet gunda” in India (Patel et al. 2011).

Cordia dichotoma G.Forst.

329

References Abaquita MLP, Buot IE. Ethnobotany of medically important plants in Mt. Manunggal and its vicinity; 2013. https://nanopdf.com/download/ethnobotany-of-medically-important-plants-inmt-manunggal-and-its_pdf. Aguilar NO. Cordia dichotoma J.G. Forster. In: van Valkenburg JLCH, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia No 12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 2001. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea. Alduhisa GU, Demayo CG. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the Subanen tribe in two villages in Ozamis City, Mindanao, Philippines. Pharmacophore. 2019;10(4):28–42. Antonio MA, Utrera RT, Agustin EO, Jamias JL, Bader AJ, Pascua ME. Survey and characterization of indigenous food plants in Ilocos Norte, Philippines. SEARCA Agriculture and Development Discussion Paper Series No. 2011-2. 61p. Baleta FN, Donato JG, Bolaños JM. Awareness, utilization and diversity of medicinal plants at Palanan, Isabela, Philippines. J Med Plants Stud. 2016;4(4):265–9. Bhattacharya P, Saha A. Evaluation of reversible contraceptive potential of Cordia dichotoma leaves extract. Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2013;23:342–50. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. Cordia dichotoma. The IUCN red list of threatened species 2019: e.T61986401A145369707. 2019. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20192.RLTS.T61986401A145369707.en. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Edwards ED, Newland J, Regan L. Lepidoptera: Hesperioidea, Papilionoidea. In: Wells A, Houston WWK, editors. Zoological catalogue of Australia, vol. 31. Melbourne: CSIRO Publishing; 2001. p. 6. Fiscal RR. Ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional healers in Laguna, Philippines. Asia Pac J Multidiscip Res. 2017;5(4):132–7. Ganjare AB, Nirmal SA, Patil AN. Use of apigenin from Cordia dichotoma in the treatment of colitis. Fitoterapia. 2011;82:1052–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2011.06.008. Hussain N, Kakoti B. Review on ethnobotany and phytopharmacology of Cordia dichotoma. J Drug Deliv Therap. 2013;3(1):110–3. Ibrahim AY, El-Newary SA, Ibrahim GE. Antioxidant, cytotoxicity and anti-tumor activity of Cordia dichotoma fruits accompanied with its volatile and sugar composition. Ann Agric Sci. 2019;64:29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2019.05.008. Ilao JPM. Nutritive value of fodder trees and shrubs and socio-economicaspects of backyard cattle raisers in Batangas [Philippines], College, Laguna; 1997. Jamkhande PG, Barde SR, Patwekar SL, Tidke PS. Plant profile, phyto-chemistry and pharmacology of Cordia dichotoma (Indian cherry): a review. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2013;3:1009–12. Kumar G, Duggal S. Ethnobotanical wisdom among the Kiratas and Hindu-Gujjar tribes in Dharampur region of Mandi District, Himachal Pradesh, (India). Biol Forum Int J. 2019;11(1):156–71. Lanting MV, Palaypayon CM. Forest tree species with medicinal uses. DENR Recomm. 2002;11:1–24. Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5(2): timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Bogor: PROCEA; 1995. Matias EFF, Alves EF, Silva MKDN, Carvalho VRDA, Coutinho HDM, da Costa JGM. The genus Cordia: botanists, ethno, chemical and pharmacological aspects. Rev Bras. 2015;25:542–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjp.2015.05.012. Matsuda M. In: Konosuke Odaka editor. The Myanmar economy: its past, present and prospects. 2016; Ch 6:131–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55735-7_6. Maxwell JF. Vegetation and vascular flora of the Mekong River, Kratie and Steung Treng Provinces, Cambodia. Maejo Int J Sci Technol. 2009;3(1):143–211. Mohamed SS, Elkhamisy AES. Anti-diabetic potential of Cordia dichotoma pulp and Peel (functional fiber) in type II diabetic rats. Int J Pharmacol. 2018;15(1):102–9. https://doi.org/10.3923/ ijp.2019.102.109.

330

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Morilla LJG, Demayo CG. Medicinal plants used by traditional practitioners in two selected villages of Ramon Magsaysay, Zamboanga del Sur. Pharmacophore. 2019;10(1):84–92. Nariya PB, Bhalodia NR, Shukla VJ, Acharya RN. Antimicrobial and antifungal activities of Cordia dichotoma (Forster F.) bark extracts. Ayu. 2011;32(4):585–9. https://doi.org/10.4103/ 0974-8520.96138. Nariya PB, Bhalodia NR, Shukla VJ, Acharya RN, Nariya MB. In vitro evaluation of antioxidant activity of Cordia dichotoma (Forst f.) bark. AYU J. 2013;34(1):124–8. https://doi.org/10.4103/ 0974-8520.115451. Nariya PB, Shukla VJ, Acharya RN, Nariya MB, Dhalani JM, Patel AS, Ambasana PA. Triterpenoid and fatty acid contents from the stem bark of Cordia dichotoma (Forst f.). Folia Med. 2018;60(4):594–600. https://doi.org/10.2478/folmed-2018-0026. Odchimar NMO, Nuneza OM, Uy MM, Senarath WTPSK. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by the Talaandig tribe in Brgy. Lilingayon, Valencia City, Bukindon, Philippines. Asian J Biol Life Sci. 2017;6(1):358–64. Olowa LF, Torres MAJ, Aranico EC, Demayo CG. Medicinal plants used by the Higaonon tribe of Rogongon, Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines. Adv Environ Biol. 2012;6(4):1442–9. Oza MJ, Kulkarni YA. Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the medicinal species of the genus Cordia (Boraginaceae). J Pharm Pharmacol. 2017;69:755–89. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/jphp.12715. Patel AK, Pathak N, Trivedi H, Gavania M, Patel M, Panchal N. Phytopharmacological properties of Cordia dichotoma as a potential medicinal tree: an overview. Int J Inst Pharm Life Sci. 2011;1(1):40–51. Perry LM. Medicinal plants of east and South-East Asia: attributed properties and uses. Cambridge, MA/London: MIT Press; 1980. Priyanka DA, Shrikant D. A review on medicinal fruit Bhokar of species Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. Int J Pharm Biol Arch. 2014;5(3):41–7. Ragasa CY, Ebajo V, Reyes MMDL, Mandia EH, Tan MCS, Brkljača R, Urban S. Chemical constituents of Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2015;5(Suppl 2):16–21. Ragragio EM, Zayas CN, Obico JJA. Useful plants of selected Ayta communities from Porac, Pampanga, twenty years after the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo. Philipp J Sci. 2013;142:169–81. Rahayu ES, Martin P, Dewi NK, Kurniawan FH. Cordia dichotoma G. Forst.: bioecology and population density. The 3rd International Conference on Mathematics, Science and Education 2016. IOP Conf Ser J Phys Conf Ser 2017:824. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/824/1/ 012059. Riedl H. Boraginaceae. In: Kalkman C, Kirkup DW, Nooteboom HP, Stevens PF, de Wilde WJJO, editors. Flora Malesiana. Series 1, vol. 13. Leiden: Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus; 1997. p. 43–144. Salazar RC. The implementation of an agroforestry project in a Philippine Village: a study in directed change. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International; 1987. p. 173. Sason R, Sharma A. The phytochemical and pharmacological properties of Cordia dichtoma: a review. Int J Res AYUSH Allied Syst Ayushdhara. 2015. ISSN: 2393-9583 (P)/2393-9591 (O). Sharker SM, Pervin K, Shahid IZ. Analgesic, antibacterial and cytotoxic activity of Cordia dichotoma. Pharmacologyonline. 2009;2:195–202. Sharma P, Manjusha S, Rani S, Malhotra H, Nitesh S, Deswal S, Singh SV. Antifertility potential of hydroalcoholic extract of Cordia dichotoma Forst. Leaves: a folklore medicine used by Meena community in Rajasthan state in India. Asian Pac J Reprod. 2015;4:100–5. Shin T. Ethnobotanical study of plant resources in Southern Shan State, Myanmar. 2017. PhD thesis (Unpublished). p. 83. Sommung B, Hawkeswood TJ. Feeding observations on the Grey-bellied Tree Squirrel, Callosciurus caniceps (Gray, 1842) (Sciuridae: Mammalia) in two botanical gardens in Bangkok, Thailand. Calodema. 2016;420:1–7. Srivastava SK, Srivastava SD. Taxifollin 3, 5- dirhamnoside from the seeds of Cordia dichotoma. Phytochemistry. 1979;18:205–8.

Cordia dichotoma G.Forst.

331

Stuart Jr GU. List of Philippine herbal medicinal plants. Philippine medicinal plants; 2017. StuartXchange-SX. Susiarti S, Rugayah VBLS. The role of plant diversity in local Community of Gili Iyang Island, Sumenep, East Java, Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2019;298:012028. https://doi. org/10.1088/1755-1315/298/1/012028. Tantengco OAG, Condes MLC, Estadilla HHT, Ragragio EM. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by Ayta communities in Dinalupihan, Bataan, Philippines. Pharm J. 2018;10 (5):859–70. Tiwari KP, Srivastava SSD. Chemical investigation of the stem bark of Cordia obliqua. Planta Med. 1979;36(2):191–2. Wong WC. Cordia dichotoma J.G. Forster. In: Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia No 5(2): timber trees; minor commercial timbers. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 1995. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea.

Cratoxylum sumatranum (Jack) Blume HYPERICACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Elodes sumatrana Jack; Cratoxylum arboreum Elmer; Cratoxylum clandestinum Blume; Cratoxylum floribundum (Turcz.) Fern.-Vill.; Cratoxylum hornschuchii Blume; Cratoxylum hypericinum Merr.; Cratoxylum racemosum Blume

Local Names Borneo: Irat, geronggang, laka-laka, lingan, mampat, manding, mentialing, serungan, serungan mampat Indonesia: Haremeng, ki remeng (sundanese); arong, klampet, lampet, marong, urang-urangan (Javanese); bentaleng (Dayak Benuaq, East Kalimantan) Java: Maron(g) (Salak); rinjung gide (Sundanese); wuluan (Central Java) Philippines: Bansilai, ulingon (Cebu Bisaya); bansilay (Agusan Manobo); baringkokoring, baringkukurung, barikokoroi, kaminoringen, ugingan (Iloko); bariuanuring, kuttu, suilak, utto (Ibanag); biro (Negrito); guyong-guyong, panaguliñgon, paguringon, salinggogon (Tagalog); kansilai, pagoriñgon (Panay Bisaya); kuelan (Igorot); olingon (Cebu Bisaya, Manobo, Sulu); paguringan (Maguindanao); uling (Tinggian); ulingun (Manobo); uring (Bagobo); uugin (Apayao) Sulawesi: Kaju arang; sisio pule (Malili) Sumatra: Garinggang (Palembang, Simalur); garunggang, kemutun

M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_114

333

334

M. L. G. Dapar

Botany and Ecology Description: Tree or shrub, up to 51 m tall and 80 cm in diameter, deciduous to subdeciduous, glabrous (Fig. 1). Bark fissured, peeling in strips, dark brown; young shoots with interpetiolar scar continuous. Leaves sessile or with petiole up to 15 mm, 4–18  2–7 cm, elliptic to ovate-oblong, apex rounded to cuspidate, base subcordate or rounded to attenuate, herbaceous to chartaceous, sometimes glaucous beneath. Inflorescence a foliate panicle, often large; pedicels 1.5–5 mm. Flowers homostylous. Sepals 3–6.5  3–4.5 mm. Petals dark or brownish-red to brick red, pale green at base, 4–9 by 1.5–4 mm. Stamen fascicles 2.5–7.5 mm long, with stamens more or less congested, ca. 120 per fascicle; anther gland absent. Staminodial fascicles (if well developed) yellow, up to 3 mm long, flattened, oblong to obovate, cucullate. Ovary 1.5–3 mm long; styles 1.5–3 mm. Capsule 7–10  3–5 mm, ca. 1–3 times as long as the sepals, cylindric, with columella basal to half as long as capsule. Seeds 3–10 per loculus, 5–7.5  1.5–2 mm, oblanceolate to oblong. Cratoxylum sumatranum can be distinguished from other Cratoxylum species from its stem with white to yellow latex. Leaves deciduous, opposite, simple, penniveined, glabrous, venation conspicuous, and not forming an intramarginal vein. Inflorescence many-flowered. Flowers ca. 8 mm diameter, pink-red-purple, placed in panicles, petals without nectary scale. Fruits ca. 8 mm long, yellow-brown-black, dehiscent capsules, filled with many small, unilaterally winged seeds (Fig. 2). Phenology: Flowers in March–May and August–September; fruits in April–June and August–September (Dayan et al. 2006). Distribution and Habitat: The species native range is Assam in India to West and Central Malesia (POWO 2020). Widely distributed in Asia-Tropical (Flora Malesiana 2020) and reported from Burma, Indochina, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands (Bali), Borneo, and Philippines (Slik 2009

Fig. 1 Habit of Cratoxylum sumatranum. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Cratoxylum sumatranum (Jack) Blume

335

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Cratoxylum sumatranum. (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

onwards). C. sumatranum is distributed in the Philippine Islands, from Luzon (Cagayan to Sorsogon and Mindoro), Masbate, Leyte, to Mindanao provinces (Dayan et al. 2006; Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). Found often in disturbed open sites in mixed dipterocarp and scrub vegetations up to 800–1200 m.a.s.l; thrives in thickets, secondary forests, and sometimes in open places at low and medium altitudes like hillsides and ridges with clay to sandy soils, and also limestone.

Local Medicinal Uses The leaves and bark of Cratoxylum sumatranum are reported to have medicinal uses throughout Asia (Slik 2009 onwards). Philippines: Dapar et al. (2020a) documented the ethnopharmacological uses of C. sumatranum among the Agusan Manobo. Drinking decocted barks, leaves, and roots help alleviate colds, cough, and dysentery. Pounded or chewed leaves are applied to toothache. Apart from internal medication, external application by applying pounded leaves as a poultice is administered on impetigo, cuts, and wounds. C. sumatranum was reported as one of the important medicinal plants of Agusan Manobo to treat cuts and wounds (Dapar et al. 2020b). A variety, C. sumatranum subsp. blancoi (Blume) Gogelein, was reported to be traditionally applied to relieve cough and in postpartum healthcare (Carag and Buot 2017). The Subanen community use C. sumatranum as an anticonvulsant by applying young leaves on their forehead (Pizon et al. 2016). Indonesia: Stems, leaves, and saps of C. sumatranum are traditionally used as medicine (Ismail and Aminyoto 2018). The barks are used to treat abdominal pain, leaves for burns, leaf saps for scabies and ulcers, and both leaves and stems for fever. In East Kalimantan, stems of C. sumatranum stems are used as an aphrodisiac. Elsewhere in Southeast Asia, other species of Cratoxylum Blume are traditionally used as a diuretic, stomachic, tonic, and to treat food poisoning and internal bleeding (Kitanov et al. 1988; Anderson 1986; Grosvenor et al. 1995.

336

M. L. G. Dapar

Phytochemistry Few phytochemical and pharmacological investigations have been conducted on Cratoxylum sumatranum. Seo et al. (2002) isolated chemical constituents of C. sumatranum for the first time. Six new xanthones and cratoxyarborenones were identified from the leaves, twigs, and stem bark. These constituents, including the known compound, vismione, were isolated as active constituents by bioassaydirected fractionation using the KB (human oral epidermoid) human cancer cell line cytotoxicity assay. Two novel compounds were also obtained as inactive constituents. These are anthraquinobenzophenones and cratoxyarborequinones, in addition to two known compounds, 2,4,6-trihydroxybenzophenone 4-O-geranyl ether, and δ-tocotrienol. Ismail and Aminyoto (2018) screened the aphrodisiac activity of C. sumatranum stem on isolated rat corpus cavernosum. Results revealed that the stem ethanol extract induced vasodilatory response on rat corpus cavernosum blood vessels, thus scientifically validating its folkloric use as an aphrodisiac.

Economic Importance Cratoxylum sumatranum wood is used for light and interior construction, furniture, carving, firewood, fuel, and charcoal production (Slik 2009 onwards).

References Anderson EF. Ethnobotany of hill tribes of Northern Thailand. II. Lahu medicinal plants. Econ Bot. 1986;40:442–50. Carag H, Buot I Jr. A checklist of the orders and families of medicinal plants in the Philippines. Sylvatrop. 2017;27:49–59. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020a;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res App. 2020b;19:31. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18. Dayan MDP, Reaviles RS, Bandian DB. Indigenous forest tree species in Laguna province. 2006. http://www.rainforestation.ph/resources/pdf/publications/Dayan_et_al_2006_Indigenous_For est_Tree_Species_in_Laguna_Province.pdf. Accessed 24 May 2020. Flora Malesiana. Cratoxylum sumatranum. In: Flora Malesian Dataportal. 2020. http://portal. cybertaxonomy.org/flora-malesiana/cdm_dataportal/taxon/063532f4-b620-446d-8f08-cd2160 224749. Accessed 24 May 2020. Grosvenor PW, Gothard PK, William NC, Supriono A, Gray DO. Medicinal plants from Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Part 2. Antibacterial and antifungal activity. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;45:75–95. Ismail S, Aminyoto M. Aphrodisiac activity of ethanol extract of Cratoxylum sumatranum (Jack) Blume stems on isolated rat corpus cavernosum. J Trop Pharm Chem. 2018;4:122–7.

Cratoxylum sumatranum (Jack) Blume

337

Kitanov GM, Assenov I, Dam TVAN. Flavonol and xanthones from Cratoxylum pruniflorum Kurz. Pharmazie. 1988;43(12):879–80. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Hypericaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Hypericaceae.html. Accessed 24 May 2020. Pizon JRL, Nuñeza OM, Uy MM, Senarath WTPSK. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by the Subanen tribe of Lapuyan, Zamboanga del Sur. Bull Env Pharmacol Life Sci. 2016;5:53–67. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.4828.1121. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 24 May 2020. Seo EK, Kim NC, Wani MC, Wall ME, Navarro HA, Burgess JP, et al. Cytotoxic prenylated xanthones and the unusual compounds anthraquinobenzophenones from Cratoxylum sumatranum. J Nat Prod. 2002;65(3):299–305. https://doi.org/10.1021/np010395f. Slik JWF. Plants of Southeast Asia. 2009 onwards. http://www.asianplant.net/Hypericaceae/ Cratoxylum_sumatranum.htm. Accessed 24 May 2020.

Curcuma longa L. ZINGIBERACEAE Marina Silalahi

Synonyms Amomum curcuma Jacg. (1776); Curcuma domestica Val. (1918)

Local Names Brunei Darussalam: Kunyit, temu kuning, temu kunyit. Cambodia: ramat, rameut, ra miet. Laos: khi min, khmin khun. Indonesia: kunyit (general), bangle (Lembak), hunik (Batak Toba), huni (Moyo Island), koneng (Sundanese), kuni (Sanger), kunir (Javanese), kuning gersing (Batak Karo), kuning (Halmahera), unik (Pasaman). Malaysia: kunyit, temu kunyit, tius. Papua New Guinea: lavar, tamaravirua. Philippines: dilaw (Tagalog), dluya thembaga (Lapuyan), duyaw (Surigao), kalabaga (Bisaya), kalawag (Guimaras), kunik (Ibanag). Thailand: khamin (general), ka min, khamin kaeng (Northeastern), khamin chan (Central). Vietnam: nghệ vàng (general), mịn đa˘ m (North Vietnam), ngh[eej], ngh[eej] v[af]ng,uaas] kim, nghe, ba (Center Vietnam). English: turmeric (Chassagne et al. 2016; Des et al. 2018; Gruyal et al. 2014; Junsongduang et al. 2017; Kasrina et al. 2019; Luh-Dam et al. 2016; Minh et al. 2014; Ong and Kim 2014; Pandiangan et al. 2019; Pizon et al. 2016; Silalahi et al. 2018; Trimanto et al. 2019; Wahkidah et al. 2017; Wardini and Prakoso 1999).

M. Silalahi (*) Prodi Pendidikan Biologi, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia Biology Education Department, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, West Jakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_78

339

340

M. Silalahi

Botany and Ecology Description: Robust, perennial, erect, strongly tillering herb (often cultivated as annual) up to 1 (
1.5) m tall. Rhizome a fleshy complex ellipsoidal primary tuber (about 5 cm  2.5 cm) at base of each aerial stem, ringed with the base of old scale leaves and when mature bearing numerous straight or slightly curved, cylindrical, lateral rhizomes (called finger), 5–10 cm  1–1.5 cm, which are again repeatedly branching more or less a right angles, the whole forming a dense clumps. Rhizomes inside and outside bright orange, young tip white, with a spicy smell when bruised. Roots filiform, tough, sometimes very long, often swollen into ellipsoidal tuber at apex (2–4 cm  1–2 cm). Leaf sheaths up to 65 cm long, blades oblong-lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, 7  70 cm  3– 20 cm, densely studded with pellucid dots. Inflorescence terminal on a leafy shoot, bracts pale green with white streaks or white margins, coma bracts white, sometimes pink-tipped. Corolla 4.5–5.5 cm long, white. Labellum suborbicular to obovate, 12–22 mm in diameter, white with yellow median band, other staminodes longitudinally folded, creamy white, anther with large spur (Dahal and Idris 1999; Wardini and Prakoso 1999) (Fig. 1). Distribution and Habitat: C. longa is found naturalized mainly in teak forest but also in sunny places, on clayed to sandy soils up to 2000 m altitude. It can be cultivated in most area of the tropics and subtropics provided rainfall is adequate (1000–2000 mm). Though turmeric is grown in various soil types, well drained, loose, and friable fertile loam or clay loam, with good organic matter status, a pH range of 5–7.5 is preferred (Dahal and Idris 1999). Only known from cultivation in Thailand, Malaysia, and Java (Wardini and Prakoso 1999).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: The healers in the Kiudang region use the rhizome along with Dracaena chiniana I.M.Turner and Areca catechu L. in postpartum care. Rhizomes are also used along with Piper betle L. and Garcinia celebica L. in postpartum health care (Kamsani et al. 2020). Fig. 1 Inflorescence of Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae), Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Curcuma longa L.

341

Cambodia: Dry rhizome crushed with honey is eaten to treat stomachache, wound, postpartum (tonic, appetite, sleepiness), and sprains by Bunong people of Northeast region (Chassagne et al. 2016). Indonesia: Various ethnic groups in Indonesia use C. longa as a traditional medicine. The Sanger ethnic community in North Sulawesi use rhizomes and leaves to treat liver ailments, cough, and to reduce body odor (Pandiangan et al. 2019). To treat liver diseases and cough, fresh rhizome extract is mixed with honey and egg and consumed (Pandiangan and Silalahi 2020). Batak people of North Sumatra use leaves as a traditional sauna material (oukup), for removing body odor and to impart a relaxing effect (Silalahi and Nisyawati 2019). The Batak Phakpak use rhizomes to treat sprains, headaches, stomachache, ulcers, diabetes mellitus, wounds, and malaria (Silalahi et al. 2018). Rhizome is used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, bloating, abdominal pain, menstrual disorders, diarrhea, abdominal pain, muscle aches, and vaginal odor after menstruation by Javanese in Yogyakarta (Nahdi and Kurniawan 2019). The local people of Labuhan Ratu use rhizomes to cure stomachache and pains due to sprain (Leksikowati et al. 2019). The Sundanese in Bogor use rhizomes to increase stamina, as an ingredient of jamu gadongan, and in baby care. Jamu gadongan is a formulation made from 11 medicinal plants, one of which is C. longa; it is prescribed as tonic for postpartum mothers (Rahayu et al. 2019). The Brangkuah community in Moyo island pound rhizomes and consumed as an antidote for poisons (Trimanto et al. 2019). The local people in Turgo (Yogyakarta) drink fresh rhizome extract to cure liver diseases, rheumatic disorders, typhoid, and diarrhea (Nahdi et al. 2016). Kasrina et al. (2019) report that the Lembak ethnic community in Bengkulu use rhizomes as antidote. Malaysia: The local communities in Sabah apply a rhizome paste on the affected area as antifungal (Kulip 2003). Pounded rhizomes are applied as a paste on sprained joints; rhizome is rubbed over insect bites by local people in Sabah (Achmad and Holdsworth 2003). Philippines: The local communities in Guimaras Island use ground rhizomes to cure fever and burns. The poultice made from rhizomes of C. longa with leaves of Leea indica and Zingiber officinale leaves are used to treat dizziness and abdominal pain (Ong and Kim 2014). The ethnic groups in Mindanao drink stem and rhizome decoction as a treatment for cancer/tumor (Pucot et al. 2019). The Subanen people apply an infusion of rhizomes soaked in in a lukewarm water to the affected part to cure arthritis. Decoction of C. longa and Kaempferia rhizomes are used to treat goiter (Pizon et al. 2016). Preheated rhizome extract is mixed with coconut oil and used to heal bruises and boils by people in Northern Surigao (Gruyal et al. 2014). Vietnam: The Ba community of central Vietnam use rhizomes to cure stomachache and cough (Minh et al. 2014).

Phytochemistry Leaves: Leaves contain essential oil such as: α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, myrcene, α-phellandrene, 1,8-cineole, p-cymene, C8-aldehyde, linalool, caryophyllene, geraniol and methyl heptanone (Behura et al. 2002). Tripathi et al. (2002) reported α-pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, 1,8-cineole, γ-terpinene, p-cymene, terpenolene, linalool,

342

M. Silalahi

p-cymene-8-ol, myrtenol, ar-turmerone, α-turmerone, and β-turmerone from the essential oil. Rhizomes: The rhizome extract contains flavonoids such as catechin, epicatechin, and naringenin (Alafiatayo et al. 2019). α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, p-cymene, 1,8-cineol, terpinolene, β-Caryophyllene, r-curcumin, α-zingiberene, β-bisabolene, β-sesquiphellanderene, r-turmerone and α-turmerone are reported from essential oil (Asghari et al. 2009). The n-hexane extract contain α-pinene, vinyl propionate, P-cymene, 1.8-cineole, camphor, α-terpineol, β-caryophyllene, γ-curcumene, ar-curcumene, α-zingiberene, -sesquiphellandrene, ar-turmerol, α-cadinol, ar-turmerone, α-turmerone, β-turmerone, (6R, 7R)-bisabolone and (E)-α-atlantone (Ferreira et al. 2013). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) of fresh extract yielded α-pinene, sabinene, β-pinene, myrcene, α-phellandrene, 3-carene, α-terpinene, p-cymene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, terpinolene, p-cymen-8-ol, cis-alpha-bergamotene, β-caryophyllene, α-santalene, trans-α-bergamotene, epi-β-santalene, α-humulene, trans-β-farnesene, sesquisabinene, ar-curcumene, α-zingiberene, (E,E)-α-farnesene, β-bisabolene, β-sesquiphellandrene, trans-γ-bisabolene, cis-sesquisabinene hydrate, trans-nerolidol, santalenone, ar-turmerol, dihydro-ar-turmerone, ar-turmerone, α-turmerone, germacrone, β-turmerone, curcuphenol, 7R-bisabolone,and trans-α-atlantone (Singh et al. 2010). Curcumin from rhizomes is popular for its antimicrobial activity (Lawhavinit et al. 2010). Curcumin inhibits growth of the leishmanial strains such as Leishmania major, Leishmania tropica and Leishmania infantum (Saleheen et al. 2002). The ethanol and hexane extracts of rhizomes inhibit growth of Vibrio harveyi, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio alginolyticus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus, Aeromonas hydrophila, Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus intermidis, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, and Edwardsiella tarda (Lawhavinit et al. 2010). Goel et al. (2008) reported that curcumin has therapeutic potential against diseases such as adenomatous polyposis, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, colon cancer, pancreatic cancer, hypercholesteremia, atherosclerosis, pancreatitis, psoriasis, and arthritis.

Local Food Uses Indonesia. C. longa rhizome is one of the ingredients of terites (processed liquid extract of bolus liquid from cow’s stomach); it is a cuisine unique to the Batak Karo of North Sumatra (Purba et al. 2018). The fresh rhizome extract is used as a natural coloring agent for rice by the Balinese in Bali island (Putri et al. 2014), the Pasaman people in Sumatra (Des et al. 2018), and elsewhere.

Biocultural Importance Indonesia. C. longa is widely used in a variety of traditional health dishes and drinks by local communities of Indonesia. Jamu kunir asam ( jamu ¼ fresh traditional concoction drinks; kunir ¼ tumeric; asam ¼ tamarind) is a Javanese heritage herbal

Curcuma longa L.

343

medicine used to maintain stamina and to treat a variety of diseases (Nahdi and Kurniawan 2019; Sumarni et al. 2019). Vietnam: In North Vietnam, C. longa is used as food coloring agent in steamed sticky rice dishes (Luh-Dam et al. 2016).

Economic Importance Brunei Darussalam: Curcuma rhizomes are commonly sold in local markets (Franco et al. 2020). Thailand: Local people in Northeastern Thailand extract a yellow dye from rhizomes for use in the cotton and silk textile industry (Junsongduang et al. 2017). Vietnam: In North Vietnam, C. longa is used as to extract dyes for dyeing threads and fibers (Luh-Dam et al. 2016).

References Achmad FB, Holdsworth DK. Medicinal plants of Sabah, East Malaysia – part I. Pharm Biol. 2003;41(5):340–6. https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi.41.5.340.15940. Alafiatayo AA, Lai KS, Syahida A, Mahmood M, Shaharuddin NA. Phytochemical evaluation, embryotoxicity, and teratogenic effects of Curcuma longa extract on zebrafish (Danio rerio). Evid-Based Complement Alternat Med. 2019. Article ID 3807207, 10 pages. https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2019/3807. Asghari G, Mostajeran A, Shebli M. Curcuminoid and essential oil components of turmeric at different stages of growth cultivated in Iran. Res Pharm Sci. 2009;4(1):55–61. Behura S, Sahoo S, Srivastava VK. Major constituents in leaf essential oils of Curcuma longa L. and Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Curr Sci. 2002;83(11):1312–3. Chassagne F, Hul S, Deharo E, Bourdy G. Natural remedies used by Bunong people in Mondulkiri province (Northeast Cambodia) with special reference to the treatment of 11 most common ailments. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;191:41–70. Dahal KR, Idris S. Curcuma longa L. In: de Guzman CC, Siemonsma JS, editors. Plants resources of South-East Asia no. 13. Spices. Leiden: Backyus Publisher; 1999. p. 111–6. Des M, Rizki R, Hidayati H. Ethnobotany in traditional ceremony at Kanagarian Sontang Cubadak Padang Gelugur Subdistrict, Pasaman District. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2018;335:012018. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/335/1/012018. Ferreira FD, Mossini SAG, Ferreira FMD, Arrotéia CC, da Costa CL, Nakamura CV, Machinski M Jr. The inhibitory effects of Curcuma longa L. essential oil and curcumin on Aspergillus flavus link growth and morphology. Sci World J. 2013. Article ID 343804, 6 pages. https://doi. org/10.1155/2013/343804. Franco FM, Chaw LL, Bakar N, Abas SNH. Socialising over fruits and vegetables: the biocultural importance of an open-air market in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-0356-6 Goel A, Kunnumakkara AB, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin as “curecumin”: from kitchen to clinic. Biochem Pharmacol. 2008;75:787–809. Gruyal GA, del Roasario R, Palmes ND. Ethnomedicinal plants used by residents in Northern Surigao del Sur, Philippines. Nat Prod Chem Res. 2014;2:140. https://doi.org/10.4172/23296836.1000140. Junsongduang A, Sirithip K, Inta A, Nachai R, Onputtha B, Tanming W, Balslev H. Diversity and traditional knowledge of textile dyeing plants in Northeastern Thailand. Econ Bot. 2017;71 (3):241–55.

344

M. Silalahi

Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788 Kasrina K, Winarni EW, Karyadi B, Ruyani A. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants by Lembak Ethnic Bengkulu as a source of learning biology. Adv Soc Sci Educ Humanit Res. 2019;295:133–5. Kulip J. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia. Telopea. 2003;10(1):81–98. Lawhavinit OA, Kongkathip N, Kongkathip B. Antimicrobial activity of curcuminoids from Curcuma longa L. on pathogenic bacteria of shrimp and chicken. Kasetsart J (Nat Sci). 2010;44:364–71. Leksikowati SS, Oktaviani I, Ariyanti Y, Akhmad AD. Ethnobotanical study of plants used by people in Labuhan Ratu Village, East Lampung Regency. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2019;258:012027. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/258/1/012027. Luh-Dam NA, Ninh BK, Sumimura Y. Ethnobotany of colorant plants in ethnic communities in Northern Vietnam. Anthropology. 2016;4(158):1–7. https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-0915.1000158. Minh VV, Yen NTK, Thoa PTK. Medicinal plants used by the Hre community in the Ba to district of Central Vietnam. J Med Plants Stud. 2014;2(3):64–71. Nahdi MS, Kurniawan AP. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in karst environment in Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Nusantara Biosci. 2019;11(2):133–41. Nahdi MS, Nugraheni I, Martiwi A, Arsyah DC. The ethnobotany of medicinal plants in supporting the family health in Turgo, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2016;17(2):900–6. https://doi. org/10.13057/biodiv/d170268. Ong HG, Kim YD. Quantitative ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants used by the Ati Negrito indigenous group in Guimaras Island, Philippines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;157:228–42. Pandiangan D, Silalahi M. Etnobotani and Keanekaragaman Tumbuhan Obat Suku Sanger. Manado City: Universitas Sam Ratulangi; 2020. p. 135. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Pandiangan D, Silalahi M, Dapas F, Kandou F. Diversity of medicinal plants and their uses by the Sanger tribe of Sangihe Islands, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(2):621–31. Pizon JRL, Nuñeza OM, Uy MM, Senarath WTPSK. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by the Subanen tribe of Lapuyan, Zamboanga del Sur. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci. 2016;5(5):53–67. Pucot JR, Manting MME, Demayo CG. Ethnobotanical plants used by selected indigenous peoples of Mindanao, the Philippines as cancer therapeutics. Pharmacophore. 2019;10(3):61–9. Purba EC, Silalahi M, Nisyawati. Gastronomic ethnobiology of “terites” traditional Batak Karo medicinal food: a ruminant’s stomach content as a human food resource. J Ethn Foods. 2018;5:114–20. Putri RI, Supriatna J, Walujo EB. Ethnobotanical study of plant resource in Serangan Island, Bali. Asian J Conserv Biol. 2014;3(2):135–48. Rahayu R, Susiarti S, Arimukti SD. Traditional knowledge on plants utilization in postpartum care: an ethnobotanical study in local community of Cimande, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. J Trop Biol Conserv. 2019;16:307–22. Saleheen D, Ali SA, Ashfaq K, Siddiqui AA, Agha A, Yasinzai MM. Latent activity of curcumin against Leishmaniasis in vitro. Biol Pharm Bull. 2002;25(3):386–9. Silalahi M, Nisyawati. An ethnobotanical study of traditional steam-bathing by the Batak people of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Pac Conserv Biol. 2019;25(3):266–82. Silalahi M, Purba EC, Mustaqim WA. Tumbuhan Obat Sumatera Utara Jilid I Monokotiledon. Jakarta: UKI Press; 2018. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Singh G, Kapoor IPS, Singh P, de Heluani CS, de Lampasona MP, Catalan CAN. Comparative study of chemical composition and antioxidant activity of fresh and dry rhizomes of turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn.). Food Chem Toxicol. 2010;48:1026–31. Sumarni W, Sudarmin S, Sumarti SS. The scientification of jamu: a study of Indonesian’s traditional medicine. J Phys Conf Ser. 2019;321:032057. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1321/3/032057.

Curcuma longa L.

345

Trimanto, Danarto SA, Ashrafuzzaman M. Ethnobotanical uses of plants by Brangkuah Community of Moyo Island, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. J Bangladesh Agric Univ. 2019;17 (3):325–37. https://doi.org/10.3329/jbau.v17i3.43206. Tripathi AK, Prajapati V, Verma N, Bahl JR, Bansal RP, Khanuja SPS, Kumar S. Bioactivities of the leaf essential oil of Curcuma longa (var. ch-66) on three species of stored-product beetles (Coleoptera). J Econ Entomol. 2002;95(1):183–9. Wahkidah AZ, Silalahi M, Pradana DH. Inventory and conservation plant of oke sou traditional ceremony; A welcoming tradition of maturity girl on the community of Lako Akediri Village, West Halmahera, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 2017;18(1):65–72. Wardini TH, Prakoso B. Curcuma. In: de Padua LS, Bunyaprasphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ. (Editors). Plants Resources of South-East Asia No 12(1) Medicinal and Poisonous Plant 1. Backhyus Publishers, Leiden, The Netherland. 1999:210–219.

Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redouté ASPHODELACEAE Kreni Lokho and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Anthericum japonicum Thunb.; Charlwoodia ensata (Thunb.) Göpp.; Conanthera forsteri Spreng.; Cordyline ensifolia (L.) Planch.; Dianella albiflora Hallier f.; Dianella carinata Hallier f.; Dianella ensata (Thunb.) R. J. F. Hend.; Dianella ensifolia f. albiflora T. S. Liu & S. S. Ying, Dianella ensifolia f. racemulifera (Schlittler) T. S. Liu & S. S. Ying, Dianella ensifolia f. straminea (Yatabe) Kitam.; Dianella flabellata Hallier f.; Dianella forsteri (Spreng.) Endl.; Dianella humilis Lodd. ex Steud.; Dianella ledermannii K. Krause; Dianella mauritiana Blume; Dianella montana Blume; Dianella monticola K. Krause; Dianella nemorosa Lam.; Dianella nemorosa f. caeruloides Schlittler; Dianella obscura Kunth; Dianella parviflora Ridl.; Dianella parviflora Zipp. ex Hallier f.; Dianella philippensis Perr.; Dianella pullei K. Krause; Dianella robusta Elmer; Dianella sparsiflora Schlittler; Dianella straminea Yatabe; Dracaena ensata Thunb.; Dracaena ensifolia L.; Dracaena nemorosa Steud.; Eustrephus javanicus D.Dietr.; Liliago japonica (Thunb.) C. Presl; Phalangium japonicum (Thunb.) Poir.; Walleria paniculata Fritsch (POWO 2020)

Local Names Brunei Darussalam: Sapal; tembalong, tipoh (Dusun). Malaysia: akar siak, benjuang, satagit, senjuang, siak-siak jantan (Peninsular Malaysia); angkup-angkup (Bokan), labeh-labeh (Dusun in Penampang), lepi-lepi (Tambunan in Sabah). K. Lokho (*) Department of Botany, Madras Christian College, Chennai, India W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_148

347

348

K. Lokho and W. A. Mustaqim

Indonesia: Sumatra: akar tundaun, tundaun, mentutil, tengari, ukop (Bangka in Sumatra), siak-siak (Riau); sieuh (Jambi), sitanggit (Batak), seslah (Pasemah in West Sumatra), sitangle (Indragiri in Riau). Java: jamaka, djamaka putih, suliga (Sundanese), kerisan lemes, tegari (Javanese). Kalimantan: rumput siak-siak (Dayak Jangkang in West Kalimantan), tetanjan (Kendawangan in West Kalimantan). Sulawesi: mariuü (Talaud). Papua: buru-buru (Biak). Philippines: abláas (Bag.), bariubáriu, oyon-oyon (P. Bis.), dun˜ gau (Ig.), hogangan (If.). Thailand: ha dia sua (Mien) (Jessop 1979; Sari et al. 2015; Siregar and Ruskandi 2000).

Botany and Ecology Botanical Description: An evergreen perennial herb, stems usually unbranched, less often with a few ones, from 0 to 1 m high. Rhizome creeping, measuring about 5–8 mm thick, branched. Leaves basal, these scattered throughout the stem or in a terminal rosette, blades sword-shaped, 25–100
0.8–3 cm, leathery, both sides appressed against one another, becoming isobilateral, gradually narrowing at both ends, apex obtuse; margin usually scabrous; midrib conspicuous abaxially and with minute serrations or prickles, smaller veins numerous and conspicuous. Inflorescence scapose, longer than the leaves, 1–2 m long. Inflorescence subtended by bract, lower bracts leaflike, 3–8 cm long; flowers in panicle 10–40 cm long, laxly branched or with short terminal branch, flowers usually borne at the distal part; pedicellar bracts from absent or up to 7 mm long. Pedicels 0.4–2.2 cm long, usually arcuate. Tepals white, greenish-white, lilac, yellowish, blue, or bluish-purple, spreading, segments linear-lanceolate to narrowly oblong, outer ones 7–7.5
2.25–2.5 mm, inner ones 7
2.75–3. Stamens are shorter than tepals; filaments linear or narrowly oblong, geniculate near the middle and dilated distally, white or yellow, below the anther with a yellow glabrous swelling. Ovary green, 1.5–2 mm long, each locule contains four ovules; style green, blue, or white, 4–6 mm long. Berries deep shiny blue, subglobose, 6–8 mm diameter, five- or six-seeded, seeds black, 3–4 mm long (Chen and Tamura 2000; Jessop 1979; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; Uddin and Hassan 2009). (Figs. 1 and 2). Phenology: Flowering throughout the year and fruiting from March to August. Distribution and Habitat: This species is native to the majority of the Old World, from continental Africa and Madagascar including Seychelles Island, then South to East Asia (Japan and Formosa), throughout Southeast Asia, some parts of Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, and New South Wales) including Tasmannia, Pacific Islands, and New Zealand. In Borneo, it is found growing in highland mixed dipterocarp and lower montane forests from 600 to 2000 m.a.s.l; while in other areas, this species is found in primary forests to open grasslands, also in kerangas (heath) forests, from near sea level to 3000 m.a.s.l. This is an adaptable species (Jessop 1979; POWO 2020; Sulistyaningsih et al. 2019).

Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redouté

349

Fig. 1 Inflorescence of Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redouté. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Flowers of Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redouté. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: The Kedayan people of the Sengkurong subdistrict consume root decoction in small quantities to treat hepatitis (jaundice). The pounded leaves are also used topically to reduce abscesses (Mohiddin et al. 1991). The Dusun people consume fresh roots or root decoction for treating weakness in men (Voeks and Nyawa 2001). Root and rhizome decoction are administered by folk healers of Kiudang to treat jaundice; leaf poultice is applied topically to treat abscess (Kamsani et al. 2020). Indonesia: Roots are used to cure urinary pain

350

K. Lokho and W. A. Mustaqim

(Sari et al. 2015). Stems are used as tonic by the Dayak Lundayeh and Kenyah Uma’lung, East Kalimantan (Ajiningrum 2011). The leaves are used in the Dieng plateau for inflammation of the urinary tract (Abdiyani 2008). Leaves are also used to cure wounds by Dayak Lundaye and Kenyah Uma’lung, East Kalimantan (Ajiningrum 2011). Malaysia: The Dusun people of Borneo crush the young leaves (about 6–12) and apply the decoction two to three times a day to relieve headache (Kulip 2014). The Malays of Terengganu use root decoction as a drink for nursing mothers during postpartum (Ahmad and Holdsworth 1995). Thailand: The Mien (Yao) community consumes the leaves and stem decoction to treat common cold and flu. The decoction is also believed to promote vaginal health (Panyaphu et al. 2011). The Lua people use the plant for treating cold (Srithi et al. 2019).

Phytochemistry Essential oils from the aerial parts exhibited broad-spectrum in vitro antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria also the in vitro cytotoxic activity evaluation against the cell lines of HepG2 (liver hepatocellular cells) and MCF-7 (human breast adenocarcinoma cell line) by MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] assay method. The screening showed potent cytotoxicity of cells in the IC50 values of 61.35 and 56.53 μg/mL respectively (He et al. 2019). From the air-dried roots, a new cycloartane-type triterpenoid 22-hydroxy-cyclolaudenol was isolated together with two known triterpenoids cycloneolitsol and cyclopholidonol showing significant cytotoxic effects against cancer cells (Tang et al. 2016). Two new flavans have been isolated namely, (2S)-20 ,40 -dihydroxy-7-methoxy-8-methylflavan and (2S)20 -hydroxy-40 ,7-dimethoxy-8-methylflavan from the roots and show cytotoxic effects against cancer cells (Tang et al. 2017b). Methanol extract from Papuan plant leaves is known to display cytotoxic against four cancer cell lines including human breast and carcinoma (Karim et al. 2012). The screening of the aerial part of the plant led to the isolation of ten compounds of which, 7-acetyl-4R,8-dihydroxy6-methyl-1-tetralone, 2(S),20 ,40 -dihydroxy-7-methoxyflavan, and diaensibiflavan were new compounds (Nhung et al. 2019). The screening of the chemical constituents from the root of the plant led to the isolation of eight compounds: Musizin (dianellidin) (1), methyl 2,4-dihydroxy-3,5,6-trimethylbenzoate (8), methyl 2,4-dihydroxy-3,6-dimethylbenzoate (7), methyl 2,4-dihydroxy-6-methylbenzoate (methyl orsellinate)(9), 2,4-dihydroxy-6-methoxy-3-methylacetophenone (14), 5, 7-dihydroxy-2, 6,8-trimethylchromone (11) and 5, 7-dihydroxy-2,8dimethylchromone (isoeugenitol) (13) (Lojanapiwatna et al. 1982; Tang et al. 2017a)

Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redouté

351

Biocultural Importance The roots are used in the Dieng plateau, Indonesia, as rat poison (Abdiyani 2008). The Torajanese community of Indonesia uses the dried leaves and burns them as incense during the funeral ceremony and also during the commemoration of the spirit of the dead locally called as ma’nana ceremony (Widjaja 1988). The Tepin People of Salawati, Papua Barat, put the leaves before their houses to protect themselves (Maturbong et al. 2000). This species is also cultivated as ornamental in Depok, West Java (Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017).

References Abdiyani S. Keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan bawah berkhasiat obat di Dataran Tinggi Dieng. J Penelit Hut Konserv Alam. 2008;1:79–92. https://doi.org/10.20886/jphka.2008.5.1.79-92. Ahmad FB, Holdsworth DK. Medicinal plants of Terengganu state, Malaysia. Int J Pharmacogn. 1995;33(3):259–61. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209509065376. Ajiningrum PS. Valuasi potensi keanekaragaman hayati jenis hasil hutan nonkayu (NNHK) masyarakat lokal Dayak Lundayeh dan Uma’lung di Kabupaten Malinau, Kalimantan Timur [master thesis]. Depok: Universitas Indonesia; 2011. (in Bahasa). Chen X, Tamura MN. Dianella. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 24 (Flagellariaceae through Marantaceae). Beijing: Science Press and St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden; 2000. pp. 162–3. He ZQ, Shen XY, Cheng ZY, Wang RL, Lai PX, Xing X. Chemical composition, antibacterial, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of the essential oil of Dianella ensifolia. Rec Nat Prod. 2019;14(2):160–5. https://doi.org/10.25135/rnp.150.19.07.1321. Jessop JP. Liliaceae I. Fl Malesiana I. 1979;9(1):189–235. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Karim AK, Sismindari, Asmara W, Istriyanti. Cytotoxic activity of tegari (Dianella nemorosa Lam; Liliaceae) leaves methanol extract from Papua against human cells lines in vitro. In: Proceeding international conference: research and application on traditional complementary and alternative medicine in health care; 2012 June 22–23. Surakarta: Muhammadiyah University Press. pp. 38–43. Kulip J. The ethnobotany of Dusun people in Tikolod village, Tambunan district, Sabah, Malaysia. Reinwardtia. 2014;14(1):101–21. Lojanapiwatna V, Chancharoen K, Sakarin K, Achitra PW. Chemical constituents of Dianella ensifolia Redoute. J Sci Soc Thail. 1982;8:95–102. http://www.scienceasia.org/1982.08.n2/ v08_095_102.pdf Maturbong R, Arobaya AYS, Heatubun CD, Pugu YR. Ethnobotany of Tepin tribe in Salawati Island, Sorong, Irian Jaya. Beccariana. 2000;2(2):38–74. (in Bahasa). Mohiddin MYBH, Chin W, Holdsworth D. Traditional medicinal plants of Brunei Darussalam. Part II. Sengkurong. Int J Pharmacogn. 1991;29(4):252–8. https://doi.org/10.3109/138802091090 82891.

352

K. Lokho and W. A. Mustaqim

Nhung LTH, Linh NTT, Cham BT, Thuy TT, Tam NT, Thien DD, et al. New phenolics from Dianella ensifolia. Nat Prod Res. 2019;12:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2019. 1689499. Nisyawati N, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Panyaphu K, On TV, Sirisa-ard P, Srisa-nga P, Chansa Kaow S, Nathakarnkitkul S. Medicinal plants of the Mien (Yao) in Northern Thailand and their potential value in the primary healthcare of postpartum women. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;135:226–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2011.03.050. POWO (Plants of the World Online) (Online). 2020. Available from: http://www.plantsofthe worldonline.org/ Sari A, Linda R, Lovadi I. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat pada masyarakat Suku Dayak Jangkang Tanjung di Desa Ribau Kecamatan Kapuas Kabupaten Sanggau. Protobiont. 2015;4(2):1–8. (in Bahasa). Siregar M, Ruskandi A. Studi ekologi hutan ekosistem Cagar Alam Muara Kendawangan. In: Sunaryo, Partomihardjo T, Poerba YS, Handini S, Napitupulu RN, Agustiyani D, editors. Laporan teknik proyek penelitian, pengembangan dan pendayagunaan biota darat. Bogor: Puslitbang Biologi LIPI; 2000. p. 39–58. (in Bahasa). Srithi K, Trisonthi C, Inta A, Balslev H. Cross-cultural comparison of medicinal plants used to treat infections in Northern Thailand. Econ Bot. 2019;73:86–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231018-9435-1. Sulistyaningsih YC, Dorly, Djuita NR, Ariyanti NS, Akmal H, Putra HF, Fakhrurrozi Y, Mustaqim WA. A field guide to the potential plants of Belitung Islands. Bogor: IPB Press; 2019. Tang BQ, Li CW, Sun JB, Chang Y, Chan JYW, Lee SMY, et al. A new cycloartane-type triterpenoid from the roots of Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC. Nat Prod Res. 2016;31(8):966–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2016.1258558. Tang BQ, Chen ZY, Sun JB, Lee SMY, Lu JL. Phytochemical and chemotaxonomic study on Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC. Biochem Syst Ecol. 2017a;72:12–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. bse.2017.03.008. Tang BQ, Huang SS, Liang YE, Sun JB, Ma Y, Zeng B, et al. Two new flavans from the roots of Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC. Nat Prod Res. 2017b;31(13):1561–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14786419.2017.1283501. Uddin SN, Hassan MA. Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC. (Liliaceae) – a new angiospermic record for Bangladesh. Bangladesh J Plant Taxon. 2009;16(2):181–4. Voeks R, Nyawa S. Healing flora of the Brunei Dusun. Borneo Res Bull. 2001;32:178–95. Widjaja EA. Ethnobotany of the funeral ceremony of the Torajanese. Econ Bot. 1988;42(2):250–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858927.

Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe DILLENIACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Synonyms Dillenia catmon Elm.; Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe var. pubifolia Merr.

Local Names Palali (Bkd, Ibg, Igt, Ilk, Png, Sub); bihais, bihis, biskan (Igt); balale (Ibg); biskan (Ilk); bolobayawak (BisPn); dengin (Sbl); dingin (Bng, Dgt, SblPn); kalambok (Bgb); kalambugi (Mar); kalambuguy (Lan); kambug (Sub, Tsg); katmon (ManyLgs); katmon-buhukan (Tag); katmun (Han, Myn); kulambug, kutmon (Bgb); malaringin (Sbl); palagaw (Ibg); palago (Agta, Dgt, Tag); palaku (Bkd, Ibg, Igt, Ilk, Png, Sub); pamalaliyen (Ilk, Png); pamalatuwen, pamaliyen (Png); paningginon (Sbl); philippine dillenia, philippine katmon (Eng) (Madulid 2001).

Botany and Ecology Description: A tall tree (15–17 m high and 50 cm in diameter) with dark green leaves that are about 18–23 cm long
10 cm wide, alternate, leathery, shiny, serrate, oblong to subelliptic, base obtuse to rounded; apex acuminate; margin coarsely dentate. Parallel veins are visible (Madulid 2002). The flowers are white, 14–16 cm wide, solitary (terminal) or few-clustered; purple style, numerous stamens and pistils. There are 5 sepals, 5 large white petals and purplish stamens and style

R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_14

353

354

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

(Merril 1912). Fruits are globose, 5–6 cm in diameter, indehiscent globose syncarp, enclosed by green, enlarged, imbricate sepals, inner portion fleshy green pulp, sour; seed with aril at base (Castro 2006; Coronel 2011a, b). Seeds are white, ovoid, and 22.5 in number (Magdalita et al. 2014). Phenology: May to August (Alicay and Balatico 2018). Each mature tree yields about 1250 average number of fruits per year from April to May under Cavinti and Kaliraya, Laguna conditions (Magdalita et al. 2014). Distribution and Habitat: Endemic to the Philippines. Distributed throughout the Philippines (Brown 1950; Merril 1912) but absent in Palawan and Calamianes Islands. Found in lowland and medium elevation forests, up to 1800 and 2000 m. Grown in Luzon: Ilocos Norte (Burgos), La Union, Apayao, Pangasinan (Mt San Isidro Labrador), Cagayan, Isabela (Palanan), Aurora (Casiguran; Baler), Nueva Ecija, Zambales (Botolan; Anuling; Mt. Pinatubo), Bataan (Mt Mariveles), Rizal (Montalban, Antipolo), Laguna (Mt Makiling; Cavinti), Batangas, Quezon (Mauban; Pagbilao; Atimonan; Lagumanoc), Camarines Norte (Paracale), Camarines Sur (Mt Isarog; Pasacao), Albay, Sorsogon (Mt Bulusan), Polillo, Mindoro (Baco; Pola; Bongabong), Panay: Capiz (Mt Timbaban; Agraman River), Iloilo, Guimaras, Cebu, Leyte (Palo), Tawi-Tawi, Basilan, Mindanao: Zamboanga (San Ramon, Sax River), Zamboanga del Norte (Dapitan; Sindangan Bay), Lanao (near Malabang), Bukidnon (Mahilucot River; Mt. Kitanglad), Davao (Mt Apo area; Catalnan), Davao del Sur (Sta Cruz), Agusan del Norte (Mt Urdaneta), and Surigao del Norte (Lake Mainit) (Pelser et al. 2011). In Benguet, found in Bakun and Sablan (Chua-Barcelo 2014). Conservation Status: Vulnerable (World Conservation Monitoring Center 1998) (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses The fruit juice when mixed with sugar is a remedy for cough (Brown 1950; Lim 2012). The Subanen tribe inhabiting the mountainous regions of Zamboanga del Sur boil seven leaves of D. philippinensis in 1.5 glasses of water and consume it to treat nausea and diarrhea (Pizon et al. 2016). On the other hand, the IlongotEgongot community in Bayanihan, Maria Aurora, Aurora province, use the D. philippinensis to treat genitourinary and gastrointestinal diseases. The stem and bark are boiled and taken orally for urinary tract infection and as laxative (Balberona et al. 2018).

Phytochemistry D. philippinensis leaves possess general cytotoxic activity and not specific against Leishmania major (Macahig et al. 2011). According to Ragasa (2009), the leaves also exhibit moderate antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans, slight activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and

Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe

355

Fig. 1 Dillenia philippinensis (Dilleniaceae). Tree habit. (© R. Barcelo)

Fig. 2 Dillenia philippinensis (Dilleniaceae). Fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

Bacillus subtilis. In addition, the latter has slight activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Both S. aureus and S. epidermidis were susceptible to the fruit extract based on a 15 mm zone of inhibition observed (Alicay and Balatico 2018). Barcelo (2015) reported that among the 31 fruits and compared to controls

356

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Fig. 3 Dillenia philippinensis (Dilleniaceae). Fruit cross and longitudinal sections. (© R. Barcelo)

(vitamin E, ascorbic acid, and trolox) tested, the methanolic fruit extract of D. philippinensis showed the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity (91.13%). The leaves and bark have laxative and astringent properties (Stuart 2018). Triterpenes are reported to be present in D. philippinensis leaves. These are sulfated glucoside, seco-A-ring oleanane-type (Macahig et al. 2011), betulinic acid, and 3-oxoolean-12-en-30-oic acid (Ragasa et al. 2009). The fruits are sources of natural antioxidants based on the phytochemical screening done (Barcelo 2015). The fruits collected from Benguet province contain phytochemicals such as alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, polyphenols, and tannins but lack anthraquinones. In contrast, D. philippinensis from Cagayan valley contain flavonoids and anthraquinones but lack tannins and saponins (Alicay and Balatico 2018). The fruits are safe to eat based on clinical signs and histopathological evaluation in ICR mice. However, single oral dose of the fruit anthocyanins and polyphenols at 5000 mg/kg dose is toxic. Thus, 300 mg/kg dose is suggested for daily intake (Barcelo et al. 2017). Nutrient composition analysis revealed 90.69 g/100 g moisture content, 7.17 g/100 g carbohydrates, 1 g/100 g total fat content, 0.64 g/100 g crude protein, 0.50 g/100 g ash content, 92.20 ug/g, 42.90 ug/g sodium, and 1.95 ug/g iron (Alicay and Balatico 2018). This implies that the fruits are rich in nutrients hence, healthy for consumption.

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten raw sometimes with some salt or bagoong (Alicay and Balatico 2018), processed into jams, and used as flavoring (Castro 2006; Chua-Barcelo 2014; Coronel 2011b; Magdalita et al. 2014). Bagoong is a pink-reddish to brown fish or

Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe

357

shrimp paste with pungent smell and earthy-salty taste used as a dip condiment produced from fermentation of fish or shrimp and salt (FFE 2014). In Cagayan valley, rural folks consume the fruits with their family and some are sold in the local market (Alicay and Balatico 2018). Jellies are made using the fruits (Coronel 2011a, b). The soft juicy acidic fleshy pulp can be used in sauce and added to fish dishes (Brown 1950). Sinigang is a popular Filipino sour dish composed of pork, shrimp, or fish with green vegetables such as spinach or kangkong. It is among the favorite meals of Filipinos because of it is delicious taste and easy to prepare especially during cold and rainy days. Souring agents such as unripe tamarind, fruits like guava, tomato, green mango, pineapple etc. can be used in cooking (Panlasang Pinoy 2019). However, nowadays, sinigang mix is used as an alternative instead of the fresh raw agents due to flavor, ease of use, affordability, and availability. A sinigang mix was formulated using D. philippinensis fruits. The fruits were dried and pulverized and added with citric acid. The 40% powdered fruit and 25% citric acid had the highest acceptability compared to commercial brands in terms of aroma, flavor, and sourness (Ombico et al. 2017).

Biocultural Importance The trees are used for ornamental purposes due to their glossy foliage and white flowers (Brown 1950; Castro 2006; La Frankie 2010; Lim 2012). The trunk can be a source of wood used in construction and building boats (Castro 2006), furniture, boards, panel, plywood, poles, etc. (Lim 2012). The trees serve as shade especially during hot seasons to rural folks (Alicay and Balatico 2018). The urban greening tree is used in riparian and wetland management. The bark serves as a source of red dye. The Agta people are known to extract red dye from D. philippinensis (Garcia and Acay 2003; Lim 2012). A red colored solution is obtained when the chopped bark is boiled in water. The dye is used for decoration purposes (Garcia and Acay 2003). It has been used to give color in Acetaminophen syrup (Villabroza et al. 2017). The fruit is used in hair cleansing (Lim 2012).

References Alicay C, Balatico FV. Fruits of the future: characterization of indigenous fruits of Cagayan valley. Asia Pac J Multidiscip Res. 2018;6(4):52–9. Balberona AN, Novena JJ, Angeles MGB, Santos RI, Cachin EJDJ, Cruz KGJ. Ethnomedicinal plants utilized by the Ilongot-Egongot community of Bayanihan, Maria Aurora, Aurora, Philippines. IJA. 2018;14(2):145–59. Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Barcelo R, Barcelo J, Rosuman P, Caburian A. Preliminary in vivo evaluation of the acute toxicity of Dillenia philippinensis (Rolfe) fruit extract, anthocyanins and polyphenols in mice (Mus musculus). Int J Biosci. 2017;10(5):172–86. Brown W. Useful plants of the Philippines, vol. II. Bureau of Printing: Manila; 1950.

358

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Castro I. A guide to families of common flowering plants in the Philippines. Quezon City: The University of the Philippines Press; 2006. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. Coronel R. The edible fruits and nuts of the RC fruit conservation farm. Philippines: UP: Los Baños Laguna; Los Banos Laguna, 2011a. Coronel R. Important and underutilized edible fruits of the Philippines. UPLBFI and DA-BAR: Philippines; Los Banos Laguna, 2011b. For Filipinos in Europe. Filipino icon: bagoong. 2014. http://ffemagazine.com/filipino-iconbagoong/. Accessed 14 Jan 2020. Garcia H, Acay J. Ethnobotany study of the Agta communities in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. In: Ploeg JV, Masipiqueña A, Bernardo E, editors. 4th regional conference on environment and development; 2003. p. 70–82. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi¼10.1.1. 1017.6437&rep¼rep1&type¼pdf#page¼89. Accessed 14 Jan 2020. La Frankie J. Trees of tropical Asia. Philippines: Black Tree Publications Inc.; Bacnotan 2010. Lim TK. Dillenia philippinensis. In: Edible medicinal and non-medicinal plants. Dordrecht: Springer; 2012. Macahig RAS, Matsunami K, Otsuka H. Chemical studies on an endemic Philippine plant: sulfated glucoside and seco-A-ring triterpenoids from Dillenia philippinensis. Chem Pharm Bull. 2011;59(3):397–401. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Philippines: Bookmark Inc.; Makati, Manila, 2001. Madulid D. A pictorial guide to the noteworthy plants of Palawan. Palawan Tropical Forestry Protection Programme: Philippines; Palawan, 2002. Magdalita P, Abrigo MIK, Coronel R. Phenotypic evaluation of some promising rare fruit crops in the Philippines. Philipp Sci Lett. 2014;7(2):376–86. Merril E. A flora of Manila. Bureau of Printing: Manila; 1912. Ombico MT, Garcia AR, De Villa TM, Raymundo LR. Utilization of Katmon (Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe) into powdered sinigang mix. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2017. http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID¼PH2017000581. Accessed 18 Sept 2019. Panlasang Pinoy. Sinigang. 2019. https://panlasangpinoy.com/pork-sinigang-na-baboy-recipe/. Accessed 14 Jan 2020. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Dilleniaceae.html. Accessed 18 Sept 2019. Pizon JR, Nuñeza O, Uy M, Senarath W. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by the Subanen tribe of Lapuyan, Zamboanga del Sur. Bull Env Pharmacol Life Sci. 2016;5(5):53–67. Ragasa C, Alimboyoguen A, Shen CC. Antimicrobial triterpenes from Dillenia philippinensis. Philipp Scient. 2009;46:78–87. Stuart G. Katmon (Dilleniaceae). In: Philippine alternative medicine. 2018 onwards. http://www. stuartxchange.org/Katmon.html. Accessed 20 Sept 2019. Villabroza Y, Rufon GD, Cruz J, Gonzales R. Compatibility studies of the methanolic extract of the Dillenia philippinensis (Katmon) Rolfe. (Dilleniaceae) bark as a pharmaceutical red colorant on acetaminophen syrup using differential scanning calorimetry. J Pharm Sci Emerg Drugs. 2017;5(2) World Conservation Monitoring Centre. The IUCN red list of threatened species: Dillenia philippinensis. 1998. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T33202A9764984. Accessed 18 Sept 2019.

Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. ATHYRIACEAE Daniele Cicuzza

Synonyms Anisogonium esculentum (Retz.) C. Presl; Anisogonium serampurens C. Presl; Asplenium ambiguum Sw.; Asplenium esculentum (Retz.) C. Presl; Asplenium malabaricum Mett.; Asplenium moritzii Mett.; Asplenium pubescens Mett.; Asplenium vitiense Baker; Athyrium ambigua (Sw.) Milde; Athyrium esculentum (Retz.) Copel.; Callipteris ambigua (Sw.) T. Moore; Callipteris esculenta (Retz.) J. Sm. ex T. Moore & Houlston; Callipteris esculenta var. pubescens (Link) Ching; Callipteris malabarica J. Sm.; Callipteris serampurens Fée; Digrammaria ambigua (Sw.) C. Presl; Digrammaria esculenta J. Sm.; Diplazium malabaricum Spreng.; Diplazium pubescens Link; Diplazium serampurens Spreng.; Diplazium vitiense Carruth.; Gymnogramma edulis Ces.; Hemionitis esculenta Retz.; Microstegia ambigua (Sw.) C. Presl; Microstegia esculenta (Retz.) C. Presl; Microstegia pubescens C. Presl

Local Names Paku benar; paku tanjong (Malaysia); kuò kuô ch’ai ch’uèh (Malaysia, Chinese); phak kuut (Philippines, general); tegabas (Philippines, Tagalog); tamidoc (Ivatan community, Batas Island, Philippines); phak kuut (Thailand general); hasdam (Thailand peninsular); kuut khue (Thailand northern); paku wilis (Bali); paku sayur (Indonesia); paku beunyeur (Java, Sundanese); rane (Indonesia, Sundanese, Rane community); bajey (Dayak, Kalimantan); paku heurang (Baduy).

D. Cicuzza (*) Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_15

359

360

D. Cicuzza

Botany and Ecology Description: Diplazium esculentum is a relatively large fern up to 1 m and half, and the population, when in right ecological condition, can create a very thick dense single species vegetation. The rhizome is erect, sometimes can reach 15 cm tall and 4–6 cm in diameter, covered with brown scale with a narrow and lanceolate form and a toothed margin. The stout rhizome anchors the plants to the ground and even if the leaves are removed by human intervention or due to natural events, the plant is able to regrowth. Leaves are caespitose disposed in a rosette long up to 120 cm (Fig. 1). The lamina is bipinnate, the out shape has a deltoid form, 60–80 cm long and 30–60 cm wide, the terminal part is acute with all the leaflet merged. The lamina is formed by 12–16 pairs of pinna with an alternate disposition. Veins in the lobes of the pinna, usually 6–10 pairs, single and reaching the margin or the sinus. Lamina with the herbaceous feeling when touched, glabrous or hairy, the rachis either glabrous or hairy; the upper side of it has a concave shape, grooved, usually glabrous. The sori mostly linear, slightly curved,

Fig. 1 Leaves of a mature individual of Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Leaves are generally large. (© Daniele Cicuzza)

Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.

361

covering from half to the entire vein; indusia yellow to light brown, linear (Lindsay and Middleton 2012). Phenology: The species does not have a cyclic reproductive phenology, rather as many tropical ferns, there are always fertile individuals within the population, along the whole years. However, little is known about the cycle reproductive phenology of tropical ferns. Diplazium esculentum is related to humid habitats, therefore the dry season of some tropical region affect in minor degree the plant phenology (Holttum 1968). However, not proper studies have been conducted on this species, therefore it is difficult to draw conclusions. Distribution and Habitat: The species is very variable in its ecology. Common in open and wet places, in Southeast Asia it is commonly found along the edge of paddy field, inside cocoa and coffee plantations, rubber and oil palm plantation, also present in secondary forest and in tree plantations. The plant is common in lowland areas as well as in lower mountain forest from 100 to 1200 m. It has a broad tropical and subtropical distribution. From tropics of Asia, north to Central China and S Japan, to Far East in Polynesia. The plant is easy to recognize first because is a common species around villages and farms in South East Asia. Second, the species is relatively tall compared with the other fern species growing in agricultural fields of disturbed sites; third, the rosette leaf disposition with a light green color have a unique feature giving to the plant a caespitose habit easy to recognize within anthropic areas. The species is not in danger of extinction and considered as Least Concern based on the IUCN category (Irudayaraj 2013).

Local Medicinal Uses The plant is widely used in South East Asia, the two parts which are commonly used are the rhizome and the leaves. In East Java, Indonesia, D. esculentum is used to treat muscle and joint diseases; leaves and rhizome are boiled and used as herbal drink (Nikmatullah et al. 2018). The Rane Sundanese community use the whole plant including the roots to treat fever, dermatitis, and measles (Roosita et al. 2008). The Tengger community of East Java uses the rhizome to treat diarrhea (Batoro and Siswanto 2017). The Ivan community in the Batas Island, Philippines, uses leaves and stems to cure high blood pressure and constipation (Abe and Ohtani 2013). Two different communities in Thailand peninsular boil and drink D. esculentum to avoid flatulence and constipation (Neamsuvan and Ruangrit 2017).

Phytochemistry D. esculentum is used as food source for long time and modern studies have reported a considerable concentration of phytochemical compounds, many of which are important for humans. Diplazium esculentum fresh leaves samples contain high concentration of ash, fat, protein, and fiber, respectively. Furthermore, screening show the presence of several phytochemical elements as alkaloids, sugars, anthraquinones,

362

D. Cicuzza

anthranol glycosides, cyanidins, phenols, saponins, and proteins (Tongco et al. 2014). The antibacterial activity of Diplazium esculentum and its active constituents would be helpful in treating various kinds of diseases. The rhizome extracts have been found to be more effective than leaves; its extract shows higher inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella arizonae (Amit et al. 2011). The plant is rich in micronutrients, beta-carotene, folic acid, minerals (Ca, Fe, and P). Anti-nutritional factors like phytic acids, trypsin, and tannins are present. Polyphenols are the main compounds that function as anti-aging and anti-inflammatory drugs. Phytochemical screening of Diplazium esculentum used by the Dayak community of Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo shows the presence of secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenoids, and saponins, as well as polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenoids, and saponins (Zannah et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses The leaves of D. esculentum are commonly on sale in local markets and supermarkets throughout Southeast Asia. The leaves are collected from wild plants and no form of Diplazium cultivation is known. The plant grows easily, thanks to its vegetative reproduction, and can produce large cluster of individuals with several leaves. D. esculentum is the most commonly consumed ferns by the Penan Benalui of Borneo (Irawan et al. 2006), while the Dusun people of Sabah cook the fern as vegetable or salad (Maid et al. 2017). The Balinese people add cooked tender leaves to vegetable soups (Sujarwo et al. 1970). The Dao and H’mong communities of Lao Cai province in Vietnam use D. esculentum as vegetable among other plants collected directly from the forest (Vu and Nguyen 2017), whereas in the central island of Vietnam, the leaves of the species are used as vegetable (Ogle et al. 2003).

References Abe R, Ohtani K. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants and traditional therapies on Batan Island, the Philippines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145:554–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2012.11.029. Amit S, Sunil K, Bhatt SP, et al. Antibacterial activity of Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Pharmacogn J. 2011;3:77–9. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2011.21.14. Batoro J, Siswanto D. Ethnomedicinal survey of plants used by local society in Poncokusumo district, Malang, East Java Province, Indonesia. Asian J Med Biol Res. 2017;3:158–67. https:// doi.org/10.3329/ajmbr.v3i2.33563. Holttum RE. Flora of Malaya. Vol II. Ferns of Malaya. Singapore: Government Printing Office; 1968. Irawan D, Wijaya CH, Limin SH, et al. Ethnobotanical study and nutrient potency of local traditional vegetables in Central Kalimantan. Tropics. 2006;15:441–8. https://doi.org/10.3759/ tropics.15.441. Irudayaraj V Diplazium esculentum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013. https://www. iucnredlist.org/species/194150/8883499. Lindsay S, Middleton DJ. Ferns of Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. 2012 onwards. http://rbg-web2. rbge.org.uk/thaiferns/.

Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.

363

Maid M, Tay J, Yahya H, et al. The reliance of forest community on forest for livelihood: a case of Kampung Wawasan, Sook, Sabah, Malaysia. Int J Agric For Plant. 2017;5:110–8. Neamsuvan O, Ruangrit T. A survey of herbal weeds that are used to treat gastrointestinal disorders from southern Thailand: Krabi and Songkhla provinces. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;196:84–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.11.033. Nikmatullah M, Nisyawati, Walujo EB. Utilization of a diversity of medicinal plants in Cibeo society, Baduy-Dalam, in Kanekes Village, Leuwidamar District, Lebak Regency, Banten. AIP Conf Proc. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5061839. Ogle BM, Tuyet HT, Duyet HN, et al. Food, feed or medicine: the multiple functions of edible wild plants in Vietnam. Econ Bot. 2003;57:103–17. https://doi.org/10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057 [0103:FFOMTM]2.0.CO;2. Roosita K, Kusharto CM, Sekiyama M, et al. Medicinal plants used by the villagers of a Sundanese community in West Java, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;115:72–81. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2007.09.010. Sujarwo W, Lugrayasa N, Caneva G. Ethnobotanical study of edible ferns used in Bali Indonesia. Asia Pac J Sustain Agric Food Energy. 1970;2:1–4. Tongco JVV, Villaber RAP, Aguda RM, et al. Nutritional and phytochemical screening, and total phenolic and flavonoid content of Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. from Philippines. J Chem Pharm Res. 2014;6:238–42. Vu DT, Nguyen TA. The neglected and underutilized species in the Northern mountainous provinces of Vietnam. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2017;64:1115–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10722-017-0517-1. Zannah F, Amin M, Suwono H, Lukiati B. Phytochemical screening of Diplazium esculentum as medicinal plant from Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. AIP Conf Proc. 2017;1844. https://doi.org/ 10.1063/1.4983439.

Donax canniformis (G.Forst.) K.Schum. MARANTACEAE Marina Silalahi and Anisatu Z. Wakhidah

Synonyms Actoplanes canniformis (G.Forst.) K.Schum.; Actoplanes grandis (Miq.) K.Schum., Actoplanes ridleyi K.Schum.; Arundastrum canniforme (G.Forst.) Kuntze; Arundastrum grande (Miq.) Kuntze; Clinogyne canniformis (G.Forst.) K.Schum.; Clinogyne dichotoma Salisb. ex Benth.; Clinogyne grandis (Miq.) Benth. & Hook.f.; Donax arundastrum Lour.; Donax gracilis K.Schum.; Donax grandis (Miq.) Ridl.; Donax parviflora Ridl.; Ilythuria canniformis (G.Forst.) Raf.; Maranta arundastrum (Lour.) M.R.Almeida; Maranta arundinacea Blanco; Maranta dichotoma D.Dietr.; Maranta grandis Miq.; Maranta tonchat Blume; Phrynium canniforme (G.Forst.) Schrank; Phrynium dichotomum Roxb.; Thalia canniformis G.Forst. (POWO 2020).

Local Names Brunei Darussalam: Bamban, banban batu; Cambodia: draem run; Indonesia: bamban, bumban, bomban (General), banban (Malay, Javanese, Sundanese), bangban (West Java), bemban (Ketapang, Sanggau, Musi Rawas), bemban or jemban (Serampas), bamban, mboeyo (Buton Island), moa, obiyawa (Togutil),

M. Silalahi (*) Prodi Pendidikan Biologi, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia Biology Education Department, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, West Jakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] A. Z. Wakhidah Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_116

365

366

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

mboue (Bau-bau), moa (Moluccas); Malaysia: babalit (Lundayeh), bamban (Negeri Sembilan), bemban (Tok Ngah, Serawak), bemban hutan (Pahang), lias (Sabah), bemben, bembanayer, buluhleck (Kelabit); Philippines: aralu (Lanao-Mindanao), bamban, banban (Tagalog, Ilokano, Bisaya, Manobo, Sulu, Bulidnon), bamban (Sierra-Madre, Tagalog), dilang-aso, bamban (Western Mindanao), banban (Polillo Island, Mindoro), basayan (Cagayan), binbin (Casiguran), bonbon (Bicol), buldong (Palawan), bunban (Bisaya), manban (Samar); Thailand: khlum (General), klah, blah, klum (Central, Surat Thani, Trat); Vietnam: dong s[aaj]y (Amanina et al. 2017; Apal et al. 2018; Arisandy and Triyanti 2020; Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012; Kamaludin 2018; Kulip 2003; Kulip and Majawat 2000; Liyanti et al. 2015; Malabrigo et al. 2014; Malini et al. 2017; Milow et al. 2011; Neamsuvana et al. 2015; Nordin and Zakaria 2016; Ong et al. 2011; Slamet et al. 2020; Slamet and Andarias 2018; Suksthan et al. 2010; Syarief and Yafie 2017; Sebua and Nuñeza 2020; Teo 2003).

Botany and Ecology Description: An upright herb with a richly branched stem, rhizomatous, terrestrial shrub with tall, branching aerial stems 2.0–4.5 m, each stem protected at the base by a papery bract ca. 20–30 cm, after which there are no internodes or leaves until the height of 1.0–2.5 m, at which point the plant branches out to many secondary branches, which branch further to produce numerous leaves. The length of internodes decreases as the order of branches increases. Leaf sheath 7–20 cm, green, glabrous except for a few hairs at the very base and adjacent to the pulvinus; petiole absent; pulvinus 1–4 cm; lamina oblong-ovate, 15–38  8–21 cm, apex acuminate, acumen 0.5–1.0 cm, base rounded, upper leaf surface medium to dark green, glabrous, lower surface light green, glabrous except for a pubescent narrow strip close to the midrib (top of midrib glabrous). Inflorescence terminal, several (three to many) emerging at the base of a leaf near the apex of the stem, spreading, base obscured by an enveloping leaf sheath; peduncle absent or very short; bract at the base of the synflorescence 5–10  0.8–1.0 cm, often absent; synflorescence heavily branched, lax, 11–20 cm; with variable orders of branching, each branch producing 10–20 fertile bracts, each fertile bract with a single flower-pair or a new branch, fertile bracts linear, narrow, deciduous, acute, 2.5–4.0  0.5–0.8 cm, tomentose, light green, soon drying to straw-yellow and papery, prophyll 18–22  2–4 mm, interphyll absent; Pedicel of individual flowers 3–6 mm, with a short and very thick bracteole (which functions as an extrafloral nectary), 2.5  2.5 mm. Flower 1.7–1.9 cm long, with a very faint scent of jasmine; sepals 3, free, subulate with a distinct basal thickening, glabrous except for a few long hairs at the thickening, 5  0.5 mm, white; floral tube 6–7 mm long, incompletely fused; petal lobes equal, elliptic, acute, 10–12  5–6 mm, white, with a translucent margin, reflexed; staminodial tube 2–3 mm longer than the floral tube; outer staminodes 2, almost equal, free part of both staminodes elliptic, white with a slightly yellow margin, rolled in bud, only apex slightly crumpled, 9–10  2.5–4.5 mm; hooded staminode cucullate, almost white, free part 4  2.7 mm, appendix recurved, sulfur-yellow,

Donax canniformis (G.Forst.) K.Schum.

367

ca. 2  1 mm; fleshy staminode almost tubular, opening up towards the apex, white, sulfur yellow towards to apex, free part 7–8  5–7 mm, with a tall and thin, sail like white appendix that curves along the margin, 3  2 mm; fertile stamen 4.5  1.7 mm (including the fertile anther and appendage), recurved, linear with a blunt tip, anther emerging at 2.0–2.5 mm measured from the base of the free part of the stamen, 1.7  0.6 mm; style with a 4 mm free part, curved inwards, asymmetrical with several lobes towards the apex, stigmatic cavity ca. 1 mm diameter; ovary globose, 1.8–2.4  1.9–2.1 mm, light brown, sericeous. Fruits globose, 10–12 mm in diameter, sericeous when young, maturing almost glabrous; only one seed develops (the other two can be seen as aborted seeds in mature fruit), aril absent, white or greenish cream and fleshy at maturity, green while immature, indehiscent (Teo 2003; Ardiyani et al. 2010; Niissalo et al. 2016). Distribution and Habitat: Donax canniformis is native to Andaman Island. The plant is widespread and common throughout South East Asia, from India to the Solomon Islands. More particular to Bismarck Archipelago, Borneo, Cambodia, Jawa, Lesser Sunda Island, Malaya, Maluku, Marianas, Myanmar, New Guinea, Nicobar Island, Philippines, Santa Cruz Island, Solomon Island, Sulawesi, Sumatera, Taiwan, Thailand, Vanuatu, and Vietnam (Ardiyani et al. 2010; POWO 2020). Occasionally it is also cultivated (Teo 2003). This species mostly occurs in primary and secondary lowland rainforest, on hillslopes, rock beds along small streams and wet areas such as alluvial flatland. It is common, especially in open and disturbed places (Ardiyani et al. 2010). The plant also grows in wet locations such as swamps and periodically flooded areas. In South-East Asia, it occurs up to about 1000 m altitude not only in secondary forest, teak forest, and bamboo forest but also in coconut plantations and near paddy fields (Teo 2003). Phenology: Donax canniformis flowers and fruits throughout the year in Java. In Indo-China, the flowering season happens from May to September, and fruiting in February. In Thailand, flowers can be seen from March to April (Moungsrimuangdee et al. 2017) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: In Indonesia, the juice from young, uncurled leaves of D. canniformis is used to treat eye diseases, while the leaves from young stems is believed to be effective against snakebites (Teo 2003). The local people of Serampas in Jambi use the fruits commonly to treat abscesses (Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012). In Sekabuk Village of West Kalimantan, and Karang Wangi, West Java, this plant is used to cure eye sore (Leonardo et al. 2013; Malini et al. 2017). The local community in the vicinity of Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, use the leaves to treat hernia. They heat the leaves and smear them on sore stomach three times a day (Apal et al. 2018). The Bau-Bau of Central Sulawesi consume the ripe fruits to cure boils (Slamet and Andarias 2018). Malaysia: The stem is used as medicine to treat fever (Milow et al. 2011). Plant extract is applied thrice a day for sore eyes by the Malay people in Pahang (Nordin and Zakaria 2016). In Ulu Kuang, the raw leaves and fruits are eaten to cure boils and abscess (Azliza et al. 2012). Philippines: Root

368

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

Fig. 1 Living plant of Donax canniformis (Marantaceae), Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

decoction is considered an antidote against snakebites and blood poisoning. The juice from crushed roots is used against fungal infections; an infusion of young shoots is taken to lower fever (Teo 2003). Fruits are chewed to cure boils (Langenberger et al. 2009). Thailand: The local community around upper Songkhla Lake consume a rhizome decoction to cure fever; the rhizome decoction is also a thirst-quencher (Neamsuvana et al. 2015).

Phytochemistry Methanolic extract of leaves shows antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. The leaves contain saponins, phenolics, and tannins (Hidayatullah et al. 2017). The leaves also possess anti-inflammatory activities (Paramita et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses Malaysia: Green fruits of D. canniformis are eaten raw (Kulip and Majawat 2000; Ong et al. 2011). Philippines: The ripe fruit is edible (Suksthan et al. 2010) and can be eaten raw as snacks (Langenberger et al. 2009).

Donax canniformis (G.Forst.) K.Schum.

369

Fig. 2 Flowers of Donax canniformis (Marantaceae), Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

Fig. 3 Fruits of Donax canniformis (Marantaceae), Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: The Tajio tribe in Kasimbar village of Parigi in Central Sulawesi use the plant in the ritual monafute pae (planting rice) (Rahyuni et al. 2013). Malaysia: Young stem is used for making mat, and the old one is used for making fish trap

370

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

Fig. 4 Various handicrafts made from the stem or the bark of Donax canniformis (Marantaceae), Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

(Kulip and Majawat 2000). Leaves are used to wrap food in Penang. It imparts a characteristic flavor to the wrapped foods (Mustafa et al. 2012). Philippines: The young shoots are used as a betel nut substitute by the local people in North East Luzon Island (Suksthan et al. 2010).

Economic Importance Throughout South-East Asia, the stem of this plant is used for making fish traps, for stitching hatch and as cordage, contributing to sustenance of local livelihoods (Teo 2003). Indonesia: The Ketapang and Galik Sekam communities in West Kalimantan use the stem as wicker and handicraft material (Liyanti et al. 2015; Kamaludin 2018). The Galik Sekam also use the stem fiber to tie the roof of cattle pen (Wahyudi and Syarief 2016). The stems are also used in Buton Island as handicraft material and in textiles (Slamet et al. 2020). Malaysia: The stem is used as handicraft material, for example, for making basket (Milow et al. 2011). Plant bark and young stem is used for making mat, while old ones are used for making fish trap (Kulip and Majawat 2000; Kulip 2003). In Sarawak, fine patterned baskets, and hats, mats, baskets, and baby carrier made from D. canniformis are popular. Throughout Borneo, stems are made into strings for musical instruments. The Semai in West Malaysia make blowpipe dart from stem (Teo 2003; Amanina et al. 2017). Philippines: The plant is a substitute for rattan that is used in novelty items such as placemats, baskets, and flowerpot holders (Agduma et al. 2011). The stem is made into a wide range of handicrafts including hats, waste baskets, laundry baskets, flowerpot holders, trays, table, magazine rack, and bookshelves (Teo 2003). The stem is also used in construction of drying racks. The epidermal fibers are used as cordage in house construction and for making baskets (Suksthan et al. 2010; Langenberger et al. 2009). The barks are used in nipa business in Surigao Del Sur Mountain Range (Blasco et al. 2014).

Donax canniformis (G.Forst.) K.Schum.

371

References Agduma AR, Achondo MJMM, Bretaña BLP, Bello VP, Remollo LL, Mancao LS, Supremo JP, Salem JGC, Salvaña FRP. Diversity of vascular plant species in an agroforest: the case of a rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantation in Makilala, North Cotabato. Philipp Crop Sci. 2011;36(3):57–64. Amanina N, Meekiong MR, Rohaiza K, Syauqina D, Aimi SMY, Azieya NB, Izzati NA. Comparison on occurrence of Marantaceae from two limestone hills in the North Western of Sarawak. In: Meekiong K, Azahari O, Pungga RS, Wasli ME, Freddy YKS, Marconi SJ, editors. Forest Department Sarawak & Faculty of Resource Science and Technology (UNIMAS). Proceedings of Colloquium on the Dered Krian National Park – scientific expedition 2016, Kuching. 2017, p. 115–20. Apal RU, Ariyanti NS, Walujo EB, Dorly. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat oleh Suku Togutil di Daerah Penyangga Taman Nasional Aketajawe Lolobata. J Sum Hay. 2018;4(1):21–7. (In Bahasa). Ardiyani M, Poulsen AD, Suksathan P, Borchsenius F. Marantaceae in Sulawesi. Reinwardtia. 2010;13(2):213–20. Arisandy DA, Triyanti M. Keanekaragaman jenis vegetasi di bukit Cogong Kabupaten Musi Rawas. Bioedusains. 2020;3(1):40–9. (In Bahasa). Azliza MA, Ong HC, Vikineswary S, Noorlidah A, Haron NW. Ethno-medicinal resources used by the temuan in Ulu Kuang Village. Ethno Med. 2012;6(1):17–22. Blasco FA, de Guzman GQ, Alejandro GJD. Survey of ethnomedicinal plants in Surigao Del Sur Mountain Range, Philippines. Int J Pure App Biosci. 2014;2(4):166–72. Hariyadi B, Ticktin T. Uras: medicinal and ritual plants of Serampas, Jambi Indonesia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2012;10:133–49. Hidayatullah H, Anam S, Tandah MR. Identifikasi senyawa antibakteri ekstrak metanol daun bamban (Donax canniformis (G. Forst.) K. Schum.) terhadap Staphylococcus aureus. Scientia. 2017;7(2):89–95. (In Bahasa). Kamaludin. Pemanfaatan hasil hutan bukan kayu oleh masyarakat Galik Sekam Desa Kasro Mego Kecamatan Beduai, Kabupaten Sanggau. Piper. 2018;27(14):285–97. (In Bahasa). Kulip J. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia. Telopea. 2003;10(1):81–99. Kulip J, Majawat G. Medicinal and other useful plants of the Lundayeh community of Sipitang, Sabah, Malaysia. J Trop For Sci. 2000;12(4):810–6. Langenberger G, Prigge V, Martin K, Belonias B, Sauerborn J. Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry. Agrofor Syst. 2009;76:173–94. Leonardo, Usman FH, Fathul Y. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Desa Sekabuk, Kecamatan Sadaniang, Kabupaten Pontianak. J Hut Les. 2013;1(1):32–6. (In Bahasa). Liyanti PR, Budhi S, Yusro F. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan yang dimanfaatkan di Desa Pesaguan Kanan Kecamatan Matan Hilir Selatan Kabupaten Ketapang. J Hut Les. 2015;3(3):421–33. (In Bahasa). Malabrigo PLJ, Umali AGA, Elec JP. Riparian flora of Kaliwa River Watershed in the Sierra Madre Mountain range. Philipp J Environ Dev. 2014;5(1):11–22. Malini DM, Madihah KJ, Kamilawati F, Iskandar J. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Karangwangi, District of Cianjur, West Java. Biosaintifika. 2017;9(2):345–56. Milow P, Ghazali NH, Mohammad NS, Ong HC. Characterization of plant resource at Kampung Parit Tok Ngah, Perak, Malaysia. Sci Res Essays. 2011;6(13):2606–18. Moungsrimuangdee B, Waiboonya P, Larpkern P, Yodsa-nga P, Saeyang M. Reproductive phenology and growth of Riparian species along Phra Prong River, Sa Kaeo Province, Eastern Thailand. Landsc Ecol. 2017;10(2):1–14. Mustafa M, Nagalingam S, Tye J, Shafii ASH, Dolah J. Looking back to the past: revival of traditional food packaging: 2nd Regional conference on Local Knowledge (Kearifan Tempatan), 15–16 October. Jerejak Island Rainforest Resort, Penang. 2012, p. 1–18. Neamsuvana O, Sengnona N, Seemaphrika N, Chouychooa M, Rungrata R, Bunrasria S. A survey of medicinal plants around upper Songkhla Lake, Thailand. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2015;12(2):133–43.

372

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

Niissalo MA, Khew GS, Webb EL, Leong-Škorničková J. Notes on Singaporean native Zingiberales II: revision of Marantaceae, with a new generic record and notes on naturalised and commonly cultivated exotic species. Phytotaxa. 2016;289(3):201–24. Nordin MS, Zakaria NH. Plants used for medicines by the indigenous Malay of Pahang, Malaysia. J Med Plant Res. 2016;8(2):142–50. Ong HC, Chua S, Milow P. Traditional knowledge of edible plants among the Temuan Villagers in Kampung Jeram Kedah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Sci Res Essay. 2011;6(4):694–7. Paramita S, Kosala K, Dzulkifli D, Saputri DI, Wijayanti E. Anti-inflammatory activities of ethnomedicinal plants from Dayak Abai in North Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2017;18:1556–61. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020 Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 8 Aug 2020. Rahyuni M, Yniati E, Pitopang R. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan ritual Suku Tajio di Desa Kasimbar Kabupaten Parigi. J Nat Sci. 2013;2(2):46–54. (In Bahasa). Sebua CMD, Nuñeza OM. Species diversity of Lepidoptera in Western Mindanao State University – experimental forest area, Zamboanga City, Philippines. Entomol Appl Sci Lett. 2020;7(1):33–43. Slamet AS, Andarias H. Studi etnobotani dan identifikasi tumbuhan berkhasiat obat masyarakat sub Etnis Wolio, Kota Baubau, Sulawesi Tenggara. Proc Biol Educ Conf. 2018;15(1):721–32. (In Bahasa). Slamet A, Andarias SH, Ardiyati DPI, Yenni B, Inang WDF. Potensi tumbuhan lokal di Pulau Buton sebagai sumber belajar biologi. Bioedusiana. 2020;5(1):26–32. (In Bahasa). Suksthan P, Madulid DA, Borchsenius F. Marantaceae in the Philippines. Taiwania. 2010;55(1):28–36. Syarief A, Yafie A. Sifat material polyester hybrid composite – batang bemban (Donax canniformis). SJME Kinematika. 2017;2(2):97–104. (In Bahasa) Teo SP. Donax canniforis (G. Foster) K Schumann. In: Brink M, Escobin RP, editors. Plant resources of South East Asia no 17 fibre plants. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 2003. p. 125–7. Wahyudi A, Syarief A. Pengaruh perlakuan alkalisasi dan variasifraksi volume komposit polyester serat bemban (Donax canniformis) terhadap kekuatan impak. SJME Kinematika. 2016;1(2):89– 98. (In Bahasa).

Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe ANACARDIACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Comeurya cumingiana Baill.; Dracontomelon brachyphyllum Ridl.; Dracontomelon cumingianum (Baill.) Baill.; Dracontomelon edule (Blanco) Skeels; Dracontomelon lamiyo (Blanco) Merr.; Dracontomelon laxum K.Schum.; Dracontomelon mangiferum (Blume) Blume; Dracontomelon puberulum Miq.; Dracontomelon sylvestre Blume; Poupartia mangifera Blume; Poupartia pinnata Blanco; Paliurus dao Blanco; Paliurus edulis Blanco; Paliurus lamujo Blanco

Local Names Philippines: Dao (General), paldao, maliyan, lamyo (Ayta) Malaysia: Sengkuang (Peninsular; Sabah); unkawang (Sarawak); sarunsab (Dusun, Sabah); chengkuang, bengkuang, surgan, sakal, sepul Borneo: Sengkuang China: Ren mian zi, J’n mien tz Indonesia: Dahu (General); sengkuang (Kalimantan); basuong (Irian Jaya); rau Thailand: Ka-kho, sang-kuan (Peninsular); phrachao ha phra ong (Chiang Mai); goh sang guan, ka-kho, phra chao ha phra ong, sa gua, saen taa lom, ta goh, tagoo, sang kuan Vietnam: Chi sau, s[aa]u West New Guinea: Dar

M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_79

373

374

M. L. G. Dapar

Papua New Guinea: New guinea walnut (General); mon (Pidgin); loc English: Argus pheasant tree, new guinea walnut, pacific walnut France: Dracontomelon Germany: Drachenapfel Netherlands: Drakeboom

Botany and Ecology Description: Deciduous tree up to 43–55 m high and 90–150 cm in diameter (Fig. 1). Bark greyish brown, not fissured, scaly, smooth, peels in irregular patches. Base of stem prominently buttressed. Leaves glabrous, odd-pinnate; rachis 6–75 cm long or more with 4–9 pairs of leaflets elliptic-oblong, ovate-oblong to lanceolate, apex acute to acuminate, base obtusely rounded to oblique. Flowers white or greenish-white, pedicelled, calyx segments ovate-oblong, united at the base, shorter than the petals, disk and ovary puberulous (Fig. 2). Petals oblanceolate, sometimes elliptic-lanceolate, 7–10 by 1½–2 mm. Stamens 5½–7 mm; Panicles up to 50 cm long, pubescent, glabrescent; Ovary oblong-ellipsoid or slightly obovoid, ca. 2=3 (sometimes in young flowers ca. ½) the length of the pistil, 1½–2 mm in diameter. Seed conical, ¾–l cm long. Fruit yellow, rounded ca. 2.5 cm in diameter leathery rind, juicy and sour; endocarp very hard and usually containing three seeds. Fig. 1 Habit of Dracontomelon dao. (© B. Resurreccion)

Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe

375

Fig. 2 Flowers of Dracontomelon dao. (© B. Resurreccion)

Phenology: Flowers from December to March in the Philippines (Fig. 2). Fruits ripen from May to June in Quezon; July to August in Bataan, Negros, and Sibuyan; and September to October in Mindoro, Laguna, Cebu, Leyte, and Samar (DENR 2019). Distribution and Habitat: D. dao trees are distributed in India, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, South China, Malesia, and the Solomon Islands. The native range is Arunachal Pradesh in India to South China and Solomon Islands (POWO 2020). It is widely distributed throughout the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards) commonly in primary and secondary evergreen to semideciduous forests from near sea-level to 500–1000 m. It thrives in clayey to stony soils and usually in high rainfall areas or less frequently in areas with a short dry season where it is deciduous or partly so (Lemmens et al. 1995). Conservation Status: D. dao is considered as “vulnerable species” based on the updated national list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order (DENRDAO) No. 2017-01 (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

Local Medicinal Uses The bark of Dracontomelon dao has been widely used to cure various diseases, infections, and other health conditions. It has been traditionally used to treat infectious diseases such as decubitus and skin ulcers among Chinese (Li et al. 2017). Other medicinal uses of the D. dao bark include a cure for diarrhea among Dayak Benuaq people in East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Falah et al. 2013), and dysentery among local people in the Philippines (Ragasa et al. 2017). The bark of D. dao tree is also used in Filipino traditional medicine to relieve sore throat, toothache, gum problems, skin infections, dermatitis, and also used for labor and delivery of

376

M. L. G. Dapar

pregnant women (Dela Peña et al. 2019). Aside from bark used as a remedy, leaves and flowers are also used in traditional medicine. Some locals use a decoction of the trunk’s wood as an anti-inflammatory and antitumor agent (Dela Peña et al. 2019). The Ayta community in the Philippines consume stem decoction to treat wound infection (Tantengco et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses Dracontomelon dao young leaves, mature fruits, and kernel of the seeds are edible (Ragasa et al. 2017; DENR 2019). Flowers and leaves may also be eaten as a vegetable (Corner 1940) and can be used as food flavoring (Dela Peña et al. 2019).

Phytochemistry Dela Peña et al. (2019) discovered the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, tannins, and anthraquinones in Dracontomelon dao bark. These phytochemicals are known to have antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. GC-MS analysis revealed 21 compounds with antimicrobial properties and 15 compounds with antioxidant properties from a total of 54 compounds identified in the bark ethanolic extract. Other compounds also suggest potential pharmacological properties such as anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and anticancer agents. Su et al. (2008) identified several essential oils present in the bark extracted using steam distillation. GCMS analysis of the extracted bark determined 13 compounds with the following major components: nhexadecanoic acid (46.13%), octadecanoic acid (15.44%), (E)9octadecenoic acid (13.73%), and (Z,Z)9,12octadecadienoic acid (7.79%). Ragasa et al. (2016) have isolated several compounds from the leaves such as anacardic acid, βsitosteryl3βglucopyranoside60 Ofatty acid esters, βsitosterol, phytol, phytyl fatty acid esters, βsitosteryl fatty acid esters, chlorophyll a, squalene, longchain fatty alcohols, and longchain hydrocarbons. Other parts of D. dao tree show the presence of several constituents like cardol, βsitosteryl3βglucopyranoside6-Ofatty acid esters, βsitosteryl fatty acid esters, and a mixture of βsitosterol and stigmasterol, isolated from the petiole; 1,anacardic acid, a mixture of triacylglycerols, monoacylglycerol, longchain fatty acid esters, and linoleic acid isolated from the twigs; and 4a-6, 8, longchain fatty alcohols and long-chain hydrocarbons isolated from the flowers (Ragasa et al. 2017). All isolated phenolics, sterols, and lipids from D. dao tree contribute to its biological and pharmacological potential for use in traditional medicine. The leaf ethanolic extract has the potential to be developed as an antibacterial agent with an IC50 of 98.5 μg/mL (Liu et al. 2014). The leaf, stem, and root bark methanolic extracts also showed high potential antibacterial activity. Of all plant parts, only the leaf extract exhibited antifungal activity due to its tannins, flavonoids, sterol, saponin, and triterpenoids (Khan and Omoloso 2002). The stem bark extracts were also reported to exhibit antibacterial potential against methicillin-resistant

Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe

377

Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli multidrug-resistant strain (Yuniati et al. 2018). Ethyl acetate extracts of leaves also demonstrated an antibacterial effect on E. coli (Liu et al. 2014) and S. aureus (Zhao et al. 2015). The flavonoids, including cianidanol, L-epicatechin, quercetin, and luteolin, were reported as central components in leaf ethyl acetate extract of D. dao (Li et al. 2017). Also, the ethanolic extract from the sapwood of D. dao exhibited antimicrobial activity against gramnegative bacteria: Salmonella typhimurium and Klebsiella pneumoniae; grampositive bacteria: S. aureus and Bacillus subtilis; and fungi: Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger (Dela Peña et al. 2019). Several systematic solvent extractions of D. dao like petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, n-butanol, and water exhibited significant anti-E. coli and anti-S. aureus (Liu et al. 2013; Zhao et al. 2015), and anti-Pseudomonas aeruginosa activities (Wu et al. 2015). Moreover, essential oil of D. dao has been reported to have antitumor activity (Su et al. 2008). D. dao has also been studied for its antidiabetic property (Yusro et al. 2016). In summary, extracts from various parts of the D. dao possess several bioactive compounds and pharmacological properties that lend credence to its use in folk medicine.

Economic Importance Wood is used for sliced and rotary veneers, furniture making, cabinet work, tables, panel, boxes, matches, gunstocks, brush, in-laying, musical instruments, paperweights, inkstands, ash pans, parquetry, picture frames, radio and phonograph cases, baseball bats, flower vases, and wooden bowls (Flora Malesiana 2020). The wood of D. dao tree is utilized in light construction, timber, and firewood (Ragasa et al. 2017) and can be a substitute for white spruce in airplane construction (DENR 2019).

References Corner W. Trees. f. 21, Atlas t. 5; 1940. Dela Peña JF, Dapar MLG, Aranas AT, Mindo RAR, Cabrido CK, Torres MAJ, et al. Assessment of antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxic properties of the ethanolic extract from Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe. Pharmacophore. 2019;10:18–29. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Dao. In: Expanded National Greening Program. 2019. http://ngp.denr.gov.ph/index.php/12-arb/1187-arb-dao. Accessed 18 May 2020. Falah F, Sayektiningsih T, Noorcahyati N. Diversity and utilization of medicinal plants by local community around Gunung Beratus Protection Forest, East Kalimantan. Jurnal Penelitian Hutan dan Konservasi Alam. 2013;10(1):1–18. Flora Malesiana. Dracontomelon dao. In: Flora Malesian Dataportal. 2020. http://portal.cyber taxonomy.org/flora-malesiana/cdm_dataportal/taxon/37692706-6b69-4507-b066-551f1651f65b. Accessed 18 May 2020. Khan MR, Omoloso AD. Antibacterial and antifungal activities of Dracontomelon dao. Fitoterapia. 2002;73(4):327–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0367-326x(02)00076-x.

378

M. L. G. Dapar

Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no.5(2): timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1995. Li Y, Xia H, Wu M, Wang J, Lu X, Wie S, et al. Evaluation of the antibacterial effects of flavonoid combination from the leaves of Dracontomelon dao by microcalorimetry and the quadratic rotary combination design. Front Pharmacol. 2017;8:70. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00070. Liu T, Zhao YL, Wang JB, Zhou X, Sun Z, Zheng Q, et al. Action of crude Radix Aconiti Lateralis (Fuzi) and its processed products on splenic lymphocytes growth investigated by microcalorimetry. Therm Acta. 2013;571:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2013.07.031. Liu S, Zhao Y, Zeng N, Liu T, Zhang Y, Han B, et al. Antibacterial effect of four extracts from leaves of Dracontomelon dao on Escherichia coli growth using microcalorimetry coupled with principal component analysis. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2014;116(1):491–7. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Anacardiaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Anacardiaceae.html. Accessed 18 May 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 18 May 2020. Ragasa CY, Vivar JLA, De Los Reyes MM, van Altena IA. Secondary metabolites from Dracontomelon dao (Merr. & Rolfe). Der Pharma Chem. 2016;8(19):257–60. Ragasa CY, Batarra TC, Vivar JLA, De Los Reyes MM, Shen CC. Chemical constituents of Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. Et Rolfe. Pharm J. 2017;9(5):654–6. https://doi.org/ 10.5530/pj.2017.5.103. Su XF, Liang ZY, Zhang YX. Study on the chemical constituents of essential oil from the skins of stem of Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. et Rolfe [J]. Lishizhen Med Mater Med Res. 2008;7:45. Tantengco OAG, Condes MLC, Estadilla HHT, Ragragio EM. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by Ayta communities in Dinalupihan, Bataan, Philippines. Pharm J. 2018;10:859–70. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2018.5.145. Wu MQ, Qu F, Zhao YL, Wang JB, Su H, Chen C, et al. Microcalorimetry and turbidimetry to investigate the antibacterial activities of five fractions from the leaves of Dracontomelon dao on P. aeruginosa. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2015;123:2367–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-0154932-2. Yuniati Y, Hasanah N, Ismail S, Anitasari S, Paramita S. Antibacterial activity of Dracontomelon dao extracts on methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and E. coli multiple drug resistance (MDR). Afr J Infect Dis. 2018;12:62–7. https://doi.org/10.2101/Ajid.12v1S.8. Yusro F, Ohtani K, Kubota S. Inhibition of α-glucosidase by methanol extracts from wood bark of Anacardiaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae and Phyllanthaceae plants family in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Kuroshio Sci. 2016;9(2):108–22. Zhao YL, Liu SX, Qu F, Wang JB, Hu Y, Zhang P, et al. Microcalorimetry coupled with principal component analysis for investigating the anti-Staphylococcus aureus effects of different extracted fractions from Dracontomelon dao. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2015;120:913–20. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10973-014-4268-3.

Durio zibethinus L. MALVACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Durio acuminatisimma Merr.; Durio foetida Thunb.; Durio stercoraceous Noronha; Durio zibenthianus Kaneh.; Durio zibethinus Murray

Local Names Brunei: Durian – lalet (Dusun). Cambodia: thu-réén. Indonesia: durian – durian besusuk, durian burawing, durian kaban, durian kuraras, durian lelek, durian malele, durian pepakan, durian tempurung (Dayak Kapuas Hulu, Kalimantan) – deureujan (Aceh, Sumatra) – tarutung (Batak-Sumatra) – trutung (Batak Pakpak, Sumatra) – turian (Taipah in Sumatra) – tulian (Salang - Sumatra) – duria (Nias Sumatra) – duriat (Mentawai in Sumatra) – durian (Melayu) – duren (Jakarta) – derian (Lampung in Sumatra) – dian (Dayak Kenya), duhuian (South Kalimantan) – tjatu or djatu (Kalimantan) – lampun (Tidung in Kalimantan) – hodjat’n (Dayak Tunjung) – duren, kadu (Sundanese) – ambetan (Javanese) – hoaian, duwoian, duwe, duwuan (Sulawesi) – duliango (Buol, Sulawesi) – dulian (Toraja, Sulawesi) – tamadue, maduë (Sausu, Sulawesi) – luria (Padoë, Sulawesi) – duriang (Makassar and Bentong in Sulawesi) – dulen, rulen (Seram, Maluku) – turiane, tulene, tuleno, turene, tureno, tuleno (Seram, Maluku) – durene, dureno (Ambon in Maluku). Laos: mak, thu lian, thourièn. Malaysia: doeren, doerian, durian, durijan, durioan, durion – pendok, penak, penek daun, pendok suit (Peninsular Malaysia) – shempa, sampa (Sakai in Malaya) – pele diyan (Besi in Malaya) – tuang (Jakin in Malaya) – hampun (Kadazan or Dusun in Sabah) – lampun (Murut). Philippines: dulian,

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_80

379

380

W. A. Mustaqim

durian, duryan. Thailand: durian, dua-ye, ma-thu-rian, rian, thu-rian, thurian. Vietnam: s^ a ù-riêng. English: durian (Ahmad and Holdsworth 2003; Amboupe et al. 2019; Bernstein et al. 1997; Inthakoun and Delang 2008; Kostermans 1958; Kulip 2003; Nasution et al. 2018; Quattrocchi 2016; Ridley and Curtis 1902; Silalahi et al. 2019; Soegeng-Reksodihardjo 1962).

Botany and Ecology Medium- to large-sized tree, up to 45 m tall, with buttresses. Living bark dark red, outside rough, peeling off in irregular flakes. Heartwood dark red. Stipule fugacious, subfalcate, 5–10 mm long, apex acuminate. Leaves alternate, blades elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate, 10–15 long by 3–4.5 cm wide, chartaceous and sometimes rigidly so, base obtuse or subacute, margin entire, slender acuminate at the apex, midrib sunken above, raised beneath, lateral veins up to 15 on each side of the midrib, upper surfaces glabrous, lower surfaces clad with golden brown or silvery scales. Inflorescence corymbs, fascicled, borne from the older branches, inflorescence up to 15 cm long, often pendulous, branched to 3 orders. Pedicels slightly thickened toward the apex, 5–7 cm long. Flower buds ovoid-globose, around 2 cm across, apex rounded, apiculate. Flower 5–6 cm long, about 2 cm across, white or greenish-white, beneath with epicalyx splitting into 2 or three concaves, 1.5 cm long, deciduous lobes, scaly outside, thinly stellate hairy inside. Calyx urceolate or tubular, 3 cm long, saccate at the base, apex with 5–6 small triangular lobes, scaly outside, inside with papillate base, later with nectaries and upward glabrous. Petals about two times as long as the calyx, white, spathulate, unguiculate at the base, pubescent outside, glabrous inside. Stamens arranged in 5 fascicles, up to 12 each, ca. 4 cm long, anthers reniform, dehiscent by a slit. Ovary ovoid, 5-angled, scaly, style ca. 4 cm long, ended with capitate stigma at the apex. Fruit green to yellow, shapes vary from globose, ovoid, or ellipsoid, up to 25 cm long by 20 cm wide, outer surfaces with pyramidal, 4–6-sided spines, up to 1 cm long. Valves 5, white inside, smooth. Seeds up to 4 cm long, aril white or yellowish, very sweet. Fruits remain unopened until fallen off. Distribution: A species now cultivated in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and major islands in Southeast Asia. The origin of the wild population is rather uncertain, but some consider Borneo and Sumatra as the original geographic range of the species. In the Philippines, this species is limited to Mindanao Islands, where the population was claimed to be “wild.” Outside Southeast Asia, this species is also cultivated in Africa including Tanzania, South Asian countries such as India and Sri Lanka, tropical America including Dominica, Demerara, and Trinidad, also introduced to the USA, where it is often restricted to botanical gardens and fruits hardly produced. It grows from lowland onwards, but trees do not fruit at elevations above 1000 m.a.s.l. (Kostermans 1958; Pelser et al. 2011-onwards; Quattrocchi 2016; SoegengReksodihardjo 1962; Uji 2005) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Durio zibethinus L. Fig. 1 Durio zibethinus (Malvaceae). Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Durio zibethinus (Malvaceae). Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Durio zibethinus (Malvaceae). Batang Toru, North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

381

382

W. A. Mustaqim

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: In East Kalimantan, the bark is used in postpartum care after pounding and mixing with cold powder. The mixture is also applied to the whole body (Falah and Hadiwibowo 2017). People of Labian Ira’ang village, Batang Lupar subdistrict of Kapuas Hulu regency boil bark juices and consume it to cure stomachache. Old leaves are applied externally to cure wounds after the scale on the abaxial surfaces are removed (Suprianto et al. 2018). Malaysia: The Kadazanduzun community of Sabah boil the roots with coconut, and consume to cure stomach-ache. Mouth ulcers are cured by applying bark sap (Ahmad and Holdsworth 2003). Philippines: Leaf decoction is used by the people of Maranao, Lanao del Sur, the Philippines for bathing people showing nervousness (Malawani et al. 2017).

Phytochemistry The pulp of durian contains many popular and important chemical compounds. These range from building blocks such as carbohydrates, proteins, and many types of fatty acid such as octadecenoic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid (Husin et al. 2018), stearic acid, linoleic acid, γ-linolenic acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitoleic acid (Charoenkiatkul et al. 2016), arjunoic acid, ferulic acid, and maslinic acid (Rudiyansyah et al. 2015). The pulp also contains mercaptan and vitamins, including vitamin C (ascorbic acid) which is equivalent to those found in citrus fruits (Brown 1997), vitamin A, niacin, and riboflavin (Husin et al. 2018). The pulps contain triacylglycerols and fatty acid derivate (Ragasa et al. 2016). Pulp also contains many ions including calcium, phosphorus, sodium potassium, magnesium, iron, copper, and zinc (Charoenkiatkul et al. 2016). Other compounds found in the pulp are apigenin, caffeic acid, campherol, p-coumaric acid, cinnamic acid, hesperidin, morin, myricitin, neohesperdigo, quercetin, vanillic acid (Arancibia-Avila et al. 2008), various carotenoid such as lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, α-carotene, β-carotene, and zeaxanthin (Charoenkiatkul et al. 2016), methyl 27-O-trans caffeoylcylicodiscate, methyl 27-O-cis caffeoylcylicodiscate, boldione, threo-carolignan E, eucryphin, fraxidin, scopoletin, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 2,6-dimethoxy-pbenzoquinone, ( )-(3R,4S)-4-hydroxymellein, and (R)-de-O-methyllasiodiplodin (Rudiyansyah et al. 2015). The exocarps contain stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, and monoacylglycerols. A fatty acid named β-sitosteryl-3β-glucopyranoside-6’-O-fatty acid was detected in the seeds (Ragasa et al. 2016). Occurrence of volatile compounds have also been recorded. Studies by Voon et al. (2007) and Weenen et al. (1996) show the presence of 29 sulfur-containing volatiles including benzothiazole, ethanetiole, 1-propanethiol, s-ethyl thioacetate, methyl ethyl disulfide, methyl propyl sulfide, methyl propyl disulfide, methyl propyl disulfide, diethyl disulfide, diethyl trisulfide, dipropyl disulfide, dipropyl trisulfide, 1-methylethyl propyl disulfide, 1-hydroxy-2-methylthioethane, methyl 2-methylthioacetate, methyl thiohexanoate, diethyl disulfide, dimethyl sulfone,

Durio zibethinus L.

383

s-ethyl thiobutyrate, ethyl 2-(methylthio)acetate, 1,1-bis(ethylthio)-ethane, 2-isopropyl-4-methylthiazole, s-isopropyl 3-(methylthio)-2-butenoate, 3,5-dimethyl-1,2,4-trithiolane (isomer 1) and (isomer 2), s-methyl thiohexanoate, 5-methyl-4-mercapto-2hexanone, 3,4-dithia-2-ethylthiohexane, 3,5-dimethyltetrathiane, and s-methyl thiooctanoate. Besides, they also recorded 53 non-sulfur compounds: (1) four aldehydes including acetaldehyde, propanal, 2-methylbut-2-enal; (2) 11 ketones including hydroxyaceton, 2-hydroxy-3-pentanone, 3-hydroxybutan-2-one, 3-hydroxy-2butanone, ethyl 2-methylbutanoate, ethyl acetate, ethyl caprylate, ethyl hexadecanoate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl isobutanoate, and hexadecanyl propanoate; (3) 11 alcohols including ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol, 2-methylbutan-1-ol, 2-methylbutan-2-ol, hexadecanol, octadecanol, 1-hexanol, butane-2,3-diol, 9-octadecen-1-ol (cis + trans), isobutyl alcohol; (4) 23 esters including ethyl acetate, ethyl butanoate, ethyl but-2-enoate, ethyl decanoate, ethyl heptanoate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl octanoate, ethyl propanoate, ethyl 2-methyl butanoate, ethyl 2-methyl propanoate, ethyl 3-hydroxy butanoate, ethyl 3-methyl butanoate, methyl 2-methylbutanoate, methyl hexanoate, methyl octanoate, methyl propanoate, methyl propionate, propyl butanoate, propyl hexanoate, propyl propanoate, propyl 2-methyl butanoate, propyl 3-methyl butanoate, propyl 2-methyl propanoate; (5) three fatty acids including heptadecanoic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid; and (6) one cyclic monoterpene named limonene. The presence and composition of each compound often varies between cultivars.

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The delicious smelly pulp is the main product of this species. In some areas of Sumatra and Borneo, the aril is processed into a traditional condiment named tempoyak which is eaten with rice. It is a fermentation product created by burying the salted aril (Kostermans 1958). In South Aceh, the pulps are processed into dodol. Besides, seeds can be consumed after being roasted, fried, baked, or boiled (Suwardi et al. 2020). Various food products are made from the pulp including dodol duren or djenang duren, cake, ice cream, tempoyak, and empog (SoegengReksodihardjo 1962). Besides the pulp, young leaves and not fully mature pulp are also consumed as vegetable. Seeds are made into chips, while roasted seeds can be consumed directly (Suprianto et al. 2018). A large amount of fruit production and a high number of varieties can be found in Ambon (Kostermans 1958). To a lesser extent, seeds are consumed after boiled, roasted, or made into chips (SoegengReksodihardjo 1962). Malaysia: ripe fruit is consumed by people in Peninsular Malaysia (Ridley 1902), and Borneo (Kulip 2003). A traditional cake named Lumpuh prepared from Durian was recorded by Ridley as early as 1902. This cake is made by boiling the pulp in water with sugar, and later rolled. It is then wrapped in pandan leaves. Dodol durian is the pounded pulp mixed with sugar (Ridley 1902).

384

W. A. Mustaqim

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Dried fruit carpels are burnt as insect repellent in Labian Ira’ang village, Batang Lupar subdistrict of Kapuas Hulu regency; bark is a source of red dye; this species is used in rituals; timber is also processed into a coffin which symbolizes a special tribute (Suprianto et al. 2018). Kutai people in East Kalimantan use the bark to prepare pupur dingin used in makeup mask or skin powder (Hadijah et al. 2016). In West Kalimantan, there is an agroforestry system called tembawang which is a fruit garden managed by Dayak People (de Jong 1999). Durio zibethinus is one of the most important component of tembawang and has been recorded as the species with the largest diameter (Rafdinal and Pitopang 2019), besides being the densest tree (Astiani and Ripin 2016). These reveal that D. zibethinus has a strong connection with the life of Dayak People since tembawang has an important role as a historic marker of villages or families (de Jong 1999). According to Soegeng-Reksodihardjo (1962), the species is popular in the folklores of many areas of Indonesia. Proverbs such as “delongop” or “ngalohok,” from Javanese and Sundanese, respectively, are used to refer to absent-minded people who stare with an open mouth. Such people are compared to the flower of durian. The durian fruit is also used to express beauty or luck. A Balinese proverb compares the fallen durian to an unlucky situation. However, the fallen fruit is always collected, thus implying that when someone is in an unfortunate situation, there is always somebody else willing to help. In Sumatra, the story is not so different. Bataknese proverb relates durian to the character of children: the sizes of durian fruit valves are always dissimilar even though they belong to the same fruit. This is similar to children of the same parent differing in their personalities. According to the Minangkabau people of West Sumatra, durian is like heaven covered by hell, with hell referring to the spines. Madurese people often compare people who desire for affordable things as “a flying fox trying to get durian.”. Besides, in Java and Lampung, riddles describing the durian as a porcupine sleeping on the tree exist. Thailand: The ashes are used by the Pekan and Pattani people in silk whitening (Kostermans 1958).

Economic Importance Durio zibethinus is a major commercial fruit in many countries of Southeast Asia, including Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand (Franco et al. 2020; Khoo et al. 2016; Warner et al. 2008). It is also gaining popularity in the global market as “king of fruits.” The popularity of durian was recorded in the Malay Peninsula at least a century ago by Ridley (1902), while its cultural importance in Southeast Asia was known in the western world more than 600 years ago (Brown 1997). Many ethnic food products have been derived species since times immemorial. These include food products some of which are commercially available such as tempoyak, lempog, dodol duren, or djenang duren. Modern food products include durian cake and ice cream (Soegeng-Reksodihardjo 1962).

Durio zibethinus L.

385

In West Java, the easily perishable timber has been used to make cheap furniture and in indoor construction. The wood is also valuable in manufacturing packing cases (Kostermans 1958; Soegeng-Reksodihardjo 1962). The timber is used as construction material in many areas of Indonesia by local communities such as Mandailing Tribe, North Sumatra (Nasution et al. 2018), Osingnese, East Java (Hakim et al. 2018), people of Kapuas Hulu (Suprianto et al. 2018), and East Lampung, Lampung Province (Leksikowati et al. 2019). The wood is used as a source of furniture and tool handles; the bark is also used as flooring (Suprianto et al. 2018).

References Ahmad FB, Holdsworth DK. Medicinal plants of Sabah, East Malaysia – part I. Pharm Biol 2003; 41(5): 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi.41.5.340.15940. Amboupe DS, Hartana A, Purwanto Y. Ethnobotanical study of food plant in Bentong community from Barru regency, South Sulawesi-Indonesia. Med Konserv. 2019;24(3):278–86. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Arancibia-Avila P, Toledo F, Park Y-S, Jung S-T, Kang S-G, Heo BG, Lee S-H, Sajewicz M, Kowalska T, Gorinstein S. Antioxidant properties of durian fruit as influenced by ripening. Food Sci Tech. 2008;41:2118–25. Astiani D, Ripin. The roles of community fruit garden (tembawang) on maintaining forest structure, diversity and standing biomass allocation: an alternative effort on reducing carbon emission. Biodiversitas. 2016;17(1):359–65. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d170148. Bernstein JH, Ellen R, Bin Antaran B. The use of plot surveys for the study of ethnobotanical knowledge: a Brunei Dusun example. J Ethnobiol. 1997;17(1):69–96. Brown MJ. Durio - a bibliographic review. New Delhi: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute; 1997. Charoenkiatkul S, Thiyajai P, Judprasong K. Nutrients and bioactive compounds in popular and indigenous durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.). Food Chem. 2016;193:181–6. De Jong W. Taking non-timber forest products out of the forest: management, production and biodiversity conservation. In: Ros-Tonen MAF, editor. Seminar proceedings ‘NTFP research in the Tropenbos Programme: results and perspectives. Wageningen: The Tropenbos Foundation; 1999. p. 145–57. Falah F, Hadiwibowo N. Species identification of traditional medicine plants for women’s health in East Kalimantan: lesson learned from local wisdom. Indon J Forest Res. 2017;4(1):49–67. Franco FM, Chaw LL, Bakar N, Abas SNH. Socialising over fruits and vegetables: the biocultural importance of an open-air market in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-0356-6 Hadijah S, Hendra M, Hariani N. Etnomotani obat tradisional oleh masyarakat Kutai di Kec. Muara Bengkal Kab Kutai Timur Bioprospek. 2016;11(2):19–24. Hakim L, Pamungkas NL, Wicaksono KP. Soemarno. The conservation of Osingnese traditional home garden agroforestry in Banyuwangi, East Java, Indonesia. AGRIVITA. J Agric Sci. 2018;40(3):506–14.. https://doi.org/10.17503/agrivita.v40i3.1605. Husin NA, Rahman S, Karunakaran R, Bhore SJ. A review on the nutritional, medicinal, molecular and genome attributes of durian (Durio zibethinus L.), the king of fruits in Malaysia. Bioinformation. 2018;14(6):265–70. Inthakoun L, Delang CO. Lao flora: a checklist of plants found in Lao PDR with scientific and vernacular names. Morrisville: Lulu Press; 2008. Khoo HE, Azlan A, Kong KW, Ismail A. Phytochemicals and medicinal properties of indigenous tropical fruits with potential for commercial development. Evid-Based Compliment Altern Med 2016; 7591951: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/7591951.

386

W. A. Mustaqim

Kostermans AJGH. The genus Durio Adans. (Bombac.). Reinwardtia. 1958;4(3):47–153. Kulip J. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia. Telopea. 2003;10(1):81–98. Leksikowati SS, Oktaviani I, Ariyanti Y, Akhmad AD. Ethnobotanical study of plants used by people in Labuhan Ratu Village, East Lampung regency. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Envir Sci. 2019;258(012027):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/258/1/012027. Malawani AD, Nuñeza OM, Uy MM, Senarath WTPSK. Ethnobotanical survey of the medicinal plants used by the Maranaos in Pualas, Lanao del Sur, Philippines. Bull Env Pharmacol Life Sci. 2017;6(6):45–53. Nasution A, Chikmawati T, Walujo EB, Zuhud EAM. Ethnobotany of Mandailing tribe in Batang Gadis National Park. J Trop Life Sci. 2018;8(1):48–54. https://doi.org/10.11594/jtls.08.01.09. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines; 2011-onwards. http://www.philippineplants.org. Accessed 4 May 2020. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2016. Rafdinal, Pitopang R. The phytososiological of agroforestry Tembawang at secundary forest Sekadau Hulu in West Kalimantan Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser: J Physic: Conf Ser. 2019;1242 (2019):012041. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1242/1/012041. Ragasa CY, Bacar JNB, Querido MMR, Tan MCS, Del Fierro RS, Choi JS. Chemical constituents of Durio zibethinus Murr. Fruit. Int J Pharmacog Phytochem Res. 2016;8(8):1300–3. Ridley HN. Fruits of the Malay peninsula, wild or cultivated. Agric Bull Straits Fed Malay States. 1902;1(10):371–81. Ridley HN, Curtis C. Malay plants names. J Straits Branch Roy Asiat Soc. 1902; 38:39–122. Rudiyansyah, Panthong K, Garson MJ. Chemistry and pharmacognosy of the genus Durio. Nat Product Communic. 2015;10(11):1853–60. Silalahi M, Purba EC, Mustaqim WA. Tumbuhan obat Sumatera Utara jilid II: Dikotiledon. Jakarta: UKI Press; 2019. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Soegeng-Reksodihardjo W. The species of Durio with edible fruits. Econ Bot. 1962;16(4):270–82. Suprianto A, Diba F, Prayogo H. Studi ethnobotany of utilization of durian plant (Durio spp) in Labian Ira’ang village Batang Lupar Sub District, Kapuas Hulu regency. J Hut Lest. 2018;6(3):673–87. Suwardi AB, Navia ZI, Harmawan T, Syamsuardi ME. Ethnobotany and conservation of indigenous edible fruit plants in South Aceh, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2020;21(5):1850–60. https:// doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d210511. Uji T. Keanekaragaman jenis dan sumber plasma nutfah Durio (Durio spp.) di Indonesia. Bul Plasma Nutfah. 2005;11(1):28–33. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Voon YY, Hamid NSA, Rusul G, Osman A, Quek SY. Characterisation of Malaysian durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.) cultivars: relationship of physicochemical and flavour properties with sensory properties. Food Chem. 2007;103:1217–27. Warner K, Lecup I, Nicholson K. Market analysis and development (MA&D): process, methods, and tools for developing community-based enterprises. In: The role of NTFPS in poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation. IUCN. 2008. p. 151–156. https://www.iucn.org/ sites/dev/files/import/downloads/ntfps_int_l_ws_proceedings_en_part_2.pdf. Accessed 4 May 2020. Weenen H, Koolhaas WE, Apriyantono A. Sulfur-containing volatiles of durian fruits (Durio zibethinus Murr.). J Agric Food Chem. 1996;44:3291–3.

Elaeagnus triflora Roxb. ELAEAGNACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Synonyms Elaeagnus alingaro Schltdl.; Elaeagnus cumingii Schltdl.; Elaeagnus ferruginea Rich.; Elaeagnus philippinensis Perr.; Elaeagnus rigida Blume; Elaeagnus rostrata Servett.; Elaeagnus triflora subsp. tetragonia Servett.; Elaeagnus zollingeri Servett. (POWO 2019)

Local Names Bennaken/banaken (Bontok); kopapey (Igorot); alingaro, lingaro (Tagalog); alunut (Ivatan); bannaken (Kankanay); bantap (Tausug); barentak (Maranaw); lagot (Bukidnon); malaimos (Bisayan); padiyas (Igorot); salakbey (Bontok); sunyaw (Hanunuo) (Madulid 2001).

Botany and Ecology Description: A deciduous or evergreen climbing shrubby and woody vine (liana) up to 10 m high with small simple, entire, oval, elliptic or oblong, pointed, and alternate or spiral leaves. It has a cuspidate or acuminate leaf apex and cuneate or obtuse leaf base. The underneath surface of leaves is dotted silvery white with small brown scales and light green on the surface. Silvery brownish or golden-colored lepidote or peltate scales or stellate hairs may be found on the surface of vegetative parts. One yellow fragrant trumpet-shaped flower or simple cyme in the inflorescence (6–9 mm

R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_16

387

388

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Fig. 1 Elaeagnus triflora (Elaeagnaceae). Shrub habit. (© R. Barcelo)

long) is found per axil only. The ovary is glabrous with filiform and terminally hookshaped style. Fruit is drupe-like achene and oval (1.5–3 cm long) and contains one seed, is subacid, but sweet and red when ripe (Brown 1957; Coronel 2011a, b; Veldkamp 1986). Kitamura et al. (2002) further describe the indehiscent fruit with thin husk in terms of weight (15.90 g), length (41.1 mm), diameter (25.4 mm), sugar concentration of pulp (11.5%), seed weight (1.34 g), seed length (33 mm), and seed diameter (9.9 mm). Phenology: October to March Distribution and Habitat: Taiwan (Lan Yü), Malaysia, to Queensland (POWO 2019). Distributed across the Philippines especially in northern provinces (Brown 1957). Batanes (Luzon), Ilocos Norte, La Union, Mountain Province, Benguet, Cagayan, Nueva Vizcaya, Bataan, Rizal, Laguna, Quezon, Sorsogon, Polillo, Palawan, Panay, Negros, Cebu, and Jolo (Mindanao). Found in low and medium primary and secondary forests and thickets up to 2000–2100 m elevation (Pelser et al. 2011; Veldkamp 1986). In Benguet, it grows in Kibungan, Mankayan, and Tublay (ChuaBarcelo 2014) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses and Phytochemical Composition Leaves and bark are rich in phytochemicals which can be used in medicine and psychotropic drugs (La Frankie 2010). The flowers are astringent and cardiac (Sulit 1934 and Chopra 1933, cited by Veldkamp 1986). Patel et al. (2008 and 2009 cited by Devachandra et al. 2018) reported 11.90% total soluble solids, 16–19.20 mg/ 100 mL ascorbic acid, and 6.06% total sugar in the fruits. Besides ascorbic acid, the fruits have high concentration of vitamin B1 or thiamine at 1.20  0.007 mg/100 g) (Seal et al. 2017). Amoebic dysentery among children is treated by intake of the ripe

Elaeagnus triflora Roxb.

389

Fig. 2 Elaeagnus triflora (Elaeagnaceae). Fruit and leaves. (© R. Barcelo)

fruits (Jansen et al. 2016; Stuart 2018). Chua-Barcelo (2014) also recorded that the fruits may be used as a remedy for cough through a decoction taken orally.

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten raw (Coronel 2011a). The sweet fruits are processed into sauce (Pino 2019), jams (Brown 1957), jellies (Coronel 2011b), candies, and juice (ChuaBarcelo 2014). The fruits can greatly contribute to nutrition and food security since they are rich in phytochemicals, minerals, and vitamin B1 (thiamine) (Seal et al. 2017). The leaves may serve as a source of black pigment used in providing color to rice in Vietnam (Le et al. 2018).

Biocultural Importance It is cultivated in home gardens (Coronel 2011b). Birds and wild animals in the forests of Benguet eat the ripe fruits during fruiting season. Likewise, It is used as forage and offertory by the local residents during harvest season (Chua-Barcelo 2014).

References Brown W. Useful plants of the Philippines, vol. III. Manila: Manila Bureau of Printing; 1957. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. Coronel R. The edible fruits and nuts of the RC fruit conservation farm. Laguna: UP: Los Baños; 2011a.

390

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Coronel R. Important and underutilized edible fruits of the Philippines. Los Banos Laguna: UPLBFI and DA-BAR; 2011b. Devachandra N, Singh SR, Wangchu L, Chandrakumar M, Pandey A. Evaluation of physicochemical and genetic diversity of Elaeagnus species in Manipur, North East India. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci. 2018;7(5):315–21. Jansen PCM, Jukema J, Oyen LPA, van Lingen TG. Elaeagnus triflora (PROSEA). Pl@ntUse. 2016. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Elaeagnus_triflora_(PROSEA). Accessed 20 Sept 2019. Kitamura S, Yumoto T, Poonswad P, Chuailua P, Plongmai K, Maruhashi T, Noma N. Interactions between fleshy fruits and frugivores in a tropical seasonal forest in Thailand. Oecologia. 2002;133:559–72. La Frankie J. Trees of tropical Asia. Bacnotan: Black Tree Publications; 2010. Le Q, Lay H, Wu M, Nguyen T. Natural plant colorants widely used in Vietnam traditional food culture. J Food Nutr Agric. 2018;1(1):40–6. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Makati Manila: Bookmark; 2001. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Elaeagnaceae.html. Accessed 20 Sept 2019. Pino G. Book features PH native plants. 2019. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1080992. Accessed 20 Feb 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2019. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 1 Feb 2020. Seal T, Chaudhuri K, Pillai B. Water soluble vitamin estimation in five wild edible fruits consumed by the tribal people of north-eastern region in India by high performance liquid chromatography. Int J Chem. 2017;5(5):1576–84. Stuart G. Lingaro (Elaeagnaceae). In: Philippine alternative medicine. 2018 onwards. http://www. stuartxchange.org/Lingaro. Accessed 18 Jan 2020. Veldkamp JF. Elaeagnaceae. Flora Malesiana series 1. 1986; 10:151–6.

Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. EQUISETACEAE Muhamad Muhaimin and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher; Equisetum elongatum Willd.; Equisetum ramosum DC.; Equisetum sieboldii Milde; Hippochaete debilis (Roxb. ex Vaucher) Holub; Hippochaete ramosissima (Desf.) Börner; Hippochaete ramosissima (Desf.) Milde ex Bruhin; Hippochaete ramosissima (Desf.) Börner subsp. debile (Roxb.) Sen & Sen (Darnaedi et al. 2003; Datta 2006; Hauke 1962; Laferrière 1998).

Local Names Indonesia: Rumput betung (general), sendep-sendep (Karo), bibitungan, tataropongan (Sundanese), greges otot, lorogan haji, petungan, sangkal putung, sempol, tepung balung, tikel balung, tropongan (Javanese), sodlisoan (Madura), huraq (Bunaq), keduk (Manggarai), pasolonteneru (Kaili), kem, yuki (Dani), uki (Yali). Myanmar: myet-sek. Philippines: putod, sumbok (Bukidnon), putuptud (Bontoc, Igorot). Thailand: hrue sor por dua, hu so po do (Karen), lha mae kae, tod pong (Lawa), ya hu nuak, ya nguak, ya thot bong (other northern). Vietnam: cỏ hui ra za. English: branched horsetail, weak horsetail (Atok et al. 2010; Darnaedi et al. 2003; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018; Gailea et al. 2016; Heyne 1987; M. Muhaimin (*) Cibodas Botanical Garden, Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_184

391

392

M. Muhaimin and W. A. Mustaqim

Iswandono 2016; Milliken 2000; Minh et al. 2014; Nahdi et al. 2016; Punchay et al. 2020; Quattrocchi 2012; Tangjitman et al. 2013; Wiriadinata 1995).

Botany and Ecology Description: Plant medium-sized to large. Rhizome rather deep underground, somewhat rough, erect or ascending, dark brown to black. Roots numerous, wiry along the length of the rhizomes. Aerial Parts: Stems monomorphic, smooth, irregularly branched or simple, evergreen, 45–300 (–900) cm tall, 2–3 (–15) mm in diam., with 10–32 ridges; branches solitary or in groups of 2–3 (–5), up to 60 cm long, straight or sinuous, simple or occasionally secondarily branched; stomata arranged in one line on each side of the ridge, 71–102 μm long, 56–78 μm wide; vascular bundles each surrounded by an endodermis. Leaves whorled, forming sheath encircling the nodes, pointed teeth-like tips; sheath green, cylindrical to slightly funnel-shaped, 4.5–13 mm long, 2–12 mm wide; sheath segment smooth, midrib prominent basally, sometimes becoming flattened apically, with two distinct lateral ridges; teeth with central brown band and broad, white or colorless margin, often deciduous. Branches 6–10-angled, with sheaths like those of the stem, or with persistent teeth. Strobilus yellow to black, nearly obtuse to apiculate, up to 25 mm long and 7 mm wide, with the apiculum up to 1 mm long. Spores globose, each one bearing 4 filiform, long, apically clavate, hygroscopic appendages (elaters), surface granulate with scattered spherical deposits, bright green (Darnaedi et al. 2003; Laferrière 1998). Hauke (1962, 1963) separates E. ramosissimum into two subspecies, E. ramosissimum Desf. subsp. ramosissimum and E. ramosissimum Desf. subsp. debile (Roxb. ex Vauch.) Hauke. Both of them are distinguished from endodermis, stomata, and sheath-teeth characters. The subsp. ramosissimum has stems with double common endodermis (inner endodermis surrounding vascular bundles), stomata in 1–3 lines, and sheath-teeth persistent. The subsp. debile has stems with individual endodermis (an endodermis surrounding each vascular bundle), stomata in one line, and sheath-teeth regularly breaking off (Darnaedi et al. 2003; Datta 2006; Hauke 1963). There is an extensive intergradation in geographical overlap between the two subspecies (Hauke 1963). The spores of E. ramosissimum contain chlorophyll and remain viable for only a few days once released. These spores are susceptible to desiccation as they lack the transpiration-resistant spore wall. The spores germinate in the same day after falling off as long as the environmental conditions are beneficial. After that, the prothallus develops within a few weeks. The larger prothalli may live for months, even up to 2 years in vitro (Darnaedi et al. 2003). Mature plants of E. ramosissimum subsp. ramosissimum can produce strobili in August to October, and occasionally up to December, while subsp. debile can produce year round (Darnaedi et al. 2003; Datta 2006). Distribution and Ecology: E. ramosissimum has a wide geographic range from Southern and Eastern Africa, Southern and Central Europe, throughout Asia to New

Equisetum ramosissimum Desf.

393

Fig. 1 Living plants of Equisetum ramosissimum (Equisetaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Caledonia and Fiji (Hauke 1963; Laferrière 1998). It has been introduced to North Carolina and Florida in North America (Hauke 1979). Equisetum ramosissimum subsp. ramosissimum is distributed from Southern and Eastern Africa, Southern and Central Europe, Russia, Southwest Asia, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Northern India, Bhutan, Mongolia, Tibet, Central China, Korea, Japan, to Taiwan. The subsp. debile is distributed from India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Southern China, Hainan, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and Fiji. So far, only subsp. debile has been found in Southeast Asia (Datta 2006; Laferrière 1998; Zhang and Turland 2013). The intermediate forms of the two subspecies have been found in South China, India, and Ryukyu Islands (Darnaedi et al. 2003; Hauke 1963; Laferrière 1998). E. ramosissimum grows naturally in the forest, forest margins, under bushes, meadows, rivers, and stream banks, from lowland to 3600 m.a.s.l. (Darnaedi et al. 2003; Laferrière 1998; Zhang and Turland 2013). The stem may remain tufted and small in sandy soils along riverbanks but can grow well until several meters tall in shady and swampy soils of forests. Equisetum ramosissimum subsp. debile has become a weed on the rice terraces of the Philippines, and in the tea plantations of Sumatra, Indonesia (Darnaedi et al. 2003) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: Traditional healers in Kiudang area use the plant to treat fish stings (Kamsani et al. 2020). Indonesia: Leaf decoction is used externally to relieve allergy symptoms, by the Angkola tribe in Tapanuli Selatan, North Sumatra (Hasibuan 2011). The boiled leaves are also used to treat kidney stones by the Batak Karo of Semangat Gunung village, Karo district, North Sumatra (Silalahi and Nisyawati 2018). In Kabanjahe

394 Fig. 2 Aerial stem of Equisetum ramosissimum (Equisetaceae). Central Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Strobilus of Equisetum ramosissimum (Equisetaceae). Central Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

M. Muhaimin and W. A. Mustaqim

Equisetum ramosissimum Desf.

395

traditional market of Karo district, whole plants are traded for use in the treatment of kidney disease and hypertension (Silalahi et al. 2015). In Java, 30–50 g of aerial parts (stems) are pounded and the paste is left on the spot for a day to cure sprain (Hidayat 2005). The pounded paste of aerial stem and leaves are applied to treat myalgia and diarrhea; potion of leaves is used for hemorrhoid, inflammatory bowel disease, and rheumatic by Tengger of East Java (Batoro 2012; Batoro and Siswanto 2017; Novitasari 2011). In Madura, the whole plant is used to treat eye pain, fever, flu, hepatitis, and inflammatory bowel disease (Zaman 2009). The Javanese people also use the stem and leaves to cure arthritis, cholesterol, flu, fractures, and skin cut (Anggana 2011; Arum et al. 2012; Nahdi et al. 2016). The Manggarai people of Ruteng mountain area, Nusa Tenggara Timur use the leaves to treat hemoptysis (Iswandono 2016). The aerial stem is used to treat fractures and sprains by the Kaili tribe in Central Sulawesi (Gailea et al. 2016). Malaysia: Stems are used to treat joint problem in Peninsular Malaysia (Burkill 1966; Perry and Metzger 1980). Philippines: In Central Bontoc, leaf decoctions are given to treat kidney disorders (Bodner and Gereau 1988). Thailand: The Karen tribe in Chiang Mai Province have developed several potions to treat urethral stones and mysuria: (1) potion from decoction of the stem; (2) decoction of whole plants; (3) decoction of whole plants mixed with Equisetum ramosissimum (root) and Coix lacryma-jobi (root); (4) decoction of stem mixed with Averrhoa carambola (root), Equisetum ramosissimum (root), and Coix lacryma-jobi (root); and (5) decoction of stem mixed with Citrus aurantifolia (root) (Tangjitman et al. 2013). Vietnam: Dried stem and leaves are used to treat eye pain, backache, and diabetes by Hre communities in Ba To District, Central Vietnam (Minh et al. 2014).

Phytochemistry Stems and roots of this species contain carbohydrates, fats, oils, reducing sugar, anthraquinone glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, phenolic compounds, phytosterols, saponin, steroids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, monosaccharides, and saponin glycosides (Malik et al. 2019; Rehman et al. 2018; Sarkar et al. 2014). However, it should be kept in mind that the chemical compounds varies between experiments (Sharma et al. 2019). Herniarin was isolated from whole plant extracts (Ang et al. 2019). From the aerial parts (stems and leaves), several compounds were isolated, including (3S,5R,6S,7E,9S)-megastigman-7-ene-5,6-epoxy-3,9-diol 3,9-O-b-Ddiglucopyranoside, (6R,9S)-3-oxo-a-ionol 9-O-b-D-glucopyranoside, kaempferol 3-osophoroside, kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside-7-O-b-D-glucopyranoside, kaempferol 3,7-O-b-D-diglucopyranoside, macarangioside D (debiloside A), sammangaoside A, debiloside B, phenylethyl O-b-D-glucopyranoside, (7S,8R)-dehydrodiconiferyl 4-ObD-glucopyranoside, (Z)-3-hexenyl O-b-D-glucopyranoside, L-tryptophan (Kanchanapoom et al. 2007), equisetumoside B, equisetumoside D, dehydrovomifoliol, corchoionoside C, (-)-isolariciresinol-3a-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and kaempferol

396

M. Muhaimin and W. A. Mustaqim

3-osophoroside-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Thai et al. 2008). Fourteen volatile compounds were identified from the aerial parts of E. ramosissimum: (1) six aromatic compounds named phenylethanal, 2-phenylethanol, phenylacetic acid, 4-vinylguaiacol, (Z)-ferulic acid, and (E)-ferulic acid; (2) seven lipid derivatives named hexanol, hexanoic acid, heptanoic acid, (E)-2-decanal, nonanoic acid, (E,Z)-2,4-decadienal, and lauric acid; and (3) one isoprenoid derivative named phenylacetic acid 4-vinylguaiacol (Fons et al. 2013). Two steroids named daucosterol and stigmasterol, and two flavonoids named quercetin and quercetin-3-O-α-D-rhamnopyranoside have been reported from aerial parts (Sarkar et al. 2014). Methanolic extracts showed the presence of six chemical compounds: sym-tetra methyl dimethoxy disiloxane, 1-(-4Hydroxy-3-methoxy phenyl)-1-ethoxyacetic acid ethyl ester, 2-pentadecanone, 9-octadecenal, hexadecanoic acid, and stigmast-5-en-3-ol (Devender and Ramakhrisna 2018). A protoflavone named apiogenin has also been reported from this plant (Hunyadi et al. 2013; Pouny et al. 2011). Abdillah et al. (2018) reported antidiarrheal activity of whole plant extract in mice. Antioxidant activities were also reported from the crude extracts of plants from the Philippines. Antioxidant activities is correlated to the phenolic contents (Ang et al. 2018, 2019). Stem extracts also display antioxidant activity (Rehman et al. 2018; Sarkar et al. 2014). The aerial stem also showed antibacterial activities (Sarkar et al. 2014). The plant is used in the traditional formulation called jamu; five grams of plants were mixed with 5 g Curcuma domestica rhizome, 5 g Foeniculum vulgare seeds, and 5 g Orthosiphon stamineus leaves. This mixture has shown positive effect against tingling, movement disorders, swollen joints, and joint paint (Ardiyanto and Ismoyo 2013). This species is a potential candidate for anticancer agents. Thai et al. (2008) showed the capability of this plant against hepatocellular carcinoma and rhabdosarcoma cell lines. The presence of apiogenin further proves its potential as an anticancer agent (Hunyadi et al. 2013). Cytotoxic activities of the aerial stem has been reported by Sarkar et al. (2014).

Local Food Uses Tengger communities of East Java use the whole parts of E. ramosissimum in livestock food (Batoro 2012; Batoro and Siswanto 2017; Novitasari 2011). In the tradition of Karen and Lawa tribe of Thailand, the stems are used to prepare herbal tea (Punchay et al. 2020).

Biocultural Importance The Yali people of the highland of West Papua consider the occurrence E. ramosissimum, as a marker for hunting location, as it is a food plant for cassowaries. The Yali people also use the stems to polish hunting bows, axe handles, mouth harps, and to clean sweet potatoes (Milliken 2000). The Bunaq tribe of Nusa Tenggara Timur traditionally used the stems for whitening the brownish-red teeth

Equisetum ramosissimum Desf.

397

after consuming betel nut (Atok 2009; Atok et al. 2010). In Peninsular Malaysia, the plant is used for polishing (Said and Zakaria 1992). The stems are used to scouring cooking pots by the local communities of Tukukan Village, Central Bontoc, in the Phillipines (Bodner and Gereau 1988).

Economic Importance Equisetum ramosissimum is locally traded as crude drug in Java and Sumatra (Darnaedi et al. 2003; Silalahi et al. 2015). The stems of this plant are traded in Indonesian traditional medicine as greges otot or greges tulang (Darnaedi et al. 2003; Heyne 1987). The antioxidant properties of this plant suggests its potential in developing nutraceuticals, and functional food for arresting hair loss (Chaiyana et al. 2017).

References Abdillah R, Eriadi A, Khasanah YN. Aktivitas antidiare ekstrak etanol herba greges otot (Equisetum debile Roxb.) pada mencit putih jantan. J Farm Higea. 2018;10(1):33–40. (in Bahasa) Ang AMG, Peteros NP, Uy MM. Cytotoxicity and antioxidant activity of Equisetum debile Roxb. (Equisetaceae) from Bukidnon, Philippines. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci. 2018;7(9):22–7. Ang AMG, Peteros NP, Uy MM. Antioxidant and toxicity assay-guided isolation of herniarin from Equisetum debile Roxb. (Equisetaceae). AJBLS. 2019;8(1):30–5. https://doi.org/10.5530/ ajbls.2019.8.5. Anggana AF. Kajian etnobotani masyarakat di sekitar Taman Nasional Gunung Merapi: Studi kasus di Desa Umbulharjo, Sidorejo, Wonodoyo, dan Ngablak [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2011. (in Bahasa) Ardiyanto D, Ismoyo SP. Studi klinis formula jamu untuk osteoartritis sendi lutut. Widyariset. 2013;16(2):251–8. (in Bahasa) Arum GPV, Retnoningsih A, Irsadi A. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat Desa Keseneng, Kecamatan Sumowono Kabupaten Semarang Jawa Tengah. Unnes J Life Sci. 2012;1(2):126– 32. (in Bahasa) Atok AR. Etnobotani masyarakat suku Bunaq: Studi kasus di Desa Dirun, Kecamatan Lamaknen Kabupaten Belu, Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2009. (in Bahasa) Atok AR, Hikmat A, Zuhud EAM. Etnobotani masyarakat suku Bunaq: Studi kasus di Desa Dirun, Kecamatan Lamaknen Kabupaten Belu, Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur. Med Konserv. 2010;15(1):36–42. (in Bahasa) Batoro J. Etnobiologi masyarakat Tengger di Bromo Tengger Semeru Jawa Timur [dissertation]. Bogor: IPB University; 2012. (in Bahasa) Batoro J, Siswanto D. Etnomedicinal survei of plants used by local society in Poncokusumo districk, Malang, East Java Province, Indonesia. Asian J Med Biol Res. 2017;3(2):158–67. https://doi.org/10.3329/ajmbr.v3i2.33563. Bodner CC, Gereau RE. A contribution to Bontoc ethnobotany. Econ Bot. 1988;42(3):307–69. Burkill IH. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula, vol. I & II. London: Crown Agent; 1966. Chaiyana W, Punyonyai C, Somwongin S, Leelapornpisid P, Ingkaninan K, Waranuch N, Srivilai J, Thitipramote N, Wisuitiprot W, Schuster R, Viernstein H, Mueller M. Inhibition of 5α-reductase, IL-6 secretion, and oxidation process of Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher extract

398

M. Muhaimin and W. A. Mustaqim

as functional food and nutraceuticals ingredients. Nutrients. 2017;9:1–17. art.1105. https://doi. org/10.3390/nu9101105. Darnaedi D, Wulijarni-Soetjipto N, Winter WPD. Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. In: Winter WPD, Amoroso VB, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia No 15(2): cryptograms: ferns and fern allies. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 2003. p. 105–8. Datta A. The family Equisetaceae in India. Bull Bot Surv India. 2006;48:1–4):1–58. https://doi.org/ 10.20324/nelumbo/v48/2006/74056. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Devender R, Ramakhrisna H. GC-MS analysis of bioactive compounds in methanolic stem extract of Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher: an endangered medicinal plant. J Pharmacogn Phytocem. 2018;7(2):3815–7. Fons F, Froissard D, Bessière JM, Fruchier A, Buatois B, Rapior S. Volatile composition of six horsetails: prospects and perspectives. Nat Prod Commun. 2013;8(4):509–12. Gailea R, Bratawinata AA, Pitopang R, Kusuma IW. The use of various plant types as medicines by local community in the enclave of the Lore-Lindu National Park of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Global J Res Med Plants Indigen Med. 2016;5(1):29–40. Hasibuan MAS. Etnobotani masyarakat suku Angkola: Studi kasus di desa Padang Bujur sekitar Cagar Alam Dolok Sibual-buali, Kabupaten Tapanuli Selatan, Sumatra Utara [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2011. (in Bahasa) Hauke RL. A resume of the taxonomic reorganization of Equisetum, subgenus Hippochaete, II. Am Fern J. 1962;52(1):29–35. Hauke RL. A taxonomic monograph of the genus Equisetum, subgenus Hippochaete. Beih Nova Hedwig. 1963;8:1–123. Hauke RL. Equisetum ramosissimum in North America. Am Fern J. 1979;68(4):1–5. Heyne K. Tumbuhan berguna Indonesia Jilid 1. Jakarta: Forest Research and Development Centre, Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia; 1987. (in Bahasa) Hidayat S. Ramuan tradisional ala 12 etnis Indonesia. Jakarta: Penebar Swadaya; 2005. (in Bahasa) Hunyadi A, Martins A, Danko B, Chang FR, Protoflavones WYC. a class of unusual flavonoids as promising novel anticancer agents. Phytochem Rev. 2013:9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101013-9288-2. Iswandono E. Integrasi kearifan lokal masyarakat suku Manggarai dalam konservasi tumbuhan dan ekosistem Pegunungan Ruteng Nusa Tenggara Timur [dissertation]. Bogor: IPB University; 2016. (in Bahasa) Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang Area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kanchanapoom T, Otsuka H, Ruchirawat S. Megastigmane glucosides from Equisetum debile and E. diffusum. Chem Pharm Bull. 2007;55(8):1277–80. Laferrière JE. Equisetaceae. In: Kalkman C, Nooteboom HP, editors. Flora Malesiana, Series II, vol. 3. Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus: Leiden; 1998. p. 287–8. Malik T, Ali S, Malik MS, Naeem A. Study of phytochemicals in stem and roots of Equisetum debile Roxb. Phys Chem 2019;19(1):28–33. Milliken W. 2000. Ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/ethnobot any/Yali.pdf. Retrieved 20 May 2020. Minh VV, Yen NTK, Thoa PTK. Medicinal plants used by the Hre community in the Ba To District of Central Vietnam. J Med Plants Stud. 2014;2(3):64–71. Nahdi MS, Martiwi INA, Arsyah DC. The ethnobotany of medicinal plants in supporting the family health in Turgo, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2016;17(2):900–6. https://doi.org/ 10.13057/biodiv/d170268. Novitasari. Etnobotani masyarakat suku Tengger: Studi kasus di Desa Ranu Pane wilayah enclave Taman Nasional Bromo Tengger Semeru, Kecamatan Senduro, Kabupaten Lumajang [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2011. (in Bahasa)

Equisetum ramosissimum Desf.

399

Perry LM, Metzger J. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia: attributed properties and uses. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1980. Pouny I, Etiévant C, Marcourt L, Huc-Dumas I, Batut M, Girard F, Wright M, Massiot G. Protoflavonoids from ferns impair centrosomal integrity of tumor cells. Planta Med. 2011;77:461–6. Punchay K, Inta A, Tiansawat P, Balslev H, Wangpakapattanawong P. Traditional knowledge of wild food plants of Thai Karen and Lawa (Thailand). Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2020;67:1277– 99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-020-00910-x. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: Common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonims, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2012. Rehman T, Shad MA, Nawaz H, Andaleeb H, Aslam M. Biochemical, phytochemical and antioxidant composition of Equisetum debile Roxb. Biochem Anal Biochem. 2018;7:368;1–6. https:// doi.org/10.4172/2161-1009.1000368. Said IM, Zakaria R. An updated list of wetland plant species of Peninsular Malaysia, with particular reference to those having socio-economic value. Kuala Lumpur: Asian Wetland Bureau; 1992. Sarkar B, Abu Rahman SM, Sultana N, Islam ME. Isolation of two steroids and two flavonoids having antioxidant, antibacterial and cytotoxic properties from aerial stems of Equisetum debile Roxb. Nat Univ J Sci. 2014;1(2):31–42. Sharma P, Mohanty JP, Ghosh P, Sharma C, Subba B. Pharmacognostical and preliminary phytochemical investigation of Equisetum debile Roxb. J Drug Deliv Therap. 2019;9(3):163–9. Silalahi M, Nisyawati. The ethnobotanical study of edible and medicinal plants in the home garden of Batak Karo sub-ethnic in North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2018;19(1):229–38. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d190131. Silalahi M, Nisyawati, Walujo EB, Supriatna J, Mangunwardoyo W. The local knowledge of medicinal plants trader and diversity of medicinal plants in the Kabanjahe traditional market, North Sumatra, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:432–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2015.09.009. Tangjitman K, Wongsawad C, Winijchaiyanan P, Sukkho T, Kamwong K, Pongamornkul W, Trisonthi C. Traditional knowledge on medicinal plant of the Karen in northern Thailand: A comparative study. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;150:232–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2013.08.037. Thai TH, Hung NQ, Minh CV, Cuong NX, Yen PH, Huong LM, Kiem PV. Chemical constituents of Equisetum debile and their cytotoxic activity. Nat Prod Commun. 2008;3(11):1903–6. Wiriadinata H. Ethnobotany of economic plants in the Baliem Valley, Jayawijaya, Irian Jaya. In: Schneider J, editor. Proceedings of an international workshop indigenous knowledge in conservation of crop genetic resources, vol. 1995. Bogor: CIP-ESEAP/CRIFC; 1995. p. 87–97. Zaman MQ. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Kabupaten Pamekasan Madura Provinsi Jawa Timur [undergraduate thesis]. Malang: UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim; 2009. (in Bahasa) Zhang LB, Turland NJ. Equisetaceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, Vol. 2–3 (Pteridophytes). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2013. p. 67–72.

Erechtites valerianifolius (Link ex Spreng.) DC. ASTERACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Cacalia prenanthoides Kunth; Crassocephalum valerianifolium (Link ex Spreng.) Less.; Erechtites ambiguus DC; Erechtites organensis Gardner; Erechtites petiolatus Benth.; Erechtites valerianifolius f. organensis (Gardner) Belcher; Erechtites valerianifolius f. prenanthoides (Kunth) Cuatrec. ex Belcher; Erechtites valerianifolius f. reductus Belcher; Erechtites valerianifolius var. organensis (Gardner) Baker; Senecio albiflorus Sch.Bip.; Senecio crassus Vell.; Senecio lactucoides Sch.Bip. ex Klatt; Senecio valerianifolius J.P.Wolff; Sonchus erythropappus Meyen & Walp

Local Names English: Brazilian fireweed, Ceylon thistle, fireweed, tropical burnweed Indonesia: Jonggol, jonggolan, rumput gedang Malaysia: Sayur jipun Philippines: Gapas-gapas bae (Agusan Manobo)

M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_221

401

402

M. L. G. Dapar

Botany and Ecology Description: Erect, herbaceous annual, usually 1–1.5 m high, occasionally described as a shrub of more than 2.5 m tall, mostly glabrous except for cobwebby young growth, subsimple to much-branched above, glabrous or sometimes sparsely hispidulous, striate (Fig. 1). Leaves opposite, larger at base, smaller and alternate towards apex, deeply divided to slightly lobed, covered in white hairs (Fig. 2); lowest leaves ca. 3–6
2–3 cm, ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, entire or serrate to irregularly dentate, margins entire to toothed, petiole 5–15 mm long; medial leaves petiolate with narrowly decurrent wings, very deeply pinnately lobed, lobes lanceolate and serrate to irregularly incised-dentate, or pinnatisect with linear segments entire or minutely serrulate, or entire or subentire like the lower leaves; upper leaves similar to the medial leaves but slightly reduced in size upward, or sometimes abruptly reduced several nodes below the inflorescence, with lamina toothed, or

Fig. 1 Flowering plant of Erechtites valerianifolius. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Fig. 2 Leaves (a) and leaf attachments (b) of Erechtites valerianifolius. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Erechtites valerianifolius (Link ex Spreng.) DC.

403

pinnatisect to pinnate, ca. 5–20
3–8 cm, petiole 0–50 mm long. Inflorescences terminal and axillary, forming a rather congested cymose panicle to corymbose, heads on stalks 0–10 mm long (Fig. 3); heads ca. 3 mm in diameter; inner involucral bracts 10–14, ca. 10 mm long, outer bracts ca. 1 mm long. Achenes cylindric, ca. 2.5–3.5 mm long, with about 10 heavy, pale brown ribs, dark brown and entirely glabrous to minutely villous or hispidulous in the grooves. Flowers clustered, capitulate, forming a dense, flat cluster of small flowers or florets, middle of the capitula hermaphrodite, towards the margin female. Florets numerous, yellowishpurple or mauve to white. Pappus ca. 8–10 mm long, multiseriate, slender, white to mauve, ring of hairs around the calyx, subequalling the florets, exceeding the phyllaries. Erechtites valerianifolius is highly similar to Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore (Tjitrosoedirdjo 1987). Dapar et al. (2020a) utilized an integrative molecular approach to confirm the true species identity of E. valerianifolius. The recommended universal markers were used as a useful tool to resolve complex species identity (Dapar et al. 2020b). Phenology: E. valerianifolius flowers throughout the year (Belcher 1956). It is heliophytic and flowers intensively from October to December in Southern Brazil (Schwirkowski 2013). Distribution and Habitat: This species native range is Mexico to Tropical America (POWO 2020). This plant has become an introduced species and an aggressive weed in tropical Asia, Pacific Islands, and Australia (Belcher 1956). E. valerianifolius is abundant in old clearings at low and medium elevation in the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

Fig. 3 Inflorescence of Erechtites valerianifolius. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

404

M. L. G. Dapar

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Erechtites valerianifolius is one of the medicinal and ritual plants of Serampas in Jambi (Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012). Serampas locals utilize E. valerianifolius to treat luko, meaning injury. Puspaningtyas et al. (2018) reported the traditional use of E. valerianifolius as an effective treatment for fever, diarrhea, tonsillitis, wounds, eczema, and malaria. Philippines: E. valerianifolius is traditionally used for treatment for digestive system diseases and abnormal signs and symptoms among the Agusan Manobo in Mindanao (Dapar et al. 2020a). Drinking 3–5 glasses of decoction of E. valerianifolius leaves twice a day helps relieve stomachache, dyspepsia, body ache, headache, gas pain, and flatulence. Leaves and leaf sap of E. valerianifolius are also used as poultice to treat cuts and wounds (Dapar et al. 2020c). No experienced toxicity or side effects for both external and internal medication have been reported.

Phytochemistry The leaves of E. valerianifolius were found to contain alkaloids, flavonoids, and steroids (Fatmawati and Batoro 2019). Hung et al. (2019) discovered the essential oil from the aerial parts of E. valerianifolius, to contain monoterpene hydrocarbons myrcene, α-pinene, and sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene. The α-pinene was the active principle for the larvicidal activities of E. valerianifolius against various mosquito species. Essential oils from the flowers of E. valerianifolius are found to be abundant in myrcene and α-pinene (Hung et al. 2019). The leaves and stems of E. valerianifolius have shown potential antioxidant activity based on the DPPH scavenging activity testing (Jualang et al. 2016). Freeze-dried and ethanol extract of E. valerianifolius were demonstrated to maintain higher polyphenolic content while displaying strong antioxidant potential (Rashid et al. 2018). Puspaningtyas et al. (2018) examined the bioactivity of E. valerianifolius extracts as antiplasmodial, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic agents. Results displayed no antimicrobial activity of the extracts but showed potential antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum (malaria). Cytotoxicity test results showed good cytotoxic activity using the four extracts (n-hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol) of E. valerianifolius against MCF 7, WiDr, and Hela cell lines.

Local Food Uses The leaves of Erechtites valerianifolius are used as tea among some locals in the Philippines (personal observation). E. valerianifolius inflorescences and young leaves are often eaten as vegetables with a rich source of protein, phosphorus, iron, and zinc (CABI 2020). Sometimes, young flowers are eaten as vegetables (Fatmawati and Batoro 2019). Schwirkowski (2013) stated the use of E. valerianifolius for preparing stews, sauces, omelets, soups, meats, beans, tarts,

Erechtites valerianifolius (Link ex Spreng.) DC.

405

pies, and pancakes, which adds palatability and flavor. Vuilleumier (1969) reported that the leaves of E. valerianifolius were cooked with palm oil in Brazil. Flowering tops are sometimes served raw or steamed with rice (Fern 2014), which are thought to be beneficial to nursing mothers (Ochse and Bakhuisen van den Brink 1931).

Economic Importance Erechtites valerianifolius has economic potential due to the significant amount and source of vitamin A (Zayat and Ranal 1997). The people of Malang City in Indonesia patronize E. valerianifolius, commercially known as jonggol, as fresh vegetable and in pecel. Since its introduction to Asia, this weedy species has shown potential as a mosquito larvicide (Hung et al. 2019).

References Belcher RO. A revision of the genus Erechtites (Compositae), with inquiries into Senecio and Arrhenechthites. Ann Missouri Bot Gard. 1956;43(1):1–85. https://doi.org/10.2307/2394610. CABI. Erechtites valerianifolius (tropical burnweed). In: Invasive species compendium. Wallingford: CAB International; 2020. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/114184#tosummaryOfInva siveness. Accessed 10 July 2020. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020a;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dapar MLG, Demayo CG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Molecular confirmation, constituents and cytotoxicity evaluation of two medicinal Piper species used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Phytochem Lett. 2020b;36:24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.phytol.2020.01.017. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020c;19:31. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18. Fatmawati PP, Batoro J. Ethnobotany of Jonggol plants (Erechtites valerianifolia wolf.) on communities in traditional markets in Malang City and detection of its chemical compounds. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2019;391:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/391/1/012044. Fern K. Erechtites valerianifolius (link ex Spreng.) DC. In: Useful tropical plants database; 2014. http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id¼Erechtites+valerianifolius. Accessed 10 July 2020. Hariyadi B, Ticktin T. Uras: medicinal and ritual plants of Serampas, Jambi Indonesia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2012;10:133–49. Hung NH, Satyal P, Hieu HV, Chuong NTH, Dai DN, Huong LT, et al. Mosquito larvicidal activity of the essential oils of Erechtites species growing wild in Vietnam. Insects. 2019;10(2):47. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects10020047. Jualang AG, Adznila E, How SE. In vitro bioactivities and phytochemicals content of vegetables from Sabah, Malaysia. Borneo Sci. 2016;37(1):37–53. Ochse JJ, Bakhuisen van den Brink RC. Vegetables of the Dutch east indies. (English edition of Indische Groenten). Buitenzorg: Archipel Drukkerij; 1931. p. 1006.

406

M. L. G. Dapar

Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL (eds.). Asteraceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Asteraceae.html. Accessed 10 July 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 10 July 2020. Puspaningtyas AR, Riyanto S, Solikhah EN, Astuti P. Bioactivity screening of Erechtites valerianifolia (link ex wolf.) less. Extracts as antiplasmodium, antibacterial, antifungal and cytotoxic agents. Dhaka Univ J Pharm Sci. 2018;17(1):1–8. https://doi.org/10.3329/dujps. v17i1.37112. Rashid ZM, Aziz N, Mat N. Drying and extraction methods effect on biochemical and antioxidant capacity of Malaysian wild edible vegetables. Int J Eng Tech. 2018;7(4):149–53. https://doi.org/ 10.14419/ijet.v7i4.43.25838. Schwirkowski P. FloraSBS (Flora de São Bento do Sul) (FloraSBS (Flora of São Bento do Sul)); 2013. https://sites.google.com/site/florasbs/. Accessed 10 July 2020. Tjitrosoedirdjo SS. Field characterization of the confused species Crassocephalum crepidioides and Erechtites valerianifolia in Indonesia. Proceedings, 11th Asian Pacific weed science society conference Taipei, Taiwan. Asian Pac Weed Sci Soc. 1987;2:533–40. Vuilleumier BS. The genera of Senecioneae in the southeastern United States. J Arnold Arboretum. 1969;50:104–23. Zayat AG, Ranal MA. Seed germination of capiçova. (Germinação de sementes de capiçova). Pesq Agrop Brasileira. 1997;32(11):1205–13.

Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr. FABACEAE Rina Ratnasih Irwanto, Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, and Reza Raihandhany Yus

Synonyms Corallodendron lithospermum (Blume ex Miq.) Kuntze; Erythrina holoserica Kurz; Erythrina holosericea “Kurz, p.p.”; Erythrina lithosperma var. armata Miq.; Erythrina lithosperma var. inermis Miq.; Erythrina secundiflora Hassk.; Erythrina sumatrana Miq.; Hypaphorus subumbrans Hassk.; Hypaphorus subumbrans var. aculeata Hassk.; Hypaphorus subumbrans var. inermis Hassk

Local Names Indonesia: Dadap serep, dadap cucuk, dadap duri (Indonesia), dadap ri, dadap lenga, dadap lisah, dadap srep (Java), dadap rancang, dadap cangkring, dadap cucuk, dadap lesang, dadap limit (Sunda), dhadhak cangkring, theuteheuk cangkring, dhadhak menyak, dadap oleng (Madura) R. R. Irwanto (*) School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] A. S. D. Irsyam Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] R. R. Yus Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_59

407

408

R. R. Irwanto et al.

English: December tree Malaysia: Dadap dorri, dadap minyak, dadap srep Thailand: Thong lang, thong met kut (Northern) Myanmar: Ye-katit Laos: Tawng lan Phillipines: Anii (Bisaya), rarang (Bikol), dap-dap, dap-dap (Pilipino) Malaysia: Dedap (general), dadap (Sabah), derdap (Peninsular) Burma (Myanmar): Kathit Vietnam: vông

Botany and Ecology Description: A deciduous tree, 5–25 m tall, trunk up to 60 cm in diameter at breast height, bark whitish with robust prickles, crown spreading; leaves pinnately threefoliolate; stipules ovate-orbicular, small, caducous; petiole 10–12 cm, without prickles; rachis 10–21 cm; petiolules 7 mm; leaflets ovate-triangular, 10–15
7– 10 mm, membranous, both surfaces glabrous, lateral veins seven on each side, obviously convex abaxially, base rounded or broadly cuneate, margin entire, apex acuminate (Fig. 1). Inflorescence raceme, arranged in group of three, in the upper leaf axils, 5–23 cm long, brownish tomentose; peduncle terete, robust, 3–15 cm long, pubescent; pedicle 2–3 mm; flowers 4 cm. Calyx campanulate, two-lobed, silky Fig. 1 A branch of Erythrina subumbrans, in Bandung, West Java, showing its trifoliolate leaves in spiral arrangement, with a shiny dark green abaxial. (© Djuandi Gandhi)

Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr.

409

hairy. Standard scarlet, elliptic, 5–6 cm, apex obtuse, shortly clawed; wings obovate, as long as the keel or slightly longer, about 1.5 cm long; keels subequal to wings, monadelphous but vexillary stamen slightly shorter than other ones and only connate for the lower 0.5–1 cm, pinkish red. Ovary glabrous. Pod flat, curved, 10–15 cm long, on a slender stalk 3–4.5 cm long, lower part seedless and 2–2.5 cm wide, upper part thicker, 1–1.5 cm wide and one to five seeded, septate between the seeds. Seeds, ellipsoid, 7–18
5–11 mm, smooth, dull black (Hanum and van der Maesen 1997; Ren and Michael 2010). Phenology: Flowering and fruiting happens throughout the year but peaks around February–March and October–November. Thornless forms will produce fewer flowers and fruit than armed forms. This species is fairly tolerant to wind, unless branches have been damaged by borers. It is pollinated by birds which feed on the abundant nectar. Seeds are dispersed by water and occasionally by birds (Hanum and van der Maesen 1997). E. subumbrans is often found growing wild, in coffee plantations, in pepper gardens, and at the edge of the forest; in the gardens, people plant the species trees for protection and for training betel plants. Desired soil types are alluvial, sandy (IPBiotics 2014). Distribution and Habitat: E. subumbrans is distributed throughout India, Southeast Asia such as East Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indian Ocean islands. This species is found in forests up to 1500 m altitude, in open areas or in secondary forests, often near streams (Heyne 1987; Ren and Michael 2010). E. subumbrans is planted as a pioneer species in northern Thailand in reforestation projects to restore a degraded woodland and open areas in order to produce dense, weed-suppressing crowns and attract seed-dispersing birds and bats (Pakkad et al. 2001).

Local Medicinal Uses Heyne (1987) recorded that E. subumbrans has been used by most local people in Indonesia in Sumatera, Java, and Kalimantan as a medicine; pounded young leaves are used in the form of poultice for women after giving birth to induce lactation and to treat headache. Bark and young shoot are useful as febrifuge. The juice processed from young shoot is used as an eyewash to treat conjunctivitis. Decoction of E. subumbrans leaves is also used to treat cough (Tropical Plant Database 2019; IPBiotics 2014). The leaves of Erythrina has been used in Indonesia as a remedy for rheumatism, stomachache, asthma, dysentery, contact dermatitis, eczema, and skin infections (Utami 2019). Local people in Pangandaran, West Java, utilize young leaves of E. subumbrans to cure fever. The young leaves are mashed until foaming and added with warm water and lime paste. The mixture is then rubbed onto whole body. In addition, the number of E. subumbrans must be odd due to the belief that odd number is good for the treatment (Mutaqin et al. 2016). Local people around BuyanTamblingan, Bali, also use young leaves of E. subumbrans to treat rheumatic disorders by placing the leaves directly on the skin (Oktavia et al. 2017). Malay people in Durian Sebatang Village, West Kalimantan, use the leaf decoction of E. subumbrans to relieve

410

R. R. Irwanto et al.

pain during puerperal period, stomachache, and fever (Wulandara et al. 2018). Leaves of E. subumbrans are utilized by Osing tribe in Banyuwangi, East Java, as a treatment for postpartum conditions (Khotimah et al. 2018). The leaves of E. subumbrans has been used in Indonesia as a remedy for rheumatism, stomachache, asthma, dysentery, contact dermatitis, eczema, and skin infections (Utami 2019). Leaves of E. subumbrans boiled in water are administered to mothers after giving birth and also to eradicate worms in the stomach and intestines (Ong 2008).

Phytochemistry Phytochemical studies of E. subumbrans have reported the presence of four erythrinan alkaloids such as erythramine, hypaphorine (Folkers and Koniuszy 1939), erysodine, and erysopine (Folkers et al. 1941). The extracts of E. subumbrans stem indicated antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria (Rukachaisirikul et al. 2007). Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponin, triterpenoids, isoflavones, and lectins have been reported to occur in the leaves of E. subumbrans (Maharini 2019; Utami 2019). The presence of these compounds indicate its potential antimicrobial properties, as well as usability in cosmetic sunscreens.

Local Food Uses Steamed young leaves of E. subumbrans are frequently use as salads (Tropical Plant Database 2019). In Malaysia, E. sumbubrans leaves are made into vegetable soup.

Economic Importance Local people in North Sulawesi utilize E. subumbrans wood to make sides, while people in Java use it to produce wooden packing boxes (Heyne 1987). In Indonesia, the species has been commonly used as a shade tree in rubber (Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A.Juss.) Müll.Arg.), nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.), cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), coffee (Coffea spp.), and tea (Camellia spp.) plantations. In addition, E. subumbrans is also used as a shelter crop for taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) and to train yams (Dioscorea spp.), betel nut (Piper betle L.), pepper (Piper nigrum L.), and vanilla vines (Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews) (Heyne 1987; Tropical Plant Database 2019).

References Ong HC. Tumbuhan Liar: Khasiat Ubatan dan Kegunaan Lain. Kuala Lumpur: PRIN AD SDN. BHD; 2008. p. 74. Folkers K, Koniuszy F. Erythrina alkaloids. III. Isolation and characterization of a new alkaloid, erythramine. J Am Chem Soc. 1939;61:1232–5.

Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr.

411

Folkers K, Shavel J Jr, Koniuszy F. Erythrina alkaloids. X. Isolation and characterization of erysonine and other liberated alkaloids. J Am Chem Soc. 1941;63:1544–9. Hanum IF, van der Maesen LJG. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 11: Auxiliary plants. Leiden: Backhuys; 1997. Heyne K. Tumbuhan Berguna Indonesia Jilid II Cetakan ke-1. Jakarta: Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kehutanan. Departemen Kehutanan; 1987. IPBiotics. http://ipbiotics.apps.cs.ipb.ac.id/index.php/tumbuhanObat/297. 2014. Accessed 29 Nov 2019. Khotimah K, Nurcahyati N, Ridho R. Studi Etnobotani Tanaman Berkhasiat Obat Berbasis Pengetahuan Lokal Masyarakat Suku Osing di Kecamatan Licin, Banyuwangi. Biosense. 2018;1(1):36–50. Maharini I. In vitro determination of sun protective factor (SPF) of Dadap Serep (Erythrina subumbrans (Haks.) Merr.) leaf extract using spectrophotometric method. J Chem Nat Resour. 2019;1(1):64–7. Mutaqin AZ, Noviani E, Partasasmita R, Iskandar J. Studi etnobotani pemanfaatan jenis-jenis tumbuhan yang digunakan sebagai obat oleh masyarakat desa Pangandaran Kecamatan Pangandaran Kabupaten Pangandaran. Pros Sem Nas FMIPA. 2016:55–61. https://scholar. google.com/citations?user=S6uG4nUAAAAJ&hl=id&oi=sra#d=gs_md_cita-d&u=%2Fcitatio ns%3Fview_op%3Dview_citation%26hl%3Did%26user%3DS6uG4nUAAAAJ%26citation_ for_view%3DS6uG4nUAAAAJ%3AqjMakFHDy7sC%26tzom%3D-420 Oktavia GAE, Darma IDP, Sujarwo W. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di kawasan sekitar Danau Buyan–Tamblingan, Bali. Buletin Kebun Raya, 2017;20(1):1–16. Pakkad G, Elliott S, Anusarnsunthorn V, James C, Blakesle D. Forest restoration planting in Northern Thailand. Proceedings of the Southeast Asian Moving Workshop on Conservation, Management and Utilization of Forest Genetic Resources. 2001:31;143–54. http://www.fao.org/ 3/ac648e/ac648e0e.htm. Ren S, Michael GG. Flora of China Vol. 10 (Fabaceae). Beijing: Science Press and St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. 2010;10:237–239. Rukachaisirikul T, Innok P, Aroonrerk N, Boonamnuaylap W, Limrangsun S, Boonyon C, Woonjina U, Suksamrarn A. Antibacterial pterocarpans from Erythrina subumbrans. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;110:171–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.09.022. Tropical Plant Database. Ken Fern. 2019. http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php? id¼Erythrina+subumbrans. Accessed 29 Nov 2019. Utami DT. Antimicrobial activity of dadap serep (Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr.) leaves extract. J Chem Nat Res. 2019;1(1):45–9. https://talenta.usu.ac.id/JCNaR/article/view/834. Accessed 29 Nov 2019 Wulandara FD, Rafdinal, Linda R. Etnobotani Tumbuhan Obat Suku Melayu Desa Durian Sebatang Kecamatan Seponti Kabupaten Kayong Utara. J Protobiont. 2018;7(3):36–46.

Etlingera alba (Blume) A.D. Poulsen ZINGIBERACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Synonyms Alpinia alba (Blume) D.Dietr.; Alpinia chrysogynia (K.Schum.) K.Schum.; Amomum album (Blume) Koord.; Amomum chrysogynium K.Schum.; Amomum lepicarpum Ridl.; Amomum trachycarpum K.Schum.; Amomum truncatum Gagnep.; Cardamomum album (Blume) Kuntze; Donacodes rosea Teijsm. & Binn.; Elettaria alba Blume; Elettaria musacea Horan.; Elettaria rosea Benth. & Hook.f.; Etlingera rosea B.L.Burtt & R.M.Sm.; Geanthus lepicarpus (Ridl.) Loes.; Geanthus roseus Loes.; Geanthus trachycarpus (K.Schum.) Valeton; Hornstedtia lepicarpa (Ridl.) Elmer (POWO 2019).

Local Names Gadang (Igorot), tugis (Bisaya) (Dalisay et al. 2018).

Botany and Ecology Description: Plants belonging to Zingiberaceae may be identified through microscopic structures made of silica which are found between cells and tissues called phytoliths. Briefly, they exhibit “druse, trough and hat-shape phytoliths” in vegetative parts (Chen and Smith 2013; Lamxay 2011). According to Holttum (1996, as cited by Aimi Syazana et al. 2018), the species exhibit unique characteristics such as elongated pseudostem and inflorescence, absence of involucre sterile bracts, and broad yellow and white labellum with small red markings, and trilobed anther crest. R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_5

413

414

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Etlingera alba is a perennial aromatic monocot herb with a branched rhizome from which erect leafy stems arise. It has dark green, terete, ascending stems ranging 3– 5 m long with a bulb at base. Leaves are alternate, 30 cm long  5 cm wide, dark green on the surface while paler underneath, distichous, sessile, sheathed; blade oblong-lanceolate, and apex acuminate. Inflorescence are formed from rhizomes; flowered spike or spike – like raceme or panicle. Fruits are red, horny or conically pointed, 5 inches by 3 inches in size, prickly and winged capsule with 4 cm long  1.5 wide; seeds oblong or many angled; aril fleshy or membranous. Phenology: May to October Distribution and Habitat: Distributed from Philippines to W. New Guinea (POWO 2019). Thrives in humid, moist, shaded forests, or damped canopies at 3500 ft. Found in Mt. Igpasungaw, Sebaste in Antique (Dalisay et al. 2018), Negros Oriental, Dumaguete, Davao, and Panay (Pelser et al. 2011), as well in Bokod, Kapangan, Kibungan, and La Trinidad in Benguet (Chua-Barcelo 2014) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses and Phytochemistry The Antiqueños apply pound and squeezed juice of Etlingera alba shoots on head to treat dizziness. It can also be used to treat mental disorder (Dalisay et al. 2018). The fruits are eaten to treat loose bowel movement (Chua-Barcelo 2014). Phytochemicals such as steroids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and polyphenols were detected in the methanolic extract of the ripe fruits. Higher antioxidant activity was observed on the extract compared to vitamin E, ascorbic acid, and trolox using 2,2-diphenyl-1picrylhydrazyl assay (Barcelo 2015). The fruits are good sources of phytochemicals (natural antioxidants) that have health-promoting effects. Therefore, increasing consumption of these fruits may prevent the occurrence of diseases related to oxidation or aging. Fig. 1 Etlingera alba (Zingiberaceae). Rhizome. (© R. Barcelo)

Etlingera alba (Blume) A.D. Poulsen

415

Fig. 2 Etlingera alba (Zingiberaceae). Prickly and winged capsule with seeds. (© R. Barcelo)

Local Food Uses The species is used as a condiment in vegetables, meat or fish dishes to enhance flavor and smell due to its aromatic odor (Chua-Barcelo 2014).

References Aimi Syazana S, Meekiong K, Afifah N, Syauqina M. Amomum bungoensis: a new species of Amomum (Zingiberaceae) from Sarawak, Malaysia. J Bot. 2018:1–5. https://new.hindawi.com/ journals/jb/2018/1978607/. Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Chen S, Smith S. Phytolith variability in Zingiberales: a tool for the reconstruction of past tropical vegetation. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol. 2013;370:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.10.026. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. Dalisay JAG, Bangcaya P, Naïve MA. Taxonomic studies and ethnomedicinal uses of Zingiberaceae in the mountain ranges of northern Antique, Philippines. Biol Forum Int J. 2018;10(2):68–73. Lamxay V. The genus Amomum (Zingiberaceae) in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam: taxonomy and ethnobotany, with special emphasis on women’s health. Dissertation Thesis, Uppsala University. 2011. https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:406134/FULLTEXT01.pdf. Accessed 21 Jan 2020. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Zingiberaceae.html. Accessed 18 Sept. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2019. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 1 Feb 2020.

Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai & Nagam. ZINGIBERACEAE Krishnamoorthy Devanathan and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Achasma coccineum (Blume) Valeton; Achasma macrocheilos Griff.; Alpinia coccinea (Blume) D. Dietr.; Amomum coccineum (Blume) K.Schum.; Amomum gomphocheilos Baker; Amomum macrocheilos (Griff.) Baker; Cardamomum coccineum (Blume) Kuntze, Geanthus coccineus Reinw.; Geanthus coccineus Reinw. ex Blume; Hornstedtia macrocheilos (Griff.) Ridl.; Hornstedtia winkleri Ridl.

Local Names Tuhau (Kadazandusun and Muruts in Sabah), teˇpoes beˇneˇr (Sundanese in Java), tepus, tepus gede and mancirian (Ibans in Brunei and Sarawak, Sundanese in Java), tipu (Bidayuh in West Sarawak), tubu nanung (Kelabits in Sarawak), bak kala (Pidie in Sumatra) (Abdullah et al. 2015; Boyce 2006; Handayani 2015; Kulip 2014; Poulsen 2006; Shahid-Ud-Daula et al. 2015).

K. Devanathan (*) Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_149

417

418

K. Devanathan and W. A. Mustaqim

Botany and Ecology Description: Culms rhizomatous, 5–8 m high. Rhizomes creeping, 70–100
2.5– 4 cm, strongly odorous; scales c. 6 cm long, ensheathing. Leaf sheaths green, yellowish green or brownish, striate to reticulate, glabrous or slightly pubescent, and ciliate at margins; ligule 10–15 mm long, entire, green to purplish brown, and pubescent; lamina oblong to narrowly obovate, c. 130
23 cm, cuneate or attenuate at base, entire at margins, and acuminate at apex; young leaves reddish brown beneath, glabrous or sparsely pubescent beneath. Inflorescence a spike, c. 47 cm long (including peduncle), arising from the rhizome near the base of leafy shoot (Fig. 1); peduncle 2–33 cm long, subterranean. Spike ovoid to cylindrical, 8– 10
3–5 cm, flowers extending 2–4 cm above the bracts; sterile bracts 4–5, distichous, 4–6
1.5–3 cm, pale reddish-brown or cream with reddish apex and pale brown margin, pubescent near base; fertile bracts spathulate, 4–7
0.7–1.5 cm, membranous, cream, pale red or brown at apex, and pubescent; bracteole 3.8–5 cm, ciliate, two-toothed apex, pale red at least at apex, with two fissures of 6–15 mm, and pubescent. Flowers 15–27, 4–14 open at a time, and red-scarlet in color (Fig. 2). Calyx 7–8.3 cm long, reaching base of anther and shorter than corolla lobes, pale pink with darker apex, with one fissure of 2.5–4 cm, glabrous, and apex threetoothed. Corolla tube 4.9–6.8 cm long, cream, glabrous outside, and tube inside with

Fig. 1 Apical shoot and leaf base of Etlingera coccinea. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai & Nagam.

419

Fig. 2 The red-scarlet flowers of Etlingera coccinea are showy. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

irregular bands; bands c. 1 cm long, c. 2 cm below labellum; lobes reddish pink, glabrous, and reaching beyond anther; dorsal lobe elliptic, 21–31
9–11 mm, rounded at apex, and hooded over the anther; lateral lobes elliptic, 21–25
4– 7 mm, rounded at apex, insertion oblique, and converging staminal tube. Labellum three-lobed, 50–65
21–25 mm, red with yellow in center, and glabrous; lateral lobes folded over stamen, pale to dark red at margin, and margin finely plicate; central lobe spathulate, c. 30
16 mm, emarginated at apex, rarely entire, and dark red extended beyond anther. Stamen c. 12 mm long; filament 3–7
3.5–5 mm, white to pale red; anther 9–10
2.5–5.5 mm, emarginate at apex, pink, and glabrous. Ovary linear, c. 5 mm long, densely pubescent, and bipartite; epigynous glands 5–7 mm long; style 8–8.5 cm long, sparsely pubescent, and flexistylous; stigma c. 2.5 mm across, white or pale pink, triangular to heart-shaped, hairy, ostiole apical, and transverse. Fruiting heads globose, c. 12 cm long, and 5–15 fruits per head; fruits pyriform, c. 4.5
3.5 cm, flat-topped with irregular radiating roughly papillose ridges up to 6 mm high, red when young, brownish at maturity, and pubescent. Seeds 2–3 mm across (Poulsen 2007; Naive et al. 2018). Phenology: Flowers and fruits during March–September; peak flowering in August–September. Distribution: Etlingera coccinea is distributed throughout Borneo, Java, Peninsular Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Sumatra, Thailand, and Vietnam (Newman et al. 2004; Poulsen 2007; Poulsen and Docot 2018; Naive et al. 2018). The generic name Etlingera means obscure or a group of torch lilies discovered in Borneo and the specific epithet coccinea after its scarlet color inflorescence and flower. Etlingera coccinea grows profusely in old field margins, along trails, near traditional home gardens, along the stream margins of primary forests, secondary forests, and forest gaps at the elevation ranging from 40 to 1650 m. Bees and spider hunters are the two key pollinators in Sumatra and Borneo (Kato et al. 1993; Sakai et al. 1999; Poulsen 2007). Fruits are commonly dispersed by animals, especially eaten by rodents

420

K. Devanathan and W. A. Mustaqim

(Poulsen 2007). Whole plant used as a fodder for the Sumatran elephant (Abdullah et al. 2015). Since Etlingera coccinea has wide distribution and grows in disturbed habitats, Poulsen (2007) designated it under Least Concern (LC) based on IUCN Red List criteria ver. 2000.

Local Medicinal Uses Etlingera coccinea (tuhau) is cooked as vegetable and used as a blood purifier by Kadazandusun people in Tambunan, Sabah, Malaysia (Kulip 1997; Harmayani et al. 2019). Etlingera coccinea is traditionally used by the indigenous communities of Borneo and in other parts of Asia to treat stomach ache, food poisoning, and gastric problems (Poulsen 2006; Vairappan et al. 2012; Shahid-Ud-Daula et al. 2015). It is also traditionally used as a wound healer and to remove body odor during the postpartum period in Borneo (Lee 2017; Geraldine 2017). In Cianjur of West Java in Indonesia, young shoots or boros are used to cure cough and to treat external wounds. To cure cough, people squeeze the young shoots that have been immersed in hot ash and consume the extract. The same extract is then smeared to cure wounds (Handayani 2015).

Phytochemistry Vairappan et al. (2012) reported two major essential oils such as Borneol and L-Calamenene, and minor essential oil including Camphor, Cedr-9-ene, Caryophyllene oxide, α-Bisabolol, α-Epi-muurolol and Cycloartanyl acetate, and other phytochemical constituents such as Oxygenated monoterpenes, Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, Oxygenated sesquiterpenes, and Oxygenated diterpenes present in rhizomes of E. coccinea. Shahid-Ud-Daula et al. (2015) detected Saponins, cardiac glycosides, steroids, and anthraquinones in leaves and stems of E. coccinea. They also identified the presence of higher total phenolic compound and highest flavonoid content in the leaves of E. coccinea; the leaf extract also shows stronger free radical scavenging and antioxidant activity. Daniel-Jambun et al. (2017) identified two important antibacterial bioactive compounds such as trans-2-dodecenal and 8(17), 12-labdadiene-15, 16-dial present in E. coccinea. Thilahgavani et al. (2017) reported that Borneol, 1-dodecanol, Laurylaldehyde, Aromadendrene oxide, and Elemicin are the major constituents, while Camphor and 5-Decen-1-ol are minor constituents in E. coccinea. Mohamad Hafiz et al. (2008) substantiate that E. coccinea does not possess any anti-Candida property. A study by Vairappan et al. (2012) demonstrated that the essential oil in E. coccinea rhizom shows better activity against four clinical strains such as Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus pyrogenes, and Salmonella enteritidis. However, Shahid-Ud-Daula et al. (2015) claim that the ethonolic extract of leaf, stem, and rhizomes of E. coccinea does not show any activity against Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial strains such as Bacillus

Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai & Nagam.

421

subtilis, Bacillus spizini, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus and four fungal species Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, Trichophyton rubrum, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Daniel-Jambun et al. (2017) recognized two key bioactive compounds against Basillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus present in E. coccinea. A study by Thilahgavani et al. (2017) also demonstrated that the essential oil extracted from rhizome of E. coccinea shows a strong inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus. Leaves aqueous extract of E. coccinea shows a potential defensive effect against autoxidation-induced ox brain homogenate (Anuar et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses Etlingera coccinea young shoots and fruits are eaten in Borneo and Java (Poulsen 2007). Young tuhau shoots are eaten raw, cooked as vegetable, and used as a condiment and pickle in Borneo, Java, and Malaysia. Indigenous Kadazandusun community of Borneo uses tuhau as one of the main ingredients in their traditional fish preparation. Tuhau is cooked with salted fish and Pinasakan (traditional fish cuisine) stew in Sabah. Salad is made by slicing or crunching the pith (Kulip 2014; Harmayani et al. 2019). In Borneo, Tuhau is also fried along with chili and anchovies and eaten with white rice (Bulka and Jumat 2019). Young tuhau is also used to make tuhau floss, spicy sambal, and tuhau-based sauce. Tuhau is also used as an appetizer prepared by blending chopped tuhau, chili, and garlic along with a pinch of salt and lime juice (Lee 2017; Geraldine 2017; Harmayani et al. 2019). The arils are sweet (Heyne 1913). Bidayuh people in West Sarawak use the leaves and shoots as flavoring agents for food (Boyce 2006).

Biocultural Importance Etlingera coccinea (tuhau) is associated with Kadazandusun, Muruts, and Sundanese communities of Borneo, Java, and Malaysia as their customary food and medicine including women health care. Besides, the Dayak Benuaq of Kutai Barat, Indonesia, use the flowers of E. coccinea to craft belontaakng – a traditional necklace used to tie buffalo or cow during burial ceremony. This species is also used to craft two kinds of offerings named balai anyukng and pantai lio (Matius 2019).

Economic Importance Etlingera coccinea (tuhau) pickle, paste, and floss are sold in the markets of Sabah, Ranau, Nabawan, Sarawak, and Labuan. Annual turnover in the year 2018 for the Persatuan Pengusaha Tani Randagong Lama Ranau (Wanira) was RM 70,000 for tuhau products (Bulka and Jumat 2019; Harmayani et al. 2019). Apart from food and medicine, it is also used in the beauty products “Love, Lusie,” a recent initiative by

422

K. Devanathan and W. A. Mustaqim

two entrepreneurs gaining popularity among Malaysian entrepreneurs (Geraldine 2017). The presence of high volume of essential oil in E. coccinea shows its potential to be used in modern medicine, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industry, especially as antimicrobial agents (Shahid-Ud-Daula and Basher 2019). Etlingera coccinea is sold as an ornamental plant in the trade name of baku tubu (Rarepalmseeds.com 2020).

References Abdullah, Rushkhanidar, Martolis J. Tingkat kesamaan jenis pakan Gajah Sumatera (Elephas maximus sumatranus) pada habitat berbeda di Conservation Response Unit (CRU) Mane Pidie. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Biotik. 2015;2(1):39–47. Anuar NNM, Mohamed J, Hanipah ENA, Yahya NJ, Ajik EM, Taib IS. The protective effect of Ettlingera coccinea (TUHAU) against autoxidation-induced ox brain homogenate. Malaysian J. Health Sci. 2018;16:35–39. https://doi.org/10.17576/JSKM-2018-06. Boyce PC. The gingers of Sarawak I – the giants. HSPR Newsl. 2006;11(1):1–3. Bulka F, Jumat A. Tuhau-based products gain a following. Daily Express. 2019. http://www. dailyexpress.com.my/read/2846/tuhau-based-products-gain-a-following. Accessed 14 Apr 2020. Daniel-Jambun D, Dwiyanto J, Lim YY, Tan JBL, Muhamad A, Yap SW, Lee SM. Investigation on the antimicrobial activities of gingers (Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai & Nagam and Etlingera sessilanthera R.M.Sm.) endemic to Borneo. J Appl Microbiol. 2017;123(4):810–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.13536. Geraldine A. Bornean “tuhau” plant rises to prominence, thanks to Kadazandusun cousins. New Straits Times. 2017. https://www.nst.com.my/news/2017/03/222474/bornean-tuhau-plant-risesprominence-thanks-kadazandusun-cousins. Accessed 14 Apr 2020. Handayani A. Utilization of medicinal plants by people around Gunung Simpang Nature Reserve, West Java. Pros Semin Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2015;1(6):1425–32. https://doi.org/10.13057/ psnmbi/m010628. (in Bahasa). Harmayani E, Anal AK, Wichienchot S, Bhat R, Gardjito M, Santoso U, Siripongvutikorn S, Puripaatanavong J, Payyappallimana U. Healthy food traditions of Asia: exploratory case studies from Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Nepal. J. Ethnic Foods. 2019;6:1. https://doi. org/10.1186/s42779-019-0002-x. Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indië. Batavia: Ruygrok & Co; 1913. (in Dutch). Kato M, Itino T, Nagamitsu T. Melittophily and ornithophily of long-tubed flowers in Zingiberaceae and Gesneriaceae in West Sumatra. Tropics. 1993;2:129–42. Kulip J. Medicinal plants and other useful plants of the Kadazan/Dusun people in Tambunan, Sabah, Malaysia. In: Proceedings of the 4th biennial Borneo Research Council. University of Brunei Darussalam. Borneo Research Council; 1997. Kulip J. The ethnobotany of Dusun people in Tikolod village, Tambunan district, Sabah, Malaysia. Reinwardtia. 2014;14(1):101–21. Lee S. Plant-based beauty product gains ground in Sabah. The Star. 2017. https://www.thestar.com. my/metro/community/2017/03/11/plantbased-beauty-product-gains-ground-in-sabah. Accessed 14 Apr 2020. Matius P. Jenis-jenis tumbuh-tumbuhan yang digunakan untuk upacara Ritual Beliatn pada suku Dayak Benuaq di Kutai Barat. Samarinda: Mulawarman University Press; 2019. (in Bahasa). Mohamad Hafiz AT, Julenah AN, Rozlianah FS. Anti-candida property of Etlingera coccinea (Tuhau), Curcuma longa (Turmeric), Languas galanga (Greater Galanga) and Zingeber officinale (Ginger). In: Proceeding of the seminar on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPS). Kuala Lumpur: The Legend Hotel; 2008.

Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai & Nagam.

423

Naive MAK, Pabillaran RO, Escrupulo IG. Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai and Nagam. (Zingibearaceae – Alpinieae): an addition to the Flora of the Philippines, with notes on its distribution, phenology and ecology. Biosci Discov. 2018;9(1):107–10. Newman MF, Lhuillier A, Poulsen AD. Checklist of the Zingiberaceae of Malesia. Blumea. 2004; Supplement 16: 1–166. Poulsen AD. Etlingera of Borneo. Kota Kinabalu/Scotland: Natural History Publications (Borneo)/ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh; 2006. Poulsen AD. Etlingera Giseke of Java. Gard Bull Singap. 2007;59(1–2):145–72. Poulsen AD, Docot RVA. How many species of Etlingera (Zingiberaceae) are there in the Philippines? Edinb J Bot. 2018;76:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960428618000240. Rarepalmseeds.com – Online Nursery. 2020. https://www.rarepalmseeds.com/index.php?route¼product/ search&search¼Etlingera%20cocinea. Accessed 14 Apr 2020. Sakai S, Kato M, Inoue T. Three pollination guilds and variation in floral characteristics of Bornean gingers (Zingiberaceae and Costaceae). Am J Bot. 1999;86:646–58. Shahid-Ud-Daula AFM, Basher MA. Genus Etlingera – a review on chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils. J Med Plant Res. 2019;13(7):135–56. Shahid-Ud-Daula AFM, Kamariah AS, Lim LBL, Ahmad N. Phytochemical screening, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of leaves, stems, and rhizomes of Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai & Nagam. Int J Pharmacogn Phytochem Res. 2015;7(5):873–83. Thilahgavani N, Yatau MH, Salim JM, Vairappan CS. Diversity in volatile chemicals and antibacterial activity among selected genus of Cinnamomum, Etlingera and Schizostachyum from Sabah. J Sustain Sci Manag. 2017;12(2):26–33. Vairappan CS, Thilahgavani N, Palaniveloo K. Essential oil composition, cytotoxic and antibacterial activities of five Etlingera species from Borneo. Nat Prod Commun. 2012;7 (2):239–42.

Eurycoma longifolia Jack SIMAROUBACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim, Reza Raihandhany Yus, and Muhammad Badrut Tamam

Synonyms Eurycoma longifolia var. cochinchinensis King; Eurycoma longifolia var. merguensis King; Eurycoma merguensis Planch.; Eurycoma tavoyana Wall.; Manotes asiatica Gagnep.; Picroxylon siamense Warb. subsp. eglandulosa: Eurycoma eglandulosa Merr.

Local Names Brunei Darussalam: Kayu raja, langir siam, pasak bumi, petagar ali, tongkat ali, tungat ali; Indonesia: pasak bumi, tongkat ali – ampahan gunjo (Batak AngkolaMandailing) – akar tekerek, tekerek (Dayak Ngaju of Central Kalimantan) – bidara pahit (Malay) – bulung besan (Batak Karo) – empedu tanah, sempedu tanah (Jambi) – horis kotala (Batak Simalungun) – kébél, mempolèh (Bangka) – lembang pa’it (Dayak Kenyah of North Kalimantan) – marak uleq (Dayak Benuaq of East W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia R. R. Yus Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] M. B. Tamam Generasi Biologi Indonesia Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Muhammadiyah Lamongan, Lamongan, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_162

425

426

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

Kalimantan) – merule (East Kalimantan) – on tungkat ali, tungkat ali (Pidie, Aceh) – petola bumi (Riau) – tengku ali (Batak Toba) – tungkek ali (Minangkabau); Malaysia: tongkat ali; Thailand: pla lai phueak (Achmad et al. 2008; Adlu et al. 2020; Ernilasari et al. 2018; Heyne 1917; Lin 2005; Maneenoon et al. 2015; Mohidin et al. 1991; Setyowati et al. 2005; Silalahi 2019; Silalahi and Nisyawati 2015; Sulistyaningsih et al. 2019; Viena et al. 2018; Voeks and Nyawa 2001)

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrub or treelet, up to 4 m tall, dioecious. Stem usually unbranched. Leaves imparipinnate, spirally arranged, crowded at the apices of the stem, up to 1 m long; leaflets ovate-oblong, 5–20
1.5–6 cm, base asymmetrical, mostly decurrent into the petiole, apex slightly acuminate or abruptly short acuminate. Inflorescence panicle, drooping, borne from among the leaves, clad with puberulous hairs, usually mixed with glandular hairs. Bracts small, triangular, c. 1 mm long, finally fallen off. Pedicels up to 7 mm long. Flower reddish; calyx lobes 1 mm long; petals lanceolate, ovate, or ovateoblong, 4.5–6.5
2–3 mm; stamens longer than the calyx, 1.5–2.5 mm long, anthers 0.25–0.75 mm long. Staminodes in female flowers c. 0.5 mm long, in male flowers to c. 2 mm long; styles very short to well-developed, ended with peltate stigma, 5(–6)lobed. Fruit light green at first, red to maroon when ripe, 2–5 drupelets, 1–2
0.5– 1.2 cm. There are two subspecies accepted. Subsp. longifolia is characterized by the presence of glandular hairs in inflorescence, pedicels, and calyx, as well as the 4.5– 5.5 mm long petals, 0.25 mm long anthers, and well-developed style (c. 1 mm long). Subspecies eglandulosa (Merr.) Nooteboom is marked by the absence of glandular hairs in the inflorescence, pedicels, and calyx, as well as its linear and 5–6.5 mm long petals, anthers c. 0.75 mm long, and subsessile stigma. Distribution and Habitat: This species is distributed from Myanmar to Indochina, West Malesia, except for Java and the southern Philippines. The subspecies longifolia is more widespread from Myanmar to Thailand, Indochina, Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, and Borneo. It grows from the primary to secondary vegetations, on coastal vegetation with sandy soils, often found in heath vegetation. The subspecies eglandulosa is endemic to the southern part of the Philippines (Mindanao) and is only known from lowland forests (Kochummen 1983; Nooteboom 1962; Sulistyaningsih et al. 2019; Tan et al. 2015) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: The folk healers of the Kedayan community in Sengkurong, use the root decoction to cure fever, to relieve gastric pains, reduce high blood pressure, as a tonic and aphrodisiac (Mohiddin et al. 1991). The Dusun people use root decoction for cough suppression and also as an aphrodisiac. The fresh root is chewed to neutralize the effects of alcohol consumption (Voeks and Nyawa 2001). Kamsani et al. (2020) report that traditional healers in the Kiudang area use a mixture of E. longifolia roots with Nigella sativa and Allium cepa as aphrodisiac.

Eurycoma longifolia Jack

427

Fig. 1 Young plant of Eurycoma longifolia (Simaroubaceae). North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Indonesia: E. longifolia is among the most popular medicinal plants in Indonesia, particularly in Sumatera and Kalimantan due to its aphrodisiac properties. Sangat et al. (2000) report that there are seven ethnic groups across Indonesia who commonly use the plant as a folk medicine to treat several diseases. In Sumatra, the local people of Gampong Pulo Seunong, Aceh Province, use the leaves, roots, and bark from wild plants to restore stamina after birth, and to treat premature ejaculation (Viena et al. 2018). The Batak Phakpak sub-ethnic in Surung Mersada Village, Phakpak Bharat District, North Sumatera, uses the leaves and roots of this species to cure fever, asthma, malaria, and also as aphrodisiac (Silalahi et al. 2018). Silalahi (2019a) found that this plant is traded by Batak Karo sub-ethnic traders in Berastagi and Kabanjahe traditional market as folk medicine under the name tawar gula to treat diabetes. Silalahi and Nisyawati (2015) also found that Batak sub-ethnic in lowland areas such as Pakphak, Toba, and Angkola-Mandailing use the leaves to cure stomachache and malaria, and roots to treat malaria; the Batak sub-ethnic of highlands such as Karo and Simalungun use the leaves and roots as febrifuge. The Talang Mamak tribe in Bukit Tiga Puluh National Park, Riau, use a decoction of root mixed with Anisophylla sp., Bambusa vulgaris, Bolbitis heteroclita, Celosia argentea, Imperata cylindrica, Memecylon excelsum, Ocimum gratissimum, Pronephrium asperum, Rinorea anguifera, and Smilax leucophylla as aphrodisiac. One glass of the decoction is consumed once a day (Setyowati and Wardah 2007). The

428

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

Fig. 2 Mature foliage of Eurycoma longifolia (Simaroubaceae). Belitung Island, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Fruits of Eurycoma (© W.A. Mustaqim)

longifolia

(Simaroubaceae).

Belitung

Island,

Indonesia.

Eurycoma longifolia Jack

429

Mukomuko and Serawai communities in Bengkulu use this species to treat malaria and for improving blood circulation (Kasrina et al. 2019). The local people of Lubuk Beringin Village, Bathin III Ulu sub-district, Bungo Regency, Jambi, use the decoction of leaves and roots to cure stomachache, gastric, malaria, and various aches (Wartini 2014). Sari et al. (2014) record that local people in Serambai Village, of Sanggau in West Kalimantan, use the plant to cure fever and hypertension. Noorcahyati et al. (2011) report that root decoction is used by the Banjar and Dayak tribes in Kalimantan to increase stamina, treat malaria, and as an aphrodisiac. Setyowati et al. (2005) reported that the Dayak Ngaju tribe in Timpah, Central Kalimantan, use root decoction to treat malaria and back pain. A decoction of the root mixed with Luvunga crassifolia roots is consumed as tonic water. The local people around Sebangau National Park, Central Kalimantan, use the root to treat malaria and kidney ailments (Pasaribu and Waluyo 2020). Similar to the Dayak Ngaju in Central Kalimantan, the Dayak Meratus of Haratai Village in South Kalimantan also drink root decoction to treat back pain (Noorcahyati and Arifin 2014). The Dayak Meratus tribe in Ulang Village, Hulu Sungai Selatan District of South Kalimantan use the stem and roots to cure waist pain (Elsi et al. 2020). Angriyantie (2010) records that the root decoction is used by the local people in Keay Village, West Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan, to treat many diseases including malaria, hypertension, ulcer, aches, fever, and increase body endurance or stamina. Local people around Sultan Adam Forest Park, South Kalimantan, use the root decoction to boost stamina (Syaifuddin et al. 2015). Besides Sumatra and Borneo, a few uses have been reported from other islands of Indonesia. In Java, the Baduy tribe of Banten province use this species to treat malaria (Permana 2009). In Sulawesi, the people in Battang village of Palopo in South Sulawesi also use the root to treat malaria and as an aphrodisiac (Ariandi and Khaerati 2018). Malaysia: The Semelai people of Tasek Bera in Peninsular Malaysia use the root decoction along with roots of Iguanura wallichiana and Calamus insignis as an aphrodisiac. Similarly, the root is also boiled with the whole of Smilax calophylla or tuber of Smilax myosotiflora as an aphrodisiac (Wetlands International 2006). This species is one of the most used plant species of the Temuan people of western Peninsular Malaysia; they use the root decoction to cure muscle pain and diabetes (Azliza et al. 2012). The Jah Hut people in Keboi Village of Pahang State drink two teaspoons of the root decoction as aphrodisiac (Lin 2005). The Malay traditional healers in Muar, Johor, and Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan, use various plant parts in postpartum care. The root is boiled along with bark of Alyxia stellata, Carum carvi fruits, stem bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Coriandrum sativum, Foeniculum vulgare, Illicium tenuifolium flower, Kaempferia galangal leaves, Litsea odorifera flowers, Nigella sativa seeds, stem bark of Parameria polyneura, Parkia roxburghii seeds, Piper cubeba, Quercus infectoria gall, and whole plant of Usnea barbata. The mixture is consumed as body tonic, encourage contraction of the uterus, promote wound healing and reduce bleeding; also to stimulate lactation and as a contraceptive. This decoction is also capable of preventing body odor and expel “wind” (Jamal

430

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

et al. 2011). Orang Asli indigenous people in Kampung Bawong, Perak, also use root decoction mixed with tea as sexual stimulant (Samuel et al. 2010). Thailand: Maneenoon (2001) report that this species is used by the Sakai tribe of southern Thailand to treat both fever and malaria. The root decoction is used by the traditional healers in Phatthalung Province to treat body pain, fever, and malaria (Maneenoon et al. 2015).

Phytochemistry Studies have yielded alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, quassinoids, and terpenoids from E. longifolia (Dang et al. 2019; Khanam et al. 2015; Ruan et al. 2019; Tan et al. 2015). Most of the researches have been carried out on vegetative parts especially the root and stem. Many compounds have been reported to occur exclusively in the roots including 1-hydroxycanthin-6-one, 1-methoxymethyl-β-carboline, 1β,12α,15β-triacetyleurycomanone, 2,20 -dimethoxy4-(3-hydroxy-1-propenyl)-40 -(1,2,3-trihydroxypropyl) diphenyl ethers (isomer), 2,40 -dihydroxy-30 -methoxyacetophenone, 3-hydroxy-1-(40 -hydroxy-30 -methoxy0 0 phenyl)propan-1-one, 2-hydroxy-3,2 ,6 -trimethoxy-40 -(2,3-epoxy-1-hydroxypropyl)-5-(3-hydroxy-1-propenyl)-biphenyl, 2-hydroxy-3,20 -dimethoxy-40 -(2,3-epoxy1-hydroxypropyl)-5-(3-hydroxy-1-propenyl)-biphenyl, 3-chloro-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 3-chloro-4-hydroxyl benzoic acid-4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 3-episapeline A, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 4,5-dimethoxycanthin-6-one, 4-hydroxy-5methoxycanthin-6-one, 5-iso-eurycomadilactone, 5,6-dehydroeurycomalactone, 5hydroxymethylcanthin-6-one, 5-hydroxymethyl-9-methoxycanthin-6-one, 5-methoxycanthin-6-one, 6-hydroxy-5,6-dehydroeurycomalactone, 6α-hydroxyeurycomalactone, 7α-hydroxyeurycomalactone, 7-hydroxy-β-carboline-1-propionic acid, 7-methoxy β-carboline-1-propionic acid, 8-hydroxy-9-methoxycanthin-6-one, 9-hydroxycanthin-6-one 3N-oxide, 9-methoxycanthin-6-one 3N-oxide, 11/14-deacetyl eurylene, 12-acetyl-13,21-dihydoeurycomanone, 12,15-diacetyl13α(21)-epoxyeurycomanone, 13α,21-dihydroeurycomanone, 13α(21)-epoxyeurycomanone, 13β-methyl,21-dihydroeurycomanone, 13β,18-dihydroeurycomanol, 13β,21-dihydroxyeurycomanol, 13-epi-eurycomadilactone, 15-acetyl-13α(21)epoxyeurycomanone, 24-epi-piscidinol A,erythro-1-C-syringylglycerol, erythroguaiacylglycerol, n-pentyl β-carboline-1-propionate, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, threo-1,2-bis-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)propane-1, 3-diol, threo-1-C-syringylglycerol, threo-guaiacylglycerol, β-7-methoxycarboline-1-propionic acid, β-carboline alkaloids, and β-cararboline-1-propionic acid, β-sitosterol, β-sitosteryl glucoside, adenosine, anthraquinones, anthraquinone glucosides, bourjotinolone A– B, canthin-6-one 3N-oxide, canthin-6-one 9-O-β-glucopyranoside, eurycolactones A–F, eurycomalides A–H, eurycomanol, eurycomanol-2-O-β-D-glucoside, eurycomaoside, eurycomadilactone, eurylactones A–B and E–G, eurylolignanosides A–B, eurylophenelosides A–B, fraxidi, guanosine, hispidol B, iandonone, isotachioside, lariciresinol, laurycolactones A–B, methyl β-carboline 1-carboxylate, nicotinic acid, pasakbumin B–D, picrasidine L, protocatechuic acid, scopoletin,

Eurycoma longifolia Jack

431

sodium p-hydroxybenzoate, sodium syringate, syringaldehyde, syringic acid, syringic aldehyde, thymidine, and vanillic acid. Compounds reported to occur exclusively in stem include -5-(3-hydroxy-1-propenyl)-biphenyl, -5-(3-hydroxy-1-propenyl)-biphenyl, 2-hydroxy-3,2-dimethoxy-4(2,3-epoxy-1-hydroxypropyl), 2-hydroxy-3,2,6-trimethoxy-4-(2,3-epoxy-1-hydroxypropyl), 3-episapelin A, 14-deacetyleurylene, 23,24,25-trihydroxytirucall-7-en3,6-dione, biphenyl neolignans, bourjotinolone A, dihydroniloticin, hispidone, longilene peroxide, melianone, niloticin, oxasqualenoid, piscidinol A, and teurilene. Eurycomalactone and eurycomanone are among compounds that can be found both in roots and bark. Canthin-6-one-N(3)-oxide and stigmast-4,22-dien-3-one has been recorded only from the bark. Eurylene has been recorded from roots and stems. Compounds found in both roots and leaves include 5α,14β,15β-trihydroxyklaineanone, 6-dehydroxylongilactone, 11-dehydroklaineanone, 12-epi-11dehydroklaineanone, 14,15β-dihydroxyklaineanone, 15β-hydroxyklaineanone, 15β-acetyl-14-hydroxyklaineanone, and longilactone (C19). Plant extracts contain 1-butanol, 1-pentanol, 1H-pyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde, 2-furanmethanol, 2-hexadecanol, 2-methylhexanol, 2-phenoxyethanol, 2,3-butanediol,[S-(R*,R*)]-, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylehtyl)phenol, 2(5H)-furanone, 3-methylbutanoic acid, 3-phenoxy-1-propanol, 4-ethynyl-4-hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethyl-2-cyclohex-1-enone, 4a,8a-Butano-[1,4]dioxino [2,3-b]-1,4dioxin,tetrahydro, 9-hydroxycanthin-6-one, 9-methoxycanthin-6-one, (R)-()-massoilactone, acetic acid, acetol, benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, butanal,3-methyl, butylated hydroxytoluene, butyrolactone, campesterol, curcumene, diethyl phthalate, ethanone,1-(1H-pyrrol-2-yl)-, ethyl p-ethoxybenzoate, hexanoic acid, menthol, 10 -[butyn-3-one-1-yl]-,[1R,2S,5R]-, nonanal, nonanoic acid, octanoic acid, sitosterol, and stigmasterol; vegetative parts contain additional compounds such as canthin-6-one alkaloids, 9-methoxycanthin-6-one-n-oxide, 9-hydroxycanthin-6-onen-oxide, 1-hydroxy-9-methoxycanthin-6-one, 5-hydroxymethyl-9-methoxycanthin6-10-hydroxycanthin-6-one, 10-hydroxy-9-methoxycanthin-6-one, 10-hydroxy-11methoxycanthin-6-one, 11-hydroxy-10-methoxycanthin-6-one, 4,9-dimethoxycanthin6-one, 5,9-dimethoxycanthin-6-one, 9,10-dimethoxycanthin-6-one, and 9-methoxy-3methylcanthin-5,6-dione (Bedir et al. 2003; Chan et al. 1991; Chua et al. 2011; Dang et al. 2019; Jiwajinda et al. 2001; Kuo et al. 2003, 2004; Rehman et al. 2016; Ruan et al. 2019; Shafiqul Islam et al. 2006; Yang et al. 2016).

Bioactivities E. longifolia is reported to possess bioactivities such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antifungal, antimalarial, anti-osteopororis, antioxidative, antiplasmodial or antiprotozoal, antiulcer, anxiolytic, aphrodisiac, cytotoxic, ergogenic, hepatoprotective, insecticidal, lipolysis, mood improvement (reducing anger, tension, and confusion), neuroprotective, spermatogenesis enhancement, and testosterone inducing.

432

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

Anticancer or Cytotoxic Activities Cytotoxic or anticancer activities have been reported from experiments on cancer cell lines including CaOV-3, DU-145, gastric cancer MGC-803, human breast cancer MCF-7, human lung cancer A-549, KB, melanoma, murine lymphocytic leukemia (P-388), human HT1080, and RD (Alruhaimi et al. 2019; Ang and Cheang 1999; Hassan et al. 2015; Khanijo and Jiraungkoorskul 2016; Kuo et al. 2004; Lahrita et al. 2017; Lina et al. 2009; Miyake et al. 2010; Nguyen et al. 2016; Nurhanan et al. 2005; Rehman et al. 2016; Ruan et al. 2019; Silalahi 2019; Talbott et al. 2013; Thu et al. 2018). The apoptotic activity on MCF-7 has been studied; extracts show a modulatory effect on Bcl-2, an apoptotic inducing protein (Tee and Azimahtol 2005). Different chemical compounds have been shown to have different activities on different cancer cell lines. The cytotoxic activity of root extracts is considerably high against MCF-7 cell lines due to the presence of the chemical compounds eurycomalactone, eurycomanone, pasakbumin B–C, 6-dehydroxylongilactone, and 9-methoxycanthin-one, and 14,15β-dihydroxykailanone. High cytotoxic activities from root extracts are also attributed to the presence of eurycomalactone, eurycomanone, 9-methoxy-canthin-one, canthin-6-one, canthin-6-one 9-O-b-glucopyranoside, longilactone, 14,15β-dihydroxykailanone, and pasakbumin C (Kuo et al. 2004). Root extract has hepatoprotective activity against DMBA, a breast cancer inducer (Wijayatri 2017). The strong activities against HT1080 cancer cell lines are possibly due to the presence of four chemical compounds occurring in the stem named 9,10dimethoxycanthin-6-one, 10-hydroxy-9-methoxycanthin-6-one, 14-deacetyleurylene, and dihydroniloticin (Miyake et al. 2010). Quassinoids are also reported to have anticancer effect on the human prostate cancer cell line LNCaP (Tong et al. 2015).

Antimicrobial High antifungal activity has been recorded for stem extract against Aspergillus niger. Antibacterial activities have been recorded from the root extracts against Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus. Moderate activity was recorded from the stem methyl acetate extract against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Khanam et al. 2015). The leaf and stem extracts also have antibacterial activities against Proteus vulgaris and some Gram-negative bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis, Micrococcus luteus, and Staphylococcus aureus (Farouk and Benafri 2007).

Antiplasmodial Antiplasmodial activities have been reported from root extracts against Plasmodium falciparum, including the multidrug resistant Thailand strain [K-1] (Chan et al. 1986, 2004). Chemical compounds responsible for activity against P. falciparum are eurycomanone and pasakbumin B (Kuo et al. 2004). Pasakbumin A and B are also reported to have antiulcer activities (Tada et al. 1991). Eurycomanone is proposed as

Eurycoma longifolia Jack

433

the chief contributor for the antibacterial, antifungal, and antiprotozoal properties (Thu et al. 2018).

Sedative Khanijo and Jiraungkoorskul (2016) suggested the use of this plant as an ergogenic agent, due to its anxiolytic and anti-stress properties. Alruhaimi et al. (2019) show the ability of root extracts in protecting the neural system. An experiment involving roots extracts on chronic cerebral hypoperfusion yielded positive result in SpragueDawley rats, marked by a decrease of inflammation and lipid peroxidation, as well as the enhancement of the antioxidant property. Cognitive ability is also said to be improved by the application of the roots extracts.

Anti-inflammatory The study of anti-inflammatory and pain alleviation properties of the species has been carried out on paw-edema in mice after induction using carrageenan; root extracts can inhibit the signaling pathway of NF-κB (Han et al. 2016). Some compounds known to have NF-κB signaling pathway inhibition are 24-epi-piscidinol A, bourjotinolone A, piscidinol A, and scopoletin (Ruan et al. 2019). Activation of Nrf2/Heme oxygenase-1 pathways recorded from the compound 7-methoxy-(9H-β-carbolin-1-il)-(E)-1-propenoic acid also vouches for the anti-inflammatory activity of the plant (Nguyen et al. 2016). Some quassinoids, mainly canthin-6-one from the root extract, can inhibit nitrogen oxide (NO) production (Dang et al. 2019).

Sexual Health This species is a traditional medicinal plant widely used in the improvement of sexual health (Thu et al. 2017). Plant extracts can be used to treat erectiledysfunction (Drewes et al. 2003). Eurycomanone isolated from the roots is responsible for the enhancement of sperm quality in rats (Chan et al. 2009). Application of root extracts increases the level of testosterone in Sprague-Dawley male rats (Zanoli et al. 2009). In males, the plant has been suggested as an adaptogen. Plant extracts can increase the sex hormone and libido, as well as semen quality which improves overall fertility (Thu et al. 2017).

Fat Burner Several compounds have been studied for lipolysis activities. 13β,21-epoxyeurycomanone shows strong lipolysis in adipocytes at an EC50 of 8.6 μM, while eurycomanone is effective at EC50 of 14.6 μM (Lahrita et al. 2017).

434

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

Others Activities Plant can be useful in increasing muscle strength and endurance due to the presence of quassinoids group of chemical compounds (Khanijo and Jiraungkoorskul 2016). In agriculture, the plant is a potential candidate for insecticide. Various plant part extracts have been tested against Crocidolomia pavonana, a cabbage pest; methanolic root extracts caused a high death rate (Lina et al. 2009). Some studies on the activity of plant extracts yielded no positive results. Examples include a study of the efficacy of root extract on HIV (Kuo et al. 2004), and the efficacy of plant capsule on the physiological response of the body in heat and endurance running capacity (Muhamad et al. 2010).

Biocultural Importance In the Peadundung village of North Sumatera, this plant is deliberately planted in the yard, agroforestry area, and primary forest in an effort to conserve and facilitate its acquisition (Silalahi and Nisyawati 2015). Anggraeni (2013) reported that this plant has a high use value and cultural significance index for the Batak Toba of Peadundung village. According to Silalahi (2019b), the Batak community in Peadundung village drink a tea made from root extract to relieve fatigue from working in the field. Root extract is added to foods and beverages such as tea in Malaysia (Ahmad et al. 2018).

References Achmad SJ, Syah YM, Hakim EH, Juliawaty LD, Makmur L, Mujahidin D. Ilmu kimia dan kegunaan tumbuh-tumbuhan obat Indonesia. Bandung: Institut Teknologi Bandung; 2008. (in Bahasa). Adlu AM, Perawati S, Anggresani L. Ethnofarmasi Suku Anak Dalam (SAD) of Pasir Putih Hamlet Dwi Karya Bhakti. J Healthcare Tech Med. 2020;6(1):327–34. (in Bahasa). Ahmad N, Samiulla DS, Teh BP, Zainol M, Zolkifli NA, Muhammad A, Matom E, Zulkapli A, Abdullah NR, Ismail Z, Mohamed AMF. Bioavailability of eurycomanone in its pure form and in a standardised Eurycoma longifolia water extract. Pharmaceutics. 2018;10:1–16. Alruhaimi HS, Allow AK, Buyong Z, Naser M, Mizanur S. Effects of Eurycoma longifolia Jack on chronic cerebral hypoperfusion-induced oxidative damage and memory deficit in rats. J Appl Pharma Sci. 2019;9(4):77–81. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2019.90409. Ang HH, Cheang HS. Studies on the anxiolytic activity of Eurycoma longifolia Jack roots in mice. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1999;79:497–500. Anggraeni R. Etnobotani masyarakat sub-etnis Batak Toba di Desa Peadundung, Sumatera Utara [undergraduate thesis]. Depok: Universitas Indonesia; 2013. (in Bahasa). Angriyantie L. Etnobotani dan potensi tumbuhan berguna di Kampung Keay, Kabupaten Kutai Barat, Kalimantan Timur [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2010. (in Bahasa). Ariandi, Khaerati. Identifikasi indeks keanekaragaman tanaman obat- obatan di kawasan hutan Kelurahan Battang dan Battang Barat. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Universitas Cokroaminoto Palopo. Palopo: Universitas Cokroaminoto Palopo; 2018. (in Bahasa).

Eurycoma longifolia Jack

435

Azliza MA, Ong HC, Vikineswary S, Noorlidah A, Haron NW. Ethno-medicinal resources used by the Temuan in Ulu Kuang Village. Stud Ethno-Med. 2012;6:17–22. Bedir E, Abou-Gazar H, Ngwendson JN, Khan IA. Eurycomaoside: a new quassinoid-type glycoside from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. Chem Pharm Bull. 2003;51(11):1301–3. Chan KL, O’Neill MJ, Phillipson JD, Warhurst DC. Plants as sources of antimalarial drugs. Part 31 Eurycoma longifolia. Planta Med. 1986;52(2):105–7. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-969091. Chan KL, Lee SP, Sam TW, Tan SC, Noguchi H, Sankawa U. 13β,18-dihydroeurycomanol, a quassinoid from Eurycoma longifolia. Phytochemistry. 1991;30(9):3138–41. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)98272-4. Chan KL, Choo CY, Abdullah NR, Ismail Z. Antiplasmodial studies of Eurycoma longifolia Jack using the lactate dehydrogenase assay of Plasmodium falciparum. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92:223–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.02.025. Chan KL, Low BS, Teh CH, Das PK. The effect of Eurycoma longifolia on sperm quality of male rats. Nat Prod Commun. 2009;4(10):1331–6. Chua LS, Amin NAM, Neo JCH, Lee TH, Lee CT, Sarmidi MR, Aziz RA. LC–MS/MS-based metabolites of Eurycoma longifolia (Tongkat Ali) in Malaysia (Perak and Pahang). J Chromatogr B. 2011;879:3909–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.11.002. Dang NH, Lan DTN, Minh NTT, Khanh ND, Trang DT, Cuong PV, Hiep NT, Nam VD, Trung NQ, Dat NT. Quassinoids and alkaloids from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. Nat Prod Commun. 2019;1–4. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X19850695. Drewes SE, George J, Khan F. Recent findings on natural products with erectile-dysfunction activity. Phytochemistry. 2003;62:1019–25. Elsi Y, Satriadi T, Istikowati WT. Etnobotani obat-obatan yang dimanfaatkan masyarakat adat Dayak Meratus Desa Ulang Kabupaten Hulu Sungai Selatan Kalimantan Selatan. J Syl Sci. 2020;3:193–201. (in Bahasa). Ernilasari, Saudah, Suzanni MA, Diana, Irhamni, Viena V. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan obat pada masyarakat Blang Bungong Kecamatan Tangse Kabupaten Pidie-Aceh. TM Con Ser 01 2018:34–7. https://doi.org/10.32734/tm.v1i3.258 Farouk AEA, Benafri A. Antibacterial activity of Eurycoma longifolia Jack. Saudi Med J. 2007;28(9):1422–4. Han YM, Woo SK, Choi MS, Park YN, Kim SH, Yim H, Yoo HH. Antiinflammatory and analgesic effects of Eurycoma longifolia extracts. Arch Pharm Res. 2016;39:421–8. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12272-016-0711-2. Hassan WNAW, Zulkifli RM, Ahmad F, Yunus MAC. Antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibition activities of Eurycoma longifolia and Swietenia macrophylla. J Appl Pharma Sci. 2015;5(8):6–10. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2015.50802. Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indië. 4th ed. Batavia: Ruygrok & Co; 1917. https:// doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.13465. Jamal JA, Ghafar ZA, Husain K. Medicinal plants used for postnatal care in Malay traditional medicine in the Peninsular Malaysia. Phcog J. 2011;3:15–24. Jiwajinda S, Santisopasri V, Murakami A, Hirai N, Ohigashi H. Quassinoids from Eurycoma longifolia as plant growth inhibitors. Phytochemistry. 2001;58:959–62. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kasrina WEW, Karyadi B, Ruyani A. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants by Lembak ethnic Bengkulu as a source of learning biology. Adv Soc Sci Edu Hum Res. 2019;295:133–5. Khanam Z, Wen CS, Bhat IUH. Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of root and stem extracts of wild Eurycoma longifolia Jack (Tongkat Ali). J King Saud Univ. 2015;27:23– 30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2014.04.006. Khanijo T, Jiraungkoorskul W. Review ergogenic effect of long Jack, Eurycoma longifolia. Pharmacogn Rev. 2016;10(20):139–42. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.194041. Kochummen KM. Simaroubaceae. In: Whitmore TC, editor. Tree flora of Malaya, vol. 2. Kuala Lumpur: Longman Malaysia Sdn. Bhd; 1983. p. 349.

436

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

Kuo PC, Shi LS, Damu AG, Su CR, Huang CH, Ke CH, Wu J, Lin A, Bastow KF, Lee K, Wu T. Cytotoxic and antimalarial β-carboline alkaloids from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. J Nat Prod. 2003;66:1324–7. https://doi.org/10.1021/np030277n. Kuo PC, Damu AG, Lee KH, Wu TS. Cytotoxic and antimalarial constituents from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. Bioorg Med Chem. 2004;12:537–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. bmc.2003.11.017. Lahrita L, Hirosawa R, Kato E, Kawabata J. Isolation and lipolytic activity of eurycomanone and its epoxy derivative from Eurycoma longifolia. Bioorg Med Chem. 2017;25(17):4829–34. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2017.07.032. Lin KW. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Jah Hut peoples in Malaysia. Ind J Med Sci. 2005;59:156–61. Lina EC, Arneti, Prijono D, Dadang. Potensi insektisida pasak bumi (Eurycoma longifolia Jack) terhadap hama kubis Crocidolomia pavonana (F.) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). J Entomol Indon. 2009;6(1):21–9. (in Bahasa). Maneenoon K. Ethnobotany of Sakai tribe at Banthad range. [Postgraduate thesis]. Hat Yai: Prince of Songkla University Thailand; 2001. Maneenoon K, Khuniad C, Teanuan Y, Saedan N, Prom-in S, Rukleng N, Kongpool W, Pinsook P, Wongwiwat W. Ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional healers in Phatthalung Province, Peninsular Thailand. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-0150031-5. Miyake K, Tezuka Y, Awale S, Li F, Kadota S. Canthin-6-one alkaloids and a tirucallanoid from Eurycoma longifolia and their cytotoxic activity against a human HT-1080 fibrosarcoma cell line. Nat Prod Commun. 2010;5(1):17–22. Mohiddin MYBH, Chin W, Holdsworth D. Traditional medicinal plants of Brunei Darussalam part II Sengkurong. Int J Pharmacog. 1991;29(4):252–8. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209109082891. Muhamad AS, Keong CC, Kiew OF, Abdullah MR, Lam CK. Effects of Eurycoma longifolia Jack supplementation on recreational athletes’ endurance running capacity and physiological responses in the heat. Int J Appl Sports Sci. 2010;22(2):1–19. Nguyen HD, Choo YY, Nguyen TD, Nguyen HN, Chau VM, Lee JH. 7-methoxy-(9H-β-carbolin-1il)-(E)-1-propenoic acid, a β-carboline alkaloid from Eurycoma longifolia, exhibits antiinflammatory effects by activating the Nrf2/Heme oxygenase-1 pathway. J Cell Biochem. 2016;117(3):659–70. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcb.25315. Noorcahyati, Arifin Z. Etnobotani tumbuhan berkhasiat obat Etnis Dayak Meratus Loksado Kalimantan Selatan dan upaya konservasi di KHDTK Samboja. Prosiding Seminar Balitek Ksda “Tumbuhan Obat Dari Hutan: Konservasi, Budidaya, Dan Pemanfaatan”. Balikpapan: Balitek KSDA; 2014. (in Bahasa). Noorcahyati, Arifin Z, Ningsih MK. Potensi etnobotani Kalimantan sebagai sumber penghasil tumbuhan berkhasiat obat. Prosiding Hasil-Hasil Riset untuk Mendukung Konservasi yang Bermanfaat dan Pemanfaatan yang Konservatif. Balikpapan: BPTKSDA; 2011. (in Bahasa). Nooteboom HP. Simaroubaceae. Fl Malesiana I. 1962;6(2):193–226. Nurhanan MY, Hawariah LPA, Ilham AM, Shukri MAM. Cytotoxic effects of the root extracts of Eurycoma longifolia Jack. Phytother Res. 2005;19:994–6. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1759. Pasaribu G, Waluyo TK. Ethnomedicine, phytochemical, and toxicity activity of several alleged medicinal plants from Sebangau National Park, Central Borneo. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2020;415:012007. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/415/1/012007. Permana RCE. Masyarakat Baduy dan pengobatan tradisional berbasis tanaman. Wacana. 2009;11:81–94. (in Bahasa). Rehman SU, Choe K, Yoo HH. Review on a traditional herbal medicine, Eurycoma longifolia Jack (tongkat ali): its traditional uses, chemistry, evidence-based pharmacology and toxicology. Molecules. 2016;21:331. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21030331. Ruan J, Li Z, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Liu M, Han L, Zhang Y, Wang T. Bioactive constituents from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. Molecules. 2019;24(17):3157. https://doi.org/10.3390/ molecules24173157. Samuel AJSJ, Kalusalingam A, Chellappan DK, Gopinath R, Radhamani S, Husain HA Muruganandham V, Promwichit P. Ethnomedical survey of plants used by the Orang Asli in

Eurycoma longifolia Jack

437

Kampung Bawong, Perak, West Malaysia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:5. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/1746-4269-6-5. Sangat HM, Zuhud EAM, Damayanti EK. Kamus penyakit dan tumbuhan obat Indonesia [etnofitomedika]. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia; 2000. (in Bahasa). Sari RY, Wardenaar E, Muflihati. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Dusun Serambai Kecamatan Kembayan Kabupaten Sanggau Kalimantan Barat. J Hut Les. 2014;2:379–87. (in Bahasa). Setyowati FM, Wardah. Diversity of medicinal plant by Talang Mamak tribe in surrounding of Bukit Tiga Puluh National Park, Riau. Biodiversitas. 2007;8:228–32. Setyowati FM, Riswan S, Susiarti. Etnobotani masyarakat Dayak Ngaju di daerah Timpah Kalimantan Tengah. J Tek Ling. 2005;6:502–10. (in Bahasa). Shafiqul Islam AKM, Ismail Z, Saad B, Othman AR, Ahmad MN, Shakaff AYM. Correlation studies between electronic nose response and headspace volatiles of Eurycoma longifolia extracts. Sens Actuat B. 2006;120:245–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2006.02.020. Silalahi M. Ramuan obat tradisional sub-etnis Batak Karo yang diperjualbelikan di Pasar Berastagi dan Kabanjahe Sumatera Utara, Indonesia. J Ilm Kes Kep. 2019a;15:15–24. (in Bahasa). Silalahi M. Hubungan pemanfaatan tumbuhan pasak bumi (Eurycoma longifolia Jack.) sebagai obat tradisional dan bioaktivitasnya. J Pend MIPA. 2019b;10(2):109–21. (in Bahasa). Silalahi M, Nisyawati. Ethnobotany of Eurycoma longifolia by Batak ethnic in North Sumatra. In: Prosiding Seminar Nasional Masyarakat Biodiversitas Indonesia. Surakarta: Universitas Negeri Sebelas Maret; 2015. (in Bahasa). Silalahi M, Nisyawati WEB, Mustaqim W. Ethnomedicine of medicinal plants by Batak Phakpak subethnic in the Surung Mersada Village, Phakpak Bharat District, north Sumatera. J Ilm Das. 2018;9:77–92. (in Bahasa). Sulistyaningsih YC, Dorly DNR, Ariyanti NS, Akmal H, Putra HF, Fakhurrozi Y, Mustaqim WA. A field guide to the potential plants of Belitung Island. Bogor: IPB Press; 2019. Syaifuddin SE, Kurniawan NMA, Fitriyanti S. Etnobotani tumbuhan hutan berkhasiat obat di Desa Mandiangin Barat Kecamatan Karang Intan Kabupaten Banjar Provinsi Kalimantan Selatan. Galam. 2015;1:1–7. (in Bahasa). Tada H, Yasuda F, Otani K, Doteuchi M, Ishihara Y, Shiro M. New antiulcer quassinoids from Eurycoma longifolia. Eur J Med Chem. 1991;26(3):345–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/02235234(91)90069-Y. Talbott SM, Talbott JA, George A, Pugh M. Effect of Tongkat Ali on stress hormones and psychological mood state in moderately stressed subjects. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2013;10:28. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-10-28. Tan AL, Kamal NM, Tan HP, Roslan I. Notes on morphological characteristics of Eurycoma spp. and its status in Peninsular Malaysia. Reinwardtia. 2015;14(2):259–63. Tee TT, Azimahtol HLP. Induction of apoptosis by Eurycoma longifolia Jack extracts. Anticancer Res. 2005;25:2205–14. Thu HE, Mohamed IN, Hussain Z, Jayusman PA, Shuid AN. Eurycoma longifolia as a potential adoptogen of male sexual health: a systematic review on clinical studies. Chin J Nat Med. 2017;15(1):71–80. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1009.2017.00071. Thu HE, Hussain Z, Mohamed IN, Shuid AN. Recent advances in antibacterial, antiprotozoal and antifungal trends of Eurycoma longifolia: a review of therapeutic implications and future prospects. Curr Drug Targets. 2018;19(14):1657–71. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389450119666180219123815. Tong KL, Chan KL, AbuBakar S, Low BS, Ma HQ, Wong PF. The in vitro and in vivo anti-cancer activities of a standardized quassinoids composition from Eurycoma longifolia on LNCaP human prostate cancer cells. PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0121752. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121752. Viena V, Yunita I, Irhamni, Saudah, Ernilasari. Biodiversitas tumbuhan obat oleh Masyarakat Gampong Pulo Seunong Kecamatan Tangse Kabupaten Pidie. Elkawnie J Isl Sci Tech. 2018;4:89–100. (in Bahasa). Voeks RA, Nyawa S. Healing flora of the Brunei Dusun. Born Res Bul. 2001;32:178–95. Wartini. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat tradisional Desa Lubuk Beringin Kecamatan Bathin III Ulu Kabupaten Bungo. [undergraduate thesis]. Jambi: Universitas Jambi; 2014. (in Bahasa). Wetlands International. Living pharmacies in Tasek Bera. A wetland of international importance in Malaysia. Wetlands International: Wageningen; 2006.

438

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

Wijayatri R. Influence of ethyl acetate fraction ethanolic 96% extract of Eurycoma longifolia Jack root to the histopatologic description from liver of female rats Sprague Dayley strain that induced by 7,12-Dimethylbenz[A]Anthracene (DMBA) carcinogen. INPHARNMED J. 2017;1(1):34–47. (in Bahasa). Yang ML, Fan ZF, Luo YP, Cao JX, Cheng GG. Chemical constituents of the barks of Eurycoma longifolia growing in Thailand. J Yunnan Minzu Univ (Nat Sci Ed). 2016;6:2. http://en.cnki. com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-YNMZ201606002.htm. Retrieved 10 July 2020. Zanoli P, Zavatti M, Montanari C, Baraldi M. Influence of Eurycoma longifolia on the copulatory activity of sexually sluggish and impotent male rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;126:308–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.08.021.

Ficus benjamina (L.) MORACEAE Anisatu Z. Wakhidah, Dafi Al Anshory, and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Ficus benjamina subsp. comosa (Roxb.) Panigrahi & Murti; Ficus benjamina var. nuda (Miq.) M.F.Barrett; Ficus comosa Roxb.; Ficus cuspidatocaudata Hayata; Ficus haematocarpa Blume ex Decne.; Ficus neglecta Decne.; Ficus nepalensis Blanco; Ficus nitida Thunb.; Ficus nuda (Miq.) Miq.; Ficus papyrifera Griff.; Ficus parvifolia Oken; Ficus pendula Link; Ficus reclinata Desf.; Ficus retusa var. nitida (Thunb.) Miq.; Ficus striata Roth; Ficus umbrina Elmer; Ficus xavieri Merr.; Urostigma benjaminum (L.) Miq.; Urostigma benjaminum var. nudum (Miq.) Miq.; Urostigma haematocarpum Miq.; Urostigma neglectum Miq.; Urostigma nitidum (Thunb.) Miq.; Urostigma nitidum Gasp.; Urostigma nudum Miq. (POWO 2020).

Local Names Cambodia: Chhreykruem (Kuy and Khmer tribe, Prey Lang), jrei krəm (Phnom Kulen plateau); Indonesia: beringin, takokdoda, baringin (Bataknese), beringin (Javanese), beringin, bingin (Balinese), ruteng (Ethnic Manggarai, East Nusa

A. Z. Wakhidah (*) Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia D. Al Anshory Member of Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Research Center of Biology – LIPI, West Java, Indonesia W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_83

439

440

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Tenggara), mpipi (Sambori tribe, West Nusa Tenggara), lambe (Renggeang Community, West Sulawesi), nunu (Kaili Tara tribe, Central Sulawesi), kayu ara, kayu antu, semlawung (Dayaknese Iban, West Kalimantan), baringing (Tonsea in Sulawesi); Malaysia: beringin, waringin (Malay in Sarawak), dunuk (Bidayuh); Myanmar: nyaung-lun (local people of Ayeyarwady Delta); Philippines: bihu-lac (Kalanguya tribe, Luzon); balete na tapol (Subanens community, Zamboanga del Sur); Vietnam: si (Van Kieu ethnic); English: weeping fig, benjamin fig, ficus tree (Anggraeni et al. 2016; Balangcod and Balangcod 2011; Lee et al. 2019; Ibo and Arimukti 2019; Iswandono et al. 2015; Kessler et al. 2002; Kochummen and Go 2000; Morilla et al. 2014; Hayat et al. 2018; Nurdin et al. 2019; Oktavia et al. 2017; Ono and Suzuki 2013; Pradityo et al. 2016; Putri et al. 2017; Putri et al. 2014; Rahayu and Andini 2019; Sari et al. 2019; Sujarwo and Lestari 2019; Supriyati et al. 2017; Turreira-García et al. 2017; Zulfiani et al. 2013; Zulharman and Aryanti 2016).

Botany and Ecology Description: A tree, usually many-branched and with many aerial roots, up to 35 m tall, hemiepiphytic, or terrestrial. Plants with abundant milky sap. Twigs slender, angular to subterete, 1–2 or rarely up to 3 mm across, glabrous, only rarely scarcely clad with minute white hairs; periderm often flaking off. Stipules usually 0.5–1.5 cm, sometimes up to 2 cm long, caducous, glabrous, or rarely clad with minute white hairs. Leaves green, withering yellow, simple, spirally arranged to subalternate, petiole 0.5–2 cm long, 1–2 mm across, wrinkled on drying, glabrous, blades elliptic, oblong, ovate or subovate, or ovate-lanceolate, 2–14 cm long by 1.5–8 cm wide, leathery, base obtuse to rounded, less often subattenuate to cuneate, margin flat, apex acute or acuminate or less often subacuminate, midrib usually flat above, rarely nearly so, lateral veins 6–12 or rarely to 16 on each side of the midrib, joining at near the margin to form an intramarginal vein, basal pair up to 1/5 of the length of the lamina, with no branch, tertiary venation parallel to the lateral; waxy glands present at the base of the midrib; glabrous on both sides. Flowers in figs or syconia, these axillary, either solitary or usually in pair, at the base with three unequal or rarely subequal bracts, 0.5–3 mm long, glabrous or less often clad with minute white hairs, persistent; receptacle obovoid, ellipsoid or subglobose, to almost pyriform, rarely stipitate, dried ones 0.5–1 cm or rarely to 1.5 cm across, rugulose, glabrous or clad with sparse and minute hairs, color varies from yellow, orange or red, rarely pink or purple, at maturity, apex slightly concave to convex, ostiole flat or slightly raised, 1.5–2 mm across, either open or closed, distal ostiolar bracts usually not imbricate, less often fully imbricate, only sometimes minutely hairy, the inner side of receptacle glabrous. Flowers with red, 3–4 free tepals, ovary whitish, or partly red. The true fruit achene, reniform to ovoid, longer than the style. There is a quite similar species from West Malesia, Ficus kurzii, which differs by the prominent midrib on the upper surfaces of the leaf blades. Distribution and Ecology: A species with wide distribution from India to east, reaching Southern China, throughout the mainland and insular Southeast Asia,

Ficus benjamina (L.)

441

reaching Arnhem Land and Queensland in Australia as well as the Pacific Islands. The species grows from the lowland to hill forests, to an elevation at 1300 m.a.s.l. The habitat varies from forest to secondary growth. It often grows near the stream. This species is often cultivated, especially in urban areas (Backer and van den Brink 1965; Berg and Corner 2005; Kochummen and Go 2000) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Leafy twig of Ficus benjamina (Moraceae). (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Immature figs of Ficus benjamina (Moraceae). (© W.A. Mustaqim)

442

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Fig. 3 Mature figs of Ficus benjamina (Moraceae). (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Cambodia: This plant is used by the Kuy and Khmer people in Prey Lang as medicine. The Kuy and Khmer people from different villages have different ways of usage. People form Thmea Village claimed that the bark should be boiled for skin infections, while men from Spong and women from Phneak Roluek prepare cold infusions of the root and/or leaves for the same purpose (Turreira-García et al. 2017). The infusions of the leaves are used in medicinal baths to treat fever, “pox” measles, scarlet fever, and fever in the children by the people in Phnom Kulen plateau (Walker 2017). Indonesia: This plant is widely used as source of medicine. The roots are soaked in water by the Balinese, and the solution is believed to have an efficacious effect in treating dysentery (Oktavia et al. 2017). The Hindu Community in Bali also uses the roots and the leaves by made those part into poultice to treat sprain (Sujarwo and Lestari 2019). The leaves are used to treat various diseases by the Dayak Iban tribe in West Kalimantan. They use leaf decoction to treat diseases such as malaria and fever (Pradityo et al. 2016). The Lombok Community in the Narmada in West Nusa Tenggara uses leaf decoction as cough medicine (Rahayu and Andini 2019). Philippines: The Kalanguya tribe in Ifugao Province uses leaves decoction which is orally taken to relieve muscle pain and stomachache. Leaves decoction is also used

Ficus benjamina (L.)

443

as an antiseptic wash to disinfect the wounds. The local people also believe that the decoction as a hot compress can heal hematoma (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011). The Subanens people in Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur use a poultice made from the bark to treat fracture (Morilla et al. 2014). Vietnam: The latex is used to soothe itching sensation by local people in Ben En National Park, Thanh Hóa Province. They apply the latex on the affected part of the skin (Van Sam et al. 2008). The Van Kieu tribe in Bac Huong Hoa Nature Reserve consume raw fruits to treat digestive problems, especially arising out of liver complications (Lee et al. 2019).

Phytochemistry Imran et al. (2014) reported the presence of phenolic acids in root including chlorogenic acid, paracoumeric acid, ferulic acid, and syringic acid, as well as from the stem including chlorogenic acid, paracoumeric acid, and ferulic acid. The presence of phenolic acids imparts antioxidant activity to the plant and makes it useful as an antiradical agent (Bogucka-kocka et al. 2016; Cos et al. 2009). Leaves contain phytosterols, flavonoids, phenols, oil fats, tannins, and alkaloids (Jain et al. 2013; Sukadana 2011). This report is also confirmed by Abdelkader and Adnan (2016), who found phytochemical contents in leaves are phenol, tartaric esters, anthocyanins, flavonols. Mumtaz et al. (2018) found 31 metabolites from the leaf extracts named quercetin, quercetin 3-O-α-rhamnoside, quercetin 3-O-β-glucoside, cathecin, catechintrimer, (epi)catechin-(epi)catechin-(epi)-catechin, (epi)afzelechin(epi)catechin, apigenin-6,8-di-C-β-D-glucopyranoside (Vicenin II), 6-C-glucosyl-8C-arabinosyl apigenin, apigenin 6-C-glucoside, 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid, dicaffeoquinic acid, epicathecin, kampferol, morin, naringenin, rutin, gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, quinic acid, α-glucose, β-glucose, sucrose, choline, leucine, alanine, procyanidin B1, 20 -O-rhamnose-C-hexoside, pyruvate, quercetinrahmnosylgalactoside. Phytochemical screening of fruits evinced the presence of alkaloids, tannins, saponin, flavonoids, anthraquinone glycosides, phenolic glycosides (Rahama and Ahmed 2015). Benjaminamide can be found in the bark of the root and twigs (Simo et al. 2008). Isoflavanoid from leaf extracts and serrat-3one from fruit extracts showed antibacterial activities (Dai et al. 2012; Parveen et al. 2009). The leaf extract has a hepatoprotective effect (Pilapil et al. 2017), capable of inhibiting free radicals (Mendoza et al. 2014). Almahy et al. (2003) recorded metabolites including naringenin, cinnamic acid, lactose acid, quercetin, caffeic acid, stigmasterol from leaf, bark, and fruit extracts that could inhibit the activity of Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Also, plant extract has been confirmed to have potential as antibiotics due to the presence of antioxidant, antihemolytic, and antibacterial activity (Jassal and Monika 2019). The latex has been identified to contain abeitic acid, n-hexadecanoic acid, 9-Octadecanoic acid, steric acid, oleic acid, octadecanoic acid, 6,13-pentacenequinone, D-glucose, sucrose that could inhibit corrosion (Eddy et al. 2014). The latex produces cysteine protease that can kill Haemonchus contortus which is known to cause gastrointestinal problems in ruminants (Wanderley et al. 2018).

444

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The Manggarai tribe in East Nusa Tenggara consumes the leaves as a vegetable (Iswandono et al. 2015).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: With so many myths assigned, this species becomes one of the most important cultural plants in Indonesia. Many indigenous peoples often use the leaves as complements in rituals, such as the Batak Toba community, Manggarai, Renggeang, Bali, and the Yogyakarta Palace community (Ibo and Arimukti 2019; Iswandono et al. 2015; Nurdin et al. 2019; Putri et al. 2017). The Renggeang community in West Sulawesi uses the leaves and stems in all life stages ceremonies, namely the traditional marriage ceremony, 7 months, birth celebration, and building houses (Nurdin et al. 2019). The leaves and stems of this plant are used in weddings by the people in Solo and Klaten, Central Java. The plant is a symbol of safety and protection. The use of the plant parts is intended to prevent any obstacles so that the wedding can be held properly (Anggraini et al. 2017; Supriyati et al. 2017). The Balinese also uses the leaves in Dewa Yadhya and Pitra Yadhya ceremony (Sujarwo and Lestari 2019). Some studies also mention the uses of the leaves and stems in rituals but without explaining how the preparations are made (Iswandono et al. 2015; Ibo and Arimukti 2019; Putri et al. 2017). The roots of these plants are tied as talisman to the neck of cattle by the Kaili Tara tribe, Central Sulawesi (Zulfiani et al. 2013).

Economic Importance Indonesia: The Sambori tribe in West Nusa Tenggara uses the wood for making doors (Zulharman and Aryanti 2016). Myanmar: The local people of Ayeyarwady Delta use the pith, shoots or stems as a secondary resource for fuel (Ono and Suzuki 2013).

References Abdelkader AFA, Adnan MA. Physiological and chemical characteristic of age-differed Ficus benjamina L. trees cultivated in El-ahassa, Saudi Arabia. J Plant Sci. 2016;4(4):63–7. Almahy HA, Mawardi R, Mohd AS, Abdul MA. The chemical constituens of Ficusbenjamina Linn. and their biological activities. Pertanika J Sci Technol. 2003;11(1):73–81. Anggraeni R, Silalahi M, Nisyawati. Studi etnobotani masyarakat subetnis Batak Toba di Desa Peadungdung, Sumatera Utara, Indonesia. Pro-Life. 2016;3(2):129–42. (In Bahasa Indonesia). Anggraini T, Utami S, Murniningsih M. Kajian etnobotani keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan yang digunakan dalam upacara akad panggih pengantin pada pernikahan adat jawa di masyarakat sekitar Keraton Kasunanan Surakarta Hadiningrat. Pros Sem Nas Hasil-Hasil Penelitian Pascasarj. 2017;190–4. (in Bahasa Indonesia).

Ficus benjamina (L.)

445

Backer CA, van den Brink RC B Jr. Flora of Java, vol. 2. Groningen: NVP Nordhoff; 1965. Balangcod TD, Balangcod AKD. Ethnomedical knowledge of plants and healthcare practices among the Kalanguya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao, Luzon, Philippines. IJTK. 2011;10(2):227–38. Berg CC, Corner EJH. Moraceae. Fl Malesiana ser 1. 2005;17(2):1–702. Bogucka-kocka A, Christian Z, Malgorzata K, Grazyna S, Katarzyna S. Phenolic acis content, antioxidant and xytotocix activities of four Kalanchoe species. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2016;2018 (25):622–30. Cos P, Padinchare R, Irina V, Mario C, Luc P, Arnolds JV, Achiel H, Dirk VB. In vitro antioxidant profile of phenolic acid derivatives. Free Radic Res. 2009;36(6):711–6. Dai J, Dai S, Wesley YY, Stephen MP, Philip GW. Isoflavanoids from Ficus benjamina and their inhibitory activity on BACE1. Planta Med. 2012;78(12):1357–62. Eddy ON, Paul OA, Anduang OO. Physicochemical characterization and corrosion inhibition potential of Ficusbenjamina (FB) gum for alumunium in 0.1 m H2SO4. Port Electrochem Acta. 2014;32(3):183–7. Hayat MM, Amandeep S, Hardeep K. Bioassay Guided Fractionation and in vitro Anti-plasmodial Activity of Ficus deltoidea and Ficus benzamine. Pharmacog J. 2018;10(2):235–40. Ibo LK, Arimukti SD. Studi etnobotani pada masyarakat sub-etnis Batak Toba di Desa Martoba, Kabupaten Samosir, Sumatera Utara. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2019;5(2):234–41. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Imran M, Nasir R, Komal R, Muhammad Z, Muhammad R, Muhammad ZUH, Usman AR, Ayman N, Hawa ZEJ. Chemical composition and biological studies of Ficus benjamina. Chem Cent J. 2014;8(12):8–12. Iswandono E, Zuhud EAM, Kosmaryandi N. Pengetahuan etnobotani Suku Manggarai dan implikasinya terhadap pemanfaatan tumbuhan hutan di Pegunugan Ruteng. J Ilm Pert Indon. 2015;20(3):171–81. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Jain A, Varsha O, Gaurav K, Loganathan K, Kokati VBR. Phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of Ficus benjamina (Moraceae) leaves. Res J Pharm Tech. 2013;6(11):1184–9. Jassal PS, Monika S. Evaluation of antioxidant, antibacterial, antihemolytic, and phytochemical properties of Ficus benjamina, Ficus nfectoria, Ficus khrisnae. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2019;12(3):68–73. Kessler PJA, Bos MM, Sierra Daza SEC, Kop A, Willemse LPM, Pitopang R, Gradstein SR. Checklist of woody plants of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea. 2002;14:1–160. Kochummen KM, Go R. Moraceae. In: Soepadmo E, Saw LG, editors. Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak 3. Selangor: Forest Research Institute Malaysia; 2000. p. 181–334. Lee C, Kim SY, ES PJH, Tran TB, Darshetkar AM, Chodhary RK, Hai DV, Quang BH, Nguyen TT, Choi S. Ethnoboannical study on medicinal plants used by local Van Kieu ethnic people of Bac Huong Noa Nature Reserve, Vietnam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2019;231(1):238–94. Mendoza NA, Santilan EM, Gonzales AM, Soto JE, Chirino CE, Rubio MNLG, Lucio JAG, Gonzales JAM. Hepatoprotectiveaffect of silymarin. World J Hepatol. 2014;6(3):144–9. Morilla LJG, Sumaya NHN, Rivero HI, Madamba MRSB. Medicinal plants of the Subanens in Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines. In: International Conference on Food, Biological and Medical Sciences, Bangkok; 2014. p. 1–6. Mumtaz MW, Mizher HA, Azizah AH, Muhamad D, Muhamad TA, Hamid M. Metabolite profiling and inhibitory properties of leaf extracts of Ficus benjamina toward α- glucoside and α-amylase. Int J Food Prop. 2018;21(1):1560–74. Nurdin GM, Mardiana, Suhdiah. Kajian etnobotani upacara adat mandar di Provinsi Sulawesi Barat Kabupaten Polewali Mandar di Kampung Renggeang. Bioma. 2019;1(1):16–23. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Oktavia GAE, Darma IDP, Sujarwo W. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di kawasan sekitar Danau Buyan –Tamblingan. Bali Bul Keb Raya. 2017;20(1):1–16. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Ono K, Suzuki K. Assessment of subsistence plant resource of the mangrove forest in the Ayeyarwady Delta, Myanmar. Int J Environ Res. 2013;17:223–32. Parveen M, Raza MG, Sayed HM, Syed ZR, Mohamad A. A new triterpenoid from the leaves of Ficus benjamina (var. comosa). Nat Prod Res. 2009;23(8):729–36.

446

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Pilapil AL, Nomilando L, Raizel ML, Jeffrey L, Patricia JM, Ivy MM, Erin KM, Paolo LP, Joana P, Lailanie JS, Pauline DS, Beverly JT, Miguel AV, Allan H, Phylis R, Geraldine ST, Danilo M. Hepatoprotective effect of crude aqueous leaf extract of fig tree, Ficus benjamina, on ethanol-induced liver damage in mice. IJSTR. 2017;6(6):118–21. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 9 Apr 2020. Pradityo T, Santoso N, Zuhud EAM. Etnobotani di kebun tembawang Suku Dayak Iban, Desa Sungai Mawang, Kalimantan Barat. Media Konservasi. 2016;21(2):183–98. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Putri RI, Supriatna J, Walujo EB. Etnobotani tumbuhan penunjang ritual/adat di Pulau Serangan, Bali. Pros Sem Nas Prod Bio FMIPA UNHI. 2017:58–64. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Rahama MS, Ahmed LM. Phytochemical and anti-bacterial studies of the fruit extract of Ficus benjamina (L.). Int J Eng Res. 2015;6(7):1388–91. Rahayu SM, Andini AS. Etnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Sesaot Forest, Narmada, West Lombok, Indonesia. Biosantifika. 2019;11(2):234–42. Sari LYS, Setiana FR, Setyawati R. Etnobotani tumbuhan ritual yang digunakan pada upacara jamasan di Keraton Yogyakarta. Bioma. 2019;4(2):99–106. (In Bahasa Indonesia). Simo CCF, Simeon FK, Herve MPP, Ingrid KS, Bonaventure TN, Ivan RG, Karsten K. Benjaminamide: a new ceramide and other compounds from the twigs of Ficus benjamina (Moraceae). Biochem Syst Ecol. 2008;36(2008):238–43. Sujarwo W, Lestari SG. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat dan upacara adat Hindu di Bali. Bul Kebun Raya. 2019; 21(2):117–39. (In Bahasa Indonesia). Sukadana IM. Kandungan senyawa steroid-alkaloid pada ekstrak n-heksana daun beringin (Ficus benjamina L.). J Kim. 2011;5(2):169–74. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Supriyati E, Rahmi F, Nurmiyati. Kajian etnobotani pada tradisi pernikahan wilayah Klaten Provinsi Jawa Tengah. J Riau Biol. 2017;1(2):112–8. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Turreira-García N, Argyriou D, Phourin CH, Srisanga P, Theilade I. Ethnobotanical knowledge of the Kuy and Khmer people in Prey Lang, Cambodia. Cambodian J Nat Hist. 2017;2017 (1):76–101. Van Sam H, Baas P, Keßler PJ. Traditional medicinal plants in Ben En national park, Vietnam. Blumea. 2008;53(3):569–601. Walker T. An examination of medicinal ethnobotany and biomedicine use in two villages on the Phnom Kulen plateau. Undergrad Res Awards. 2017;36:1–78. Wanderley LF, Alexandra MSS, Carolina RS, Isaias MF, Andre TSF, Jonas P, Handerson ROM, Jose TAO, Livio MCJ. A cysteine protease from the latex of Ficus benjamina has in vitro anthelmintic activity against Haemonchus contortus. Braz J Vet Parasitol. 2018;27(4):473–80. Zulfiani, Yuniati E, Pitopang R. Kajian etnobotani Suku Kaili Tara di Desa Binangga Kecamatan Parigi Tengah Kabupaten Parigi Mountong Sulawesi Tengah. Biocelebes. 2013;7(1):67–74. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Zulharman, Aryanti NA. Etnobotani tumbuhan penghasil bahan bangunan, kerajinan, dan rumah adat masyarakat suku Sambori Kabupaten Bima NTB. Sem Nas Pro. 2016:256–65. (in Bahasa Indonesia).

Ficus minahassae (Teijsm. & de Vriese) Miq. MORACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim and Wisnu H. Ardi

Synonyms Bosscheria minahassae Teijsm. & de Vriese; Ficus glomerata Blanco; Ficus riedelii auct. non Teijsm. ex Miq.

Local Names Indonesia: Sulawesi: langusei, mahang kusei, nunu kekewang, werenkusai (Tonsea, Tombulu) mahangkusei, tambing-tambing, weren kuse (Minahassa) riníta, toeloeponoe (Tombulu) pohon beringin (North Minahasa) wungkolo (Wawonii). Malaysia: tapian diwit (Dusun, Sabah). Philippines: agimit (Ifugao) aímit, ayu´mit (Tayabas) alomit (Igorot) arímit (Abra) ayímit (Polilo) aymit (Ayta) businaí (Ilocos Sur) hagímit (Laguna, Tayabas, Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Capiz) haguimit (Visaya) hagumit (Tagalog) hugímit (Bukidnon) logemit (Higaonon, Mindanao) sabfog (Bontoc) taísan, tambis-tambis (Basilan) tambuyógan (Masbate). English: hagimit (Barcelo 2015; Borelli and Conigliaro 2014; Brink et al. 2003; Chua-Barcelo 2014; Guerrero 1922; Holthuis and Lam 1942; Kaunang and Semuel 2017; Kessler et al. 2002; Obico and Ragragio 2014; Olowa et al. 2012; Pitopang et al. 2011; Polinar 2009; Rahayu and Sihotang 2013; Rugayah et al. 2015; Talley et al. 2020). W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia W. H. Ardi Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Garden, Indonesia Institute of Sciences, Bogor, Jawa Barat, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_84

447

448

W. A. Mustaqim and W. H. Ardi

Botany and Ecology A deciduous tree up to 25 m tall. Stilt-roots often present, short, from the base of the trunk. Twigs covered with brown hirsute or nearly setose hairs, nodal glands absent, periderm not flaking. Stipules 2–6 cm long, persistent, hairs intense on the midrib, otherwise minutely hairy to glabrous. Leaves spirally arranged with petiole 3.5–10 cm long, hairy, lamina varies from cordiform, ovate to elliptic, mostly 13–30  7–20 cm, rarely smaller, base rounded to cordate, margin denticulate, apex acute to shortly acuminate, lateral nerves 6–12 pairs, basal pairs 3–5, waxy glands from the axil of basalmost lateral veins, with some smaller in the other axils upward, the latter also on the furcation of lateral nerves, upper surfaces hairy to scabrous, lower surfaces vary from puberulous, subtomentose to scabrous. Figs borne from the stem, arranged in dense globose heads, 1–2 cm across, stalked or not, arranged in long and pendulous branchlets, often touching the ground. Receptacle subtended by 3 basal bracts, usually shortly peduncle or sessile, obconical and usually angled, 4–6  3–5 mm, apex flat to concave, outer surfaces glabrous or minutely hairy, internal hairs yellowish and abundant. A species distributed in the northeastern part of Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi in the northern part and southeastern, and from New Guinea in Cyclops Mountains. It is quite a common species in Talaud Islands. This species is found up to 700 m.a.s.l in Sulawesi and higher up to elevation around 1120 to 1280 m.a.s.l in Northern Luzon (Berg and Corner 2005; Hamman et al. 1999; Holthuis and Lam 1942; Kessler et al. 2002; Kochummen and Go 2000; Rabena et al. 2015; Rugayah et al. 2015; Uji 2005) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: The Higaonon people in Mindanao use the roots boiled in water to cure fatigue or muscle pain. It is also consumed by lactating mothers to increase milk production. A direct application of pounded leaves mixed with oil is used to cure bruises and boils (Olowa et al. 2012). Indonesia: In Northern Minahasa, Sulawesi, all plant parts are boiled and drunk for maternity and pregnancy care (Kaunang and Semuel 2017).

Phytochemistry Leaves contain 2-hydroxyethyl benzoate, phytyl fatty acid ester, squalene, and β-sitosterol (Apostol et al. 2016). Chemical screening by Kaunang and Semuel (2017) showed the presence of alkaloid, flavonoid, and steroid. Phytochemical analysis of the figs shows the presence of steroid, flavonoid, saponin, tannin, and polyphenol (Barcelo 2015). Furthermore, cardiac glycoside also has been recorded (Lagunay and Uy 2015). Host of the endophytic bacteria Pseudacidovorax intermediusthis, the leaf shows antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (Talley et al. 2020).

Ficus minahassae (Teijsm. & de Vriese) Miq.

449

Fig. 1 Fig-bearing trunk of Ficus minahassae (Moraceae). Sulawesi, Indonesia. (© W.H. Ardi)

Local Food Uses Indonesia: figs edible and young leaves are used as a vegetable, eaten fresh, in Sulawesi (Pitopang et al. 2011). The sap is also consumed in North Sulawesi. Malaysia: figs edible (Sabah) (Kochummen and Go 2000). Philippines: sap is used as a beverage (Guerrero 1922), generally considered as a food source in Apayao, Northern Luzon (Angagan et al. 2010). Studies from Benguet show that the figs are frequently eaten (Barcelo 2015; Chua-Barcelo 2014).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Langusei (Ficus minahassae) is the plant mascot of Sulawesi Utara Province (Hananto 2018). The bast is used to make bark, ropes, and clothes (Brink et al. 2003; Tallei et al. 2016). The plant forms an important raw material for traditional soap production in Northern Sulawesi (Tallei et al. 2016). Philippines: Considered as non-timber species, F. minahassae is conserved and protected in

450

W. A. Mustaqim and W. H. Ardi

Fig. 2 Figs arranged in heads in Ficus minahassae (Moraceae). Sulawesi, Indonesia. (© W.H. Ardi)

Southern Leyte, the Philippines (Polinar 2009). The Ayta people of Pampangan Province burn the dried stem as an insect repellent (Obico and Ragragio 2014). The plant is also believed to enhance water availability in the rice-cultivated landscapes (Borelli and Conigliaro 2014). This species has been traditionally used in Visaya as a water source by wounding near the trunk base or root cutting. During periods of drought in the nineteenth century, this species was a lifesaver for the local people of Cebu, often as the only source of water (Blanco 1845).

References Angagan JS, Buot IE Jr, Relox RE, Rebancos CM. Ethnobotany of the plant resources in Conner, Apayao, northern Luzon, Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2010;9(1):31–8. Apostol PG, De Los Reyes MM, Mandia EH, Shen CC, Ragasa CY. Chemical constituents of Ficus minahassae (Teijsm. & de Vriese) Miq. Der Pharma Chem. 2016;8(20):220–3. Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera administrative region, Philippines. Electro J Biol. 2015;11(3):80–9. Berg CC, Corner EJH. Moraceae. Fl Malesiana ser 1. 2005;17(2):1–702.

Ficus minahassae (Teijsm. & de Vriese) Miq.

451

Blanco M. Flora de Filipinas: segun el sistema sexual de Linneo. Manila: Impr. de M. Sanchez; 1845. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.48447. Borelli S, Conigliaro M. Assessing and promoting trees outside forests (tof) in Asian rice production landscapes. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization; 2014. Brink M, Jansen PCM, Bosch CH. Ficus minahassae (Teijsm. & de Vriese) Miq. In: Brink M, Escobin RP, editors. Plant Resources of South-East Asia no 17: fibre plants. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 2003. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea. Accessed 28 Apr 2020. Chua-Barcelo RT. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera administrative region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. Guerrero LM. Medicinal uses of Philippine plants. Philip Bur For Bull. 1922;22(3):149–246. Hamman A, Barbon EB, Curio E, Madulid DA. A botanical inventory of a submontane tropical rainforest on Negros Island, Philippines. Biodivers Conserv. 1999;8:1017–31. Hananto A. Inilah tumbuhan maskot propinsi Sulawesi Utara. Goodnews from Indonesia. 2018. https://www.goodnewsfromindonesia.id/2018/04/08/inilah-tumbuhan-maskot-propinsi-sulawesiutara. Accessed 28 Apr 2020. (in Bahasa). Holthuis LB, Lam HJ. A first contribution to our knowledge of the flora of the Talaud Islands and Morotai. Blumea. 1942;5(1):93–256. Kaunang ENS, Semuel MY. Botanical and phytochemical constituents of several medicinal plants from mount Klabat north Minahasa. J Med Pl Stud. 2017;5(2):29–35. Kessler PJA, Bos MM, Sierra Daza SEC, Kop A, Willemse LPM, Pitopang R, Gradstein SR. Checklist of woody plants of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea. 2002;Suppl 14:1–160. Kochummen KM, Go R. Moraceae. In: Soepadmo E, Saw LG, editors. Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak 3. Selangor: Forest Research Institute Malaysia; 2000. p. 181–334. Lagunay RAE, Uy MM. Evaluation of the phytochemical constituents of the leaves of Ficus minahassae Tesym & De Vr., Casuarina equisetifolia Linn., Leucosyke capitellata (Pior) Wedd., Cassia sophera Linn., Derris elliptica Benth., Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk., Piper abbreviatum Opiz., Ixora chinensis Lam., Leea aculeata Blume, and Drymoglossum piloselloides Linn. AAB Bioflux. 2015;7(1):51–8. Obico JJA, Ragragio EM. A survey of plants used as repellents against hematophagous insects by the Ayta people of Porac, Pampanga province, Philippines. Philipp Sci Lett. 2014;7(1):179–86. Olowa LF, Torres MAJ, Aranico EC, Demayo CG. Medicinal plants used by the Higaonon tribe of Rogongon, Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines. Advan Environ Biol. 2012;6(4):1442–9. Pitopang R, Lapandjang I, Burhanuddin IF. Profil Herbarium Celebense Universitas Tadulako dan deskripsi 100 jenis pohon khas Sulawesi. Palu: UNTAD Press; 2011. (in Bahasa). Polinar AN. Domesticated trees of upland farmers in Southern Leyte, Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2009;8(2):69–76. Rabena MAF, Macandog DM, Cuevas VC, Esvaldon MVO. A vegetation inventory of a traditional secondary forest (muyong) in Kinakin, Banaue, Ifugao, Northern Luzon, Philippines. Phil J Syst Biol. 2015;9:10–32. Rahayu M, Sihotang VBL. Bark fiber clothing materials: its diversity and prospect in Indonesia. Ber Biol. 2013;12(3):269–75. Rugayah SS, Sulistiarini D, Hidayat A, Rahayu M. Daftar jenis tumbuhan di Pulau Wawonii, Sulawesi Tenggara. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2015. (in Bahasa). Tallei TE, Nangoy MJ, Saroyo. Potensi biodiversitas tumbuhan di Taman Hutan Raya Gunung Tumpa sebagai basis ketahanan pangan masyarakat lokal. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Pertanian 2016. Manado: Universitas Sam Ratulangi; 2016. p. 1–15. (in Bahasa). Talley TE, Linelejan YT, Umboh SD, Adam AA, Muslem, Idroes R. Endophytic bacteria isolated from the leaf of langusei (Ficus minahassae Tesym. & De Vr.) and their antibacterial activities. IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng. 2020;796(012047):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/796/ 1/012047. Uji T. Keanekaragaman dan potensi flora di Cagar Alam Pegunungan Cyclops, Papua. J Tek Ling. 2005;6(4):485–95. (in Bahasa).

Ficus montana Burm.f. MORACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Ficus ampelas Burm.f. var. bogoriensis (Koord. & Valeton) Hochr. f. microcarpa Hochr; Ficus biglandulosa Miq.; Ficus copiosa auct. non Steud.; Ficus humilis Roxb.; Ficus inconstans Miq.; Ficus javanensis Dum. Cours.; Ficus madurensis Miq.; Ficus madurensis Miq. var. angustifolia Corner; Ficus montana var. purpurascens (Blume) Corner; Ficus polycarpa Roxb. var. latifolia Miq.; Ficus purpurascens Blume; Ficus quercifolia Lodd.; Ficus quercifolia Roxb.; Ficus quercifolia Roxb. var. aspera Koord. & Valeton; Ficus quercifolia Roxb. var. humilis (Roxb.) King; Ficus quercifolia Roxb. var. inconstans (Miq.) Ridl.; Ficus sclerocoma Miq.; Ficus smaragdina S. Moore

Local Names Indonesia: Perlasan – amis mata, amis mata beureum, amis mata munding, amis panon, amis panon awèwè (na), amis panon lalaki (na) (Sundanese) – areuy amis mata (Baduy in West Java) – kesiyeh (Sumatra) – awar-awer, uyah-uyah (Bali) – uyah-uyahan (Javanese). Malaysia: kesinen. Thailand: duea din (Chumphon) – maduea hin (Nakhon Si Thammarat). English: oak leaf fig (Burkill 1935; Defiani and Kriswiyanti 2019; Jansen et al. 1991; Nuswantari 2017; Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1931; Plantamor 2020; Priyadi et al. 2010; Quattrocchi 2016; Suansa 2011; Sudirga 2012; Uji 2007).

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_204

453

454

W. A. Mustaqim

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrubs, creeping to erect, up to 2 m tall, rarely a treelet. Plant dioecious. Twigs with internodes hollow, the leafy part of the twigs 1–3 or rarely to 4 mm across, clad with hirtellous to whitish puberulous hairs, sometimes hairs minute. Stipules semi-amplexicaul, linear or lanceolate, up to 1 cm long, clad with the minute and sparse, appressed hairs, often rather striate, subpersistent in the leaf twigs, otherwise caducous. Leaves simple, spirally arranged, petiole 0.5–4 cm long, sometimes much longer in the young plants, up to 13 cm long, glabrous or hairy; the epidermis persistent; lamina the blades symmetric or nearly so, oblong to elliptic, less often lanceolate, oblanceolate or linear-lanceolate, usually 8–24 cm  2–10 cm, rarely larger or smaller, chartaceous or rarely subcoriaceous, base cordate, rounded to cuneate, margin lobed at the young plants, or entire, or crenate-dentare, sometimes coarse, apex acuminate to nearly acute; lateral veins 5–9 or rarely to 16 on each side of the midrib, the basal pair usually 1/6–1/3 of the lamina length, rarely down to 1/20, branch mostly absent, tertiary venation laxly scalariform or rarely slightly reticulate in the narrow leaves; the axil of basal lateral veins with waxy glands, the glands also present in the other axils but with smaller size; indumentum vary, upper surfaces glabrous or nearly so, or with punctation due to the presence of cystoliths, smooth or rough when touched, lower surfaces scabridulous, sparsely hairy on the veins, cystoliths present on both surfaces. Figs solitary or in pairs, borne from the leaf axils, or forming a cluster on short axillary spurs, also borne on the defoliate part of the stem; peduncle usually 2–5 mm long, rarely shorter; bracts 2 or 3, c. 0.5 mm long. Receptacle yellow, orange, red, or pink at maturity, ovoid, globose or nearly so, 5–8 mm across when dry, glabrous or sparsely clad with minute hairs, lateral bracts often present, to 0.5 mm long, apex convex or flat, ostiole c. 1 mm across, rim surrounding the ostiole low, inner side glabrous. Flowers with tepals 3–5, whitish, glabrous; style glabrous or rarely hairy. The fruit 1–1.5 mm long, slightly compressed, lenticular to sub tetrahedral, weakly keeled, tuberculate. This is a quite variable species especially in the morphology and coloration of the leaves. The local people in West Java have recognized two main forms for the plant with orange or yellow fruit. They called the plants with incised leaves as male plants and the plants with entire leaves as female plants. There are also long-stemmed plants with red to dark red fruit having red abaxial leaf surfaces, the people in West Java named them as the “red amis mata.” The latter has once described as a formal variety. Distribution and Ecology: This species has been reported to occur in the lower Myanmar, Thailand, and western Malesia. In western Malesia, this species can be found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Bali, and Borneo. This species is quite rare in Borneo. This species grows from lowland to an elevation at 1500 m above sea level. There are various types of habitats recorded, as undergrowth in rocky or wet forests, rocky stream beds, secondary growth, under bamboo clumps, and urban forests (Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1931; Berg and Corner 2005; Defiani and Kriswiyanti 2019; Kochummen and Go 2000; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Ficus montana Burm.f.

455

Fig. 1 The living plant of Ficus montana (Moraceae), West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Mature figs without lateral bracts of Ficus montana (Moraceae), West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: People in Kintamani, Bali, use the leaves to cure headaches (Sudirga 2012). Malaysia: The Malay people in Malaysia use this species to cure syphilis or a condition locally called seduan sundal. An infusion is made from the roots of this species mixed with two plants that have local names tampa besi and sena. The roots are rubbed with water on a grindstone (Burkill 1935; Thomson 1907).

456

W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 3 Mature figs of Ficus montana (Moraceae) showing the lateral bracts on some receptacles and the dissected mature figs showing achenes, West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Local Food Uses Indonesia: Heyne (1916) noted that the sweet mature fruits of this species are eaten, highly likely, in Java. Fruit consumption was still prevalent in the 2000s, such as in the Baduy people, West Java (Suansa 2011). Young leaves are used as salads by the people in Java although the leaves are rough. The children in Java consume the mature fruits (Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1931). In Mount Salak area of West Java, this plant known as amis mata is considered as a vegetable (Suwena 2006).

Biocultural Importance and Other Uses Indonesia: In Java, the leaves were smoked as an additive to opium. The leaf decoction was also drunk by Javanese opium smokers. With the addition of a small amount of opium, the exhausted leaves are also smoked (Burkill 1935; Heyne 1916).

Economic Importance In Klungkung, Bali, this species has been reported as a plant that can be used to support ecotourism due to its medicinal value (Defiani and Kriswiyanti 2019).

References Berg CC, Corner EJH. Moraceae: Ficeae. Fl Males Ser I. 2005;17(2):1–702. Burkill IH. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula, 2 volumes. 2nd ed. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives; 1935.

Ficus montana Burm.f.

457

Defiani MR, Kriswiyanti E. Floral diversity in Mincidan village, Klungkung, Bali to support ecotourism. Simbiosis. 2019;7(1):14–21. (in Bahasa). Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indië, tevens synthetische catalogus der verzamelingen van het Museum voor Technische- en Handelsbotanie te Buitenzorg. Batavia: Ruygrok & Co; 1916. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.13465. (in Dutch). Jansen PCM, Jukema J, Oyen LPA, van Lingen TG. Ficus montana Burm.f. In: Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 2: edible fruits and nuts. PROSEA Foundation Bogor; 1991. Database record: prota4u.org/prosea. Retrieved 3 June 2020. Kochummen KM, Go R. Moraceae. In: Soepadmo E, Saw LG, editors. Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak, vol. 3. Selangor: Forest Research Institute Malaysia; 2000. p. 181–334. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Nuswantari ADWP. Keanekaragaman dan pola sebaran spesies tumbuhan asing invasif di Cagar Alam Tangkuban Parahu Sukabumi Jawa Barat [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2017. (in Bahasa). Ochse JJ, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC. Indische groenten (Met inbegrip van aardvruchten en kruiderijen). Batavia: Departement Landbouw; 1931. Plantamor. Plant info: amis mata (Ficus montana). 2020. http://plantamor.com/species/info/ficus/ montana. Retrieved 4 June 2020. Priyadi H, Takao G, Rahmawati I, Supriyanto B, Ikbal Nursal W, Rahman I. Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java: a checklist including Sundanese names, distribution and use. Bogor: CIFOR; 2010 Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2016. Suansa NI. Penggunaan pengetahuan etnobotani dalam pengelolaan hutan adat Baduy [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2011. Sudirga SK. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan sebagai obat tradisional di Desa Truyan Kecamatan Kintamani Kabupaten Bangli. Bumi Lest J Environ. 2012;4(2):7–18. Suwena M. Bioprospeksi tumbuhan liar edibel dalam kehidupan masyarakat di sekitar kawasan hutan Gunung Salak [dissertation]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2006. (in Bahasa). Thomson HW. Malay drugs. Agric Bull Straits FMS New Ser. 1907;6:160–5. Uji T. Keanekaragaman jenis buah-buahan asli Indonesia dan potensinya. Biodiversitas. 2007;8 (2):157–67. (in Bahasa).

Ficus padana Burm.f. MORACEAE Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, Wendy A. Mustaqim, and Rina Ratnasih Irwanto

Synonyms Ficus elegans Hassk.; Ficus toxica Thunb.; Ficus toxicaria L.

Local Names Indonesia: Simantung (Riau) (Grosvenor et al. 1995); hamerang, hamerang bodas, hamberang boddas, hamerang minyak (Sundanese) (Hasskarl 1845; Miquel 1859; Harada 2004; Zulnely et al. 2004; Priyadi et al. 2010); dedek, kebeg petah, kebeg putih (Javanese) (Dharma et al. 2017).

Botany and Ecology Description: Tree with an umbrella-shaped crown, up to 15 m tall, dioecious. The bole is up to 30 cm across. Plants with abundant milky latex. Twigs terete, 5–15 mm across, periderm flaking, clad with variously colored and types of hairs, whitish to pale A. S. D. Irsyam (*) Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia R. R. Irwanto School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_212

459

460

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

Fig. 1 Leafy branches of Ficus padana (Moraceae), North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

brown villose hairs, to nearly hirsute or nearly tomentose; the base of petiole with pairs of waxy glands, conspicuous or not. Leave simple, green above, whitish beneath, spirally arranged, borne on a 4–16 cm long petioles, these longer and reaching 30 cm in juvenile plants; lamina varies from ovate, cordate, elliptic, or less often oblong, juvenile leaves usually shallowly palmately 3- or 5-lobed, sometimes deeply so, with the central segment entire or pinnately lobed, up to 35 cm
25 cm, larger up to 50 cm
35 cm in juvenile plants, subcoriaceous or chartaceous, base cordate, margin minutely toothed or rarely entire, apex shortly acuminate to nearly acute; lateral veins usually 5–8, when juvenile up to 13 on each side of the midrib, red when fresh, the basal pair between 1/3 and ½ of the total lamina length, these branched, the other lateral veins furcate or branched far from the leaf margin, tertiarin veins scalariform, loose; the main basal lateral veins with waxy glands, other lateral nerves axil with smaller glands; upper surfaces glabrous or nearly so, whitish to pale brown villous beneath, indumentum on the main veins usually disappearing; leaf without cystoliths. Figs are borne from the axil of leaves, usually in pairs, sessile or nearly so, at the base with 3 basal bracts of 4–7 mm long, clad with villous to nearly sericeous hairs; receptacle depressed globose at the young stage, later subglobose, red at maturity, 3.5–5.5 cm across when fresh, 2–3.5 cm across when dry, stipe absent or usually 0.5– 1.5 cm long, clad with dark brown or pale villous hairs, the apex convex, ostiole 4–5 mm across, internal hairs white, few to numerous. Distribution and Ecology: This species is endemic to Sumatra, Java, and likely also native to the Lesser Sunda Islands. It can grow in the primary and secondary forests from lowland to an elevation of 1500 m.a.s.l. In Sumatra, it is highly likely that the fruit was dispersed by a rhino (Berg and Corner 2005; Dharma et al. 2017; Fern 2014; Miquel 1859; TFoB 2020). (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Ficus padana is categorized as a medicinal plant in Indonesia, both in Sumatra and Java (Grosvenor et al. 1995; Rahmawati 2017; Zulnely et al. 2004). Plants are harvested from the wild. In Riau, Sumatra, the crushed leaves are applied around

Ficus padana Burm.f.

461

Fig. 2 Apical part of the twig with figs of Ficus padana (Moraceae), North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

the stomach to cure stomachache or colic (Grosvenor et al. 1995). The leaves are used to treat dysentery and hemorrhoid by the local community in Pauh Tinggi Village, Kayu Aro, Mount Kerinci Seblat National Park, Jambi Province (Stevani 2013). In West Java, F. padana is also used to treat gonorrhea by the community around Cibodas Botanic Gardens and Mount Gede Pangrango National Park (Fahrurozi 2014). The milky latex is traditionally consumed by the Sundanese community in Mountain Halimun Salak National Park, West Java, to treat diarrhea (Harada 2003, 2004).

Phyochemistry Two types of anthocyanin have been isolated from the figs, namely, pelargonidin 3-(600 -p-coumarylglucoside)-5-(4000 -malonylglucoside) and pelargonidin 3-(600 -malonylglucoside) (Darwis et al. 2014; Syukri et al. 2014a, b). Pelargonidin 3-(600 -malonylglucoside) is the major component (91.4%) of the total anthocyanin in this species (Syukri et al. 2014b). The pigment has the potential to be used as source of antioxidant and natural dyes (Darwis et al. 2014; Syukri et al. 2014b). In addition, the chemical compounds extracted from the bark contains alkaloids, saponins, steroids, and tannins (Zulnely et al. 2004).

Local Food Uses Both the ripe and unripe figs are consumed (Dharma et al. 2017; Priyadi et al. 2010; Sugimura et al. 2015). Ripe figs are often consumed as fruits, and unripe figs are often cooked as vegetable by the Lombokese people in Nusa Tenggara (Dharma et al. 2017).

462

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

Other Uses Ficus padana is often used as rope and fuelwood materials by the Sundanese community surrounding Mount Halimun Salak National Park (Harada 2004; Priyadi et al. 2010). Its leaves are commonly used for livestock in Java (Dharma et al. 2017; Priyadi et al. 2010; Sugimura et al. 2015), notably horses, since the eighteenth century. It has also been claimed to have a purifying effect on the stomach (Hasskarl 1845). And due to its beautiful spreading crown, whitish and waxy abaxial leaves surface, and attractive figs color, F. padana is useful as an ornamental or shade tree (Dharma et al. 2017). Javanese people regularly utilize its boiled leaves to make a light grey wax, an important material for producing batik (Boer and Ella 2000). The species is also known as an exudate-producing plant (Boer and Ella 2000; Muhaimin and Nurlaeni 2018).

References Berg CC, Corner EJH. Moraceae. Fl Males Ser I. 2005;17(2):1–702. Boer E, Ella AB. Plant resources of South-East Asia 18: plants producing exudates. Leiden: Backhuys Publisher; 2000. Darwis D, Syukri D, Santoni A. The thermal resistance anthocyanin from Ficus padana Burm. f. as an alternative source of food dye. J Chem Pharm Res. 2014;6(10):536–8. Dharma IDP, Solihah SM, Kuswantoro F, Yuzammi. Ficus padana Burm. f. – Hamerang Putih. In: Witono JR, Hidayat S, editors. Koleksi Kebun Raya Lombok Tumbuhan Sunda Kecil. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2017. p. 72–3. (in Bahasa). Fahrurozi I. Keanekaragaman tumbuhan obat di Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango dan di hutan terfragmentasi Kebun Raya Cibodas serta pemanfaatannya oleh masyarakat lokal [undergraduate thesis]. Jakarta: Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta; 2014. Fern K. Tropical plant database: Ficus padana – useful tropical plants. 2014. http://tropical. theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id¼Ficus+padana. Retrieved 5 June 2020. Grosvenor PW, Gothard PK, McWilliam NC, Supriono A, Gray DO. Medicinal plants from Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Part 1: uses. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;45:75–95. Harada K. Policy of protected areas and local use of forest resources in Indonesia: a case study of a National Park in West Java. In: Inoue M, Isozaki H, editors. People and forest – policy and local reality in Southeast Asia, the Russian Far East, and Japan. Dordrecht: Springer; 2003. p. 231– 48. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2554-5. Harada K. Dependency of local people on the forests of Gunung Halimun National Park, West Java, Indonesia. Tropics. 2004;13(3):161–83. Hasskarl JK. Aanteekeningen over het nut, door de bewoners van Java aan eenige planten van dat eiland toegeschreven. Amsterdam: J. Müller; 1845. (in Dutch). Miquel FAW. Flora van Nederlansch Indië, vol. 1, 2nd pt. Amsterdam/Utrecht/Leipzig: C. G. van der Post/C. van der Post Jr/Fried Fleischer; 1859. (in Dutch). Muhaimin M, Nurlaeni Y. Exudate-producing plants collection of Cibodas Botanical Garden and its uses. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indones. 2018;4(2):151–7. https://doi.org/10.13057/psnmbi/ m040209. Priyadi H, Takao G, Rahmawati I, Supriyanto B, Nursal WI, Rahman I. Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java. Bogor: CIFOR; 2010. Rahmawati YM. Inventarisasi tumbuhan obat pada ketinggian 1.000 m dpl dan 1.200 m dpl di Taman Hutan Raya (Tahura) K.G.P.A.A Mangkunagoro 1 Ngargoyoso Kabupaten Karanganyar

Ficus padana Burm.f.

463

Provinsi Jawa Tengah [undergraduate thesis]. Surakarta: Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta; 2017. (in Bahasa). Stevani A. Etnobotani pangan dan obat masyarakat Desa Pauh Tinggi di sekitar Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat [undergraduate thesis] Bogor: IPB University; 2013. (in Bahasa). Sugimura K, Sahab A, Yata M, Kridalaksana A, Agus, Zanuansyah A, Ichwani SN, Nurika S, Howard TE. Local people’s use of non-timber forest products in the Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java. J Environ Stud Nagasaki Univ. 2015;18(1):16–27. Syukri D, Darwis D, Santoni A. Teknik isolasi antosianin utama dari ekstrak buah Ficus padana Burm.f. dengan KCKT tipe standar. J Farmasi Indones. 2014a;7(1):13–8. (in Bahasa). Syukri D, Darwis D, Santoni A. Major anthocyanin pigments in the Ficus padana fruits: HPLCDAD-ESI-MS identification and antioxidant activity. Indones J Chem. 2014b;14(3):297–303. TFoB. The figs of Borneo: Ficus padana: dispersed by rhinos in Sumatra. 2020. https://borneoficus. info/2020/06/02/ficus-padana-dispersed-by-rhinos-in-sumatra/. Retrieved 5 June 2020. Zulnely, Sumadiwangsa ES, Dahlian E, Kulsum U. Active ingredients of twenty medicinal plant species collected in Gunung Halimun National Park. J Penel Hasil Hut. 2004;22(1):43–50.

Ficus racemosa L. MORACEAE Dewi S. Amboupe and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Covellia glomerata (Roxb.) Miq.; Covellia lanceolata (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Miq.; Covellia mollis Miq.; Ficus acidula King; Ficus chittagonga Miq.; Ficus glomerata Roxb.; Ficus goolereea Roxb.; Ficus henrici King; Ficus lanceolata Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.; Ficus leucocarpa (Miq.) Miq.; Ficus lucescens Blume; Ficus racemosa var. vesca (F.Muell. ex Miq.) M.F.Barrett; Ficus semicostata F.M.Bailey; Ficus vesca F. Muell. ex Miq.; Urostigma leucocarpum Miq.; Urostigma lucescens (Blume) Miq.

Local Names Indonesia: Jawa: elo (Jawa Timur), loa, lowa (Sunda); Sulawesi: kenrang (Bentong), biraeng (Bantimurung); Sumbawa: ara (Samawa); Borneo: loa (Dayak Kanayatn); Sumatera: lauh putiah (Bengkulu); Malaysia: ara, ara nasi; Thailand: ma der (Phu Thai), duea kliang (Central, Northern), duea nam (Peninsular), maduea uthumphon (Central); Laos: dua kieng; Singapore: atteeka; Myanmar: atti, umbar, mayen; Cambodia: lovie; Vietnam: sung; English: cluster fig, blue fig, figwood, red river fig (Amboupe et al. 2019; Milow et al. 2010; Nguyen-Pouplin et al. 2007; Pholhiamhan et al. 2018; Portals 2015; Rahayu and Rustiami 2017; Roberto 2020; Siregar et al. 2019).

D. S. Amboupe (*) Plant Biology, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Science, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_181

465

466

D. S. Amboupe and W. A. Mustaqim

Botany and Ecology Description: Tree, up to 30 m tall, monoecious. Trunk diameter up to 90 cm, with buttresses. Bark grayish brown, surfaces smooth. Plants contain white, cream or pinkish latex. Twigs 1.5–3 mm across, internodes solid, clad with appressed minute hairs, hairs sparse to dense, periderm flaking off. Stipules usually 1.2–2 cm, less often as short as 0.5 cm or longer to 3 cm, slightly persistent or caducous, clad with hairs, as twigs or subtomentose, sometimes only ciliate. Leaves spirally arranged or less often subdistichous; petiole 1.5–7 cm long, glabrous or nearly so to appressed puberulous, epidermis flaking off; blades oblong, lanceolate, subovate or very rarely subobovate, mostly 6–20 cm long by 3–9 cm wide, rarely smaller, leathery or nearly so, base cuneate to rounded, less often cordate, margin entire, less often sublobate or irregularly toothed, apex acuminate to subacute; lateral veins 4–9 or rarely to 12 on each side of the midrib, basal lateral veins reaching 1/5 to 1/3 of the lamina length, branched or not, with waxy glands on its axil, often indistinct, tertiary venation scalariform; upper surfaces sparsely pilose or hairs only present on the midrib, lower surfaces with same hairs as the upper surfaces or on the main veins, cystolith present in the lower surfaces. Flowers unisexual, arranged in figs, figs cauliflorous, clustered, arranged in up to 25 cm long leafless branches, from the larger branches or trunk. Figs peduncle 3– 12 mm long, basal bracts 3, persistent, the receptacle nearly globose to subpyriform, 3–5 cm across when fresh, 1.5–3 cm across when dry, puberulous, lateral bracts absent, green at first, turn orange, red, pink or purple when mature, apex slightly concave to flat, ostiole prominent, ca. 3 mm across, inner side of receptacle glabrous, with many flowers-like protuberances. Male flowers sessile, calyx 3–4, stamens 2. Female flowers pedicellate, calyx lobes linear with 3–4-toothed apex, style lateral, ended with a clavate stigma. Many varieties are still recognized after 2000 s but the species concept used here is based on the latest revision by Cornelis Berg in Flora Malesiana. Distribution and Ecology: From Sri Lanka to east as far as Southern China, Thailand and Indochina, Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara and New Guinea, and Australia. It is often found along the rivers, either on secondary growth to forests, usually at low elevations and up to 1700 m.a.s.l. (Berg and Corner 2005; Chaudary et al. 2012; Kessler et al. 2002; Kochummen and Go 2000; Zhou and Gilbert 2003) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: People in Pasar Pino Village, Bengkulu, use root decoction as a traditional medicine to cure diarrhea (Siregar et al. 2019). Thailand: The plant is used as a part of the traditional antipyretic concoction named Ben-Cha-Lo-Ka-Wi-Chian. Four other plant species whose roots are used for preparing the concoction are Capparis micracantha, Clerodendrum petasites, Harrisonia perforata, and Tiliacora triandra (Singharachai et al. 2011). Vietnam: People in Vinh Cuu district of Dong Nai province, southern Vietnam, use this species to treat malaria and related sickness (Nguyen-Pouplin et al. 2007).

Ficus racemosa L.

467

Fig. 1 The living plant of Ficus racemosa (Moraceae). Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Leafy twigs and mature fig of Ficus racemosa (Moraceae). Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Phytochemistry Alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins can be found in roots, leaves, and fruits. Roots also contain cycloartenol, euphorbol, steroids, taraxerone, and tinyatoxin. Leaves also contain the phytochemicals glauanolacetate, glycosides, phenolic compound, racemosic acid, and

468

D. S. Amboupe and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 3 Immature figs of Ficus racemosa (Moraceae). Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 4 Sliced mature fig of Ficus racemosa (Moraceae). Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

tetra triterpene. Fruits also contain β-sitosterol, esters of taraxasterol, glauanol, glauanolacetate, hentriacontane, lupeolacetate, friedelin, phytosterol, steroids, and tiglic acid. Stem contains campesterol, glauanol acetate, hentriacontane, hentriacontanol, kaempferol, lupeolacetate, methyl ellagic acid, stigmasterol, α-amyrin acetate, and β-sitosterol. Phytochemistry of latex shows the presence of 4-deoxyphorbol and its esters, α-amyrin, β-sitosterol, cycloartenol, cycloeuphordenol, euphorbinol, isoeuphorbol, palmitic acid, taraxerol, tinyatoxin, and trimethylellagic acid (Chaware et al. 2020).

Bioactivities Ficus racemosa shows antimicrobial activity against the bacteria Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Lactococcus sp., and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as the fungi Fusarium spp. Root extracts are effective against

Ficus racemosa L.

469

Escherichia coli and Shigella dysenteriae; root and bark extracts are also antidiarrheal. Extracts show larvicidal effects against Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, and Culex quinquefasciatus; extracts are also effective against the worm Setaria cervi. The antioxidant properties of F. racemosa has been recorded from the plants, from roots, leaves, and fruits. In addition to the antioxidant properties, this species also displays radioprotective activity. Antilipidemic activities have been reported from roots, stem, and stem bark, while hypoglycemic activity is recorded from the fruits. Antihyperlipidemic activity has been recorded from the stem bark. Antidiabetic activities have been reported from the stem and its bark. Several reports exist on the anti-inflammatory properties of stem bark and leaves. Hepatoprotective activities have been recorded from stem bark and leaves, while gastroprotective activity is reported from a study on the fruit extract. Analgesic activity also has been reported from leaf extracts and also from the bark (Ahmed and Urooj 2010; Chaware et al. 2020; Lim 2012; Siregar et al. 2019; Singharachai et al. 2011). A study by Nguyen-Pouplin et al. (2007) found no cytotoxic activity in HeLa and MRC5 cancer cell lines, and only a minor inhibition of antiplasmodial activity. Ethanol and water extracts show cytotoxic activities on Artemia salina. In the food industry, the species is regarded to be safe by studies using several assays including the brine shrimp lethality test (Ahmed and Urooj 2010).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: In Sulawesi, the Bentong people used the ripe fruit as a staple food while they were nomadic. The ripe fruit is split, flattened and steamed as food (Amboupe et al. 2019). The Samawa of Sumbawa Island also used the ripe fruit as food and the young leaves as vegetables (Rahayu and Rustiami 2017).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: In Borneo, the Dayak Kanayatn use the wood to prepare traditional clothing (Roberto 2020). In East Java, local names of Ficus racemosa (ngelo, lo, elo) also form toponyms for villages (Portals 2015). Malaysia: Ficus racemosa is planted as an ornamental in home gardens of Pahang (Milow et al. 2010).

References Ahmed F, Urooj A. Traditional uses, medicinal properties, and phytopharmacology of Ficus racemosa: a review. Pharm Biol. 2010;48(6):672–81. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880200903241861. Amboupe DS, Hartana A, Purwanto Y. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan pangan masyarakat Suku Bentong di Kabupaten Barru Sulawesi Selatan-Indonesia. Med Konserv. 2019;24(3):278–86. (in Bahasa). Berg CC, Corner EJH. Moraceae. Fl Malesiana ser 1, 2005;17(2):1702.

470

D. S. Amboupe and W. A. Mustaqim

Chaudary LB, Sudhakar JV, Kumar A, Bajpai O, Tiwari R, Murthy GVS. Synopsis of the genus Ficus L. (Moraceae) in India. Taiwania. 2012;57(2):193–216. Chaware GK, Kumar V, Kumar S, Kumar P. Bioactive compounds, pharmacological activity and food application of Ficus racemosa: a critical review. Int J Fruit Sci. 2020. https://doi.org/10. 1080/15538362.2020.1774467. Kessler PJA, Bos MM, Sierra Daza SEC, Kop A, Willemse LPM, Pitopang R, Gradstein SR. Checklist of woody plants of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea (Supplement). 2002;14:1–160. Kochummen KM, Go R. Moraceae. In: Soepadmo E, Saw LG, editors. Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak 3. Selangor: Forest Research Institute Malaysia; 2000. p. 181–334. Lim TK. Edible medicinal and non medicinal plants, Fruits, vol. 3. Dordrecht: Springer; 2012. Milow P, Ramli MR, Chooi OH. Preliminary survey on plants in home gardens in Pahang, Malaysia. J Biodiversity. 2010;1(1):19–25. Nguyen-Pouplin J, Tran H, Tran H, Phan TA, Dolecek C, Farrar J, Tran TH, Caron P, Bodo B, Grellier P. Antimalarial and cytotoxic activities of ethnopharmacologically selected medicinal plants from South Vietnam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;109:417–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep. 2006.08.011. Pholhiamhan R, Saensouk S, Saensouk P. Ethnobotany of Phu Thai Ethnic Group in Nokhon Phanom Province, Thailand. Wailalak J Sci Tech. 2018;15(10):679–99. Portals. PlantUse English. 2015. Retrieved 16:14, June 20, 2020 from https://uses.plantnetproject. org/e/index.php?title¼Portal:Portals&oldid¼200350. Rahayu M, Rustiami H. Etnobotani masyarakat Samawa Pulau Sumbawa. Scripta Biol. 2017;4(4):235–45. Roberto R. Rusmiyanto E. Etnobotani pakaian adat dalam kegiatan ritual masyarakat Etnis Dayak Kanayatn di Kalimantan Barat. Protobiont. 2020;9(1):30–5. (in Bahasa). Singharachai C, Phalanujev C, Kiyohara H, Yamada H, Ruangrungsi N. Safety evaluation of Thai traditional medicine remedy: Ben-Cha-Lo-Ka-Wi-Chian. J Health Res. 2011;25(2):83–90. Siregar BC, Darwis W, Sariyanti M. Uji Efektivitas Ekstrak Akar Tanaman lauh Putiah (Ficus racemosa L.) Terhadap Bakteri Escherichia coli dan Shigella dysenteriae Penyebab Diare. JKR. 2019;5(1):53–63. Zhou Z, Gilbert MG. Moraceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, Ulmaceae through Basellaceae, vol. 5. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden; 2003. p. 21–73.

Ficus septica Burm.f. MORACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Covellia leucantatoma (Poir.) Miq.; Covellia leucopleura (Blume) Miq.; Covellia radiata (Decne.) Miq.; Covellia rapiformis (Roxb.) Miq.; Covellia stictocarpa Miq.; Covellia venosa (Willd.) Miq.; Cystogyne leucosticta (Spreng.) Gasp.; Ficus brunnea Merr.; Ficus casearia F.Muell. ex Benth.; Ficus didymophylla Warb.; Ficus geminifolia Miq.; Ficus hauilii Blanco; Ficus kaukauensis Hayata; Ficus laccifera auct. non Roxb.; Ficus laxiramea Elmer; Ficus leucantatoma Poir.; Ficus leucopleura Blume; Ficus leucosticta Spreng.; Ficus linearis Merr.; Ficus oldhamii Hance; Ficus paludosa Perr.; Ficus philippinensis Bonard ex Hérincq; Ficus radiata Decne; Ficus rapiformis Roxb.; Ficus septica Rumph.; Ficus septica Burm.f. var. cauliflora Corner; Ficus septica Burm.f. var. salicifolia Corner; Ficus stictocarpa (Miq.) Miq.; Ficus venosa Willd.; Ficus verrucosa Vahl

Local Names Indonesia: Awar-awar (Jawa and Bali, also Indonesia) – bar abar (Madura) – buas, tobbo-tobbo, tobo-tobo, puwah (Sulawesi) – libo (Baubau in Sulawesi) – loloyan (Sulawesi, Tombulu) – kampu loli, limboni (Sulawesi in Wawonii) – kuciat, ki ciyat (¼ ki tjijat), leuksa (Sundanese) – leboni, sirih popar (Ambon) – lebanno (Luwu in South Sulawesi)  levonu (Sigi in Sulawesi) – tagalolo (Manado in Sulawesi and Ternate) – tagalolo (North Minahasa) – tobo-tobo (Maros in South Sulawesi). Malaysia: uok (Kelabit in Sarawak). Philippines: hauili, kauili  anaydos (Bontoc)

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_85

471

472

W. A. Mustaqim

– hawili (Albay) – sio (Bikol) (Arnold et al. 2017; Buot 2009; Fathurrahman et al. 2016; Hasanah et al. 2017; Heyne 1916; Kaunang and Semuel 2017; Kessler et al. 2002; Mustofa et al. 2020; Naufal et al. 2014; Priyadi et al. 2010; Reid and Madulid 1972; Rojo et al. 1999; Rugayah et al. 2015; Slamet and Andarias 2018; Tallei et al. 2016; Zuhri 2016).

Botany and Ecology A dioecious tree, up to 25 m tall and diameter up to 20 cm. Trunk sometimes developed, bark smooth, gray. Twigs hollow, reddish-brown when dry, epidermis flaking off, waxy gland present on nodes, glabrous, or rarely with minute sparse to dense minute hairs. Plants with abundant milky to yellowish latex. Stipules lanceolate, 1–6 (8) cm long, acute, glabrous, and caducous. Leaves simple, spirally arranged or subopposite, elliptic to oblong, less often ovate, obovate, or lanceolate, sometimes slightly asymmetric, 7–28 (35)  3–14 (30) cm, thinly coriaceous, base broadly cuneate to obtuse, margin entire, apex acute or acuminate, midrib immersed in the lower half, flat or raised upwards, lateral veins 6–12 (15) on each side of the midrib, raised on both surfaces, basal pairs less than 1/3 of the lamina length, axillary glands absent or in some axil of lateral nerves, venation finely reticulate, visible on both surfaces, petiole (0.5) 1–5 (12) cm long. Inflorescence syconia, axillary or from the recently defoliate twigs, solitary or paired, or up to 4 together, peduncle up to 1.2 cm or rarely to 2.2 cm long, receptacle subglobose to depressed globose or apically depressed, less often ellipsoid, 1.2–2 (3.5) cm across when dry, 2–3 (5) cm across when fresh, stipe absent or rarely to 0.7 cm long, lateral bracts absent, longitudinal ribs 7–12, more distinct toward the ostiole, glabrous, whitish to yellowish maculate to purplish at maturity, concave or flat at the apex, ostiole 2–4 mm across, sunken, prominent or flat, basal bracts 3, verticillate, 1–2 mm long, inner surfaces of receptacle scarcely white pubescent. Tepals of 2–3 connate lobes. Fruit achenes, up to 1 mm long, faintly keeled, minutely tuberculate. A minor variation in the morphology has been reported for this species: the presence of hairs in some Philippines specimens and large-leaved plants from Sulawesi with considerably larger receptacle (c. 3.5 cm across when dry), willow-leaved form in the Philippines and cauliflorous plant from Queensland (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Distribution: Widely distributed in Southern Asia, east to Southern China, Hainan, Formosa (Taiwan), and Japan, eastern part of West Malesia to the east as far as Australia, and many locations in Pacific Islands. In Southeast Asia, this species has been recorded from the southern half of Sumatra, Java, east Borneo, Philippines, Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku Archipelago, and Indonesian New Guinea. It grows in lowland to submontane or higher up to the montane forests at an elevation up to 1800 m. It occurs in both primary and secondary vegetation. In Malesia, this species is more often found in riverine ecosystems. This species is also adapted to urbanized ecosystems including urban forests (Kochummen and Go 2000; Berg and Corner 2005; Naufal et al. 2014; Zuhri 2016).

Ficus septica Burm.f.

473

Fig. 1 Living plant of Ficus septica (Moraceae). Jakarta, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Leafy twigs of Ficus septica (Moraceae). Mamasa, Sulawesi Barat Province, Sulawesi, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The Wolio community of Baubau, Southeast Sulawesi, uses the roots and leaves of this species for medicinal purposes. Roots are peeled, brewed in hot water, and consumed to cure tuberculosis. Leaves are used to treat hemorrhoids. This is done by heating the leaf blades, and the patients are required to sit above it (Slamet and Andarias 2018). In Sulawesi, the leaves are boiled with Achyranthes aspera leaves and rhizome of Cheilocostus speciosus, and used as a compress to treat fever (Sari et al. 2017). In North Minahasa, the bark is boiled and the water is consumed to treat malaria (Kaunang and Semuel 2017). A study carried out in North Sulawesi, covering Mongondow and Miangas, shows that the plants are used to cure seizures,

474

W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 3 Figs of Ficus septica (Moraceae). Depok, West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

and to lower blood sugar levels. The inner parts of the twigs are scrapped and mixed with bean flowers and one clove of garlic and then crushed. Some water can be extracted from the crushed mixture which is then dripped into the eyes of patient. To lower blood sugar, water from boiled roots are drunk (Nurrani and Kinho 2013). Sigi community in Central Sulawesi also consumes decoction of young leaves to cure headaches and traveling sickness (Arnold et al. 2017). Leaves are consumed to cure diabetes by local people of North Luwu, Sulawesi Selatan Province (Mustofa et al. 2020). Philippines: The bark is used as emollient to cure diarrhea by local people of Surigao del Sur, Southern Mindanao (Blasco et al. 2014).

Phytochemistry Phytochemical studies have been carried out in every part of the plant, and a good summary has been provided by Lansky et al. (2008); alkaloids, coumarin, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, pyrimidine, sterols, and triterpenoids are reported from this species. A later investigation by Kaunang and Semuel (2017) also reported the presence of tannin. Chemical compounds of rootbarks have been studied. Three isoflavones were reported from this species, namely, ficusin A, ficusin B, and genistein (Nomura et al. 1995). An investigation on dried roots by Damu et al. (2009) recorded the presence of 13aRtylophorine, 13aR-isotylocrebrine, 13aR-tylocrebrine, 13aR-antofine, ficuseptines A–B and E–N, dehydrotylophorine, 10S,13aR-isotylocrebrine N-oxide, 10R,13aR-tylophorine N-oxide, and 10S,13aR-tylocrebrine N-oxide. Flavanone, a group of flavonoids, has also been identified from the rootbarks of this species (Sukadana 2010). The stem bark is a source of ficusin B (Nomura et al. 1995), a non-alkaloid 13,27cycloursan-3β-ylacetate which is a rare triterpene, and other 21 compounds, namely, α-amyrin, α-amyrin-acetate, β-amyrin, β-amyrin aceate, asparagin, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-hydroxy cinnamic acid, lirioresionl-A, lirioresinol-C, lupeol, methyl trans-p-hydroxycinnamate, simiarenol, a mix of

Ficus septica Burm.f.

475

β-sitosterol with stigmasterol, β-sitosteryl glucoside, syringic aldehyde, vanillic acid, tachioside, and mixture of trans-p-methoxycinnamic acid with cis-p-methoxycinnamic acid (Kuo et al. 2002). Some alkaloids such as ficuseptine B–D, 10R,13aR-tylophorine N-oxide, 10R,13aR-tylocrebrine N-oxide, 10S,13aR-tylocrebrine N-oxide, 10S,13aRisotylocrebrine N-oxide, and 10S,13aS-isotylocrebrine N-oxide have also been reported (Damu et al. 2005). Twigs contain β-sitosteryl-3β-glucopyranoside-60 -O-fatty acid esters, β-sitosterol, α-amyrin fatty acid ester, stigmasterol (Ragasa et al. 2016), dehydrotylophorine, dehydroantofine, 4a,b-seco-dehydroantofine, and tylophoricidine (Kubo et al. 2016). Phytochemical investigations on the leaves show the presence of β-amyrin (Ragasa et al. 2016) and many indolizine alkaloids, namely, antofine, ficuseptine (4,6-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1,2,3-trihydroindolizidinium chloride) (Baumgartner et al. 1990), easculin, ficuseptine A, E–N, genistin, kaemferitrin, 5-Acetyl-2-hydroxyphenyldglucopyranoside, vanillic acid, uracil, β-sitosterol-β-d-glucoside, squalene, (+)-tylocrebrine, (+)-isotylocrebrine, and (+)-tylophorine (Lansky et al. 2008; Wu et al. 2002). More alkaloids have been reported by Ueda et al. (2009) including (1) six phenanthroindolizidines, namely, 14-hydroxy-2,3,4,6,7-pentamethoxyphenanthroindolizidine, ficuseptine A, tylophorine, 14R-hydroxyisocrebrine N-oxide, isotylocebrine, and 14hydroxy-3,4,6,7-tetramethoxyphenanthroindolizidine; (2) three caprophenones, namely, ficuseptamine A, B, and C; (3) two pyrolidines including norruspoline and phyllosterone; (4) two seco-phenanthroindolizidines, namely, septicine and secoantofine; and (5) one acetophenone glucoside, namely, pungenin. A comprehensive review by Lansky et al. (2008) shows that Ficus septica has potential anticancer properties (Wu et al. 2002). The alkaloid contents of leaves show great cytotoxicity against cancer in humans (Wu et al. 2002), a property which is also applicable to stem (Damu et al. 2005) and roots (Damu et al. 2009). These claims are further supported by Nugroho et al. (2013) who reported that n-hexane insoluble fraction (HIF) of F. septica leaves when combined with doxorubicin fractions is effective against breast cancer T47D cell lines. F. septica contains alkaloids such as indole alkaloid that show cytotoxic effect on breast cancer cells (Nugroho et al. 2015). Apoptosis enhancing activity was also reported in induced rat liver cancer (Septhea et al. 2011), and breast cancer cells MCF-7 (Sekti et al. 2010). Combined with doxorubicin the n-hexane insoluble fraction also displayed an immunomodulatory effect (Nugroho et al. 2012). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antimicrobial activities were also reported from the methanolic extracts (Rojo et al. 1999; Sudirga et al. 2014), while ethanolic extract also displayed antifungal activity (Vital et al. 2010). Huang et al. (2017) demonstrated the potential of plant extract against certain types of dengue virus at the laboratory scale.

Biocultural Importance The dried leaves are used as a substitute for opium in Java, Indonesia. Both opium and F. septica are often mixed together and used (Rojo et al. 1999). In Bontoc of the Philippines, the bark is used as raw material to produce thread (Reid and Madulid 1972).

476

W. A. Mustaqim

Economic Importance Ethanolic leaf extracts of this species can be used as an antibacterial for a fish pathogen. Therefore, F. septica is recommended as a source of natural active compounds for aquaculture (Tkachenko et al. 2016).

References Arnold, Harijanto H, Sustri. Keanekaragaman jenis dan pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat di kawasan Taman Nasional Lore Lindu (TNLL) di Desa Mataue Kecamatan Kulawi Kabupaten Sigi. Warta Rimba. 2017;5(1):71–9. (in Bahasa). Baumgartner B, Erdelmeier CAJ, Wright AD, Rali T, Sticher O. An antimocrobial alkaloid from Ficus septica. Phytochemistry. 1990;29(10):3327–30. Berg CC, Corner EJH. Moraceae. Flora Malesiana Ser 1. 2005;17(2):1–702. Blasco FA, De Guzman GQ, Alejandro GJD. A survey of ethnomedicinal plants in Surigao Del Sur Mountain Range, Philippines. Int J Pure App Biosci. 2014;2(4):166–72. Buot IE Jr. An ethnobotanical study of the plant biodiversity of Mt. Mayon, Bicol Peninsula, Albay, Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2009;8(1):1–10. Damu AG, Kuo PC, Shil LS, Li CY, Kuoh CS, Wu PL, Wu TS. Phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids from the stems of Ficus septica. J Nat Prod. 2005;68:1071–5. Damu AG, Kuo PC, Shi LS, Li CY, Su CR, Wu TS. Cytotoxic phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids from the roots of Ficus septica. Planta Med. 2009;75:1152–6. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-00291185483. Fathurrahman F, Nursanto J, Madjid A, Ramadanil R. Ethnobotanical study of “Kaili Inde” tribe in Central Sulawesi Indonesia. Emir J Food Agric. 2016;28(5):337–47. Hasanah U, Saptasari M, Dahlia. Studi jenis dan potensi obat pada tumbuhan Ficus. J Pend Teori Penelit Pengemb. 2017;2(7):986–90. (in Bahasa). Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Nederschland-Indië, deel II. Batavia: Ruygrok & Co; 1916. (in Dutch). Huang NC, Hung WT, Tsai WL, Lai FY, Lin YS, Huang MS, Chen JJ, Lin WY, Weng JR, Chang TH. Ficus septica plant extracts for treating Dengue virus in vitro. PeerJ. 2017;5:e3448. https:// doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3448. Kaunang ENS, Semuel MY. Botanical and phytochemical constituents of several medicinal plants from mount Klabat North Minahasa. J Med Plants Stud. 2017;5(2):29–35. Kessler PJA, Bos MM, Sierra Daza SEC, Kop A, Willemse LPM, Pitopang R, Gradstein SR. Checklist of woody plants of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea Suppl. 2002;14:1–160. Kochummen KM, Go R. Moraceae. In: Soepadmo E, Saw LG, editors. Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak 3. Selangor: Forest Research Institute Malaysia; 2000. p. 181–334. Kubo M, Yatsuzuka W, Matshushima S, Harada K, Inoue Y, Miyamoto H, Matsumoto M, Fukuyama Y. Antimalarial phenanthroindolizine alkaloids from Ficus septica. Chem Pharm Bull. 2016;64(7):957–60. Kuo PC, Chm CC, Shi LS, Li CY, Wu SJ, Damu AG, Wu PL, Kuoh CS, Wu TS. Non-alkaloidal constituents from the stem of Ficus septica. J Chin Chem Soc. 2002;49:113–6. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/jccs.200200019. Lansky EP, Paavilainen HM, Pawlus AD, Newman RA. Ficus spp. (fig): Ethnobotany and potential as anticancer and anti-inflammatory agents. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;119:195–213. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.06.025 Mustofa FI, Rahmawati N, Aminullah. Medicinal plants and practices of Rongkong traditional healers in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2020;21(2):641–51. https://doi.org/ 10.13057/biodiv/d210229. Naufal MI, Alfarishy D, Mustaqim WA, Muhaimin M, Sari IP, Anggraeni R, Adnan ML, Saputra R. Buku inventaris jenis-jenis pohon hutan kota Universitas Indonesia seri 1: Wales Barat.

Ficus septica Burm.f.

477

Depok: Subdirektorat Pembinaan Lingkungan Kampus Universitas Indonesia; 2014. (in Bahasa). Nomura T, Aida M, Hano Y. Ficusins A and B, two new cyclic-monoterpene-substituted isoflavones from Ficus septica Barm. F. Heterocycles. 1995;41(12):2761–8. https://doi.org/10.3987/COM95-7213. Nugroho AE, Hermawan A, Nastiti K, Suven, Elisa P, Hadibarata T, Meiyanto E. Immunomodulatory effects of hexane insoluble fraction of Ficus septica Burm.f. in doxorubicin-treated rats. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2012;13(11):5785–90. https://doi.org/ 10.7314/APJCP.2012.13.11.5785. Nugroho AE, Hermawan A, Putri DDP, Novika A, Meiyanto E. Combinational effects of hexane insoluble fraction of Ficus septica Burm. F. and doxorubicin chemotherapy on T47D breast cancer cells. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2013;3(4):297–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/S22211691(13)60066-0. Nugroho AE, Akbar FF, Wiyani A, Sudarsono. Cytotoxic effect and constituent profile of alkaloid fractions from ethanolic extract of Ficus septica Burm. f. leaves on T47D breast cancer cells. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2015;16(16):7337–42. https://doi.org/10.7314/APJCP.2015.16.16.7337. Nurrani L, Kinho J. Utilization of natural plant by the North Sulawesi community as a lowering of diabetic. In: Langi M, Tasirin JS, Walangitan HJ, Masson G, editors. Proceeding international conference “forest and biodiversity”. Manado: Manado Forestry Research Institute; 2013. p. 442–52. Priyadi B, Takao G, Rahmawati I, Supriyanto B, Nursal WI, Rahman I. Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java: a checklist including Sundanese names, distribution and use. Bogor: CIFOR; 2010. (in Bahasa). Ragasa CY, Macuha MR, De Los Reyes MM, Mandia EH, Van Altena IA. Chemical constituents of Ficus septica Burm. f. Int J Pharm Clin Res. 2016;8(11):1464–9. Reid LA, Madulid D. Some comments on Bontoc ethnobotany. Philipp J Ling. 1972;3:1–24. Rojo JP, Pitargue FC, Sosef MSM, Ficus L. In: de Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 12(1): medicinal and poisonous plants 1. Leiden: Backhuys Publisher; 1999. p. 277–89. Rugayah, Sunarti S, Sulistiarini D, Hidayat A, Rahayu M. Daftar jenis tumbuhan di Pulau Wawonii, Sulawesi Tenggara. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2015. (in Bahasa). Sari N, Wahidah BF, Gaffar NA. Etnobotani tumbuhan yang digunakan dalam pengobatan tradisional di Kecamatan Sinjai Selatan Kabupaten Sinjai Sulawesi Selatan. In: Prosiding seminar nasional biology for life. Gowa: UIN Alauddin Makassar; 2017. p. 6–13. (in Bahasa). Sekti DA, Mubarok MF, Armandani I, Junedy S, Meiyanto E. Awar–awar (Ficus septica Burm. f.) leaves ethanolic extract induced apoptosis of MCF-7 cells by downregulation of Bcl-2. J Trad Med. 2010;15(3):100–4. (in Bahasa). Septhea DBS, Anindyajati DAP, Nurjizah I, Nugroho AE, Meiyanto E. Ficus septica Burm. f. leaves ethanolic extract induces apoptosis in 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]nthracene-induced rat liver cancer quatitavely. Indones J Cancer Chemoprev. 2011;2(2):255–60. Slamet A, Andarias SH. Ethnobotany study and identification of medicinal plants of Wolio sub-ethnic in Baubau City Southeast Sulawesi. Proc Biol Educ Conf. 2018;15(1):721–32. (in Bahasa). Sudirga SK, Suprapta DN, Sudana IM, Wirya IGNAS. Antifungal activity of leaf extract of Ficus septica against Colletotrichum acutatum the cause of anthracnose disease on chili pepper. J Biol Agric Health. 2014;4(28):47–52. Sukadana IM. Aktivitas antibakteri senyawa flavonoid dari kulit akar awar-awar (Ficus septica Burm F). J Kimia. 2010;4(1):63–70. (in Bahasa). Tallei TE, Nangoy MJ, Saroyo. Potensi biodiversitas tumbuhan di Taman Hutan Raya Gunung Tumpa sebagai basis ketahanan pangan masyarakat lokal. In: Prosiding seminar nasional Pertanian 2016. Manado: Universitas Sam Ratulangi; 2016. (in Bahasa). Tkachenko H, Buyun L, Terech-Majewska E, Osadowski Z. Antibacterial activity of ethanolic leaf extracts obtained from various Ficus species (Moraceae) against the fish pathogen, Citrobacter freundii. J Ecol Protect Coast. 2016;20:117–36. Ueda J, Takagi M, Shin-ya K. Aminocaprophenone- and pyrrolidine-type alkaloids from the leaves of Ficus septica. J Nat Prod. 2009;72:2181–3. https://doi.org/10.1021/np900580f.

478

W. A. Mustaqim

Vital PG, Velasco RN Jr, Demigillo JM, Rivera WL. Antimicrobial activity, cytotoxicity and phytochemical screening of Ficus septica Burm and Sterculia foetida L. leaf extracts. J Med Plant Res. 2010;4(1):58–63. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR09.400. Wu PL, Rao KV, Su CH, Kuoh CS, Wu TS. Phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids and their cytotoxicity from the leaves of Ficus septica. Heterocycles. 2002;57(12):2401–8. https://doi.org/10.3987/ COM-02-9615. Zuhri M. Jenis-jenis Ficus di kawasan timur Gunung Galunggung, Jawa Barat. Warta Keb Raya. 2016;14(1):21–9. (in Bahasa).

Flacourtia inermis Roxb. SALICACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim and Reza Raihandhany Yus

Synonyms Flacourtia quintuplinervis Turcz.; Flacourtia sapida (non Roxb.) Teijsm. & Binn. var. moluccana Sleumer: Flacourtia cataphracta (non Roxb.) Scheff. var. rindjanica (Sloot.) Sleumer: Flacourtia lanceolata Sloot.; Flacourtia rindjanica Sloot.

Local Names var. inermis: Indonesia: Lobi-lobi, lobi-lobi asĕm, rukĕm, rukam – balakko, lubi-lubi (Batak) – kamonju, mengkoronda (Baree, South Sulawesi) – kegboi (Manokwari) – kenilango (Boeol in Central Sulawesi) – lobi-lobi (Bintan in Riau, Lampung, Java) – lobe-lobe (Makassar in South Sulawesi) – lubi-lubi (Malay in Singkep, Minangkabau in West Sumatra) – lubilubi (Sumatera) – rukem belanda (Malay, Lingga)) – saradan kayu (Sundanese) – tombi-tombi (South Halmahera) – tome-tome, tomi-tomi (Maluku, Manado) – tomo-tomo, tomu-tomu (South Seram, Maluku Archipelago). Malaysia: lobeh-lobeh, rokam masam, rukam, rukam masam, tomi-tomi. Philippines: ratiles. Thailand: takhop-thai. English: batoko plum, governor plum, thornless rukam, plum of Martinique. var. moluccana: Indonesia: halimaditoko (Tobelo in Halmahera). var. rindjanica: W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia R. R. Yus Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_158

479

480

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Indonesia: lobah (Sumba) (Amboupe et al. 2019; Lim 2013; NBP 2019; Sleumer 1954; Slik 2009; Zurriyati and Dahono 2016).

Botany and Ecology Description: Small tree, unarmed, up to 15 m tall. Stem up to 35 cm across, outer bark grey or brown, smooth. Twigs hairy, with scattered lenticels. Leaves simple, alternate, on 0.5–1.2 cm long petiole, blades red when young, shining on both surfaces, ovate-elliptic to ovate-oblong, 10–20  (4–)5–8( 12) cm, firmly leathery, base cuneate to broadly rounded, margin crenate, apex acutely acuminate; midrib slightly raised above, distinctly raised beneath, lateral veins 5–7 on each side of the midrib, ascending, curved, slightly prominent above, rather distinct beneath; glabrous except the puberulous midrib on both surfaces, olivaceous brown when dry. Inflorescence a condensed raceme, sometimes subfascicle, up to 5-flowered, 1–1.5 cm long, clad with the minute and rather sparse hairs, basally with several small bracts; flower pedicels 4–10 mm long, hairy. Flowers bisexual; sepals 4–5, rarely 3, green, ovate, 1–2  1.5–2.25 mm, apex obtuse, subglabrous to hairy outside, densely hairy inside. Stamens 15–25, with glabrous filaments, stamens sometimes not fully developed, c. 2.5 mm long. Disk more or less lobed, lobes 6–8. Ovary ovoid, contracted at the apex, style 4–5, central, slightly connate at the base, arms slightly spreading, stigma cuneate or disciform. Fruit pink to red, globose, 2–2.5 cm across, basally with persistent stamens or filaments, apex crowned by persistent styles; pyrene 8–10. Besides the typical variety, there are two other varieties recognized for this species. The first is var. rindjanica (Sloot.) Sleumer which differs in having the lanceolate and attenuate leaves, blades 12–18  3–5 cm, with attenuate-cuneate base. The second is var. moluccana Sleumer which differs in having smaller leaves, measuring 5–8 cm long, rarely to 11 cm long and leaf base truncate or nearly rounded as well as the presence of green-colored fruit. Phenology: Flowering period start from January to February, while the fruiting season is from May to July. Distribution and Ecology: Native distribution of this species is uncertain. It has been cultivated in many regions of the tropics. Usually, this species grows near the human habitations. In Southeast Asia, this species can be found almost throughout the region. This species is cultivated in a range of elevations from near sea level to 1300 m above sea level. It is also found growing in sandy soils near the sea. The var. rindjanica is endemic to Lombok and Sumba in Nusa Tenggara Archipelago. It grows on monsoon forests at a range of elevation from 750 to 950 m above sea level on clayey soils. While, the var. moluccana was recorded from Halmahera and Morotai in the northern Maluku Archipelago and extends to New Guinea in Andai, McCluer Gulf, and Wissel Lake. This variety was found growing in coralline limestone mostly on lowlands. The fruiting season starts in January and ends in April (Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1963; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; Sleumer 1954; Slik 2009-onwards) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Flacourtia inermis Roxb.

481

Fig. 1 Leafy twigs of Flacourtia inermis (Salicaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Flacourtia inermis (Salicaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The red cherry fruits are edible despite its very sour taste. According to Lestari et al. (2018), this species is one of the 46 edible plant species found in the private forests in the Subdistrict Rumpin, of Bogor (West Java). Fruits are also reported to be consumed by the people of Kampung Adat (traditional village) in

482

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Fig. 3 Fruits of Flacourtia inermis (Salicaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Ciamis Regency (West Java), Indigenous people in Gunung Halimun National Park (West Java), The Dayak Tahol people of Malinau Regency (North Borneo), and the Bentong community of Bulo-Bulo (South Sulawesi) (Amboupe et al. 2019; Ardiansyah et al. 2018; Pratama et al. 2019; Rahayu and Harada 2004). A study by Sujarwo et al. (2016) on wild and semi-wild edible plants used by the Bali Aga categorizes the species as wild or semi-wild relative of vegetable crops. Local people of Ambon, Maluku consume the fruit as a component of their local culinary food called rujak natsepa (mixed fruit with peanut and chili sauce) (Pelima 2016).

Phytochemistry The fruits contain alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, tannins, and triterpenoids (Salmiyah and Bahruddin 2018). Jayasinghe et al. (2012) discovered: (1) a phenolic glucoside named (rel)-6α-benzoyloxy-1α,2α-dihydroxy-5-oxocyclohex-3-enecarboxylic acid 2-(6-O-benzoyl-β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-5-hydroxybenzyl ester; (2) five caffeoylquinic acid derivatives named n-butyl chlorogenate, n-butyl 5-O-caffeoylquinate, methyl 4-O-caffeoylquinate, methyl chlorogenate, methyl 5-Ocaffeoylquinate; and (3) two other compounds named malic acid and quinic acid. Some other compounds also have been identified including (S)-malic acid (Alakolanga 2015a), 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (Benny et al. 2010), and some anthocyanins including anthocyanidin e-glucoside, cyanidin 3-glucoside, and delphinidin 3-glucoside (Fitriyani et al. 2018). Leaf methanolic extracts show allelopathic effect on several crop species including Brassica nigra, Cicer arietinum, Vigna radiata, and Vigna unguiculata (Antony and Benny 2016). Fresh fruit extract is proven to have blood sugar lowering activity. This was tested using the extracts against α-amylase and α-glucosidase in vitro (Alakolanga et al. 2015b). The fruit extracts also exhibit activity against lipase enzyme. A chemical compound named (S)-malic acid is responsible for those activities; it also shows moderate activity on DPPH radical scavenging assay

Flacourtia inermis Roxb.

483

(Alakolanga et al. 2015a). Antioxidant activities have been reported by Salmiyah and Bahruddin (2018), and Jayasinghe et al. (2012). The fruit extract has antifungal activities due to the presence of 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (Benny et al. 2010). The antifungal activities were reported for human fungal pathogens, viz., Aspergilus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, Mucor ramosissimus, and Chrysosporium sp.; a low activity against Aspergillus niger was also recorded (George and Benny 2010a). Fruit extracts show antiprotozoal activity against Balantidium coli, Nyctotherus cordiformis, Opalina ranarum, Paramaecium caudatum, and Vorticella campanula (George and Benny 2010b). The anthocyanins content of this species can improve the condition of mice with dyslipidemia (Muninggar and Lestario 2019).

Other Uses Due to its hardness, the wood is used to pound rice by the people in Java, Indonesia (NPB 2019). The wood is a source of timber used to build houses in Halmahera, North Maluku in Indonesia (Pelima 2016).

Economic Importance The fruit of this species are home to an endophytic fungus named Fusarium decemcellulare, which is useful in the synthesis of shikimic acid (Qader et al. 2018).

References Alakolanga AGAW, Kumar NS, Jayasinghe L, Fujimoto Y. Antioxidant property and α-glucosidase, α-amylase and lipase inhibiting activities of Flacourtia inermis fruits: characterization of malic acid as an inhibitor of the enzymes. J Food Sci Technol. 2015a;52(12):8383–8. https://doi. org/10.1007/s13197-015-1937-6. Alakolanga A, Jayasinghe L, Kumar NS. Inhibition of carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzyme activities by Flacourtia inermis fruit extracts. In: Proceeding international conference on agricultural, ecological and medical sciences (AEMS-2015). Penang: International Institute of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering; 2015b. p. 11–3. https://doi.org/10.15242/IICBE. C0215117. Amboupe DS, Hartana A, Purwanto Y. Ethnobotanical study of food plant in Bentong community from Barru Regency, South Sulawesi-Indonesia. Med Konserv. 2019;24:278–86. Antony S, Benny PJ. Allelopathic effects of Flacourtia inermis on seed germination of selected crop plants found in India. Int J Adv Sci Eng Tech. 2016;4(4):59–61. Ardiansyah DT, Hendra M, Susanto D. Etnobotani buah edibel pada masyarakat Dayak Tahol di Kabupaten Malinau, Kalimantan Utara. Biopros. 2018;13:9–15. (in Bahasa). Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC Jr. Flora of Java. 1st vol. NVP Nordhoff: Groningen; 1963. Benny PJ, Shibumon G, Sunny K, Cincy G. 2, 3-Dihydroxybenzoic acid: an effective antifungal agent isolated from Flacourtia inermis fruit. Int J Pharma Clin Res. 2010;2(3):101–5.

484

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Fitriyani R, Lestario LN, Martono Y. The anthocyanin’s types of content of Batoko plum fruit. J Teknol Indust Pang. 2018;29(2):137–44. https://doi.org/10.6066/jtip.2018.29.2.137. (in Bahasa). George S, Benny PJ. Antifungal activity of acetonic extract of Flacourtia inermis fruit against human opportunistic pathogens. J Glob Pharm Tech. 2010a;2(6):28–34. George S, Benny PJ. Antiprotozoal activity of the crude extract of Flacourtia inermis fruit by microscopic count method. Int J Pharma Biol Arch. 2010b;1(4):385–8. Jayasinghe L, Lakdusinghe M, Hara N, Fujimoto Y. Phenolic constituents from the fruit juice of Flacourtia inermis. Nat Prod Res. 2012;26(3):278–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14786419.2011.586638. Lestari SNI, Hardjanto, Hero Y. The contribution of private forest to household food security in Subdistrict Rumpin, District Bogor. J Sil Trop. 2018;9:188–95. Lim TK. Flacourtia inermis. In: Edible medicinal and non-medicinal plants: volume 5, fruits. Dodrecht Springer; 2013. p. 767–70. Muninggar J, Lestario LN. Efek konsumsi sari antosianin buah tomi-tomi (Flaucortia inermis Roxb.) pada keliling jantung mencit dislipidemia. J Pend Tek Inf. 2019;2(1):20–30. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. NPB. National Parks Board: Flora and Fauna Web: Flacourtia inermis Roxb. 2019. https://www. nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/9/2920. Retrieved 23 June 2020. Pelima JN. The study of Flacourtia inermis Roxb. crop development. J Environ. 2016;1:34–9. Pratama MF, Dwiartama A, Rosleine D, Abdulharis R, Irsyam ASD. Documentation of underutilized fruit trees (UFTs) across indigenous communities in West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20:2603–11. Qader MM, Kumar NS, Jayasinghe L, Fujimoto Y. Shikimic acid production by Fusarium decemcellulare, an endophytic fungus isolated from Flacourtia inermis fruits. J Biol Act Prod Nat. 2018;8(1):43–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/22311866.2018.1426494. Rahayu M, Harada K. The role of plants on the traditional life of local society in Gunung Halimun National Park, West Java. Ber Biol. 2004;7:17–23. Salmiyah S, Bahruddin A. Fitokimia dan antioksidan pada buah tome-tome (Flacourtia inermis). Hosp Maja. 2018;10(1):43–50. Sleumer H. Flacourtiaceae. Fl Malesiana I. 1954;5(1):1–106. Slik JWF. Plant of Southeast Asia: Flacourtia inermis Roxb. 2009-onwards. http://www.asianplant. net/Salicaceae/Flacourtia_inermis.htm. Retrieved 23 June 2020. Sujarwo W, Arinasa IBK, Caneva G, Guarrera PM. Traditional knowledge of wild and semi-wild edible plants used in Bali (Indonesia) to maintain biological and cultural diversity. Pl Biosystems. 2016;150:971–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2014.994577. Zurriyati Y, Dahono. Genetic resources diversity of exotic fruits in Bintan Regency of Riau Island Province. Bul Plasma Nutfah. 2016;22(1):11–20.

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T.Aiton FABACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Flemingia bracteata (Roxb.) Wight; Flemingia fluminalis Clarke ex Prain; Flemingia fruticulosa Wall. ex Benth.; Flemingia strobilifera R.Br.; Flemingia strobilifera var. bracteata (Roxburgh) Baker; Hedysarum bracteatum Roxb.; Hedysarum strobiliferum L.; Moghania bracteata Hui-lin Li; Maughania fluminalis Hui-lin Li; Maughania fruticulosa (Wallich ex Bentham) Mukerjee; Maughania strobilifera (L.) St.Hil. ex Jacks; Zornia strobilifera (L.) Pers.

Local Names Brunei Darussalam: Ringan-ringan/ pancar angin Indonesia: daun sengan (Bungo in Jambi) – reriang, reringan (Leuser in Aceh, Sumatra) – sarenggang (Batudulang, Samawa people in West Sumbawa) – seringan (Anak Rawa ethnic in Sungai Apit Siak Riau). Myanmar: se-laik-pya, thingu-gyat. Philippine: payangpayang, tabang bayawak – gan, tagutong, talom, talong (Davao del Sur) – hulagak, dapoy 1 (Hanunuo Manyan in Mindoro) – kopkopeyes (Ilk.) English: wild hops (DeFillips and Krupnick 2018; Elliott and Brimacombe 1987; Rahayu and Rustiammi 2017; Pizon et al. 2016; Quevedo et al. 2015; PTKDLH 2016; Utami et al. 2019; Wartini 2014).

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_161

485

486

W. A. Mustaqim

Botany and Ecology Description: Erect shrubs, sometimes sub climbing, stem to 3 m tall. Branchlets ribbed, clad with dense, grey to brown villous hairs. Stipules well-developed, linearlanceolate, 0.8–1.8 cm long, persistent or not. Leaflet 1, on 0.5–1.5 cm long petiole; blades vary in shape, ovate, ovate-elliptic, narrowly ovate, oblong, 6–15
3–7 cm, subcoriaceous, base rounded, subcordate, margin entire, apex obtuse, acute, or usually acuminate, glabrous or hairy on nerves. Inflorescence thyrse, usually pendulous, main axis 5–11 cm long, branches short cymes, cyme enclosed within a folded, larger bract, 1.2–3.5
2–4.4 cm, persistent, hairy on both surfaces, ciliate at the margin, apex rounded to truncate, slightly cordate, with a mucro. Flowers papilionaceous, glabrous, on 1.5–3 mm long pedicels. Calyx connate into a tube, lobes ovate. Corolla longer than calyx with standard orbicular, yellowish-white, streaked with red, 6–7 mm long, keel broader than the wings. Fruits pod, elliptic, 6–10
4–5 mm, inflated, sparsely hairy. Each pod contains 2 seeds, orbicular, dark brown. Phenology: In mainland Asia, flowers produced from February to August, while fruiting is from April to November. In Indonesia, the species produces flowers and fruits throughout the year. Distribution and Ecology: This species has a wide native geographical range from India to east in Southern China, throughout Southeast Asia as far as New Guinea. Outside these areas, it has been introduced in tropical America such as Trinidad and Jamaica, as well as Mauritius. This species grows from lowland to mountain ecosystems on slopes. It inhabits old rubber plantations, often near human settlements and also in dry wastelands. The highest elevation recorded is 1600 m above sea level (Backer and Bakhuizen van den Jr 1963; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; Pelser et al. 2011-onwards; Sa and Gilbert 2010; van der Maesen 2001; van Meeuwen et al. 1961) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Living plant of Flemingia strobilifera (Fabaceae). Central Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T.Aiton

487

Fig. 2 Inflorescence with large and folded bracts of Flemingia strobilifera (Fabaceae). Central Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Flower of Flemingia strobilifera (Fabaceae). Mount Kerinci, Jambi, Sumatra, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: Leaves used as poultice in postpartum healthcare (Kamsani et al. 2020).

488

W. A. Mustaqim

Indonesia: Communities in the vicinity of Gunung Leuser National Park, Aceh use the leaves to cure boils, while the leaf juice is used in bathing as a tonic (Elliott and Brimacombe 1987). The people in Lubuk Beringin village, Bathin III Ulu district, Jambi province use the leaves to treat children who difficulties in walking, a condition locally known as tasapau; the leaves and stem are pounded and applied over limbs (Wartini 2014). Known as seringan, this plant is categorized as a medicinal plant by the Anak Rawa ethnic in the Penyegat Village, Sungai Apit Siak, Riau (Utami et al. 2019). The cortex is used by the To Manui of Morowali District, Central Sulawesi to cure fever. One glass of scrapped bark decoction is consumed twice a day (Rahmawati et al. 2020). Malaysia: In Peninsular Malaysia, the plant is used in postpartum care. Leaves are also used in herbal bath. To cure rheumatism, the leaves are used as a lotion (Perry and Metzger 1980). Myanmar: The plant has been recorded from Ayewarwady and Yangon area. The people of Myanmar use it to treat epilepsy (DeFillips and Krupnick 2018). Philippines: The dried leaves are used by the Tagakaulo people in Davao del Sur to cure allergy. The leaves are burned and the patient is exposed to the smokes thrice a day. In Mindoro, Crushed leaves are also topically applied to cure scabies; three leaves are boiled in a glass of water and drunk to cure cough. To cure colic, people singe the leaves on fire, squeeze the water, and apply it directly over abdominal area (PTKDLH 2016).

Phytochemistry This species contains alkaloids, carbohydrates, coumarins, fat and oils, flavonoids (including flavanones), glycosides, phenols, quinines, saponins, steroids, tannins, and terpenoids (Das 2018; Ghalot et al. 2012; Gumula 2014; Mahajon et al. 2014; Narayanan et al. 2020; Saxena et al. 1976; Shreedevi et al. 2018). The phenolic contents measure at 24.53 mg/gr dry weight while the flavonoid is about 8.75% μg/ gr dry weight (Tikadar et al. 2017). The known flavanones include naringin. Phlorizin has also been isolated (Gumula 2014; Saxena et al. 1976). The root extract contains 8,30 -diprenyl-5,7,40 -trihydroxy flavanone, genistin, and β-sitosterol-D glucoside (Madan et al. 2008). Some isoflavonoids including 5,7,40 -trihydroxy8,20 ,50 -tri(3-methylbut-2-enyl)isoflavone, 5,7,20 ,40 -tetrahydroxyisoflavone, and β-sitosterol have been isolated together with strobiliferyllin (Madan et al. 2009). From the hexane root extracts, compounds identified include: 1,4a-dimethyl-7(propan-2-ylidene)decahydronaphthalen-1-ol (juniper camphor), 2-(((2-ethylhexyl) oxy)carbonyl)benzoic acid, 4-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2-butanone, 2-phenyldecane, 3-phenyldecane, 4-phenyldecane, 5-phenyldecane, 6-phenyldecane, n-hexadecanoic acid, butyl octyl phthalate, octadecanoic acid, oleic acid, and (Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid. From the methanolic extracts, 1-heptadecene, 3,5-dihydroxy-6methyl-2,3-dihydro-4H-pyran-4-one, and phthalic andydride have been identified (Nemkul et al. 2019). The stem contains twelve chemical compounds including β-daucosterol, betulinic acid, diadzein, emodin, flemichparin C, genistin, quercetin, naringin, salicylic acid, stigmasterol, and p-methoxyphenylpropionic acid (Yang et al. 2016). The stems and leaves contain 17β-estradiol, 2-hydroxy genistein,

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T.Aiton

489

20 ,30 ,40 ,60 -tetramethoxychalcone, cajanin, genistein, and pisatin (Jeong et al. 2018). The volatile compounds of leaves have eicosane, heptacosane, hexacosane, hexanedioic acid, bis (2-ethylhexyl) ester, limonene, nonadecane, phenol,3,5-bis (1,1-dimethylethyl), and thiocyanic acid, ethyl ester (Pizon et al. 2016). The pharmacological activities of this species include analgesic, anthelmintic, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatism, anti-ulcerogenic, anticancer, antihistamine, anxiolytic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, and therapeutic uses (Madan et al. 2013; Mahajon et al. 2017; Narayanan et al. 2020). The root shows antifungal activities (Madan et al. 2008). Root extracts are also anti-ulcerogenic and antimicrobial. The antimicrobial activities reported were for the chloroform extracts against Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) and Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) (Kumar et al. 2011). Leaf, stem, and fruit extracts can inhibit the growth of S. aureus (Nugraha and Keller 2011). More antimicrobial activities are reported against Staphylococcus epidermidis, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and the fungus Candida albicans (Madan et al. 2009). The plant extracts also inhibits the growth of Shigella dysenteriae and Klebsiella pneumoniae (Nemkul et al. 2019). F. strobilifera has antioxidant properties (Tikadar et al. 2017; Kumar et al. 2011; Madan et al. 2009; Pizon et al. 2016). The high antioxidant activity of roots is attributed to the high content of polyphenolic compounds (Madan et al. 2010). Plant has anti-diabetic properties (Thalugula and Yellu 2019). Root has been reported to have anticonvulsant activity (Gahlot et al. 2013). Whole plant extract can reduce the blood cholesterol level as shown by experiments in albino mice. The highest activity was recorded from the leaves (Quevedo et al. 2015). Mohd. Tauqeer and Itankar (2009) report anti-inflammatory effect. The stems and leaf extracts have estrogenic effects. The application of extracts induces the proliferation of MCF-7 cells. A significant increase in the uterine weights has also been observed in immature female rats. Due to these activities, the plant could be useful in post-menopausal therapy (Jeong et al. 2018). An experiment that employed paracetamol-induced toxicity in rats did not show any hepatoprotective effect (Kumar et al. 2010). Anxiolytic activities were reported from the roots extracts on Swiss albino mice (Mahajon et al. 2017).

Other Uses Flowers are used as a substitute for the fibres of the kapok tree (Ceiba pentandra) (Rahayu and Rustiammi 2017).

References Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC Jr. Flora of Java. 1st vol. Groningen: NVP Nordhoff; 1963.

490

W. A. Mustaqim

Das K. Ethnobotanical studies and phytochemical analysis of Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T.Aiton of Jorhat, Assam, India. Int J Sci Res Rev. 2018;7(7):556–64. DeFillips RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. Phytokeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Elliott S, Brimacombe J. The medicinal plants of Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 1987;19:285–317. Gahlot K, Lai VK, Jha S. Anticonvulsant potential of ethanol extracts and their solvent partitioned fractions from Flemingia strobilifera root. Phcog Res. 2013;5(4):265–70. https://doi.org/ 10.4103/0974-8490.118825. Ghalot K, Lai VK, Jha SA. Comparative morpho-anatomical and preliminary phytochemical studies of Flemingia strobilifera (L.) R.Br. and Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr (Fabaceae). Int J Pharm Tech Res. 2012;4(1):495–500. Gumula I. Phytochemical investigation of three leguminosae plants for cancer chemopreventive agents [doctoral thesis]. Nairobi: University of Nairobi; 2014. Jeong SY, Chang M, Choi S, Oh SR, Wu HH, Zhu Y, Gao X, Wang X, Zhang B, Lim DS, Lee YJ, Kim SD, Song YS. Estrogenic effects of phytoestrogens derived from Flemingia strobilifera in MCF-7 cells and immature rats. Arch Pharm Res. 2018:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12272018-1027-1. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kumar KVA, Satish R, Rama T, Kumar A, Babul D, Samhitha J. Hepatoprotective effect of Flemingia strobilifera R.Br. on paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Int J PharmTech Res. 2010;2(3):1924–31. Kumar KVA, Babul D, Rama T. Evaluation of anti-ulcerogenic properties from the root of Flemingia strobilifera. J Basic Clin Pharm. 2011;2(1):33–9. Madan S, Singh GN, Kumar Y, Kohli K, Singh RM, Mir SR, Ahmad S. A new flavanone from Flemingia strobilifera (Linn) R. Br. and its antimicrobial activity. Trop J Pharm Res. 2008;7 (1):921–7. Madan S, Singh GN, Kohli K, Ali M, Kumar Y, Singh RM, Prakash O. Isoflavonoids from Flemingia strobilifera (L) R.Br. roots. Acta Pol Pharm Drug Res. 2009;66(3):297–303. Madan S, Singh GN, Kumar Y, Kohli K. Phytochemical analysis and free-radical scavenging activity of Flemingia strobilifera (Linn) R. Br. Res J Pharm, Biol Chem Sci. 2010;1(4):183–90. Madan S, Gullaiya S, Singh GN, Kumar Y. Flemingia strobilifera: review on phytochemistry and pharmacological aspects. Int J Phytopharmacol. 2013;4(4):255–62. Mahajon B, Remadevi R, Kumar KNS, Ravishankar B. Preliminary analysis of botanical and phytochemical features of kamalu – root of Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T. Aiton. J Homeop Ayurv Med. 2014;3:1–6. https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-1206.1000171.art171. Mahajon B, Nath R, Thakur SK, Demadevi R, Shankar RB. Anxiolytic effect of root extract of amazing folklore herb Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T. Aiton in albino mice. Int J Curr Res. 2017;9(11):60216–9. Mohd. Tauqeer A, Itankar PR. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of Flemingia strobilifera Linn. Fabaceae. Res J Pharm Tech. 2009;2(4):865–7. Narayanan A, Shenoy A, Shabaraya AR. A review on pharmacological activities of Flemingia strobilifera. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2020;60(1):70–2. Nemkul CM, Bajracharya GB, Shresta I. Phytochemical evaluation and in vitro antimicrobial activity of the roots of Flemingia strobilifera (L.) R. Br. J Pl Res. 2019;17(1):98–103. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Nugraha AS, Keller PA. Revealing indigenous Indonesian traditional medicine: anti-infective agents. Nat Prod Commun. 2011;6(12):1953–66. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines: FabaceaeFaboideae. 2011-onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/FabaceaeFaboideae.html. Retrieved 15 June 2020.

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T.Aiton

491

Perry LM, Metzger J. Medicinal plants of East and South-East Asia: attributed properties and uses. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1980. Pizon JRL, Nuñeza OM, Uy MM, Senarath WTPSK. GC-MS analysis and evaluation o f in vitro antioxidant potential and total phenolics content of wild hops (Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W. T. Aiton). Int J Biosci. 2016;8(1):25–32. PTKDLH. Philippine Traditional Knowledge Digital Library on Health. 2016. http://www. takdlph.com. Retrieved 16 June 2020. Quevedo KLRG, Mia HRS, San Sebastian JS. Effect of Flemingia strobilifera Linn. (payangpayang) extract on blood cholesterol levels of albino mice. Int J Curr Sci. 2015;14:37–43. Rahayu M, Rustiammi H. Etnobotani masyarakat Samawa Pulau Sumbawa. Script Biol. 2017;4 (4):235–45. https://doi.org/10.20884/1.sb.2017.4.4.605. (in Bahasa). Rahmawati N, Mustofa FI, Haryanti S. Diversity of medicinal plants utilized by To Manui ethnic of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2020;21(1):375–92. https://doi.org/10.13057/ biodiv/d210145. Sa R, Gilbert MG. Flemingia Roxburgh ex W.T.Aiton. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 10 (Fabaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press;2010. p. 232–237. Saxena VK, Nigam SS, Singh RB. Glycosidic principles from the leaves of Flemingia strobilifera. Planta Med. 1976;2:94–7. Shreedevi, Patel BR, Shukla VJ, Harisha CR. Pharmacognostical and phytochemical evaluation of leaf of Flemingia strobilifera A.Ation. Pharm Sci Monit. 2018;9(1):326–33. Thalugula S, Yellu NR. Pancreatic beta cell protective effects of Flemengia strobilifera extracts in combination model of high fat diet and streptozotocin induced type 2 diabetes. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2019;10(12):5723–32. https://doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.10(12).5723-32. Tikadar P, Palita SK, Panda D. Phytochemical analysis of medicinal plants used for treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea by the Paraja Tribe of Koraput, Odisha, India. Int J Herb Med. 2017;5 (2):1–4. Utami RD, Zuhud EAM, Hikmat A. Medicinal ethnobotany and potential of medicine plants of Anak Rawa Ethnic at the Penyengat Village Sungai Apit Siak Riau. Med Konserv. 2019;24 (1):40–51. van der Maesen LJG. Flemingia Roxb. ex W.T. Aiton. In: van Valkenburg JLCH, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. . Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 2001. http://www.proseanet.org. Retrieved 15 June 2020. van Meeuwen MS, Nooteboom HP, van Steenis CGGJ. Preliminary revisions of some genera of Malaysian Papilionaceae I. Reinwardtia. 1961;5(4):419–56. Wartini. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat tradisional Desa Lubuk Beringin Kecamatan Bathin III Ulu Kabupaten Bungo. Jambi: FKIP Universitas Jambi; 2014. (in Bahasa). Yang RY, Wang XZ, Wei B, Zhou DX, Xu WF, Liang H, Chen ZF, Li J. Chemical constituents of the stems of Flemingia strobilifera. Chem J Nat Compound. 2016;52(1):139–41. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10600-016-1572-0.

Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle PHYLLANTHACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Acidoton virosus (Roxb. ex Willd.) Kuntze; Phyllanthus virosus Roxb. ex Willd.; Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Baill. subsp. melanthesioides: Flueggea melanthesoides (F.Muell.) F.Muell; Flueggea novoguineensis Valeton; Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle f. reticulata Domin; Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle var. aridicola Domin; Leptonema melanthesoides F.Muell.; Securinega melanthesoides (F.Muell.) Airy Shaw; Securinega melanthesoides (F. Muell.) Airy Shaw var. aridicola (Domin) Airy Shaw. subsp. virosa: Acidoton obovatus Kuntze; Bessera inermis Spreng.; Cicca pentandra Blanco; Conami portoricensis Britton; Diasperus portoricensis Kuntze; Drypetes bengalensis Spreng.; Flueggea abyssinica (A. Rich.) Baill.; Flueggea angulata (Schumach. & Thonn.) Baill.; Flueggea arborescens Bojer; Flueggea leucophylla Wall.; Flueggea microcarpa Blume; Flueggea obovata (Willd.) Wall. ex Fern.-Vill.; Flueggea obovata (Willd.) Wall. ex Fern.-Vill. var. luxurians Chev. ex Beille; Flueggea ovalis Baill.; Flueggea senensis Klotzsch; Phyllanthus angulatus Schumach. & Thonn.; Phyllanthus dioicus Schumach. & Thonn.; Phyllanthus flueggeiformis Müll. Arg.; Phyllanthus glaucus Wall.; Phyllanthus griseus Wall.; Phyllanthus leucophyllus Strachey & Winterb. ex Baill.; Phyllanthus lucidus Hort. ex Steud.; Phyllanthus obtusus Schrank; Phyllanthus portoricensis (Kuntze) Urban; Phyllanthus reichenbachianus Sieber ex Baill.; Phyllanthus retusus Roxb.; Phyllanthus rotundatus (“rotundata”) Wall.; Phyllanthus virens Wall. ex B. D. Jacks.; Securinega abyssinica A. Rich.; Securinega microcarpa (Blume) Müll. Arg.; Securinega obovata (Willd.) Müll. Arg.; Xylophylla obovata Willd.

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_141

493

494

W. A. Mustaqim

Local Names subsp. melanthesioides: Indonesia: salisari (Papua). subsp. virosa: Cambodia: thmenh trei (Khmer). Indochina: cày cang pa, co cang pa, co mai ten, xeur nam. Indonesia: chong beˇlut, imeˇr, kimerah, latian, preˇbilutan, sigar jalak, simpereum (Sundanese) – trembilutan (Java) – mata-mata-ponei, tjoemata, tjoemateh (Malay) – tangkalasi (Sulawesi). Laos: karng par, kang par khohk, par, mak. Malaysia: berbeti, beti, beti ayer, membeti, memeti, mumbuti (Batek). Myanmar: kon-chinya, mai-kang-pa, tingroi, ye-chinya, ye-gyin-gya (general). Philippines: langi-langi – baohit, botolan, baiset, bis dlongo, deongo (Magaspang) – granatang gubat, sula dugat, sulyak-daga (Luzon) – tulitangalung, tulugtulug. Thailand: kaang khaao – daeng nam (Lampang) – kang phla kao (Phatthalung and Songkhla) – ma taek (Northern) – mi thong pla (Karen). Vietnam: bong nô. English: snowberry tree, white berry bush, white water berry (Ayatussurur 2011; Barker and van Welzen 2010; Edillo et al. 1996; Inthakoun and Delang 2008; Kress et al. 2003; Miquel 1860; Neamsuvan et al. 2015; Pancho and Gruèzo 2006; Quattrocchi 2016; WulijarniSoetjipto and Siemonsma 1991).

Botany and Ecology Flueggea virosa subsp. virosa varies from shrub to small trees, clambering, height attaining 8 m, dioecious, usually deciduous. Twigs angled, older stage lenticellate. Stipule stiff, caducous, 1–3 mm long. Leaves alternate, simple, petiole 3–8 mm long, grooved above, blades dull green above, pale to glaucous beneath, elliptic or obovate, less often suborbicular, 1.3–5(–9)
0.6–5.6 cm, base cuneate to rounded, margin entire, apex obtuse to rounded, very apex acute or apiculate, nerves 5–8 on each side of the midrib, nerves not coarse, glabrous on both surfaces. Flowers unisexual, arranged in axillary fascicles, floral bracts triangulate. Staminate flowers: 20–40 per leaf axil, vary from white, pale green, or yellow, the middle sometimes suffused with red, fragrant, 1.7–2.2 mm across, pedicels green, 3–7 mm long; sepals 5, two outer ones smaller, ovate to elliptic, inner ones broadly ovate, apex rounded to acute; disc 5, light yellow, anthers cream to light yellow, ellipsoid, 0.3–0.5 mm long, connective maroon, pistillode present, cream to light yellow, 3 or rarely 2-lobed, hooked at the apex. Pistillate flowers: arranged in axillary cluster, 3–12-flowered, 1.5–2 mm across, light yellow or cream, pedicels elongate after anthesis, perianth similar to staminate, smaller in size, disc yellow, entire, ovary superior, 3-celled, green, style bearing apically bifid stigma. Fruit white at maturity, fleshy, globose, c. 9.75 mm across when fresh, shallowly 3-lobed, taste sweet. Seed with smooth and shiny surfaces. The subsp. melanthesioides differs from the typical subspecies by: generally more than 5 cm long leaf blades, 2–10.5
1.2–6.2 cm, leaf base attenuate to rounded, leaf apex apiculate to acuminate, sometimes obtuse, coarse secondary veins which are slightly prominent on the upper surfaces and prominently raised on the lower surfaces.

Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle

495

Distribution: This species is widely distributed in many areas of the Old World, ranging from West Africa, to East Asia in Japan, and throughout the Southeast Asia and also in Australia. There are two nontypical subspecies described, namely, F. virosa subsp. himalaica and F. virosa subsp. melanthesioides. Flueggea virosa subsp. virosa, the typical subspecies is widely distributed in many areas of the Old World tropics, from West Africa to Maluku Archipelago. The northernmost distribution of this subspecies has been reported from Japan. In Southeast Asia, this subspecies can be found in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Sumatera, Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Borneo, Philippines, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku Archipelago. Various types of habitats have been recorded for this subspecies from lowland to an elevation at 1000 m or sometimes up to 2300 m above sea level. This subspecies is frequently recorded from rather exposed types of vegetation such as open swamps, thickets, savannah, abandoned fields, urban green vegetation, roadside, and also along the beach. Forest types include evergreen and deciduous forests. Flueggea virosa subsp. virosa is able to grow in various types of soils from alluvial, clay to loamy, or sandy. Besides, it is also able to grow in bedrock such as limestone and granite. The subsp. himalaica is confined to mainland Asia, whereas in Southeast Asia, this subspecies is only found in Myanmar. The subsp. melanthesioides occurs in Merauke, Papua, Indonesia. Besides Merauke, the subspecies is also distributed in the eastern half of New Guinea and Australia. This subspecies grows from lowland to an elevation at 840 m in various types of habitats such as savannah, young regrowths, mangrove edge, monsoon scrub, and lowland rain forests, where it thrives on sandy to clayey soils, stony soil, and silicaceous rocks (Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1963; Barker and van Welzen 2010; Kessler et al. 2002; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; Pancho and Gruèzo 2006; Plants of the World Online 2020; Webster 1984) (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).

Fig. 1 Leafy twigs of Flueggea virosa subsp. virosa (Phyllanthaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

496

W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 2 Flowers of Flueggea virosa subsp. virosa (Phyllanthaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Mature fruits of Flueggea virosa subsp. virosa (Phyllanthaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Thailand: Roots and leaves have been used by Karen hill tribe to cure diarrhea. The community prepares a tea by boiling the roots. Bathing water is made by boiling the leaves along with seven other plant species (Barker and van Welzen 2010). Decoctions of the whole parts are drunk to cure fever in Phattalung and Songkhla Province, Peninsular Thailand (Neamsuvan et al. 2015).

Phytochemistry Major secondary metabolites groups present are alkaloids, balsams, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, polyphenols, quinone, saponins, steroids, sterols, tannin, terpenoids, triterpenes (Adrien et al. 2015; Danlami et al. 2012; Magaji et al. 2008, 2012;

Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle

497

Moshi et al. 2000; Renu et al. 2018). The known alkaloids from this species include 1-acetyl-β-carboline, bubbialidine, donaxanine, flueggether A, flueindolins AC, 1-hydromethyl-2-methyl-tetrahydro-β-carboline, 1-hydroxymethyl-β-carboline, Nb-methyltetrahydroharman, N-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline, methyltryptamine, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, niruroidine, norsecurinic acid, 15α-butoxy14,15-dihydronorsecurinine, ()-norsecurinine, ()-securinine, strychnocarpine, virosecurinine, and virosinin A (Gan and Yue 2006; Xie et al. 2020; Zhang et al. 2015). Leaves contain essential minerals such as sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, manganese, copper, magnesium, zinc, phosphorus, lead, chromium, and nickel (Danlami et al. 2012). The rootbark, twigs, and leaves of this species contain bergenin, a sedative chemical compound, and also 11-O-acetyl bergenin. More chemical compounds isolated are daucosterol, ent-phyllanthidine, gallic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, and β-sitosterol (Magaji et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2008). Other phytochemicals compound isolated include (+) ampelosin E, betulinic acid 3β-calfeate, 4E-dehydrochebulic acid trimethyl ester, 12-hydroxy-20(10!5)-abeo4,5-seco-podocarpa-5,(10),6,8,11,13-pentaen-3-one, and 3β,12-dihydroxy-13methylpodocarpa-6,8,11,13-tetraene (Chao et al. 2016). This species has antibacterial, antifungal, antimalarial, larvicidal, and sedative properties (Adrien et al. 2015; Edillo et al. 1996; Magaji et al. 2008, 2012; Neuwinger 1996).

References Adrien KM, Calixte B, Honoré T, Lucien BG, Vincent E, Joseph DA, David NJ. Antifungal activity of roots barks extract of Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Baill and Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill. & Perr, two plants used in the traditional treatment of candidiasis in Northern Côte d’Ivoire. Int J Biochem Res. 2015;8(11):1–11. Ayatussurur M. Direct use value of karst ecosystem of Cibodas Mountain Bogor, West Java [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Bogor Agricultural University; 2011. (in Bahasa). Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC, Jr. Flora of Java 1. Groningen: NVP Nordhoff; 1963. Barker C, van Welzen PC. Flueggea (Euphorbiaceae s. l. or Phyllanthaceae) in Malesia. Syst Bot. 2010;35(3):541–51. Chao CH, Lin YJ, Cheng JC, Huang HC, Yeh YJ, Wu TS, Hwang SY, Wu YC. Chemical constituents from Flueggea virosa and the structural revision of dehydrochebulic acid trimethyl ester. Molecules. 2016;21(1239):1–7. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21091239. Danlami U, David BM, Thomas SA. The phytochemicals, proximate and elemental analyses of Securinega virosa leaf extracts. Res J Eng Appl Sci. 2012;1(6):351–4. Edillo FE, Largo G, Plateros CG. Screening for Aedes mosquito larvicidal activity of two local plant extracts. Philipp Sci. 1996;33:104–15. Gan LS, Yue JM. Alkaloids from the roots of Flueggea virosa. Nat Product Commun. 2006;1(10):819–23. Inthakoun L, Delang CO. Lao flora: a checklist of plants found in Lao PDR with scientific and vernacular names. Morrisville: Lulu Press; 2008. Kessler PJA, Bos MM, Sierra Daza SEC, Kop A, Willemse LPM, Pitopang R, Gradstein SR. Checklist of woody plants of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea (Supplement). 2002;14:1–160. Kress WJ, DeFillips RA, Farr E, Kyi DYY. A checklist of the trees, shrubs, herbs, and climbers of Myanmar (Revised from the original works by J.H. Lace, R. Rodger, H.G. Hundley, and U Chit Ko Ko on the “List of trees, shrubs, herbs and principal Climbers, etc. recorded from Burma”). Contrib US Natl Herb. 2003;45:1–590.

498

W. A. Mustaqim

Magaji MG, Anuka JA, Abdu-Aguye I, Yaro AH, Hussaini IM. Behavioural effects of the methanolic root bark extract of Securinega virosa in rodents. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2008;5(2):147–53. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v5i2.31266. Magaji MG, Yaro AH, Musa AM, Anuka JA, Abdu-Aguye I, Hussaini IM. Central depressant activity of butanol fraction of Securinega virosa root bark in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141(1):128– 33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.02.010. Magaji MG, Musa AM, Abdullahi MI, Ya’u J, Hussaini IM. Isolation of bergenin from the root bark of Securinega virosa and evaluation of its potential sleep promoting effect. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2015;5(6):587–96. Miquel FAW. Flora van Nederlandsch Indië, Eerste bijvoegsel. Amsterdam: C.G. van der Post; 1860. Moshi JM, Kapingu MC, Uiso FC, Mbwambo ZH, Mahunnah RLA. Some pharmacological properties of an aqueous extract of Securinega virosa roots. Pharm Biol. 2000;38(3):214–21. Neamsuvan O, Sengnon N, Seemaphrik N, Chouychoo M, Rungrat R, Bunrasri S. A survey of medicinal plants around upper Songkhla Lake, Thailand. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2015;12(2):133–43. Neuwinger HD. African ethnobotany: poisons and drugs: chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology. Weinheim: Chapman & Hall; 1996. Nisyawati N, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Publishing; 2017. Pancho JV, Gruèzo WM. Vascular flora of Mount Makiling and vicinity (Luzon: Philippines), part 2. Los Baños: National Academy of Science and Technology; 2006. Plants of the World Online. Flueggea virosa subsp. himalaica D.G.Long. 2020. http://www. plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:949386-1. Accessed 3 May 2020. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2016. Renu NS, Rawat A, Kaur J, Kumas S, Fatima N. Taxonomy, phytochemistry, pharmacology and traditional uses of Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle: a review. Int J Life Sci. 2018;6(2):579–85. Wang GC, Liang JP, Wang Y, Li Q, Ye WC. Chemical constituents from Flueggea virosa. Chin J Nat Med. 2008;6(4):251–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1875-5364(09)60022-4. Webster GL. A revision of Flueggea (Euphorbiaceae). Allertonia. 1984;3(4):259–312. Wulijarni-Soetjipto N, Siemonsma JS. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 3: dye and tanninproducing plants. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 1991. Xie QJ, Zhang WY, Wu ZL, Xu MT, He QF, Huang XJ, Che CT, Wang Y, Ye WC. Alkaloid constituents from the fruits of Flueggea virosa. Chin J Nat Med. 2020;18(5):385–93. https://doi. org/10.3724/SP.J.1009.2019.000000. Zhang H, Zhu KK, Han YS, Luo C, Wainberg MA, Yue JM. Flueggether A and Virosinine A, antiHIV Alkaloids from Flueggea virosa. Org Lett. 2015;17:6274–7.

Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy CLUSIACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Synonyms Cambogia binucao Blanco; Garcinia duodecandra Pierre (POWO 2019)

Local Names Balokok/balukok, bal-lok, balakog (Igorot); balluo (Ifugao); balukut, baukok (Ilokano); bangkok (Sambal); batuan (Bisayan Cebu, Bisayan Panay); batwan tagabas (Hanunuo); bilukan, binukaw, gatasan, kilukaw (Tagalog); bilukaw (Bisayan Panay, Tagalog); bunog (Batangan); buragis, guragis (Bikol); haras (Bisayan Panay); kabala, kadis (Bagobo); kadilag (Ibanag); kanana (Bukidnon); kandis (Kuyonon); kulilem (Ibanag, Ilokano); kutipi (Pangasinan); maninila, tila (Bikol); tambis (Palawan) (Madulid 2001).

Botany and Ecology Description: A tall evergreen tree which may grow up to 25 m high and 40 cm in diameter. The leaves are simple, shiny, dark green, oblong to obovate, smooth, and leathery. The opposite leaves measure 10 cm long  4 cm wide. Young leaves may appear red in color while the bark is black. The branches of the tree are pendulous. A yellow sap can be seen (Madulid 2002). Flowers are small and red in clusters (cyme). The fruit (berry) is somewhat rounded or oblate, and ranging from 4 to 5 cm in diameter. It has an acidic pulp with several astringent seeds (Brown 1950; Coronel 2011; Florido and Cortiguerra 2003). Quevedo et al. (2013) described the immature R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_19

499

500

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Fig. 1 Garcinia binucao (Clusiaceae). Tree bearing fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

fruits as “light green, firm, thin skin; white and watery pulp; soft pericarp, watery, and less than half-endosperm filled seeds,” mature fruits as “green, firm, thin skin; creamy white and less watery pulp; thick, woody-hard pericarp; more than half-endosperm filled and fully developed endosperm,” and ripe fruits as “light yellow, soft skin and pulp; thick, woody-hard pericarp; fully developed endosperm; fruity aroma.” Phenology: February to June Distribution and Habitat: Endemic to the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011). Commonly grows in Luzon and Visayas to Palawan at low and medium altitude forests (Brown 1950; Florido and Cortiguerra 2003; Madulid 2002). Abundantly distributed in the different municipalities of Benguet except Buguias (Chua-Barcelo 2014; Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses and Phytochemistry The fruits may be used to treat cough, flu, and arthritis (Chua-Barcelo 2014). The local people in Benguet utilize the unripe fruits and leaves through decoction. The fruits when used as tea have the potential to lower glucose levels in the blood and

Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy

501

Fig. 2 Garcinia binucao (Clusiaceae). Fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

prevent Type 2 diabetes (Restituto 2017). The fruits contain natural antioxidants that eradicate free radicals in the body, lower cholesterol levels, contribute to weight loss, relieve inflammation, and treat skin irritations (Joven 2018). Meanwhile, the DPPH radical scavenging activity of methanolic fruit extract of G. binucao is higher as compared to controls vitamin E, ascorbic acid, and trolox (Barcelo 2015). The crude ethanolic leaf extract of G. binucao exhibit neuroprotective properties observed in D. melanogaster (Tantengco et al. 2018), while the seeds are good sources of proteins and essential amino acids such as leucine for food supplements (Quevedo et al. 2014). The antiobesity properties of G. binucao fruit is due to its hydroxycitric acid content amounting to 4.81 + 0.12 g/100 g using water extraction method (Bainto et al. 2018). β-Sitosterol and stigmasterol are found in the fruits (Ragasa et al. 2014). Phytochemicals such as steroids, flavonoids, and tannins are present. Quevedo et al. (2013) reported that the fruits are low in ash, protein, sugar, starch, total carbohydrates, total soluble solids, and sodium. However, crude fat, crude protein, and tannins are high in the seeds. The peel, pulp, and ripe fruit are all rich in crude fiber and vitamin A. In general, high concentrations of vitamin C, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and iron are found in the fruits. The peel contains 2.75  0.14 mg 100 g 1 dw vitamin C, 12010.24  279.53 mg kg 1 dw potassium, 154.98  8.87 mg kg 1 dw phosphorus, 2944.88  414.15 mg kg 1 dw calcium, 431.65  2.95 mg kg 1 dw magnesium and 199.28  18.75 mg kg 1 dw iron, whereas the seeds contain 1.86  0.14 mg 100 g 1 dw vitamin C, 4773.49  1296.12 mg kg 1 dw potassium, 243.56  22.64 mg kg 1 dw phosphorus, 1268.66  84.08 mg kg 1 dw calcium, 677.86  263.71 mg kg 1 dw magnesium, and 26.71  1.36 mg kg 1 dw iron; as compared to the pulp that contains 1.70 mg 100 g 1 dw vitamin C, 3605.96  549.67 mg kg 1 dw potassium, 190.69  8.90 mg kg 1 dw phosphorus, 1270.78  18.73 mg kg 1 dw calcium, 398.73  11.15 mg kg 1 dw magnesium, and 72.19  23.69 mg kg 1 dw iron. Overall, the fruits are highly recommended not only for medicinal use but also consumption because they are safe and beneficial to health.

502

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Local Food Uses Unripe fruits are added to fish dishes (Brown 1950) and meat (Madulid 2002) due to sour taste. Young leaves can be eaten raw or added to sour dishes (Coronel 2011). Common among Ilonggo and Negrense people are broth soup dishes where taramarind is replaced with Garcinia fruits (Joven 2018). Green and ripe batuan powder is used as condiment or souring agent (Dormido et al. 2019). Aside from eaten raw, the fruits can be used as forage for birds and grass eaters, as offertory, processed into jam, jellies, candies, juice, and wine (Chua-Barcelo 2014). The fruits may also serve as alternative sources of pectin (Robrigado et al. 2019). As vegetable, fruits may also be cooked together with Diplazium esculentum (pako), Gnetum gnemon (bago), Homalomena sp. (dalili), and Ficus pseudopalma (niogniogan) Langenberger et al. (2009).

Biocultural and Economic Importance The fruits are eaten by conceiving mothers to satisfy their cravings or nginao (Chua-Barcelo 2014). G. binucao is among the important non-wood forest products used by the Tagbanua tribe in Aborlan, Palawan. G. binucao fruits are used as food and souring agents which may be sold to earn money (Sopsop and Buot 2011). The tree as a whole is used in landscaping and as source of wood (Quevedo et al. 2013).

References Bainto LC, Dizon EI, Laurena AC, Castillo-Israel KAT. Isolation and quantification of hydroxycitric acid from batuan Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy fruit. Int Food Res J. 2018;25(2):706–11. Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. Electron J Biol. 2015;11(3):80–9. Brown W. Useful plants of the Philippines, vol. II. Manila: Manila Bureau of Printing; 1950. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. Coronel R. The edible fruits and nuts of the RC fruit conservation farm. Laguna: UP: Los Baños Laguna; 2011. Dormido C, Anadon N, Paracale LM, Seniego J. Processing and evaluation of Batuan fruits (Garcinia binucao) as souring agent. Int J Interdiscip Res Innov. 2019;7(2):495–508. Florido H, Cortiguerra F. Lesser known edible tree species, vol. 15, no. 3. Laguna: ERDB-DENR; 2003. pp. 1–8. http://erdb.denr.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/r_v15n3.pdf. Accessed 24 Sept 2019. Joven E. Top 6 health benefits of Batuan/Batwan fruit and Filipino recipes you can cook with. Jan 2018. https://www.pinoyrecipe.net/top-6-health-benefits-of-batuan-batwan-fruit-and-filipinorecipes-you-can-cook-with/. Accessed 21 Sept 2019. Langenberger G, Prigge V, Martin K, Belonias B, Sauerborn J. Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry. Agrofor Syst. 2009;76 (1):173–94. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Makati, Manila: Bookmark Inc.; 2001.

Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy

503

Madulid D. A pictorial guide to the noteworthy plants of Palawan. Philippines: Palawan Tropical Forestry Protection Programme; 2002. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Clusiaceae.html. Accessed 21 Sept 2019. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2019. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 15 Jan 2020. Quevedo E, Laurena A, Merca F. Physicochemical properties, nutritional and sensory quality of “Batuan” [Garcinia binucao (Blco.) Choisy] fruits. Ann Trop Res. 2013;35(2):1–21. Quevedo E, Lacsamana M, Laurena A. Extraction and characterization of “batuan” Garcinia binucao (Blanco) Choisy seed protein. Ann Trop Res. 2014;36(2):89–103. Ragasa C, Torres O, Marasigan E, Shen C. Sterols and triglyceride from the fruit of Garcinia binucao. Der Pharma Chemica. 2014;6(6):229–32. Restituto P. Batuan: Visayas sour fruit may prevent diabetes. Oct 2017. https://www.agriculture. com.ph/2018/01/02/batuan-visayas-sour-fruit-may-prevent-diabetes/. Accessed 21 Sept 2019. Robrigado JKV, De Leon JE, Orillan AT, Barajas JR, Gealone PJ. Optimization of pectin extraction from the native fruit Garcinia binucao using response surface methodology. In: Proceedings of the 25th regional symposium on chemical engineering, 2018 [conference proceedings on the internet]. MATEC Web of Conferences; 2019, 268 (01006). Available from: https://doi.org/ 10.1051/matecconf/201926801006. Sopsop L, Buot I. The importance of non-wood forest products in the household economy of the direct users of Aborlan Guba system, Palawan island, Philippines. J Environ Sci Manag. 2011;14(2):50–9. Tantengco OA, Tan JJ, Tan NR, Sison MC, Medina PM. Garcinia binucao crude ethanolic leaf extract prevents alcohol- induced neurotoxic effects on learning, short-term memory, and motor functions in Drosophila melanogaster. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2018;8(10):106–112.

Garcinia mangostana L. CLUSIACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Mangostana garcinia Gaertn

Local Names English: Ceylon camboge, gamboge, gamboge tree, king’s fruit, mangosteen, mangostan Borneo: Manggis, semetah, semontah Brunei Darussalam: Manggis Cambodia: Mongkhut Indonesia: Buah, manggis Laos: Mangkhud Malaysia: Manggis Myanmar: Mingut Philippines Manggis, manggustan, mangosteen Thailand: Mang-khud, mangkhut Vietnam: Cay mang cut, garcinia, kandis

Botany and Ecology Description: Evergreen erect, small trees, about 6–25 m tall, slow-growing, wood moderately hard, tropical tree with pyramidal crown (Fig. 1). Branchlets many, decussate, stout, cylindric, slightly grooved. Bark dark brown, branches dense, M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_215

505

506

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Habit of Garcinia mangostana. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

often opposite, glabrous, quadrangular, latex usually resinous, thick, yellow in bark, branches, and fruits. Wood brick-red, heavy; bark black or dark brown, yellow, smooth; latex yellow, sticky; latex yellow, sticky. Leaves simple, opposite, lanceolate to elliptic-oblong, about 10–25
4–10 cm across, base acute, margins entire, apex shallow acuminate to acute, glossy, shining, thick, coriaceous, glabrous on both sides, midrib prominent above and beneath, lateral veins 35–50, irregular with oblique parallel short veins, anastomosing near the margins, veinlets reticulate, petiole robust, slender with raised margins, about 1–2.5 cm long, exstipulate. Inflorescence axillary, solitary, or supra axillary cymes. Flowers heterochlamydeous, dioecious, pseudobisexual, fragrant, pedicels about 8–12 mm long. Male flowers rare, axillary, solitary or fascicled with 2–9 flowers, rose pink, sepals 4–5, imbricate, usually persistent in fruit, petals 4–5, imbricate, obovate-orbicular, alternating with sepals, stamens 16 or more in 4 bundles, inserted around lobed mass often around a rudimentary pistil, free or connate at the base, filaments short, anthers peltate, bent at ends, 2 loculed, dehiscing by longitudinal slits. Female flowers often solitary or paired, bigger than male flowers, globose, with minute free or united staminodes, filaments arranged in a ring shape, ovary superior, globose, 4–8 locular, ovules lateral, or erect, style absent, stigma rays 5–6. Fruit fleshy berry (Fig. 2), globose, 4–7
3–6 cm across smooth, reddish-brown or purplish red, glossy, smooth, encased by persistent sepals and crowned by stigma; pericarp thick, spongy, reddish abounding in yellow latex. Seeds 4–8, ca. 1–2 cm long, oblong ovoid, covered with thick, juicy, creamy-white, pleasant-smelling aril. Phenology: Fruiting season vary depending upon geographical location and growing conditions (MBG 2020). Flowering and fruiting are observed during summer or after heavy rainfall periods bearing 100–3000 fruits; however, the plant takes 6–12 years to fruit after planting (TWF 2013).

Garcinia mangostana L.

507

Fig. 2 Garcinia mangostana fruit, one cut open to show the sweet, fleshy endocarp surrounding the apomictic (agamospermous) seeds. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Distribution and Habitat: The native range is Peninsula Malaysia (POWO 2020). It grows in Colombia at an altitude ca. 600 m, mainly in Orinoquia, Magdalena Valley (Bernal et al. 2015). G. mangostana is introduced to the Philippines from Malaysia and distributed in Mindanao and Sulu (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). G. mangostana is primarily cultivated in the Southeast Asian tropical rainforests, particularly in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines (MBG 2020) and other Asian countries like Sri Lanka (Pedraza-Chaverri et al. 2008).

Local Medicinal Uses Southeast Asia: The fruit is commonly used for treating wounds, diarrhea, dysentery, chronic ulcer, inflammations, several infections (i.e., skin and urinary tract infections), and other types of diseases (Chin and Kinghorn 2008; Obolskiy et al. 2009; Cui et al. 2010). The pericarp (peel, rind, hull, or ripe) is commonly utilized to treat various health problems and conditions (Pedraza-Chaverri et al. 2008). Early records of G. mangostana use for traditional medicine has shown remarkable drug leads. Indonesia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand: G. mangostana can be used as a remedy for dysentery and diarrhea (Garnett and Sturton 1932; Chopra et al. 1956; Yates and Stout 1958; Wan 1973); cholera (Sen et al. 1980); wounds and skin infections (Mahabusarakam et al. 1986, 1987); eczema and thrush (Morton 1987); acne and inflammation (Saralamp et al. 1996); ulcer, tuberculosis, and mycosis (Harbone et al. 1999); arthritis, hemorrhoids, and food allergies (Pierce 2003); and other pains, inflammations, and infections (Caius 2003; Moongkarndi et al. 2004a).

Phytochemistry Medicinal plants under the family Clusiaceae are known as sources of a variety of biologically active compounds (Kuete et al. 2013). Some members of this family were reported to have notable ethnopharmacological uses and applications (Acuña

508

M. L. G. Dapar

et al. 2009; De Melo et al. 2014; Dapar et al. 2020a, b) particularly under the genus Garcinia L. (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018). The pericarp, whole fruit, bark, and leaves of Garcinia mangostana were reported to have numerous pharmacological and phytochemical properties (Pedraza-Chaverri et al. 2008). The pericarp of G. mangostana is rich in xanthones such as prenylated and oxygenated xanthones (Govindachari and Muthukumaraswamy 1971; Sultanbawa 1980; Peres et al. 2000). Early investigations conducted in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries on the pericarp revealed the presence of 50 xanthones (Pedraza-Chaverri et al. 2008). The first xanthone to be isolated was α-mangostin (Schmid 1855), which can also be acquired from the bark and its sap (Dragendorff 1930). Later, Dragendorff (1930) isolated β-mangostin, and Yates and Bhat (1968) elucidated its structure. Subsequently, γ-mangostin was isolated (Jefferson et al. 1970). In the twenty-first century, several xanthones were isolated from the bark of G. mangostana (Nilar and Harrison 2002; Nilar et al. 2005), including the new xanthone, mangosharin (Ee et al. 2006). Three more xanthones, mangostenone C, D, and E, have been isolated from the whole fruit (Suksamrarn et al. 2006). More xanthones were isolated from the trunk and branches of G. mangostana (Holloway and Scheinmann 1975; Nilar and Harrison 2002; Nilar et al. 2005; Ee et al. 2006), leaves (Parveen and Khan 1988), and fruit powder (Chin et al. 2008). All these xanthones have notable pharmacological properties (Suksamrarn et al. 2006).

Bioactivities Antioxidant: Methanol extracts of G. mangostana fruit hulls, edible part and pericarp showed antioxidant activity (Yoshikawa et al. 1994; Leong and Shui 2002; Moongkarndi et al. 2004a). The xanthones α-mangostin and γ-mangostin are good antioxidants (Fan and Su 1997). Significant inhibition by α-mangostin was observed against copper-induced low-density lipoprotein oxidation in vitro (Williams et al. 1995; Mahabusarakam et al. 2000) and isoproterenol-induced oxidative damage (Devi Sampath and Vijayaraghavan 2007). The γ-mangostin exhibited hydroxyl radical scavenging activity (Chin et al. 2008). Several xanthones have also shown ability to scavenge peroxynitrite in vitro (Jung et al. 2006). Pericarp extracts of G. mangostana scavenge hydroxyl radicals and inhibit lipid peroxidation (Garcia et al. 2005). Ethanolic and aqueous extracts of G. mangostana have shown 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity (Weecharangsan et al. 2006; Chomnawang et al. 2007). The fruit also demonstrated antioxidant activity against DPPH and 2,20-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radicals (Haruenkit et al. 2007). Anti-tumor, Antiproliferative, and Cytotoxic: Numerous tests validated the antitumor property of G. mangostana, which is mainly attributed to its xanthone content. Ho et al. (2002) report garcinone E of G. mangostana showing cytotoxic effect on hepatoma, gastric, and lung cancer cell lines. Six pericarp xanthones showed antiproliferative activity against human leukemia HL60 cells (Matsumoto et al. 2003). The α-mangostin shows apoptosis in human leukemia cell lines (Matsumoto

Garcinia mangostana L.

509

et al. 2004), and human colon cancer DLD-1 cells (Matsumoto et al. 2005). Antitumoral activities against DLD-1 cells were observed on α-mangostin treatment (Nakagawa et al. 2007) and γ-mangostin (Matsumoto et al. 2005). Jung et al. (2006) show that α-mangostin can inhibit 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced preneoplastic lesions in mouse mammary organ culture. Aqueous extract of G. mangostana fruit rind displayed antileukemic activity in four cell lines (Chiang et al. 2004). Both ethanolic and methanolic extracts of G. mangostana demonstrated antiproliferative effect on human breast cancer SKBR3 cells (Moongkarndi et al. 2004a, b). Xanthones such as mangostenone C, mangostenone D, demethylcalabaxanthone, β-mangostin, gartanin, garcinone E, α-mangostin, mangostinone, γ-mangostin, garcinone D, and garcinone C were found to have significant cytotoxic activity against three human cancer cell lines (Suksamrarn et al. 2006). Anti-inflammatory: Xanthone-rich G. mangostana is known for its antiinflammatory and antiallergy properties. The potency of α-mangostin as antiinflammatory agent was evaluated in several experimental models in rats (Shankaranarayan et al. 1979), and guinea pigs (Gopalakrishnan et al. 1980). Chairungsrilerd et al. (1996) showed that α-mangostin could ameliorate histamineinduced contraction of aorta and trachea in male guinea pigs. The γ-mangostin of G. mangostana also unveiled potential anti-inflammatory activities in several mouse models and cellular experiments (Chairungsrilerd et al. 1998a, b; Nakatani et al. 2002, 2004). Garcinone B (Yamakuni et al. 2006), α-mangostin (Deschamps et al. 2007), and both α- and γ-mangostins (Chen et al. 2008) have also been investigated for their anti-inflammatory potential. Antimicrobial: G. mangostana xanthones are active against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The α-mangostin has shown antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium, and Bacillus subtilis as well as an antifungal against Epidermdophyton floccosum, Alternaria solani, Mucor sp., Rhizopus sp., and Cunninghamella echinulate (Sundaram et al. 1983). Phongpaichit et al. (1994) discovered the antibacterial activity of the α- and γ-mangostins in 49 species of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and 13 species of Enterococcus species. Chen et al. (1996) and Vlietinck et al. (1998) demonstrated the protease HIV-1 protease inhibitory activity of α- and β-mangostins. More xanthones have been proven to be effective against a wide array of bacteria such as MRSA (Iinuma et al. 1996; Sakagami et al. 2005), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Suksamrarn et al. 2006), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE) (Sakagami et al. 2005), normal and penicillin-resistant S. aureus strains (Mahabusarakam et al. 1986). Several xanthones also exhibited antifungal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Microsporum gypseum (Mahabusarakam et al. 1986), and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum, Aliciella tenuis, and Diaphorobacter oryzae (Gopalakrishnan et al. 1997). Ethanolic extracts of G. mangostana can inhibit MRSA and S. aureus strains (Voravuthikunchai and Kitpipit 2005); the extract is also active against proteolytic cleavage of human immunodeficiency virus (Chen et al. 1996; Vlietinck et al. 1998). Antimalarial: Xanthones of G. mangostana exhibit potential antimalarial activity. Riscoe et al. (2005) demonstrated comparable IC50 values of α- and β-mangostins

510

M. L. G. Dapar

against Plasmodium falciparum. Antimalarial potential of xanthones against P. falciparum was demonstrated using α-mangostins (Mahabusarakam et al. 2006) and β-mangostin (Laphookhieo et al. 2006). Other Bioactivities: G. mangostana shows anticancer (Pedro et al. 2002), cardioprotective (Jiang et al. 2004; Pinto et al. 2005), hepatoprotective, immunomodulator, antiulcer (Pinto et al. 2005), antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, and antiatherogenic (Muruganandan et al. 2005; Pinto et al. 2005) properties. The pericarp extract was also proven to be useful as a mouthwash in treatment for oral malodor (Rassameemasmaung et al. 2007).

Local Food Uses The fruit of Garcinia mangostana is widely cultivated, traded and eaten for its appetizing sweet-sour taste (Aizat et al. 2019a; Midin et al. 2018). It is commonly sold in supermarkets and local markets of Southeast Asia (Franco et al. 2020). Several food uses were reported by Aizat et al. (2019b) such as food products (dried aril, fruit jam, peel drink, yogurt, ice cream, chocolate, and lozenges), animal feed (dairy steer, lactating cows, broiler chicken), and food shell life (spoilage detection and fruit anti-browning).

Economic Importance G. mangostana has been named as “Queen of fruits” (Pedraza-Chaverri et al. 2008), “the fruit of the Gods” in French Caribbean (RISE 2019), and the national fruit of Thailand (MBG 2020) due to its unique color, pleasant aroma, and delicious fruit (Fig. 2). Fruit harvest of Garcinia mangostana had a significant global economic impact in 2017 with ca. 700,000 tons produced, with Thailand as the leading producer and exporter (Altendorf 2018). G. mangostana is commercialized as a food supplement called “MX3 capsule” labeled as the leading natural food supplement in the Philippines (MX3 2020). More products have been commercialized, such as tea, coffee, and soap. A comprehensive review from Aizat et al. (2019b) showed that G. mangostana offers a multitude of economic benefits ranging from technological and biomedical applications to advanced industrial materials. Products derived from G. mangostana are expected to benefit various biomaterial or biomedical industries and local communities, particularly farmers, traders, and consumers worldwide.

References Acuña UM, Jancovski N, Kennelly EJ. Polyisoprenylated benzophenones from Clusiaceae: potential drugs and lead compounds. Curr Top Med Chem. 2009;9(16):1560–80. https://doi.org/ 10.2174/156802609789909830.

Garcinia mangostana L.

511

Aizat WM, Ahmad-Hashim FH, Jaafar SNS. Valorization of mangosteen, “The Queen of Fruits,” and new advances in postharvest and in food and engineering applications: a review. J Adv Res. 2019a;20:61–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2019.05.005. Aizat WM, Jamil IN, Ahmad-Hashim FH, Normah MN. Recent updates on metabolite composition and medicinal benefits of mangosteen plant. PeerJ. 2019b;7:e6324. https://doi.org/10.7717/ peerj.6324. Altendorf S. Minor tropical fruits: mainstreaming a niche market. In: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2018. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/est/COMM_MAR KETS_MONITORING/Tropical_Fruits/Documents/Minor_Tropical_Fruits_FoodOutlook_1_ 2018.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2020. Bernal R, Gradstein SR, Celis M, editors. Catálogo de plantas y líquenes de Colombia. In: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá. 2015. http://catalogoplan tasdecolombia.unal.edu.co. Caius J. The medicinal and poisonous plants of India. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers; 2003. p. 527. Chairungsrilerd N, Takeuchi K, Ohizumi Y, Nozoe S, Ohta T. Mangostanol, a prenyl xanthone from Garcinia mangostana. Phytochemistry. 1996;43:1099–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/S00319422(96)00410-4. Chairungsrilerd N, Furukawa K, Tadano T, Kisara K, Ohizumi Y. Effect of γ-mangostin through the inhibition of 5-hydroxy-tryptamine2A receptors in 5- fluoro-alpha-methyltryptamine-induced head-twitch responses of mice. Br J Pharmacol. 1998a;123:855–62. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj. bjp.0701695. Chairungsrilerd N, Furukawa KI, Ohta T, Nozoe S, Ohizumi Y. γ-Mangostin, a novel type of 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor antagonist. Naunyn Schmiedeberg’s Arch Pharmacol. 1998b;357:25–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/pl00005134. Chen S, Wan M, Loh BN. Active constituents against HIV-1 protease from Garcinia mangostana. Planta Med. 1996;62:381–2. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-957916. Chen LG, Yang LL, Wang CC. Anti-inflammatory activity of mangostins from Garcinia mangostana. Food Chem Toxicol. 2008;46:688–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2007.09.096. Chiang LC, Cheng HY, Liu MC, Chiang W, Lin CC. In vitro evaluation of antileukemic activity of 17 commonly used fruits and vegetables in Taiwan. Lebensm Wiss Technol. 2004;37:539–44. Chin YW, Kinghorn AD. Structural characterization, biological effects, and synthetic studies on xanthones from mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), a popular botanical dietary supplement. Mini Rev Org Chem. 2008;5:355–64. https://doi.org/10.2174/157019308786242223. Chin YW, Jung HA, Chai H, Keller WJ, Kinghorn AD. Xanthones with quinone reductase-inducing activity from the fruits of Garcinia mangostana (Mangosteen). Phytochemistry. 2008;69:754–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2007. Chomnawang MT, Surassmo S, Nukoolkarn VS, Gritsanapan W. Effect of Garcinia mangostana on inflammation caused by Propionibacterium acnes. Fitoterapia. 2007;78:401–8. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.fitote.2007.02.019. Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants. The National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources, Nueva Delhi; 1956. p. 123. Cui J, Hu W, Cai Z, Liu Y, Li S, Tao W, et al. New medicinal properties of mangostins: analgesic activity and pharmacological characterization of active ingredients from the fruit hull of Garcinia mangostana L. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2010;95(2):166–72. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.pbb.2009.12.021. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020a;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020b;19:31. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18. De Melo MS, Quintans JDS, Araújo AAD, Duarte MC, Bonjardim LR, Nogueira PCD. A systematic review for anti-inflammatory property of Clusiaceae family: a preclinical approach.

512

M. L. G. Dapar

Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2014; Article ID: 960258. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/ 960258. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Deschamps JD, Gautschi JT, Whitman S, Johnson TA, Gassner NC, Crews P, et al. Discovery of platelet-type 12-human lipoxygenase selective inhibitors by high-throughput screening of structurally diverse libraries. Bioorg Med Chem. 2007;15:6900–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. bmc.2007.08.015. Devi Sampath P, Vijayaraghavan K. Cardioprotective effect of alpha-mangostin, a xanthone derivative from mangosteen on tissue defense system against isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats. J Biochem Mol Toxicol. 2007;21:336–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbt.20199. Dragendorff O. Über das Harz von Garcinia mangostana L. Liebigs Ann. 1930;482:280–301. https://doi.org/10.1002/jlac.19304820119. Ee GCL, Daud S, Taufiq-Yap YH, Ismail NH, Rahmani M. Xanthones from Garcinia mangostana (Guttiferae). Nat Prod Res. 2006;20:1067–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786410500463114. Fan C, Su J. Antioxidative mechanism of isolated components from methanol extract of fruit hulls of G. mangostana L. J Chin Agric Chem Soc. 1997;35:540–51. Franco FM, Chaw LL, Bakar N, Abas SNH. Socialising over fruits and vegetables: the biocultural importance of an open-air market in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-0356-6. Garcia VV, Magpantay TO, Escobin LD. Antioxidant potential of selected Philippine vegetables and fruits. Philipp Agric Sci. 2005;88:78–83. Garnett M, Sturton SD. Garcinia mangostana in the treatment of amoebic dysentery. Chin Med J. 1932;XLVI:969–73. Gopalakrishnan C, Shankaranarayanan D, Kameswaran L, Nazimudeen SK. Effect of mangostin, a xanthone from Garcinia mangostana Linn. In immunopathological and inflammatory reactions. Indian J Exp Biol. 1980;18:843–6. Gopalakrishnan G, Banumathi B, Suresh G. Evaluation of the antifungal activity of natural xanthones from the fruits of Garcinia mangostana and their synthetic derivatives. J Nat Prod. 1997;60:519–24. https://doi.org/10.1021/np970165u. Govindachari TRKP, Muthukumaraswamy N. Xanthones of Garcinia mangostana Linn. Tetrahedron. 1971;27:3919–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-4020(01)98253-5. Harbone J, Baxter H, Moss G. Phytochemical dictionary – a handbook of bioactive compounds from plants. London/Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis; 1999. p. 590. Haruenkit R, Poovarodom S, Leontowicz H, Leontowicz M, Sajewicz M, Kowalska T, et al. Comparative study of health properties and nutritional value of durian, mangosteen and snake fruit: experiments in vitro and in vivo. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55:5842–9. https://doi.org/ 10.1021/jf070475a. Ho CK, Huang YL, Chen CC. Garcinone E, a xanthone derivative, has potent cytotoxic effect against the hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. Planta Med. 2002;68:975–9. https://doi.org/ 10.1055/s-2002-35668. Holloway DM, Scheinmann F. Phenolic compounds from the heartwood of Garcinia mangostana. Phytochemistry. 1975;14:2517–8. Iinuma M, Tosa H, Tanaka T, Asai F, Kobayashi Y, Shimano R, et al. Antibacterial activity of xanthones from guttiferaeous plants against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1996;48:861–5. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-7158.1996.tb03988.x. Jefferson AQA, Scheimann F, Sim KY. Isolation of γ-mangostin from Garcinia mangostana and preparation of the natural mangostins by selective demethylation. Aust J Chem. 1970;23:2539–43. Jiang DJ, Dai Z, Li YJ. Pharmacological effects of xanthones as cardiovascular protective agents. Cardiovasc Drug Rev. 2004;22:91–102. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-3466.2004.tb00133.x. Jung HA, Su BN, Keller WJ, Mehta RG, Kinghorn D. Antioxidant xanthones from pericarp of Garcinia mangostana (Mangosteen). J Agric Food Chem. 2006;54:2077–82. https://doi.org/ 10.1021/jf052649z. Kuete V, Viertel K, Efferth T. Antiproliferative potential of African medicinal plants. Med Plant Res Afr. 2013;6:711–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-405927-6.00018-7.

Garcinia mangostana L.

513

Laphookhieo S, Syers JK, Kiattansakul R, Chantrapromma K. Cytotoxic and antimalarial prenylated xanthones from Cratoxylum cochinchinense. Chem Pharm Bull. 2006;54:745–7. https:// doi.org/10.1248/cpb.54.745. Leong L, Shui G. An investigation of antioxidant capacity of fruits in Singapore markets. Food Chem. 2002;76:69–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00251-5. Mahabusarakam W, Wiriyachitra P, Phongpaichit S. Antimicrobial activities of chemical constituents from G. mangostana Linn. J Sci Soc Thail. 1986;12:239–42. https://doi.org/10.2306/ scienceasia1513-1874.1986.12.239. Mahabusarakam W, Wiriyachtra P, Taylor W. Chemical constituents of Garcinia mangostana. J Nat Prod. 1987;50:474–8. https://doi.org/10.1021/np50051a021. Mahabusarakam W, Proudfoot J, Taylor W, Croft K. Inhibition of lipoprotein oxidation by prenylated xanthones derived from mangostin. Free Radic Res. 2000;33:643–59. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10715760000301161. Mahabusarakam W, Kuaha K, Wilairat P, Taylor WC. Prenylated xanthones as potential antiplasmodial substances. Planta Med. 2006;72:912–6. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-947190. Matsumoto K, Akao Y, Kobayashi E, Ohguchi K, Ito T, Iinuma M, et al. Induction of apoptosis by xanthones from mangosteen in human leukemia cell lines. J Nat Prod. 2003;66:1124–7. https:// doi.org/10.1021/np020546u. Matsumoto K, Akao Y, Yi H, Ohguchi K, Ito T, Tanaka T, et al. Preferential target is mitochondria in α-mangostin- induced apoptosis in human leukemia HL60 cells. Bioorg Med Chem. 2004;12:5799–806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2004.08.034. Matsumoto K, Akao Y, Ohguchi K, Ito T, Tanaka T, Iinuma M, et al. Xanthones induce cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in human colon cancer DLD-1 cells. Bioorg Med Chem. 2005;13:6064–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2005.06.065. MBG. Garcinia mangostana. In: Missouri botanical garden plant finder. 2020. http://www.mis souribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid¼279214. Accessed 8 June 2020. Midin MR, Nordin MS, Madon M, Saleh MN, Goh H-H, Noor NM. Determination of the chromosome number and genome size of Garcinia mangostana L. via cytogenetics, flow cytometry and k-mer analyses. Caryologia. 2018;71:35–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00087114.2017.1403762. Moongkarndi P, Kosem N, Kaslunga S, Luanratana O, Pongpan N, Neungton N. Antiproliferation, antioxidation and induction of apoptosis by Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen) on SKBR3 human breast cancer cell line. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004a;90:161–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2003.09.048. Moongkarndi P, Kosem N, Luanratana O, Jongsomboonkusol S, Pongpan N. Antiproliferative activity of Thai medicinal plant extracts on human breast adenocarcinoma cell line. Fitoterapia. 2004b;75:375–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2004.01.010. Morton J. Fruits from warm climates. Miami: Creative Resource Systems Inc.; 1987. p. 304. Muruganandan S, Srinivasan K, Gupta S, Gupta PK, Lal J. Effect of mangiferin on hyperglycemia and atherogenicity in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:497–501. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.12.010. MX3. The leading natural food supplement in the Philippines. In: MX3 Natural Supplement. 2020. https://www.mx3.ph. Accessed 8 June 2020. Nakagawa Y, Iinuma M, Naoe T, Nozawa Y, Akao Y. Characterized mechanism of α-mangostininduced cell death: caspase-independent apoptosis with release of endonuclease-G from mitochondria and increased miRNA-143 expression in human colorectal cancer DLD-1 cells. Bioorg Med Chem. 2007;15:5620–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2007.04.071. Nakatani K, Atsumi M, Arakawa T, Oosawa K, Shimura S, Nakahata N, et al. Inhibitions of histamine release and prostaglandin E2 synthesis by mangosteen, a Thai medicinal plant. Biol Pharm Bull. 2002;25:1137–41. https://doi.org/10.1248/bpb.25.1137. Nakatani K, Yamakuni T, Kondo N, Arakawa T, Oosawa K, Shimura S, et al. γ-Mangostin inhibits inhibitor-kappaB kinase activity and decreases lipopolysaccharide-induced cyclooxygenase-2 gene expression in C6 rat glioma cells. Mol Pharmacol. 2004;66:667–74. https://doi.org/ 10.1124/mol.104.002626.

514

M. L. G. Dapar

Nilar, Harrison LJ. Xanthones from the heartwood of Garcinia mangostana. Phytochemistry. 2002;60:541–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9422(02)00142-5. Nilar, LHD N, Venkatraman G, Sim KY, Harrison LJ. Xanthones and benzophenones from Garcinia griffithii and Garcinia mangostana. Phytochemistry. 2005;66:1718–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.phytochem.2005.04.032. Obolskiy D, Pischel I, Siriwatanametanon N, Heinrich M. Garcinia mangostana L.: a phytochemical and pharmacological review. Phytother Res. 2009;23(8):1047–65. https://doi.org/10.1002/ ptr.2730. Parveen M, Khan NU. Two xanthones from Garcinia mangostana. Phytochemistry. 1988;27:3694– 6. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(88)80804-5. Pedraza-Chaverri J, Cárdenas-Rodríguez N, Orozco-Ibarra M, Pérez-Rojas JM. Medicinal properties of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana). Food Chem Toxicol. 2008;46:3227–39. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.fct.2017.08.021. Pedro M, Cerqueira F, Sousa ME, Nascimento MS, Pinto M. Xanthones as inhibitors of growth of human cancer cell lines and their effects on the proliferation of human lymphocytes in vitro. Bioorg Med Chem. 2002;10:3725–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0968-0896(02)00379-6. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Clusiaceae (¼ Guttiferae). In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Clusiaceae.html. Accessed 8 June 2020. Peres V, Nagem TJ, de Oliveira FF. Tetraoxygenated naturally occurring xanthones. Phytochemistry. 2000;55:683–710. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9422(00)00303-4. Phongpaichit S, Ongsakul M, Nilrat L, Tharavichitkul P, Bunchoo S, Chuaprapaisilp T, et al. Antibacterial activities of extracts from Garcinia mangostana pericarps on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus species. Songklanakarin J Sci Technol. 1994;16:399– 405. Pierce SC. A Thai herbal. Scotland: Findhorn Press; 2003. p. 118. Pinto MM, Sousa ME, Nascimento MS. Xanthone derivatives: new insights in biological activities. Curr Med Chem. 2005;12:2517–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/092986705774370691. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 8 June 2020 Rassameemasmaung S, Sirikulsathean A, Amornchat C, Hirunrat K, Rojanapanthu P, Gritsanapan W. Effects of herbal mouthwash containing the pericarp extract of Garcinia mangostana L. on halitosis, plaque and papillary bleeding index. J Int Acad Periodontol. 2007;9:19–25. Riscoe M, Kelly JX, Winter R. Xanthones as antimalarial agents: discovery, mode of action, and optimization. Curr Med Chem. 2005;12:2539–49. https://doi.org/10.2174/092986705774370709. RISE. Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.), vol. 31, no. 1. In: Research Information Series on Ecosystems. 2019. http://erdb.denr.gov.ph/2019/07/03/rise-volume-31-no-1-mangosteen-garciniamangostana-l/. Accessed 8 June 2020. Sakagami Y, Iinuma M, Piyasena KGNP, Dharmaratne HRW. Antibacterial activity of α-mangostin against vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE) and synergism with antibiotics. Phytomedicine. 2005;12:203–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2003.09.012. Saralamp P, Chuakul W, Temsirirkkul R, Clayton T. Medicinal plants in Thailand, vol. 1. Bangkok: Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Botany; 1996. p. 98 Schmid W. Ueber das mangostin. Liebigs Ann Chem. 1855;93:83–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/ jlac.18550930105. Sen AK, Sarkar KK, Majumder PC, Banerji N. Isolation of three new minor xanthones from Garcinia mangostana Linn. Indian J Chem. 1980;19B:1008. Shankaranarayan D, Gopalakrishnan C, Kameswaran L. Pharmacological profile of mangostin and its derivatives. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther. 1979;239:257–69. Suksamrarn S, Komutiban O, Ratananukul P, Chimnoi N, Lartpornmatulee N, Suksamrarn A. Cytotoxic prenylated xanthones from the young fruit of Garcinia mangostana. Chem Pharm Bull. 2006;54:301–5. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.54.301.

Garcinia mangostana L.

515

Sultanbawa MUS. Xanthonoids of tropical plants. Tetrahedron. 1980;36:1465–506. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0040-4020(01)83114-8. Sundaram BM, Gopalakrishnan C, Subramanian S, Shankaranarayanan D, Kameswaran L. Antimicrobial activities of Garcinia mangostana. Planta Med. 1983;48:59–60. https://doi. org/10.1055/s-2007-969882. TWF. Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana. In: Trade Winds Fruit – Plant Informational Database. 2013. http://www.tradewindsfruit.com/content/mangosteen.htm. Accessed 8 June 2020. Vlietinck ADBT, Apers S, Pieters L. Plant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Planta Med. 1998;64:97–109. https://doi.org/10.1055/ s-2006-957384. Voravuthikunchai SP, Kitpipit L. Activity of medicinal plant extracts against hospital isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2005;11:510–2. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2005.01104.x. Wan ASC. Garcinia mangostana. High resolution NMR studies of mangostin. Planta Med. 1973;24:297–300. Weecharangsan W, Opanasopit P, Sukma M, Ngawhirunpat T, Sotanaphun U, Siripong P. Antioxidative and neuroprotective activities of extracts from the fruit hull of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana Linn.). Med Princ Pract. 2006;15:281–7. https://doi.org/10.1159/ 000092991. Williams P, Ongsakul M, Proudfoot J, Croft K, Beilin L. Mangostin inhibits the oxidative modification of human low-density lipoprotein. Free Radic Res. 1995;23:175–84. https://doi.org/ 10.3109/10715769509064030. Yamakuni T, Aoki K, Nakatani K, Kondo N, Oku H, Ishiguro K, et al. Garcinone B reduces prostaglandin E2 release and NF-kappaB-mediated transcription in C6 rat glioma cells. Neurosci Lett. 2006;394:206–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2005.10.023. Yates P, Bhat HB. Structure of β-mangostin. Can J Chem. 1968;46:3770–2. Yates P, Stout GH. The structure of mangostin. J Am Chem Soc. 1958;80:1691–700. https://doi.org/ 10.1021/ja01540a046. Yoshikawa M, Harada E, Miki A, Tsukamoto K, Si Qian L, Yamahara J, et al. Antioxidant constituents from the fruit hulls of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) originating in Vietnam. Yakugaku Zasshi. 1994;114:129–33.

Gaultheria leucocarpa Blume ERICACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim and Eka Setiawan

Synonyms Brossaea leucocarpa (Blume) Kuntze. – var. hirta Valeton ex J. J. Sm. – var. hirsuta (D. Fang & N. K. Liang) T. Z. Xu: Gaultheria crenulata Kurz; Gaultheria leucocarpa Blume var. crenulata (Kurz) T. Z. Xu; Gaultheria yunnanensis (Franchet) Rehder var. hirsuta (D. Fang & N. K. Liang). – var. leucocarpa: – f. cumingiana (Vidal) Sleumer: Gaultheria cumingiana Vidal; Gaultheria laxiflora Diels; Gaultheria crenulata (non Kurz) J. J. Sm. – f. scandens Hochr: ? Brossaea bandongensis (Zoll. ex Miq.) Kuntze; Gaultheria leucocarpa f. pubescens J. J. Sm.; ? Gaulthesia leucocarpa var. seminuda J. J. Sm. – f. melanocarpa J. J. Sm. ex Amsh.: Brossaea bandongensis (Zoll. ex Miq.) Kuntze; Gaultheria bandongensis Zoll.; Gaultheria leucocarpa var. melanocarpa J. J. Sm. ex Steen. – var. pingbienensis C. Y. Wu ex T. Z. Xu: Embelia vaniotii H. Léveillé; Gaultheria laxiflora Diels; Gaultheria leucocarpa Blume var. yunnanensis (Franchet) T. Z. Xu & R. C. Fang; Gaultheria yunnanensis (Franchet) Rehder; Pieris fortunatii H. Léveillé; Pieris vaccinium H. Léveillé; Vaccinium yunnanense Franchet. – var. psilocarpa (H. F. Copel.) Sleumer: Gaultheria cumingiana auct. non S. Vidal; Gaultheria psilocarpa H. F. Copel.

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia E. Setiawan Plant Biology Graduate Program, Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, IPB University, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_180

517

518

W. A. Mustaqim and E. Setiawan

Local Names Indonesia: Gandapura. – var. leucocarpa: kalin cahyo (Batak Karo in Sumatra) – sae-sae (Batak in Samosir) – f. leucocarpa: gondopuro, kapirosok, purwa roko, purwa sada, sanglir, tandjang, teˇmigi, teˇmigi kasar (Javanese) –kalintjajak (Batak Karo in Sumatra) – keˇring, tjantigi bodas, tjantigi wangi (Sundanese) – sae-sae (Batak Toba in Sumatra) – sae-sae angur (Tapanuli in Sumatra) – sal-sal (east coast Sumatra) – sirih gunung (Padang Highlands). – f. scandens: litjajo, litjaujo (Batak Karo in Sumatra) – tjojo (Keling). Philippines: var. psilocarpa: logauwoy (Baguio) (Giesen 2015; Heyne 1917; Silalahi and Nisyawati 2018; Sinurat 2018; Sleumer 1967).

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrubs, 0.4–2.5 m, rarely to 3 m tall, climbing or decumbent, with strong wintergreen odor. Branchlets terete to slightly flattened, glabrous to densely clad with setose-glandular-hirsute hairs and white minute hairs, hairs present usually in juvenile plants. Leaves alternate; petiole 3–9 mm long, grooved above, glabrous or white lanulate on its upper side, rarely with setose-hirsute hairs; blades ovate to ovate-lanceolate, 3.5–14
(1.5–) 2–6.5 cm, becoming smaller toward the apex of branchlets, thickly papery to rigidly leathery, leaf base cordate to auriculate cordate, less often rounded or broadly attenuate, margin flat to slightly revolute, regularly serrulate, 30–65 teeth on each side, teeth sometimes glandular setose, apex long-acuminate to nearly caudate, terminal gland small; midvein slightly immersed above, raised beneath, lateral veins 3–5 on each side of the midvein, originating along the midvein, anastomosing, lowermost pair borne from or near the base, flat or sub impressed above, raised beneath, tertiary veins distinct, flat to impressed above, raised beneath; upper surfaces glabrous or midvein white-villoluse at the proximal part or less often glandularsetose, lower surfaces glabrous and with glandular or eglandular setose hairs beneath. Flowers arranged in racemes or panicle, these axillary or terminal, 1.5– 9 cm long, 1–11-flowered; rachis flexuous, slender, red when fresh, glabrous or less often glandular-setose-hirsute and white puberulent; bracts deltoid to narrow deltoid, persistent, up to 5
1.2 mm, glabrous, ciliolate at the margin, acute at the apex. Pedicels 3–10 mm long, glabrous; bracteoles just beneath the calyx, ovate triangulate, 1.1–1.7 mm long, cordate at the base, acute-acuminate at the apex, persistent, glabrous, margin ciliate. Calyx 2.5–3.5 mm long, glabrous or puberulous inside, lobes 5, deltoid-ovate, broad, 1.6–2 mm long, apex acute, margin ciliate. Corolla more or less fragrant, green, white, yellowish-white, less often margin pinkish, campanulate, 3.5–5.5
3–5.5 mm, glabrous, lobes 5, deltoid, 1.3–2 mm. Stamens 10, filaments curved, 1.2–1.5 mm long, widened at the middle, glabrous, papillose, anthers ovate-oblong, 0.9–1.4 mm long, with two dorsal acicular appendages. Ovary densely white hairy, style simple, 2–3.5 mm

Gaultheria leucocarpa Blume

519

long, glabrous. Fruiting calyx white or rose-tinged to dark purple to black, fleshy, lobes incurved, margin not pale. Capsule 4–7 mm across, clad with sericeous hairs. Seeds brown, triangular-obovoid, c. 0.5 mm. Gaultheria leucocarpa is a very variable species and treated here in a broad sense (sensu lato). In Malesian biogeographical region, the typical variety can be recognized by the glabrous leaves and corolla and the densely hairy ovary. This variety is divided into four forms with f. leucocarpa as the typical and three others named f. cumingiana, f. melanocarpa, and f. scandens. The f. leucocarpa has glabrous or nearly so inflorescence together with f. cumingiana, in which the latter differs from f. leucocarpa by the deep-red or purple to blackish mature fruit compared to white or rose-tinged in the mature fruits of f. leucocarpa. The other two forms of var. leucocarpa are f. melanocarpa and f. scandens. Both differ from the first two by the short pubescence in the inflorescence, and f. melanocarpa has blackish-purple mature fruits compared to white or rose-tinged in f. scandens. The other two varieties are var. psilocarpa which is similar to var. leucocarpa but differs in having the nearly so to glabrous ovary and var. hirta which is different from other varieties by its pubescent lower leaf surfaces and pubescent corolla. In mainland Asia, there are two varieties recognized so far, named var. hirsuta and var. pingbienensis. The var. pingbienensis refers to plants with glabrous branchlets and leaves, while var. hirsuta refers to plants with branchlets and leaves clad by minute white and setoseglandular-hirsute hairs. The distribution and ecology of each variety and forms are as follows: • var. hirta: This variety is only known from Northern Sumatra (Batak Toba near Kuta Lekole). • var. hirsuta: Endemic to Yunnan and Guangxi in China. Growing on open slopes or thickets at hilltops with elevation from 2000 to 2800 m.a.s.l. • var. leucocarpa: – f. cumingiana: A quite widespread form recorded from Upper Myanmar, China, Indochina, Formosa, Thailand (Payap, Chiang mai), Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, and the Philippines on elevation from 1300 to 3000 m.a.s.l., seems lower in Perak, Peninsular Malaysia. – f. leucocarpa: This form occurs in Sumatra and Java in an elevation from 1100 to 3020. – f. melanocarpa: Distributed in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and East Java in elevation from 915 to 3030 m.a.s.l. • var. pingbienensis: Known from China to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. It grows on subtropical forests, coniferous forests, open slopes’ thickets, usually from 1500 to 2400 m but sometimes down to 500 or ascend to 3300 m.a.s.l. • var. psilocarpa is endemic to the Philippines where it can only be found in Luzon, Mindoro, Negros, and Mindanao. The elevational range of this variety is 1800– 2800 m.a.s.l. This species would still need further taxonomic studies which may greatly affect the current circumscription of the species. Flowering and fruiting of the species

520

W. A. Mustaqim and E. Setiawan

Fig. 1 Leafy branchlets of Gaultheria leucocarpa var. leucocarpa in Mount Ciremai, West Java, Indonesia. (© E. Setiawan)

Fig. 2 Immature fruits of Gaultheria leucocarpa var. leucocarpa in Mount Ciremai, West Java, Indonesia. (© E. Setiawan)

seems year-round, at least represented by the var. leucocarpa f. scandens (Argent 2008; Fang 1999; Fang and Stevens 2005; Fritsch et al. 2008; Pelser et al. 2011onwards; Sleumer 1957, 1967; Watthana 2015) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Gaultheria leucocarpa Blume

521

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: This plant is popular among people of Batak ethnicity, North Sumatra, as leaves gathered from wild plants have been used as a material for traditional steambathing or oukup which is believed to have various medicinal benefits (Batubara et al. 2017; Silalahi and Nisyawati 2018). For the same purpose, seeds of this species are also sold in Kabanjahe traditional market, Karo Regency, North Sumatra (Silalahi et al. 2015). There are several medicinal benefits of oukup steam-bathing including blood circular improvement, increasing breast milk production, women’s genital cleansing, stamina, skin smoothing, lowering cholesterols, and curing polyps, rheumatism, diabetes mellitus, and headaches (Silalahi and Nisyawati 2018). Digestive problems, various skin diseases, and bad odor, flu, insomnia, rheumatism and related, post-birth sickness, maag, stomachache, vertigo, fever or masuk angin, and gout can be cured by oukup as reported also from Karo Regency, North Sumatra, by Batubara et al. (2017). In North Sumatra, Batak people of Simanindo Subdistrict, Samosir Island, also use this species to cure various diseases, some of which are similar to the two previous reports, including rheumatism, arthritis, toothache, headaches, sores, wound healing, and dislocation. Leaves are processed into a tea used to cure diseases related to breathing, any mouth sickness, and back pain (Sinurat 2018).

Phytochemistry Numerous chemical compounds have been isolated from G. leucocarpa s.l. Quercitrin is among the known chemical compounds that has been found to occur in the whole plant (Liu et al. 2013), along with (+)-lyoniresinol, (+)-syringaresinol, (+)-isolariciresinol, gaultheroside A, gaultheroside G, 9-salicyl-(+)-isolariciresinol, ()-isolariciresinol-2a-O-b-D-xylopyranoside, 2,3-dihydro-7-methoxy-2-(40-hydroxy30-methoxyphenyl)-3a-O-b-D-xylopyranosyloxy-methyl-5-benzofuranpropanol, and (+)-pinoresinol (Gao et al. 2014). Roots yield the most diverse range of chemical compounds including (+)-catechin, gaultherin A, gaultherin B, gaultherin D, gaultherin C, (+)-lyoniresinol, (+)-lyoniresinol-2α-O-β-L-arabinopyranoside, proanthocyanidin A-2, quercetin, rutin, (+)-lyoniresinol-2α-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, ()-isolariciresinol-2α-O-β-D-xylopyranoside, ()-50 -methoxyisolariciresinol-2α-Oβ-D-xylopyranoside, ()-50 -methoxyisolariciresinol, gaultheronoterpene, gaultheric acid, 3β-acetyl-12,25-diene-dammarane, 3β-hydroxy-20(29)-lupen-28-aldehyde, 3β-acetoxy-20(29)-lupen-28-aldehyde, 3β-acetyloleanolic acid, ursolic acid, daucosterol, protocatechuic acid, salicylic acid, acetylsyringic acid, vanillic acid, 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoic acid, gentistic acid, scopoletin, ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid, and palmitic acid. Chemical compounds isolated from the aerial parts include gaultherin A, (+)-lyoniresinol-2α-O-β-L-arabinopyranoside, (+)-lyoniresinol-2α-Oβ-D-glucopyranoside, gaultherin, O-β-D-xylo-pyranosyl(1–6)]-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, methyl benzoate-2-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1–2)[O-β-D-xylopyranosyl(1–6)]-O-βD-glucopyranoside, quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucuronide, ()-isolariciresinol-2α-O-βD-xylopyranoside, gaultherin B, kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucuronide, vanillic acid,

522

W. A. Mustaqim and E. Setiawan

methyl gentisate, methyl salicylate, and n-dotriacontane; 3,5-dihydroxy-2hydroxymethyl-4H-pyran-4-one only can be found in stem and leaves. Besides that, two methyl glycosides were also isolated from the stem and leaves named methyl benzoate-2-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl(1–6)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and methyl benzoate-2-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl(1–2)[O-β-D-xylopyranosyl(1–6)]-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Zhang et al. 2011). Some of the chemical compounds recorded from the seeds are gaultherin, ginkgetin, methyl salicylate 2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, myricetin, quercetin, ursolic acid, gaultheriadiolide, and 6-ethyl-5-hydroxy-2,7-dimethoxy-1,4naphthoquinone (Li et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2013). Further investigation on antiphlogistic part of extract recorded the presence of β-daucosterol, β-sitosterol, myricetin, physcion, succinic acid, vanillic acid, 1,4-dyhydroxybenzene, and 6-ethyl-5hydroxy-2,7-dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (Xie et al. 2015). A study by Ma et al. (2001) has shown that extract of this plant displayed antibacterial activities, including against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. Liu et al. (2013) mentioned the bioactivities of the plants including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidative. The antiinflammatory activity is remarkable, together with anti-rheumatoid arthritis, as shown by Xie et al. (2014). Used in China as a component of jiawei fengshining, this species also shows apoptotic activity (Dong et al. 2019). The cytotoxic activities are due to gaultheriadiolide present in the seeds (Li et al. 2010).

Biocultural Importance Owing to the presence of oils, G. leucocarpa has been used since a long time ago by the local communities of Java. Heyne (1917) mentioned that oil was distilled from the leaves in Sumbing and Sindoro, both in Central Java Province. The oils are said to be distilled in a “very primitive manner” by the locals.

Economic Importance This plant is a source of essential oil in which methyl salicylate is the main product. In Malaysia, methyl salicylate contributes to some 96% of the oil (Chua and Sunarti 1999). Roots and rhizome generally contain a lesser amount of methyl salicylate at 74–89.82% compared to various single or combined aerial parts at 95.93–99.66 (Liu et al. 2013). In the Kabanjahe market, North Sumatra, the seeds are sold as a raw material for oukup (Silalahi et al. 2015).

References Argent G. A checklist of Philippine Ericaceae. Philipp J Syst Biol. 2008;2(1):40–6. Batubara RP, Zuhud EAM, Hermawan R, Tumanggor R. Use value of plant species for steam bath Oukup, Karo. Med Konserv. 2017;22(1):79–86.

Gaultheria leucocarpa Blume

523

Chua LSL, Sunarti S. Gaultheria L. In: Oyen LPA, Dung NX, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 19: essential-oil plants. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. p. 110–4. Dong X, Gan Y, Ding L, Zeng F, Ding D. Effect of Jiawei Fengshining on synovial cell apoptosis and TGF-β1/smad signaling pathway in rats with rheumatoid arthritis. Evid-based Comp Alt Med. 2019;2019:8614034. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8614034. Fang RC. New taxa of Ericaceae from China. Novon. 1999;9(2):162–78. Fang RC, Stevens PF. Gaultheria. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, editors. Flora of China: Myrsinaceae through Loganiaceae, vol. 14. Beijing/St. Louis: Missouri Science Press/Botanical Garden Press; 2005. p. 464–75. Fritsch PW, Zhou L, Lu L, Bartholomew B. The flowering plant genus Gaultheria (Ericaceae) in the Gaoligong Shan, along the border region of China and Myanmar. Proc Calif Acad Sci Ser 4. 2008;59(6):147–214. Gao YP, Shen YH, Xu XK, Tian JM, Zeng HW, Lin S, Liu CM, Zhang WD. Two novel lignans from Gaultheria yunnanensis. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2014;16(7):724–9. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10286020.2014.898634. Giesen W. Utilising non-timber forest products to conserve Indonesia’s peat swamp forests and reduce carbon emissions. J Indon Nat Hist. 2015;3(2):17–26. Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indië. 4th ed. Batavia: Ruygrok & Co.; 1917. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.13465. Li J, Li F, Lu YY, Su XJ, Huang CP, Lu XW. A new dilactone from the seeds of Gaultheria yunnanensis. Fitoterapia. 2010;81(1):35–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2009.07.003. Liu WR, Qiao WL, Liu ZZ, Wang XH, Jiang R, Li SY, Shi RB, She GM. Gaultheria: phytochemical and pharmacological characteristics. Molecules. 2013;18:12071–108. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/molecules181012071. Ma XJ, Zhao L, Du CF, Gong YJ, Zheng JH, Chen XZ. Screening of anti-bacteria activity of extracts of Gaultheria leucocarpa var. yunnanensis. China J Chin Mater Med. 2001;26(4):223–6. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines: Ericaceae (including Epacridaceae). 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Ericaceae.html. Retrieved 9 May 2020. Silalahi M, Nisyawati. An ethnobotanical study of traditional steam-bathing by the Batak people of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Pac Conserv Biol. 2018;2018:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1071/ PC18038. Silalahi M, Nisyawati, Walujo EB, Supriatna J, Mangunwardoyo W. The local knowledge of medicinal plants trader and diversity of medicinal plants in the Kabanjahe traditional market, North Sumatra, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:432–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2015.09.009. Sinurat P. Eksplorasi tumbuhan obat di hutan Curaman Tomok-Ambarita Kecamatan Simanindo Kabupaten Samosir (Undergraduate thesis). Medan: Universitas Sumatera Utara. 2018. http:// repositori.usu.ac.id/handle/123456789/3304. (in Bahasa). Sleumer H. Florae Malesianae praecursores XV. The genus Gaultheria in Malaysia. Reinwardtia. 1957;4:163–88. Sleumer H. Ericaceae. In: van Steenis CGGJ, editor. Flora Malesiana ser 1, vol. 6. 5th ed. N.V. Dijkstra’s Drukkerij V/H Boekdrukkerij Gebr. Hoitsema: Groningen; 1967. p. 669–914. Watthana S. The genus Gaultheria Kalm ex L. (Ericaceae) in Thailand. Thai J Bot. 2015;7(1):53–8. Xie M, Lu Y, Yan C, Jiang R, Liu W, Liu Z, Xu G, Yang Y, Zhang X, Tian Y, Wang Y, Lu J, She G. The anti-rheumatoid arthritis property of the folk medicine Dianbaizhu (Gaultheria leucocarpa var. yunnanensis, Ericaceae). Nat Prod Commun. 2014;9(12):1773–6. Xie W, Fan DH, Yin L, Pan GS, Zhong T, Li J. Antiphlogistic constituents from Gaultheria yunnanensis seeds. Chem Ind For Prod. 2015;35(2):142–6. Zhang D, Liu R, Sun L, Huang C, Wang C, Zhang DM, Zhang TT, Du GH. Anti-inflammatory activity of methyl salicylate glycosides isolated from Gaultheria yunnanensis (Franch.) Rehder. Molecules. 2011;16:3875–84. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules16053875.

Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. ORCHIDACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Arethusa glutinosa Blanco; Cistella cernua (Willd.) Blume; Cymbidium nutans (Roxb.) Sw.; Cymbidium pictum R. Br.; Dendrobium haenkeanum Steud.; Dendrobium nutans C.Presl; Epidendrum tuberosum G.Forst.; Eulophia picta (R. Br.) Ormerod; Geodorum appendiculatum Griff.; Geodorum densiflorum var. kalimpongense R. Yonzone, Lama & Bhujel; Geodorum fucatum Lindl.; Geodorum neocaledonicum Kraenzl.; Geodorum nutans (C. Presl) Ames; Geodorum pacificum Rolfe; Geodorum pallidum D. Don; Geodorum pictum (R. Br.) Lindl.; Geodorum purpureum R. Br.; Geodorum rariflorum Lindl.; Geodorum semicristatum Lindl.; Geodorum tricarinatum Schltr.; Limodorum candidum Roxb.; Limodorum densiflorum Lam.; Limodorum nutans Roxb.; Malaxis cernua Willd.; Malaxis nutans (Roxb.) Willd.; Ortmannia cernua (Willd.) Opiz; Otandra cernua (Willd.) Salisb.; Tropidia grandis Hance (POWO 2020).

Local Names Indonesia: Daun corra corra (Maluku). Philippines: bandabok (Palawan) – camaug, camaog, lubi-lubi (Viscaya) – cebollas del monte (Cavite) – cola, kula (Tagalog) – lubi-lubi (Negros). Thailand: ว่านนางตาม, wan nang – ว่านนางจง, wan nang lan (Lampang). English: shepherd’s crook orchid (Choudary et al. 2015; Delgado 1892; Forest Biodiversity Division 2014; Quisumbing 1951; Rumphius 1750; Wells 1919; West 2013; Williams 2010).

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_120

525

526

W. A. Mustaqim

Botany and Ecology Description: Terrestrial, sympodial herbs, rhizome closely arranged, stem modified to pseudobulb, subglobose, up to 2.6 cm across. Pseudobulb sheathed when young, scarious. Leaves 2–5 per stem, basal 2 leaves sheath-like, petiole and sheath together up to 20 cm long, blades ovate to elliptic-ovate, 18–40 cm long by 4.5–7 cm wide, apex acute or acuminate, main veins 5 or 7. Flowers in scapose inflorescence, from the base of the rhizome, up to 45 cm tall, peduncle erect, recurved at the apex, rachis elongate to 5 cm long, flowers up to 15 per inflorescence, successional, only a few open at any one time. Rachis bracts linear-lanceolate, 1–1.5 cm long. Flowers resupinate, not wide open, white, pale pinkish to pale purple marked with red and lip with a central yellow blotch. Sepal obovate oblong, 1–2 cm long by 3–3.5 mm wide, abruptly acuminate at the apex. Petals elliptic-oblong to oblong, 9.5–2 cm long by 3.5–4.5 mm wide, apex subacute or obtuse. Labellum cymbiform, saccate at the base, 1.1–2 cm long by 1–1.2 cm wide, narrowed in the middle, apex shallowly bilobed, lip callus a basal transverse ridge, small, in front with warts and keels. Column 3–5 mm long, column-foot at a right angle, c. 3 mm long. Fruit an oblong capsule, 3.5–5 cm long by 1.5 cm wide. Distribution and Habitat: One of the widely distributed terrestrial orchids is recorded from India, Sri Lanka, Burma, southern China, east to Japan in Bonin Islands, Thailand, Indochina, throughout Malaysia, northern Australia, and some areas in the Pacific Islands. In Indochina, it is highly likely to occur in Laos despite no data available so far. In the Pacific Island, this species is quite widespread, recorded from the Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa. This species grows predominantly along the stream sides and prefers open areas such as grassland, fern communities, and other lowland forests. In the Malaysian region, this species is mostly recorded from the lowlands; but in the mainland Southeast Asia or further central, it ascends to a higher elevation, up to 1400 m in Nepal or 2400 m in China (Chen et al. 2009; Comber 1990, 2001; Cribb and Whistler 2011; Rokaya et al. 2013; Schuiteman et al. 2008; Seidenfaden et al. 1992; Yukawa et al. 2012) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: People in Maluku Archipelago of Indonesia use the paste of pounded leaves to cure sores (Chase et al. 2017). The first mention of this species in Maluku was made by the pre-Linnean works of Rumphius who worked in Ambon Island (Iwatsuki et al. 2019; Rumphius 1750). As this species is only known from Seram and Ambon (Jarvis and Cribb 2009; Mustaqim and Astuti 2019; Thomas and Schuiteman 2002), it is possible that the use was recorded from these areas, especially, Ambon Island. Philippines: In the Philippines, a poultice of pseudobulbs is used as emollient to cure abscesses or swelling. It has been said that the abscesses will burst after the application. The use has been reported from the local people of

Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. Fig. 1 Living plant of Geodorum densiflorum (Orchidaceae). Papua Barat, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 The flowers of Geodorum densiflorum (Orchidaceae). Papua Barat, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

527

528

W. A. Mustaqim

Vizcaya, Luzon Island (Arditti 1977; Delgado 1892; Guerrero 1922; Perry and Metzger 1980; Quisumbing 1951; Teoh 2019; Williams 2010).

Phytochemistry Many types of secondary metabolites have been reported including alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, and terpenoids in leaves and pseudobulbs. Besides that, pseudobulbs also contain aliphatic amine, alkyl hyalides, amide, coumarin, glycosides, lectin, neotigogenin, sarsasapogenin, phytosterols, quinine, saponin, and tannin. Moreover, 5-dodecanol, 1-pentanol, guanidine, d-mannitol, 1-o-heptyl, ionone, 2,3-butadienol, 1,2-cyclopentanediol, 3-methyl-, 2,5-dimethyl-5-ethyl-2-oxazoline, 2-piperidinone, N-[4-bromo-n-butyl]-, 1,2-cyclopentanediol, 3-methyl-, propanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-, 2-methyl propyl ester, pyrimidine-4,6(3H, 5H)-dione, 2-buttylthio-, undecanal, 2-methyl-, 1,3-dioxolane, 2-pentadecyl-, 1H-pyrrole-2carbonitrile, pyridinium, 1-amino-, chloride, hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester, 4H-pyran-4-one, 3,5-dihydroxy-2-methyl-, 3-deoxy-d-mannoic lactone, (E)-9-octadeconoic acid ethyl ester, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, P-ethoxybenzyl alcohol, phenols, resins, and reducing sugar were detected in the powder of all plant parts (Akter et al. 2015, 2018; Borkar and Masirkar 2015; Hossain et al. 2012; Keertiga and Anand 2014a, 2015; Theng and Korpenwar 2014, 2015). This species has numerous biological activities including antibiotic, anticancer, antidiabetic, antifungal, antihypertensive, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiprotozoal, antiviral, anxiolytic, cytotoxic, hypoglycemic, insecticidal, molluscicidal, osmodiuretic agent, pesticides, sedative, and thrombolytic (Akter et al. 2010; Borkar and Masirkar 2015; Hossain et al. 2012; Kabir et al. 2019; Keertiga and Anand 2014a, b, c, 2015; Rahman et al. 2013).

Economic Importance In the Luzon Island of Philippines, people use the pseudobulbs as a source of glue for musical instruments. The glue made by cooking and grating the rhizome is used to glue guitars and mandolins (Arditti 1977; Raulerson and Rinehart 1992; Teoh 2005, 2016, 2019; West 2013). Fresh and moisture free bulbs yield 14% and 68.8% of dry gum respectively (Wells 1919).

References Akter M, Imam MZ, Akter T. Antimicrobial activity of different extracts of Geodorum densiflorum (Lam) Schltr. pseudobulb. S J Pharm Sci. 2010;3(2):47–8. Akter S, Majumder T, Karim R, Ferdous Z, Sikder M. Analgesic activities of Geodorum densiflorum, Diospyros blancoi, Baccaurea ramiflora and Trichosanthes dioica. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2015;4(3):209–14.

Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr.

529

Akter M, Huda MK, Hoque MM. Investigation of secondary metabolites of nine medicinally important orchids of Bangladesh. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2018;7(5):602–6. Arditti J. Orchid biology: review and perspectives. New York/London: Cornell University Press/ Comstock Publishing Associates; 1977. Borkar SU, Masirkar DR. Studies on phytochemical investigations and antimicrobial activity of an endangered orchid Geodorum densiflorum (Lam) Schltr. Int J Res Biosci Agric Technol. 2015; Special issue 1:117–21. Chase MW, Christenhusz MJM, Mirenda T. The book of orchids: a life-size guide to six hundred species from around the world. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; 2017. Chen X, Cribb PJ, Gale SW. Geodorum. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Volume 25 (Orchidaceae). Beijing/St Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2009. p. 258–60. Choudary M, Kumar V, Malhotra H, Singh S. Medicinal plants with potential anti-arthritic activity. J Intercult Ethnopharmacol. 2015;4(2):147–79. https://doi.org/10.5455/jice.20150313021918. Comber J. Orchids of Java. Richmond: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew; 1990. Comber J. Orchids of Sumatra. Richmond: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew; 2001. Cribb PJ, Whistler WA. The orchids of Tonga, Niue and the Cook Islands. Lankesteriana. 2011;11 (2):99–177. Delgado JJ. Biblioteca historica Filipina: historia general sacro-profana, politica y natural de las islas del Poniente, llamadas Filipinas. Manila: Imprenta del Eco de Filipinas de Juan Atayde; 1892. (in Spanish). Forest Biodiversity Division. Biodiversity conservation and development project for the fiscal year 2013. Bangkok: Forest Biodiversity Research; 2014. (in Thai). Guerrero LM. Medicinal uses of Philippine plants. Philipp Bur For Bull. 1922;22(3):149–246. Hossain MS, Sayeed MA, Sayeed MA, Chowdhury MEH. Investigation on in-vitro cytotoxic, antibacterial and phytochemical screening of ethyl acetate extract of Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. Pharm Innov. 2012;1(8):108–13. Iwatsuki K, Ebihara A, Kato M. Taxonomic studies of pteridophytes of Ambon and Seram (Moluccas) collected on Indonesian-Japanese botanical expeditions 1983–1986. XIII. Hymenophyllaceae. PhytoKeys. 2019;119:107–15. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.119.33565. Jarvis C, Cribb P. Linnaean sources and concept of orchids. Ann Bot. 2009;104(3):365–76. https:// doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcp005. Kabir KMA, Amin R, Hasan I, Asaduzzaman AKM, Khatun H, Kabir SR. Geodorum densiflorum rhizome lectin inhibits Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cell growth by inducing apoptosis through the regulation of BAX, p53 and NF-κB genes expression. Int J Biol Macromol. 2019;125:92–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.12.042. Keertiga M, Anand SP. Physicochemical, preliminary phytochemical analysis and antibacterial activity against clinical pathogens of medicinally important orchid Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2014a;6(8):558–61. Keertiga M, Anand SP. Antifungal activity of Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. against pathogenic fungi. Am J Phytomed Clin Ther. 2014b;2(12):1456–61. Keertiga M, Anand SP. A review on ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological studies of Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. – an endangered orchid. J Res Biol. 2014c;4(8):1543–8. Keertiga M, Anand SP. Bioactive compound evaluation of ethanol extract from Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. by GC-MS analysis. Int J Pharmacol Res. 2015;5(6):139–44. Mustaqim WA, Astuti IP. New and noteworthy orchid records from Buru Island, Maluku Archipelago. Gard Bull Singapore. 2019;71(1):167–74. https://doi.org/10.26492/gbs71(1).2019-10. Perry LM, Metzger J. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia: attributed properties and uses. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1980. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 26 Apr 2020 Quisumbing E. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Dep Agric Nat Resour Tech Bull. 1951;16:1– 1234.

530

W. A. Mustaqim

Rahman M, Habib R, Sayeed MA, Uddin ME, Chowdhury R, Rashid MA, Hasan A, Ahmed M. Sedative and anxiolytic activities of Geodorum densiflorum roots in Swiss albino mice. J Pharm Nutr Sci. 2013;3:284–9. Raulerson L, Rinehart AF. Ferns and orchids of the Mariana Islands. Agana: L. Raulerson and A. Rinehart; 1992. Rokaya MB, Raskoti BB, Timsina B, Münzbergová Z. An annotated checklist of the orchids of Nepal. Nord J Bot. 2013;31:511–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-1051.2013.01230.x. Rumphius GE. In: Burman J, editor. Herbarium amboinense, plurimas conplectens, arbores, frutices, herbas, plantas terrestres, & aquaticas, quae in Amboina et adjacentibus reperiuntur insulis, vol. 6. Utrecht: Amsterdam’s Gravenhage; 1750. Schuiteman A, Bonnet P, Svengsuksa B, Barthélémy D. An annotated checklist of the Orchidaceae of Laos. Nord J Bot. 2008;26:257–316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-1051.2008.00265.x. Seidenfaden G, Wood JJ, Holttum RE. The orchids of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Fredensborg: Olsen & Olsen; 1992. Teoh ES. Orchids of Asia. 3rd ed. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish; 2005. Teoh ES. Medicinal orchids of Asia. Cham: Springer; 2016. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31924274-3. Teoh ES. Orchids as aphrodisiac, medicine or food. Cham: Springer; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-030-18255-7. Theng PA, Korpenwar AN. Studies on phytochemical, pharmacognostic and physicochemical investigations of an endangered orchid – Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. Int J Bioassays. 2014;3(2):1771–4. Theng PA, Korpenwar AN. Analysis of bioactive compounds in Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. pseudobulb using UV-VIS, FTIR and GC-MS techniques. J Chem Biol Phys Sci. 2015;5(2):2151–8. Thomas A, Schuiteman A. Orchids of Sulawesi and Maluku: a preliminary catalogue. Lindleyana. 2002;17:1–74. Wells AH. The physiological active constituents of certain Philippine medicinal plants: III. Philipp J Sci. 1919;14(1):1–7. West AP. Philippine resins, gums, seed oils, and essential oils. Worcestershire: Read Books; 2013. Williams C. Medicinal plants in Australia volume 1: bush pharmacy. Kenthurst: Rosenberg Publishing; 2010. Yukawa T, Kawaguchi D, Mukai A, Komaki Y. Discovery of Geodorum densiflorum (Orchidaceae) on the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands: a case of ongoing colonisation subsequent to long-distance dispersal. Bull Natl Mus Nat Sci Ser B Bot. 2012;38(3):131–7.

Gnetum gnemon L. GNETACEAE Marina Silalahi

Local Names Cambodia: Khalet, voe, (general), klot (Phnom Kulen). Indonesia: belinjo, melinjo (general), gnemo, rukiti (Molluccas), ka’cuang (Dayak Kanayatn), ko’nyah (Enggano ethnic in Sumatra), lewehuka, mlinjo, morahuka (Wonani Island), tangkil (Betawi, Javanese, Sundanese). Malaysia: amaninjau (general), dodah (Bidayuh), sabong (Bintulu), belinjau, garintul, meninjau, melindju, malinju, sabe, sangkok, tankil (Peninsular), sabong (Iban). Philippines: bago (general), bago, magatungal (Lanao, Cotabato), bago, bagu (Bataan, Tayabas, Camarines), banago (Visaya, Bohol), kunan (Davao), nabo (Bicol). Papua New Guinea: ambian, ambiamtupe (Maring), doro (Valaila), genda (Buna), suffitz (Yalu), tu-a (Suku). Singapore: melindjo. Thailand: puk miang (general), pee sae, phak miang (Thai), liang, miang phak kaniang, pak kaliang, peedae, phak (Southern Thailand). Vietnam: bet, gam cay, rau danh. English: Spanish koint fir (Asyira et al. 2016; Cadiz and Florido 2001; Chuakul et al. 2004; Manangka et al. 2017; Markgraf 1948; Neamsuvan et al. 2013; Rahayu et al. 2019; Royyani et al. 2018; Sunarti and Rugayah 2013; Ting et al. 2017; Walker 2016).

Botany and Ecology Description: Tree or shrub, up to 22 m tall, 40 cm diameter without buttresses, exceptionally a climbing shrub. Crown monopodial, narrow, cylindrical. Trunk gray, marked with conspicuous or faint rings. Leaves opposite, thin, yellow when dry, tapering at both ends, but varying in shape and size, 7.5–20 by 2.5–10 cm, ovateM. Silalahi (*) Prodi Pendidikan Biologi, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia Biology Education Department, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, West Jakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_121

531

532

M. Silalahi

Fig. 1 Male strobilus of Gnetum gnemon (Gnetaceae). Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

oblong to lanceolate, dark green, shiny smooth and usually pointed at both ends. Secondary nerves bent, joining, petiole 6–18 mm. Inflorescence are borne on young shoots and older branches. Male inflorescences solitary, axillary, simple or once branched, yellowish, 3–6 cm long, collar 3 mm broad. Male flowers with broad sporophyll, twice as long as the perianth (3 mm). Sterile female flowers globose, tipped or beaked, 2 mm thick, 10–15 in a ring. Female inflorescence similar. Female flowers 5–8 at each node, globose, tipped or beaked, 3–4 mm long, inner tube exerted by 1 mm. Fruit ripening yellow, then orange-yellow or ink, sessile (exceptionally stalked), ellipsoid, shortly apiculate, 1–3.5 cm long, almost velvety, middle envelop ribbed (Markgraf 1948; Cadiz and Florido 2001). Seed is enclosed in fleshy covering about 1 mm thick. Seed coat is thin, brittle and separates ready from the seeds (Cadiz and Florido 2001) (Figs. 1 and 2). Phenology: In Indonesia, Gnetum gnemon bears fruits thrice a year from March to April, June to July, and September to October. In the Philippines, the fruits mature early in the rainy season (June–July). G. gnemon seeds are collected from mature reddish color fruits (Cadiz and Florido 2001). Distribution and Habitat: From Assam in India throughout Malaysia to Fiji, but exotic to Andaman Islands, Sumatra, Java (Markgraf 1948); Solomon Islands, Malaysia, Sumba, Sulawesi, New Guinea, and Malay Peninsula, Philippines (Cadiz and Florido 2001). Grows in rainforest at lower altitudes, but shrub varieties ascending up to 1500 m (Markgraf 1948).

Gnetum gnemon L.

533

Fig. 2 Female strobilus of Gnetum gnemon (Gnetaceae). Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: Leaves are consumed raw in the Kiudang region to maintain general health (Kamsani et al. 2020). Indonesia: G. gnemon is used as a traditional medicine by various ethnic groups. The Serawai community in Bengkulu province drink the boiled water of leaves and seed to treat toxicities (Adfa 2005); the Dayak people of Kalimantan use it to facilitate delivery (Due 2013); the Sundanese in Bogor use leaves in postpartum care and to increase breast milk secretion. Finely crushed leaves of G. gnemon along with those of Litsea robusta and Artocarpus heterophyllus are also pasted over the breasts during non-breastfeeding period to prevent swelling (Rahayu et al. 2019). Cambodia: The local communities in Phnom Kulen use the leaves to cure stomachache, as a tonic and to improve circulation (Walker 2016). Thailand: The local communities in Southern Thailand use the leaves decoction to cure the bodily discomfort (Chuakul et al. 2004).

Phytochemistry Leaves: Extract of mature and young leaves contain alkaloid, leucoanthocyanin, saponin, tannin, and vitamin C (Mollejon and Gabane 2019). Stems: Stem crude extracts contain alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, glycosides, phenols, polyphenols,

534

M. Silalahi

tannins, reducing sugars, saponins, and terpenes (Thein et al. 2019). Seeds: The seeds contain resveratrol dimers (gnetin C, gnemonoside A, gnemonoside D), transresveratrol, glucoside, and trans-piceid (Tatefuji et al. 2014). The seed proteins are Gg-PHB (Matra et al. 2018), Gg-AOPI, and Gg-AOPII (Siswoyo et al. 2011). The dichloromethane extract of seed contain trans-resveratrol, piceid, gnetin C, gnetol, isorhapontigenin, E-viniferin, gnemonol L, and gnemonol (Hafidz et al. 2017). Seed coat: Seed coat contains phenolic (3,4-dimethoxychlorogenic acid, resveratrol, 3-methoxyresveratrol) (Atuna et al. 2007), and stilbene derivative (isorhapontigaenin, resveratrol, gnetin D, gnetifolin K, gnetol) and lignan compound ((+)-lirioresinol B) (Cahyana and Ardiansah 2015). The seed protein has antioxidant (Siswoyo et al. 2011) and antihypertension activities (Matra et al. 2018; Puspitaningrum et al. 2014). Gg-PHB shows the same activity as standard antihypertensive drugs (captopril) (Matra et al. 2018). Wistar rats were induced with prednisone 1.5 mg/kg body weight and 2% NaCl for 7 days and then treated on day 8 with G. gnemon protein doses of 5, 10, 20, and 30 mg/ kg body weight, causing their blood pressure to decrease (Puspitaningrum et al. 2014). Gg-AOPI and Gg-AOPII proteins of G. gnemon seeds have antioxidant activity (Siswoyo et al. 2011) while Gg-PHB has antihypertensive activity (Matra et al. 2018). Antihypertensive activity of G. gnemon seed protein is related to its inhibitory activity against angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) (Matra et al. 2018). Leaves (Santoso et al. 2010) and seeds (Supriyadi et al. 2019) of G. gnemon have antioxidant activity. Mature leaves have higher antioxidant activity than young leaves (Santoso et al. 2010), while green seeds have more effective antioxidants than yellow and red seeds (Supriyadi et al. 2019). The 3,4-dimethoxychlorogenic acid, resveratrol, and 3-methoxyresveratrol from seeds have antioxidant activity with IC50 values of 523.7, 45.17, and 60.12 g/mL, respectively (Atuna et al. 2007). The anti-hypercholesterolemic activity of seed extracts is related to its ability to inhibit HMG-CoA reductase (Hafidz et al. 2017), or reducing triglycerides by oxidizing low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), or modulating lipid metabolism (Ulfa et al. 2018). Molecular docking studies have shown resveratrol dimers such as gnemonol L, gnemoside, and E-viniferin to have better binding energy for piceid monomers, gnetin C, gnemonol L, and gnemonol M. So, it is considered an HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor (Hafidz et al. 2017). The seed extract inhibits the growth of bacteria such as Bacillus cereus (Parhusip and Sitanggang 2011; Soehendro et al. 2015), Staphylococcus aureus (Parhusip and Sitanggang 2011; Dewi et al. 2012), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Dewi et al. 2012), Escherichia coli (Soehendro et al. 2015), and Enterobacter aerogenes (Parhusip and Sitanggang 2011). The values of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) of seed extract to Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, and E. aerogenes were 0.26–1.46 g/ mL, and 1.02–6.04 g/mL, respectively (Parhusip and Sitanggang 2011).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: G. gnemon has been widely cooked as vegetable, snack, or staple food by local communities in Indonesia. The local people in Java Island use the leaves and seeds as vegetables, while mature seeds are used to make emping, the traditional

Gnetum gnemon L.

535

chips (Siregar et al. 2016). The Enggano ethnic community in Bengkulu province processes the seeds by boiling, grilling and use to make porridge for staple foods (Royyani et al. 2018). Local people of Pidie (Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam province) fry G. gnemon leaves for chips; its strobilus is boiled and consumed as vegetable (Musafirah 2016). Both fresh and dry leaves have been used as vegetables by Dayak Kanayatn ethnic community of West Kalimantan (Manangka et al. 2017). Malaysia: The local people of Bintulu cook the leaves and seeds as vegetables for various dishes (Asyira et al. 2016). The young leaves are cut, washed, and stir fried with bamboo or coconut shoots and anchovies (Asyira et al. 2016). Philippines: The local people in South Central Mindanao cook the young leaves with coconut milk, fish, and vegetables or snail (suso); it is also used in the preparation of sinigang and ginisang munggo (Maghirang et al. 2018).

Biocultural Importance Brunei Darussalam: Seeds are sold in local markets (Franco et al. 2020). Indonesia: Some local communities in Yogyakarta use G. gnemon leaves in the heirloom ritual jamasan pusaka (Sari et al. 2019). In Pidie, G. gnemon is used to prepare emping that is a mandatory snack for the groom during engagement ceremony. Emping is also used during wedding ceremonies (Musafirah 2016).

Economic Importance Indonesia: The young leaves and seeds of G. gnemon are economic commodities that have long been traded in traditional and modern markets as both fresh and processed ingredients (Soehendro et al. 2015). Bark is the source of fiber for the local communities in Pidie (Musafirah 2016); inner bark is used for the famous Sumba bow string (Cadiz and Florido 2001).

References Adfa M. Survey etnobotani, studi senyawa flavonoid dan uji brine shrimp beberapa tumbuhan obat tradisional suku Serawai di Propinsi Bengkulu. Jurnal Gradien. 2005;1(1):43–50. (in Bahasa). Asyira SA, Noorasmah S, Sarbini SR, Harah ZM. Mineral content of five indigenous leafy vegetables from Bintulu market, Sarawak Malaysia. J Med Herbs Ethnomed. 2016;2:26–35. Atuna S, Arianingruma R, Masatake N. Some phenolic compounds from stem bark of melinjo (Gnetum gnemon) and their activity test as antioxidant and UV-B protection. Proceeding. JSChem-ITB-UKM-2007. 2007;14:1–4. Cadiz RT, Florido HD. Bago Gnetum gnemon Linn. RISE. 2001;2:2–4. Cahyana AH, Ardiansah B. Antioxidative and cytotoxic effects of prenylated stilbene derivativerich Melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.) fruit rind. AIP Conf Proc. 2015;1729(1):020057. https://doi. org/10.1063/1.4946960. Chuakul W, Soonthornchareonnon N, Boonjaras T, Boonpleng A. Survey on medicinal plants in Southern Thailand. Thai J Phytopharm. 2004;11(2):29–52.

536

M. Silalahi

Dewi C, Utami R, Riyadi NH. Aktivitas antioksidan dan antimikroba ekstrak melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.). Jurnal Teknologi Hasil Pertanian. 2012;5(2):74–8. (in Bahasa). Due R. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat Suku Dayak Pesaguan dan implementasinya dalam pembuatan flash card biodiversitas. Jurnal Biologi Indonesia. 2013;9(1):83–92. (in Bahasa). Franco FM, Chaw LL, Bakar N, Abas SNH. Socialising over fruits and vegetables: the biocultural importance of an open-air market in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-0356-6. Hafidz KA, Puspitasari N, Azminah, Yanuar A, Artha Y, Mun’im A. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitory activity of Gnetum gnemon seed extract and identification of potential inhibitors for lowering cholesterol level. J Young Pharm. 2017;9(4):559–65. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Maghirang RG, Oraye CD, Antonio MA, Cacal MS. Ethnobotanical studies of some plants commonly used as vegetables in selected provinces of the Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2018;17 (2):30–43. Manangka CA, Linda R, Mukarlina. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan sebagai penyedap rasa alami oleh masyarakat Suku Dayak Kanayatn Desa Sebatih Kecamatan Sengah Temila Kabupaten Landak. Protobiont. 2017;6(3):158–64. (in Bahasa). Markgraf F. Gnetaceae. Flora Malesiana – series 1. Spermatophyta. 1948;4(1):336–47. Matra NF, Puspitasari E, Siswoyo TA. Hydrolysis of melinjo seed (Gnetum gnemon L.) isolatedprotein using immobilized alcalase and its activity as antihypertensive. E-Jurnal Pustaka Kesehatan. 2018;6(1):18–25. Mollejon CV, Gabane LS. Nutritional and nutraceutical content of Gnetum gnemon (bago) leaf extract. Int J Res. 2019;39(2):1–13. Musafirah R. Kajian etnobotani melinjo (Gnetum gnemom L) di Kabupaten Pidie. Tugas Akhir, Jurusan Biologi, FMIPA, Universitas Syah Kuala, Banda Aceh; 2016. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Neamsuvan O, Choommaya M, Jeenapong R, Daechasit W. A survey of folk medicinal and edible plants from local markets, Phatthalung Province, Thailand. Am Eurasian J Sustain. 2013;7 (4):269–81. Parhusip AJN, Sitanggang AB. Antimicrobial activity of melinjo seed and peel extract (Gnetum gnemon) against selected pathogenic bacteria. Mikrobiologi Indonesia. 2011;5(3):103–12. Puspitaningrum YT, Efendi E, Siswoyo TA. In vivo analysis of antihypertensive activity of melinjo seed (Gnetum gnemon) hydrolyzed-protein. E-Jurnal Pustaka Kesehatan. 2014;2(2):237–41. Rahayu M, Susiarti S, Arimukti SD. Traditional knowledge on plants utilization in postpartum care: an ethnobotanical study in local community of Cimande, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. J Trop Biol Conserv. 2019;16:307–22. Royyani MF, Sihotang VBL, Efendy O. Bertahan di tengah samudra: pandangan etnobotani terhadap Pulau Enggano, Alam, dan Manusianya. Jurnal Biologi Indonesia. 2018;14(2):235– 42. (in Bahasa). Santoso M, Naka Y, Angkawidjaja C, Yamaguchi T, Matoba T, Takamura H. Antioxidant and DNA damage prevention activities of the edible parts of Gnetum gnemon and their changes upon heat treatment. Food Sci Technol Res. 2010;16(6):549–56. Sari LYS, Setiana FDW, Setyawati R. Etnobotani tumbuhan ritual yang digunakan pada upacara jamasan di keraton Yogyakarta. BIOMA. 2019;4(2):99–106. (in Bahasa). Siregar YDI, Mishima K, Kawakami R, Ito S, Inoue Y, Hirota T, Sharmin T, Kato T, Harada T, Misumi M, Orii H, Suetsugu T, Irie K, Mishima K, Sakai K, Sakai K, Kawamura H, Zahroh H, Nurelela, Riyadahi A, Putri LSE, Salim A. Extraction of isovitexin from melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.) leaves using mixtures of liquid carbon dioxide and ethanol. Int J Biomass Renew. 2016;5(2):23–30. Siswoyo TA, Mardiana E, Lee KO, Hoshokawa K. Isolation and characterization of antioxidant protein fractions from melinjo (Gnetum gnemon) seeds. J Agric Food Chem. 2011;59:5648–56.

Gnetum gnemon L.

537

Soehendro AW, Manuhara GJ, Nurhartadi E. Pengaruh suhu terhadap aktivitas antioksidan dan antimikrobia ekstrak biji melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.) dengan pelarut etanol dan air. Jurnal Teknosains Pangan 2015;4(4):15–24. (in Bahasa). Sunarti S, Rugayah. Keanekaragaman jenis Gymnospermae di Pulau Wawoni, Sulawesi Tenggara. Jurnal Biologi Indonesia. 2013;9(1):83–92. Supriyadi A, Arum LS, Nugraha AS, Ratnadewi AAI, Siswoyo TA. Revealing antioxidant and antidiabetic potency of melinjo (Gnetum gnemon) seed protein hydrolysate at different stages of seed maturation. Curr Res Nutr Food Sci. 2019;7(2):479–87. Tatefuji T, Yanagihara M, Fukushima S, Hashimoto K. Safety assessment of melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.) seed extract: acute and subchronic toxicity studies. Food. Chem Toxicol. 2014;67:230–23. Thein AA, Shwe HH, Myint YY. Structure identification of stilbenoid compound isolated from the stem of Gnetum gnemon L. using spectroscopic methods. IEEE-SEM. 2019;7(8):66–70. Ting H, Tan SR, John AN. Consumption intention toward ethnic food: determinants of Dayak food choice by Malaysians. J Ethn Foods. 2017;4:21–7. Ulfa PM, Alioes Y, Putri BO. Pengaruh pemberian ekstrak biji melinjo (Gnetum gnemon) terhadap kadar trigliserida pada tikus dengan diet tinggi lemak. Jurnal Kesehatan Andalas. 2018;7 (2):193–8. (in Bahasa). Walker TJ. An examination of medicinal ethnobotany and biomedicine use in two villages on the Phnom Kulen plateau. Hollins University Roanoke, Center for Mekong Studies, The School for Field Studies, Siem Reap; 2016.

Gunnera macrophylla Blume GUNNERACEAE Kryssa D. Balangcod and Ashlyn Kim D. Balangcod

Synonyms Gunnera erosa Blume in Verh. Bat.Gen.10:81.1825. 1825; Pseudo-gunnera macrophylla (Blume) Oerst. Naturh. För. Vidensk. Medd. Kjöbenhavn: 599. 1857; Sarcospermum petasites REINW. in De Vriese, Reinw. Reise: 576. 1858; Gunnera reniformis RIDL. in Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. II: 40. 1916.

Local Names Indonesia: Hariyang gede, tarate gunung (Sundanese); sukmadiluwih (Javanese) Philippines: Ballay, balai or baloi (Ifugao, Kankanaey); debit (Bontok) English: Giant rhubarb

Binomial: Gunnera macrophylla Blume, Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind. 10: 513. (POWO 2019) K. D. Balangcod (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] A. K. D. Balangcod Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_241

539

540

K. D. Balangcod and A. K. D. Balangcod

Botany and Ecology Description: Gunnera macrophylla is an herbaceous, perennial plant that can grow to about 50 cm (Wanntorp et al. 2003; Wanntorp and Ronse De Craene 2005). It is characterized by the presence of numerous stolon and very short stems. The leaves are arranged in a rosette; the shape of the leaf blade is reniform to cordate, with lobed margins (Fig. 1). The petiole is long, reaching about 70 cm, without stipules (Fig. 2). The veins are strongly prominent. The inflorescence is a subterminal panicle with many spikes, which are sessile or short-peduncled and often hidden under the leaves (Fig. 3). The lower spikes are female flowers, while the upper spikes are male flowers, and sometimes the spikes have intermixed bisexual flowers. The female flowers are naked, with inferior one-celled ovary and sessile stigma. The male flowers have two spoonshaped petals, with two stamens. The fruits are smooth spherical drupes (Escobin 2003), about 2 cm in diameter, juicy with one seed. The seed is a nutlet, 1 mm in diameter, globular, and flattened shaped. Distribution: Gunnera macrophylla is the only species within the Southeast Asian subgenus called Pseudogunnera (Wanntorp and Ronse De Craene 2005). It can be found all over the tropical areas with an exemption in continental Asia, Australia, and the temperate regions of the southern hemisphere. It can also be found in Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands (Wanntorp et al. 2001; Escobin 2003; Wanntorp and Ronse De Craene 2005;

Fig. 1 A spread of Gunnera macrophylla on the ground. (© Kryssa Balangcod)

Gunnera macrophylla Blume

541

Fig. 2 The petioles are long and can reach 70 cm. The brown panicles beginto grow from below the leaves. (© Kryssa Balangcod)

Fig. 3 The large orbicular leaves of Gunnera macrophylla with prominent veins. (© Kryssa Balangcod)

POWO 2019). This herb thrives well in montane environments in more or less perpendicular slopes (Wanntorp et al. 2003). It can be found specifically in wet or damp locations, occupying lightly shaded to open areas of disturbed habitats. In the Philippines, this species is not only found in many parts of Northern Luzon but also recorded from localities of Mindanao such as Cotabato province, Kidapawan City, Barangay Ilomavis, Energy Development Corporation (EDC), and Mt. Apo National Park. These herbs are often expansive and occur along paths, roadsides, and even in the openings of secondary forests at altitudes ranging from 750 m to 3000 m above sea level (Escobin 2003). Gunnera macrophylla are plants with a vast history as seen in fossil records and are also one of the early-colonizing species or pioneer species (Bacon et al. 2018). This shows that they have a very important ecological role in the development of secondary forests.

542

K. D. Balangcod and A. K. D. Balangcod

An interesting observation is that G. macrophylla exhibits a true symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. The cyanobacteria associated with G. macrophylla belong to the genus Nostoc (Papaefthimiou et al. 2008). They reside in the warts located at the base of the petioles (Escobin 2003). The successful colonization of these herbs in disturbed sites having poor soils is partly due to this remarkable intracellular mutualism (Fuller and Hickey 2005). Phenology: The flowers of the panicle open in summer.

Local Medicinal Uses In Java, Indonesia, the infructescences are used as stimulant and tonic (Escobin 2003). Leaves, fruit, and bark of G. macrophylla are used to treat dysentery and diarrhea most likely in the form of decoction in Bali, Indonesia (Hadi and Bremner 2001). Carag and Buot (2017) report that the plant is used to treat boils, wounds, and ulcers in the Philippines. Usually, the leaves are crushed and used as poultice on the affected area of the skin.

Phytochemistry Very little information exists on the phytochemistry of G. macrophylla (Escobin 2003). Hadi and Bremner (2001) tested the species for the presence of alkaloids that could indicate potential pharmacological application. G. macrophylla tested negative for alkaloids, despite reported to be used against dysentery and diarrhea.

Economic Importance In some parts of Northern Luzon such as Tinoc, Ifugao, bigger leaves of G. macrophylla are used for wrapping salt, meat, or fresh fish (Balangcod and Balangcod 2009). The bigger leaves can also be used as a hat to shield one’s head from the scorching sun or from the rain. Gunnera macrophylla can be a source of fiber (Sia-ed 2019). The symbiotic relationship of G. macrophylla with the nostocacean cyanobcateria can fix nitrogen up to 21 kg/ha annually. Farmers in the Philippines intercrop G. macrophylla with their crops, such as the Chinese Cabbage (Brassica rapa L.) and the White Headed Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) to increase the amount of yield per harvest. Aggarwal (2003) reported that there was a very significant increase in yield, up to 50%.

Gunnera macrophylla Blume

543

References Bacon CD, Puentes FJV, Hinojosa LF, Schwartz T, Oxelman B, Pfeil B, Arroyo MTK, Wanntrop L, Antonelli A. Evolutionary persistence in Gunnera and the contribution of southern plant groups to the tropical Andes biodiversity hostspot. Peer J. 2018;6:e4388. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4388. Balangcod TD, Balangcod AKD. Underutilized plant resources in Tinoc, Ifugao, Cordillera Administrative Region, Luzon Island, Philippines. Acta Hortic. 2009;806:647–54. https://doi. org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.806.80. Carag HM, Buot IE Jr. A checklist of the orders and families of medicinal plants in the Philippines. Sylvatrop. 2017;27(1 & 2):49-9. Escobin RP. Gunnera macrophylla Blume In: Lemmens RHMJ, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia medicinal and poisonous plants. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 2003. Fuller DQ, Hickey LJ. Systematics and leaf architecture of the Gunneraceae. Bot Rev. 2005;71(3): 295–353. Hadi S, Bremner JB. Initial studies on alkaloids from Lombok medicinal plants. Molecules. 2001;6(2):117–29. https://doi.org/10.3390/60100117. Papaefthimiou D, Hrouzek P, Mugnai MA, Lukesova A, Turicchia S, Rusmussen U, Ventura S. Differential patterns of evolution and distribution of the symbiotic behaviour in nostocacean cyanobacteria. Int J Sys Evol Microbiol. 2008;58:553–64. POWO (2019) Plant of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 14 Oct 2020. Sia-ed A. Inventory and resource mapping of fiber-yielding plants in Mountain province. Int J Sci Manag Stud. 2019;2:2581–5946. Wanntorp L, Ronse De Craene LP. The Gunnera flower: key to eudicot diversification or response to pollination mode. Int J Plant Sci. 2005;166(6):945–53. Wanntorp L, Wanntorp H, Oxelman B, et al. Phylogeny of Gunnera. Plant Syst Evol. 2001;226: 85–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s006060170075. Wanntorp L, Wanntorp H, Rutishauser R. On the homology of the scales in Gunnera (Gunneraceae). Bot J Linn Soc. 2003;142:301–8.

Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. OPHIOGLOSSACEAE Daniele Cicuzza

Synonyms Osmunda zeylanica L., Botrychium zeylanicum (L.) Sw., Ophiala zeylanica (L.) Desv., Botryopteris crenata (C.Presl) C. Presl, Botryopteris mexicana C. Presl, Helminthostachys crenata C. Presl, Helminthostachys dulcis Kaulf., Helminthostachys integrifolia C. Presl, Helminthostachys laciniata Voigt, Helminthostachys mexicana Spreng., Helminthostachys zeylanica var. brachyspicae S. Nampy & Madhus., Osmunda laciniata Noronha (POWO 2019).

Local Names Paku tombak, paku tunjok langit, tugod langit, tungkud-langit (Philippines); kut chong, tin nok yung, phak nok yung (Thailand); s[aa]m d[aa]t, r[aa]ng ere[uf]ng gi [es], s[aa]m b[of]ng bong (Vietnam); hak tin houng (Laos PDR); jajuluk langit (Dayak, Indonesia), rawu bekubang (Malay, western Sumatra) jajalakan (Sundanese), pakis kaler (Javanese); tunjok langit, akar paku, jelai (Malaysia).

Botany and Ecology Description: Helminthostachys zeylanica has unique characteristics that make it different from all the other fern species. It is an herbaceous species with soft leaves and a spike for spore production. The rhizome is 4–8 mm in diameter, roots with 1–2 mm in

D. Cicuzza (*) Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_65

545

546

D. Cicuzza

diameter, and is rather succulent for a terrestrial fern species. The fronds usually single at rhizome apex, 20–60 cm tall; stipe base sheath ca. 1 cm; common stipe fleshy, 10–55 cm, 2–8 mm pinnate with two later pairs of pinna and a terminal pinna. The pinna is lanceolate with 6–20
1.5–3 cm. However, some of the leaves are very variable with a single leaf simply divided to opposite pinna, in a V arrangement or in some case a single leaf with a single long pinna. The leaves have three segments, each in turn may be divided into two to five parts. Mature leaves bear the spike. The leaf margin is irregularly toothed, apex acute, or rounded (Fig. 1). The reproductive part of this species is shared among only few other genera of ferns, some of which have temperate distribution as Botrychium, or tropical and subtropical as Ophioglossum genera. It is represented by a spikelike sporophore arising at top of common stipe (Fig. 2), with a dark green or light brown stalk of 4–10 cm. The spike with the reproductive part is 4– 20 cm long and 5–12 mm in diameter. Usually every individual has a single spike; however, it is also possible to observe a spike twice divided. Along the spike, the sporangia are arranged in pseudo-whorl. The Ophioglossaceae is the most isolated family of the ferns, and some authors consider it more closely related to a lineage of progymnosperms or cycadophytes than to typical modern ferns (Zhang et al. 2020). Cladistic studies based on both morphological characters and DNA sequences suggest a position between the seed plants and the true ferns, with the whisk ferns (Psilophyta) as closest relatives (Clark et al. 2016). The morphological nature of the spike is a matter of some controversy, but now generally thought to originate from two fused fertile pinnae. Helminthostachys Kaulfuss, characterized by the radially branched spike, is represented by one species only. Distribution and Habitat: H. zeylanica grows terrestrially on moist ground, along the bank of streams or on humus-rich slopes in light shade from sea level up to 400 m altitude; locally, it may grow gregariously. It grows in secondary forests, edges of marshes, along streams banks, and in other semi-

Fig. 1 Leaves of a mature individual of Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. Leaves are usually tripartite lamina, the whole lamina up to 22 cm long (© Daniele Cicuzza)

Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook.

547

Fig. 2 Reproductive spike of Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook (© Daniele Cicuzza)

disturbed areas. It prefers drained and humid soil with good concentration of organic matter. The species is widely distributed from Sri Lanka throughout Southeast Asia to Australia and W. Pacific islands. In Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, it is found growing in the submontane forests at an altitudinal range of 800–1100 m.a.s.l. (Ramadhanil et al. 2008).

Local Medicinal Uses The rhizome is used for herbal and tonic drinks. It is used in the treatment of malaria, dysentery, catarrh, and early stages of phthisis. It is eaten with betel in the treatment of whooping cough (Winter and Amoroso 2003). In Java and elsewhere, the rhizome is used against dysentery (fresh or powdered is said to be very effective), cold, catarrh (some juice is sufficient), and early stages of pulmonary tuberculosis (Ketut et al. 2015). Besides consuming a porridge made from the rhizome, spreading the porridge over the chest is also said to be beneficial. In the Moluccas, the rhizome is used as a mild laxative and is eaten with betel for whooping cough (it can be preserved by being candied); in Sulawesi, the species is used for medicinal purposes alone or mixed with other herbs (Mulyati et al. 2006). The leaves are dried and smoked to treat nosebleeds (Ketut et al. 2015). In Kalimantan, the leaves and rhizome are used to increase the

548

D. Cicuzza

ability to sustain prolonged physical or mental effort (Wardah 2019). In Malaysia, it is regarded as a tonic, and the Sakai use it to treat syphilis. In the Philippines, it is used against malaria (Mannan et al. 2008).

Phytochemistry The roots of the fern Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. have been used for centuries in the treatment of inflammation and as a folk medicine in several countries. The plant has been shown to possess an array of medicinal properties including antioxidants and anti-inflammatory activities. Moreover, a rising level of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) has been found in the blood fluid of patients suffering from brain inflammatory diseases, which may be considered an inflammatory biomarker in several inflammatory diseases including the central nervous system (CNS) inflammation. The extract of H. zeylanica has effect on brain astrocytes and induces its mechanism; the extracts reduce other molecules (MMP9) induced by BK in brain astrocytes (RBA-1 cells). These extracts can inhibit phosphorylation and stimulate NADPH oxidase; furthermore, it has been demonstrated that H. zeylanica extracts blocked activation of protein kinase. In summary, H. zeylanica extracts may show anti-inflammatory activity by reducing the expression of given molecules and related pathways in brain astrocytes (Hsieh et al. 2016). The plant contains high concentration of Iron (Fe) from 8 to 25 times higher than leaves of Scorodocarpus borneensis (Baill.) Becc., Pangium edule Reinw., Gnetum gnemon L. and Dracaena reflexa var. angustifolia Baker) available in the local markets. This is higher than the normal RDA, which can cause health problems. The plant also has high concentration of Zinc (Zn) and low concentration of Copper (Cu) (Asyira Ainul et al. 2016). H. zeylanica is reported to have eight new prenylated flavonoids, ugonins M-T (1–8), together with five known compounds, ugonins J-L (9–11), 5,40 -dihydroxy400 ,400 -dimethyl-500 -methyl-500 H-dihydrofurano[200 ,300 :6,7] flavanone, and quercetin (Huang et al. 2017). Besides the flavonoids and antioxidant activity (Wong et al. 2014), the plant extract is shown to possess melanogenesis modulating activity (Mitsunaga and Yamauchi 2015). The rhizome tissue shows antidiabetic properties (Ridhasya et al. 2019). Experiments have also shown some levels of cytotoxic activity (Mohd-Fuat et al. 2007).

Local Food Uses H. zeylanica is used as food, medicine, and as a source of fiber. In many countries, young leaves are eaten cooked as a vegetable or raw as a salad (Ketut et al. 2015). Young petioles can be cooked, dressed, and eaten as a substitute for asparagus. In Malaysia, the plant is boiled or blanched to prepare a Malay dish called kerabu (Winter and Amoroso 2003).

Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook.

549

Biocultural and Economic Importance In Java and the Philippines, petioles of old leaves are used in wickerwork and handicraft (Ketut et al. 2015). H. zeylanica can be grown as an ornamental plant. In Peninsular Malaysia, for some traditional medicinal applications, Syngramma alismifolia (Presl) J. Smith is sometimes used as a substitute for H. zeylanica (Winter and Amoroso 2003). H. zeylanica is traded only at local markets, and no statistics on production or trade exist. Formerly, Malaysia exported some rhizomes to China. In the Philippines, it used to be sold in considerable quantities on provincial markets, but plants are becoming rarer due to habitat destruction (Winter and Amoroso 2003).

References Asyira Ainul S, Noorasmah S, Sarbini SR, Muta Harah Z. Mineral content of five indigenous leafy vegetable from Bintulu market, Sarawak Malaysia. J Med Herbs Ethnomed. 2016;2:26–35. https://doi.org/10.19071/jmhe.2016.v2.3117. Clark J, Hidalgo O, Pellicer J, et al. Genome evolution of ferns: evidence for relative stasis of genome size across the fern phylogeny. New Phytol. 2016;1:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/ nph.13833. Hsieh HL, Yang SH, Lee TH, et al. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory effects of Helminthostachys zeylanica extracts via inhibiting bradykinin-induced MMP-9 expression in brain astrocytes. Mol Neurobiol. 2016;53:5995–6005. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-015-9511-9. Huang YL, Shen CC, Shen YC, et al. Anti-inflammatory and antiosteoporosis flavonoids from the rhizomes of Helminthostachys zeylanica. J Nat Prod. 2017;80:246–53. https://doi.org/10.1021/ acs.jnatprod.5b01164. Ketut GI, Ketut DAA, Martin J. Existence and morphology characteristics of biological and chemical research. J Biol Chem Res. 2015;32:733–9. Mannan MM, Maridass M, Victor BA. Review on the potential uses of ferns. Ethnobot Leafl. 2008;12:281–5. Mitsunaga T, Yamauchi K. Effect of quercetin derivatives on melanogenesis stimulation of melanoma cells. J Wood Sci. 2015;61:351–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10086-015-1476-9. Mohd-Fuat AR, Kofi EA, Allan GG. Mutagenic and cytotoxic properties of three herbal plants from Southeast Asia. Trop Biomed. 2007;24:49–59. Mulyati R, Sunarti S, Sulistiarini D, Prawiroarmodjo S. Pemanfaatan Tumbuhan Obat secara Tradisional oleh Masyarakat Lokal di Pulau Wawonii, Sulawesi Tenggara. Biodiversitas. 2006;7:245–50. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d070310. Ramadhanil R, Tjitrosoedirdjo SS, Setiadi D. Structure and composition of understory plant assemblages of six land use types in the Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Bangladesh J Plant Taxon. 2008;15:1–12. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjpt.v15i1.911. Ridhasya FE, Teruna HY, Hendra R, Almurdani M. Natural antidiabetic of Tunjuk Langit (Helminthostachys zeylanica) rhizome extracts. Pharmacol Clin Pharm Res. 2019;4:18–21. https://doi.org/10.15416/pcpr.v4i3.24897. Wardah SS. Ethnobotany study of Dayak society medicinal plants utilization in Uut Murung District, Murung Raya Regency, Central Kalimantan. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2019;298:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/298/1/012005. Winter WP, de Amoroso VB. PLant Resources of South-East Asia. Backhuys Publishers. 2003;108–110 Leiden, The Netherlands.

550

D. Cicuzza

Wong JY, Matanjun P, Ooi YBH, Chia KF. Evaluation of antioxidant activities in relation to total phenolics and flavonoids content of selected Malaysian wild edible plants by multivariate analysis. Int J Food Prop. 2014;17:1763–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2012.724756. Zhang L, Fan X, Petchsri S, et al. Evolutionary relationships of the ancient fern lineage the adder’s tongues (Ophioglossaceae) with description of Sahashia gen. nov. Cladistics. 2020;960:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12408.

Hippobroma longiflora (L.) G. Don CAMPANULACEAE Anisatu Z. Wakhidah, Syafroni Pranata, and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Isotoma longiflora (L.) C. Presl; Isotoma longiflora var. runcinata (Hassk.) Panigrahi, P. Daniel & M. V. Viswan.; Isotoma runcinata Hassk.; Laurentia longiflora (L.) Peterm.; Lobelia longiflora L.; Rapuntium longiflorum (L.) Mill.; Solenopsis longiflora (L.) M. R. Almeida (POWO 2020).

Local Name Brunei Darussalam: Kitolot (Brunei Malay); Indonesia: daun sapu jagad; dadangak (Borneo); bunga bintang, sangkobak, kerodak (Sasak ethnic, West Nusa Tenggara); daun kěndali (Java); kembang bintang (Bali); kumbang katarak (Saibatin subtribe, Lampung); dukut blando (Kampung Rindu Hati, Bengkulu), kitolot (Madura ethnic). Philippines: estrèlla (Tagalog); lagrimao de San Diego, revienta caballos; elepanteng puti (Agusan manobo ethnic in Sibagat, Agusan del Sur). English: frog’s flower, horse poison, madam fate, star-of-Bethlehem (Dapar et al. 2020; Destryana and Ismawati 2019; Dharmono et al. 2013; Diantaris et al. 2015; Eni et al. 2019; Oktavia et al. 2017; Paguigan and Chichioco-Hernandez 2014; Rahayu and Andini 2019; Safitri et al. 2009; Warida et al. 2017; Zikri et al. 2016).

A. Z. Wakhidah (*) Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia S. Pranata Ecology Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, Indonesia W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_124

551

552

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Botany and Ecology Description: Erect or ascending herbs, perennial, stem up to 35 cm, branched at the base or not, up to 5 mm across, basally woody, ribbed or winged as a continuation of the leaf base, clad with hairs, usually become villous toward apex, rarely nearly glabrous. Leaves spirally arranged, sessile, narrowly obovate to oblanceolate or elliptic, 3– 16 cm
1–3.7 cm, base attenuate, margin coarsely serrate-dentate, apex acuminate, acute or obtuse. Flowers solitary, from the axil of leaves, subactinomorphic, fragrant. Pedicels 3–15 mm long, densely short hairy to villous. Calyx lobes 5, unequal in size, linear to narrowly lanceolate, 8–20 mm long, margin irregularly dentate, apex acute, hairy. Corolla white, tube long and narrow, infundibuliform, 5–10 cm long, lobes 5, subequal, ovate-lanceolate, 1–2.5 cm
c. 0.6 cm, spreading, apex acute or obtuse. Stamens 5, borne from above the middle of the tube, reaching the mouth or slightly exerted, anthers curved forward, 4–6 mm long, the 2 front 2–3 mm long. Hypanthium obconic to bell-shaped or ellipsoid, 3–9 mm long, usually with 10 longitudinal ribs, hairy, style simple, as long as the stamens or longer, ends flat and broad, 2-lobed stigma, beneath with long and slender hairs. Fruit capsules, ellipsoid or broadly so, obconic, campanulate, or obovoid, nodding, apex with calyx rather persistent, contain numerous ellipsoids, light brown to red brown seeds. Distribution and Ecology: This species is introduced from West Indies. It was described for the first time from specimen collected in Jamaica. It now has a wide geographical distribution throughout the tropics and subtropics mainly due to introduction and naturalization. This species inhabit ditches, damp places, walls, streams, from lowland to 1200 m.a.s.l. (Hong et al. 2011; Moelyono and Tuyn 1960; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: Local people in the Kiudang region use whole plant in herbal baths to alleviate body pain; leaf decoction is consumed for stomach ache and body chills (Kamsani et al. 2020). Indonesia: The leaves are consumed by Rejang tribe of Kampung Rindu Hati in Bengkulu, Sumatra to cure stomachache (Zikri et al. 2016). The infusion of the leaves is used to treat sore eye by the Rokan Hulu community in Riau, Sumatra (Warida et al. 2017). Madura tribe of Madura Island in East Java, the Balinese people, and the Hindu community in Jagaraga Village, West Nusa Tenggara use the infusion of the flowers to treat the same ailment. The flowers are mixed with water and then dripped to the eye (Destryana and Ismawati 2019; Eni et al. 2019; Oktavia et al. 2017). The Sasak ethnic community of Lombok District, West Nusa Tenggara, as well as the Saibatin subtribe of Lampung, Sumatra also uses the flowers as eye drops to cure cataracts; the flowers are dipped or soaked into water for a short time and the water dripped into eyes (Diantaris et al. 2015, personal observation). The local people of Narmadain West Nusa Tenggara use the leaves to treat wounds. They pound the leaves into a paste and apply it externally on the wounds (Rahayu and Andini 2019). Dharmono et al. (2013) reported that the Dayak Bakumpai tribe in

Hippobroma longiflora (L.) G. Don

553

Fig. 1 Living plant of Hippobroma longifolia (Campanulaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Flower of Hippobroma longifolia (Campanulaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

South Kalimantan use the decoction of leaves and flowers to treat various diseases such as hypertension, toothache, asthma, bronchitis, pharyngitis, eyedrops, and lung cancer. Philippines: Leaf decoction is used to wash the wounds by the people of Agusan Manobo of Sibagat in Agusan del Sur (Dapar et al. 2020).

554

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Phytochemistry Secondary metabolite compounds reported from leaves are flavonoids, tannins, saponins, steroids, glycoside (e.g., cardiac glycosides), and alkaloids (ChichiocoHernandez and Paguigan 2010; Paguigan and Chichioco-Hernandez 2014; Zarta et al. 2018). The flavonoids and alkaloids are responsible for the suppression of Lipoxygenases (LOX) activity – a compound that produces biologically active proinflammatory mediators implicated in the development of asthma (Paguigan and Chichioco-Hernandez 2014). Three diphenethylpiperidine alkaloids named hippofoline A, hippofoline B, and ()-cis-20 ,200 -diphenyllobelidiol N-oxide were reported alongside ()-lobeline and ()-cis-20 ,200 -diphenyllobelidiol. In carbachol treated rats, hippofoline B and ()-cis-20 ,200 -diphenyllobelidiol are responsible for inducing relaxation effects (Chan et al. 2019). The ethanol extracts of leaves, stems, and flowers contain alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids that act as antibacterial agents. The bacteria inhibition activities are strong against Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus mutans, and Enterococcus faecalis in a concentration of 10% w/v (Anjelina 2013; Arflandi et al. 2018; Fazil et al. 2017; Safitri et al. 2009). The flowers could inhibit the growth of toothache causing bacteria, Streptococcus mutans (Arflandi et al. 2018). Ethanol extract has an inhibitory activity against cervical cancer (HeLa cells) (Hapsari et al. 2016), while the ethanol (50%) extract of leaves has shown a weak cytotoxic effect on the cervical cancer cells (Ca Ski) (Eff 2016). Furthermore, the leaf infusion exerts an effect on eye pressure, comparable to that of 2% pilocarpine at 60% concentration (Siska et al. 2016). Antioxidant activities of cakes were also increased by adding the flour made from the leaves (Aprilia 2018).

Economic Importance The fresh plants have been widely sold in various marketplaces especially in Indonesia as people believe that it can be used to cure various eye diseases including cataracts, nearsightedness, farsightedness, and eye lens damage (Kurniawan and Anggriawan 2016). Leaf flour has economic potential due to its ability to improve antioxidant properties of steamed cake (Aprilia 2018).

References Anjelina SH. Antibacterial activity of ethanolic extract of kitolod (Hippobroma longiflora) leaf against Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi. Asian J Pharm Res Dev. 2013;8(1):52–4. Aprilia IY. Studi fortifikasi antioksidan tepung daun kitolod (Isotoma longliflora) terhadap sifat fisiko kimia dan organoleptik kue bolu kukus [dissertation]. Malang: University of Muhammadiyah Malang; 2018. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Arflandi Z, Ramdhani I, Makhfirra IAU, Marjoni MR. Growth inhibition test of Streptococcus mutans against methanol extract/fractions of Kitolod (Isotoma longiflora (L.) C. Presl.). Int J Res Pharm Sci. 2018;(6):16–8. http://www.pharmacyjournal.in/archives/2018/vol3/issue6/3-6-15.

Hippobroma longiflora (L.) G. Don

555

Chan ZY, Govindaraju K, Krishnan P, Low YY, Chong KW, Yong KT, Lim KH. Diphenethylpiperidine alkaloids with tracheal smooth muscle relaxation activity from Hippobroma longiflora (L.) G. Don. Phytochem Lett. 2019;30:93–8. Chichioco-Hernandez CL, Paguigan ND. Phytochemical profile of selected Philippine plants used to treat asthma. Pharmacogn J. 2010;2(8):198–202. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–18. Destryana A, Ismawati I. Etnobotani dan pengggunaan tumbuhan liar sebagai obat tradisional oleh masyarakat suku Madura. J Food Technol. 2019;1(2):1–8. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Dharmono, Sofyan A, Wahyu, Warni H. Indigenous knowledge of Dayaks Bakumpai in Barito Kuala District on the management of plant diversity growing at streams and swamps. J Wetlands Environ Manag. 2013;1(1):25–32. Diantaris MTA, Susanti R, Anggraito YU. Diversity and utilization of medicinal plants by Sasak ethnic at Central Lombok District, West Nusa Tenggara. ICMSE; 2015. p. 19–22. Eff ARY. Uji sitotoksik ekstrak etanol 50% daun kitolod (Isotoma longiflora (L.) Presl.) terhadap sel kanker serviks (ca ski cell line) secara in-vitro. Farmasains. 2016;3(1):7–12. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Eni NNS, Sukenti K, Muspiah A, Rohyani IS. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat komunitas Hindu Desa Jagara Kabupaten Lombok Barat, Nusa Tenggara Barat. J Biotrop. 2019;7(3):121–8. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Fazil M, Rempaka NS, Allflah F, Alam DN, Angelia G, Situmeang B. Analiysis of alkaloid and flavonoid compounds from kitolod extract (Isotoma longiflora) and activity test to dental bacteria. J Itekimia. 2017;2(1):73–83. Hapsari A, Asti D, Selviana, Hidyati R, Kumalla N, Suhendi A. The potency of kitolod (Isotoma longiflora (L) Presl.) herb extract as a cure for cervical cancer: an in vitro study of HeLa cells. The 2nd International Conference on Science, Technology, and Humanity, Yogyakarta; 2016. p. 109–14. Hong D, Klein LL, Lammers TG. Hippobroma G. Don. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 19 (Cucurbitaceae through Valerianaceae, with Annonaceae and Berberidaceae). Beijing: Science Press and St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2011. p. 562–3. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020; 256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kurniawan A, Anggriawan V. Mata Sehat dengan Bunga Kitolod. 2016. Published on the internet. https://www.jitunews.com/read/39949/mata-sehat-dengan-bunga-kitolod. Retrieved 30 May 2020. Moelyono B, Tuyn P. Campanulaceae. Fl Males Ser I. 1960;6(1):107–41. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Oktavia GAE, Darma IDP, Sujarwo W. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di kawasan sekitar Danau Buyan-Tamblingan, Bali. Bul Kebun Raya. 2017;20:1):1–16. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Paguigan ND, Chichioco-Hernandez CL. 15-Lipoxygenase inhibition of selected Philippine medicinal plants. Pharmacogn J. 2014;6(1):43–6. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens. 2020. Published on the internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 10 Apr 2020. Rahayu SM, Andini AS. Etnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Sesaot Forest, Narmada, West Lombok, Indonesia. Biosantifika. 2019;11(2):234–42. Safitri I, Hamidy MY, Syafril D. Isolasi dan uji aktifitas antimikroba ekstrak metanol bunga, batang, dan daun sapu jagad (Isotoma longiflora (L.) Presl.) terhadap Staphylococcus aureus. JIK. 2009;3(1):20–3. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Siska, Sunaryo H, Wardani TK. Uji efek antiglaukoma infus daun kitolod (Isotoma longiflora (L) C. Presl.) terhadap tikus putih jantan berdasarkan tekanan bola mata. Farmasains. 2016;3(2): 73–6. (in Bahasa Indonesia).

556

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Warida S, Brahmana EM, Mubarrak J. Identifikasi tumbuhan obat yang ada di Kecamatan Rambahan Hilir Kabupaten Rokan Hulu Provinsi Riau. J Ilm Mahasiswa FKIP Prod Biol. 2017;16(3):1–6. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Zarta AR, Aryani F, Suwinarti W, Kusuma IW, Arung ET. Identification and evaluation of bioactivity in forest plants used for medicinal purposes by the Kutai community of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2018;19(1):253–9. Zikri M, Hikmat A, Zuhud EA. Retensi Pengetahuan Tumbuhan Pangan Suku Rejang di Kampung Rindu Hati dalam Ketahanan Pangan. Med Konserv. 2016;21(3):270–7. (in Bahasa Indonesia).

Homalanthus macradenius Pax & K.Hoffm. EUPHORBIACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Homalanthus macradenius Pax: Homalanthus concolor Merr.; Homalanthus megaphyllus Merr.; Homalanthus rotundifolius Merr.; Homalanthus surigaoensis Elmer

Local Names Philippines: Balalanti (Tagalog); banti, balanti, balanting-bilog, and mindanao balanti (Bisaya); banti puti, banti tapol (Agusan Manobo); biante (Cebuano); gibulag, glabulag, labagti, labugti, labulti, liuti, maquing, and salingbaga (Bukidnon).

Botany and Ecology Description: Crooked, often shrub-like monoecious, glabrous tree ca. 15 m tall, dbh ca. 15 cm, and crown open and spreading. Bark pale grey to brown. Wood nearly odorand tasteless. Stipules ca. 1.5–12 cm long. Leaves alternate, simple, apically rounded to acute or mucronate, always glabrous, with abaxial to lateral petiolar glands. Petiole ca. 3–20 cm long, always with a pair of abaxial-lateral glands either cup-shaped, ca. 0.5 mm in diameter, or, more often, enlarged to peculiar foliaceous appendages, ca. 6 mm long, with glandular margin and often irregularly divided; petiolar glands often enlarged and irregularly foliaceous; lamina ovate to orbiculate, ca. 4–36 by 3.5–30 cm, index ca. 1.0–1.2, with either abaxially completely visible venation, whitish beneath (Fig. 1) or reddish (Fig. 2), base rounded and distinctly peltate by ca. 5–120 mm, only rarely single leaves indistinctly peltate, apex rounded to acute to mucronate, lower M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_220

557

558

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Homalanthus macradenius leaves. Locally named as banti puti by Agusan Manobo in the Philippines due to its whitish coloration of abaxial view of the leaf (Dapar et al. 2020b) (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

surface often whitish with larger veins of different color, but especially large leaves sometimes not whitish at all, side veins in ca. 9–13 pairs between petiole and apex, angle of divergence ca. 45–55°, only indistinctly joined toward the margin, tertiary veins percurrent, quarternary veins percurrent and often quite indistinct, adaxially glandless, and abaxially without laminar glands. Inflorescences ca. 10–21 cm long, bisexual, sometimes without female flowers, and staminate part ca. 5–14 mm in diameter. Bracts of staminate cymules ca. 0.3–1 mm long, completely covered by a pair of undivided glands ca. 1–1.5 mm long. Staminate flowers 1 per cymule; pedicel ca. 2–5 mm long; sepal 1, inclinate, and ca. 1.5–2 mm long; stamens ca. 20–30 per flower, with filaments ca. 0.5 mm long and anthers ca. 0.3 mm long. Pistillate flowers ca. 5–11 per thyrse; pedicel ca. 2–5 mm long; sepal 1, inclinate, and early caducous; ovary ca. 2 mm long, bicarpellate, papillate, and style ca. 0.5–2.5 mm long, soon caducous and aborted near base, and stigma ca. 3–4 mm long, undivided, and with apical gland ca. 2–3 mm long. Fruits ca. 5–11 per infructescence; bracts caducous; pedicel ca. 4–9 mm long; calyx caducous; fruit ca. 3.5–4.5 by ca. 3.5–6 mm, papillate, deeply sulcate, each carpel slightly carinate, and always without style; opened fruits rarely seen, pericarp ca. 0.15 mm thick (ca. 1:25 of fruit length), remaining columella alate, and ca. 1 mm wide. Seeds ca. 4 by 3.5 mm, with apical arillode.

Homalanthus macradenius Pax & K.Hoffm.

559

Fig. 2 Homalanthus macradenius leaves. Locally named as banti tapol by Agusan Manobo in the Philippines due to its reddish coloration of abaxial view of the leaf (Dapar et al. 2020b) (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

Esser (1997) provided the taxonomic descriptions and keys of (H )Omalanthus species, which are sometimes spelled differently. However, Homalanthus species often have a complex morphology, sometimes the whitish color of the lower leaf surfaces may be absent contrary to most other species (Esser 1997). Members of the genus Homalanthus can be resolved through molecular analysis using universal markers (Dapar et al. 2020a), as evident on the resolution of Dapar et al. (2020b) on two specimens of Homalanthus species used by the Manobo tribe of the Philippines using an integrative molecular approach. Phenology: Flowering and fruiting occur from March to October with maximum observed in March to May and September to October (Esser 1997). Distribution and Habitat: Native range is Central and South Philippines (POWO 2020) and recorded as an endemic in the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: In Mindanao, Homalanthus macradenius is traditionally used among the Agusan Manobo. They use the leaves to relieve impetigo, diarrhea, stomach troubles (Dapar et al. 2020b), and to treat cuts and wounds (Dapar et al. 2020c).

560

M. L. G. Dapar

Guevarra and Garcia (2018) recorded H. macradenius as an herbal plant used among the Matigsalug tribe for treating incidences of blood vomiting. In Southeast Asia, Homalanthus species are traditionally used for treating spasm (Tantengco et al. 2018) and headaches (Kulip 2003; Lin 2005).

Phytochemistry Homalanthus macradenius has not been screened for phytochemicals and bioactive compounds. However, pharmacological properties of some members of Homalanthus species could provide medicinal cues. Remarkable biological activities and pharmacological properties of Homalanthus species have been reported on samples obtained from the island of Samoa (Gustafson et al. 1992) and in Central and Northeast New Guinea (Khan et al. 2001).

Local Food Uses The leaves of Homalanthus macradenius are used for wrapping and covering food (Esser 1997).

Economic Importance Mature leaves of Homalanthus macradenius are large enough to be economically used to cover foods in the Philippines. Commercial native delicacies covered with H. macradenius leaves are sold in some native markets (personal observation).

References Dapar MLG, Demayo CG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Molecular confirmation, constituents and cytotoxicity evaluation of two medicinal Piper species used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Phytochem Lett. 2020a;36:24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.phytol.2020.01.017. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020b;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res App. 2020c;19:31. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18. Esser HJ. A revision of Omalanthus (Euphorbiaceae) in Malesia. Blumea. 1997;42:421–66. Guevarra CPB, Garcia MM. Ethnobotanical practices of Matigsalug tribe on medicinal plants at barangay Baganihan, Marilog District, Davao City. J Complement Altern Med Res. 2018;6(3):1–14. https://doi.org/10.9734/JOCAMR/2018/43031.

Homalanthus macradenius Pax & K.Hoffm.

561

Gustafson KR, Cardellina JH, McMahon JB, Gulakowski RJ, Ishitoya J, Szallasi Z, et al. A non promoting phorbol from the Samoan medicinal plant Homalanthus nutans inhibits cell killing by HIV-1. J Med Chem. 1992;35:1978–86. Khan MR, Kihara M, Omoloso AD. Antimicrobial activity of Omalanthus nervosus. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:281–3. Kulip J. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia. Telopea. 2003;10:81–98. Lin KW. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Jah hut peoples in Malaysia. Indian J Med Sci. 2005;59(4):156–61. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Euphorbiaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Euphorbiaceae.html. Accessed 15 June 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 15 June 2020 Tantengco OAG, Condes MLC, Estadilla HHT, Ragragio EM. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by Ayta communities in Dinalupihan, Bataan. Philippines. Pharm J. 2018;10:859– 70. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2018.5.145.

Hoya lacunosa Blume APOCYNACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim and Wisnu H. Ardi

Synonyms Hoya suaveolens Miq.; Otostemma lanucosum (Blume) Blume

Local Names Indonesia: Bunga pitis kecil – kembang rincit (Melayu) – kembang ringit-ringit (Sundanese); English: grooved wax flower (Cahyadi 2005; Miquel 1856; Quattrocchi 2012).

Botany and Ecology Description: Myrmecophytic climbers, vegetative parts contain abundant latex. Stem more often with adventitious roots; these roots are usually borne below the nodes or rarely throughout the length; stem pendent or climbing along the tree trunk; leafy part terete, internodes mostly 1–5 cm long, rarely longer or shorter, young stem pale green, turning mid to dark green, sparsely clad with minute hairs, glabrescent. Leaves simple, opposite, borne on 1–5 mm long cylindrical petiole, initially sparsely hairy; lamina glaucous beneath, broadly ovate to lanceolate, 1–8  0.8–2 cm, rigid and fleshy, base cuneate to rounded, margin entire, apex acute to acuminate; hairs present at the margin of the young leaves; midrib prominent above, lateral veins 3–6 on each side of the W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia W. H. Ardi Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Garden, Indonesia Institute of Sciences, Bogor, Jawa Barat, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_205

563

564

W. A. Mustaqim and W. H. Ardi

midrib, perpendicular; base of leaves with colleter, single, conical, brown, usually inconspicuous at the mature leaves. Flowers bisexual, arranged in umbellate and extraaxillary inflorescence, flat or convex, 15–25-flowered, peduncle 1.5–5.5 cm long, clad with sparse hairs; flowers borne on 0.7–1.5 cm long glabrous pedicels. Calyx greenish yellow, 5-merous, lobes free, broadly ovate, c. 0.8 mm long, rounded at the apex. Corolla globose, at natural position 4–5 mm across, 7 mm across when flattened, tube 1.5 mm long, lobes 5, ovate, 2–2.5 mm long, apex acute, outer surfaces glabrous, inner side pubescent. Staminal corona 5, 2.5–3.5 mm across, stalked, lobes cream-yellow, obovate, upper side slightly convex, sulcate beneath, outer processes rounded, inner processes acute. Pollinia oblong, rounded at the base, apex oblique, truncate. Anther appendages hyaline, triangular, c. 0.5  0.5 mm, apex acute. Style head acute at the apex. Ovary ovate, c. 0.8 mm long, glabrous. Fruits follicles, up to 10 cm long, up to 2.5 mm wide. Distribution and Ecology: This species is natively distributed in Thailand, western Malesia, and the Philippines. In western Malesia, this species has been found in Sumatra, and Peninsular Malaysia including Singapore, Java, and Borneo. The habitat of this species is usually primary lowland rainforests. However, plants may ascend higher, to hill forests. In Java, it can be found up to 1100 m above sea level. The species prefer sites where there are canopy gap allowing the sunlight to penetrate. In the dense rainforests of West Java, this species has an hourglass type of population structure. This species is considered among the true myrmecochory and is a good example of ant gardens, where ant’s nest becomes the attaching point of the plant and also the site for seed germination. In Peninsular Malaysia, this species grows in riverbanks. Although fairly a common species, in Singapore, the plant was designated as Endangered in 2012 and increased to Critically Endangered in 2019 (Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1965; Bermuli et al. 2019; Middleton and Rodda 2019; Rahayu 2012; Rahayu and Rodda 2019; Rodda and Ang 2012; Salim and Nikong 2020; van der Pijl 1972) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 The living plant of Hoya lacunosa (Apocynaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.H. Ardi)

Hoya lacunosa Blume

565

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Hoya lacunosa (Apocynaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.H. Ardi)

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The plant is used to cure stomachaches by Tengger people in East Java Province (Rahayu 2012).

Phytochemistry The phytochemistry of this species has studied. However, some of the chemical compounds remain unidentified. Using a HPLC analysis, some phenolic compounds have been identified from the leaves, named C-hexosyl C-pentosyl luteolin, schaftoside (mixed with phenolic depside), isoschaftoside, glucose ester (of ferulic acid), and 6,8-di-carabinopyranosylapigenin. GC analysis on the latex shows the presence of many triterpenoids including obtusifoliol, α-amyrin, α-amyrin acetate, cycloeucalenol, lupeol, lupeol acetate, β-amyrin, 24-methylenecycloartanol, and β-amyrin acetate. Besides these, many esters and also a few unknown compounds are also present. Some flavonoids belonging to di-C-glycosylapigenin type have been identified: schaftoside (6-C-glucosyl 8-C-arabinosylapigenin), isoschaftoside (6-Carabinosyl 8-C-glucosylapigenin), and 6,8-di-C-arabinopyranosylapigenin. One derivate of C-hexosyl C-pentosyl luteolin has also been identified (Niemann et al. 1979). Baas (1983) investigated the wax acquired from the older leaves. The investigation shows the presence 5-isopropyl-10(2-methoxy-carbonylethyl)-des-A-olean-12-en (dihydronyctanthic acid methyl ester) and 5-isopropyl-10(2-methoxycarbonylethyl)des-A-olean-14-en. The leaf extract is active against the insect Culex quinquefasciatus (Cahyadi 2005).

566

W. A. Mustaqim and W. H. Ardi

Economic Importance A favorable ornamental plant species. The plant has been used as ornamental in Java (Rahayu 2012). In the western world, such as in the northeastern USA, this plant also has been cultivated for its fragrant flowers (VH 2020). The fragrant flowers are also used as natural room fresheners (Tesselaar 2020).

References Baas WJ. Dihydronyctanthic acid methyl ester and other 3,4-seco-pentacyclic triterpenoids from Hoya lacunosa. Phytochemistry. 1983;22(12):2809–12. Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC Jr. Flora of Java, vol. 2. Groningen: NVP Nordhoff; 1965. Bermuli JE, Sulistijorini S, Rahayu S. Population structure of Hoya spp. (Apocynaceae: Asclepiadoideae) at Bogodol Nature-Conservation Education Center, Indonesia. Biotropia. 2019;26(2):82–93. https://doi.org/10.11598/btb.2019.26.2.881. Cahyadi UA. Pengaruh pemaparan ekstrak daun pitis kecil (Hoya lacunosa) terhadap perkembangan pradewasa nyamuk Culex quinquefasciatus [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2005. Middleton DJ, Rodda M. Apocynaceae. In: Middleton DJ, Leong-Škornicková J, Lindsay S, editors. Flora of Singapore, vol. 13. Singapore: National Parks Board; 2019. p. 421–630. Miquel FAW. Flora van Nederlandsch Indië, vol. 2. Amsterdam: C. G. van der Post; 1856. https:// doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.93. Niemann GJ, Baas WJ, Besson E, Chopin J. Investigations on Hoya species III. Leaf phenolics and latex lipids of Hoya lacunosa Bl. Z Naturforsch. 1979;34c:1125–8. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2012. Rahayu S. Potensi dan konservasi jenis-jenis Hoya dataran tinggi Pulau Jawa. Berk Penel Hayati. 2012;18:1–7. Rahayu S, Rodda M. Hoya of Sumatra, an updated checklist, three new species, and a new subspecies. Eur J Taxon. 2019;508:1–23. https://doi.org/10.5852/ejt.2019.508. Rodda M, Ang WF. Hoya caudata Hook. f. (Apocynaceae), a new record for Singapore, and keys to the Hoya species of Singapore. Nat Singap. 2012;5:123–8. Salim JM, Nikong D. Notes on Hoya of Terengganu, Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Nat J. 2020;71(1):43–51. Tesselaar. Hoya lacunosa – Tesselaar. 2020. https://www.tesselaar.net.au/product/237-hoyalacunosa. Retrieved 7 June 2020. van der Pijl L. Principles of dispersal in higher plants. 2nd ed. New York/Heidelberg/Berlin: Springer; 1972. VH. Vermont Hoyas: a site about growing Hoyas in the northeastern United States. 2020. https:// vermonthoyas.com/hoya-l-m/hoya-lacunosa/. Retrieved 5 June 2020.

Hyptis capitata Jacq. LAMIACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Clinopodium capitatum (Jacq.) Sw.; Hyptis capitata var. mexicana Briq.; Hyptis capitata var. pilosa Briq.; Hyptis capitata var. vulgaris Briq.; Hyptis celebica Zipp. ex Koord.; Hyptis decurrens (Blanco) Epling; Hyptis macrochila Mart. ex Steud.; Hyptis mariannarum Briq.; Hyptis pittieri Briq.; Hyptis rhomboidea M.Martens & Galeotti; Mesosphaerum capitatum (Jacq.) Kuntze; Mesosphaerum pittieri Briq.; Mesosphaerum rhombodeum (M.Martens & Galeotti) Kuntze; Pycnanthemum decurrens Blanco; Thymus virginicus Blanco

Local Names English: Bachelor’s button, buttonweed, false ironwort, knobweed Philippines: Arbaka (Maranao); bababañga, leng-leñga, tetetei (Bontok); botonesan, kambali, kombar-kombaran liñga-liñgahan, turukan (Tagalog); palapasagi (Panay Bisaya); palopalot, tabaku-tabaku, tultulisan (Iloko); pansipansi, tarotabako (Bikol); sawan-sawan (Agusan Manobo); lagare-lagarean (Ayta)

Botany and Ecology Description: Stout, erect annual herb, 0.5–2.5 m, not aromatic (Fig. 1). Stems pubescent, hairy, quadrangular, usually develop pairs of branches in axils. Leaves bright green, opposite, lanceolate or rhomboid-elliptic, 5–15 cm
1.5–6 cm, acute M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_125

567

568

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Habit of Hyptis capitata. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

or acuminate, base cuneate and decurrent; margin irregularly serrate, glandular underside, tips pointed; petioles 2–3 cm long; blades glabrate to puberulent, dorsally glandular; peduncles axillary, 2–9 cm long in axils, heads subglobose, 1.5–2.5 cm in diameter surrounded by green tubular structures. Flowers sessile, white, subtended by oblong-obovate bracts up to 8–12 mm long (Fig. 2). Calyx lobes subulate, nearly equal, calyx-tube glabrous at extreme base, hirsute medially, pubescent distally, 3– 4 mm long in flower, enlarging to nearly 1 cm in fruit. Corolla 5–6 mm long, white with faint purplish spots on upper lip, filaments pubescent basally. Fruit 1.5–2 cm in diameter, nutlets brownish-black with a narrow white hilum, ca. 1 mm long. Phenology: Flowering usually occurs during late autumn and early winter in temperate climate zones. Distribution and Habitat: The species native range is from Florida, Mexico, to Tropical America (POWO 2020). Hyptis capitata is native in neotropics (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards) and long naturalized in the tropics, throughout Malesia, and in Hainan, Micronesia, and the Solomons (Flora Malesiana 2020). H. capitata is often found in open fields and roadsides in Sumatra, Indonesia (Rupa et al. 2017). This plant became widespread as a weed and widely naturalized in tropical Asia like Vietnam, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippine and other Pacific islands like Hawaii, Western Samoa, Solomon Islands, Palau, Guam, and French Polynesia (Queensland Government 2016).

Hyptis capitata Jacq.

569

Fig. 2 Flowering shoot of Hyptis capitata. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: Quis (1951) reported the traditional uses of Hyptis capitata for cleansing wounds and against amenorrhea using decocted leaves among the locals. Fern (2014) enumerated traditional Asian uses in various plant parts. The whole plant is used in folkloric treatment for dry cough and toothaches. It can help relieve gas pains in infants and convulsions in children. Leaves are utilized as an excitant, tonic, sedative calmative, and wound antiseptic. It can also reduce heart palpitations and can cure black diarrhea and stomachache. Roots are used as a treatment for amenorrhea. Hyptis capitata has also been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, hemorrhoids, and asthma. The roots of H. capitata are heated and smelled to alleviate fever and spasm among the Ayta community in Bataan, Philippines (Tantengco et al. 2018). Both leaf and root decoction of H. capitata were also utilized by Muslim Maranaos in Iligan City, Philippines, for cough relief and wound healing (Olowa and Demayo 2015). Gargling of decocted roots is applied for toothache. Dapar et al. (2020a) recently reported the ethnopharmacological uses of H. capitata among the largest Manobo tribe in Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Drinking decocted leaves or leaf sap helps cure colds, malaria, cough, diarrhea, stomachache, fever, gas pain, and flatulence. This preparation could also be

570

M. L. G. Dapar

taken for new-born babies. The recommended dosage among the tribe is 3–5 glasses decoction or 1/2 cup leaf sap for adult, and 1/2 cup decoction or one teaspoonful leaf sap for baby. Drinking decoction is also practiced lessening delayed menstruation for women. Externally, the crushed leaves can be applied for toothache, cuts, and wounds as a poultice. Significantly, there were no adverse or reported side effects among the tribal community. H. capitata leaves are culturally also relevant for the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Philippines, who use it to treat cuts and wounds Dapar et al. (2020b). Indonesia: The leaves of H. capitata are used to cure external and internal wounds by the Anak Dalam tribe of Jambi Province (Rupa et al. 2017). They crush or squeeze the leaves before application to external wounds, while leaf sap is consumed directly for internal injuries. Malaysia: In Sabah, the roots are boiled and prepared as a tea used to relieve colds and fevers (Ahmad and Holdsworth 2003). The plant is administered by crushing and applying the leaves on the affected part as a poultice. Traditional uses of this plant as medicine have also been observed in India, Jamaica, and Bangladesh (Michell and Ahmad 2006; Biswas et al. 2010).

Phytochemistry Santos et al. (1981) reported the chemical constituents of H. capitata as containing ursolic acid, 2-a- hydroxyursolic acids, and hyptatic acid. Investigation of leaves were carried out by Rupa et al. (2017) to identify and analyze secretory structure, histochemistry, and phytochemical contents. Several secretory structures in various forms on the upper and lower leaf surfaces contain phytochemicals such as alkaloids, terpenoids, and lipophilic compounds. GC-MS analysis further revealed that the leaves possess terpenoid compounds including l-limonene, eugenol, farnesol isomers A, d-nerolidol, hexahydrofarnesol, and neophytadiene, which are known potential anti-infective agents. These constituents of H. capitata explain the scientific basis for the traditional uses in wound healing and as effective antibacterial. Ursolic acid identified as potential pentacyclic triterpene natural product was present in H. capitata. Ursolic acid present in this species has also been reported to be an ingredient of several herbal medicines, with anti-inflammatory properties (Kim et al. 2004; Babalola and Shode 2013). Ursolic acid isolated from H. capitata was evaluated for its anti-HIV properties and was found to be comparable to oleanolic acid (Babalola and Shode 2013).

References Ahmad FB, Holdsworth DK. Medicinal plants of Sabah, East Malaysia – part I. Pharm Biol. 2003;41(5):340–6. https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi.41.5.340.15940. Babalola IT, Shode FO. Ubiquitous ursolic acid: a potential pentacyclic triterpene natural product. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2013;2(2):214–22. Biswas A, Bari MA, Roy M, Bhadra SK. Inherited folk pharmaceutical knowledge of tribal people in the Chittagong-Hill tracts, Bangladesh. Indian J Tradit Know. 2010;9(1):77–89.

Hyptis capitata Jacq.

571

Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020a;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res App. 2020b;19:31. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18. Fern K. Hyptis capitata Jacq. In: Useful tropical plants database. 2014. http://tropical.theferns.info/ viewtropical.php?id¼Hyptis+capitata. Accessed 26 May 2020. Flora Malesiana. Hyptis capitata. In: Flora Malesian Dataportal. 2020. http://portal.cybertaxonomy. org/flora-malesiana/cdm_dataportal/taxon/c1c0648f-1994-449a-8557-b5181c85e3ee. Accessed 26 May 2020. Kim KA, Lee JS, Park HJ, Kim JW, Kim CJ, Shim IS, et al. Inhibition of cytochrome P450 activates by oleanolic acid and ursolic acid in human liver microsomes. Life Sci. 2004;74:2769–79. Michell SA, Ahmad MH. A review of medicinal plant research at the University of the West Indies, Jamaica 1948–2001. West Indian Med J. 2006;55(4):243. Olowa L, Demayo CG. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants among the Muslim Maranaos in Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines. Adv Environ Biol. 2015;9(27):204–15. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Lamiaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Lamiaceae.html. Accessed 26 May 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 26 May 2020. Queensland Government. Hyptis capitata Jacq. In: Fact sheet index. 2016. https://keyserver. lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/hyptis_capitata.htm. Accessed 26 May 2020. Quis. Medic. Pl. Philip. 1951: 817 p. Rupa D, Sulistyaningsih YC, Dorly RD. Identification of secretory structure, histochemistry and phytochemical compounds of medicinal plant Hyptis capitata Jacq. Biotropia. 2017;24 (2):94–103. https://doi.org/10.11598/btb.2017.24.2.499. Santos AC, Santos GA, Obligicion MBS, Olay LP, Fojas FA. Philippines plants and their contained natural products. Manila: N.R.C; 1981. Tantengco OAG, Condes MLC, Estadilla HHT, Ragragio EM. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by Ayta communities in Dinalupihan, Bataan, Philippines. Pharm J. 2018;10:859–70. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2018.5.145.

Ixora philippinensis Merr. RUBIACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Ixora graciliflora Hayata; Ixora hayatae Kaneh

Local Names English: White santan Philippines: Bua-ungit (Sambali); gintinanik, tintinani, tulang-tulang (Iloko); kamingi, kayomkom, makomakopahan, santan gubat (Tagalog); lulumboi (Kuyonon); lumoi-manok (Pangasinan); oon (Panay Bisaya); payuput kayu (Mangyan); tagpo-laki (Ati Negrito); talapulukit (Maguindanao); udok-udok (Tagbanua)

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrubs or small trees, ca. 2–7 m tall. Branches glabrous to densely puberulent. Leaves opposite, leathery, sessile to shortly petiolate; petiole ca. 0.4 cm, glabrous to densely puberulent; blade drying thinly papery and dark brown, elliptic, elliptic-oblong, or elliptic-ovate, 4.5–10 cm by 2–7 cm, glabrous to puberulent; base truncate, rounded, or cordulate; apex obtuse to rounded and usually apiculate; secondary veins 8–11 pairs; stipules deciduous, very shortly united around stem, lanceolate to broadly triangular, 2–5 mm, glabrous, acuminate. Inflorescences terminal, congested-cymose, 1–2 cm wide (not including corollas), few-flowered, puberulent to glabrous; peduncle 1–1.5 cm (Fig. 1), usually subtended by a pair of M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_218

573

574

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 The inflorescence (a) and the flowering twig (b) of Ixora philippinensis. (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

reduced, ovate or subovate, cordate leaves 0.5–3 cm; bracts ovate-lanceolate to narrowly triangular, 1.5–2 mm, acuminate. Flowers subsessile to sessile. Calyx puberulent to glabrescent; hypanthium ellipsoid, ca. 1 mm; limb 0.5–1 mm, shallowly lobed; lobes dentiform. Corolla white to pink, outside puberulent; tube 18–20 mm; lobes elliptic-oblong, ca. 7 mm by 3.5 mm, obtuse. Drupe ovoid, didymous, weakly compressed, ca. 1 cm, red when dry (Fig. 2). Phenology: Flowers were observed from June to August in Taiwan (Tao and Taylor 2011). Flowering and fruiting happen throughout the year in the Philippines (Banag 2014). Distribution and Habitat: Species native range is Taiwan to Malesia (POWO 2020). Ixora philippinensis is distributed in China, Malaysia, Taiwan, North Sulawesi, Moluccas (Sula Islands), and Philippines commonly in thickets and secondary forests at low elevation, including coastal bluffs and inland limestone formation in the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). I. philippinensis is widely distributed in most areas of the Philippines, such as Batan and Babuyan Islands, Palawan, Bohol, and Basilan.

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: The Ati Negrito traditionally drink the decocted stem, bark, and root of Ixora philippinensis as a medicament for a variety of health conditions (Ong and Kim 2014). Stem and root are utilized for treating internal bleeding and hemorrhage, stem for post-partum recovery, and bark for diarrhea. Several Ixora species are traditionally used as an astringent and treatment against dysentery and tuberculosis in China and India (De Padua et al. 1999). However, the traditional use of Ixora is very uncommon in the Philippines (Banag 2014). Several infusions of various parts in different Ixora species are used to alleviate fever, relieve headache, and treat colic. Some Ixora species like I. coccinea L. are cultivated due to its healing flower as a treatment for bronchitis, dysentery, hypertension, and dysmenorrhea (Banag 2014). Roots of Ixora species are believed as a potent sedative

Ixora philippinensis Merr.

575

Fig. 2 The fruiting twig (a) and infructescence in red (b and c) of Ixora philippinensis. (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

and used as gargles for sore throat (Batugal et al. 2004). Other medicinal uses involve a cure for nausea, hiccups, anorexia, sprains, eczema, boils, wounds, and skin ulcers. Flowers of Ixora species like I. coccinea can treat dysentery and leucorrhoea (Ragasa et al. 2015). The decoction of the flower was traditionally gulped to treat hemoptysis and catarrhal bronchitis (Quisumbing 1978).

Phytochemistry Ragasa et al. (2015) investigated the chemical and biological activity of Ixora philippinensis, which was unreported among Ixora species. Silica gel chromatography of dichloromethane extracts from the leaves and stems of I. philippinensis revealed bioactive compounds that were isolated for the first time. Constituents isolated from the stems include syringaresinol, pinoresinol, isoscopoletin, squalene, β-sitosterol, and stigmasterol, while squalene, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, lupeol, and lutein from the leaves (Ragasa et al. 2015). Identified constituents of I. philippinensis such as sterols, triterpene, and aromatic compounds have similar classes of compounds with other Ixora species such as Ixora coccinea L., Ixora parviflora Lam., Ixora undulata Roxb. ex Sm., Ixora javanica (Blume) DC., Ixora pavetta Andrews,

576

M. L. G. Dapar

Ixora amplexicaulis Gillespie, and Ixora finlaysoniana Wall. ex G.Don. Compounds relatively vary depending on the plant part and polarities of solvents used for extraction. Investigated parts of different Ixora species include the stems and leaves of I. philippinensis, the aerial parts of I. parviflora, the stems of I. undulata, the stems and flowers of I. amplexicaulis, the flowers of I. javanica, the leaves of I. finlaysoniana, and the stems of I. pavetta (Ragasa et al. 2015).

Local Food Uses The fruits of Ixora philippinensis are edible (Ysrael and van Valkenburg 1999). I. philippinensis is harvested from the wild and eaten raw as a food (Monsalud et al. 1966; Fern 2014).

Economic Importance Ixora species such as I. chinensis, I. coccinea, I. javanica are widely known ornamentals (De Padua et al. 1999), and Ixora philippinensis is used as an endemic ornamental in the Philippines (Ragasa et al. 2015). These are commonly planted in parks, roadsides, and gardens.

References Banag CI. Systematics of the Philippine endemic Ixora L. (Rubiaceae, Ixoreae) Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth; 2014. Batugal PA, Kanniah J, Young LS, Oliver JT, editors. Medicinal plants research in Asia, Volume 1: The Framework and Project Workplan International Plant Genetic Resources Institute– Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (IPGRI-APO), Serdang; 2004. De Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 12 (1). Medicinal and poisonous plants, vol. 1. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. Fern K. Ixora philippinensis Merr. In: Useful Tropical Plants Database. 2014. http://tropical. theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id¼Ixora+philippinensis. Accessed 10 June 2020. Monsalud MR, Tongacan AL, Lopez FR, Lagrimas MQ. Edible wild plants in Philippine forests. Philipp J Sci. 1966;95:431–561. Ong HG, Kim YD. Quantitative ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants used by the Ati Negrito indigenous group in Guimaras Island, Philippines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;157:228– 42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.09.015. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Rubiaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Rubiaceae.html. Accessed 10 June 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 10 June 2020. Quisumbing E. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Bureau of Printing: Manila; 1978. p. 372–7. Ragasa CY, Tan MCS, Fortin DR, Shen CC. Chemical constituents of Ixora philippinensis Merr. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2015;5(9):62–7. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2015.50912.

Ixora philippinensis Merr.

577

Tao C, Taylor CM. Ixora Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 110. 1753. In: Flora of China. 2011. http://flora.huh. harvard.edu/china/PDF/PDF19/Ixora.pdf. Accessed 10 June 2020. Ysrael MC, van Valkenburg JLCH. Ixora L. In: de Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 12 (1). Medicinal and poisonous plants, vol. 1. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. p. 315.

Kaempferia galanga L. ZINGIBERACEAE Marina Silalahi

Synonyms Alpinia sessilis J. Koenig; Kaempferia humilis Salisb.; Kaempferia latifolia Donn ex Hornem.; Kaempferia plantaginifolia Salisb.; Kaempferia procumbens Noronha; Kaempferia rotunda Blanco (POWO 2019).

Local Names Lao: ‘van ‘hom, varn horm. Indonesia: cekur, kencur (general), bataka (North Sulawesi, Ternate, Tidore, Halmahera), cekuh (Balinese), cokur (Dayak Tomun), hasihor (Batak Toba), hasohor (Batak Simalungun), keceur (Phakpak), keciwer (Batak Karo), kinsuli (Sanger). Malaysia: cekur, cekur java, cengkur (Peninsular). Philippines: gisol (general), disok (Iloko), dusol (Tagalog, Cotabato, Laguna), dutui (Conner, Apayao), kesul (South, Central Mindano), kusol (Ati Negrito). Thailand: pro hom (general), homproh (Central) waam hom, waaam teen din (Northern). Vietnam: dia li[eef]n, s[ow]n nai, tam n[aj]i. English: galangal (Abellera et al. 2019; Angagan et al. 2010; Delang 2007; Ibrahim 1999; Maghirang et al. 2018; Oktavia et al. 2017; Ong and Kim 2014; Picheansoonthon and Koonterm 2008; Pandiangan et al. 2019; Rubio and Naive 2018; Santoso et al. 2019; Silalahi et al. 2018; Wakhidah et al. 2017).

M. Silalahi (*) Prodi Pendidikan Biologi, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia Biology Education Department, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, West Jakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_87

579

580

M. Silalahi

Botany and Ecology Description: Rhizomes pale green or greenish white inside, tuberous, fragrant. Leaves usually 2–3(
5) sheaths 1.5–5 cm long, blade often horizontal and appressed to the soil, broadly elliptical to suborbicular, 6–15 cm  2(
5)–10 cm, acuminate, glabrous above, arachnoid-hairy below. Inflorescences terminal on pseudostems, enclosed by imbricate leaf sheaths, sessile, few to many flowered, bracts lanceolate 2.5 cm long. Calyx equaling bracts 2–3 cm long, corolla white, tube 2.5–5 cm long, lobes 1.5–3 cm long halfway or more, white or pale purple with violet to purple spot at base, each lateral lobe about 2–2.5 cm  1.5–2 cm long, other staminodes oblongobovate to oblanceolate, 1.5–3 cm long, white fertile stamen 10–13 cm long, connective deeply bilobed with reflexed lobes. Anther sessile; connective appendage strongly reflexed, rectangular, 2-lobed (Ibrahim 1999; Delin and Larsen 2000) (Figs. 1 and 2). Distribution and Habitat: K. galanga thrives best in slightly shaded places such as open forest edges, and bamboo forest on various soils up to 1000 m altitude (Ibrahim 1999). This taxon is distributed over a wide range: from India to Myanmar, China, Thailand, Indochina, Malay Peninsula, and Java (Picheansoonthon and Koonterm 2008).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: In the Kiudang region, rhizome infusion is used for treating eye infections and joint dislocations; leaf infusion is consumed to treat muscle sprain; leaf poultice is applied for bloating (Kamsani et al. 2020).

Fig. 1 Kaempferia galanga L. (Zingiberaceae). JAKARTA, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

Kaempferia galanga L.

581

Fig. 2 Flower of Kaempferia galanga L. (Zingiberaceae). JAKARTA, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

Cambodia: K. galanga is a medicinal plant used to treat most common ailments such as cold, fever, and malaria by the Bunong people in Mondulkiri province (Chassagne et al. 2016). Lao: The medicinal plant traders in the traditional market of Vientiane province prescribe root decoction to treat headache, to make perfume, and to attract girls (Delang 2007). The rhizome is used to treat slow digestion, dyspepsia, bloating after eating, and swollen stomach by local people in Vientiane (Dubost et al. 2019). Indonesia: Batak ethnic community in North Sumatra province use rhizomes as an ingredient of traditional steam bath (oukup), and to treat diarrhea, malnutrition, rheumatism, and stomachache (Silalahi and Nisyawati 2019). The Batak Simalungun sub-ethnic in North Sumatra use rhizome concoctions to cure cough, asthma, digestive tract disorders, rheumatism, aphrodisiac, fever, and malnutrition (Silalahi et al. 2015). The rhizomes have been used to treat fever, hypertension, and in baby care by Sanger ethnic community of North Sulawesi (Pandiangan et al. 2019). The local communities in Halmahera in the North Moluccas use rhizomes as an ingredient of herbal drink used in oke sow ceremony (puberty ceremony) (Wakhidah et al. 2017). The Balinese mix it with wine for treating skin diseases, and as rheumatic pain relievers (Oktavia et al. 2017). The Dayak Tomun community in Central Kalimantan use rhizomes in pregnancy and postpartum healthcare. The leaves and rhizome are mixed with rice birdlime and pounded. It is then smeared on the head and stomach (Santoso et al. 2019). Indigenous groups at Lore Lindu National Park of Central Sulawesi use rhizomes to treat fever and vertigo (Pitopang et al. 2019). Malaysia: The rhizomes are used to cure hypertension, swelling, ulcer, sprain, and asthma; leaves and rhizomes are chewed to cure cough and sore throat. The rhizomes are also used in postpartum care, and fever (Ibrahim

582

M. Silalahi

1999). Malay people of Negeri Sembilan use rhizomes as a main ingredient of traditional bath (mandiserom) during postpartum care (Othman et al. 2014). Philippines: The Ati Negrito people in Guimaras use poultice of rhizomes to treat injuries from plant thorns or spines. Heated and pounded leaves are rubbed externally to treat sudden cough (Ong and Kim 2014). The local communities in North Cotabato of Mindanao use the rhizome and leaf extract poultice to treat bleeding wounds, mumps, and prickle (Rubio and Naive 2018). The local people in Laguna province use leaf decoction to treat skin diseases (Abellera et al. 2019). Thailand: In Thai traditional medicine, rhizomes are used to treat hypertension, asthma, rheumatism, digestive tract disorders, headache, and stomachache (Sirisangtragul and Sripanidkulchai 2011).

Phytochemistry Leaves: The main chemical constituents of leaves extracted through hydro distillation are linoleoyl chloride, caryophyllene oxide, cubenol, and caryophyllene (Bhuiyan et al. 2008). Rhizomes: The rhizomes contain monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, and phenylpropanoids (Liu et al. 2014). The volatile oil from rhizome contains ethyl-trans-p-methoxycinnamate and trans-ethyl cinnamate (Tewtrakul et al. 2005; Raina and Abraham 2015), methylcinnamate, carvone, eucalyptol, and pentadecane (Tewtrakul et al. 2005), 2-propenoic acid, 3-(4-methoxyphenyl), ethyl ester, phthalic acid, 6-ethyloct-3-yl2-ethylhexyl ester, palmitate acid, sandaracopimaradiene, oleate acid, oktadekanoate acid, 2-[2-(4-nonylphenoxy)ethoxy]ethanol, and glycidyl stearate (Ali et al. (2018). Tricyclene, α-pinene, camphene, δ-3-carene, β-cymene, 1,8-cineole, chrysanthenone, transpinocarveol, camphor, borneol, p-cymen-8-ol, eucarvone, p-anisaldehyde, transcinnamaldehyde, bornyl acetate, sabinyl acetate, α-copaene, cyperene, ɤ-elemene, trans-ethyl cinnamate, ethyl cinnamate, ɤ-muurolene, δ-cadinene, calamenene, spathulenol, caryophyllene oxide, zierone, and ethyl p-methoxycinnamate are reported from rhizome essential oil (Liu et al. 2014). K. galanga shows antineoplastic activity against Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma (EAC) cells in vivo (Ali et al. 2018), and its ethanol extract showed toxicity to human carcinoma cells (HeLa) (CD50 10–30% μg/ml) (Ibrahim 1999). Ethyl-pmethoxycinnamate (EPMC) has antiangiogenic (Umar et al. 2012), antibacterial, and antituberculosis properties (Lakshmanan et al. 2011). Rhizome extract inhibits growth of bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Lakshmanan et al. 2011), Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Enterobacter aerogens. It also inhibited growth of Klebsiella pneumoniae, Vibrio cholerae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Kochuthressia et al. 2012), yeast (Candida albicans) (Rahmi et al. 2016; Kochuthressia et al. 2012), Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, A. fumigatus (Kochuthressia et al. 2012), and Cryptococcus neoformans (Gholib 2009). Dash et al. (2015) reported that extract of rhizomes at dose of 400 μg/disc has moderate antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria, compared to ciprofloxacin (5 μg/disc). The EPMC inhibits growth

Kaempferia galanga L.

583

of M. tuberculosis H37Ra, H37Rv (clinical isolates are sensitive and resistant to commercial drugs) with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) 0.242–0.485 mM (Lakshmanan et al. 2011), and C. albicans in vitro with MIC 50 mg/ml and a minimum kill concentration 60 mg/ml (Rahmi et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: Rhizomes are used as spice in preparations such as pecel or gado-gado (vegetable salad); its shoots/young leaves are cooked as vegetables. Thailand: The rhizomes and leaves are used as a spice in local Thai delicacies. The rhizomes together with chilies and other ingredients are mixed and ground into a paste, and used as a base for making curry. The leaves are washed and cut into very thin pieces and used for seasoning curry (Picheansoonthon and Koonterm 2008). Philippines: Local people in South Central Mindanao use leaves as flavoring agents in cooked rice (Maghirang et al. 2018).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: It is one of most important plant in Batak traditional medicine, forming one of the five species of kesaya silima lima (five main plants in traditional medicine), and hosaya sitolu-tolu (three main plants in traditional medicine; Batak Karo) (Silalahi 2014). The jamu beras kencur ( jamu ¼ fresh traditional concoction drinks; beras ¼ rice; kencur ¼ galangal), a Javanese heritage formulation has been long used to maintain health and stamina (Sumarni et al. 2019).

Economic Importance Brunei Darussalam: Rhizomes are traded in local markets (Franco et al. 2020). Indonesia: Rhizomes and young shoots have been traded as economic commodities in both traditional and modern markets, for use as spices or in traditional medicine. The jamu beras kencur is sold by Javanese women in Semarang, Central Java (Sumarni et al. 2019). Lao: Rhizomes are traded as medicinal ingredient in the traditional markets of Vientiane province (Delang 2007).

References Abellera CAV, Fiscal RR, Mesina SP. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used in treating skin diseases in the Province of Laguna, Philippines. APJMR. 2019;7(3):86–95. Ali R, Yesmin R, Satter MA, Habib R, Yeasmin T. Antioxidant and antineoplastic activities of methanolic extract of Kaempferia galanga Linn. rhizome against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells. J King Saud Univ Sci. 2018;30:386–92.

584

M. Silalahi

Angagan JS, Buot IEJ, Relox RE, Rebancos CM. Ethnobotany of the plant resources in Conner, Apayao, Northern Luzon, Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2010;9(1):31–8. Bhuiyan MNI, Begum J, Anwar MN. Essential oils of leaves and rhizomes of Kaempferia galanga Linn. Chittagong Univ J B Sci. 2008;3(1&2):65–76. Chassagne F, Hul S, Deharo E, Bourdy G. Natural remedies used by Bunong people in Mondulkiri province (Northeast Cambodia) with special reference to the treatment of 11 most common ailments. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;191:41–70. Dash PR, Nasrin M, Morshed MTI, Ali MS. Study of antinociceptive activity of Kaempferia galanga from Bangladesh in Swiss albino mice. AJFN. 2015;3(3):64–8. Delang CO. The role of medicinal plants in the provision of health care in Lao PDR. J Med Plant Res. 2007;1(3):050–9. Delin W, Larsen K. Zingiberaceae. Flora China. 2000;24:322–77. Dubost JM, Phakeovilay C, Her C, Bochaton A, Elliott E, Deharo E, Xayvue M, Bouamanivong S, Bourdy G. Hmong herbal medicine and herbalists in Lao PDR: pharmacopeia and knowledge transmission. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0307-2. Franco FM, Chaw LL, Bakar N, Abas SNH. Socialising over fruits and vegetables: the biocultural importance of an open-air market in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-0356-6. Gholib D. Daya hambat ekstrak kencur (Kaempferia galanga L.) terhadap Trichophyton mentagrophytes dan Cryptococcus neoformans jamur penyebab penyakit kurap pada kulit dan penyakit paru. Bul Littro. 2009;20(1):59–67. (in Bahasa). Ibrahim H. Kaempferia L. In: de Padua LS, Bunyaprasphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plants resources of South-East Asia No 12(1) medicinal and poisonous plant 1. Leiden: Backhyus Publishers; 1999. p. 331–5. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kochuthressia KP, Britto SJ, Jaseentha MO, Raphael R. In vitro antimicrobial evaluation of Kaempferia galanga L. rhizome extract. Am J Biotechnol Mol Sci. 2012;2(1):1–5. Lakshmanan D, Werngren J, Jose L, Suja KP, Nair MS, Varma RL, Mundayoor S, Hoffner S, Kumar RA. Ethyl p-methoxycinnamate isolated from a traditional anti-tuberculosis medicinal herb inhibits drug resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in vitro. Fitoterapia. 2011;82:757–61. Liu XC, Liang Y, Shi WP, Liu QZ, Zhou L, Liu AZL. Repellent and insecticidal effects of the essential oil of Kaempferia galanga rhizomes to Liposcelis bostrychophila (Psocoptera: Liposcelidae). J Econ Entomol. 2014;107(4):1706–12. Maghirang RG, Oraye CD, Antonio MA, Cacal MS. Ethnobotanical studies of some plants commonly used as vegetables in selected provinces of the Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2018;17(2):30–43. Oktavia GAE, Darma IDP, Sujarwo W. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di kawasan sekitar Danau Buyan-Tamblingan, Bali. Buletin Kebun Raya. 2017;20(1):1–16. Ong HG, Kim YD. Quantitative ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants used by the Ati Negrito indigenous group in Guimaras Island, Philippines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;157:228–42. Othman R, Razak NIA, Ishak N. Ethnobotanycal study of traditional knowledge on plant used in traditional bath (Mandiserom) among Malay midwives in Perak and Negeri Sembilan. Res J Biol Sci. 2014;9(5):193–6. Pandiangan D, Silalahi M, Dapas F, Kandou F. Diversity of medicinal plants and their uses by the Sanger tribe of Sangihe Islands, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(2):621–31. Picheansoonthon C, Koonterm S. Notes on the genus Kaempferia L. (Zingiberaceae) in Thailand. J Thai Tradit Altern Med. 2008;6(1):1–21. Pitopang R, Damry R, Hamzah B, Zubair MS, Amar AL, Fathurahman F, Basri Z, Poulsen AD. Diversity of Zingiberaceae and traditional uses by three indigenous groups at Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. J Phys Conf Ser. 2019;1242:012039. https://doi. org/10.1088/1742-6596/1242/1/012039.

Kaempferia galanga L.

585

POWO. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2019. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Rahmi A, Roebiakto E, Lutpiatina L. Potensi ekstrak rimpang kencur (Kaempferia galanga L.) menghambat pertumbuhan Candida albicans. Med Lab Technol J. 2016;2(2):70–6. Raina AP, Abraham Z. Chemical profiling of essential oil of Kaempferia galanga L. germplasm from India. J Essent Oil Res. 2015; https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2015.1077165. Rubio MM, Naive MAK. Ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional healers in North Cotabato, Mindanao, Philippines. J Biodivers Environ Sci. 2018;13(6):74–82. Santoso EA, Jumari, Utami S. Inventory of medicinal plants for pregnant and postpartum women in Dayak Tomun of the Lopus Village Lamandau Regency of Central Kalimantan. Biosaintifika. 2019;11(1):25–31. Silalahi M. Etnomedisin Tumbuhan Obat Etnis Batak di Sumatera Utara dan Prospek Konservasinya. Disertasi. FMIPA, Universitas Indonesia. 2014. (in Bahasa). Silalahi M, Nisyawati. An ethnobotanical study of traditional steam-bathing by the Batak people of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Pac Conserv Biol. 2019;25(3):266–82. Silalahi M, Purba EC, Mustaqim WA. Tumbuhan Obat Sumatera Utara Jilid I: Monokotiledon. UKI Press, Jakarta. Indonesia. 2018;92. (in Bahasa). Silalahi M, Nisyawati WEB, Supriatna J. Local knowledge of medicinal plants in sub-ethnic Batak Simalungun of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2015;16(1):44–54. Sirisangtragul W, Sripanidkulchai B. Effects of Kaempferia galanga L. and ethyl-pmethoxycinnamate (EPMC) on hepatic microsomal cytochrome P450s enzyme activities in mice. Songklanakarin J Sci Technol. 2011;33(4):411–7. Sumarni W, Sudarmin S, Sumarti SS. The scientification of jamu: a study of Indonesian’s traditional medicine. J Phys Conf Ser. 2019;321:032057. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1321/3/ 032057. Tewtrakul S, Yuenyongsawad S, Kummee S, Atsawajaruwan L. Chemical components and biological activities of volatile oil of Kaempferia galanga Linn. Songklanakarin J Sci Technol. 2005;27(Suppl 2):503–7. Umar MI, Asmawi MZ, Sadikun A, Atangwho IJ, Yam MF, Altaf R, Ahmed A. Bioactivity-guided isolation of ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate, an anti-inflammatory constituent, from Kaempferia galanga L. extracts. Molecules. 2012;17:8720–34. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules17078720. Wakhidah AZ, Silalahi M, Nisyawati. Ethnobotanical study of oke sou: traditional herbal drink from Lako Akediri Village in West Halmahera, Indonesia. In: Towars the future of Asia my proposal. The best paper the 3rd the Asia Future conference Sekiguchi Global Research Association Atsumi International Foundation, Jaoan Book, lnc 3-1-8 Misakicho. ChiYoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan; 2017.

Leea manillensis Walp. VITACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Leea aurantiaca Zoll. & Moritzi; Leea bulusanensis Elmer; Leea cuspidifera Baker; Leea dentata Craib; Leea euphlebia Merr.; Leea guineensis G.Don; Leea javanica Blume; Leea laeta Wall.; Leea luzonensis Elmer; Leea maculata Desf.; Leea negrosensis Elmer; Leea palawanensis Elmer; Leea pallidifolia Kaneh.; Leea parva Elmer; Leea parvifoliola Merr.; Leea schomburgkii Craib; Leea wrightii C. B.Clarke

Local Names English: Hawaiian holly, red leea, red tree vine, west indian holly Philippines: Abang-abang, kaliantan, mali-mali, taliantan (Tagalog); alumamani (Iloko); amamali (Pangasinan, Panay Bisaya); ayaman kilat (Sambali); garadat (Bikol); himamalak, tumbosut (Panay Bisaya); imamali (Ayta); imamangal, kulatai (Tagbanua); kalakal (Igorot); mali-mali (Pampangan); ulumamani (Pangasinan); vodadin (Ivatan) Cambodia: Kdaing bay

M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_219

587

588

M. L. G. Dapar

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrub, up to 1 m tall or a tree up to 10 m tall. Branches soft-wooded, glabrous. Leaves bipinnate or occasionally tripinnate at the base, young leaves green, mature leaves green (Fig. 1); petiole ca. 12 cm long, glabrous or pubescent; rachis with reddish swellings at the insertion of the pinnae in the fresh state but these swellings changing to constrictions in herbarium specimens; stipules ca. 2–4
1– 3 cm, very caducous; pinnae 5; leaflets 3–7, imparipinnate, opposite, petiolule to ca. 2 mm long, leaflet-lamina ca. 4–20
2–7 cm, elliptic, acuminate at the apex, margin serrate-dentate, rounded at the base, somewhat discolorous, glabrous or occasionally pubescent on the nerves on the lower surface; nerves prominent below. Inflorescence cymose usually 2-branched from the base, up to 20 cm across (Fig. 2); branches reddish, pubescent or glabrous; bracts and bracteoles ca 0.5
0.5 mm, triangular, very caducous, glabrous; pedicels ca 0.5 mm, long, glabrous or pubescent. Flowers globose in bud, 2–5 mm in diameter, red outside, orange or yellowish inside (Fig. 3). Calyx 1.5 mm long, glabrous or pubescent. Corolla ca. 5 mm long, glabrous. Staminal tube with 5 truncate 2-dentate lobes, shorter than the petals. Ovary ovoid, 4–6 locular; style ca 2.5 mm long; stigma subglobose-capitate. Fruits red turning black when ripe, up to 8 mm in diameter, glabrous with a persistent calyx. Seeds ca. 4
3 mm, brownish, smooth. Leea species have complex identities and could be an example of cryptic speciation.

Fig. 1 Young (a) and mature (b) leaves of Leea manillensis (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

Leea manillensis Walp.

589

Fig. 2 Young (a) and mature (b) inflorescence of Leea manillensis (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

Fig. 3 Flowers (a) and fruits (b) of Leea manillensis (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

Molina et al. (2013) sampled 22 Leea species for molecular analysis. Consequently, they reclassified 13 taxa previously classified as Leea guineensis G.Don sensu Ridsdale to Leea manillensis Walp. Morphologically, they all have the same corolla color (red) with overlapping vegetative morphologies. This complex species could be confirmed using molecular data applying universal markers to resolve species identity (Dapar et al. 2020a, b). Distribution and Habitat: This species natively grows in Tropical and Subtropical Old World (POWO 2020). L. manillensis is distributed in Taiwan, Palau, and Philippines, commonly in secondary regrowth vegetation and in primary forest (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

590

M. L. G. Dapar

Local Medicinal Uses Several Leea species in tropical and subtropical regions are utilized in traditional healthcare systems as a remedy for physical wounds, skin diseases, worm infections, bone fractures, and liver disorders (Lakornwong et al. 2014). Leea manillensis has been known in tropical folk medicine for its healing properties in addressing inflammatory and cardiac problems (Adjanohoun et al. 1984; Lavergne 1990; Op de Beck 1999). Philippines: Leaves are traditionally used for relieving hypertension (Quisumbing 1951), wound healing, and recovery of mothers after giving birth (Ragragio et al. 2013). The decoction of roots, branches, and leaves are used in cancer treatment by the Mamanwa tribe (Pucot et al. 2019). The locals in Mt. Malinao of Albay utilize L. manillensis plant to alleviate hypertension (De Guzman et al. 2014). The species is also popularly used as medicine in other regions of the world. L. manillensis is one of the traditional African medicinal plants used to treat neurological and psychiatric diseases such as convulsions, epilepsy, and mental disorders (Kinsou et al. 2019). The leaves of L. manillensis are combined with other medicinal recipes for a cutaneous bath. In Nigeria, leaf decoction is used for a variety of uses and medications such as pregnancy detection and immunity booster, as well as treatment for gastroenteritis, enlarged spleen, scurvy, rheumatism, malaria, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and other diseases and infections caused by bacteria and viruses (Awotedu et al. 2019, 2020; Okafor and Ham 1999; Falodun et al. 2007; Jiofack et al. 2010; Neji et al. 2017).

Phytochemistry The genus Leea was reported to possess several phytochemicals including coumarin, essential oils, flavonoids, hydrocarbons, and triterpenoids (Op de Beck et al. 1998, 2003; Wong et al. 2012; Lakornwong et al. 2014; Mahmud et al. 2017; Kil et al. 2019; Singh et al. 2019). Op de Beck et al. (1998) earlier isolated a new flavonoid sulfate, quercitrin30 -sulfate. Later, three hydrophilic flavonoids, including a new flavonoid sulfate, quercetin-3,30 ,40 -trisulfate from the leaves of Leea manillensis (Op de Beck et al. 2003). Other compounds were also identified, such as kaempferol, quercetin, quercitrin, mearnsitrin, gallic acid, and ethyl gallate, which have shown antioxidant activities (Op de Beck et al. 2003). Borokini and Omotayo (2012) evaluated 23 medicinal plants in Nigeria. They only found two species, including L. manillensis had all phytochemicals tested, such as alkaloids, tannins, saponins, steroids, phlorotannins, terpenes, flavonoids, and cardiac glycosides. The presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and cardiac glycosides were also observed on the L. manillensis leaf extracts using ethanol and hexane/acetone/ methanol (3:1:1) solvents (Neji et al. 2016). Antimicrobial test of these alcoholic extracts exhibited antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and

Leea manillensis Walp.

591

Candida albicans (Neji et al. 2016). Subsequently, Neji et al. (2017) found antimicrobial activity of the stem bark alcoholic extracts against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Streptococcus pneumoniae (Neji et al. 2017). Awotedu et al. (2019) recorded the presence of minerals such as potassium, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, and copper in different quantities. Awotedu et al. (2020) further compared the phytochemicals present of L. manillensis leaves using polar and nonpolar solvents. The study showed that polar solvent has more secondary metabolites.

Economic Importance The stems of Leea manillensis are being sold as a commercial herb in the domestic market of Cambodia (Cui et al. 2020).

References Adjanohoun EJ, Assi LA, Chibon P, de Vecchy H, Duboze E, Eyme J, et al. Contribution aux études ethnobotaniques et floristiques au Gabon. Paris: Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique. Paris; 1984. p. 22–3. Awotedu OL, Ogunbamowo PO, Emmanuel IB, Lawal IO. Phytominerals and phytochemical studies of Azadiracthta indica, Leea guineensis, and Parkia biglobosa leaves. Int Ann Sci. 2019;6(1):28–34. https://doi.org/10.21467/ias.6.1.28-34. Awotedu OL, Okeke UE, Ogunbamowo PO, Ariwoola OS, Omolola TO. Extraction of phytochemical compounds of Leea guineensis (G. Don) leaves using non-polar and polar solvents. Eur J Med Plants. 2020;31(2):24–31. https://doi.org/10.9734/EJMP/2020/v31i230213. Borokini TI, Omotayo FO. Phytochemical and ethnobotanical study of some selected medicinal plants from Nigeria. J Med Plants Res. 2012;6(7):1106–18. https://doi.org/10.5897/ JMPR09.430. Cui X, Li W, Wei J, Qi Y, Li R, Yang Y, et al. Assessing the identity of commercial herbs from a Cambodian market using DNA barcoding. Front Pharmacol. 2020;11:244. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fphar.2020.00244. Dapar MLG, Demayo CG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Molecular confirmation, constituents and cytotoxicity evaluation of two medicinal Piper species used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Phytochem Lett. 2020a;36:24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.phytol.2020.01.017. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020b;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. De Guzman GQ, Nacua AE, Belgica THR, Clemente KJE, Alejandro GJD. Assessment, inventory and ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Mount Malinao (Albay, Philippines). Int J Pharm Teach Pract. 2014;5(3):1014–9. Falodun A, Okunrobo LO, Agbo LO. Evaluation of the anti-edematogenic activity of the aqueous extract of Leea guineensis. Afr J Biotechnol. 2007;6(9):1151–3. https://doi.org/10.5897/ AJB2007.000-2153.

592

M. L. G. Dapar

Jiofack T, Fokunang C, Guedje N, Kemeuze V, Fongnzossie E, Nkongmeneck BA, et al. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants of two ethnoecological regions of Cameroon. Int J Med Sci. 2010;2(3):60–79. Kil HW, Rho T, Yoon KD. Phytochemical study of aerial parts of Leea asiatica. Molecules. 2019;24:1733. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24091733. Kinsou LDC, Assogba MF, Zinsou MDC, Goudjo AIM, Sezan A, Gbénou JD. Review of literature and phytochemistry screening of medicinal plants used in traditional treatment of brain diseases in Africa. Int J Phytopharm. 2019;9(6). https://doi.org/10.7439/ijpp.v9i6.5285. Lakornwong W, Kanokmedhakul K, Kanokmedhakul S. Chemical constituents from the roots of Leea thorelii Gagnep. Nat Prod Res. 2014;28:1015–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.891117. Lavergne R. Tisaneurs et Plantes Médicinales Indigènes de l’île de La Réunion. Orphie. Livry Gargan. 1990, pp. 276–8. Mahmud ZA, Bachar SC, Hasan CM, Emran TB, Qais N, Uddin MMN. Phytochemical investigations and antioxidant potential of roots of Leea macrophylla (Roxb.). BMC Res Notes. 2017;10:245. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-017-2503-2. Molina JE, Wen J, Struwe L. Systematics and biogeography of the non-viny grape relative Leea (Vitaceae). Bot J Linn Soc. 2013;171(2):354–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2012.01320.x. Neji PA, Neji HA, Ushie OA, Ojong OO. Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of leaf extracts of Leea guineensis. FUW Trends Sci Technol J. 2016;1(2):448–56. Neji PA, Ushie OA, Neji HA, Opara IJ, Ojong OO. Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of extracts of Leea guineensis stem bark. Int J Mod Chem. 2017;9(1):1–9. Okafor JC, Ham R. Identification, utilization and conservation of medicinal plant in Southeastern Nigeria. Issues in Africa Biodiversity. 1999;3:1–7. The Biodiversity support programme. Op de Beck P. Etude Phytochimique et Biologique de Leea guineensis G. Don (Leeaceae). Thesis, University of Joseph Fourier, Grenoble; 1999. Op de Beck P, Dijoux M-G, Cartier G, Mariotte AM. Quercitrin 30 -sulphate from leaves of Leea guineensis. Phytochemistry. 1998;47:1171–3. Op de Beck P, Cartier G, David B, Dijoux-Franca MG, Mariotte AM. Antioxidant flavonoids and phenolic acids from leaves of Leea guineensis G. Don (Leeaceae). Phytother Res. 2003;17:345–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1141. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Vitaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Vitaceae.html. Accessed 5 July 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 5 July 2020. Pucot JR, Manting MME, Demayo CG. Ethnobotanical plants used by selected indigenous peoples of Mindanao, the Philippines as cancer therapeutics. Pharmacophore. 2019;10(3):61–9. Quisumbing E. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Manila: Bureau of Printing; 1951. Ragragio EM, Zayas CN, Obico JJA. Useful plants of selected Ayta communities from Porac, Pampanga, twenty years after the eruption of Mt.Pinatubo. Philipp J Sci. 2013;142(3):169–82. Singh D, Siew YY, Chong TI, Yew HC, Ho SS, Lim SSE, et al. Identification of phytoconstituents in Leea indica (Burm. F.) Merr. leaves by high performance liquid chromatography micro time-offlight mass spectrometry. Molecules. 2019;24(4):714. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24040714. Wong YH, Kadir HA, Ling SK. Bioassay-guided isolation of cytotoxic cycloartane triterpenoid glycosides from the traditionally used medicinal plant Leea indica. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2012; https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/164689.

Leptosolena haenkei C. Presl ZINGIBERACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Synonyms Alpinia leptosolenia K. Schum; Leptosolena insignis Ridl. (The Plant List 2010); Leptosolena auriculata Elmer

Local Names Poli (Igorot); panawil (Kankanay, Bontok); alpugan, dapuyan, lapugan (Sambal, Pinatubo); banay (Ilokano); kalawin (Bontok) (Madulid 2001).

Botany and Ecology Description: A perennial, evergreen, erect, and rhizomatous herb (3–4 m) with green and bulbous pseudostem. Rhizomes are fleshy brown, aromatic, elongated, and covered with thin brown scales. Leaves are glabrous, sessile, linear, lanceolate, entire margin, and numerous (39–43  2.5–5 cm). Leaf base is cuneate-rounded, while apex is caudate-attenuate. Inflorescence is glabrous, paniculate, 7–11 cm long, and terminal on pseudostem. Smith (1990, cited by Funakoshi) described flowers as large in size with long and slender corolla tube extended from calyx which is 2–3 lobed. Corolla is tubular, white, lobes oblong-ovate, and apex obtuse. Labellum oval, erose-crisped, fragile, recurved, and white. Ridley (1909, cited by Funakoshi) added that the calyx is 1.5 cm long, corolla tube is 7 cm long, and corolla lobe is 1.2 cm long. Anther is cream white, oblong, and 8–13  5–7 mm, stigma is

R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_25

593

594

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

cup-shaped, creamy-yellow with hairs, while style is white and 14–14 cm long. Ovary is green, 3 locular, axial placentation, 6–8  4–5 mm. Capsules are green, glabrous, and subcoriaceous, oblong, ranging from 4.5–7  3–6 cm, contain arillate and white seeds that are 2 mm, subglobose or irregular in shape. Ligule white in color, oval, apex rounded, and 5–8  6–7 mm (Funakoshi et al. 2005; Docot et al. 2016). Burtt and Smith (1972, cited by Funakoshi) noted the absence of floral bracts, filament, and bracteoles. Phenology: Blooming of flowers occurs from April to July. During nocturnal anthesis, a sweet fragrance can be noted. At this time, the white flowers open at night and attract insects. July to November is the fruiting season (Docot et al. 2016; Funakoshi et al. 2005). Distribution and Habitat: Endemic to the Philippines (Funakoshi et al. 2005). Reported in Luzon (Ilocos Norte, La Union, Benguet (Twin Peaks), Mountain Province (Supan, Dandanac, Besao, Alab and Balili, Bontoc, Mt Data), Cagayan (Bauan-Mt Tabuan), Nueva Vizcaya, Zambales (Villar, Mt Pinatubo). Commonly found on sunny rocky slopes ranging from 300 to 1300 m (Docot et al. 2016; Kew Science 2017; Pelser et al. 2011). In Benguet, it can be found in Kibungan and La Trinidad (Chua-Barcelo 2014). It grows at 22–26  C (Paing et al. 2018). L. haenkei is the only species recorded under genus Leptosolena in the family Zingiberaceae (Pelser et al. 2011) forming a clade with Vanoverberghia and Alpinia species from the Philippines and Oceania. Recollection of the species from the valley slope along Chico River near Bontoc, Mountain Province in Northern Luzon, has led to the rediscovery of the species through morpho-anatomical and comparative DNA analysis using internal transcribed spacer loci and matK sequence data. PAUP 4.0 was the software used for maximum parsimony analysis of ITS and matK and bootstrap analysis. ITS analysis produced six equally parsimonious trees with a bootstrap value of 96% which indicates that Leptosolena is a member of the aforementioned clade. On the other hand, 120 equally parsimonious trees were generated using matK region which means Leptosolena is a sister to Alpinia vittata (Funakoshi et al. 2005). Conservation Status: Vulnerable (DENR Administrative Order 2017; Fernando et al. 2008). Taxonomic work and studies on ecology, distribution, and ethnobotany of the family Zingiberaceae are very limited. It is among the plant families in the Philippines that are threatened due to extinction. With the impact of forest destruction and loss of traditional knowledge, extinction may result among rarely known gingers when not conserved (Naïve 2017). One of the endemic monotypic monocotyledonous plants under this family, L. haenkei has been propagated to avoid extinction. In the laboratory, 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and n-2furanylmethyl-1H-1-purine-6-amine (Kinetin) as plant growth hormones were applied to rhizome explants. Different concentrations were prepared and controls such as commercial fertilizer (14–14–14) and Simple Nutrient Addition Program (SNAP) solution. A 100% viability was observed in L. haenkei that was subjected to NAA (8 mg/L) and commercial fertilizer (14–14–14) (Docot et al. 2016). In the Cordillera region, this herb called panawil is grown in Benguet and Mountain Province at 600–1200 m.a.s.l. as it can address poverty and overall contribute to nutritional security (Paing et al. 2018) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Leptosolena haenkei C. Presl

595

Phytochemistry The methanolic extract of the fruits contain secondary metabolites such as steroids, flavonoids, saponins, and tannins. These compounds are responsible for its high antioxidant properties (89.6%) (Barcelo 2015). Phytonutrients identified in the leaves include terpenoids, tannins, flavonoids, phenolics, and minerals such as phosphorus, potassium, iron, and zinc, together with vitamins A (^a-carotene) and C (ascorbic acid). However, environmental factors can influence the phytonutrient content of the plant. Specifically, altitude on phenolics, soil pH on flavonoids and leucoanthocyanin and soil organic matter on potassium content (Paing et al. 2018).

Fig. 1 Leptosolena haenkei (Zingiberaceae). Collected plant whole view. (© R. Barcelo)

Fig. 2 Leptosolena haenkei (Zingiberaceae). Oblong capsule fruits with seeds. (© R. Barcelo)

596

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Local Food Uses The fruits may be eaten raw due to their sweet-sour flavor (Chua-Barcelo 2014; Docot et al. 2016) and may also serve as forage for birds and wild animals and as a condiment (Chua-Barcelo 2014). As an indigenous vegetable in Benguet and Mountain Province, the flowers are harvested before blooming fully and added to fish and meat dishes due to their sweet smelling taste (Paing et al. 2018). Dishes such as sinigang and adobo are cooked with the flowers including corolla tube (Docot et al. 2016). Sinigang is a popular soup in the Philippines which is known for its sour taste. Pork is the main ingredient in the recipe. However, other protein sources (beef) and seafood (fish and shrimp) can also be used. Unripe tamarind serves as a souring agent, but fruits such as guava, tomato, green mango, pineapple, and wild mangosteen are also used (Panlasang Pinoy 2019). Adobo is also a popular Filipino dish comprising of pork slices cooked in soy sauce, vinegar, bay leaves, black pepper, and garlic. In cooking, the meat will be marinated and stewed. Additional seasonings such as ginger, onions, and other vegetables may be included (Moncel 2019).

References Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. DENR Administrative Order. Updated national list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories. 2017. https://www.philippineplants.org/dao-2017-11.pdf. Accessed 24 Sept 2019. Docot RV, Gomez MG, Aquino RB, Barretto A, Orihara S, Mintu C. Morphoanatomy and vegetative propagation of the Philippines endemic Leptosolena haenkei C. Presl and Vanoverberghia sepulchrei Merr. (Zingiberaceae) by rhizome cutting using NAA and Kinetin. Thai J Bot. 2016;8(1):111–26. Fernando ES, Co LC, Lagunzad DA, Gruezo WS, Barcelona JF, Madulid DA, Lapis AB, Texon GI, Manila AC, Zamora PM. Threatened plants of the Philippines: a preliminary assessment. Asia Life Sci: Asian Int J Life Sci. 2008;Suppl 3:1–52. Funakoshi H, Kress WJ, Skornickova J, Liu A, Inoue K. Return from the lost: rediscovery of the presumed extinct Leptosolena (Zingiberaceae) in the Philippines and its phylogenetic placement in gingers. Acta Phytotax Geobot. 2005;56(1):41–53. Kew Science, Royal Botanic Garden. World checklist of selected plant families: Leptosolena haenkei. 2017. http://plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:797227-1. Accessed 24 Sept 2019. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Makati City: Bookmark Inc.; 2001. Moncel B. The spruce eats: all about Filipino adobo. 2019. https://www.thespruceeats.com/filipinoadobo-1328775. Accessed 20 Dec 2019. Naïve M. Zingiberaceae of Kalatungan Mountain Range, Bukidnon, Philippines. Biosci Discov. 2017;8(3):311–9. Paing J, Pladio L, Bolayo Y. Environmental factors affecting the phytonutrient contents of indigenous vegetable panawil (Leptosolena haenkei C. Presl) in the Cordillera Region, Northern Philippines. J Bio Env Sci. 2018;13(3):148–56.

Leptosolena haenkei C. Presl

597

Panlasang Pinoy. Sinigang. 2019. https://panlasangpinoy.com/pork-sinigang-na-baboy-recipe/. Accessed 20 Dec 2019. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Zingiberaceae.html. Accessed 24 Sept 2019. The Plant List. Leptosolena haenkei (Version 1). 2010. http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew252344. Accessed 24 Sept 2019.

Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. URTICACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Leucosyke angusta Unruh; Leucosyke leytensis Merr.; Leucosyke palawanensis Unruh; Leucosyke samarensis Unruh; Missiessya capitellata (Poir.) Bakh.f.; Urtica capitellata Poir.

Local Names English: Toothscrubber Malaysia: Mandahasi, tahpoi, teh kampung (Sarawak), kuliat-mato (Sabah) Indonesia: Ki beunteur (Sundanese), jurang gunung (Javanese), kayu te pa’ei (Kalimantan), simarhambing-hambing Philippines: Alagasi, alangasi (Bisaya); alagasi, hanlagasi, hilagasi (Mindoro); alagasi, amagasi, asis, ginagasi, halagasi, hilagasi, hinagasi, isis, isis ngipin, lagasi, layasin, liasin, opli, upli (Tagalog); alalasi, ararasi, arasi, salasi (Bontok); alangasi, isis-maya (Rizal); alalasi (Iloko); amagasi, anagau, anugas, aragasi, haganasi, salagiso, tinagasi (Bikol); anagasi, hinagasi, layasin, li-a-sin (Tayabas); anugau (Sorsogaon); aragasi, bauaua (Samar-Leyte Bisaya); aragasi, tinagasi (Camarines); bahibahi, damakadios, hinlagasi, laglag (Panay Bisaya); bilan-bilan (Subanum); bunkilan (Yakan); gasigasi (Sulu); gombilan (Zambales); gugutu, lalasi, lapsik (Igorot); isis-ngipin (Laguna); karikasin (Negrito); lagasi (Cebu Bisaya.); langasi (Bisaya); manombila (Bukidnon); sagombibilan (Manobo)

M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_130

599

600

M. L. G. Dapar

Botany and Ecology Erect dioecious shrub or small tree, 2–8 m tall (Fig. 1). Leaves alternate, papery, arranged spirally with the upper ones often distichous, simple, elliptical-oblong, 8– 17.5 cm
3–6.5 cm, hairy, harsh to touch, gray to chalky white beneath, green on the other side; apex acuminate to abruptly pointed; base acute or abruptly pointed to obtuse, white tomentose below, 3-veined from the base with 1–4 pairs of secondary veins; margins dentate. Petiole 1–3 cm long. Stipules connate into an axillary scale, ca. 2.5 cm long, caducous. Inflorescence pseudo-axillary, peduncled, spherical head ca. 0.5–1 cm in diameter with 2 heads often close together (Fig. 2a). Flowers unisexual, regular, small, whitish, borne in compact heads, capitate; male flowers white, upon short pedicles, 5-parted perianth, 5 stamens, rudimentary pistil; female flowers cup-shaped, 4–5-dentate perianth, obliquely ovoid, superior, 1-celled ovary, Fig. 1 Habit of Leucosyke capitellata. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Fig. 2 Staminate inflorescence (a) and infructescence (b) of Leucosyke capitellata. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd.

601

sessile stigma, capitate. Fruit 1-seeded, fleshy pericarp, thinly crustaceous, white endocarp; fruiting heads dark green, nearly spherical, with compressed achenes (Fig. 2b). This species is native to Lesser Sunda Island, New Guinea, Solomon Island, and Vanuatu (POWO 2020). L. capitellata occurs in Java, Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, and New Guinea (PROSEA 2003). Pelser et al. (2011 onwards) recorded its distribution in Taiwan, Philippines, Java, and Papua New Guinea. This plant is widely distributed throughout the Philippines, Luzon: Ilocos Norte, Mountain Province, Benguet, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Pangasinan, Bataan, Pampanga, Rizal, Laguna, Cavite, Batangas, Quezon, Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon, Polillo, Mindoro, Palawan, and Masbate; Visayas: Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, and Samar; and Mindanao: Basilan, Zamboanga, Lanao del Sur, Davao, and Agusan del Sur. L. capitellata thrives in thickets, in often-secondary forest at low and medium elevation (up to 2400 m altitude), and common in many regions (PROSEA 2003; Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: Leucosyke capitellata has been reported to possess antitubercular property (MIRBD 1994). Twigs are decocted for postpartum care for mothers after childbirth to prevent postnatal depression (MIRBD 1994). Malaysia: In Sabah, Malaysia, leaf decoction of L. capitellata is used to treat hypertension and diabetes (Ahmad and Holdsworth 2003). Villagers of Kuyongon, Sabah, utilize the plant sap as drops for eye and ear infections (Andersen et al. 2003). L. capitellata saps are traditionally applied as wash and cure for eye diseases like conjunctivitis and cancer of the cornea, by the name lantok among the Dusun tribe of North Borneo (Guntavid 1982). Philippines: The Manobo tribe in the Philippines traditionally use leaf decoction of L. capitellata to relieve stomach trouble and vomiting (Dapar et al. 2020). Around 3–5 glasses of leaf decoction is administered once or twice a day or as needed, with no reported adverse or side effects. Root decoction has also been reported to be used to cure pulmonary tuberculosis, cough, headache, and gastralgia (ARCBC 2004).

Phytochemistry Mangawang and Pahilan (2013) investigated the adaptogenic activity of decocted Leucosyke capitellata roots using a swim endurance test on Swiss albino mice. Results revealed a positive swim endurance activity, which implied its use as a potential anti-stress agent. Phytochemical screening showed the presence of 2-deoxysugars and hydrolyzable tannins. Lagunay and Uy (2015) further screened the phytochemicals present and confirmed the presence of tannins, steroids, terpenoids, cardiac glycoside, and flavonoids. Cavin et al. (1999) investigated the antifungal and free radical scavenging activity of the leaf extracts using dichloromethane

602

M. L. G. Dapar

and methanol. However, both extracts showed negative. Another antioxidant activity investigation of the leaf extracts was conducted using decoction, crude ethanol, and 50:50 ethanol-water (Uy and Villazorda 2015). Results revealed remarkable antioxidant activity on 50:50 ethanol-water leaf extracts, which was three times more potent than the known antioxidant, butylated hydroxytoluene. This antioxidant activity result was concurrent with the previous investigation of Ling (2008), showing high total phenolics content and antioxidant activity values from the ethanolic leaf extracts of L. capitellata.

References Ahmad FB, Holdsworth DK. Medicinal plants of Sabah, East Malaysia – part I. Pharm Biol. 2003;41(5):340–6. https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi.41.5.340.15940. Andersen J, Nilsson C, Richelieu T, Fridriksdottir H, Gobilick J, Mertz O, et al. Local use of forest products in Kuyongon, Sabah, Malaysia. ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation. 2003. ARCBC. Checklist of medicinal plants in Southeast Asia. In: ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation. 2004. https://aseanbiodiversity.org. Accessed 28 May 2020. Cavin A, Dyatmyko W, Hostettmann K. Screening of Indonesian plants for antifungal and free radical scavenging activities. Pharm Biol. 1999;37(4):260–8. https://doi.org/10.1076/ phbi.37.4.260.5800. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Guntavid PJ. Some preliminary observations of Sabah’s traditional medicinal plants. Kampus Sabah: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia; 1982. Lagunay RAE, Uy MM. Evaluation of the phytochemical constituents of the leaves of Ficus minahassae Tesym & De Vr., Casuarina equisetifolia Linn., Leucosyke capitellata (Pior) Wedd., Cassia sophera Linn., Derris elliptica Benth., Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk., Piper abbreviatum Opiz., Ixora chinensis Lam., Leea aculeata Blume, and Drymoglossum piloselloides Linn. ABB Bioflux. 2015;7(1):51–8. Ling L. Evaluation of anti-hyperglycemic effect of Leukosyke capitellata leaf in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. In: Universiti Malaysia Sabah Institutional Repository. 2008. http://eprints.ums.edu.my/5556/. Accessed 28 May 2020. Mangawang AJG, Pahilan RCA. Adaptogenic evaluation of Alagasi Leucosyke capitellata, Poir., 1869, aqueous root extracts on stress-induced mice. In: Philippine Council for Health Research and Development Library. 2013. http://www.herdin.ph/index.php/component/herdin/? view¼research&cid¼55158. Accessed 28 May 2020. MIRBD. Medicinal plants of Brunei Darussalam, Part II. In: Ministry of industry and primary resources Brunei Darussalam. Department of Agriculture, Brunei Darussalam. 1994. 83–4 p. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Urticaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Urticaceae.html. Accessed 28 May 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens. 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 28 May 2020.

Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd.

603

PROSEA. Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. In: Lemmens RHMJ, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 12(3): medicinal and poisonous plants 3. Leiden: Backhuys Publisher; 2003. Uy MM, Villazorda MGL. The antioxidant properties of the Philippine medicinal plants Cassia sophera Linn., Derris elliptica Benth, Ficus minahassea Tesym. and De Vr., Leea aculeata Blume and Leucosyke capitellata Wedd. AAB Bioflux. 2015;7(3):150–6.

Lilium philippinense Baker LILIACEAE Teodora D. Balangcod and Ashlyn Kim D. Balangcod

Synonym Lilium yoshidae Leichtlin, Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 46: 242 (1909).

Local Names Benguet lily or mountain lily (English); Philippines: us-usdong, tuktukpao (Bontoc and Benguet) kankanaey, sabong ti bantay (Benguet); kanyon – ilocano.

Botany and Ecology Description: Lilium philippinense is a species native to the Cordillera Central Range (CCR), one of three mountain ranges in Northern Philippines. It is a perennial herb reaching a maximum height of 1040 mm, with underground bulb and contractile

T. D. Balangcod (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] A. K. D. Balangcod Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_245

605

606

T. D. Balangcod and A. K. D. Balangcod

Fig. 1 (a) A flower of Lilium philippinense, displaying the long pure white floral envelop. (b) A flower of Lilium philippinense, showing the five exserted stamens with yellow anthers and a single style with three-lobed stigma. (c and d) A capsule (c) and flattened seeds (d) of Lilium philippinense. (© Teodora Balangcod)

roots. If the plant grows on rocky substrate, usually the bulbs are buried in the crevices of the bed rock. The narrow and linear leaves are alternately arranged along the solitary stem. Commonly, the stem bears a single flower. The perfect tubular flowers are pure white (Fig. 1a), sometimes tinged with brownish streak at the base of the corolla. There are six filaments with yellow anthers. The anthers are exserted and emit an enthralling scent at anthesis (Fig.1b). The only style has a maximum length of 215 mm, the stigma reaches a maximum length of 10 mm and width of 5 mm. When mature, the stigma exudes a sticky substance which probably catches the pollen. The fruit is a capsule with numerous flat seeds (Fig. 1c and d). At maturity, the capsule dehisces, releasing many seeds, usually in September and November of each year (Balangcod 2009; Balangcod et al. 2011a, b). Lilium philippinense was discovered along Halsema Highway, Benguet province, Northern Philippines, in 1871 by Wallis, a horticulturist and well-known plant

Lilium philippinense Baker

607

collector, who sent some samples to Baker. It was first described by Baker in Gardner’s Chronicle in 1873, p. 1141, and was also published in the Journal of Linnean Society Botany XIV, 1874, p. 228 (Elwes, 1880). Just like other endemic species, L. philippinense contributes to the biodiversity of the Cordillera and its importance as a natural heritage cannot be ignored. Despite its significance, there is a dearth of published literature of this endemic species. In 2002, a group of students attempted to conduct in-vitro propagation of Benguet Lily (Ampaguey et al. 2002), and in 2005, two students studied the shoot and root initiation of Benguet lily (Alipio and Ladilad 2005). Following this study, Balangcod, in 2009, made a comprehensive study on the distribution L. philippinense populations. In 2011, Balangcod AKD conducted a study on possible areas in the Cordillera region where L. philippinense can grow using data on edaphic factors, elevation, latitude, and longitude (Balangcod 2011). Phenology: The delicately trumpet-carved white flowers bloom in late May to July. The capsules release their numerous seeds in September and November of each year (Balangcod 2009). It flowers only once a year. According to Elwes (1880), it takes 3 years before a mature plant can grow from lily seeds. This characteristic of lily seeds is called double dormancy. An interesting observation of this plant is that when grown from seeds, the first year is spent on developing bulbs and on the second year, the bulbs continue to grow and reaches mature size while the flowers will only bloom on the third year of growth. This was observed by Balangcod et al. (2011a, b) under greenhouse conditions. Additionally, it was found out that the seeds and bulbs of L. philippinense show germination rates at 27.63% and 16.67%, respectively, indicating low success rates.

Fig. 2 Lilium philippinense growing on an open space with its associated Poaceae species such as Themeda triandra, Imperata cylindrica, Miscanthus sinensis, and other low-lying species. (© Teodora Balangcod)

608

T. D. Balangcod and A. K. D. Balangcod

Fig. 3 A population of Lilium philippinense growing on a mountain slope along Bessang Pass, Cervantes, Northern Philippines. (© Teodora Balangcod)

Distribution and Ecology: Benguet lily usually grows on open, rocky areas on mountain slopes (Fig. 2). It is usually concealed among closely associated plant species, belonging to family Poaceae. These associated species are Themeda triandra, Imperata cylindrica, Miscanthus sinensis, and other low-lying grass species. (Fig. 3). Ecologically, L. philippinense prefers open areas on mountain slopes which indicate that these are light demanding. Since this species grows on open and disturbed areas of mountain slopes, along with its associated species, it helps in preventing soil erosion. Intensive surveys show that populations of L. philippinense are narrowly distributed at the southwestern part of the CCR (Balangcod et al. 2011a, b). The L. philippinense populations were geo-referenced using a Global Positioning System (GPS). The elevation and geographic positions of the populations were plotted on a digital map of the Philippines using ArcMap GIS (Fig.4). Geographic distribution of this species within its natural habitats are presented in Fig. 4 (Balangcod et al. 2011a, b). Lilium philippinense is reported from one location in Kentucky and is becoming well established in parts of Florida (Skinner 1988). Conservation Status: Presently, this species is endangered due to over-collection (Madulid 2001) and habitat loss attributed to road widening and expansion of agricultural areas (Balangcod et al. 2011a, b). Collection of the flowers for aesthetic purposes such as church and household decorations and for commercial purposes decreases the chance of the flowers to bear and disperse their seeds.

Lilium philippinense Baker

609

Fig. 4 Geographic location and elevation of L. philippinense populations. (© Teodora Balangcod)

Local Medicinal Uses The bulbs of some Lilium species have been traditionally used in China and Japan for various medicinal purposes such as sedative, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, general tonic, and as a treatment for lung ailments (Munafo Jr and Gianfagna 2014). L. philippinense is not used for medicinal purposes in Northern Philippines.

Phytochemistry A considerable list of phytochemicals has been isolated from different Lilium species. The list includes diterpenes, flavonoid glycosides, anthocyanins, stilbenes, phenolic glucosides, phenolic amides, carotenoids, sterols, alkaloids, and others (Munafo Jr and Gianfagna 2014).

610

T. D. Balangcod and A. K. D. Balangcod

For L. philippinense, Espeso et al. (1990) were able to isolate a steroidal glycoside from the aerial parts of collections from Sagada, Mt. Province, Northern Philippines. The compound was a veratramine type steroidal alkaloid glucoside containing an unaromatized D ring.

Biocultural Importance The flowers of Benguet lilies, as it is commonly called in Benguet region, are a favorite adornment in weddings and other occasions due to its delicate beauty and unique fragrance. Flowers are collected from wild populations for this purpose. Additionally, synchronous flowering of the individual plants in a population renders mountain slopes beautiful.

Economic Importance Plant enthusiasts gather the entire plant for ornamental purposes. Local people sell them in the market as a pot plant, or the flowers are gathered, bundled, and sold. The authors have come upon perfumes which claim to have been made from L. philippinense. However, they are not produced locally.

References Alipio LM, Ladilad AG. Shoot and root initiation of Benguet lily (Lilium philippinense) bulb scales by low temperature stratification and kind of rooting hormone. Benguet State Univ Res J. 2005;45 & 46:41–58. Ampaguey DW, Cadeliña EP, Dimas MD, Mang-Oy AB, and Palaez JA. In-vitro propagation of Benguet lily (Lilium philippinense). Undergraduate thesis. Benguet State University. 2002. 52pp. Balangcod T. Autecology of Lilium philippinens. PhD. dissertation. University of the Philippines Los Banos Library. Philippines. 2009; p 202. Balangcod AKD. Predicting distribution of Lilium philippinense (Liliaceae) over Luzon’s cordillera central range, Philippines, using ArcGIS geostatistical analyst. Garden’s Bull, Singapore. 2011;63(4):409–23. Balangcod TD, Cuevas VCC, Balangcod AKD. Cultivation and conservation of Lilium philippinense (Liliaceae, the Philppine endemic Benguet lily). Garden’s Bull, Singapore. 2011a;63(1&2):395–407. Balangcod TD, Cuevas VC, Buot IE, Balangcod AKD. Geographic Distribution of Lilium Philippinense Baker (Liliaceae) in the Cordillera Central Range, Luzon Island, Philippines. Taiwania. 2011b;56(3):186–94. Elwes JH. A monograph of the genus Lilium. London: Taylor and Francis; 1880. 594 pp Espeso EI, Guevara BQ, Bremner JB. Studies on the alkaloids of Lilium philippinense baker. Acta Manilana. 1990;38:83–8.

Lilium philippinense Baker

611

Madulid D. A pictorial cyclopedia of Philippine ornamental plants. 2nd ed. Makati: Bookmark Inc.; 2001 p 388. Munafo JP Jr, Gianfagna TJ. Chemistry and biological activity of steroidal glycosides from the Lilium genus. Nat Prod Rep. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1039/c00000x. Plants of the World Online (POWO). http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni. org:names:537851. Skinner MW. Lilium in flora of North America. Flora of North America. Oxford University Press. 1988; 26: 15, 53, 58, 172–174, 180, 188 and 193. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_ id¼1&taxon_id¼118558.

Liquidambar excelsa (Noronha) Oken ALTINGIACEA Aisyah Handayani and Syafitri Hidayati

Synonyms Altingia excelsa Noronha; Altingia caerulea Poir; Altingia excelsa Noronha; Liquidambar altingia Blume; Liquidambar altingiana Blume; Liquidambar cerasifolia (Wall. & Griff.) Voigt; Liquidambar rasamala Blume; Sedgwickia cerasifolia Wall. & Griff.

Local Names Sundanese: Rasamala, mala Bataknese: Pulasan, tulason Minangkabau: Lamin, mandung, mandung jati, sigadundueng Palembang: Cemara abang, cemara itam, rasamalo, semalo (Palembang)

Botany and Ecology Liquidambar excelsa (Altingiaceae) is a large, evergreen, and monoecious tree growing up to 60 m with a diameter of up to 1.5 m (Fig. 1). It has a straight bole that bears branches high above the ground (Van Steenis et al. 2006). Young trees are

A. Handayani (*) Cibodas Botanic Gardens, The Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cianjur, Indonesia Natural Resources and Environment Management, Graduate School, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia S. Hidayati Department of Forest Resources Conservation and Ecotourism, Division of Plant Diversity Conservation, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_4

613

614

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Fig. 1 Living collection of Liquidambar excelsa in Cibodas Botanic Gardens. (© Aisyah Handayani)

elegant with a dense pyramid-shaped crown that becomes rounded with age. The bark is light gray and smooth. Wood is red. Leaves alternate, elliptical to oblong or ovate to ovate-lanceolate in shape, 6–12 cm long, 2.5–5.5 cm wide, with finely toothed margins (Fig. 2). Stipules are small and caducous. Flowers are unisexual with male and female flowers in separate inflorescences but borne on the same tree. Female flowers of 4–18 rounded heads are borne together, with heads ranging from 1.2 to 2.5 cm in diameter. Male racemes are usually 6–14 heads per inflorescence, 1– 2 cm long, consisting of masses of stamen. Petals and sepals are absent in both female and male flowers. The fruit is a brown, round, capsule with four compartments that opens when mature (Fig. 3). Each compartment contains one, occasionally two, fertile seeds and up to 35 sterile seeds. The seed is flattened and surrounded by a sweetly scented wing (Pramono and Djam’an 2003; Orwa et al. 2009). In Java, this species is known to flower and fruit throughout the year. The peak flowering season falls during April–May. The peak fruiting season (the best period for seed collection) is August–October. The morphology of the flower favors wind pollination. The seeds are sweetly scented and dispersed by ants and to a lesser extent by monkeys and birds that feed on the seeds (Orwa et al. 2009). Liquidambar excelsa is distributed widely in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Java, peninsular Malaysia (Pahan), China (Yunnan), SE-Tibet, NE-India (Assam), Pegu,

Liquidambar excelsa (Noronha) Oken

615

Fig. 2 Herbarium collection of Liquidambar excelsa in Cianjur Herbarium Hortus Botanicus Tjibodasensis, Cibodas Botanic Gardens. (© Aisyah Handayani)

Fig. 3 Mature fruits of Liquidambar excelsa from Cibodas Botanic Gardens collection. (© Aisyah Handayani)

Mergui, Sumatra, Bhutan, Myanmar [Burma] (Kachin, Taninthayi), Vietnam, Lesser Sunda Isl. (Bali), Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. In Indonesia: Sumatera, Java, and

616

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Lesser Sunda islands, and commonly found in western Indonesia (Sumatera and Java) at about 200–1700 m altitude (Heyne 1987). In western Java, L. excelsa grows in humid hills and montane forests. It is a gregarious species, often associated with species of oaks such as Podocarpus, Quercus, and Castanopsis. It grows well in sites with mean annual rainfall of >100 mm, soil type: occurs in rich, well-drained volcanic soils or sometimes on the soils overlying sedimentary rocks (Orwa et al. 2009).

Local Medicinal Uses In South East Asia, L. excelsa has been known to be used to remedy cough (Susiarti and Rahayu 2018). Orwa et al. (2009) also report the use of L. excelsa leaves to warm up the body so as to relieve cough. The medicinal properties of L. excelsa, however, are not widely known in Indonesia, though sporadic records do exist. The female members associated with the Surakarta Palace (Central Java) are known to use L. excelsa in postpartum care (Shanthi and Izzati 2014). Its wood is used raw as an ingredient of jamu by these women. The local people in Bodogol of Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park are also known to use the young leaves of L. excelsa in postpartum healthcare (Susiarti and Rahayu 2018). The sap of L. excelsa is used as a tonic by the local people around Cibodas Resort, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park (Purnawan 2006). Similar use has also been recorded from the local communities around Lake Gunung Tujuh, Kerinci Seblat National Park of Kayu Aro District, Kerinci Regency, and Jambi (Frankistoro 2006). The oil from root extracts of L. excelsa has reported to be useful in treating wounds, orchitis (venereal disease), skin diseases such as eczema and ulceration, gout, fever, and also as a tonic (Jumali 2006).

Local Food Uses The shoots of L. excelsa emit a pleasant odor when crushed. The local communities in the vicinity of Cibodas Resort, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park commonly use young leaves of L. excelsa as part of the Sundanese salad called lalap (Purnawan 2006). The young reddish-brown tips of the branches or leaves are also cooked as vegetable (Orwa et al. 2009). The use of young leaves of L. excelsa as food has been widely reported (Heyne 1987).

Biocultural Importance L. excelsa exudes a resin when injured. This resin is yellowish white in colour and hardens quickly (Muhaimin and Nurlaeni 2018). This aromatic resin called getah malai is used as incense (Soerianegara and Lemmens 1993). When burnt, it emanates a fragrance comparable to that of its leaves when squashed (Heyne 1987). In

Liquidambar excelsa (Noronha) Oken

617

the document of serat cethini (Javanese tales and teachings), there is a mention of the use of L. excelsa resin as incense during the ritual that accompanies the magic show (Sukenti 2002). The resin is also used for traditional ceremonies by the communities around the Hiang Indigenous Forest in Kerinci (Jambi, Sumatera) (Andesmora et al. 2017). Some rituals that are still carried out are those seeking permission before entering Hiang Indigenous Forest area or for harvesting the forest products available there. Before entering the forested area, the community requests permission from the traditional leader who is responsible for managing the Hiang Indigenous Forest. Besides, Liquidambar excelsa is used along with Styrax benzoin, Palaquium obovatum, and Pinanga patula in the traditional thanksgiving ceremony called kenduri sko. In addition to its use as a raw material for traditional ceremonies, L. excelsa wood is also used by people around Hiang Indigenous Forest (Jambi, Sumatera) as a traditional construction material by the name rumah larik panjang (Andesmora et al. 2017). According to Soerianegara and Lemmens (1993), L. excelsa is the most valuable timber in West Java, because it forms very long branchless boles. Heyne (1987) notes that the use of L. excelsa wood as pillars in houses and bridges were necessitated due to difficulties in obtaining teak wood (Tectona grandis) in Priangan (Eastern West Java) region. Similar uses of L. excelsa for construction purposes has been recorded from the Sundanese communities around Cibodas Resort – Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park (Purnawan 2006), Baduy tribe (Wardah 2003; Suansa 2011), Kasepuhan Sobang in Lebak, Banten (Aristiani 2014), and Kasepuhan Ciptagelar, Sukabumi (Kodir 2009). The bending capabilities of L. excelsa wood is known to increase exponentially when pretreated by immersing in 3% NaOH for 7 days, followed by steaming for 30 min (Malik et al. 2006). In the Baduy Dalam community, this species occurs in communally protected forest areas known as leuweung kolot (Wardah 2003). Leuweung kolot is a designated conservation area where the conversion of forest to agricultural land is prohibited, and customary withdrawal rights are limited to the sustainable harvest of timber. The Baduy terms leuweung kolot or leuweung titipan referring to these protected areas could be translated as “old forests” or “reserve forests.” The Baduy people are known to strictly adhere to the customary law that governs access and withdrawal of timber resources from these old forest areas (Suparmini et al. 2013), which has resulted in the effective conservation of L. excelsa.

References Andesmora EV, Muhadiono M, Hilwan I. Ethnobotanical study of plants used by people in Hiang indigenous forest Kerinci, Jambi. J Trop Life Sci. 2017;7(2):95–101. Aristiani M. Kajian Etnobotani Masyarakat Kasepuhan Sobang di Kabupaten Lebak, Banten. Bogor: IPB University; 2014. Frankistoro F. Potensi Keanekaragaman Jenis Tumbuhan di Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat Studi Kasus di Resort Gunung Tujuh dan Kecamatan Kayu Aro, Kabupaten Kerinci, Jambi. Bogor: IPB University; 2006.

618

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Heyne K. Tumbuhan Berguna Indonesia. Jakarta: Forest Research and Development Centre: Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia; 1987. Jumali. Kajian Potensi dan Perumusan Strategi Pengembangan Tumbuhan Obat Berbasis Bioregonal di Kabupaten Tapin. Bogor: Graduate School, IPB University; 2006. Kodir A. Keanekaragaman dan Bioprospek Jenis Tanaman dalam Sistem Kebun Talun di Kasepuhan Ciptagelar, Desa Sirnaresmi, Kecamatan Cisolok, Sukabumi, Jawa Barat. Bogor: Graduate School, IPB University; 2009. Malik J, Yuniart K, Jasni J, Rachman O. The influence of steaming and soaking in NaOH to bending of Rasamala (Altingia excelsa Noronha), Java Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) and Marasi (Hymeneae courbaril L.) Wood. J Trop Wood Sci Technol. 2006;4(2). Muhaimin M, Nurlaeni Y. Jenis-jenis tumbuhan koleksi Kebun Raya Cibodas sebagai penghasil eksudat dan potensi pemanfaatannya. Pros Semin Nas Masy Biodivers Indones. 2018;4 (2):151–7. Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. World Agroforestry Centre. 2009. http://www.worldagroforestry. org/sites/treedbs/treedatabases.asp. Accessed 25 Aug 2018. Pramono AA, Djam’an DF. Altinga excelsa. Copenhagen University: Seed Leaflet (80). 2003. Purnawan BI. Inventarisasi Keanekaragaman Jenis Tumbuhan di Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2006. Shanthi RV, Izzati M. Studi Etnobotani Pengobatan Tradisional untuk Perawatan Wanita di Masyarakat Keraton Surakarta Hadiningrat. Biosaintifika. 2014;6(2):61–9. Soerianegara I, Lemmens RHMJ. Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) no. 5(1). Timber trees: major commercial timbers. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 1993. Suansa NI. Penggunaan Pengetahuan Etnobotani dalam Pengelolaan Hutan Adat Baduy. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2011. Sukenti K. Kajian Etnobotani Terhadap Serat Centhini. Bogor: Sekolah Pascasarjana IPB; 2002. Suparmini S, Setyawati S, Sumunar DRS. Pelestarian Lingkungan Masyarakat Baduy Berbasis Kearifan Lokal. Jurnal Penelitian Humaniora. 2013;18(1):8–22. Susiarti S, Rahayu M. Diversity of Indonesian medicinal plant in the lowland forest, Bodogol and its surrounding of Mount Gede-Pangrango National Park, West Java. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2018;166(1):012021. Van Steenis CGGJ, Hamzah A, Toha M. Flora Pegunungan Jawa. Bogor: Pusat Penelitian Biologi – LIPI; 2006. Wardah W. Pemanfaatan Keanekaragaman Sumberdaya Tumbuhan oleh Masyarakat Baduy-Dalam di Sekitar Gunung Kendeng Selatan, Kabupaten Lebak, Banten Bagian Selatan [Utilization of plant diversity resources by Baduy-Dalam (Inner Baduy) Community around South Mount Kendeng, Lebak District, Southern Banten]. Berita Biologi. 2003;6(6).

Lithocarpus jordanae (Laguna) Rehder FAGACEAE Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

Synonyms Quercus caraballoana Fern.-Vill., Syndaedrys jordanae (Laguna) Koidz. Quercus jordanae Laguna (POWO 2019); Quercus jordanae Laguna (Madulid 2001).

Local Names Philippines: Katabang, katapang (Tag); katilog, katiluk, kitaldag, kotilik, natileg, tikleb, tiklik, ticklick, tililid, (Igt); palay-en (Ilk); palayen (Tng) (Merrill 1923; Madulid 2001); katiluk (Bik.) (Gascon et al. 2013). English: Phillipine oak tree (Merrill 1908), acorn tree (Pelser et al. 2011).

Botany and Ecology Description: Lithocarpus jordanae (Laguna) Rehder is a tree (Fig. 1) reaching 5–12 m in height with 20–30 cm wide; bark grayish brown, smooth, lenticellate; branchlets initially densely set with yellowish brown to fulvous velvety, simple and adpressed stellate hairs, later glabrous, dark grayish brown, finely fissured and densely lenticellate; terminal buds ovoid, 3–5 by 2–3 mm, scales broadly ovate; M. S. Subilla Department of Forestry and Agroforestry, Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, Bontoc, Mountain Province, Philippines Z. G. Baoanan (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_198

619

620

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Fig. 1 Lithocarpus jordanae tree. (© M.S. Subilla)

stipules ovate-acute, 4–5 by 2–3 mm, longitudinally ribbed and rather long persistent; leaves (Fig. 2) thick-coriaceous, rigid, (4–)6–8( 10) by (3–)4–5( 6) cm (index (1.3–)1.7( 2)), broadest at or below the middle; surfaces discolorous, above dark chocolate-brown, dull to glossy, sparsely stellate pubescent especially on the midrib and nerves, beneath densely set with yellowish brown, adpressed stellate and erect simple or stellate hairs; base acute to rounded-acute, sometimes asymmetrical, margin strongly recurved, sometimes undulate, top bluntly acute to abruptly 0.5–1 cm acuminate; midrib and nerves strongly prominent beneath, flat to impressed above; nerves 8–10 pairs, dense, parallel, at an angle of 40–60°, arcuating but not anastomosing towards the margin; reticulation fine, dense, scalariform, obscure to distinct beneath; petiole 5–7 mm, 2–3 mm diameter, densely stellate pubescent, glabrescent, adaxially flat; inflorescence (Fig. 3) male or androgynous, densely yellowish to fulvous stellate hairy; bracts and bracteoles narrowly ovateacute, 1–4 by 0.5–1 mm; male or androgynous rachis 5 cm, 1–1.5 mm wide, male flowers in clusters of 3, filaments 2.5–3 mm, anthers 0.3–0.35 mm long, pistillode globose, 1 mm wide; female flowers solitary, staminodes rudimentary, styles 3, teret, 1–1.5 mm, recurved; ripe cupule subsessile, cup-shaped, 0.5–1 cm long, 2–2.5 cm wide; rim thin, covering about half part of the fruit; wall woody, thin,

Lithocarpus jordanae (Laguna) Rehder

621

Fig. 2 Showing the differing color of the adaxial (green) and abaxial (light brown) sides of the leaves of L. jordanae. (© M.S. Subilla)

inside densely fulvous tomentose by adpressed simple hairs, outside densely fulvous adpressed stellate hairy; scales linear, 5 mm long, free, irregularly set or in obscure concentric rows; ripe fruit ovoid-conical, 2–2.5 cm long, 1.5–2 cm wide, glabrous, chocolate-brown, top rounded-acute, base rotundate, scar flat, 1 cm wide; wall woody, 1 mm thick, for the greater part free from the cupule; cotyledons flat convex (Soepadmo 1972). Phenology: Flowering from January to July, and fruiting from August to April (Soepadmo 1972). Distribution and Habitat: Rather common but endemic in Luzon, Philippine, mossy forests at elevations of 1200–2400 m (Merrill 1923; Soepadmo 1972). The type species named as Quercus jordanae Laguna y Villanueva was obtained from Caraballo Mountains in Central Luzon (Merrill 1908). The rest of the known distribution include Abra, Bontoc, Mount Data, Benguet, Lepanto, Pauai, Mount Tongdon (Santo Tomas), Baguio, Province of Bataan, Mount Mariveles, Province of Tayabas, Mount Banajao, Nueva Vizcaya (Merrill 1908, 1923), Mt. Banahaw de Dolores, and Quezon (Gascon et al. 2013). What was known as Q. jordanae once dominated the mountains of Cordillera Central in Luzon and are among the oldest stand of trees in the region (Kowal 1966). Conservation Status: Vulnerable (DAO 2017).

622

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Fig. 3 Inflorescence of L. jordanae. (© M.S. Subilla)

Local Food Uses In Western Mountain Province, Philippines, the seeds are eaten; acorn also serves as forage for cloud rats that are hunt for food by many local communities (Subilla, personal observation).

Economic Importance Although L. jordanae is a popular endemic oak tree in the Philippines, there are no literature available regarding its biocultural or economic importance. It may not be specific for L. jordanae but the species of oak tree (Quercus spp.) in general are important hardwood substrate for growing shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes) (Tokimoto 2005). In the Western Mountain Province of Philippines, acorn or oaknut are used as toys or spin top for the children; the branches and trunks are good fuelwood (Subilla, personal observation).

Lithocarpus jordanae (Laguna) Rehder

623

References DENR Administrative Order. Updated national list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories. No. 2017–11. Quezon City: Department of Environment and Natural Resources Visayas Avenue, Diliman; 2017. Gascon CN, Garcia RC, Beltran FN, Faller WC, Agudilla MAR. Biodiversity assessment of Mt. Banahaw de Dolores, Philippines. Asian J Biodiversity. 2013;4:23–45. https://doi.org/ 10.7828/ajob.v4i1.295. Kowal NE. Shifting cultivation, fire and pine forest in the Cordillera Central, Luzon, Philippines. Ecol Monogr. 1966;36(4):389–419. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Makati/Manila: Bookmark Inc.; 2001. Merrill ED. The oaks of the Philippines. In: Freer PC editor. Philipp J Sci. 1908;1:317–30. https:// www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/209688#page/6/mode/1up. Accessed 20 June 2020. Merrill ED. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 2. Manila: Bureau of Printing; 1923. p. 1–530. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/104550#page/7/mode/1up. Accessed 22 July 2020. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Fagaceae. Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Fagaceae.html. Accessed 6 June 2020. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; 2019. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:358811-1. Accessed 20 July 2020. Soepadmo E. Fagaceae. In: van Steenis CGGJ, editor. Flora Malesiana. Djakarta: Noordhoff-Kolff, vol. 6 (ser. I); 1972. p. 382. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/91160#page/120/mode/ 1up. Accessed 20 June 2020. Tokimoto K. Shiitake log cultivation. In: Mushroom growers’ handbook 2: Shiitake cultivation [Internet]. Seoul: MushWorld; 2005: 46–72. https://www.scribd.com/doc/97260356/Mush room-Growers-Handbook-2-Shiitake-Cultivation. Accessed 28 July 2020.

Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. LAURACEAE Rina Ratnasih Irwanto, Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, and Reza Raihandhany Yus

Synonyms Actinodaphne citrata (Blume) Hayata; Aperula oxyphylla (Nees) Blume; Benzoin aromaticum (Brandis) Rehder; Benzoin cubeba (Lour.) Hatus.; Benzoin oxyphyllum (Nees) Kuntze; Cubeba pipereta Raf.; Daphnidium cubeba (Lour.) Nees; Daphnidium oxyphyllum Nees; Laurus cubeba Lour.; Laurus piperita Meisn.; Lindera aromatica Brandis; Lindera citrata (Blume) Koidz.; Lindera dielsii H. Lév.; Lindera reticulosa Kosterm.; Litsea citrata Blume; Litsea cubeba f. obtusifolia Yen C. Yang & P.H. Huang; Litsea piperita Mirb.; Malapoenna citrata (Blume) Kuntze; Malapoenna cubeba (Lour.) Kuntze; Malapoenna oliveriana Kuntze; Persea cubeba (Lour.) Spreng.; Tetranthera citrata (Blume) Nees; Tetranthera cubeba (Lour.) Kostel.; Tetranthera diepenhorstii Miq.; Tetranthera floribunda Champ. ex Benth.; Tetranthera polyantha Wallich ex Nees var. citrata Meissn (POWO 2019).

R. R. Irwanto (*) School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] A. S. D. Irsyam Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] R. R. Yus Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_60

625

626

R. R. Irwanto et al.

Local Names Indonesia: Lado-lado (Sumatra); antarasa (North Sumatera); kilemo, hure kisereh, nangkaan (West Java); krangean (Central Java); adem ati (East Java); baleng la, apoyakan (East Kalimantan); tenem (North Kalimantan) Malaysia: Medang ayer, medang melukut Thailand: Chakhai-ton (Northern), takhrai (Southwestern), takhrai-ton (Northeastern)

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrub or tree, growing up to 10 m tall. Bark 1 mm thick, green outside, yellow inside, smooth, lenticelled, with lemonlike scent and pungent taste; branchlets slender, glabrous, ferrugineous-villose at apex. Leaves simple, alternate, aromatic when bruised; petiole 8─18 mm long; blade lanceolate to oblong, 7─15  1.5─3 cm, base acute, margin entire, apex acuminate, shiny dark green above, glaucous below, young leaves brownish green, pellucid dots present (Fig. 1). Inflorescence axillary, umbelliform raceme, 1 cm long, five-flowered; peduncle up to 1 cm long; pedicels 3─4 mm long, puberulous, fruiting pedicels 3─5 mm; receptacle cup-shaped; tepals 5─6, ovate, 1.5─2.5 mm long, yellowish. Male flowers: stamens nine in three whorls, each with two basal glands; anthers quadrangular. Female flowers: ovary large, glabrous; style very short, large; stigma lobed. Fruits

Fig. 1 Habit of Litsea cubeba sapling, showing young as well as mature leaves. Note the glaucous adaxial surface (© Muslim)

Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.

627

drupe, globose, 5─6 mm wide, blackish when ripe. Seeds spherical, white (Backer and Bakhuizen v/d Brink 1963; Nor Azah and Susiarti 1999). Distribution and Habitat: L. cubeba is distributed from Eastern Himalaya, Southern China, Taiwan, to continental South East Asia, and Malesia (Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan). The species is found in mixed forests at 600─2300 m altitudes (Backer and Bakhuizen v/d Brink 1963). It also occurs at 400─600 m altitudes in East Kalimantan (Nor Azah and Susiarti 1999). Ecologically, L. cubeba is a subclimax species in its natural habitat (Wiriadinata et al. 2014). In Indonesia L. cubeba is still widely available in both natural and protected forests in mountainous regions. However, the existence of this tree has begun to be threatened due to commercial exploitation. The bark is obtained by cutting down the trees and skinning them for sale at prices around Rp. 25,000 per kg. Each tree can produce 25–50 kg of bark. Commercial cultivation of L. cubeba tree has begun but only exists in small scales (Heryati et al. 2009).

Local Medicinal Uses L. cubeba is reported to be widely used in traditional medicine in Vietnam, Myanmar, and in islands of Indonesia such as Java, Sumatera, and Kalimantan (Kamle et al. 2019). It has been traditionally used for curing various gastrointestinal ailments (e.g., diarrhea, stomachache, indigestion, and gastroenteritis) along with diabetes, edema, cold, arthritis, asthma, and traumatic injuries (Kamle et al. 2019). The essential oil extracted from the bark is used to treat muscle spasm in Indonesia (Mardisiwojo and Radjakmangunsudarso 1986). Dayak Kenyah people of Kalimantan utilize L. cubeba as a treatment for muscle spasm, fever, cough, headache, and stomachache (Wiart 2006; Marina et al. 2015). Dayak Lundayeh people use decoction of leaves and bark of L. cubeba for treating diarrhea (Supriningrum et al. 2016). Bark and leaves of L. cubeba are also utilized by local people around Kerinci Seblat National Park, Jambi, as an antidote and anticonvulsant (Frankistoro 2006). Local communities in Parang village of Kediri District in East Java use fruits to treat cough (Tyas et al. 1999). The Batak Toba people of North Sumatera use L. cubeba as medicine for rheumatic diseases, body aches, and cold (Rahmawati 2004). Roots of this species are also used in various localities for treating headache and indigestion and for relieving menstrual pain and nausea (Heryati et al. 2009). The bark is also used for making param, a massage oil from several ingredients. The param is used to treat body aches, sprain, and rheumatic diseases in West and East Java (Heyne 1987; Tyas et al. 1999). Local people around Gunung Ciremai National Park use the decoction of the bark of L. cubeba as aphrodisiac (Arizona 2011). Some ethnic communities in Yen Ninh Commune in Vietnam use L. cubeba as treatment for eye pain, furuncles, and ulcer and as a blood tonic (Hien et al. 2018). The Van Kieu people of Vietnam use the leaf decoction in postpartum care (Lee et al. 2019). According to Ong et al. (2017), the Muun ethnic people of Myanmar use decoction

628

R. R. Irwanto et al.

of the seeds to treat cough, stomachache, and ulcer and for postpartum care; leaves are used as poultice to treat sprains; and seed extract is used against malaria. The Lawa ethnic community of Northern Thailand uses the fruits as poultice to treat wounds (Junsongduang et al. 2014).

Phytochemistry L. cubeba is strongly aromatic on account of an essential oil which comprises various chemical compounds. Fruit extract contains 12 monoterpenes, 5 sesquiterpenes, 7 terpene alcohols, 3 terpene aldehydes, 2 terpene ketones, 6 terpene esters, 5 terpene oxides, 4 aliphatic aldehydes, 1 aliphatic ketone, and 3 aliphatic esters. The principal compounds were citral, while the most abundant compounds were terpene aldehydes (Chen et al. 2016). In comparison, the essential oil from leaves contain more 1,8-cineole than citral (Jiang et al. 2009). Other constituents identified from fruits in significant proportions were 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, βmyrcene, limonene, linalool, citronellal, and verbenol. Jiang et al. (2009) reported that the composition (%, w/w) of various constituents of L. cubeba is β-pinene (7.0%), R-pinene (2.4%), p-cymene (4.4%), (R)-limonene (27.2%), γ-terpinene (43.6%), R-terpinene (5.3%), and other compounds (10.1%). According to Wang and Liu (2010), the yields of oils (%, w/w) of each parts of L. cubeba decreased in the order of flower (3.1%), alabastrum (2.3%), fruit (2.1%), leaf (1.3%), root (0.31%), and stem (0.29%). The essential oil of L. cubeba fruits has been used as a flavor enhancer in products such as cigarettes, cosmetics, and foods and as raw material to produce citral (Jiang et al. 2009). Besides, L. cubeba also possesses antioxidant activities (Hwan et al. 2005). L. cubeba contains pharmaceutically important compounds such as alkaloids, monoterpenes, amides, lignans, and steroids (Kamle et al. 2019). The essential oil shows protective action against several bacteria. It exerts acute and genetic toxicity as well as cytotoxicity and can even prevent several cancers (Kamle et al. 2019). The essential oils are also useful as natural nematicides for pine wood nematodes (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) (Park et al. 2007). There are studies reporting that the essential oil shows antifungal and antimicrobial activity against food pathogenic microorganisms such as F. verticillioides, F. Graminearum, and E. coli (Yang et al. 2010; Liu and Yang 2012; Li et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses Dayak Kenyah people of Kalimantan use the L. cubeba bark and fruits as culinary spices (Susianti 1996). For its aromatic fragrance, flowers are frequently used to add flavor for tea (Oyen and Dung 1999). In West Java, bark of this species is also used to impart an aroma to herbal drink (Sylviani and Elvida 2010).

Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.

629

Biocultural Importance Local people near Gunung Ciremai National Park, West Java, believe that L. cubeba tree can repel wild animals (Arizona 2011).

Economic Importance L. cubeba is an economically important aromatic plant of Indonesia due to its essential oil. The essential oil is commercially extracted from leaves, bark, flowers, and fruits, usually by steam distillation. Essential oil from each part contains various chemical constituents of varying proportions (Choudhury et al. 1998; Zhao et al. 2010). However, of all plant organs, leaves and bark produce the highest essential oil content (Rostiwati and Putri 2012). The essential oil of L. cubeba is often used as raw material in biopharmaceutical industries such as cosmetic, soap, perfume, aromatherapy, and medicine (Chen et al. 2008). In Thailand, the essential oil from seeds is used as mosquito repellent (Tawatsin et al. 2006).

References Arizona, D. Etnobotani dan Potensi Tumbuhan Berguna di Taman Nasional Gunung Ciremai, Jawa Barat. Skripsi Fakultas Kehutanan, Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2011. Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC. Flora of Java. Vol. I. Groningen: N.V.P. Noordhoff; 1963. Chen Y, Wang Y, Zhou G, Li P, Zhang S. Key mediators modulating TAG synthesis and accumulation in woody oil plants. Afr J Biotechnol. 2008;7(25):4743–9. Chen HC, Chang WY, Hseu YC, Chen HY, Chuang CH, Lin CC, Lee MS, Lin MK. Immunosuppressive effect of Litsea cubeba l. essential oil on dendritic cell and contact hypersensitivity responses. J Mol Sci. 2016:17. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17081319. Choudhury S, Ahmed R, Barthel A, Leclercq PA. Composition of the stem, flowers and fruit oils of Litsea cubeba Pers. from two locations of Assam, India. J Essent Oil Res. 1998;10:381–6. Frankistoro F. Potensi Keanekaragaman Jenis Tumbuhan di Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat (Studi Kasus di Resort Gunung Tujuh dan Kecamatan Kayu Aro, Kabupaten Kerinci, Jambi). Skripsi Fakultas Kehutanan, Departemen Konservasi Sumberdaya Hutan dan Ekowisata, Institut Pertanian Bogor. 2006. Heryati Y, Mindawati N, Kosasih AS. Prospek pengembangan Lemo (Litsea cubeba L. Persoon) di Indonesia. Tekno Hutan Tanaman. 2009;2(1):9–17. https://www.forda-mof.org/files/Tekno_ HT_2.1.2009-2.Yetti_Heryati,_dkk.pdf. Heyne K. Tumbuhan Berguna Indonesia Jilid II Cetakan ke-1. Jakarta: Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kehutanan. Departemen Kehutanan; 1987. Hien NTT, Hung DV, Hoa NH, Vuong DH. Diversity of medicinal plant resources used in some ethnic minority communities in Yen Ninh Commune, Phu Luong District, Thai Nguyen Province. J For Sci Tech. 2018;5:80–9. Hwan JK, Choi EM, Lee JH. Antioxidant activity of Litsea cubeba. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:684–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2005.05.007. Jiang Z, Akhtar Y, Bradbury R, Zhang X, Isman MB. Comparative toxicity of essential oils of Litsea pungens and Litsea cubeba and blends of their major constituents against the cabbage. Looper, Trichoplusia ni. J Agric Food Chem. 2009;57:4833–7.

630

R. R. Irwanto et al.

Junsongduang A, Balslev H, Angkhana I, Jampeetong A, Wangpakapattanawong P. Karen and Lawa medicinal plant use: uniformity or ethnic divergence? J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;151:517– 27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.009. Kamle M, et al. Ethnopharmacological properties and medicinal uses of Litsea cubeba. Plan Theory. 2019;8:150. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8060150. Lee C, Kim S, Eum S, Paik J, Bach T, Darshetkar AM, Choudhary RK, Hai DV, Quang BH, Thanh NT and Choi S. 2019. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by local Van Kieu ethnic people of Bac Huong Hoa nature reserve, Vietnam, J Ethnopharmacol https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2018.11.006. Li WR, Shi QS, Liang Q, Xie XB, Huang XM, Chen YB. Antibacterial activity and kinetics of Litsea cubeba oil on E. coli. PLoS One. 2014;9(11):e110983. Liu TT, Yang TS. Antimicrobial impact of the components of essential oil of Litsea cubeba from Taiwan and antimicrobial activity of the oil in food systems. Int J Food Microbiol. 2012;156:68–75. Mardisiwoyo S, Radjakmangunsudarso. Cabe Puyang Warisan Nenek Moyang. Jakarta: Karya Wreda; 1986. hal 636 Munawaroh. Peran Etnobotani dalam Menunjang Konservasi Ex-Situ Kebun Raya. Bogor: Balai Pengembangan Kebun Raya – LIPI; 2000. Nor Azah MA, Susiarti S. Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Persoon. In: LPA O, Dung NX, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no 19: essential-oil plants. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. p. 123–6. Ong HG, Ling SMW, Kang TTM, Lee DH, Kim YH. Ethnobotany of wild medicinal plants used by the M¨u¨un ethnic people: a quantitative survey in southern Chin state, Myanmar. J Herb Med. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2017.09.006. Oyen LPA, Dung XD. Prosea: plant resources of South-East Asia 19, essential oil plants. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 1999. p. 123. Park IK, Kim J, Lee SG, Shin SC. Nematicidal activity of plant essential oils and components from Ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi), allspice (Pimenta dioica) and Litsea (Litsea cubeba) essential oils against pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus Xylophilus). J Nematol. 2007;39(3):275–9. Permatasari D, Diniatik D, Hartanti D. Studi Etnofarmakologi Obat Tradisional Sebagai Anti Diare di Kecamatan Baturaden Kabupaten Banyumas. Jurnal Farmasi Indonesia, 8. (1):44–64. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2019. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 23 Dec 2019. Rahmawati D.. Mempelajari Aktifitas Antioksidan dan Antimikrobia Ekstrak Antarasa (Litsea cubeba) dan Aplikasinya sebagai Pengawet Alami pada Bahan Makanan. Skripsi. Fakultas Teknologi Pertanian, IPB: Bogor; 2004. Rostiwati T and Putri KP. Review Status Litbang Tanaman Kilemo (Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.) di Indonesia: Penggalian, Pelestarian, Pemanfaatan dan Pengembangan Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia untuk Peningkatan Kesejahteraan Masyarakat. Makalah Seminar Nasional POKJANAS TOI XLII; 2012. Susianti S.. Peran Baleng la (Litsea cubeba) sebagai tumbuhan obat dan aroma pada masyarakat Dayak kenyan di Pujungan Kalimantan Timur. Prosiding Simposium Nasional Tumbuhan Obat dan Aromatik APINMAP; 1996. p. 634–639. Sylviani and Elvida Y. Kajian potensi, tata niaga dan kelayakan usaha budi daya tumbuhan Litsea. Jurnal Penelitian Sosial Dan Ekonomi Kehutanan. 2010;7(1):73–91. Tawatsin A, Asavadachanukorn P, Thavara U, Wongsinkongman P, Bansidhi J, Boonruad T, Chavalittumrong P, Soonthornchareonnon N, Komalamisra N, Mulla M. Repellency of essential oils extracted from plants in Thailand against four mosquito vectors (Diptera: Culicidae) and oviposition deterrenteffects against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2006;37(5):915. Tyas KN, Hadiah JT, Soejono. Studi flora berpotensi obat di hutan sekitar desa Parang, Grogol, Kediri, Jawa Timur. Jurusan Farmasi: Fakultas MIPA Universitas Indonesia; 1999. Wang H, Liu Y. Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of essential oils from different parts of Litsea cubeba. Chem Biodivers. 2010;7:229–34.

Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.

631

Wiriadinata H, Rachman I, Suhardjono, Rugayah. Field guide to the plant species for restoration. Jakarta: Kemenhut, JICA & LIPI; 2014. Yang Y, Jiang JZ, Qimei LB, Yan XJ, Zhao JX, Yuan HZ, Qin ZH, Wang MG. The fungicidal terpenoids and essential oil from Litsea cubeba in Tibet. Molecules. 2010;15:7075–82. Zhao O, Zhou JW, Ban DM. Analysis of volatile oil from different parts of Litsea cubeba (in Chinese). J Chin Med Mater. 2010;33:1417.

Lygodium circinnatum (Burm.f.) Sw. LYGODIACEAE Daniele Cicuzza

Synonyms Ophioglossum flexuosum L.f., Ophioglossum furcatum Roxb., Ophioglossum pedatum Burm.f., Hydroglossum circinnatum (Burm.f.) Willd., Hydroglossum dichotomum Willd., Hydroglossum pedatum (Burm.f.) Willd., Lygodium basilanicum Christ, Lygodium circinnatum var. denticulatum Prantl, Lygodium circinnatum var. monstruosum Alderw., Lygodium conforme C. Chr., Lygodium dichotomum (Cav.) Sw., Lygodium heterophyllum C. Presl, Lygodium pedatum (Burm.f.) Sw., Ugena dichotoma Cav., Ugena macrostachya Cav., Ugena semihastata Blanco, Ophioglossum circinnatum Burm.f. (POWO 2019).

Local Names Nito, agsam, nitong puti (Philippines); pakis rambat, paku ata, katai gorita (Indonesia); ribu-ribu dudok, ribu-ribu bukit, paku jari merah (Malaysia); yaan phi phek, li-phao hang kai.

Botany and Ecology Description: Lygodium circinnatum is a climber fern as the whole genus Lygodium. Other common climber ferns are the Theratophylum, Stenochlaena, and Dicranopteris. Very few species of ferns are climbers. The plant has a short creeping

D. Cicuzza (*) Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_64

633

634

D. Cicuzza

rhizome covered with black hairs. This climber fern has a stipe with a diameter of 2– 5 mm, and its length can reach several meters. The color ranges from green to stramineous or brown stramineous. The leaves are opposite along the stipe with a relatively short rachis. The leaves of L. circinnatum, as the rest of the genus, are rather unique for ferns; they are palmate with two to seven division or finger-like elongation. The palmate leaves can reach up to 20 cm, the margins entire; the main nerve is clearly visible at the center of each lobe with a stramineous color (Figs. 1 and 2). The secondary nerves are forked with small veins starting from the main one and reaching the leaf margin. Usually the secondary veins are forked not more than one. The fertile leaves have a similar palmate shape but with a smaller dimension. If in the sterile leaves the lobes are 2 cm broad, in the fertile leaves the lobes are narrowed between 1.0 and 1.5 cm broad. This contraction is compensated by the Fig. 1 Mature leaves of Lygodium circinnatum; each leaf has up to five lobes. Here we can see two leaves with five lobes each, with entire margin and acute terminal part. (© Daniele Cicuzza)

Fig. 2 Juvenile leaves showing the two leaves with five lobes. At this early stage, many leaves have the lobes still connected at the base, which will be reduced when the leaves reach maturity. (© Daniele Cicuzza)

Lygodium circinnatum (Burm.f.) Sw.

635

presence of the reproductive structure at the leaf margin. In fact, the Lygodium genus has the reproductive structure at the edge of the leaves and not at the lower side (adaxial side) as most of the ferns. The sori (which is the reproductive part of fern species) is individually protruding from the margin of the leaf with the indusia arranged in alternate disposition. For each side of the sori, it is possible to observe between five and seven indusia which cover and protect the sporangia till they are mature and able to open the indusium allowing the exposition of the sporangia and consequently the dispersion of the spores. The fertile leaves are not concentrated in some part of the plants but rather distributed along the entire stipe of the plants. Therefore, the spores are dispersed from the leaves close to the ground and from those who are up in the canopy and which can probably disperse further from the mother plant (Winter and de Amoros 2003; Flora Malesiana 2020). Phenology: The phenology of this species is poorly known. However, it is relatively common to observe within a population one or two individual fertile among the other sterile. Perhaps the reproduction is reduced during the dry season for those populations that occur in habitats with a severe or prolonged dry period. This hypothesis based on observation still needs to be tested. Distribution and Habitat: This species with a life form of a climber and common at forest margin and in secondary forest has a wide distribution throughout Asia and South East Asia. Its distribution goes from India, Sri Lanka, the Indochina peninsula, China, throughout Malaysia, Micronesia reaching the Solomon’s islands (Lindsay and Middleton 2012). With a life form of a liana, the plant is not able to self-support itself; therefore, it needs the support of shrubs and trees. The stipe is not lignified, and the plant is able to create convolute arrangement along the entire length of it. The liana has the capability to climb the canopy of shrubs and short trees, not more then 6–8 m. The species occurs primarily along the forest margin, and we can observe it extensively covering the shrub layer occurring at the forest edge. Mature forest, with a dark ground level, creates nonsuitable conditions for L. circinnatum. Only when there is a tree fall event in the forest, creating a gap in the canopy, the species can colonize the new disturbed site. The species occurs primarily along the forest margin but is also common in disturbed forest as well as in tree plantation and around human settlements. The distribution of this species ranges from lowland to mid mountain sites, always at the forest margin. In mountain site, it prefers to colonize warmer areas, avoiding the cold and more humid sites. Lygodium circinnatum grows in the same situation with other climber ferns, such as Dicranopteris or Gleichenia, or with other species from the same genus, creating a small fern community with similar ecological conditions.

Local Medicinal Uses The roots and stem of the plant have been consumed as childbirth medicine and as a contraceptive. Leaves have been used to treat children’s illnesses. The pounded leaves are applied to wounds and maintained over with a gauze until it is recovered

636

D. Cicuzza

(Winter and de Amoros 2003). The plant is used traditionally to neutralize the poison of snake venoms and insect sting and wounds (Winter and de Amoros 2003). The Dusun community of Brunei Darussalam uses the root decoction as an anthementic (Voeks and bin Nyawa 2006). The Temuan community of Selangor, Malaysia, uses the root exudate as an insect repellent as well as to treat bites of aquatic animals and snakes (Hanum and Hamzah 1999). In Malaysia, L. circinnatum is the major herb species collected in secondary and logged forest for medicinal purposes (Eswani et al. 2010).

Phytochemistry There are no studies reporting toxicity of L. circinnatum. However, it is advisable to use it with caution as ferns are known to contain carcinogens (Fern 2020). From the prothallia of L. circinnatum, methyl esters of 9β, 15-cyclogibberellins, 12α- and 12β-hydroxy-GA103 have been synthesized and shown by GC-MS to correspond to two metabolites of GA103 (Furber et al. 1995). Extract from L. circinnatum contains a moderate quantity of phenolic content (500–999 mg GAE/100 g leaves) compared to other tropical fern species. Furthermore, the species has a high level of antioxidant and chelating activity (Lai and Lim 2011), flavonoid and catechin equivalent, and ascorbic acid (Binti et al. 2017). In conclusion, the L. circinnatum, due to its phytochemical properties, can have beneficial properties in treating diseases where oxidative stress is implicated.

Local Food Uses In Palawan of Philippines, young shoots and leaves of the fern are sautéed with fish, meat, or vegetables and consumed (Maghirang et al. 2018). There are also anecdotal records of young leaves eaten as vegetable by local communities in Malaysia and Indonesia. However, more research is needed to confirm this.

Biocultural and Economic Importance The climber, L. circinnatum, due to a nonwoody structure, gives to the plant and to the stipe particularly a rather flexible condition. Moreover, the stipe has an approximately constant diameter along its entire strength giving a good versatility over a wide range of uses. The stipe is used in New Guinea, as a small rope for tying the outriggers and other lashing requirements on canoes. From the Malay Archipelago to the Bougainville islands, the stipe of Lygodim circinnatum is used to prepare baskets, hats, and boxes decorated with various styles, as well as in the Philippines (Pennoyer 1977). In the South of Sulawesi (Indonesia), the stipe is broken in three parts, dried, and based for crafts, resulting in a more refined material (Darmayanti 2010). Today

Lygodium circinnatum (Burm.f.) Sw.

637

the miniaturized baskets and boxes are produced for touristic merchandize. Small boxes can contain items such as cigarette, tablets, etc. When dry, the stipe turns to a light brown color; it is used for decoration along with other plants products and fiber of different and contrasting color. The Dusun people of Brunei Darussalam consider this species as the male plant of the folk genus taribu, and Lygodium microphyllum is considered as its female form (Voeks and bin Nyawa 2006). These two species can co-occur in the same area, but they are morphologically different. The Ati and Agta people of Philippines make hats and baskets from the vine (Hubert Garcia 2003; Nelson et al. 2019). In the Indonesian islands of Bali and Lombok too, the plant is economically important for the local people as it is used to make various handicrafts (Rahayu et al. 2020).

References Binti R, Saman A, Azli R, et al. Identification of bioactive compounds, quantitative measurement of phenolics and flavonoids content, and radical scavenging activity of Lygodium circinnatum. Trans Sci Technol. 2017;4:354–9. Darmayanti AS. Tanaman Berpotensi Sebagai Penghasil Serat Di Taman Hutan Raya Nipa-Nipa, Sulawesi Tenggara. FPPINT NIPA. 2010;370–374. Eswani N, Abd Kudus K, Nazre M, et al. Medicinal plant diversity and vegetation analysis of logged over hill forest of Tekai Tembeling Forest Reserve, Jerantut, Pahang. J Agric Sci. 2010;2:189–210. https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v2n3p189. Fern K. Tropical plants database. 2020. Accessed from http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical. php?id¼Lygodium+circinnatum. Furber M, Kraftklaunzer P, Mander LN, Pour M, Yamauchi T, Murofushi N, Yamane H, Schraudolf H. Synthesis and Structure Determination of Gibberellin-Derived Antheridiogens From Fern Gametophytes of the Lygodium Genus. Australian Journal of Chemetry 1995;48 (2):427–444. Hanum F, Hamzah N. The use of medicinal plant species by the Temuan tribe of Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. Pertanika J Trop Agric Sci. 1999;22:85–94. Hubert Garcia G. ARJJ. Ethnobotany study of the Agta communities in the northern Sierra Madre natural park. In: 4th Regional conference on environment and development, The Sierra Madre Mountain range: global relevance, local realities; 2003. Lai H, Lim Y. Evaluation of antioxidant activities of the methanolic extracts of selected ferns in Malaysia. Int J Environ Sci Dev. 2011;2:442–7. https://doi.org/10.7763/ijesd.2011.v2.166. Lindsay S, Middleton DJ. Ferns of Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. 2012. http://rbg-web2.rbge.org. uk/thaiferns/. Lygodium circinnatum, Flora Malesiana 2020. http://portal.cybertaxonomy.org/flora-malesiana/ cdm_dataportal/taxon/63c6319f-9eb4-4eea-b9f9-4122680206cd. Maghirang RG, Oraye CD, Antonio MA, Cacal MS. Ethnobotanical studies of some plants commonly used as vegetables in selected provinces of the Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2018;17:30–43. Nelson GLM, Zamora OB, de Guzman LEP, et al. The indigenous practices and climate change responses of ati and suludnon farmers in Iloilo, Philippines. J Environ Sci Manag. 2019;22:87–98. Pennoyer D. The taubuid of Mindoro, Philippines. Philippine Q Cult Soc. 1977;5:21–37. Powo. PLants of the world online facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; 2019. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 13 February 2020.

638

D. Cicuzza

Rahayu M, Kuncari ES, Mahdawia, Setiawan M. Short communication: ethnobotanical study of Lygodium circinnatum and its utilization in crafts weaving in Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2020;21:617–21. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d210225. Voeks RA, bin Nyawa S. Dusun ethnobotany: forest knowledge and nomenclature in northern Borneo. J Cult Geogr. 2006;23:1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873630609478221. Winter WP, de Amoros VB. Plant resources of South-East Asia. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 2003. p. 186–8.

Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. LYGODIACEAE Muhamad Muhaimin

Synonyms Lygodium scandens Sw.; Lygodium scandens var. intermedium Ces.; Lygodium scandens var. microphyllum (Cav.) Luerss.; Ophioglossum filiforme Roxb.; Ugena microphylla Cav. (Holttum 1959; POWO 2020).

Local Names English: Small leaved climbing fern, climbing maidenhair. Brunei: taribu indu. Indonesia: paku tali (general), paku kawat (western Sumatra), ribu-ribu, paku hata bèyas, paku hata leutik (Sundanese), akar perut manuk (Dayak Kendayan), kerokot (Dayak). Malaysia: coonk ribu’ (Semai), duit-duit, kapai alus, kerikat, ribu-ribu, selada. Philippines: nito, nitongputi (Tagalog), nitong parang (Rizal). Thailand: kachot nuu (south-eastern), ree-bun paa dee, liphao yung (peninsular) (Hanum and Hamzah 1999; Heyne 1987; Kassim et al. 2016; Kuncoro 2018; Praptosuwiryo 2003; Sangat et al. 2000; Voeks and Nyawa 2006).

M. Muhaimin (*) Cibodas Botanical Garden, Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_225

639

640

M. Muhaimin

Botany and Ecology Description: Rhizome wide-creeping, dichotomously branched, 2.5 mm diameter, densely clothed with short spreading brownish-black hairs. Juvenile fronds small, commonly once dichotomous and the stipe distinctly winged below the furcation, each branch bearing a 4-lobed leaflet which is free at its base, lobes 3–5 cm long and c. 5 mm wide, thin, glabrous, towards apex where veins are unbranched). Rachis of climbing fronds glabrous, commonly 2–3 m long, hardly 1.5 mm diameter; primary branches 4 mm or more long, ending in a dormant apex covered with dark brown hairs; secondary rachis-branches pinnate, in all to about 15 cm long, with 3–6 stalked leaflets on each side (stalks 2–4 mm long) and a similar or geminate terminal leaflet; leaflets quite glabrous, mostly ovate (sterile leaflets often elongate with broader base on young plants), 1–4 cm long (sterile ones sometimes to 6 cm), 6–18 mm wide, edges of sterile ones minutely crenate, a joint always present at base of blade, where the wing which in other species connects stalk and lamina is constricted; fertile leaflets usually shorter than sterile but with lamina hardly narrowed, sorophores 4–6 mm long; spores with a raised reticulum on the outer surface (Holttum 1959). Distribution and Habitat: Lygodium microphyllum is distributed from tropical Africa, throughout South-East Asia (north to Bangladesh and Hongkong), Australia, and Melanesia (Holttum 1959; Praptosuwiryo 2003). In its natural habitat, the plant grows in edges of secondary forests or as a climber on woody plants, bushes, or on branches of tall trees, usually on dry slopes in open areas. It prefers clay soils and frequently forms thickets in open, swampy locations in regions with a dry season, from sea-level up to 1300 m elevation (Praptosuwiryo 2003). The plant was introduced to the Florida, USA, and has turned into one of the worst invasive plants in the southern region (Volin et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2014). As an invasive, it can change the ecosystem function, community structure, and the native plant community (Hutchinson and Langeland 2013; Wang et al. 2014). This plant is also known to have allelopathic activity on a number of test plants that can explain the invasive nature of this plant (Wang et al. 2014) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: In Brunei, the Dusun people uses a decoction of roots to treat womb problems (Voeks and Nyawa 2006). The local communities in Kiudang area use the plants as a part of concoction for postpartum care, and to treat bloating (Kamsani et al. 2020). Indonesia: The local people in Java use this species to treat sprue (Heyne 1987; Praptosuwiryo 2003), while the Dayak Kendayan in West Kalimantan use the leaves to cure wet beriberi (Sangat et al. 2000). Malaysia: The leaves are used asantipyretic and anticurse by Melanau communities in Pulau Bruit, Sarawak (Kassim et al. 2016). Temuan tribe in Ayer Hitam forest, Selangor use the chewed leaves to prevent fits, and the decoction of leaves in bath to treat fever and high temperature (Hanum and Hamzah 1999).

Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br.

641

Fig. 1 Sterile leaves of Lygodium microphyllum (Lygodiaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Fertile leaves of Lygodium microphyllum (Lygodiaceae). Depok, West Java, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

642

M. Muhaimin

Phytochemistry Phytochemical screening of L. microphyllum showed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins (Abdull Majid and Iqbal 2017; Hasanah et al. 2015; Raduan et al. 2018), and steroids (Abdull Majid and Iqbal 2017; Kuncoro et al. 2017). Plant extract: Compounds isolated from the extract of the plant includes stigma-5 (6)-en-3β-ol, stigmast-4-en-3-one, kaempferol, kaempferol-3-O-β-Dglucopyranoside, quercetin, quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, acacetin, isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, isoeleutherol, 6- hidroxy-2-isopropyl-7methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone, and 9-hidroxy-5-methoxy-3-methylnaphto(2,3c) furan-1(3H)-on (Kuncoro et al. 2017; Kuncoro 2018; Kuncoro et al. 2018a; Kuncoro et al. 2018b). Essential oils: Phytochemicals identified from the essential oils include isosorbide dinitrate, 2,4-dimethyl-2,4-pentanediol, 3-methyl-1-pentanol, nonyl aldehyde, n-tetradecane, undecyne, butylated hydroxytoluene, α-monoolein, (E)-3-hexenoic acid, 2,6,10,14-tetramethylhexadecane, ethylene glycol oleate, n heneicosane, 2-benzene dicarboxylic acid, hexacosane, and n-octacosane (Wang et al. 2014).

Bioactivities Phytochemicals from L. microphyllum are known to possess antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, cytotoxic, and hepatoprotection activities. The essential oils from the plant are reported as antibacterial against the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Piricularia oryzae at concentrations of 12.5 mg/mL (Wang et al. 2014). De Silva and Hettiarachchi (2016) showed that methanol crude extract of the plant have antibacterial activity with a Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of 25 μg/μL. Acetone crude extract showed the highest inhibitory activity against the fungus Asplenium niger with a MIC of 50 μg/ μL. Acacetin isolated from the plant showed antibacterial activity against Candida albicans and A. niger with a MIC of 15.00 and 15.64 ppm, respectively (Kuncoro 2018). Quercetin from this species has high antioxidant activity against DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) with IC50 values of 6.94  0.03 μg/mL (Kuncoro et al. 2018a), while isoeleutherol has moderate antioxidant activity with IC50 values of 53.96  2.87 μg/mL (Kuncoro et al. 2018b). Treatment of diabetic rats with L. microphyllum prevented the induction in blood glucose, attenuated the alloxan-induced oxidative stress, and decreased the histopathological alteration in pancreas. The results show that the plant has antihyperglycemic activity (Abdull Majid and Iqbal 2017). The n-hexane extract from L. microphyllum have moderate cytotoxic activity against P-388 murine leukemia cells with IC50 values of 62.186 μg/mL, and ethyl acetate extract with IC50 values of 50.166 μg/mL. Aqueous extract of L. microphyllum has hepatoprotection activity against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-mediated liver injury and histopathological alterations (Gnanaraj et al. 2017).

Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br.

643

Local Food Uses The local people in Bung Khong Long Non-Hunting Area, Nong Khai province, norteastern Thailand, consume the young leaves as fresh vegetable (Suksri et al. 2005).

Biocultural Importance Leaf branches are used in harvest ritual by the Semai Orang Asli in Kampung Batu 16, Perak, Peninsular Malaysia (Ong et al. 2012). The Dusun people in Brunei Darussalam consider Lygodium circinnatum and Lygodium microphyllum as male and female forms of the same plant. Lygodium circinnatum is referred to as male plant with the folk name taribu mianai, while Lygodium microphyllum is considered as female with the name taribu indu (Voeks and Nyawa 2006). Criteria used to distinguish male and female plants are leaf shape, texture, venation, and coloration (Kamsani et al. 2020). The local people in Bung Khong Long Non-Hunting Area, Nong Khai province, norteastern Thailand, use the leaf branches to make fish traps (Suksri et al. 2005).

References Abdull Majid SN, Iqbal M. Phytochemical constituents and antihyperglycemic activity of Lygodium microphyllum against alloxan induced diabetic rats. Trans Sci Technol. 2017;4(3):384–90. De Silva TD, Hettiarachchi GHCM. Investigation of an in vitro antimicrobial activity of Lygodium micophyllum (Cav.) R. Br fronds. Int J Res Pharm Sci. 2016;6(3):29–35. Gnanaraj C, Shah MD, Song TT, Iqbal M. Hepatoprotective mechanism of Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. through ultrastructural signaling prevention against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)mediated oxidative stress. Biomed Pharmacother. 2017;92:1010–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biopha.2017.06.014. Hanum IF, Hamzah N. The use of medicinal plant species by the Temuan tribe of Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. Pertanika J Trop Agric Sci. 1999;22(2):85–94. Hasanah S, Wibowo MA, Idiawati N. Toksisitas Lygodium microphyllum, Premna serratifolia L. dan Vitex pinnata asal Desa Kuala Mandor B. J Kimia Khatulistiwa. 2015;4(4):101–5. (in Bahasa). Heyne K. Tumbuhan berguna Indonesia, vol. 1. Jakarta: Forest Research and Development Centre, Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia; 1987. (in Bahasa). Holttum RE. Schizaeaceae. Flora Males Ser II. 1959;1(1):37–61. Hutchinson JT, Langeland KA. Susceptibility of old world climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum) gametophytes to metsulfuron methyl. Invasive Plant Sci Manag. 2013;6:304–9. https://doi.org/ 10.1614/IPSM-D-12-00018.1. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang Area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kassim DHA, Raduan SZ, Abdul Aziz MWH, Chelum A, Morni AAM, Wahab RA. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants used and its implication towards health-seeking behavior among the Melanau in Pulau Bruit, Sarawak, Malaysia. J Adv Res Soc Behav Sci. 2016;4(2):136–45.

644

M. Muhaimin

Kuncoro H. Senyawa fenolik dari tumbuhan kerokot (Lygodium microphyllum). Yogyakarta: Titah Surga; 2018. (in Bahasa). Kuncoro H, Farabi K, Rijai L. Steroids and isoquercetin from Lygodium microphyllum. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2017;7(11):136–41. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2017.71120. Kuncoro H, Farabi K, Rijai L, Julaeha E, Supratman U, Shiono Y. Flavonoid compounds from Krokot herb (Lygodium microphyllum) and their antioxidant activity against DPPH. J Math Fund Sci. 2018a;50(2):192–202. https://doi.org/10.5614/j.math.fund.sci.2018.50.2.7. Kuncoro H, Farabi K, Rijai L, Julaeha E, Shiono Y, Supratman U. A known naphtalene, isoeleutherol, from the herb of Lygodium microphyllum. Makara J Sci. 2018b;22(4):175–8. https:// doi.org/10.7454/mss.v22i4.10251. Ong HC, Lina E, Milow P. Traditional knowledge and usage of medicinal plants among the Semai Orang Asli at Kampung Batu 16, Tapah, Perak, Malaysia. Ethno Med. 2012;6(3):207–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/09735070.2012.11886440. POWO. Plants of the World Online. 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 25 June 2020. Praptosuwiryo TN. Lygodium Swartz. In: Winter WPD, Amoroso VB, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 15(2): cryptograms: ferns and fern allies. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 2003. p. 128–33. Raduan SZ, Abd Wahab R, AWG Kassim DH, Chelum AA, Morni AAM, Abdul Aziz MWH. Preliminary phytochemical screening of the potential medicinal plants of the Melanau in Pulau Bruit, Sarawak, Malaysia. Malays Appl Biol. 2018;47(1):195–201. Sangat HM, Zuhud EAM, Damayanti EK. Kamus penyakit dan tumbuhan obat Indonesia. Jakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia; 2000. (in Bahasa). Suksri S, Premcharoen S, Thawatphan C, Sangthongprow S. Ethnobotany in Bung Khong Long non-hunting area, Northeast Thailand. Kasetsart J (Nat Sci). 2005;39:519–33. Voeks RA, Nyawa S. Dusun ethnobotany: forest knowledge and nomenclature in Northern Borneo. J Cult Geogr. 2006;23:1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873630609478221. Volin JC, Lott MS, Muss JD, Owen D. Predicting rapid invasion of the Florida everglades by old world climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum). Divers Distrib. 2004;10:439–44. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1366-9516.2004.00091.x. Wang RL, Zheng ZH, Lu J, Shao H, Zhang H, Su YJ, Cai YF. Allelopathic potential of invasive climbing fern Lygodium microphyllum against native plants and antibacterial activity of essential oils. Allelopath J. 2014;33(1):97–106.

Macaranga magna Turrill EUPHORBIACEAE Teodora D. Balangcod and Kryssa D. Balangcod

Synonyms Macaranga grandifolia Turrill, J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 43: 381915.

Local Names English: Nasturtium tree, coral tree, parasol leaf tree Philippines: Takip-asin, binungang-malapad, biluak, bilaun, bingabing, hinoso (Tagalog); ginabang (Ilo.); bongabong (Bisaya); bolwang (Ifugao) guinobbang (Kankaney) (Aggarwal 2003; Tanguilig 2013).

Botany and Ecology Description: Macaranga is a genus composed mostly of shrubs and small trees which are important pioneer species (Heil et al. 1998). There are approximately 300 species of Macaranga making it the largest genera in the family of Euphorbiaceae (Magadula 2014). Most Macaranga species can be found in the Asian region. Macaranga magna is a small paleotropical tree, reaching a height of 5–10 m high (Fig. 1). It is widely grown as an ornamental in some parts of the tropics. The plant has large leaves, 60–100 cm in diameter (Fig. 2). The leaf shape is ovate to orbicular, peltate, the petiole is reddish and long (Fig. 3). The small flowers are clustered into an inflorescence. The male inflorescence are provided with lanceolate bracts that hold several small male flowers. Pistillate inflorescence have fewer T. D. Balangcod (*) · K. D. Balangcod Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_242

645

646

T. D. Balangcod and K. D. Balangcod

flowers. The fruits are capsules that are 8–10 cm long, leathery, and glabrous. Additionally, the capsules have two valves that dehisces at maturity. Each valve is armed with two spine-like structure at the tip (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Phenology: Davies and Ashton (1999) studied variation of reproductive system and fecundity in 11 sympatric species of Macaranga occurring in Borneo. Results of their study showed that variation in reproduction exists among different species. It was also observed that pistillate trees tend to flower more frequently than staminate tree. Specifically for M. magna, no studies on its reproductive biology has been reported to date. Distribution and Ecology: Macaranga trees originally inhabit small clearings in forests. They mainly occupy areas along the rivers thriving in small populations and fruiting throughout the year (Whitmore 1969). In western Malesia and New Guinea, they can be found along roadsides and are often growing openly thriving in humid climate (Aggarwal 2003). In the Philippines, M. magna are distributed in the islands of Luzon and Mindoro (Aggarwal 2003). They are reported to occur in Roosevelt Protected Landscape (RPL) in Bataan (Mendoza et al. 2016); in the remaining forests of Upland Cavite (Medecilo and Lagat 2017); in the municipalities of Alfonso Lista, Kiangan, and Mayoyao in the province of Ifugao (Tanguilig 2013); and in the ecotone ecosystem of Sitio Bulac, Barangay General Luna, Carranglan, and Nueva Ecija (Alberto and Cabutaje 2018). It was also documented in Cagayan, Benguet Province, La Union, Fig. 1 Habit of Macaranga magna. (© Kryssa Balangcod)

Macaranga magna Turrill Fig. 2 (a and b) Close-up of Macaranga magna leaves. The leaves are large, orbicular, and peltate. (© Teodora Balangcod)

Fig. 3 The petioles of Macaranga magna are long and reddish. (© Kryssa Balangcod)

647

648

T. D. Balangcod and K. D. Balangcod

Nueva Vizcaya, Pangasinan, Bataan, Rizal, Batangas, Laguna, and Quezon provinces. According to Amoroso et al. (2012) and Replan and Malaki (2017), M. magna is a species endemic to the Philippines (Amoroso et al. 2012; Replan and Malaki 2017). Although it was recorded to occur only in the Luzon and Mindoro Islands, a study by Zapanta et al. (2019) has reported the occurrence of M. magna in the Mt. Apo Natural Park and in Mt. Malindang (Amoroso et al. 2012) on the island of Mindanao. Also, they were reported to inhabit the secondary forests of Canbantug in Argao, Central Visayas in the island of Cebu (Replan and Malaki 2017). This shows that M. magna is not restricted only to specific areas, but possibly distributed all over the country. Conservation Status: Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines of this species, hence, it has therefore been classified as “vulnerable” in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Specifically, in the study of Mendoza et al. (2016), M. magna is identified as one of the eight vulnerable plant species using the 2001 IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria Version 3.1 and the Philippines’ Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order No. 2007-1 (DAO No. 2007-1) also known as “The National List of Threatened Philippine Plants and their Categories.” The species was also recorded as one of the vulnerable tree species in Mt. Apo Natural Park in the Province of Davao del Sur in Mindanao (Zapanta et al. 2019), while in Mindoro, M. magna was categorized as vulnerable and endangered using two different indicators (Villanueva and Buot 2015). In contrast to the aforementioned studies, the conservation status of M. magna in Canbantug Forest in the Cebu Province under the DAO No. 2007-1 and IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, however, is neither critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable (Replan and Malaki 2017). According to Whitmore (1969), the successful inhabitation of Macaranga trees in extensive secondary forests is due to their biology. They possess characteristics that enabled them to dominate these forest clearings over the years. But despite the successful inhabitation of M. magna in these disturbed habitats, the conservation status of these trees in certain Philippine forests falls below the safe line.

Local Medicinal Uses Macaranga trees play significant roles in traditional medicine in Southeast Asia to cure diseases such as dysentery, stomachache, hemoptysis, cough and fever, wounds, ulcers, sores, and boils (Aggarwal 2003). In the Philippines, M. magna is known to be used to heal mouth ulcers alongside another Macaranga species, M. tanarius (Carag and Buot 2017). Aggarwal (2003) has also reported that the resin of M. magna stem is used as an astringent gargle to treat ulcerated mouths.

Macaranga magna Turrill

649

Phytochemistry More than 190 secondary metabolites are known from leaf extracts of different species of Macaranga (Magadula 2004). Some of these metabolites are stilbenes, flavonoids, coumarins, terpenoids, and tannins which have shown significant pharmacological activities. Macaranga magna has potential to be developed as a drug raw material or even a drug, just like other Macaranga species. Methanol extract of M. magna leaves showed a potential activity against α-glucosidase enzyme with IC50 4.18 μg/mL (Minarti and Darmawan 2019). Additionally, β-sitosterol, a white needle crystal has also been isolated from ethyl acetate fraction of the leaves of M. magna.

Local Food Uses The leaves, bark, and fruit are added to sugarcane juice that is fermented into basi, a traditional alcoholic beverage in the Philippines.

Economic Importance The leaves can be used as ruminant fodder. The basi or wine produced from fermentation using the sap mixed with sugarcane juice can be sold to the market.

References Aggarwal S. Macaranga grandifolia (Blanco) Merr. In: Lemmens RHMJ, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia medicinal and poisonous plants. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 2003. Alberto AMP, Cabutaje MAP. Plant diversity assessment in the ecotone ecosystem of Sitio Bulac, barangay General Luna, Carranglan, Nueva Ecija. Philippines Asian J Biodiv. 2018;9:37–51. Amoroso VB, Amoroso CB, Coritico FP. Diversity and status of plants in three mountain ecosystems in southern Mindanao, Philippines. Asian J Biodiv. 2012;3(1):50–73. Carag H, Buot IE. A checklist of the orders and families of medicinal plants in the Philippines. Tech J Philip Ecosys Nat Res. 2017;27(1 & 2):39–83. Davies JD, Ashton PS. Phenology and fecundity in 11 sympatric pioneer species of Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) in Borneo. Amer J Bot. 1999;86(12):1786–95. Heil M, Fiala B, Kaiser W, Linsenmair KE. Chemical contents of Macaranga food bodies: adaptations to their role in ant attraction and nutrition. Funct Ecol. 1998;12:117–22. Magadula JJ. Phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Macaranga: a review. J Med Pl Res. 2004;8(12):489–503. Magadula JJ. Phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Macaranga: a review. J Med Pl Res. 2014;8(12):489–503. Medecilo MMP, Lagat MN. Floristic composition of the remaining forests in upland Cavite, Luzon Island. Philippines Phil J Syst Biol. 2017;11(1):74–94.

650

T. D. Balangcod and K. D. Balangcod

Mendoza LA, Lagbas AJ, Buot IE. Conservation status of the plant species in selected areas with frequent human activities in Roosevelt protected landscape, Bataan, Luzon Island. Philippines Thail Nat His Muse J. 2016;10(2):79–115. Minarti HC, Darmawan A. Proceedings of the 5th international symposium on applied chemistry. AIP Conference Proceedings. 2019 November;2175(1):020029. https://doi.org/10.1063/1. 5134593. Replan EL, Malaki ABB. Floral diversity and habitat assessment of Canbantug Forest, Argao, Central Visayas, Cebu, Philippines. Int J Sci Eng Res. 2017;8(10):775–80. Tanguilig NK. Macrofloral biodiversity conservation in Ifugao. Eur Sci J. 2013;4:469–82. Villanueva ELC, Buot IE. (2015). Threatened plant species of Mindoro, Philippines. Int J Ecol Conser. 2015;14:168–90. Whitmore TC. First thoughts on species evolution in Malayan Macaranga (Studies in Macaranga III). Biol J Linn Soc. 1969;1(1–2):223–31. Zapanta BR, AChondo MJM, Raganas AFM, Camino FA, et al. Species richness of trees in disturbed habitats within a protected area and its implications for conservation: the case of Mt. Apo natural park, Mindanao Island, Philippines. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(7):2081–91. https:// doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d200740.

Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg. EUPHORBIACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Croton lacciferum Blanco; Macaranga glabra (Juss.) Pax & K.Hoffm.; Macaranga molliuscula Kurz; Macaranga tanarius var. genuina Müll.Arg.; Macaranga tanarius var. glabra F.Muell.; Macaranga tanarius var. tomentosa (Blume) Müll. Arg.; Macaranga tanarius (Blume) Müll.Arg. var. brevibracteata Müll.Arg.; Macaranga vulcanica Elmer ex Merr.; Mappa glabra Juss.; Mappa tanarius (L.) Spreng.; Mappa tomentosa Blume; Ricinus mappa Roxb.; Ricinus tanarius L.; Rottlera tomentosa (Blume) Hassk.; Tanarius minor rubra Rumph.; Tanarius minor alba Rumph.

Local Names Indonesia: Binunga (Sangir in Sulawesi); dahan (Alf. Minahasa); hanuwa (Ambon and Seram); hinan, lama (Ambon); karahan, tutup, tutup ancur, waru laut (Javanese); kayu mata putih (Atinggola in Gorontalo); kemahang putih (Bengkalis in Riau); lapi (Kolaka Timur and Buton in Sulawesi); mara (Sundanese); madau (Lampung); mapu (Batak); mombeti (Sigi in Sulawesi); ndenu (East Luwu in Sulawesi); rebak (Manggarai in Flores); same (Lako Akediri in Halmahera); sapat (Serampas in Jambi); seribu guna (Pidie in Aceh); surok (Krui in Lampung); totop lakèk (Madura); tubi tahak (Tetun in West Timor); tutup (Kerinci in Central Sumatra); umera (Wungkolo in Wawonii, Southeast Sulawesi). Malaysia: Inchong, jebat musang, kundoh, mahang puteh, tampu, tampu hitam, tampu puteh; daun bayangan (Murut, Sabah); mahang putih (Ulu, Sarawak). Philippines: Alan˜ gabun, anabun (Bagobo); bagambáng, ma-ásim (Rizal); bilu´a (Pampanga); bilu´an, binu´n˜ gan, malabu´n˜ ga, biláan-laláki (Bataan); bilu´n˜ ga W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_131

651

652

W. A. Mustaqim

(Tayabas); binon˜ ga, bin˜ g-u´a (Nueva Vizcaya); binu´n˜ ga (Bataan, Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna, Camarines, Polillo, Mindoro, Guimaras Island, Negros, Palawan); binuga, lun˜ gakan, (Davao); bonga (Maranaos in Mindanao); gami, sámuk (Cagayan); ginabang (Benguet); himindang (Bikol); kuyonon (Bisaya); labauel (Lepanto); lagau (Bisaya); lagaon, ligabon (Manobo); loktob (Mangyan in Mindoro); malabu´n˜ ga (Mindanao); mindáng (Camarines); minu´n˜ ga (Agusan); sabauil (Santol in La Union); sámak (Ilocos Norte, Abra, Camiguin Island); tabbig (Bontoc in Luzon). Thailand: Hu chang lek (Southeastern); ka-lo (Malay, Yala); mek (Peninsular); paang (Chantaburi). Vietnam: Bach d^ a u nam. English: Blush macaranga, hairy mahang, heart leaf (Bodner and Gereau 1988; Delgado 1892; Djarwaningsih 2012; Ernilasari et al. 2018; Febriyanti et al. 2017; Guerrero 1921; Hamidu 2009; Harijanto et al. 2019; Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012; Heyne 1917; Irwanto 2014; Iswandono et al. 2015; Jusrin 2017; Kandowangko et al. 2018; Kulip 2003; Lim 1998; Naufal et al. 2014; Olowa and Demayo 2015; Priyadi et al. 2010; Purwaningsih and Sukardjo 1991; Quattrocchi 2016; Rosli et al. 2015; Rubite et al. 2002; Rugayah et al. 2015; Saga 2018; Wakhidah et al. 2017; Wardah 2005; West and Brown 1921; Wulandari et al. 2014).

Botany and Ecology A small dioecious tree. Young twigs terete, glabrous to furfuraceous or pubescent, sometimes glabrescent. Stipules ovate to broadly elliptic, 8–20 mm long by 3–8 mm wide, acute, acuminate to caudate at the apex, glabrous, puberulous to furfuraceous, hairs if present all over or partly cover the stipule, caducous or slightly persistent. Newly emerging leaves with petiole and blades pubescent, hairs fugacious and become glabrous; only main nerves on the lower surfaces remain clad with hairs or hairs persistent in some parts. Leaves spirally arranged, petiole terete, up to 15 cm long, blades ovate, up to 17 cm long by 15 cm wide, peltate up to 4 cm, rounded, margin finely dentate, apex acuminate to acute, lower surfaces usually with granular glands, dark or golden, nervation spider’s web. Flowers unisexual. Staminate inflorescences are borne from the axil of present leaves, panicle up to 15 cm long, glabrous to hairy, with basal peduncle to 10 cm long, main branches fascicles 3–5 each, bracts stipule like and caducous, bracteoles larger than flower clusters, flowers 5–6 or rarely to 14 per cluster, sepal glabrous to hairy, with 6–7 stamens, anthers 4-celled. Fruits arranged in crowded head infructescence with glabrous to furfuraceous peduncle; fruits on 2 mm long pedicels, subtended by persistent calyx, capsule woody, bilobed, up to 10 mm across, upper half with many long processes, apex with 2 persistent 5 mm long styles, granular glandular outside. Seed verrucose. This species has a wide geographic range from South Asia to the East, as far as China and Japan (the Ryukyu Islands), Thailand, and Peninsular Malaysia, reaching Australia and the Pacific Islands. The plants are common in disturbed areas, streamside, urban forests, and abandoned shifting cultivation lands and along roads.

Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg.

653

Fig. 1 Living plant of Macaranga tanarius (Euphorbiaceae). Depok, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

The species has a wide range of elevations from the lowland to 2100 m above sea level. Macaranga tanarius is considered as an anemophilous species. IUCN Red List considers placing this species in the Least Concern (LC) category (BGCI and IUCN SSC GTSG 2019; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; Purwaningsih and Sukardjo 1991; Rumphius 1743; Whitmore 2008; Whitmore and Davies 2017) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: In Ambon, Maluku Archipelago, the bark is known to be used to cure bloody diarrhea and as a drink for maternity women since the eighteenth century. To cure bloody diarrhea, infusion of the bark was drunk, either alone or mixed with roots of Sonneratia alba or S. caseolaris and bark of Hasskarl’s Citrus obversa, a species now of an uncertain taxonomic status closely related to Citrus hystrix. Administering of drink during postpartum care was in the form of an infusion but mixed with other species such as Artocarpus communis and Ficus wassa (Heyne

654

W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 2 Leaves of Macaranga tanarius (Euphorbiaceae). Depok, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

1917; Merrill 1917; POWO 2020; Rumphius 1743). The bark is also used to cure hemorrhoids in Cianjur, West Java (Agustina 2015).

Fig. 3 Staminate inflorescences of Macaranga tanarius (Euphorbiaceae). Depok, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg.

655

Fig. 4 Fruits of Macaranga tanarius (Euphorbiaceae). Depok, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

People of Blang Bungong, Pidie, Aceh, use the leaves to lower blood cholesterols. The pounded leaves are boiled and the water is drunk (Ernilasari et al. 2018). Known as kemahang putih in Petani, Bengkalis, Riau, the bark is soaked in water and smeared to babies having “white lip” condition (Wulandari et al. 2014). The Baduy Dalam people in Kanekes, West Java, use this species to cure itches, skin disease in babies, and also wounds. The leaves are pounded or kneaded and applied externally (Nikmatullah et al. 2018). In addition, they also drink a leaf decoction to cure gastric ulcers (Khastini et al. 2020: in press). The Atinggola people in North Gorontalo, Sulawesi, apply the kneaded leaves externally to cure itch. Three pieces of leaves are boiled and drunk to cure fever by mixing with three pieces each of the leaves from Hedyotis corymbosa, Jatropha curcas, and Hibiscus tiliaceus var. abutiloides (Kandowangko et al. 2018). Leaves are used to cure leucorrhoea by the Minahasan people in Rurukan, Tomohon, North Sulawesi (Arini 2017), and also in Batu Putih village, Bitung, North Sulawesi (Arini and Kinho 2015). It is also used to cure diarrhea, sores, and wounds (Arini 2017). Leaves are reported to cure conditions such as mati-mati ayam, panas dalam, and stomachache. Five pieces of the leaves are pounded and boiled with two glasses of water until the volume

656

W. A. Mustaqim

decreases by one half, and it is drunk (Harijanto et al. 2019). In West Timor, people of Tetun ethnicity use water from boiled leaves in bathing treatment for malaria (Taek et al. 2018). People in Lako Akediri, west coast of Halmahera, use the bark of this species as a component of oke sou traditional herbal drink along with other 66 plant species which is believed to increase the fertility of young women (Wakhidah et al. 2017). Philippines: Known as binu´n˜ ga in some areas of the Philippines including Bataan, Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna, Camarines, Polillo, Mindoro, Guimaras Island, Negros, and Palawan, roots are powdered and used to treat fever, while its decoction is used to cure hemoptysis according to a report published nearly a century ago (Guerrero 1921; West and Brown 1921). To cure bleeding, the embers from heated leaves added with oil and salt are stroked throughout the body by the indigenous people of Santol, La Union (Ducusin 2017). Young leaves are also used to cure dysentery and diarrhea by Maranao people of Iligan City, Mindanao. Leaf decoction is drunk thrice a day (Olowa and Demayo 2015). Mangyan people of Mindoro Island chew five pieces of leaves which are later used as an external medicine to cure wounds (Rubite et al. 2002). Leaves are used to cure excessive cough, diarrhea, and fever by the people of Surigao del Norte, Mindanao, Philippines (Demetillo et al. 2019).

Phytochemistry Many phytochemical compounds have been identified from this species, the presence of which varies depending on the plant part (Kumazawa et al. 2014). Magadula (2014) summarized the results of many previously published literature to show the great diversity of chemical constituents of this species ranging from alkaloids to tannins, terpenes, and various other compounds. Tannins are known to be the most diverse constituent. The alkaloids are nymphaeols (A–C), macaflavanones (A–G), and tanariflavanones (A–D) (Kawakami et al. 2008; Phommart et al. 2005; Tseng et al. 2001). Various tannins were recorded including 1(β)-O-galloyglucose, 1-O-galloyl-3O-brevifolincarboxyl-β-D-glucopyranose, 4-O-galloyglucose, 6-O-galloyglucose, 3-O-galloyl-(
)-shikimic acid, 5-O-galloyl-(
)-shikimic acid, 2,3-di-Ogalloyglucose, 1(β),2,6-tri-O-galloyglucose, 2,4,6-tri-O-galloyglucose, 1,4-di-Ogalloyl-α-D-glucopyranose, 3,4-di-O-galloyl-D-glucopyranose, 1(β),3,4,6-tetra-Ogalloyglucose, 1(β),2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyglucose, 1(β),2,4,6-tetra-O-galloyglucose, 4-O-galloyquinic acid, 3,4-di-O-galloyquinic acid, 3,6-(S)-hexahydroxydiphenyl (HHDP)-D-glucopyranose, chebulagic acid, corilagin, furosin, galloylpunicafolin, galloylgeraniin, geraniin, macaranganin, macatannins (A–B), mallotusinic acid, punicafolin, repandusinic acid A, tanarinin, and terchebin (Gunawan-Puteri and Kawabata 2010; Lin et al. 1990). The terpenes are blumenols (A–B), annuionone E, and kolavenol (Phommart et al. 2005). The other compounds include (+)-pinoresinol 4-O-[600 -O-galloyl]-β-D-glucopyranoside, lauroside E, macarangiosides (A–F), and methyl brevifolin carboxylate (Matsunami et al. 2006, 2009).

Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg.

657

New research records the presence of many other chemical compounds. Air-dried leaves contain chlorophyll a, chlorophyllide a, and polyprenol (Ragasa and de Jesus 2014). Besides that, a prenylflavonoid named 30 -geranyl-naringenin was also identified from the leaves (Kumazawa et al. 2014). Some stilbenes were identified from this species including mappain, methyl-mappain, schweinfurthins (E, F, G, L, M, N, and O), and vedelianin (Péresse et al. 2017). Matsunami and Otsuka (2018) recently summarized the chemical compounds of this species, adding to the work of Magadula (2014). The bark contains tannin and many varieties of it. Stem and bark extract contains cytotoxic taraxerane-type triterpenoids, diterpenoids, and lathyrane, while the leaves contain prenylated flavanone, megastigmane glucosides, various types of macarangiosides and macaflavanones, tanariflavanones, or even nymphaeol, which was also reported to occur in the fallen leaves. This was followed by further investigation where three nymphaeols named nymphaeols A–C as well as solophenol D were reported from the leaves (Marliana et al. 2019). A flavonoid named macataranin D and four prenylated stilbenes were also reported from the glandular trichomes on the fruit (Doan et al. 2019). Numerous reports on the bioactivity of Macaranga tanarius exist. As summarized by Magadula (2014), this species has at least antioxidant (Lim et al. 2009; Matsunami et al. 2009) and antimicrobial activities (Lee et al. 2019; Lim et al. 2009; Murtiwi 2014; Rosidah et al. 2018). Other investigations also have shown activities such as analgesic (Wulandari and Hendra 2011), antidiabetic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and antitussive (Amirta et al. 2017). The leaves were found to have antioxidant and cytotoxic properties after an examination using DPPH radical TLC autographic assay (Phommart et al. 2005), which was later supported by the findings of Kumazawa et al. (2014). The presence of solophenol D is an important contributor to the antioxidant properties of the species (Marliana et al. 2019), while the cytotoxic activities are due to stilbenes compounds (Péresse et al. 2017). Porphyrin components of the species display low antimicrobial activity against certain bacteria including Candida albicans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Ragasa and de Jesus 2014). Propolin D, a prenylated flavanone extracted from the fruits of species, was found to have antibacterial and antifungal properties (Lee et al. 2019). Antiplasmodial activity has also been reported due to the presence of flavonoid content (Marliana et al. 2018). Stilbenes isolated from glandular trichomes of fruits show cytotoxic activity against mouth epidermal carcinoma cells as well as breast cancer cells (Doan et al. 2019). Fresh leaves display antihyperlipidemic and hepatoprotective activities (Hendra et al. 2017).

Local Food Uses In Sumatra, Indonesia, the fruit is used in cane sugar production (Purwaningsih and Sukardjo 1991). The addition of the fruits during cane sugar production is said to improve the quality of sugar (Heyne 1917). In Sindanglaya, Lebak, Banten, people use the flower of M. tanarius and bark of a certain Shorea species to impart sweetness to sugar palm nectar or nira (Febriyanti et al. 2017). In parts of the Philippines such as in Bontoc, Luzon, bark and leaves are used in production of a

658

W. A. Mustaqim

sugarcane drink named basi (Bodner and Gereau 1988; Brown 1921; Purwaningsih and Sukardjo 1991). The fruit is also occasionally used for the same purpose. The bark is powdered, and leaves are crushed and added to the sugarcane juice as part of basi production (Brown 1921).

Biocultural Importance and Other Uses Timber is used for multiple purposes. People in Sempu Island, East Java, consider the wood as an important material for house buildings, canoes, and boats (Nurfadilah et al. 2017). More use of timber in construction also has been recorded from the Tolaki people, in Kolaka Timur, Sulawesi (Jusrin 2017); Buton, Sulawesi (Hamidu 2009); Cianjur, West Java (Agustina 2015); and Krui, Lampung Barat, Sumatra (Wardah 2005). The bark is a component in oke sou herbal drink, a traditional drink of people in Lako Akediri Village, Halmahera, Maluku Archipelago. It is drunk by girls as a part of a traditional puberty ceremony named oke sou (Wakhidah et al. 2017). In the Philippines, it is also used to make wooden shoes (Purwaningsih and Sukardjo 1991) and used in bunu rituals, where the wood is used to craft bowls (Bodner and Gereau 1988). Mangyan people of Mindoro Island use wood to make a traditional fish and shrimps trap (Rubite et al. 2002). Glue is made from the sap and is used to craft musical instruments in Indonesia and the Philippines (Purwaningsih and Sukardjo 1991). Leaves of M. tanarius have been used for various non-medicinal purposes. They have been used by Murut people in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, as rice wrappers (Kulip 2003); similar uses have also been recorded from Wungkolo, Wawonii, Southeast Sulawesi (Rugayah et al. 2015), and Serampas, Jambi, Sumatra (Hariyadi 2008). Orang Ulu of Asap Koyan Belaga Sarawak, Malaysia, extract a black dye from the leaves commonly used in teeth blackening and also for tattooing by women (Rosli et al. 2015). It is also considered as dye and tannin-producing plant in Mount Mayon, Bicol Peninsula, Albay, Philippines (Buot 2009). Owing to its aromatic flowers, people in Mount Rinjani, Lombok, Nusa Tenggara consider this as an aromatic plant (Sa’adah 2017).

Economic Importance The timber of M. tanarius has been used since a long time ago in minor scales. Ladder and piper pickings are produced from the branches by local communities of Lampung, southern Sumatra. It is also used to build temporary shelters in Malaysia (Heyne 1917; Lim 1998; Purwaningsih and Sukardjo 1991). This species is an important firewood for local communities of West Java, Sulawesi, and Sumatra of Indonesia (Hidayat et al. 2010; Jusrin 2017; Hariyadi 2008). However, it has also been noted that this species has good value as a trading commodity (Amirta et al. 2017). Macaranga tanarius has a long history of being used as a source of glue and tanning (Purwaningsih and Sukardjo 1991). The glue obtained by making a V-shaped incision on the stem is known as binúñga gum in Bataan, Bulacan,

Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg.

659

Rizal, Laguna, Camarines, Polillo, Guimaras, Negros, and Palawan of the Philippines (West and Brown 1921). The bark is a source of tannin and is used to impart a red color to fishnets and toughen them (Heyne 1917; Naufal et al. 2014; Purwaningsih and Sukardjo 1991). It is also used by the people in Kedu, Java, to color the material black used to craft mèndong, a kind of a traditional mat (Heyne 1917). Leaf extract has potential use against viral nervous necrosis in humpback grouper (Cromileptes altivelis) (Saparuddin et al. 2017) and hence can be used in aquaculture.

References Agustina W. Utilization and potency of useful plants in Bojonglarang Jayanti nature reserve Cianjur regency West Java [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2015. Amirta R, Angi EM, Ramadhan R, Kusuma IW, Wiati CB, Haqiqi MT. Potensi pemanfaatan Macaranga. Samarinda: Mulawarman University Press; 2017. (in Bahasa) Arini DID. The local knowledge of community in North Sulawesi on forest tress used as a traditional medicine. J Masy Bud. 2017;19(2):161–73. Arini DID, Kinho J. Diversity of medicinal plants on coastal forest in Tangkoko natural reserve. J Wasian. 2015;2(1):1–8. BGCI (¼Botanic Gardens Conservation International), IUCN SSC GTSG (¼Global Tree Specialist Group). Macaranga tanarius. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species2019: e. T145370704A145370706; 2019.https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T1453707 04A145370706.en. Accessed 30 Apr 2020. Bodner CC, Gereau RE. A contribution to Bontoc ethnobotany. Econ Bot. 1988;42(3):307–69. Brown WH. Wild food plants of the Philippines. Phil Bur For Bull. 1921;22:225–377. Buot IE Jr. An ethnobotanical study of the plant diversity of Mt. Mayon, Bicol peninsula, Albay, Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2009;8:1):1–10. Delgado JJ. Biblioteca historica Filipina: historia general sacro-profana, politica y natural de las islas del Poniente, llamadas Filipinas. Manila: Imprenta del Eco de Filipinas de Juan Atayde; 1892. (in Spanish) Demetillo MT, Betco GL, Goloran AB. Assessment of native medicinal plants in selected mining area of claver Surigao Del Norte, Philippines. J Med Pl Stud. 2019;7(2):171–4. Djarwaningsih T. Species diversity of Euphorbiaceae in Karimunjawa Islands and new record for Java. J Tek Ling. 2012.; Special edition “Hari Bumi”:75–88. Doan TMH, Nguyen TL, Trinh TTV, Vu VN, Phi TD, Litaudon M, Roussi F, Chau VM, Pham VC. Cytotoxic phenolic compounds from fruit glandular trichomes of Macaranga tanarius. J Analytic Met Chem. 2019;2917032:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2917032. Ducusin MB. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants among the indigenous peoples of Santol, La Union, Philippines. Electron J Biol. 2017;13(4):360–82. Ernilasari S, Suzanni MA, Diana I, Viena V. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan obat pada Masyarakat Blang Bungong Kecamatan Tangse Kabupaten Pidie-Aceh. Talenta Conf Ser. 2018;1:34–7. Febriyanti N, Hikmat A, Zuhud EAM. The ethnobotany and potential of sugar palm (Arenga pinnata Merr.) on the Kasepuhan Pasir Eurih community, Sindanglaya Village, Lebak regency, Banten. Med Konserv. 2017;22(2):171–80. Guerrero LM. Medicinal uses of Philippine plants. Phil Bur For Bull. 1921;22:149–246. Gunawan-Puteri MDPT, Kawabata J. Novel α-glucosidase inhibitors from Macaranga tanarius leaves. Food Chem. 2010;123(2):384–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.04.050. Hamidu H. Ethnobotany of Buton ethnic (case study on the local community around of Lambusango Forest, Buton regency, the province of south East Sulawesi) [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2009.. (in Bahasa)

660

W. A. Mustaqim

Harijanto H, Hapid A, Wahid A, Arifin. Pemanfaatan jenis-jenis tumbuhan berkhasiat obat oleh masyarakat sekitar kawasan hutan lindung Desa Mantikole Kecamatan Dolo Barat Kabupaten Sigi. In: Prosiding Semnas biodiversity conservation. Palu: Universitas Tadulako; 2019. p. 55– 63. (in Bahasa). Hariyadi B. The entwined tree: traditional natural resource management of Serampas, Jambi, Indonesia [dissertation]. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i; 2008. Hariyadi B, Ticktin T. From shifting cultivation to cinnamon agroforestry: changing agricultural practices among the Serampas in the Kerinci Seblat National Park, Indonesia. Hum Ecol. 2012;40:315–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-012-9481-8. Hendra P, Jamil OA, Maharani DA, Suhadi MA, Putri CY, Fenty YJ. Antihyperlipidemic and hepatoprotective studies on leaves of Macaranga tanarius. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2017;10 (1):239–41. Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indië. 3rd vol. Batavia: Ruygrok & Co; 1917. Hidayat S, Hikmat A, Zuhud EAM. 2010. Ethnobotanical study of local people at Dukuh Cultural Village Garut regency, West Java. Med Konserv. 2010;15(3):139–51. Irwanto. Pulau Marsegu: studi ekologi: pengelolaan pulau kecil Kabupaten Seram Bagian Barat Provinsi Maluku. Ambon: Badan Penerbit Fakultas Pertanian Universitas Pattimura; 2014.. (in Bahasa) Iswandono E, Zuhud EAM, Hikmat A, Kosmaryandi N. The ethnobotany knowledge of Manggarai tribe and the implication utilization of forest plants in the mountains of Ruteng. JIPI. 2015;20 (3):171–81. https://doi.org/10.18343/jipi.20.3.171. Jusrin MJM. Etnobotani of Tolaki tribe society in Puuosu Village Mowewe Kolaka East District [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2017. Kandowangko NY, Latief M, Yusuf R. Inventory of traditional medicinal plants and their uses from Atinggola North Gorontalo District, Gorontalo Province, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2018;19 (6):2294–301. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d190637. Kawakami S, Harinantenaina L, Matsunami K, Otsuka H, Shinzato T, Takeda Y. Macaflavanones A-G, prenylated flavanones from the leaves of Macaranga tanarius. J Nat Prod. 2008;71 (11):1872–6. https://doi.org/10.1021/np800380d. Khastini RO, Wahyuni I, Saraswati I. Ethnobotanical study of digestive systems disorders in Baduy Ethnic, Indonesia. Biotropia. 2020. Accepted 7 Jan 2020. Kulip J. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia. Telopea. 2003;10(1):81–98. Kumazawa S, Murase M, Momose N, Fukumoto S. Analysis of antioxidant prenylflavonoids in different parts of Macaranga tanarius, the plant origin of Okinawan propolis. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2014;7(1):16–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1995-7645(13)60184-4. Lee JH, Kim GY, Khadke SK, Yamano A, Woo JT, Lee J. Antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities of prenylated flavanones from Macaranga tanarius. Phytomedicine. 2019;63(153033):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2019.153033. Lim SC. In: MSM S, Hong LT, Prawirohatmodjo, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no 5(3): timber trees: lesser-known timbers. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1998. p. 340–4. Lim TY, Lim YY, Yule CM. Evaluation of antioxidant, antibacterial and anti-tyrosinase activities of four Macaranga species. Food Chem. 2009;114:594–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem. 2008.09.093. Lin JH, Nonaka G, Nishioka I. Tannins and related compounds. XCIV.: Isolation and characterization of seven new hydrolyzable tannins from the leaves of Macaranga tanarius (L.) MUELL. et ARG. Chem Pharm Bull. 1990;38(5):1218–23. Magadula JJ. Phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Macaranga: A review. J Med Pl Res. 2014;8(12):489–503. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR2014.5396. Marliana E, Hairani R, Tjahjandrie TS, Tanjung M. Antiplasmodial activity of flavonoids from Macaranga tanarius leaves. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2018;144(012011):1–8. https:// doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012011.

Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg.

661

Marliana E, Ruga R, Hairani R, Tjahjandrie TS, Tanjung M. Antioxidant activity of flavonoid constituents from the leaves of Macaranga tanarius. IOP Conf Ser: J Physic: Conf Ser. 2019;1277(012014):1–6. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1277/1/012014. Matsunami K, Otsuka H, Kondo K, Shinzato T, Kawahata M, Yamaguchi K, Takeda Y. Absolute configuration of (+)-pinoresinol 4-o-[600 -o-galloyl]-beta-d-glucopyranoside, macarangiosides e, and f isolated from the leaves of Macaranga tanarius. Phytochemistry. 2009;70(10):1277–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.07.020. Matsunami K, Otsuka H. Okinawan subtropical plants as a promising resource for novel chemical treasury. Chem Pharm Bull. 2018;66(5):519–26. Matsunami K, Takamori I, Shinzato T, Aramoto M, Kondo K, Otsuka H, Takeda Y. Radicalscavenging activities of new megastigmane glucosides from Macaranga tanarius (L.) MÜLL.ARG. Chem Pharm Bull. 2006;54(10):1403–7. Merril ED. An interpretation of Rumphius’s herbarium Amboinense. Manila: Bureau of Printing. 1917; https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.79163. Murtiwi MT. Aktivitas antibakteri ekstrak etanol daun Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll. Arg. terhadap Streptococcus pyogenes ATCC 19615 [undergraduate thesis]. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma; 2014. Naufal MI, Alfarishy D, Mustaqim WA, Muhaimin M, Sari IP, Anggraeni R, Adnan ML, Saputra R. Buku Inventaris Jenis-Jenis Pohon Hutan Kota Universitas Indonesia seri 1: Wales Barat. Depok: UPT PLK Universitas Indonesia; 2014. (in Bahasa) Nikmatullah M, Nisyawati, Walujo EB. Utilization of a diversity of medicinal plants in Cibeo society, Baduy-Dalam, in Kanekes Village, Leuwidamar District, Lebak regency, Banten. AIP Conf Proc 2019. 2018;1:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5061839. art. 020003. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: Spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Nurfadilah S, Hapsari L, Abywijaya IK. Species richness, conservation status, and potential uses of plants in Segara Anakan area of Sempu Island, East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2017;18 (4):1568–88. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d180436. Olowa L, Demayo CG. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants among the Muslim Maranaos in Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines 2015;9(27):204–215. Péresse T, Jézéquel G, Allard PM, Pham VC, Huong DTM, Blanchard F, Bignon J, Lévaique H, Wolfender JL, Litaudon M. Cytotoxic prenylated stilbenes isolated from Macaranga tanarius. J Nat Prod. 2017;80:2684–91. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00409. Phommart S, Sutthivaiyakit P, Chimnoi N, Ruchirawat S, Sutthivaiyakit S. Constituents of the leaves of Macaranga tanarius. J Nat Prod. 2005;68:927–30. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 13 May 2020. Priyadi H, Takao G, Rahmawati I, Supriyanto B, Nursal WI, Rahman I. Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java: a checklist including Sundanese names, distribution and use. Bogor: CIFOR; 2010. Purwaningsih, Sukardjo S. Macaranga tanarius Muell.Arg. In: Lemmens RHMJ, WulijarniSoetjipto N, editors. Plants resources of South-East Asia no 3. Dye and tannin-producing plants. Wageningen: Pudoc; 1991. p. 88–9. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2016. Ragasa CY, de Jesus J. Porphyrins and polyprenol from Macaranga tanarius. RJBPCS. 2014;5 (3):701–8. Rosidah MS, Lambui O, Suwastika IN. Leaf extract of Macaranga tanarius (L.) M.a inhibit the growth rate of Staphylococcus epidermidis. Nat Sci. 2018;7(1):64–70. Rosli N, Ismail Z, Lepun P. Plants used as natural dye by the orang Ulu ethnics in asap Koyan Belaga Sarawak, Malaysia. Int J Curr Res. 2015;7(8):19770–5.

662

W. A. Mustaqim

Rubite RR, Sia IC, Co L, Ylagan L. Ethnopharmacologic documentation of selected philippine ethnolinguistic groups: the Mangyan (Tadyawan) people of Mindoro Island. Manila: University of the Philippines; 2002. Rugayah SS, Sulistiarini D, Hidayat A, Rahayu M. Daftar jenis tumbuhan di Pulau Wawonii, Sulawesi Tenggara. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2015. Rumphius GE. Herbarium amboinense, plurimas conplectens, arbores, frutices, herbas, plantas terrestres, & aquaticas, quae in Amboina et adjacentibus reperiuntur insulis. 3th vol. (Burman J, editor). Utrecht: Amsterdam’s Gravenhage; 1743. Sa’adah VS. Bioprospeksi tumbuhan aromatik di Resort Kembang Kuning, Taman Nasional Gunung Rinjani, Nusa Tenggara Barat [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2017. (in Bahasa) Saga AJPA. Characteristics and analysis of vegetation in supporting areas of Kelimutu National Park, district. Ende, Flores, Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT). Prosiding seminar Nasional IV PAGI. Makassar: Universitas Muslim Indonesia; 2018. p. 76–87. (in Bahasa) Saparuddin, Ridwan A, Arham Z. Efektivitas ekstrak daun Macaranga tanarius dalam menginaktifasi viral nervous necrosis ikan kerapu tikus. Biowallacea. 2017;4(1):519–26. Taek MM, Prajogo BEW, Agil M. Plants used in traditional medicine for treatment of malaria by Tetun ethnic people in West Timor Indonesia. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2018;11(11):630–7. https://doi.org/10.4103/1995-7645.246339. Tseng M, Chou C, Chen Y, Kuo Y. Allelopathich prenylflavanones from the fallen leaves of Macaranga tanarius. J Nat Prod. 2001;64:827–8. Wakhidah AZ, Silalahi M, Nisyawati. Ethnobotanical study of Oke Sou: traditional herbal drink from Lako Akediri Village in West Halmahera, Indonesia. In: Imanishi J, editor. The 3rd Asia Future Conference: Toward the future of Asia: my proposal. 8 pp. 2017. http://repository.uki.ac.id/603/7/ AFC2016_Ethnobotanical_Study_of_Oke_Sou_Traditional_Herbal_Drink_from_West_Halmahe ra2C_Indonesia-halaman-2-9.pdf. Retrieved 14 May 2020. Wardah. Keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan di kawasan hutan Krui, Taman Nasional Bukit Barisan Selatan, Lampung Barat. J Tek Ling. 2005;6(5):477–84. West AP, Brown WH. Philippine resins, gums, seed oils and essential oils. Phil Bur For Bull. 1921;22:5–224. Whitmore TC. Macaranga. In: PCv Welzen, editor. Flora Malesiana Euphorbiaceae. Leiden: Naturalis Biodiversity Center; 2008. http://www.nationaalherbarium.nl/Euphorbs/specM/Macaranga.htm. Retrieved 28 Apr 2020. Whitmore TC, Davies SJ. Macaranga. In: PCv Welzen, Chayamarit E, editors. Flora of Thailand Euphorbiaceae. Leiden: Naturalis Biodiversity Center and Bangkok: Forest Herbarium, National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department; 2017. http://www.nationaal herbarium.nl/ThaiEuph/ThMspecies/ThMacaranga.htm. Retrieved 28 Apr 2020. Wulandari, Fitmawati, Sofiyanti N. Eksplorasi pengetahuan tumbuhan obat Etnis Sakai di Desa Petani, Duri-Riau. JOM FMIPA. 2014;1(2):1–9. Wulandari D, Hendra P. Efek analgesik infusa daun Macaranga tanarius L. pada mencit betina galur Swiss. Bionatura. 2011;13(2):108–17.

Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner MORACEAE Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, Wendy A. Mustaqim, and Rina Ratnasih Irwanto

Synonyms Broussonetia tinctoria Blanco; Cudrania acuminata Miq.; Cudrania cambodiana Gagnep.; Cudrania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Kudô & Masam.; Cudrania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Kudô & Masam. var. gerontogea (Siebold & Zucc.) Kudô & Masam.; Cudrania grandifolia Merr.; Cudrania integra F. T. Wang & T. Tang; Cudrania javanensis Rumph. ex Trécul; Cudrania javanensis var. bancroftii F. M. Bailey; Cudrania javanensis Trécul var. indica Trécul; Cudrania obovata Trécul; Cudrania pubescens Trécul; Cudrania rectispina Hance; Cudrania spinosa (Blume) Hochr.; Cudrania sumatrana Miq.; Cudranus amboinensis (Blume) Miq.; Cudranus amboinicus Rumph.; Cudranus rumphii Thwaites; Cudranus spinosus Kuntze; Maclura amboinensis Blume; Maclura amboinensis Blume var. paucinervia Corner; Maclura cochinchinensis var. bancroftii (Bailey) Corner; Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner var. pubescens (Trécul) Corner; Maclura gerontogea Siebold & Zucc.; Maclura javanica Blume; Maclura pubescens (Trécul) Z. K. Zhou & M. G. Gilbert; Maclura timorensis Blume; Morus tinctoria (non L.) Blanco; Plecospermum cuneifolium Thwaites; Plecospermum spinosum Trécul var. javanensis Trécul; Procris cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng.; Trophis spinosa Blume; Vanieria alternifolia Stokes; Vanieria cochinchinensis Lour.; Vanieria A. S. D. Irsyam (*) Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia R. R. Irwanto School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_209

663

664

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

cochinchinensis Lour. var. gerontogea (Siebold & Zucc.) Nakai; Vanieria grandifolia (Merr.) Merr.; Vanieria pubescens (Trécul) Chun.

Local Names Cambodia: Khlaè, nhoër khlaay. Malaysia: kayu kedrang, kederang, kedrae. Indonesia: kuderang (Sundanese); tegerang, soga tegeran (Javanese); cira (Bima); ai iju (eastern Sumba); idu (western Sumba); adulala, adurala (Roti); menjom bulu (Makassar). Philippines: tahid-labuyo (Filipino); talubatod (Bontoc); kokompusa (Ilokano); talolong (Ilokano, Igorot); patdang-labuyo (Tagalog); tanguhol (Sultan Kudarat); tangunol (Quezon). Thailand: kae kong (Phrae); kae lae (central); klae (Peninsular). Vietnam: dȃy mo’qua. English: cockspur, cockspur thorn (ATRP 2011; Heyne 1950; Perry and Metzger 1980; Rumphius 1747; Sangat-Roemantyo 1992; TKDLPH 2016a, b, c).

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrubs, erect to scrambling or climbing, armed with straight to curved thorns, inconspicuous or up to 4 cm long. The plants produce milky exudate from the stems, twigs, and petioles. Leafy branches 1.5–4 mm across, subglabrous to minutely, brown or whitish hairy, not densely hairy. Stipules narrowly triangular, 1–3 mm long, minutely hairy. Leaves simple, spiral to alternate, petiole 0.3–1.5 (–2) cm long, blades elliptic, narrowly elliptic, obovate or less often subobovate, 3– 8 cm
2–5 cm, rarely larger or smaller, the texture papery to leathery, base vary from cuneate, obtuse to rounded, margin entire, apex most often subacute to acuminate, rarely obtuse or rounded, midrib impressed above, lateral veins 6–10 or rarely to 14 on each side of the midrib, distinctly looped near the margin, venation subscalariform to reticulate; blades glabrous above, glabrous or rarely main veins clad with scattered minute hairs. Flower unisexual; male flowers in capitate inflorescences, solitary or in pairs, on 0.3–1 cm long peduncle, hairy; head globose, 0.4– 1 cm across, floral bracts basal, 0.5–1 mm long, tepals minutely puberulous, stamens c. 1 mm long, anthers c. 0.5 mm long, clad with minute hairs, pistillode shieldshaped or pyramidal; female flowers arranged in solitary or paired capitate inflorescence, peduncle 0.4–1.2 cm long, hairy, head globose, 0.4–0.6 cm across, bracts from the base, enlarged at fruiting, to 3 mm long, hairy, flowers connate at the base, perianth hairy, stigma twisted, 2–3 mm long. Infructescence globose, 1.5–5 cm across, green, turning yellow, orange to red at maturity, each fruit with black remnant stigma at the apex. Drupes ovoid, with a smooth surface. Phenology: The flowers are produced from April to May, and the fruits from June to July. Distribution and Ecology: This species is native to India, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, China, Japan, throughout SE Asian mainland and archipelago, Australia, and also in New Caledonia. This species is often found in the lowland forest edge, mangroves,

Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner

665

Fig. 1 Fruiting branches of Maclura cochinchinensis (Moraceae), Mamasa, West Sulawesi, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Infructescences of Maclura cochinchinensis (Moraceae), Mamasa, West Sulawesi, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

riverbanks, secondary forests, dry thickets, near villages. Less often, it is also found in the forests in higher elevation, up to 1500 m above sea level. In well-developed rainforests of Australia, this species usually grows as a vine (ATRP 2011; Berg et al. 2006; Pelser et al. 2011 onwards; Zhou and Gilbert 2003) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Maclura cochinchinensis is traditionally used as a medicinal plant in India and South East Asia (Perry and Metzger 1980; Swargiary and Ronghang 2013). In Vietnam, the leaves are used in poultices to heal wounds (van Hien et al. 1997). In the Philippines, a decoction of the roots is applied to cure stomachache and coughing (Quisumbing 1951). The softened roots are also chewed to treat dysentery by the Negrito people around Mount Pinatubo, Luzon (Fox 1953). The local people in Quezon, Luzon,

666

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

drink a decoction of the root as vermifuge (TKDLPH 2016c). The fresh fruits are also eaten, with a dose of seven fruits a day, to kill the intestine worms, by the people in Sultan Kudarat Province, Mindanao (TKDLPH 2016a). The leaf decoction is administered to treat loose bowel movement by the local people in Bontoc, Mountain Province (TKDLPH 2016b). The species is used in postpartum care by the local people in Sarawak, Malaysia (Burkill 1935; Perry and Metzger 1980). In Ambon and vicinities of Maluku Archipelago, Indonesia, a paste made from the grounded heartwood was used externally and internally to treat fever (Burkill 1935; Heyne 1950; Rumphius 1747).

Phytochemistry Several chemical compounds were isolated from the bark and wood: cudraniaxanthone, butyrospermol acetate, kaempferol, aromadendrin, populnin, quercetin, taxifolin, and gallic acid (Sangat-Roemantyo 1992; Swargiary and Ronghang 2013). Methanolic wood extract is a potential source of antioxidants and antimicrobial agents (Swargiary and Ronghang 2013). The wood of M. cochinchinensis also contains coloring substances, namely morin (Kongkiatpaiboon et al. 2016; Sangat-Roemantyo 1992). The leaves contain prenylisoflavones, benzylalcohol-4-O-β-d-glucoside, and cinnamic acids (Chien et al. 2018). The prenylisoflavones isolated from the leaves of M. cochinchinensis are 30 ,40 ,5-trihydroxy-8prenyl-dihydrofuran[200 ,300 :7,6]isoflavone, 40 ,5-dihydroxy-8-prenyl-dihydrofuran[200 ,300 : 7,6]isoflavone, weightone, gancaonin M, 6,8-diprenylorobol, euchrenone B10, and 6,8-diprenylgenistein. The latter has cytotoxic activities against KB and HepG2 cancer cell lines (Chien et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses The fruits are edible, and the young leaves are eaten raw by the local people in Ambon and vicinities of Maluku Archipelago, Indonesia (Burkill 1935; Rumphius 1747).

Biocultural Importance In Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, the species is used as a source of natural yellow dye for fabric (Burkill 1935; Kongkiatpaiboon et al. 2016; SangatRoemantyo 1992). The chopped heartwoods are soaked all night in water and boiled. The water is strained and added with aluin. The fabric is then boiled in the decoction (Burkill 1935). This practice has been recorded by Rumphius back in 1747 itself. The species is usually combined with other dye-producing vegetables to produce red (mixed with Caesalpinia sappan L.), green (mixed with Indigofera arrecta Hochst.

Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner

667

ex. A. Rich), and orange-green (mixed with Curcuma longa L.) (Sangat-Roemantyo 1992). In Java, M. cochinchinensis has been traditionally used in the soga-batik industry (Atika and Salma 2017; Sangat-Roemantyo 1992). The species is not used as a single coloring agent for batik, because of its poor color fastness and dull color yielded (Atika and Salma 2017). The chopped bark is usually mixed with the bark of Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. B. Rob. and Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne, with a ratio of 1:2:4, to produce the soga color or yellowish-brown (SangatRoemantyo 1992).

References Atika V, Salma IR. Kualitas pewarnaan ekstrak kayu tegeran (Cudrania javanensis) pada batik. Maj Din Ker Batik. 2017;34(1):11–8. (in Bahasa). ATRP. Australia Tropical Rainforest Plants: factsheet: Maclura cochinchinensis. 2011. http://www. anbg.gov.au/cpbr/cd-keys/RFK7/key/RFK7/Media/Html/entities/Maclura_cochinchinensis.htm. Retrieved 6 June 2020. Berg CC, Corner EJH, Jarret FM. Moraceae: genera other than Ficus. Fl Males Ser I. 2006; 17(1):1–152. Burkill IH. Dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. vol. I (A-Codiaeum). London: The Crown Agents for the Colonies; 1935. Chien TV, Anh NT, Thanh NT, Thao TTP, Loc TV, Sung TV. Two new prenylated isoflavones from Maclura cochinchinensis collected in Hoa Binh province Vietnam. Nat Prod Res. 2018;33 (2):212–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2018.1443096. Fox RB. The Pinatubo Negritos: their useful plants and material culture. Philipp J Sci. 1953;81:173–391. Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Indonesie. s-Gravenhage/Bandung: N. V. Uitgeverij W. Van Hoeve; 1950. Kongkiatpaiboon S, Tungsukruthai P, Sriyakool K, Pansuksan K, Tunsirikongkon A, Pandith H. Determination of Morin in Maclura cochinchinensis Heartwood by HPLC. J Chromatogr Sci. 2016;55(3):346–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/chromsci/bmw191. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines: Moraceae. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Moraceae.html. Retrieved 6 June 2020. Perry LM, Metzger J. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia: attributed properties and uses. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1980. Quisumbing E. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Tech Bull Dep Agric Nat Resour. 1951; 16:1–1234. Rumphius GE. In: Burman J, editor. Herbarium amboinense, plurimas conplectens, arbores, frutices, herbas, plantas terrestres, & aquaticas, quae in Amboina et adjacentibus reperiuntur insulis, vol. 5. Utrecht: Amsterdam’s Gravenhage; 1747. Sangat-Roemantyo H. Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner. In: Lemmens RHMJ, WulijarniSoetjipto N, editors. Plant resources of South East Asia 3: dye and tannin-producing plants. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 1992. p. 89–91. Swargiary A, Ronghang B. Screening of phytochemical constituents, antioxidant and antibacterial properties of methanolic bark extracts of Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) corner. Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 2013;4(4):449–59. https://doi.org/10.22376/ijpbs.2019.10.1.p1-12. TKDLPH. Philippine Traditional Knowledge Digital Library on Health: Maclura cochinchinensis. 2016a. http://www.tkdlph.com/index.php/component/joodb/article/11-plants-database/12210tanguhol. Retrieved 9 June 2020.

668

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

TKDLPH. Philippine Traditional Knowledge Digital Library on Health: Maclura cochinchinensis. 2016b. http://www.tkdlph.com/index.php/component/joodb/article/11-plants-database/195talubatod. Retrieved 9 June 2020. TKDLPH. Philippine Traditional Knowledge Digital Library on Health: Maclura cochinchinensis. 2016c. http://www.tkdlph.com/index.php/component/joodb/article/11-plants-database/3532tangunol-tahid-labuyo. Retrieved 9 June 2020. van Hien TV, Hughes MA, Cherry GW. In vitro studies on the antioxidant and growth stimulatory activities of a polyphenolic extract from Cudrania cochinchinensis used in the treatment of wounds in Vietnam. Wound Repair Regen. 1997;5(2):159–67. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1524475X.1997.50208.x. Zhou Z, Gilbert MG. Moraceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 5: Ulmaceae through Basellaceae. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2003. p. 21–73.

Medinilla pendula Merr. MELASTOMATACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Synonyms Medinilla elmeri Merr; Medinilla gitingensis Elmer; Medinilla merrillii Elmer; Medinilla subsessilis Merr.

Local Names Agubangbang, balanban, ballangbang, gubangbang, sabsabang (Igorot); baladu (Bagobo); ballangbang, buyubyun an ballangbang (Ifg); palngipang di tao (Kalagan) (Madulid 2001).

Botany and Ecology Description: A numerously branched shrub. Leaves verticillate, narrowly oblong or obovate, 6.5–8.5 cm long, 2.5–3 cm wide, usually in whorls of 4 or 5, bases attenuate; petioles 5–10 cm long, glabrate (Pancho and Gruezo 2006; Regalado 1995). Leaves are 5- or 7-plinerved with setose nodes (Fernando et al. 2018). Flowers pinkish purple and pendulous; terminal inflorescences, glabrous, sub-pendent, pedicelled (5–15 cm long), cymosely clustered at distal ends, calyx with an expanded rim; petals at least twice the calyx in length. Anthers are curved (Fernando et al. 2018). Berries are 8 mm in diameter, globular, purplish black, soft, juicy, seeds numerous, and minute (Pancho and Gruezo 2006).

R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_28

669

670

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Fig. 1 Medinilla pendula (Melastomataceae). Shrub bearing fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

Phenology: September to December. According to McIntosh (2019), Medinilla species usually bloom in warm months (70–75  F). Distribution and Habitat: Endemic to the Philippines. Reported to occur in mossy forests, along creeks and streams, damp ravines, and overhanging damp banks at 1000–2000 m elevation at Luzon: Abra, Mountain Province, Benguet, Isabela, Pampanga (Mt Pinatubo), Mindoro, Sibuyan (Mt Giting-Giting), Cebu, Mindanao: Lanao, Davao (Mt Apo) (Pelser et al. 2011). Found in Kapangan, Kibungan, La Trinidad, and Mankayan in Benguet (Chua-Barcelo 2014). Also found in Baguio City (Regalado 1995) and Mt Makiling at 850–1000 m (Pancho and Gruezo 2006). Conservation Status: Endangered (DENR Administrative Order 2017) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3)

Local Medicinal Uses Fruits are consumed raw to treat cough and flu by the local people in Benguet (ChuaBarcelo 2014). In Ifugao, specifically Tinoc, Alfonso Lista, Kiangan, and Mayoyao, decoction of M. pendula leaves is prepared for cough (Galvez 2015; Taguiling

Medinilla pendula Merr.

671

Fig. 2 Medinilla pendula (Melastomataceae). Leaves. (© R. Barcelo)

Fig. 3 Medinilla pendula (Melastomataceae). Ripe fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

2013). Decoction is prepared by cutting the leaves, soaking, and boiling them in water for 15–20 min until the volume is reduced to half. The plant parts are then submerged in an earthenware container. After boiling, the leaves are strained, liquid

672

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

cooled, and taken orally. The liquid may be refrigerated and kept for 2–3 days (Nafiu et al. 2017).

Phytochemistry The methanolic fruit extract exhibits a good 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl radical scavenging activity due to the presence of alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, saponins, and polyphenols (Barcelo 2015). According to Rayos et al. (2016), more than 20 phenolic compounds may be found in Medinilla species. These chemical constituents may serve as basis for taxonomic relationships among them. The phenogram constructed based on morphological and chemical data revealed three major clusters. The first group consists of M. multiflora, M. teysmannii, M. tayabensis, M. magnifica, and M. banahaensis; the second group consists of M. pendula, M. clementis, M. apoensis, M. astronioides, M. venosa, and M. ternifolia; and the third group consists of M. pachygona, M. mindorensis, M. cephalophora, M. ramiflora, M. myrtiformis, M. cumingii, and M. dolichophylla. Meanwhile, Galvez (2015) reported that the ethanolic leaf extract has an inhibitory concentration of 255.363 ug/ml in the DPPH assay performed.

Local Food Uses Fruits are eaten as dessert or snack food. The soft, juicy, and purplish black fruits serve as forage for frugivore birds (Chua-Barcelo 2014). Related species such as M. cumingii are also eaten by birds due to small dark fruits with so many seeds (PIER 2017). The small seeds of the genera are dispersed through wind for capsular fruits and birds for berries (Stiles and Rosselli 1993).

Biocultural Importance Benguet province is rich in cultural diversity that manifests in the numerous traditions, beliefs, and customs. The local people believe in powerful unseen beings from the Skyworld and underworld which are called “spirits.” Offertory materials and decorations including Medinilla fruits are used during festivals, prayers, and ritual ceremonies for healing, thanksgiving, protection, or defense from curse, purification, sanity, normalize birth, good voyage, or journey, among others. The materials and plants required are identified by spiritual leaders or native priests (Oblas 2013; Sacla n.d.; Chua-Barcelo 2014).

Medinilla pendula Merr.

673

Economic Importance According to Rayos et al. (2016), Medinilla species are ornamentally valued as decors due to their beautiful flowers and, hence, propagated through seeds and cuttings not only in gardens but also farms (TopTropicals 2019). For this, seeds must be harvested from mature fruits that are dark purple in color with a soft pulp. Each fruit contains as many as 80 small seeds. Seeds can be planted after washing and soaking them in water for 5 days. They must be planted and grown in a moist organic substrate such as cocopeat, soil mix, or peat mix until they become plantlets which usually take about 6 months (PhilStar Global 2011). Another method is cutting, where roots and stem are cut and mixed with damp sphagnum moss. The following Medinilla are commonly propagated, namely, Rose-Grape, Crimson, Coral, and Pink Medinilla (McIntosh 2019).

References Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. DENR Administrative Order. Updated national list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories. 2017. https://www.philippineplants.org/dao-2017-11.pdf. Accessed 24 Sept 2019. Fernando E, Quakenbush JP, Lillo E, Ong P. Medinilla theresae (Melastomataceae), a new species from ultramafic soils in the Philippines. PhytoKeys. 2018;113:145–55. Galvez MAC. Evaluation of DPPH free radical scavenging activity and phytochemical screening of selected folkloric medicinal plants in Tinoc, Ifugao, Cordillera Administrative Region Philippines. IJSRP. 2015;5(12):440–5. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Makati City: Bookmark Inc.; 2001. McIntosh J. The spruce: Medinilla, a showy tropical flower. 2019. https://www.thespruce.com/ medinilla-showy-tropical-flower-1315765. Accessed 21 Dec 2019. Nafiu MO, Hamid AA, Muritala HF, Adeyemi SB. Chapter 7: Preparation, standardization, and quality control of medicinal plants in Africa. In: Medicinal spices and vegetables from Africa: therapeutic potential against metabolic, inflammatory, infectious and systemic diseases. London: Academic; 2017. p. 171–204. Oblas S. The beliefs and home rituals of Benguet. 2013. https://www.icbe.eu/2nd-icbe/70-thebeliefs-and-home-rituals-of-benguet. Accessed 21 Dec 2019. Pacific Island Ecosystem at Risk. Medinilla cumingii. 2017. http://www.hear.org/pier/species/ medinilla_cumingii.htm. Accessed 21 Dec 2019. Pancho J, Gruezo W. Vascular flora of mount Makiling and vicinity (Luzon: Philippines), Part 2. Los Banos: National Academy of Science and Technology/Department of Science and Technology and Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines; 2006. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Melastomataceae.html. Accessed 25 Sept 2019. PhilStar Global. Medinillas from seeds. 2011. https://www.philstar.com/other-sections/gardening/ 2011/11/05/744335/medinillas-seeds. Accessed 21 Dec 2019.

674

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Rayos A, Rodriguez E, Gruezo WS, Hadsall A, Cardenas L. Phenetic analysis of eighteen species Philippine Medinilla Gaudich. (Melastomataceae) based on morphological characteristics and phenolic profile. Philipp J Syst Biol. 2016;10:14–24. Regalado J. Revision of Philippine Medinilla (Melastomataceae). Blumea. 1995;40:113–93. Sacla W. Benguet belief systems. n.d.. https://ncca.gov.ph/about-ncca-3/subcommissions/sub commission-on-cultural-communities-and-traditional-arts-sccta/northern-cultural-communities/ benguet-belief-systems/. Accessed 21 Dec 2019. Stiles FG, Rosselli L. Consumption of fruits of the Melastomataceae by birds: how diffuse is coevolution? Vegetatio. 1993;107:57–73. Taguiling N. Macrofloral biodiversity conservation in Ifugao. Eur Sci J. 2013;4:469–82. TopTropicals. Medinilla pendula. 2019. https://toptropicals.com/catalog/uid/Medinilla_pendula. htm. Accessed 21 Dec 2019.

Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Rchb. & Zoll. EUPHORBIACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Adelia monoica Blanco; Croton multiglandulosus Reinw. ex Blume; Mallotus angulatus (Miq.) Müll.Arg.; Mallotus calcosus (Miq.) Müll.Arg.; Mallotus hellwigianus K.Schum.; Mallotus hollrungianus K.Schum.; Mallotus multiglandulosus (Reinw. ex Blume) Hurus.; Melanolepis angulata Miq.; Melanolepis calcosa Miq.; Melanolepis moluccana Pax & K.Hoffm.; Ricinus dioicus Wall. ex Roxb.; Rottlera angulata (Miq.) Scheff.; Rottlera calcosa (Miq.) Scheff.; Rottlera multiglandulosa Reinw. ex Blume

Local Names Philippines: Aem (Tinggian); ahem (Ivatan); alam (Iloko); alem (Iloko); alim (Tagalog, Panay Bisaya); alok (Bikol, Bisaya); alom (Pangasinan, Zambales), alum (Bikol, Tagbanua, Panay Bisaya, Sulu, Maguindanao); arum (Panay Bisaya); aling (Bikol); awom (Minanubu, Bisaya); ayum-ayum (Sambali); girangan (Tagbanua); pakalkal (Tagalog); takip-asin (Tagalog); tres-puntos (SpanishFilipino) Vietnam: C[as]nh di[eef]u, H[aws]c l[aa]n nhi[eef]u tuy[ees]n Indonesia: Daun kapur (Malay, Moluccas); ngalu (Halmahera, Tidore); tutup (Javanese) Malaysia: Chawan, jarak kayu (Peninsular) Papua New Guinea: Avima (Nangananga, East New Britain); bapap China: Mo lin M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_133

675

676

M. L. G. Dapar

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrub or tree, 4–20 m tall, deciduous in monsoon areas (Fig. 1). Young parts velvety covered with whitish to brown stellate hairs. Fruiting (or flowering) twigs 2–11 mm thick (Fig. 2). Indumentum light grey, grey-yellow, or brown hairs. Bark smooth to shallowly longitudinally fissured with minute lenticels, mainly in the fissures, flaky, flakes detaching easily, grey to (mottled) pale fawn-grey to pale yellow, ca. 3 mm thick; under bark green to dark straw; inner bark firm, fibrous, whitish to green to pale yellow to orange-brown, turning dark blue after exposure, ca. 6 mm thick; latex sometimes obvious, milky, sticky; wood soft, cream to pale straw to greenish. Stipules ca. 1.2
0.8 mm. Leaves large, whitish when dry, spirally arranged, simple, orbicularovate, often deeply 3–5 lobed and usually symmetric, 5–38 cm
5–34 cm, smooth, dull light to dark green above, paler, whitish to almost glaucous, more glossy below, midrib and veins often whitish at both sides, flat to slightly raised above, raised below; base cordate to wedge-shaped, with a group of protruding glands on the upper surface; apex acute to acuminate; margin coarsely dentate, glandular in teeth, smaller one along the margin, papery; venation palmate, 5–7 major veins; lower surface often with 2 basal black glandular areas and additional smaller glandular areas along the veins; petiole 2.4– 31 cm long. Stalk 2.4–31 cm long. Inflorescence densely pale brown hairy, terminal panicle, very laxly branched, usually either staminate or unisexual flowers. Bracts Fig. 1 Habit of Melanolepis multiglandulosa. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Rchb. & Zoll.

677

Fig. 2 Fruiting twig of Melanolepis multiglandulosa. (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

1.4–2.5
0.5–1 mm, thick; bracteoles 0.5–0.6
0.4–0.5 mm. Staminate flowers 7–13 mm in diameter, egg-shaped pale grey to (yellowish) white, grey-green inside sepals, 200–250 cream-white to (pale) yellow stamens. Sepal tube ca. 1 mm long, lobes 1.7–3 mm
1.2–1.8 mm. Pistillate flowers 4.5–5.5 mm in diameter; Ovary light green, 2–3 locules, 1 ovule per compartment, style 0.6–2 mm long, stigmas erect. Fruit grey to green, lobed capsule, reverse heart-shaped outline, 9–15 mm
7–9 mm, densely covered with soft shorts hairs, sometimes hairless. Seed 5.5–6 mm
4.5–5.5 mm, creamy to purplish-magenta; aril grey to orange. Phenology: Distinct flowering or fruiting season is unknown; flowering and fruiting specimens may be encountered during the whole year (Fern 2014). Distribution and Habitat: The native range is Thailand to Nansei-Shoto and Marianas (POWO 2020). M. multiglandulosa is widely distributed in Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands, Marianas Islands, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indochina, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Philippines, Sulawesi, Moluccas, and from southern Thailand throughout Malaysia to Papua New Guinea (Bismarck Archipelago). The species is unknown from Sarawak and Brunei and has never recorded to be cultivated outside its area of nativity (Van Welzen 2001), but located throughout the Philippine archipelago from Batan to Mindanao, Sulu, and Palawan with low and medium elevation thickets and second-growth forests (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: Dapar et al. (2020) documented the ethnopharmacological uses of Melanolepis multiglandulosa among the Agusan Manobo of Mindanao, Philippines. Drinking leaf decoction is an effective remedy against beriberi, emphysema, cough,

678

M. L. G. Dapar

diarrhea, and stomach trouble. This preparation can be administered in a dose of 3–5 glasses once to thrice a day, or as needed with no experience adverse or reported side effects. Aside from its internal medication, the external application of this medicinal plant helps cure fibroma, body ache, weakness, and fatigue. An external remedy is prepared by applying fresh leaves or heated flower, leaves, and bark and sometimes mixed with a little salt on the affected body part. In the Philippines, fresh bark, leaves, and flowers have been used to treat chest pain and fever. These parts are usually heated slightly before applying on the skin (Van Welzen 2001). Malaysia and Indonesia: The leaves of M. multiglandulosa are also utilized to treat several diseases and infections (Apostol et al. 2016). Several folk medical uses of M. multiglandulosa have been recorded by Van Welzen (2001). In Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia, the leaves are used as a poultice against different kinds of scurf. This preparation is sometimes combined with ginger. In Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra (Lampung), decocted leaves are used as a vermifuge. Leaves can be prepared as a tea to relieve cough in Sulawesi (Minahasa), while the bark is traditionally used in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. In East New Britain (Papua New Guinea), dried leaves are crushed and mixed with cold water to treat chest pain, constipation, and tuberculosis.

Phytochemistry Lai et al. (1996) earlier identified chemical constituents of the root methanolic extracts of M. multiglandulosa as friedelin, oleanolic acid, olean-12-en-3β,28-diol, β-amyrin acetate, 6β- hydroxystigmast-4-en-3-one, stigmast-4-en-3-one, stigmast4,22-dien-3-one, 5α-stigmast-3,6-dione, phytosterols (campesterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol), and phytosterol glycosides (campesterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside, stigmasterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside, β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside, D-sucrose). Apostol et al. (2016) isolated chemical constituents such as taraxeryl fatty acid ester, squalene, (E)-3-alkenoic acid, β-carotene, long-chain fatty alcohols, and long-chain hydrocarbons from the leaves; and triacylglycerols and long-chain saturated fatty acid esters from the twigs in addition to the previously identified β-sitosterol and stigmasterol by Lai et al. (1996). However, phytochemical and pharmacological investigations of M. multiglandulosa are still limited.

Local Food Uses Melanolepis multiglandulosa is harvested from the wild or widely cultivated as a sweetener apart from its local use as medicine (Fern 2014). The leaves are mixed as sweetener of the tapé, a product of fermented flour from cereals (Van Welzen 2001).

Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Rchb. & Zoll.

679

Biocultural Importance Melanolepis multiglandulosa, a fast-growing pioneer native tree, is highly recommended as a nurse tree that provides partial shade to almaciga trees of indigenous peoples in Palawan, Philippines. Almaciga is an ancient coniferous tree, and the primary nontimber forest product in the forests of Cleopatra’s Needle possessed with high-value resin representing around 80% of the income of the Indigenous Peoples (IPs) of Palawan. Planting M. multiglandulosa becomes a traditional practice in propagating almaciga trees, which are abundant in northern Palawan forests but is now threatened by overharvesting and other illegal activities (Antonio and Buduan 2016).

Economic Importance Ashes from old leaves of Melanolepis multiglandulosa are used as an additive to Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. tinder and formerly used as an additive to Bixa orellana L. in dyeing (Van Welzen 2001). Some locals harvest M. multiglandulosa wood as a good source of firewood and for making shoes.

References Antonio KMR, Buduan ED. Almaciga manual. In: Centre for Sustainability Philippines Inc. and Forest Foundation Philippines. 2016. https://www.forestfoundation.ph/wp-content/uploads/ 2018/09/Almaciga-Manual.pdf. Accessed 22 May 2020. Apostol PG, De Los Reyes MM, Altena IAV, Ragasa CY. Chemical constituents of Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. Ex Blume). Int J Pharm Clin Res. 2016;8(12):1663–5. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Fern K. Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Rchb. & Zoll. In: Useful tropical plants database. 2014. http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id¼Melanolepis+multiglandulosa. Accessed 22 May 2020. Lai JS, Liou HS, Huang KP. Chemical constituents of the roots of Melanolepis multiglandulosa. Chin Pharm J. 1996;48(2):177–83. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Euphorbiaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Euphorbiaceae.html. Accessed 22 May 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 22 May 2020. Van Welzen PC. Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Rchb.f. & Zoll. In: van Valkenburg JLCH, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 12(2): medicinal and poisonous plants 2. Leiden: Backhuys Publisher; 2001. p. 361–3.

Melastoma malabathricum L. MELASTOMATACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Melastoma candidum auct. non. D.Don; Melastoma polyanthum Blume. subsp. malabathricum: Medinilla congesta Merr.; Melastoma affine D.Don; Melastoma anoplanthum Naudin; Melastoma articulatum Naudin; Melastoma baumeanum Naudin; Melastoma borneense Bakh.f.; Melastoma brachyodon Naudin; Melastoma candidum D.Don; Melastoma ceramense Naudin; Melastoma congesta Elmer; Melastoma decemdentatum Kostel.; Melastoma denticulatum Labill.; Melastoma ellipticum Naudin; Melastoma fasciculare Naudin; Melastoma francavillanum Cogn,; Melastoma fuscum Merr.; Melastoma heterostegium Naudin; Melastoma holmani Elmer; Melastoma hombronianum Naudin; Melastoma homostegium Naudin; Melastoma jackianum Korth.; Melastoma longiflorum Naudin; Melastoma malabathricum var. grandiflorum Craib.; Melastoma malabathricum var. javanum Bakh.f.; Melastoma malabathricum var. mariannum (Naudin) Fosberg & Sachet; Melastoma mariannum Naudin; Melastoma membranaceum Merr.; Melastoma normale sensu Cogn. ex Winkler; Melastoma novae-hollandiae Naudin; Melastoma obvolutum Jack; Melastoma oliganthum Naudin; Melastoma paleaceum Naudin; Melastoma parviflorum Merr.; Melastoma pelagicum Naudin; Melastoma pinatubense Elmer; Melastoma polyanthum Blume; Melastoma polyanthum var. linearifolium Bakh.f.; Melastoma polyanthum var. mollissimum Bakh.f.; Melastoma polyanthum var. pallens Blume; Melastoma polyanthum var. pulleana Mansf.; Melastoma polyanthum var. riparium Blume; Melastoma punctatum Korth.; Melastoma pusillum Blume; Melastoma pusillum var. longifolium Cogn.; Melastoma robustum Bakh.f.; Melastoma roemeri Mansf.; Melastoma royeni Blume; Melastoma scabrum Ridl.; Melastoma sechellarum Naudin; Melastoma stenophyllum Merr.; Melastoma subgrande Hochr.; Melastoma sylvaticum Blume; W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_166

681

682

W. A. Mustaqim

Melastoma sylvaticum var. permutiflorum Bakh.f.; Melastoma taitense DC.; Melastoma tidorense Blume; Melastoma tondanense Blume; Melastoma trachycaulon Miq.; Melastoma triflorum Naudin; Melastoma vitiense Naudin; Melastoma warrineri C.B.Rob. subsp. normale (D.Don) Karst.Mey.: Melastoma clarkeanum Cogn.; Melastoma eberhardtii Guillaumin; Melastoma houtteanum Naudin; Melastoma klossi Baker f.; Melastoma malabathricum var. normale (D. Don) R.C.Srivast.; Melastoma microphyllum Naudin; Melastoma normale D.Don; Melastoma normale var. divergens Craib; Melastoma osbeckioides Guillaumin; Melastoma velutinum Seem.; Melastoma wallichii DC.

Local Names Brunei Darussalam: Kudok-kudok – kemungting uman (Iban) – kudok-kudok putih (Tutond and Belait) – kuduk-kuduk (Malay) – senduduk (Malay). Cambodia: baynhenh (Khmer and Kuy, Prey Lang). Indonesia: senggani – banderuk, harendong (South Sulawesi) – bincoro (Bentong in Sulawesi) – biso (Samawa, Sumbawa) – botto botto (Toraja, South Sulawesi) – buah saduduk, kadudoik, sadudoik, seduduk (Kerinci, Jambi) – bunga bebeki (Aceh) – cengkodok (Dayak Pesaguan in West Kalimantan, Kayong Utara in Kalimantan) – daun karamunting (Berau, East Kalimantan) – daun kemunting (Sintang, West Kalimantan) – dedughuk (Lembak Delapan, Bengkulu) – harendong, harendong bulu (West Java) – hisak (Dayak of West Kalimantan) – karamunting (Dayak Paramasan in South Kalimantan, also Palangkaraya) – kedudu, pucuk keduduck (Talang Mamak) – keduduk (Malay people in Riau) – kedukduk (Balinese) – keletan (Belitung) – kelonudu (Dayak Tomun) – kemuntin’t (Dayak Kerabat, Sekadau, West Kalimantan) – kemuntin, sanduru (Kutai) – lalumpa (Central Sulawesi) – mas-mas (Sasak in Lombok) – rodu (Wawonii, Sulawesi) – sanduduk (Batak in North Sumatra) – sanduduk harangan (Batak Simalungun) – seduruk, seduruk hitam (Serampas, Jambi) – sekuang (Berau, East Kalimantan) – senduduk (North Sumatra, Batin in Jambi, Malang in East Java) – senggani (Lampung in Sumatra, Tenggerese) – si’yang, sikeli’ (Dayak Krayan in North Kalimantan) – senduduk, sikaduduk (Pasaman, West Sumatra) – senuru (Dayak Benuaq) – sikaduduak (Pasaman and Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra) – sinduru (Lore Lindu area Central Sulawesi) – wisuk (Yali, Papua) – wua-wua (Napu valley, Poso). Malaysia: gosing/hosing (Sabah) – kemunting (Iban) – rusak (Duyoh, Sarawak) – senduduk (Ulu Ethnic, Asap Koyan Belaga, Negeri Sembilan in Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and also Malay) – senuduk (Jah Hut). Myanmar: nyang-ye-o-pan. Philippine: alituntungaw (Samar) – bubtoi (Sbl.) – dagad ay (Baguio) – hantutuknaw (Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur) – malatungaw (Luzon ang Tagalog as general) – malatungau (Ibn.) – sumgot (Cotabato) – yagomyum (C. Bis.). Singapore: senduduk. Thailand: mrey (Upper Shongkhla) – se la play (Karen, northern Thailand). English: banks melastoma, malabar melastome, Singapore rhododendron (Ahmad and Holdsworth 2003; Amboupe et al. 2019; Aminah et al. 2016; Amrul et al. 2019; Badri 2018; Barcelo 2015; Bayas et al. 2018; BOS 2020; Campilan et al. 2019; Dapar et al. 2020;

Melastoma malabathricum L.

683

Diba et al. 2013; Due 2013; Elliott and Brimacombe 1987; Fahrurozi 2014; Falah et al. 2013; Fauzi et al. 2019; Fernando et al. 2008; Gailea et al. 2016; Grosvenor et al. 1995; Hakim 2015; Handayani et al. 2017; Hariyadi 2008; Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012; Hosking et al. 2011; Jalius and Muswita 2013; Kamsani et al. 2020; Kasrina and Susianti 2014; Kehlenbeck 2007; Kuni et al. 2015; Metananda 2012; Miliken 2000; Mujahid et al. 2019; Mustofa et al. 2020; Nasution et al. 2018; Neamsuvan et al. 2015; Novi and Septrilia 2020; Nyunt et al. 2019; Oktariani 2018; Oktavia 2012; Ong and Norzalina 1999; Rahayu and Rustiammi 2017; Rahayu et al. 2006; Rizki et al. 2019; Rohman et al. 2019; Roosita et al. 2008; Rosli et al. 2015; Rugayah et al. 2015; Sari 2014; Setiawan et al. 2018; Silalahi and Nisyawati 2018; Silalahi et al. 2019; Sujarwo et al. 2020; Susanti and Zuhud 2019; Syukur and Sumarni 2018; Tambaru 2017; Tangjitman et al. 2015; Tim Peneliti Fakultas Kehutanan Universitas Mulawarman Samarinda and Tim Sosial dan Pembinaan Hutan PT Karya Lestari Berau 2015; Toaiang and Sayok 2019; TKDLPH 2016; Turreira-García et al. 2017).

Botany and Ecology Description: Usually shrubs, less often a small tree, up to 3 m tall. Young twigs quadrangular, densely scaly, hiding the surfaces, scales lanceolate or triangularovate. Leaves simple, opposite, on 0.5–1.9 cm long petiole; blades ovate, elliptic, or ovate-lanceolate, (2.5–)4–14(–16)
(1–)1.7–3.5(–6) cm, base rounded to subcordate, apex acuminate, leaves on the rheophytic form narrower, elliptic to linear, 2–5.5
c. 1 cm; longitudinal nerves from the base to apex, 2(–4) on each side of the midvein, impressed above, raised beneath; with numerous parallel secondary venations, 1.5–3 mm apart, these sometimes inconspicuous in the rheophytic form; densely strigose above, lower surfaces with scales on the midrib and secondary veins ovate and up to 0.5 mm long and also lanceolate 0.5–1.5 mm long, secondary veins with up to 1 mm long hairs. Inflorescence terminal, corymbose, subcapitate, flowers 3 to 7, flowers only rarely solitary, basally with two leaf-like bracts; pedicels 2–9 or rarely to 10 mm long; bracteoles subulate to lanceolate, 2–5 mm, scaly on the dorsal side, ciliate at the margin. Hypanthium 5–10 mm long, clad with dense and appressed lanceolate scales, margin serrate or denticulate; lobes 5–6, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, 5–6
2–2.5 mm, acuminate at the apex, scaly. Petals violet, pink, or purple, obovate, 2–3 or rarely to 4 cm long, rounded at the apex. Stamens dimorphic; longer stamens 5–6, filaments 6–8 mm long, anthers linear rostrate, 6–10 mm long, extended connective 6–7.5 mm long, at the base with 2-branched extensions; shorter stamens 5, filaments 7.5–9 mm long, anthers linear-rostrate, 6.5–7.5 mm long, connective inconspicuous, with two small lobes at the base. Style 1.5–2 cm long, curved apically, stigma blunt. Ovary half-inferior, densely scaly. Fruit baccate, dehiscent, urceolate-subglobose, or bowl-shaped, 6–15
6– 12 cm, scales persistent. The subsp. normale (D.Don) Karst.Mey. differs in having both branchlets and lower surfaces of the leaves clad with villose hairs. The taxonomic status of Melastoma malabathricum is still not fully understood despite many attempts to correctly delimitate the species. The taxon has undergone

684

W. A. Mustaqim

many changes since a long time ago. One of the most important, and probably most referred, species concept is Karst Meyer’s published in 2001. He listed so many species as synonyms; however, many authors disagree and his concept can be considered sensu lato. Natural hybrid with other species of the genus Melastoma also has been recorded, such as with Melastoma beccarianum from Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo reported in 2019. One should very carefully identify the materials in hand before carrying out applicative research, at least each plant used should be accompanied by well-kept herbarium specimens send to the internationally recognized herbarium. Meanwhile, it should also keep in mind that the species delimitation in this account tends to follow Meyer. Distribution and Ecology: This is a widespread species found from Sri Lanka to south China, throughout Southeast Asia to the Pacific Islands. This species grows from the lowland to mid-montane forests, up to an elevation at 2800 m above sea level. It grows on exposed habitats such as open fields, scrub, grasslands, heath vegetations, thickets or sparse forests, and even in bamboo forests. The subsp. normale has a smaller geographical range and more scattered distribution than the typical. It has been found in southern India, Himalaya, mainland Southeast Asia, and a few records from northern Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, western Java, Philippine, and New Caledonia. It grows on disturbed habitats, savanna, on rocks, evergreen, coniferous to deciduous forests. This species is often found in settled areas such as home gardens or urban green landscape. Outside its native range, it could become naturalized, such as in Hawaii and New South Wales, Australia. In a laboratory study, the plant has been shown to show allelopathy (Bakhuizen van den Brink 1943; Chen and Renner 2007; Hosking et al. 2011; Meyer 2001; Milow et al. 2010; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; Pelser et al. 2011–onwards; Plucknett and Stone 1961; POWO 2020; Sarma et al. 2019; Sulistyaningsih et al. 2019; Wong 2015, 2016; Wong and Low 2015; Wu et al. 2019) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Fig. 1 Flowering branches of Melastoma malabathricum (Melastomataceae). Central Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Melastoma malabathricum L.

685

Fig. 2 The flower of Melastoma malabathricum (Melastomataceae). Central Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Immature fruits of Melastoma malabathricum (Melastomataceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: The Dusun people use this species to cure eye disorder (Ellen and Puri 2016). A decoction is prepared from this plant along with Glechenia sp., Nigella sativa, and Allium cepa to treat nausea (Kamsani et al. 2020). Cambodia: The Kuy and Khmer people in Prey Lang use the plant as a source of medicine but without specific indication of use (Turreira-García et al. 2017). Indonesia: The use of this species as a source of medicine has been recorded from almost all islands, especially Sumatra and Borneo. In Sumatra, the people in the Gunung Leuser National Park area of Aceh, use the flower infusion to treat gastrointestinal bleeding and epigastric pain-related issues and anemia (Elliott and Brimacombe 1987). The Batak ethnic community around Kaban Jahe and Brastagi use the leaves to cure bone fractures and diarrhea. The leaves are also used as an ingredient of oukup, the traditional steam bathing (Silalahi and Nisyawati 2018). The Karo people of Karo Regency use the leaves to cure sprue and abscesses. In Batak

686

W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 4 Deshisced fruits of Melastoma malabathricum (Melastomataceae) showing the purple arils and seeds. West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Simalungun, the leaves and roots from the plants growing in the forests have been used to cure wounds and digestive system disorder. Leaves alone from plants growing in the gardens are also used for the same purposes (Silalahi et al. 2019). In Pesisir Selatan Regency of West Sumatra, this species is used as a source of medicine, but no specific record of use has been recorded (Novi and Septrilia 2020). People in Pasaman, West Sumatra, use the crushed leaves to stop bleeding in wounds (Rizki et al. 2019); the local people in Luhak Nan Duo subdistrict use the leaves to cure maag and lower back pain. A handful of leaves are mixed with one handful each of Cassia alata and Scurulla ferruginea leaves, the rhizome of Curcuma, and 50 cm long black sugarcane. These are boiled and one glass of the decoction is drunk thrice a day (Fernando et al. 2008). In Riau, the leaves are used by the Talang Mamak people to cure cuts and wounds. The leaves are also ground and applied externally to cure swelling of skin and snakebites by the Malay people (Orang Melayu) (Grosvenor et al. 1995). In Kerinci of Jambi Province, this species is used to cure boils and headaches (Sari 2014), and to cure cough by the Serampas people (Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012). The use of the leaves to cure diarrhea has also been recorded from Batin ethnic group, Jambi (Jalius and Muswita 2013). The Lembak Delapan people in Tanjung Beranda, Bengkulu, use the leaves to improve appetite in children (Kasrina and Susianti 2014). Outside the mainland Sumatra, people in Belitung also use the leaves to cure toothache and swollen gum. The leaves are boiled and used as a mouthwash (Oktavia 2012). To the south, the use of this species in Java is known from the west to east. In West Java, the Sundanese use the leaves to cure toothache and also as postpartum

Melastoma malabathricum L.

687

remedy (Roosita et al. 2008). The people around Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park use the fruit to cure ulcers and enhance stamina. To cure ulcers, the fruits are chewed and applied topically, while the fruits are directly eaten to enhance stamina (Fahrurozi 2014). The Tengger Tribe of East Java use this species to cure itch (Rohman et al. 2019). Northwards of Java, this species has been reported as source of medicine, frequently from Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), with most reports coming from the Dayaknese people. In West Kalimantan, this species is used to cure eye disorder (Ellen and Puri 2016). The leaves are used to cure stomachache by the Dayak people in Mempawah, Landak, and Sanggau (Diba et al. 2013). The Dayak Pesaguan people in Ketapang Regency use the root to cure epilepsy, kejengkolan and convulsions (Due 2013). The local people in Benua Kencana Village, Tempunak Subdistrict, Sintang Regency, use the leaves to cure wounds or stop bleeding. The leaves are chewed and then applied externally on the wounds (Syukur and Sumarni 2018). Leaves are also used as a source of medicine by Dayak Kerabat, Sekadau (Kuni et al. 2015). The people in Sejahtera Village, Sukadana subdistrict, Kayong Utara Regency, Kalimantan, use the roots to cure the swollen breast and also hemorrhoid, while the leaves used to cure external wounds. It is also used to treat hematemesis (Aminah et al. 2016). The Dayak Krayan people in Kayan Mentarang National Park, North Kalimantan, use the roots and fruits to cure infections (infestations), inflammation, and also disorder of the digestive system (Susanti and Zuhud 2019). The Dayak Tomun people of Lopus Village, Lamandau Regency, Central Kalimantan, use the plant as sources of medicine to cure cancer, diarrhea, and toothache. The parts used include roots, bark, and leaves (Santoso et al. 2019). In South Kalimantan, the Dayak Paramasan ethnic community of Meratus uses the decoction obtained by soaking roots in water to cure cough (Anshari et al. 2015). The leaves are mashed and topically applied as antiseptic to cure open wounds (Badri 2018). This species, along with other 26 species, is used to cure wounds by the people in Berau, East Kalimantan (Mujahid et al. 2019). The roots are also used as an aphrodisiac by the Kutai people in East Kalimantan (Fauzi et al. 2019). M. malabathricum is used as a source of medicine for women’s health by the Dayak Benuaq, Dayak Bahau, and Kutai people in East Kalimantan (Falah and Hadiwibowo 2017). The Dayak Kenyah Leppo Ke’ and Kenyah Uma Tukung use the leaves to cure eye disorder (Ellen and Puri 2016). The Dayak Bahau people prepare a decoction of roots along with Blumea balsamifera, Hyptis brevipes, Mimosa pudica, and Morinda citrifolia, and use it in postpartum care (Falah et al. 2013). There are also reports on the medicinal uses of the species from the Wallacean region and Papua. In Sulawesi, this species has been recorded as a medicinal plant occurring in the home gardens around Napu valley, Poso (Kehlenbeck 2007). In the Lore Lindu National Park area of the central part, people use the decoctions of the leaves to cure boil and epistaxis (Gailea et al. 2016). People in the southern arm of the island use the leaves to cure diarrhea, sprue, and vaginal discharge (Tambaru 2017). In South Sulawesi Province, the leaves of this species are used by the Rongkong folk healers to cure smallpox (Mustofa et al. 2020). The fruits are chewed by the local people in Wawonii island to cure toothache (Rahayu et al. 2006). In

688

W. A. Mustaqim

Nusa Tenggara, the people of Samawa, Sumbawa, use the inflorescence to cure measles (Rahayu and Rustiammi 2017). The use of the leaves to cure wounds also has been recorded by the people in Manokwari, Papua Barat Province (Lense 2012). Laos: In a study from Bokeo and Vientiane, the roots of this species has been categorized as an anti-contraceptive. The roots are boiled and applied during the menstruation period (Dubost et al. 2019). Malaysia: In Peninsular Malaysia, the Jah Hut people use the root to cure diarrhea. The decoction of the roots is orally taken thrice a day (Lin 2015). The pounded leaves are also used in wound healing by the people in Gemencheh, Negeri Sembilan (Ong and Norzalina 1999). Local people in Machang, Kelantan, also use the leaf decoction to cure diarrhea. To cure dry lips, the juice from the fruits is rubbed topically (Ong and Nordiana 1999). The Temuan tribe in Ayer Hitam use the plant for various medicinal purposes. Roots and leaves are pounded and rubbed to alleviate skin complaints, while the decoction from the pounded leaves is used to cure flatulence and toothache. The fruit is pounded and used as poultice to treat small wounds. The plant is part of a postpartum decoction prepared with other plant species. A mixture of the leaves, sugar, and ginger is drunk to cure leucorrhea (Faridah Hanum and Hamzah 1999). In Malaysian Borneo, it is used as a medicinal plant by the Iban community in Kampung Sebubu Saratok, Sri Aman, Sarawak (Kuin 2005). The Kadazan/Duzun people around Penampang, Keningau, and Tambunan, Sabah consume the root decoction to cure measles. To cure stomachache, flowers are processed into tea. Styptic is made from the pounded leaves and applied to cut and wounds (Ahmad and Holdsworth 2003). Similar use to cure wounds has also been reported from Duyoh Community of Bau District, Sarawak (Toaiang and Sayok 2019). Philippine: Melastoma malabathricum is used as a source of medicine by the people in Mount Malinao, Albay, but no specific use has been mentioned (De Guzman et al. 2014). The poultice of stem and leaves are used to cure fever by the people in Batanes Island groups (Raterta et al. 2014). The Matigsalug tribe in Davao City also uses the plant for relapse (Guevara and Garcia 2018). In Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, people use the decocted stem to cure cuts and wounds (Dapar et al. 2020). The people of T’boli, Lemsnolon, Tboli, South Cotabato use the boiled gas-dabbed leaves as a topical to cure boil (Campilan et al. 2019). The people in northern Samar use the flowers to cure hal-on; the disease occurs when infants develop itchy scalp as a result of their mothers eating forbidden foods. Together with the root, the flowers are steeped in water, added with leaf juices and coconut milk, and consumed (TKDLPH 2016). Thailand: The Karen people in northern Thailand hold the fruit in the mouth to cure geographic tongue and mouth ulcers (Tangjitman et al. 2015). The People in Bung Khong Long Non-Hunting Area, northeastern Thailand, as well as Upper Songhkla use the root decoction to cure dysentery (Suksri et al. 2005; Neamsuvan et al. 2015).

Melastoma malabathricum L.

689

Phyochemistry The phytochemistry of M. malabathricum has been extensively studied. The plants contain alkaloids, anthocyanins, anthraquinone, glycosides, as well as cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, flavonoids, mucilage, phenolics, quinones, saponins, sterols, tannins, and terpenoids (Ahmed et al. 2019; Joffry et al. 2012; Diris et al. 2017; Ringmichon et al. 2010). Calcium oxalate crystal also has been recorded from this species (Ringmichon et al. 2010). A study by Kristiana et al. (2012) showed that the total phenolic content is at 127.73 mg/100 g db, while anthocyanin content is at 38.38 mg/100 gdb. A value of 865.50 ppm was recorded for the free radical scavenging activity (IC50). A study by Danladi et al. (2015a) showed that flower has the highest phenolic contents, followed by leaf, fruit, and stem; leaf has the highest flavonoid content followed by flower, fruit, and stem. As an edible wild fruit, an investigation of the fruit extracts by Barcelo (2015) show the presence of flavonoids, polyphenols, saponins, steroids, and tannins. The highest phenolic contents of the plant can be found in the flower, followed by leaves, fruit, and stem (Sembiring et al. 2018). The phytochemical compounds of the leaves have been studied by many, and numerous chemical compounds have been identified including 1,2,4,6-tetra-Ogalloyl-β-D-glucoside, 1,4,6-tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucoside, 2-hydroxyursolic acid, 2,5,6-trihydroxynaphtoic carbonic acid, (-)-epicatechin, (-)-epicatechin gallate, α-amyrin, β-sitosterol, β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, alienanin B, asiatic acid, auranamide, brevifolincarboxylic acid, casuarictin, casuarinin, flavonol glycoside derivative, glycerol-1,2-dilinolenyl-3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside, glycerol 1,2-dilinolenyl-3-O-(4,6-di-O-isopropylidene)-β-D-galactopyranoside, hexacosanoic acid, isoquercitrin 600 -O-gallate, kaempferol, kaempferol-3-O-(200 ,600 -di-O-ptrans-coumaroyl)-β-glucoside, malabathrin A, malabathrin B, malabathrin C, malabathrin D, malabathrin E, malabathrin F, methyl-2,5,6-trihydroxynaphtalene carbonate, nobotanin B, nobotanin D, nobotanin G, nobotanin H, nobotanin J, patriscabratine, pedunculagin, procyanidin B, pterocarinin C, quercetin, quercitrin, rutin, stachyurin, stenophyllanin A, stenophyllanin B, strictinin, and uvaol (Joffry et al. 2012; Sirat et al. 2010; Yoshida et al. 1992a, b). More compounds have been listed by Aslam et al. (2017) including 2-(3,5-+diphenyl-pyrazol-1-yl)benzothiazole, 3,4-dehydroproline amide, β-sitosterol-3-O-D-glucopyranoside, cinnamic acid, glycolipid glycerol 1,2-dilinolenyl-3-O-D-galactopyanoside, homogalacturonan, kaempferol-3-O-(200 ,600 -di-O-trans-p-coumaroyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside, mefloquine, para-hydroxycinnamic acid, rhamnogalacturonan, and rhamnose hexose-pectic type polysaccharide. Diris et al. (2017) identified 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, 8,11octadecadienoic acid methyl ester, palmitic acid, palmitic acid methyl ester, phytol, pyrogallol, stearic acid methyl ester, trans-squalene, and tocopherol from methanol leaf extracts. An investigation of the hexane leaf extracts showed the presence of 1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7,9,9,11,11,13,13-tetradecamethyl, α-linolenic acid trimethylsilyl ester, β-amyrin trimethylsilyl ether, β-sitosterol trimethylsilyl ether, betulin, bis

690

W. A. Mustaqim

(trimethylsilyl) oxalate, campesterol trimethylsilane, heptacosane, heptasiloxane, linoleic acid trimethylsilyl ester, linoleic acid 2,3-bis-(O-TMS)-propyl ester, palmitic acid trimethylsilyl ester, squalene, stearic acid trimethylsilyl ester, tetratriacontane, trimethylsilyl ether of glycerol, trimethyl(octacosyloxy)silane, and trimethyl(triacontyloxy)silane (Giri and Rajbhandari 2018). The ethanolic extract of the leaves subject to GC-MS analysis yielded many compounds including 1,2,3-benzenetriol, 1,2,3-benzenetriol-pyrogallol-C.I., 1,6-anhydro-β-D-glucofuranose silane, 2-furancarboxaldehyde, 5-(hydroxymethyl)-, 3-fluoro-2,5-dimethyl-2,4-hexadiene-2,4hexadiene,3-fluoro-2,5-dimethyl-(CAS), 6,8-dimethylbenzocyclooctene-benzocyclooctene, 6,8-dimethylbenzocyclooctene-benzocyclooctene,6,8-dimethyl-(CAS), 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, D-allose, n-hexadecanoic acid, benzene,1,2,3-trimethoxy-5-methyl, benzene,1-methyl-2-(phenylmethyl)-methane, phenyl-o-tolyl-, glycerin, imidazole-4-carboxylic acid, 1-methyl-, hexadecanoic acid,ethyl ester (CAS), octadecanoic acid, ethyl ester (CAS), phenol,2-(butylthio)-phenol,o-(butylthio)-, phenol,4-(ethoxymethyl)-2-methoxy, phytol, squalene, tetramethyl-1,3,4,2,5-thiadiazadip hospholidine, vitamin e-dl-α-tocopherol, (23S)-ethylcholest-5-en-3β-ol-cholest-5-en-3ol, 23-ethyl-,(3β,23S)-(CAS), and (Z)6,(Z)9-pentadecadien-1-ol (Kartina et al. 2019). The analysis of nutritional value of the leaves by Nyunt et al. (2019) showed carbohydrate as the main constituent (63.95%), followed by fiber (13.81%), and smaller percentages of ash, moisture, fat, and protein. Wong et al. (2012) studied the phytochemistry of the leaves and flowers. In ethyl acetate fractions, there are seven chemical compounds namely ellagic acid, kaempferol, kaempferol 3-O-α-Lrhamnopyranoside, kaempferol 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside, kaempferol 3-O-β-Dglucopyranoside, kaempferol 3-O-(200 ,600 -di-O-E-p-coumaryl)-β-D-galactopyranoside, and quercetin. Meanwhile, five compounds were identified from the chloroform fractions: β-sitosterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, asiatic acid, glycolipid glycerol 1,2-dilinolenyl-3-O-β-D-galactopyanoside, ursolic acid, and 2α-hydroxyursolic acid. Joffry et al. (2012) reports p-pydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, kaempferol, 11-methyl-1-triacontanol, 32-methyl-1-triacontanol, and ursolic acid from leaves and flowers. The flower is the second part subjected to extensive phytochemical analyses. Ellagic acid, kaempferol, kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-β-Dgalactopyranoside, kaempferol-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, kaempferol-3-O-β-Dglucopyranoside, kaempferol-3-O-(200 ,600 -di-O-p-trans-coumaroyl)-β-glucoside, 00 00 kaempferol 3-O-(2 ,6 -di-O-E-p-coumaryl)-β-D-galactopyranoside, malvidin-3,5diglucoside, naringenin, and quercetin have been reported (Ali et al. 2001; Joffry et al. 2012). The nutritional values of flowers by Nyunt et al. (2019) showed that carbohydrate is the most important constituent at 70.92%, followed by fiber at 11.17% and smaller amounts of moisture, ash, protein, and fat. Other identified chemical compounds are: (1) 1-octyl decanoate from whole plant; (2) aerial parts contain 4-methylpeonidin-7-O-β-D-glucoside, kaempferol-3-O-β-D-xyloside, quercetin-3-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-(1!2)-α-D-galactoside, and stearic acid; (3) roots contain 2-(2-hydroxyvinyl)-1-methyl-4-propoxyphthalate, β-sitosterol, betulinic acid, hexacosanoic acid, melastomic acid, and serrat-14-en-16-one; (4) stem contains

Melastoma malabathricum L.

691

α-amyrin; (5) stem bark contains ellagic acid; and 6) fruits contain betulinic acid, cyanidin-3-glucoside, and cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside (Joffry et al. 2012).

Bioactivity Melastoma malabathricum has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, antibacterial, anticoagulant, antidiabetic, antidiarrheal, antihyperlipidemic, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antiparasitic, antipyretic, antiulcer, antivenom, antiviral, chemunomodulatory, cytotoxic, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, platelet inhibitor, and wound healing (Aslam et al. 2017; Balamurugan et al. 2014; Diris et al. 2017; Joffry et al. 2012; Nath et al. 2014; Samad et al. 2018; Simanjuntak 2008). Only one report of acute toxicity has been reported from leaf extracts of this species on mice. Despite it being toxic, the effect is considered minor as no sign of weakness or death have been recorded (Joffry et al. 2012; Sunilson et al. 2009). Anti-inflammatory: Anti-inflammatory properties of leaves has been positively confirmed through in vivo studies (Joffry et al. 2012; Susanti et al. 2008; Zakaria et al. 2006). The most important components of the anti-inflammatory activity in mouse ear edema is kaempferol-3-O-(200 ,600 -di-O-p-trans-coumaroyl)glucoside (Susanti et al. 2008). While, the activity in rats with paw edema results from the presence of flavonoids, saponins, steroids, tannins, and triterpenoids (Zakaria et al. 2006). Anti-platelet activating factor has also reported from in vitro studies of leaf extracts on rabbits (Joffry et al. 2012). Components responsible for this activity possibly are quercetin, quercitrin, betulinic acid, and α-amyrin. This species is a potential source of anti-inflammatory agents (Mazura et al. 2007). Antibacterial and antifungal: Literature reviews by Joffry et al. (2012), and Nugraha and Keller (2011) provide insights into antibacterial and antifungal activities. Various parts and extracts of this plant, from the roots to fruits show activity against Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Brevibacillus brevis, Candida albicans, Candida krusei, Escherichia coli, Fusarium oxysporum, Klebsiella pneumonieae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Saccharomyces cerevisieae, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibro cholerae, and Collecotrichum gloeosporioides (Also see: Wiart et al. 2004). Of the above-mentioned organisms, moderate activities of leaf extracts were recorded against Bacillus cereus, C. albicans, E. coli, K. pneumonieae, Streptococcus aureus, and V. cholerae in vitro (Maji et al. 2010). The antifungal activities of methanol leaf extract on C. gloeosporioides is the most effective, on par with popular medicinal species such as Areca catechu or Piper betle (Johnny et al. 2010). Aqueous leaf extracts are known to be effective against Brevibacillus brevis, V. cholerae, C. krusei, and Bacillus subtilis, while the bark extract is only effective against the first two (Thatoi et al. 2008). Inhibition of the growth of Helicobacter pylori has also recorded form stem and leaf extracts (Uyub et al. 2010). It has been proved that the leaf and flower extracts have antibacterial activities (Wong et al. 2012). The plant extracts inhibit the growth S. aureus and Streptococcus agalactiae (Alnajar et al. 2012). The stem bark of this species was found to be

692

W. A. Mustaqim

effective against Streptococcus mutans (Hanafiah et al. 2018; Nazlina and Yaacob 2014). The leaf extracts are active against Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, Listeria monocytogens, Pantoea ananatis, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium, and S. aureus (Sarbhadikary et al. 2015). Methanolic extracts of the leaves are effective against eight species of bacteria including Salmonella paratyphi, Shigella dysenteriae, and Shigella sonnei (Ferdous et al. 2018). Flower and fruit extracts show inhibition capacity against E. coli, L. monocytogens, Streptococcus aureus, and Salmonella typhimurium (Omar et al. 2013). Further examination of the leaf extracts showed that it is also active against Bacillus cereus, L. monocytogenes, P. aeruginosa, and Streptococcus aureus. However, no activity was recorded against E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium (Suharyanto et al. 2019a). Gram-positive bacteria show more susceptiblity to flower and fruit extracts compared to Gram-negative; both extracts could be used as antimicrobial infusions (Omar et al. 2012). Flower extracts are also reported to be effective against E. coli, Streptococcus aureus, and Salmonella typhii (Isnaini et al. 2018). The presence of symbiotic organisms such as endophytic fungi enhances antimicrobial potential. A total of 91 isolates have been recorded from this species, with the most dominant one being Collelotrichum spp. with 21 isolates and 23.07% of dominance. An antimicrobial study showed 24 of them are capable of inhibit the growth, at least partially, of bacteria or fungal pathogens. Positive inhibitions were reported against E. coli and P. aeruginosa, Streptococcus aureus, Fusarium fungorum, Fusarium gramineum, and Fusarium oxysporum (Mishra et al. 2016). Anticoagulant: Studies reports anticoagulant activities of leaf extracts (Joffry et al. 2012; Manicam et al. 2010). Manicam et al. (2010) studied three kinds of leaf extracts for anticoagulant properties. The highest activity was found in hot water extract, which had the same level as heparin, followed by methanol and cold-water extract. According to Khoo et al. (2014), the polyphenols and acidic polysaccharides named homogalacturonan, rhamnogalacturonan, and rhamnose hexose-pectic type polysaccharide from leaves are responsible for this property. Khoo et al. (2015) further added cinnamic acid and derivatives to the above list. The species has been suggested to have high potential to prevent or treat thromboembolism. Antihyperlipidemic: Methanol leaf extracts could act as antihyperlipidemic agent (Kumar et al. 2013). Balamurugan et al. (2014) reported the lipid-lowering activities of ethanol leaf extracts on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Research on high-fat-diet rats showed anti-obesity properties; methanolic extracts could prevent the increase of body weight, total lipid, and cholesterol. It is also able to prevent the accumulation of abdominal fat (Karupiah and Ismail 2015). Antidiarrheal: Only few reports are available on the antidiarrheal activity of this species. Aqueous leaf extracts tested on mice reported decrease in defecation frequency (Joffry et al. 2012; Sunilson et al. 2009). The extract displayed an effect similar to that of loperamide (Sunilson et al. 2009). Antinociceptive: The antinociceptive activities have been recorded from stem bark and leaves (Joffry et al. 2012; Sulaiman et al. 2004; Zakaria et al. 2006). Similar to anti-inflammatory activities, the antinociceptive properties are due to the presence of flavonoids, saponins, steroids, tannins, and triterpenoids (Zakaria et al. 2006). The

Melastoma malabathricum L.

693

antinociceptive properties of this species is highly likely to have effects on either central or peripheral systems (Sulaiman et al. 2004). Antioxidant: Several studies report antioxidant activities of this species (Ahmed et al. 2019; Alnajar et al. 2012; Danladi et al. 2015b; Giri and Rajbhandari 2018; Joffry et al. 2012; Karupiah and Ismail 2013; Kumar et al. 2013; Rosidah and Tjitraresmi 2018; Sari et al. 2018; Sharma and Kumar 2011; Susanti et al. 2007, 2008). Plant extracts have antioxidant activities as proven using DPPH radical scavenging assay (Alnajar et al. 2012). It has also been recorded from leaf extracts (Anggraini and Lewandowsky 2015). Flower extract obtained through Soxhlet method shows positive antiradical effects due to the presence of the flavonoid kaempferol-3-O-(200 ,600 -di-O-p-trans-coumaroyl)glucoside (Susanti et al. 2007). The air-dried leaf extracts are good antioxidant agents. Chemical compounds responsible for them were found to be quercetin (DPPH assay), quercetin, quercitrin, and kaempferol-3-O-(200 ,600 -di-O-p-trans-coumaroyl)-glucoside (FTC method) (Susanti et al. 2008). Leaf extracted using ethyl acetate, chloroform, and methanol demostrate antioxidant activities, with chloroform extract showing highest activity (Karupiah and Ismail 2013). In DPPH free radical scavenging assay, the flower and fruits had the highest efficacy (86.06  0.30% and 86.01  0.38%), followed by leaves (80.12  0.63%) and roots (60.44  6.04%) (Danladi et al. 2015a). The antioxidant activities also vary between plants grown in different geographic locations (Danladi et al. 2015b). Antiparasitic: The species is reported to possess antiparasitic activity (Joffry et al. 2012). Root extracts at 5 mg/bl dose and above were effective against the pinewood nematode Bursaphelencus xylophilus (Alen et al. 2000). The anthelmintic activities of this species has been confirmed from the leaf extracts; a mixture of 1:1 with the seed of Nigella sativa yielded better activity (See: Basripuzi et al. 2013; Zaini 2017). Antiulcer and gastroprotective: Antiulcer activity was recorded in an experiment on ethanol-induced gastric rats (Hussain et al. 2008; Joffry et al. 2012). Leaf extracts when orally administered to rats reduce ulcer and inhibit the gastric mucosal ulcer formation (Hussain et al. 2008). Further antiulcer studies on the effect of leaf extracts toward ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in rats have confirmed this (Zabidi et al. 2012). The methanolic leaf extracts are known for gastroprotective properties. Agents shown to be responsible for activity against ethanol-induced gastric ulcer include caffeic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, hesperidin, and quercetin (Suhaimy et al. 2017). Gastric juice volume and acidity reduction, increase of some enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase/SOD, GTP, and GTR) and reduction of others (catalase/ CAT, MPO, and TBARS), inhibition of lipoxygenase (LOX) and xanthine oxidase (XO) are mechanisms explaining gastroprotective action of leaf methanolic extracts. These activities are due to quercitrin present in the leaf extract (Zakaria et al. 2015). Chloroform extracts of show gastroprotective activities via the enhancement of gastro mucosa defense and non-antioxidant, anti-inflammatory mechanisms (Zakaria et al. 2016). Methanolic extracts of a 1:1 mixture with Muntingia calabura leaves suggest a synergistic gastroprotective effect via modulation of endogenous antioxidant system of gastric tissue, as well as activations of antioxidant and antisecretory activities (Halim et al. 2017).

694

W. A. Mustaqim

Antiviral: Both whole plant and leaf extracts are effective against against Herpes Simplex Virus – 1 (Joffry et al. 2012; Lohézic-Le Dévéhat et al. 2002; Nazlina et al. 2008; Nugraha and Keller 2011). Methanol extract does not show any toxicity (Nazlina et al. 2008). Among the known noncytotoxic reports come from the investigation of fibroblast cell lines and kidney. The aerial extracts also show activity against poliovirus (Lohézic-Le Dévéhat et al. 2002; Nugraha and Keller 2011). Cytotoxic and/or anti-cancer activities: Plant extract shows potency against many cancer cell lines from humans and murine, including 3LL, L1210, K562, U251, DU145, and MCF-7 (Lohézic-Le Dévéhat et al. 2002). Leaf extract is effective against HT29 colon cancer cell line. Oral application of the extracts are safe; phytochemicals considered responsible for this activity are epigallocatechin, procyanidin A, quercetin, and p-coumaric acid (Kamsani et al. 2019). Flower extracts affect the cell morphology and proliferation of MCF-7 cancer cell lines, owing to the presence of naringenin and kaempferol3-O-(200 ,600 -di-O-p-transcoumaroyl)glucoside (Susanti et al. 2007). A significant cytotoxic effect on MCF-7 was recorded from the methanolic extracts of the leaves, compared to the moderate level of effect noticed from flower extracts (Roslen et al. 2014). Leaf ethanol extract shows cytotoxicity against Dalton’s lymphoma ascites in mice, as indicated by tumor volume reduction, prolonged lifespan, and an improvement on hematological parameters (Balamurugan et al. 2013a). Besides being effective against MCF-7, leaf ethyl acetate extracts also show cytotoxicity on A549 lung cancer cell line (Idris et al. 2017). However, a study by Nazlina et al. (2008) showed that the plant has no impact on Vero and L929 cells line. Hepatoprotective: Leaf extracts show hepatoprotective activity in rats, on paracetamol and carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity experiments (Kamisan et al. 2013; Mamat et al. 2013). Wound healing and antidiabetic: Methanolic extracts show positive impacts on wound healing process through original tissue regeneration in vitro (Joffry et al. 2012; Sunilson et al. 2008). The activity is comparable to that of nitrofurazone, a standard drug frequently used in wound healing (Sunilson et al. 2008). In streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, leaf methanolic extracts show positive antidiabetic results. The level of plasma insulin, hexokinase, is increased by the application of the extract (Kumar et al. 2013). In alloxan-induced rats, ethanol leaf extracts decrease blood glucose level and glycosilated hemoglobin; increase in bodyweights is noticed. Leaf extracts are reported to be nontoxic until 2000 mg/kg in rats (Balamurugan et al. 2014). In rats with diabetic foot ulcer induced by alloxan monohydrate, leaf extract is able to reduce the injury area. The glucose blood levels are also noticeably reduced (Maigoda et al. 2019). Other activities: A few studies suggest antipyretic property of the species (Joffry et al. 2012; Zakaria et al. 2006). Aqueous root extracts neutralizes scorpion (Heteromitrus laoticus) venom (Joffry et al. 2012; Uawonggul et al. 2006). The capability of this species is comparable to that of antivenom agents, along with other species such as Mesua ferrea and Ricinnus communis (Uawonggul et al. 2006). Rajimi and Abdollahi (2013) suggests the use of leaf and stem bark for hemorrhoid treatment. In male albino rats, an improvement of reproductive system has been found.

Melastoma malabathricum L.

695

Ethanolic extracts of the leaves increase the fertility through sperm quality enhancement, including the motility, concentration, and also testosterone levels (Balamurugan et al. 2013b). An immunomodulatory effect on peripheral blood mononuclear cells of human was reported by Alnajar et al. (2012). In the context of endothelial dysfunction, ethanolic extracts of the plant has been proven to inhibit activity of arginase. Optimal activity was recorded from the leaf extract (Sembiring et al. 2018). The ethanolic extract of leaves also inhibit ovary development in immature female orange mud crab (Scylla olivacea), showing potential as antifertility agent (Farizah et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses Cambodia: Fruits consumed by Khmer and Kuy people in Prey Lang (TurreiraGarcía et al. 2017). Indonesia: Fruit consumption has been recorded from various loaclities throughout the country. In Sumatra, the plant is a source of fruit, and also as spice for the local people in Kerinci, Jambi (Sari 2014). Noted to have a delicious taste, the fruit has potential as an afternoon snack (Badri 2018). The fruit is even considered as a “survival fruit” during lean seasons, as reported from the “Coban Trisula,” Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, East Java (Setiawan et al. 2018). In Sulawesi, the fruit is gathered by the people of Napu valley, Poso (Kehlenbeck 2007). The Bentong people in South Sulawesi eat the fruits (Amboupe et al. 2019). The same use also has been previously reported from Nusa Tenggara Islands, from Sasak in Lombok (Metananda 2012) and Samawa, Sumbawa (Rahayu and Rustiammi 2017). Thailand: The ripe fruit is consumed by the local people in Bung Khong Long Non-Hunting area (Suksri et al. 2005).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: In Kerinci of Jambi Province, local people use this species as a source of natural dye for food, yielding strong blue color (Sari 2014); the Serampas people also use this species as a source of ink. The ink is used for letter writing (Hariyadi 2008). The leaves are processed into juice and topically applied for skincare by the Balinese people. (Sujarwo et al. 2020). The people of Yali in West Papua use the fruit as a source of purple-black dye. It is used in string bag decoration. The use of dye from this species for coloring bags has also been recorded from Dani people of Wamena, West Papua (Purwanto and Walujo 1992). Although the species produces wood, it has been said that the wood is not suitable for firewood (Miliken 2000). Malaysia: The Malay people in Perak, Peninsular Malaysia, use the tar from stem wood for teeth blackening (Wray 1893; Zumbroich 2009). The Orang Ulu in Asap Koyan Belaga, Sarawak, extract a purple dye from the root bark, but no specific note on its uses has been recorded (Rosli et al. 2015). The Kadazan/Duzun people in Penampang, Keningau, and Tambunan, Sabah use the plant to prepare face wash (Ahmad and Holdsworth 2003).

696

W. A. Mustaqim

Economic Importance This plant is a good candidate for phytoremediation. It has been shown that the species can absorb Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn to the aerial tissues (Patek-Mohd et al. 2018). The plant also accumulates a small amount of nickel (67.63 μg/g in dry matter) (Bayas et al. 2018). Plant is important in agriculture, mainly due to its ability to live in substrates with high content of aluminium (Al) (Watanabe et al. 1997, 1998, 2005). Some genes responsible for the Al-tolerance such as MmPMA (Muzuni et al. 2014) and MaMt2 (Suharsono et al. 2009) have been isolated. Such discoveries have been very useful in the enhancement of agriculture. For example, the transfer of MmMPA genes to Solanum tuberosum L. Jala ipam was found to enhance root elongation as well as increasing the width of stomatal pore when the plant was grown in a low pH environment (Farhanah et al. 2017). Such improvement in crops also has been shown for MaMt2-transformed soybean (Pardal and Suharsono 2016). These applications in agriculture shows its use as a candidate for transgenic studies (Abdullah and Yong 2007). In the coating industry, fruit pulp is a source of dyes due to the presence of anthocyanins (Aziz et al. 2012). Singh et al. (2014) showed the sensitizer properties of the fruit extracts in dye-sensitized solar cells (Also see: Rus et al. 2013). This plant is an important source of dye (mainly purple) that finds use in various industries (Efendi et al. 2016). This species could be the source of nano natural dyes useful in textile manufacture. The natural dye is useful for natural silks (Wan Ahmad et al. 2012) and cotton fabric (Azizah and Hartana 2018). The use as colorant studied using sonicator showed that the dying is economical when fresh fruit extracts are used (Vankar et al. 2009). A study as food additive of beef sausage shows the use of leaf extracts could prolong shelf life (Suharyanto et al. 2019b). The dye extracted from fruit extracts increase the antioxidant properties of jack fruit jam, besides increasing the color intensity (Sayuti et al. 2015). For scientific needs, the dye from the plants can be used to stain anatomical preparation of ferns and allies, dicots, and monocots stem sections (Deepak and Omman 2013).

References Abdullah JO, Yong WTL. Melastomataceae: inherent economical values substantiating potential transgenic studies in the family. Transgen Plant J. 2007;1(1):237–43. Ahmad FB, Holdsworth DK. Medicinal plants of Sabah, Malaysia – Part I. Pharm Biol. 2003;41 (5):340–6. https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi.41.5.340.15940. Ahmed SR, Roy R, Romi IJ, Hasan M, Bhuiyan MKH, Khan MMH. Phytochemical screening, antioxidant and antibacterial activity of some medicinal plants grown in Sylhet Region. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci. 2019;14(1):26–37. Alen Y, Nakajima S, Nitoda T, Baba N, Kanzaki H, Kawazu K. Antinematodal activity of some tropical rainforest plants against the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Z Naturforsch C. 2000;55(3-4):295–9. Ali DMH, Wong KC, Boey LP. Flavonoids from the flowers of Melastoma malabathricum. Working Paper. Penang: Universiti Sains Malaysia; 2001

Melastoma malabathricum L.

697

Alnajar ZAA, Abdulla MA, Ali HM, Alshawsh MA, Hadi AHA. Acute toxicity evaluation, antibacterial, antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects of Melastoma malabathricum. Molecules. 2012;17:3547–59. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules17033547. Amboupe DS, Hartana A, Purwanto Y. Ethnobotanical study of food plant in Bentong Community from Barru Regency, South Sulawesi-Indonesia. Med Konserv. 2019;24(3):278–86. (in Bahasa). Aminah S, Wardeenar E, Muflihati. Medicinal plants used by battra in the Village Sejahtera Sukadana District North Kayong Regency. J Hut Lest. 2016;4(3):299–305. Amrul HMZN, Susilo F, Huda MK. Etnobotani to explore the potential of medicine plants in Sumatera Utara. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci. 2019;14(5):38–42. Anggraini P, Lewandowsky P. The exotic plants of Indonesia: mahkota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa), sikaduduak (Melastoma malabathricum Linn) and mengkudu (Morinda citrifolia) as potent antioxidant sources. Int J Adv Sci Eng Inform Technol. 2015;5(2):115–8. Anshari M, Martiana T, Putra ST, Dyson L. Ethnomedicine of Dayak Paramasan Ethnic in the Meratus Mountains (Part-1): the medicinal plants for diarrhea and respiratory disorder. J Appl Environ Biol Sci. 2015;5(5):139–47. Aslam MS, Ahmad MS, Ahmad MA. An up-to-date review on phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities of Melastoma malabathricum. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2017;8(5):76–91. Aziz N, Mat Nor NA, Mohd-Adnan AF, Taha RM, Arof AK. Study of anthocyanin stability derived from the fruit pulp of Melastoma malabathricum in a coating system. Pigm Resin Technol. 2012;41(4):223–9. https://doi.org/10.1108/03699421211242455. Azizah E, Hartana A. Utilization of harendong (Melastoma malabathricum) leaves as natural dyes for cotton fabric. Din Ker Batik. 2018;35(1):1–8. Bakhuizen van den Brink Jr RC. A contribution to the knowledge of the Melastomataceae occurring in the Malay Archipelago, especially in the Netherlands East Indies [PhD thesis]. Utrecht: Universiteit Utrecht; 1943. Reprinted in: Rec Travaux Bot Néerl. 1946;40: 1–391. Meded Bot Mus Herb Rijks Univ Utrecht. 1947;91: 1–391. Badri S. Wild and edible – Borneo Nature Foundation. 2018. http://www.borneonaturefoundation. org/en/research/wild-and-edible/. Retrieved 19 June 2018. Balamurugan K, Nisanthini A, Mohan VR. Anticancer activity of ethanol extract of Melastoma malabathricum L. leaf against Dalton ascites lymphoma. J Pharm Sci Res. 2013a;5(5):111–4. Balamurugan K, Sakhtidevi G, Mohan VR. Stimulatory effect of the ethanol extract of Melastoma malabathricum L. (Melastomataceae) leaf on the reproductive system of male albino rats. J Appl Pharmaceutic Res. 2013b;3(2):160–5. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2013.30228. Balamurugan K, Nisanthini A, Mohan VR. Antidiabetic and antihyperlipidaemic activity of ethanol extract of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. leaf in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(suppl 1):S442–8. https://doi.org/10.12980/APJTB.4.2014C122. Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. Electro J Biol. 2015;11(3):80–9. Basripuzi HB, Sani RA, Ariff OM, Chandrawathani P. Evaluation of enhanced virgin coconut oil and senduduk (Melastoma malabathricum) as anthelmintics against caprine strongyle nematodes. Trop Biomed. 2013;30(3):516–25. Bayas QEB, Salvador SASJ, Ragragio EM, Obico JJA. Taxonomic survey of nickel hyperaccumulating plants in a Mining Site on Luzon Island, Philippines. Philipp J Syst Biol. 2018;12(1):103–8. BOS. The Biodiversity of Singapore – Melastoma malabathricum. 2020. https://singapore.biodi versity.online/species/P-Angi-003376. Retrieved 18 June 2020. Campilan JRH, Tumamac MC, Dorado EL. Quantitative ethnobotanical study, phytochemical screening and antibacterial assay of ethnomedicinal plants of T’boli in Lemsnolon, Tboli, South Cotabato. Int J Pharm Phytochem Ethnomed. 2019;13:45–61. https://doi.org/10.18052/ www.scipress.com/IJPPE.13.45. Chen J, Renner SM. Melastomataceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 13 (Clusiaceae through Araliaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2007. p. 360–99.

698

W. A. Mustaqim

Danladi S, Wan-Azemin A, Sani YN, Suryati Mohd K, Rao USM, Mansor SM, Dharmaraj S. Phytochemical screening, antioxidant potential and cytotoxic activity of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. from different locations. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2015a;7(7):408–13. Danladi S, Wan-Azemin A, Sani YN, Suryati Mohd K, Mahadeva Rao US, Mansor SM, Dharmaraj S. Phytochemical screening, total phenolic and total flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity of different parts of Melastoma malabathricum. J Teknol. 2015b;77(2):63–8. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schummann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2020;19:1–18. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18.art31. De Guzman GQ, Nacua AE, Belgica THR, Clemente KJE, Alejandro GJD. Assessment, inventory and ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Mount Malinao (Albay, Philippines). Int J Pharm Teach Pract. 2014;5(3):1014–9. Deepak MS, Omman P. Use of dye extract of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. for plant anatomical staining. Acta Biol Indica. 2013;2(2):456–60. Diba F, Yusro F, Mariani Y, Ohtani K. Inventory and biodiversity of medicinal plants from tropical rain forest based on traditional knowledge by ethnic Dayaknese Communities in West Kalimantan Indonesia. Kuroshio Sci. 2013;7(1):75–80. Diris MN, Basri AM, Metali F, Ahmad N, Taha H. Phytochemicals and antimicrobial activities of Melastoma malabathricum and Melastoma beccarianum leaf crude extracts. Res J Phytochem. 2017;11:35–41. https://doi.org/10.3923/rjphyto.2017.35.41. Dubost JM, Phakeovilay C, Her C, Bochaton A, Elliott E, Deharo E, Xayvue M, Bouamanivong S, Bourdy G. Hmong herbal medicine and herbalists in Lao PDR: pharmacopeia and knowledge transmission. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-03072.art27. Due R. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat suku Dayak Pesaguan dan implementasinya dalam pembuatan flash card biodiversitas [undergraduate thesis]. Pontianak: Universitas Tanjungpura; 2013. (in Bahasa). Efendi M, Hapitasari IG, Rustandi, Supriyatna A. Inventarisasi tumbuhan penghasil pewarna alami di Kebun Raya Cibodas. J Bumi Lest. 2016;16(1):50–8. Ellen R, Puri R. Conceptualising ‘core’ medicinal floras: A comparative and methodological study of phytomedical resources in related Indonesian populations. Conserv Soc. 2016;14(4):345–58. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-4923.197608. Elliott S, Brimacombe J. The medicinal plants of Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 1987;19:285–317. Fahrurozi I. Keanekaragaman tumbuhan obat di Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango dan di hutan terfragmentasi Kebun Raya Cibodas serta pemanfaatannya oleh masyarakat lokal [undergraduate thesis]. Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah; 2014. Falah F, Hadiwibowo N. Species identification of traditional medicine plants for women’s health in East Kalimantan: lesson learned from local wisdom. Indon J For Res. 2017;4(1):49–67. Falah F, Sayektiningsih T, Noorcahyati. Diversity and utilization of medicinal plants by local community around Gunung Beratus Protection Forest, East Kalimantan. J PHKA. 2013;10 (1):1–18. Farhanah A, Suharsono, Wattimena GA, Widyastusi U. Genetic engineering of potato plant (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv. Jala Ipam with MmPMA gene encoding plasma membrane H+ATPase. Pak J Biotechnol. 2017;14(1):37–42. Faridah Hanum I, Hamzah N. The use of medicinal plant species by the Temuan Tribe of Ayer Hitam Forest, Selangor, Malaysia. Pertanika J Trop Agric Sci. 1999;22(2):85–94. Farizah N, Zairin JRM, Darusman LK, Boediono A, Suprayudi MA. The side effect of the Melastoma malabathricum L ethanol extract on the gonad maturation of female orange mud crab (Scylla olivacea). HAYAT. 2018;25(4):188–97. https://doi.org/10.4308/hjb.25.4.188. Fauzi, Widodo H, Haryanti S. Study on the most common medicinal plants used for aphrodisiac by ethnic groups in Indonesia. Media Litbangkes. 2019;29(1):51–64. https://doi.org/10.22435/ mpk.v29i1.466.

Melastoma malabathricum L.

699

Ferdous N, Rahman M, Alamgir ANM. Secondary metabolites and bioactivities of Melastoma malabathricum (L.) Smith: an anti-diarrheal plant of Bangladesh. Chem J. 2018;1(3):256–61. Fernando O, Nursyahra, Rizki. Studi pemanfaatan tumbuhan familia Zingiberaceae yang berkhasiat obat di Kecamatan Luhak Nan Duo Kabupaten Pasaman Barat. Pend Biol. 2008;4(2):1–5. (in Bahasa). Gailea R, Bratawinata AA, Pitopang R, Kusuma IW. The use of various plant types as medicines by local community in the enclave of the Lore-Lindu National Park of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Global J Res Med Plants Indigen Med. 2016;5(1):29–40. Giri DP, Rajbhandari M. Phytochemical analysis and constituents of hexane extract of Melastoma malabathricum L. J Instr Sci Technol. 2018;23:18–25. https://doi.org/10.3126/jist.v23i1.22150. Grosvenor PW, Gothard PK, McWilliam NC, Supriono A, Gray DO. Medicinal plants from Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Part 1: uses. J Ethnopharmacol. 1995;45:75–95. Guevara CPB, Garcia MM. Ethnobotanical practices of Matigsalug Tribe on medicinal plants at Barangay Baganihan, Marilog District, Davao City. J Complement Altern Med Res. 2018;6 (3):1–14. Hakim L. Rempah dan herba kebun-pekarangan rumah masyarakat: Keragaman, sumber fitofarmaka dan wisata kesehatan-kebugaran. Diandra Creative: Yogyakarta; 2015. Halim SZ, Zakaria ZA, Omar MH, Mohtarrudin N, Wahab IRA, Abdullah MNH. Synergistic gastroprotective activity of methanolic extract of a mixture of Melastoma malabathricum and Muntingia calabura leaves in rats. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2017;17:1–16. https://doi. org/10.1186/s12906-017-1992-9.art488. Hanafiah RM, Abd Ghafar SA, Ibrahim Z, Wan Ahmad WY, Aqma WS, Ibrahim N. Anti-bacterial activities of Melastoma malabathricum stem bark fractions against Streptococcus mutans. Malays J Sci Health Tech. 2018;1(1):52–6. Handayani M, Lambui O, Suwastika IN. Ethanol Extracts of Melastoma malabathricum L. leaves potential as antibacterial agent on Salmonella. Nat Sci J Sci Tech. 2017;6(2):165–74. Hariyadi B. The entwined tree: traditional natural resource management of Serampas, Jambi, Indonesia [dissertation]. Hawai’i: University of Hawai’i; 2008. Hariyadi B, Ticktin T. Uras: medicinal and ritual plants of Serampas, Jambi Indonesia. Ethno Res Appl. 2012;10:133–49. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol10/i1547-3465-10-133.pdf. Hosking JR, Conn BJ, Lepschi BJ, Barker CH. Plant species first recognised as naturalised or naturalising for New South Wales in 2004 and 2005. Cunninghamia. 2011;12(1):85–114. Hussain F, Abdulla MA, Noor SM, Ismail S, Ali HM. Gastroprotective effects of Melastoma malabathricum aqueous leaf extract against ethanol-induced gastric ulcer Iin rats. Am J Biochem Biotech. 2008;4(4):438–41. Idris A, Zulkipli IN, Zulhilmi NR, Lee HF, Rajabalaya R, Chee LY, Majid M, David SR. Melastoma malabathricum ethyl acetate fraction induces secondary necrosis in human breast and lung cancer cell lines. Pharm Res. 2017;13(Suppl 3):S688–92. https://doi.org/10.4103/pm. pm_465_15. Isnaini, Budiarti LY, Muthmainah N, Baringgo DS, Frisilia R, Sulistyaningrum N, Batubara IF, Sufiratmi W, Renalta WD. Antibacterial activities of ethanol extract of karamunting (Melastoma malabathricum L.) leaf and flowers on Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus. Proc BROMO Conf. 2018; 1:316–8. https://doi.org/10.5220/0008362003160318 Jalius, Muswita. Exploration of medicinal plants indigenous knowledge of Batin Ethnic Group, Jambi. Bios. 2013;6(1):28–37. Joffry SM, Yob NJ, Rofiee MS, Affandi MMRMM, Suhaili Z, Othman F, Akim AM, Desa MNM, Zakaria ZA. Melastoma malabathricum (L.) Smith ethnomedicinal uses, chemical constituents, and pharmacological properties: a review. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2012; 2012:1– 48. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/258434.art.258434. Johnny L, Yusuf UK, Nulit R. The effect of herbal plant extracts on the growth and sporulation of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. J Appl Biosci. 2010;34:2218–24. Kamisan FH, Yahya F, Ismail NA, Shamsahal Din S, Mamat SS, Zabidi Z, Wan Zainulddin WN, Mohtarrudin N, Husain H, Ahmad Z, Zakaria ZA. Hepatoprotective activity of methanol extract

700

W. A. Mustaqim

of Melastoma malabathricum leaf in rats. J Acupunct Meridian Stud. 2013;6(1):52–5. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jams.2012.08.002. Kamsani NE, Zakaria ZA, Md Nasir NL, Mohtarrudin N, Alitheen NBM. Safety assessment of methanol extract of Melastoma malabathricum L. leaves following the subacute and subchronic oral consumptions in rats and its cytotoxic effect against the HT29 cancer cell line. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2019:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5207958.art.5207958. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256: art. 112788; 1–14 pp. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kartina, Agang MW, Adiwena M. Characterisation of phytochemical content of leaf extract from karamunting (Melastoma malabatchricum L.) using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Biota. 2019;4(1):16–23. Karupiah S, Ismail Z. Antioxidative effect of Melastoma malabathricum L extract and determination of its bioactive flavonoids from various location in Malaysia by RP-HPLC with diode array detection. J Appl Pharma Sci. 2013;3(2):19–24. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2013.30204. Karupiah S, Ismail Z. Anti-obesity effects of Melastoma malabathricum var alba Linn in rats fed with a high-fat diet. AAPS Pharm Sci Tech. 2015;16(3):548–53. https://doi.org/10.1208/ s12249-014-0245-1. Kasrina, Susianti R. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants for Lembak Delapan ethnic in Tanjung Teranda, Bengkulu. In: Proceedings The 3rd International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere [ISSH] – A Forum of the Humanosphere Science School [HSS] 2013. Jakarta: Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials – LIPI; 2014. p. 70–6. Kehlenbeck K. Rural homegardens in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia: an example for a sustainable agro-ecosystem? [dissertation]. Göttingen: Georg-August-Universität Göttingen; 2007. Khoo LT, Abas F, Abdullah JO, Tohit ERM, Hamid M. Anticoagulant activity of polyphenolicpolysaccharides isolated from Melastoma malabathricum L. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2014:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/614273.art.614273. Khoo LT, Abdullah JO, Abas F, Tohit ERM, Hamid M. Bioassay-guided fractionation of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. leaf solid phase extraction fraction and its anticoagulant activity. Molecules. 2015;20:3697–715. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules20033697. Kristiana HD, Ariviani S, Khasanah LU. Anthocyanin pigments extraction of senggani fruit (Melastoma malabathricum auct. non Linn.) with variation in the type of solvent. J Teknosains Pang. 2012;1(1):105–9. Kuin A. Medicinal plants of the Iban communit at Kampung Sebubu Saratok, Sri Aman [undergraduate thesis]. Kota Samarahan: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak; 2005. Kumar V, Ahmed D, Gupta PS, Anwar F, Mujeeb M. Anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant and antihyperlipidemic activities of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. leaves in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2013;13:1–19. http://www.biomedcentral.com/ 1472-6882/13/222.art.222 Kuni BE, Hardiansyah G, Idham. Ethnobotany of Dayak Kerabat Tribe in the Tapang Perodah Village Sub-District of Sekadau Hulu the district of Sekadau. J Hut Lest. 2015;3(3):383–400. Lense O. The wild plants used as traditional medicines by indigenous people of Manokwari, West Papua. Biodiversitas. 2012;13(2):98–106. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d130208. Lin KW. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Jah Hut peoples in Malaysia. Indian J Med Sci. 2015;59(4):156–61. Lohézic-Le Dévéhat F, Bakhtiar A, Bézivin C, Amoros M, Boustie J. Antiviral and cytotoxic activities of some Indonesian plants. Fitoterapia. 2002;73:400–5. Maigoda TC, Siregar A, Podojoyo, Ridhowati S, Krisnasary A. Wound healing and blood sugar effect of Psidium guajava L. leaves and Melastoma malabathricum L. leaves on rats with diabetic foot ulcer. J Appl Sci. 2019;19(4):287–94. Maji S, Dandapat P, Ojha D, Maity C, Halder SK, Das Mohapatra PK, Pathak TK, Pati BR, Samanta A, Mondal KC. In vitro antimicrobial potentialities of different solvent extracts of ethnomedicinal plants against clinically isolated human pathogens. J Phytol. 2010;2(4):57–64.

Melastoma malabathricum L.

701

Mamat SS, Kamarolzaman MFF, Yahya F, Mahmood ND, Shahril MS, Jakius KF, Mohtarrudin N, Ching SM, Susanti D, Taher M, Zakaria ZA. Methanol extract of Melastoma malabathricum leaves exerted antioxidant and liver protective activity in rats. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2013;13:1–12. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882/13/326.art326. Manicam C, Abdullah JO, Tohit ERM, Seman Z, Chin SC, Hamid M. In vitro anticoagulant activities of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. aqueous leaf extract: A preliminary novel finding. J Med Plant Res. 2010;4(14):1464–72. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR10.136. Mazura MP, Susanti D, Rasadah MA. Anti-inflammatory action of components from Melastoma malabathricum. Pharm Biol. 2007;45(5):372–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/13880200701214797. Metananda AA. Etnobotani pangan dan obat masyarakat sekitar Taman Nasional Gunung Rinjani (Studi kasus pada Suku Sasak di Desa Jeruk Manis, Kecamatan Sikur, Kabupaten Lombok Timur, Nusa Tenggara Barat) [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2012. Meyer K. Revision of the Southeast Asian genus Melastoma (Melastomataceae). Blumea. 2001;46:351–98. Miliken W. Ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Royal Botanic Garden: Edinburgh; 2000. Milow P, Ramli MR, Chooi OH. Preliminary survey on plants in home gardens in Pahang, Malaysia. J Biodiversity. 2010;1(1):19–25. Mishra VK, Singh G, Passari AK, Yadav MK, Gupta VK, Singh BP. Distribution and antimicrobial potential of endophytic fungi associated with ethnomedicinal plant Melastoma malabathricum L. J Environ Biol. 2016;37(2):229–37. Mujahid R, Wahyono S, Priyambodo WJ, Subositi D. Studi etnomedicine pengobatan luka terbuka dan sakit kulit pada beberapa etnis di Provinsi Kalimantan Timur. Kartika J Ilmiah Farm. 2019;7 (1):27–34. https://doi.org/10.26874/kjif.v7i1.178. Mustofa FI, Rahmawati N, Aminullah. Medicinal plants and practices of Rongkong Traditional Healers in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2020;21(2):642–51. https://doi.org/ 10.13057/biodiv/d210229. Muzuni, Sopandie D, Suharsono UW, Suharsono. Isolation and cloning of the gene encoding for plasma membrane H+-ATPase from Melastoma malabathricum L. J Agron Indones. 2014;42 (1):80–8. (in Bahasa). Nasution A, Chikmawati T, Walujo EB, Zuhud EAM. Ethnobotany of MandailingTribe in Batang Gadis National Park. J Trop Life Sci. 2018;8(1):48–54. https://doi.org/10.11594/jtls.08.01.09. Nath D, Choudhury MD, Mazumder PB, Mitra A. Phytochemical profiling of Melastoma malabathricum Linnaeus (Melastomataceae): an ethnomedicinally important plant of Eastern Himalaya. Pleione. 2014;8(2):478–85. Nazlina RMH, Yaacob WA. Anti-biofilm and anti-adherence activities of sub fraction 18 of Melastoma malabathricum towards Streptococcus mutans. AIP Conf Proc. 2014;1614:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4895261.art557. Nazlina I, Norha S, Noor Zarina AW, Ahmad IB. Cytotoxicity and antiviral activity of Melastoma malabathricum extracts. Malays Appl Biol. 2008;37(2):53–5. Neamsuvan O, Sengnon N, Seemaphrik N, Chouychoo M, Rungrat R, Bunrasri S. A survey of medicinal plants around Upper Songkhla Lake, Thailand. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2015;12(2):133–43. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v12i2.20. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Novi, Septrilia V. Inventarisasi tumbuhan obat yang dimanfaatkan oleh masyarakat Desa Durian Pandaan Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan. Biotropic J Trop Biol. 2020;4(1):40–7. (in Bahasa). Nugraha AS, Keller PA. Revealing indigenous Indonesian traditional medicine: anti-infective agents. Nat Prod Commun. 2011;6(12):1953–66. Nyunt HHW, Win KC, Than NN. Screening of some biological activities from leaves and flowers of Melastoma malabathricum L. (nyaung-ye-o-pan). J Myanmar Acad Arts Sci. 2019;17(1A):547–59. Oktariani S P. Eksplorasi pengetahuan lokal etnomedisin dan tumbuhan obat di Desa Tanjung Jati, Negeri Tenumbang dan Tulung Bamban pada Kecamatan Pesisir Selatan Kabupaten Pesisir Barat. Lampung: UIN Raden Intan; 2018. (in Bahasa).

702

W. A. Mustaqim

Omar SNC, Abdullah JO, Khairoji KA, Chin SC, Hamid M. Potentials of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. flower and fruit extracts as antimicrobial infusions. Am J Plant Sci. 2012;3:1127–34. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2012.38136. Omar SNC, Abdullah JO, Khairoji KA, Chin SC, Hamid M. Effects of flower and fruit extracts of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. on growth of pathogenic bacteria: Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella typhimurium. Evid-Based Complement Altern Med. 2013:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/459089.art.459089. Oktavia D. Komposisi vegetasi dan potensi tumbuhan obat di hutan kerangas Kabupaten Belitung Timur Provinsi Kepulauan Bangka Belitung [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2012. Ong HC, Nordiana M. Malay ethno-medico botany in Machang, Kelantan, Malaysia. Fitoterapia. 1999;70:502–13. Ong HC, Norzalina J. Malay herbal medicine in Gemencheh, Negri Sembilan, Malaysia. Fitoterapia. 1999;70:10–4. Pardal SJ, Suharsono. Evaluation for tolerance of transgenic soybean lines to Aluminum in biosafety containtement. Penel Pertan Tan Pang. 2016;35(2):155–62. (in Bahasa). Patek-Mohd NN, Abdu A, Jusop S, Abdul-Hamid H, Karim MR, Nazrin M, Akbar MH, Jamaluddin AS. Potentiality of Melastoma malabathricum as phytoremediators of soil contaminated with sewage sludge. Sci Agric. 2018;75(1):27–35. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-992X-2016-0002. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011–onwards. https:// www.philippineplants.org/. Retrieved 18 June 2020. Plucknett DL, Stone BC. The principal weedy Melastomataceae in Hawaii. Pac Sci. 1961;15:301–3. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 18 June 2020. Purwanto Y, Walujo EB. Etnobotani suku Dani di lembah Baliem-Irian Jaya: suatu telaah tentang pengetahuan dan pemanfaatan sumber daya alam tumbuhan. In: Nasution RE, editor. Prosiding, Seminar dan Lokakarya Nasional Etnobotani, Cisarua-Bogor 1992. Jakarta: Perpustakaan Nasional R.I; 1992. p. 132–48. (in Bahasa). Rahayu M, Rustiammi H. Etnobotani masyarakat Samawa Pulau Sumbawa. Scr Biol. 2017;4 (4):235–45. https://doi.org/10.20884/1.sb.2017.4.4.605. (in Bahasa). Rahayu M, Sunarti S, Sulistiarini D, Prawiroatmodjo S. Traditonal use of medicinal herbs by local community of Wawonii Island, Southeast Sulawesi. Biodiversitas. 2006;7(3):245–50. https:// doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d070310. Rajimi R, Abdollahi M. Evidence-based review of medicinal plants used for the treatments of hemorrhoids. Int J Pharmacol. 2013;9(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijp.2013.1.11. Raterta R, de Guzman GQ, Alejandro GJD. Assessment, inventory and ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Batan and Sabtang Island (Batanes Group of Islands, Philippines). Int J Pure App Biosci. 2014;2(4):147–54. Ringmichon CL, Shimpi SN, Gopalkhrisnan B. Ethnomedicinal investigations on Melastoma malabathricum Linn. from Manipur. J Herb Med Toxicol. 2010;4(2):95–8. Rizki R, Nursyahra, Fernando O. Study of weeds as traditional medicinal plants used by indigenous people of West Pasaman, Indonesia. J Trop Hort. 2019;2(2):81–5. https://doi.org/10.33089/ jthort.v2i2.21. Rohman F, Juma Y, Sulisetijono, Utomo DH, Purwanto, Lestari SR, Arifah SN, Putra WE. Plants diversity as a medicinal plants by the Tengger Tribe, Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, East Java, Indonesia. Eurasia J Biosci. 2019;13:2293–8. Roosita K, Kusharto CM, Sekiyama M, Fachrurozi Y, Ohtsuka R. Medicinal plants used by the villagers of a Sundanese community in West Java, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;115:72–81. Rosidah, Tjitraresmi A. Potensi tanaman Melastomataceae sebagai antioksidan. Farmaka. 2018;16 (Suppl_1):24–33. Roslen NA, Mat Alewi NA, Ahamada H, Rasad MSBA. Cytotoxicity screening of Melastoma malabathricum extracts on human breast cancer cell lines in vitro. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(7):545–8.

Melastoma malabathricum L.

703

Rosli N, Ismail Z, Lepun P. Plants used as natural dye by the Orang Ulu Ethnics in Asap Koyan Belaga Sarawak, Malaysia. Int J Curr Res. 2015;7(8):19770–5. Rugayah, Sunarti S, Sulistiarini D, Hidayat A, Rahayu M. Daftar jenis tumbuhan di Pulau Wawonii, Sulawesi Tenggara. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2015. Rus AZM, Abdullah NM, Abdullah MFL. Characterization and treatment of titanium dioxide via ultrasonic process with Melastoma malabathricum as sustainable sensitizer for photovoltaic solar cell. J Chem. 2013:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/251741.art.251741. Samad NA, Nik Mohamed Kamal NNS, Yahaya N, Bin Aziz MY, Zain NNM, Md Yusoff NA, Lim V. Ethnobotanical, phytochemical, and pharmacological aspects of Melastoma sp. Mal J Med Health Sci. 2018;14(Supp1):153–63. Santoso EA, Jumari, Utami S. Inventory and biodiversity medicinal plants of Dayak Tomun society in Lopus Village Lamandau Regency Central Kalimantan. IOP Conf Ser: J Phy: Conf Ser. 2019;1217:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1217/1/012171.art.012171. Sari DA. Etnoekologi masyarakat Kerinci di Kabupaten Kerinci, Provinsi Jambi [master thesis]. Depok: Universitas Indonesia; 2014. (in Bahasa). Sarbadhikary SB, Bhowmik S, Datta BK, Mandal NC. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of leaf extracts of two indigenous angiosperm species of Tripura. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci. 2015;4(8):643–55 Sari NM, Kuspradini H, Amirta R, Kusuma IW. Antioxidant activity of an invasive plant, Melastoma malabathricum and its potential as herbal tea product. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2018;144:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/144/1/012029.art.012029. Sarma D, Basumatary P, Datta BK. Allelopathic impact of Melastoma malabathricum L. on the seed germination and seedling growth of three agricultural crops. J Indian Bot Soc. 2019;98 (4):183–93. Sayuti K, Azina F, Marisa M. The addition of “senduduk” fruit (Melastoma malabathricum, L.) extract as colorants and antioxidant on jackfruit straw (Artocarpus heterophyllus, L.) jam. Int J Adv Sci Eng Inform Tech. 2015;5(6):396–401. Sembiring EN, Elya B, Sauriasari R. Inhibitory effect on arginase and total phenolic content determination of extracts from different parts of Melastoma malabathricum L. J Young Pharm. 2018;10(2 Suppl):s114–7. Setiawan ME, Suhadi, Indriwati SE. Exploration of The Plant’s Survival at Resort of Manufacture National Park II ‘Coban Trisula’ Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. In: Amin M, Duran CA, Zubaidah S, Hastuti US, Suhadi LU, Gofur A, Irawati MH, editors. Proceeding ICoMSE 2017 International Conference on Mathematics, Science, and Education: Innovation of Mathematics, Science, and Education Research for Sustainable Development. Malang: State University of Malang; 2018. p. 138–42. Sharma HK, Kumar A. Evaluation of total phenol, flavonoid and in vitro antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of leaves of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. Asian J Chem. 2011;23(1):434–8. Silalahi M, Nisyawati. An ethnobotanical study of traditional steam-bathing by the Batak people of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Pac Conserv Biol. 2018:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1071/PC18038. Silalahi M, Purba EC, Mustaqim WA. Tumbuhan obat Sumatera Utara jilid II: Dikotiledon. Jakarta: UKI Press; 2019. Simanjuntak M. Ekstraksi dan fraksinasi komponen ekstrak daun tumbuhan senduduk (Melastoma malabathricum L.) serta pengujian efek sediaan krim terhadap penyembuhan luka bakar. Medan: Universitas Sumatera Utara; 2008. Singh LK, Karlo T, Pandey A. Performance of fruit extract of Melastoma malabathricum L. as sensitizer in DSSCs. Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc. 2014;118:938–43. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.saa.2013.09.075. Sirat HM, Susanti D, Ahmad F, Takayama H, Kitajima M. Amides, triterpene and flavonoids from the leaves of Melastoma malabathricum L. J Nat Med. 2010;64:492–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11418-010-0431-8. Suhaimy NWI, Azmi AKN, Mohtarrudin N, Omar MH, Tohid SFM, Cheema MS, Teh LK, Salleh MZ, Zakaria ZA. Semipurified ethyl acetate partition of methanolic extract of Melastoma

704

W. A. Mustaqim

malabathricum leaves exerts gastroprotective activity partly via its antioxidant-antisecretoryanti-inflammatory action and synergistic action of several flavonoid-based compounds. Oxidative Med Cell Longev. 2017:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/6542631.art.6542631. Suharsono, Trisnaningrum N, Sulistyaningsih LD, Widyastuti U. Isolation and cloning of cDNA of gene encoding for metallothionein type 2 from Melastoma affine. Biotropia. 2009;16(1):28–37. Suharyanto, Nuraini H, Suryati T, Arief II, Sajuthi D. Antioxidant and antibacterial properties of aqueous extract of senduduk (Melastoma malabathricum L.) leaf from Indonesia for food additive. Pak J Nutr. 2019a;18:391–400. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2019.391.400. Suharyanto, Nuraini H, Suryati T, Arief II, Sajuthi D. Potential use of senduduk (Melastoma malabathricum) leaf extract as food additive on beef sausage. J Apl Tek Pang. 2019b;8(1):1– 12. https://doi.org/10.17728/jatp.3147. Sujarwo W, van der Hoeven B, Pendit IMR. Usada: traditional Balinese medicinal plants. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2020. Suksri S, Premcharoen S, Thawatphan C, Sangthongprow S. Ethnobotany in Bung Khong Long Non-Hunting Area, Northeast Thailand. Kasetsart J (Nat Sci). 2005;39:519–33. Sulaiman MR, Somchit MN, Israf DA, Ahmad Z, Moin S. Antinociceptive effect of Melastoma malabathricum ethanolic extract in mice. Fitoterapia. 2004;75(7–8):667–72. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.fitote.2004.07.002. Sulistyaningsih YC, Dorly, Djuita NR, Ariyanti NS, Akmal H, Putra HF, Fakhrurrozi Y, Mustaqim WA. A field guide to the potential plants of Belitung Islands. Bogor: IPB Press; 2019. Sunilson JAJ, James J, Thomas J, Jayaraj P, Varatharajan R, Muthappan M. Antibacterial and wound healing activities of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. Afr J Infect Dis. 2008;2(2):68–73. Sunilson JAJ, Anandarajagopal K, Kumari AVAG, Mohan S. Antidiarrhoeal activity of leaves of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. Ind J Pharma Sci. 2009;71(6):691–5. Susanti R, Zuhud EAM. Traditional ecological knowledge and biodiversity conservation: the medicinal plants of the Dayak Krayan people in Kayan Mentarang National Park, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(9):2764–9. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d200943. Susanti D, Sirat HM, Ahmad F, Ali RM, Aimi N, Kitajima M. Antioxidant and cytotoxic flavonoids from the flowers of Melastoma malabathricum L. Food Chem. 2007;103:710–6. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.09.011. Susanti D, Sirat HM, Ahmad F, Ali RM. Bioactive constituents from the leaves of Melastoma malabathricum L. J Ilmiah Farm. 2008;5(1):1–9. Syukur M, Sumarni S. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat Desa Benua Kencana Kecamatan Tempunak Kabupaten Sintang Kalimantan Barat. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Tahunan dan Kongres Komunitas Management Hutan Indonesia (KOMHINDO III). Palangkaraya: Universitas Muhammadiyah Palangkaraya; 2018. p. 189–196. (in Bahasa). Tambaru E. Keragaman jenis tumbuhan obat indigenous di Sulawesi Selatan. J Ilmu Alam Ling. 2017;8(15):7–13. Tangjitman K, Wongsawad C, Kamwong K, Sukkho T, Trisonthi C. Ethnomedicinal plants used for digestive system disorders by the Karen of northern Thailand. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0011-9.art27. Thatoi HN, Panda SK, Rath SK, Dutta SK. Antimicrobial activity and ethnomedicinal uses of some medicinal plants from Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Orissa. Asian J Plant Sci. 2008;7(3):260–7. Tim Peneliti Fakultas Kehutanan Universitas Mulawarman Samarinda and Tim Sosial dan Pembinaan Hutan PT Karya Lestari Berau. Potensi hasil hutan bukan kayu di areal IUPHHKHA PT Karya Lestari. Berau: PT Karya Lestari Berau; 2015. (in Bahasa). TKDLPH. Alintutungauw – Philippine Traditional Knowledge Digital Library on Health. 2016. http://www.tkdlph.com/index.php/component/joodb/article/11-plants-database/12811alintutungaw. Retrieved 19 June 2020. Toaiang AA, Sayok AK. Utilization of non timber forest products by Duyoh Community, Bau District, Sarawak, Malaysia. Int J Contemp Res Rev. 2019;20(9):20195–205. https://doi.org/ 10.15520/ijcrr.v10i08.729.

Melastoma malabathricum L.

705

Turreira-García N, Argyriou D, Chhang P, Srisanga P, Theilade I. Ethnobotanical knowledge of the Kuy and Khmer people in Prey Lang, Cambodia. Cambodian J Nat Hist. 2017;1:76–101. Uawonggul N, Chaveerach A, Thammasirirak S, Arkaravichien T, Chuachan C, Daduang S. Screening of plants acting against Heterometrus laoticus scorpion venom activity on fibroblast cell lysis. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;103:201–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.08.003. Uyub AM, Nwachukwu IN, Azlan AA, Fariza SS. In-vitro antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity of selected medicinal plant extracts from Penang Island Malaysia on metronidazoleresistantHelicobacter pylori and some pathogenic bacteria. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010;8:95– 106. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol8/i1547-3465-08-095.pdf. Vankar PS, Tiwari V, Singh LW, Potsangbam L. Sonicator dyeing of cotton fabric and chemical characterization of the colorant from Melastoma malabathricum. Pigm Resin Technol. 2009;38 (1):38–42. https://doi.org/10.1108/03699420910923562. Wan Ahmad WY, Mohd Nor MA, Saim N, Ab Kadir MI, Ahmad MR. Nano natural dyes from Melastoma malabathricum L. Adv Mater Res. 2012;545:59–63. https://doi.org/10.4028/www. scientific.net/AMR.545.59. Watanabe T, Osaki M, Tadano T. Aluminum-induced growth stimulation in relation to calcium, magnesium, and silicate nutrition in Melastoma malabathricum L. Soil Sci Plant Nutr. 1997;43 (4):827–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380768.1997.10414649. Watanabe T, Osaki M, Yoshihara T, Tadano T. Distribution and chemical speciation of aluminum in the Al accumulator plant, Melastoma malabathricum L. Plant Soil. 1998;201:165–73. Watanabe T, Misawa S, Osaki M. Aluminum accumulation in the roots of Melastoma malabathricum, an aluminum-accumulating plant. Can J Bot. 2005;83:1518–22. https://doi.org/10.1139/b05-111. Wiart C, Mogana S, Khalifah S, Mahan M, Ismail S, Buckle M, Narayana AK, Sulaiman M. Antimicrobial screening of plants used for traditional medicine in the state of Perak, Peninsular Malaysia. Fitoterapia. 2004;75:68–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2003.07.013. Wong KM. Studies in Southeast Asian Melastoma (Melastomataceae), 1. Morphological variation in Melastoma malabathricum and notes on rheophytic taxa and interspecific hybridisation in the genus. Gard Bull Singapore. 2015;67(1):387–401. https://doi.org/10.3850/S2382581215 000319. Wong KM. The genus Melastoma in Borneo: including 31 new species. Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications; 2016. Wong KM, Low YW. Novitates Bruneienses, 3. Eight new woody plants in the Brunei flora, including five new species. Gard Bull Singapore. 2015;67(1):69–84. Wong KC, Ali DMH, Boey PL. Chemical constituents and antibacterial activity of Melastoma malabathricum L. Nat Prod Res. 2012;26(7):609–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2010. 538395. Wray L. Teeth blacking amongst the Malays. Perak Mus Notes. 1893;1(2):35-39 Wu R, Zou P, Tan G, Hu Z, Wang Y, Ning Z, Wu W, Liu Y, He S, Zhou R. Molecular identification of natural hybridization between Melastoma malabathricum and Melastoma beccarianum in Sarawak, Malaysia. Ecol Evol. 2019:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.5160. Yoshida T, Nakata F, Hosotani K, Nitta A, Okuda T. Dimeric hydrolysable tannins from Melastoma malabathricum. Phytochemistry. 1992a;31(8):2829–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(92) 83641-B. Yoshida T, Nakata F, Hosotani K, Nitta A, Okuda T. Tannins and related polyphenols of melastomataceous plants. V. Three new complex tannins from Melastoma malabathricum L. Chem Pharm Bull. 1992b;40(7):1727–32. Zabidi Z, Wan Zainulddin WN, Mamat SS, Shamsahal Din S, Kamisan FH, Yahya F, Ismail NA, Rodzi R, Hassan H, Mohtarrudin N, Somchit MN, Zakaria ZA. Antiulcer activity of methanol extract of Melastoma malabathricum leaves in rats. Med Princ Pract. 2012;21:501–3. https:// doi.org/10.1159/000337406. Zaini WNNM. Anthelmintic activity of Melastoma malabathricum Linn leaves and Nigella sativa Linn seeds extract. J Eng Health Sci. 2017;1:41–56.

706

W. A. Mustaqim

Zakaria ZA, Raden MNRNS, Hanan Kumar G, Abdul Ghani ZDF, Sulaiman MR, Rathna Devi G, Mat Jais AM, Somchit MN, Fatimah CA. Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties of Melastoma malabathricum leaves aqueous extract in experimental animals. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2006;84(12):1291–9. https://doi.org/10.1139/Y06-083. Zakaria ZA, Balan T, Mamat SS, Mohtarrudin N, Kek TL, Salleh MZ. Mechanisms of gastroprotection of methanol extract of Melastoma malabathricum leaves. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2015;15:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-015-0638-z.art135. Zakaria ZA, Zainol ASN, Sahmat A, Salleh NI, Hizami A, Mahmood ND, Nasir N, Mamat SS, Kamisan FH, Mohtarrudin N, Hamid SSA, Tohid SF, Teh LK, Salleh MZ. Gastroprotective activity of chloroform extract of Muntingia calabura and Melastoma malabathricum leaves. Pharm Biol. 2016;54(5):812–26. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2015.1085580. Zumbroich TJ. ‘Teeth as black as a bumble bee’s wings’: The ethnobotany of teeth blackening in Southeast Asia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:381–98.

Melia dubia Cav. MELIACEAE A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Synonyms Melia australasica A. Juss.; Melia aethiopica Welw.; Melia argentea Buch.-Ham. ex Wall.; Melia bambolo Welw.; Melia birmanica Kurz.; Melia composita Willd.; Melia superba Roxb.; Melia robusta Roxb.

Local Names Philippines: Agalunga, bagalunga, balangago, paraiso (Visaya), gango, Iintana, maliba, maluggayan, malunggaian sili-sili (Tagalog, Laguna in Luzon), bagalnga (Mindanao), bulibising (Bukidnon, Iloko), mamabuaya (Chabacano); Indonesia: samer (Malaka in West Timor), mindi gede (Pandeglang), gringging, mindi, cakracikri (Java), mindi kecil, marambung (renceh in Sumatera); Malaysia: mindi kecil, gringging, marambung, mindi, mindi besar; Thailand: hian, krian (Northern Thailand), lian, lian bai yai, khian (Central Thailand); Vietnam: cây xoan, sâ dông (Florido 2010).

Botany and Ecology Description: Deciduous tree, to 20 m tall; young parts scurfy-tomentose, glabrous when mature; bark 6–8 mm thick, dark brown, lenticellate, exfoliations rectangular. Leaves to 1 m long; pinnae 3–8 pairs, imparipinnate, attenuate, estipulate; rachis terete, to 30 cm long; slender, swollen at base, scurfy tomentose when young; leaflets A. Nithaniyal Stalin (*) Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Department of Botany, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Department of Botany, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Tamil Nadu, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_134

707

708

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

3–13 on each pinnae, opposite, estipellate; petiolule 3–10 mm long, slender; lamina 4.5–9 cm  2–4 cm, ovate-lanceolate to ovate-round, acuminate at apex, serrulate or entire at margin, oblique at base, 3–12 cm  1.5–4 cm, coriaceous; petiolules to 5 mm long, longer in terminal leaflet; secondary nerves 6–16 pairs on each side, intercostae reticulate; midrib raised above. Inflorescence an axillary panicle, 12– 20 cm long. Flowers bisexual, 5–6 mm long, greenish-white, inodorous. Calyx 5-lobed; lobes ovate-oblong, 2 mm long, tomentose. Petals 5, linear-spathulate, concave, ca. 5 mm long, pubescent outside, puberulous inside. Staminal tube 7 mm, gibbous at base, slightly expanded at apex with 10, 2-fid appendages, glabrous or puberulous inside; anthers exerted, pubescent. Ovary superior, oblong 1 mm, 5-celled, glabrous; ovules 2 per cell; style a little longer than staminal tube, to 4.5 mm, terete; stigma cylindric, 5-toothed. Fruit a drupe, ovoid or ellipsoid, 2.5– 4 cm  2–2.5 cm, smooth, shining, pulpy, yellowish when ripe, dorsally compressed with longitudinal ridges. Seeds 1–6, 1.5 cm  0.5 cm, enclosed in a stony endocarp (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Systematics: A study using Parsimony and Bayesian analysis revealed that the Melia dubia Cav. is phylogenetically distinct from M. azedarach L. as these species formed separate monophyletic clade and M. volkensii Gürke formed a basal clade (Sivaraj et al. 2018). Distribution: Melia dubia is indigenous to Southeast Asian countries like Indonesia (Jawa, Sumatera, Lesser Sunda Island), the Philippines, Thailand, Timor-Leste, and Vietnam. Also, found in Australia, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, and Taiwan (Mabberley 1984; Florido 2010). Etymology: The name Melia is Greek in origin that represents the class of nymphs associated with ash-trees (Fraxinus); dubia is derived from Latin which means dubious or doubtful. Ecology: Major habitats of Melia dubia are secondary forests, in thickets, along the seashore, riverine, and inland at the altitudes of low elevation to 500 m and upper elevation to 2100 m. Thrive well in narrow alluvial plains, calcareous, noncalcareous, hills, and undulating to sloping landscape with an annual rainfall ranging from 600 to 1000 mm. Improves soil fertility and protects watershed areas due to its tendency to grow densely by increasing the biomass and easy regeneration ability (Florido 2010). In the high forest areas, M. dubia trees provide nesting habitat for the Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis (Das 2014). Phenology: Asynchronous flowering occurs from March to April along with fresh emerging leaves and fruits mature during the cold season from November to December (Johar et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses The Philippines: Each half of the bagalunga fruit is used to treat colic. Fruit juice along with sulfur is used to treat scabies in Laguna (Razal and Palijon 2009). Stem barks are used to cure skin diseases like open wounds, and boiled leaves are taken as remedy for stomachache. Fruits are considered as an anthelmintic which explains its use in treating colic in Laguna (Florido 2010). The leaves are pounded well to get

Melia dubia Cav.

709

Fig. 1 Habit of Melia dubia. (© A. Nithaniyal Stalin)

juicy extract, mix it with little kerosene and applied externally on the skin to treat diseases like allergies, acne, and ringworm by the Subanen communities in Gala and Guimad villages in Ozamis City, Mindanao, the Philippines (Alduhisa and Demayo 2019). Indonesia: Stem barks are used as drug for the treatment of Malaria by native people in Malaka, West Timor (Taek et al. 2018).

Phytochemistry Phytochemical studies on Melia dubia report new tetranortriterpenoids: compositin (1,7-ditiglyl vilasinin), compositolide (photosalannin) followed by salannin from the leaves and seeds (de Silva et al. 1969; Puroshothaman et al. 1984). Glycosyl

710

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Melia dubia in lateral branches. (© A. Nithaniyal Stalin)

Fig. 3 Close view of Melia dubia fruits. (© A. Nithaniyal Stalin)

derivative of ellagic acid is isolated from the root (Srivastava and Srivastava 1996). Five new compounds of meliastatin 1–5 and euphane-type triterpenes, methyl kulonate, kulinone, 16-hydroxybutyrospermol, kulactone, dubione A, dubione B, methyl palmitate, methyl stearate, cyclohexene, and ketorolac are identified from the bark (Pettit et al. 2002; Sathya et al. 2017). Studies of leaf extract of M. dubia revealed 44 phytochemicals by chromatographic techniques. Some of the major compounds listed are alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, limonoids, resins, oleoresins, tannins, saponins, steroids, terpenoids, phenolic derivatives, lipophilic organic compounds, linolenic acid, palmitic acid, caryophyllene, humulene, aromadendrene, probucol, germacrene-D, phthalic acid 6-ethyl-3-octyl, and butylated hydroxy toluene (Zhao et al. 2010; Valentina et al.

Melia dubia Cav.

711

2013; Murugesan et al. 2013; Jeyaleela et al. 2017). Essential oils found in leaves are mainly monoterpenes (α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene), oxygenated monoterpenes (bicyclic ketone camphor, iso-borneol, borneol), smaller amount of alkanes, sesquiterpene, hydrocarbons, and phenylpropanoids (Nagalakshmi et al. 2001). All these bioactive compounds are reported to have various pharmacological properties such as anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, antiulcer, antineoplastic, anti-urolithiatic, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, wound healing, and hepatoprotective (Zhao et al. 2010; Jahirhussain et al. 2010; Khadse and Kakde 2014; Gopal et al. 2015; Vennila and Mariyal 2015; Shah et al. 2016; Sathya et al. 2017; Harish and Chauhan 2018; Thangavel et al. 2019). Nagalakshmi et al. (2001) found that the essential oil exhibited bacteriostatic and fungistatic action in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and the fungi Fusarium oxysporum and Candida albicans, respectively. Leaf volatile oil “monoterpine camphene” showed effective inhibition (88%) against the growth of skin pathogens (Gerige and Ramjaneyulu 2007). Ethanol and methanol extract of leaves and seeds showed larvicidal activity against the Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, and five other human pathogens such as E. coli, Salmonella typhi, S. paratyphi, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus (Yasodha et al. 2011; Chanthuru et al. 2014; Tamilselvi et al. 2016). Studies have also highlighted the biological control properties of M. dubia as insecticidal, antifeedant, fungicidal, larvicidal, and ovicidal (Tamilselvi et al. 2016; Kulawardhana et al. 2018; Muthulakshmi and Seethapathy 2019). Allelopathic effects are reported on the seed germination and growth of agroforestry crops such as maize, green gram, and black chickpea (Thakur et al. 2017; Kumar et al. 2018). Allelospoly study on M. dubia in agroforestry showed positive effect on growth, biomass, and phytochemicals in pulp of Aloe vera (Thakur et al. 2018).

Biocultural Importance It is planted as an important tree of the home garden and used for various purposes in Maasin, Southern Leyte, The Philippines. Leaves are traditionally used by the local people to hasten the ripening of bananas and act as an insecticide for chicken and hog pests. Leaves are burnt and smoke serve as natural mosquitoes repellent and the seed oil used as an insect repellent. Besides, the seeds are also used in crafting rosary beads and bracelets (Florido 2010).

Economic Importance M. dubia is an indigenous, fast growing, multipurpose tree of industrial importance, greatly recognized for its age-old uses in silviculture, agroforestry, medicine, crafting, and biopesticides (Florido 2010). Industrial demand for wood is increasing from local market to national and international markets for manufacturing furniture,

712

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

handicraft, plywood, and paper (Tolentino 2008; Nguyen et al. 2014). Trees are considered as one of the important component of Integrated Social Forestry Program (ISFP) planted as a source of income and household energy consumption like fuel wood and charcoal by smallholder farmers in Southern Leyte of the Eastern Visayas, Mindanao, and Cebu in the Philippines (Tolentino 2008; Nguyen et al. 2014; Mohammed et al. 2016). The trees are also planted in agroforestry lands along with seasonal crops as a source of farmer’s income in Selaawi Village, Garut, West Java of Indonesia (Rambey et al. 2019). The essential oil reported from the leaves has the potential to replace nonedible oil that could attract industries for manufacturing soap, lubricants, and biopharmaceutical (Nagalakshmi et al. 2001). The wood of M. dubia has also emerged as a suitable raw material for paper industry because of its increased pulp recovery (50%) and exceptional strength (Parthiban et al. 2009).

References Alduhisa GU, Demayo CG. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the Subanen tribe in two villages in Ozamis city, Mindanao, Philippines. Pharmacophore. 2019;10(4):28–42. Chanthuru A, Prabhu MM, Aysha OS, Karthik R. Evaluation of leaf and root extracts of Melia dubia L. against larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus and five important human pathogens. Biosci Biotechnol Res Asia. 2014;11(1):207–10. Das N. Seasonal migration of great hornbill Buceros bicornis in the high forest areas of Nameri National Park. Bird Popul. 2014;13:6–9. de Silva LB, Stöcklin W, Geissman TA. The isolation of salannin from Melia dubia. Phytochemistry. 1969;8(9):1817–9. Florido H. Bagalunga (Melia dubia Cav.) a multipurpose tree species. Res Inf Ser Ecosyst. 2010;22 (2):1–4. Gerige SJ, Ramjaneyulu. Antimicrobial activity of Melia dubia leaf volatile oil and camphene compound against skin. Int J Plant Sci. 2007;2(2):166–8. Gopal V, Prakash YG, Manju P. A concise review of Melia dubia Cav. (Meliaceae). Eur J Environ Ecol. 2015;2(2):57–60. Harish R, Chauhan JB. Oxidative stress induced radical scavenging, antimicrobial and cytoprotective potential on Saccharomyces cerevisiae by ethanolic extract of Melia dubia fruit pulp. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2018;7(3):1571–5. Jahirhussain G, Malaimuthu C, Velayutham P. Antiviral activity of Melia composita Willd. (syn. Melia dubia) leaf extracts. Online J Biotechnol Res. 2010;1:4. Jeyaleela GD, Monisha SI, Vimala JR, Immaculate AA. Isolation of 2-chlorobenzimidazole from Melia dubia leaf extract and its structural characterisation. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2017;9:67–72. Johar V, Dhillon RS, Bangarwa KS, Ajit, Handa AK. Phenological behaviour and reproductive biology of Melia composita. Indian J Agrofor. 2015;17(1):62–7. Khadse CD, Kakde RB. Anti-inflammatory activities of aqueous extract of fruits and their different fractions of Melia dubia. Res J Pharm Biol Chem Sci. 2014;5(4):780. Kulawardhana TDD, Debarawatta RDN, Pamunuwa G. Biopesticidal activity of Lunumidella (Melia dubia) leaf extract. J Food Agric. 2018;11(1):37–48. https://doi.org/10.4038/jfa. v11i1.5201. Kumar N, Handa AK, Dev I, Ram A, Chand L, Shukla A. Allelopathic effect of aqueous leaf extract of Melia dubia on seed germination and growth of Zea mays. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci. 2018;7(12):55–60.

Melia dubia Cav.

713

Mabberley DJ. A monograph of Melia in Asia and the Pacific. The history of white cedar and Persian lilac. Gard Bull Sing. 1984;37:49–64. Mohammed AJ, Inoue M, Peras RJ, Nath TK, Jashimuddin M, Pulhin JM. Transformation strategy for managing coupled socio-ecological systems: case studies from Bangladesh and the Philippines. Small-Scale For. 2016;15:213–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-015-9318-6. Murugesan S, Senthilkumar N, Rajeshkannan C, Vijayalakshmi KB. Phytochemical characterization of Melia dubia for their biological properties. Der Chem Sin. 2013;4(1):36–40. Muthulakshmi P, Seethapathy P. Evaluation of fungicides and bio-control agents against foliar and soil borne diseases of Melia dubia. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci. 2019;8(9):2476–86. Nagalakshmi MAH, Thangadurai D, Anuradha T, Pullaiah T. Essential oil constituents of Melia dubia, a wild relative of Azadirachta indica growing in the Eastern Ghats of Peninsular India. Flav Fragr J. 2001;16(4):241–4. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.986. Nguyen H, Lamb D, Herbohn J, Firn J. Designing mixed species tree plantations for the tropics: balancing ecological attributes of species with landholder preferences in the Philippines. PLoS One. 2014;9(4):e95267. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095267. Parthiban KT, Bharathi AK, Seenivasan R, Kamala K, Rao MG. Integrating Melia dubia in agroforestry farms as an alternate pulpwood species. APA News. 2009;34:3–4. Pettit GR, Numata A, Iwamoto C, Morito H, Yamada T, Goswami A, Clewlow PJ, Cragg GM, Schmidt JM. Antineoplastic agents. 489. Isolation and structures of meliastatins 1–5 and related euphane triterpenes from the tree Melia dubia. J Nat Prod. 2002;65:1886–91. Puroshothaman KK, Duraiswamy K, Connolly JD. Tetranortriterpenoids from Melia dubia. Phytochemistry. 1984;23:135–7. Rambey R, Wijayanto N, Siregar IZ, Onrizal, Susilowati A. Study of agroforestry mindi planting pattern (Melia dubia Cav.) in Selaawi Village, Garut District, West Java Province. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2019;374:012033. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/374/1/012033. Razal RA, Palijon AM. Non-wood forest products of the Philippines, vol. 4031. Laguna: UPLB College of Forestry and Natural Resources; 2009. p. 272. Sathya M, Thiribhuvanamala G, Palanikumaran B, Ranjith K, Tilak M, Revathi R. Analysis of bio chemical constituents from Melia dubia Cav. Bark. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci. 2017;6 (6):2895–901. Shah SN, Wani TA, Ram B, Kol M, Awasthi P, Rajput DS, Reddy GRS. An efficient protocol for in vitro organogenesis and antioxidant studies in Melia dubia Cav. Afr J Biotechnol. 2016;15:768–75. Sivaraj I, Nithaniyal S, Bhooma V, Senthilkumar U, Parani M. Species delimitation of Melia dubia Cav. from Melia azedarach L. complex based on DNA barcoding. Botany. 2018;96(5):329–36. Srivastava SD, Srivastava SK. New constituents of Melia composita. Fitoterapia. 1996;67:113–6. Taek MM, Prajogo BEW, Agil M. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of malaria in Malaka, West Timor. J Young Pharm. 2018;10(2):187–92. Tamilselvi SS, Venkatachalapathi A, Paulsamy S. Larvicidal activity of Melia dubia L. leaf extracts against fourth instar larva of Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. Int J Recent Adv Multidiscip Res. 2016;3(7):1605–8. Thakur NS, Kumar D, Gunaga RP, Singh S. Allelopathic propensity of the aqueous leaf extract and leaf litter of Melia dubia Cav. on pulse crops. J Exp Biol Agric Sci. 2017;5(5):644–55. Thakur NS, Jilariya DJ, Gunaga RP, Singh S. Positive allelospoly of Melia dubia Cav. spatial geometry improve quantitative and qualitative attributes of Aloe vera L. Ind Crop Prod. 2018;119:162–71. Thangavel P, Pathak P, Kuttalam I, Lonchin S. Effect of ethanolic extract of Melia dubia leaves on full thickness cutaneous wounds in Wistar rats. Dermatol Ther. 2019;32:e13077. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/dth.13077. Tolentino EL. Restoration of Philippine native forest by smallholder tree farmers. In: Snelder DJ, Lasco RD, editors. Smallholder tree growing for rural development and environmental services. Dordrecht/London: Springer; 2008. p. 319–46. Valentina P, Ilango K, Kiruthiga B, Parimala MJ. Preliminary phytochemical analysis and biological screening of extracts of leaves of Melia dubia Cav. Int J Res Ayurveda Pharm. 2013;4(3):417.

714

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Vennila V, Mariyal MA. In-vitro analysis of phytochemical and anti-urolithiatic activity of various extracts of Melia dubia leaves. World J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2015;4(4):1277–89. Yasodha D, Manimegalai M, Binu kumara S, Vijayakumar K. Larvicidal effect of Melia dubia seed extract against the malarial fever mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus. Curr Biot. 2011;5(1):102–6. Zhao L, Huo CH, Shen LR, Yang Y, Zhang Q, Shi QW. Chemical constituents of plants from the genus Melia. Chem Biodivers. 2010;7:839–59.

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack RUTACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim and Reza Raihandhany Yus

Synonyms Connarus foetens Blanco; Connarus santaloides Blanco; Chalcas cammuneng Burm.f.; Chalcas intermedia M.Roem.; Chalcas japanensis Lour.; Chalcas paniculata L.; Chalcas sumatrana M.Roem.; Limonia malliculensis J.R.Forst. ex Steud.; Murraya amoena Salisb.; Murraya banati Elmer; Murraya japonensis (Lour.) Raeusch.; Murraya omphalocarpa Hayata; Murraya ovatifoliolata Domin; Murraya scandens Hassk.; Murraya sumatrana Roxb

Local Names Indonesia: Kemuning, dinggato (Northern and Central Sulawesi), eseki (Wetar in Moluccas), kamone (Buru), kamoni (Pamona/Poso), kajeni, kemoning (Bali), kamonèng (Madura), kamoni (Ambon), kamuni (Mbojo in East Sumbawa), kamuning (Sunda, Manado, Makassar), kemuning (Batak, Bengkulu, Jambi, Java, Batavia, Madura, Bali, West Lombok, and Sundanese, West Sumatra, West Kalimantan), kayu gading (North Sulawesi), kemuning putih (Sintang in West Kalimantan), kemiuning (Sumba), sukik (Rote), palopo (Bugis), tanasa (Aru); Malaysia: kamuning, kemuning, kemūng, kemuning lada (Peninsular); Myanmar: yuzana; W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia R. R. Yus Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_167

715

716

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Philippines: banasi (Iloko), banati (Negrito), kamuning (Filipino; Ayta in Pampanga); Thailand: dawk kaeo, kêo; Vietnam: g[eej]t qu[ows]i, nh[aa]m h [oo]I, nguyet quooi; English: burmese boxwood, mock orange, orange jasmine (Arizona 2011; Des et al. 2019; Gayatri et al. 2015; Has et al. 2020; Hulyati et al. 2014; Jamilah et al. 2019; Kessler et al. 2002; Lingga et al. 2016; Liyanti et al. 2015; Obico and Ragragio 2014; PDPERSI 2011; Prasetyo 2006; Rahayu and Andini 2019; Ramdhan 2014; Seidemann 2005; Silalahi et al. 2015; Trinh et al. 2003; Tue 1998; Zaman et al. 2013).

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrub to tree, 1.8–12 m tall. Older branchlets grayish-white to pale yellowish-grey. Leaves odd-pinnately compound, alternate, petiolules less than 1 cm; leaflet mostly suborbicular-ovate-elliptic, 2–9
1.5–6 cm, margin entire or crenulate, apex rounded-acuminate. Inflorescences terminal or terminal and axillary. Flowers terminal, corymbose, 5-merous, and fragrant. Sepals ovatelanceolate, up to 2 mm, persistent in fruit. Petals white, narrowly ellipticoblanceolate, to 2 cm. Stamens 10. Fruit berry, orange-vermilion, narrowly ellipsoid or rarely ovoid, 1–2
0.5–1.4 cm. Seeds villous. Phenology: Flowering period start from April to October, while fruiting is from April to February. Distribution and Ecology: M. paniculata is distributed throughout India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Indochina, Malesia to Australia, where it is used by local communities. It can be found at elevations up to 1300 m above sea level. Habitat of M. paniculata is montane forest, thickets, open woodlands, riparian, native bushland, forest margins, pastures, disturbed sites, waste areas, gardens, and roadsides (Environment Weeds of Australia 2016; Franco and Narasimhan 2012; Gilman 1999; Irsyam and Chikmawati 2018; Useful Tropical Plants Database 2014; Zhang et al. 2008) (Figs. 1 and 2). Fig. 1 Leaves of Murraya paniculata (Rutaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack

717

Fig. 2 Flowers of Murraya paniculata (Rutaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: In Aceh Province, local people in Alue Papeun Village, Tanah Jambo Aye subdistrict, apply bark oil topically to cure toothache (Hasanuddin 2015). People in North Sumatra trade the flowers which are used to lower blood cholesterol (Silalahi et al. 2015). In West Sumatra, this species is used in postpartum healthcare (Des et al. 2019). The Penguluh people in Sarolangun, Jambi, use the plant as febrifuge (Has et al. 2020). The plant is also used by the people in Lubuklinggau Utara II, Bengkulu, to cure infections, in slimming treatment, vaginal discharge, menstrual disorder (irregular), and toothache (Lingga et al. 2016). Arizona (2011) reported the use of the leaves as a cure for inflammation of the respiratory tract from local the people in Mount Ciremai, West Java. The barks are burned and oil is applied to toothache by the people in Cikondang Village, Bandung, West Java (Ramdhan 2014). In Baturraden, Purwokerto, Central Java, the local people consume leaf decoction to cure vaginal discharge (Suparman et al. 2012). The leaves are also used to regularize menstrual cycle and for natural contraception in Sumenep, Madura Island (Zaman et al. 2013). In Narmada, West Lombok, the leaves are used to treat rheumatism (Rahayu and Andini 2019).

Phytochemistry This species contains numerous phytochemical compounds including alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, phenols, saponins, steroids, and tannins (Ahmed et al. 2019; Kusumo et al. 2017; Ng et al. 2012; Nugroho et al. 2010; Tresia et al. 2016). One of the most comprehensive compilatory works on the chemical compounds of this species was published by Ng et al. (2012).

718

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Roots: The powdered roots contain isometoxin, murpanicin, murpanidin, murralongin, phebalosin, and warfarin (Shao et al. 2016). Many coumarins have been identified from the root barks including 3-formyhindole, omphalocarpin, 5,7-dimethoxy-8-(30 -methyl-20 -oxobutyl) coumarin, coumurrayin, ferulyl ester, murragleinin, omphamurin, murraol, ()-murracarpin, (k)-murracarpin, murpanidin, mexoticin, and murrangatin (Ng et al. 2012). Stem, branches, and foliages: The branches contain many flavonoids including dihydroxy-dimethoxyflavone, heptamethoxyflavone, heptamethoxyflavanone or heptamethoxychalcone, hexamethoxyflavanone or hexamethoxychalcone, hexamethoxyflavonem, monohydroxy-dimethoxyflavone glycoside, monohydroxypentamethoxyflavone, monohydroxy-tetramethoxyflavone glycoside, monohydroxy-trimethoxyflavanone or monohydroxy-trimethoxychalcone, monohydroxytrimethoxyflavone glycoside, monohydroxy-trimethoxyflavone, monohydroxy-trimethoxyflavone, pentamethoxyflavanone or pentamethoxychalcone, pentamethoxyflavone, tetramethoxyflavone, tetramethoxyflavanone or tetramethoxychalcone, tetrahydroxy-dihydroxyflavone glycoside, and trihydroxy-dimethoxyflavone glycoside (Sayar et al. 2014). Stems contain several chemical compounds including β-sitosterol, kimcuongin, mexoticin, murracarpin, murrangatin, omphalocarpin, and stigmasterol (Khanh et al. 2016). The foliage extracts also contain coumurrayin, paniculatin, 7-methoxy-8-(1-hydroxy-2-keto-3-methylbuty1)-coumarin, and 7-methoxy-8-(isovaleryloxy-2-keto-3-methylbutyl)coumarin (Steck 1972). Leaves: Essential oils from M. paniculata leaves have been well-studied. The wild and cultivated plants differ in their constituents, where the domesticated plants contain chemical compounds with lower retention index (RI) (Arya et al. 2017). Essential oils from the leaves contain more than one hundred chemical compounds (Chowdury et al. 2008; Dosoky et al. 2016; Ng et al. 2012; Olawore et al. 2005). These are α-bergamotene, α-bulnesene, α-cadinol, α-calaconene, α-caryophylene, α-chamigrene, α-copaene, α-cubebene, α-curcumene, α-elemol, α-farnesene, α-humulene, α-pinene, α-terpineol, α-terpinolene, α-zingiberene, ß-bisabolol, β-caryophyllene, ß-cubebene, ß-curcumene, β-cyclocitral, ß-elemene, β-eudesmol, β-humulene, β-nootkatol, β-selinene, β-sesquiphellandrene, β-vatirenine, γ-elemene, γ-gurjunene, δ-cadinene, δ-cardinene, δ-elemene, δ-selinene, τ-cadinol, τ-muurolol, t-ß-farnesene, t-caryophyllene, D-verbenone, H-imidazole-4-methanol,5-methyl, (1H) naphthalenone, (2Z,6Z)-farnesol, (3Z)-hexenyl benzoate, and ()-cubenol 6.8, (E)-ß-farnesene, (E)-ß-ocimene, (E)-caryophylene, (E,E)-α-farnesene, (E,E)-geranyl linalool, (Z)-ß-farnesene, (Z)-ß-ocimene, (Z)-jasmone, (E)-nerolidol, 1-epi-cubenol, 1-cyclohexene-1-ethanol,2,6,6-trimethyl, 1-hexadecyn-1-ol, 1-methylverbenol, 1,10-diepi-cubenol, 2-cyclohexen-1-one,2-methyl-5-(1-methylethenyl), 2(4a,8-dimethyl1,3,3,4,4a,5,6,7-octahydronaphthalene-2-yl)-prop-2-en-1-ol, 2-phenylethyl acetate, 2-oxabicyclo(9,1,0)dod eca-3,7-diene,1,5,5,8-tetramethyl bicyclo germacrene, 3,9-dodecadiene, 3-carene, 3-hexen-1-ol,formate, 3-tetradecynoic acid, 4a,5,6,7,8,8a hexahydro,4a,8a-dimethyl, 6-isopropenyl-4,8a-dimethyl-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8 a,octahydro naphthalen-2-ol, 7-methoxy-6-(31-metylbuta-11,31-dienyl)coumarin, 9,12-octadecadienol, ar-curcumene, cis-3-hexenylvalerate, cis-murrola-3,5-diene, epi-α-muurolol, epi-β-muurolol, p-vinylguaiacol, trans-sesquisabinene hydrate, alloaromadendrene,

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack

719

alloaromadendrene oxide, aristoleneoxide, aromadendreneoxide, azulene, benzaldehyde, benzene acetonitrile, benzyl benzoate, benzyl salicylate, bicycloelemene, bicyclosesquiphellandrene, bulnesol, cadina-1,4-diene, calamenene, carveol, caryophyllene oxide, clovene, copaene, corymbolone, cubebol, cubenol, curcumen-12ol, cyclohexene,3,4-diethenyl-3-methyl, cyclohexene,5,6-diethenyl-3-methyl, cycloisolongifolene,8-hydroxy-endo, cyclooctene,4-methylene-6-(1-propenylidene), cyclopropane,1-bromo-2,2,3,3-tetramethyl-1prop-1-ynyl, cyclosativene, docosane, eremophilene, ethyl palmitate, eudesma-4,11-dien-2-ol, geraniol, germacra-4(15),5,10(14)-trien-1α-ol, germacrene A, germacrene B, germacrene D, globulol, humulene, indole, intermedeol, isogeigerin, isospathulenol, isospathulenol isomer, lanceol,cis, ledenealcohol, ledol, limonene, linalool, longifolene-[12]-epoxide, longifolene aldehyde, longipinocarveol,trans, manool, methyl anthranilate, methyl benzoate, methyl linoleate, methyl linolenate, methyl palmitate, methyl phenyl acetate, methyl salicylate, methyl stearate, minimicrolin isovalerate, murpaniculol senecioate, muurialongin, muurola-4(14),5-diene, myrcene, nerol, nerolidyl acetate, nootkatoon, nuciferol, ocimene, octyl palmitate, octyl stearate, oplopanone, osthole, palmitic acid, paniculol, patchouli alcohol, perolidol, phenethyl benzoate, phenethyl isobutyrate, phenylethyl alcohol, phenylethyl salicylate, phenylethyl octanoate, phenylethyl tiglate, pyrimidine-2(1H)thione,3,4-dihyd ro-6-methyl,4-phenyl, phytol, retinal, sabinene, selin-6-en-4-ol, sesquisabinene, spathulenol, spathulenol isomer, squalene, suberosin epoxide, tau-muurolol, terpinolene, torreyol, and zingiberenol. Leaf extracts also contain β-sitosterol, kimcuongin, mexoticin, murracarpin, murrangatin, omphalocarpin, and stigmasterol (Khanh et al. 2016). Some isoflavonoids also have been identified from the leaf extracts by Lapčík et al. (2004) including biochanin A, daidzein, daidzin, daidzin-600 -O-acetate, daidzin-600 -Omalonate, formononetin, genistein, genistin, genistin-600 -O-acetate, genistin-600 -Omalonate, glycitin, glycitin-600 -O-malonate, glycitin-600 -O-acetate, prunetin, and sissotrin. Other flavonoids and some phenols from the leaves identified include caffeic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, ellagic acid, epicatechin, gallic acid, kaempferol, quercitrin, quercetin, and rutin (Menezes et al. 2015). The phenolic contents of the leaves are higher than the total flavanoid content (Monir et al. 2020). Many compounds belonging to coumarins, flavonoids, isoflavonoids, and phenols have also been identified. The coumarins identified include trans-gleinadiene, 5-methoxymurrayatin, 5,7-dimethoxy-8-(30 -methyl-20 -oxobutyl)coumarin, 7-methoxy8-(2-formyl-2-methylpropyl)coumarin, 7-methoxy-8-formylcoumarin, 8-(20 -oxo-30 -methyl) butoxy-7-methoxycoumarin, ()-mexoticin, ()-sibiricin, auraptene, coumurrayin, isomurralonginol, isovalerate, methyl 2-methoxy-5-hydroxy cinnamate, methyl 2,5-dihydroxy cinnamate, murpaniculol senecioate, murralongin, murrangatin, murrayatin, minumicrolin, omphalocarpin, omphamurrayone, omphamurin, omphamurin isovalerate, toddalenone, and toddasin (Atta-ur-Rahman et al. 1997; Aziz et al. 2010; Imai et al. 1989; Kinoshita et al. 1996; Ng et al. 2012). The presence of other compounds have also reported by Imai et al. (1989) including 30 ,40 ,5,50 ,7,8hexamethoxyflavone, auraptenol, coumurrin, exoticin, hainanmurparin, meranzin hydrate, murpaniculol, murralongin, murrangatin, murrangatin acetate, and paniculin. Ng et al. (2012) and Sayar et al. (2014) identified many flavonoids including 30 ,40 ,5,50 ,7,8-hexamethoxyflavone, 3,30 ,40 ,5,50 ,7,8-heptamethoxyflavone, 5,6,7,30 ,40 ,50 -

720

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

hexamethoxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-6,7,30 ,40 ,50 -pentamethoxyflavone, 5-hydroxy0 0 6,7,8,3 ,4 ,-Hexamethoxyflavone (Gardenin A), 5,30 -dihydroxy-6,7,8,40 ,5-pentamethoxyflavone, 6,7,8,40 -tetramethoxy-5,30 ,50 -trihydroxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-6,7,30 ,40 ,50 -pentamethoxyflavone, 5,30 -dihydroxy-6,7,40 ,50 -tetramethoxyflavone, 5,30 ,50 -trihydroxy6,7,40 -trimethoxyflavone, dihydroxy-dimethoxyflavone, dihydroxy-tetrahydroxyflavone, dihydroxy-trimethoxyflavone, hexamethoxyflavone, hexamethoxychalcone, monohydroxy-hexamethoxyflavanone or monohydroxy-hexamethoxychalcone, monohydroxyhexamethoxyflavone, monohydroxy-pentamethoxyflavone, monohydroxy-pentamethoxy or monohydroxy-pentamethoxychalcone, monohydroxy-trimethoxyflavone, monohydroxy-trimethoxyflavone, monohydroxy-tetramethoxyflavanone or monohydroxytetramethoxychalcone, pentamethoxyflavone, pentamethoxyflavanone or pentamethoxychalcone, tetramethoxyflavone, tetramethoxyflavanone or tetramethoxychalcone, trihydroxy-dimethoxyflavone, trihydroxy-tetramethoxyflavone, and trihydroxytrimethoxyflavone. A group of compounds named polymethoxylated flavonoid also have been identified including 5,6,7,30 ,40 -pentamethoxyflavanone, 5,6,7,30 ,40 ,50 -hexamethoxyflavone, 5,7,30 ,40 -tetramethoxyflavone, 5,7,30 ,40 ,50 -pentamethoxyflavone, 5,7,8,30 ,40 ,50 -hexamethoxyflavone, 5,8,30 ,40 ,50 -pentamethoxyflavone, 60 -hydroxy0 0 0 0 0 3,4,5,2 ,3 ,4 -hexamethoxychalcone, 5-hydroxy-6,7,3 ,4 -tetrapentamethoxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-6,7,30 ,40 ,50 -pentamethoxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-7,30 ,40 -trimethoxyflavone, 5hydroxy-7,30 ,40 ,50 -tetrapentamethoxyflavone, 5-desmethylnobiletin, 50 -methoxynobiletin, 7-hydroxy-5,30 ,40 -trimethoxyflavone, gargenin A, and nobiletin (Zhang et al. 2012). Flowers: Fresh flowers contain a flavonoid named 3,5,7,30 ,40 ,50 -hexamethoxyflavone, and many coumarins including 3,30 ,40 ,5,50 ,6,7-heptamethoxy-flavone, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 7-methoxy-8-(10 -ethoxy-20 -oxo-30 -methyl-butyl) coumarin, 7-methoxy-8-(10 -ethoxy-20 -hydroxy-30 -methyl-30 -butenyl) coumarin, cis-ferullic acid and trans-ferulli cacid, cis-methyl ferulate and trans-ferullic acid, p-hydroxybenzoicacid, auraptenol, braylin, caffeine, glucose, murracarpin, murpanidin, isomeranzin, meranzin hydrate, minumicrolin (murpanidin), murralongin, murrangonon, paniculatin, scopoletin, scopolin, umbelliferone, trans-ethyl ferulate, yuehgesin-A, yuehgesin-B, and yuehgesin-C (Ng et al. 2012). Fruits: Essential oils from fruits contains ten chemical compounds including α-cadinol, α-cubebene, α-copaene, α-curcumene, α-humulene, α-phellandrene, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, β-cubebene, β-bisabolene, Δ3-carene, ρ-cymene, γ-cadinene, γ-terpinene, τ-muurolol, 1-epicubenol, ()-β-sesquiphellandrene, ()-zingiberene, alloaromadendrene, bicyclogermacrene, cadina-1,4-diene, caryophyllene oxide, germacrene, myrcene, limonene, linalool, pentyl furan, sesquisabinene, spathulenol, and terpinolene (Olawore et al. 2005). The fruit peel and pulps also contain some flavonoids including 5,6,7,30 ,40 ,50 -hexamethoxyflavone, 5,7,8,30 ,40 ,50 -hexamethoxyflavone, 3,5,7,8,30 ,40 ,50 -heptamethoxyflavone, 3,5,6,7,30 ,40 ,50 -heptamethoxyilavonol, 5,7,8,20 ,30 ,40 ,50 -heptamethoxyflavone, 8-hydroxy-3,5,7,30 ,40 ,50 -hexamethoxyflavone, 5-hydroxy-3,7,8,30 ,40 ,50 hexamethoxyflavone, hydroxy-3,7,8,30 ,40 -pentamethoxytlavone, 40 ,5-dihydroxy3,30 ,7,8-tetramethoxyflavone, and 40 ,5-dihydroxy-3,30 ,8-trime thoxy-7-(3-methylbut-2enyloxy)-flavone (Ferracin et al. 1998; Ng et al. 2012).

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack

721

Bioactivities M. paniculata extracts show many bioactivities including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiarrheal and body slimming, cytotoxic and thrombolytic, antifungal, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antidiabetic, anticoagulant, and antispasmodic (Ahmed et al. 2019; Amanda et al. 2019; Arya et al. 2017; Dash et al. 2004; Gautam et al. 2012; Kusumo et al. 2017; Mita et al. 2015; Podder et al. 2011; Saeed et al. 2011; Saqib et al. 2015; Sharker et al. 2019; Sundaram et al. 2011). Antibacterial: Ahmed et al. (2019) show that the methanolic extract of the leaves exhibit antimicrobial activities against the bacteria Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, and Streptococcus pneumoniae, as well as fungi such as Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, and Geotrichum candida. Chloroform extract of leaves exhibit weak bioactivity against Bacillus cereus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae with inhibition zones about 9 mm and 8 mm, respectively (Aziz et al. 2010). Antimicrobial screening by disc diffusion method showed that none of the methanolic extract inhibited bacteria such as Bacillus cereus, B. megaterium, B. subtilis, E. coli, Pseudomonas aureus, Salmonella typhi, S. paratyphi, Sarcina lutea, Shigella boydii, Sh. dysenteriae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Vibrio mimicus (Mita et al. 2015). Phenolic and flavonoid compounds from various extracts of the leaves showed that at a concentration of 200 mg/mL, methanol extract has the highest antibacterial activity, about 9–14 mm among other compounds (Gautam et al. 2012); zone of inhibition was detected against the human pathogenic bacteria E. coli, E. faecalis, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. typhi, Sh. flexneri, S. aureus, and S. sonnei. Antidiabetic: Gautam et al. (2012) reported that oral administration of the leaf extract significantly reduced the glucose level in diabetic Sprague-Dawley rats. About 400 mg/kg of leaf extracts significantly reduced blood glucose level (62.52 mg/mL) in diabetic rats compared to the normal control group (94.78 mg/mL). Antifungal: Sundaram et al. (2011) reported that aqueous, ethanolic, and hexane extract showed moderate antifungal activities against Aspergillus niger. The essential oil from the leaves also showed antifungal properties against phytopathogenic fungi such as Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii (Arya et al. 2017). Anti-inflammatory: Narkhede et al. (2012) reported that the leaf ethanolic extract can be used to reduce gum inflammation and toothache. Ethanolic extract of dried leaves showed a significant inhibitory effect on edema formation (Rahman et al. 2010). Nugroho et al. (2010) discovered that 3,30 ,40 ,5,50 ,6,7,8-octamethoxyflavone, a flavonoid isolated from the leaves could increase histamine release from RBL-2H3 cells up to 50%. Antioxidant: Antioxidant activities are among the most significant activity reported for this species (Ahmed et al. 2019; Amanda et al. 2019). According to Chen et al. (2009), acetone extract is able to inhibit xanthine oxidase, tyrosinase, and lipoxygenase. At 100 μg/mL, the acetone extract was able to inhibit 10% of XO activity and 62% of LOX activity, while at 500 μg/mL, the same extract could inhibit

722

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

72% of tyrosinase activity. Monir (2020) also reported that the aqueous leaf extract is a good source of antioxidants. Other activities: Leaf extracts show analgesic activities due to the presence of iso-murrayafoline B (Isb) (Rehman et al. 2014). Possible antispasmodic activity has been shown by Saqib et al. (2015) in an experiment on rabbit tissues including jejunum, trachea, and aorta. This species shows antinematicidal activities against Trichostrongylidae (Tresia et al. 2016). A study on antiobesity property of aqueous extracts has indicated a positive result (Alias et al. 2017). The tannin content of the leaves extracted using methanol can be used as antidiarrheal; it is also a good candidate for body slimming agent (Kusumo et al. 2017).

Biocultural and Economic Importance Indonesia: Notable mentions come from the use of plants as a material for traditional ceremonies. In Kanagarian Tiku of West Sumatra, local people including the Minangkabau use it in traditional ceremonies (Des et al. 2019). In Pariaman of West Sumatra, the flower is used in a traditional ceremony named balimau (Hulyati et al. 2014). The Sundanese people in the Mount Ciremai region of West Java also use the plant in their traditional ceremonies (Arizona 2011). In Singakerta Village of Ubud, Bali, the flowers are used in cosmetic treatments (Gayatri et al. 2015). Related uses are also recorded from Madura Island (Zaman et al. 2013). A minor use of this species is construction. The wood has been reported as a material for house construction in Bukit Batu Village, Sungai Kunyit, Mempawah, West Kalimantan (Jamilah et al. 2019). The plant is also cultivated as ornamental as in Pesaguan Village, Ketapang Regency, West Kalimantan (Liyanti et al. 2015), and the Rejang community of Bengkulu, Sumatra (Wiryono et al. 2019). It is also a garden plant in Bogor, West Java (Prasetyo 2006). Malaysia: This species is an important plant species in the urban environments of Peninsular Malaysia and considered as culturally important (Adnan and Othman 2012). Philippines: The dried stems are burnt and used as an insect repellent by the Ayta of Porac, Pampanga (Obico and Ragragio 2014). Vietnam: This species is reported to be a home garden plant in Thuan An district (Trinh et al. 2003).

References Adnan N, Othman N. The relationship between plants and the Malay culture. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2012;42:231–41. Ahmed WS, Abdel-Lateef EES, El-Wakil EA, Abdel-Hameed ESS. In vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of Murraya paniculata L. extracts as well as identification of their active secondary metabolites by HPLC-ESI-MS. Der Pharm Chem. 2019;11(3):1–7.

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack

723

Alias N, Leow TC, Ali MSM, Tajudin AA, Salleh AB, RNZRA R. Anti-obesity potential of selected tropical plants via pancreatic lipase inhibition. Adv Obes Weight Manag Control. 2017;6:122–31. https://doi.org/10.15406/aowmc.2017.06.00163. Amanda KA, Mustofa S, Nasution SH. Review efek antioksidan pada kemuning (Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack). Majority. 2019;8:265–72. (in Bahasa) Arizona D. Etnobotani dan potensi tumbuhan berguna di kawasan Taman Nasional Gunung Ciremai, Jawa Barat [undergraduate thesis]. Institut Pertanian Bogor: Bogor; 2011. (in Bahasa) Arya N, Kaur J, Verma A, Dhanik J, Vivekanand. Chemical composition of leaf essential oil of wild and domestic genotypes of Murraya paniculata L. J Essen Oil Bear Pl. 2017;20(2):468–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2017.1312552. Atta-ur-Rahman SM, Sultani SZ, Jabbar A, Choudhary MI. Cinnamates and coumarins from the leaves of Murraya paniculata. Phytochemistry. 1997;44(4):683–5. Aziz SSSA, Sukari MA, Rahmani M, Kitajima M, Aimi N, Ahpandi NJ. Coumarins from Murraya paniculata (Rutaceae). Malay J Anal Sci. 2010;14(1):1–5. Chen CH, Chan HC, Chu YT, Ho HY, Chen PY, Lee TH, Lee CK. Antioxidant activity of some plant extracts towards xanthine oxidase, lipoxygenase and tyrosinase. Molecules. 2009;14:2947–58. Chowdury JU, Bhuiyan MNI, Yusuf M. Chemical composition of the leaf essential oils of Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng and Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack. Bangladesh J Pharmacol. 2008;3:59–63. Dash GK, Patro CP, Maiti AK. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of leaf essential oil from Murraya koenigii Spreng. Hamdard Medicus. 2004;47:22–6. Des M, Rizki R, Fitri M. Plants used in the traditional ceremony in kanagarian tiku. J Phys: Conf Ser. 2019;1317:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1317/1/012098. art. 012098 Dosoky NS, Satyal P, Gautam TP, Setzer WN. Composition and biological activities of Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack essential oil from Nepal. Medicines. 2016;3(7):1–10. https://doi.org/10. 3390/medicines3010007. Environment Weeds of Australia. Murraya paniculata (L.) jack. 2016. https://keyserver. lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/murraya_paniculata.htm. Accessed 30 June 2020. Ferracin RJ, da Silva MF das GF, Fernandes JB, Vieira PC. Flavonoids from the fruits of Murraya paniculata. Phytochemistry. 1998;47:393–6. Franco FM, Narasimhan D. Ethnobotany of the Kondh, Poraja, Gadaba, and bonda of the Koraput region of Odisha, India. D.K. Printworld: New Delhi; 2012. Gautam MK, Gupta A, Vijay Kumar M, Rao CV, Goel RK. Studies on the hypoglycemic effects of Murraya paniculata Linn extracton alloxan-induced oxidative stress in diabetic and non-diabetic models. APJTM. 2012;2:186–91. Gayatri AAIR, Kriswiyanti E, Wahyuni IGAS. Varieties of plant which take as a beauty treatment agent at Puri Damai, Singakerta Village, district of Ubud, Gianyar region. J Simbio. 2015;3(1):281–90. Gilman EF. Murraya paniculata. Fact Sheet FPS 1999;416:1–3. Has DH, Zuhud EAM, Hikmat DA. Medicinal ethnobotany of Penguluh ethnic at the KPHP Limau Unit VII Hulu Sarolangun, Jambi. Med Konserv. 2020;25(1):73–80. https://doi.org/10.29244/ medkon.25.1.73-80. (in Bahasa) Hasanuddin. Etnobotani tanaman hias di Tanah Jambo Aye Aceh Utara. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Biotik. Banda Aceh: UIN Ar-Raniry; 2015. p. 96–111. (in Bahasa). Hulyati R, Syamsuardi, Arbain A. Ethnobotany studies of Balimau tradition in Pariaman, west Sumatera. J Bio UA. 2014;3(1):14–9. Imai F, Kinoshita T, Sankawa U. Constituents of the leaves of Murraya paniculata collected in Taiwan. Chem Pharm Bull. 1989;37(2):358–62. Irsyam ASD, Chikmawati T. Ikhtisar suku Rutaceae di Madura. Floribunda. 2018;5:277–90. (in Bahasa) Jamilah N, Herawatiningsih R, Kartikawati SM. Tree ethnobotany in Bukit Batu Village in the HTI area of PT. BHATARA Alam Lestari, Sungai Kunyit subdistrict, Mempawah regency. J Hut Lest. 2019;7(3):1403–11. (in Bahasa) Kessler PJA, Bos MM, Sierra Daza SEC, Kop A, Willemse LPM, Pitopang R, Gradstein SR. Checklist of woody plants of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea Suppl. 2002;14:1–160.

724

W. A. Mustaqim and R. R. Yus

Khanh PN, Spiga O, Trezza A, Kim YH, Cuong NM. Coumarins isolated from Murraya paniculata in Vietnam and their inhibitory effects against enzyme soluble Epoxide Hydrolase (sEH). Planta Med Int Open. 2016;3:e68–71. Kinoshita T, Wu JB, Ho FC. Prenylcoumarins from Murraya paniculata var. omphalocarpa (Rutaceae): the absolute configuration of sibiricin, mexoticin and omphamurin. Chem Pharm Bull. 1996;44(6):1208–11. Kusumo GG, Ferry FMAH, Asroriyah H. Identifikasi senyawa tanin pada daun kemuning (Murraya panicullata L. Jack) dengan berbagai jenis pelarut pengekstraksi. J Pharm Sci. 2017;2(1):29–32. (in Bahasa) Lapčík O, Klejdus B, Davidová M, Kokoška L, Kubáň V, Moravcová J. Isoflavonoids in the Rutaceae Family: 1. Fortunella obovata, Murraya paniculata and four Citrus species. Phytochem Anal. 2004;15:293–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/pca.781. Lingga DA, Lestari F, Arisandy DA. Inventarisasi tumbuhan obat di Kecamatan Lubuklinggau Utara II [undergraduate thesis]. STKIP-PGRI Lubuklinggau: Lubuklinggau; 2016. (in Bahasa) Liyanti PR, Budhi S, Yusro F. Etnobotany study of plants utility in Pesaguan Kanan Village south Matan Hilir Sub-District in Ketapang regency. J Hut Lest. 2015;3(3):421–33. Menezes IRA, Santana TI, Varela VJC, Saraiva RA, Matias EFF, Boligon AA, Athayde ML, Coutinho HDM, Costa JGM, Rocha JBT. Chemical composition and evaluation of acute toxicological, antimicrobial and modulatory resistance of the extract of Murraya paniculata. Pharm Biol. 2015;53(2):185–91. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2014.913068. Mita TA, Shihan MH, Rahman M, Sharmin T, Maleque M, Alvi MR-U-H, Chowdury SR. In vitro antioxidant, cytotoxic, thrombolytic, antimicrobial, and membrane stabilizing activities of Murraya paniculata. Am J Res Comm. 2015;1(5):226–37. Monir TSB, Afroz S, Jahan I, Hossain T. Phytochemical study and antioxidant properties of aqueous extracts of Murraya paniculata leaf. J Appl Life Sci Int. 2020;23(4):1–8. https://doi. org/10.9734/JALSI/2020/v23i430153. Narkhede MB, Ajmire PV, Wagh AE. Evaluation of antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of ethanol extract of Murraya paniculata leaves in experimental rodents. Int J Pharm Pharm Res. 2012;4(1):247–50. Ng MK, Abdulhadi-Noaman Y, Cheah YK, Yeap SK, Alitheen NB. Bioactivity studies and chemical constituents of Murraya paniculata (Linn) Jack. Int J Food Res J. 2012;19(4):1307–12. Nugroho AE, Riyanto S, Sukari MA, Maeyama K. Effects of flavonoids isolated from orange jasmine (Murraya paniculata [L.] Jack.) on histamine release from mast cells. Maj Obat Trad. 2010;15(1):34–40. Obico JJA, Ragragio EM. A survey of plants used as repellents against hematophagous insects by the Ayta people of Porac, Pampanga province. Philippines Phil Sci Lett. 2014;7(1):179–86. Olawore NO, Ogunwade IA, Ekundayo O, Adeleke KA. Chemical composition of the leaf and fruit essential oils of Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack. (syn. Murraya exotica Linn.). Flavour Fragr J. 2005;20:54–6. https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.1365. PDPERSI. Pusat Data & Informasi PERSI: Kemuning (Murraya paniculata [L.] Jack.) 2011. http:// www.pdpersi.co.id/content/news.php?catid¼7&mid¼5&nid¼804. Accessed 30 June 2020. Podder MK, Das BN, Saha A, Ahmed M. Analgesic activity of bark of Murraya paniculata. IJMMS. 2011;3:105–8. Prasetyo B. Struktur komunitas dan profil vegetasi dalam sistem pekarangan di Desa Jabon Mekar, Kecamatan Parung, Bogor [master thesis]. Institut Pertanian Bogor: Bogor; 2006. (in Bahasa) Rahayu SM, Andini AS. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Sesaot Forest, Narmada, West Lombok, Indonesia. Biosaintifika. 2019;11(2):234–42. https://doi.org/10.15294/biosaintifika.v11i2. 19314. Rahman MA, Hasanuzzaman M, Uddin N, Shahid IZ. Antidiarrhoeal and anti-inflammatory activities of Murraya paniculata (l.) Jack. Pharmacologyonline. 2010;3:768–76. Ramdhan B. Keanekaragaman dan pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat asal Kampung Adat Cikondang, Kabupaten Bandung Jawa Barat. In: Seminar Nasional Biologi, 29 November 2014. Semarang: Universitas Negeri Semarang; 2014. p. 1–11. (in Bahasa).

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack

725

Rehman F, Khan MF, Khan I, Shareef H, Marwat SK. Analgesic activity of carbazole alkaloid from Murraya paniculata Linn. (Rutaceae). J Agric Environ Sci. 2014;14:240–5. Saeed S, Shah S, Mehmood R, Malik A. Paniculacin, a new coumarin derivative from Murraya paniculata. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2011;13:724–7. Saqib F, Ahmed MG, Janbaz KH, Dewanjee S, Jaafar HZE, Zia-Ul-Haq M. Validation of ethnopharmacological uses of Murraya paniculata in disorders of diarrhea, asthma and hypertension. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2015;15:319–26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-0150837-7. Sayar K, Paydar M, Pingguan-Murphy B. Pharmacological properties and chemical constituents of Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack. Med Aromat Pl. 2014;3:1–6. https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-0412. 1000173. art. 173 Seidemann J. World spice plants economic usage, botany, taxonomy. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2005. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27908-3. Shao J, Zhou S, Jiang Z, Chi T, Ma J, Kuo M, Lee AYL, Jia L. Warfarin and coumarin-like Murraya paniculata extract down-regulate EpCAM-mediated cell adhesion: individual components versus mixture for studying botanical metastatic chemopreventives. Sci Rep. 2016;6:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep30549. art. 30549 Sharker M, Shahid IJ, Hasanuzzaman M. Antinociceptive and bioactivity of leaves of Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack, Rutaceae. Brazil J Pharmacog. 2019;19(3):746–8. Silalahi M, Nisyawati WEB, Supriatna J, Mangunwardoyo W. The local knowledge of medicinal plants trader and diversity of medicinal plants in the Kabanjahe traditional market, North Sumatra, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:432–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015. 09.009. Steck W. Paniculatin, a new coumarin from Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack. Can J Chem. 1972;50:443–6. Sundaram M, Sivakumar, Karthikeyan, Bhuvaneshwar, Aishwarya, Thirumalai, Pennarasi. Studies on in vitro antibacterial, antifungal property and antioxidant potency of Murraya paniculata. Pak J Nutr. 2011;10:925–8. Suparman, Diniatik, Kusumaningrum D, Yulianto. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan sub kelas rosidae dan penggunaannya sebagai obat tradisional di Kecamatan Baturraden Kabupaten Banyumas. Sainteks. 2012;9(2):1–8. https://doi.org/10.30595/sainteks.v9i2.226. (in Bahasa) Tresia GE, Evvyernie D, Tiuria R. Phytochemical screening and in vitro ovicidal, larvacidal, and nematicidal effects of Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack extract on gastrointestinal parasites of goats. Med Peternak. 2016;39(3):173–9. https://doi.org/10.5398/medpet.2016.39.3.173. Trinh LN, Watson JW, Hue NN, De NN, Minh NV, Chu P, Sthapit BR, Eyzaguirre PB. Agrobiodiversity conservation and development in Vietnamese home gardens. Agric Ecosyst Environ. 2003;97:317–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(02)00228-1. Tue HV. Murraya J. König ex L. In: MSM S, Hong LT, Prawirohatmodjo S, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1998. p. 389–91. Useful Tropical Plants Database. Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack Rutaceae. 2014. http://tropical. theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id¼Murraya+paniculata. Acceseed 30 June 2020. Wiryono S, Winanda GA, Saprinurdin NS. The diversity of useful plants and botanical knowledge of the Rejang Tribe in Kepahiang District, Bengkulu Province, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(12):3599–607. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d201219. Zaman Q, Hariyanto S, Purnobasuki H. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Kabupaten Sumenep, Jawa Timur. J MIPA. 2013;16(1):21–30. (in Bahasa) Zhang D, Hartley TG, Mabberley DJ. Rutaceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 11 (Oxalidaceae through Aceraceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2008. p. 51–97. Zhang JY, Li N, Zhou Y, Jiang Y, Tu PF. Simultaneous qualitative and quantitative determination of major polymethoxylated flavonoids in the leaves of Murraya paniculata by RRLC-DAD-ESIMS. Anal Methods. 2012;4:3399–406. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ay25242b.

Musa balbisiana Colla MUSACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Synonyms Musa rosacea Jacq.; Musa elata Nakai; Musa pruinosa (King) Burkill; Musa rosacea Jacq.; Musa
sapientum f. pruinosa King (POWO 2019).

Local Names Bayating/amoting (Igorot); klutuk (Indonesia).

Botany and Ecology Description: A perennial growing up to 4 m high, 30 cm in diameter, green or yellow-green herb with pseudostem containing milky juice (Sulistyaningsih 2016). Broad and large dark green leaf blades are arranged in spiral with thick midrib and parallel veins arising from it. Leaf petiolar canal is straight with erect margins or with margins curved inward but not enclosed or overlapping. The leaf base is either equilateral or nonequilateral (Sotto and Rabara 2000). Sap color is milky to red-purple. There are several suckers (one to seven) that are close to parent. Petiole ranging from 20 to 48 cm is green with brown to black color. The leaf blade surface (3 m long and 60 cm wide) is dark green and shiny while the lower surface is light green and dull. Leaf base and apex are rounded and truncate, respectively. The upper male flower is biseriate, five stamens, compound tepal 4–5 cm long, brown purplish, free tepal lanceolate, and white filaments. Male bud is lanceolate, dark violet with

R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_30

727

728

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

green color in tips (Sulistyaningsih 2016). Basal female flower with a straight style and cream colored stigma and ovary. Peduncle is green and hairless. Fruit is berry, compact to lax, apex blunt-tipped without any floral relict, 6–13 cm in length, 6–16 pieces per hand in two rows. Green when immature but yellow upon ripening. The seeds are brown or black, globular, and wrinkled (Hastuti et al. 2019; Sunandar 2017). Phenology: Flowering occurs from March to July. Fruits are available starting August (Docot et al. 2019). Distribution and Habitat: The plant is found in shaded and semi-shaded forest habitats (Castro 2006). In Philippines, it has been reported from Sablan, Tuba, and Tublay (Chua-Barcelo 2014), Apayao, Bataan, Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna, Mountain Province (Bauco), and Ifugao (Pelser et al. 2011). Grows on hillsides and open slopes at 900–1300 m (Docot et al. 2019), from sea level to medium altitudes with short to long rainy season (Coronel 2011b) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses In Sulawesi, Indonesia, the young fruits are used to treat gastritis (Hastuti et al. 2019). In Teluk Nibung village of Kalimantan of Indonesia, pseudostem exudates are used to treat diabetes (Sunandar 2017). In East Java of Indonesia, fruits are used to cure diarrhea (Hapsari et al. 2017). The Temuan people of Ulu Kuang village in Selangor, Malaysia, apply the exudates topically for treating ulcers (Azliza et al. 2012).

Fig. 1 Musa balbisiana Colla (Musaceae). Pseudostem bearing inflorescence and fruit. (© R. Barcelo)

Musa balbisiana Colla

729

Fig. 2 Musa balbisiana Colla (Musaceae). Immature fingers. (© R. Barcelo)

Fig. 3 Musa balbisiana Colla (Musaceae). Ripe banana showing seeds. (© R. Barcelo)

Phytochemistry The methanolic fruit extract exhibits good DPPH radical scavenging activity which may be due to the presence of steroids, flavonoids, saponins, and tannins (Barcelo 2015). Aqueous root extract of M. balbisiana has a high 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl radical scavenging activity compared to shoot and inflorescence extract. The root extract also inhibited glucose movement in vitro by 30% (Kalita et al. 2016). A moderate antioxidant activity of ethanolic extract of M. balbisiana inflorescence was recorded in DPPH, 2,20 -azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) and ferric reducing antioxidant power assay. The extract has high total phenolic content (92.01  0.40 gallic acid equivalent/mg extract). Moreover, extract is cytotoxic to HT-29 human colon cancer cell

730

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

line. Other compounds detected in the extract are steroids, fatty acids, and long chains of aliphatic hydrocarbons (Revadigar et al. 2017). Kusuma et al. (2017) reported the presence of flavonoids, polyphenols, tannins, monoterpenoid, and sesquiterpenoids, quinones, and saponins aside from its high potassium content. The ripe fruit pulp is a good source of important fatty acids such as ω-3 and ω-6 and sterols with nutritional and health benefits (Vilela et al. 2014). The hydroalcoholic extract possess abortifacient and antioxidant activity on superoxide, hydroxyl, and DPPH radicals (Srikanth et al. 2013). The ethanolic fruit extract showed antibacterial activity against Shigella dysenteriae because of its tannins and flavonoids (Kusuma et al. 2017), and Gram-negative bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli (Jalani et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses The unopened inflorescence is cooked as vegetable (Coronel 2011a) and salad (Coronel 2011b). In Philippines, fruits are processed into jams and wine (ChuaBarcelo 2014). The green banana pulp and peel flour can serve as a substitute for wheat flour for pasta. Both contain higher ash, total fiber, and total phenolic compounds compared to wheat flour (Castelo-Branco et al. 2017). The stems are used as animal feed while the young fruit and male bud are used in cooking as vegetable blends (Hastuti et al. 2019). The ripe and soft pulp without seeds is used as baby food instead of commercial products. Local people of Teluk Nibung in Kalimantan, Indonesia, use the fruit to prepare sale (dried banana) (Sunandar 2017). In east Java of Indonesia, unripe fruits are used to prepare rujak cingur, a popular side dish; the male buds are also consumed as pecel, urap, and gulai sayur (Hapsari et al. 2017).

Biocultural and Economic Importance Leaves are used as wrapper for native cakes (Coronel 2011b). In Teluk Nibung of Indonesia, the dried leaves are used as cigarette paper (Sunandar 2017). According to Maryani and Pratiwi (2015), M. balbisiana is used as a traditional wrapper for not only cakes but also food in Indonesia which is considered as the center for banana biodiversity. Anatomical characteristics support the quality of M. balbisiana leaves as wrappers (Sumardi and Wulandri 2010). Brown pigments from the heart petal of M. balbisiana are used as hair dyes due to the presence of alkaloids, steroids/ triterpenoids, tannin, and flavonoids (Sudewi 2018).

References Azliza MA, Ong HC, Vikineswary S, Noorlidah A, Haron NW. Ethno-medicinal resources used by the Temuan in Ulu Kuang Village. Ethno Med. 2012;6(1):17–22.

Musa balbisiana Colla

731

Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Castelo-Branco VN, Guimaraes JN, Souza L, Guedes MR, Silva PM, Ferrao LL, Miyahira RF, Guimaraes RR, Freitas SML, dos Reis MC, Zago L. The use of green banana (Musa balbisiana) pulp and peel flour as an ingredient for tagliatelle pasta. Braz J Food Technol. 2017;20:1–8. Castro I. A guide to families of common flowering plants in the Philippines. Quezon City: The University of the Philippines Press; 2006. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. Coronel R. The edible fruits and nuts of the RC fruit conservation farm. Laguna: UP: Los Baños; 2011a. Coronel R. Important and underutilized edible fruits of the Philippines. Laguna: UPLBFI and DA-BAR; 2011b. Docot RVA, Banag CI, Tandang DN, Funakoshi H, Poulsen AD. Recircumscription and revision of the genus Vanoverberghia (Zingiberaceae). Blumea. 2019;64:140–57. Hapsari L, Kennedy J, Lestari DY, Masrum A, Lestarini W. Ethnobotanical survey of bananas (Musaceae) in six districts of East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2017;18(1):160–74. Hastuti P, Sumardi I, Daryono BS. Diversity wild banana species (Musa spp.) in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(3):824–32. Jalani F, Mohamad S, Shahidan W. Antibacterial effects of banana pulp extracts based on different extraction methods against selected microorganisms. Asian J Biomed Pharm. 2014;4(36):14–9. Kalita H, Boruah D, Deori M, Hazarika A, Sarma R, Kumari S, Kandimalla R, Kotoky J, Devi R. Antidiabetic and antilipidemic effect of Musa balbisiana root extract: a potent agent for glucose homeostasis in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat. Front Pharmacol. 2016;7(102):1–11. Kusuma S, Mita S, Firdayani I, Mustarichie R. Study on the antibacterial activity of fruit extracts of Klutuk banana (Musa balbisiana Colla) against Shigella dysenteriae ATCC 13313. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2017;10(7):220–3. Maryani, Pratiwi P. Banana leaves quality of Musa balbisiana Colla and Musa paradisiaca L. based on anatomical structure. KnE Life Sci. 2015;2(1):361. https://doi.org/10.18502/kls.v2i1.174. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Musaceae.html. Accessed 25 Sept 2019. POWO (Plants of the World Online). Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2019. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 22 Nov 2019. Revadigar V, Al-Mansoub MA, Asif M, Hamdan MR, Majid AMSA, Asmawi MZ, Murugaiyah V. Anti-oxidative and cytotoxic attributes of phenolic rich ethanol extract of Musa balbisiana Colla inflorescence. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2017;7(5):103–10. Sotto RC, Rabara RC. Morphological diversity of Musa balbisiana Colla in the Philippines. Infomusa. 2000;9(2):28–30. Srikanth M, Rajananda Swamy T, Mallikarjuna Rao T, Ganga Rao B. Abortifacient and antioxidant activities of Musa rosacea. Asian Pac J Reprod. 2013;2(3):174–7. Sudewi. The use of ethanol extracts of banana heart petal (Musa balbisiana Colla) as hair dye with others. Int J Sci Technol Res. 2018;7(3):84–95. Sulistyaningsih LD. The diversity of wild banana species (genus Musa) in Java. Makara J Sci. 2016;20(1):40–8. Sumardi I, Wulandri M. Anatomy and morphology character of five Indonesian banana cultivars (Musa spp.) of different ploidy level. Biodiversitas. 2010;11(4):167–75. Sunandar A. New record of wild banana (Musa balbisiana Colla) in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2017;18(4):1324–30. Vilela C, Santos S, Villaverde J, Oliveira L, Nunes A, Cordeiro N, Freire C, Silvestre A. Lipophilic phytochemicals from banana fruits of several Musa species. Food Chem. 2014;162(1):247–52.

Mussaenda philippica A.Rich. RUBIACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Mussaenda grandiflora Rolfe; Mussaenda philippica f. aurorae (Sulit) Jayaw.; Mussaenda philippica var. aurorae Sulit

Local Names English: Bangkok rose, queen sirikit, tropical dogwood, white mussaenda. Philippines: Agboi (Panay Bisaya); agboy, balikarap, doña aurora, galas-virgen, hunbabuyan, kahoi-dalaga, kahoy-dalaga, talig-harap, tiñga-tiñga (Tagalog); ati-ati, buyon (Cebu Bisaya); ayaunakilat, darumabi (Maguindanao); balailamok, katudai-bantai (Iloko); boyon, buyon (Samar-Leyte Bisaya); buyon, sigidago (Agusan Manobo, Tagbanua); gibuyan (Subanum); hamiling, kalingag (Ayta); kahoi-dalaga, langla (Sambali); muyon, talauataua (Manobo); tabataba, tauataua (Bikol); taua-taua (Bukidnon)

Botany and Ecology Evergreen shrub or small tree, 3–5 m tall (Fig. 1). Leaves opposite, oblong-ovate to oblong-lanceolate, dark green, glossy, ca. 21 cm
8 cm, pubescent; short-pointed tips and base; stipules 4 mm long; veins prominent. Flowers small in terminal, hairy cymes, tubelike, ovate lobes, yellowish-orange, 5 sepals, at least one sepal much enlarged and colored, usually white to apricot (Fig. 2b); some cultivars sepals may be enlarged. Calyx ca. 7 mm long, with four of the teeth as long as the tube, one very M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_135

733

734

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Habit of Mussaenda philippica. (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

Fig. 2 Bract (a) and flower (b) of Mussaenda philippica. (A © M.L.G. Dapar; B © P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

much enlarged into a white to greenish-white, leaflike, long petiole, elliptic-ovate appendage, blade 4–8 cm long, oval bracts (Fig. 2a). Corolla tubular, yellow, hairy, ca. 2 cm long, enlarged upward. Fruit black berries ca. 1.5 cm long. Different from

Mussaenda philippica A.Rich.

735

Mussaenda erythrophylla in west Africa having cream corolla and a single red, enlarged sepal. Mussaenda philippica is natively distributed in Philippines (POWO 2020), from Luzon: Cagayan to Palawan to Mindanao, commonly in thickets and secondary forests at low and medium elevation (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). This species also occurs in the Solomon Islands, Carolines (Palau, Yap), Fiji Islands.

Local Medicinal Uses Several parts of Mussaenda philippica are traditionally used as medication by various local communities in the Philippines. Local communities in Iloilo, Philippines, traditionally use M. philippica to treat dermatological diseases (Tantiado 2012). M. philippica leaves are chewed and kept in mouth to control gum bleeding after tooth extraction among the Kalanguya tribe in Ifugao, Philippines (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011). Both leaves and roots are chewed and swallowed to lessen dizziness and sore throat among the Ayta community of Bataan, Philippines (Tantengco et al. 2018). Dapar et al. (2020) documented the ethnopharmacological uses of M. philippica among the Manobo tribe in Agusan del Sur, as a remedy for jaundice, colds, dysentery, stomachache, fever, and snakebite. They drink 2–3 glasses of decocted bark and leaves. Eating 1–3 flowers of M. philippica was noted as new ethnobotanical information practiced by the Agusan Manobo for alleviating asthma and cough. This ethnopharmacological information among the Manobo community recorded no adverse or side effects (Dapar et al. 2020). The plant parts of M. philippica are traditionally used in various folkloric medicine as a treatment for gastrointestinal disorders (Jena et al. 2019). Sophy et al. (2015) reported the medicinal use of M. philippica in India and other South Asian countries. M. philippica is traditionally used for dysentery, jaundice, emollient, and snakebites (Kar et al. 2014) in India and against stomachache and influenza in China (Bensky et al. 2004). Mussaenda Burm. ex L. species have been used in Chinese and Fijian traditional medicine (Kamurthy et al. 2014). Pharmacological activities of Mussaenda species were reported among Chinese as a diuretic, antipyretic, and antiphlogistic agents (Kamurthy et al. 2014). The Dictionary of Chinese Traditional Medicine (1986) notes M. philippica as an antidote for mushroom poisoning and early pregnancy termination.

Phytochemistry Generally, the phytochemistry of Mussaenda species has been studied extensively in the nineteenth century (Vidyalakshmi et al. 2008). The most common compounds present in Mussaenda species are iridoids, flavonoids, and triterpenes. Various Mussaenda species were investigated and found to possess novel bioactive compounds with potential antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties (Jena et al. 2019). Kamurthy et al. (2014) reported three iridoid glycosides

736

M. L. G. Dapar

(5-hydroxy davisioside, 4-acetoxy-7-methoxy secologanin, and 6-methoxy mussaenoside) as well as two flavones (5,7,40 -trihydroxy-30 -methoxy flavone and 5,7-dihy-droxy-6,30 ,40 -trimethoxy flavone). Reported pharmacological properties of Mussaenda species are cytotoxicity, antiinflammatory, antiviral, antioxidant, and antibacterial. The sepals of M. philippica cultivars are active pharmacological agents (Vidyalakshmi et al. 2007). However, little is known on the phytochemistry and pharmacology of M. philippica. This plant has been reported to have anticonvulsant (Mates et al. 2000), analgesic (Siddique et al. 2007), antioxidant, and antitumor activities (Lakshmi et al. 2014). Abudullah et al. (2012) comparatively evaluated various plant parts like leaves, flowers, and bark, which are extracted using methanol, ethyl acetate, hexane, and distilled water. Methanol extracts of all tested plant parts demonstrated inhibition against Bacillus subtilis using agar disc diffusion assay. Also, both ethyl acetate and hexane extracts of the bark exhibited antibacterial activity against B. subtilis. However, no inhibition activity was observed using distilled water extracts of all plant parts on Escherichia coli. Kar et al. (2014) investigated the anticonvulsant activity of hydroalcoholic extracts of M. philippica leaves and sepals, including fractions using methanol, dioxin, and aqueous against pentylenetetrazole, maximal electroshock, strychnine, and picrotoxin-induced convulsions at different dose levels. Results revealed that the extracts demonstrated a significant dose-dependent increase in onset of convulsion compared to the controls. Thus, the hydroalcoholic extracts of M. philippica leaves and sepals could be a potential medicinal source for grand mal and petit mal epilepsy. Sophy et al. (2015) evaluated the antimicrobial activity of M. philippica against bacteria and fungi. Chloroform, ethyl acetate, and ethanol leaf extracts of M. philippica revealed antibacterial but not antifungal activity. All extracts exhibited antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Bacillus subtilis. Both chloroform and ethyl acetate extract inhibited Escherichia coli, while both ethyl acetate and ethanol extract inhibited Salmonella enteritidis. Aqueous extract of M. philippica leaves demonstrated potential antiulcer activity in experimental rat models (Jena et al. 2019).

Economic Importance The colorful nature of Mussaenda philippica makes it suitable as an ornamental and thus commercially used in landscaping (Sophy et al. 2015). Recently, Manicketh et al. (2020) explored the potential of natural colorants extracted from the sepals of Mussaenda hybrid (M. philippica and M. luteola). Dyed yarns demonstrated exceptional colorfastness to washing, light, rubbing, and perspiration, which could be a promising source of natural colorants and Mussaenda hybrid applications in the textile industry.

Mussaenda philippica A.Rich.

737

References Abdullah E, Raus RA, Jamal P. Extraction and evaluation of antibacterial activity from selected flowering plants. Am Med J. 2012;3(1):27–32. Balangcod TD, Balangcod AKD. Ethnomedical knowledge of plants and healthcare practices among the Kalanguya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao, Luzon. Philippines. Indian J Tradit Know. 2011;10:227–38. Bensky D, Clavey S, Stoger E, Gamble A. Chinese herbal medicine: Materia Medica. Eastland Press: USA, 3rd ed; 2004. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dictionary of Chinese traditional medicine. Jiangsu New Medical College. Shanghai People’s Press: China; 1986. 176 p. Jena R, Kar DM, Rath D, Roy KS, Ghosh G. Antiulcer property of Mussaenda philippica. Pharm J. 2019;11(3):603–7. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2019.11.96. Kamurthy H, Viddae J, Dontha S, Rao NS, Nampally S. Phytochemical screening on Mussaenda philippica sepals – isolation of iridoid glycosides and flavones. J Planar Chrom. 2014;27 (2):93–6. Kar DM, Rout SK, Moharana L, Majumdar S. Evaluation of anticonvulsant activity of hydroalcoholic extract of Mussaenda philippica on animals. J Acute Dis. 2014:46–50. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S2221-6189(14)60010-X. Lakshmi BVS, Sudhakar M, Anubindu E. Antioxidant and antitumor activity of Mussaenda philippica sepal extract against in vivo colon cancer and breast cancer in mice. Int J Adv Pharm Med Bioal Sci. 2014;2(2):2–5. Manicketh TJ, Francis MS, Joseph G. Extraction of natural colourants from Mussaenda hybrid (M. philippica
M. luteola), Carissa carandas L. & Syzygium cumini L. for textile colouration. Nat Prod Res. 2020:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2020.1741578. Mates MJ, Jimenez S, Fransisca. Evaluation of anticonvulsant activity of leaves and sepals of Mussaenda philippica. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2000;576:32,157,170. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Rubiaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Rubiaceae.html. Accessed 31 May 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 31 May 2020. Siddique AB, Sikder MAA, Rashid RB, Islam F, Hossian AKMN. Screening of analgesic activity for Mussaenda philippica on Swiss albino mice. Medscape Gen Med. 2007;9:60. Sophy AJR, Fleming AT, Ronald BSM, Shankar KG, Vidhya R, Rajagopalan V, et al. Antimicrobial activity of extracts of Adenanthera pavonina and Mussaenda philippica against isolated bacteria and fungi. Int J Life Sci Pharma Res. 2015;5(4):21–6. Tantengco OAG, Condes MLC, Estadilla HHT, Ragragio EM. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by Ayta communities in Dinalupihan, Bataan. Philippines. Pharm J. 2018;10:859–70. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2018.5.145. Tantiado RG. Survey on ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Iloilo, Philippines. Int J Bio-Sci Bio-Tech. 2012;4(4):11–26. Vidyalakshmi KS, Charles Dorni AI, Hannah RV. Antimitotic and cytotoxic activity of Mussaenda queensirikit. J Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007;2(7):660–5. Vidyalakshmi KS, Vasanthi HR, Rajamanickam GV. Ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Mussaenda species (Rubiaceae). Ethnobot Leaf. 2008;12:469–75.

Myrmecodia brassii Merr. & L.M.Perry RUBIACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Local Names Indonesia: Sarang semut, sarang semut papua, sarang semut jayawijaya, sarang semut habbema (Indonesian).

Botany and Ecology Description: Myrmecodia brassii is epiphyte, rarely terrestrial. Tuber cylindrical when young, older tubers “humpbacked” with two distinct parts (Fig. 1): Basal part typically horizontal, not ridged, drying dark brown, rough; spines in compact clusters which are not spreading and not on mounds; spines simple, straight, broad, c. 0.6 cm. Apical part of tuber ridged, drying shiny black; spines on ridges and in spreading clusters on mounds, simple, fine, often curved, 0.5–1.5 cm. Pores not seen. Entrance holes not seen. Superficial chambers slightly dendroid. Stems several, unbranched, curved upwards or straight, around 17 by 2.2 cm. Clypeoli circular or slightly elongate, c. 1.2 cm across. Alveoli distinct. Spines densely inserted on clypeoli margins and basal edge, simple, fine, often curved, l (up to 2) cm, black. Leaves leathery. Lamina 11 by 2.5 to 15 by 3.6 (up to 26 to 4) cm, broadest ¾–4/5 the way along the lamina; apex broadly acute; base tapering. Midrib prominent below. Lateral veins 9–11, rather obscure. Petioles triangular, 1–2 (up to 4) cm, white. Stipules around 0.8 (up to 2) cm long, narrow, usually falling before the leaves. Bracts hairy, inconspicuous. Flowers up to 2. Calyx 3 mm. Corolla white, 12 mm; lobes 4 mm; lobe tips 1 mm. A broad ring of hairs midway up the tube. Anthers blue, among and above hairs; filaments 0.5 mm.

A. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_231

739

740

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 1 Myrmecodia brassii showing the properly elongate-oblong leaves and obvious “humpbacked” shapes. (© Ary P. Keim)

Pollen 3-porate, 3-vesiculate, vesicles small, apertures slightly bordered; reticulation fine. Stigma midway up corolla lobes, 4–6-lobed. Pyrenes 4–6. Phenology: Myrmecodia brassii has always been observed in flowering together with M. lamii in October. The two cohabitant species have the same flowering and fruiting time (personal observation). Distribution and Habitat: Myrmecodia (Rubiaceae) is a genus of the epiphytic myrmecophytes (plants that host ant colonies) (Huxley 1978; Huxley and Jebb 1993). This genus is native to Southeast Asia, but the genus can also be found in Indochina and Northern Australia (Huxley 1978; Huxley and Jebb 1993). The members of Myrmecodia plants contain a highly specialized tuber and modified stems, which are used by ant colonies (Fig. 2) (Huxley 1978). Currently, there are 26 species recognized, for which New Guinea is the center of diversity (Huxley and Jebb 1993). Myrmecodia brassii is one of the species endemic to New Guinea particularly around the vicinity of Lake Habbema, Jayawijaya Range, Indonesian New Guinea from 2000 to about 4000 m altitudes (Merill and Perry 1945; Van Royen 1980; Huxley and Jebb 1993). In the vicinity of Lake Habbema, the species is found in various highland vegetation types (Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018) including the Upper Montane Forest vegetation type (2000–3000 m altitudes), Mossy Forest (3000–3500 m altitudes), Lower Subalpine Forest (2400–4170 m altitudes), Subalpine Scrub (2400–4170 m altitudes), and Subalpine Grassland (particularly offshore of Lake Habbema at 3200–4000 m altitudes). Myrmecodia brasii is frequently found cohabitant with M. lamii, which is also endemic to the vicinity of Lake Habbema (Merrill and Perry 1945; Van Royen 1980; Huxley and Jebb 1993). The species is more commonly found as epiphyte in Subalpine

Myrmecodia brassii Merr. & L.M.Perry

741

Fig. 2 Myrmecodia brassii found in the Subalpine Grassland offshore of Lake Habbema at around 3200 m above sea level showing the inner part of the tuber, where the ant lives. (© Ary P. Keim)

Grassland offshore of Lake Habbema and mostly on Papuacedrus papuana (Fig. 3), which is also abundant there (Merrill and Perry 1945; Keim et al. 2018). On the contrary, M. lamii is found abundantly as terrestrial or phanerophytes terrestrial in the Lower Subalpine Forest. Merrill and Perry (1945; see also Van Royen 1980; Huxley and Jebb 1993; Keim et al. 2018) clearly noted the differences between M. brasii and M. lamii.

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The Dani community in Wamena, Jayawijaya Range, use the tubers of both M. brassii and M. lamii as medicines for illness such as swollen body parts, severe body weakness indicated by the inability of a person to stand up from bed, and other diseases that may resemble cancers (personal observation; also see Arobaya and Pattiselanno 2007). The tuber of M. brassii is always harvested from the vicinity of Lake Habbema as the species is very rarely seen lower than 3000 m altitudes (Keim et al. 2018). The species that is found in the valley lower than

742

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 3 Myrmecodia brassii as epiphytes on Papuacedrus papuana. (© Ary P. Keim)

3000 m is M. archboldiana (Huxley and Jebb 1993; Archbold et al. 1942), which is also used for the same traditional medicinal purposes by the Dani, but regarded less powerful than either M. brassii or M. lamii. The Dani regard both M. brassii and M. lamii as having the same medicinal power to heal sick people. Sun dried thin slices of the tuber are boiled in water, cooled down and administered to the sick. The process is repeated for several days until the patient is cured.

Phytochemistry There has been no studies on the chemical constituents of Myrmecodia brassii. Studies on the other species of Myrmecodia such as M. pendens record the presence of flavonoids (Engida et al. 2013; see Ju et al. 2018) with anticancer properties (Engida et al. 2013; Soeksmanto et al. 2010; Yuletnawati et al. 2016; Ju et al. 2018).

Myrmecodia brassii Merr. & L.M.Perry

743

Biocultural Importance Myrmecodia brassii is not regarded sacred. However, the species is greatly respected by the Dani of Baliem Valley, Jayawijaya Range. The Dani believe that M. brassii belong to the spirits or spiritual owners of the land known to them as tuan tanah (Lord of the land). Thus they harvest the plant with great respect, reciting specific chants. They do not even kill the ants that come out from the tuber (personal observation). The Dani regard M. brassii and M. lamii as brothers. This can be regarded as a suggestion of their close phylogenetic affinity.

References Archbold R, Rand AL, Brass LJ. Results of the Archbold expedition no. 41: summary of the 19381939 New Guinea expedition. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1942;79(3):197–288. Arobaya AYS, Pattiselanno F. Jenis tanaman berguna bagi suku Dani di Lembah Baliem. Biota. 2007;12(3):192–5. Brass LJ. The 1938-39 expedition to the snow mountains, Netherlands New Guinea. J Arnold Arb. 1941;22(2):271–95. Engida AM, Kasim NS, Tsigie YA, Ismadji S, Huynh LH, Ju YH. Extraction, identification and quantitative HPLC analysis of flavonoids from sarang semut (Myrmecodia pendens). Ind Crop Prod. 2013;41:392–6. Huxley CR. The ant-plants Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum (Rubiaceae) and the relationship between their morphology and occupants, physiology and ecology. New Phytol. 1978;80:231–68. Huxley CR, Jebb MHP. The tuberous epiphytes of the Rubiaceae 5: a revision of Myrmecodia. Blumea. 1993;37(2):271–334. Ju A, Cho YC, Kim BR, Sewoong L, Le HTT, Vuong HL, Cho S. Anticancer effects of Myrmecodia platytyrea Becc. Leaves against human hepatocellular carcinoma cells via inhibition of ERK and STAT3 signalling pathways. Int J Oncol. 2018;52(1):201–10. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Efendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua. Ciputat: Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Merrill ED, Perry LM. Plantae papuanae archboldianae XV. J Arnold Arbor. 1945;26:1):1–37. Soeksmanto A, Subroto MA, Wijaya H, Simanjuntak P. Anticancer activity test for extracts of Sarang semut plant (Myrmecodya pendens) to HeLa and MCM-B2 cells. Pak J Biol Sci. 2010;13:148–51. Van Royen P. The alpine flora of New Guinea, vol. 2. Vaduz: J. Cramer; 1980. Yuletnawati SE, Meiyanto E, Agustina D. High antitumor activity of ethanolic extracts of Papua' s ant nest plant (Myrmecodia tuberosa) on an oral carcinoma (KB) cell line. Int J Sci Res. 2016;5:1619–23.

Myrmecodia lamii Merr. and L.M. Perry RUBIACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Synonyms Myrmecodia sp. Lam. Vegetationsbilder 15, Heft 7 (1924) t. 37, 38, 40. For the detail on the only synonym of M. lamii, see Lam (1924).

Local Names Indonesia: Sarang semut, sarang semut papua, sarang semut jayawijaya, sarang semut habbema (Indonesian).

Botany and Ecology Description: Myrmecodia lamii is an epiphytic or terrestrial herb with an irregularly shaped, up to 70 by 40 cm large tuber, irregularly ribbed, in lower part with bundled, stiff, up to 6 mm long spines; in upper parts with single or grouped, flaccid, simple or basally branched, black, 7–22 mm long spines. Tuber longer than width when epiphytic and wider than the length when terrestrial (Fig. 1). Stems several on each tuber, glabrous, up to 1 m long, more or less 4-angled, with raised, up to 1.5 by 1 cm large clypeoles carrying spines. Stipules glabrous, deeply bifid and the tips widely flaring, 1.5–2 cm long, lobes broadly ovate, caudate at tip, connate at base to clypeoles and base of petioles. Leaves 9 to 25 cm long, limb glabrous, obovatespathulate or narrowly sphatulate-oblong, 8 to 22 by 2–6 cm, obtuse or short obtusely acuminate, base narrowly cuneate, midrib grooved above, stoutly angular below, lateral nerves 8–13 on either side of midrib, ascending at about 45°, slightly A. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_230

745

746

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 1 Myrmecodia lamii in terrestrial habit showing the characteristic irregular shaped tuber, where the tuber is wider than the length (© Ary P. Keim)

curved, indistinctly archingly joined, shallowly grooved to prominulous above, prominent below; margin recurved or crinkled. Petioles glabrous, 1–3 cm long. Flowers deep in alveoles in axil of leaves, sessile. Bracts densely rusty brown pilose. Ovary sparsely brown villose, 4-celled. Calyx cup shaped, 3 mm long, margins undulate or indistinctly lobed. Corolla white or bluish white, glabrous, tube 7–8 mm long, lobes oblong, 3–4 by 1–2 mm, acute at tip and hook-tipped. Stamens glabrous, inserted at tip of tube, about 3 mm long, anthers light blue, about 2.5 mm long. Style about 9 mm long, stigma 4-lobed. Fruit subtrigono-compressed, 6 mm long, 1.5–2 mm across, punctulate. Phenology: Epiphytic or terrestrial herb (Merrill and Perry 1945; Van Royen 1980; Huxley and Jebb 1993; Keim et al. 2018; see also Brass 1941a, b, 2012; Archbold et al. 1942; Merrill and Perry 1940). In the lower subalpine forest around Lake Habbema at about 3000–3200 m altitude, Myrmecodia lamii is commonly found as terrestrial herbs, rarely epiphytic (see Keim et al. 2018). When an epiphyte, M. lamii is commonly found as cohabitant with M. brassii (Huxley and Jebb 1993). Myrmecodia lamii has always been observed in flowering (personal observation). Distribution and Habitat: Myrmecodia is an epiphytic myrmecophyte (plants that host ant colonies) (Huxley 1978; Huxley and Jebb 1993). This genus is native to Southeast Asia, but the can also be found in Myanmar and the rest of Indochina and Northern Australia (Huxley 1978; Huxley and Jebb 1993). The members of Myrmecodia contain a highly specialized tuber and modified stems, which are

Myrmecodia lamii Merr. and L.M. Perry

747

Fig. 2 Population of Myrmecodia lamii in terrestrial habit showing the obovate-spathulate leaves and irregular shaped tubers (© Ary P. Keim)

used by ant colonies (Huxley 1978). Currently, there are 26 species recognized, for which New Guinea is the center for diversity (Huxley and Jebb 1993). Myrmecodia lamii is one of the species endemic to New Guinea particularly around the vicinity of Lake Habbema, Jayawijaya Range, Indonesian New Guinea from 2000 to about 4000 m altitudes (Merill and Perry 1945; Van Royen 1980; Huxley and Jebb 1993; Keim et al. 2018). In the vicinity of Lake Habbema, the species is found in various highland vegetation types (Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018), including the Upper Montane Forest vegetation type (2000 to 3000 m altitudes), Mossy Forest (3000 to 3500 m altitudes), Lower Subalpine Forest (2400 to 4170 m altitudes), Subalpine Scrub (2400 to 4170 m altitudes), and Subalpine Grassland (particularly offshore of Lake Habbema at 3200 to 4000 m altitudes). Myrmecodia lamii is found abundantly in the Lower Subalpine Forest. The species is frequently found as a cohabitant with M. brassii, which is also an endemic to the vicinity of Lake Habbema (Merrill and Perry 1945; Van Royen 1980; Huxley and Jebb 1993). Merrill and Perry (1945; see also Van Royen 1980; Huxley and Jebb 1993) clearly noted the differences between M. lamii and M. brassii with photos particularly in the habits (terrestrial or phanerophytes terrestrial in M. lamii compared to predominantly epiphytic M. brassii) and leaf shapes (fairly short-oblong in M. lamii and elongate-oblong in M. brassii) (Fig. 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The Dani people in Wamena, Jayawijaya Range, use the tuber of M. lamii (Fig. 3) as medicine for illness such as swollen body parts, severe body weakness indicated by the inability of a person to stand up from bed, and other diseases that may resemble cancers (personal observation; also see Arobaya and Pattiselanno 2007). The tuber of M. lamii is always harvested from the vicinity of

748

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 3 Cut open tuber of Myrmecodia lamii showing ant colonies (© Ary P. Keim)

Lake Habbema as the species is very rarely seen lower than 3000 m altitudes (Keim et al. 2018). The species that is found in the valley lower than 3000 m is M. archboldiana (Huxley and Jebb 1993), which is also used for the same traditional medicinal purposes by the Dani, but regarded less powerful than M. lamii. The tuber is sliced into thin slices. The slices are sun-dried, boiled in water, cooled down and given to the sick. The process is repeated for several days. Elsewhere in Indonesia, M. tuberosa and M. pendens, two other species of Myrmecodia have been traditionally used to treat diseases such as ulcers, tumors, cancer, hepatitis, and coronary artery disease (Lemmens and Bunyapraphatsara 2003; Subroto and Saputro 2006).

Phytochemistry There has been no study on the chemical constituents of Myrmecodia lamii. Studies on other species of the genus such as M. pendens, have recorded kaempferol, luteolin, rutin, quercetin, and apigenin (Engida et al. 2013; see Ju et al. 2018). These flavonoids may have anticancer properties (Engida et al. 2013). Myrmecodia pendens has also shown activities to inhibit HeLa and MCM-B2 cancer cell growth (Soeksmanto et al. 2010). Myrmecodia tuberosa and M. platytyrea are also shown to be anticancer agents or cancer inhibitors, capable of suppressing tumor growth (Yuletnawati et al. 2016; Ju et al. 2018).

Myrmecodia lamii Merr. and L.M. Perry

749

Local Food Uses So far, there are no records of species of the genus Myrmecodia being harvested for food.

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Although M. lamii is not regarded sacred, the species is respected by the Dani of Baliem Valley, Jayawijaya Range. The Dani believe that the terrestrial M. lamii belongs to the spirits or spiritual owners of the land known to them as tuan tanah (Lord of the land). Thus, they harvest the tubers with great respect, chanting specific mantras. They do not even kill the ants that come out from the tuber. Milliken (2006) reported that the swollen (ant-filled) stems of M. sterrophylla are used by the children in Yali community as targets for practicing archery and spear-throwing. The practice has not been observed for M. lamii.

References Archbold R, Rand AL, Brass LJ. Results of the Archbold expedition no. 41: summary of the 1938–1939 New Guinea expedition. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1942;79(3):197–288. Arobaya AYS, Pattiselanno F. Jenis tanaman berguna bagi suku Dani di Lembah Baliem. Biota. 2007;12(3):192–5. Brass LJ. The 1938–39 expedition to the snow mountains, Netherlands New Guinea. J Arnold Arb. 1941a;22(2):271–95. Brass LJ. The 1938–39 expedition to the snow mountains, Netherlands New Guinea. J Arnold Arb. 1941b;22(3):297–342. Brass LJ. Archives III LJB: Leonard John (L.J.) Brass (1900–1971) collection, 1925–1953: guide archives of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Harvard: Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University; 2012. Engida AM, Kasim NS, Tsigie YA, Ismadji S, Huynh LH, Ju YH. Extraction, identification and quantitative HPLC analysis of flavonoids from sarang semut (Myrmecodia pendens). Ind Crop Prod. 2013;41:392–6. Huxley CR. The ant-plants Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum (Rubiaceae) and the relationship between their morphology and occupants, physiology and ecology. New Phytol. 1978;80:231–68. Huxley CR, Jebb MHP. The tuberous epiphytes of the Rubiaceae 5: a revision of Myrmecodia. Blumea. 1993;37(2):271–334. Ju A, Cho YC, Kim BR, Sewoong L, Le HTT, Vuong HL, Cho S. Anticancer effects of Myrmecodia platytyrea Becc. leaves against human hepatocellular carcinoma cells via inhibition of ERK and STAT3 signalling pathways. Int J Oncol. 2018;52(1):201–10. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Efendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Lam HJ. Vegetationsbilder aus dem Innern von Neu-Guinea. In: Karsten G, Schenck H, editors. Vegetationsbilder 15(5–7). Jena: Fischer; 1924. p. 1–18. Lemmens RHMJ, Bunyapraphatsara N. Plant resources of South East Asia (PROSEA) 12 (3): medicinal and poisonous plants 3. Bogor: PROSEA Publications; 2003. Merrill ED, Perry LM. Plantae papuanae archboldianae, II. J Arnold Arbor. 1940;21(2):163–75. Merrill ED, Perry LM. Plantae papuanae archboldianae XV. J Arnold Arbor. 1945;26:1):1–37.

750

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Milliken W. The ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2006. Soeksmanto A, Subroto MA, Wijaya H, Simanjuntak P. Anticancer activity test for extracts of Sarang semut plant (Myrmecodya pendens) to HeLa and MCM-B2 cells. Pak J Biol Sci. 2010;13:148–51. Subroto MA, Saputro H. Gempur penyakit dengan Sarang Semut. Jakarta: Penebar Swadaya; 2006. Van Royen P. The alpine flora of New Guinea volume 2. Vaduz: J. Cramer; 1980. Yuletnawati SE, Meiyanto E, Agustina D. High antitumor activity of ethanolic extracts of Papua’s ant nest plant (Myrmecodia tuberosa) on an oral carcinoma (KB) cell line. Int J Sci Res. 2016;5:1619–23.

Nepenthes maxima Reinw. ex Nees NEPENTHACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Nepenthes boschiana auct. non Korth.; Nepenthes celebica Hook.f.; Nepenthes curtisii Mast.; Nepenthes curtisii var. superba Hort. Veitch ex Marshall; Nepenthes maxima var. lowii (Hook.f.) Becc.; Nepenthes maxima var. minor Macfarl.; Nepenthes maxima var. sumatrana (Miq.) Becc.; Nepenthes maxima var. superba (Hort. Veitch ex Marshall) Veitch.; Nepenthes oblanceolata Ridl.

Local Names Indonesia: Kantung semar – buahun ahomi (Yali in Papua) – cere-cere (Sulawesi) – kobe-kobe (Papua) – tumpo balao (Luwu in Sulawesi). English: tropical pitcher plant (Hidayat and Munawaroh 2009; Hidayat and Napitupulu 2015; Miliken 2000; Wahyuni and Hidayat 2013).

Botany and Ecology Description: Climbing plants, either terrestrial or epiphytic, stem up to 4 m long, or even to 19 m long. The climbing stems terete to triangular, often winged. Plant indumentum variable, glabrous to variously hairy. Leaves rosette at the base of the stem, upward distinctly distant, internodes up to 12 cm long, lamina obovate to lanceolate, 15–35 cm  2.5–9 cm, base attenuate, apex acute to obtuse, petiole up to 7 cm long, at base sometimes the margin decurrent, forming wing at the stem, longitudinal nerves one to three on each side of the midrib, inconspicuous. The lower pitchers vary in shape, from wholly cylindrical or nearly so, to the ovoid base W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_206

751

752

W. A. Mustaqim

with the cylindrical upper part, up to 28 cm  8 cm, sometimes waisted, with two longitudinal fringed wings, wings to 19 mm wide, fringed elements to 6 mm long; mouth ovate and concave, peristome 2–5 mm wide, lid ovate, base cordate, apex rounded, lower surfaces with two appendages, one at the base, laterally flattened, another one apical, usually filiform or less often reduced to a swollen area, nectary glands along the midline orbicular, on the other parts longitudinally elliptic; spur filiform, up to 6 mm long. The upper pitchers also vary in shape, either infundibuliform as the most common shape, or tubular, or basally ovoid and cylindrical upward, up to 30 cm  8 cm, most often smaller, sometimes waisted, ribs prominent, less often winged near the mouth or wings similar to lower pitchers, peristome flattened, to 2 cm wide near the lid, lid ovate to elliptic, to 5 cm  6 cm, cordate at the base, apex obtuse, lower side with basal appendages laterally flattened and filiform or laterally flattened apical appendages, spur entire or bifid. Male inflorescence up to 40 cm  5 cm, most often shorter, partial peduncle usually two-flowered, but in Arfak, one plant can also have one-flowered partial peduncles (personal observation). Flowers dark red, with tepals elliptic, androphore present. Pitchers are creamy white, yellow, greenish-white, yellowish-green or green, brown, purple, or red, and with crimson peristome. This is a very variable species in terms of morphological appearance. The plants are slender in shaded habitat and become more rigorous in exposed habitats. Some authors previously noted the miniature “form” of the species, each in the Arfak Mountains, the Bird’s Head Peninsula – which later found to be common across the New Guinea’s highlands – and Lake Poso, Sulawesi, respectively. The first one was once accepted as a variety, while the second one once proposed as a cultivar (N. maxima “Lake Poso”) which is now accepted as a separate species named N. minima Cheek & Jebb. The latter differs by its self-supporting habit vs. climbing in N. maxima, only to 0.6 m vs. usually at least 2 m long, 1-flowered vs. 2-flowered partial peduncle, and the partial peduncle bracts absent vs. present. Due to its numerous variations, it is encouraged to study taxonomy or even biosystematics of this species. Distribution and Ecology: This plant is native of Sulawesi, Maluku Archipelago, and New Guinea. In the mossy forests, this species grows as an epiphyte, and in white sand, it is terrestrial; it grows in swamp grassland, soils over rock, ridge tops, and ultramafic rocks containing metals. This species mainly grow in the highlands from 1200 to 2600 m, but quite often they also descend to 600 m (Cheek and Jebb 2001, 2016; Evans 2009; Macfarlane 1917; Mansur 2013; McPherson and Robinson 2012; Rugayah et al. 2015) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: In Luwu Timur, South Sulawesi, the water from the unopened pitchers are drunk to cure maag (dyspepsia), typhus, and cough (Hidayat and Munawaroh 2009).

Nepenthes maxima Reinw. ex Nees Fig. 1 The flower-bearing plant of Nepenthes maxima (Nepenthaceae), Papua Barat, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Lower pitchers of Nepenthes maxima (Nepenthaceae), Papua Barat, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

753

754

W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 3 Non-mottled upper pitcher of Nepenthes maxima (Nepenthaceae), Buru Island, Maluku Archipelago, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

Biocultural and Other Uses Indonesia: The stems of this species are used for lashing by the Yali people, Wamena, Papua, while the pitchers are used to sheath penis (Miliken 2000).

Economic Importance This species has potential as ornamental (Hidayat and Napitupulu 2015; Wahyuni and Hidayat 2013).

Nepenthes maxima Reinw. ex Nees

755

Fig. 4 Mottled upper pitcher of Nepenthes maxima (Nepenthaceae), Papua Barat, Indonesia. (© W. A. Mustaqim)

References Cheek M, Jebb MHP. Nepenthaceae. Fl Males Ser I. 2001;15:1–157. Cheek M, Jebb MHP. Nepenthes minima (Nepenthaceae), a new pyrophytic grassland species from Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea. 2016;61:181–5. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651916X693509. Evans DP. New cultivars: Nepenthes maxima “Lake Poso”. Carniv Plant Newsl. 2009;38(1):18–22. https://legacy.carnivorousplants.org/cpn/Species/v38n1p12_22.html#Poso Hidayat S, Munawaroh E. Keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan liar dan potensinya di kawasan hutan Mangkutana, Kabupaten Luwu Timur, Sulawesi Selatan. In: Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, editors. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Etnobotani IV: Keanekaragaman hayati, budaya dan ilmu pengetahuan. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2009. p. 133–8. (in Bahasa). Hidayat S, Napitupulu RM. Kitab tumbuhan obat. Yogyakarta: Agriflo; 2015. (in Bahasa).

756

W. A. Mustaqim

Macfarlane JM. Nepenthaceae. In: Gibbs LS, editor. Contribution to the phytogeography and flora of the Arfak Mountains. London: Taylor & Francis; 1917. p. 141. Mansur M. A review of Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae) in Indonesia. Ber Biol. 2013;12(1):1–7. McPherson SR, Robinson AS. Field guide to the pitcher plants of Australia and New Guinea. Poole: Redfern Natural History Productions; 2012. Miliken W. Ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden; 2000. Rugayah, Sunarti S, Sulistiarini D, Hidayat A, Rahayu M. Daftar jenis tumbuhan di Pulau Wawonii, Sulawesi Tenggara. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2015. (in Bahasa). Wahyuni S, Hidayat S. Tumbuhan obat berpotensi hias 2. Jakarta: Elex Media Komputindo; 2013. (in Bahasa).

Nothofagus brassii Steenis NOTHOFAGACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Synonyms Nothofagus recurva Steenis; Trisyngyne brassii (Steenis) Heenan & Smissen; Trisyngyne recurva (Steenis) Heenan & Smissen

Local Names Indonesia: Sagé, sagé hitam (Wamena, Papua, Indonesian New Guinea), sahé (Yali, Papua, Indonesian New Guinea), kayu sagé, kayu sagé hitam (Indonesian).

Botany and Ecology Description: Nothofagus brassii is a monoecious tree up to 40 m in height, and over 1 m diameter; twigs coarse, faintly zigzag, internodes slightly flattened (Fig. 1). Perules ovate, ca. 4 mm. Leaves elliptic-oblong, 3.5–5.5 by 1.5–2.25 cm, entire hard-coriaceous, the margin strongly recurved, upper surface glossy, apex somewhat acutish; midrib strongly prominent underneath, terete, on the upper surface sulcate with a prominent ridge; primary nerves 7 or 8 pairs, slightly sunken on the upper surface, distinct but faintly prominent underneath; reticulations on the upper surface absent, indistinct underneath; glands distinct on the lower surface, 0.5–0.75 mm spaced. Petiole stout, ca. 0.5 cm. Stipules peltate, acute-oblong, 5–6 by 2.5 mm, early caducous, attached in the lower part. Male flowers in triads, orange, rather

A. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_229

757

758

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 1 Nothofagus brassii. (© Ary P. Keim)

tubular, more or less sessile, limb truncate 3-toothed; anthers about 15. Pistillate inflorescence erect, peduncled; flowers 3 (1 or 2 laterals sometimes abortive and sterile), ovate, wings surrounding the style-base; style 1–2.5 mm. Cupule about as large as the pistillate flowers, roundish, split halfway down, when young about 1 cm peduncled, and 1 cm broad, later when ripe ca. 1.25 cm peduncled, ca. 1.5 cm through, distinctly 4–5 lamellate, thick woody. Nuts very different in shape by mutual pressure, often partly abortive, ovate to broad-ovate or suborbicular, distinctly winged towards the apex, averaging 6 by 6–9 by 6 mm, the largest ones ovate, 10 by 6 mm inclusive of apical wings. Phenology: The flowering and fruiting time are observed from October to November (Van Steenis 1953; Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018). Distribution and Habitat: Nothofagus brassii is as an endemic species of highland New Guinea, particularly the Jayawijaya Range in the Indonesian part of mainland New Guinea (Van Steenis 1952, 1953). The species is one of the two species (the other is N. starkenborghiorum) of the genus found in the upper montane forest around Lake Habbema in the Jayawijaya Range at about 2000–3000 m above sea level altitude, and in the mossy forest at around 3000–3500 m above sea level altitude (Fig. 2) (Van Steenis 1953; Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018). Nothofagus

Nothofagus brassii Steenis

759

Fig. 2 Nothofagus brassii is found in the upper montane forest around Lake Habbema in the Jayawijaya Range. (© Ary P. Keim)

brassii is more commonly found in higher altitudes than N. starkenborghiorum and dominates the mossy forest (Van Steenis 1953; Read and Hope 1996).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Keim et al. (2018) recorded that the Dani of Baliem Valley in Jayawijaya believe use the leaves and barks of N. brassii to cure many illnesses that are difficult to be cured by other traditional medicines. The symptoms of such illnesses clinically resemble cancer and degenerative sicknesses. Perhaps, this is the reason behind the sacred notions attached to Lake Habbema by the Dhani people, and it is the only part in New Guinea that is not culturally claimed by any tribes in Jayawijaya.

Phytochemistry Nothofagus brassii may contain the same chemical constituent found in N. fusca from New Zealand, Nothofagin (see Hills and Inoue 1967). Nothofagin is a dihydrochalcone, which is a C-linked phloretin glucoside and a phenolic antioxidant

760

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

(Hills and Inoue 1967). This possibly forms the basis for its use in traditional medicine by the Dhani of the Baliem Valley (see Keim et al. 2018). N. brassii is a promising source of antioxidant from the highlands of New Guinea.

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The fruits are not eaten by humans although the Dhani mention that the fruits are eaten by wild mammals most likely species of kangaroo, which are also found in highlands of New Guinea (Hope 1976). Keim et al. (2018) spotted a taxon of small kangaroo identified as a possible individual of Thylogale browni (Macropodidae). The people of Ndumba, Papua New Guinea, harvest the large white edible grubs living in the rotting trunks, and edible fungi at the base of a species of Nothofagus, presumably also from N. brassii (see Hays 1980; Milliken 2006).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Nothofagus brassii is massive-robust tall tree with the distinctive bright reddish brown young leaves, outer wood brown, dark brown to blackish brown. Hence the origin of the vernacular name sagé hitam (hitam ¼ black; thus Black Sagé). The Dani people regard the wood of N. brassii (known to them as sage or black sage) as exceptionally important and use it for building houses and fences. The Dani regard the wood as a sacred link between their people and their ancestors (personal observation). The wood of N. brassii has never been used for building livestock fences, even for pigs despite the fact that pigs are extremely important for the people of New Guinea, including the Dani (Rappaport 1968).

Economic Importance Indonesia: The timbers of N. brassii have been harvested for woods (Fig. 3). The wood is regarded as a good building material. In the past decade, the species has experienced massive logging (mostly illegal) including the populations in the Lorentz National Park (Keim et al. 2018). The threat has turned even bigger in recent years as Wamena has developed into a cosmopolitan town, and the District of Jayawijaya has been divided into several new districts, increasing demand for wood. The Trans New Guinea highway that connects Wamena to Nduga in the south through the National Park including the Lake Habbema is nearing completion, which would make access to the park easier. Thus, the possibility of exporting the wood outside Jayawijaya in the near future looms large. The recent developments warrant a revision of the Near Threatened status, accorded to it in the IUCN Red List (Baldwin et al. 2018), to Threatened.

Nothofagus brassii Steenis

761

Fig. 3 Wood used in bridge construction. (© Ary P. Keim)

References Baldwin H, Barstow M, Rivers MC. The red list of Nothofagus. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2018. Hays TE. Uses of wild plants in Ndumba, Eastern Highlands Province. Sci New Guinea. 1980;7:118–31. Hills W, Inoue T. The polyphenols of Nothofagus species, II: the heartwood of Nothofagus fusca. Phytochemistry. 1967;6:59–67. Hope GS. Fauna. In: Hope GS, Peterson JA, Radok U, Allison I, editors. The equatorial glaciers of New Guinea: results of the 1971–1973 Australian universities’ expeditions to Irian Jaya: survey, glaciology, meteorology, biology and palaeo-environments. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema; 1976. p. 207–24. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Efendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Milliken W. The ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2006. Rappaport RA. Pigs for ancestors: ritual in the ecology of a New Guinea people. New Haven: Yale University Press; 1968. Read J, Hope GS. Ecology of Nothofagus forests of New Guinea and New Caledonia. In: Thomas T, Hill RS, Read J, editors. The ecology and biogeography of Nothofagus forests. New Haven: Yale University Press; 1996. p. 200–56. Van Royen P. The alpine flora of New Guinea, volume 1: General part. Vaduz: J. Cramer; 1980. Van Steenis CGGJ. Addenda, corrigenda et emendada. Blumea. 1952;7:146. Van Steenis CGGJ. Results of the Archbold expeditions: Papuan Nothofagus. J Arnold Arb. 1953;34(4):301–74.

Nothofagus starkenborghiorum Steenis NOTHOFAGACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Synonyms Trisyngyne starkenborghiorum (Steenis) Heenan & Smissen

Local Names Indonesia: Sagé, sagé merah (Wamena, Papua, Indonesian New Guinea), kayu sagé, kayu sagé merah (Indonesian).

Botany and Ecology Description: Nothofagus starkenborghiorum is apparently a monoecious tree up to over 30 m tall, over 1 m diameter (Fig. 1). Twigs minutely puberulous, glabrescent. Perule minute. Leaves oblong, sub-coriaceous, 3–3.5 by 1.25–2.25 cm, generally ca. 2.5 times as long as broad, flat, tip emarginated, base broad-cuneate, margin cartilaginous, feebly recurved; midrib sulcate on the upper surface, without an elevated ridge, strongly prominent beneath; nerves ca. 6–8 pairs, indistinct on both sides; reticulations indistinct on the upper surface, somewhat prominent on the lower surface; glands on the lower surface ca. 0.5–1 mm, spaced. Petioles 4.5–7 mm, terete, upper surface sulcate with an elevated ridge. Stipules peltate, ovate, not very soon caducous, 2.5–4 by 1–2.5 mm. Staminate flowers (all detached) in recurved triads; pedicels nearly free from the base or over 2 mm connate in a short peduncle; constricted basal portion of the perianth angled, ca. 2 mm long, minutely hairy; perianth above the constriction campanulate tubular, truncate, 2–4 mm high or more A. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_236

763

764

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 1 Nothofagus starkenborghiorum. (© Ary P. Keim)

tubular 4–5 mm high. Stamens ca. 12; stamina column reaching halfway the perianth-tube, filaments minutely hairy; anthers ca. 3 mm, nearly 0.75 mm broad when open, apex and base minutely papillose-hairy, connective thickened-apiculate. Pistillate inflorescence erect. Cupule ca. 3–4 mm, stalked, rounded, 7–9 mm diameter; lamellae 2 or 3. Pistillate flower broad-elliptic or roundish, ca. 6–4 mm, rather broadly winged, wings surrounding the basal part of the style; style 0.5–1.25 mm. Phenology: The flowering and fruiting time are observed from October to November (Van Steenis 1953; Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018). Distribution and Habitat: Nothofagus starkenborghiorum was previously known as an endemic species of highland New Guinea, particularly within the Jayawijaya Range in the Indonesian part of mainland New Guinea (Van Steenis 1952, 1953). The distribution has been extended into New Britain Island in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea, by Heenan and Smissen (2013) as Trisyngyne starkenborghiorum. Nothofagus starkenborghiorum is one of the two principal species (the other is N. brassii) of the genus found in the upper montane forest around Lake Habbema in the Jayawijaya Range at about 2000–3000 m altitude, and the mossy forest at around 3000–3500 m altitude (Fig. 2) (Van Steenis 1953; Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018). The species is more commonly found in the upper montane forest, whereas N. brassii is more adapted to the higher altitudes and predominantly occupy the mossy forest near Lake Habbema (Van Steenis 1953; Read and Hope 1996). Nevertheless, the two species are more frequently found cohabiting (Keim et al. 2018).

Nothofagus starkenborghiorum Steenis

765

Fig. 2 Nothofagus starkenborghiorum is found in the upper montane forest around Lake Habbema in the Jayawijaya Range at about 2000–3000 m altitude. (© Ary P. Keim)

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Keim et al. (2018) recorded that the Dhani of Baliem Valley, Jayawijaya, believe that the leaves and barks of sage (refers to both N. starkenborghiorum and N. brassii) cure many chronic illnesses with symptoms clinically resembling cancer and degenerative sicknesses. This is apparently one of the reason Lake Habbema has been regarded sacred by the Dani people.

Phytochemistry Nothofagus starkenborghiorum may contain the same chemical constituent found in N. fusca from New Zealand, Nothofaganin (see Hills and Inoue 1967). Nothofaganin is a dihydrochalcone, which is a C-linked phloretin glucoside and a phenolic antioxidant (Hills and Inoue 1967). This could be factor responsible for its efficacy as a traditional medicine (see Keim et al. 2018).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Nothofagus starkenborghiorum is a massive-robust tall tree with the distinctive bright reddish-brown young leaves, outer wood rose colored (hence the origin of the vernacular name sage merah, in Indonesian merah means red; thus red sage), and brown inner wood. The Dani people regard the wood of N. starkenborghiorum as exceptionally important and employ it for building houses and fences (Powell 1976; Milliken 2006). The Dani regard the wood as sacred that links them with their predecessors (personal observation). Also, the Dani people

766

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 3 Wood of Nothofagus starkenborghiorum. (© Ary P. Keim)

regard N. starkenborghiorum as less sacred than N. brassii or the black sage (personal observation). The reason for this is unknown. It is suggested to be related with the fact that the wood of N. starkenborghiorum is regarded by the Dani as unsuitable for fuel, in accordance with the result of the study done by Milliken (2006) with the Yali people. On the contrary, the wood of N. brassii is one of the best fuels (fire wood) known to the Dani.

Economic Importance Indonesia: The wood of N. starkenborghiorum have been harvested for timber. It is an extraordinarily good building material (Fig. 3), and in the past 10 years,the species have experienced massive illegal logging (Keim et al. 2018). Hence, the population of the species is rapidly declining; the “Near Threatened” status accorded to it in the IUCN Red List (see Baldwin et al. 2018) might have to revised to “Threatened”.

References Baldwin H, Barstow M, Rivers MC. The red list of Nothofagus. Kew: Royal Botanic Garden; 2018. Heenan PB, Smissen RD. Revised circumscription of Nothofagus and recognition of the segregate genera Fuscospora, Lophozomia and Trisyngyne (Nothofagaceae). Phytotaxa. 2013;146 (1):1–31. Hills W, Inoue T. The polyphenols of Nothofagus species, II: the heartwood of Nothofagus fusca. Phytochemistry. 1967;6:59–67. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Efendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Milliken W. The ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2006.

Nothofagus starkenborghiorum Steenis

767

Powell JM. Ethnobotany. In: Paijmans K, editor. New Guinea vegetation. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1976. Read J, Hope GS. Ecology of Nothofagus forests of New Guinea and New Caledonia. In: Thomas T, Hill RS, Read J, editors. The ecology and biogeography of Nothofagus forests. New Haven: Yale University Press; 1996. p. 200–56. Van Royen P. The alpine flora of New Guinea volume 1: general part. Vaduz: J. Cramer; 1980. Van Steenis CGGJ. Addenda, corrigenda et emendada. Blumea. 1952;7:146. Van Steenis CGGJ. Results of the Archbold expeditions: Papuan Nothofagus. J Arnold Arbor. 1953;34(4):301–74.

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz BIGNONIACEAE Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

Synonyms Arthrophyllum ceylanicum Miq., A. reticulatum Blume ex Miq., Bignonia indica L., B. lugubris Salisb., B. pentandra Lour., B. quadripinnata Blanco, B. tripinnata Noronha, B. tuberculata Roxb. ex DC., Calosanthes indica (L.) Blume, Hippoxylon indica (L.) Raf., Oroxylum flavum Rehder, Spathodea indica (L.) Pers. (POWO 2020)

Local Names Cambodia: Pika (Khmer), ung ka, pou long (Bunong), Indonesia: bentolan (Kalimantan), pongporang (Sundanese), kayu lanang, mungli, Pokok bonglai (Javanese), Laos: lin mai ba (Brou, Kry, Saek), pi ka, lin may, Malaysia: beka, bonglai, kulai, Sabah-parang pamol (Malay), pokok bekah (Kensiu), binkuli, parang nyabor (Ibans of Sarawak), gimurai, murai (Bidayuh of Sarawak), ulunan sangku (Kadazandusun: Rungus, Ranau, Tambunan, Muruts: Timugon of Sabah), Myanmar: kyaung shar, sot-gren-itg (Mon), maleinka (Mak, Shan), yawng li (Müün, Ng’gah, Da’ai), Philippines: pingka-pingkahan (Tagalog), abong-abong (Bisaya), kamkampilan (Iloko), Thailand: du kae sae (Pwo), pekaa (Karen), phe kaa (central), litmai (northern), lin faa (north-eastern), Vietnam: núc nác, hoàng bá nam, mộc hồ diệp (Berhaman 1995; Kulip 2003, 2005, Sam et al. 2008; de Boer et al. 2012; Mohammad et al. 2012; Mohammad 2014; Chassagne et al. 2016, 2017; Falahd and Hadiwibowo 2017; Rasadah 2017; Ismail et al. 2018; Ong et al. 2018; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018; Elliott et al. 2019; Pongamornkul et al. 2020). K. Devanathan (*) Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_160

769

770

K. Devanathan

Botany and Ecology Description: Trees, up to 10 m high (Fig. 1); barks thick, corky, lenticelate, and yellowish-gray. Leaves deccusate, 2–3-pinnate, oddpinnate, and 1–1.8 m long; leaflets elliptic-ovate, 5–15
3–9 cm, obliquely cuneate at base, entire at margins, and caudate-acuminate at apex; lepidotted, glabrous; petiole c. 30 cm long, swollen at base. Inflorescence a raceme, terminal, and 30–100 cm long; peduncle c. 35 cm long; pedicel 5–7 cm long, articulate at base. Flowers bisexual, c. 10 cm long, and nocturnal (Fig. 2). Calyx campanulate, 3–4.5
c. 2 cm, limb truncate–obscurely toothed, and leathery. Corolla funnel form, maroon to reddish purple outside, and yellowish or pinkish with glandular inside; tube cylindric, c. 7 cm long; lobes 5, subequal, obovate, 4–5
3–4 cm, and wavy at margins. Stamens 5, posterior one short, and inserted on the base of the tube; filaments c. 3, 4, and 5 cm long respectively, villous at base; anthers linear-oblong, c. 1 cm long. Ovary superior, 2-celled, and many-ovuled; style c. 5 cm long; stigma c. 5 mm across. Capsule linear-oblong, 45–85
7–10 cm, cuneate at base and apex, and flat. Seeds numerous, elliptic, c. 2 cm across, flat, and winged on both side; wings c. 2.5 cm long, membranous. Phenology: Flowering peaks from April to August, and fruiting from October to December (Sam et al. 2004). Distribution: Oroxylum indicum grows natively in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Java, Laos, Lesser Sunda Islands, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Sulawesi, Sumatera, Thailand, and Vietnam; also introduced into TrinidadTobago (POWO 2020).

Fig. 1 Habit of Oroxylum indicum. (© N. Dhatchanamoorthy)

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

771

Fig. 2 Flowers of Oroxylum indicum. (© N. Dhatchanamoorthy)

Ecology: It thrives well in secondary forests, thickets, forest fringes, road sides, field margins, and also planted in home gardens and near human settlements up to 1200 m.a.s.l. elevation. Alangium kurzii Craib. and Gironniera subaequalis Planch. are known to grow in association with this species (Sam et al. 2004; Rasadah 2017). The generic name Oroxylum is derived from the Greek words meaning oros – mountain, xylon – wood, and the specific epithet indicum means it is indigenous to India (Berhaman 1995). It is pollinated by both self-pollination, as well as fruit bats. This species also serves as a good source of food for the fruit eating bat Eonycteris spelaea in Thailand and Cambodia (Srithongchuay et al. 2008; Bumrungsri et al. 2013; Stewart and Dudash 2017; Thavry et al. 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Cambodia: Bunong people in Mondulkiri province consume root decoction, and bark or leaves in stream bath to cure malaria. They also consume a combination including bark/leaves of Oroxylum indicum, whole plant of Helicteres angustifolia, leaves of Ananas comosus, and Chromolaena odorata decoction to cure malaria. Bark pounded with water is applied topically to alleviate burn. Bark or root decoction, when taken orally, cures cough. Combination of pou long and Dillenia pentagyna bark or wood decoction is used for the treatment of cold and fever. Bunong people also use a decoction from Amphineurion marginatum (bark/wood), Cananga latifolia (bark/wood), Harrisiona perforata (bark/wood), Hoya kerrii (leaves/wood),

772

K. Devanathan

Leea spp. (root), Oroxylum indicum (root), Polyalthia cerasoides (bark/wood), Uvaria rufa (bark/wood), Ziziphus cambodiana (bark/wood), and Ziziphus oenopolia (bark/wood) to alleviate Leucorrhea. A fruit decoction, or fruits pounded with alcohol, is consumed for postpartum care (Chassagne et al. 2016). Khmer traditional healers use pika bark or wood in the form of decoction or combination or pills to alleviate liver diseases such as trocheak and psah (Chassagne et al. 2017). Indonesia: Bentolan root decoction is used to alleviate the maternal disorders in east Kalimantan. It is also used in the treatment of fever, malaria, and kidney ache in Kalimantan, stomach ache in Kutai, snake bite in Mentawai, and swelling in Sabah (Malaysia) (Falah and Hadiwibowo 2017). Fresh barks chewed after parturition serve as a depurative. It is also used as Antihemorrhagic. The flowers are used to treat eyes inflammation (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018). In Java, pounded bark paste is taken orally to alleviate gastritis, and as blood purifier. The inner bark is used as coagulant in northern Sulawesi (Rasadah 2017). Laos: Oroxylum indicum is used as the remedy for infant diarrhea, jaundice, and headache by the Bru, Saek, and Kry communities. Roasted bark decoction is used to alleviate dizziness. Bark or fruit decoction is orally taken or used in the steam bath to cure headache. They also use a paste from roasted bark as poultice to alleviate fever, and to heal wounds. Roasted wood decoction is taken orally to cure arthralgia. Neonatal rashes and itches are cured using water boiled with lin mai ba barks. Bark is also eaten to treat diarrhea. Roasted bark decoction is consumed orally to cure jaundice by Saek people. Kry people uses bark as cold infusion to alleviate cold and to prevent hangover (de Boer et al. 2012). Traditional healers of Champasak province, southern lowlands of Laos, prepare a portion of seven medicinal plant roots including hak ien don (Eurycoma harmandiana Pierre), ya nang leuang (Limacia triandra Miers), ya nang khao (Tiliacora triandra (Colebr.) Diels), dtoum ga don (Strychnos nux-blanda A.W. Hill), bi khon (Brucea javanica (L.) Merr), lin mai ba (Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz), and dtoum ga kheua (Strychnos axillaris Colebr.), which is given orally thrice per day for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria (Elliott et al. 2019). Malaysia: Muruts–Timugon people of Sabah soak ulunan sangku bark in hot water and wipe it topically to reduce swellings (Kulip 2003, 2005). Ulunan sangku is also used to treat cuts, wounds (Ranau), boneache, sprain or muscle dislocation (Rungus), and vomit and skin disease (Tambunan) by Kadazandusun communities of Sabah (Kulip 2005). The Kensiu people in Lubuk and Kedah eat raw pokok bekah bark to cure nausea (Mohammad et al. 2012). Bekah barks are eaten raw to cure nausea and vomiting by the Orang Asli at Lubuk Ulu Legong (Mohammad 2014). Leaf decoction is used to cure stomach ache, and as poultice for the treatment of childbirth, rheumatic swellings, and as remedy for enlarged spleen, toothache, and headache (Rasadah 2017). Pokok bonglai leaves or roots with garlic (Allium sativum) clove are wiped on adolescents’ joints to prevent seizure by the JavaneseMalay community in Parit Jelutong, Batu Pahat, and Johor. Roots, stems, and leaves are also eaten raw in postpartum healthcare (Ismail et al. 2018). Myanmar: Cooked leaves and fruits of yawng li are eaten to cure swollen spleen, hypertension, and dyspepsia, and also used as carminative by the Müün, Ng’gah, and

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

773

Daai Chin indigenous people. These communities also use bark powder mixed with water as ear drops to cure Otitis media; bark ash is applied on burns; paste of bark pound with water is applied on cuts and wounds (Ong et al. 2018). Bark powder mixed with ginger juice (Zingiber officinale) and honey taken for asthma and bronchitis. Hot water soaked powder is taken twice per day for chronic indigestion. Bark soaked water is gargled as remedy for dry throat and dry perioral skin. Bark of root and stem are used as tonic to cure dysentery, diarrhea, and rheumatism. Pounded roots are applied topically to treat skin disorders. Fresh leaf juice is used to treat opium toxicity, and boiled leaves are eaten to stimulate defecation. Boiled or roasted young fruit is eaten as salad to cure skin furuncle. A young fruit cooked with chicken is eaten to cure asthma. It is also cooked with striped snakehead fish (Ophiocephalus striatus) and eaten for indigestion, diarrhea, and for liveliness. Fruit cooked with prawn is eaten to alleviate palpitations or fatigue disorders. It is also cooked with hilsa/ilisha fish (Tenualosa ilisha) and eaten to alleviate inflammation, gain weight, and for heart problems. Fruit cooked with nga-mway-toh fish (Mastacembelus armatus) is eaten as aphrodisiac, remedy for menstruation disorders and for piles/ haemorrhoids (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018). Philippines: Root decoction is taken orally to alleviate rheumatism, dysentery, and as diuretic. Leaves are used in the steam bath to cure rheumatic disorders (Rasadah 2017). Crushed fresh bark juice is applied externally to relieve body pain after fever or malaria. It is also used in the treatment of asthma, bronchitis, chronic indigestion, diarrhea, and skin disorders (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018). Thailand: Pekaa roots and root barks are used as a tonic to alleviate diarrhea and dysentery; stem barks are used in the treatment of ulcers and abscesses; seeds are utilized as a laxative and expectorant (Rasadah 2017). Thai-Karen and Lawa ethnic people use pekaa flowers and fruits to alleviate sensory system disorders (Shin et al. 2018; Punchay et al. 2020). Du kae sae stem decoction is taken orally to treat HIV, and flowers and fruits are used to alleviate muscle pain by the Pwo indigenous people in Chiang Mai province (Pongamornkul et al. 2020). Vietnam: Seeds of O. indicum is used in the treatment of stomach ache, chronic cough, pleuro-pneumonia, and pimples by the ethnic communities of Laos and Vietnam (Sam et al. 2004). Núc nác bark and fruit decoction is taken orally to alleviate muscle sprain and bark decoction to cure dysentery by the ethnic peoples in Ben En National Park (Sam et al. 2008). Seeds are applied externally to cure ulcers. Bark of root and stem decoction is used to alleviate allergic problems, urticaria, jaundice, asthma, sore throat, laryngitis, hoarseness, gastralgia, diarrhea, and dysentery (Rasadah 2017).

Phytochemistry Phytochemicals such as chrysin, baicalein, oroxylin A, and Oroxylin B are the major components present in most of the parts. Sankara and his team reported three flavonoids baicalein, biochannin A, and chrysin (Sankara and Nair 1972a, b). Joshi et al. (1977) identified the presence of prunetin and β-sitosterol from the heart wood.

774

K. Devanathan

Vasanth et al. (1991) extracted Ellagic acid, 8, 80 Bis-baicalein, Oroxylin A, and Oroxyloside methylester from the root bark. Ali et al. (1998) separated flavonoids (bacailein and chrysin) and a naphthoquinone (lapachol) from the roots. Bioactive compounds identified include Adenosine, Apigenin, Baicalein, Baicalin, Baicalein-7-O-glucoside, Baicalein-7-O-diglucoside (Oroxylin B), Baicalein 7-O-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl-(1 ! 3)[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 ! 6)]-βDglucopyranoside, Baicalein-7-O-β-D-gentiobioside, Baicalein-7-O-gentiobioside, Baicalein 6-methoxy-7-glucuronide, Carboxylic acid, Chrysin, Chrysin-diglucoside, Chrysin 6-C-β-D-glucopyranosyl-8-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside, Chrysin-6-C-β-Dglucopyranosyl-8-C-α-L-arabinopyranoside, Chrysin-7-O-glucuronide, Chrysin-7-O-βD-gentiobiosid, Chrysin-7-glucuronide, Chrysin-7-O-gentiobioside, Dihydrooroxylin A-7-O-methyl glucuronide, 5- hydroxyl-7-methoxy-2-(2-methoxy-6-(3,4,5-trihydroxy6-(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yoloxy)phenyl)-4H-chromen-4-one, Dihydro iso-α-lapachone, 7-O-methylchrysin, 5-hydroxy- 40,7-di methoxy flavone, Dihydro oro xylin A, Dimethyl sulfone, Echinulin, Ellagic acid, Hispidulin, Isoverbascoside, Lupeol, Oroxylin A-7-O-β-glucopyranoside, Oroxylin-A-7-O-glucoside, Oroxylin A-7-O-βDglucuronide butyl ester, Pinocembrin, Pinobanksin, Scutellarein, Scutellarein 7-O-βD-glucopyranosyl- (1 ! 6)-β-D-glucopyranoside, Scutellarein-7-O-glucopyrano side, β-sistosterol, Ursolic acid, 2-methyl-6-phenyl-4H-pyran-4-one, 2α-hydro xyllupeol, 5,6,7-trimethoxyflavone-8-O-b-D-glucopyranoside, 6-Hydroxyluteolin and 6-Methoxy-baicalein, 5,7-dihydroxy–flavone (Nakahara et al. 2001, 2002; Jiwajinda et al. 2002; Chen et al. 2003, 2005; Dinda et al. 2007; Yuan et al. 2008; Hari Babu et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2010; Majumdar et al. 2010; Yan et al. 2011, 2014; Kruger and Ganzera 2012; Cao et al. 2013; Li et al. 2014a, b; Das et al. 2014; Fan et al. 2015; Fuentes et al. 2015; Rojsanga et al. 2017; Sun et al. 2017a; Nagasaka et al. 2018; Chetry and Bharali 2018; Sithisarn et al. 2019; Hemantha et al. 2019; Peng et al. 2019; Rojsanga et al. 2020). Volatile oils including 2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-(hydroxymethyl), Nonanoic acid, n-Decanoic acid, 2-Cyclohexen-1-one, 2-methyl, 2-Dodecenoic acid, Benzeneethanol, 4-hydroxy, 3-Hydroxy-2-methylbenzaldehyde, Cyclobutanecarboxylic acid, decyl ester, Dodecanoic acid, Ethyl N-(o-anisyl) formimidate, 1,6-Dihydro-5-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-6-oxopyrimidine, Tetradecanoic acid, Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester, n-Hexadecanoic acid, Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester, Phytol, Linoleic acid ethyl ester, Linolenic acid ethyl ester, Glycerol 1,3-dipalmitate, Linolelaidic acid, methyl ester, 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, 2-phenyl-1,3-dioxan-5-yl ester, Dotriacontane, Glycerol 1-monopalmitate, β-Monolinolein, Campesterol, Stigmasterol, and γ-Sitosterol are reported from the young pods (Dunkhunthod et al. 2020).

Bioactivity O. indicum exhibited significant therapeutic activities against various disorders including genotoxic (Tepsuwan et al. 1992), anti-inflammatory activity (Ali et al. 1998; Tenpe et al. 2009; Upaganlawar et al. 2009; Siriwatanametanon et al. 2010;

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

775

Doshi et al. 2012; Tran et al. 2015; Lalrinzuali et al. 2016; Begum et al. 2019; Dunkhunthod et al. 2020), antioxidants (Ng et al. 2000; Jiwajinda et al. 2002; Palasuwan et al. 2005; Zaveri et al. 2006; Gupta et al. 2008; Kalaivani and Mathew 2009; Mishra et al. 2010; Joshi et al. 2011; Kumar et al. 2011; Singh and Kakkar 2013; Sithisarn et al. 2016; Rojsanga et al. 2017; Trang et al. 2018), anticarcinogenic activity (Nakahara et al. 2001, 2002; Palasuwan et al. 2005), antiarthritic activity (Laupattarakasem et al. 2003; Karnati et al. 2013), anticancer (breast, bladder) (Lambertini et al. 2004; Lalou et al. 2007; Roy et al. 2007; Naveen Kumar et al. 2012; He et al. 2016; Nagasaka et al. 2018; Yang et al. 2018; Buranrat et al. 2020), antitumor (Costa-Lotufo et al. 2005; Siriwatanametanon et al. 2010), antiprotease activity (Majumdar et al. 2010), gastroprotective potential or antiulcer (Hari Babu et al. 2010; Begum et al. 2019), antilipoperoxidative (Joshi et al. 2011), nephroprotective (Mishra et al. 2014), analgesic agent (Upaganlawar et al. 2007; Das et al. 2014; Lalrinzuali et al. 2016), antiobesity or antiadipocyte activity (Singh and Kakkar 2014; Mangal et al. 2016; Hengpratom et al. 2018, 2020), antilymphoma therapy (Yang et al. 2015), anthelmintic property (Deori and Yadav 2016), antiallergic (Lee et al. 2016), hepatoprotective (Tenpe et al. 2009; Mohan et al. 2016), antidiabetic (Sun et al. 2017a, b; Zhang et al. 2017; Begum et al. 2019), antimelanogenesis (Zhao et al. 2018), antiviral (Mohamat et al. 2018), antiproliferative activity (Chetry and Bharali 2018; Chassagne et al. 2018; Li et al. 2018a, b), wound healing (Lalrinzuali et al. 2018; Mairuae et al. 2019), antidyslipidemic activity (Begum et al. 2019), cardio-protective activity (Menon et al. 2019), and as a source of nutraceutical supplement (Fuentes et al. 2015; Dunkhunthod et al. 2020). Extracts from the various parts show activity against clinical pathogenic bacteria such as Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus sps., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella dysentriae, S. flexneri, S. sonnei, Staphylococcus aureus, S. intermedius, Streptococcus suis and Vibrio cholerae (Ali et al. 1998; Uddin et al. 2003; Das and Choudhury 2010; Radhika et al. 2011; Moirangthem et al. 2013; Fan et al. 2015; Panda et al. 2016; Sithisarn et al. 2016, 2019; SatyaEswari et al. 2018; Kim et al. 2020), fungal species including Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, and Macrofomina phaeolina (Ali et al. 1998; Moirangthem et al. 2013), the worm Hymenolepis diminuta (Deori and Yadav 2016), and Chikungunya virus (Mohamat et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses Tender leaves, shoots, flower buds, flowers, and tender fruits are eaten raw or after cooked by many Southeast-Asian communities. Karen people of Kanchanaburi province, Western Thailand, eat roasted pekaa fruits and boiled flowers (Paisooksantivatana and Kako 1995). Karen and Lawa ethnic communities of Thailand use fresh bark, tender leaves, shots, and pods as a seasonal vegetable (Punchay et al. 2020). Brou, Kry, and Saek ethnic people of Lao consume raw young leaves, boiled flowers, and boiled or roasted tender pods of lin mai ba. They also use bark powder as one of the main ingredients in traditional rice wine brewing (de Boer et al. 2012).

776

K. Devanathan

Tender leaves, shoots, and fruits are eaten by the ethnic communities of Vietnam and Java in Indonesia (Vu and Nguyen 2017; Rasadah 2017). In Malaysia, beka tender fruits are used in the preparation of salad and chicken curry. It is also used as a vegetable in traditional fish curry preparations involving striped snakehead fish (Ophiocephalus striatus), hilsa/ilisha fish (Tenualosa ilisha), nga-mway-toh fish (Mastacembelus armatus), and prawns (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018).

Biocultural Importance The ethnic communities of Thailand, Myanmar, and Laos cultivate phe kaa in their home gardens, near human settlements, and as mixed crop in the fields for consumption (Nath et al. 1999; Sam et al. 2004; Ochiai 2012). Phe kaa bark and wood chips of Artocarpus heterophyllus are boiled with water and the filtrate is traditionally used as dye to obtain greenish-khaki color in Thailand (Subansenee 1995). Most of the upland farmers of Northern Laos exempt phe kaa tree from felling during agriculture, which shows its importance in local livelihood (Roder 2001).

Economic Importance Phe kaa flowers are collected as a NTFP and sold in the local markets by the hill farmers of northern Laos (Roder et al. 1995). Soft wood of this species is used for making match sticks, papers, and as firewood in Vietnam and Laos (Sam et al. 2004).

References Ali RM, Houghton PJ, Raman A, Hoult JRS. Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities of extracts and constituents of Oroxylum indicum (L.) vent. Phytomed. 1998;5(5):375–81. Begum MM, Islam A, Begum R, Uddin MS, Rahman MS, Alam S, Akter W, Das M, Rahman MS, Imon AHMR. Ethnopharmacological inspections of organic extract of Oroxylum indicum in rat models: a promising natural gift. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2019; https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2019/1562038. Berhaman A. Bignoniaceae. In: Soepadmo E, Wong KM, editors. Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak, vol. 1. Kepong: Forest Research Institute Malaysia (PRIM); 1995. Bumrungsri S, Lang D, Harrower C, Sripaoraya E, Kitpipit K, Racey PA. The dawn bat, Eonycteris spelaea Dobson (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) feeds mainly on pollen of economically important food plants in Thailand. Acta Chiropterologica. 2013;15(1):95–104. Buranrat B, Noiwetch S, Suksar T, Ta-ut A. Inhibition of cell proliferation and migration by Oroxylum indicum extracts on breast cancer cells via Rac1 modulation. J Pharm Anal. 2020;10:187–93. Cao Y, Yan R, Yang L, Guo J, Liu H, Zhang J, Yang B, Huang L. Quality evaluation of semen Oroxyli based on the determination of multiple components with a single reference standard. J Chromatogr Sci. 2013;51:477–84. Chassagne F, Hul S, Deharo E, Bourdy G. Natural remedies used by Bunong people in Mondulkiri province (Northeast Cambodia) with special reference to the treatment of 11 most common ailments. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;191:41–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.06.003.

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

777

Chassagne F, Deharo E, Punley H, Bourdy G. Treatment and management of liver diseases by Khmer traditional healers practicing in Phnom Penh area. Cambodia J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;202:38–53. Chassagne F, Haddad M, Amiel A, Phakeovilay C, Manithip C, Bourdy G, Deharoa E, Marti G. A metabolomic approach to identify anti-hepatocarcinogenic compounds from plants used traditionally in the treatment of liver diseases. Fitoterapia. 2018;127:226–36. Chen LJ, Games DE, Jones J. Isolation and identification of four flavonoid constituents from the seeds of Oroxylum indicum by high-speed counter-current chromatography. J Chromatogr A. 2003;988:95–105. Chen LJ, Song H, Lan XQ, Games DE, Sutherland IA. Comparison of high-speed counter-current chromatography instruments for the separation of the extracts of the seeds of Oroxylum indicum. J Chromatogr A. 2005;1063:241–5. Chetry LB, Bharali MK. Antiproliferative effect of aqueous bark extract of Oroxylum indicum L. on Vigna radiata L. (green gram) seedlings. J Phytopharmacol. 2018;7(2):175–9. Costa-Lotufo LV, Khan MT, Ather A, Wilke DV, Jimenez PC, Pessoa C, de Moraes ME, de Moraes MO. Studies of the anticancer potential of plants used in Bangladeshi folk medicine. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;99(1):21–30. Das S, Choudhury MD. Antimicrobial activity of stem bark extracts from the plant Oroxylum indicum vent. Assam Univ J Sci Technol Biol Environ Sci. 2010;5:95–9. Das BK, Al-Amin MM, Russel SM, Kabir S, Bhattacherjee R, Hannann JMA. Phytochemical screening and evaluation of analgesic activity of Oroxylum indicum. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2014;76(6):571–5. de Boer HJ, Lamxay V, Björk L. Comparing medicinal plant knowledge using similarity indices: a case of the Brou, Saek and Kry in Lao PDR. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:481–500. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Deori K, Yadav AK. Anthelmintic effects of Oroxylum indicum stem bark extract on juvenile and adult stages of Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda), an in vitro and in vivo study. Parasitol Res. 2016;115:1275–85. Dinda B, Mohanta BC, Arima S, Sato N, Harigaya Y. Flavonoids from the stem-bark of Oroxylum indicum. Nat Prod Sci. 2007;13(3):190–4. Doshi K, Ilanchezhian R, Acharya R, Patel BR, Ravishankar B. Anti-inflammatory activity of root bark and stem bark of Shyonaka. J Ayurved Integ Med. 2012;3(4):194–7. Dunkhunthod B, Talabnin C, Murphy M, Thumanu K, Sittisart P, Hengpratom T, Eumkeb G. Intracellular ROS scavenging and anti-inflammatory activities of Oroxylum indicum Kurz (L.) extract in LPS plus IFN-γ-Activated RAW264.7 Macrophages. Evid Base Complement Altern Med. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/7436920. Elliott E, Chassagne F, Aubouy A, Deharo E, Souvanasy O, Sythamala P, Sydara K, Lamxay V, Manithip C, Torres JA, Bourdy G. Forest fevers: traditional treatment of malaria in the southern lowlands of Laos. J Ethnopharmacol. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2019.112187. Falahd F, Hadiwibowo N. Species identification of traditional medicine plants for women’s health in east Kalimantan: lesson learned from local wisdom. Indonesian J Forest Res. 2017;4(1):49–68. Fan QF, Hua ZY, Na Z, Tang HS, Zuo GY, Song QS. One new flavonoid from Oroxylum indicum. Nat Prod Res. 2015; https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2015.1007976. Fuentes RG, Arai MA, Sadhu SK, Ahmed F, Ishibashi M. Phenolic compounds from the bark of Oroxylum indicum activate the Ngn2 promoter. J Nat Med. 2015; https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11418-015-0919-3. Gupta RC, Sharma V, Sharma N, Kumar N, Singh B. In vitro antioxidant activity from leaves of Oroxylum indicum (L.) vent. – a North Indian highly threatened and vulnerable medicinal plant. J Pharm Res. 2008;1(1):65–72. Hari Babu T, Manjulatha K, Suresh Kumar G, Hymavathi A, Tiwari AK, Purohit M, Rao JM, Suresh BK. Gastroprotective flavonoid constituents from Oroxylum indicum vent. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2010;20:117–20. He J, Du L, Bao M, Zhang B, Qian H, Zhou Q, Cao Z. Oroxin a inhibits breast cancer cell growth by inducing robust endoplasmic reticulum stress and senescence. Anti-Cancer Drugs. 2016;27 (3):204–15.

778

K. Devanathan

Hemantha HP, Ramanujam R, Majeed M, Nagabhushanam K. An unambiguous and practical synthesis of Oroxylin a: a commonly misidentified flavones. Nat Prod Res. 2019; https://doi. org/10.1080/14786419.2019.1650359. Hengpratom T, Lowe GM, Thumanu K, Suknasang S, Tiamyom K, Eumkeb G. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz extract inhibits adipogenesis and lipase activity in vitro. BMC Complem Alter Med. 2018;18(177):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-018-2244-3. Hengpratom T, Ngernsoungnern A, Ngernsoungnern P, Lowe GM, Eumkeb G. Antiadipogenesis of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz Extract via PPARγ2 in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes. Evid Base Complement Alter Med. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/6720205. Ismail NA, Sabran SF, Mohamed M, Abu Bakar MF. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants used for healthcare by the Javanese-Malay community in Parit Jelutong, Batu Pahat, Johor. In: AIP conference proceedings 2002. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5050144. Jiwajinda S, Santisopasri V, Murakami A, Kim OK, Kim HW, Ohigashi H. Suppressive effects of edible Thai plants on superoxide and nitric oxide generation. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2002;3:215–23. Joshi KC, Prakash L, Shah RK. Chemical examination of the roots of Tabebuia rosea and heartwood of Oroxylum indlcum. Planta Med. 1977;31:257–8. Joshi SV, Vyas BA, Shah PD, Shah DR, Shah SA, Gandhi TR. Protective effect of aqueous extract of Oroxylum indicum Linn. (root bark) against DNBS-induced colitis in rats. Indian J Pharmacol. 2011;43(6):656–61. Kalaivani T, Mathew L. Phytochemical and free radical scavenging activities of Oroxylum indicum. Environ We Int Sci Tech. 2009;4:45–52. Karnati M, Chandra RH, Veeresham C, Kishan B. Anti-arthritic activity of root bark of Oroxylum indicum (L.) vent. against adjuvant-induced arthritis. Pharmacogn Res. 2013;5(2):121–8. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-8490.110543. Kim G, Gan RY, Zhang D, Farha AK, Habimana O, Mavumengwana V, Li HB, Wang XH, Corke H. Medicinal plant extracts for their antibacterial activities against multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and cytotoxic activities. Pathogens. 2020;9(185):1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ pathogens9030185. Kruger A, Ganzera M. Oroxylum indicum seeds – analysis of flavonoids by HPLC–MS. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2012;70:553–6. Kulip J. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah. Malaysia Telopea. 2003;10(1):81–98. Kulip J. Similarity of medicinal plants used by two native communities in Sabah, Malaysia. In: Bernáth J, Németh E, Craker LE, Gardner ZE. editors. Proceedings of III WOCMAP congress on medicinal and aromatic plants. volume 1: bioprospecting and ethnopharmacology, Thailand. International Society for Horticultural Science, Acta Hortic 2005;675:81–85. Kumar V, Chaurasia AK, Naglot A, Gopalakrishnan R, Gogoi BJ, Singh L, Srivastava RB, Deka DC. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of stem bark extract of Oroxylum indicum vent. (Bignoniaceae) a medicinal plant of North-Eastern India. South Asian J Exper Bio. 2011;1 (3):152–7. Lalou C, Basak A, Mishra P, Mohanta BC, Banik R, Dinda B, Khatib AM. Inhibition of tumor cells proliferation and migration by the flavonoid Furin inhibitor isolated from Oroxylum indicum. Pharmazie. 2007;62(2):149–53. Lalrinzuali K, Vabeiryureilai M, Jagetia GC. Investigation of the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of ethanol extract of stem bark of Sonapatha Oroxylum indicum In Vivo. Int J Inflam. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8247014. Lalrinzuali K, Vabeiryureilai M, Jagetia GC. Topical application of stem bark ethanol extract of Sonapatha, Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz accelerates healing of deep dermal excision wound in Swiss albino mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.08.018. Lambertini E, Piva R, Khan MTH, Lampronti I, Bianchi N, Borgatti M, Gambari R. Effects of extracts from Bangladeshi medicinal plants on in vitro proliferation of human breast cancer cell lines and expression of estrogen receptor a gene. Int J Oncol. 2004;24:419–23.

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

779

Laupattarakasem P, Houghton PJ, Hoult JRS, Itharat A. An evaluation of the activity related to inflammation of four plants used in Thailand to treat arthritis. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;85:207–15. Lee AY, Kang S, Park SJ, Huang J, Im DS. Anti-allergic effect of Oroxylin a from Oroxylum indicum using in vivo and in vitro experiments. Biomol Ther. 2016;24(3):283–90. Li DQ, Zhao J, Li SP. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with post-column dualbioactivity assay for simultaneous screening of xanthine oxidase inhibitors and free radical scavengers from complex mixture. J Chromatogr A. 2014a;1345:50–6. Li D, Zhao J, Li S, Zhang Q. Discovery of xanthine oxidase inhibitors from a complex mixture using an online, restricted-access material coupled with column-switching liquid chromatography with a diode-array detection system. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2014b; https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00216-013-7612-8. Li N, Meng X, Bao Y, Wang S, Li T. Evidence for the involvement of COX-2/VEGF and PTEN/ Pl3K/AKT pathway the mechanism of Oroxin B treated liver Cancer. Pharmacogn Mag. 2018a;14(54):207–13. Li N, Meng X, Men W, Bao Y, Wang S. Total flavonoids from Oroxylum indicum induce apoptosis via PI3K/AKT/PTEN Signaling pathway in liver Cancer. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2018b; https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3021476. Liu R, Xu L, Li A, Sun A. Preparative isolation of flavonoid compounds from Oroxylum indicum by high-speed counter-current chromatography by using ionic liquids as the modifier of two phase solvent system. J Sep Sci. 2010;33:1058–63. Mairuae N, Connor JR, Buranrat B, Lee SY. Oroxylum indicum (L.) extract protects human Neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells against β-amyloid-induced cell injury. Mol Med Rep. 2019;20 (2):1933–42. Majumdar S, Mohanta BC, Chowdhury DR, Banik R, Dinda B, Basak A. Proprotein Convertase inhibitory activities of flavonoids isolated from Oroxylum Indicum. Curr Med Chem. 2010;17:2049–58. Mangal P, Khare P, Jagtap S, Bishnoi M, Kondepudi KK, Bhutani KK. Screening of six Ayurvedic medicinal plants for anti-obesity potential: an investigation on bioactive constituents from Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz bark. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2016.07.070. Menon S, Lawrence L, Sivaram VP, Padikkala J. Oroxylum indicum root bark extract prevents doxorubicin-induced cardiac damage by restoring redox balance. J Ayur Integr Med. 2019;10:159–65. Mishra SL, Sinhamahapatra PK, Nayak A, Das R, Sannigrahi S. In vitro antioxidant potential of different parts of Oroxylum indicum: a comparative study. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2010;72(2):267–9. Mishra S, Pani SR, Sahoo S. Anti-nephrotoxic activity of some medicinal plants from tribal rich pockets of Odisha. Pharm Res. 2014;6(3):210–7. Mohamat SA, Shueb RH, Mat NFC. Anti-viral activities of Oroxylum indicum extracts on Chikungunya virus infection. Indian J Microbiol. 2018;58(1):68–75. Mohammad NS. Documentation and valuation of plant resources used by the Orang Asli at Kampung Lubuk Ulu Legong, Baling. Masters thesis, University of Malaya. 2014. http:// studentsrepo.um.edu.my/4781. Mohammad NS, Milow P, Ong HC. Traditional medicinal plants used by the Kensiu tribe of Lubuk Ulu Legong, Kedah, Malaysia. Ethnop Med. 2012;6(3):149–53. Mohan S, Thiagarajan K, Sundaramoorthy B, Gurung V, Barpande M, Agarwal S, Chandrasekaran R. Alleviation of 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide induced oxidative stress by Oroxylum indicum (L.) leaf extract in albino Wistar rats. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2016;16(229):1–11. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s12906-016-1186-x. Moirangthem DS, Talukdar NC, Bora U, Kasoju N, Das RK. Differential effects of Oroxylum indicum bark extracts: antioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic and apoptotic study. Cytotechnology. 2013;65:83–95. Nagasaka M, Hashimoto R, Inoue Y, Ishiuchi K, Matsuno M, Itoh Y, Tokugawa M, Ohoka N, Morishita D, Mizukami H, Makino T, Hayashi H. Anti-tumorigenic activity of Chrysin from

780

K. Devanathan

Oroxylum indicum via non-Genotoxic p53 activation through the ATM-Chk2 pathway. Molecules. 2018;23(1394):1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23061394. Nakahara K, Onishi-Kameyama M, Ono H, Yoshida M, Trakoontivakorn G. Antimutagenic activity against Trp-P-1 of the edible Thai plant, Oroxylum indicum vent. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2001;65(10):2358–60. Nakahara K, Trakoontivakorn G, Alzoreky NS, Ono H, Onishi-Kameyama M, Yoshida M. Antimutagenicity of some edible Thai plants, and a bioactive Carbazole alkaloid, Mahanine, isolated from Micromelum minutum. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50:4796–802. Nath P, Papademetriou M, Piluek K, Herath E. The vegetable sector in Thailand a review (Report). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok. 1999. Naveen Kumar DR, George VC, Suresh PK, Ashok KR. Cytotoxicity, apoptosis induction and antimetastatic potential of Oroxylum indicum in human breast cancer cells. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2012;13:2729–34. Ng TB, Liu F, Wang ZT. Antioxidant activity of natural products from plants. Life Sci. 2000;68:709–23. Ochiai Y. From forests to homegardens: a case study of Ensete glaucum in Myanmar and Laos. Tropics. 2012;21(2):59–65. Ong HG, Ling SM, Win TTM, Kang DH, Lee JH, Kim YD. Ethnomedicinal plants and traditional knowledge among three Chin indigenous groups in Natma Taung National Park (Myanmar). J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;225:136–58. Paisooksantivatana Y, Kako S. Ethnobotany of the Karen tribe in Western Thailand. In: Proceedings of FORTROP’96: tropical forestry in 21st century. Kasetsart University, Bangkok. 1995. pp. 70–80. Palasuwan A, Soogarun S, Lertlum T, Pradniwat P, Wiwanitkit V. Inhibition of Heinz body induction in an inVitro model and Total antioxidant activity of medicinal Thai plants. Asian Pac J Canc Prev. 2005;6:458–63. Panda SK, Mohanta YK, Padhi L, Park YH, Mohanta TK, Bae H. Large scale screening of Ethnomedicinal plants for identification of potential antibacterial compounds. Molecules. 2016;21(293):1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21030293. Peng Q, Shang X, Zhu C, Qin S, Zhou Y, Liao Q, Zhang R, Zhao Z, Zhang L. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz by HPLC and LC-qTOF-MS/MS. Biomed Chromatographia. 2019;33(4657):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/bmc.4657. Pongamornkul W, Muangyen N, Phookaphin B, Panyadee P, Inta A. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of pwo people in Northern Thailand. Research Square (Preprint). 2020. https://doi.org/10.21203/ rs.3.rs-21537/v1. POWO. Plants of world online. 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 10th June 2020. Punchay K, Inta A, Tiansawat P, Balslev H, Wangpakapattanawong P. Traditional knowledge of wild food plants of Thai Karen and Lawa (Thailand). Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2020; https://doi. org/10.1007/s10722-020-00910-x. Radhika LG, Meena CV, Peter S, Rajesh KS, Rosamma MP. Phytochemical and antimicrobial study of Oroxylum indicum. Anc Sci Life. 2011;30(4):114–20. Rasadah MA. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. Plant resources of Southeast Asia (PROSEA). 2017. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Oroxylum_indicum_(PROSEA). Accessed 1st July 2020. Roder W. Slash-and-burn rice systems in the hills of northern Lao PDR: description, challenges, and opportunities, Los Banos (Philippines) (Report). International Rice Research Institute; 2001. Roder W, Keoboualapha B, Manivanh V. Teak (Tectona grandis), fruit trees and other perennials used by hill farmers of northern Laos. Agrofor Syst. 1995;29:47–60. Rojsanga P, Bunsupa S, Brantner AH, Sithisarn P. Comparative phytochemical profiling and In Vitro antioxidant activity of extracts from raw materials, tissue-cultured plants, and callus of Oroxylum indicum (L.) vent. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2017. https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2017/6853212.

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

781

Rojsanga P, Bunsupa S, Sithisarn P. Flavones contents in extracts from Oroxylum indicum seeds and plant tissue cultures. Molecules. 2020;25(1545):1–8. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071545. Roy MK, Nakahar K, Trakoontivakorn G, Takenaka M, Isobe S, Tsushinda T. Baicalein, a flavonoid extracts from a methonolic extract of Oroxylum indicum inhibits proliferation of a cancer cell line in vitro via induction of apoptosis. Pharmazie. 2007;62:149–53. Sam HV, Nanthavong KN, PJA K. Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. Blumea. 2004;49:201–349. https://doi.org/10.3767/ 000651904X484298. Sam HV, Baas P, Kebler PJA. Traditional medicinal plants in ben en National Park, Vietnam. Blumea. 2008;53:569–601. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651908X607521. Sankara S, Nair AGR. Flavonoids of the stem bark of Oroxylum indicum. Curr Sci. 1972a;41:62–3. Sankara S, Nair AGR. Flavonoids from the leaves of Oroxylum indicum and Pajanelia longifolia. Phytochemistry. 1972b;11:439–40. SatyaEswari J, Dha-gat S, Naik S, Dibya S. Oroxylum indicum leaf extracts for screening of antimicrobial properties and phytochemicals. Pharm Bioprocess. 2018;6(1):7–14. Shin T, Fujikawa K, Moe AZ, Uchiyama H. Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants with special emphasis on medicinal uses in southern Shan state Myanmar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(48):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0248-1. Singh J, Kakkar P. Modulation of liver function, antioxidant responses, insulin resistance and glucose transport by Oroxylum indicum stem bark in STZ induced diabetic rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2013;62:722–31. Singh J, Kakkar P. Oroxylin a, a constituent of Oroxylum indicum inhibits adipogenesisand induces apoptosis in 3T3-L1 cells. Phytomedicine. 2014;21:1733–41. Siriwatanametanon N, Fiebich BL, Efferth T, Prieto JM, Heinrich M. Traditionally used Thai medicinal plants: in vitro anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antioxidant activities. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:196–207. Sithisarn P, Nantateerapong P, Rojsanga P, Sithisarn P. Screening for antibacterial and antioxidant activities and phytochemical analysis of Oroxylum indicum fruit extracts. Molecules. 2016;21 (446):1–8. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21040446. Sithisarn P, Rojsanga P, Sithisarn P. Inhibitory effects on clinical isolated Bacteria and simultaneous HPLC quantitative analysis of flavone contents in extracts from Oroxylum indicum. Molecules. 2019;24(1937):1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24101937. Srithongchuay T, Bumrungsri S, Sripao-raya E. The pollination ecology of the late-successional tree, Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae) in Thailand. J Trop Ecol. 2008;24:477–84. Stewart AB, Dudash MR. Field evidence of strong differential pollen placement by Old World bat-pollinated plants. Ann Bot. 2017;119:73–9. Subansenee W. Major non-wood forest products of Thailand. In: Durst PB, Bishop A. (editors) Beyond timber: social, economic and cultural dimensions of non-wood forest products in Asia and the Pacific. In: Proceedings of a regional expert consultation, food and agriculture organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP), Bangkok; 1995. pp. 201–14. Sun W, Sang Y, Zhang B, Yu X, Xu Q, Xiu Z, Dong Y. Synergistic effects of acarbose and an Oroxylum indicum seed extract in streptozotocin and high-fat-diet induced prediabetic mice. Biomed Pharmacother. 2017a;87:160–70. Sun W, Zhang B, Yu X, Zhuang C, Li X, Sun J, Xing Y, Xiu Z, Dong Y. Oroxin a from Oroxylum indicum prevents the progression from prediabetes to diabetes in streptozotocin and high-fat diet induced mice. Phytomedicine. 2017b; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2017.10.003. Tenpe CR, Upaganlawar AB, Sushil B, Yeole PG. In vitro antioxidant and preliminary hepatoprotective activity of Oroxylum indicum (vent.) leaf extracts. Pharmacologyonline. 2009;1:35–43. Tepsuwan A, Furihata C, Rojanapo W, Matsushima T. Genotoxicity and cell proliferative activity of a nitrosated Oroxylum indicum Vent fraction in the pyloric mucosa of rat stomach. Mutatn Res. 1992;281:55–61.

782

K. Devanathan

Thavry H, Cappelle J, Bumrungsri S, Thona L, Furey NM. The diet of the cave nectar bat (Eonycteris spelaea Dobson) suggests it pollinates economically and ecologically significant plants in southern Cambodia. Zoo Stud. 2017;56(17):1–7. https://doi.org/10.6620/ZS.2017.56-17. Tran TVA, Malainer C, Schwaiger S, Hung T, Atanasov AG, Heiss EH, Dirsch VM, Stuppner H. Screening of Vietnamese medicinal plants for NF-κB signalling inhibitors: assessing the activity of flavonoids from the stem bark of Oroxylum indicum. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;159:36–42. Trang DHT, Son HL, Trung PV. Investigation on the in vitro antioxidant capacity of methanol extract, fractions and flavones from Oroxylum indicum Linn bark. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2018;54 (1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1590/s2175-97902018000117178. Uddin K, Sayeed A, Islam A, Rahman AA, Khatun S, Khan GRMAM, Sadik MG. Biological activities of extracts and two flavonoids from Oroxylum indicum vent. (Bignoniaceae). J Biol Sci. 2003;3:371–5. Upaganlawar AB, Tenpe CR, Yeole PG. Analgesic activity of Oroxylum indicum leaves extract in rats. Ind J Nat Prod. 2007;23(2):30–2. Upaganlawar AB, Tende CR, Yeole PG. Anti-inflammatory activity of aqueous extract of Oroxylum indicum vent. Leaves extract-preliminary study. Pharmacologyonline. 2009;1:22–6. Vasanth S, Natarajan M, Sundaresan R, Rao BR, Kundu AB. Ellagic acid from the root bark of Oroxylum indicum. Indian Drugs. 1991;28:507–9. Vu DT, Nguyen TA. The neglected and underutilized species in the Northern mountainous provinces of Vietnam. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-0170517-1. Yan R, Cao Y, Chen C, Dai H, Yu S, Wei J, Li H, Yang B. Antioxidant flavonoids from the seed of Oroxylum indicum. Fitoterapia. 2011;82:841–8. Yan R, Cao Y, Yang B. HPLC-DPPH screening method for evaluation of antioxidant compounds extracted from semen Oroxyli. Molecules. 2014;19:4409–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/ molecules19044409. Yang P, Fu S, Cao Z, Liao H, Huo Z, Pan Y, Zhang G, Gao A, Zhou Q. Oroxin B selectively induces tumor-suppressive ER stress and concurrently inhibits tumor-adaptive ER stress in B-lymphoma cells for effective anti-lymphoma therapy. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2015;288:269–79. Yang Y, Liu K, Yang L, Zhang G. Bladder cancer cell viability inhibition and apoptosis induction by baicalein through targeting the expression of anti-apoptotic genes. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2018;25:1478–82. Yuan Y, Luo H, Chen L. Linear scale-up of the separation of active components from Oroxylum indicum using high-speed counter-current chromatography. Chin J Chromatogr. 2008;26 (4):489–93. Zaveri M, Gohil P, Jain S. Immunostimulant activity of n-Butanol fraction of root bark of Oroxylum indicum vent. J Immunotoxicol. 2006;3:83–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/15476910600725942. Zhang B, Sang Y, Sun W, Yu H, Ma B, Xiu Z, Dong Y. Combination of flavonoids from Oroxylum indicum seed extracts and acarbose improves the inhibition of postprandial blood glucose: in vivo and in vitro study. Biomed Pharmacother. 2017;91:890–8. Zhao P, Alam MB, An H, Choi HJ, Cha YH, Yoo CY, Kim HH, Lee SH. Antimelanogenic effect of an Oroxylum indicum seed extract by suppression of MITF expression through activation of MAPK Signaling protein. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(760):1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijms19030760.

Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. ex Lindl. PANDANACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Synonyms Pandanus hasskarlii Merr.; Pandanus latifolius Hassk.; Pandanus odorus Ridl.

Local Names English: Aromatic pandan, pandan; Indonesia: keker moni (Ambonese, Moluccas), pandan wangi (Balinese, Javanese), pandan rampe (Balinese, Javanese, Sundanese), pandan musang (Sundanese), pandan seungit (Sundanese), pondak (Moluccas, Ternate), seuke bangu (Acehnese), seuke musang (Achenese); Malay: pandan wangi; Philippines: pandan mabongo (Luzon).

Botany and Ecology Description: Pandanus amaryllifolius is clustered, slender, shrubby and 0.5–1 m tall (Fig. 1). Prop roots short, slender, 4.5–9 cm long, 1–2 mm in diameter. Stem 3–4 mm in diameter, greenish brown, glabrous. Leaf ensiform or sword shape, 19–34 cm long, 1.2–1.5 cm wide, chartaceous to fairly thin coriaceous, 2 pleated, in section low M shaped; adaxial surface green, glossy, apical ventral pleats absent, longitudinal veins present, tertiary cross vein absent; abaxial surface yellowish green, longitudinal veins present, obvious, 0.6–0.8 mm apart, tertiary cross vein form a network of meshes, oblong or rhombic, longer than broad, recurved spines absent; middle to

A. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_175

783

784

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 1 Pandanus amaryllifolius. (© Ary P. Keim)

basal parts of leaf with 12–15 secondary parallel veins, glabrous, apical part terminating at once in a point, acute to acuminate, not abruptly, without tapering in any degree at 1.5–2 mm long, apically with subulate serrate prickles, 0.5–0.75 mm long, 0.5–1 mm apart, approximately 5° ascending; leaf-sheath widened and amplexicauli, glabrous. Staminate inflorescence evidently exceedingly rare, once collected (see Stone 1978), probably pendent, to 60 cm long, peduncular bracts/spathes 90 cm long, white or lower ones with green foliaceous tips, bearing several oblong spikes to 35 cm long or more, several cm wide; upper ones much shorter, about 9–10 cm long, 2 cm wide, composed of many crowded staminal phalanges. Staminate flower minute; staminal phalange with column 4–9 mm long, or perhaps longer, compressed to flat, 1.5–2.5 mm wide, broadening slightly to the base; filaments very short, 0.5–1.5 mm long, 0.4–0.6 mm wide; anther oblong, ca. 2.5 mm long, 0.5 mm wide, apex bluntly convex, without or with a barely discernible apiculus, connective beset with scattered shining raphidophorous cells which are absent from the filament and thecae; stamens mostly 3–6 per phalange (described from a collection from Laguna, Ternate in the Moluccas under collection number Beguin 1690) Pistillate inflorescence unknown. Pistillate flower unknown. Infructescence unknown. Cephalium unknown. Phenology: Pandanus amaryllifolius has never been found in flowering or fruiting. The only information on the sexual organ of the species is from one herbarium specimen of a staminate inflorescence collected from Ternate Island in the Moluccas (Stone 1978). Thus, P. amaryllifolius is always in vegetative form and as the consequence the propagation of this species is by cutting. Distribution and Habitat: Bangladesh, Cambodia, China South-Central, Lesser Sunda Island, Malaya, New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam (POWO 2020). Pandanus amaryllifolius is always found as clustered shrubs.

Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. ex Lindl.

785

Rumphius (1743) reported that the species could grow as tall as pinang or bettle nut palm trees (Areca catechu), ranging from 8 to 9 feet (approximately 2.4–2.7 m) tall. Other than Rumphius’ account, the tree habit of P. amaryllifolius has never been reported. Stone (1978) reported the small tree habit of the species planted in Singapore Botanic Garden. The species has never been found in the wild. Rumphius (1743) wrote that the species has always been found in cultivation and even in Moluccas, at the locality from where P. amaryllifolius was first described, it has never been found in the wild. Nevertheless, P. amaryllifolius is sometimes found as escapees or grow in abandoned human settlements such as observed in Simeulue Island after the tsunami (Keim et al. 2019). Based on the only herbarium specimen found with sexual organ, collected by Beguin 1690 from Ternate Island (believed to be kept in Herbarium Bogoriense and Rijksherbarium of the Netherlands), the place of origin for P. amaryllifolius has long believed to be somewhere in the Moluccas (Rumphius 1743; Stone 1978). Rheede tot Drakenstein (1686) did not mention P. amaryllifolius in Hortus Malabaricus of India. Pandanus amaryllifolius is commonly found widely cultivated in lowland up to submontane areas. In Java, the species is cultivated from 150 up to 700 m altitude. In many places in Sumatera, the species is planted in the gardens in altitudes reaching up to 1000 m.a.s.l. The species is observed planted in the vicinity of Wamena, Jayawijaya Range, Papua (Indonesian New Guinea), at around 1600–1800 m.a.s.l. (Keim et al. 2018).

Local Medicinal Uses Pandanus amaryllifolius is well known in folk medicine for its healing properties. The Balinese, Filipinos, Javanese, Malays, Moluccans, Sundanese, and Thai believe that the water extract of fresh leaves has a cooling effect and is excellent for the treatment of internal inflammations, colds, coughs, leprosy, measles, rheumatic pain, and sore throat and as a sedative, purgative, and diuretic (Heyne 1927; Burkill 1935; Beers 2001; Lemmens and Bunyapraphatsara 2003; Roosita et al. 2008; Balangcod and Balangcod 2011; Sujarwo et al. 2015). A drink made by boiling finely chopped fresh stem or root in water is used to cure urinary infections (Heyne 1927; Burkill 1935; Bown 2002). The juice extracted from fresh leaves is administered in combination with that of Aloe vera to cure some skin diseases (Bown 2002; Wongpornchai 2006). The aromatic herbal tea from well-processed leaves has a cardiotonic function. Brunei Darussalam: The healers in Kiudang mix pandan leaves with Cordyline fruticosa (Asparagaceae), Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae), Leucosyke capitellata (Urticaceae), Dillenia suffruticosa (Dilleniaceae), Blechnum orientale (Aspleniaceae), and Lygodium microphyllum (Schizaeaceae) in a herbal bath to treat bloating and in postpartum healthcare (Kamsani et al. 2020). Thailand: Pandanus amaryllifolius is a traditional medicine for treating diabetes (Ravindran and Balachandran 2005). Malaysia: Traditionally, leaves are used as medicinal bath for women after childbirth, and also as hair wash (Samy et al. 2005).

786

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Phytochemistry Leaves: Anticancer (Ghasemzadeh and Jaafar 2013), Antidiabetic (Saenthaweesuk et al. 2016), Antihyperglycemic (Chiabchalard and Nooron 2015), Antimicrobial (Laluces et al. 2015), Antioxidant (Ghasemzadeh and Jaafar 2013; Shukor et al. 2018), Antiviral (Ooi et al. 2004).

Local Food Uses The most important plant part harvested for food purposes is the leaf. The main food use of the leaf is to enhance flavor of food, ranging from main course such as cooked rice to desserts and sweet drinks throughout Southeast Asia. The plant is widely sold in Southeast Asia. Bottled pandan extract is available in shops, and often contains green food coloring. Thai people use the leaves to wrap chicken parts before frying. Besides food flavoring, the leaves are also used as natural food coloring that gives the food a pleasant green color (Setyowati and Siemonsma 1999; Franco et al. 2020). The leaf of P. amaryllifolius is also considered as a spice (Seidemann 2005).

Biocultural Importance Pandanus amaryllifolius has been an integral part of the cultures of the people in Southeast Asia for centuries, particularly in Indonesia, where P. amaryllifolius is believed to be first cultivated. Indonesia: The species has always been included in most of their cultural activities from the daily rice cooking to religious offerings as can be seen in Javanese and Balinese cultures. In Balinese culture, leaves are always present in the daily offering known as canangsari (see Sujarwo et al. 2020), sometimes as a substitute of P. tectorius, explains why the species is considered sacred by the Balinese (Sujarwo et al. 2020). Pandanus amaryllifolius and P. tectorius are seen planted in the Hindu temples. The first ethnobotanical record of the use of P. amaryllifolius leaf as food flavoring was by Rumphius (1743) in Ambon Island of the Moluccas, where he used it to enhance the aroma of the rice (Fig. 2). The practice then spread to the other tribes visited Ambon, such as the Balinese, Bugis, Javanese, and Malays. The fragrance of P. amaryllifolius reminds the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese of the aromatic feathered rice from Cianjur in West Java. Hence, the fragrant cultivar was later named pandan wangi rice.

Economic Importance The leaves of P. amaryllifolius has immense economic value for the people of Southeast Asia. The plant, specifically the leaves, has been regarded as a spice in relation with food flavoring and coloring (Seidemann 2005); it has been traded within the Indonesian Archipelago, as well as exported to China and India centuries

Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. ex Lindl.

787

Fig. 2 Pandanus amaryllifolius is sold in a traditional market in the Moluccas, which is believed to be the homeland of the species. (© Ary P. Keim)

ago along with other spices from the Moluccas such as cloves (Syzygium aromaticum; Myrtaceae), candlenuts (Aleurites moluccana; Euphorbiaceae), and nutmegs (Myristica fragrans; Myristicaceae). West Java Province of Indonesia has been the center of production up to the present day (Hofstede 1925; Heyne 1927; Burkill 1935). Currently, Indonesia and Thailand are two major producers of aromatic pandans, followed by Vietnam and Cambodia. Countries in Western Europe, Japan, and China are the major importers of the leaves. In Thailand, cab drivers use pandan for natural air fresheners. The aromatic chemical constituents in P. amaryllifolius are harvested for perfume industries (Keller 2001). The pandan fragrance perfume was first crafted by the peranakan Chinese somewhere in Indonesia and Malaysia in the nineteenth Century. Since then, it has become a part of the Peranakan Chinese identity together with other scents such as Jasmine (Jasminum sambac; Oleaceae) and champak (Magnolia champaca; Magnoliaceae) (Gondomoro 2013; Wong 2019). Aromatic pandan-based perfumery has now gained popularity throughout the world; many major names in perfumery now produce ethnic Asian fragrances including pandan perfumes (Brechbill 2009, 2012). Similar to tropical aromatic herbs such as the lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus; Poaceae), fresh leaves of P. amaryllifolius possess repellent activity toward certain household insects (Heyne 1927).

References Balangcod TD, Balangcod AKD. Ethnomedical knowledge of plants and healthcare practices among the Kalangunya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao, Luzon, Philippines. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(2):227–38. Beers SJ. Jamu: the ancient Indonesian art of herbal healing. Hong Kong: Periplus; 2001. Bown D. The Royal Horticultural Society new encyclopedia of herbs and their uses. London: Dorling Kindersley; 2002.

788

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Brechbill GO. Asia’s fragrance industry. New Jersey: Fragrance Book Inc; 2009. Brechbill GO. The spice notes on fragrance. New Jersey: Fragrance Book Inc; 2012. Burkill IH. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay peninsula. London: Governments of the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States; 1935. Chiabchalard A, Nooron N. Antihyperglycemic effects of Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. leaf extract. Pharmacogn Mag. 2015;11(41):117–22. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-1296.149724. Franco FM, Chaw LL, Bakar N, Abas SNH. Socialising over fruits and vegetables: the biocultural importance of an open-air market in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-0356-6. Ghasemzadeh A, Jaafar HZE. Profiling of phenolic compounds and their antioxidant and anticancer activities in pandan (Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.) extracts from different locations of Malaysia. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2013;13:341. Gondomoro. Manusia dan kebudayaan Han. Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kompas; 2013. Heyne K. De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch Indië, vol. 1. 2nd ed. Batavia: Department van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch Indië; 1927. Hofstede HW. Het Pandanblad: Als grondstof voor de pandanhoeden-industrie op Java. Eibergen: H. Heinen; 1925. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Effendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhmmadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Keim AP, Agusta A, Royyani MF, Efendy O, Qarim BA. Botani Pulau Simeulue (Spermatofita). Muara Batu Aceh: Universitas Malikussaleh Press; 2019. Keller J. Pandanaceae. In: Hanelt P, editor. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research: Mansfield’s encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops, vol. 5. Berlin: Springer; 2001. p. 2816–24. Laluces HM, Nakayama A, Nonato M, Cruz TED. Antimicrobial alkaloids from the leaves of Pandanus amaryllifolius. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2015;5(10):151–3. Lemmens RHMJ, Bunyapraphatsara N. Plant resources of South East Asia (PROSEA) 12 (3): medicinal and poisonous plants 3. Bogor: PROSEA Publications; 2003. Ooi LSM, Sun SSM, Ooi VEC. Purification and characterization of a new antiviral protein from the leaves of Pandanus amaryllifolius (Pandanaceae). Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2004;36(8):1440–6. POWO. Plants of the world online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2020. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 5 May 2020. Ravindran PN, Balachandran I. Underutilized medicinal species – III. Spice India. 2005;18(2):16–24. Rheede tot Drakenstein HA. Hortus Malabaricus. Amsterdam: Johannes van Someren, Johannes van Dyck, Hendrijk and Theodore Boom Publication; 1686. Roosita K, Kusharto CM, Sekiyama M, Fachrurozi Y, Ohtsuka R. Medicinal plants used by the villagers of a Sundanese community in West Java, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;115 (1):72–81. Rumphius GE. Herbarium Amboinense, vol. 4. Amsterdam: Franciscus Changuion; 1743. Saenthaweesuk S, Naowaboot J, Somparn N. Pandanus amaryllifolius leaf extract increases insulin sensitivity in high-fat diet-induced obese mice. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2016;6(10):866–71. Samy J, Sugumaran M, Kate LWL. Herbs of Malaysia: an introduction to the medicinal, culinary, aromatic and cosmetic use of herbs. Kuala Lumpur: Federal Publications, Times Editions– Marshall Cavendish; 2005. p. 180–1. Seidemann J. World spice plants: economic usage, botany, taxonomy. Heidelberg: Springer; 2005. Setyowati FM, Siemonsma JS. Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. In: de Guzman CC, Siemonsma JS, editors. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 13: Spices. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 1999. p. 164–166.

Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. ex Lindl.

789

Shukor NAA, Ablat A, Airina MN, Jamaludin M. In vitro antioxidant and in vivo xanthine oxidase inhibitory activities of Pandanus amaryllifolius in potassium oxonate induced hyperuricemic rats. Int J Food Sci Technol. 2018;53:1476–85. Stone BC. Studies in Malesian Pandanaceae XVII on the taxonomy of “Pandan Wangi” A Pandanus cultivar with scented leaves. Econ Bot. 1978;32:285–93. Sujarwo W, Keim AP, Savo V, Guarrera PM, Caneva G. Ethnobotanical study of Loloh: traditional herbal drinks from Bali (Indonesia). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;169:34–48. Sujarwo W, Caneva G, Zuccarello V. Pattern of plant use in religious offerings in Bali (Indonesia). Acta Bot Bras. 2020;34(1):40–53. Wong A. The Baba Nyonya Peranakan: a journey into her past, traditions and cuisine. Penang: Baba Wong Publications; 2019. Wongpornchai S. Pandan wangi. In: Peter KV, editor. Handbook of herbs and spices, vol. 3. New York: CRC Press; 2006. p. 453–9.

Pandanus antaresensis H.St.John PANDANACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Synonyms Pandanus bowersiae H.St.John

Local Names English: Star mountain pandanus; Indonesia: pandan pegunungan bintang (Indonesian standard), kumbiye (Wamena), hembiye (Yalimo); Papua New Guinea: hembiye, kumbiye (Whola).

Botany and Ecology Description: Pandanus antaresensis is typically solitary tree pandan of the highlands of New Guinea. It can be easily recognized in the field by the conspicuous and massive habit, pale grayish creamy color and the terminal pendulous big rounded cephalia (Fig. 1). It grows up to 30 m high with obvious stout prop roots that reach more than 2 m (St. John 1973; Stone 1982). Stem branched, with nodules, hard. Leaves marcescent, in rosette on the tip of stem, tristichously arranged, about 20 to 30 leaves per crown; one leaf lanceolate-elongate with pointed apex, spines throughout margin, obvious, recurved spines obvious, one leaf about 215 cm long by 10– 11 cm wide. As in the other members of the genus Pandanus, the anthesis is very short, which is between 2 and 4 days only. Consequently, the male inflorescence is also short-lived; thus rarely seen. Infructescence terminal; peduncle about 54 cm A. P. Keim (*) · W. Sujarwo Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_235

791

792

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 1 The massive habit of Pandanus antaresensis from Pass Valley, Jayawijaya Range, Indonesian New Guinea at 2500 m altitude showing the branched stem and tall prop roots (© Ary P. Keim)

long, 12 cm circumference, green; peduncular bracts apparently caducous; 4 to 6 cephalia in a branch; each cephalium terminal, solitary, pendulous, robust, very heavy, hard, each cephalium about 53 cm long, 85 cm circumference, green turns to dark brownish green when mature. Phalange 10 cm long, 15 circumference, upper part green, lower part bright yellow, phalange said to be red when mature (see French 1986), each phalange consists of 6 drupes. Phenology: We observed that P. antaresensis in Pass Valley (64.8 km northeast of Wamena) at 2000 to 2500 m altitude was in fruiting all year around. Plants are often self-sown, but they are also planted from seeds (French 1986; Jebb 1992). The Dani people from Pass Valley plant P. antaresensis from seeds (personal observation). Distribution and Habitat: Pandanus antaresensis is endemic to the central highlands of New Guinea, particularly along the Jayawijaya Range in Papua, Indonesian New Guinea to Star Mountains in the border between Papua and Papua New Guinea (Stone 1982). The species can be found naturally in the highlands of New Guinea inhabiting both Lower and Upper Montane Forests at approximately 1600 m to 2500 m altitudes (St. John 1973; Hope 1976; Stone 1982; French 1986). Even when they are planted in Pass Valley, the altitude is rarely below 1700 m altitudes (personal observation).

Pandanus antaresensis H.St.John

793

Pandanus antaresensis is one the five highland New Guinean species commonly planted and cultivated by the people of highlands New Guinea (St. John 1973; Hyndman 1984; Stone 1982; Brink et al. 2008). The other four species are P. brosimos, P. conoideus, P. iwen, and P. julianettii (see Stone 1982; French 1986; Jebb 1992). Based on archaeological studies, P. antaresensis has been cultivated in central highlands New Guinea as early as the presence of humans in New Guinea or at least at the end of Pleistocene (St. John 1973; Haberle 1995, 1996; Cook 1999; Fairbairn et al. 2006). The starting time for the cultivation of P. antaresensis, in fact for all cultivated species of the genus Pandanus in the central highlands of New Guinea has long been a subject of debates, ranging from 26,000 BC to 6,000 BC (Brass 1941; White et al. 1970; Golson 1991; Swadling et al. 1991; Yen 1995; Haberle 1998, 2003; Lentler and Denham 2017). Currently, the period that has been universally agreed is around 10,000 BC to 7,400 BC (Denham 2005, 2010, 2011; Denham et al. 2003, 2004; Lentler and Denham 2017). Keim et al. (2018) reported that P. antaresensis was not observed in the Baliem Valley and the vicinity of Lake Habbema despite the record that this species is found the mossy forest of Star Mountain in Papua New Guinea at around 1800 to 2500 m altitudes (Hyndman 1984). Although the Mossy Forest vegetation type is also found in the vicinity of Lake Habbema, Jayawijaya Range, the elevation is higher at approximately 3000 to 3500 m.a.s.l. (Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018). This elevation is too high for P. antaresensis to grow. However, the Dani people in the Baliem Valley are knowledgeable about P. antaresensis (Purwanto and Walujo 1992; Arobaya and Pattiselanno 2007). Oral folk history of the Dani indicates that the species was once planted by their ancestors. The custom was eventually deserted in favor of P. conoideus and P. julianettii, which have good market value, and are relatively easier to harvest. Another reason is the arrival of the introduction of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas; Convolvulaceae), presumably via pre-Columbian transoceanic plant dispersal (see Sorenson and Johannessen 2004).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The Wopkaimin of Star Mountains, Papua New Guinea use P. antaresensis (apparently the phalanges) to cure fever, headache, diarrhea and difficult breathing, presumably asthma (Hyndman 1984; see also Milliken 2006; Hegnauer 2013). The Dani of Pass Valley, Jayawijaya Range also use the leaves and phalange to cure fever (personal observation).

Phytochemistry Pandanus antaresensis has been suggested to contain chemical constituents, which also occur in most of the genus Pandanus such as alkaloids, phenols, lignans, steroids, terpenoides, lipids, flavonoids, coumarines, lactones, and amino acids (Son 2019). The species is also believed to contain chemical constituents

794

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

commonly found in various species from highlands of New Guinea for example P. conoideus such as carotene, beta carotene, tocopherol, and fatty acids including oleat, linoleat, linolenat, decanoat, Omega 3, and Omega 9 (Jebb 1992). Constituents of food value includes protein, calcium, iron, pro-vitamin A, and pro-vitamin C (French 1986).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The cephalium, particularly the phalange is the most important plant part to be consumed (Fig. 2) (Milliken 2006). Yet, it is rarely sold in the markets. The phalanges of P. antaresensis are notoriously hard, thus they are cooked first then cracked open using stones (Milliken 2006). The essential part of the phalange consumed is the endosperm, which is rich in carbohydrate (Keim et al. 2018).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Various ethnic communities in central highlands of New Guinea regard P. antaresensis with respect as pandan of the ancestors. The Dani in Wamena regard P. antaresensis as one of the first three species of pandans that were planted and cultivated by their ancestors when they arrived in Baliem Valley (Fig. 3). The Yali use the split sections of the stilt roots for construction (Milliken 2006). Milliken (2006) suggests that the use has more spiritual significance than structural significance. The Wola of Papua New Guinea use the leaves for rain-capes and the aerial roots for bark shields (Sillitoe 1983). The Wopkaimin of the Star Mountains in the border between Indonesian New Guinea (Papua) and Papua New Guinea use the leaves for thatching in temporary shelters in high altitudes and also use leaves and Fig. 2 The cephalium of Pandanus antaresensis showing the deep green upper and bright yellow lower parts phalanges (© Ary P. Keim)

Pandanus antaresensis H.St.John

795

Fig. 3 Semi wild cultivation of Pandanus antaresensis in Pass Valley, Jayawijaya Range, Indonesian New Guinea at 2500 m altitudes (© Ary P. Keim)

(mainly) phalanges in magic medicine (presumably asthma; see Hyndman 1984). Phalanges are eaten by cassowaries, and the Wola of Papua New Guinea set snares around fallen fruits to trap them (Hyndman 1984).

Economic Importance Indonesia: In the central highlands of New Guinea, people prefer to plant the more economically important species such as P. brosimos, P. conoideus, P. iwen, and P. julianettii (see Stone 1982). However, P. antaresensis is still a culturally and economically important plant for the people. This is indicated by the fact that P. antaresensis is widely found in semi-cultivated condition (see Keim et al. 2018). Pandanus antaresensis continues to be an important source of carbohydrate, especially prior to the harvesting of P. julianettii. Besides, unlike P. brosimos, P. conoideus, P. iwen, and P. julianettii, P. antaresensis fruits throughout the year (Cook 1999; Brink et al. 2008); thus it is more reliable as source of food. Fibers are

796

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

harvested from prop roots by the Yali (Milliken 2006). The same use is also observed in the Dani people of Pass Valley (personal observation).

References Arobaya AYS, Pattiselanno F. Jenis tanaman berguna bagi suku Dani di Lembah Baliem. Biota. 2007;12(3):192–5. Brass LJ. Stone age agriculture in New Guinea. Geogr Rev. 1941;31:555–69. Brink M, Jansen PCM, Bosch CH. Pandanus antaresensis. In: Brink M, Escobin RP, editors. Plant resources of South East Asia (PROSEA) No. 17: fiber plants. Leiden: Backhuys; 2008. p. 276. Cook CD. Pandanus agroforestry of the Amungme in Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Forest Farm Commun Tree Res Rep. 1999;4:95–103. Denham TP. Agricultural origins and the emergence of rectilinear ditch networks in the Highlands of New Guinea. In: Pawley A, Attenborough R, Golson J, Hide R, editors. Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Australian National University; 2005. p. 329–61. Denham TP. From domestication histories to regional prehistory: using plants to re-evaluate early and mid-Holocene interaction between New Guinea and Southeast Asia. Food & History. 2010;8:3–22. Denham TP. Early agriculture and plant domestication in New Guinea and island Southeast Asia. Curr Anthropol. 2011;52(S4):S379–95. Denham TP, Haberle SG, Lentfer C, Fullagar R, Field J, Therin M, Porch N, Winsborough B. Origins of agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea. Science. 2003;301:189–93. Denham TP, Haberle SG, Lentfer C. New evidence and revised interpretations of early agriculture in Highland New Guinea. Antiquity. 2004;78:839–57. Fairbairn A, Hope G, Summerhayes G. Pleistocene occupation of New Guinea’s highland and subalpine environments. World Archaeol. 2006;38(3):1–29. French BR. Food plants of Papua New Guinea: a compendium. Canberra: Australia and Pacific Science Foundation; 1986. Golson J. Bulmer phase II: early agriculture in the New Guinea Highlands. In: Pawley A, editor. Man and a half: essays in Pacific anthropology and ethnobiology in honor of Ralph Bulmer. Auckland: Polynesian Society; 1991. p. 484–91. Haberle SG. Identification of cultivated Pandanus and Colocasia in pollen records and the implications for the study of early agriculture in New Guinea. Veg His Archaeobot. 1995;4(4):195–210. Haberle SG. Palaeoenvironmental changes in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea. Archaeol Ocean. 1996;31(1):1–11. Haberle SG. Can climate shape cultural development? A view through time. Resource Management in Asia-Pacific Working Paper no.18. Canberra: Australian National University; 1998. Haberle SG. The emergence of an agricultural landscape in the highlands of New Guinea. Archaeol Ocean. 2003;38:149–58. Hegnauer R. Chemotaxonomie der pflanzen: Übersicht über die verbreitung und die systematische bedentung der pflanzen stoffen. Berlin: Springer; 2013. Hope GS. Vegetation. In: Hope GS, Peterson JA, Radok U, Allison I, editors. The equatorial glaciers of New Guinea: results of the 1971–1973 Australian universities’ expeditions to Irian Jaya: survey, glaciology, meteorology, biology and palaeo-environments. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema; 1976. p. 113–72. Hyndman DC. Ethnobotany of Wopkaimin Pandanus: significant Papua New Guinea plant resource. Econ Bot. 1984;38(3):287–303. Jebb M. A field guide to Pandanus in New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands. Madang: Christensen Research Institute; 1992.

Pandanus antaresensis H.St.John

797

Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Efendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Lentler C, Denham T. The archaeobotany of Kuk. In: Golson J, Denham T, Hughes P, Swadling P, Muke J, editors. Ten thousand years of cultivation at Kuk swamp in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. Canberra: Australian National University; 2017. p. 164–84. Milliken W. The ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2006. Purwanto Y, Walujo EB. Etnobotani suku Dani di lembah Baliem-Irian Jaya: Suatu telaah tentang pengetahuan dan pemanfaatan sumber daya alam tumbuhan. In: Nasution RE, editor. Prosiding, Seminar dan Lokakarya Nasional Etnobotani. Jakarta: Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia; 1992. p. 132–48. Sillitoe P. Natural resources exploited by the Wola in the manufacture of artefacts. Sci New Guinea. 1983;10:112–33. Son NT. Secondary metabolites of genus Pandanus: an aspect of phytochemistry. Mini-Rev Org Chem. 2019;16(7):687–710. Sorenson JL, Johannessen CL. Scientific evidence for Pre-Columbian transoceanic voyages. SinoPlatonic Papers. 2004;133. St. John H. Revision of the genus Pandanus part 35: Aditional Pandanus species from New Guinea. Pac Sci. 1973;27(1):44–101. Stone BC. New Guinea Pandanaceae: first approach to ecology and biogeography. In: Gressitt JL, editor. Biogeography and ecology of New Guinea Volume 1. The Hague: Monographiae Biologicae Volume 42, Dr. W Junk Publishers; 1982. p. 401–436. Swadling P, Araho N, Ivuyo B. Settlements associated with the inland Sepik-Ramu Sea. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 1991;11:92–112. Van Royen P. The alpine flora of New Guinea volume 2: general part. Vaduz: J. Cramer; 1980. White JP, Crook KAW, Ruxton BP. Kosipe: a Pleistocene site in the Papua highlands. Proc Prehist Soc. 1970;36:152–70. Yen D. The development of Sahul agriculture with Australia as bystander. Antiquity. 1995;69:831–47.

Pandanus conoideus Lam. PANDANACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Synonyms Bryantia butyrophora Webb; Pandanus butyrophorus (Webb) Kurz; Pandanus ceramicus Kunth; Pandanus cominsii Hemsl.; Pandanus cominsii var. augustus B. C. Stone; Pandanus cominsii var. micronesicus B. C. Stone; Pandanus englerianus Martelli; Pandanus erythros H. St. John; Pandanus hollrungii Warb.; Pandanus latericius B. C. Stone; Pandanus macgregorii F. Muell. ex Solms; Pandanus magnificus Martelli; Pandanus minusculus B. C. Stone; Pandanus plicatus H. St. John; Pandanus ruber H. St. John; Pandanus rubrispicatus H. St. John; Pandanus subumbellatus Becc. ex Solms; Pandanus sylvestris Kunth

Local Names English: Marita, oil pandan, pandanus nut, red fruit, red pandanus; Indonesia: abo (Yapen-Menawi, for individuals with red cephalia), awone mangkaki (YapenMenawi, for individuals with yellow cephalia; Yapen-Mantembu, for individuals with yellow cephalia), awone waransir (Yapen-Mantembu, for individuals with red cephalia), goroko ina ngauku (Moluccas, North Halmahera-Tobias), kleba (North Halmahera, Moluccas-Buru), kobokana (Yapen-Kerenui), kuansu (Papua Barat, Wamena), sak (Papua Barat), pandan buah merah (Standard Indonesian), pandan séran (Malay-Moluccan dialect), saik (Papua-Wamena), saun (Moluccas-Seran), siho (Moluccas, North Halmahera-Galela); Malay: buah merah; Papua New Guinea: abare (Foi, Huli), alakape (Onabasolo), anga (Pole, Samberigi), aran, arang (Tok Pisin), apare (Duna), buksa (Wopkaimin), besbes (New IrelandUgana), bunam (New Ireland-Pala), bunumia (New Ireland-Kuanua), dapu A. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_172

799

800

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

(Kewa), deg (New Ireland-Pala), hase (Fasu), kayo (Etoro), Kural (Wopkaimin), marita (Tok Pisin), neka (Imbongu), oga (Hawalisi), oka (Kaluli), opar (Mendi), pangu (Wira), simaho (Ankave), sina (Podopa), si-tararak (New Ireland-Lamekot), vurume (New Ireland-Lamekot).

Botany and Ecology Description: Pandanus conoideus is a solitary tree pandan, 3–10 m high. Prop roots present, obvious, 100 cm or more tall. Stem branched, crème greyish brown colored, with nodules. Leaves in a rosette, spirally arranged in three ranks (tristichous); each lanceolate-elongate (belt shaped), c. 180 cm long, 3–5 cm wide, margin armed with spines; adaxial surface dark green, glabrous, adaxial ventral pleats present; abaxial surface pale green, main vein apparent, with minute spines, recurved spines obvious (Fig. 1). Infructescence terminal, solitary; peduncle 38–44 cm long, c. 5.4 cm diameter (c. 17 cm circumference). Cephalium (composed fruit) terminal, pendulous, hanging, cylindrical (elongated ellipsoidal) trigonal, colors vary from bright yellow to red and crimson, 42–110 cm long, 9.6–11 cm diameter (30–34.5 cm circumference), slightly covered with persistent bracts; pedicel white; composed of numerous single fruits in form of drupes. Drupe obviously trigonal (triangular), pericarp fatty, yellow or red (Fig. 2) (Keim 2009, 2011). Phenology: Flowering, fruiting and seedling formation are throughout the year; the peak of fruiting season is October–December (personal observation). Distribution and Habitat: Bismarck Archipelago, Caroline Island, Moluccas, New Guinea, Solomon Island, Vanuatu (POWO 2020). Since the first scientific publication of the species by Rumphius (1743), the species had never been found in the wild. Therefore, the widespread distribution of the species was long been suggested due to human activities rather than to natural causes (Stone 1982; Hyndman 1984; Fig. 1 Pandanus conoideus. (© Ary P. Keim)

Pandanus conoideus Lam.

801

Fig. 2 Pandanus conoideus var. red and yellow fruits. (© Ary P. Keim)

Walter and Sam 2002). The view on the distribution changed when wild type of the species was finally discovered in the Foja-Mamberamo Game Reserve, Indonesian New Guinea (Keim 2011). Although Rumphius (1743) reported the presence and plantation of P. conoideus in Halhamera Island, the most recent study conducted in the island did not find the species (Callmander et al. 2015). Nevertheless, P. conoideus is almost always found in cultivated condition. The presence of the species in the wild is exceptionally rare. The relatively easy propagation, by cuttings, has made P. conoideus an easy plant to cultivate. The agricultural practices and anthropological aspects of this species became wide spread in New Guinea in amazingly fast ways. It is believed to have reached Moluccas presumably around 8000 BC carried by the islanders of New Guinea such as the Biak people, who are known to have trading connection with the people of various islands in the Moluccas (such as Ambon, Bacan, Obi, Seram, Ternate, and Tidore) for centuries (Malinowski 1922; Grimble 1934; Brass 1941; White et al. 1991; Spriggs 1997; Bellwood et al. 1998; Allaby 2007; Pawley 2007; Walujo et al. 2007). Pandanus conoideus can be found from sea level up to 3100 m altitude in coastal forests, lowland tropical rainforest up to montane forests (Paijman 1976; Bourke 1996; Keim et al. 2018). It grows best in moist locations, often under shade, and tolerates water-logged soils (Lim 2012).

802

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Pandanus conoideus has been known to local inhabitants in Papua for many generations as a natural food supplement containing medicinal qualities. The red fruit oil has been used by ethnic tribal communities of Papua for stamina, illnesses and because it is a natural product it does not carry the side effects associated with long term use of medicines for degenerative diseases (Lim 2012). It is traditionally believed to be a good supplement as a skin and eye medicine, and as a vermifuge. Local communities in Indonesia believe that fruit of P. conoideus can treat several degenerative diseases such as cancer, arteriosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and stroke (Budi and Paimin 2004). The special usage of the oil is to cure diseases such as cancer, HIV, malaria, cholesterol, and diabetes mellitus (Limbongan and Malik 2009). The most important part of the plant harvested for medicinal purposes is the vegetable fatty sap extracted from the pericarp. The sap looks exceedingly similar to tomato sauce and most of the time is simply called as the sauce. The sauce is believed to have medicinal purposes for degenerative diseases such as high blood pressures, diabetes, coroner cardiac disease, and cancer based on the high antioxidant constituents. Rumphius (1743) also mentioned that the sauce is used for treating skin ailments. Papua New Guinea: The sauce is also used by the people of Nokopo to treat skin infections and sore throats (Schmid 1991), the same practice can still be observed throughout the highlands of New Guinea.

Phytochemistry Fruit: Anticancer (Achadiyani et al. 2016; Astirin et al. 2009; Kurnijasanti and I’tisom 2008; Mun’im et al. 2006; Nishigaki et al. 2010; Oeij and Khiong 2010; Waspodo and Nishigaki 2007), Anti-inflammatory (Sukandar et al. 2005; Khiong et al. 2010), Antioxidant (Rohman et al. 2010).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The fruit is eaten by directly sucking off the edible mesocarp. The fruit is also cut into pieces and boiled, roasted, or cooked in a stone oven. The pulp and seeds are removed from the core, mashed with water, and strained to produce a thick, rich red sauce (Fig. 3). This pleasant-tasting, oily, vitamin-A-rich, ketchup-like sauce is used to flavor other foods such as banana, green vegetables, pumpkin, sago, and sweet potato. Oil extracted from the fruit is used as valuable food flavoring because it is rich in nutrients such as β-carotene. It is also utilized as natural colorant that does not contain heavy metals and pathogenic microorganisms (Limbongan and Malik 2009). In the Moluccas, the sauce was also mixed with rice as reported by Rumphius (1743). Papua New Guinea: The practice of mixing the sauce with rice is also observed in New Guinea and adjacent islands. The sauce is applied as a substitute for

Pandanus conoideus Lam.

803

Fig. 3 Local people in Indonesia New Guinea produce sauce from Pandanus conoideus var. red. (© Ary P. Keim)

coconut milk in the areas where coconuts cannot grow well or absent such as in the highlands of New Guinea (Walter and Sam 2002; Keim et al. 2018).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia and Papua New Guinea: The biocultural importance of P. conoideus in the Melanesian civilization can be seen in one of their significant cultural ceremonies, the baked stone ceremony (Stone 1982; Jebb 1992). The cultural ceremony, which is widely performed throughout New Guinea and still survives to the present day can be observed in the Baliem Valley, practiced by the Dani tribe (Hyndman 1984; Rappaport 1968; Haberle 1991; Milliken 2006; Ea and Octivia 2006; Keim et al. 2018). The importance of P. conoideus is also shown by the highest number of morphological varieties (i.e., cultivars) known to the species, which ranges from 10 to 35 (Walter and Sam 2002). In highlands of Indonesian New Guinea such as in Arfak Mountains and Jayawijaya Range, at least three to four cultivars are found to be widely planted: the “yellow fruit,” “brownish red fruit,” “long red fruit,” and “short red fruit” cultivars (Walujo et al. 2007; Zebua 2009; Keim et al. 2018). The Dani people in Baliem Valley, especially around the vicinity of Wamena believe that the “yellow fruit” variety can only be consumed by the wife or wives of the chiefs or heads of the tribe, a custom, which is not shared by the rest of the New Guineans. This is a new discovery that has not been reported before. The explanation given by the Dani people in Wamena regarding the strict consumption of the variety exclusively by the wives of the chiefs is related to fertility (personal observation). So far, there has been no report on the chemical constituents of the fatty sauce harvested from the “yellow fruit” variety.

804

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Economic Importance Indonesia: The Dani of the Baliem Valley use the sauce for coloring their traditional dress, especially the sali, a kind of dress made from grasses worn by women. Leaves are used for mats and roof thatching, especially in highlands (Stone 1982). Despite being firstly reported scientifically from the Moluccas (Rumphius 1743), Pandanus conoideus today is not regarded as an important commercial plant there and very rarely planted for economic related purposes. The Moluccans prefer to cultivate indigenous spices such as cloves, nutmegs, cajuputs, and candlenuts that bring higher economic returns. Nevertheless, in the Moluccas, P. conoideus is still sparsely planted in Seram Island, especially by the indigenous Nuaulu people, and the fruits are occasionally sold in the traditional markets both in Papua and Seram (Fig. 4) (Ellen 1993; Keim et al. 2009). Papua New Guinea: The compound fruit is the most economic important part of the plant. They are highly praised and sold in the local markets throughout New Guinea, particularly in the highlands, where P. conoideus are still widely planted. The Wola people (Papua New Guinea) use the fatty-oily sap as a cosmetic (Sillitoe 1983). The sap is also used as a dye (Powell 1976a, b) in various localities of New Guinea.

Fig. 4 Pandanus conoideus is sold in a traditional market in Wamena, Indonesian New Guinea. (© Ary P. Keim)

Pandanus conoideus Lam.

805

References Achadiyani, Septiani L, Faried A, Ban Bolly HM, Kurnia D. Role of the red fruit (Pandanus conoideus Lam) ethyl acetate fraction on the induction of apoptosis vs. downregulation of survival signaling pathways in cervical cancer cells. Eur J Med Plants. 2016;13(2):1–9. Allaby R. Origin of plant exploitation in near Oceania: a review. In: Friedlaender JS, editor. Genes, languages and culture history in the Southwest Pacific. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2007. p. 181–98. Astirin OP, Harini M, Handajani NS. The effect of crude extract of Pandanus conoideus Lamb. var. yellow fruit on apoptotic expression of the breast cancer cell line (T47D). Biodiversitas. 2009;10 (1):44–8. Bellwood P, Nitihaminoto G, Irwin G, Gunadi, Waluyo A, Tanudirjo D. 35,000 Years of prehistory in the northern Moluccas. Mod Q Res SE Asia. 1998;15:233–73. Bourke RM. Edible indigenous nuts in Papua New Guinea. In: Stevens ML, Bourke RM, Evans BR, editors. South Pacific indigenous nuts. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR); 1996. p. 45–55. Brass LJ. Stone age agriculture in New Guinea. Geogr Rev. 1941;31:555–69. Budi M, Paimin FR. Red fruit (Pandanus conoideus L). Jakarta: Penebar Swadaya; 2004. p. 3–26, 47–56, 67–68. Callmander MW, Keim AP, Buerki S, Phillipson PB. The genus Pandanus Parkinson (Pandanaceae) on Halmahera Island (Moluccas, Indonesia) with descriptions of three new species and a key to the species on the island. Candollea. 2015;70(2):179–95. Ea MH, Octivia T. Eksplorasi dan konservasi tanaman Buah Merah (Pandanus conoideus) dalam upaya pengelolaan sumber daya genetik yang berkelanjutan. Bogor: Balai Penelitian Bioteknologi dan Sumber Daya Genetik, Departemen Pertanian; 2006. p. 81–92. (in Indonesian). Ellen R. The cultural relations of classification: an analysis of Nuaulu animal categories from central Seram. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1993. Grimble A. The migration of a Pandanus people. Mem Polyn Soc. 1934;12:1–185. Haberle SG. Ethnobotany of the Tari Basin, Southern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea: monograph, biogeography and geomorphology. Canberra: Australian National University; 1991. Hyndman DC. Ethnobotany of Wopkaimin Pandanus: significant Papua New Guinea plant resource. Econ Bot. 1984;38(3):287–303. Jebb M. A field guide to Pandanus in New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands. Madang: Christensen Research Institute; 1992. Keim AP. Pandanaceae of the island of Yapen, Papua (W. New Guinea), Indonesia, with their nomenclature and notes on the rediscovery of Sararang sinuosa and several new species and records. Blumea. 2009;54:255–66. Keim AP. The Pandan flora of Foja-Mamberamo Game Reserve and Baliem Valley, PapuaIndonesia. Reinwardtia. 2011;13(3):271–97. Keim AP, Purwanto Y, Darnaedi D. Studi keanekaragaman jenis pandan (Pandanaceae) dan potensinya di Pulau Waigeo, Kepulauan Raja Ampat, Papua Barat. Bogor: Prosiding Seminar Nasional Etnobotani IV; 2009. p. 111–7. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Effendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhmmadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Khiong K, Adhika OA, Chakravitha M. Inhibition of NF-kB pathway as the therapeutic potential of red fruit (Pandanus conoideus Lam.) in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Maranatha J Medi Health. 2010;9(1):69–75. Kurnijasanti R, I’tisom R. Penggunaan antikanker sari Buah Merah (Pandanus conoideus) terhadap kultur sel myeloma. Majalah Ilmu Faal Indonesia. 2008;7(2):87–92. (in Indonesian). Lim TK. Edible medicinal and non-medicinal plants. Volume 4. Fruits. Dordrecht: Springer; 2012. p. 117–23. Limbongan J, Malik A. Peluang pengembangan Buah Merah (Pandanus conoideus Lamk.) di Provinsi Papua. Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian. 2009;28(4):134–41.

806

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Malinowski B. Argonauts of the Western Pacific: an account of native enterprise and adventure in the archipelago of Melanesian New Guinea. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; 1922. Milliken W. Ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Garden; 2006. Mun’im A, Andrajati R, Susilowati H. Uji hambatan tumorigenesis sari Buah Merah (Pandanus conoideus Lam.) terhadap tikus putih betina yang diinduksi 7,12 dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA). Majalah Ilmu Kefarmasian. 2006;3(3):153–61. (in Indonesian). Nishigaki T, Dewi F, Hirose K, Shigematsu H. Safety and anti-tumor effects of Pandanus conoideus (Buah Merah) in animals. Bali: International Conference on Nutraceutical and Functional Foods; 2010. Oeij AA, Khiong TK. The effect of Buah Merah oil (Pandanus conoideus Lam) towards pro inflammatory cytokines profile and clinical score of experimental colorectal cancer in mice. Kobe: The 14th International Congress of Immunology Meeting; 2010. p. iii137–42. Paijman K. Introduction. In: Paijman K. New Guinea vegetation. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1976. Pawley A. Recent research on the historical relationships of the Papuan languages, or, what does linguistics say about the prehistory of Melanesia? In: Friedlaender JS, editor. Genes, languages and culture history in the Southwest Pacific. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2007. p. 36–60. Powell JM. Ethnobotany. In: Paijman K, editor. New Guinea vegetation. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1976a. Powell JM. Some useful wild and domesticated plants of the Huli of Papua. Sci N G. 1976b;4:173–201. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet. 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 5 May 2020. Rappaport RA. Pigs for the ancestors: ritual in the ecology of a New Guinea people. New Haven: Yale University Press; 1968. Rohman A, Riyanto S, Yuniarti N, Saputra WR, Utami R, Mulatsih W. Antioxidant activity, total phenolic, and total flavaonoid of extracts and fractions of red fruit (Pandanus conoideus Lam). Int J Food Res. 2010;17:97–106. Rumphius GE. Herbarium Amboinense, vol. 4. Amsterdam: Franciscus Changuion; 1743. Schmid CK. Of people and plants: a botanical ethnography of Nokopo Village, Madang and Morobe Provinces, Papua New Guinea. Basel: Ethnologisches Seminar der Universität und Museum für Volkerkunde (Basler Beiträge Ethnologie Band 33; 1991. Sillitoe P. Natural resources exploited by the Wola in the manufacture of artifacts. Sci N G. 1983;10:112–33. Spriggs M. Island Melanesians. Oxford: Blackwell; 1997. Stone BC. New Guinea Pandanaceae: first approach to ecology and biogeography. In: Gressitt JL, editor. Biogeography and ecology of New Guinea, Monographiae biologicae no. 42, vol. 1. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk Publishers; 1982. Sukandar EY, Suwendar, Adnyana IK. Uji aktivas antiinflamasi minyak bauh merah (Pandanus conoideus Lamk.) pada tikus wistar betina. Acta Pharm Indones. 2005;30(3):76–9. Walter A, Sam C. Fruits of Oceania. ACIAR monograph 85. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR); 2002. Walujo EB, Keim AP, Sadsoeitoeboen MJ. Kajian etnotaksonomi Pandanus conoideus Lamarck untuk menjembatani pengetahuan lokal dan ilmiah. Berita Biol. 2007;8(5):391–404. Waspodo IS, Nishigaki T. Novel chemopreventive herbal plant Buah Merah (Pandanus conoideus) for lung cancers. Bandung: The PATPI Conference; 2007. White JP, Flannery TF, O’Brien R, Hancock RV, Pavlish L. The Balof Shelters, New Ireland. In: Allen J, Gosden C, editors. Report of the Lapita Homeland Project. Canberra: Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies; 1991. p. 46–58. Zebua LI. Etnobotani dan keragaman jenis Pandan Buah Merah (pandanus conoideus lam.) asal Papua. PhD thesis, Univeritas Indonesia, Depok; 2009. (in Indonesian).

Pandanus julianettii Martelli PANDANACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Local Names English: Forest coconut pandanus, karuka; Indonesia: pandan kelapa hutan (Indonesian standard), hilak (Yali), saluke (Wamena); Papua New Guinea: karuka (Pidgin).

Botany and Ecology Description: Pandanus julianettii is a solitary tree dioecious pandan of highlands New Guinea, 120–130 cm tall, branched at least in the upper part of the stem. The species can easily be recognized by the solitary, fairly robust habit, persistent leaves, approximately globose cephalia. Prop roots present, obvious, 50–100 cm tall or more. Stem straight, grayish brown, nodules. Leaves spirally arranged in three directions (tristichously arranged), rosette in terminal of the stem; leaf lanceolateelongate, dark green above, light green below, long and narrow, 300–1100 cm by 8–12 cm, adaxial ventral pleats absent, recurved spines present, margins with spines, fairly obvious, sharp. Male inflorescence 2 m long, bearing a series of elongate heads set one against the other, each a combination of small, whitish flowers with stamens, stamens pale creamy white; female inflorescence comprising a single globular or ellipsoidal head, less than 1 m long. Infructescence single, terminal, pendulous, approximately 1 m long. Cephalium single, terminal, pendulous, globose or fairly ellipsoidal, pale green when young turns to deep green when mature, 30–35 cm long, 25–30 cm wide, fairly massive, 5–7 kg weight; cephalium of plants at Habbema Lake, Indonesian New Guinea can reach 50 cm in diameter (see Keim et al. 2018); A. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_234

807

808

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

cephalium composed of numerous (approximately 1000, see French 1986) drupes, drupe when break reveals an oily bright creamy white endosperm. Phenology: Pandanus julianettii is always found in cultivation (Fig. 1), which is an important field character that distinguishes the species with its closely related species, P. brosimos (Stone 1982, 1984; Hyndman 1984). The domesticated karuka is always associated with P. julianettii, while the wild or semi-domesticated karuka is associated with P. brosimos (Stone 1982, 1984; Hyndman 1984). Pandanus julianettii can be grown from seeds, suckers, or cuttings from the top of the branches (French 1986; Jebb 1992). Those trees from seeds have taller trunks, whereas trees from cuttings grow faster. It takes 5–8 years from planting to the first harvest (French 1986). The species is found in fruiting normally from December to February, but may occur in mid-year. Pamdanus julianettii in Pass Valley (64.8 km northeast of Wamena) were not observed in fruiting in December 2010 and January 2011 (personal observation). The species were observed in fruiting in the vicinity of Habbema Lake (41.8 km southwest of Wamena) in October 2011 (Keim et al. 2018). Thus, in the central highlands of Indonesian New Guinea, P. julianettii is in fruiting around mid-year up to October or at least early November. Although the seasonality may vary from one area to another, ripe cephalia may be found throughout the year (Walter and Sam 2002). As in the other members of the genus Pandanus, the anthesis in P. julianettii is also very short, which is between 2 and 4 days. As a consequence, the male inflorescence is also short-lived and rarely

Fig. 1 Pandanus julianettii planted near human settlement. (© Ary P. Keim)

Pandanus julianettii Martelli

809

seen. Among the Wola of Papua New Guinea only the female trees that produce fruits are cultivated; male plants are wild and found only in the forest (Sillitoe 1983; see Walter and Sam 2002). This raises the possibility that the male plants are actually the “Wild karuka” identified by Merrill and Perry (1940) as P. brosimos. This supports Stone (1984) in the observation that P. julianettii, P. brosimos, and P. iwen may form a complex species, and agriculturally they are cultivars representing 1000 years of cultivation and human interventions (i.e., human selections; see Stone 1982; Jebb 1992). Pandanus julianettii and its close ally, P. brosimos, and even P. conoideus are believed to be parthenogenic (Rose 1982). Pandanus julianettii can last 50–60 years (French 1986). Distribution and Habitat: Pandanus julianettii is a species endemic to the central highlands of New Guinea (Stone 1982). The species is known as one of the five highland species of Pandanus commonly planted by the people from the central highlands of New Guinea. Others are P. antaresensis, P. brosimos, P. conoideus, and P. iwen. Pandanus conoideus alone is found cultivated in the lowland areas and the adjacent islands of New Guinea and the Moluccas (Keim 2009; Keim et al. 2018). The species can be found in highlands of mainland New Guinea at about 1800– 2500 m altitudes (Stone 1982; French 1986). In the Jayawijaya Range, particularly within the vicinity of Lake Habbema, P. julianettii is found in a semi wild cultivation within the Upper Montane Forest approximately at 2000–3000 m altitudes (Fig. 2)

Fig. 2 Population of semi wild cultivation of Pandanus julianettii in Pass Valley, Jayawijaya Range. (© Ary P. Keim)

810

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

(Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018). Pandanus julianettii is planted in cultivations at Pass Valley at least at 2000 m altitudes; here, P. julianettii is commonly found at about 2000 m and higher altitudes (personal observation).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Pandanus julianettii is well known as a Pandanus that contains the psychoactive substances (Stone 1982; Hyndman 1984; Thomas 2000). The drupes (particularly the endosperms) have been eaten by the people of central highlands of New Guinea (both Indonesian New Guinea and Papua New Guinea) for psychoactive effects (Sinclair 1957; Webb 1960; Barrau 1962; Reay 1960; Heim and Wasson 1965; Sterly 1973; Stone 1982; Hyndman 1984; Rudgley 1998; Thomas 2000; Group 2015). The psychoactive effects have been termed as “karuka madness” (Stone 1982; Hyndman 1984; Jebb 1992; Ott 1993, 1996; Group 2015). Elders of Dani community used the drupes are used as an anesthetic in the past (personal observation) (Fig. 3). Endosperms extracted from baked drupes were given to Fig. 3 Lateral section of the cephalium of Pandanus julianettii showing the drupes. (© Ary P. Keim)

Pandanus julianettii Martelli

811

patients to turn them unconscious, so that traditional surgical procedures can be performed. Such procedures were commonly used to treat injuries and wounds resulting from the fierce tribal wars that were common in the Baliem Valley prior to the availability of western medicine in the locality. This oral history has not been recorded before in the literature.

Phytochemistry The bioactive components of cephalia of five species of Pandanus, including P. julianettii from Jayawijaya Range, have been studied recently by Kogoya et al. (2014). There are 35 groups of fatty acid types recorded from P. julianettii, of which the largest percentage (28.66%) is palmitic acid (C16:0). Various nutrient values have also been recorded per 100 g of a seed: fat calories (419.4 kcal/100 g), unsaturated fatty acid (401.4%), potassium (300.22 mg/100 g), calcium (97.20 mg/ 100 g), sodium (71.21 mg/100 g) with total energy of 1020 kcal (Kogoya et al. 2014). The endosperm contains pro-vitamin A and pro-vitamin C (French 1986). The substance responsible for psychoactive effects is N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) (Szara 1956, 1957, 1961, 1962, 1970; Turner and Merlis 1959; Shulgin 1976; Shulgin and Shulgin 1997). DMT has been isolated from mountain Pandanus including P. julianettii and its closely related species P. brosimos and P. iwen (Hyndman 1984; see also Thomas 2000). However, N,N-dimethyltryptamine has been observed to be inactive when taken orally (Shulgin 1976). Thus, its mere presence in certain nuts of highland species of Pandanus (including P. julianettii) does not explain the altered state of consciousness produced when the nuts are ingested (Thomas 2000).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The endosperms extracted from the drupe are the most important plant part to be consumed and highly priced (Fig. 4) (French 1986; Jebb 1992; Milliken 2006). The seeds (especially the carbohydrate-rich endosperms) provide a valuable supplementary diet during lean months for communities depending on it (Stone 1982; Walter and Sam 2002; Keim et al. 2018). The Dani people of the Baliem Valley regard P. julianettii as one of the two principal species for food source; the other is P. conoideus (Purwanto and Walujo 1992; Arobaya and Pattiselanno 2007). The main producing area is in Pass Valley and the vicinity of Lake Habbema (Keim et al. 2018). The seeds are eaten raw, smoked or cooked after been extracted from the drupes. The Dani of Baliem Valley roast the drupes in earth ovens with heated stones known as bakar batu (Purwanto and Walujo 1992). When the harvest is abundant, the drupes are stored, sometimes by burying in dry soil. Buried drupes remain edible for about a year, even after germination (Walter and Sam 2002). Smoked nuts can be stored and smoked for up to 2 years; nuts may also be removed from the shells and

812

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 4 Cephalium of Pandanus julianettii harvested from the vicinity of Lake Habbema with the epicarp removed. (© Ary P. Keim)

wrapped in leaves (Walter and Sam 2002). In some parts of central highland New Guinea, part of mesocarp may also be eaten raw or cooked (Walter and Sam 2002). The Dani of Jayawijaya Range mention that the only pest of P. julianettii is the tree kangaroos (personal observation), similar to central highlands New Guinea (French 1986). Pandanus julianettii is still regarded as an important food source by the people of highlands New Guinea despite the popularity of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas; Convolvulaceae). The ability of the species to produce cephalia throughout the year for approximately 50–60 years (French 1986) contributes to food security of local communities.

Biocultural Importance Pandanus julianettii is regarded important by the people of central highlands of New Guinea, together with P. conoideus, P. brosimos, and P. iwen. Its ability to continuously produce cephalia throughout the year for approximately 50–60 years contributes to food security of local communities. In the villages throughout Jayawijaya Range, this species is planted together with P. conoideus. Archaeological studies show that P. julianettii has been cultivated in central highlands New Guinea at least at the end of Pleistocene along with P. antaresensis, P. brosimos, P. conoideus, and P. iwen (St. John 1973; Haberle 1995, 1996; Cook 1999; Fairbairn et al. 2006). The beginning of cultivation of P. julianettii has long been a subject of debate, ranging from 26,000 to 6000 BC (Brass 1941; White et al. 1970; Golson 1991; Swadling et al. 1991; Yen 1995; Haberle 1998, 2003; Lentler and Denham 2017). Currently, the consensus is around 10,000–7400 BC (Denham 2005, 2010, 2011; Denham et al. 2003, 2004; Lentler and Denham 2017). The Wola of Papua New Guinea use the aerial roots on bark shields and the leaves for rain-capes (Sillitoe 1983). The Nduma

Pandanus julianettii Martelli

813

of Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea, use the leaves for thatching in their temporary shelters and the hollowed trunk for channeling water (Hays 1980).

Economic Importance Indonesia: The cephalia of P. julianettii is traded in the local markets. Thus, the cultivation of this species is economically important. DMT has potential to be used in various medicinal applications.

References Arobaya AYS, Pattiselanno F. Jenis Tanaman Berguna Bagi Suku Dani di Lembah Baliem. Biota. 2007;12(3):192–5. Barrau J. Observations et travaux récents sur les végetaux hallucinogènes de la Nouvelle-Guinéa. J Agric Trop Bot Appl. 1962;9:245–9. Brass LJ. Stone age agriculture in New Guinea. Geogr Rev. 1941;31:555–69. Cook CD. Pandanus agroforestry of the Amungme in Irian Jaya, Indonesia. For Farm Community Tree Res Rep. 1999;4:95–103. Denham TP. Agricultural origins and the emergence of rectilinear ditch networks in the highlands of New Guinea. In: Pawley A, Attenborough R, Golson J, Hide R, editors. Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Australian National University; 2005. p. 329–61. Denham TP. From domestication histories to regional prehistory: using plants to re-evaluate early and mid-Holocene interaction between New Guinea and Southeast Asia. Food Hist. 2010;8:3–22. Denham TP. Early agriculture and plant domestication in New Guinea and Island Southeast Asia. Curr Anthropol. 2011;52(S4):S379–95. Denham TP, Haberle SG, Lentfer C, Fullagar R, Field J, Therin M, Porch N, Winsborough B. Origins of agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of New Guinea. Science. 2003;301:189–93. Denham TP, Haberle SG, Lentfer C. New evidence and revised interpretations of early agriculture in highland New Guinea. Antiquity. 2004;78:839–57. Fairbairn A, Hope G, Summerhayes G. Pleistocene occupation of New Guinea’s highland and subalpine environments. World Archaeol. 2006;38(3):1–29. French BR. Food plants of Papua New Guinea: a compendium. Canberra: Australia and Pacific Science Foundation; 1986. Golson J. Bulmer phase II: early agriculture in the New Guinea highlands. In: Pawley A, editor. Man and a half: essays in Pacific anthropology and ethnobiology in honor of Ralph Bulmer. Auckland: Polynesian Society; 1991. p. 484–91. Group DW. Encyclopedia of mind enhancing foods, drugs and nutritional substances. Jefferson: McFarland; 2015. Haberle SG. Identification of cultivated Pandanus and Colocasia in pollen records and the implications for the study of early agriculture in New Guinea. Veg Hist Archaeobotany. 1995;4 (4):195–210. Haberle SG. Palaeoenvironmental changes in the eastern highlands of Papua New Guinea. Archaeol Ocean. 1996;31(1):1–11. Haberle SG. Can climate shape cultural development? A view through time. In: Resource management in Asia-Pacific working paper no. 18. Canberra: Australian National University; 1998.

814

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Haberle SG. The emergence of an agricultural landscape in the highlands of New Guinea. Archaeol Ocean. 2003;38:149–58. Hays TE. Uses of wild plants in Ndumba, Eastern Highlands Province. Sci New Guinea. 1980;7:118–31. Heim R, Wasson RG. The mushroom madness of the Kuma. Bot Mus Leafl Harv Univ. 1965;21:1–36. Hyndman DC. Ethnobotany of Wopkaimin Pandanus: significant Papua New Guinea plant resource. Econ Bot. 1984;38(3):287–303. Jebb M. A field guide to Pandanus in New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands. Madang: Christensen Research Institute; 1992. Keim AP. Pandanaceae of the island of Yapen, Papua (W. New Guinea), Indonesia, with their nomenclature and notes on the rediscovery of Sararang sinuosa, and several new species and records. Blumea. 2009;54:255–66. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Efendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Kogoya B, Guritno B, Ariffin, Suryanto A. Bioactive components of Pandan’s fruits from Jayawijaya Mountains, Papua, Indonesia. IOSR J Environ Sci Toxicol Food Technol. 2014;8 (8):1–8. Lentler C, Denham T. The archaeobotany of Kuk. In: Golson J, Denham T, Hughes P, Swadling P, Muke J, editors. Ten thousand years of cultivation at Kuk swamp in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. Canberra: Australian National University; 2017. p. 164–84. Merrill ED, Perry LM. Plantae papuanae archboldianae, II. J Arnold Arbor. 1940;21:163–75. Milliken W. The ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2006. Ott J. Pharmacoetheon: entheogenic drugs, their plant sources and history. Kennewick: Natural Products; 1993. Ott J. Pharmacoetheon: entheogenic drugs, their plant sources and history: densified edition. Kennewick: Natural Products; 1996. Purwanto Y, Walujo EB. Etnobotani suku Dani di lembah Baliem, Irian Jaya: Suatu telaah tentang pengetahuan dan pemanfaatan sumber daya alam tumbuhan. In: Nasution RE, editor. Prosiding Seminar dan Lokakarya Nasional Etnobotani. Jakarta: Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia; 1992. p. 132–48. Reay M. Mushroom madness in the New Guinea highlands. Oceania. 1960;31:137–9. Rose C. Preliminary observations on the pandanus nut (Pandanus jiulianettii Martelli). In: Bourke R, Kesavan V, editors. Proceedings of the second Papua New Guinea food conference. Port Moresby: Department of Primary Industry; 1982. p. 160–7. Rudgley R. The encyclopedia of psychoactive substances. London: Abacus; 1998. Shulgin AT. Profiles of psychedelic drugs: DMT. J Psychedelic Drugs. 1976;8:167–8. Shulgin A, Shulgin A. TIKHAL: the continuation. Berkeley: Transform Press; 1997. Sillitoe P. Natural resources exploited by the Wola in the manufacture of artefacts. Sci New Guinea. 1983;10:112–33. Sinclair A. Field and clinical survey report of the mental health of the indigenes of the Territory of Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby: W. S. Nicholas; 1957. St. John H. Revision of the genus Pandanus part 35: additional Pandanus species from New Guinea. Pac Sci. 1973;27(1):44–101. Sterly J. Krankheiten und krankenbehandlung dei den Chimbu im zentrallen hochland New-Guinea, Beiträge zur Ethnomedizin, Ethnobotanik und Ethnozoologie II. Hamburg: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Ethnomedizin; 1973. Stone BC. New Guinea Pandanaceae: first approach to ecology and biogeography. In: Gressitt JL, editor. Biogeography and ecology of New Guinea, Monographiae biologicae no. 42, vol. 1. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk Publishers; 1982. p. 401–36. Stone BC. Pandanus from Ok Tedi Region, Papua New Guinea, collected by Debra Donoghue. Econ Bot. 1984;38:304–13.

Pandanus julianettii Martelli

815

Swadling P, Araho N, Ivuyo B. Settlements associated with the inland Sepik-Ramu Sea. Bull IndoPac Prehist Assoc. 1991;11:92–112. Szara SI. Dumethyltrypptamine: its metabolism in man: the relation of its psychotic effect to the serotonin metabolism. Experientia. 1956;15:441–2. Szara SI. The comparison of the psychotic effect of tryptamine derivatives with the effects of mescaline and LSD-25 in self-experiments. In: Garattini S, Ghetti V, editors. Psychotropic drugs. New York: Elsevier; 1957. p. 460–7. Szara SI. Hallucinogenic effects and metabolism of tryptamine derivatives in man. Fed Proc. 1961;20:885–8. Szara SI. Metabolism and behavioral action of psychotropic tryptamine homologues. Int J Neuropharmacol. 1962;1:111–7. Szara SI. DMT (N,N-dimethyitryptamine) and homologues: clinical and pharmacological considerations. In: Efron DH, editor. Psychotomimetic drugs. New York: Raven Press; 1970. p. 275–86. Thomas B. Psychoactive plant use in Papua New Guinea: a review. Sci New Guinea. 2000;25(1– 3):33–59. Turner WJ, Merlis S. Effects of some indolealkylamines on man. Arch Neurol Psychiatr. 1959;8:121–9. Van Royen P. The alpine flora of New Guinea. Volume 2: general part. Vaduz: J. Cramer; 1980. Walter A, Sam C. Fruits of Oceania. Melbourne: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR); 2002. Webb LJ. Some new records of medicinal plants used by the aborigines of tropical Queensland and New Guinea. Proc R Soc Qld. 1960;71:103–10. White JP, Crook KAW, Ruxton BP. Kosipe: a Pleistocene site in the Papua highlands. Proc Prehist Soc. 1970;36:152–70. Yen D. The development of Sahul agriculture with Australia as bystander. Antiquity. 1995;69:831–47.

Papuacedrus papuana (F.J. Mueller) H.L.Li CUPRESSACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Synonyms Libocedrus arfakensis L. Gibbs; L. papuana F.Muell.; L. torricellensis Lauterbach; Papuacedrus arfakensis (L. Gibbs) H.L.Li; P. papuana var. arfakensis (L. Gibbs) R. J.Johns; P. torricellensis (Lauterbach) H.L.Li.; Thuja papuana (F.Muell.) Voss. (Eckenwalder 2009; POWO 2020).

Local Names English: Papuan incense cedar; Indonesia: sedar papua (Standard Indonesian), araum (Karoon, Papua), butaga (Manikiong), butayeka (Manikiong), duwak (Kebar), yuta (Nairi, Watabung), matu (Kepauko), nipau (Kebar), pomoan (Manikiong), sowa (Kebar, Anjai), sukou (Wapi, Migote), swa (Anjai), tera (Garaina), tuwa (Kebar), wonga (arfak); Papua New Guinea: ab (Nega, Kepilam), aiap (Enga), aip (Enga), autibo (Kepauko), bit (Yogom), dautie (Kepauko), dzagosa (Asaro, Kefamo), dzasihanini (Asaro, Kefamo), eis (Karoon), gagman (Hagen, Togoba), gamuga (Hagen, Togoba), hohoba (Lei), hap (Enga, Kepilam), iwunturra (Manki), kaibelkombam (Wahgi, Minj), kaipil (Wahgi, Minj), kamgenkuna (Hagen, Togoba), kap (Enga, Kepilam), mondalasap (Mendi), mondilasop (Mendi), ogeleh (Chimbu, Masul), oleh (Chimbu, Masul), ongol (Wahgi. Minj), urenak (Mendi), ye-enka (Nauti).

A. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_227

817

818

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Botany and Ecology Description: Papuacedrus papuana is an evergreen monoecious tree growing up to 35 to 50 m, trunk up to 1 m in diameter, tree height less than 10 m tall in subalpine scrub. Bark reddish brown and scaly at first, darkening with age. Crown pyramidal in youth but spreading, dome shaped, and with drooping branches in age. Shoots arranged in flattened, fern-like sprays with branchlets arising alternately or in opposite pairs more or less evenly on the front and rear of the parent side twigs. Lateral scale leaves up to 10–16 mm long in juveniles with the tip spreading to 3– 6 mm, progressively smaller and tighter to the branchlet in more mature trees, down to 1 mm long in the most exposed adult foliage. Facial leaves much smaller and not changing as much in size with maturity, 1–3.5 mm long. Pollen cones 4–25 mm long, with 4–10 pairs or quartets of pollen scales. Seed cones 8–15 mm long, the seed scales often with fine radiating ridges extending from the bract tip. Triangular free tip of bract 1–2 mm long. Seeds 2–3 mm long, the larger wing extending straight out from the egg-shaped body by more than twice its width (Van Royen 1980; Farjon 1998, 2000, 2008; Eckenwalder 2009). Phenology: Papuacedrus papuana flowers and fruits the whole year around. Keim et al. (2018) collected P. papuana with good seed cones and seed scales in the subalpine scrub around the vicinity of Lake Habbema at 3200 m altitude (Fig. 1). Distribution and Habitat: Papuacedrus papuana is the sole extant member of the genus Papuacedrus. The other known species, such as P. australis (Tasmania; Hill and Carpenter 1991), P. prechilensis (Chilean Patagonia; Wilf et al. 2009), and P. shenii (Fossil Hill, King George Island, Antarctica; Zhou and Li 1994) are extinct. The distribution areas of P. papuana include New Guinea and the Moluccas, particularly Halmahera Island (Van Balgooy 1976; Van Steenis 1979; Van Royen 1980; Farjon 1998, 2000, 2008; Eckenwalder 2009). Papuacedrus papuana is found in the montane rainforests up to subalpine scrub mostly in highland New Guinea, Fig. 1 Mature seed cone showing the seed scales open wide. (© Ary P. Keim)

Papuacedrus papuana (F.J. Mueller) H.L.Li

819

Fig. 2 Habit of Papuacedrus papuana found in the vicinity of Habbema Lake, Jayawijaya at 3200 m altitude. (© Ary P. Keim)

where the species forms pure strands or mixed with other conifers and hardwoods mostly from 1500 to 3900 m altitudes (Van Royen 1980; Eckenwalder 2009). In highland New Guinea, the species is regarded as the marker of the subalpine vegetation (Van Royen 1980). In the vicinity of Habbema Lake in the Jayawijaya Range, Papuacedrus papuana is abundantly found in Subalpine Forest, especially in the Lower Subalpine Forest at 3200–3500 m altitudes, where the species forms widespread pure strands (Fig. 2) (Keim et al. 2018). In this vegetation type, P. papuana is also found cohabitant with other conifers such as Phyllocladus hypophyllus (Podocarpaceae), Podocarpus brassii (Podocarpaceae), and hardwood dicots such as Nothofagus brassii and N. starkenborghiorum (Keim et al. 2018); thus, in accordance with Van Royen (1980). The presence of the pure strand formation of P. papuana has also been noticed by Brass (1941a, b; see also Brass 2012) and Archbold et al. (1942). The scenery was photographed by Brass in 1938 (see De Laubenfels 1988) and is not significantly different with the situation observed by us during our visit to Lake Habbema in 2011 and 2014 (see Keim et al. 2018). Thus, at least in 2014, the pure strand formation of P. papuana was still generally well preserved. Keim et al. (2018) also observed the presence of P. papuana in the Subalpine Scrub (2400–3650 m altitudes). However, the population is mostly composed by individuals with height 3 m or lower, lower than the

820

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

population found in the Subalpine Forest, located side by side. Papuacedrus papuana can be found up to Subalpine Grassland at around 3200–4000 m altitudes with fairly tall individuals up to 5 m (Keim et al. 2018). The obvious presence of P. papuana in the Subalpine Forest of the Lake Habbema marks the species as the species marker of the subalpine vegetation in the vicinity. As the same phenomenon is also observed in many Lower Subalpine Forests in highlands New Guinea, P. papuana has been widely accepted as the marker species of subalpine vegetation zone throughout highland New Guinea (Hope 1976; Mangen 1993; Johns et al. 2007; Eckenwalder 2009; Kartawinata 2013; Keim et al. 2018).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The Dani people of the Baliem Valley, Jayawijaya Range use the leaves and bark of Papuacedrus papuana for curing high fever, possibly caused by infection; the plant could be a potential source of antibiotic. Leaf or bark decoction is drunk, and fever is noticeably reduced by the following morning (personal observation). Although the leaves of P. papuana are also eaten by people in Watut and other places in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea (Powell 1976), there is no published information regarding the medicinal uses of the leaves.

Phytochemistry Papuacedrus, together with other members of subfamily Callitroidea (genera Libocedrus, Austrocedrus, and Pilgerodendron), is characterized chemically by major amounts of amentoflavone and its 4”’-monomethyl ether, as well as trace amounts of hinokiflavone or its derivatives detectable by permethylation of the extract (Gadek and Quinn 1983). Being the sole member of the genus, Papuacedrus here refers to P. papuana. Markham et al. (1990) reported that P. papuana contains flavonoid 3-diglycosides in the form of quarcetin and myricetin. Papuacedrus papuana is also observed to contain other forms of flavonoids and bioflavonoids 3 and 4. The plant is also known to produce resin (Langenheim 2003). However, compared to other genera of Cupressaceae, the composition of resin from Papuacedrus is still largely unknown. It is suggested here that the resin of this species is likely in the form of oleoresin containing monoterpenes, the chemical substance found in majority of conifers (Springbob and Kutchan 2009). The species is also believed to contain the active compounds podophyllotoxin and deoxypodophyllotoxin, which are proven to be tumor inhibitors (Fitzgerald et al. 1957; see also Pan et al. 2009).

Papuacedrus papuana (F.J. Mueller) H.L.Li

821

Fig. 3 The leaves of Papuacedrus papuana. (© Ary P. Keim)

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The leaves of P. papuana (Fig. 3) are eaten as vegetables by the people of Watut and other places in Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea (Powell 1976). However, there is no such report from Baliem Valley, Jayawijaya Range. The Dani people of the valley do eat the leaves of P. papuana, but for medicinal and supernatural-related purposes only.

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Papuacedrus papuana is considered sacred by the Dani throughout the Baliem Valley and adjacent areas. They even consider Papuacedrus papuana as more sacred than Phyllocladus hypophyllus (the sina wood). This is apparently due to the conspicuous strong cypress-like aroma of the wood, rarity of the species, and sacred habitat where it is found (Lake Habbema). The timber is used for building

822

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

purposes and the bark is used for roofing (Van Royen 1980; Milliken 2006). Despite being a good source of building materials, the woods of P. papuana are very rarely used for building fences by the Dani people and have never been used for pigs’ fences. According to the Dani, the wood of P. papuana is too sacred for building something that is not for humans (personal observation). The Dani also use the green wood for fuel and the smokes produced gives off little heat (Archbold et al. 1942). The smoke gives a good aroma that triggers a pleasant feeling that helps them to better sleep; thus, the smoke could act as sedatives (personal observation). The resin (see Langenheim 2003; Boer et al. 2005) is also harvested by the Dani and traditionally used as incense. It is also used in healing rituals as well as other magic. The resin is burnt and the smoke is blown over patients, accompanied with specific chants. We observed that even the Javanese who live in Wamena (the capital of Jayawijaya Regency) also use the resin in their traditional rituals (including healing rituals), possibly as a substitute for the traditional Javanese incense.

Economic Importance Indonesia: The wood of P. papuana is highly prized by the Dani and mainly used for constructing houses (Purwanto and Walujo 1992; Arobaya and Pattiselanno 2007). Despite being a fairly light wood (with density of 0.37 g/cm3; see Soewarsono 1965; Reyes 1992; Lemmens 1995), the wood of P. papuana is regarded as one of the highly demanded building materials in highlands New Guinea and has been massively harvested (Van Royen 1980). Fortunately, the population in the subalpine forest near Habbema Lake is still preserved well according to last exploration made in 2014 (Keim et al. 2018). Keim et al. (2018) recorded the evidence of massive illegal logging of Papuacedrus papuana that has followed the development of the Trans Papua highway through the vicinity of Lake Habbema. The 2013 IUCN status of Near Threatened accorded to Papuacedrus papuana (Thomas 2013) might have to be revised. As with many other tropical montane conifer genera, Papuacedrus papuana is not found in cultivation, except in some botanical collections, and no cultivar selection has taken place (Eckenwalder 2009).

References Archbold R, Rand AL, Brass LJ. Results of the Archbold expedition no. 41: summary of the 1938– 1939 New Guinea expedition. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1942;79(3):197–288. Arobaya AYS, Pattiselanno F. Jenis tanaman berguna bagi suku Dani di Lembah Baliem. Biota. 2007;12(3):192–5. Boer E, Ella AB, Tesoro FO. Plant resources of South East Asia (PROSEA): plant producing exudates, vol. 18. Leiden: Backhuys; 2005. Brass LJ. The 1938–39 expedition to the snow mountains, Netherlands New Guinea. J Arnold Arbor. 1941a;22(2):271–95. Brass LJ. The 1938–39 expedition to the snow mountains, Netherlands New Guinea. J Arnold Arbor. 1941b;22(3):297–342.

Papuacedrus papuana (F.J. Mueller) H.L.Li

823

Brass LJ. Archives III LJB: Leonard John (L.J.) Brass (1900–1971) collection, 1925–1953: guide archives of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Harvard: Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University; 2012. De Laubenfels DJ. Flora Malesiana Ser. 1. Vol. 10 (3): Coniferales. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic; 1988. Eckenwalder JE. Conifers in the world: the complete reference. Portland: Timber Press; 2009. Farjon A. World checklist and bibliography of conifers. 1st ed. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 1998. Farjon A. World checklist and bibliography of conifers. 2nd ed. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2000. Farjon A. A natural history of conifers. Portland: Timber Press; 2008. Fitzgerald DB, Hartwell JL, Leither J. Distribution of tumor-damaging lignans among conifers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1957;18(1):83–99. Gadek PA, Quinn CJ. Bioflavones of the subfamily Callitroidea, Cupressaceae. Phytochemistry. 1983;22(4):969–72. Hill RS, Carpenter RJ. Extensive past distributions for major Gondwanic floral elements: macrofossil evidence. In: Banks MR, Smith SJ, Orchard AE, Kantvilas G, editors. Aspects of Tasmanian botany. Hobart: Royal Society of Tasmania; 1991. p. 239–47. Hope GS. Vegetation. In: Hope GS, Peterson JA, Radok U, Allison I, editors. The equatorial glaciers of New Guinea: results of the 1971–1973 Australian universities’ expeditions to Irian Jaya: survey, glaciology, meteorology, biology and palaeo-environments. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema; 1976. p. 113–72. Johns RJ, Shea GA, Vink W, Puradyatmika P. Mountain vegetation of Papua. In: Marshall AJ, Beehler BM, editors. The ecology of Papua: part II. Hongkong: Periplus Edition; 2007. p. 977– 1053. Kartawinata K. Diversitas ekosistem alami Indonesia. Jakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia dan LIPI Press; 2013. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Efendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Langenheim JH. Plant resins: chemistry, evolution, ecology and ethnobotany. Portland: Timber Press; 2003. Lemmens RHMJ. Plant resources of South East Asia (PROSEA) volume 5 part 2: timber trees, minor commercial timbers. Leiden: Backhuys; 1995. Mangen JM. Ecology and vegetation of Mt. Trikora New Guinea (Irian Jaya/Indonesia). Luxembourg: Ministe’re des Affaires Culturelles, Travaux Scientifiques du Muse’e National d’Histoire Naturelle de Luxembourg; 1993. Markham KR, Franke A, Molloy BRJ, Webby RF. Flavonoid profiles of New Zealand Libocedrus and related genera. Phytochemistry. 1990;29(2):501–7. Milliken W. The ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2006. Pan L, Esperanza J, De Blanco C, Kinghorn AD. Plant-derived natural products as leads for drug discovery. In: Osbourn A, Lanzotti V, editors. Plant-derived natural products: synthesis, function and application. Heidelberg: Springer; 2009. p. 547–68. Powell JM. Ethnobotany. In: Paijmans K, editor. New Guinea vegetation. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1976. p. 106–99. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 15 June 2020. Purwanto Y, Walujo EB. Etnobotani suku Dani di lembah Baliem-Irian Jaya: Suatu telaah tentang pengetahuan dan pemanfaatan sumber daya alam tumbuhan. In: Nasution RE, editor. Bogor: Prosiding, Seminar dan Lokakarya Nasional Etnobotani; 1992. p. 132–148. Reyes G. Wood density of tropical tree species. Louisiana: US Department of Agriculture; 1992. Soewarsono PH. The identification of the woods of some important Indonesian conifers. Rimba Indonesia. 1965;10(2/3):175–93. Springbob K, Kutchan M. Introduction to the different classes of natural products. In: Osbourn A, Lanzotti V, editors. Plant-derived natural products: synthesis, function and application. Heidelberg: Springer; 2009. p. 3–50.

824

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Thomas P. The IUCN Red List of threatened species: Papuacedrus papuana var. arfakensis. London: International Union for Conservation of Nature; 2013. Van Balgooy MMJ. Phytogeography. In: Paijmans K, editor. New Guinea vegetation. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1976. p. 1–22. Van Royen P. The alpine flora of New Guinea, vol. 2. Vaduz: J. Cramer; 1980. Van Steenis CGGJ. Plant-geography of East Malesia. Bot J Linn Soc. 1979;79:97–178. Wilf PW, Little SA, Iglesias A, Zamaloa MC, Gaudolfo MA, Cúneo NR, Johnson KR. Papuacedrus (Cupressaceae) in Eocene Patagonia: a new fossil link to Australasian rainforests. Am J Bot. 2009;96(11):2031–47. Zhou Z, Li H. Early tertiary gymnosperms from Fildes Peninsula, King George Island, Antarctica. In: Shen Y, editor. Stratigraphy and paleontology of Fildes Peninsula, King George Island, Antarctica: State Antarctic Committee, Monograph 3. Beijing: Science Press; 1994. p. 191–221.

Passiflora foetida L. PASSIFLORACEAE Dewi S. Amboupe and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Dysosmia foetida M.Roem.; Dysosmia hircina Sweet ex M. Roem.; Dysosmia polyadena M.Roem.; Granadilla foetida Gaertn.f.; Passiflora foetida var. gossypifolia f. longifolia Kuntze; Passiflora foetida var. hirsuta f. longifolia Kuntze; Passiflora foetida var. variegata G.F.W.Mey.; Passiflora hibiscifolia var. velutina Fenzl.; Passiflora polyaden Vell.; Passiflora vesicaria L.; Tripsilina fetida Raf.

Local Names Cambodia: Sav mao prey; Indonesia: Maluku: O’bua puti (Togutil); Sulawesi: angguru’ (Wolio), bangkuneng (Bentong), calle-calle (Mandar), teugu (Tajio), bunga rahasia (Kaili Rai), klubut (Kendari); Borneo: kemut (Dayak Ngaju), lalatop, kotop (Landak), lotop (Pontianak), rangit (Melawi), gerawet (Dayak Lundayeh), permot (Banjar Baru), kembut, cemot (Central Borneo); Java: buah negeri (Java), ermut, paksi, rajutan (Sundanese), kaceprek, kileuleueur, permot, pacean, tajutan, ceplukan blungsung, nomlang (Yogyakarta); Nusa Tenggara: bungan putir, moteti, buah pitri; Sumatera: gegambo, lemanas, remugak; Malaysia: pokok lang bulu, timun dendang, timun hutan, timun padang, letup-letup (Sabah), rambat-rambat (Rungus), letup (Sarawak), timun belanda (Lundayeh); Singapure: timun dendang,

D. S. Amboupe (*) Plant Biology, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Science, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_182

825

826

D. S. Amboupe and W. A. Mustaqim

timun hutan, timun padang; Myanmar: suka, taw-suka (Ban); Philippines: lupoklupok, melon-meleonan, pasionariang, mabaho, prutas taungan, kurunggut (Bikol), masaflora (Ilokano), taungon (Bisaya); Thailand: tam ninfarang (Kalasin), ga tok rok (Singha Nakhon), ka thok rok (Sakon Nakhon), ka tok rok (Phra Peninsula), kra prong thong (Peninsular), thao sing to (Chai Nat); Vietnam: lac tien, chum bao (Acevedo-Rodriguéz 2005; Ahmad and Holdsworth 1995; Albasri et al. 2018; Amboupe et al. 2019; Batoro 2017; Dalimartha 2003; Damayanti 2014; Ferdy et al. 2017; Cruz-Garcia and Price 2011; Hasanah et al. 2019; Kulip and Majawat 2000; Mojiol et al. 2010; Nurhaida et al. 2015; Portal:Portals 2015; Ricky et al. 2019; Apal et al. 2018; Setyowati et al. 2005; Slamet and Andarias 2018; Winda et al. 2015; Yuliarsih et al. 2013; Zubair et al. 2019); Common English names: Papbush, fetid passion flower, love in a mist, red fruit passion flower, running pop, wild water lemon, stinking passion flower (DeFilipps et al. 2018).

Botany and Ecology Description: Herbaceous climbers, stem to 5 m in length, glandular-hairy, therefore plant viscous. Stem cylindrical, faintly striate, glandular-hairy. Climbing by the axillary tendrils, unbranched, 15 cm or longer, usually coiled at apical portion, hairy. Viscid glandular hairs with bad smell. Stipules ovate in outline, pinnatifid. Leaves alternately arranged, petiole 2.5–6.7 cm long, hairy, blades chartaceous, usually 3-lobed with central lobes larger than the laterals, less often entire, 5–12
5–10.4 cm, lobes elliptic to ovate, leaf base cordate or nearly so, margin crenate-serrate, the apex of the lobes acuminate or acute. Flowers large and showy, solitary, paired or in a cluster of threes, involucre consist of three pinnatifid bracts, 2–3 cm long, persistent until fruiting, clad with glandular hairs, viscid, the peduncles 4–6 cm long, hairy. Sepals 5, green, inner side whitish, oblong, 2–2.5 cm long, apex mucronate. Petals 5, white, oblong, 2–2.5 cm long, corona segments multiseriate, filiform, outer ones 1–1.7 cm long, innermost one with the violet band at the base. Gynophore green with reddish spots, cylindrical, c. 7 mm long. Stamens 5. Ovary green, ellipsoid, clad with white or brownish hairs, style ended with capitate stigma. Fruits indehiscent berry, green, yellow to orange at maturity, globose, subglobose, or ovoid, 1.5–2.5 cm across, enclosed within persistent bracts. Seeds many, cuneiform, c. 5
2.5 mm, arils yellow, sour-sweet. This is a very variable species and Killip in 1938 recognized 38 varieties. Distribution and Ecology: It is a native of tropical America and widespread there. The distribution outside America is a result of introduction. It has now become widespread in many areas of Old World tropics including Southeast Asia, usually as a weed. This species inhabits dry to moist areas, in disturbed or even heavily settled areas such as urban ecosystems in hedges, urban forest margins, and brushwoods. This species is sometimes considered as a sun-loving climber. In Malesia, this species can be found from 0 to 1500 m.a.s.l. (Acevedo-Rodriguéz 2005; De Wilde 1972; Killip 1938; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Passiflora foetida L.

827

Fig. 1 The living plant of Passiflora foetida (Passifloraceae). Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 The flower of Passiflora foetida (Passifloraceae). Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Leaves, bark, and flower are used as a sedative and to reduce high blood pressure (Adi 2008). Fruits are used to cure skin disease, neurasthenia, edema, insomnia, chyluria, high blood pressure, and ulcer (Dalimartha 2003). In South East Sulawesi, the Wolio community use it to cure cough and treat lymph inflammation (Slamet and Andarias 2018), while the Mandar use the leaves to prevent dehydration and reduce pain due to skin injuries. The Mandar also use the leaves to treat burns, scabies, and menstruation pain. In Kendari, whole plant is used as an antidiabetic medicine (Albasri et al. 2018). The Kaili Rai people in Central Sulawesi drink a leaf and stem decoction to cure lungs disease (Zubair et al. 2019). In Maluku, the Togutil use the plants to cure infertility (Apal et al. 2018). In Central Borneo, leaf

828

D. S. Amboupe and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 3 Mature fruits of Passiflora foetida (Passifloraceae). Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

decoction is used by Dayak Ngaju people to cure back pain (Setyowati et al. 2005), while the fruits are used to cure sprue and heartburn (Ricky et al. 2019). In West Borneo, the leaves are pounded and then taped to chest to treat breathing trouble (Nurhaida et al. 2015), while the fruits are eaten directly to cure cough (Ferdy et al. 2017). In Karanganyar of Central Java, the ripe fruits are used to maintain gum and bone health, prevent anemia and cancer, control blood pressure, cure kidney disorders, and reduce stress (Santoso 2016). Malaysia: It is used for treatment of asthma and tuberculosis (Mohamad et al. 2011). In Sabah, ripe fruits are used to stop bleeding and treat thrombogenic (Mojiol et al. 2010). The Lundayeh of Sabah use fruit skin as febrifuge (Kulip and Majawat 2000). The Rungus People of Kudat use it to ease hypertension (Ahmad and Holdsworth 1995). Myanmar: Leaves are used to treat asthma and hysteria (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018). Philippines: People in Mount Arayat National Park Pampanga use the plant as anthelmintic (Suba et al. 2019). The Kalanguya community in Tinoc, Ifugao, and Luzan use the shoot decoction to cure anemia (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011). Thailand: In Songkhla Province, Phra Peninsula, and Singha Nakhon District, whole plant decoction is used as expectorant and antibacterial to cure cough, fever, and treat dysuria (Neamsuvan et al. 2012; Neamsuvan et al. 2014). Vietnam: Leafy shoots and leaves are used for treating neurasthenia, insomnia, menstruation pain, edema, and coughs. Vietnamese make herbal tea from its dry leaves to relieve sleeping problems (Lim 2012).

Phytochemistry Whole plant: Plants contain alkaloids, amino acids, anthraquinones, carbohydrates, cardioglycosides, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, proteins, saponins, steroids, tannins, and triterpenoids (Birudu et al. 2016; Patil and Paikrao 2012; Paulraj et al. 2014). Phytochemical screening carried out by Echeverri et al. (2001) has shown the presence of passifloricins, polyketide α-pyrones from its resin. Shaftoside or

Passiflora foetida L.

829

isoschaftoside, isoorientin, orientin, vitexin, and isovitexin are among flavonoids that have been reported from this species (Abourashed et al. 2002). Nguyen et al. (2015) added other flavonoids including apigenin, apigenin 7-O-β-Dglucopyranoside, luteolin, chrysoeriol, luteolin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, quercetin-40 -methyl ether, tricin, and vitexin-200 -O-xyloside. Fruit: Song et al. (2018) discovered 65 phenolic compounds from the fruits, either inedible or edible parts, with many of them unidentified. The identified compounds include 1-O-caffeoyl-5-O-feruloylquinic acid, apigenin-6,8-di-C-glycoside (vicenin-2), caffeic acid derivatives, caffeic acid-O-hexoside-O-rhamnoside, caffeoylglucaric acid, chrysoeriol derivative, coumarylquinic acid derivative, feruloylglucaric acid, hispidulin7-O-hexoside derivative, isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside 7-O-rhamnoside, kaempferol-3O-rutinoside, kaempferol-methoxy-methyl ether, luteolin and derivative, luteolin-30 -Odirhamnoside-7-O-rhamnoside, p-coumaric acid derivatives, pinobanksin-3-O-acetate, pinobanksin-3-O-butyrate, quercetin 3-O-rhamnosyl-glucoside7-O-rhamnoside, quinic acid derivative, quinine dimer, rosmarinic acid, silymarin, and spinosin. Essential oils have yielded 5-butyldocosane, 7a-isopropenyl-4,5-dimethyloctahydroniden-4ylmethanol, 9-tricosene, carbonic acid octadecylvinylester, caryophyllene, cyclotetradecane, ethyllinoleate, galaxolide, heneicosane, linoleic acid, octadecane, oleamide, palmitic acid, tetradecanal, trans-3-eicosane, tricosane, and trogodermal (Olouwa et al. 2019). The sugars glucose, fructose, and sucrose have been detected in the fruits. Some organic acids also have been identified, with around 50% of them is citric acid, while the remaining are comprised of ascorbic acid, malic acid, oxalic acid, and tartaric acid. At least 19 amino acids were reported, with the largest one being glutamic acid. The fruits contain a large amount of potassium (75% of all minerals), followed by phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, calcium, and small amounts of copper, iron, manganese, and zinc. Some fatty acids also have been reported: linoleic acid is the most important component forming 44.69%, followed by oleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, and a small amount of myristic acid (Song et al. 2018). Seed: The seeds contain many phytochemicals as shown by Paulraj et al. (2014). This includes γ-tocopherol (vit E),1-dodecene, 7-hexadecene,(Z)-, 4-(3,4,5,6-tetrahydroxy-2-oxo-hexylamino)-, 9,17-octadecadienal, (Z)-, 9-octadecene,(E)-, 9,12linoleic acid, 9,12-tetradecadien-1-ol,(Z,E)-, 11-octadecenoic acid, methyl ester,(Z)-, 15-hydroxypentadecanoic acid, acetic acid, 1-methyl-3-(2,2,6-trimethylbicyclo[4.1.0] hept-1-yl)-propenyl ester, benzonitrile, cis-11-hexadecenal, n-hexadecanoic acid, benzhydrazide, ethyl oleate, ethyl stearate, heptadecane, linolelaidic acid, methyl nonyl acetaldehyde, oxacyclotetradecane-2,11-dione,13-methyl-, palmitic acid, palmitic acid β-monoglyceride, tetraethyl orthosilicate, pregna-3,5-dien-20α-ol, Otrimethylsilyl, styrene, E-11-hexadecenoic acid, ethyl ester, N2-(2-methoxy-5nitrobenzylideno)-, and (R)-(-)-14-methyl-8-hexadecyn-1-ol.

Bioactivities Extracts show many pharmacological activities including antimicrobial and antioxidant (Ingale and Hivrale 2010). Satish et al. (Satish et al. 2011) report that ethanol extracts have antioxidant and antiulcer activities. Anti-inflammatory activity has

830

D. S. Amboupe and W. A. Mustaqim

been detected from plant extracts; the study was done in LPS-induced macrophages (RAW264.7) (Park et al. 2018). This inflammatory activity is highly likely due to the presence of luteolin and chrysoeriol (Nguyen et al. 2015). Ethanolic extracts of the aerial parts can induce healing of the fractured femur in Sprague-Dawley rats (Ahmad et al. 2018). Stem and fruits show antimicrobial activities against Gramnegative bacteria (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella typhi), Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, and Staphylococcus aureus), and also fungi (Aspergillus niger, Penicillium notatum, and Rhizopus niger) (Olouwa et al. 2019). Ethanol leaf extracts are effective against Pseudomonas putida, Vibrio cholerae, Shigella flexneri, Streptococcus pyogenes (Mohanasundari et al. 2006), and Staphylococcus aureus (Patil and Paikrao 2012). The ethanol leaf extracts also show cytotoxic activities against brine shrimp and brine shrimp nauplii (Asadujjaman et al. 2014). Leaf extract inhibits α-glucosidase and α-amylase activities, suggesting antidiabetic properties (Paulraj et al. 2014). Leaf extract also inhibits the effect of alloxan induction in Wistar rats, further supporting claims of antidiabetic properties (Asir et al. 2014). Fresh leaf extract also shows antidyslipidemic activity (Birudu et al. 2016). Antidepressant activity also has been reported from the leaf extracts (Santosh et al. 2011). The crude leaf extracts can cure scabies in rabbits (Hastutiek and Eliyani 2017). The fruits have cytotoxic, analgesic, and antidiarrheal activities (Asadujjaman et al. 2014). The cytotoxic activities of this species have been reported on the cervical cancer cell lines due to the presence of alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, phenols, saponins, steroids, and also terpenoids (Shankar et al. 2017). All plant parts have antioxidant activities with the highest potential reported from the fruit peels (Olouwa et al. 2019; Sasikala et al. 2011). The fruit ethanolic extracts show hepatoprotective activities in CCl4-induced rats (Anandan et al. 2009). The plant also has an immunomodulatory effect that is useful in treating immune disorders. The compounds likely responsible for the property are flavonoids, glycosides, and phytosterols (Nagaraju et al. 2013). This species is cyanogenic. The leaf extract has shown to be poisonous in goats (de Carvalho et al. 2011). The use in mosquito repellant coils appears to be safe under 3000 ppm but can cause necrosis in liver and kidney tissues, as has been shown by Susilowati (2016). But the extract of it at the given doses did not produce chronic toxicity in Wistar rats (Chivapat et al. 2011).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: In Sulawesi, Borneo, and Java, ripe fruits are eaten raw (Amboupe et al. 2019; Batoro 2017; Winda et al. 2015; Yuliarsih et al. 2013). In Central Borneo, the fruits are processed into jam (Hasanah et al. 2019). Young leaves are eaten as vegetables. Thailand: In Kalasin, North East Thailand, ripe fruits are eaten fresh by rice farmers (Cruz-Garcia and Price 2011). Fruit and leaves used as vegetables. Both seeds and arils of raw fruits and the young cooked leaves are eaten by people in Sakon Nakhon Province (Chokthaweepanich et al. 2019; Purseglove 1979). The ripe

Passiflora foetida L.

831

fruits are also eaten by Hmong people (Nguanchoo et al. 2019). Vietnam: Vietnamese use dry leaves to make herbal tea (Lim 2012).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: The local people of Glagah Village, Yogyakarta, conserve this species. The unripe fruit is considered toxic (Batoro 2017). The plant is also used as hedge plant and as ground cover in agriculture (Portal:Portals 2015). Malaysia: P. foetida is used as ground cover for smothering weeds. It is also planted as an ornamental vine (Purseglove 1979).

Economic Importance P. foetida has potential to be used in the future silver nanoparticle industry. Leaf discs are used for this purpose. Phytochemicals responsible for this potential use include alcohol, aliphatic amine, alkanes, alkyne, amines, carboxylic acid, nitro-compound, and phenols. These compounds play a major role in silver reduction (Lade and Patil 2017). The antidepressant properties hold promise for developing therapeutic agents (Santosh et al. 2011).

References Abourashed EA, Vanderplank JR, Khan IA. High speed extraction and HPLC fingerprinting of medicinal Plants – I. Application to Passiflora flavonoids. Pharm Biol. 2002;40(2):81–91. https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi.40.2.81.5844. Acevedo-Rodriguéz P. Vines and climbing plants of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contrib US National Herbarium. 2005;51:1–483. Adi LT. Tanaman Obat & Jus utk Mengatasi Penyakit Jantung, Hipertensi, Kolesterol. Jakarta Selatan: AgromediaPustaka; 2008. (in Bahasa). Ahmad FB, Holdsworth DK. Traditional medicinal plants of Sabah, malaysia Part III The Rungus People of Kudat. Int J Pharm. 1995;33:262–4. Ahmad N, Chillara R, Karvande A, Tripathi AK, Kothari P, Kushwaha P, Adhikary S, Maurya R, Trivedi R. Ethyl acetate fraction from Passiflorafoetida promotes rat femoralfracture healing by the BMP-2 signaling pathway. Int J Regen Med. 2018:1–13. https://doi.org/10.31487/j.RGM. 2018.10.004. Albasri, Tuheteru FD, Pratiwi L. Eksplorasi keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan berpotensi obat di hutan pendidikan Fakultas Kehutanan dan Ilmu Lingkungan Universitas Halu Oleo. Ecogreen. 2018;4(1):26–37. (in Bahasa). Amboupe DS, Hartana A, Purwanto Y. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan pangan masyarakat Suku Bentong di Kabupaten Barru Sulawesi Selatan-Indonesia. Med Konserv. 2019;24(3):278–86. (in Bahasa). Anandan M, Jayakar B, Jeganathan S, Manalavan R, Kumar RS. Effect of ethanol extract of fruits of Passiflorafoetida Linn. on CCl4 induced hepatic injury in rats. J Pharm Res. 2009;2(3):413–5. Apal RU, Ariyanti NS, Walujo EB. Dorly. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat oleh Suku Togutil di daerah penyangga Taman Nasional Aketajawe Lolobata. J Sumberdaya Hayati. 2018;4(1):21–7. (in Bahasa).

832

D. S. Amboupe and W. A. Mustaqim

Asadujjaman M, Mishuk AU, Hossaim MA, Karmakar UK. Medicinal potential of Passiflorafoetida L. plant extracts: biological and pharmacological activities. J Integr Med. 2014;12(2):121–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-4964(14)60017-0. Asir PJ, Hemmalakshmi S, Priyanga S, Devaki K. Antidiabetic activity of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Passiflorafoetida L. in alloxan induced diabetes rats. World J Pharm Sci. 2014;3(4):1627–41. Balangcod TD, Balangcod AKD. Ethnomedical knowledge of plants and healthcare practices among the Kalanguya Tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao, Luzan, Philippines. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(2):227–38. Batoro J. An ethnobotanical survey for tropical sand dune support green belt international airport Yogyakarta NYIA Glagah Village, District Temon, KulonProgo, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. J Coast Zone Manag. 2017;20(4):1–4. Birudu RB, Naik MJ, Janardhan M. Anti-dyslipidemia effect of ethanol extract of Passiflorafoetida on dextrose induced diabetic rats. UK J Pharm Biosci. 2016;4(1):13–9. Chivapat S, Bunjob M, Shuaprom A, Banshidi J, Chavalittumiong P, Rangsripipat A, Sincharoenpokai P. Chronic toxicity of Passiflora foetida L. extract. Int J Appl Res Nat Prod. 2011;4(2):24–31. Chokthaweepanich H, Tawaitakam K, Kaewkumsai N. Diversity of indigenous vegetables in Puparn Royal Development Study Centre, Sakon Nakhon Province, Thailand. Proc Int Conf Biodiv. 2019:77–85. Cruz-Garcia G, Price LL. Ethnobotanical investigation of ‘wild’ food plants used by rice farmers in Kalasin, Northeast Thailand. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7(1):1–20. Dalimartha S. Atlas Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia Jilid 3. Jakarta: Trubus Agriwidya; 2003. Damayanti L. Passiflora foetida In: Kurnia N, Jumadi O, Hiola SF, editors. Atlas Tumbuhan Sulawesi Selatan Edisi Lab School UNM Desa Batara Kec. Labakkang Kabupaten Pangkep; 2014. (In Bahasa). de Carvalho FKL, de Medeiros MT, de Araujo JAS, Riet-Correa F. Experimental poisoning by Passiflorafoetida (Passifloraceae) in goats. Pesqui Vet Bras. 2011;31(6):477–81. https://doi.org/ 10.1590/S0100-736X2011000600003. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. Phytokeys. 2018;102:1–341. De Wilde WJJO. 1972. Passifloraceae. Fl Malesiana ser I. 7(2):405–34. Echeverri F, Arango V, Quinones W, Torres F, Escobar G, Rsero Y, Archbold R. Passifloricins polyketides α pyrones from Passiflorafoetida resin. Phytochemistry. 2001;56(8):881–5. Ferdy R, Usman FH, Sisillia L. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat oleh masyarakat Desa Kayu Ara di Kecamatan Menyuke Kabupaten Landak. J Hut Lest. 2017;5(2):452–9. (in Bahasa). Hasanah N, Kusfriyadi MK, Sera AC. Potensi pengembangan buah lokal Kalimantan Tengah: Selai buah Passiflora foetida L. J. ForKes. 2019;9(1):12–17. (in Bahasa). Hastutiek P, Eliyani H. The efficacy of permot (Passiflorafoetida Linn.) leaves crude extract ointment on the healing of skin of rabbit with scabies. KnE Life Sci. 2017;3(6):486–96. https://doi.org/10.18502/kls.v3i6.1158. Ingale AG, Hivrale AU. Pharmacological studies of Passiflora sp. and theirbioactive compounds. Afr J Pl Sci. 2010;4(10):417–26. Killip EP. The American species of Passifloraceae. Publ Field Mus Nat Hist Bot Ser. 1938;19:1– 613. Kulip J, Majawat G. Medicinal and other useful plants of the Lundayeh Community of Sipitang, Sabah, Malaysia. J Trop Forest Sci. 2000;12(4):810–6. Lade BD, Patil AS. Silver nano fabrication using leaf dics of Passiflorafoetida Linn. Appl Nanosci. 2017;7:181–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-017-0558-y. Lim TK. Passiflora foetida. In: Edible medicinal and non medicinal plants. Dordrecht: Springer; 2012. Mohamad S, Zin NM, Wahab HA, Ibrahim P, Sulaiman SF, Zahariluddin ASM, Noor SSM. Antituberculosis potential of some ethnobotanically selected Malaysian plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133:1021–6.

Passiflora foetida L.

833

Mohanasundari C, Nararajan D, Srinivasan K, Umamaheswari S, Ramachandran A. Antibacterial properties of Passiflorafoetida L. – a common exotic medicinal plant. Afr J Biotechnol. 2006;6(23):2650–3. Mojiol AR, Adella A, Kodoh J, Lintangah W, Wahab R. Common medicinal plants species found at burned and unburned areas of Klias Peat Swamp forest, Beaufort, Sabah Malaysia. J Sust Develop. 2010;3(1):109–15. Nagaraju R, Kuppast IJ, Veerashekar T, Kulkarni S. Assessment of immunomodulatory activity of Passiflorafoetida Linn. World J Pharm Res. 2013;2(3):1–11. Neamsuvan O, Singdam P, Yingcharoen K, Sengnom N. A survey of medicinal plants in mangrove and beach forests from sating Phra Peninsula, Songkhla Province, Thailand. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6(12):2421–37. Neamsuvan O, Sengnon N, Haddee U, Mard-E W, Sae-Tang W. Medicinal plants in tropical rain forest from Hua Khao Subdistrict, Singha Nakhon District, Songkhla Province, Thailand. Am -Euras J Sust Agri. 2014;8(5):1–11. Nguanchoo V, Wangkapattanawong P, Balslev H, Intan A. Exotic plants used by The Hmong in Thailand. Plants (Basel). 2019;8(11):500. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8110500. Nguyen TY, To DC, Tran MH, Lee JS, Lee JH, Kim JA, Woo MH, Min BS. Anti-inflammatory flavonoids isolated from Passiflorafoetida. Nat Prod Commun. 2015;10(6):929–31. https://doi. org/10.1177/1934578X1501000634. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Nurhaida, Usman FH, Tavita GE. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Dusun Kelampuk Kecamatan Tanah Pinoh Barat Kabupaten Melawi. J Hut Lest. 2015;3(4):526–37. (in Bahasa). Olouwa OO, Iganboh PD, Taiwo OM. Chemical constituents and biological activities of Passiflorafoetida (Linnaeus) stems and fruit essential oils. Pharm Chem J. 2019;6(6):21–8. Park JW, Kwon OK, Ryu HW, Paik JH, Paryanto I, Yuniato P, Choi S, Oh SR, Ahn KS. Antiinflammatory effects of Passiflora foetida L.in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. Int J Mol Med. 2018;41:3709–16. Patil AS, Paikrao HM. Bioassay guided phytometabolites extraction for screening of potentantimicrobials in Passiflorafoetida L. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2012;2(9):137–42. Paulraj JA, Subharamanian H, Suriyamoorthy P, Kanakasabapathi D. phytochemical screening, gc-ms analysis and enzyme inhibitory activity of Passiflorafoetida L. Indo Am J Pharm Res. 2014;4(8):3526–33. Portal:Portals. PlantUse English. 2015, December 20. Retrieved 16:14, June 20, 2020 from https:// uses.plantnetproject.org/e/index.php?title¼Portal:Portals&oldid¼200350. Purseglove JW, editor. Tropical crops dicotyledons. London, UK: Longman; 1979. Ricky, Puspita D, Mangalik G. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di DesaTumbang Jala-Kalimantan Tengah yang masih dimanfaatkan sebagai obat tradisional. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Kesehatan Transformasi Bidang Kesehatan di Era Industri 4.0. Salatiga, 21 November 2019. (in Bahasa). Santosh P, Venugopl R, Nilakash AS, Kunjbihari S, Mangala L. Antidepressant activity of methanolic extract of Passiflorafoetida leaves in mice. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2011;3(1):112–5. Santoso EA. Inventarisasi tumbuhan obat pada ketinggian yang berbeda di jalur diksar Tlogodringo Karanganyar sebagai bahan sosialisasi bagi masyarakat[skripsi]. Surakarta: Universitas Muhammadiyah; 2016. (in Bahasa). Sasikala V, Saravanan S, Thangaraj P. Evaluation of antioxidant potential of different parts of wild edible plant Passiflorafoetida L. J App Pharm Sci. 2011;1(4):89–96. Satish R, Sahu A, Natararajan K. Antiulcer and antioxidant activity of ethanolic extract of Passiflorafoetida L. Indian J Pharmacol. 2011;43(3):336–9. Setyowati FM, Riswan S, Susiarti S. Etnobotanimasyarakat Dayak Ngaju di daerahTimpah Kalimantan Tengah. J Tek Ling. 2005;6(3):502–10. (in Bahasa). Shankar PD, Basker S, Karthik S. In vitro cytotoxic and apoptotic effect of Passiflora foetida against cervical cancer cells and its fourier transform infrared profiling. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2017;10(1):46–9. https://doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2017.v10i11.20226.

834

D. S. Amboupe and W. A. Mustaqim

Slamet A, Andarias H. Studi etnobotani dan identifikasi tumbuhan berkhasiat obat masyarakat Sub EtnisWolio di KabupatenBau-Bau Sulawesi Tenggara. Proc Biol Edu Conf. 2018;15(1):721–32. (in Bahasa). Song Y, Wei XQ, Li MY, Duan XW, Sun YM, Yang RL, Su XD, Huang RM, Wang H. Nutritional composition and antioxidant properties of the fruits of a chinese wild Passiflorafoetida. Molecules. 2018;23(2):1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23020459art459. Suba MDL, Arriola AH, Alejandro GJD. A checklist and conservation status of the medicinal plants of Mount Arayat National Park, Pampanga, Philippines. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(4):1034–41. Susilowati RP. Uji toksisitas obat nyamuk bakar herbal berbahan ekstrak daun permot (Passiflora foetida): kajian histopatologis hati dan ginjal mencit. In: Nurcahyanto G, Kartikasari S, editors. Prosiding SNPBS (Seminar Nasional Pendidikan Biologi dan Saintek) Ke-1. Surakarta: Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta; 2016. p. 492–7. Winda GW, Budhi S, Sisillia L. Etnobotanimasyarakat DesaSaham (StudiKasus di DesaSahamKecamatanSengahTemilaKabupatenLandak Kalimantan Barat). J Hut Lest. 2015;4(1):1–8. (in Bahasa). Yuliarsih Y, Yuniati E, Pitopang R. StudietnobotaniSukuTajio di Desa Sienjo Kecamatan Toribulu, Kabupaten Parigi Moutong Sulawesi Tengah. Biocelebes. 2013;7(2):49–56. (in Bahasa). Zubair Z, Suleman SM, Ramadhanil R. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat pada masyarakat Kaili Rai di DesaWombo, Kecamatan Tarantovea, Kabupaten Donggala Sulawesi Tengah. Biocelebes. 2019;13(2):182–94. (in Bahasa).

Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth PIPERACEAE Anisatu Z. Wakhidah, Cindy Novianti, and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Micropiper pellucidum (L.) Miq.; Micropiper tenellum Klotzsch ex Miq.; Peperomia concinna (Haw.) A.Dietr.; Peperomia knoblecheriana Schott; Peperomia nana C.DC.; Peperomia oleracea Poepp. ex Miq.; Peperomia pellucidavar. minor Miq.; Peperomia praetenuis Trel.; Peperomia triadophylla Peter; Peperomia vogelii Miq.; Peperomia yapensis C.DC.; Piper concinnum Haw.; Piper pellucidum L.; Verhuellia knoblocheriana (Schott) C.DC. (POWO 2020).

Local Name Brunei Darussalam: Sambur ngilu (Belait), daun puyu-puyu (Dusun) Indonesia: sirih-sirihan (Middle Java), suruh bumi (East Java); sesuruh (West Borneo), kakambe, kakalu-kakalu (Southeast Sulawesi), kaca-kaca (West Sulawesi), suruhan, kowo serdepe, uratuvu (Middle Sulawesi), jukuk ketumpang (Saibatin Subtribe, Lampung). Laos: zaub qwj (Hmong community in Luang Prabang); Philippines: sinaw-sinaw (Talacogon in Agusan del Sur Province); Thai: phak krasang (Thai); English: pepper elder, shining bush plant, man to man (Arquion 2016;

A. Z. Wakhidah (*) Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia C. Novianti School of Life Sciences and Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, West Java, Indonesia W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_91

835

836

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Haryati et al. 2015; Hasanah et al. 2016; Rusmina et al. 2015; Sholichah and Alfidhdhoh 2020; Slamet and Andrias 2018; Tabeo et al. 2019; Utami et al. 2019; Whitney et al. 2014; Yulia et al. 2017; Zubair et al. 2019).

Botany and Ecology Description: Annual fleshy and glabrous herbs, up to 40 cm high. Stem initially erect, later decumbent, usually branched, roots emerging from the nodes. Internodal length up to 50 mm. Stipules absent. Leaves simple, alternate, petiole up to 20 mm long; blades broadly ovate, ovate-elliptic, or ovate-triangular, up to 3.5 cm both length and width, fleshy, membranous when dry, base cordate, rounded to cuneate, apex acute or obtuse, main nerves 5–7. Flowers arranged in spikes, terminal or axillary from the upper nodes, solitary, 2–7 cm long; peduncle 5–13 mm long, ca. 0.5 mm across, flower-bearing part 2–5 cm long, glabrous. Flowers bisexual, not sunken, lax, 0.4–1 mm apart, bracts orbicular, 0.3–0.4 mm long by 0.2–0.3 mm wide, anthers oblong to subglobose, ovary rounded-oblong or ellipsoid, longer than stamens, stigma pubescent. Fruits drupe, sticky, globose, 0.5–0.6 mm long by 0.2– 0.3 mm wide, papillate; 1-seeded. Distribution and Ecology: This species is native to tropical North and South America. Nowadays, it has become naturalized throughout the Old World. It grows in the garden, grassy but shaded localities, roadsides, nursery escape, rock crevices, or as a weed in cultivation. It prefers to grow in disturbed habitats. It produces flowers from April to July. In Indonesia, it has been found in Sumatra, Java, also in Papua New Guinea. This species grows from the lowland to an elevation of around 1000 m asl (Cheng et al. 1999; Forster 1993; Kiew 1999; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Fig. 1 Living plant of Peperomia pellucida (Piperaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth Fig. 2 Flowers of Peperomia pellucida (Piperaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Inflorescence of Peperomia pellucida (Piperaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

837

838

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: In the Kiudang region, leaf infusion is consumed as a galactagogue; leaf infusion is applied topically to impart fresh feeling after mensuration; leaf poultice is applied to treat bloating and cough; root poultice is used to treat pelvic discomfort (Kamsani et al. 2020). Indonesia: This plant has been widely used as a medicinal ingredient by local communities in Indonesia. The leaves are used to treat various kinds of diseases such as ulcer, diarrhea-vomiting, burns, internal illness, and kidney illness. The Saibatin subtribe in Lampung uses squeezed leaves for ulcers (personal observation). The local people of Ungaran, Central Java, use crushed leaves to treat wounds (Utami et al. 2019). To the east, the Togian people of Central Sulawesi use the whole plant as a medicine for kidney ailments (Tabeo et al. 2019). The Kaili Rai tribe of Donggala, Central Sulawesi consume leaf extract as gout medicine (Zubair et al. 2019); the Opo tribe members also use the roots, stems and leaves to treat gout (Yulia et al. 2017). The Mandar tribe of West Sulawesi use the leaves to treat burns; the leaves are crushed and applied on the wounds (Rusmina et al. 2015). The local people of Sinjai in South Sulawesi use the leaves as a medicine for internal illness (Sari et al. 2017). The pounded leaves are used by the local people of Lapandewa in South Buton, Southeast Sulawesi, to treat ulcer; leaf decoction is drunk as a panacea for diarrhea, and nausea (Hasanah et al. 2016). The Wolio tribe of Southeast Sulawesi utilizes leaves and stems to treat hypertension (Slamet and Andrias 2018). Laos: Hmong community in Long Lan Village, Luang Prabang, use the leaves as medicine (Whitney et al. 2014). Philippines: The local people of Agusan del Sur Province use the leaves to treat urinary tract infection; leaf extract is used to treat lumps on armpit (Arquion et al. 2015); local people in Talacogon use the leaf decoction to treat diarrhea (Arquion 2016). The decoction of the fresh leaves is used by the Tagabawa tribe of Barangay Jose Rizal, Davao del Sur Province for urinary tract infection (Waay-Juico et al. 2017). The Maranaos community of Iligan City, Mindanao consume whole plant decoction thrice a day to treat kidney infection and hypertension (Olowa and Demayo 2015).

Phytochemistry Whole plant extract contains alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, triterpenoids, tannins, steroids terpenoids, phytosterols, glycosides, and phenols (Gini and Jothi 2013). Leaf extracts contain alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, triterpenoids, tannins, and steroids (Majumder and Kumar 2011). Dillapiole isolated from the aerial parts shows high gastroprotective effect (Rojaz-Martinez et al. 2013). Dillapiole and pachypophyllin isolated from leaves showed antifungal effects against Trichophyton mentagrophytes, a parasitic fungus causing skin infections (Ragasa et al. 1998). Patuloside A isolated showed antibacterial activity against various Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Khan et al. 2010). Secolignans and peperomin E isolated from whole-plant inhibited HL-60, MCF-7, and HeLa cancer cell lines

Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth

839

(Xu et al. 2006). Pellucidin, from whole-plant extract, has a potential to become an antihypertensive drug candidate since it inhibited angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) (Ahmad et al. 2019). The 8,9-dimethoxy ellagic acid extracted from leaves showed antidiabetic activity (Susilawati et al. 2017); it is also effective against Shigella dysentriae that causes diarrhea (Wulandari and Purwaningsih 2016). Other biological activities reported from leaf extract are: antipyretic activity (reduce fever) (Khan et al. 2008), and antimalarial activity (Yunarto et al. 2018). Whole-plant extract showed anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity (Mutee et al. 2010). Plant aerial parts extract exhibited analgesic activity (Aziba et al. 2001). Ooi et al. (2012) identified high moisture content (8.33%), crude proteins (10.63%), carbohydrates (46.58%), and total ash (31.22%) as major nutritional attributes of whole-plant. The main minerals elements are potassium (6,977 mg/100 g DW), calcium (483 mg/ 100 g DW), and iron (119.3 mg/100 g DW).

Local Food Uses The local people in Jombang in East Java of Indonesia, Hmong community in Long Lan Village of Laos, and Bung Khong Long District, Thailand, boil and consume young leaves, leaves, and stems of the plant as vegetables (Sholichah and Alfidhdhoh 2020; Suksri et al. 2005; Whitney et al. 2014). In Vietnam, it is also served as salad with beef in one of the most popular restaurants in Hà Nội, Vietnam (Viet Nam News 2019).

Biocultural Importance Local people in Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan, Indonesia cultivate this plant for ornamental purposes (Haryati et al. 2015).

Economic Importance Indonesia: P. pellucida is sold as herbal medicine in various market places as a cure for kidney ailments, rheumatic pain, gout, skin problems, and aphrodisiac. The offered prices range from IDR 30,000 to IDR 50,000 per kilogram (Suryani 2020). Malaysia: Fresh plants are sold for medicinal purposes in local markets in several places of Johor and Sabah (Foo et al. 2016; Sulaini and Sabran 2018). Philippines: P. pellucida ranks as one among the top ten medicinal plants scientifically validated by the Philippine Institute of Traditional Alternative Health Care (PITAHC), affiliated to the Department of Health (DOH) (Principe and Jose 2002). Until 2019, this plant was formulated as a tablet, and was at pre-commercialization stage (TRL 7) of clinical trials (Balangat 2019). Vietnam: Plants are sold in local markets (Staples and Kristiansen 1999).

840

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

References Ahmad I, Ambarwati NSS, Elya B, Omar H, Mulia K, Negishi O, Mun’im A. A new angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitor from Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2019;9(6):257–62. Arquion RD. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants for diarrhea in Agusan del Sur, Philippines. IAMURE. 2016;18:138–62. Arquion RD, Galanida CC, Villamor B, Aguilar HT. Ethnobotanical study of indigenous plants used by local people of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. APHERJ. 2015;2(2):1–11. Aziba PI, Adedeji A, Ekor M, Adeyemi O. Analgesic activity of Peperomia pellucida aerial parts in mice. Fitoterapia. 2001;72:57–8. Balangat JA. ULASIMANG BATO: anti-inflammatory drug formulation. Philippine Council for Health Research and Development; 2019. http://www.pchrd.dost.gov.ph/index.php/programsand-services/create-article/6457-ulasimang-bato-anti-inflammatory-drug-formulation. Retrieved 30 May 2020. Cheng Y, Xia N, Gilbert MG. Piperaceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, editors. Flora of China.Vol. 4 (Cycadaceae through Fagaceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden; 1999. p. 110–31. Foo J, Mohamad AL, Omar M, Amir AA. Utilitarian tumbuhan ubatan di Tamu Pantai Barat Sabah. Malays J Soc Space. 2016;12(12):99–112. (in Malay). Forster P. A taxonomic revision of the genus Peperomia Ruiz and Pav. (Piperaceae) in mainland Australia. Austrobaileya. 1993;4(1):93–104. Gini TG, Jothi G. Preliminary phytochemical screening of whole plant extracts of Peperomia pellucida (Linn.) HBK (Piperaceae) and Marsilea quadrifolia Linn. (Marsileaceae). Int J Pharmacogn Phytochem Res. 2013;5:200–14. Haryati ES, Diba F, Wahdina. Etnobotani tumbuhan berguna oleh masyarakat sekitar kawasan KPH model Kapuas Hulu. J Hut Les. 2015;3(3):434–45. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Hasanah N, Sudrajat HW, Damhuri. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat Desa Lapandewa Kainda Kecamatan Lapandewa Kabupaten Buton Selatan. J Ampibi. 2016;1(1):14–20. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Khan A, Rahman M, Islam S. Antipyretic activity of Peperomia pellucida leaves in rabbit. Turk J Biol. 2008;32:37–41. Khan A, Rahman M, Islam MS. Isolation and bioactivity of a xanthone glycoside from Peperomia pellucida. Life Sci Med Res. 2010;LSMR-1:1–10. Kiew R. Peperomia pellucida(L.) Kunth. In: de Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia No 12(1). Medicinal and poisonous plants 1. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. p. 379–81. Majumder P, Kumar KVA. Establishment of quality parameters and pharmacognostic evaluation of leaves of Peperomia pellucida (L.) HBK. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2011;3:375–8. Mutee AF, Salhimi SM, Yam MF, Lim CP, Abdullah GZ, Ameer OZ, Abdulkarim MF, Asmawi MZ. In vivo anti-inflammatory and in vitro antioxidant activities of Peperomia pellucida. Int J Pharm. 2010;6:686–90. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Publishing; 2017. Olowa L, Demayo CG. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants among the Muslim Maranaos in Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines. Adv Environ Biol. 2015;9(27):204–15. Ooi D-J, Iqbal S, Ismail M. Proximate composition, nutritional attributes and mineral composition of Peperomia pellucida L. (ketumpangan air) grown in Malaysia. Molecules. 2012;17:11139–45.

Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth

841

POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 9 Apr 2020. Principe EB, Jose AS. 2002. Propagation management of herbal and medicinal plants. In: Research information series on ecosystem, vol. 14, no. 2. Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau. http://erdb.denr.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/r_v14n2.pdf. Retrieved 30 May 2020. Ragasa CY, Dumato M, Rideout JA. Antifungal compounds from Peperomia pellucida. ACGC Chem Res Commun. 1998;7:54–61. Rojaz-Martinez R, Arrieta J, Cruz-Antonio L, Arrieta-Baez D, Velázquez-Méndez AM, SánchezMendoza ME. Dillapiole, isolated from Peperomia pellucida, shows gastroprotector activity against ethanol-induced gastric lesions in wistar rats. Molecules. 2013;18:11327–37. Rusmina HZ, Miswan, Piopang R. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat pada masyarakat suku Mandar di Desa Sarude Sarjo Kabupaten Mamuju Utara Sulawesi Barat. Biocelebes. 2015;9(1):73–87. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Sari N, Wahidah BF, Gaffar NA. Etnobotani Tumbuhan yang digunakan dalam Pengobatan Tradisional di Kecamatan Sinjai Selatan Kabupaten Sinjai Sulawesi Selatan. In Prosiding Seminar Nasional Biologi. 2017;3(1):6–13. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Sholichah L, Alfidhdhoh D. Etnobotani tumbuhan liar sebagai sumber pangan di Dusun Mendiro Kec. Wonosalam, Jombang. J Pert Indon. 2020;25(1):111–7. (in Bahasa). Slamet A, Andrias SH. Studi etnobotani dan identifikasi tumbuhan berkhasiat obat masyarakat Sub Etnis Wolio Kota Bau Bau Sulawesi Tenggara. Proc Biol Educ Conf. 2018;15(1):721–32. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Staples G, Kristiansen MS. Ethnic culinary herbs: a guide to identification and cultivation in Hawai’i. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press; 1999. Suksri S, Siraprapha P, Chitraporn T, Suvit S. Ethnobotany in Bung Khong Long non-hunting area, northeast Thailand. Kasetsart J (Nat Sci). 2005;39:519–33. Sulaini AA, Sabran SF. Edible and medicinal plants sold at selected local markets in Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia. AIP Conf Proc. 2018;2002:020006.1–020006.10. Suryani E. Mau kaya, ayo jemput rezeki di daun suruhan. 2020. https://www.kompasiana.com/ ellysuryani/5e5d1bf2d541df39204d8662/mau-kaya-ayo-jemput-rezeki-di-daun-suruhan. Retrieved 21 May 2020. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Susilawati Y, Nugraha R, Krishnan J, Muhtadi A, Sutardjo S, Supratman U. A new antidiabetic compound 8,9-dimethoxy ellagic acid from sasaladaan (Peperomia pellucida L. Kunth). Res J Pharm Biol Chem Sci. 2017;8(1S):269–74. Tabeo DF, Ibrahim N, Nugrahani AW. Etnobotani Suku Togian di Pulau Malenge Kecamatan Talatako, Kabupatn Tojo Una-Una, Sulawesi Tengah. Biocelebes. 2019;13(1):30–7. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Utami NR, Rahayuningsih M, Abdullah M, Haka FH. Etnobotani tanaman obat masyarakat sekitar di Gunung Ungaran, Jawa Tengah. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2019;5(2):205–8. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Viet Nam News. Crab claw and herb salad with pan-seared beef. 2019. https://vietnamnews.vn/ sunday/ong-taos-kitchen/523519/crab-claw-and-herb-salad-with-pan-seared-beef.html. Retrieved 30 May 2020. Waay-Juico CME, Cortuna G, Honesty M, Evangelista S, Raphael D. Gatal R, Indigo Khan S. Licuanan C, Jane C. Tapia F. Ethnobotanical Practices of Tagabawa Tribe on Selected Medicinal Plants at Barangay Jose Rizal, Sta. Cruz, Davao del Sur, Philippines. J Altern Complement Medh. 2018;4(3):1–12. https://doi.org/10.9734/JOCAMR/2017/38301. Whitney CW, Min VS, Giang LH, Can VV, Barber K, Lanh TT. Conservationn and ethnobotanical knowledge of a Hmong community in long Lan, Luang Prabang Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:643–58. Wulandari D, Purwaningsih D. Uji Aktivitas antibakteri ekstrak etanol daun suruhan (Peperomia pellucida L. Kunth) terhadap bakteri Shigella dysentriae. J Farmasi Indones. 2016;13(2):171–7. (in Bahasa Indonesia).

842

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Xu S, Li N, N M-M, Zhou C-H, Yang Q-R, Wang M-W. Bioactive compounds from Peperomia pellucida. J Nat Prod. 2006;69:247–50. Yulia C, Fahri, Ramadanil. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat Suku “Topo Uma” di Desa Oo Parase Kecamatan Kulawi Selatann Kabupaten Sigi Sulawesi Tengah. J Biocelebes. 2017;12(2):1–22. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Yunarto N, Ar Rossyid HM, Lienggonegoro LA. Effect of ethanolic leaves extract of Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth as antimalarial and antioxidant. Media Litbangkes. 2018;28(2):123–30. Zubair, Sulema SM, Ramadhani. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat pada Masyarakat Kaili Rai di Desa Wombo Kecamatan Tanantovea Kabupaten Donggala Sulawesi Tengah. J Biocelebes. 2019;13(2):182–94. (in Bahasa Indonesia).

Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. THYMELAEACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim, Reza Raihandhany Yus, and Muhammad Badrut Tamam

Synonyms Drimyspermm macrocarpum Scheff.; Phaleria calantha Gilg; Phaleria octandra (non (L.) Baill.) K.Schum. & Hollr.; Phaleria papuana Warb. ex K.Schum. & Lauterb.; Phaleria wichmannii Valeton

Local Names Brunei: Mahkota dewa Indonesia: mahkota dewa, obat dewa – boh anggota dewan (Aceh) – dalom (Sentani) – kotteh (Djair) – makuta dewa, makuto ratu, makuto rojo, (Java) – matoniek (Andjai) – simalakama (Sumatera) (Djumidi 1999; Harmanto 2003; Hou 1960; Kamsani et al. 2020).

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia R. R. Yus Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] M. B. Tamam Generasi Biologi Indonesia Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Muhammadiyah Lamongan, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_168

843

844

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrub or small tree, up to 18 m tall. Stem up to 15 cm across; young twigs fistular. Leaves simple, opposite, on 2.5–3.5 mm long petiole; blades narrowly oblong, ovate-oblong, oblong-lanceolate, or lanceolate, 8.1–25
1.8–10 cm, base rounded to cuneate, apex acuminate or shortly acute, the acumen distinct, up to 2 cm long; lateral veins 6–11 on each side of the midrib, slightly raised on both surfaces. Flowers arranged in umbelliform inflorescence, without or with peduncle up to 2.5 cm long, borne from the axil of leaves, branches, or cauliflorous, 1–5 or more together, flowers 2–5 or rarely to 8 per inflorescence; involucre usually 4, oblong or obovate, 7
2 mm, caducous. Flowers vary in length, 1.5–4 cm long, white; tube glabrous, less often hairy near the base inside; calyx lobes reflexed, segments oblong, 4
2 mm, densely hairy inside, glabrous outside except near the margin; stamens in two series, vary in length, sessile or not, up to 6 mm exserted, anthers oblong, dorsifixed; ovary glabrous; style terminal, either shorter or longer than the floral tube, less often exserted for 5–10 mm long. Fruit drupe, vary in shape from broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, 3–5.5
3–4.5 cm, dried exocarp woody, seeds subovoid or subglobose, 1.5
1.25 cm. This species is sometimes considered as having heteromorphous flowers. Distribution and Ecology: This species is endemic to New Guinea and common in the western part. It grows on primary to secondary forests and is mainly a lowland plant, from near sea level to 550 m, but once recorded from 1260 m above sea level. This species is now cultivated in its native range or elsewhere including Java (Hou 1960; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017). Kamsani et al. (2020) recorded its use in Brunei Darussalam (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Branches and inflorescence of Phaleria macrocarpa (Thymelaeaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.

845

Fig. 2 Flowers of Phaleria macrocarpa (Thymelaeaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Immature fruit of Phaleria macrocarpa (Thymelaeaceae). Cultivated, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: Fruit infusion is administered for cancer, diabetes, and hypertension by the Brunei Malay community (Kamsani et al. 2020). Indonesia: Phaleria macrocarpa is considered as an important medicinal plant in Indonesia (Azmir et al. 2014). Although it is a native of the island of New Guinea in the east, the majority of the uses so far only have been recorded from the western part of the country. This species is cultivated by people of Blang Bungong, Pidie District, Aceh, for its use in treating heart attack and high blood cholesterol; dried fruit and peel decoction is consumed for the purpose (Ernilasari et al. 2018). In Rema Village of Southeast Aceh, the plant is used for treating diabetes, liver disease, gout, and

846

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

eczema. Root and leaves are cleaned and boiled with water, and the potion is drunk. To cure eczema, the fruit is peeled and separated from the seed, mashed up and applied on itchy skin (Safryadi et al. 2017). The Batak Simalungun sub-ethnic community in Raya Desa Raya Bayu and Raya Huluan Sub-district, of North Sumatera, use the fruit to treat hypertension (Situmorang and Sihombing 2018). People in Sibanggor Julu Village, Mandailing Natal, North Sumatra, use the plant to treat hypertension (Marpaung 2018). Novi and Septrilia (2020) reported that the people of Durian Pandaan Village, Pesisir Selatan District, West Sumatera, use the fruit as a source of medicine, but without mentioning the specific use. This species is also categorized as one of the medicinal plants along with 103 others in Silaping Village, Ranah Batahan Sub-District, Pasaman Barat District, West Sumatera (Gena et al. 2014). In Riau, the leaves and fruit peel are used to treat hypertension (Nilawati et al. 2017; Safitri et al. 2015). In Kunto Darussalam Sub-district, a tea from sun-dried peel and flesh of mature fruit is consumed to treat uric acid (Aeni et al. 2017). In Sindang Kelingi Sub-District of Bengkulu, this species is used to treat diabetes (Kasrina and Veriana 2014). The Kenegerian Rumbio people in Rumbio Village, Kampar, Riau, use the leaves to cure diabetes and dysentery (Fahmi et al. 2016). People in Tabir Timur Sub-District, Jambi, use this species to treat hypertension along with seven other plant species (Anggraini 2018). Similar use also has been recorded from Kebun Bunga Village, Palembang, South Sumatera; five to seven slices of the dried fruit is brewed with 200 ml hot water and drunk twice a day in the morning and afternoon (Aseptianova 2019). The dried fruits are boiled and used by the people in Talang Kelapa Sub-District, South Sumatra to treat diabetes (Suhertini 2018). Local people around Wan Abdul Rachman Forest Park, Lampung use almost all parts to treat various diseases. A decoction of the dried fruit mixed with Syzygium polyanthum leaves in three glasses of water is believed to treat AIDS. They serve it hot or warm when the body feels cold and consume it cold when the body shows high temperature. Fruit along with its peel is sliced and dried for 1– 3 days. It is brewed with hot water and consumed thrice a day to treat erectile dysfunction. The dried fruit boiled in three glass of water, and reduced to one glass is consumed twice each day to treat osteoporosis. Leaf decoction is drunk twice each day to treat Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (Winarno et al. 2018). In Kebun Tebu Sub-District, West Lampung fruit decoction is used to treat cardiomyopathy, anemia, cholesterol, and lowering blood sugar (Maulidiah 2018). Several medicinal uses have been reported from Indonesian Borneo. Dried fruit peel decoction is used by people of Menyuke, Landak District, West Kalimantan, to treat hypertension (Okakinanti 2014). The people in Serambai Village, Sanggau, West Kalimantan, use the plant to cure hypertension (Sari et al. 2014). The Dayak Tribe in Kayu Tanam Village, Mandor Sub-District, West Kalimantan, use this species to treat hypertension and cancer (Efremila et al. 2015). This species is also used by Dayak Bakumpai ethnic in Barito Kuala District, South Kalimantan, to treat skin diseases, dysentery, and piddle sweet (Dharmono et al. 2013). In Mekar Tani Village, Mendawai, Central Kalimantan, the local people drink fresh leaves decoction and dried fruits soaked in water to treat tiredness (Widjaja et al. 2007). In East

Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.

847

Kalimantan, the Dayak Kenyah Uma Baha tribe of Kelay Sub-district use the leaves to treat hypertension (Lonita et al. 2019). Dwisatyadini (2017) reported in Kalisari, East Jakarta, this species is used to treat degenerative disease. Handayani (2015) also reported many uses of this species by people around Gunung Simpang Nature Reserve, West Java, where the sliced fruit is used to increase the efficacy of other medicinal herbs. Fruit decoction combined with the leaves of Blumea balsamifera is used to cure boils. To get rid of boil scars, a decoction from the fruit with Piper betle and B. balsamifera leaves is drunk. To treat hypertension, a mixture made of young fruit with the fruits of Oxalis corniculata fruits, B. balsamifera leaves, and young fruit of Sechium edule are shredded and squeezed, and the juice is drunk. The water of Bambusa vulgaris stem is mixed with Physalis angulata and fruits of this species, boiled drunk to treat liver ailments. The fruit is mixed with the water of Schizostachyum brachycladum and P. angulata to treat typhus. To treat cancer and tumor, the fruit is mixed with Gigantochloa atroviolacea shoot and boiled. The decoction is added with extracts of Schoenoplectiella erecta leaves, Boesenbergia rotunda shoot, and Zingiber officinale rhizome, and drunk. According to Nurmalasari et al. (2012), this species is used by the Kampung Naga of Cigugur West Java as a medicinal plant, but no specific uses have been mentioned. In Kuningan District, the local people use the fruit to treat hypertension, and this species is planted in their backyard (Hidayat et al. 2018). To the east, the people of Baturaden District, Banyumas, Central Java, drink fruit decoction to treat diabetes and hypertension. The fruit must be sliced, dried, and then boiled (Suparman et al. 2012). Astana and Nisa (2018) reported that leaves are consumed thrice a day in East Java to cure hemorrhoids. Some medicinal uses have also been reported from the central part of Indonesia, from Bali to Nusa Tenggara and Sulawesi. Tantra and Rasna (2016) studied usada, a traditional healing practice in Bali, where this finds use as an oral medication. The Sasak ethnic community of West Lombok District uses this species to treat itch and urinary troubles. The leaves are pounded and the rubbed over itchy area, while dried fruit decoction is consumed for curing urinary troubles (Jannah and Ridwan 2013). In Baruga Village of East Luwu District, South Sulawesi, dried fruit decoction is drunk to treat kidney disease. The dried fruits are boiled with three glasses of water until the water level is reduced to one glass; it is then cooled and drunk (Irmawati 2016). The Kajang people in Tanah Toa Village of Bulukumba, South Sulawesi consume dried fruit decoction to treat headaches and cancer (Wansa 2019).

Phytochemistry Many classes of compounds have been isolated from this plant including α-amino acids, alkaloids, benzophenones, carbohydrates, cyanogenic glycosides, flavonoids, glycosides, lignans, organic acids, phenolic compounds, phytosterols, reducing sugars, saponin glycosides, steroids, tannins, terpenoids, and xanthones (Altaf et al. 2013; Andrean et al. 2014; Azad et al. 2016; Lay et al. 2014a; Othman et al. 2014a). The

848

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

flavonoid content of the fruit is higher than the leaves or fruits (Rastaon and Tuah 2016). Whole plant extracts contain desacetylflavicordin A, dodecanoic acid, ethyl stearate, flavicordin A, flavicordin D, flavicordin A glucoside, mahkoside A, and palmitic acid (Easmin et al. 2015). Lariciresinol was also recorded from all plant parts while roots and wood also contain pinoresinol and matairesinol (Saufi 2007). The bark contains 6,40 dihydroxy-4-methoxy-benzophenone-2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, gallic acid, macronone (Easmin et al. 2015; Susilawati et al. 2012; Winarno and Katrin 2009). Leaves contain β-sitosterol, stigmasterol (Othman et al. 2014b), kaempferol, phalerin, gallic acid, 6,40 -dihydroxy-4-methoxy-benzophenone-2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Easmin et al. 2015). Major components of fruits are crude fiber (38.77  3.01%), followed by carbohydrate (33.02  1.72%), protein, sugar, fat, and ashes (Lay et al. 2014a). The more mature the fruit, higher is the acidity and lower are the soluble solid contents (Ahmed Astrity et al. 2018). Fruit contains icariside C3, mangiferin, phalerin (2,40 ,6trihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone-2-O-β-D-glucoside), 6,40 -dihydroxy-4methoxy benzophenone-2-O-α-D-glucopyranoside, 24-methylenecycloartan-3-one, 24-methyl-9,19-cyclolanost-25-en-3-ol, catechol, des-acetylfevicordin A, gallic acid, kaempferol, rutin, myricetin, and naringin (Easmin et al. 2015; Hashim et al. 2017; Hendra et al. 2011b; Oshimi et al. 2008; Othman et al. 2014b; Tambunan and Simanjuntak 2006). Compounds isolated from the seeds include 29-norcucurbitacin, fevicordin-A, linoleic acid, methyl myristate, methyl oleate, methyl stearate, palmitic acid, oleic acid, pinoresinol, and quercetin (Diantini et al. 2012; Hendra et al. 2011b; Kurnia et al. 2008; Lay et al. 2014b; Saufi 2007).

Bioactivities Fruits: Extracts are considered safe for research in cell lines or animal study due to low toxicity (Azad and Azizi 2014). Most studies of bioactivities were carried out on the fruit. The fruit shows antibacterial, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic activities, immunostimulant, vasorelaxant, and wound-healing properties (Abood et al. 2015; Altaf et al. 2018; Emelda et al. 2015; Gopalan et al. 2015; Hendra et al. 2011a, b, c; Ismaeel et al. 2018; Suparto et al. 2008; Tjandrawinata et al. 2010). Cytotoxic and anticancer activities of fruit extracts have been recorded on various cancer cell lines including HT-29, MCF-7, HeLa, and Chang (Hendra et al. 2011a). In an experiment using standardized extracts of the fruit named DLBS1425, Tjandrawinata et al. (2010) found that the extracts inhibit the proliferation of MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines (Also see: Kavitha et al. 2017). Antimicrobial activities of the fruit range from weak to moderate on Gram-positive bacteria including Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, M. luteus, Staphylococcus aureus; Gram-negative bacteria including E. aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa; the fungus species Aspergillus niger (Hendra et al. 2011b).

Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.

849

The fruit also has antidiabetic properties. The ethanolic extract has been shown to have low activity against α-glucosidase (Suparto et al. 2008). Fruit pericarp has hypoglycemic activities according to an experiment done on rats (Ali et al. 2012). In alloxan-induced rats, the administration of peel extract can decrease glucose levels (Candrarisna and Kurnianto 2018). Fruit extract is also antihypertensive, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral, immunostimulant, vasorelaxant, wound-healing (Abood et al. 2015; Andrean et al. 2014; Ismaeel et al. 2018; Lisdawati et al. 2006). Both antihypertensive and vasorelaxant effects are the result of the capability of the fruit extract to inhibit extracellular calcium input and arterial tone (Altaf et al. 2018). Anti-inflammatory activity from the fruit was reported on LPS/IFN-γ-induced macrophage RAW 264.7 cell lines. Mesocarp and pericarp inhibit the activity of nitric oxide synthesis (Hendra et al. 2011c). Studies report antioxidant properties of fruits (Lisdawati et al. 2006; Andrean et al. 2014). Few studies report antiviral activity of fruit extracts. The methanol extract and fraction can be used against human herpesvirus type-1 (HSV-1) (Ismaeel et al. 2018). Immunostimulant activity also has been reported from the fruit infusion. The infusion was tested on the rats (Emelda and Rahman 2015). Topical application of the fruit extract promotes wound healing. The application can increase the Superoxide dismutase and catalase activities on rats (Abood et al. 2015). Leaves: Leaves show antibacterial or antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-cholesterol, and antidiabetic properties (Andriani et al. 2015; Elianora et al. 2017; Gopalan et al. 2015; Lestari 2018; Shodikin 2010; Suprapti et al. 2014). The antibacterial properties of the fresh leaf extracts are effective against some bacteria growing in diabetic wounds. The positive inhibitions were detected for five species including Escherichia coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus sp., and Pseudomonas mallei (Gopalan et al. 2015). The activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa is recorded to be low (Shodikin 2010). Antimicrobial activity of the leaf extract also has been reported on Candida albicans in HIV/AIDS patients (Elianora et al. 2017). Leaf extracts have been reported to be active against breast cancer cell-lines MCF-7, perhaps due to the high antioxidant compounds (Amir et al. 2017; Amir and Murcitro 2017). Leaf extracts also inhibit several carcinogens such as iNOS, beta-catenin, and COX-2 (Suprapti et al. 2014). The leaf extracts also possess antidiabetic properties; it can decrease the glucose level in mice in vitro (Mulyaningsih and Masfuroh 2019). In streptozotocin-induced rats, the administration of leaf ethanolic extracts can decrease the glucose level and body weight (Lestari 2018). The leaf extract also reduces blood cholesterol. It has been shown that the HDL receptor (SR-BI) expression is induced by the administration of ethyl acetate extract. Further in vivo investigation showed that the total amount of cholesterol is reduced, while the HDL percentage is increased after the administration of the leaf ethyl acetate extract (Andriani et al. 2015). Stem and seeds: The stem shows antidiabetic, anticancer, and antioxidant activities (Harmen et al. 2019; Sugiwati and Setiasih 2010; Susilawati et al. 2012). The n-butanol fraction of the stem can be used to inhibit α-glucosidase activity, showing potential as an antidiabetic agent (Sugiwati and Setiasih 2010). Stem bark extract has anticancer activity against HCT116, a colorectal cancer cell line. The extract works

850

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

by inhibiting the expression of iNOS (Harmen et al. 2019). A chemical compound named macronone isolated from the bark has been shown to have low antioxidant activity (Susilawati et al. 2012). The seeds also have antioxidant and anticancer activities (Diantini et al. 2012; Lisdawati et al. 2006). A test against Brine Shrimp Lethality Test carried out by Lisdawati et al. (2006) show high antioxidant activity of the seed coat. Diantini et al. (2012) studied the effect of fevicordin-A acquired from the seed on various cancer cell lines including CasKi, HeLa, P388, Prepuce’s Fibroblast cells, TE-2, and TE-8. The results show the potential use of fevicordin A in cervix cancer and leukemia treatments.

Biocultural Importance The Dayak Bakumpai ethnic believe that P. macrocarpa is a gift from aliens (Dharmono et al. 2013). People of Ranupani Village in Tengger Highland, East Java, use this species as an ornamental plant (Hakim 2014). Jusrin (2017) reported the same uses from the Tolaki ethnic in Puuosu Village, Mowewe Sub-District, East Kolaka District, Southeast Sulawesi. The Papuan people in western New Guinea use the bark for making bags (Hou 1960).

Economic Importance The local people of Keseneng Village, Sumowono Sub-District, Semarang District, Central Java, sell the fruit of this species to middlemen because they do not know how to use it as a source of medicine (Arum et al. 2012). In agriculture, the leaf extracts could be used in tomato preservation to preserve good texture of the fruit (Supriatni et al. 2016). In poultry, the nanoencapsuled fruit extract can be used as antibiotic (Ningsih et al. 2019).

References Abood WN, Al-Henhena NA, Abood AN, Al-Obaidi MMJ, Ismail S, Abdulla MA, Al Batran R. Wound-healing potential of the fruit extract of Phaleria macrocarpa. Bosnian J Basic Med Sci. 2015;15(2):25–30. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2015.39. Aeni N, Purnama AA, Afifah N. Identifikasi tumbuhan obat di Kecamatan Kunto Darussalam Kabupaten Rokan Hulu. J Mah FKIP Pend Bio. 2017;3(1):1–6. Ahmed Astrity SM, Tsan FY, Ding P, Syed Aris SR. Functional properties of Phaleria macrocarpa fruit flesh at different ripeness. Int Food Res J. 2018;25(3):1273–80. Ali RB, Atangwho IJ, Kuar N, Mohamed EAH, Mohamed AJ, Asmawi MZ, Mahmud R. Hypoglycemic and anti-hyperglycemic study of Phaleria macrocarpa fruits pericarp. J Med Plant Res. 2012;6(10):1982–90. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR11.1683. Altaf R, Asmawi MZB, Dewa A, Sadikun A, Umar MI. Phytochemistry and medicinal properties of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. extracts. Pharmacogn Rev. 2013;7(13):73–80. https://doi. org/10.4103/0973-7847.112853.

Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.

851

Altaf R, Umar MI, Asmawi MZ, Sadikun A, Dewa A, Manshor NM, Razali N, Syed HK, Basheer MKA. Polar components of Phaleria macrocarpa fruit exert antihypertensive and vasorelaxant effects by inhibiting arterial tone and extracellular calcium influx. Pharmacogn Mag. 2018;14:312–21. https://doi.org/10.4103/pm.pm_434_17. Amir J, Murcitro BG. Uji microtetrazolium (MTT) ekstrak metanol daun Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. terhadap sel kanker payudara MCF-7. Alotrop J Pend Ilm Kim. 2017;1(1):27– 32. (in Bahasa). Amir H, Murcitro BG, Ahmad AS, Kassim MNI. The potential use of Phaleria macrocarpa leaves extract as an alternative drug for breast cancer among women living in poverty. Asian J Poverty Stud. 2017;3(2):138–45. Andrean D, Prasetyo S, Kristijarti AP, Hudaya T. The extraction and activity test of bioactive compounds in Phaleria macrocarpa as antioxidants. Procedia Chem. 2014;9:94–101. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.proche.2014.05.012. Andriani Y, Tengku-Muhammad TS, Mohamad H, Saidin J, Syamsumir DF, Chew GS, Wahid MEA. Phaleria macrocarpa Boerl. (Thymelaeaceae) leaves increase SR-BI expression and reduce cholesterol levels in rats fed a high cholesterol diet. Molecules. 2015;20:4410–29. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules20034410. Anggraini R. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan yang digunakan dalam ritual adat dan tumbuhan obat di Kecamatan Tabir Timur Kabupaten Merangin [undergraduate thesis]. Jambi: Universitas Jambi; 2018. (in Bahasa). Arum GPF, Retnoningsih A, Irsadi A. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat Desa Keseneng Kecamatan Sumowono Kabupaten Semarang Jawa Tengah. J Life Sci. 2012;1:126–32. (in Bahasa). Aseptianova. Pemanfaatan tanaman obat keluarga untuk pengobatan keluarga di Kelurahan Kebun Bunga Kecamatan Sukarami-Kota Palembang. J Batoboh. 2019;4:1–25. (in Bahasa). Astana PRW, Nisa U. Analysis of traditional medicine formula for hemorrhoid in Java Island; ethnopharmacology study RISTOJA. J Il Farm Ind. 2018;16:115–23. Azad AK, Azizi WSWM. Toxicity study of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. Nat Prod Chem Res. 2014;2:2–5. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-6836.S1.005. Azad AK, Sulaiman WMAW, Sunzida NK. Phytochemical and toxicity evaluation of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl by MCF-7 cell line and brine shrimp lethality bioassay. J Coast Life Med. 2016;4(1):45–9. https://doi.org/10.12980/jclm.4.2016j5-194. Azmir J, Zaidul ISM, Sharif KM, Uddin MS, Jahurul MHA. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of highly unsaturated oil from Phaleria macrocarpa seed. FRIN. 2014;65:394–400. Candrarisna M, Kurnianto A. Gods crown (Phaleria macrocarpa) peel extract activity as therapeutic of diabetes mellitus against blood glucose, leukocytes and hemoglobin in the rat induced by aloksan. J Ilm Kedokteran Wij Kus. 2018;7(1):38–50. Dharmono, Sofyan A, Wahyu, Warni H. Indigenous knowledge of Dayaks Bakumpai in Barito Kuala District on the management of plant diversity growing at streams and swamps. J Wetl Environ Manage. 2013;1:25–32. https://doi.org/10.20527/jwem.01.01.01. Diantini A, Subarnas A, Supriyatna, Levita J, Abdulah R, Achmad TH, Faried A, Faried LS, Julaeha E, Kurnia D, Wardhani SR, Koyama H. Cytotoxicity of fevicordin-A from Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl on P 388, HeLa, CasKi, TE-2, TE-8 and Prepuce’s fibroblast cells. E3 J Med Res. 2012;1(1):1–5. Djumidi. Inventaris tanaman obat Indonesia. In: V. Jakarta, editor. Balai penelitian dan pengembangan Kesehatan – Departemen Kesehatan; 1999. Dwisatyadini M. Pemanfaatan tanaman obat untuk pencegahan dan pengobatan penyakit degeneratif. 2017. http://repository.ut.ac.id/7079/1/UTFMIPA2017-10-mutimanda.pdf. Retrieved 25 July 2020. Easmin MS, Sarker ZIM, Ferdosh S, Shamsudin SH, Yunus KB, Uddin MS, Sarker MMRS, Akanda MJHA, Hossain MS, Khalil HPSA. Bioactive compounds and advanced processing technology: Phaleria macrocarpa (Sheff.) Boerl, a review. J Chem Tech Biotech. 2015;90(6): 981-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.4603. Efremila, Wardenaar E, Sisillia L. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat oleh Etnis Suku Dayak di Desa Kayu Tanam Kecamatan Mandor Kabupaten Landak. J Hut Les. 2015;3:234–46.

852

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

Elianora D, Busman, Amrillya Y. Activities test of Mahkota Dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa) leaves extract against Candida albicans of HIV/AIDS patients. Padjadjaran J Dent. 2017;29(1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.24198/pjd.vol29no1.11588. Emelda A, Rahman S, Hardianti H. Efek imunostimulan infus buah mahkota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.) asal Kab. Sidrab Sulawesi Selatan terhadap sekresi antibodi tikus putih (Rattus norvegicus) jantan dengan teknik hemaglutinasi. J Trop Pharm Chem. 2015;3(1):37–41. Ernilasari, Saudahb, Suzannic MA, Dianad, Irhamnie, Viena V. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan obat pada masyarakat Blang Bungong Kecamatan Tangse Kabupaten Pidie-Aceh. TM Con Ser. 2018;1:34–7. https://doi.org/10.32734/tm.v1i3.258. (in Bahasa). Fahmi HM, Nursal, Fauziah Y. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di lingkungan masyarakat adat Kenegerian Rumbio untuk pengembangan modul pembelajaran pada konsep keanekaragaman hayati di Sma Kelas X. J Onl Mah Bid Keg Ilm Pend. 2016;3(1):1–13. (in Bahasa). Gena H, Nursyahra, Rizki. Inventarisasi tumbuhan obat di Desa Silaping Kecamatan Ranah Batahan Kabupaten Pasaman Barat. 2014. http://jim.stkip-pgri-sumbar.ac.id/jurnal/download/ 5533. Retrieved 25 July 2020. (in Bahasa). Gopalan HK, Salih ND, Roslan FH, Azmi N, Hing HL. Evaluation of antibacterial effect of Phaleria macrocarpa extract against bacterial species isolated from human diabetic wound injuries using scanning electron microscopy. Sci Int (Lahore). 2015;27(5):4229–33. Hakim L. Etnobotani dan manajemen kebun pekarangan rumah: ketahanan pangan, kesehatan dan agrowisata. Malang: Penerbit Selaras; 2014. (in Bahasa). Handayani A. Utilization of medicinal plants by people around Gunung Simpang nature reserve, West Java. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. Surakarta: Universitas Sebelas Maret; 2015. https://doi.org/10.13057/psnmbi/m010628. (in Bahasa). Harmanto N. Mahkota dewa obat pusaka para dewa. Jakarta: Agro Media Pusaka; 2003. (in Bahasa). Harmen F, Hanifah RS, Novitarani NA, Tedjo A, Azizah NN, Putrianingsih R, Fachri W, Kusmardi. The inhibition of ethanol extract of Phaleria macrocarpa stem bark on iNOS expression of HCT116 colorectal cancer cell line. J Pharm Sci Res. 2019;11(3):892–5. Hashim NA, Hashim UNM, Mudalip SKA, Harun N, Adam F, Man RC, Sulaiman SZ, Arshad ZIM, Shaarani SM. Extraction of bioactive compounds (mangiferin) from mahkota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa) fruits using subcritical water: effect of process parameters on extraction yield. Malay J Anal Sci. 2017;21(3):726–34. https://doi.org/10.17576/mjas-2017-2103-22. Hendra R, Ahmad S, Sukari A, Shukor MY, Oskoueian E. Flavonoid analyses and antimicrobial activity of various parts of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl fruit. Int J Mol Sci. 2011a;12:3422–31. Hendra R, Ahmad S, Oskoueian E, Sukari A, Shukor MY. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxicity of Phaleria macrocarpa (Boerl.) Scheff fruit. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2011b;11:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-11-110. art 110. Hendra R, Ahmad S, Oskoueian E, Sukari A, Shukor MY. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxicity of Phaleria macrocarpa (Boerl.) Scheff fruit. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2011c;11:110. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-11-110. Hidayat Z, Febriyani W, Tayubi Z. Pengetahuan Etnobotani Tumbuhan Obat Pada Masyarakat Adat Cigugur, Desa Cigugur, Kecamatan Cigugur, Kabupaten Kuningan. Seminar Nasional Biologi 4. Bandung: Universitas Islam Negeri - Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung; 2018. (in Bahasa). Hou D. Thymelaeaceae. Fl Malesiana I. 1960;6(1):1–48. Irmawati. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat tradisional pada masyarakat di Desa Baruga Kecamatan Malili Kabupaten Luwu Timur. [undergraduate thesis]. Makassar: Universitas Islam Negeri-Alaudin Makassar; 2016. (in Bahasa). Ismaeel M, Dyari MRE, Nor NSM, Yaacob WA, Ibrahim N. Anti-human herpesvirus type-1 activity of Phaleria macrocarpa fruits methanol extract and fractions. Malays Appl Biol. 2018;47 (5):31–40. Jannah H, Ridwan. Pengobatan tradisional Suku Sasak berbasis ilmiah di Kabupaten Lombok Barat. J Ilm Biol Bioscientist. 2013;1(2):116–25. (in Bahasa).

Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.

853

Jusrin MJM. Etnobotani Masyarakat Suku Tolaki di Desa Puuosu Kecamatan Mowewe Kolaka Timur. [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2017. (in Bahasa). Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kasrina, Veriana T. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants for used by people in Sindang Kelingi Rejang Lebong. Proc Seminar Nasional XI Pendidikan Biologi FKIP UNS. Surakarta: Universitas Negeri Sebelas Maret; 2014. Kavitha N, Oon CE, Chen Y, Kanwar JR, Sasidharan S. Phaleria macrocarpa (Boerl.) fruit induce G0/G1 and G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through mitochondria-mediated pathway in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cell. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;201:42–55. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2017.02.041. Kurnia D, Akiyama K, Hayashi H. 29-Norcucurbitacin derivatives isolated from the Indonesian medicinal plant, Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. Biosci Biotech Biochem. 2008;72 (2):618–20. Lay MM, Karsani SA, Mohajer S, Malek SNA. Phytochemical constituents, nutritional values, phenolics, flavonols, flavonoids, antioxidant and cytotoxicity studies on Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl fruits. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014a;14:1–12. art. 152. Lay MM, Karsani SA, Banisalam B, Mohajer S, Abd Malek SN. Antioxidants, phytochemicals, and cytotoxicity studies on Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl seeds. Biomed Res Int. 2014b:1– 13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/410184. art. 410184. Lestari IC. Antidiabetic effects of mahkota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa) leaf ethanol extract in diabetic rat with streptozotosin induction. Biomedika. 2018;10(2):94–101. Lisdawati V, Wiryowidagdo S, Kardono LBS. Brine Shrimp Letalithy Test (BLST) dari berbagai fraksi ekstrak daging buah dan kulit biji mahkota dewa. Bul Penel Kesehatan. 2006;34(3):111–8. Lonita, Hendra M, Hariani N. Jenis tumbuhan obat tradisional dari masyarakat Dayak Kenyah Uma Baha Di Kecamatan Kelay Kabupaten Berau. J Pro-Life. 2019;6:214–23. https://doi.org/ 10.33541/jpvol6Iss2pp102. (in Bahasa). Marpaung DRAK. Tumbuhan obat dan kearifan lokal masyarakat di sekitar Kawasan TNBG, Desa Sibanggor julu, Kabupaten Mandailing Natal. J Biosains. 2018;4:85–91. (in Bahasa). Maulidiah. Pemanfaatan organ tumbuhan sebagai obat yang diolah secara tradisional di Kecamatan Kebun Tebu Kabupaten Lampung Barat. [undergraduate thesis]. Lampung: Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Intan; 2018. (in Bahasa). Mulyaningsih S, Masfuroh S. The effect of mahkota dewa leaf extract (Phaleria macrocarpa) with different dosage on decreasing glucose levels in blood mencit (Mus musculus). Life Sci: J Pend IPA. 2019;1:1–9. Nilawati, Mubarrak J, Brahmana EM. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Kecamatan Bangun Purba Kabupaten Rokan Hulu Provinsi Riau. J Mah FKIP Pend Bio. 2017;3:1–6. (in Bahasa). Ningsih N, Ariyadi B, Dono ND, Supadmo, Zuprizal. The effect of nanoencapsulated Phaleria macrocarpa fruits extract in drinking water on jejunal histomorphology of broiler chickens. Trop Anim Sci J. 2019;42(2):106–12. https://doi.org/10.5398/tasj.2019.42.2.106. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: Spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Novi, Septrilia V. Inventarisasi Tumbuhan Obat Yang Dimanfaatkan Oleh Masyarakat Desa Durian Pandaan Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan. Biotropica. 2020;4:40–7. (in Bahasa). Nurmalasari N, Sukarsa, Hidayah HA. Studi kasus pemanfaatan tumbuhan sebagai obat-obatan tradisional oleh Masyarakat Adat Kampung Naga di Kabupaten Tasikmalaya. Biosfera. 2012;29:141–50. (in Bahasa). Okakinanti EA. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Menyuke dan implementasinya dalam pembuatan buklet manfaat keanekaragaman hayati. [undergraduate thesis]. Pontianak: Universitas Tanjungpura; 2014. (in Bahasa). Oshimi S, Zaima K, Matsuno Y, Hirasawa Y, Iizuka T, Studiawan H, Indrayanto G, Zaini NC, Morita H. Studies on the constituents from the fruits of Phaleria macrocarpa. J Nat Med. 2008;62:207–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-007-0209-9.

854

W. A. Mustaqim et al.

Othman SNAM, Sarker SD, Nahar L, Basar N. The ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff). Boerl Tang Hum Med. 2014a;4(4):1–12. https://doi.org/10.5667/tang.2014.0018. art e22. Othman SNAM, Sarker SD, Talukdar AD, Ningthoujam SS, Khamis S, Basar N. Chemical constituents and antibacterial activitiy of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. Int J Pharm Sci. 2014b;5(8):3157–62. Rastaon N, Tuah PM. Quantitative analysis of quercetin in various parts of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl extracts. Trans Sci Technol. 2016;3(1–2):203–8. Safitri S, Yolanda R, Brahmana EM. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Kecamatan Rambah Samo Kabupaten Rokan Hulu. J Mah FKIP Pend Bio. 2015;1:1–4. (in Bahasa) Safryadi A, Aisyah RN, Mahdalena. Kajian etnobotani melalui pemanfaatan tanaman obat di Desa Rema Kecamatan Bukit Tusam Kabupaten Aceh Tenggara. Pros Sem Nas Bio Banda Aceh: Universitas Islam Negeri Ar-Raniry; 2017. (in Bahasa). Sari RY, Wardenaar E, Muflihati. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Dusun Serambai Kecamatan Kembayan Kabupaten Sanggau Kalimantan Barat. J Hut Les. 2014;2:379–87. (in Bahasa). Saufi A. Lignans in Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. and Linum flavum var. compactum L. [dissertation]. Düsseldorf: Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf; 2007. Shodikin MA. Antimicrobial activity of mahkota dewa [Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff). Boerl.] leaf extract against Pseudomonas aeruginosa by agar dilution and scanning electron microscopy. Fol Med Indones. 2010;46(3):172–8. Situmorang TS, Sihombing ESR. Study the utilization of medicinal plants in ethnic communities Simalungun in Raya Village Raya Bayu and Raya Huluan District Simalungun. BioLink. 2018;4:112–21. Sugiwati S, Setiasih S. Antidiabetic activity of mahkota dewa [Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.] stem extracts as an inhibitor of alpha-glucosidase. J Indones Med Plant. 2010;3:94–100. Suhertini R. Identifikasi tanaman obat di Kecamatan Talang Kelapa dan pemanfaatannya serta sumbangsihnya pada mata pelajaran biologi materi klasifikasi makhluk hidup di Smp/MTs Kelas VII [undergraduate thesis]. Palembang: Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah; 2018. Suparman, Diniatik, Kusumaningrum D, Yulianto. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan sub kelas Rosidae dan penggunaannya sebagai obat tradisional di Kecamatan Baturraden Kabupaten Banyumas. Saintek. 2012;9:1–8. https://doi.org/10.30595/sainteks.v9i2.226. (in Bahasa). Suparto IH, Arfianti N, Septiawati T, Triwahyuni W, Iskandriati D. Ethanol extract of Mahkota Dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff,) Boerl.) fruit with in-vitro antidiabetic activities. In: Proceeding of The international seminar on chemistry, Jatinangor; 2008. p. 285–288. Suprapti T, Louisa M, Tedjo A, Kusmardi, Fadilah, Handjari DR, Yulhasri. Antiinflammatory effect of mahkota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.) leaves extract on colon carcinogenesis induced by azoxymethane and dextran sodium sulphate: Focus on the iNOS, β-catenin and COX-2 expression. Asian J Appl Sci. 2014;2(4):511–27. Supriatni D, Said I, Gonggo ST. The utilization of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl leaf extract as preservatives for tomato. J Akademika Kim. 2016;5(2):67–72. Susilawati, Matsjeh S, Pranowo HD, Anwar C. Macronone, a novel diepoxylignan from bark of mahkota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.) and its antioxidant activity. Indones J Chem. 2012;12(1):62–9. Tambunan RM, Simanjuntak P. Determination of chemical structure of antioxidant compound benzophenon glycoside from n-butanol extract of the fruits of Mahkota Dewa [Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff) Boerl.]. Maj Farma Indon. 2006;17(4):184–9. Tantra DK, Rasna IW. Implementasi usada sebagai kearifan lokal Bali dalam meningkatkan minat masyarakat dan wisatawan mengonsumsi kuliner lokal untuk meningkatkan ekonomi kreatif masyarakat Bali. Seminar Nasional Riset Inovatif (Senari) Ke-4. Buleleng: Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha; 2016. (in Bahasa). Tjandrawinata RR, Arifin PF, Tandrasasmita OM, Rahmi D, Aripin A. DLBS1425, a Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. extract confers anti proliferative and proapoptosis effects via eicosanoid pathway. J Exp Ther Oncol. 2010;8:187–201.

Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.

855

Wansa WS. Pemanfaatan etnobotani masyarakat Suku Kajang Desa Tanah Toa Kecamatan Kajang Kabupaten Bulukumba [undergraduate thesis]. Makassar: Universitas Muhammadiyah Makassar; 2019. (in Bahasa). Widjaja EA, Lestari VB, Kissinger H, Priyono. Pengobatan dengan tumbuhan untuk manusia: studi dari sebelas Desa di Taman Nasional Sebangau, Kalimantan Tengah. Bogor: Puslit Biologi LIPI; 2007. (in Bahasa). Winarno H, Katrin E. Benzophenone glucoside isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of the bark of mahkota dewa [Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.] and its inhibitory activity on leukemia L1210 cell line. Indones J Chem. 2009;9(1):142–5. Winarno GD, Harianto SP, Bintoro A, Hilmanto R. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat tradisional masyarakat sekitar Tahura Wan Abdul Rachman Lampung. Bandar Lampung: Tahura Wan Abdul Rachman; 2018. (in Bahasa).

Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth. FABACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Bauhinia borneensis Merr.; Bauhinia semibifida Roxb.; Phanera sumatrana Miq.

Local Names English: Butterfly climber, trailing bauhinia Singapore: Common bauhinia Indonesia: Kupu (Kalimantan), ganggang katup (Lingga), khaka kaia (Seram) Malaysia: Babaya songkulibang (Murut); daup-daup (Orang Asli) Philippines: Alibangbang puti, alibangbang tapol (Agusan Manobo); banlot (Cebu Bisaya)

Botany and Ecology Description: A scandent shrub or woody liana (Fig. 1). Stem ca. 15 cm wide with a few tendrils, young branches brownish pubescent. Leaves obovate-orbicular, 4–11  4–11 cm, bifid up to 1/4–2/5, whitish abaxially (Fig. 2a) or reddish abaxially (Fig. 2b); base cordate, apex of lobes obtuse to acute; stipules auriculate or orbicular ca. 5  2 mm. Inflorescence a terminal or lateral raceme; flower buds club-shaped, ca. 1–2.5 cm long, pubescent, hypanthium tubular, dilated at base, calyx early splitting into 5 reflexed, strap-shaped sepals, petals elliptical to oblong, unequal, ca. 2–3.5 cm long, claws ca. 0.2–0.5 cm long, white turning yellow, fertile stamens M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_223

857

858

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Habit of Phanera semibifida. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Fig. 2 Leaves of Phanera semibifida. One with the whitish coloration of abaxial view of the leaf (a) and the other with the reddish coloration of abaxial view of the leaf (b). Both samples were observed among the Manobo tribal community in Agusan del Sur, Philippines. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

3, staminodes 2–3 (Fig. 3). Flowering shoot terminal or axillary; flowers stalked, bilaterally symmetrical, 5 white petals, turns yellow with age. Fruit like dried, woody, strap-shaped, ca. 10–20  3–4 cm, beak ca. 0.5–1 cm, glabrous; bean pods that are 10–20  3–4 cm. Seeds 6 disc-like, flat varying in size. Phanera semibifida is highly variable with several distinct varieties. P. semibifida var. semibifida is the most widespread. It has two recorded varieties, namely, var. semibifida and the Philippine endemic var. perkinsiae (Merr.) Bandyop. (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). This plant has two colorations (abaxially whitish or abaxially reddish), which thrives in the ancestral lands of Agusan Manobo in the Philippines.

Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth.

859

Fig. 3 Flower of Phanera semibifida. (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

The two samples were molecularly confirmed to be a single species, P. semibifida using an integrative molecular approach (Dapar et al. 2020). Phenology: P. semibifida rarely blooms, but flowers are long-lasting for weeks (FFW 2019). Local observation shows flowers likely require hand pollination to produce fruits. Distribution and Habitat: The native range of the species is Indo-China to Malesia (POWO 2020). It has been recorded as native in Singapore with the conservation status ‘vulnerable’ (FFW 2019). It is found in forest margins at 200–2000 m altitude. P. semibifida is distributed in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Sulawesi, Sumatra, Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). P. semibifida var. semibifida is located in the forest margins of Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Philippines and Sulawesi. P. semibifida var. perkinsiae is endemic to low land thickets of Palawan, Philippines. P. semibifida var. perkinsiae is considered as “vulnerable” based on the updated national list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order (DENRDAO) No. 2017–01 (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

Local Medicinal Uses Malaysia: Root decoction of Phanera semibifida is traditionally drunk by the Orang Asli to treat fatigue (Samuel et al. 2010). This plant is also one of the useful medicinal plants used by the Muruts in Sabah (Kulip 2003). Philippines: The leaves of P. semibifida are traditionally used for treating internal bleeding and hemorrhage among the Agusan Manobo in Mindanao (Dapar et al. 2020). A decoction of leaves is usually prepared and drinking 3–5 glasses once to thrice a day reported no experienced adverse or reported side effects. Indonesia: P. semibifida roots are pounded in water to treat venereal diseases in the Lingga Islands. In Central Seram, stem decoction is ingested to relieve diarrhea or stomach trouble, while leaves are rubbed on skin to lessen bruises and swellings (Ridder-Numan 2016).

860

M. L. G. Dapar

Phytochemistry The genus Phanera was previously a subgenus of the large genus Bauhinia (Fabaceae) (Wunderlin et al. 1987). Farag et al. (2015) investigated eight Bauhinia species, including a member of the genus Phanera. Results showed the presence of flavonol glycoside and other flavonoid conjugates were recorded to be the most relevant class of variable Bauhinia metabolites. Previous phytochemical studies of Phanera species also revealed the presence of bioactive metabolites such as flavonoids (Ferreres et al. 2012; Yuenyongsawad et al. 2013). Other species also showed the presence of stilbenoids (Kittakoop et al. 2000; Pettit et al. 2006). The bark of Phanera semibifida was evaluated for the presence of chemical constituents. Flavonoids were identified and isolated, such as 6C-7O-dimethylaromadendrin and phlorizin, which were also found to be cytotoxic against murine leukemia P-388 cells with IC50 values 3.98 and 25.20 μg/ml, respectively (Tanjung and Tjahjandarie 2014). Phytochemical and pharmacological studies of Phanera species are still limited due to its complex genus wherein species were previously classified under the genus Bauhinia. Despite the complexity, classes of compounds identified for both genera displayed chemotaxonomic identities. The chemotaxonomic relationship was discovered between Bauhinia and Phanera possessing foliar flavonoids, primarily flavonol derivatives of kaempferol, quercetin, and isorhamnetin (Farag et al. 2015).

Economic Importance Singapore: Phanera semibifida is often cultivated for its ornamental flowers and foliage (FFW 2019). Its attractive appearance is suitable for vertical greening and for planting in parks and gardens.

References Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002020-00363-7. Farag MA, Sakna ST, El-Fiky NM, Shabana MM, Wessjohann LA. Phytochemical, antioxidant and antidiabetic evaluation of eight Bauhinia L. species from Egypt using UHPLC-PDA-QTOF-MS and chemometrics. Phytochemistry. 2015;119:41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2015.09.004. Ferreres F, Gil-Izquierdo A, Vinholes J, Silva ST, Valentão P, Andrade PB. Bauhinia forficata link authenticity using flavonoids profile: relation with their biological properties. Food Chem. 2012;134(2):894–904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.02.201. FFW. Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth. var. semibifida. In: Flora Fauna Web; 2019. https://www. nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/1/3/1326. Accessed 21 June 2020. Kittakoop P, Kirtikara K, Tanticharoen M, Thebtaranonth Y. Antimalarial preracemosols a and B, possible biogenetic precursors of racemosol from Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. Phytochemistry. 2000;55(4):349–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9422(00)00318-6.

Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth.

861

Kulip J. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia. Telopea. 2003;10:81–98. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL (eds.). Fabaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Fabaceae.html. Accessed 21 June 2020. Pettit GR, Numata A, Iwamoto C, Usami Y, Yamada T, Ohishi H, et al. Antineoplastic agents. 551. Isolation and structures of bauhiniastatins 1-4 from Bauhinia purpurea. J Nat Prod. 2006;69 (3):323–7. https://doi.org/10.1021/np058075+. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 21 June 2020. Ridder-Numan JWA. Bauhinia semibifida Roxb. In: Plant resources of South-East Asia. 2016. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Bauhinia_semibifida_(PROSEA). Accessed 21 June 2020. Samuel AJSJ, Kalusalingam A, Chellappan DK, Gopinath R, Radhamani S, Husain HA, et al. Ethnomedical survey of plants used by the orang Asli in Kampung Bawong, Perak, West Malaysia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-5. Tanjung M, Tjahjandarie TS. Flavonoids from the stem bark of Bauhinia semibifida L. Pharm Lett. 2014;6(6):434–8. Wunderlin RP, Larsen K, Larsen SS. Reorganization of the Cercideae (Fabaceae: Caesalpinioideae). Biol Skr. 1987;28:1–40. Yuenyongsawad S, Bunluepuech K, Wattanapiromsakul C, Tewtrakul S. Anti-cancer activity of compounds from Bauhinia strychnifolia stem. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;150(2):765–9. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.09.025.

Phyllanthus emblica L. PHYLLANTHACEAE Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, Wendy A. Mustaqim, and Rina Ratnasih Irwanto

Synonyms Diasperus emblica (L.) Kuntze; Dichelactina nodicaulis Hance; Emblica officinalis Gaertn.; Phyllanthus mairei Léveillé

Local Names Cambodia: Karn lam, kam lam ko, kβntûët préi. Indonesia: buah malaka; bak rem, on rheum (Aceh); balakka (southern North Sumatera); ki malaka (Sundanese); kemloko, mloko (Javanese); mlakah, malakah (Madurese); kalimoko, kalimaka, kemlika, amla (Bali); karsinta (Larantuka, Flores); metengo (Ternate). Laos: khaam poomz, mak kham pom. Malaysia: laka, melaka (Peninsular). Myanmar: ta-sha-pen; zepyu (Eden); se-sar (Myin Ka); se-shar (Pin-sein-pin); zee-hypu. Philippines: nelli. Thailand: ma-khaam pom (general); kan-tot (Khmer, Chantaburi); kam thuat (Ratchaburi). Vietnam: chùm ruot, me rừng, chu me (northern); bông ngót (southern). English: emblic (Cahyaningrum et al. 2019; Girmansyah and Sunarti 2011; Heyne 1950; Hidayat 2009; Keim et al. 2020; Khoiriyah et al. 2015; Morton 1987; Shin et al. 2018; van Holthoon 1999). A. S. D. Irsyam (*) Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia R. R. Irwanto School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_210

863

864

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

Botany and Ecology Description: A monoecious, deciduous tree, up to 8 or rarely to 23 m tall. Stem with dbh up to 50 cm, outer bark brownish, the main stems sparsely lenticellate, the leafy shoots are borne from reduced, short shoots; leafy shoots pubescent, bearing more flowers and leaves poorly developed at the start of the growing season, the later with more well-developed leaves and fewer flowers. Leaves alternately arranged, stipules small, 0.8–1.5 mm long, brown; lamina green, pale beneath, oblong or very narrowly oblong, 8–23
1.5–6 mm, base rather oblique, slightly cordate, margin entire, slightly revolute, apex vary from truncate, rounded, obtuse, with the tip mucronate or retuse, lateral nerves 4–7 on each side of the midrib. Flowers unisexual, arranged in fascicles consisting of many male and 1 or 2 female flowers; flowers without petals. Staminate flowers: borne on 1–2.5 mm long pedicels, sepals yellow, 6, obovate or spathulate, similar in size, 1.2–2.5
0.5–1 mm, stamens 3, filaments connate into a column, anthers oblong, longitudinally dehiscent. Pistillate flowers: borne on c. 0.5 mm long pedicels, sepals 6, spatulate or oblong, 1.6–2.5
0.7–1.3 mm, apex rounded or obtuse; ovary 3-celled, each contain 2 ovules, style 3, basally connate, deeply bifid, staminodes absent. Fruit a globose drupe, yellowish-white or pale green, 1–3 cm across, endocarp crustaceous; taste acid. Seeds 5–6 mm long. Phenology: The plants produce flowers from April to June and fruits from July to September. Distribution and Ecology: This species is distributed from India, Bhutan, China, mainland Southeast Asia, some areas of Indonesia including Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Philippines, and Ambon (Amboina) in the Maluku Archipelago. It grows in the scrub, open, and sparse dry forests, also in village groves at elevations from lowland to 2300 m.a.s.l. It is also cultivated outside its native range in South America and Florida (Airy Shaw 1981, 1982; Li and Gilbert 2008; Morton 1987; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; Silalahi and Mustaqim 2020) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Fig. 1 Leafy branches of Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae). Central Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Phyllanthus emblica L.

865

Fig. 2 Recent foliage and flowers of Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae). Central Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Fruits of Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae). Central Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: In Ambon and vicinities of Maluku Archipelago, a poultice made from the dried fruit is used externally to cure headache and vertigo. The dried fruits are also applied to treat dysentery (Burkill 1935; Heyne 1950; Rumphius 1751). The local community in Roti Island, Ternate of northern Maluku, use the plant as postpartum medication (Sunarti 2011). According to the lontar usada of the Balinese, P. emblica is mentioned as useful in the treatment of diabetes (Cahyaningrum et al. 2019); Lontar usada is an ancient manuscript that records Balinese traditional knowledge in healing (Antari and Suwantara 2017; Mu’jizah 2016). A leaf decoction is drunk to treat hepatitis and hypertension by the Madurese ethnic group in Gulukguluk District, of Madura Island (Rozak 2011).

866

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

Myanmar: The local communities in the Southern Shan State consume the boiled fruits to treat hypertension (Shin et al. 2018). The fresh fruits are also eaten to treat excessive bleeding; roasted fruits used to treat cough (Shin et al. 2018). Fruits are soaked in water overnight together with the seeds of Coriandrum sativum L., and consumed with rock candy to treat headaches (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018).

Phytochemistry Phytochemicals identified from this species include alkaloids, amino acids, carbohydrates, carotenoids, chebulinic acid, chebulagic acid, citric acid, ellagic acid, ellagotannin, emblicanin-A, emblicanin-B, flavonoid, gallic acid, pectin, pedunculagin, phenolic compounds, punigluconin, quercetin, tannins, trigallayl glucose, and vitamin C (Damodaran and Nair 1936; Fitriansyah et al. 2018; Khan 2009). The plants also contain: (1) reducing sugars including D-arabinosyl, D-fructose, D-galactosyl, D-galacturonic acid, D-glucose, D-glucosyl, D-mannosyl, D-myo-inositol, D-rhamnosyl, and D-xylosyl; and (2) amlaic acid, arginine, aspartic acid, astragallin, β-carotene, emblicol, gibberellins, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucodelphinidin, methionine, phenylalanine, phyllantidine, riboflavin, rutin, thiamin, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, valine, and zeatin (Gaire and Subedi 2014). Roots: Roots contain 1-O-galloyl-b-D-glucose, L-malic acid 2-O-gallate, (–)-epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate, (S)-eriodictyol 7-[6-O-(E)-p-coumaroyl]-b-D-glucoside, chebulagic acid, corilagin, elaeocarpusin, mucic acid 2-O-gallate, phyllaemblic acid, phyllaemblicin A–-C, phyllanemblinins C and E, prodelphinidin B1, prodelphinidin B2, and putranjivain A (Zhang et al. 2000, 2004). Stems and barks: The stems contain amino acid and crude proteins as the two largest components, followed by reducing sugar, phenols, calcium, nitrogen, potassium, and a small amount of phorphorus (Dhale 2012). The barks contain leucodelphinidin, tannin, and proanthocyanidin, while ellagic acid and lupeol were isolated from the roots (Khan 2009). Branches and Leaves: The extracts of branches and leaves show the presence of tannins and related compounds: 1(β)-O-,71(β),4-di-O-,19 and 3,6-di-O-galloylglucose, (–)-epiafzelechin, (+)-gallocatechin, (–)-epigallocatechin, (–)-epicatechin, corilagin, chebulanin, chebulagic acid, chebulic acid, epicatechin-(4β ! 8)-epigallocatechin, flavogallonic acid bislactone, furosin, gallic acid 3-O-β-D-glucoside, gallic acid 3-O(60 -O-galloyl)-β-D-glucoside, mallonin, neochebulagic acid, carpinusnin, geraniin, phyllanemblinins A–F, prodelphinidin B-1 and B-2, prodelphinidin B-2 30 -O-gallate, and putranjivains A–B (Zhang et al. 2001a). Other compounds isolated from the same extracts include decarboxyellagic acid, dihydrokaempferol, eriodictyol, kaempferol, kaempferol 3-O-rhamnoside, myricetin 3-O-rhamnoside, naringenin, naringenin 7-O-glucoside (prunin), naringenin 7-O-(60 -O-galloyl)-glucoside, naringenin 7-O-(60 -O-trans-p-coumaroyl)-glucoside, quercetin, quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside, 2-(2methylbutyryl)-phloroglucinol 1-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (multifidol glucoside), (2)-epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate, 1,2,3,6-tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose, 1,2,4,6-tetra-Ogalloyl-β-D-glucose, and 1,2,3,4,5-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (Zhang et al. 2002).

Phyllanthus emblica L.

867

Sterols also have been identified from branches and leaf extracts including 5α,6β-dihydroxysitosterol, 60 -(stigmast-5-en-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosidyl) hexadecanoate, 60 -(stigmast-5-en-7-one-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosidyl) hexadecanoate, 7α-hydroxysitosterol, 7β-ethoxysiterol, 7-ketositosterol, β-sitosterol, daucosterol, stigmast-4-en-3one, stigmast-4-en-3,6-dione, stigmast-4-en- 6β-ol-3-one, and stigmast-4-ene3β,6α-diol (Qi et al. 2013). From the shoots and leaves, two compounds named kaempferol-3-O-α-L-(600 -methyl)-rhamnopyranoside and kaempferol-3-O-α-L-(600 ethyl)-rhamnopyranoside have been isolated (Habib-ur-Rehman et al. 2007). Leaves contain crude proteins and amino acid as the main components, followed by reducing sugars, phenols, nitrogens, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium (Dhale 2012). Ethanol leaf extract yielded tadecanoic acid as the most abundant one followed by 9,12-octadecanoic acid, octadecanoic acid, 9-hexadecenoic acid, octadecanoic acid, octadecanal, 9,12-octadecanoic acid, 3-eicosyne, 1-hexadecenoic acid, 11-tetradecen-1-ol,2-furanmethanol, delta-guaiene, cyclohexane, hexadecanoic acid, sativen, 1H-cyclopropaanaphthalene, tetradecanoic acid, 3,7,11tridecatrienenitrile, caryophellene, 2H-pyran, and trans-caryophellene (Asmilia et al. 2020). Quercetin and β-sitosterol have also been identified from the leaves (Gupta et al. 2014). Fruits: Fruits mostly contain reducing sugars, followed by amino acids, crude proteins, and phenol, as well as small amounts of potassium, nitrogen, calcium, and phorphorus (Dhale 2012). The most important mineral is potassium calculated at 282 mg per 100 g, followed by phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium (Barthakur and Arnold 1991). However, the most popular property of this species is its high content of vitamin C (Khopde et al. 2001). Fruits contain numerous phytochemicals including β-sitosterol, ascorbic acid, chebulagic acid, chebulinic acid, cinnamic acid, citric acid, corilagin, cystine, daucosterol, ellagic acid, ellagotannin, emblicanin A, emblicanin B, ethyl gallate, gallic acid, geraniin, glutamic acid, kaempferol, lauric acid, lysine, methyl gallate, pectin, pedunculagin, phyllanthidin, phyllanthin, phyllembein, phyllanthunin, prolin, punigluconin, quercetin, stearic acid, and trigallayl glucose (Dasaroju and Gottumukkala 2014; Yang et al. 2007). Fruit juice also contains other phenolic compounds such as L-malic acid 2-O-, mucic acid 2-O-, mucic acid 1,4-lactone 2-O-, 5-O-(8),3-O-(10) gallates, and 5-O-(8),3,5-di-O(11) gallates (Zhang et al. 2001b). Six other compounds named mucic acid-3-Ogallate, mucic acid 2-O-gallate, mucic acid 1,4-lactone-3-O-gallate (3), 1,4-lactone5-O-gallate, mucic acid, and quercetin-3-O-β-D-rhamnoside were identified from the fruit (She et al. 2013). Juice powder contains 1-O-galloyl-glucoside, 1,6-di-Ogalloylglucoside, ellagic acid-4-O-glucoside, ellagic acid-4-O-xyloside, and ellagic acid-4-O-rhamnoside (Rose et al. 2018). Other phenolic compounds named quercetin 3-b-D glucopyranoside, kaempferol 3-b-D glucopyranoside, and isocorilagon have also been identified from the fruits (Liu et al. 2008). Essential oils of the fruits contain numerous phytochemicals including methyl salicylate and benzaldehyde. Other compounds include 1-octadecene, 2-pentadecanone-6,10,14- trimethyl, 2-decenal, 2-methyl butyl acetate, 2-methyl decalin, 2,4-hexadienol, 2,6-dimethyl undecane, α-farnesene-E,E, β-cyclocitral, ɣ-terpinen7-al, β-damascenone-Z-, n-eicosane, n-hexadecane, n-tricosane, acetophenone, butyl

868

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

cyclohexane, capillene, coahuilensol, cumin aldehyde, decane, isopropyl,2-methyl butyrate, dihydro apofarnesol, ethyl benzoate, ethyl cinnamate-E-, ethyl hexadecanoate, farnesyl acetone, hexacosane, heptacosane, menth-2-en-1-ol, myristaldehyde, nonacosane, menthane, nerolidol-Z-, pentacosane, sterayl aldehyde, sabinene hydrate acetate, tetracosane, undecane, and vertocitral (El Amir et al. 2014). Seed: Acidic compounds extracted from the seeds are linoleic acid, oleic acid, steric acid, palmitic acid, and myristic acid (Khan 2009).

Bioactivities The leaves, barks, and fruits were found to have antioxidant properties (Fitriansyah et al. 2018; Pientaweeratch et al. 2016). Fruit extract induces the production of procollagen and also stimulated proliferation of fibroblasts in human (Fujii et al. 2008), underlying its use in cosmetics. The aqueous fraction and n-hexane fraction of fruit extract show HIV-reverse transcriptase inhibitory activity (Estari et al. 2012). A polyphenolic compound isolated from the species, 1,2,4,6-tetra-O-galloyl-β-Dglucose (1246TGG) showed antiviral activity against Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) (Xiang et al. 2011). The compound has the abilities to inactivate viral extracellular particles and inhibit virus biosynthesis in host cells (Xiang et al. 2011). Aqueous fruit extract inhibits cell growth of six human cancer cell lines: A549 (lung), HepG2 (liver), HeLa (cervical), MDA-MB-231 (breast), SK-OV3 (ovarian), and SW620 (colorectal) at dose 50–100 μg/mL (Ngamkitidechakul et al. 2010). Fruit ethanol and methanol extracts have larvicidal and pupicidal properties against the malarial vector Anopheles stephensi (Murugan et al. 2012). Crude extract of P. emblica displays antidiarrheal and spasmolytic activities (Mehmood et al. 2011). Other reported activities include antibacterial, antidiabetic, antifungal, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antiproliferative, antitussive, antiulcerogenic, cardioprotective, cytotoxic, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, hypoglicemic, hypolipidemic, immunomodulatory, and radioprotective activities (Hasan et al. 2016; Khan 2009).

Local Food Uses In Indonesia, the shaved barks are used as a condiment of holat. Holat is a traditional fish or chicken soup cooked by the Batak Mandailing subethnic in Padang Bolak or Padang Lawas Utara, North Sumatera (Simatupang 2013). The leaves are also cooked as a vegetable by the Acehnese community of Sumatera, Indonesia (Hidayat 2009). The fruit is sometimes eaten fresh and also processed into jams or sweetmeat (Morton 1987; Ochse 1927; Prabaningrum et al. 2018; Siregar 2006; Uji 2007; van Holthoon 1999). The Samawa community of Sumbawa Island and the Bentong community of South Sulawesi consume the fruits (Amboupe et al. 2019; Rahayu and Rustiami 2017). The species is often used as a substitute for tamarind by the

Phyllanthus emblica L.

869

Javanese (van Holthoon 1999). In Southern Shan State of Myanmar, the local community eats the pounded fruits as salads (Shin et al. 2018).

Biocultural Importance and Other Uses The Bali Aga ethnic group use this species as a religious offering for panca yadnya or five-holy ceremonies in Bali, Indonesia (Sujarwo et al. 2020). The leaves of this species are commonly used as the offerings for pitra yadna ceremony, while the fruits are used in the pitra yadna and bhuta yadna ceremonies that are part of panca yadnya (Sujarwo et al. 2020). In Banten and Kedu of Indonesia, the leaves are used to color black bamboo handicrafts (Heyne 1950). Bamboo blades are boiled with leaves of P. emblica for an hour and buried in the earth for 12 h for coloring (Heyne 1950). In northern Thailand, the fruits are used for teeth blackening by the Akha ethnic group (van Holthoon 1999). The leaves are commonly used as fodder for livestock, and the woods are used as building materials by the Madurese communities in Guluk-guluk, Sumenep District (Rozak 2011). The wood is also used as fuelwood by the local community in Southern Shan State of Myanmar (Shin et al. 2018).

References Airy Shaw HK. The Euphorbiaceae of Sumatra. Kew Bull. 1981;36(2):239–374. Airy Shaw HK. The Euphorbiaceae of Central Malesia (Celebes, Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Is.). Kew Bull. 1982;37(1):1–40. Amboupe DS, Hartana A, Purwanto Y. Ethnobotanical study of food plant in Bentong Community from Barru Regency, South Sulawesi-Indonesia. Med Konserv. 2019;24(3):278–86. (in Bahasa). Antari NPU, Suwantara IPT. Erna. The correlation of Pemogan Community knowledge about Usada Taru Pramana with the behaviour of utilization and conservation of herbal medicine. Trad Med J. 2017;22(3):206–10. Asmilia N, Fahrimal Y, Abrar M, Rinidar R. Chemical compounds of Malacca leaf (Phyllanthus emblica) after triple extraction with N-hexane, ethyl acetate,and ethanol. Hindawi. 2020;2020:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2739056. Barthakur NN, Arnold NP. Chemical analysis of the emblic (Phyllanthus emblica L. ) and its potential as a food source. Sci Hortic. 1991;47:99–105. Burkill IH. Dictionary of the economic products of the Malay peninsula. Vol. I (Codiaeum – Hyptis). London: The Crown Agents for The Colonies; 1935. Cahyaningrum PL, Yuliari SAM, Suta IBP. Antidiabetic activity test using amla fruit (Phyllanthus emblica L.) extract in Alloxan-induced balb/c mice. J Vocat Health Stud. 2019;3:53–8. https:// doi.org/10.20473/jvhs.V3.I2.2019.53-58. (in Bahasa). Damodaran M, Nair KR. A tannin from the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) with a protective action on ascorbic acid. Biochem J. 1936;30(6):1014–20. https://doi.org/10.1042/ bj0301014. Dasaroju S, Gottumukkala KM. Current trends in the research of Emblica officinalis (amla): a pharmacological perspective. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2014;24(2):150–9. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380.

870

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

Dhale DA. Pharmacognosic evaluation of Phyllanthus emblica Linn (Euphorbiaceae). Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 2012;3(3):210–7. El Amir D, Abou Zid SF, Hetta MH, Shahat AA, El Shanawany MA. Composition of the essential oil of the fruits of Phyllanthus emblica cultivated in Egypt. J Pharm Chem Biol Sci. 2014;2 (3):202–7. Estari M, Venkanna L, Sripriya D, Lalitha R. Human Immunode-ficiency Virus (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase inhibitory activity of Phyllanthus emblica plant extract. Biol Med. 2012;4(4):178–82. Fitriansyah SN, Aulifa DL, Febriani Y, Sapitri E. Correlation of total phenolic, flavonoid and carotenoid content of Phyllanthus emblica extract from Bandung with DPPH scavenging activities. Pharmacogn J. 2018;10(3):447–52. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2018.3.73. (in Bahasa). Fujii T, Wakaizumi M, Ikami T, Saito M. Amla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) extract promotes procollagen production and inhibits matrix metalloproteinase-1 in human skin fibroblasts. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;119(1):53–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.05.039. Gaire BP, Subedi L. Phytochemistry, pharmacology and medicinal properties of Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Chin J Integr Med. 2014:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11655-014-1984-2. Girmansyah D, Sunarti S. Eksplorasi tumbuhan di Pulau Moti, Ternate, Maluku Utara. In: Maryanto I, Sutrisno H, editors. Ekologi Ternate. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2011. p. 267–82. (in Bahasa). Gupta J, Gupta A, Gupta AK. Studies on the chemical constituents of leaves of Phyllanthus emblica (L.). Orient J Chem. 2014;30(4):2069–71. https://doi.org/10.13005/ojc/300474. Habib-ur-Rehman, Yasin KA, Choudhary MA, Khaliq N, Atta-ur-Rahman, Choudhary MI, Malik S. Studies on the chemical constituents of Phyllanthus emblica. Nat Prod Res. 2007;21(9):775– 81. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786410601124664. Hasan MR, Islam MN, Islam MR. Phytochemistry, pharmacological activities and traditional uses of Emblica officinalis: a review. Int Curr Pharm J. 2016;5(2):14–21. Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Indonesie. s-Gravenhage/Bandung: N.V. Uitgeverij W. Van Hoeve;1950. Hidayat M. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan sebagai makanan khas Aceh di Banda Aceh. J Biol Educ. 2009;1(1):53–65. (in Bahasa). Keim AP, Adi TR, Nikmatullah M, Arifa N, Akbar F, Sujarwo W. Etnobiologi Kota Amlapura, Karangasem, Bali: Amla, Amlapura dan Phyllanthus emblica L. (Phyllanthaceae). J Trop Ethnobiol. 2020;3(1):69–80. (in Bahasa). Khan KH. Roles of Emblica officinalis in medicine – a review. Bot Res Int. 2009;2(4):218–28. Khoiriyah U, Pasaribu N, Hannum S. Distribusi Phyllanthus emblica L. di Sumatera Utara Bagian Selatan. Biosfera. 2015;32(2):98–102. (in Bahasa). Khopde SM, Priyadarsini KI, Mohan H, Gawandi VB, Satav JG, Yakhmi JV, Banavaliker MM, Biyani MK, Mittal JP. Characterizing the antioxidant activity of amla (Phyllanthus emblica) extract. Curr Sci. 2001;81(2):185–90. Li B, Gilbert MG. Phyllanthus L. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Vol. 11 (Oxalidaceae through Aceraceae). Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2008. p. 180–90. Liu X, Cui C, Zhao M, Wang J, Luo W, Yang B, Jiang Y. Identification of phenolics in the fruit of emblica (Phyllanthus emblica L.) and their antioxidant activities. Food Chem. 2008;109:909– 15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.01.071. Mehmood MH, Siddiqi HS, Gilani AH. The antidiarrheal and spasmolytic activities of Phyllanthus emblica are mediated through dual blockade of muscarinic receptors and Ca2+ channels. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133(2):856–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.11.023. Morton J. Fruits of warm climates. Miami: Julia F. Morton;1987. https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ morton/emblic.html. Retrieved 7 June 2020. Mu’jizah. Naskah Usada sebagai kearifan lokal Masyarakat Bali. Dialektika. 2016;3(2):191–200. (in Bahasa). Murugan K, Madhiyazhagan P, Nareshkumar A, nataraj T, Dinesh D, Hwang JS, Nicoletti M. Mosquitocidal and water purification properties of Ocimum sanctum and Phyllanthus emblica. J Entomol Acarological Res. 2012;44(e17):90–7. https://doi.org/10.4081/jear.2012.e17.

Phyllanthus emblica L.

871

Ngamkitidechakul C, Jaijoy K, Hansakul P, Soonthornchareonnon N, Sireeratawong S. Antitumour effects of Phyllanthus emblica L.: induction of cancer cell apoptosis and inhibition of in vivo tumour promotion and in vitro invasion of human cancer cells. Phytother Res. 2010;24:1405–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.3127. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Ochse JJ. Indische vruchten. Weltevreden: Volkslectuur; 1927. (in Dutch). Pientaweeratch S, Panapisal V, Tansirikongkol A. Antioxidant, anti-collagenase and cnti-elastase activities of Phyllanthus emblica, Manilkara zapota and Silymarin: an in vitro comparative study for anti-aging applications. Pharm Biol. 2016;54(9):1865–72. https://doi.org/10.3109/ 13880209.2015.1133658. Prabaningrum H, Nugroho AS, Kaswinarni F. Keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan yang berpotensi sebagai bahan pangan di Cagar Alam Gebugan Semarang. J Biol Pembelajarannya. 2018;5 (2):26–31. (in Bahasa). Qi WY, Li Y, Hua L, Wang K, Gao K. Cytotoxicity and structure activity relationships of phytosterol from Phyllanthus emblica. Fitoterapia. 2013;84:252–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. fitote.2012.12.023. Rahayu M, Rustiami H. Etnobotani Masyarakat Samawa Pulau Sumbawa. Scr Biol. 2017;4(4):235– 45. https://doi.org/10.20884/1.SB.2017.4.4.605. (in Bahasa). Rose K, Wan C, Thomas A, Seeram NP, Ma H. Phenolic compounds isolated and identified from amla (Phyllanthus emblica) juice powder and their antioxidant and neuroprotective activities. Nat Prod Commun. 2018;13(10):1309–11. Rozak A. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan yang berpotensi sebagai obat penyakit dalam di Kecamatan Guluk-Guluk Kabupaten Sumenep Madura [Undergraduate thesis]. Malang: Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim; 2011. (in Bahasa). Rumphius GE. Herbarium Amboinense. 7th vol. Amstelaedami: Meinardum Uytwerf; 1751. (in Dutch). She G, Cheng R, Sha L, Xu Y, Shi R, Zhang L, Guo Y. A novel phenolic compound from Phyllanthus emblica. Nat Prod Commun. 2013;8(4):461–2. Shin T, Fujikawa K, Moe AZ, Uchiyama H. Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants with special emphasis on medicinal uses in Southern Shan State, Myanmar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14:48. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0248-1. Silalahi M, Mustaqim WA. Tumbuhan berbiji di Jakarta jilid 1: 100 jenis-jenis pohon terpilih. Jakarta: UKI Press; 2020. (in Bahasa). Simatupang S. Pangan tradisional Sumatera Utara berbasis budaya dan pelestarian in situ. Warta Plasma Nutfah Indones. 2013;25:5–16. (in Bahasa). Siregar M. Species diversity of local fruit trees in Kalimantan: problems of conservation and its development. Biodiversitas. 2006;7(1):94–9. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d070123. Sujarwo W, Caneva G, Zuccarello V. Patterns of plant use in religious offerings in Bali (Indonesia). Acta Bot Bras. 2020;34(1):40–53. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-33062019abb0110. Sunarti S. Keanekaragaman tumbuhan berkhasiat obat di Pulau Moti, Ternate, Maluku Utara. In: Maryanto I, Sutrisno H, editors. Ekologi Ternate. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2011. p. 251–66. (in Bahasa). Uji T. Species diversity of indigenous fruits in Indonesia and its potential. Biodiversitas. 2007;8 (2):157–67. (in Bahasa) van Holthoon FL. Phyllanthus L. In: de Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, RHMJ L, editors. Plant resources of South East Asia 12(1): medicinal and poisonous plants 1. Leiden: Backhuys Publisher; 1999. p. 381–92. Xiang Y, Pei Y, Qu C, Lai Z, Ren Z, Yang K, Xiong S, Zhang Y, Yang C, Wang D, Liu Q, Kitazato K, Wang F. In vitro anti-herpes simplex virus activity of 1,2,4,6-tetra-O-galloyl-β-Dglucose from Phyllanthus emblica L. (Euphorbiaceae). Phytother Res. 2011;25(7):975–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.3368. Yang CB, Zhang F, Deng MC, He GY, Yue JM, Lu RH. A new ellagitannin from the fruit of Phyllanthus emblica L. J Chin Chem Soc. 2007;54:1615–8.

872

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

Zhang YJ, Tanaka T, Imawoto Y, Yang CR, Kouno I. Phyllaemblic acid, a novel highly oxygenated norbisabolane from the roots of Phyllanthus emblica. Tetrahedron Lett. 2000;41:1781–4. Zhang YJ, Abe T, Tanaka T, Yang CR, Kouno I. Phyllanemblinins A-F, new ellagitannins from Phyllanthus emblica. J Nat Prod. 2001a;64(12):1527–32. https://doi.org/10.1021/np010370g. Zhang YJ, Tanaka T, Yang CR, Kouno I. New phenolic constituents from the fruit juice of Phyllanthus emblica. Chem Pharm Bull. 2001b;49(5):537–40. Zhang YJ, Abe T, Tanaka T, Yang CR, Kouno I. Two new acylated flavanone glycosides from the leaves and branches of Phyllanthus emblica. Chem Pharm Bull. 2002;50(6):841–3. Zhang YJ, Nagao T, Tanaka T, Yang CR, Okabe H, Kouno I. Antiproliferative activity of the main constituents from Phyllanthus emblica. Biol Pharm Bull. 2004;27(2):251–5.

Phyllocladus hypophyllus Hook.f. PODOCARPACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Synonyms Phyllocladus major Pilg., Phyllocladus protractus (Warb.) Pilg., Podocarpus hypophyllus (Hook.f.) Kuntze

Local Names English: Celery pine, celery top pine; Indonesia: ijurka (Angi, Wekmi), medemudre (Argoni), mejirka (Manikiong), nitumbi (Kebar), niwiup (Kebar), sina, kayu sina (Wamena); Malaysia: bejalin, bindang, dahang, kayu empire, kayu karongan, rapak-rapak (Sabah and Sarawak); Papua New Guinea: asup (Mendi), dara, daro, darra (Kepauko), dogeren (Waimambuno), dombruk (Buang), ebaliak (Enga, Kepilam), ibliak (Enga), ipalya (Enga), kani (Mendi), konnium (Chimbu, Masul), pao, powa (Hagen, Togoba); Philippines: pelayo.

Botany and Ecology Description: short-boled trees to shrubs near the tree line, up to 30 m tall (Fig. 1). Bark dark brown to reddish, hard with large lenticels, light brown and granular within, breaking off in large, more or less rectangular scales. Foliar buds well developed, longer and less compact on younger plants, becoming more globular on older plants. Juvenile leaves 5–8 mm long and adult scale leaves 2–3 mm long. Cladodes on young plants deeply lobed and with distinct marginal hooks representing the reduced leaves, gradually becoming more compact, diamondA. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_228

873

874

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 1 Phyllocladus hypophyllus. (© Ary P. Keim)

shaped to more or less oval with more or less wavy margins, 3–8 cm by 2–3 cm, the larger sizes mostly on young sterile specimens, marginal lobes c. 5 mm wide, often glaucous especially on the lower side, aggregated alternately on lateral branches of limited growth. Pollen cones usually produced on different plants than seed cones, each in the axil of a scale at the base of a growing shoot, in clusters up to 15, sometimes mixed with reduced cladodes, cylindrical, 12–15 mm long and 3 mm diameter with a naked peduncle 5–25 mm long. Apex of the microsporophyll triangular, irregularly toothed. Seed cones in an apical notch of a bilobed cladode or terminal on a reduced cladode or on a naked stalk c. 1 cm long, occasionally more than one together, ovoid and, like new cladodes, more or less purple, bearing up to 15 scales, of which usually 1–3 are fertile, becoming bright red when mature and then drying to a leathery brown. Seed shiny brown, 5–7 mm long. Phenology: Flowering and fruiting the whole year around depending on local conditions (Van Royen 1980). We observed and collected P. hypophyllus with mature cones from Nokilalaki Mountain, Central Sulawesi, and from shore of the Lake Habbema, Jayawijaya, Papua (Indonesian New Guinea) (personal observation). Distribution and Habitat: Phyllocladus hypophyllus is one of the four species in the genus Phyllocladus (Keng 1978; Farjon 1998, 2000, 2008; Wagstaff 2004;

Phyllocladus hypophyllus Hook.f.

875

Eckenwalder 2009). This species is the only species found in the Northern Hemisphere, the others are exclusively of Southern Hemisphere. Phyllocladus hypophyllus is found in Borneo, Sulawesi, the Philippines, the Moluccas, and New Guinea (POWO 2020). In other word, P. hypophyllus is an endemic of Flora Malesiana, a floristic region that covers the political entities of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei Darussalam, Philippines, Timor Leste, and Papua New Guinea. Most are found in the eastern part of Wallace’s Line. Borneo is the only island west of Wallace’s Line, where P. hypophyllus can still be found. In the vicinity of Habbema Lake, Jayawijaya Range, Papua (Indonesian New Guinea), P. hypophyllus can be found in the Lower Subalpine Forest from 2400 up to 3650 m altitudes (Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018). The species can even be found in the Subalpine Grasslands between 3200 and 4000 m altitudes (Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018). Phyllocladus hypophyllus and Papuacedrus papuanus (Cupressaceae) are undoubtedly the species markers of the subalpine vegetation zone in the highlands New Guinea (Hope 1976; Eckenwalder 2009; Kartawinata 2013; Keim et al. 2018). De Laubenfels (1988) mentioned that the populations of this species are scattered in the forest at lower elevation where trees may be quite large. The species is more common but of reduced stature at higher elevations. Keim et al. (2018) observed the individuals grow in the vicinity of Habbema Lake at around 3000–3200 m altitude with height less than 2 m (Fig. 2). Nevertheless,

Fig. 2 Phyllocaldus hypophyllus grows in the vicinity of Habbema Lake at around 3000 to 3200 m altitude with height less than 2 m. (© Ary P. Keim)

876

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

numerous obviously large stumps of Phyllocaldus hypophyllus are found there, which indicate that the individuals once lived there were likely of much larger size than they are now.

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The Dani people of the Baliem Valley, Jayawijaya use the leaves of Phyllocladus hypophyllus for curing stomach-aches and skin diseases (personal observation). As the species is very rarely found in the Baliem Valley, the people travel up to Habbema Lake to collect leaves. The medicinal uses of P. hypophyllus by the people in highlands of New Guinea is surprising as Sing et al. (1978) mentioned the use of the leaves of the same species in New Zealand as insecticidal. Prior to 2015 (see Praptiwi et al. 2015), the medicinal purposes of P. hypophyllus were not recorded. As the highlands of New Guinea are still understudied the possibilities other medicinal uses cannot be ruled out.

Phytochemistry The leaves of P. hypophyllus collected from Habbema Lake, Jayawijaya Range, Papua (Fig. 3) contain 5,7,30 ,40 -tetrahidroksiflavan-3-ol, also known as epicatechin (Praptiwi et al. 2015). Epicatechin is the main chemical compound extracted from the leaves of this species. Epicatechin is a flavonoid compound with antioxidant properties found abundantly in plants, including tea, cocoa, and other plants (Gould and Lister 2006; Marston and Hostettmann 2006; Talapatra and Talapatra 2015). Epicatechin as major chemical constituent in the leaves of P. hypophyllus has not been known well prior to 2015. It has been known to be a strong antioxidant able to reduce lipid peroxidation and block thrombocyte Fig. 3 Leaves of Phyllocladus hypophyllus. (© Ary P. Keim)

Phyllocladus hypophyllus Hook.f.

877

aggregation (Wiseman 2006). De Paula Vasconcelos et al. (2012) indicate that the intake of epicatechin can reduce lesion and stimulate the healing of the damage tissues. Hence, epicatechin can be applied for preventing and healing colon inflammation. Furthermore, epicatechin can also induce apoptosis and necrosis of cancer protocell HT 29 (Sanchez-Tena et al. 2013). Thus, P. hypophyllus has potential anti-cancer applications. Nakane and Ono (1990; see Hudson and Tillekeratne 2000) reported that epicatechin and epigallocatechin gallates have a marked capacity to inhibit polymerase reaction catalyzed by the human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase (HIV-RT). This indicates anti-viral activities of epicathechin.

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Phyllocladus hypophyllus is considered sacred by the Dani throughout the Baliem Valley. The Dani use the wood only to build the traditional house (called honai) for men. They do not use the wood for building houses for women, and fences. The Dani regard the wood as too sacred for building such things. This is apparently due to the extremely rarity of the species in the valley (Van Royen 1980; Keim et al. 2018), combined with the sacredness of Lake Habbema. The bark is regularly used for roofing (Van Royen 1980). Milliken (2006) reported that when the Yali People build their houses, one of the four posts around the fire must be made from the wood of this species. The Yali mention that the tree of P. hypophyllus is hard to find; however, upon leaving pig fat in the forest, one would find the tree on returning to the same place. In Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea, the leaves are used for adornment (Hays 1980). This custom is not shared with the Dani or any other people in the Baliem Valley and its vicinity.

Economic Importance Indonesia: The wood of P. hypophyllus is highly prized by the Dani and mainly used for constructing houses (Arobaya and Pattiselanno 2007; see also Lemmens 1995). Despite being fairly light wood (with density of 0.53 g/cm3; see Reyes 1992), the wood is one of the favorite building materials in highland New Guinea due to its outstanding durability (Van Royen 1980; Eckenwalder 2009; as also in all species of Phyllocladus, especially its Tasmanian cousin, P. asplenifolius, see Boland et al. 2006), and long-lasting nature. The wood is not eaten by termites due to the presence of turpentine (Boer et al. 2005). Rapid urbanization in the Jayawijaya District has put pressure on P. hypophyllus populations. Keim et al. (2018) recorded the massive illegal logging of P. hypophyllus around the Habbema Lake that has been happening for years. It is highly doubtful if the 2013 IUCN red list status “Least Concern” for P. hypophyllus (Farjon 2013) is still applicable.

878

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

References Arobaya AYS, Pattiselanno F. Jenis tanaman berguna bagi suku Dani di Lembah Baliem. Biota. 2007;12(3):192–5. Boer E, Ella AB, Tesoro FO. Plant resources of South East Asia (PROSEA): plant producing exudates, vol. 18. Leiden: Backhuys; 2005. Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, McDonald MW, Turner JD. Forest trees of Australia. 5th ed. Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing; 2006. De Laubenfels DJ. Flora Malesiana Ser. 1. Vol. 10 (3): Coniferales. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic; 1988. De Paula Vasconcelos PC, Seito LN, Di Stasi LC, Hiruma-Lima CA, Pellizon CH. Epicatechin used in the treatment of intestinal inflammatory disease: an analysis by experimental models. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2012:1–12. Eckenwalder JE. Conifers in the world: the complete reference. Portland: Timber Press; 2009. Farjon A. World checklist and bibliography of conifers 1st edition. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 1998. Farjon A. World checklist and bibliography of conifers. 2nd ed. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2000. Farjon A. A natural history of conifers. Portland: Timber Press; 2008. Farjon A. The IUCN Red List of threatened species: Phyllocladus hypophyllus. London: IUCN; 2013. Gould BS, Lister C. Flavonoid functions in plants. In: Andersen ØM, Markham KR, editors. Flavonoids: chemistry, biochemistry and applications. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2006. p. 397–442. Hays TE. Uses of wild plants in Ndumba, Eastern Highlands Province. Sci New Guinea. 1980;7:118–31. Hope GS. Fauna. In: Hope GS, Peterson JA, Radok U, Allison I, editors. The equatorial glaciers of New Guinea: results of the 1971–1973 Australian universities’ expeditions to Irian Jaya: survey, glaciology, meteorology, biology and palaeo-environments. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema; 1976. p. 207–24. Hudson RA, Tillekeratne LMV. Reactive quinones: from chemical defence mechanism in plants to drug design. In: Cutler SJ, Cutler HG, editors. Biologically active natural products: pharmaceuticals. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2000. p. 109–20. Kartawinata K. Diversitas ekosistem alami Indonesia. Jakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia dan LIPI Press; 2013. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Efendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Keng H. The genus Phyllocladus (Phyllocladaceae). J Arnold Arbor. 1978;59(3):249–73. Lemmens RHMJ. Plant resources of South East Asia (PROSEA) volume 5 part 2: timber trees, minor commercial timbers. Leiden: Backhuys; 1995. Marston A, Hostettmann K. Separation and quantification of flavonoids. In: Andersen ØM, Markham KR, editors. Flavonoids: chemistry, biochemistry and applications. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2006. p. 1–36. Milliken W. The ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2006. Nakane H, Ono K. Differential inhibitory effects of some catechin derivatives on the activities of human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase and cellular deoxyribonucleic and ribonucleic acid polymerases. Biochemistry. 1990;29(11):2841–5. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 15 June 2020. Praptiwi JY, Keim AP, Agusta A. Epikatekin sebagai komponen kimia utama pada daun sina (Phyllocladus hypophyllus Hook. F; Podocarpaceae). Pros Sem Nas Biodiv. 2015;4(3):185–7. Reyes G. Wood density of tropical tree species. Louisiana: US Department of Agriculture; 1992. Sanchez-Tena S, Alcarraz-Vizan G, Marain S, Torres JL, Cascante M. Epicatechin gallate impairs colon cancer cell metabolic productivity. J Agric Food Chem. 2013;61(18):4310–7.

Phyllocladus hypophyllus Hook.f.

879

Sing P, Fenemore PG, Dugdale JS, Russel GB. The insecticidal of foliage from New Zealand conifer. Biochem Syst Ecol. 1978;6:103–6. Talapatra SK, Talapatra B. Chemistry and plant natural products: stereochemistry, conformation, synthesis, biology and medicine. Heidelberg: Springer; 2015. Van Royen P. The alpine flora of New Guinea, vol. 2. Vaduz: J. Cramer; 1980. Wagstaff SJ. Evolution and biogeography of austral genus Phyllocladus (Podocarpaceae). J Biogeogr. 2004;31(10):1569–77. Wiseman H. Isoflavonoids and human health. In: Andersen ØM, Markham KR, editors. Flavonoids: chemistry, biochemistry and applications. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2006. p. 371–96.

Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese PINACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Pinus finlaysoniana Wall. ex Blume; Pinus merkusii subsp. ustulata Businský; Pinus ustulata (Businský) Businský (POWO 2020).

Local Names Indonesia: Pinus, tusam – dammar batu, dammar bunga, hejam, hujam, ujam, ujem (Aceh in Sumatra) – higi, sigi (Kerinci in Sumatra) – kaju tussam, tussam (Batak Tapanuli in Sumatra) – pinus (Java and Sulawesi). Philippines: agoo, agu´-u (Mindoro) – salit, tapu´lao (Zambales, Luzon). English: Merkus’s pine, Mindoro pine (Corryanti and Rahmawati 2015; de Laubenfels 1988; Mustaqim 2019; Rahayu et al. 2012; Suwaji et al. 2017; West and Brown 1921; Yadi et al. 2019).

Botany and Ecology Description: A large evergreen monoecious tree, usually 55–60 m tall, often shorter to 40 m or taller up to 70 m. Trunk straight or most often not. Crown pyramidal, branches either spreading or slightly ascending. Bark dark brown or gray at the older stem, vary from smooth, shallow to deeply fissured; inner bark red, wood creamywhite. Crown conical or pointed cylindrical. Branches arranged in whorls. Foliage buds elongate, terete, densely covered with scales. Leaves spreading, arranged in

W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_177

881

882

W. A. Mustaqim

basally sheathed fascicles, each consisting of two needle-shaped blades, 16–19 cm long by ca. 1 mm wide, lasting until the second year, deltoid in cross-section, abruptly pointed at its apex. Male and female cones on the same plant. Male cones several together, cylindrical, 2.5 cm long at average. Female cone solitary or up to 17 together, unopened female cone cylindrical, 4.8–11 cm long, apex bluntly pointed, more or less two times wide when open, falling off after seeds bear seed, sometimes a few seeds fall off together with the cone. Apophysis broadly tetragonal. Seed broadly winged, total length including wing ca. 2.5 cm and width at ca. 0.8 cm. The species is similar to P. latteri Mason, a species from mainland Southeast Asia. Some authors often include the latter as part of P. merkusii, and this taxonomic uncertainty requires further addressing. Distribution and Ecology: This species is native to Sumatra and the northern part of the Philippines and has grown and become naturalized elsewhere. Indonesia: In Sumatra, this species naturally grows in the mountainous areas of Aceh, Tapanuli, and Mount Kerinci – each of them representing a distinct strain named Aceh, Tapanuli, and Kerinci strains. This species is mainly found from 800 to 2000 m, although a few populations descend to near sea level and ascend over 2000 m. A detailed study of local distribution carried out in Tapanuli shows that this species can be found in Dolok Tusam, Dolok Soanon, Dolok Sipirok, Situnggaling, and Baruman Animal Reserve. They are usually found in steep slopes, ranging from 45 to 80 . The Mount Kerinci population inhabits the dense rainforest on steep slopes down to 800 m. The population around Bukit Tapan near Mount Kerinci is the southernmost distribution of the species as well as the only natural population of Pinus merkusii recorded from the southern hemisphere. Populations in Tapanuli are sensitive to fire. Philippines: Recorded from lowland at 100 m, ascending to 550 m in Luzon and Mindoro Island. Outside its native range, this species has been cultivated and introduced in many regions of Indonesia, such as Java. IUCN Red List places this species under the Vulnerable (VU) category. In Mindoro, Philippines, this species is now considered as a threatened plant (Businský 2008; Cooling 1968; Corryanti and Rahmawati 2015; De Laubenfels 1988; Kalima et al. 2005; Farjon 2013, 2017; Nurtjahjaningsih et al. 2007; Villanueva and Buot 2015) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Oleoresin and turpentine have been identified from this species. So far, 18 turpentines have been reported, including α-phellandrene, α-pinene, δ-3-carene, β-caryophyllene, β-pinene, camphene, d-camphene, p-cymene, myrcene, β-myrcene, α-thujene, sabinene, limonene, d-limonene, myrcene, sabinene, α-terpineol, and α-terpinolene. α-pinene is a dominant component of turpentine for Sumatran plants (Cooling 1968; Sukarno et al. 2015; Wiyono et al. 2006a, b). Some chemical compounds from rosin and acidic fraction were also recorded, including abietic acid, dehydroabietic acid, isopimaric acid, merkusic acid, neoabietic acid, palustric acid, and sandaracopimaric

Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese Fig. 1 Living plants of Pinus merkusii (Pinaceae). Jambi in Sumatra, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Twigs with male and young female cones of Pinus merkusii (Pinaceae). Central Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

883

884

W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 3 Twig and cones of Pinus merkusii (Pinaceae). Jambi in Sumatra, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

acid (Wiyono et al. 2006a). A study carried out by Sukarno et al. (2015) shows that the yields of oleoresin, gum, and turpentine differ between plants from different areas in Aceh and cultivation from Java. Plants from Janto have the highest content of oleoresin, while those from Takengon possess the highest content of turpentine. Studies on the phytochemistry of bark and wood have also been carried out. Masendra (2016) and Masendra et al. (2018a, b, 2019) investigated the inner and outer bark compounds and recorded some steroids and triterpenoids: β-sitosterol, stigmast-4-en-3-one, 2,4-cholestadien-1-one, 25-hydroxycholesterol, acetic acid, 13-hydroxy-octamethyldocosahydropicen-3-yl ester, betulin, 3α,21β-dimethoxy-δ14serratene, 3β-methoxyserratt-14-en-21-one, 3β-methoxyserratt-14-en-one, and serrate14-en-3β,21β-diol. Two monoterpenes identified are α-pinene and D-limonene with the latter only in the outer bark. Sesquiterpenes identified are 6-epi-shyobunol found in the inner and outer bark, and three others from the outer bark named caryophyllenyl alcohol, caryophyllene oxide, and caryophyllene oxide isomer. Many nitrogenous compounds were isolated from the bark, with the inner bark and outer barks showing different compositions. The nitrogenous compounds found in both include N,O-Bis carbamate, pyrazine, methylmalonic monoamide, 2,5-furandione, monoamidomalonic

Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese

885

Fig. 4 Tapping method of Pinus merkusii resin. Central Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

acid, malonyldiamide, and N-acetyl glutamine. Compounds exclusive to the inner bark include glycine, propylamine, serine, 1,3,4-thiadiazole, 1,3,5-triazine, and normorphine. One compound named ala-β-ala, N-TMS is confined to the outer bark. The total nitrogenous compound is higher in the inner bark compared to the outer bark. Sugars reported include glycerol, xylitol, D-pinitol, glucopyranose and isomer, D-mannitol, and TMS ether of glucitol, while D-psicopyranose, (isomer 2) and galactopyranose from the outer bark, and D-pinitol isomer and D-glucose are only found in the inner bark. Some fatty acids and phenolic compounds were also found in (1) both inner and outer bark: arachidic acid, benzoic acid, docosanoic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, tetradecanoic acid, tetracosanoic acid, hexacosanoic acid, 4-methoxy-TMS ester, 1-heneicosanol, 1-hexadecanol, hydroxytyrosol, octadecene, and n-tetracosanol-1; (2) inner bark only: linoleic acid, oleic acid, cis-5,8,11eicosatrienoic acid, p-trimethylsilyloxyphenyl, TMS catechollactate, and thymol-β-d-glucopyranoside; but none found exclusive to the outer bark. Some resin acids known from the bark are pimaric acid and its isomer, isopimaric acid, and dehydroabietic acid. Wijayanto et al. (2015) studied wood chemistry, classifying the wood into three: knotwood, heartwood, and sapwood. All three classes contain a

886

W. A. Mustaqim

stilbene named pinosylvin monomethyl ether, two lignans named matairesinol and nortrachelogenin, five resin acids named pimaric acid, isopimaric acid, dehydroabietic acid, and abietic acid, and also fatty acid. Furthermore, knotwood and heartwood together have another two stilbenes named pinosylvin and pinosylvin dimethyl ether and one flavonoid named pinocembrin. Some efforts have been made to detect the chemical activities of P. merkusii. Chitinase activity has also been recorded from the roots of this species (Handayani et al. 2005). Antifungal activities were reported from heartwood extract and antioxidants from knotwood extract (Wijayanto et al. 2015). Ethanolic extracts from tree bark show larvicidal effect on Aedes aegypti (Setiawan et al. 2017). Senjaya and Surakusumah (2008) show that the leaf extract has herbicidal activity against the weed species Amaranthus viridis and Echinochloa colona. A recent study showed that chitosan-Pinus merkusii nanoparticle could be of antioxidant value. This has been demonstrated by experimenting with lead acetate-induced rat pancreas where the nanoparticle inhibited the activity of free radical compounds (Wardani et al. 2019). The same nanoparticle also shows promising potential as a cardioprotective agent (Sudjarwo et al. 2019).

Economic Importance Indonesia: P. merkusii is a source of timber used in construction, pulpwood, and peeler log (Cooling 1968; Rahayu et al. 2012); wood is generally also used as firewood (Rahayu et al. 2012; Heim 2015; Ibo and Arimukti 2019). Timber was once listed among the topmost economically important ones in Sumatra, Java, and Madura (Embassy of Indonesia 1967). According to Wiyono et al. (2006a), there are 23,560 ha of pine forests in Java. The plantation in Java is second after Java teak (Corryanti and Rahmawati 2015). The wood density for the Sumatran plants is around 0.07 to 0.11 (Cooling 1968). Active charcoal shows potential as an adsorption agent for methylene blue (Wahyuni et al. 2020). Charcoal has also been produced from the wood. Wood pulp is a source of vanillin flavoring (Heim 2015). P. merkusii is tapped for its economically valuable resin (Hartiningtyas et al. 2020). It is the most important non-timber forest product obtained from P. merkusii (Cooling 1968; Hartiningtyas et al. 2020). The productivity of P. merkusii is affected by forest fire as the crown fire lowers the quantity of resin yield (Prasetya et al. 2017). Tapping is currently undertaken as an occupation by many in Indonesia. Local people in Sigi Regency, Sulawesi, earn an average monthly revenue of IDR 3.082.004 by tapping P. merkusii, almost double the provincial minimum wage of Sulawesi Tengah Province (Suwaji et al. 2017). Besides the resin, an oil named gondorukem is produced by distilling the sap. It has been used in various industries including medicine, food, cosmetics, shoe polish, and synthetic camphor. The cosmetic industries include producers of hair oil and lipstick (Corryanti and Rahmawati 2015). This species is valuable in landscape management for landslide control. This is due to its high evapotranspiration rate, deep roots system, and high interception (Indrajaya and Handayani 2008). The species is also planted around

Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese

887

urban green buildings (Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017). The pine plantation forest in Bondowoso, East Java, has boosted local tourism, fetching revenues of IDR 72.665.000 per year through ticket sales alone (Yadi et al. 2019). Philippines: In the Philippines, turpentine was once extracted from this species. However, the rate of extraction was lesser than that of Pinus kesiya (West and Brown 1921).

References Businský R. The genus Pinus L., pines: contribution to knowledge: a monograph with cone drawing of all species of the world by Ludmila Businská. Acta Pruhoniciana. 2008;88:1–126. Cooling ENG. Fast growing timber trees of the lowland tropics no. 4: Pinus merkusii. London: University of Oxford; 1968. Corryanti, Rahmawati R. Terobosan memperbanyak pinus (Pinus merkusii). Cepu: Puslitbang Perum Perhutani; 2015. (in Bahasa). de Laubenfels DJ. Pinaceae. Fl Malesiana I. 1988;10(3):447–53. Embassy of Indonesia. Focus on Indonesia. Washington, DC: Embassy of Indonesia; 1967. (in Bahasa). Farjon A. Pinus merkusii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T32624A2822050; 2013. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T32624A2822050.en. Accessed 29 Apr 2020. Farjon A. A handbook of the world’s conifers volume I. 2nd ed. Leiden/Boston: Brill; 2017. Handayani A, Widyastuti SM, Margino S. Isolation and characterization chitinase in tusam (Pinus merkusii Jungh. et de Vriese) roots during symbiosis with ectomycorrhizal. J Perlind Tan Indon. 2005;11(2):96–104. (in Bahasa). Hartiningtyas D, Fulé PZ, Gunawan AA. Wildfire effects on forest structure of Pinus merkusii in Sumatra, Indonesia. For Ecol Manag. 2020;117660:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019. 117660. Heim E. Flora and vegetation of Bali Indonesia: an illustrated field guide. Norderstedt: Books on Deman GmbH; 2015. Ibo LK, Arimukti SD. Ethnobotanical study of Batak Toba sub-ethnic community in Martoba Village, Samosir District, North Sumatra. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2019;5(2):234–41. https://doi.org/10.13057/psnmbi/m050216. (in Bahasa). Indrajaya Y, Handayani W. Potency of Merkus Pine (Pinus merkusii Jungh. et de Vriese) forest as landslide control in Java. Info Hut. 2008;5(3):231–40. (in Bahasa). Kalima T, Sutisna U, Harahap R. Study of natural distribution of Pinus merkusii Jungh. et de Vriese in Tapanuli, North Sumatra using cluster method and digital mapping. J PHKA. 2005;2(5):497– 505. (in Bahasa). Masendra. Komposisi kimia ekstraktif kulit kayu Pinus merkusii [undergraduate thesis]. Yogyakarta: Universitas Gadjah Mada; 2016. (in Bahasa). Masendra, Ashitani T, Takahashi K, Lukmandaru G. Lipophilic extractives of the inner and outer barks from six different Pinus species grown in Indonesia. J For Res. 2018a;29(5):1329–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-017-0545-x. Masendra, Ashitani T, Takahashi K, Lukmandaru G. Triterpenoids and steroids from the bark of Pinus merkusii (Pinaceae). BioRes. 2018b;13(3):6160–70. Masendra, Ashitani T, Takahashi K, Susanto M, Lukmandaru G. Hydrophilic extracts of the bark from six pinus species. J. Korean wood Sci. Technol. 2019;47(1):80–9. https://doi.org/10.5658/ WOOD.2019.47.1.80. Mustaqim WA. Sigi: satu-satunya pinus alami di selatan khatulistiwa. In: Hamidi A, Tirtaningtyas FN, Cahyo YID, editors. Cerita 100 pohon, vol. 3. Jakarta: Fauna & Flora International; 2019. p. 144–50. (in Bahasa).

888

W. A. Mustaqim

Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Publishing; 2017. Nurtjahjaningsih ILG, Saito Y, Tsuda Y, Ide Y. Genetic diversity of parental and offspring populations in a Pinus merkusii seedling seed orchard detected by microsatellite markers. Bull Tokyo Univ For. 2007;118:1–14. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 7 May 2020. Prasetya CD, Syaufina L, Santosa G. The effect of various types of forest fires on pine resin productivity in Gunung Walat University Forest, Sukabumi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2017;18(1):476–82. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d180205. Rahayu M, Susiarti S, Sihotang VBL. A preliminary ethnobotanical study on useful plants by local communities in Bodogol Lowland Forest, Sukabumi, West Java. JTBC. 2012;9(1):115–25. (in Bahasa). Senjaya YA, Surakusumah W. Potencies of pine leaf extract (Pinus merkusii Jungh. et de Vriese) as germination bioherbicides inhibitor for Echinochloa colonum L. and Amaranthus viridis. J Perennial. 2008;4(1):1–5. (in Bahasa). Setiawan S, Koerniasari K, Ngadino N, Sudjarwo SA. Bioinsecticide effect of Pinus merkusii tree bark extract on Aedes aegypti larvae. J Young Pharm. 2017;9(1):118–21. Sudjarwo SA, Anwar C, Eraiko K, Wardani G, Koerniasari. Cardioprotective activity of ChitosanPinus merkusii extract nanoparticles against lead acetate induced cardiac cell damage in rat. Rasayan J Chem. 2019;12(1):184–91. https://doi.org/10.31788/RJC.2019.1215049. Sukarno A, Hardiyanto EB, Marsoem SN, Na’iem M. Oleoresin production, turpentine yield and components of Pinus merkusii from various Indonesian provenances. J Trop For Sci. 2015;27(1):136–41. Suwaji S, Lamusa A, Howara D. Analysis of the farmer income of pine sap tappers in the village of Tangkulowi, Sub-District of Kulawi, Sigi Regency, Central Sulawesi. e-J Agrotekbis. 2017;5(1):127–33. Villanueva ELC, Buot IE Jr. Threatened plant species of Mindoro, Philippines. IAMURE Int J Ecol Conserv. 2015;14(1):168–90. https://doi.org/10.7718/ijec.v14i1.901. Wahyuni ES, Utomo Y, Sumari, Putri RA. Characterization of adsorbent from pine strobilus active charcoal (Pinus merkusii) and its performance in adsorption of methylene blue. AIP Conf Proc. 2020;2215:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0000599. art. 070018. Wardani G, Ernawati, Eraiko K, Sudjarwo A. The role of antioxidant activity of Chitosan-Pinus merkusii extract nanoparticle in against lead acetate-induced toxicity in rat pancreas. Vet Med Int. 2019;2019:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/9874601. art. 9874601. West AP, Brown WH. Philippine resins, gums, seed oils and essential oils. Philip Bur For Bull. 1921;22:5–224. Wijayanto A, Dumarc¸ay S, Gérardin-Charbonnier C, Sari RK, Syafii W, Gérardin P. Phenolic and lipophilic extractives in Pinus merkusii Jungh. et de Vries knots and stemwood. 2015;69:466–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.02.061. Wiyono B, Tachibana S, Tinambunan D. Chemical compositions of pine resin, rosin, and turpentine oil from West Java. J For Res. 2006a;3(1):7–17. Wiyono B, Tachibana S, Tinambunan D. Chemical composition of Indonesian Pinus merkusii turpentine oils, gum oleoresin and rosins from Sumatra and Java. Pakistan J Bio Sci. 2006b;9(1):7–14. Yadi MH, Triwanto J, Muttaqin T. Willingness to pay assessment of pine forest economic to BKPH Bondowoso KPH Bondowoso revenue. J For Sci Avic. 2019;2(2):21–30.

Piper betle L. PIPERACEAE Marina Silalahi

Synonyms Artanthe hexagyna Miq.; Betela mastica Raf.; Chavica betle (L.) Miq.; Chavica blumei Miq.; Chavica chuvya Miq.; Chavica densa Miq.; Chavica siriboa (L.) Miq.; Cubeba melamiri Miq.; Cubeba seriboa Miq.; Macropiper potamogetonifolium (Opiz) Miq.; Piper anisodorum Blanco; Piper bathicarpum C.DC.; Piper bidentatum Stokes; Piper blancoi Merr.; Piper blumei (Miq.) Backer; Piper canaliculatum Opiz; Piper carnistilum C.DC.; Piper densum Blume; Piper fenixii C.DC.; Piper macgregorii C.DC.; Piper malamiri Blume; Piper malamiris L.; Piper malarayatense C.DC.; Piper marianum Opiz; Piper philippinense C.DC.; Piper pinguispicum C.DC. & Koord.; Piper potamogetonifolium Opiz; Piper puberulinodum C.DC.; Piper rubroglandulosum Chaveer. & Mokkamul; Piper saururus Burm.; Piper siriboa L.; Piperi betlum (L.) St.-Lag.

Local Names Burma: Kun, kunyoe, kwan, kwanynet, kwonrwet. Cambodia: mlou (bunong), mlow, phoo kiau (Khmer). Indonesia: sirih (general), belo (Batak Karo), base (Bali), burangir/siriah (Minang), burangir (Batak Mandailing), deling (Sanger), demban (Simalungun), gapura, siri, sirih (Bugis), napuran (Batak Toba), sirieh, siri, suruh (Palembang), seureuh (Sundanese), utta (Loli). Malyasia: sirih, serih, sirih, sirih china, siri hudang, siri malaya. Myanmar: bu, buru (Kachin), kun, pu (Shan). Philippines: buyo (Tagabawa), gawed (Luzon), gawet, hapid, lawed M. Silalahi (*) Prodi Pendidikan Biologi, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia Biology Education Department, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, West Jakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_92

889

890

M. Silalahi

(Kalanguya), hojas de buyo, poro, thalon (Subanen), ikmo (Tagalog), samuh (Batan). Thailand: plu (general). Vietnam: trâ’u không (general), trau khong, trau, chrau (central Vietnam), trˆau khˆong, trau (Nho Quan). English: betel, betel pepper, betel vine (Abe and Ohtani 2013; Angagan et al. 2010; Arambewela and Alagiyawanna 2006; Balangcod and Balangcod 2011; Chaveerach et al. 2006; DeFilipps and Krupnick 2008; Des et al. 2018; Dwinanto et al. 2019; Pandiangan et al. 2019; Pizon et al. 2016; Putri et al. 2014a; Sam et al. 2008; Waay-Juico et al. 2017; Silalahi et al. 2019; Sota and Tetsuo 2011; Trinh et al. 2003; Vlkova et al. 2010).

Botany and Ecology Description: Dioecious, climber. Stem stout with pinkish stripe along, node dilated and rooting. Petiole 2–2.5 cm long; leaf blade fleshy coriaceous, glabrous, greenish or yellowish, broadly ovate, 7–8.5 cm wide, 9–11 cm long; apex acuminate; base cordate; veins 7–9, elevating beneath, two or three pairs basal, one pair arising from midrib. Male spike cylindric, slender, pendulous, 3–12 cm long, ca. 0.5 cm in diameter; peduncle 2–3 cm long; bract orbicular, peltate; stamens 2. Female spike cylindric, pendulous, 2.5–4 cm long, ca. 0.5 cm in diameter; peduncle 2–3 cm long; bract orbicular, peltate; stigmas 4–6, pubescent (Fig. 1). Fruiting spike 3–5 cm long; drupe embedded on rachis (Chaveerach et al. 2006, 2008). Phenology: Piper betle (PB) flowers and fruits throughout the year (Chaveerach et al. 2008). Distribution and Habitat: Found throughout the seven floristic regions of Thailand from 100 to 900 m.a.s.l. altitude (Chaveerach et al. 2006). Distributed from Thailand to China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and Madagascar (Chaveerach et al. 2008).

Local Medicinal Uses Cambodia: The leaves and roots are used by the people in the Mondulkiri Province to cure sprain, backache, burn, postpartum dan sprain. To cure sprain, the leaves and root decoction are soaked in water along with seeds of Areca catechu and Scoparia dulcis, applied on the affected limb (Chassagne et al. 2016). Indonesia: Some ethnic groups such as Batak, Malay, Kupang, and Sanger in Indonesia utilize the species in traditional medicine, for treating various ailments. The decoction of leaves is used for preventing body odor and for treating diarrhea, sore throat, and skin allergies by Bali Aga ethnic (Sujarwo et al. 2014). The Sanger ethnic community uses leaves to treat eye infection, fever, internal disease, and child healthcare (Pandiangan et al. 2019). The Batak Simalungun community uses leaves to treat itching, sores, edema, malnutrition, fever, and eye infections (Silalahi et al. 2015a), whereas the local communities in Kupang use it as an antimalarial (Ihwan and Koda 2017). The Malay ethnic group in Riau Islands use the leaves to treat mouth sores, eliminate

Piper betle L.

891

Fig. 1 Piper betle L. (Piperaceae). Jakarta, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

bad breath, stop bleeding, cleanse the female genital organs, and ward off evil spirits (Putri et al. 2014b). Malaysia: People in Penisular Malaysia chew leaves to treat malaria (Al-Adhroey et al. 2010). Myanmar: Piper betle leaves have considered as bitter, astringent, and hot in taste, known for whetting the appetite, reducing phlegm, controlling flatulence, promoting vitality and virility, neutralizing poison, supporting heart and bowel functions, and curing coughs and heart disease. Children are given a mixture of honey and the juice from the crushed leaves to cure indigestion, gas, diarrhea, fevers, and other illnesses. Juice from crushed leaves is consumed with milk for emotional distress related to the menstrual cycle. A mixture of the juice from the crushed leaves, rock salt, and a ginger decoction is used to treat asthma, chest pain, indigestion, and whooping cough. Leaf extract is applied as eyedrops for night blindness, sore or inflamed eyes, and other eye problems. A leaf decoction made with turmeric and a bit of salt is taken for fevers and illnesses. Roasted leaves are applied with coconut oil as compresses on the soft spots of children’s heads to cure runny noses. A leaf decoction mixed with jaggery and salt is taken for fever caused by heat stroke. Apium graveolens seeds wrapped in P. betle leaf, is chewed and held in the mouth to treat both dry coughs and coughs with mucus (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2008). Philippines: Local people in Batan Island use leaves to treat abdominal pain, backache, body pain, cough, fever, headache, and in mental health

892

M. Silalahi

(stunned people) (Abe and Ohtani 2013). Leaves are heated and rubbed over body of the patient to treat jaundice (Fajardo et al. 2017). Local communities in Iloilo use the leaves use to cure fever, headache, and musculoskeletal disorders (Tantiado 2012). The local communities in Benguet province use leaves to treat respiratory ailments such as cough, fever, cold, sore throat, and asthma. Leaves are heated, mixed with coconut oil and applied over upper back to treat cough (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011). People in Batan Island use leaves to treat cough (rubbed fresh or leaves steamed with coconut oil and then applied over the chest and back), body pain, backache (applied fresh, heated or steamed leaves), fever, and headache (applied on forehead as a cool compress) (Abe and Ohtani 2013). Local people in Agusan del Sur use the leaves to treat asthma, flatulence and associated pains, cough, colic, ulcer, and injury (Arquion et al. 2015). Fruits, leaves and root decoction are used by the Tagabawa tribe of Barangay Jose Rizal Sta. Cruz, Davao del Sur, to cure cough, hypertension, fever, and gastrointestinal ailments (Waay-Juico et al. 2017). Kalanguya tribe in Luzon heat the leaves, mix it with coconut oil and apply on chest and back during cough and fever to loosen phlegm (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011). Thailand: Throughout Thailand, leaves are believed to act as stomach tonic, expectorant for coughs, and efficient to treat asthma, bronchitis, and flatulence (Chaveerach et al. 2006). Vietnam: Leaves are crushed, and the paste is applied on affected parts to treat cuts and wounds by the local communities around the Ben En National Park (Sam et al. 2008).

Phytochemistry Leaves: Betel leaves are rich in essential oil, especially eugenol and acetyl eugenol (Prakash et al. 2010). Rekha et al. (2014) reported the presence of chavibetol, chavibetol acetate, caryophyllene, allylpyrocatechol diacetate, campene, chavibetol methyl ether, eugenol, α-pinene, β-pinene, ɤ-limonene, sapo, 1–8-cineol, and allylpyrocatechol monoacetate in leaves. Leaves contain pipercerebrosides A and B (Chen et al. 2013). The chloroform extract of leaves contain hydroxyclavol (Ali et al. 2010), while chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts contain phenolic, fatty acids, amino acids, sugars, and polyols (Karak et al. 2019). Hossain et al. (2017) found the leaves to contain vitamins, minerals, and enzymes that help in digestion and also act as mouth freshener. Roots: The root contains dimer hydroxychavicol, 2-(γ0 -hydroxychavicol)-hydroxychavicol, hydroxychavicol, aristololactam A II, aristololactam B II, piperolactam A, and cepharadione A (Lin et al. 2013). Leaf eugenol has anti-aflatoxin (Prakash et al. 2010), and apoptotic activities (Chakraborty et al. 2012), while hydroxichaviol has antifungal activity against Candida and Aspergillus (Ali et al. 2010). Leaf extract inhibits the growth of Aspergillus flavus (Prakash et al. 2010), Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus pumalis, Candida albicans, and Escherichia coli (Tin 2011). Ethanol extract shows activity against skin disease causing microbes such as Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton mentagrophyte,

Piper betle L.

893

and Candida albicans (Trakranrungsie et al. 2008). Ethanol extracts inhibit the growth of Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Candida glabrata, Candida dubliniensis, Candida lusitaniae, Candida krusei and Candida parapsilosis (Himratul-Aznita et al. 2011). The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of betel leaves hydroxicavicol is 15.62–500 μg/ml for Candida and 125–500 μg/ml for Aspergillus (Ali et al. 2010). Methanol extract of leaves show anti-leishmanial activity against Leishmania donovani (Misra et al. 2009). Ethanol extract of leaves is active against bacteria that are resistant to methicillin (Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus), vancomycin (Klebsiella pneumoniae), and carbapenems (Acinetobacter baumannii) (Valle et al. 2016).

Local Food Uses Cambodia: Ethnic people in Prey Veng province use dried leaves as starter for rice fermentation (Sota and Tetsuo 2011). Indonesia: Balinese cook the leaves and add to vegetable soups (Sujarwo et al. 2014). Thailand: The local communities in Samut Songkram province use leaves as vegetable (Sudjaroen 2012). Vietnam: Local people in Phong leaves use leaves as spice and vegetable (Vlkova et al. 2010)

Biocultural Importance Piper betle is a culturally important plant for all countries of South East Asia. The habitual chewing of betel quid (areca nut, betel leaf, tobacco) is estimated to occur among 600 million persons in Asia and the Asia-Pacific Region (Singh et al. 2012). The preparation of a betel quid generally involves the combination of slaked lime with two plant products: the seed of Areca catechu and the leaf of P. betle. The betel chew carries deep symbolic connotations and has long played a role in the social fabric of many Asian cultures. The ingredient common to almost all masticatory mixtures referred to as “betel chew” is the fruit of A. catechu, slaked lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2) is the second essential ingredient of the betel chew (Zumbroich 2007–2008). Laos: P. betle leaf has been used by most ethnic group in Laos in betel chewing and ceremonies. The Laotian betel quid (package) commonly consists of betel leaves, areca nut, slaked lime, astringent bark, and tobacco. In Luang Prabang, betel chewers from affluent families color their lime with curcuma (Curcuma longa). The astringent matter used in the betel quid is the bark of Pentace burmanica, Careva arborea, Artocarpus rigidus, and Artocarpus asperulus. It is believed that without the offering of a betel quid, the effectiveness of the prayers of Mo masters (a kind of medium) evaporates completely. Wedding go-betweens of the P’unoi people usually bring a jar of raw rice beer, betel leaves, whole areca nuts, and Artocarpus (puo’c hát) bark slices as presents for the bridal family (Hiên and Reichart 2011). Indonesia: Various ethnic groups in Indonesia such as Ngadha (Sada and Jumari 2018), Malays (Putri et al. 2014b), Palembang (Mubarat 2016), Loli (Dwinanto et al. 2019), and Karo Batak ethnics (Silalahi 2014) have betel

894

M. Silalahi

Fig. 2 For the Karo ethnic woman, chewing betel is a cultural practice North Sumatra. Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

chewing traditions (Fig. 2). The seed of A. catechu and betel leaf are the main ingredients in betel chewing with diverse other ingredients. Indonesian heritage related to the tradition of betel chewing includes tepak sirih (Salleh 2014; Mubarat 2016), tari makan sirih/betel chewing dance (Putri et al. 2014b), naha nafo (Diansyah and Harefa 2019), and kuolaka (Dwinanto et al. 2019). The tepak sirih is a place or container (like a box) made from gold, copper, or carved wood (Salleh 2014), for placing betel chewing materials during traditional Malay ethnic ceremonies (Putri et al. 2014b; Mubarat 2016). Tari makan sirih or betel chewing dance is a dance of ethnic Malay to welcome distinguished guests (Putri et al. 2014b). The naha nofo is a container of Nias ethnic community (North Sumatra) to store betel material; it is one of the historical objects displayed in the Nias Heritage Museum (Diansyah and Harefa 2019). The kuolaka is a container for betel used during Loli traditional ceremonies in West Sumba, which is made of woven Pandanus or palm (Borassus flabellifer) leaves (Dwinanto et al. 2019). The Ngadha ethnic community in East Nusa Tenggara Province use P. betle leaves for betel chewing and in offering during traditional ceremonies along with Areca catechu seeds as a symbol of kinship and brotherhood (Sada and Jumari 2018). For the Malay community in Palembang, betel is a compulsory dish to welcome guests during traditional ceremonies (Mubarat 2016). Malays people in Riau Islands use betel leaf in various ceremonies such as marriage, engagements, and 7-month ceremonies for pregnant women (ceremonies leading to childbirth) (Putri et al. 2014b). In Malay wedding ceremony, betel leaf is one of the materials that must be given by the groom’s family to the bride’s family (Putri et al. 2014b). The local community of Sobawawi, Loli, in West Sumba use betel inflorescence as an ingredient for betel chewing. The inflorescence, areca nuts and lime are placed in the kuolaka as main ingredient in traditional ceremonies (Dwinanto et al. 2019). P. betle leaves are irreplaceable in the panca yadnya ceremonies of Balinese Hindus (Fig. 3). The panca (five) yadnya (holy offerings) is a ceremony offered to the Gods, fellow humans, deceased humans, Hindu saints,

Piper betle L.

895

Fig. 3 Piper betle L. (Piperaceae) is used in offerings at Hindu rituals in Bali Island, Indonesia. (© IGA. Sawitri)

and to the elements of nature (Surata et al. 2015). The Batak Simalungun sub-ethnic in North Sumatra use leaves uses as a cultural symbol for Gereja Kristen Protestan Simalungun (GKPS), their local church (Silalahi et al. 2015a). Leaves used in religious rituals by Balinese communities (Putri et al. 2014a). Leaves are used in birth and wedding ceremonies, which have philosophical values such as brotherhood and strong kinship, and love by Mandailing, Minangkabau (Des et al. 2018), whereas the Bugis, Palembang and Batak ethnic communities use the leaves in wedding ceremonies (Aziz et al. 2019). Malaysia: Betel chewing (kunyah sireh) used to be an essential part of social intercourse and ceremonies. The local people in Malaysia used to have special tepak sirih (betel chewing containers) that are essential part of material heritage (Ahmad 2010). Other materials used in betel chewing originating in the seventeenth and eighteenth century include betel bowls, betel slicer, and bowls to store lime. Serving sireh (P. betle) was an essential part of almost all ceremonies including royal feastings (Ahmad 2010). Thailand: Piper betle leaf is one of the most important materials used in Thai ceremonies. This stems from the popularity of betel chewing among Thai people. Elder people in Thailand chew the leaves with betel nut and lime as a gentle stimulant and exhilarant. In weddings, the bridegroom’s family participates in a parade which includes placing money with betel leaves in a bowl called as khan maak/kan maak, meaning “bowl of betel nuts.” This is given to the bride’s parents. It is also used in “spirit dancing”

896

M. Silalahi

Fig. 4 Piper betle L. (Piperaceae) is traded in local markets. North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© RH. Siregar (Permitted))

among the Kui ethnic group of southern part of the northeastern Thailand by the name raam phi taan. (Chaveerach et al. 2006). The Thai ethnic group living along the Mekong riverside also burn mollusk shells in order to produce the raw lime, and the slaked lime (pun), used in betel chewing (Hiên and Reichart 2011). Vietnam: Chewing of Artocarpus tonkinensis bark together with leaves of betel, and fruits of Areca catechu is a traditional custom in Vietnam (Sam 2009). The local people in Nho Quan chew betel leaves with fruits of A. catechu, and limestone during traditional wedding ceremony, to remind the new couple that husband, wife, and relatives should love and understand each other (Trinh et al. 2003). The areca nuts and betel leaves play still a significant role in modern weddings and rituals and are also used in medicine and in diverse industries. The Vietnamese were familiar with the areca palm tree (A. catechu) and its alliance, the betel vine (P. betle), from time immemorial.

Economic Importance Indonesia: Betel leaves have been traded in traditional markets of North Sumatra province as medicinal materials, betel chew, and for traditional rituals (Silalahi et al. 2015b) (Figs. 4, 5, and 6). In the past, the peddlers of herbal medicine went around selling jamu gendong, an herbal formulation that contained betel (Sumarni et al.

Piper betle L. Fig. 5 Piper betle L. (Piperaceae) is an ingredient of the jamu gendong (Javanese herbal drink). Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

Fig. 6 Jamu gendong is an herbal drink of Javanese of Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

897

898

M. Silalahi

2019). Philippines: The Sambal-Bolinao community use leaves for cleaning (Fajardo et al. 2017).

References Abe R, Ohtani K. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants and traditional therapies on Batan Island, the Philippines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145:554–65. Ahmad AT. Museum preservation and conservation of cultural heritage in the northern region of Peninsula Malaysia. ATMA. 2010;28(2):3–43. Al-Adhroey AH, Nor ZM, Al-Mekhlafi HM, Chakraborty JB, Mahato SK, Joshi K, Shinde V, Rakshit S, Biswas N, Choudhury I, Mandal L, Ganguly D, Chowdhury AA, Chaudhuri J, Paul K, Pal BC, Vinayagam J, Pal C, Manna A, Jaisankar P, Chaudhuri U, Konar A, Roy S, Bandyopadhyay S. Hydroxychavicol, a Piper betle leaf component, induces apoptosis of CML cells through mitochondrial reactive oxygen species-dependent JNK and endothe-lial nitric oxide synthase activation and overrides imatinib resistance. Cancer Sci. 2010;103:88–99. Ali I, Khan FG, Suri KA, Gupta BD, Satti NK, Dutt P, Afrin F, Qazi GN, Khan GIA. In vitro antifungal activity of hydroxy-chavicol isolated from Piper betle L. Ann Clin Microb Anti. 2010;9(7):1–9. Angagan JS, Buot IEJ, Relox RE, Rebancos CM. Ethnobotany of the plant resources in conner, Apayao, Northern Luzon, Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2010;9(1):31–8. Arambewela L, Alagiyawanna S. Sri Lankan medicinal plant monograph and analysis vol. 9: Piper betle. Colombo: National Science Foundation; 2006. Arquion RD, Galanida CC, Villamor B, Aguilar HT. Ethnobotanical study of indigenous plants used by local people of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. APHERJ. 2015;2(2):1–11. Aziz IR, Raharjeng ARP, Susilo, Nasution J. Ethnobotany of traditional wedding: a comparison of plants used by Bugis, Palembang, Sundanese and Karo ethnic in Indonesia. IOP Conf Series: J Phys Conf Ser. 2019;1175:012005. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1175/1/012005. Balangcod T, Balangcod AKD. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of plents and healthcare practices among Kalanguya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao, Luzon, Philippines. IJTK. 2011;16(2):227–38. Chakraborty JB, Mahato SK, Joshi K, Shinde V, Rakshit S, Biswas N, Choudhury I, Mandal L, Ganguly D, Chowdhury AA, Chaudhuri J, Paul K, Pal BC, Vinayagam J, Pal C, Manna A, Jaisankar P, Chaudhuri U. Konar A, Roy S, Bandyopadhyay S. Hydroxychavicol, a Piper betle leaf component, induces apoptosis of CML cells through mitochondrial reactive oxygen species-dependent JNK and endothe-lial nitric oxide synthase activation and overrides imatinib resistance. Cancer Sci 2012;103(1):88–99. Chassagne F, Hul S, Deharo E, Bourdy G. Natural remedies used by Bunong people in Mondulkiri province (Northeast Cambodia) with special reference to the treatment to 11most common ailments. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;191:41–70. Chaveerach A, Mokkamul P, Sudmoon R, Tanee T. Ethnobotany of the genus Piper (Piperaceae) in Thailand. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2006;4:223–31. Chaveerach A, Sudmoon R, Tanee T, Mokkamul P. The species diversity of the genus Piper from Thailand. Acta Phytotax Geobot. 2008;59(2):105–63. Chen DZ, Xiong HB, Tian K, Guo JM, Huang XZ, Jiang ZY. Two new Sphingolipids from the leaves of Piper betle L. Molecules. 2013;18:11241–9. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules18 0911241. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2008;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Des M, Rizki R, Hidayati H. Ethnobotany in traditional ceremony at Kanagarian Sontang Cubadak Padang Gelugur Subdistrict, Pasaman District. IOP Conf Ser Mater. 2018;335. https://doi.org/ 10.1088/1757-899X/335/1/012018. Diansyah A, Harefa WSG. Identifikasi benda-benda bersejarah di museum pusaka nias. Puteri Hijau. 2019;4(1):70–83. (In Bahasa).

Piper betle L.

899

Dwinanto A, Soemarwoto RS, Palar MRA. Budaya sirih pinang dan peluang pelestariannya di Sumba Barat, Indonesia. Patanjala. 2019;11(3):363–79. (In Bahasa). Fajardo WT, Cancino LT, Dudang EB, De Vera IA, Pambid RM, Junio AD. Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants used by indigenous Sambal-Bolinao of Pangasinan, Philippines. PSU J Nat Allied Sci. 2017;1(1):52–63. Hiên NX, Reichart PA. Betel chewing in Laos. The Newsletter. 2011;57:16. Himratul-Aznita WH, Mohd-Al-Faisal N, Fathilah AR. Determination of the percentage inhibition of diameter growth (PIDG) of Piper betle crude aqueous extract against oral Candida species. JMPR. 2011;5(6):878–84. Hossain MF, Anwar M, Akhtar S, Numan SM. Uses impact of betel leaf (Piper betle L.) on public health. SJPH. 2017;5(6):408–10. Ihwan I, Koda SHA. Antimalarial herbal plants in Kupang, Indonesia. Biosaintifika. 2017;9(1): 95–104. Karak S, Das S, Biswas M, Choudhury A, Dutta M, Chaudhury K, De B. Phytochemical composition, β-glucuronidase inhibition, and antioxidant properties of two fractions of Piper betle leaf aqueous extract. J Food Biochem. 2019;43:e13048. Lin CF, Hwang TL, Chien CC, Tu HY, Lay HL. A new Hydroxychavicol dimer from the roots of Piper betle. Molecules. 2013;18:2563–70. Misra P, Kumar A, Khare P, Gupta S, Kumar N, Dube A. Pro-apoptotic effect of the landrace Bangla Mahoba of Piper betle on Leishmania donovani may be due to the high content of eugenol. J Med Microbiol. 2009;58:1058–66. Mubarat H. Kajian bentuk dan fungsi seni kerajinan lakuer tepak sirih palembang. Besaung Jurnal Seni Desain dan Budaya. 2016;1(1):1–8. (In Bahasa). Pandiangan D, Silalahi M, Dapas F, Kandou F. Diversity of medicinal plants and their uses by and their uses by the Sanger tribe of Sangihe Islands, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(2):621–31. Pizon JRL, Nuñeza OM, Uy MM, Senarath WTPSK. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by the Subanen Tribe of Lapuyan, Zamboanga del Sur. Bull Env Pharmacol Life Sci. 2016;5(5):53–67. Prakash B, Shukla R, Singh P, Kumar A, Mishra PK, Dubey NK. Efficacy of chemically characterized Piper betle L. essential oil against fungal and aflatoxin contamination of some edible commodities and its antioxidant activity. Int J Food Microbiol. 2010;142:114–9. Putri RI, Supriatna J, Walujo EB. Ethnobotanical study of plant resource in Serangan Island, Bali. AJCB. 2014a;3(2):135–48. Putri MS, Asriati A, Indrayuda I. Makna sirih dalam tari makan sirih di Tanjung Batu Kecamatan Kundur Kabupaten Karimun Kepulauan Riau. E-Jurnal Sendratasik. 2014b;2(2):61–70. Rekha VPB, Kollipara M, Gupta BRS, Bharath Y, Pulicherla KK. A review on Piper betle L. nature’s promising medicinal reservoir. AJEthno. 2014;1(5):276–89. Sada M, Jumari J. Etnobotani tumbuhan upacara adat etnis Ngadha di Kecamatan Jerebu’u Kabupaten Ngada, Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur. JSLK. 2018;1(2):19–21. (In Bahasa). Salleh N. Tepak Sirih: Interpretasi dan Persepsi Dalam Masyarakat Malaysia-Indonesia. Jurnal Komunikasi Borneo. 2014;1:39–55. (In Bahasa). Sam HV. Uses and conservation of plant diversity in Ben En National Park. Vietnam. National Herbarium of The Netherlands. Leiden University Branch. 2009. Sam HV, Pieter Baas P, Keßler PJA. Traditional medicinal plants in Ben En National Park, Vietnam. Blumea. 2008;53:569–601. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651908X607521. Silalahi M. The ethnomedicine of the medicinal plants in sub-ethnic Batak North Sumatra and the conservation perspective. PhD Thesis, Biology Department, University of Indonesia 2014; 169 Silalahi M, Nisyawati, Walujo EB, Supriatna J. Local knowledge of medicinal plants in sub-ethnic Batak Simalungun of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2015a;16(1):44–54. Silalahi M, Nisyawati, Walujo EB, Supriatna J, Mangunwardoyo W. The local knowledge of medicinal plants trader and diversity of medicinal plants in the Kabanjahe traditional market, North Sumatra, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015b;175:432–43. Silalahi M, Purba EC, Mustaqim WA. Tumbuhan Bermanfaat Obat Sumatera Utara Jilid I. Dikotiledon. Jakarta: UKI Press; 2019. p. 213–4. (in Bahasa).

900

M. Silalahi

Singh PN, Natto Z, Yel D, Job J, Knutsen S. Betel quid use in relation to infectious disease outcomes in Cambodia. Int J Infect Dis. 2012;16:e262–7. Sota Y, Tetsuo T. Rice fermentation starters in Cambodia: cultural importance and traditional methods of production. J Southeast Asian Stud. 2011;42(2):192–13. Sudjaroen Y. Evaluation of ethnobotanical vegetables and herbs in Samut, Songkram province. Proc Eng. 2012;32:160–5. Sujarwo W, Keim AP, Savo V, Guarrera PM, Caneva G. Ethnobotanical study of Loloh: traditional herbal drinks from Bali (Indonesia). J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;169:34–48. Sumarni W, Sudarmin S, Sumarti SS. The scientification of jamu: a study of Indonesian’s traditional medicine. J Phys Conf Ser. 2019;321:032057. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1321/3/ 032057. Surata IK, Gata IW, Sudiana IM. Studi etnobotanik tanaman upacara Hindu Bali sebagai upaya pelestarian kearifan lokal. Jurnal Kajian Bali. 2015;05(02):265–84. (In Bahasa). Tantiado RG. Survey on Ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Iloilo. Philippines IJBSBT. 2012;4(4):11–26. Tin SM. Pharmacognostic study on the leaf of Piper betle L. Universities Research Journal. 2011;4:1):1–19. Trakranrungsie N, Chatchawan-Chonteera A, Khunkitti W. Ethnoveterinary study for antidermatophytic activity of Piper betle, Alpinia galanga and Allium ascalonicum extracts in vitro. Res Vet Sci. 2008;84:80–4. Trinh LN, Watson JW, Huec NN, Ded NN, Minhe NV, Chuf P, Sthapit BR, Eyzaguirre PB. Agrobiodiversity conservation and development in Vietnamese home gardens. Agric Ecosyst Environ. 2003;97:317–44. Valle Jr DL, Puzon JJM, Cabrera EC, Rive WL. Thin layer chromatography-bioautography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of antimicrobial leaf extracts from Philippine Piper betle L. against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Evid-Based Compl Alt. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1155/ 2016/4976791. Vlkova M, Polesny Z, Verner V, Banout J, Dvorak M, Havlik J, Lojka B, Ehl P, Krausova J. Ethnobotanical knowledge and agrobiodiversity in subsistence farming: case study of home gardens in Phong My commune, central Vietnam. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2010. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10722-010-9603-3. Waay-Juico MC, Cortuna GE, Evangelista SHM, Gatal RRD, Licuanan CIKS, Tapia FJC. Ethnobotanical practices of Tagabawa tribe on selected medicinal plants at Barangay Jose Rizal Sta. Cruz, Davao del Sur, Philippines. JOCAMR. 2017;4(3):1–12. Zumbroich TJ. The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond. eJournal Indian Med Vol. 2007–2008;1:87–140.

Piper decumanum L. PIPERACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Steffensia schlechtendalii Kunth

Local Names Philippines: Lunas (Bisaya), lunas bagon tapol (Minanubu).

Botany and Ecology Large branchlet woody climbers, dioecious, completely glabrous lianas (Figs. 1 and 2). Leaves alternate, deciduous, ovate, often rugose lamina with acute to bluntly acuminate apex, asymmetrically cordate to auriculate base, and usually shorter than the auricular base, sheathing at the lower half petioles; stipules large, persistent; petiole 2–7 cm long; leaf blades more than 25 cm long without a unilateral lobule, usually green in adaxial and purplish-red in abaxial, venation palmate-pinnate. Apex of petiole never with an ant-sac. Stem green, red-brown, or dark purple and looks jointed due to the swollen nodes, young stem 1–3 cm in diameter, and >3 cm in diameter when mature. Female spikes more than 25 cm long but not exceeding 1 cm in diameter, even in fruit. Fruitlets free but crowded, 1–1.5 mm diameter. Stigmas 2 (or 3), about as wide as long, borne on a tapering style ca. 1 mm long. P. decumanum is native to Asia-Tropical. The distribution in Philippine Islands, Celebes, Moluccas, and New Guinea was recorded by Chew during the Royal M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_195

901

902

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Habit of Piper decumanum (a), showing distinct colors in adaxial (b) and abaxial (c) sides of the leaf. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Fig. 2 Piper decumanum showing distinct colors on each side of the leaf (a), size of the mature stem (b), and harvested stems by the Agusan Manobo in the Philippines (c). (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Society Expedition to the Solomon Islands in 1965 (Chew 1972). P. decumanum is considered an indigenous species in medium elevation forests in the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards) particularly in Leyte (Mt. Cabalian), Lanao del Sur (Camp Keithley), Bukidnon (Sumilao), Agusan del Norte (Mt Hilong-hilong, previously Mt. Urdaneta), and Agusan del Sur (Mt. Ararat and Mt. Pinagalaan). This robust climber thrives in forests at medium altitude (Quisumbing 1930). Phenology of this plant remains unknown as the locals in Agusan province have not observed its flowering season resulting in the absence of reproductive parts upon collection. Dapar et al. (2020a) recorded P. decumanum as a sterile species which was confirmed to be indigenous based on molecular and phylogenetic analysis of 45 Asian Piper species coupled with constituent and cytotoxicity evaluation. Due to the high number of Piper species in Southeast Asia, vegetative identification up to the species level could be difficult. Careful observation of reproductive parts like fruits and infructescence of Piper species are essential for morphological identification (Suwanphakdee and Chantaranothai 2011), which can be further confirmed by

Piper decumanum L.

903

evaluating its chemical composition, and molecular data for accurate species identification (Sanubol et al. 2014).

Local Medicinal Uses Piper decumanum is a popular medicinal plant among the Manobo tribe in Agusan del Sur, Philippines. The Agusan Manobo call it as lunas meaning cure in Bisaya and Minanubu languages (Dapar et al. 2020a). The mature stem is the only medicinal plant part used for medicine, as shown in Fig. 2b, c, which can either be applied externally, or ingested. Drinking the local alcohol-tinctured stem of P. aduncum is an effective remedy against typhoid fever, cancer, cyst, tumor, pulmonary tuberculosis, diarrhea, stomach trouble, ulcer, gas pain, flatulence, and poisoning. This administration can be done once a day for 3 days in a week or as needed using 1/2 to 1 glass to avoid possible side effects. Excess intake is known to cause intestinal weakening as experienced by the Agusan Manobo (Dapar et al. 2020b). The alcohol-tinctured stem can also be gargled to treat tonsillitis, toothache, gum swelling, and canker sore, once or twice a day or as needed with no side effects. P. decumanum could be administered topically by applying the coconut or efficascent oil-infused stem entirely on the affected part of the body. Coconut oil infusion is the most commonly used preparation to treat various diseases and infections, while efficascent oil infusion is often rubbed to alleviate several pains and aches. Among external conditions healed by P. decumanum are scabies, warts, impetigo, boils, skin eruptions, skin rashes and itchiness, pimple, acne, arthritis, rheumatism, swellings, muscle pain, backache, body ache, gas pain, flatulence, allergy, burns, cuts and wounds, sprain, bites (snake, dog, and insect), and contacts with plants or animal parts; and can be applied as an anesthetic (Dapar et al. 2020b). The external application can be applied once or twice a day or as needed, with no experienced adverse or reported side effects. Dapar et al. (2020b) also demonstrated the high fidelity of using P. decumanum as an effective anesthetic among the Agusan Manobo. The Agusan Manobo in Sibagat, Philippines, have historically inhabited an area known for conflicts, which made it necessary for them to develop plant-based remedies to treat burns, cuts, wounds, and injuries (Dapar et al. 2020c). The findings showed the utilization of P. decumanum as an ethnomedicinal report for cuts and wounds to date has only been reported among the Agusan Manobo in Mindanao, Philippines. The preparation of this remedy is by infusing the stem with coconut oil and administering it by directly applying on cuts and wounds.

Phytochemistry Salehi et al. (2019) comprehensively reviewed the phytochemistry, biological activities, and applications of Piper species demonstrating several phytochemicals and essential oils. These compounds are strongly antioxidant and active antimicrobial

904

M. L. G. Dapar

agents. Piper species are abundant in alkaloids possessing cytotoxic compounds like piperine (Li et al. 2011) and piplartine (Raja Mazlan et al. 2018) as potential anticancer agents. P. decumanum was previously identified as Lunasia sp. by Dapar and Demayo (2017) who speculated it to be a possible variety of Lunasia amara Blanco having similar biological and biochemical properties and folk medical uses. Dapar et al. (2018) investigated this medicinal plant revealing its antimicrobial properties, cellular metabolic inhibitory activity against normal splenocytes, and its bioactive compounds. Antimicrobial results showed P. decumanum extracts as effective antibacterial with its ability to inhibit selected Gram-positive (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella typhimurium) bacterial isolates. Results from the in vitro MTT assay of splenocyte proliferation revealed that P. decumanum extracts would not inhibit cellular metabolism of the splenocytes at doses lower than 100.0 ug/ml. The absence of cyanogenic glycosides and anthraquinones may explain the lack of toxic compounds in the ethanolic extracts while the presence of its essential oils as revealed using GC-MS analysis may contribute to its potential bioactivity other than their uses as antimicrobials. The constituents present and cytotoxic properties were also evaluated (Dapar et al. 2020a), which showed P. decumanum as a promising indigenous plant species. It possesses several phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, tannins, and fatty acids. Also, cytotoxic activity test using the trypan blue exclusion method against normal lymphocytes from human blood showed low toxicity.

Biocultural Importance The cultural tradition of Agusan Manobo in using the coconut oil-infused stem for local anesthetic purposes has significant applications. This traditional preparation is commonly used in cases of tribal surgical operations such as male circumcision, gunshot wounds, toothache, burns, injuries, lacerations, and other types of cuts and wounds. Interestingly, the tribal healers practice bringing a portion of the vine as effective snake-repellent, which is said to be very useful when passing the woods infested with venomous snakes. It was also noted that the stem extract is a potent antidote against several types of poisoning and envenomation among the tribal community (personal observation).

References Chew WL. The genus Piper (Piperaceae) in New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Australia. J Arnold Arbor. 1972;53(1):1–25. Dapar MLG, Demayo CG. Folk medical uses of Lunas Lunasia amara Blanco by the Manobo people, traditional healers and residents of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Sci Int (Lahore). 2017;29(4):823–6.

Piper decumanum L.

905

Dapar MLG, Demayo CGD, Senarath WTPSK. Antimicrobial and cellular metabolic inhibitory properties of the ethanolic extract from the bark of ‘Lunas-Bagon’ (Lunasia sp.). Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2018;9:88–97. https://doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.9(1).88-97. Dapar MLG, Demayo CG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Molecular confirmation, constituents and cytotoxicity evaluation of two medicinal Piper species used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Phytochem Lett. 2020a;36:24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.phytol.2020.01.017. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020b;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res App. 2020c;19:31. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18. Li S, Lei Y, Jia Y, Li N, Wink M, Ma Y. Piperine, a piperidine alkaloid from Piper nigrum re-sensitizes P-gp, MRP1 and BCRP dependent multidrug resistant cancer cells. Phytomedicine. 2011;19(1):83–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2011.06.031. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Piperaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Piperaceae.html. Accessed 10 May 2020. Quisumbing E. Philippine Piperaceae. Philipp J Sci. 1930;43:1–246, pl. 1–24. Raja Mazlan R, Rukayadi Y, Maulidiani M, Ismail IS. Solvent extraction and identification of active anticariogenic metabolites in Piper cubeba L. through 1H-NMR-based metabolomics approach. Molecules. 2018;23(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23071730. Salehi B, Zakaria ZA, Gyawali R, Ibrahim SA, Rajkovic J, Shinwari ZK, Khan T, Sharifi-Rad J, Ozleyen A, Turkdonmez E, Valussi M, Tumer TB, Fidalgo LM, Martorell M, Setzer WN. Piper species: a comprehensive review on their phytochemistry, biological activities and applications. Molecules. 2019;24(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24071364. Sanubol A, Chaveerach A, Sudmoon R, Tanee T, Liehr T. Verification of selected Piper species (Piperaceae) using morphological characters, molecular data, and chemical constituents. Malay Nat J. 2014;66(3):60–81. Suwanphakdee C, Chantaranothai P. A new species and three taxonomic changes in Piper (Piperaceae) from Thailand. Blumea. 2011;56:235–9. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651911X607338.

Piper sarmentosum Roxb. PIPERACEAE Kreni Lokho and F. Merlin Franco

Synonyms Chavica hainana C.DC., Chavica sarmentosa (Roxb.) Miq., Peperomia sarmentosa (Roxb.) A.Dietr., Piper albispicum C.DC., Piper allenii C.DC., Piper baronii C. DC., Piper gymnostachyum C.DC., Piper hainana (C.DC.) K.Schum., Piper lolot C. DC., Piper pierrei C.DC., Piper saigonense C.DC., Piper siassiense C.DC., Piper zamboangae C.DC. (POWO 2019).

Local Names Brunei Darussalam: Sirih kaduk Malaysia: bohuton (Dusun Tambunan), cabai, kadok batu, sirih duduk, kadok. Indonesia: karuk (Sundanese), cabean (Javanese), sirih tanah (Moluccas), wane (Nuaulu), sesaer, kaduk, belokar (Bahasa Indonesia). Philippines: patai-butu (Sulu province). Cambodia: môrech ansai. Thailand: chaplu (Central Thailand), nom wa (Peninsular Thailand), phlu ling (Northern Thailand), phak khae, phakiloet. Vietnam: la lot, tiêu lốt, tat phắt. Laos: phak i leut.

Botany and Ecology Botanical Descriptions: A herbaceous plant with creeping habit, growing to about 10 m high (Fig. 1); dioecious. Fertile stems are more or less erect. Petiole measures about 2–5 cm and is finely powdery pubescent. Leaf blades ovate to suborbicular K. Lokho (*) Department of Botany, Madras Christian College, Chennai, India F. M. Franco Institute of Asian Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Negara Brunei Darussalam e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_150

907

908

K. Lokho and F. M. Franco

Fig. 1 Habit of Piper sarmentosum Roxb. (© F. Merlin Franco)

toward the base of the plant, smaller and ovate or ovate-lanceolate towards the apex; measures about 7–14  6–13 cm wide, more or less membranous, powdery pubescent along the leaf veins on the abaxial side, and glabrous on the adaxial side. Leaf base are cordate to rounded, often cuneate on apical branches which are more or less symmetric, the leaf apex is acute. Leaves show seven veins, prominent on the abaxial side; reticulate veins are conspicuous. Spikes are borne opposite to leaves; male spikes are white, measuring about 1.5–2.5 cm  2–3 mm. The peduncle reaches as long as the spikes. Rachis is pubescent. Bracts are transversely elliptic, measuring about 0.5–0.6 mm, peltate and more or less sessile. Stamens 2; filaments are twice the length of anthers. Anthers are subglobose. Female spikes larger than male ones; measure about 2–5( 8) cm, to 8 mm thick in fruit. Rachis is glabrous. Bracts are suborbicular and peltate, measures about 1–1.3 mm in diameter. Stigmas 3–5, and hispidulous. Drupes are subglobose, 4-angled and measures about 2.5–3 mm (Fig. 2). Flowering occurs during April to November (efloras 2008). Habitat and Distributions: Native to Andaman Islands, Cambodia, China SouthCentral, China Southeast, Hainan, Laos, Malaya, Philippines, Tibet, Vietnam (POWO 2019). Also reported from Myanmar, Malaysia, and Indonesia (Hussain et al. 2011). In Borneo, it is found growing from the lowlands up to hill mixed dipterocarps forests. In Thailand, it is found growing in the altitudinal range of 100– 1000 m.a.s.l. (Chaveerach et al. 2006).

Local Medicinal Uses Brunei Darussalam: A decoction made from aerial parts is administered orally as tonic for general health (Kamsani et al. 2020). Malaysia: Leaf decoction is used for treating malaria, coughs, flu, and rheumatism (Rahman et al. 2014). Leaf decoction is used for treating cough, headache, back pain, and arthritis; root decoction used for treating menstrual pain and improve urination (Azlina et al. 2011). In Kaingaran village of Sabah, leaves are used for relieving caterpillar stings (Kulip et al. 2005). In

Piper sarmentosum Roxb.

909

Fig. 2 Infructescence of Piper sarmentosum Roxb. (© F. Merlin Franco)

Malaysia and Indonesia, the leaves and roots are used for toothache, fungal dermatitis on the feet, cough, asthma, and pleurisy (Rukachaisirikul et al. 2004). The Malay people of Gemencheh in Negeri Sembilan use the crushed leaves in traditional bath for treating kidney stone (Ong and Norzalina 1999). Thailand: In the Upper North-eastern Thailand, leaf decoction is used to treat paralysis (Chamratpan and Homchuen 2005). Vietnam: The K’Ho-Cil people of Lam Dong Province, Vietnam, use the whole plant for the treatment of diarrhea, toothache; leaves are used for hypertension (Nguyen et al. 2020). Indonesia: Leaves are used for treating toothache in Narmada, West Lombok (Rahayu and Andini 2019). Leaves are used for treating cough in the Wonoharjo Village of West Java (Nisyapuri et al. 2018). The Karonese people of North Sumatra use leaves for relieving itching (Aththorick and Berutu 2018). The people of Dukuh Cultural Village in Garut Regency, West Java, use leaves for treating asthma (Hidayat et al. 2010). The roots are chewed to alleviate cough, asthma, and toothache; the leaves are used for mitigating chest pain (Wiart 2006).

Phytochemistry Whole Plant: Water extract has hypoglycemic effect on diabetic rats (Peungvicha et al. 1998). Leaves: In lab grown rats, leaf extract demonstrated ability to decrease lipid peroxidation, and regulate glutathione peroxidase activity which reduces oxidative stress on lungs (Azlina et al. 2011). Methanolic extract from leaves shows considerable anti-inflammatory activity against paw edema in rats (Ridtitid et al. 2007). Extract shows significant results in reducing atherosclerosis in rabbits (Amran et al. 2010). Extract shows high proliferative activities for wound closing in Human gingival fibroblasts (Rahman et al. 2014). A toxicological study on aqueous extract found subacute toxicity in rats for treating diabetes (Zainudin et al. 2013); The aqueous extract inhibits the expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in human

910

K. Lokho and F. M. Franco

umbilical vein endothelial cells (Ugusman et al. 2011); aqueous extract also shows opioid-mediated anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity (Zakaria et al. 2010). Methanolic extract shows significant results in blocking neuromuscular activity in rat phrenic nerve-hemidiaphragm preparations (Ridtitid et al. 1998). Chloroform extract exhibited considerable anti-malarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum (in vitro) and Plasmodium berghei (in vivo) (Rahman et al. 1999). Fruits: Pellitorine and sarmentine from ethanol extract have good oral bioavailability in rats (Hussain et al. 2011). Root: Extract possesses anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and antipyretic activities (Sireeratawong et al. 2010). Methanol extract at 1000 mg per day has 40% success for caecal amoebiasis (Sawangjaroen et al. 2004). Extensive literature compilations on phytochemistry of Piper sarmentosum has been carried out by Hussain et al. (2012) and Ismail et al. (2018). The plant owes its antioxidant activity to its bioactive compounds such as polyphenols and flavonoids, which in turn imparts anti-hypertension, anti-cancer, and anti-diabetes properties to the plant. (Ismail et al. 2018). The plant has antibacterial, antimycobacterial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, larvicidal, antineoplastic, antipsychotic, antiprotozoal, antiangiogenic, antiviral, fracture-healing, and allelopathic properties (Hussain et al. 2012).

Local Food Uses Leaves of P. sarmentosum are widely used as a vegetable. Leaves are stir-fried by the local communities in Sesaot and surrounding villages of West Nusa Tenggara Province in Indonesia (Hidayat 2017). In Malaysia and Indonesia, leaves are cooked into a side dish known as Ulam (Hussain et al. 2012). In Thailand, tender leaves are used for preparing a soup called kaeng khae; leaves are used as a flavoring and aromatic agent; leaves are also eaten as vegetable (Chaveerach et al. 2006). In Laos and Vietnam, the leaves are used as a flavoring wrapper for grilling meat for thịt bò nướng lá lốt (Mcgee 2004). Khmer people of Banteay Meanchey province of Cambodia use roots as rice wine starters (Yamamoto 2016). Leaves are used as condiment in many South Asian Countries (Raman et al. 2012).

References Amran AA, Zakaria Z, Othman F, Das S, Raj S, Nordin NA. Aqueous extract of Piper sarmentosum decreases atherosclerotic lesions in high cholesterolemic experimental rabbits. Lipids Health Dis. 2010;9:44. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-511X-9-44. Aththorick TA, Berutu T. Ethnobotanical study and phytochemical screening of medicinal plants on Karonese people from North Sumatra, Indonesia. International Conference on Science and Technology. 2018;1116: 052008. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1116/5/ 052008/pdf. Azlina MFN, Kamisah Y, Rahman F, Faizah O. Piper sarmentosum Roxb protects lungs against oxidative stress induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats. J Med Plants Res. 2011;5(26):6128–35.

Piper sarmentosum Roxb.

911

Chamratpan S, Homchuen S. Ethnobotany in upper northeastern Thailand. Acta Hortic. 2005; (675):67–74. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2005.675.8. Chaveerach A, Mokkamul P, Sudmoon R, Tanee T. Ethnobotany of the genus Piper (Piperaceae) in Thailand. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2006;4:223–31. eFloras. Published on the Internet. 2008. http://www.efloras.org. Hidayat S. The use by local communities of plants from Sesaot Protected Forest, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2017;18(1):238–47. Hidayat S, Hikmat A, Zuhud EAM. Kajian Etnobotani Masyarakat Kampung Adat Dukuh Kabupaten Garut, Jawa Barat. Media Konservasi. 2010;15(3):139–51. https://doi.org/ 10.29244/medkon.15.3.%25p. Hussain K, Ismail Z, Sadikun A, Ibrahim P. Bioactive markers based pharmacokinetic evaluation of extracts of a traditional medicinal plant, Piper sarmentosum. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2011;980760. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nep143. Hussain K, Hashmi FK, Latif A, Ismail Z, Sadikun A. A review of the literature and latest advances in research of Piper sarmentosum. Pharm Biol. 2012;50(8):1045–52. https://doi.org/10.3109/ 13880209.2011.654229. Ismail SM, Hui CK, Amelia A, Ugusman A. Piper sarmentosum as an antioxidant: a systematic review. Sains Malaysiana. 2018;47(10):2359–68. https://doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2018-4710-12. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Kulip J, Indu JP, Mison R. Ethnobotanical survey of medical plants in the village of Kaingaran in Sabah, Malaysia. J Trop Biol Conserv. 2005;1:71–7. Mcgee H. On foods and cooking: the science and Lore of the kitchen (completely revised and updated). New York: SCRIBNER; 2004. Nguyen XMA, Bun SS, Ollivier E, Dang TPT. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by K’Ho-Cil people for treatment of diarrhea in Lam Dong Province, Vietnam. J Herb Med. 2020;19:1003203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2019.100320. Nisyapuri FF, Iskandar J, Partasasmita R. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat di Desa Wonoharjo, Kabupaten Pangandaran, Jawa Barat. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2018;4(2):122–32. https://doi.org/10.13057/psnmbi/m040205. Ong HC, Norzalina J. Malay herbal medicine in Gemencheh, Negri Sembilan, Malaysia. Fitoterapia. 1999;70:10–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(98)00023-9. Peungvicha P, Thirawarapan S, Temsiririrkkul R, Watanabe H, Prasain JK, Kadota S. Hypoglycemic effect of the water extract of Piper sarmentosum in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 1998;60:27–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(97)00127-X. POWO. Plants of the world online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 12 Dec 2019. Rahayu S, Andini A. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Sesaot Forest, Narmada,West Lombok, Indonesia. Biosaintifika: J Biol Biol Edu. 2019;11(2):234–42. https://doi.org/ 10.15294/biosaintifika.v11i2.19314. Rahman NNNA, Furuta T, Kojima S, Takane K, Mohd M. Antimalarial activity of extracts of Malaysian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999;64(3):249–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0378-8741(98)00135-4. Rahman MRA, Razak FA, Bakri MM. Evaluation of wound closure activity of Nigella sativa, Melastoma malabathricum, Pluchea indica, and Piper sarmentosum extracts on scratched monolayer of human gingival fibroblasts. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2014;190342. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/190342. Raman V, Galal AM, Khan IA. An investigation of the vegetative anatomy of Piper sarmentosum, and a comparison with the anatomy of Piper betle (Piperaceae). Am J Plant Sci. 2012;3 (8):1135–44. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2012.38137. Ridtitid W, Rattanaprom W, Thaina P, Chittrakarn S, Sunbhanich M. Neuromuscular blocking activity of methanolic extract of Piper sarmentosum leaves in the rat phrenic nerve-hemidiaphragm preparation. J Ethnopharmacol. 1998;61:135–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(98)00025-7.

912

K. Lokho and F. M. Franco

Ridtitid W, Ruangsang P, Reanmongkol W, Wongnawa M. Studies of the anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities of the methanolic extract of Piper sarmentosum Roxb. leaves in rats. Songklanakarin J Sci Technol 2007;29(6):1519–26. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d206/ 08ee2bf2f8af3ae4821c27b6fe884e4d5435.pdf. Rukachaisirikul T, Siriwattanakit P, Sukcharoenphol K, Wongvein C, Ruttanaweang P, Wongwattanavuch P, et al. Chemical constituents and bioactivity of Piper sarmentosum. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;93:173–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.01.022. Sawangjaroen N, Sawangjaroen K, Poonpanang P. Effects of Piper longum fruit, Piper sarmentosum root and Quercus infectoria nut gall on caecal amoebiasis in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;91(2-3):357–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.01.014. Sireeratawong S, Vannasiri S, Sritiwong S, Arunporn I, Jaijoy K. Anti-Inflammatory, anti-nociceptive and antipyretic effects of the ethanol extract from root of Piper sarmentosum Roxb. J Med Assoc Thail 2010;93 (Suppl 7):S1–S6. http://www.thaiscience.info/Journals/Article/JMAT/ 10657670.pdf. Ugusman A, Zakaria Z, Hui CK, Nordin NAMM. Piper sarmentosum inhibits ICAM-1 and Nox4 gene expression in oxidative stress-induced human umbilical vein endothelial cells. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2011;11:31. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-11-31. Wiart C. Medicinal plants of Asia and Pacific. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2006. Yamamoto S. Ethnic fermented foods and beverages of Cambodia. In: Tamang JP, editor. Ethnic fermented foods and alcoholic beverages of Asia. India: Springer; 2016. p. 237–62. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-81-322-2800-4_10. Zainudin MM, Zakaria Z, Nordin NAMM, Othman F. Does oral ingestion of Piper sarmentosum cause toxicity in experimental animals? Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2013;705950. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/705950. Zakaria ZA, Patahuddin H, Mohamad AS, Israf DA, Sulaiman MR. In vivo anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of the aqueous extract of the leaves of Piper sarmentosum. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;128(1–2):42–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.12.021.

Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. PITTOSPORACEAE Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

Synonyms Pittosporum acuminatissimum Merr.; Pittosporum epiphyticum Merr. (POWO 2019); Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. var. orbiculatum (Madulid 2001; Pelser et al. 2011).

Local Names Philippines: Abkel, abkol, lañgis (Benguet, Igorot); sagaga (Abra, Tinglayan) (West and Brown 1920; Stuart 2016); apisang, botiak, kiligto, obkol, dael, diñgo, kabilan (Igorot); da-il (Egongot); kalapakab, pilai (Bontok) (Stuart 2016); dingo (Mountain Province (West and Brown 1920); amimis (Bikol) (Madulid 2001); hanga (Ifugao) (Medina and Ildefonso 2013); apihang (Ifugao) (Balangcod and Balangcod 2009). Indonesia: bedung (Dusun Ranau, Sabah) (Sugao 1995). English: Hanga nut, kerosene tree, resin cheesewood (Stuart 2016), petroleum nut (West and Brown 1920; Stuart 2016).

M. S. Subilla Department of Forestry and Agroforestry, Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, Bontoc, Mountain Province, Philippines Z. G. Baoanan (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_199

913

914

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Botany and Ecology Description: Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. is an evergreen aromatic tree (Fig. 1) growing up to 25–30 m at a medium rate but probably smaller in its forest habitats and perhaps even epiphytic or pseudoepiphyte (Stuart 2016), or climbing tree (Steenis-Kruseman 1972). The trees only grow up to 5–15 m based on actual observations of their growth at Mayoyao, Hungduan, Ifugao with its crown resembling a young grafted mango tree with leaves arranged into whorls (Medina and Ildefonso 2013). Bark is thin, whitish to dark brown or graying smooth, inner bark creamy pink, exudate sticky (De Guzman et al. 1986; Sugao 1995). Sapwood is pale white (Sugao 1995). Leaves of taller trees are smooth, pointed at both ends, and usually between 8 and 15 cm long (West and Brown 1920), while those of shorter trees only reach up to 7–8 cm long and 4–5 cm wide, flat and elongated with a pointed tip while the narrow end is attached to the stem; thick and shiny light green in color (young) and dark green (matured) (Medina and Ildefonso 2013); arranged alternately or spirally, margin slightly recurved when dry, rather thick, apex abruptly cuspidate; midrib slender, prominent on the lower side, flattened on the upper side, pale brown; lateral veins 7 10 pairs, flattened on upper side, raised on the lower Fig. 1 Pittosporum resiniferum tree showing the crowning of leaves. (© M.S. Subilla)

Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl.

915

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of P. resiniferum. (© M.S. Subilla)

side; intercostal veins reticulate, fine; stalks 8–18 mm long, slender, grooved on the upper side (De Guzman et al. 1986; Sugao 1995). Inflorescence (Fig. 2) is a false umbel, 1–1.5 cm long, borne on bare branches below the leaves; peduncles not conspicuous or only to about 0.5 cm long, slightly hairy (Sugao 1995). Flower is whitish, fragrant, about 1.3 cm long, short pedicelled, borne in clusters on stems (West and Brown 1920; De Guzman et al. 1986); sepals united at their lower half into a shallow cup, 1–2 mm high, apices rounded, 1–2 mm long; petals narrowly oblong, 9–12  1.5–2 mm; stamens 7–9 mm long, filaments slender, 6–7 mm long, anthers 1.5–2 mm long; ovary ellipsoid, 4–5  1.5–2 mm, sessile, densely hairy, style 2–2.5 mm long, stigma thickened (Sugao 1995), Calyx thick, corolla oblong, fruit (Fig. 3) occasionally 3-valved (Steenis-Kruseman 1972; De Guzman et al. 1986). In Malaysia, fruit infructescence is 2.5–15.24 cm with fruits ripening orange, capsule globose to ellipsoid, 1.7–2 cm long, very hard when dry, 2-valved, notched and with an abrupt tip, rounded to cordate at the base, glabrous, rugose; infructescence-stalks inconspicuous or to about 0.5 cm long, hairy to glabrous (Sugao 1995). According to Medina and Ildefonso (2013), fruits harvested at Ifugao are of two types. Fruit (type I) is small rounded nut, green in color (young) and yellow orange (matured) with an orange flesh; deep yellow orange (fully ripened).

916

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Fig. 3 Dehisced ripe fruit of P. resiniferum revealing the black seeds. (© M.S. Subilla)

Fruit (type II) is bigger, elongated, and pointed at the blossom end; green in color (young) and yellow orange (matured) with an orange flesh; deep yellow orange (fully ripened) and splits equally into two. Average size of a mature fruit is 30 mm in length and 23 mm in width; pericarp differentiated into an exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp; placentation is parietal with seeds in each locule; resin ducts associated with vascular tissues and are very abundant and fully developed in the mesocarp of the fruit; number of resin ducts in the mesocarp parallels the number of vascular bundles and appears as part of the morphological unit of the phloem (Tolentino and Zamora 2002a). About 60–70 black seeds, coated with white thick sticky resin are attached to the fruit-wall from the base to the apex of the fruit (Sugao 1995; Medina and Ildefonso 2013). Phenology: Flowers from February to April (De Guzman et al. 1986), or year round with fruiting twice a year (Medina and Ildefonso 2013). Embryology: Tolentino and Zamora (2002b) described the embryogeny of P. resiniferum using light microscopy. The earliest is the globular phase which includes all the stages after zygote formation and before initiation of cotyledons. This is followed by heart-shaped phase initiating the development of cotyledons and lastly, the torpedo-shaped including all events to full establishment of cotyledons and primary meristems. An understanding of the embryology of this important plant can serve as basis in establishing the viable stage suited for germination of the seeds on a large scale.

Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl.

917

Distribution and Habitat: Native to Borneo, Philippines (POWO 2019), and Solomon Island (Bougainville) (Steenis-Kruseman 1972). Also found in Sabah (Mt. Kinabalu), Malaysia (Sugao 1995). In the Philippines, it was discovered in 1907 at 1500 m in Mt. Sto. Tomas, Benguet, as epiphytic on small trees (Zamora 1990). It is widespread in the islands of Luzon [Ifugao, Mt. Province, Bontoc, Benguet, Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, La Union, Laguna, Zambales], Palawan, Mindoro, Catanduanes, Panay, Leyte, Iloilo, and Mindanao (De Guzman et al. 1986; Medina and Ildefonso 2013; Pelser et al. 2011; Stuart 2016). The plants are usually found on high mountain ridges and mossy forest at altitude 900–2400 m in the Philippines (West and Brown 1920; De Guzman et al. 1986). In Malaysia, the plants are found in montane forest, sometimes also at lower localities and seems to be a light-demanding species (Sugao 1995). Conservation Status: In the Philippines, the population is depleted due to logging and kaingin system (De Guzman et al. 1986), and has been recorded in the list of other threatened species (DAO 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses Stuart (2016) provided a database of folkloric uses of P. resiniferum in the Philippines. An infusion of the fruit is used as remedy for intestinal and stomach pains. An oleoresin obtained from the fruit is used externally as a cure for leprosy and other skin diseases. Petroleum gas extracted from the fruit is used for stomachache and as cicatrizant to promote wound healing. The crushed nuts, combined with coconut oil, are used to bring relief from myalgia. A decoction of the nut is used in the treatment of colds. Decoction of leaves is used for cough through oral intake while the plant sap is used to treat tinea flava (a common fungal infection also known as ringworm) particularly by the Kalanguya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao (Balangcod and Balangcod 2009, 2011). The oil extract is a potential muscle pain reliever though less effective compared to a commercial muscle pain killer (Sescon et al. 2002). Bikolanos use the plant as aphrodisiac (Medina and Ildefonso 2013).

Phytochemistry Nemethy and Calvin (1982) characterized the phytochemical properties of oil extracted from ripe fruits of P. resiniferum using capillary gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Analysis revealed the presence of n-heptane (5%), n-nonane (7%), three isomeric monoterpenes (85%), and six minor sesquiterpenes (6%). The two major monoterpenes were identified as œ-pinene (38%) and myrcene (40%). Catalytic hydrogenation of the oil (Pd on C, 1 atm) gave pinane and 2,6-dimethyloctane.

918

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

The team of Alimboyoguen (2016) was the first to isolate the triterpenes 1 and 2 using silica gel chromatography of the dichloromethane extract from the leaves of P. resiniferum. These triterpenes correspond to uvaol and erythrodiol, respectively.

Local Food Uses The fruits of P. resiniferum are inedible since they are octane rich, even richer than Jatropha curcas of India (Bengwayan 2008).

Biocultural Importance Orwa et al. (2009) documented the long history of importance of this plant in the Philippines as torch or lamp light. This tree has been known to produce high octane oil that can directly be used as fuel for lamps. During the Second World War, when the country was under the invasion of Japan, the Japanese used it to power their tanks. The oil is pressed from the nuts or seeds of the tree. It was previously reported that six trees would produce 320 l of oil per year. The oil produced is quite sticky and rapidly turns resinous when laid thin. In an open dish, it burns strongly but with a sooty flame. In 1983, the intercropping of hanga trees (taungya land-use system) with other vegetables such as pechay (Brassica chinensis), gabi (Colocasia esculenta), and Baguio beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) did not cause any undesirable shading effects for three years thus could augment the farmers’ income and food needs. This was an attempt to employ the taungya concept in promoting the planting of the hanga trees for biofuel. In Ifugao, the leaves are used as insect repellant since the crumpling induces emission of aromatic odor which is annoying to insects (Medina and Ildefonso 2013). Residents of Bauko, Mountain Province (Malanes 2011), and other tribes in the Cordillera (Bengwayan 2008; Balangcod and Balangcod 2009) see this plant as alternative biofuel for cooking, lighting, heating, and running small machines, engines, and drying because the fruit combusts easily when burned.

Economic Importance Dihydroterpene (C10H18) from nut extracts is used in perfumes, medicines, botanical pesticides, and insect repellant hence having economic potential in these aspects (Duke 1983; Stuart 2016). Likewise, heptane is a component of gasoline and has been suggested as a possible component of paint and varnish (Stuart 2016). Zamora (1990) enumerated few other uses of P. resiniferum and also propagated the plant through tissue culture. Accordingly, the fuel property of petroleum nut oil is improved by blending with other substances. The wood is also ideal source for pulp and paper, used in the manufacture of bobbins, tennis rackets, toothpicks, lollipop sticks, shuttles, and spindles. She found that explants from the leaf blade with midrib (size 6 mm by 5 mm) of very young leaf are the most effective in the

Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl.

919

tissue culture medium of 1 l Revised Murashige and Skoog’s (RMS agar medium) supplemented with BA 10 mg, NAA (0.25 mg), and 2,4-D (0.25 mg) maintained at pH 5.7 under direct light incubated at +/ 22 ° C. Further, aseptic conditions and subcultures are very important for successful tissue culture while the combination of three growth factors (auxins, NAA, 2,4-D, and cytokinin, BA) with RMS were the most effective in inducing callus formation and development. Successful propagation and admixing elements to stabilize the flammable compound present in this plant could make the plant a promising source of renewable energy (Duke 1983).

References Alimboyoguen AB, Cruz-de Castro KA, Van Altena IA, Ragasa CY. Triterpenes from Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. Int J Toxicol Pharmacl Res. 2016;8(4):261–2. Balangcod TD, Balangcod AD. Underutilized plant resources in Tinoc, Ifugao, Cordillera Administrative Region, Luzon island, Philippines. Acta Hoticulturae. 2009; https://doi.org/10.17660/ ActaHortic.2009.806.80. Balangcod TD, Balangcod AD. Ethnomedical knowledge of plants and healthcare practices among the Kalanguya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao, Luzon, Philippines, vol. 10. 2. India: NISCAIR-CSIR; 2011. p. 227–38. Bengwayan MA. Earth-Caring [Internet]. PINE TREE: Michael A. Bengwayan; 2008. NGO leads fight to conserve and protect petroleum nut. http://pinetreephill.blogspot.com/2008_12_01_ archive.html. Accessed 27 July 2020. De Guzman ED, Umali RM, Sotalbo ED. Dipterocarps; Non-dipterocarps. In: Umali RM, Zamora PM, Gotera RR, Jara RS, editors. Guide to Philippine flora and fauna, vol. 3. Quezon City: Natural Resources Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines/Goodwill Bookstore; 1986. p. 195–6. DENR Administrative Order. Updated national list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories. No. 2017-11. Quezon City: Department of Environment and Natural Resources Visayas Avenue, Diliman; 2017. Duke JA. 1983. Handbook of energy crops (unpublished). Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Purdue University. https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Pittosporum_ resiniferum.html. Accessed 7 June 2020. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Makati/Manila: Bookmark Inc.; 2001. Malanes M. Social network paves way for interest in fuel-producing tree. Inquirer.net. [Internet]. 2011 December 27. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/118235/social-network-paves-way-for-inter est-in-fuel-producing-tree. Accessed 26 July 2020. Medina L, Ildefonso R. Phenology and acclimatization trial of the hanga tree (Pittosporum resineferum). Upland Farm Journal. 2013;21(1):29–37. Nemethy EK, Calvin M. Terpenes from Pittosporaceae. Berkeley: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory & Department of Chemistry, University of California; 1982. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ 449932k8. Accessed 21 July 2020. Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Simons A. Agroforestree database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. 2009. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/af/treedb/. Accessed 20 July 2020. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Pittosporaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Pittosporaceae.html. Accessed 6 June 2020. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; 2019. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org: names:684667-1. Accessed 20 July 2020.

920

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Sescon ALS, Pilanga RML, Tarrazo GM. Preparation of ointment from hanga nut (Pittosporum resiniferum) extract as muscle pain reliever. Investigatory Project. Science and Technology Information Sheet Library. 2002. http://scinet.dost.gov.ph. Accessed 21 July 2020 Stuart, GU. Abkel, Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl., Petroleum nut. In: Philippine medicinal plants, 2016. http://www.stuartxchange.org/Abkel. Accessed 20 July 2020. Sugao JB. Pittosporaceae. In: Soepadmo E, Wong KM, editors. Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak, vol. 1. Kuala Lumpur: Forest Research Institute Malaysia; 1995. http://www.chm.frim.gov.my/ backup/TFSSvol1_3.pdf. Accessed 27 July 2020. Tolentino VS, Zamora PM. Morpho-anatomy of the fruit of Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. (Petroleum nut). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2002a. https:// agris.fao.org. Accessed 20 July 2020. Tolentino VS, Zamora PM. Late embryogeny of Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. (Petroleum nut plant). Philipp J Sci. 2002b;131(1):23–8. http://philjournalsci.dost.gov.ph/home-1/15-vol-131no-1-june-2002/589-late-embryogeny-of-pittosporum-resiniferum-hemsl-petroleum-nut-plant. Accessed 20 July 2020. van Steenis-Kruseman MJ. Series I. Spermatophyta. In: van Steenis CGGJ, editor. Flora Malesiana. Djakarta: Noordhoff-Kolff, vol. 6 (ser. I); 1972. p. 961. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/ item/90890#page/69/mode/1up. Accessed 21 July 2020. West AP, Brown WH. Philippine resins, gums, seed oils, and essential oils. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Bureau of Forestry. Philippines: Bureau of Printing; 1920; Bulletin No. 20. p. 104–6. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/48156#page/19/mode/1up. Accessed 21 July 2020. Zamora CV. Tissue culture of Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. (Petroleum nut tree). Sci Diliman. 1990;3:46–55. https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/sciencediliman/article/view/288/274. Accessed 20 July 2020.

Platostoma palustre (Blume) A.J.Paton LAMIACEAE Heri Santoso

Synonyms Geniosporum parviflorum Benth.; Mesona chinensis Benth.; Mesona elegans Hayata; Mesona palustris Blume; Mesona parviflora (Benth.) Briq.; Mesona philippinensis Merr.; Mesona procumbens Hemsl.; Mesona wallichiana Benth.; Platostoma chinense (Benth.) A.J.Paton (POWO 2020).

Local Names English: Chinese mesona, black jelly grass, brown-black jelly grass Indonesia: Cincau hitam, janggelan, camcao, kepleng, juju, cao, cincau (Javanese), camcauh, cincau hideung (Sundanese), daluman (Balinese), siong (Luwunese in Sulawesi) (Keng 1978; Widyaningsih et al. 2012; Bumbungan et al. 2018; Rahayu et al. 2013; Heyne 1987).

Botany and Ecology Description: Erect or slightly ascending, soft white-hairy herb (Fig. 1). Stem terete, 30–60 cm high, often branched at the base, aromatic herb, 30–50 cm. Leaves membranous or chartaceous, opposite, oblong-elliptic or narrowly obovate-elliptic, 2–8 by 1.2–3.5 cm, acute or obtuse, crenate or serrulate, base narrowly acute or

H. Santoso (*) Generasi Biologi Indonesia Foundation, Gresik, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_237

921

922

H. Santoso

Fig. 1 Platostoma palustre. (© Heri Santoso)

rounded; petiole 0.5–2 cm, hispid or villose. Verticillasters close or distant, many(usually 12–20 or more) flowered; inflorescence 5–20 cm; rachis villose or hirsute. Bracts lanceolate to ovate, 7–10 mm, acuminate, caducous. Pedicels 5–6 mm. Calyx 2–2.5(–3) mm long, covered with white hairs; upper lip 3-lobed, ciliate, lower lip oblong, rounded, often thin and transparent; in fruit tubular-urceolate, 4–5 mm long. Corolla pink or lilac white, 4–5 mm long. Nutlets ellipsoid, flattened, c. 1 by 0.4– 0.7 mm, finely granular (Keng 1978; Steenis 1972; Pijoto 2005). Distribution and Ecology: Platostoma palustre is an annual plant that is mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. It is native to India and Burma (Myanmar) to Indo-China, from where it spread into the Malesian region. In Java, it can be found in mountain grasslands, along roadsides, in sparse Casuarina forests, not on marshy soil, at around 1000–2700 m.a.s.l. (Keng 1978; Steenis 1972; Kung et al. 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Platostoma palustre is widely abundant and has been traditionally used in natural remedies to treat various illnesses and medical conditions. The dried leaves are used to prepare an herbal drink. In Central Java, leaves are used for ailments affecting the digestive system (Rahayu et al. 2013). The Luwu community in North Basse Sangtempe of South Sulawesi uses leaf decoction as herbal drink (Bumbungan et al. 2018).

Platostoma palustre (Blume) A.J.Paton

923

Phytochemistry High concentration of soluble fiber has been isolated from this species. A diet rich in soluble fiber is used as one of the non-pharmacological treatments to control hypercholesterolemia (Handayani et al. 2017). Hung and Yen (2001) reported the presence of phenolic acids in Platostoma palustre including protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, and syringic acid. The presence of phenolic acids imparts antioxidant activity to the plant and makes it useful as an antiradical agent (Maslukhah 2015; Maslukhah et al. 2016; Bogucka-kocka et al. 2016; Cos et al. 2009). Black jelly is known to contain organic acids (Yulianto and Widyaningsih 2013). 120 volatile components were identified such as α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, α-bisabolol, β-caryophyllene, and caryophyllene oxide (Kung et al. 2019).

Bioactivities Immunomodulatory (Widyaningsih et al. 2017), antidyslipidemia (Handayani et al. 2017), antioxidant (Handayani et al. 2017; Tarnajaya et al. 2018; Widyaningsih et al. 2017; Hung and Yen 2002), hepatoprotector (Widyaningsih et al. 2017; Dewanti et al. 2017), antimutagen (Yen et al. 2001), antihypertensive (Yen et al. 2008), and antibacterial (Ruhnayat 2002).

Local Food Uses In Java, leaves are processed into a jelly called janggelan (Fig. 2) which is served as fresh drink after adding coconut milk and sugar syrup (Cholilie 2008). Siong tea made is by the Luwunese of South Sulawesi from dried leaf decoction. Fig. 2 Janggelan made from dried leaves of Platostoma palustre sold in traditional market in Mojokerto, East Java. (© Heri Santoso)

924

H. Santoso

Biocultural Importance Janggelan is commonly consumed as dessert and also used as herbal remedy in folk medicines in Indonesia (Widyaningsih et al. 2012). Cold drinks from janggelan are often drunk as takjil during Ramadhan in Java, Sumatera, and Borneo. It is popular among consumers, especially in summer, because of its aroma and taste (Ruhnayat 2002).

Economic Importance Cholilie (2008) reported the potential of P. palustre in Indonesia as very promising. It grows in Malang of East Java, Pacitan, Magetan, and Ponorogo (Yazid and Respatijarti 2016). In 2010, the production of dried black grass jelly from P. palustre was 568 tons with a total productivity of 8.6 tons per year. Besides food, black grass jelly also bears potential to develop biofilm (Murdianto et al. 2005, Sendiko 1987) and edible coating (Irawan 1997). Black grass jelly is a traditional food ingredient that can be used as encapsulation material (Wulandari et al. 2019).

References Bogucka-kocka A, Christian Z, Malgorzata K, Grazyna S, Katarzyna S. Phenolic acid content, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of four Kalanchoe species. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2016;2018(25):622–30. Bumbungan B, Masluki M, Mutmainnah M. Peningkatan mutu produksi tanaman Siong di Kecamatan Basse Sangtempe Utara. J Innov Appl Technol. 2018;4(1):601–9. (in Bahasa). Cholilie IA. Analisis kelayakan finansial agroindustri bubuk Cincau hitam (Mesona palustris). J Teknologi dan Industri Pertanian Indonesia. 2008;10(2):25–32. (in Bahasa). Cos P, Padinchare R, Irina V, Mario C, Luc P, Arnolds JV, Achiel H, Dirk VB. In vitro antioxidant profile of phenolic acid derivatives. Free Radic Res. 2009;36(6):711–6. Dewanti T, Widyaningsih TD, Teodora, Betty, Sari F. Antioxidant and hepatoprotective effect of Black Cincau (Mesona palustris Bl) supplement againts oxidative stress in rats. Int J ChemTech Res. 2017;10. 45–55. (in Bahasa). Handayani D, Widyaningsih TD, Novita W, Mey E, Hanifa H. Black Grass Jelly (Mesona Palustris Bl) effervescent powder has anti-dyslipidemia in high cholesterol diet-fed rats and antioxidant activity. Res J Life Sci. 2017;4:159–67. https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.rjls.2017.004.03.1. Heyne K. Useful plants Indonesia, vol. 3. Jakarta: Sarana Foundation Wana; 1987. Hung CY, Yen GC. Extraction and Identification of Antioxidative Components of Hsian-tsao (Mesona procumbens Hemsl.). Lwt - Food Science and Technology. 2001;34:306–311. https://doi.org/10.1006/fstl.2001.0775. Hung CY, Yen GC. Antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds isolated from Mesona procumbens Hemsl. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50:2993–7. Irawan D. Variasi lama ekstraksi dan kadar abu dalam pembuatan gel cincau hitam. Yogjakarta: Skripsi. FTP UGM; 1997. (in Bahasa). Keng H. Labiatae. Mesona. In: van Steenis CGGJ, (General editor): Flora Malesiana. Series I, Vol. 8. Alphen aan den Rijn: Sijthoff & Noordhoff International Publishers; 1978, p. 373–4.

Platostoma palustre (Blume) A.J.Paton

925

Kung T, Chen Y, Chao LK, Wu CS, Lin LY, Chen H. Analysis of volatile constituents in Platostoma palustre (Blume) using headspace solid-phase microextraction and simultaneous distillationextraction. Foods. 2019;415(8) Maslukhah YL. Optimization of extraction of raw material of Black Cincau supplement (Mesona palustris Bl) on a pilot plan scale in PT Asimas Jawa Timur. Thesis, Department of Agricultural Product Technology. Faculty of Agricultural Technology: Brawijaya University; 2015. Maslukhah YL, Widyaningsih TD, Waziroh E, Wijayanti N, Sriherfyna FH. Effects of black Cincau extraction (Mesona palustris Bl) on a pilot plant scale: Literature study. J Food Agroind. 2016;4(1):245–52. Murdianto W, Marseno DW, Haryadi. Sifat fisik dan mekanik ddible film dari daun Janggelan (Mesona palustris Bl). Agrosains. 2005;18(3). (in Bahasa). Pijoto SZ. Grass jelly manufacture and processed variations. Jakarta: Agromedia Pustaka; 2005. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 19 July 2020. Rahayu R, Taslim EM, Sumarno. Pembuatan serbuk daun cincau hijau rambat (Cyclea barbata L. Miers menggunakan proses maserasi dan foam mat drying. Jurnal Teknologi Kimia dan Industri. 2013;2(4):24–31. Ruhnayat A. Cincau Hitam tanaman obat penyembuh. Jakarta: Penebar Swadaya; 2002. (in Bahasa). Sendiko H. Mempelajari Beberapa aspek fisiko-kimia pada pembentukkan gel cincau hitam dan ekstrak tanaman janggelan. Bogor: Skripsi FTP IPB; 1987. (in Bahasa). Steenis CGGJ. The mountain Flora of Java. Leiden: EJ Brill; 1972. Tarnajaya K, Pangkahila A, Pangkahila W, Siswanto F. Pemberian ekstrak daun cincau (Mesona palustris Bl) meningkatkan kadar superoksida dismutase (SOD) tikus wistar (Rattus norvegicus) jantan yang diinduksi latihan fisik berlebih. Jurnal Biomedik. 2018;10:9–15. (in Bahasa). Widyaningsih TD, Sukardiman, Agus PD, Darmanto W. Efek imunomodulator ekstrak air Cincau Hitam (Mesona palustris Bl) terhadap karsinogenesis mencit. J Teknol dan Industri Pangan. 2012;23(1):29–35. (in Bahasa). Widyaningsih TD, Martati E, Lukitasari DM. Immunomodulatory effects of Black Cincau (Mesona palustris Bl.) supplement on Escherichia coli strain O157-infected mice. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2017;10(9):326–30. Wulandari N, Yulinery T, Suharna N. Stability of black Grass Jelly (Mesona chinensis) probioticated by encapsulation of Lactobacillus plantarum Mar8 with agar and gum Arabic. Nusantara Biosci. 2019;11:84–8. Yazid WAB, Respatijarti D. Exploration and identification of morphology characters Black jelly (Mesona palustris Bl) in Pacitan, Magetan and Ponorogo. J Plant Prod. 2016;4(4):306–10. Yen CG, Duh PD, Hung YL. Contributions of major components to the antimutagenic effect of Hsian-tsao (Mesona procumbens Hemls.). J Agric Food Chem. 2001;49:5000–4. Yen CG, Yeh CT, Huang. Anti-hyhipertensive effect of Hsian-tsao and its active compound in spontaneously hipertensive rats. J Nutr Biochem. 2008;24:321–9. Yulianto RR, Widyaningsih TD. Formulation of herbal drink based on Black grass jelly (Mesona palustris), ginger (Zingiber officinale) and Cinnamomum (Cinnamomum burmanii). Food Agroindustr J. 2013;1(1):65–77.

Plectocomia elongata Mart. ex Blume ARECACEAE Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, Wendy A. Mustaqim, and Rina Ratnasih Irwanto

Synonyms Calamus maximus Reinw.; Calamus maximus Reinw. ex Schult.f.; Plectocomia crinita Gentil ex Chitt.; Plectocomia griffithii Becc.; Plectocomia hystrix Linden; Plectocomia maxima Kuntze; Plectocomia sumatrana Miq.; Plectocomia elongata var. bangkana Becc.; Rotang maximus Baill.

Local Names Cambodia: Phdao reussey yeak; phdao dambang (south and southwest). Indonesia: rotan badak, rotan warak, menjalin warak; hotang boar-boar (Simalungun, North Sumatera); hotang hutan (Dolok Sigumpolon, North Sumatera); rotan pebuar (Bangka); rautan bebuai (Belitung); rautan buai pelandok (Mendanau Island, Belitung); buar-buar (Jambi); buai, bubuai, hoe bubuai, hoe bubuay, bungbuhai (Sundanese); penjalin warak (Javanese); keraruh (Dayak Lundayeh); uwi jempayang (Melawi). Thailand: wai kam phot, wai tao phro, waitong phlong

A. S. D. Irsyam (*) Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia R. R. Irwanto School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_213

927

928

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

(Peninsular); wai pu chao (Nakhon Si Thammarat). (Andayani et al. 2018; Diana and Matius 2017; Dransfield et al. 2004; Hourt 2008; Jumiati et al. 2012; Mogea 2002; Mustaqim et al. 2017; Nurhalizah et al. 2019; Priyadi et al. 2010; Sakinah et al. 2019; Silalahi et al. 2015; Saroh et al. 2020; Wardah 2003; Witono et al. 2003).

Botany and Ecology Description: Robust, climbing rattans, stem solitary or in clump, up to 50 m long. The stem cylindrical, up to 6 cm across, covered by dark green or yellowish-brown leaf sheath and then to 10 cm across, ochrea absent, internodes up to 40 cm long, clad with sparsely arranged spreading spines, spines up to 4 cm long. Leaves pinnately compound, up to 7 m long, free petiolar part to 30 cm, rachis forming cirrhus at the apex of the leaves; leaflet-bearing parts 2–3 m, in the lower half with 1–2-nate claw, upward claws arranged in half-whorl; leaflets arranged in groups of 2–4, up to 60 leaflets on each side of the rachis, 30–70  3–6 cm, lower surfaces whitish. Inflorescence unisexual, large panicle, primary branches to 2 m long; spikes 60– 120 cm long by 5–7.5 cm wide including the secondary spathe, axis of the spike 3– 4 mm across, with many alternately arranged secondary spathes, secondary spathes cymbiform, 3–6  3–4.5 cm, these each contain spikelets. Male spikelets 2–3 cm long, flowers 5–6 pairs, alternately arranged, 5–6  4 mm; flowers with 6 stamens. Female spikelets bearing 5–9 flowers, petals two times as long as the sepals, staminodes shorter than the petals; stigma 3. Fruits in each spikelet from 3 to 5, scaly drupe, globose, 1.5–2.5 cm across. Seed 1, depressed globose, c. 1 cm across. There is a variety endemic to the Philippines, named var. philippinensis Madulid. Distribution and Ecology: This species can be found in Indochina, Thailand, Sumatra, Bangka, Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines. It grows from the lowlands to mountainous area around 2000 m.a.s.l. The primary habitat is disturbed forests, sometimes growing on remnant forests in the lowlands. Optimal plant growth requires high intensity of sunlight. Plants become stunted when growing in poor soils, the stem is only around 10 m long and 3 cm across (Mustaqim et al. 2017; Palmweb 2020; Pelser et al. 2011-onwards; Schultes and Schulter 1830; Witono et al. 2003) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Plectocomia elongata has often been used for medicine by various local communities in Indonesia. The water from its stem are externally used to cure skin diseases by the local community surrounding Gunung Simpang Nature Reserve, West Java (Handayani 2015). The water is also used to treat coughs by the Sundanese community around Mount Gede Pangrango National Park, West Java (Fahrurozi 2014; Purnawan 2006). In North Sumatra, the roots are used as a component of traditional mashed concoctions named tinuktuk tawar, used to maintain stamina by the Batak

Plectocomia elongata Mart. ex Blume

929

Fig. 1 Flowering plant of Plectocomia elongata (Arecaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Spines on the leaf sheath of Plectocomia elongata (Arecaceae). Depok, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim and N. Fajri)

Simalungun sub-ethnic (Silalahi et al. 2015). Additionally, the species is also used as a medicinal plant by the Dayak Lundayeh tribe in Trang Baru Village, Kalimantan Utara, although specific information regarding the disease are currently limited (Diana and Matius 2017).

930

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

Fig. 3 Young inflorescence of Plectocomia elongata (Arecaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Local Food Uses The fruits are eaten by the people in West Java, Indonesia (Priyadi et al. 2010).

Phytochemistry The cane of Plectocomia elongata consists of holocellulose (73.84%), α-cellulose (40.89%), lignin (16.85%), and starch (23.57%) (Jasni et al. 2007). So far, tannins are the only component that has been extracted from the species (Husein 2016).

Biocultural Importance The canes of P. elongata are often used as raw materials for traditional Sumatran tools. Villages of Sinar Sari, Dendang, Kacung, Terentang, and Simpang Tiga, in Bangka Barat, Sumatra, use them as frames for traditional baskets and fishing gears (Sakinah et al. 2019). This includes ragak ubi, a traditional basket used to carry sweet potatoes and ginger rhizomes from the garden, sangkek, a traditional basket to carry store materials, as well as tanggok, a fishing gear (Sakinah et al. 2019). In Kalimantan, P. elongata is used as craft material by local communities surrounding Landau Garong forest, Melawi District (Saroh et al. 2020). They are also frequently used to craft frames for furniture (Jasni et al. 2007). The Sundanese people of West Java use P. elongata’s inflorescence for leuit ornamentations. Leuit is the traditional granary meant to store rice. The inflorescences are attached on the outer parts of the building (Mustaqim et al. 2017; personal communication). The infructescence are also used during Seren Taun ceremony by

Plectocomia elongata Mart. ex Blume

931

the Kasepuhan Ciptagelar community living in Mount Halimun Salak National Park (Wardah and Mogea 2009). Seren Taun is an annual rice harvest festival, held by several indigenous Sundanese communities in West Java (Komariah 2016; Malik 2017; Royyani 2008). The ceremony is held to honor ancestors (karuhun) and the Goddess of rice, Nyi Pohaci Sanghyang Sri (Komariah 2016; Royyani 2008).

References Andayani D, Nurtjahya E, Rustiami H. Palms diversity in Mendanau Island, Belitung. Ber Biol. 2018;17(3):225–39. https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi.v17i3.3413. (in Bahasa). Diana R, Matius P. Inventarisasi tumbuhan berkhasiat obat yang dimanfaatkan masyarakat Suku Dayak Lundayeh. Ulin J Hut Trop. 2017;1(1):49–58. Dransfield J, Barfod AS, Pongsattayapipat R. A preliminary checklist to Thai Palms. Thai For Bull (Bot). 2004;32:32–72. Fahrurozi I. Keanekaragaman tumbuhan obat di Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango dan di hutan terfragmentasi Kebun Raya Cibodas serta pemanfaatannya oleh masyarakat lokal [undergraduate thesis]. Jakarta: Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta; 2014. (in Bahasa). Handayani A. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan berkhasiat obat oleh masyarakat sekitar Cagar Alam Gunung Simpang, Jawa Barat. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon. 2015;1:1425–32. https://doi.org/ 10.13057/psnmbi/m010628. (in Bahasa). Hourt KE. A field guide of the rattans of Cambodia. Phnom Penh: WWF Greater Mekong – Cambodia Country Programme; 2008. Husein R. Uji tanin pada jenis rotan-rotanan yang terdapat di Hutan Aek-Nauli Parapat Kabupaten Simalungun Sumatera Utara [undergraduate thesis]. Medan: Universitas Negeri Medan; 2016. (in Bahasa). Jasni, Damayanti R, Kalima T. Atlas rotan Indonesia. Jilid I. Bogor: Departemen Kehutanan, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kehutanan, Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Hasil Hutan; 2007. (in Bahasa). Jumiati, Hariyadi B, Murni P. Studi etnobotani rotan sebagai bahan kerajinan anyaman pada Suku Anak Dalam (SAD) di Dusun III Senami, Desa Jebak, Kabupaten Batanghari, Jambi. Biospecies. 2012;5(1):33–41. (in Bahasa). Komariah S. Local wisdom of Ciptagelar Community in managing environmental sustainability. In: Abdullah AG, Nandiyanto ABD, Adriyani V, Aryanti T, Haristiani N, Aripin A, Nugraha F, editors. Proceedings of the 1st UPI international conference on sociology education; 2015 Oct 12; Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. Paris: Atlantis Press; 2016. https://www.atlantis-press. com/proceedings/icse-15/25852505. Retrieved 12 June 2020. Malik A. Seren taun sebagai medium komunikasi adat. J Lontar. 2017;5(1):1–16. (in Bahasa). Mogea JP. Rattans in Gunung Halimun National Park and their cultivation prospect in Cisungsang Village Lebak Banten. Ber Biol. 2002;6(1):33–47. https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi. v6i1.1168. (in Bahasa). Mustaqim WA, Fajri N, Sindhuarta SJ, Supriatna J, Hartiningtyas D, Muliasari D. Panduan lapangan flora: Spermatofita Taman Hutan Raya Pancoran Mas Depok, Jawa Barat. Depok: Research Center for Climate Change Universitas Indonesia; 2017. (in Bahasa). Nurhalizah N, Khairul K, Hasibuan R, Dimenta RH. Diversity of rattan species in Sababangunan Village, Dolok Sigumpolon’s Subdistrict, Padang Lawas Utara Regency, North of Sumatera. J Pen Biol Nukleus. 2019;5(2):6–11. (in Bahasa). Palmweb. Palmweb: Palms of the World Online: Plectocomia elongata Mart. ex Blume, Syst. Veg 7:1333 (1830). 2020. http://www.palmweb.org/cdm_dataportal/taxon/718e26f7-2ed7-4cac8329-def596f073a5. Retrieved 7 June 2020.

932

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Co’s digital flora of the Philippines: Arecaceae. 2011. https:// www.philippineplants.org/Families/Arecaceae.html. Retrieved 7 June 2020. Priyadi B, Takao G, Rahmawati I, Supriyanto B, Nursal WI, Rahman I. Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java: a checklist including Sundanese names, distribution and use. Bogor: CIFOR; 2010. Purnawan BI. Inventarisasi keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan di Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2006. (in Bahasa). Royyani MF. Upacara Seren Taun di Cigugur, Kabupaten Kuningan, Jawa Barat: Tradisi sebagai basis pelestarian lingkungan. J Biol Indon. 2008;4(5):399–415. Sakinah, Afriyansyah B, Akbarini D. Study of rattan ethnobotany as handicraft material by Community in West Bangka Regency. Al-Kauniyah. 2019;12(1):18–24. https://doi.org/ 10.15408/kauniyah.v12i1.6429. (in Bahasa). Saroh Z, Tavita GE, Kartikawati SM. Ethnobotany woven craft materials from non-timber forest products by the community around the village of Landau Garong Village Melawi District. J Hut Les. 2020;8(1):69–79. (in Bahasa). Schultes JA, Schulter JH. Caroli a Linné . . . Systema vegetabilium: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species. Cum characteribus, differentiis et synonymiis. 7th vol. 2nd pt. Stuttgardtiae: Sumtibus J.G. Cottae; 1830. (in Latin). Silalahi M, Supriatna J, Walujo EB, Nisyawati. Local knowledge of medicinal plants in sub-ethnic Batak Simalungun of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2015;16(1):44–54. https://doi. org/10.13057/biodiv/d160106. Wardah. Utilization of plant diversity resources by Baduy-Dalam (Inner Baduy) Community around South Mount Kendeng, Lebak District, Southern Banten. Ber Biol. 2003;6(6):755–65. https:// doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi.v6i6.1204. (in Bahasa). Wardah W, Mogea JP. Palm diversity, composition, density and its utilization in the Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java-Indonesia, with special reference to the Kasepuhan Ciptagelar. Ber Biol. 2009;9(4):453–8. https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi.v9i4.2017. Witono JR, Daradjat T, Sujahman S. Rattan species in Mount Cakrabuana, Sumedang, West Java. Ber Biol. 2003;6(6):789–92. (in Bahasa).

Polygala paniculata L. POLYGALACEAE Kreni Lokho and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Polygala brasiliensis Mart.; Polygala carlotina E.H.L. Krause; Polygala paniculata f. leucoptera S.F. Blake; Polygala ramosissima Cav. (POWO 2020).

Local Names Indonesia: Akarwangi, katumpanglemah – akarbelirit (Talang Mamak in Riau) – balm balm (East Kalimantan in Indonesia) – batete (Sigi in Central Sulawesi) – hakawo (Wawonii in Sulawesi) – jukutrindik, jukuttikukur, kicengceng, kicengnreng, kiclenceng, kikumat, kikuwat, kitombe, paci-paci, sapuan, sasapuan, sirawunglangit, tombe (Sundanese in West Java) – kayuputih (Dayak and Banjar in Kalimantan) – randiawang (Manggarai, Ruteng, Nusa Tenggara) – rumput balsam (Tonsawang, Minahasa, and North Sulawesi) – rumputwangi (Batak Karo in Sumatra) (Arnold et al. 2017; Badrunasar and Santoso 2016; Hidayat 2012; Handayani et al. 2015; Iswandono et al. 2015; Mamahani et al. 2016; Nurrani et al. 2014; Priyadi et al. 2010; Purba et al. 2016; Royyani and Rahayu 2010; Rugayah et al. 2015; Setyowati and Wardah2007; Silalahi et al. 2019).

K. Lokho (*) Department of Botany, Madras Christian College, Chennai, India W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_152

933

934

K. Lokho and W. A. Mustaqim

Botany and Ecology Botanical Description: Erect, annual herbs, 10–50 cm tall. Stems terete, usually many-branched, clad with stalked glandular hairs. Leaves simple, 4–5-whorled to pseudowhorled at the base, upward alternate, subsessile or very shortly petioled, blades lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, 5–32 cm long by 0.6–4 mm wide, basally cuneate, margin entire, slightly recurved, apex acute, 1-veined, lateral veins obscure. Flowers arranged in cylindric, loose racemes, terminal or opposite to leaves, 2– 15 cm long by 5–7 mm wide, peduncle up to 14 cm long, bracts lanceolate, 0.8– 1.1 mm long, glabrous, deciduous. Pedicels slender, 0.5–1.2 mm long; basal bracteoles lanceolate, acute at the apex, early caducous. Sepals five, three outer sepals bearing 2 basal glands, largest one broadly ovate, otherwise elliptic, 1–1.2 mm long, obtuse at the apex, the inner sepals two, purple, three veined, petaloid, ellipticoblong or oblong-ovate, 0.9–1.1 mm long. Petals three, white or violet; upper petals ovate-lanceolate, 2–2.5 mm long, attenuate to the apex; wings oblong-obovate, spatulate-obovate or obovate, 2–2.8 mm long by 0.7–1 mm wide, base cuneate, apex rounded, 3-nerved; keel 1.9–2.7 mm long, without auricle at the base, apex with 2, 6–10 appendages, 0.4–0.9 mm long. Stamens 8, filaments connate to form a tube, glabrous inside, the free part of the filament ca. 1/8 of its total length. Ovary obovoid to nearly globose, 0.6–0.8 mm long by 0.4–0.6 mm wide; style twice as long as ovary, straight or ascending towards near the apex, apex of the style expanded into an oblique, broad cup, ended with a tuft of hairs, sessile stigma at the base of the cup. Fruit capsule, oblong to ellipsoid, 1.8–2.6 mm long by 0.9– 1.5 mm wide, somewhat longer than the alae, not winged, notched at the apex, glabrous. Seeds black, oblong, 1.4–1.8 mm long, densely white pubescent, strophiole small with 2 membranous, narrowly oblong appendages (Chen et al. 2008; van der Meijden 1988; Woodson et al. 1969) (Figs. 1 and 2). Distribution and Habitat: This species is widespread in tropical and subtropical America. It is native to Texas and Mexico to the south, including the Caribbean

Fig. 1 Living plant of Polygala paniculata. West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Polygala paniculata L.

935

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Polygala paniculata. West Java, Indonesia. (© Wendy A. Mustaqim)

Islands, reaching southern Brazil. Now the species has become pantropical due to introductions and naturalization from Africa to South Asia including China. It is now distributed throughout Southeast Asia. This species has also been recorded from Australia and the Pacific Islands and Hawaii. It occurs in wastelands, old agricultural fields, roadsides, plantations, and fields from sea level up to 2250 m.a.s.l. It has a preference to the wet regions of the Southeast Asian Archipelago (van der Meijden 1988; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; POWO 2020; Slik 2009; Woodson et al. 1969).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: This plant has important medicinal value in some regions of Indonesia, at least in Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Nusa Tenggara. Batak Karo community of North Sumatra use this species as medicine for colds and oukup. Oukup is a traditional bathing treatment for women after birth. The plants are boiled and placed in a small bucket, which is subsequently placed in a small room together with the women undergoing treatment (Purba et al. 2016). Talang Mamak community of Riau province consume water from the boiled root to cure masukangin a kind of fever (Setyowati and Wardah 2007). In Jambi, the plant is used as obatgosok, a preparation that is similar to balms (Firison et al. 2018). In Gunung Halimun Salak National Park of West Java, the leaves are used for cuts (Priyadi et al. 2010). A similar use for gonorrhea was recorded from Wonogiri, Central Java, where the plants were boiled and either drunk or applied externally for treating lower back pain. Besides, the poultice of leaves is used to alleviate cough, asthma, skin irritation, and dandruff (Kusuma and Suryani 2017). Local communities in Poncokusumo District, Malang, East Java, use roots and leaf of this species to

936

K. Lokho and W. A. Mustaqim

cure bronchitis, cough, and itch (Batoro and Siswanto 2017). In Bontang, East Kalimantan, the plant is believed to possess aphrodisiacal properties (Rijai 2013). In Sulawesi, this species has been used by some ethnicities. Boiled plant parts are consumed to cure cancer in North Sulawesi, especially by people in Mongondow, Minahasa, and Sangihe (Nurrani et al. 2014). Local people of Sigi Regency, Central Sulawesi, crush the leaves and the extract is then mixed with warm water and drunk to cure cough and lung disease (Arnold et al. 2017). In Wawonii Island of Southeast Sulawesi, this species is known as hakawo and is used as medicine to cure rheumatism (pegallinu) (Royyani and Rahayu 2010). The roots are mixed with oil and smeared. Wawoola community from the same island also use it as a medicinal plant (Rugayah et al. 2015). The Manggarai community of Nusa Tenggara, the Dayak Meratus of Tumingki of South Kalimantan, and the Tonsawang of Minahasa, North Sulawesi, also use this species for various medicinal purposes (Iswandono et al. 2015; Handayani et al. 2015; Mamahani et al. 2016). Malaysia: Local communities in Peninsular Malaysia use the leaves and roots as a tonic (Irwanto 2001).

Phytochemistry Plant extract contains compounds such as aurapten, diester 30 -acetyl-40 benzoylkhellactone, murrangatin, 7-methoxy-8-(1,4-dihydroxy-3-methyl-2-butenyl) coumarin, and phebasolin. Phebasolin has fungistatic as well as molluscicidal activity. Leaves and bark contain other compounds such as cyanidin-3,5-dimonoside and anthocyanidins delphinin-3-bioside (Irwanto 2001). An analysis of the flowers and roots of P. paniculata through gas chromatography and mass spectrometry found out that the plant has methyl salicylate as major component (Pizzolatti et al. 2011). In the roots, bornyl acetate and 1,8-cineol are the major components (Pizzolatti et al. 2011). The hydroalcoholic extract of the whole plant was given to mice orally in dosage of (0.01–30 mg/kg) and subjected to forced swimming test which demonstrated antidepressant-like effect, changing the locomotor activity which is likely mediated due to an interaction with the serotonergic (5-HT2A receptors), noradrenergic (α2 and β-receptor), and dopaminergic (D1 and D2 receptors) systems (Bettio et al. 2011). The ethanolic extract of the plant shows significant results for use as analgesic and antiedematogenic; wild plants are more effective than the micropropagated plants (Nogueira et al. 2005). The hydroalcoholic extract of the plant decreases the ulcer index and maintains the production of gastric mucus for acute gastric lesions. Thus, it protects the mucosa from indometacin-induced lesions (Lapa et al. 2007). The hydroalcoholic extract of the plant diluted with 150 mM of sodium chloride show significant effects against methylmercury-induced (in-vivo) neurotoxicity (Farina et al. 2005). The hydroalcoholic extract demonstrates significant dose-dependent inhibition of glutamate-induced pain in mice (Lapa et al. 2009). The hydroalcoholic extract induces hypotensive and vasorelaxant effects in rats (Lapa et al. 2011). Ethanol extract of the whole plant yielded xanthones 1-hydroxy-5-methoxy-2,3-methylenedioxyxanthone (1) and 1,5-dihydroxy-2,3dimethoxyxanthone (2), together with coumarinmurragatin and flavonolrutin

Polygala paniculata L.

937

(Cristiano et al. 2003). The ethanol extract of the plant shows potent antibacterial activity against 13 pathogenic strains of bacteria. The study was carried out as scientific evaluation of diarrheal herbs used by the K’ho people in Bidoup-Nui Ba National Park (Nguyen et al. 2015). Dihydro-pyranocoumarindiester was isolated from the plant using flash chromatography on silica gel and preparative reversedphase chromatography (Hamburger et al. 1984). The petrol ether and chloroform extracts of the plant were shown by Hamburger et al. (1985) to possess both molluscicidal and antifungal properties. The study also isolated four coumarins using flash chromatography and centrifugal thin-layer chromatography. They are aurapten, phebalosin, murrangatin, and 7-methoxy-8-(1,4-di-hydroxy-3-methyl-2butenyl) coumarin, a new natural product. The chloroform extract from the plant yields 7-methoxy-8-(10 ,20 -epoxy-30 -methyl-30 -butenyl)-coumarin (1) and two coumarinic artifacts (2a-2b). The reaction with ethanol or silicon dioxide (EtOH/ SiO2) at room temperature for 24 h yields 7-methoxy-8-(10 -hydroxy-20 -ethoxy30 -methyl-30 -butenyl)-coumarin and 7-methoxy-8-(10 -ethoxy-20 - hydroxy-30 -methyl-30 -butenyl)-coumarin, respectively (Pizzolatti et al. 2002). The extract of the plant shows potent uses in the pharmaceutical field such as antibacterial, anticancer, and antimycotic (Rijai 2013). The extract also possesses antioxidant properties (Murwanto and Santosa 2012).

Economic Importance In Bontang of East Kalimantan, Indonesia, the plant is widely cultivated because the root of the plant is believed to increase stamina (Rijai 2013). The fragrant roots are placed between clothes in Java (Irwanto 2001). Victório et al. (2011) demonstrated the utility value of this plant as a source of methyl salicylate through tissue culture.

References Arnold A, Harijanto H, Sustri S. Keanekaragaman jenis dan pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat di kawasan Taman Nasional Lore Lindu (TNLL) di Desa Mataue Kecamatan Kulawi Kabupaten Sigi. Warta Rimba. 2017;5(1):71–9. Badrunasar A, Santoso HB. Tumbuhan liat berkhasiat obat. Bogor: FORDA Press; 2016. Batoro J, Siswanto D. Ethnomedicinal survey of plants used by local society in Poncokusumo district, Malang, East Java Province, Indonesia. Asian J Med Biol Res. 2017;3(2):158–67. Bettio L, Machado G, Cunha MP, Capra JC, Missau FC, Santos RS, et al. Antidepressant-like effect of extract from Polygala paniculata: involvement of the monoaminergic systems. Pharm Biol. 2011;49(12):1277–85. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2011.621958. Chen SH, Ma H, JAN P. Polygalaceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, Oxalidaceae through Aceraceae, vol. 11. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2008. p. 139–59. Cristiano R, Pizzolatti MG, Monache FD, Rezende CM, Branco A. Two xanthones from Polygala paniculata and confirmation of the 1-hydroxy- 2,3,5-trimethoxy-xanthone at trace level by HRGC-MS. Z Naturforsch C. 2003;58(7–8):490–4. https://doi.org/10.1515/znc-2003-7-808.

938

K. Lokho and W. A. Mustaqim

Farina M, Franco JL, Ribas CM, Meott FVC, Missau FC, Pizzolatti MG, et al. Protective effects of Polygala paniculata extract against methylmercury-induced neurotoxicity in mice. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2005;57(11):1503–8. https://doi.org/10.1211/jpp.57.11.0017. Firison J, Ishak A, Hidayat T. Utilization of understorey on palm oil stands by local community (Case of Kungkai Baru Village, Air Periukan Subdistrick, Seluma Regency – Bengkulu). Agritepa. 2018;5(1):19–31. Hamburger M, Hostettmann K, Stoeckli-Evans H. A new pyranocoumarin diester from Polygala paniculata L. Helv Chim Acta. 1984;67:1729–33. https://doi.org/10.1002/hlca.19840670710. Hamburger M, Gupta M, Hostettmann K. Coumarins from Polygala paniculata. Planta Med. 1985;51(03):215–7. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-969460. Handayani M, Sari SG, Kuntorini EM. An ethnobotany of understory species in the Loksado protected forest, South Kalimantan. In: International conference on natural mathematical and environmental sciences for sustainable development. Banjarbaru: Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences; 2015. p. 38–45. Hidayat S. Existence of endangered medicinal plant and its uses in Bogor surrounding areas. Media Konserv. 2012;17(1):33–8. Irwanto RRP. Polygala L. [Internet] record from proseabase. In van Valkenburg JLCH, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. PROSEA (Plant resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. 2001. http://www.proseanet.org. Accessed 3 May 2020. Iswandono E, Zuhud EAM, Hikmat A, Kosmaryandi N. The ethnobotany knowledge of Manggarai Tribe and the implication utilization of forest plants in the Mountains of Ruteng. Jurnal Ilmu Pertanian Indonesia. 2015;20(3):171–81. https://doi.org/10.18343/jipi.20.3.171. Kusuma NA, Suryani T. Exploration of medicinal plants in natural forest area Girimanik Setren Subdistrict Slogohimo Wonogiri. Proc Biol Edu Conf. 2017;14(1):88–92. Lapa FDR, Freitas CS, Baggio CH, Missau FC, Pizzolatti MG, Santos ARS, et al. Gastroprotective activity of the hydroalcoholic extract obtained from Polygala paniculata L. in rats. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2007;59(10):1413–9. https://doi.org/10.1211/jpp.59.10.0012. Lapa FDR, Gadotti M, Missau FC, Pizzolatti MG, Marques MCA, Dafre A, et al. Antinociceptive properties of the hydroalcoholic extract and the flavonoid rutin obtained from Polygala paniculata L. in mice. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2009;104(4):306–15. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2008.00365.x. Lapa FDR, Soares KC, Rattmann YD, Crestani S, Missau FC, Pizzolatti MG, et al. Vasorelaxant and hypotensive effects of the extract and the isolated flavonoid rutin obtained from Polygala paniculata L. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2011;63:875–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.20427158.2010.01240.x. Mamahani AF, Simbala HEI, Saroyo. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat Subetnis Tonsawang di Kabupaten Minahasa Tenggara Provinsi Sulawesi Utara. Pharmacon J Ilmiah Farm. 2016;5 (2):2303–493. Murwanto PE, Santosa D. Antioxidant activity analysis of Cynara scolimus L., Artemisia china L., Borreria repens DC., Polygala paniculata L. from Taman Nasional Gunung Merapi using DPPH (2,2-difenil-1-pikrilhidrazil) radical scavenging analysis. Maj Obat Tradisi. 2012;17 (3):53–60. Nguyen TN, Thuoc TL, Thao DTP. Antibacterial evaluation of diarrheal herbs used by K’Ho people in Bidoup-Nui Ba national park. Tap Chi Sinh Hoc. 2015;37(1se):249–54. https://doi.org/ 10.15625/0866-7160/v37n1se.6118. Nisyawati N, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: Spermatophytes Aini RN, Saputra R, editors. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Nogueira FLP, Fernandes SBO, Reis M, Matheus ME, Fernandes PD, Lage CLS, et al. Analgesic and antiedematogenic activities of wild and micropropagated Polygala paniculata L (Polygalaceae). Rev Bras Farmacog. 2005;15(4):310–5. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-695X2005000400009. Nurrani L, Kinho J, Tabba S. Active ingredients and their toxicity of several forest plant species indigenous from North Sulawesi potential as efficacious medicine. J Peneliti Has Hut. 2014;32 (2):123–38.

Polygala paniculata L.

939

Pizzolatti MG, Cristiano R, Monache FD, Branco A. Artefatos cumarínicos isolados de Polygala paniculata L. (Polygalaceae). Rev Bras Farmacog. 2002;12(1):21–6. https://doi.org/10.1590/ S0102-695X2002000100003. Pizzolatti MG, Mendes BG, Soldi C, Missau FC, Bortoluzzi JH, Carasek E. Analysis of volatile compounds released from flowers and roots of Polygala cyparissias and Polygala paniculata by Headspace/SPME. J Essent Oil Res. 2011;21(3):255–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10412905.2009.9700163. POWO. Plants of the World Online. [Online]; 2020. Available from http://www.plantsofthe worldonline.org/. Priyadi H, Takao G, Rahmawati I, Supriyanto B, Nursal WI, Rahman I. Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java: a checklist including Sundanese names, distribution and use. Bogor: Center for International Forestry Research; 2010. Purba EC, Nisyawati, Silalahi M. The ethnomedicine of the Batak Karo people of Merdeka sub-district, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Int J Biol Res. 2016;4(2):181–9. Rijai L. Potensi herba tumbuhan balsem (Polygala paniculata Linn) sebagai sumber bahan farmasi potensial. J Trop Pharm Chem. 2013;2(2):105–12. https://doi.org/10.25026/jtpc.v2i2.55. Royyani MF, Rahayu M. Pengetahuan lokal tumbuhan obat masyarakat Desa Dompo-Dompo Jaya, Pulau Wawonii – Sulawesi Tenggara. J Tek Ling. 2010;11(2):157–65. Rugayah, Hidayat A, Rahayu M. Daftar jenis tumbuhan di Pulau Wawonii, Sulawesi Tenggara. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2015. Setyowati FM, Wardah. Diversity of medicinal plant by Talang Mamak tribe in surrounding of Bukit Tiga Puluh National Park, Riau. Biodiversitas. 2007;8(3):228–32. Silalahi M, Purba EC, Mustaqim WA. Tumbuhan obat Sumatera Utara jilid II: Dikotiledon. Jakarta: UKI Press; 2019. Slik JWF. Plants of Southeast Asia. [Online]; 2009. Available from http://www.asianplant.net/. van der Meijden R. Polygala. In: van Steenis CGGJ, editor. Flora Malesiana, vol. 10. 1st ed. Dordrecht: Kluwers Academic Publishers; 1988. p. 459–82. Victório CP, Beltrami J, Lage CLS. Polygala paniculata: a source of methyl salicylate produced through plant tissue culture. Rev Ceres. 2011;58(3):269–72. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034737X2011000300003. Woodson R, Schery R, Lewis W, Herrera-MacBryde O. Flora of Panama. Part VI. family 96. Polygalaceae. Ann Missouri Bot Gard. 1969;56(1):9–28. https://doi.org/10.2307/2395163.

Proiphys amboinensis (L.) Herb. AMARYLLIDACEAE Anisatu Z. Wakhidah and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Amaryllis rotundifolia Lam.; Cearia amboinensis (L.) Dumort.; Cepa amboinensis (L.) Kuntze;Crinum nervosum L’Hér.; Crinum nervosum Willd. ex Roxb.; Eurycles alata Sweet; Eurycles amboinensis (L.) Lindl.; Eurycles australasica (Ker Gawl.) G. Don ex Lindl.; Eurycles australis Schult. & Schult.f.; Eurycles javanica M.Roem.; Eurycles nuda Sweet; Eurycles rotundifolia M. Roem.; Eurycles sylvestris Salisb. ex Schult. & Schult. f.; Pancratium amboinense L.; Pancratium australasicum Ker Gawl.; Pancratium australe Spreng.; Pancratium nervifolium Salisb.; Pancratium ovatifolium Stokes; Stemonix nervosus (L’Hér.) Raf. (POWO 2020).

Local Name Indonesia: Bawang laut; tatambun, sesuang, si kudip (Saibatin sub-tribe, Lampung); bunga si kudip, bunga si kenyang (Dayak tribe, Kalimantan); anggrek bulan ambon, intoluge (Dondo tribe, Ambon); lotine (Lohiasapalewa people in Maluku Archipelago). Malaysia: sapenoh. Papua New Guinea: puipuimuk. Philippine: abod (Visayan, Leyte Island), dausum, katangal, katungal, osol, panabor, talaunur, tambal, tanual, tonuar. English: Christmas lily, northern christmas lily, seashore eurycles, Amazon lily, Brisbane lily, Cardwell lily (Burkill 1966; Fajrin et al. 2015; Florey and Wolff 1998; Langenberger et al. 2009; Quattrocchi 2012; Thaman 2016). A. Z. Wakhidah (*) Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_171

941

942

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

Botany and Ecology Description: Bulbous, perennial herbs, bulbs 5–8 cm across when fresh. Leaves annual, radical; petiole 13–60 cm long; blades broadly ovate to subcircular, 10– 30 cm  8–35 cm, plicate, base slightly cordate, margin entire, apex varies from emarginate to shortly apiculate. Flowers arranged in umbels, these 5–25-flowered, peduncle 15–90 cm long, the apex with 3–4 spathes, 3–40 cm  0.3–0.8 cm. Flowers actinomorphic, white; pedicels 2–3 or rarely to 4.5 cm long; tepals connate forming a 2.5–3.5 cm long tube, lobes nearly similar in size, elliptic, lanceolate or oblanceolate, 2.5–3.3 mm  6–11 mm, erect or patent. Stamens 6, borne from the throat, filaments at the base interconnected by a membrane, 7–10 mm long, free parts of the filaments 10–12 mm long, anthers 6–7 mm  2 mm. Ovary ovoid, c. 7 mm  5 mm, 3-loculed, each 2-ovuled, style thread-like, 5.5–6.5 cm long, ended with a small, entire stigma. Fruits rupturing irregularly. Distribution and Ecology: Thailand, Vietnam, Malesia, and the tropical part of Australia. In Malesia, this species is found in the Philippines, Sulawesi, Bali and Timor, Maluku Archipelago, and New Guinea including the Bismarck Archipelago. It is found growing in lowland dipterocarp, evergreen forests to deciduous broadleaved forests on streambanks, also on the seashore, alluvial rocky places, elevation up to 500 m.a.s.l. This species often cultivated in gardens. The flowering season of this species starts from December and end in March of the following year (Geerinck 1993; Lộc et al. 2005) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Leaf decoction is used by the Lampung Pesisir tribe in Lampung, Sumatra, as a contraceptive for spacing birth (Desuciani 2012). The women from the Saibatin subtribe in Lampung also use it to relieve the menstrual pain (personal observation). The Tomohon people in North Sulawesi use the leaves as a cancer Fig. 1 Living plants of Proiphys amboinensis (Amaryllidaceae). Tanjungan, Lampung, Indonesia. (© Anisatu Z. Wakhidah)

Proiphys amboinensis (L.) Herb. Fig. 2 Close up of living plant of Proiphys amboinensis (Amaryllidaceae). Krui, Lampung, Indonesia. (© Anisatu Z. Wakhidah)

Fig. 3 Young and mature leaves of Proiphys amboinensis (Amaryllidaceae). Way Jambu, Lampung, Indonesia. (© Anisatu Z. Wakhidah)

943

944

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

medicine (Mondong et al. 2015). The Dondo tribe in Tolitoli Regency, Central Sulawesi, uses the bulbs to treat goiter. They roast the bulbs after wrapping it with banana leaves and rub it unidirectionaly on the neck, from top to bottom (Fajrin et al. 2015). The people of Lohiasapalewa in Seram, Maluku Archipelago, use a lotion made from the leaves to treat smallpox. Leaves are softened by heating, rubbed with coconut oil, and then applied to the wounds for 1 or 2 days to draw pus from the wounds (Florey and Wolff 1998). In the Maluku Archipelago, the Ambonese people use the stem to cure breast cancer by heating the stem and attaching it to the breast (Dapas et al. 2014). Philippines: The Indigenous Visayan farmers in Leyte Island use a poultice made from the bulbs to treat infections by applying it directly to the affected skin (Langenberger et al. 2009). The Subanens people in Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur, treat inflammation using a poultice made from the leaves and roots by topically applying it on the affected part (Morilla et al. 2014).

Phytochemistry The leaves contain phenols, flavonoids, steroids, and tannins with antioxidant activity (Mondong et al. 2015). The leaves also contain acetylcholinesterase inhibitor compounds from the alkaloid group, namely, lycorine, which has the potential to treat Alzheimer’s (Jensen et al. 2011). Besides, the same compound performs as an anticancer agent by inhibiting the generation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha through macrophages stimulated with bacterial lipopolysaccharides (Wiart 2012). The chemical contents obtained from the stems are flavonoids and steroids (Dapas et al. 2014). The brown part of the leaves contains a mixture of methyl eugenol, 5-allyl-l,2,3trimethoxybenzene, 3,4,5-trimethoxyacetophenone, aliphatic hydrocarbons, and long-chain carboxylic acids that exhibit attractant properties (Chuah and Goh 1997). The plant can be used to treat diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria (Ho 2015).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: The Saibatin subtribe in Lampung uses this plant for the ngangison ritual. The traditional ritual is intended to greet and bless a daughter-in-law or son-inlaw before entering the house of mother-in-law for the first time (Wakhidah et al. 2020). Besides, the plant is used as a complement in the negak pemugungan ceremony in Kegeringan Village, West Lampung District in Lampung. The ritual is a house construction ceremony to bless the house and the owner with luck (personal observation). The plant is also an alien introduced species for ornamental purposes in Jakarta as a pot plant (Mustaqim et al. 2019, personal observation). Malaysia: The plant is believed by the Dayak tribe in Sarawak for having magical power to ensure bountiful rice harvest. It is planted during the beginning of the rice planting season and dug up at the end of the season and replanted at the next season (Burkill 1966; FFW 2019). The leaves are used to sprinkle water around the house

Proiphys amboinensis (L.) Herb.

945

by the local people of Peninsular Malaysia such as Kuala Kangsar in Telok Ason to prevent spirits from haunting (Quattrocchi 2012; FFW 2019). Thailand: The plant is used as ornamental in homegardens (Thaman 2016).Vietnam: The plant is cultivated for ornamental purposes (Lộc et al. 2005).

Economic Importance Thailand: This species has immense potential to contribute to the flower industry in Thailand (Lekawatana and Pituck 1998).

References Burkill IH. A dictionary of economic products of the Malay Peninsula, vol. 1. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives; 1966. Chuah CH, Yong HS, Goh SH. Methyl eugenol, a fruit-fly attractant, from the browning leaves of Proiphys amboinensis (Amaryllidaceae). Biochem Syst Ecol. 1997;25(5):391–93. Dapas CC, Harry SJK, Meiske SS. Analisis senyawa metabolit sekunder dan uji toksisitas ekstrak batang bawang laut (Proiphys amboinensis (L.) herb.). J MIPA. 2014;3(2):144–8. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Desuciani A. Etnobotani pangan dan obat masyarakat sekitar kawasan taman hutan raya wan abdul ranchman [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2012. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Fajrin M, Ibrahim N, Nugrahani AW. Studi etnofarmasi Suku Dondo Kecamatan Dondo Kabupaten Tolitoli Sulawesi Tengah. Galenika J Pharm. 2015;1(2):92–8. (in Bahasa Indonesia). FFW. Flora and Fauna Web. A Singapore Government Agency website. 2019. Published on the Internet. https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/3/2363. Retrieved 5 June 2020. Florey MJ, Wolff XY. Incantations and herbal medicines: Alune ethnomedical knowledge in a context of change. J Ethnobiol. 1998;18:39–67. Geerinck DJL. Amaryllidaceae (including Hypoxidaceae). Fl Males Ser I. 1993;11(2):353–73. Ho KY. Antibacterial profile of methanolic extracts from ten local ornamental plants against pathogenic bacteria isolated from aquaculture sites [dissertation]. Kelantan: University Malaysia Kelantan; 2015. Jensen BS, Christensen SB, Jäger AK, Rønsted N. Amaryllidaceae alkaloids from the Australasian tribe Calostemmateae with acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity. Biochem Syst Ecol. 2011;39:153–5. Langenberger G, Prigge V, Martin K, Belonias B, Sauerborn J. Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry. Agrofor Syst. 2009;76(1):173– 94. Lekawatana S, Pituck O. New floricultural crops in Thailand. In: The III International Symposium on New Floricultural Crops, Perth; 1998. p. 59–64. Lộc PK, Averyanov L, Regalado J, Hiệp NT. The diversity of the flora of Vietnam 22. Proiphys Herb. and P. amboinensis (L.) Herb., genus and species new occurrence for the flora. J Genet Appl. 2005;4:12–5. Mondong FR, Sangi MS, Kumaunanga M. Skrining fitokimia dan uji aktivitas antioksidan ekstrak etanol daun patikan emas (Euprorbia prunifolia Jacq.) dan bawang laut (Proiphys amboinensis (L.) Herb). J MIPA. 2015;4(1):81–7. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Morilla LJG, Sumaya NHN, Rivero HI, Madamba MRSB. Medicinal plants of the Subanens in Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines. In: International Conference on Food, Biological and Medical Sciences, Bangkok; 2014. p. 1–6.

946

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

Mustaqim WA, Panggabean IPDR, Putrika A. Flora Jakarta: daftar awal jenis-jenis tumbuhan berbiji. Gresik: Yayasan Generasi Biologi Indonesia; 2019. (in Bahasa Indonesia). POWO. Plants of the World Online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens. 2020. Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 15 Apr 2020. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology, vol. 4. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2012. Thaman RR. The flora of Tuvalu: Lakau Mo Mouku o Tuvalu. Atoll Res Bull. 2016;611:1–129. Wiart C. Medicinal plants of China, Korea, and Japan: bioresources for tomorrow’s drugs and cosmetics. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2012. Wakhidah AZ, Chikmawati T, Purwanto Y. Homegarden Ethnobotany of Two Saibatin Villages in Lampung, Indonesia: Species Diversity, Uses, and Values. FS. 2020;4(2):338–57.

Rubus fraxinifolius Poir. ROSACEAE Maverick N. Tamayo and Zenaida G. Baoanan

Synonyms Rubus fraxinifolius Poir var. haightii Elmer; Rubus alnifoliolatus var. kotoensis (Hayata) H. L. Li; Rubus celebicus Bl.; Rubus fraxinifolius var. kotoensis (Hayata) Koidz.; Rubus kotoensis Hayata; Rubus alnifoliolatus H. Lév. & Vaniot; Rubus merrillii Focke; Rubus rosifolius Vidal; Rubus rosifolius var. fraxinifolius (Poir.) Kuntze; Rubus moluccus parvifolius Rumph.; Rubus parvifolius L.

Local Names Philippines: Balaungan, pupugan, luting, siit, doting, luting, buyot, palanaw (Igt); págar, pagal, penet, penet an bugatan, buhuit (Ifg); buhwit, palanau (Igt, Ifg), pilayan (Kan); polnit, pop-oyyong (Bon); pinit (Ifg, Ilk); sampinit, basiyangan (BisC); tugas-tugas (BisPn); sapinit (Tag); kalagiauat, talagiauat (Buk); barini (Isg, Ap) (Merrill 1923; Conklin 1967; Aguilar et al. 2000; Madulid 2001; Barcelo 2014); alinana anuwang (Han); bulningning, bunana (Bng); bunga-tantu, tanto (Tas, Tbl); kalagiyawat, talagiyawat (Bkd); klintu (Mnobl) (Madulid 2001); lagiyawat, lagiaoat, lagukanata (Mar) (McKaughan and Macaraya 1965; Madulid 2001), lagukanata (Lan) (Merrill 1923). Indonesia: Bengberitean (Java, Sundanese); garuat’a (Talaud); djalangaro (Ternate); katé-katé (Tidore); arben (Surya and Rahman 2012); topekai, lelempohud M. N. Tamayo Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] Z. G. Baoanan (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_139

947

948

M. N. Tamayo and Z. G. Baoanan

(Kaili Inde) (Fathurrahman et al. 2016); lolempohud (Pekurehua tribe) (Susiarti et al. 2009) Central Sulawesi; lelang seba, rasberi (Rongkong, South Sulawesi) (Mustofa et al. 2020). Malaysia: Emperingan (Borneo, Iban); ragimot (Sabah); rogimot (Dusun and Kadazandusun tribes) (Shamsudin et al. 2019). New Guinea: Wolohatti (Wapi); tahari (Naho); kaman (Wain); djembuna (Iha) (Zandee and Kalkman 1981).

Botany and Ecology Erect, rarely semi-scandent shrubs, up to 3 m high. Stems glabrous (some pubescence only when very young) unarmed or with few rather straight prickles ca. 6 mm long. Glands absent or a few, sessile or subsessile, sometimes present on leaves, stipules, pedicels, other parts up to the flowers and hypanthium. Leaves imparipinnate, up to 27 cm long, with up to 4(–5) opposite pairs of leaflets, in the inflorescence reduced to 3–1-foliate, papyraceous to pergamentaceous, green, on lower surface paler. Petioles 2–6 cm long, grooved above as is the rachis, with few straight to curved prickles at the back, (almost) glabrous; petiolules of lateral leaflets 0–5 mm long, grooved above, at base softly hairy as is the (otherwise glabrous) rachis; petiolule of terminal leaflet up to 2.5 cm long, grooved above and softly hairy to (almost) glabrous. Leaflets pinnerved, elliptic to oblong or sub-ovate, 2–9(–12)  1–4(–6) cm, the terminal leaflet often longer and/or wider than the lateral ones; base usually rounded or (especially in the terminal leaflet) cordate, in lateral leaflets often more or less oblique and then in the upper half acute, rarely both halves acute, margin serrate, rarely slightly biserrate, with 4–8 teeth per cm, apex acute to long-pointed, sometimes acuminate, papyraceous to pergamentaceous with (7–)10–15(–19) pairs of lateral nerves, terminating in the margin, midrib and lateral nerves impressed above, prominent below, venation reticulate, not very conspicuous; upper surface sparsely short hairy on the midrib, sometimes also on the lateral nerves and at base, rarely so between the nerves, lower surface sparsely short hairy only on the midrib and nerves, and rarely with some short prickles on the midrib. Stipules linear, 5–13  0.5–1(–2) mm, entire or sparsely toothed, glabrate. Inflorescence terminal (and axillary sometimes (Fig. 1)), thyrse, with up to 7 branches, the lower of these in the axils of pinnate to unifoliolate leaves; the upper ones in the axils of bracts, being cymes with 1–3 flowers, the lower ones consisting of bracteate to leafy thyrses; the entire inflorescence lax and wide with divaricate branches, up to ca. 20 cm long and wide, with up to 60 flowers. Pedicels and lower axes up to 5 cm long, (almost) glabrous, sometimes with few small prickles. Bracts lanceolate to (the lower ones) 3-partite (consisting of a reduced leaf-blade with relatively large and connate stipules ca. 3  1 mm when simple, up to ca. 1 cm long when tripartite, margins entire or toothed, glabrous or sparsely hairy; bracteoles 2, on the pedicel, usually not opposite, up to 3  1 mm, usually entire, glabrous or sparsely hairy.

Rubus fraxinifolius Poir.

949

Fig. 1 Rubus fraxinifolius fertile branches with immature fruits and flowers. (© M. N. Tamayo)

Hypanthium saucer-shaped, 5–6 mm across, glabrous and unarmed outside, glabrous inside. Sepals triangular, 7–13  3–6 mm, including the 2–5 mm long acumen, not or hardly growing after anthesis, entire, glabrous outside except a woolly indumentum on the margins covered in bud, inside shortly and densely woolly except at base and on the acumen. Petals orbicular to elliptic or obovate, not clawed, about as long as the sepals, 7–12  5–9 mm, glabrous, falling early, (greenish) white. Stamens up to more than 100, glabrous; filaments up to 3 mm long, anthers ca. 1 mm long (Zandee and Kalkman 1981; Kalkman 1993). Pollen small, equatorial outline circular, meridional outline elliptical, colpus margins undifferentiated, finely undulate, constricted slightly in the equator, grooves with perforations and often filled with microgranules (Wyremblewska et al. 2004). Pistils up to more than 300, glabrous; ovaries ca. 0.5 mm long, style up to 1.5 mm long. Torus elevated, basal part without pistils and long hairy, upper part glabrous. Collective fruits ellipsoid to ovoid, up to 2.5  1.5 cm, sepals ultimately recurved. Fruits ca. 1.5  0.8 mm (dry), exocarp red when ripe, (orange–) red, mesocarp a thin layer when dry; endocarp rugose (Fig. 2) (Zandee and Kalkman 1981; Kalkman 1993). Phenology: Flowering in June and January (Indonesia) (Surya and Rahman 2012), August–May (Philippines) (Aguilar et al. 2000) or probably flowering and fruiting all year round (Tamayo pers. obs.). Distribution and Habitat: Asia-Temperate: Taiwan, Asia-Tropical: Bismarck Archipelago, Malesia, Borneo, Java (Jawa), Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku, New Guinea, Celebes, Sulawesi, Moluccas, Solomon Islands, Philippines (Pauai, North Luzon to Mindanao (Zandee and Kalkman 1981; Kalkman 1993; Pelser et al. 2011), Benguet Province, Municipalities of Atok, Bakun, Bokod, Buguias, Itogon, Kabayan, Kapangan, Kibungan, La Trinidad, Mankayan, Sablan and Tublay

950

M. N. Tamayo and Z. G. Baoanan

Fig. 2 Rubus fraxinifolius infructescence showing ripe fruits, and flower. (© M. N. Tamayo)

(Barcelo 2014), Ifugao (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011). Common in less open sites, forest gaps and edges, streambanks, along trails, abandoned cultivations, at altitude 0–2500 m.a.s.l. (Kalkman 1993; Pelser et al. 2011), in pine forests (Kowal 1966), and other disturbed areas.

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: The fruit of this plant is used by the indigenous communities in Benguet, Philippines as a medicine for the treatment of stomach-ache, sore eyes, UTI and cough (Barcelo 2014). The Kalanguyas of Ifugao specifically apply crushed leaves on sore eyes and wounds while decoction of roots, stems, and leaves are used to treat diarrhoea and urinary tract infection (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011). Indonesia: In Java, the leaves are used to treat slimy feces and dysentery (Kalkman 1993). The Pekurehua indigenous community (Susiarti et al. 2009) and the Kaili Inde tribe of Central Sulawesi (Fathurrahman et al. 2016) use the plant to treat hair loss. Fruits are used by Rongkong ethnic groups from South Sulawesi for menstrual disorder (Mustofa et al. 2020).

Phytochemistry Ripe fruit phytochemical screening shows the presence of saponins, flavonoids, tannins, polyphenols (Barcelo 2015; Galvez 2016), phenolics, anthocyanins, carotenoid (Bakar et al. 2016) and quinon (Dewi et al. 2019). Secondary metabolite profiling using GC-MS revealed that R. fraxinifolius fruits contain major compounds

Rubus fraxinifolius Poir.

951

such as 2(1H)-pyridinone, 6-hydroxy- (14.589%); 1,1,2-triacetoxyethane (10.370%); 2,4-dihydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furan-3-one (8.283%); and 2-propenoic acid, 2-propenyl ester (3.589%) (Bakar et al. 2016). Additionally, DPPH, FRAP and ABTS Assays tests conducted using methanol-water extracts proved the fruits to be a good source of antioxidants. The fruit extracts have a weak acetylcholinesterase inhibition activity and moderate antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella enteritidis (Bakar et al. 2016). The leaves are found to possess antioxidant properties as well (Desmiaty et al. 2018; Dewi et al. 2019; Shamsudin et al. 2019). Aqueous leaf extracts are potential anti-diabetic remedy and moderate antibacterial agent (Dewi et al. 2019) showing partial inhibition for B. cereus (Galvez 2016). Of the five species of raspberries cultivated at Cibodas Garden in Bogor, Indonesia, R. fraxinifolius tested to have the highest sugar content of 5.05 g per 100 g of fruits (Surya et al. 2018). The Vitamin C and iron contents however vary during different stages of ripening. The fruits collected from Mount Lawu, a volcanic mountain in Java, reveal high nutritional values containing 19.07% antioxidant, 88.68 mg per 100 1 vitamin C, and 452.44 mg per 100 1 anthocyanin (Setiyadi et al. 2018).

Local Food Uses In Benguet province, Philippines, R. fraxinifolius fruits are used in making jellies, jams, candies, wine, condiments/ingredients, dye and even as a food decor (Barcelo 2014). Fully ripened fruits are eaten raw mostly by children (Conklin 1967). In Java, the fruits are collected from the wild and sold for consumption (Kalkman 1993). It is also eaten by wild animals and oftentimes by trekkers as a hiking treat. Locally utilized as a part of the diet by communities in Kundasang, Sabah, Malaysia (Shamsudin et al. 2019), and as food and nutraceutical by the Bali Aga of Indonesia (Caneva et al. 2017).

Biocultural and Economic Importance In the Philippines’ Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR), the berries are sometimes used as an offering (Barcelo 2014). R. fraxinifolius is one of the most locally abundant berries that is found in tropical Asia. In fact, this berry has high economic value due to its capacity to produce fruits all year round (Surya and Rahman 2012). This plant ranks 88th in terms of cultural significance to the Montikola village of Kaili Inde tribe in Palu, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia with an Index of Cultural Significance (ICS) value of 11 (Fathurrahman et al. 2016). ICS was used to determine utilization of plant diversity and its importance for the people. Moreover, Mustofa et al. (2020) assigned a Use Value (UV) of 0.20 for this plant which is indicative of its many uses reported by Rongkong traditional healers in South Sulawesi.

952

M. N. Tamayo and Z. G. Baoanan

References Aguilar NO, Cardenas LB, Cajano MAO. Spore- and seed-bearing plants of Mount Pulag, Benguet, Philippines. Laguna: Museum of Natural History, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College; 2000. Bakar MFA, Ismail NA, Isha A, Ling ALM. Phytochemical composition and biological activities of selected wild berries (Rubus moluccanus L., R. fraxinifolius Poir., and R. alpestris Blume). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2482930. Balangcod TD, Balangcod AKD. Ethnomedical knowledge of plants and healthcare practices among the Kalanguya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao, Luzon, Philippines. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(3):533–7. Barcelo RT. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera administrative region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. https://doi.org/ 10.12980/APJTB.4.201414B36. Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Caneva G, Traversetti L, Sujarwo W, Zuccarello V. Sharing ethnobotanical knowledge in traditional villages: evidence of food and nutraceutical “core groups” in Bali, Indonesia. Econ Bot. 2017;71 (4):303–13. Conklin HC. Ifugao ethnobotany 1905–1965: the 1911 Beyer-Merrill report in perspective. Econ Bot. 1967;21(3):243–72. Desmiaty Y, Elya B, Saputri FC, Hanafi M, Prastiwi R. Antioxidant activity of Rubus fraxinifolius Poir. and Rubus rosifolius J. Sm. leaves. J Young Pharm. 2018;10(Suppl 2):s93–6. https://doi. org/10.5530/jyp.2018.2s.18. Dewi RT, Fitria I, Sundowo A, Agustian E, Ismaini L, Normasiwi S, Noviady I, Destri SMI. Phytochemical constituent’s comparison using various drying effects on Rubus fraxinifolius Pour. leaves. Curr Agric Res. 2019;7(3):310–7. https://doi.org/10.12944/CARJ.7.3.06. Fathurrahman F, Nursanto J, Madjid A, Ramadanil R. Ethnobotanical study of “Kaili Inde” tribe in Central Sulawesi Indonesia. Emir J Food Agric. 2016;28(5):337–47. https://doi.org/10.9755/ ejfa.2015-06-463. Galvez MAC. Antibacterial activity and phytochemical screening of selected folkloric medicinal plants of Maggok, Hungduan, Ifugao, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. Int J Sci Res Publ. 2016;6(1):460–4. Kalkman C. Rosaceae. Flora Malesiana Ser I. 1993;11(2):227–351. Kowal NE. Shifting cultivation, fire and pine forest in the Cordillera Central, Luzon, Philippines. Ecol Monogr. 1966;36(4):389–419. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Makati: Bookmark; 2001. McKaughan HP, Macaraya BA. Maranao plant names. Ocean Linguist. 1965;4(1):48–112. Merrill ED. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. 2. Manila: Bureau of Printing; 1923. p. 1–530. Mustofa FI, Rahmawati N, Aminullah. Medicinal plants and practices of Rongkong Traditional Healers in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2020;21(2):642–51. https://doi.org/ 10.13057/biodiv/d210229. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Rosaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://philippineplants.org/Families/Rosaceae.html. Accessed 19 May 2020. Setiyadi W, Nandariyah, Budiastuti MTS. Exploration, abundance and nutrient potential of Rubus in Lawu Mountain, Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2018;200:1–8. 012009. https:// doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/200/1/012009. Shamsudin NA, Matawali A, Gansau JA. Comparison of antioxidant activity and phytochemical content of Borneo wild berry, Rubus fraxinifolius (Rogimot). Trans Sci Technol. 2019;6(1):36–41. Surya MI, Rahman W. Flowering and fruiting phenology of Rubus spp. in Cibodas Botanical Garden, Indonesia. Agrivita. 2012;34(2):193–7. https://doi.org/10.17503/Agrivita-2012-34-2-p193-197.

Rubus fraxinifolius Poir.

953

Surya MI, Suhartati S, Ismaini L, Destri LY, Anggraeni D, Normasiwi S, Asni N, Mirwan Abu Sidiq MAB. Fruit nutrients of five species of wild raspberries (Rubus spp.) from Indonesian mountain’s forests. J Trop Life Sci. 2018;8(1):75–80. https://doi.org/10.11594/jtls.08.01.13. Susiarti S, Purwanto Y, Windadri FI. Engetahuan masyarakat pekurehuadi Sekitar Taman Nasional Lore Lindu, Sulawesi tengah tentang tumbuhan obatdan pemanfaatannya. Media Penelit dan Pengembang Kesehat. 2009;19(4):185–92. https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/ 153094-ID-pengetahuan-masyarakat-pekurehua-di-seki.pdf. Wyremblewska AT, Van Der Ham RWJM, Kosiński P. Pollen morphology of genus Rubus L. Part III. Studies on the Malesian species of subgenera Chamaebatus L. and Idaeobatus L. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2004;73(3):207–27. Zandee M, Kalkman C. The genus Rubus (Rosaceae) in Malesia. Blumea. 1981;(27):75–113.

Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Blume VIBURNACEAE Marina Silalahi and Anisatu Z. Wakhidah

Synonyms Ebulum javanicum (Reinw. ex Blume) Hosok.; Phyteuma bipinnata Lour.; Phyteuma cochinchinensis Lour.; Sambucus argyi H.Lév.; Sambucus chinensis var. pinnatilobatus G.W.Hu; Sambucus ebuloides Desv. ex DC.; Sambucus henriana Samutina; Sambucus phyteumoides DC.; Sambucus thunbergiana Blume ex Miq.; Sambucus thunbergii G.Don. (POWO 2020).

Local Names Lao: Mos hav (Hmongenese); Indonesia: sangitan (general), abur (Aceh), babalat (Bengkulu) bubukuan, kipapatong, kitespong (Sundanese), gegirang (Balinese), sengitan (Javanese); Malaysia: kerak nasi; Thailand: ta sigajeu (Karen), la oil toui (Lawa), choe-cha-bi (Nakian); Philippines: galamat, kalamata (Igorot), sauko (Tagalog); Vietnam: c[ow]m ch[asl]y, thu[oos]c m[oj]I, s[os]c d[ij]ch, comchay; English: Javanese elder, Chinese elder (Junsongduang et al. 2013; Nam and Jae 2009; Partasasmita 2015; Ramdhan et al. 2015; Pongamornkul et al. 2020; Samuel et al. 2010; Sujarwo et al. 2020; van Valkenburg 2003; Whitney et al. 2014).

M. Silalahi (*) Prodi Pendidikan Biologi, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia Biology Education Department, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, West Jakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] A. Z. Wakhidah Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_140

955

956

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

Botany and Ecology Description: A perennial herb or shrub with creeping rhizome, shrub or small tree up to 7 m tall. Stem grooved or smooth with beige bark that can peel off, it is woody and rough. Leaves are pinnate shaped with a serrulate margin and have the leaflets that occur in 2–6 pairs. Each pinnate is about 6–22 cm long and 6.5 cm wide. The leaflets are oblong to linear lanceolate. Topside of the leaves is light green with one midrib, while the bottom side is grayish and rough as opposed to the topside which is much smoother. Besides, the leaves can be oblique. Stipules glandular or foliaceous. Leaflet oblong, lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, 7–22(–30) cm
1.5–6.5 cm, base cuneate to cordate, apex acumate, shallowly serrate with lower teeth glandular swollen, shortly stalked to sessile. Small white flowers grow in a cymose corymb at the end of inflorescence. Inflorescence a terminal, flat-topped, 3–5(–7) rayed corymb up to 30 cm in diameter, with urceolate yellow, orange or scarlet nectaries in the outer axils. Flower bisexual, regular, 4–5 mm in diameter, 5 merous, lemon-scented. Calyx lobes minute, corolla rotate, with valvate lobes, white or creamy, stamens spreading, anthers yellow, white or creamy. Stamens spread, anthers yellow. Ovary inferior, 3 celled, stigma 3. Fruit a globose berry 3–4 mm in diameter, black or rarely scarlet to orange, 3 seeded. The berries are reddish purple and round shaped with a slight scent. Ripen berries are squeezable and the seeds are yellowish beige surrounded by a sticky exudate. Seeds ovoid, often ventrally flattened, verrucose. Seedling with epigeal germination (van Valkenburg 2003; Sujarwo et al. 2020). Distribution and Habitat: Sambucus javanica native range is Bangladesh to West Central Malesia. Its geographic distribution is from India, Burma (Myanmar), Indochina, southern China. Taiwan, Japan, Thailand, throughout Malesia, except Peninsular Malaysia and Moluccas (POWO 2020). It is found growing in relatively moist primary and secondary forest along fringes and in clearings from sea level up to 2500 m altitude. In South-East Asia, it is most common above 1000 m.a.s.l. (van Valkenburg 2003). Phenology: Sambucus javanica can be found flowering and fruiting throughout the year. Beetles are the main pollinator and may provide self as well as crosspollination. Dispersal of the juicy berries is most likely effected by frugivorous bird. Germination of seed takes less than a month in full night (van Valkenburg 2003) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The ethnic groups in Indonesia have been long used S. javanica as traditional medicine, especially the local communities in Java and Bali islands. van Valkenburg (2003) stated that in Indonesia, S. javanica leaves are considered as a laxative, whereas an infusion of flowers and leaves are used as a sudorific and diuretic. The local people in Bengkulu Province drink leaf and stem decoction to treat digestive disorders (Darwis 2012). The Sundanese in Cikondong village, West Java, use the stem and leaf decoction to treat wounds, bruises, and stiffness (Ramdhan et al. 2015). The juice of S. javanica leaves is applied to skin wounds and dermatitis by Balinese in Bali Island (Sujarwo et al. 2020). Local people in

Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Blume

957

Fig. 1 Living plants of Sambucus javanica (Viburnaceae). Tarutung, North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Sambucus javanica (Viburnaceae). Tarutung, North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

Central Sulawesi use fruit poultices to cure acne (Gailea et al. 2016). Philippines: The local communities in Mindanao consider the plant as a remedy for fatigue (van Valkenburg 2003). Malaysia: An infusion of dried leaves of S. javanica is

958

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

Fig. 3 Immature fruits of Sambucus javanica (Viburnaceae). Tarutung, North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

Fig. 4 Mature fruits of Sambucus javanica (Viburnaceae). Tarutung, North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

considered antirheumatic and analgesic (van Valkenburg 2003); leaves crushed with water is applied on inflamed parts to reduce pain and inflammation (Samuel et al. 2010). Thailand: The Karen people in Chiang Mai use leaves to treat sprain and

Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Blume

959

muscular pain (Tangjitman et al. 2015). The Karen in North Thailand use the leaves to cure wounds, diarrhea, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammation, and a as muscle relaxant; the Lawa ethnic community uses it to treat bloating, bone fractures, and wound (Junsongduang et al. 2013, 2014). The local communities in Thailand crush the aerial parts and apply as poultice to inflammations (van Valkenburg 2003). In Nakian, Chiang Mai province, the plant is used as diuretic (roots), and to treat muscle pain, in postpartum healthcare (leaves), hemorrhoids, and burns (stems) (Pongamornkul et al. 2020). In Thailand, burnt leaves are also placed externally on the spot treat fractured bones and muscle pains (Kantasrila et al. 2020).

Phytochemistry Aerial parts: The aerial parts of S. javanica contain 3β,23-dihydroxy-11α,12α-epoxy-urs-20(30)-en-28,13β-olide, ursolic acid, pomolic acid, oleanic acid, 2α-hydroxy-oleanolic acid, α-amyrin, and lupeol palmitate (Chen et al. 2019). Leaves: Ethanol extract contains alkaloid, flavonoid, glycoside, anthraquinone glycoside, saponin, steroid/triterpenoid, and tannin (Dasopang 2017).

Bioactivities S. javanica extracts are anti-inflammatory and antioxidant (Sujarwo et al. 2020; Putra and Rifai 2019a), immunomodulatory (Putra and Rifai 2019a), promotes hematopoiesis (Putra and Rifai 2019b), and antibacterial (Dasopang 2017). Ethanol extract of leaves inhibits the growth of Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi at a concentration of 500 mg/ml with inhibition zones of 16.11 and 17.04 mm, respectively (Dasopang 2017). Experimental mice orally administrated with 2.8 mg.kg1 BW of 7,12-dimetilbenz(α)anthracene (DMBA) for ten times a month, and administered with fruit and leaf extract showed a significant decrease of expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interferon gamma (IFN-ɣ) (Putra and Rifai 2019a); the fruit and leaf extracts have therapeutic potential against the unfavorable effects of DMBA as they modulate the T-cells regulation (Putra et al. 2020). The fruit and leaf extracts show hematopoiesis in a chloramphenicol-induced aplastic anemia mouse model (Putra and Rifai 2019b). The compounds 3β,23-dihydroxy-11α,12α-epoxy-urs-20(30)-en-28,13β-olide and pomolic acid from aerial parts exhibited inhibitory effect against nitric oxide (NO) production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)activated RAW264.7 macrophage cell lines (Chen et al. 2019).

Economic Importance Indonesia: The leaves, stems, flowers, and leaf powder have been widely sold in the marketplaces to treat various diseases such as swelling and bruising, broken bones, rheumatism, aches and pains, jaundice, beriberi, dysentery, and chronic

960

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

inflammation of the airways. A drink powder is made from the fruits which is marketed as an immunity booster (Aryanto 2020; Rintani 2020).

References Aryanto A. Tangkal Corona, Eldeberry diyakini Tingkatkan Imunitas. Published on the Internet. https://www.wartaekonomi.co.id/read296929/tangkal-corona-eldeberry-diyakini-tingkatkanimunitas. Retrieved 7 August 2020. (In bahasa). Chen F, Liu DL, Wang W, Xiao-Man L, Li W, Shao LD, Wang WJ. Bioactive triterpenoids from Sambucus javanica Blume. Nat Prod Res. 2019;10:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419. 2019.1596092. Darwis W. Tanaman obat yang terdapat di Kota Bengkulu yang berpotensi sebagai obat penyakit dan gangguan pada sistem pencernaan manusia. Konservasi Hayati. 2012;8(1):1–15. (in Bahasa). Dasopang ES. Screening physiochemist and test of antibacterial activity of extract ethanol leaf leaves (Sambucus javanica Reinw) on growth bacteria Escherichia coli and Salmonella thypi. BioLink. 2017;4(1):54–62. Gailea R, Bratawinata AA, Pitopang R, Kusuma I. The use of various plant types as medicines by local community in the enclave of the Lore-Lindu national park of Central Sulawesi. Indones GJRMI. 2016;5(1):29. Junsongduang A, Balslev H, Inta A, Jampeetong A, Wangpakapattanawong P. Medicinal plants from Swidden fallows and sacredforest of the Karen and the Lawa in Thailand. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(44):1–10. Junsongduang A, Balslev H, Inta A, Jampeetong A, Wangpakapattanawong P. Karen and Lawa medicinal plant use: uniformity or ethnic divergence. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;151(1):517–27. Kantasrila R, Pandith H, Balslev H, Wangpakapattanawong P, Panyadee P, Inta A. Medicinal plants for treating musculoskeletal disorders among Karen in Thailand. Plan Theory. 2020;9(7):811. Nam NH, Jae YY. NF-κB Inhibitory activities of the methanol extracts and some constituents therein of some Vietnamese medicinal plants. Sci Pharm. 2009;77(2):389–400. Partasasmita R. The role of frugivorous birds in the dispersal of shrubs in sub montane zone of tropical forest, West Java, Indonesia. Nusantara Biosci. 2015;7(2):144–8. Pongamornkul W, Muangyen N, Phookaphin B, Panyadee P, Inta A. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of Pwo people in Northern Thailand. Research Square. 2020. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs21537/v1. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 4 Apr 2020. Putra WA, Rifai M. Hematopoiesis activity of Sambucus javanica on Chloramphenicol-induced a plastic anemia mouse model. Nat Prod. 2019a;25(1):59–63. Putra WK, Rifai M. Immunomodulatory activities of Sambucus javanica extracts in DMBA exposed BALB/c mouse. Adv Pharm Bull. 2019b;9(4):619–23. Putra WE, Maulana AR, Ramadhan ATK, Rifai M. T cells regulation modulated by Sambucus javanica extracts in DMBA-exposed mice. J Herbmed Pharmacol. 2020;9(4):408–11. https:// doi.org/10.34172/jhp.2020.51. Ramdhan B, Chikmawati T, Waluyo EB. Ethnomedical herb from Cikondang indigenous village, District Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. J Biol Environ Sci. 2015;6(2):277–88. Rintani DM. Punya khasiat lebih dibanding jeruk, apa itu buah elderberry? Published on the Internet. https://nova.grid.id/read/052267086/punya-khasiat-lebih-dibanding-jeruk-apa-itubuah-elderberry?page¼all. Retrieved 7 Aug 2020. Samuel AJSJ, Kalusalingam A, Chellappan DK, Gopinath R, Radhamani S, Husain A, Muruganandham V, Promwichit P. Plants used by Orang Asli in Kampung Bawong, Perak of

Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Blume

961

West Malaysia-Ethnomedical survey of plants used by the OrangAsli in Kampung Bawong, Perak, West Malaysia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(5):1–6. Sujarwo W, van der Hoeven B, Raharja IM. Usada: traditional balinese medicinal plants. Pendit– Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2020, p. 94–5. Tangjitman K, Wongsawad C, Trisonthi C. Predicting vulnerability of medicinal plants used by Karen People in Chiang Mai Province to climatic change. Environ Nat Resour J. 2015;13(1):61–9. van Valkenburg JLCH. Sambucus javanica Reinw. Ex Blume. In: Lemmens RHMJ, Bunyaprphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No 12 (3) Medicinal and poisonous plants 3. Leiden: Backhyus; 2003. p. 356–7. Whitney CW, Min VS, Giang LH, Can VV, Barber K, Lanh TT. Conservation and ethnobotanical knowledge of a Hmong Community in Long Lan, Luang Prabang Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2014;12:643–58.

Saurauia bontocensis Merr. ACTINIDIACEAE Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

Local Names Philippines: Dogdoguay (Abra); deguay (Bontoc) (Merrill 1914); degway (Bontoc, Kankanaey) (Madulid 2001); dagway (Ifugao) (Balangcod and Balangcod 2009); deguai, dogwe (Ifugao) (Taguiling 2013); deguai (Benguet) (Lumbres et al. 2014); dagwey (Ifugao) (Rice 2002); dagwey (Kalinga) (Malabrigo Jr. 2013).

Botany and Ecology Description: Saurauia bontocensis Merr. was previously included under the family Dilleniaceae (Merrill 1914). It is a fast-growing (Taguiling 2013) erect shrub (Fig. 1) or small tree, reaching 3–6 m high. Merrill (1914) described the plant having branches that are stout, terete, brown, glabrous, or nearly so with younger ones rather densely covered with appressed or somewhat spreading, brown, lanceolate, acuminate, 2 mm long; setose scales; leaves alternate, oblong-elliptic, coriaceous, 15–25 cm long, 7–12 cm wide, the apex shortly acuminate, base subacute or obtuse to rounded, margins distantly glandular-serrulate, the upper surface brownish or olivaceous, shining when dry, glabrous or nearly so, the lower surface, somewhat paler, slightly shining, more or less spinulose-setose, especially near the midrib and the primary nerves; lateral nerves about 18 on each side of the midrib, very prominent, rather lax; petioles setose, 1.5–4 cm long, more or less setose, M. S. Subilla Department of Forestry and Agroforestry, Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, Bontoc, Mountain Province, Philippines Z. G. Baoanan (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_200

963

964

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Fig. 1 Saurauia bontocencis shrub. (© M.S. Subilla)

few-flowered. Bracts leaflike, 1.5–2 cm long, 8 mm wide, narrowed at both ends, acuminate, irregularly spinulose-wide, narrowed at both ends, acuminate, irregularly spinulose-toothed, concave, prominently reticulate; bracteoles similar but smaller and oblong to oblong-spatulate, 4–10 mm long; pedicels about 10 mm long; sepals 5, the outer two elliptic, rounded, sparingly setose, and pubescent externally, about 10 mm long, 6 mm wide, much thicker than the three interior ones which are petaloid, broadly obovate, rounded to retuse, about 12 mm long, and 10 mm wide, their margins minutely ciliate; flowers white (Fig. 2), petals 5, very broadly obovate, slightly narrowed below, 15 mm long, 12 mm wide, glabrous, retuse, and about 12-nerved; stamens numerous; filaments and anthers each about 3 mm long; style 2 mm long, the arms 5, and 3 mm in length. Fruit (Fig. 3) is green when unripe, globular, and turns to yellowish-brown when ripened (Subilla pers. obs.). Phenology: Observed to be flowering from May to June in the forests of Mt. Province (Subilla pers. obs.). Distribution and Habitat: Endemic to the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011; POWO 2019). Luzon: Mountain Province, Bauco, in forests, about 1700 m; Abra, Mountain Province, Kalinga, Ifugao. Found at thickets and forests reaching1200–1800 m elevation (Pelser et al. 2011); Subprovince of Lepanto, near Mancayan (Merrill

Saurauia bontocensis Merr.

965

Fig. 2 Flowers of S. bontocencis. (© M.S. Subilla)

1914). This plant is among the floral vegetation assessed in Alno communal mixed forest in Benguet (Lumbres et al. 2014) and in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park in Kalinga (Malabrigo Jr. 2013). Conservation Status: Vulnerable (DAO 2017).

Local Medicinal Uses The key informants interviewed by Taguiling (2013) from three barangays at Ifugao regarded S. bontocensis as medicinal plant but treatment methods have not been recorded.

Local Food Uses Edible fruits for the people of Caraballo Mountains (Rice 2002) and Ifugao (Taguiling 2013). The Kalanguyas of Tinoc, Ifugao, cook the sour fruits together with the leaves to prepare sour soups (Balangcod and Balangcod 2009). The fruits

966

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Fig. 3 Unripe fruit of S. bontocencis cut to reveal the seeds. (© M.S. Subilla)

are consumed as food and beverage by Bontocs in Mountain Province (Bodner and Gereau 1988).

Biocultural and Economic Importance The wild fruit of S. bontocensis, locally called dagwey, has become a source of livelihood for the Ikalahan tribe (Rice 2002), otherwise known as Kalanguyas, inhabiting the Caraballo Sur mountain range in Luzon island, Philippines (Olofson 1984). Dagwey fruits are the most important raw material for the food processing center that was built for enhancing livelihood opportunities for the Ikalahans. About 6000 trees have been planted to meet the needs of the food processing center in a sustainable way (Rice 2002). The dried fruits are prepared as raisins, while the juice is made into dagwey jelly, dagwey spread, and even for the production of dagwey vinegar (Rice 2002). The wood is used as firewood fuel in Bontoc, Mountain Province (Bodner and Gereau 1988).

Saurauia bontocensis Merr.

967

References Balangcod TD, Balangcod AD. Underutilized plant resources in Tinoc, Ifugao, Cordillera Administrative Region, Luzon island, Philippines. Acta Hortic. 2009;806:1–14. https://doi.org/10. 17660/ActaHortic.2009.806.80. Bodner CC, Gereau RE. A contribution to Bontoc ethnobotany. Econ Bot. 1988;42(3):307–69. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4255087. Accessed 22 May 2020 DENR Administrative Order. Updated national list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories. No. 2017–11. Quezon City: Department of Environment and Natural Resources Visayas Avenue, Diliman; 2017. Lumbres RC, Palaganas JA, Micosa SC, Laruan KA, Besic ED, Yun CW, Lee YJ. Floral diversity assessment in Alno communal mixed forest in Benguet, Philippines. Landscape Ecol Eng. 2014;10:361–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-012-0204-5. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names. Volume I. Philippines: Bookmark Inc.; Makati, Manila, 2001.Makati City: Bookmark; 2001. Malabrigo PL Jr. Vascular flora of the tropical montane forests in Balbalasang-Balbalan National Park, Kalinga Province, Northern Luzon, Philippines. Asian J Biodiversity. 2013;4:1–22. https://doi.org/10.7828/ajob.v4i1.294. Merrill ED. Sertulum Bontocense: New or interesting plants collected in Bontoc Subprovince, Luzon, by Father Morice Vanoverbergh, II. Vol. IX, No. 5. In: A. Cox, gen. ed. and E. Merrill, ed. The Philippine Journal of Science: Manila; Bureau of Science; 1914. p. 443–459. https:// www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/1119#page/455/mode/1up. Accessed 22 July 2020. Olofson H. Toward a cultural ecology of Ikalahan dooryards: a perspective for development. Philippine Q Cult Soc. 1984;12:306–25. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Actinidiaceae. In: Co’s digital flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Actinidiaceae.html. Accessed 17 May 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2019. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/?q=Saurauia%20bontocensis. Accessed 20 July 2020. Rice D. Community involvement in food processing: The Ikalahan experience. In: Haq N, Hughes A, editors. Fruits for the future in Asia. UK: International Centre for Underutilised Crops, Institute of Irrigation and Development Studies and University of Southampton, Southampton; 2002, p. 94–9. Taguiling NK. Macrofloral biodiversity conservation in Ifugao. Eur Sci J. 2013;4:469–82. http:// eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/2503. Accessed 25 July 2020.

Saurauia elegans (Choisy) Fern.-Vill. ACTINIDIACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Synonyms Saurauia rugosa Turcz.; Saurauia santosii Merr.; Scapha elegans Choisy (POWO 2019).

Local Names Uyok (Igorot, Kankanay); oyok (Bontok, Ifugao); balatakan (Tasaday); bin-ol (Kalagan); binul (Ifugao, Igorot); binul an oongal, binul an tolpep (Ifugao); galontuduk (Manobo, Manobo Blit); koyokuloy (Tagbanwa); paalayawan (Negrito) (Madulid 2001).

Botany and Ecology Description: A tall tree with brown branches with setose and densely ferruginoustomentose hairs. Leaves are simple, 17 cm long  6 cm wide, dark green on upper surface and brownish underneath, alternate, oblong-elliptical, and with inequilateral base, acute apex, finely serrated margins, and pinnate venation. Petioles are half inch long. Flowers white, in panicles or cymose. Petals oblong-obovate or rounded. Corolla is about 7 mm long with sepals that are 3–4 mm long. Stamens are numerous and styles are distinct. Fruits are berries, clustered, 1–1.5 cm, rounded, contains mucilaginous sweet substance when ripe. The fruits contain very small, wrinkled, and angular seeds.

R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_41

969

970

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Fig. 1 Saurauia elegans (Actinidiaceae). Surface and underneath layer of leaves. (© R. Barcelo)

Fig. 2 Saurauia elegans (Actinidiaceae). Immature fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

Phenology: May to July Distribution and Habitat: Endemic to the Philippines. Grows in forested ravines and exposed forested ridges ranging from 700 to 2300 m elevation in Luzon: Ilocos Norte, Mountain Province, Benguet, Cagayan (Mt Cetaceo), Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, Aurora, Bataan, Camarines, Albay, Mindoro: Mindoro Oriental (Pelser et al. 2011; Arances et al. 2004). Found in the municipalities of Benguet except Bakun, Mankayan, and Tuba (Chua-Barcelo 2014) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Saurauia elegans (Choisy) Fern.-Vill.

971

Local Medicinal Uses The fruits are used for lung problems by the local people in Benguet (Chua-Barcelo 2014). The fruits are eaten raw and juice is extracted. Guevara and Garcia (2018) enumerated the various traditional medicinal plants used by the Matigsalug tribe in barangay Baganihan, Marilog district in Davao City. Among the 22 identified plants is S. elegans with an importance value of 3.55.

Phytochemistry Steroids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and polyphenols are present in the methanolic fruit extract which contribute to its good DPPH radical scavenging activity (Barcelo 2015).

Local Food Uses In Benguet, the fruits are processed into jam, jellies, candies, juice, and wine. Forage for birds, grass eaters, and wild rat (Chua-Barcelo 2014). In Ifugao, S. elegans is one of the fruit-bearing trees that serves as a food plant, thus eaten raw (Taguiling 2013). In addition, the indigenous edible fruits grow in Tinoc Ifugao. The sweet fruits are slippery in texture (Balangcod and Balangcod 2009). As a result, the fruits may be utilized in wine making aside from tapey which is a famous drink among the Kalanguya tribe especially during rituals.

Biocultural Importance The sweet tasting fruits are used as decoration and as offertory during rituals and special occasions (Chua-Barcelo 2014). In Benguet, the small white flowers and fruits are either hung or placed on the table.

References Arances J, Ridsdale C, Rufila L, Comilap R, Pacut N, Amoroso V, Visser L, Galvezo J, Lumaray C, Montimar B, Gruezo WS, Tan B, Opiso G, Comilap C, Sacal S. Development of a participatory methodology for inventory and assessment of floral resources and their characterization in the montane forests of Mt. Malindang. Biodiversity research Programme for development in Mindanao: focus on Mt. Malindang and environs, SEAMEO SEARCA, college, Laguna. Quezon City: PDM Press; 2004. Balangcod T, Balangcod AK. Underutilized plant resources in Tinoc, Ifugao, Cordillera Administrative Region, Luzon island, Philippines. Acta Horticult. 2009. Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9.

972

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. Guevara CP, Garcia M. Ethnobotanical practices of Matigsalug tribe on medicinal plants at barangay Baganihan, Marilog district, Davao City. J Altern Complement Med. 2018;6(3):1–14. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Philippines, Makati, Manila: Bookmark Inc.; 2001. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Actinidiaceae.html. Accessed 21 Sept 2019. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2019. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 3 Jan 2020. Taguiling N. Macrofloral biodiversity conservation in Ifugao. Eur Sci J. 2013;4:469–82.

Saurauia sparsiflora Elmer ACTINIDIACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Local Names Sapuwan (Igorot); degway (Kankanay).

Botany and Ecology Description: The genus Saurauia consists of about 300 species. Saurauia species exhibit common floral characteristics with other Actinidiaceae members except in terms of the number of carpels. Saurauia possess 3–5 carpels, Clematoclethra 4–5 while numerous in Actinidia up to 30 or more (He et al. 2005). S. sparsiflora is a small tree or shrub. The leaves are simple, 18 cm long
7 cm wide, serrate, spiral, lanceolate with acuminate apex and cuneate base. Flowers are white, axillary, fivemerous, sepals free (La Frankie 2010). Unguiculate hairs or subulate scales may be observed on the branches. The plant is dioecious and flowers are hermaphroditic. There are 15–130 stamens. Filaments are located at the base of the petals. Ovules are numerous in each locule. There are 3–5 locules per ovary. The number of style ranges from 3 to 5. Stigma is simple to discoid (Flora of China n.d.). The fruit is berry, pale green, globose or depressed-globose, develop at the main stem (in clusters), fleshy and sour, 2.5–3 cm in diameter, sticky substance inside tastes sweet. The areolate seeds are brown and minute. Phenology: May to July Distribution and Habitat: Endemic to the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011). Found in banks of streams and broken hillsides at 1000–1500 m elevation (La Frankie 2010).

R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_42

973

974

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Fig. 1 Saurauia sparsiflora (Actinidiaceae). Tree bearing fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

Fig. 2 Saurauia sparsiflora (Actinidiaceae). Fruits in clusters. (© R. Barcelo)

Reported in 1700–2200 m elevation at mossy forests of Luzon: Benguet province, Mt. Sto Tomas, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, and Quezon (Pelser et al. 2011). ChuaBarcelo (2014) cited the occurrence of the plant in the different municipalities of Benguet except Itogon and Tuba (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses and Phytochemistry The fruits are used to treat flu and cough, and hypertension by the local people in Benguet (Chua-Barcelo 2014). The sour fruits are chopped and eaten raw. The methanolic fruit extract is rich in phytochemicals such as steroids, flavonoids,

Saurauia sparsiflora Elmer

975

Fig. 3 Saurauia sparsiflora (Actinidiaceae). Fruits hanging from the stem. (© R. Barcelo)

saponins, tannins, and polyphenols which are responsible for its good DPPH radical scavenging activity (Barcelo 2015).

Local Food Uses Fruits are eaten raw as dessert or snack. They are also served as ingredients or condiment, processed into jam, jellies, candies, juice, and wine. Fruits are important forage for birds and wild animals (Chua-Barcelo 2014). In order to create products such as jam, jellies, and candies, the ripe fruits are gathered during harvest season then cooked with sugar. On the other hand, both unripe and ripe fruits are used in wine making through fermentation.

Biocultural Importance In Benguet, the fruits are used in offertory during rituals and special occasions. The fruits are placed on the table for the unseen spirits. The fruits are also eaten raw by conceiving mothers for agas ti nginao (Chua-Barcelo 2014). Traditional beliefs during pregnancy are still practiced by Asian women during pregnancy, child birth, and postpartum period (Withers et al. (2018). According to Ocbian (2012) who documented the pregnancy and childbirth cultural beliefs and practices of Sorsogueños in the Philippines, food cravings or nginao is a prescriptive belief. In Benguet, it is widely believed that the mental health of the pregnant mother and the fetus would be affected if the cravings are not satisfied. Therefore, the harvested fruits are given to pregnant women to satisfy her food cravings. The fruits are eaten raw with salt.

976

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

References Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. Flora of China. Saurauia (Actinidiaceae), vol. 12; n.d. p. 334, 356. http://www.efloras.org/ florataxon.aspx?flora_id¼2&taxon_id¼129331. Accessed 4 Jan 2019. He Z, Li J, Cai Q, Wang Q. The cytology of Actinidia, Saurauia and Clematoclethra (Actinidiaceae). Bot J Linn. 2005;147(3):369–74. La Frankie J. Trees of tropical Asia. Philippines, Bacnotan: Black Tree Publications, Inc.; 2010. Ocbian M. Culture-based beliefs and practices on pregnancy and childbirth among Sorsoguenos, Philippines. IAMURE Int J Health Educ. 2012;1(1). https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id¼774. Accessed 4 Jan 2020 Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Actinidiaceae.html. Accessed 21 Sept 2019. Withers M, Kharazmi N, Lim E. Traditional beliefs and practices in pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum: a review of the evidence from Asian countries. Midwifery. 2018;56:158–70.

Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms ARALIACEAE Kreni Lokho and Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

Synonyms Hedera terebinthinacea Wall.; H. venosa Wall.; H. verticillata Span.; Heptapleurum ellipticum (Blume) Seem.; H. micranthum (Miq.) Seem.; H. natale Ridl.; H. verticillatum (Span.) Seem.; Paratropia crassa Blanco; P. elliptica (Blume) Miq.; P. macrantha Miq.; P. micrantha Miq.; P. verticillata (Span.) K.Koch; Schefflera agusanensis Elmer; S. micrantha (Miq.) Ridl.; S. minimiflora Ridl.; S. nitida Merr.; S. odorata (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe; Sciodaphyllum ellipticum Blume; Unjala rheedei Reinw. ex Blume (POWO 2020).

Local Names Indonesia: Tangana, kayu rauk (Dayak-Ransa of West Kalimantan), lep meu nang, panakomo, putiana ma gitipi; Laos: tangana (Hmong of Bokeo and Xieng Kouang Provinces and Vientiane Province in central Laos); Philippines: lima-lima, arasagat (Iloko), galamai-amo (Tagalog and Tadyawan, Tamle of Mindoro Island); kamoykamoy, kalangkang (Ati Negrito of Guimaras Island) (Quisumbing 1978; Caniago and Siebert 1998; Rubite et al. 2002; Batugal et al. 2004; Ragasa and Lim 2005; Wiart 2006; Ong and Kim 2014; Dubost et al. 2019).

K. Lokho Department of Botany, Madras Christian College, Chennai, India K. Devanathan (*) Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_153

977

978

K. Lokho and K. Devanathan

Botany and Ecology Description: Shrubs or small trees, up to 10 m high, sometimes scandent or epiphytic (Fig. 1). Leaves digitate; leaflets 5–7, elliptic to oblong or obovate, 11– 16(
26)  4–6(
16) cm, attenuate or obtuse to rounded at base, entire at margins, minutely thickened, sometimes revolute, acute to acuminate at apex; leathery, glabrous; secondary veins 5–6(
20) pairs, tertiary veins raised, prominent; petiole 4–14(
18) cm long; petiolules 2–5 cm long (Fig. 2). Inflorescence terminal, paniculate umbels, sparsely to densely stellate when young, glabrescent when mature (Fig. 2); primary axis (2–)4–20(
30) cm long; secondary axis to 18 cm long; peduncles 0.5–1.5 cm long; pedicels 2–3 mm long. Flowers c. 1 cm across, cream colored. Calyx copular; lobes obscure. Petals 5, valvate. Stamens 5, free. Disk broadly conic to pyramidal. Ovary 5-carpellate; stigmas 5, sessile. Fruits ovoid to ellipsoid or subglobose, 3–4 mm across, 5-ribbed when dry (Fig. 3) (Xiang and Lowry 2007). Fig. 1 Habit of Schefflera elliptica (© Reuben Lim)

Fig. 2 Twig with inflorescence of Schefflera elliptica (© Reuben Lim)

Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms

979

Fig. 3 Fruits of Schefflera elliptica (© Cerlin Ng)

Phenology: Schefflera elliptica flowers during March–July and fruits from February to October (Xiang and Lowry 2007). Ecology: Small evergreen tree, or occasionally a climber. May also grow as an epiphyte (Fig. 1), or on rock surfaces in rivers and streams (riparian forests) of evergreen broad-leaved forests. It also grows well in secondary forests and thickets and in mangrove vegetation from sea level to 2100 m asl elevation (Frodin 1986; Xiang and Lowry 2007). Distribution: S. elliptica is distributed in Bangladesh, Bismarck Archipelago, Borneo, Cambodia, Christmas Islands, India (Andaman & Nicobar Islands), Indonesia, Java, Laos, Lesser Sunda Islands, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Guinea, Philippines, Queensland, Sulawesi, Sumatera, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam (Govaerts 2020).

Local Medicinal Uses Barks of S. elliptica are used for reliving cough; resins are applied for wound healing, leaf decoction is used as antiscorbutic, and the wood is used to assuage toothache in many Southeast Asian countries (Tap and Sosef 1999; Batugal et al. 2004; Nurfadilah et al. 2017). Indonesia: Leaves are used to treat respiratory disorders by Dayak-Ransa ethnic community of Nanga Juoi, West Kalimantan (Caniago and Siebert 1998). Wood of S. elliptica is used to mitigate toothache by various indigenous communities (Wiart 2006). Laos: Leaf petiole decoction is used to treat nerve damage and numbness in hands by the Hmong indigenous community of Bokeo and Xieng Kouang Provinces in Northern Laos and Vientiane Province in central Laos. Leaf petiole is also used to remove fish bones stuck in throat and hiccups by these communities (Dubost et al. 2019). Philippines: Local communities traditionally use the species for the treatment of analgesic, antipyretic, antiinflammatory, arthritis, asthma, fracture, general tonic, liver diseases, migraine, sprains, stomach pain, and rheumatism (Quisumbing 1978; Ragasa and Lim

980

K. Lokho and K. Devanathan

2005). The Mangyans (Tadyawans) ethnic community of Mindoro Island apply roasted barks as poultice to relieve sprains. They also use leaf decoction as an aromatic bath in postpartum healthcare (Rubite et al. 2002). Roasted leaves are applied as poultice to treat headache by the Ati Negrito of Guimaras Island (Ong and Kim 2014).

Phytochemistry Saponins are the principal phytochemical constituents present in the roots and leaves of S. elliptica. De Castro-Bernas and Ramos (2001) reported that saponin from the leaf extract of S. odorata (syn. S. elliptica) act as modulators of cell-signaling pathway. Leaf extract when tested against lung cancer cell lines induced spontaneous cell death in cancer cell lines (A549 cells). De Castro-Bernas and Ramos (2001) also reported possible immunomodulating and antioxidant property of leaf extracts. Leaves when extracted using dichloromethane (DCM) yielded oleanolic acid, lutein, fatty alcohols, and hydrocarbons (Ragasa and Lim 2005). Analgesic property of S. elliptica is most likely due to the existence of saponins (Wiart 2006). DCM crude extract of dried root fragments contain a terpenoid with an alcohol and a carbonyl group (Honoridez 2013).

Bioactivity Sarau (1997) tested ethanolic extract of roots and leaves for cytotoxic activity against five cell lines namely A549 (adenocarcinoma of the lung), SL-6 (large cell of the lung), Calu-1 (squamous carcinoma of the lung), Hep-2 (epidermoid carcinoma of the larynx), and L929 (mouse fibroblast). Extracts show better inhibition at 20 ug/ml concentration against all tested cell lines. Cytotoxic activity of lectins isolated from leaves when tested against the protozoan Acanthamoeba showed high cytotoxic activity, inhibiting cell growth at lower concentrations (Endriga et al. 2005). Honoridez (2013) assessed the antioxidant potential of phytochemicals present in the roots. Ethanolic crude extracts showed highest radical scavenging activity than n-hexane and DCM.

Biocultural Importance Schefflera elliptica barks are used to repel evil spirits in Claver Surigao del Norte, Philippines (Demetillo et al. 2019).

Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms

981

Economic Importance Presence of secondary metabolites including lectins, oleanolic acid, and saponins makes Schefflera elliptica a plant with potential to be used in pharmaceutical industry, especially as antiprotozoal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, and immunoregulatory agent (Endriga et al. 2005; Vachalkova et al. 2004; Ragasa and Lim 2005). The species is also of ornamental value (Useful Tropical Plants 2020).

References Batugal PA, Jayashree K, Young LS, Oliver JT, editors. Medicinal plants research in Asia, volume 1: the framework and project workplans. Serdang: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute – Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (IPGRI-APO); 2004. Caniago I, Siebert SE. Medicinal plant ecology, knowledge and conservation in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Econ Bot. 1998;52(3):229–50. De Castro-Bernas G, Ramos CR. Saponin from Schefflera odorata as potential modulator of the Cell-Signaling pathways. In: Nesaretnam K, Packer L, editors. Macronutrients and health: molecular biological mechanisms. Champaign: AOCS Press; 2001. p. 135–50. Demetillo MT, Betco GL, Goloran AB. Assessment of native medicinal plants in selected mining area of claver Surigao Del Norte, Philippines. J Med Plants Stud. 2019;7(2):171–4. Dubost JM, Phakeovilay C, Her C, Bochaton A, Elliott E, Deharo E, Xayvue M, Bouamanivong S, Bourdy G. Hmong herbal medicine and herbalists in Lao PDR: pharmacopeia and knowledge transmission. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0307-2. Endriga MA, Mojica ERE, Merca FE, Lacsamana MS, Deocaris CC. Evaluation of some lectins as anti-protozoal agents. J Med Sci. 2005;5:31 34. https://doi.org/10.3923/jms.2005.31.34. Frodin DG. Studies in Schefflera (Araliaceae), II. Northern Luzon (Philippines) Species of the Heptapleurum Group. Proc Acad Natl Sci Phila. 1986;138(2):403–25. Govaerts R. World Checklist of Araliaceae. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2020. http://wcsp. science.kew.org/. Accessed 26 Apr 2020. Honoridez JPY. Antioxidant potential of bioactive metabolites from the roots of “Lima-lima” shrub, Schefflera odorata blanco (Araliaceae). Thesis, University of San Carlos – Josef Baumgartner. Health Research and Development Information Network; 2013. Nurfadilah S, Hapsari L, Abywijaya IK. Species richness, conservation status, and potential uses of plants in Segara Anakan Area of Sempu Island, East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2017;18(4):1568–88. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d180436. Ong HG, Kim YD. Quantitative ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants used by the Ati Negrito indigenous group in Guimaras Island, Philippines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;157:228–42. POWO – Plants of World Online. 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 26 Apr 2020. Quisumbing E. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Quezon City: Katha Publishing; 1978. Ragasa CY, Lim K. Secondary metabolites from Schefflera odorata Blanco. Philipp J Sci. 2005;134(1):63–7. Rubite RR, Sia IC, Co L, Ylagan L. Ethnopharmacologic documentation of selected Philippine ethnolinguistic groups: The Mangyan (Tadyawan) people of Mindoro Island. Unpublished report; 2002.

982

K. Lokho and K. Devanathan

Sarau JK. Preliminary screening of cytotoxic activity of Raphanus sativus L. seeds and Schefflera odorata Blanco leaves and roots on different human-derived cancer cell lines. Thesis, University of Santo Tomas. Philippine Council for Health Research and Development Library; 1997. Tap N, Sosef MSM. Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms. In: de Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plant resources of South East Asia No 12 (1). Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 1. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. Useful Tropical Plants. 2020. http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id¼Schefflera +elliptica. Accessed 26 Apr 2020. Vachalkova A, Ovessa Z, Horvathova K, Tothova D. Pentacyclic triterpenoic acids: new chemoprotective compounds. Neoplasma. 2004;51(55):327–33. Wiart C. Medicinal plants of the Asia-Pacific drugs for the future? Singapore: World Publishing; 2006. Xiang Q, Lowry PP. Araliaceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China, vol. 13. St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2007.

Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. THEACEAE Aisyah Handayani and Syafitri Hidayati

Synonyms Gordonia integrifolia Roxb; Gordonia oblata Roxb; Gordonia wallichii DC; Schima antherisosa Korth; Schima bancana Miq; Schima brevipes Craib; Schima hypochra Pierre; Schima hypoglauca Miq; Schima lowii Pierre; Schima mollis Dyer; Schima pulgarensis Elmer; Schima rigida Miq; Schima sericea Airy Shaw; Schima sulcinervia Miq.

Local Names Bataknese: Simar tolu Minangkabau: Kadang bungkar Sundanese: Huru batu, huru manuk, puspa Javanese: Puspa

Botany and Ecology Schima wallichii (Theaceae) is an evergreen tree with sturdy stems, growing to more than 40 m in height, with diameters reaching up to 250 cm. Bole cylindrical, branchless up to 25 m, with steep buttresses up to 1.8 m high (Fig. 1). Bark surface A. Handayani (*) Cibodas Botanic Gardens, The Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cianjur, Indonesia Natural Resources and Environment Management, Graduate School, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia S. Hidayati Department of Forest Resources Conservation and Ecotourism, Division of Plant Diversity Conservation, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_44

983

984

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Fig. 1 Straight bole of Schima wallichii tree in Leuwidamar, Banten (Baduy area). (© Samin, Baduy people)

ruggedly cracked into small, thick, angular pieces, red-brown to dark gray; inner bark with skin-irritating fibers, bright red in color. The young leaves are reddish, so they stand out. Leaves spiral, oblong to broadly elliptic, 7–24 cm long, 1.5–7 cm wide, 6–13  3–5 cm; base wedge shaped; apex acute to acuminate; margin toothed; secondary veins six to eight pairs; petioles about 3 mm long (Fig. 2). Abundant flowering during the flowering season, scattered on the forest floor like tea flowers. Flowers borne solitary in axils at the apices of twigs, with two bracteoles, pentamerous; sepals subequal, persistent in fruit; petals connate at base, white, with a rosy flush; stamens many, adnate to the corolla base; anthers versatile; ovary superior, five-locular with two to six ovules in each cell; style simple (Fig. 3). Fruit a woody subglobose capsule, 2–3 cm in diameter, silky, opening by five valves; seeds winged all around (Fig. 4). Trees may flower and fruit after 4 years. Flowering and fruiting occur throughout the year, but flowers are usually abundant around the periods when seasons change. In Indonesia, fruiting is reported to be abundant in August–November (Fig. 5). Seeds are light and are dispersed by wind (Van Steenis et al. 2006; Orwa et al. 2009). S. wallichii is a common tree that can grow in a wide range of climates, habitats, and soils. It requires moderate light. The species occurs gregariously in primary lowland to montane forest but is particularly common in disturbed and secondary forests, scrub, and grassland, and even in areas inundated with brackish water. In

Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth.

985

Fig. 2 Herbarium collection of Schima wallichii in Cianjur Herbarium Hortus Botanicus Tjibodasensis – Cibodas Botanic Gardens. (© Aisyah Handayani)

Fig. 3 Falling flower Schima wallichii from Leuwidamar, Banten (Baduy area). (© Samin, Baduy people)

Java island, the species is generally found at the altitudinal range of 250–2600 m above sea level. In the tropical rainforests of western Java to Priangan, the species is found in >700 m above sea level. The maximum altitudinal range of the species could go up to 3900 m, with mean annual temperature ranging from 0–5 to 37– 45  C, and the mean annual rainfall 1400–5000 mm.

986

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Fig. 4 Fruit of Schima wallichii. (© Ali Nurdin, Cibodas Botanic Gardens member)

Fig. 5 Flowering Schima wallichii in Cibodas Botanic Gardens. (© Aisyah Handayani)

Schima wallichii can grow in a wide range of soils. It usually prefers well-drained soils but has been observed in swamps and along rivers, and is not choosy about soil texture or fertility. Native to Brunei, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. A

Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth.

987

widespread species found in China (S Guangxi, S Guizhou, SE Xizang, S Yunnan), Bhutan, northern India, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Viet Nam. Presence in Brunei, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Philippines is noted by Orwa et al. (2009).

Local Medicinal Uses The bark of S. wallichii is used by the people of Tapin Regency, South Kalimantan Province, to treat otitis, fish stings, and nausea (Jumali 2006). The use of S. wallichii as a cure for nausea is also reported from the Sunda people in Garut District (Suherman 2006). Boiled leaves of S. wallichii is used as tonic by Tai Yai people in Northern Thailand (Khuankaew et al. 2014). It is also used to treat cold and fever by Karen people, the largest hill tribe in Thailand (Tangjitman et al. 2015). In Chiang Mai, Thailand, raw shoot of S. wallichii is chewed to cure diarrhea by Tai Yai healers; its bark is mixed with Piper nigrum and administered as tonic to increase appetite (Boonpuak et al. 2014). The astringent corollas are used to treat uterine disorders and hysteria. The crude drug is called buah cangkok in Indonesia and changkoh in peninsular Malaysia (Orwa et al. 2009). The old fruits are frequently used to cure diarrhea and stomach ache by Javanese community around Mt. Sigogor Nature Reserves and around Mt. Picis Nature Reserves, East Java (Setyawati 2009).

Phytochemistry The bark extract of S. wallichii contains alkaloid, flavanoid, tannin, terpene, and quinon compounds, which makes it a valuable source of antioxidants (Widiyarti and Fitrianingsih 2019). These antioxidants could be helpful in inhibiting inflammatory health disorders (Lalhminghlui and Jagetia 2018). The polyphenolic enriched bark extract exhibited antitumor properties (Dewanjee et al. 2011). Dewanjee et al. (2008) confirms that hydroalcoholic extract of Schima wallichii bark possesses significant antimicrobial activity; it showed highest sensitivity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Shigella species. The extract also exhibited dose-dependent anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activities which may be associated with direct or indirect inhibition of prostaglandins synthesis (Dewanjee et al. 2009). The leaf extract of S. wallichii collected from various localities of Nepal was found to contain flavonol quercetin with potential therapeutic properties (Joshi 2007). The leaf extract from Indonesia showed high antioxidant activity (Widiyarti and Supiani 2018). Leaf extracts are known to contain kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside, an active compound that holds potential for developing antimalarial therapeutics that target chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum (Barliana et al. 2014). Diantini et al. (2012) report that kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside inhibits MCF-7 breast cancer cell. Flavonoid enriched fractions of S. wallichii exhibit anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activities (Das and Ghosh 2013).

988

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Biocultural Importance Schima wallichii is used for construction purposes by various local communities of Indonesia (Purnawan 2006; Kodir 2009; Rahayu et al. 2012; Wardah 2003). In Baduy, this species occurs in the leuweung kolot (protected primary forests), where it is protected from overexploitation by the Baduy customary law (Wardah 2003). The Hiang community of Jambi harvests this species from their customary forests for use as fuel and charcoal (Andesmora et al. 2017). Traditionally, the flowers of S. wallichii have been used as a local seasonal indicator (calendar plant) by the local people of Bung Khong Long Non-Hunting Area of Northeast Thailand. If the majority of fallen flowers face upward, it indicates the possibility of heavy rainfall in that year (Suksri et al. 2005).

Economic Importance Due to its strength and durability, S. wallichii wood is classified as “high economic value wood” in Indonesia. It is used to construct buildings and bridges. However, it is appropriate to use this wood as pillar rather than board material. The wood is also used for medium to heavy construction purposes such as columns and beams, for floors, interior installation, panels, door and window frames, carpentry workshops, utility furniture, ship and ship buildings (ribs, decks), vehicle bodies, agricultural equipment, pallets, boxes and crates, poles, toys, turneries, and, when treated, for railroad bearings. The species has been used to build bridges in mountainous areas, and young trees have been used as rafters (Orwa et al. 2009). The fallen trees are also used to make charcoal; the energy value of sapwood is around 19,980 kJ/kg (Orwa et al. 2009).

References Andesmora EV, Muhadiono M, Hilwan I. Ethnobotanical study of plants used by people in Hiang indigenous forest Kerinci, Jambi. J Trop Life Sci. 2017;7(2):95–101. Barliana MI, Suradji EW, Abdulah R, Diantini A, Hatabu T, Nakajima-Shimada J, Subarnas A, Koyama H. Antiplasmodial properties of kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside isolated from the leaves of Schima wallichii against chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum. Biomed Rep. 2014;2 (4):579–83. https://doi.org/10.3892/br.2014.27. Boonpuak B, Pitiporn S, Jenjittikul T, Prathanturarug S. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used by Tai Yai healers in Chai Prakan and Wiang Haeng Districts of Chiang Mai, Thailand. In: Proceedings of the 2nd ASEAN Plus Three Graduate Research Congress (2ndAGRC), Bangkok. 2014. Das S, Ghosh LK. Evaluation of analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activity of different fractions of Schima wallichii bark. Pharmacologia. 2013;4:400–3. https://doi.org/10.3923/ pharmacologia.2013.400.403. Dewanjee S, Maiti A, Majumdar R, Majumdar A, Mandal SC. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of hydroalcoholic extract Schima wallichii bark. Pharmacologyonline. 2008;1:523–8. Dewanjee S, Maiti A, Sahu R, Dua TK, Mandal SC. Study of anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity of hydroalcoholic extract of Schima wallichii bark. Pharm Biol. 2009;47(5):402–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/13880200902758824.

Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth.

989

Dewanjee S, Mandal V, Sahu R, Dua TK, Manna A, Mandal SC. Anti-inflammatory activity of a polyphenolic enriched extract of Schima wallichii bark. Nat Prod Res. 2011;25(7):696–703. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786410802560732. Diantini A, Subarnas A, Lestari K, Halimah E, Susilawati Y, Supriyatna S, Julaeha E, Achmad TH, Suradji EW, Yamazaki C, Kobayashi K, Koyama H, Abdulah R. Kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside isolated from the leaves of Schima wallichii Korth. inhibits MCF-7 breast cancer cell proliferation through activation of the caspase cascade pathway. Oncol Lett. 2012;3(5):1069–72. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2012.596. Joshi K. Leaf flavonoid aglycone patterns, ethnobotany and conservation of Schima wallichii (Theaceae). Ecoprint. 2007;13:9–13. Jumali. Kajian Potensi dan Perumusan Strategi Pengembangan Tumbuhan Obat Berbasis Bioregonal di Kabupaten Tapin. Bogor: Graduate School, IPB University; 2006. Khuankaew S, Srithi K, Tiansawat P, Jampeetong A, Inta A, Wangpakapattanawong P. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Tai Yai in Northern Thailand. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;151(2):829–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.033. Kodir A. Keanekaragaman dan Bioprospek Jenis Tanaman dalam Sistem Kebun Talun di Kasepuhan Ciptagelar, Desa Sirnaresmi, Kecamatan Cisolok, Sukabumi, Jawa Barat. Bogor: Graduate School, IPB University; 2009. Lalhminghlui K, Jagetia GC. Evaluation of the free-radical scavenging and antioxidant activities of Chilauni, Schima wallichii Korth. in vitro. Future Sci OA. 2018;4(2):FSO272. Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Anthony S. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. 2009. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/treedbs/ treedatabases.asp. Purnawan BI. Inventarisasi Keanekaragaman Jenis Tumbuhan di Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango. Bogor: IPB University; 2006. Rahayu M, Susiarti S, Sihotang VBL. A preliminary ethnobotanical study on useful plants by local communities in Bodogol Lowland Forest, Sukabumi, West Java. J Trop Biol Conserv. 2012;9 (1):115–25. Setyawati T. Ethnobotanical study in some nature reserve area in East Java. Jurnal Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia. 2009;2(2):114–23. Suherman D. Kajian Potensi Tumbuhan Obat untuk Mendukung Pembentukan SMK Wanafarma di Kabupaten Garut. Bogor: Graduate School, IPB University; 2006. Suksri S, Premcharoen S, Thawatphan C, Sangthongprow S. Ethnobotany in Bung Khong Long non-hunting area, Northeast Thailand. Kasetsart J (Nat Sci). 2005;39:519–33. Tangjitman K, Wongsawad C, Trisonthi C. Predicting vulnerability of medicinal plants used by Karen people in Chiang Mai Province to climatic change. Environ Nat Resour J. 2015;13(1):61–9. Van Steenis CGGJ, Hamzah A, Toha M. Flora Pegunungan Jawa. Bogor: Pusat Penelitian Biologi – LIPI; 2006. Wardah W. Utilization of plant diversity resources by Baduy-Dalam (Inner Baduy) Community around South Mount Kendeng, Lebak District, Southern Banten. Berita Biologi. 2003;6(6). Widiyarti G, Fitrianingsih W. Phytochemical constituents and free radical scavenging activity of Madang Gatal (Schima wallichii) Choisy stem bark. Pharm J. 2019;11(2):395–9. Widiyarti G, Supiani TY. Antioxidant activity and toxicity of Puspa (Schima wallichii) leaves extract from Indonesia. J Trop Life Sci. 2018;8(2):155–7.

Shorea javanica Koord. & Valeton DIPTEROCARPACEAE Anisatu Z. Wakhidah, I. Gusti Ayu Rai Sawitri, and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Shorea vandekoppeli Parijs (POWO 2020).

Local Name Indonesia: Damar mata kucing, damar kaca, damar, maluang (Krui, Lampung), mesegar lanang (southern Sumatra), damar sibolga, damar sibosa (northern Sumatra). Malaysia: meranti putih (orang ulu ethnic, Serawak). English: white meranti, cat eye dammar (Mulyono et al. 2013; PEC 2020; Rosli et al. 2015).

Botany and Ecology Description: A large tree up to 50 m tall, diameter up to 1.7 m. Twigs terete, apically 2–3 mm diameter, smooth, tawny brown pubescent. Leaf bud ovoid, falcate, up to 7 mm long by 4 mm wide, acute at the apex. Leaves simple, alternate, petiole 16– 22 mm long, slender, blades ovate to elliptic-oblong, less often obovate, (6.5–)10– 15 cm long by (3.5–)4–8 cm wide, thinly leathery, base obtuse to shallowly caudate, apex acuminate, acumen short and more or less abrupt, up to 7 mm long; midrib

A. Z. Wakhidah (*) Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia I. G. A. R. Sawitri Member of Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_170

991

992

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

slender, obscure, impressed above, raised beneath; lateral nerves 19–25 on each side of the midrib, slender, applanate above, raised beneath, at 65–70; tertiary nerves densely scalariform, very slender, raised and subdistinct beneath; blades hairy at first, hairs on lower nerves becoming sparse and scabrous. Flowers arranged in terminal or axillary panicle, slender, up to 14 cm long, branching one time, up to 4 cm long, each with up to 3 flowers, secund. Flower buds ellipsoid, up to 10 mm long by 5 mm wide. Flowers with sepals somewhat unequal, petals white, stamens 15, filaments long and slender, 2.5–3 times as long as the anthers, apex scabrous, ovary ovoid, small. Style longer than filaments at anthesis. Fruiting pedicels ca. 2 mm long. Fruit calyx lobes obtuse at the base, 3 lobes larger, spatulate, up to 18 cm long by 1.5 mm wide, base saccate, apex obtuse, 2 lobes shorter, lorate, up to 7 cm long by 0.5 cm wide, apex subacute. Fruit a nut, ovoid, up to 1.4 cm long by 1 cm wide, apiculate. Distribution and Ecology: This species is endemic to Sumatra and Java. In Sumatra, it has been found on the western coast, from Aceh toward the south, and also east to Palembang. In Java, however, it has only been found in Subah, Pekalongan Regency, and said to be a rare plant species there. The plant is also said to occur on the coast of South West Java, Garut Regency, Leuweung Sancang Nature Reserve with only one individual recorded in 2018. This is a predominantly lowland species. It can be found from primary to secondary forests, either on a slope or flat land, with an elevation mostly up to 300 m and rarely ascend to 500 m.a.s.l. This species has been assigned as Endangered in 2018 by IUCN Red List (Ashton 1982; Barstow 2018; de Foresta and Boer 2000; Irawan 2019a, b; Krisdayanti 2019; Septiana 2019) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Phytochemistry Triterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids were isolated from the resin of Shorea javanica. The acidic triterpenoids, dammarenolic acid, and its derivatives are valuable as potential cancer chemo-preventive agents in chemical and environmentally induced carcinogenesis (Ukiya et al. 2010). An identification using pyrolisis-GC/MS method showed that the resin components can be divided into four groups, Viz., tetracyclic hydrocarbon (30 compounds, 49.57%), pentacyclic (3 compounds, 2.56%), C15 compounds (11 compounds, 17.09%), and other groups (23 compounds, 18.26%). Most dammar resins are dominated by brassicasterol (Mulyono et al. 2012). Gusti and Zulnely (2014) found 5 compounds in the resin by pyrolisis-GC/MS, viz., a-compaene, β-elemene, Trans-caryophyll, germacrene D, and germacrene B. The highest concentration among them is germacrene D. Setiawati et al. (2001) reported that the raw resin extracts in petroleum ether and chloroform solvents contain alkaloids and terpenoids which can kill dry wood termites (anti-termite activity). The same findings were also reported from n-hexane fraction and diethyl ether fractions which also showed high anti-termite property. A compound identical to friedelin was obtained from the n-hexane fraction, while three compounds named vulgarol B, 3,4-secodamar-4 (28)-en-3-oic acid, (7R,10S)-2,6,10-trimethyl-7,10epoxy-2,11dode-cadient, and junipenewere obtained from the diethyl ether fraction

Shorea javanica Koord. & Valeton

993

Fig. 1 Living plant of Shorea javanica (Dipterocarpaceae). Krui, West Pesisir Lampung. (© A. Z. Wakhidah)

(Sari et al. 2018). The studies dealing with the phytochemistry of Shorea javanica is limited to the exudate (resin). There are almost no studies that have been conducted on the chemical constituents of the roots, stems, and leaves.

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: This species is the main component of the traditional garden (repong) in the Krui and Bengkunat communities, Pesisir Barat District, Lampung. Repong is a forest-like land-use system developed by the local people living around the rainforest of the West Pesisir District, Lampung Province in Sumatra (Budidarsono et al. 2000). The Krui community in Pesisir Barat, Lampung, believes that felling these plants will bring misfortunes. This belief makes them maintain the plant until they get old enough to be tapped for resin rather than extract the timber (personal observation). This belief has also developed into a customary system that has contributed to the conservation of S. javanica (Casson 2005). Stands of repong damar sequester carbon (Bhaskara et al. 2018; Putri and Wulandari 2015), and serve as refuge for fauna from the nearby Bukit Barisan Selatan Natural Park (Sari and Harianto 2015).

994 Fig. 2 Leaves of Shorea javanica (Dipterocarpaceae). Krui, West Pesisir Lampung. (© A. Z Wakhidah)

Fig. 3 The tapped trunk of Shorea javanica (Dipterocarpaceae). Krui, West Pesisir Lampung. (© A. Z. Wakhidah)

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

Shorea javanica Koord. & Valeton

995

Fig. 4 Unharvested resin of Shorea javanica (Dipterocarpaceae). Krui, West Pesisir Lampung. (© A. Z. Wakhidah)

Economic Importance Indonesia: The local people of Krui in the West Pesisir District, Lampung use the resin as a source of basic income. The resin tapping starts when the trees are 20– 25 years old and 25–30 cm in diameter (Budidarsono et al. 2000). Resin is a raw material for the manufacture of paints, dyes, and glass; it is harvested once every 2 weeks or every 30 days to get the best quality (Casson 2005; Wardah 2005). The resin with large chunks, hard texture, and pure color is called super quality resin (AB grade) by the local people. It is valued at IDR 27,000–24,000/kg (personal observation), forming a substantial income for households (Casson 2005; Wardah 2005). Separating the resin classes requires a skilled person who is resistant to resin dust and, therefore, the resin processing often employs the nonfarmers as reported in Krui and Bengkunat, Lampung. On a national scale, the resin gum is an important non-timber forest product that increases the country’s foreign exchange. The largest amount of exports come from the West Pesisir region (Wardah 2005). The Melayu ethnic in Jambi, central Sumatra, also sells the resins as a source of income

996

A. Z. Wakhidah et al.

(Polosakan and Susiarti 2011). Malaysia: The ulu people in Asap Koyan Belaga, Sarawak, use the stem as a source of natural black dye, usually used in tattooing (Rosli et al. 2015).

References Ashton PS. Dipterocarpaceae. In: van Steenis CGGJ, editor. Flora Malesiana, 1st ser, vol. 9. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk Publishers; 1982. p. 237–552. Barstow M. Shorea javanica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species; 2018, e. T36346A68073870. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T36346A68073870.en. Accessed 4 May 2020. Bhaskara DR, Qurniati R, Duryat D, Banuwa IS. Karbon tersimpan pada repong Damar Pekon Pahmungan, Kecamatan Pesisir Tengah, Kabupaten Pesisir Barat. Jurnal Sylva Lestari. 2018;6 (2):32–40. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Budidarsono S, Arifatmi B, De Foresta H, Tomich TP. Damar agroforest establishment and sources of livelihood. A profitability assessment of the damar agroforest system in Krui, Lampung, Sumatra, Indonesia. Southeast Asia policy Research working paper; 2000. p. 17. Casson A. Cat’s eye forests: the Krui damar gardens. In: Durst PB, Brown C, Henrylito DT, Miyuki I, editors. Search of Excellence: Exemplary Forest Management in Asia and the Pacifific. Bangkok (TH): FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. 2005;93–101. de Foresta H, Boer E. Shorea javanica Koord. & Valeton. In: Boer E, Ella AB, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 18. Plants producing exudates. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 2000. p. 105–9. Gusti REP, Zulnely. Sifat fisik kimia Damar Mata Kucing hasil pemurnian tanpa pelarut. Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan. 2014;32(3):167–74. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Irawan A. Mersawa dan damar mata kucing: Primadona langka Cagar Alam Leuweung Sancang. In: Hamidi A, Tirtaningtyas FN, Cahyo YID, editors. Cerita 100 pohon, vol. 2. Jakarta: Fauna & Flora International; 2019a. p. 96–9. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Irawan A. Primadona Cagar Alam Leuweung Sancang. In: Hamidi A, Tirtaningtyas FN, Cahyo YID, editors. Cerita 100 pohon, vol. 2. Jakarta: Fauna & Flora International; 2019b. p. 134–7. Krisdayanti. Indikasi geografis sebagai solusi konservasi Shorea javanica. In: Hamidi A, Tirtaningtyas FN, Cahyo YID, editors. Cerita 100 pohon, vol. 1. Jakarta: Fauna & Flora International; 2019. p. 50–7. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Mulyono N, Christofora HW, Dedi F, Wuryaningsih SR. Identifikasi Komponen Kimia Damar Mata Kucing (Shorea javanica) dengan Metode Pirolisis – GC/MS. J Nat Indones. 2012;14(2):155–9. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Mulyono N, Bibiana WL, Mukti W. Exploration of flesh dammar (Shorea leprosula Miq) and cat eye dammar (Shorea javanica K.et.V.) as antibacterial agent. IOSR J Pharm. 2013;3(1):1–3. PEC. Plant Use English Contributors. Shorea javanica (PROSEA). Plant Use English. 2020. Published on the Internet. https://uses.plantnet-project.org/e/index.php?title¼Shorea_ javanica_(PROSEA)&oldid¼327314. Retrieved 24 May 2020. Polosakan R, Susiarti S. Studi valuasi hasil hutan bukan kayu berpotensi. Bogor: Pusat Penelitian Biologi–LIPI, Bidang Botani; 2011. p. 144–59. (in Bahasa Indonesia). POWO. Plants of the World Online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Garden. 2020. Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 10 Apr 2020. Putri AHM, Wulandari C. Potensi penyerapan karbon pada tegakan damar mata kucing (Shorea javanica) di Pekon Gunung Kemala Krui Lampung Barat. Jurnal Sylva Lestari. 2015;3(2):13– 20. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Rosli N, Ismail Z, Lepun P. Plant used as natural dye by the Orang Ulu ethnic in Asap Koyan Belaga Sarawak, Malaysia. Int J Curr Res. 2015;7(8):19770–5.

Shorea javanica Koord. & Valeton

997

Sari EM, Harianto SP. Studi kelompok siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) di repong damar Pahmungan Pesisir Barat. Jurnal Sylva Lestari. 2015;3(3):85–94. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Sari RK, Syafii W, Sofyan K, Hanafi M. Sifat Antirayap Resin Damar Mata Kucing dari Shorea javanica K. et V. J Ilm Teknol Kayu Trop. 2018;2(1):8–15. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Septiana AR. Menyusuri hutan Sancang, mencari sisa-sisa Dipterocarpaceae. In: Hamidi A, Tirtaningtyas FN, Cahyo YID, editors. Cerita 100 pohon, vol. 2. Jakarta: Fauna & Flora International; 2019. p. 84–8. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Setiawati T, Purwatiningsih, Husaenis EA. Penapisan senyawa anti rayap dari getah Shorea javanica dan Shorea leprosula. Bul Kim. 2001;1:101–5. (in Bahasa Indonesia). Ukiya M, Takashi K, Harukuni T, Keiichi T, Yumiko K, Takanari A, Yoichiro E, Osamu O, Takashi S, Toshihiro A. Antitumor-promoting effects and cytotoxic activities of dammar resin triterpenoids and their derivatives. Chem Biodivers. 2010;7:1871–84. Wardah W. Keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan di kawasan Hutan Krui, Taman Nasional Bukit Barisan Selatan Lampung Barat. J Tek Ling. 2005;6(3):477–84. (in Bahasa Indonesia).

Smilax bracteata C. Presl. SMILACACEAE Krishnamoorthy Devanathan

Synonyms Smilax blancoi Kunth; S. bonii Gagnep.; S. divaricata Blanco; S. fistulosa Blanco; S. lyi H.Lév.; S. phyllantha Gagnep.; S. stenopetala A.Gray; S. trukensis Hosok (POWO 2020).

Local Names Sarasaparilla vine (English); tongkung (Dusun in Sabah, Borneo); kim cang la hoa, cam cang hoa chuy (Vietnamese); banag, kamagsa-obat, kolot-babui (Higanon, Iloko, Tagalog of Philippines); banagan, hampas-tigbalang (Ati, Bisaya of Philippines); banal, barag, romas (Pampango of Philippines); yuan zhui ba qian (Chinese).

Botany and Ecology Description: Climbers, dioecious. Roots rhizomatous. Stem branched, subterete, climbing up to 10 m, woody, occasionally prickly. Leaves broadly elliptic to ovateelliptic, 5–17
3–11 cm, rounded to subcordate at base, entire at margins, abruptly acute to abruptly acuminate at apex; coriaceous, glabrous; 3–5-nerved from base; petiole 1–2 cm long, narrowly winged; abscission zone distal; pair of tendrils commonly present. Inflorescence axillary, raceme of umbels, 3–7 cm long, basally prophyllate; umbels of both sexes 3–6(10), 12–25-flowered, base slightly thickened, globose, c. 2
2 cm; bracts scaly. Male flowers: tepals 6, 2-whorls, outer K. Devanathan (*) Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_154

999

1000

K. Devanathan

tepals narrowly oblong c. 5
1.3 mm, inner tepals linear, c. 5
0.7 mm; olive green to dark red; stamens 6. Female flowers: tepals 6, 2-whorls, outer tepals lance-ovate, c. 3
1.2 mm, inner tepals lanceolate, c. 3
0.6 mm, staminodes 3. Ovary 3-locular, 1–2 ovule per locule; style very short; stigma 3. Berries globose, 5–7 mm across, black when ripe, 1–2-seeded (Xinqi et al. 2000). Phenology: Flowers during November to February, and fruits from June to August (Xinqi et al. 2000). Ecology: Smilax bracteata grows in forest thickets, shaded places on grassy slopes from sea level to 1800 m (Xinqi et al. 2000). Distribution: Smilax bracteata is distributed in Cambodia, Caroline Islands, China South-Central, China Southeast, Hainan, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Nanseishoto, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam (Xinqi et al. 2000, Govaerts 2020). Etymology: Smilax from the Greek name for poisonous tree, and the specific epithet bracteata refers to its inflorescence with bract.

Local Medicinal Uses Malaysia: Burkill (1966) records the local use of Smilax bracteata rhizomes to treat depurative, dysmenorrhea, rheumatism, skin, and syphilis in East Malaysia. It is commonly used to reduce blood pressure by local communities of Sabah (Kulip et al. 2015). Philippines: The Ati use the root decoction as diuretic and for different various kidney ailments (Madulid et al. 1989). Rhizome and root decoction is used as emmenagogue and depurative by the Tagalog and Bisaya of Philippines (Batugal et al. 2004). Higanon of Mindanao use root and bark decoction as body and muscle pain reliever and in postpartum healthcare (Olowa et al. 2012). Root decoction is used to treat fatigue by the Subanen (Morilla et al. 2014). They also use the root decoction to treat chills, severe fever, headache, weakness of the body and body pain for women after child birth (Pizon et al. 2016).

Phytochemistry Rhizome: Kulip et al. (2015) identified three major compounds seselin (aromatic compound), β-sitosterol and stigmast-4-ene-3-one (steroid compounds) with anticancer, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties from rhizomes of Smilax bracteata. Rhizome of Smilax bracteata yielded principal phenolic constituents such as methyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzoate, methyl caffeate, 1,4-dihydroxy-3-methoxy-4-O-β-Dglucopyranoside, adenosine, 5,7,40 -trihydroxyflavanone, (2S,3S)-5-O-β-D-glucopyranosyloxy-6-methyl-30 -methoxy-3,7,30 -trihydroxyflavan (1), (2S,3S)-5-O-β-D-glucopyranosyloxy-6-methyl-40 -methoxy-3,7,40 -trihydroxyflavan (2), 3β-(30 ,50 -dihydroxyphenyl)2α-(400 -hydroxyphenyl)-dihydrobenzofuran-5-carbaldehyde (3), (1-p-O-coumaroyl-6O-feruroyl)-β-D-fructofuranosyl-α-D-glucopyranoside(4), (1-p-O-coumaroyl-3,6-diO-feruroyl)-β-D-fructofuranosyl-α-D-glucopyranoside (5), and (6-O-feruroyl)-β-Dfructofuranosyl-(6-O-acetyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside (6) (Li et al. 2002; Raúl et al.

Smilax bracteata C. Presl.

1001

2017). Xiong et al. (2011) reported five biochemical compounds: 5,7-dihydroxychromone-3-O-α-Lrhamnopyranoside (I), resveratrol (II), astilbin (III), neoisoastilbin (IV), and catechin (V). Aerial parts: From the ethanolic extract of S. bracteata, Zhang et al. (2008) identified six new phenylpropanoid glycosides, smilasides G–L (1–6), along with four known phenylpropanoid compounds (helonioside A, helonioside B, smilaside E, and (1-p-Ocoumaroyl-6-O-feruroyl)-β-D-fructofuranosyl-α-D-glucopyranoside). They also identified 14 known phenolic compounds (tricin, 5,7,4-O-trihydroxy flavanone, 4,6,4-Otrihydroxyaurone, vitexin, isovitexin, quercetin, 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl quercetin, 3,7-O-α-L-dirhamnopyranosyl quercetin, resveratrol, peceatannol, veraphenol, transscirpusin A, 2-β-D-glucopyranosyl-1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxy xanthone, and 5-O-caffeoylshikimic acid). They also demonstrated moderate scavenging activities against DPPH radicals by Smilasides G–L (1–6).

Economic Importance Presence of phytochemicals with anticancer, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties makes Smilax bracteata a valuable medicinal plant with potential use in pharmaceutical industries.

References Batugal PA, Jayashree K, Young LS, Oliver JT, editors. Medicinal plants research in Asia, Volume 1: the framework and project workplans. Serdang: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute – Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (IPGRI-APO); 2004. Burkill HR. Dictionary of the economic products of peninsular Malaysia. Singapore Gardens Bulletin Vol I and II; 1966. Govaerts R. World checklist of Smilacaceae. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2020. http://wcsp.science.kew.org/. Accessed 17 Apr 2020. Kulip J, Kamada T, Charles SV. Aromatic and steroid compounds from Smilax bracteata C. Presl. (Smilacaceae), a Bornean medicinal herb. Nat Prod Chem Res. 2015;3:5. https://doi.org/10. 4172/2329-6836.1000184. Li SY, Fuchino H, Kawahara N, Sekita S, Satake M. New phenolic constituents from Smilax bracteata. J Nat Prod. 2002;65:262–6. https://doi.org/10.1021/np010338m. Madulid DA, Gaerlan FJM, Romero EM, Agoo EMG. Ethnopharmacological study of the Ati tribe in Nagpana, Barotac Viejo and Iloilo. Acta Manilana. 1989;38:25–40. Morilla LJG, Sumaya NHN, Rivero HI, Madamba MRSB. Medicinal plants of the Subanens in Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines. International conference on food, biological and medical sciences (FBMS-2014). Bangkok, Thailand; 2014. Olowa LF, Torres MAJ, Aranico EC, Demayo CG. Medicinal plants used by the Higaonon tribe of Rogongon, Iligan City, Mindanao, Philippines. Adv Environ Biol. 2012;6(4):1442–9. Pizon JRL, Nuñeza OM, Uy MM, Senarath WTPSK. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by the Subanen tribe of Lapuyan, Zamboanga del Sur. Bull Env Pharmacol Life Sci. 2016;5(5):53–67. POWO. Plants of World Online. 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 17 Apr 2020.

1002

K. Devanathan

Raúl SC, Beatriz HC, Joseoziel LG, Francenia SSN. Phenolic compounds in genus Smilax (Sarsaparilla). In: Soto-Hernandez M, Palma-Tenango M, Garcia-Mateos R, editors. Phenolic compounds- natural sources, importance and application: Intechopen; 2017. p. 233–60. Xinqi C, Liang S, Xu J, Boufford DE, Gilbert MG, Kamelin RV, Kawano S, Koyama T, Mordak EV, Noguchi J, Soukup VG, Takahashi H, Tamanian KG, Tamura MN, Turland NJ. Liliaceae. In: Zhengyi W, Raven PH, editors. Flora of China, vol. 24. St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden Press; 2000. p. 1–431. Xiong C, Zhang H, Kang L, Tan D, Zhao Y, Ma B. Chemical constituents of Smilax bracteata. Mil Med Sci. 2011. http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-JSYX201102016.htm. Accessed 17 Apr 2020. Zhang L, Liao CC, Huang HC, Shen YC, Yang LM, Kuo YH. Antioxidant phenylpropanoid glycosides from Smilax bracteata. Phytochemistry. 2008;69:1398–404. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.phytochem.2008.01.002.

Sphaeropteris tomentosissima (Copel.) R. M. Tryon CYATHEACEAE Ary Prihardhyanto Keim and Wawan Sujarwo

Synonyms Cyathea tomentosissima Copel.

Local Names English: Dwarf woolly tree fern; Indonesia: paku tiang habbema

Botany and Ecology Description: Sphaeropteris tomentosissima is a tree fern. Erect trunk is 2–3 m tall and 16 cm in diameter. Fronds persistent, number about 40 in a crown, coppercolored, bi- or tripinnate, and reach just over 1 m in length. The rachis has pale scales on the undersurface. The stipe is bright reddish brown, warty, and covered with scales with the same color toward the base; the scales are twisted, shiny, firm, and bright reddish brown (Fig. 1). Sori occur one per pinnule lobe; indusia are absent. Phenology: Sphaeropteris tomentosissima can easily be identified in highland New Guinea as a fairly small to medium size slender species of tree ferns with the distinctive bright reddish brown scales on the stipe. Distribution and Habitat: Sphaeropteris tomentosissima is an endemic species of highlands New Guinea, particularly in the central highlands of New Guinea, where the species dominates the subalpine scrub and subalpine grassland at altitudes from 2400 to 4000 m (Figs. 2 and 3) (Hope 1976; Large and Braggins 2004; Johns et al. 2006, 2007; Olsen 2007; Utteridge and Edwards 2009; Keim et al. 2018). The A. P. Keim · W. Sujarwo (*) Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_233

1003

1004

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 1 Sphaeropteris tomentosissima in the vicinity of Lake Habbema at 3300 m altitudes showing the distinctive bright reddishbrown scales in young fronds (circinna) and stipe. (© Ary P. Keim)

species is also commonly found along the streams (Large and Braggins 2004). In the vicinity of Habbema Lake in Jayawijaya Range, the subalpine scrub vegetation is dominated by S. tomentosissima and thus, the species automatically becomes the marker for the vegetation type (Johns et al. 2006, 2007; Keim et al. 2018). Sphaeropteris tomentosissima is one of the pioneer plant species that grows after the heavy fire in the highland grassland (Johns et al. 2006, 2007). It is a species that is among the ferns capable of growing in the highest altitudes; S. tomentosissima can grow at altitudes slightly above 4000 m on the road between Lake Habbema to Genyem (Fig. 4) (see Keim et al. 2018).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The Dani of the Baliem Valley, Jayawijaya Range, use the circinnate and young frond for curing fever and wounds. Dani elders also mention that the shoots are used for treating colds and influenza (personal observation). The use of shoots of Sphaeropteris magna for inducing labor in highlands of Papua New Guinea as reported by Holdsworth (1977) is agreed by the Dani medicine men. However,

Sphaeropteris tomentosissima (Copel.) R. M. Tryon

1005

Fig. 2 Population of Sphaeropteris tomentosissima in the subalpine scrub in the vicinity of Lake Habbema at about 3300 m altitude. (© Ary P. Keim)

they harvest the plant from the vicinity of Lake Habbema, which is likely to be S. tomentosissima rather than S. magna, as S. magna is not found there. Another possibility is that the species may refer to Alsophila pseudomuelleri, which is also observed in the upper montane forest in the vicinity of Lake Habbema (Keim et al. 2018, as Cyathea pseudomuelleri) from 2000 up to 3000 m altitude. Alsophila pseudomuelleri itself was previously known only from the Trikora Peak (Large and Braggins 2004), close to Jayawijaya Range. Alsophila pseudomuelleri is confirmed to occur in the vicinity of Lake Habbema (see Keim et al. 2018). Thus, the record on medicinal use of S. tomentosissima by Holdsworth (1977) requires further confirmation. Many species from the extant genera of the family Cyatheaceae are used in healing cuts and wounds in many places, from India to New Guinea (Harborne 2013). Sphaeropteris tomentosissima is indeed a fascinating species to be studied as the species has the ability to withstand harsh environment, thus may possibly possesses strong chemical constituents with promising medicinal values.

Phytochemistry As in the other species from the family Cyatheaceae (especially the members of the genera Cyathea and Sphaeropteris), the leaves of S. tomentosissima may contain flavone C-glycosides (see French 1986; Harborne 2013). Sphaeropteris

1006

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

Fig. 3 Population of Sphaeropteris tomentosissima in the subalpine grassland in the vicinity of Lake Habbema at about 3250 m altitude. (© Ary P. Keim)

tomentosissima may also contain steroid, flavonoid, and saponin as observed in the other two members of Cyatheaceae, Alsophila gigantea (known by its synonym Cyathea gigantea) and Sphaeropteris brunoniana (known by its synonym C. brunoniana; see Talukdar et al. 2010). Anti-bacterial activities have been reported from A. gigantea against multi drugs resistant bacteria (Nath et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The Dani and Yali people in highlands New Guinea eat the young fronds from other member of the genus Sphaeropteris, such as S. magna (see Milliken 2006), but rarely S. tomentosissima. Dani rarely harvest S. tomentosissima for food. Apparently it is due to the difficulty to get to the Lake Habbema, and the sacredness of the vicinity of the lake.

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Generally the Dani regard S. tomentosissima as sacred as the species can only be found in the subalpine scrub and subalpine grassland in the vicinity of the sacred Lake Habbema. They rarely harvest the species, unless for emergency

Sphaeropteris tomentosissima (Copel.) R. M. Tryon

1007

Fig. 4 Population of Sphaeropteris tomentosissima in the Tropical Alpine Vegetation of Mount Trikora at about 4100 m altitude. (© Ary P. Keim)

occasions such as to heal the bad wounds or for women in extreme labor difficulties. In most cases, they just leave the species undisturbed as they are afraid of disturbing the spiritual beings tuan tanah (Lord of the Land).

Economic Importance Indonesia: Sphaeropteris tomentosissima is growing in popularity in USA (particularly California) because of its tolerance of sunnier and drier conditions (Large and Braggins 2004; Olsen 2007). The species will form a trunk in 4 years and are frost resistant; thus, suitable for cultivation in containers. Sphaeropteris tomentosissima is indeed a beautiful ornamental fern and the demand of this species is promising. The seedlings sold in the USA are mainly provided by the nurseries. However, this growing demand should be taken seriously as sudden spurts in demand could affect its population in the wild. In areas such as the vicinity of Mount Jayawijaya in Papua (Indonesian New Guinea), populations of S. tomentosissima face threats from illegal logging and mining activities (see Utteridge and Edwards 2009). In this light, the IUCN status of Least Concern (Williams 2018) needs to be revisited.

1008

A. P. Keim and W. Sujarwo

References French BR. Food plants of Papua New Guinea: a compendium. Canberra: Australia and Pacific Science Foundation; 1986. Harborne JB. The flavonoids: advances in research since 1980. Berlin: Elsevier; 2013. Holdsworth DK. Medicinal plants of Papua New Guinea. Noumea: technical paper no. 175, South Pacific Commission; 1977. Hope GS. Vegetation. In: Hope GS, Peterson JA, Radok U, Allison I, editors. The equatorial glaciers of New Guinea: results of the 1971–1973 Australian universities’ expeditions to Irian Jaya: survey, glaciology, meteorology, biology and palaeo-environments. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema; 1976. p. 113–72. Johns RJ, Edwards PJ, Utteridge TMA, Hopkins HCF. A guide to the alpine and subalpine flora of Mount Jaya. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew; 2006. Johns RJ, Shea GA, Vink W, Puradyatmika P. Mountain vegetation of Papua. In: Marshall AJ, Beehler BM, editors. The ecology of Papua: part II. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions; 2007. p. 977–1053. Keim AP, Kartawinata K, Efendy O. Biodiversitas terkini Danau Habbema Papua, Indonesia. Ciputat: Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta Press; 2018. Large MF, Braggins JE. Tree ferns. Portland: Timber Press; 2004. Milliken W. The ethnobotany of the Yali of West Papua. Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens; 2006. Nath K, Talukdar AD, Bhattacharya MK, Choudhury D, Mitra A, Choudhury NA. Cyathea gigantea (Cyatheaceae) as an antimicrobial agent against multidrug resistant organism. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019;19(279):1–8. Olsen S. Encyclopedia of garden ferns. Portland: Timber Press; 2007. Talukdar A, Duttachoudhury M, Chakraborty M, Dutta BK. Phytochemical screening and TLC profiling of plant extracts of Cyathea gigantea (Wall. Ex. Hook.) Haltt and Cyathea brunoniana Wall. ex. Hook (Cl. & Bak.). Assam University. J Assam Univ J Sci Technol Biol Environ Sci. 2010;5(1):70–4. Utteridge TMA, Edwards PJ. The subalpine and alpine flora of Mount Jaya, New Guinea: status and threats. Blumea. 2009;54:280–3. Williams E. Sphaeropteris tomentosissima. London: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species; 2018.

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz. ANACARDIACEAE Wawan Sujarwo and Ary Prihardhyanto Keim

Synonyms Evia amara Comm. ex Blume; Mangifera pinnata L.f.; Poupartia acuminata (Roxb.) Wall.; Spondias acuminata Roxb.; Spondias amara Lam.; Spondias bivenomarginalis K. M. Feng & P. I. Mao; Spondias mangifera Willd.; Spondias paniculata Roxb. ex Wight & Arn.; Wirtgenia decandra Jungh (POWO 2020).

Local Names Burmese (Myanmar): Gwe, pwe-baung; English: hog plum; Indonesian: kedongdong (general), kacemcem (Bali), kedongdong leuweung (Sundanese); Khmer: mokak; Lao: ko:k, ku:k, mak kok; Malay: embrah, kedongdong, memberah (Peninsular); Filipino: libas; Thai: ma-kok; Vietnamese: cóc chua, cóc rừng (Hou 1978; Kostermans 1991; Min and Barford 2008; Sujarwo et al. 2017; Sujarwo and Keim 2019).

Botany and Ecology Description: Spondias pinnata is a deciduous tree (Fig. 1), 10–25 m tall, sometimes up to 40 m tall; branches yellowish brown to grayish brown and glabrous. The leaves are glabrous, large, with pairs of 100–150 mm leaflets on petioles; leaf blades 300–600 mm, imparipinnate (not fairly paripinnate) compound with 5–11 opposite leaflets; leaflet petiolule 3–5 mm; leaflet blade ovate-oblong to elliptic–oblong, 70–120 mm  40– W. Sujarwo (*) · A. P. Keim Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_176

1009

1010

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

Fig. 1 Leaves and Stem of Spondias pinnata. (© Wawan Sujarwo)

50 mm, papery, glabrous on both sides, with margins that are serrate or entire; the apex is acuminate, lateral veins 12–25 pairs. The inflorescence is paniculate, terminal, 250– 350 mm and glabrous, with basal first-order branches 100–150 mm. Flowers are mostly small and sessile, white or greenish white and glabrous; calyx lobes are triangular, approximately 0.5 mm. Petals are ovate-oblong, approximately 2.5 mm  1.5 mm; stamens are approximately 1.5 mm. The fruit is an ellipsoid to elliptic-ovoid drupe, olive green to yellowish orange at maturity, 35–70 mm  25–35 mm; inner part of endocarp woody and grooved, outer part fibrous; mature fruit usually have two or three seeds (Hou 1978; Kostermans 1991; Min and Barford 2008). Phenology: The flowering season is recorded from April to June, and the fruiting season extends from August to September (Sujarwo and Keim 2019). The plant is propagated through seeds, and the seeding season is the same as the fruiting season (Hou 1978; Kostermans 1991). Distribution and Habitat: Spondias pinnata is native to the Flora Malesiana region, a floristic region that comprises the political entities of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei Darussalam, the Philippines, Timor Leste, and Papua New Guinea. The species has been widely cultivated and naturalized in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China (southern), Bhutan and Nepal (Kostermans 1991; Sujarwo and Keim 2019; POWO 2020). The species grows well in both primary and secondary forests from lowland up to 500 m altitude and sporadically found up to 900 m altitudes (Sujarwo and Keim 2019). Nevertheless, the species is more commonly found in the lavish lowland tropical rainforests of Flora Malesiana region (Hou 1978; Sujarwo and Keim 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The leaf of Spondias pinnata is considered as an integral part of the Balinese ethnobotanical knowledge and used in the making of herbal medicinal beverage to treat heartburn, urolithiasis, diabetes, and to improve body health

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz.

1011

(Fig. 2) (Sujarwo et al. 2017; Sujarwo and Keim 2019). Rumphius (1741) reported the Ambonese in the Moluccas bathing in water that had been boiled with the leaves of S. pinnata in order to clean their bodies, both when they were ill as well as when healthy. The tartness of the fruit of S. pinnata is also believed to be good for stomach (Rumphius 1741). Thailand: The Thais believe that the decoction of leaves is good for diarrhea (Kubola et al. 2011; Sakong et al. 2011). The fresh fruits are eaten for curing the toothaches (Kubola et al. 2011). South-East Asia: The fruit is used as an astringent, antiscorbutic, and against bilious dyspepsia; and the juice is applied against earache (Kostermans 1991).

Phytochemistry Bark: Analgesic, Antibacterial, Anticancer, Antihyperglycaemic, Antihyperlipidaemic, Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant, Antituberculosis, and Hypoglycemic activity (Attanayake et al. 2013, 2014, 2015; Chetia and Gogoi 2011; Dwija et al. 2016; Ghate et al. 2014, 2018; Mondal and Dash 2009; Panda et al. 2009). Fruit: Antidiabetic, Vitamin C (Kubola et al. 2011; Tag et al. 2012). Leaves: Antibacterial, Antioxidant (Jain et al. 2014; Sujarwo et al. 2017). Resin: Antimicrobial (Gupta et al. 2010). Stem: Hepatoprotective (Rao and Raju 2010).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The leaves are consumed as raw vegetable, particularly in Bali (Sujarwo et al. 2016). South-East Asia: The leaves are used for flavoring. The fruits are eaten both as vegetable (when young) and eatable fruit (when mature). However, the fruit is watery with fairly odorless acidic taste. Thus, it is less favorable than the fruit of its relative, the well-known Spondias dulcis. Nevertheless, the fruit of S. pinnata can still be good for chutneys, stews, pickles, and jams (Kostermans 1991; Jain 2016). Fig. 2 Balinese herbal drink or loloh made from juice of Spondias pinnata leaves. (© Wawan Sujarwo)

1012

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

India: The chutney made from S. pinnata sometimes is used as a substitute for the legendary mango chutney (Jain 2016).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Loloh is a traditional beverage or refreshment drink made from the leaves of S. pinnata and it is found primarily in the Penglipuran Village in the District of Bangli in the Central-East of the Island of Bali (Sujarwo et al. 2017; Sujarwo and Keim 2019). Thus, the loloh drink and its source, S. pinnata have become the identity of the Panglipuran Village itself. In other word, although S. pinnata is not regarded as a sacred plant in Balinese culture, the species has been regarded as a bioculturally important species for the people of Panglipuran Village. The importance of this species in various ethnic communities in Indonesia, including Bali is noticeable.

Economic Importance Indonesia: The Balinese make a traditional herbal drink or loloh (Sujarwo et al. 2015; Sujarwo and Keim 2019), a favorite refreshment drink characteristic to Bali, particularly the District of Bangli. South-East Asia: In many parts of Southeast Asia, the timber is harvested and used for packing cases, floats, canoes, matches, and non-ornamental plywood (Kostermans 1991), and it is fairly good for unbleached wood pulp (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Stem cuttings of Spondias pinnata to keep up with the economic demand. (© Wawan Sujarwo)

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz.

1013

References Attanayake AP, Jayatilaka KAPW, Pathirana C, Mudduwa LKB. Study of antihyperglycaemic activity of medicinal plant extracts in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Anc Sci Life. 2013;32:193–8. Attanayake AP, Jayatilaka KAPW, Pathirana C, Mudduwa LKB. Antihyperglycaemic, antihyperlipidaemic, and β cell regenerative effects of Spondias pinnata (Linn.f.) Kurz. bark extract on streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Eur J Integr Med. 2014;6:588–96. Attanayake AP, Jayatilaka KAPW, Pathirana C, Mudduwa LKB. Potential antioxidant activities of Spondias pinnata (family: Anacardiaceae) bark extract in rats with streptozotocin induced diabetes mellitus. Int J Pharmacogn. 2015;2:166–72. Chetia B, Gogoi S. Antibacterial activity of the methanolic extract of stem bark of Spondias pinnata, Moringa oleifera and Alstonia scholaris. Asian J Tradit Med. 2011;6(4):163–7. Dwija IBNP, Anggraeni M, Ariantari NP. Anti-tuberculosis activity of forest Kedondong (Spondias pinnata) stembark extract against multiple drug resistance (MDR) strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Bali Med J. 2016;5(1):23–6. Ghate NB, Hazra B, Sarkar R, Mandal N. In vitro anticancer activity of Spondias pinnata bark on human lung and breast carcinoma. Cytotechnology. 2014;66:209–18. Ghate NB, Chaudhuri D, Panja S, Singh SS, Gupta G, Lee CY, Mandal N. In vitro mechanistic study of the anti-inflammatory activity of a quinoline isolated from Spondias pinnata bark. J Nat Prod. 2018;81(9):1956–61. Gupta VK, Amit R, Nigam VK, Kalishankar M. Antimicrobial activity of Spondias pinnata resin. J Med Plant Res. 2010;4(16):1656–61. Hou D. Anacardiaceae. In: Van Steenis CGGJ, editor. Flora Malesiana ser. 1, vol. 8. Alphen aan den Rijn: Sijthoff & Noordhoff; 1978. p. 395–548. Jain AK. Indian ethnobotany: emerging trends. New Delhi: Scientific Publishers; 2016. Jain P, Hossain KR, Mishu TR, Reza HM. Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of Spondias pinnata Kurz. leaves. Eur J Med Plant. 2014;4(2):183–95. Kostermans AJGH. Kedondong, ambrella, amra: the Spondiadeae (Anacardiaceae) in Asia and the Pacific area, vol. 1. Bogor: Foundation Useful Plants of Asia, Herbarium Bogoriense; 1991. Kubola J, Siriamornpun S, Meeso N. Phytochemicals, vitamin C and sugar content of Thai wild fruits. Food Chem. 2011;126:972–81. Min T, Barford A. Spondias pinnata. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, Hong DY, editors. Flora of China. Beijing/St. Louis: Science Press/Missouri Botanic Garden Press; 2008. Mondal S, Dash GK. Hypoglycemic activity of the bark of Spondias pinnata Linn. Kurz. Pharmacogn Mag. 2009;5:42–5. Panda BK, Patra VJ, Mishra US, Kar S, Panda BR, Hati MR. Analgesic activities of the stem bark extract of Spondias pinata (Linn.f) Kurz. J Pharm Res. 2009;2(5):825–7. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens. 2020. Published on the Internet. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 5 May 2020. Rao BG, Raju NJ. Investigation of hepatoprotective activity of Spondias pinnata. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2010;1(3):193–8. Rumphius GE. Herbarium amboinense, vol. 1. Amsterdam: Franciscus Changuion; 1741. Sakong P, Khampitak T, Cha’on U, Pinitsoontorn C, Sriboonlue P, Yongvanit P, Boonsiri P. Antioxidant activity and bioactive phytochemical contents of traditional medicinal plants in Northeast Thailand. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(31):6822–31. Sujarwo W, Keim AP. Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz. (Anacardiaceae): profiles and applications to diabetes. In: Watson RR, Preedy VR, editors. Bioactive food as dietary interventions for diabetes second edition. London: Academic Press/Elsevier; 2019. p. 295–405. Sujarwo W, Keim AP, Savo V, Guarrera PM, Caneva G. Ethnobotanical study of Loloh: traditional herbal drinks from Bali (Indonesia). J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;169:34–48.

1014

W. Sujarwo and A. P. Keim

Sujarwo W, Arinasa IBK, Caneva G, Guarrera PM. Traditional knowledge of wild and semi-wild edible plants used in Bali (Indonesia) to maintain biological and cultural diversity. Plant Biosyst. 2016;150(5):971–6. Sujarwo W, Saraswaty V, Keim AP, Caneva G, Tofani D. Ethnobotanical uses of “cemcem” (Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz; Anacardiaceae) leaves in Bali (Indonesia) and its antioxidant activity. Pharmacologyonline. 2017;1:113–23. Tag H, Kalita P, Dwivedi P, Das AK, Namsa ND. Herbal medicines used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus in Arunachal Himalaya, Northeast India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;141:786–95.

Staurogyne elongata (Nees) Kuntze ACANTHACEAE Aisyah Handayani and Syafitri Hidayati

Synonyms Adenosma elongata Blume; Ebermaiera elongata Nees; Ebermaiera subpaniculata Hassk.; Erythracanthus elongatus C.Presl; Erythracanthus elongatus Nees

Local Names Rendeu (Sundanese)

Botany and Ecology Staurogyne elongata (Acanthaceae) is a perennial herb with soft stem and opposite leaves. Stems very short or elongate. Stipules not found (Fig. 1). Flowers are paired or sometimes single, growing from the leaf axil or at the end of the petiole (terminal). Inflorescence is in the form of grains and bunches. Corolla tube cylindric or basally cylindric, apically expanding into a campanulate throat. Fruit is generally a capsule, dehiscent, many seeded. Seeds small, not supported by conspicuous retinacula, subspherical or cuboid (Girmansyah 2014; Daniel and McDade 2014). Most of Staurogyne appear to occur in moist to wet communities, or evergreen forests (Daniel and McDade 2014). Commonly found in humid forests at A. Handayani (*) Cibodas Botanic Gardens, The Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cianjur, Indonesia Natural Resources and Environment Management, Graduate School, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia S. Hidayati Department of Forest Resources Conservation and Ecotourism, Division of Plant Diversity Conservation, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_49

1015

1016

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Fig. 1 Herbarium collection of Staurogyne elongata in Cianjur Herbarium Hortus Botanicus Tjibodasensis – Cibodas Botanic Gardens. (© Aisyah Handayani)

200–1000 m altitude (De Padua et al. 1999). Mainly distributed in Southeast Asia, especially in Sumatra and Java, Indonesia. There are 67 genera and 162 species of Acanthaceae in Java, of which 53 species natively distributed (Backer and Bakhuizen 1965). Researchers have isolated bacteria such as Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas stutzeri, and Bacillus sp. from its phyllosphere (Rizqoh et al. 2016).

Local Medicinal Uses The use of S. elongata as a medicine has been frequently reported from Sundanese communities of West Java (Fig. 2). Sundanese people around Gunung Simpang Natural Reserve area in West Java use its leaves to cure rheumatism (Handayani 2015) (Fig. 3). The Sundanese people in Bodogol, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, use S. elongata in postpartum healthcare (Rahayu et al. 2012); similar use has also been recorded from the Sundanese communities of Sinarwangi, as well as those in the vicinity of Gunung Halimun Salak National Park. Girmansyah (2014) recorded that the roots and leaves of S. elongata are used as diuretic and to increase

Staurogyne elongata (Nees) Kuntze

1017

Fig. 2 Staurogyne elongata as a collection of medicinal plant in Cibodas Botanic Gardens. (© Aisyah Handayani)

Fig. 3 The community around Gunung Simpang Nature Reserve use Staurogyne elongata for food. (© Aisyah Handayani)

blood pressure by Sundanese people. The use of roots as diuretic has also been recorded by Heyne (1987) from the Javanese people of Surakarta in Central Java. The Sundanese people around Gunung Walat Educational Forest of Sukabumi, West Java, use the leaves of S. elongata to cure diseases of the urinary tract (Nazmurakhman 2014). The Baduy community use the leaves as febrifuge (Wardah 2003; Suansa 2011). The Sundanese community of Kasepuhan Ciptagelar –

1018

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Sukabumi, West Java, use leaves of S. elongata to cure fever, rheumatism, cancer, and also as an appetite enhancer (Kodir 2009).

Phytochemistry S. elongata contains phenolic compounds that function as an antioxidant (Sutandi et al. 2018). Leaf extracts contain flavonoids, saponins, polyphenols, steroids, and terpenoids (Maulani et al. 2017). An in vitro test using S. elongata extract demonstrated its inhibitory effect on Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (Maulani et al. 2017). Apart from its potential antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli, Rizqoh et al. (2016) also demonstrated that S. elongata could inhibit pathogenic fungi such as Candida tropicalis and Candida albicans.

Local Food Uses S. elongata is one of the popular indigenous vegetable of Sundanese community. Leaves of S. elongata are used to prepare lalaban, the traditional Sundanese salad (Sutandi et al. 2018). The Sundanese people around Gunung Simpang Natural Reserve area of West Java consume the leaves of S. elongata as lalab (raw salad) or steam cooked (Handayani 2015). The use of S. elongata in lalab has also been reported from many other local communities of Indonesia (Rahayu and Harada 2004; Harada 2003; Kodir 2009; Sulistiani 2014; Hasanah 2011). In Borneo, the Melayu people of Sintang are known to use the shoot of S. elongata to season food (Afrianti 2007). The Melayu people of Sungai Kosak village are reported to use the leaves as food (Juita et al. 2015).

Biocultural Importance The flower of Staurogyne elongata is used in magic and rituals by the Sundanese communities of Bodogol, Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park (Rahayu et al. 2012), and Kasepuhan Ciptagelar of Sukabumi (Kodir 2009). In Kasepuhan Ciptagelar, S. elongata is used as an ingredient in rituals related to agricultural activities: the initiation of rice planting, singing ceremony before the consumption of the first harvest, and seren tahun (Kodir 2009). Seren tahun is a Sundanese agricultural festival that marks the transition from one agricultural year to another. Originally a Sundanese calendric festival, it is now celebrated in the month of Muharram, the first month of the Hijri year. This ceremony was originally meant to enhance respect for nature, so as to live in harmony; it is also an expression of gratitude to the Goddess of Rice for the yield obtained (Royyani and Walujo 2017).

Staurogyne elongata (Nees) Kuntze

1019

Economic Importance Staurogyne elongata has been identified as an economically important Indonesian plant due to its widespread use as medicine and food (Levang and de Foresta 1991).

References Afrianti UR. Kajian Etnobotani dan Aspek Konservasi Sengkubak [Pycnarrhena cauliflora (Miers.) Diels.] di Kabupaten Sintang Kalimantan Barat. Bogor: Graduate School IPB University; 2007. Backer CAD, Bakhuizen RCV. Flora of Java (Spermatophytes only), vol. II. Groningen: Noordhoff Press; 1965. p. 561–2. Daniel TF, McDade LA. Nelsonioideae (Lamiales: Acanthaceae): revision of genera and catalog of species. Aliso: J Syst Evol Bot. 2014;32(1):1–45. De Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ. Medicinal and Poisonous plant (1). Plant resources of South-East Asia. Vol. 12. No. 1. PROSEA: Bogor; 1999. Girmansyah D. Validation, distribution and potential uses of Acanthaceae in Java. Berita Biologi. 2014;13(1):107–13. https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi.v13i1.659. Handayani A. Pemanfaatan Tumbuhan Berkhasiat Obat oleh Masyarakat sekitar Cagar Alam Gunung Simpang, Jawa Barat. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indones. 2015;1(6):1425–32. https://doi.org/10.13057/psnmbi/m010628. Harada K. Dependency of local people on the forests of Gunung Halimun National Park, West Java, Indonesia. Tropics. 2003;13(3):161–85. https://doi.org/10.3759/tropics.13.161. Hasanah N. Potensi tumbuhan berguna di Cagar Alam Yanlappa, Bogor-Jawa Barat. Bogor: Undergraduate Program IPB University; 2011. Heyne K. Tumbuhan Berguna Indonesia, vol. 3. Jakarta: Forest Research and Development Centre: Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia; 1987. p. 1752. Juita N, Lovadi I, Linda R. Pemanfaatan Tumbuhan Sebagai Penyedap Rasa Alami Pada Masyarakat Suku Dayak Jangkang Tanjung Dan Melayu Di Kabupaten Sanggau. J Protobiont. 2015;4(3):74–80. Kodir A. Keanekaragaman dan Bioprospek Jenis Tanaman dalam Sistem Kebun Talun di Kasepuhan Ciptagelar, Desa Sirnaresmi, Kecamatan Cisolok, Sukabumi, Jawa Barat. Bogor: Graduate School IPB University; 2009. Levang P, de Foresta H. Economic plants of Indonesia: a Latin, Indonesian, French and English dictionary of 728 species. Bogor: ORSTOM and SEAMEO BIOTROP; 1991. Maulani MI, Purwanti L, Dasuki UA. Uji Aktivitas Antibakteri Ekstrak Daun Reundeu [Staurogyne elongata (Bl.) O.K] terhadap Staphylococcus aureus and Eschercia coli. Prosiding Farmasi. 2017;3(2):565–9. Nazmurakhman MI. Pemanfaatan Tumbuhan oleh Masyarakat di Sekitar Hutan Pendidikan Gunung Walat Sukabumi. Bogor: IPB University; 2014. Rahayu M, Harada K. The role of plants on the traditional life of local society in Gunung Halimun National Park, West Java. Berita Biologi. 2004;7(1&2). https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi. v7i1&2.1231. Rahayu M, Susiarti S, Sihotang VBL. A preliminary ethnobotanical study on useful plants by local communities in Bodogol Lowland Forest, Sukabumi, West Java. J Trop Biol Conserv. 2012;9(1):115–25. Rizqoh D, Sari NR, Wati RN, Santosa F, Hasanah R. Aktivitas Bakteri Filosofer Daun Reundeu (Staurogyne elongata) sebagai Penghasil Senyawa Antimikroba Potensial. J Anal Lab. 2016;30(11):1–7. Royyani MF, Walujo EB. Pelestarian Lingkungan Berbasis Kepercayaan Lokal dan Upacara Tradisi: Studi Kasus Masyarakat di Sekitar Gunung Salak. J Biol Indones. 2017;8(1). https:// doi.org/10.14203/jbi.v8i1.3067.

1020

A. Handayani and S. Hidayati

Suansa NI. Penggunaan Pengetahuan Etnobotani dalam Pengelolaan Hutan Adat Baduy. IPB: Bogor; 2011. Sulistiani SN. Kajian Pemanfaatan Sumberdaya Hutan di Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun Salak oleh Masyarakat Sekitar. Bogor: IPB University; 2014. Sutandi IA, Rahayu A, Rochman N. Growth and production of Pohpohan {Pilea melastomoides (Poir.) Wedd.} dan reundeu (Staurogyne elongate Kuntze) and on various shading levels. J Agron. 2018;3(1):46–52. Wardah W. Utilization of plant diversity resources by Baduy-Dalam (Inner Baduy) Community around South Mount Kendeng, Lebak District, southern Banten. Berita Biologi. 2003;6(6):755–65. https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi.v6i6.1204.

Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. f.) Bedd. BLECHNACEAE Daniele Cicuzza

Synonyms Lomaria haenkeana C. Presl, Lomaria juglandifolia C. Presl, Lomaria scandens Willd., Onoclea scandens Sw., Stenochlaena blumeana C. Presl, Stenochlaena fraxinifolia C. Presl, Stenochlaena hainanensis Ching & P. S. Chiu, Stenochlaena laurifolia C. Presl, Stenochlaena scandens (Raddi) J. Sm., Lomariopsis scandens Mett., Olfersia scandens C. Presl, Polypodium palustre Burm. f., Acrostichum laurifolium Hook., Acrostichum scandens Raddi, Acrostichum scandens Hook., Chrysodium palustre (Burm. f.) Luerss., Pteris scandens Roxb. (POWO 2019).

Local Names Climbing (swamp) fern, liane-fern (En). Indonesia: pakis bang (Javanese), paku hurang (Sundanese), paku merah (Kalimantan, Moluccas); Malaysia: akar paku, paku miding, paku ranu, Philippines: diliman, hagnaya, lanas. Thailand: prong suan, phak kuut daeng (central), lam matheng (eastern and south-western).

Botany and Ecology Description: Stenochlaena palustris is a climbing fern with a continuous growing rhizome of indefinite length. Usually the plants form thick population on the ground. The rhizomes can attach themselves to the trunks of trees so that the resulting habit is

D. Cicuzza (*) Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_66

1021

1022

D. Cicuzza

that of a climber up to 3–4 m high. The stems range from green to brown in color, around a centimeter in diameter and branched without a regular pattern. The stems for the individual climbing tree trunk are flattened with a more oval shape rather than the usual cylindric type. The rhizome has small adhesive roots to attach to the tree trunk, whereas the root of plants growing on the ground have normal structure no longer then 3–4 cm. Sterile and fertile fronds have a different shape. The sterile fronds are up to 80 cm long, whereas the fertile fronds are shorter. Margin of pinnae are dentate to serrulate with an acute terminal part, secondary veins simple to once divided and reaching the leaf margin (Fig. 1). The sterile fronds are simple pinnate with 4–14 pairs of alternate pinnae whose length goes from10 to 24 cm. The shape of the pinnae similarly varies from ovate to oblong. An important characteristic of this fern is the color of young fronds which have a light to dark reddish tone. When the individual has several young leaves, the upper part of the plants, if looked from far away, looks entirely red. The fertile fronds have narrow pinnae without the photosynthetic lamina, or if present extremely reduced of 1 or 2 mm. The pinnae are 20  0.3 cm each with only the lower surface covered with sporangia, except the midrib. The contraction of the pinna lamina and the thick and dense presence of sori

Fig. 1 A climber portion of Stenochlaena palustris with a dissected young leaf with the typical terminal pinna. These leaves have a light green color compared with the mature leaves which have a darker green colour. (© Daniele Cicuzza)

Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. f.) Bedd.

1023

on the lower side of the leaf make the fertile leaves of S. palustris to be considered as acrostichoid leaf. The acrostichoid leaves are common in fern families and consist of a specialized leaf which is entirely adapted to reproduction; the lower part of the leaf or the pinna is entirely covered, sort of velvet, of reproductive part, the sori. Usually leaf or pinna with acrostichoides structure have a reduced lamina compared with the normal photosynthetic leaf. The plant is easy to recognize in the field due to its relative abundance and the different habitat that can colonize. The climber life form of this species, the pinnate leaves, and the large population they form along in swampy areas or rivers, make this species a common inhabitant of sites close to human villages (de Winter and Amoroso 2003). Phenology: Fertile leaves are infrequently produced in flooded sites, whereas in secondary forest or in dryer site, it is possible to observe more often fertile leaves. Therefore, the production of fertile leaves is likely to be stimulated by a period of dry weather. However, the plants compensate the rare production of spores in swampy area, with a remarkable capability of vegetative reproduction. Distribution and Habitat: S. palustris has a broad distribution in the old-world tropics. It occurs from India throughout South-East Asia to Australia and Polynesia. Whereas the other species of the same Genus, even if they have an Asian distribution, have a more restricted area, limited for example to Australia, India, or other areas of the old-world tropics. The species is common on wet grounds such as freshwater swamp forests, sago swamps, behind mangroves, or beach vegetation, along rivers, marshes, and on floating vegetation (Fig. 2). Usually, the plants have the frond emerging and the rhizome often submerged. It can easily cover and dominate large sites of degraded peat swamp area; at the same time, it grows in shady secondary forests or in primary forest gaps. Even if the species needs abundant amount of water, it can also be observed on hill ridges or other sites, relatively dry, where the species adapts itself a climber life form. Beside the wide distribution, it has the best ecological distribution in lowland humid and warm sites. However, the species is also recorded with dense population from 400 to 900 m, reaching the submountain forest habitat. The ability of this species to cover a spectrum of habitats from submerged sites to hill ridges highlight the great adaptability that this species has, in order to colonize different habitat with a rather large climate spectrum. This capability is perhaps due to a specific physiological flexibility which has not been studied completely. The leaves can have, sometimes, a different shape with the one in shady forests more ovate whereas leaves in open and sunny sites have a long lanceolate shape which to an eye of a nonexpert can results two different species, while they are not (de Winter and Amoroso 2003). The species is not in danger of extinction and considered as Least Concern based on the IUCN category (https:// www.iucnredlist.org/).

1024

D. Cicuzza

Fig. 2 Stenochlaena palustris can colonize vast area of secondary forest or logged peat swamp forest. The figure shows a large population at the margin of a peat swamp forest in Brunei Darussalam. The individuals have their root system submerged in water, the water black color is due to the soil properties, organic matter decomposition, and pH. (© Daniele Cicuzza)

Local Medicinal Uses This species due to its ecological properties grows often close to human settlements, therefore humans have used its parts for various purposes. Within Southeast Asia, each area has evolved knowledge on different part of the plants for different purposes. For example, Sumatra, the vegetable is eaten when a gentle laxative is desired. In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction is prepared with the young shoots to treat diarrhea, whereas for fever the same juice is taken internally as drink. An infusion of water and S. palustris leaves is applied over the head of the person and believed that this treatment can increase perspiration and reduce the fever (de Winter and Amoroso 2003). This treatment is also used in Laos and other regions of the Indochina peninsula. In the practice of abortion and contraceptive, S. palustris is among the plants used in the Nicobar Islands archipelago, between Sumatra and Thailand. The extract of leaf juice is applied over the skin to ameliorate skin infection or diseases. In the island of Borneo, Sabah, the leaf extract is used as remedy for swellings. In the Kalimantan part of the island of Borneo, S. palustris is used as local vegetable and considered a mild drug for youth (Chotimah 2013). The

Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. f.) Bedd.

1025

local Dayak ethnic community use S. palustris to increase milk production, to increase hemoglobin, and as anti-aging (Zannah et al. 2015). The species is also used as a traditional medicine for the treatment of infection and wound injuries and confirmed by the high level of antioxidant and antibacterial properties (Ponnusamy et al. 2013).

Phytochemistry Five acylated flavanol glycosides (stenopalustrosides A–E) have been isolated from the leaves, as well as a glycoside (stenopaluside), trimethyl, a cerebroside glucopyranosyl, hydroxytetracosanoyl and octadecasphinga, kaempferols, glucopyranoside, formylindole, and lutein. The glycoside Stenopalustrosides has been tested and showed a significant antibacterial activity against Gram-positive strains (Bacillus cereus, Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis). Extract from S. palustris leaves have inhibitory effect against cadmium-induced glycation and fructation reaction in vitro (Suhartono et al. 2016). Due to the high anthocyanin content and metal chelating activity, the fronds are highlighted for their potential as functional food (Chai et al. 2012). There is an intense research activity over the Stenachlaena palustris for its potential activity in phytochemistry and other potential development; therefore, new outcome could be available in the near future.

Local Food Uses In South-East Asia, crozier and young red leaves of S. palustris are relished as a vegetable and are cooked after having withered. It has a pleasant taste, similar to amaranth, and is therefore found on the menu of local restaurants and throughout South East Asia. The leaves are eaten like spinach. The young leaves and the fiddleheads when still reddish are sold in fresh marked in small bunches. For culinary purposes, only the most juvenile leaves are used. There are no records of leaves dried and used after grained. The use of only fresh leaves implies a constant collection form the wild population. Despite the wide consumption in Southeast Asia, there are no attempts to cultivate this species as crop. The possible explanation is perhaps due its great capability to generate in suitable ecological conditions, a dense population with numerous leaves produced regularly over the year. Moreover, this species is often found very common around villages and in proximity of agricultural field. Therefore, it can be assumed that there was no need to increase the production of this species via a conventional domestication process. The species is usually collected and sold in the local market. However, the farmer can have a radius of up to 50 km from the site of collection to the local market where the plants are commercialized. This species is largely used in local restaurants and is very much appreciated by the local community. In mountain site, the wild population density of this species can be lower than those in the lowland. Therefore, to supply the demand

1026

D. Cicuzza

from the population in mountain villages fresh vegetables are constantly supported from lower sites (de Winter and Amoroso 2003).

Biocultural Importance The rhizome of this species is used as an inferior substitute for rattan. However, the rhizome of S. palustris has a better performance in salty water whereas the rattan tends to degrade faster and therefore less efficient. The rhizome after suitable treatment is used for binding fish-traps, making baskets, ropes, and belts. The rhizome is sometimes on display in local market, otherwise it is directly collected from the field and immediately used for the need by the local population. New developments have considered extract of S. palustris in the ice cream industry, to create a Southeast Asian flavor and identity (Hadhiwaluyo et al. 2017).

Economic Importance The wide ecological spectrum and the ability to cover rapidly large areas, make the species often a problem. S. palustris is considered a weedy species that can compromise agricultural crops. In many plantations such as palms, sago, and cocoa cultivated along river basin, S. palustris can cover vast area, posing subsequent logistic problems as well as possible variation of soil properties (de Winter and Amoroso 2003).

References Chai TT, Panirchellvum E, Ong HC, Wong FC. Phenolic contents and antioxidant properties of Stenochlaena palustris, an edible medicinal fern. Bot Stud. 2012;53:439–46. Chotimah HENC. Ethnobotanical study and nutrient content of indigenous vegetables consumed in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2013;14:106–11. https://doi.org/10.13057/ biodiv/d140209. de Winter WP, Amoroso VB. Plant resources of South-East Asia. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 2003. p. 186–8. Hadhiwaluyo K, Rahmawati D, Gunawan Puteri MDPT. Development of antioxidative effect in ice cream with Kalakai (Stenochlaena palustris) water extract. AIP Conf Proc. 2017;1904:020007. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5011864. Ponnusamy Y, Jeng N, Chear Y, et al. Antioxidant and antibacterial properties of Malaysian ferns used traditionally against infection. J Nat Prod Plant Resour. 2013;3:14–8. POWO (Plants of the World Online). 2019. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet, http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 13 Feb 2020. Suhartono E, Bahriansyah M, Triawanti T. The inhibition effect of kelakai (Stenochlaena palustris) extract on cadmium-induced glycation and fructation in-vitro. Int J Pharm Clin Res. 2016;8:248–53. Zannah F, Amin M, Suwono H, Lukiati B. Ethnobotany study of kelakai (Stenochlaena palustris Bedd) as an endemic fern at Central of Kalimantan; Proceeding of the 6th ICGRC 2015. p. 31–33.

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels MYRTACEAE Anisatu Z. Wakhidah and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Calyptranthes capitellata Buch.-Ham. ex Wall.; Calyptranthes caryophyllifolia (Lam.) Willd.; Calyptranthes cumini (L.) Pers.; Calyptranthes oneillii Lundell; Calyptranthes tenuis Buch.-Ham. ex Wall.; Eugenia brachiata Roxb.; Eugenia calyptrata Roxb. ex Wight and Arn.; Eugenia caryophyllifolia Lam.; Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce; Eugenia frondosa Wall.; Eugenia fruticosa (DC.) Roxb.; Eugenia jambolana var. caryophyllifolia (Lam.) Duthie; Eugenia obovata Poir.; Eugenia obtusifolia Roxb.; Eugenia tenuis Duthie; Eugenia tsoi Merr. and Chun; Jambolifera coromandelica Houtt.; Jambolifera pedunculata auct. non L.; Myrtus obovata (Poir.) Spreng.; Syzygium caryophyllifolium (Lam.) DC.; Syzygium cumini var. caryophyllifolium (Lam.) K.K.Khann; Syzygium cumini var. obtusifolium (Roxb.) K.K.Khann; Syzygium cumini var. tsoi (Merr. and Chun) H.T. Chang and R.H.Miao; Syzygium fruticosum DC.; Syzygium obovatum (Poir.) DC.; Syzygium obtusifolium (Roxb.) Kostel.; Syzygium pseudojambolana Miq.; Syzygium tenue (Duthie) N.P.Balakr.

Local Names Cambodia: Krian (Ratanakiri), pring (Kampong Chhnang), pring bai, pring das krebey, pring kom (Kandal), pring toeuk (Stung Treng); Indonesia: jamblang (Aceh), serungkuk (Lampung), jamblang (Javanese), duet (Madura), rapo-rapo (Wolio, A. Z. Wakhidah (*) Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_96

1027

1028

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

Southeast Sulawesi), jembolan, jambola, jambolene (Kaili Tara, Taijo, Lauje, Central Sulawesi), coppeng (Bugis, South Sulawesi), jambulang (North Moluccas), cuma, juwet (Sambori), juwet (Balinese); Laos: hai kham (Xaignabouli), ma va (Viangchan), sa (Xieng Khouang); Malaysia: jambolan (Orang Ulu in Sarawak). Myanmar: tha-pyay (Southern Shan State); Philippines: duhat (Laguna); Thailand: malsape (Tai Yai); Vietnam: cay voi rung (Tonkin), emao (Lam Dong), tram bavo, tram goi, tram moc, tram voi, tram xe (Tay Ninh), voi rung; English: malabar plum, java plum, black plum (Fajardo et al. 2017; Fiscal and Chavez 2016; Hafnidar 2019; Herawati and Yuniati 2014; Irsyad et al. 2013; Khuankaew et al. 2014; Mustofa and Rahmawati 2018; Putri et al. 2014; Rahayu and Andini 2019; Rasnovi and Nursanty 2015; Rosdiyanti 2015; Shin et al. 2018; Simanjuntak 2018; Slamet and Andrias 2018; Soh and Parnell 2015; Sujarwo and Keim 2017; Yuliarsih et al. 2013; Zulfiani et al. 2013; Zulharman and Aryanti 2016).

Botany and Ecology Description: A truncate tree up to 35 m tall, trunk with dbh up to 45 cm. Buttresses absent. Plant entirely glabrous. Twigs cylindrical, ca. 2–3 mm across, whitish, and contrasting to the leaf color. Leaves: simple, opposite, petiole 1–3.5 cm long, slender, brownish; lamina elliptic, obovate or oblong, 7–16 cm long by 4–9 cm wide, chartaceous but mostly thinly coriaceous, base cuneate, margin entire, apex acuminate to less often obtuse, acumen if present up to 7 mm long, midrib sunken above, prominent beneath; lateral veins 20–30 on each side of the midrib, 2–8 mm apart, faint and raised on the upper surfaces, raised beneath, intramarginal veins straight, 1–2 mm from the lamina margin. Flowers white to yellowish, arranged in paniculate inflorescence, borne from the axil of defoliate twigs, less often terminal, panicle 4–9 cm long, branched to 2 or 3 orders, bearing numerous flowers, 45–99, arranged in 6–18-flowered heads; bracts and bracteoles triangular, fallen off; pedicels absent. Hypanthium obconical or campanulate, 2.5–6 mm long by 2–6 mm wide, pseudostalk indistinct, and up to 1 mm long. Sepals 4, free, triangular or circular, 0.3–1 mm long by 0.5–2 mm wide. Petals united, 4, circular, 1.5–3 mm long by 1.5–3 mm wide; stamens numerous, 4–6 mm long, outermost ones longer, filaments white, anthers with locules parallel, connective glands indistinct, style simple, 2–5 mm long. Ovule radiating irregularly. Fruit berry, green, turning red and finally blackish-purple at maturity, globose to ellipsoid, 10–25 mm long by 6– 13 mm, surfaces smooth, shining, crowned with calyx remnant at the apex. Fruit flesh sweet with a kelat taste. Seed without intercotiledonary intrusion. Distribution and Habitat: Syzygium cumini is a widespread species in the paleotropic; it is also widespread in Southeast Asia but seems only as a result of cultivation, only once recorded in Borneo from Kapit, Sarawak, and none from New Guinea. The easternmost distribution can be found in the Pacific Islands. It grows

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

1029

from the lowland to the montane forest with a maximal elevation at 1200 m.a.s.l. It can grow in primary or secondary forests and also recorded to occur in swamps and savannah ecosystems. In Indochina, this species produces flowers from March to December and fruits from July to December (Ashton 2011; Hartley and Perry 1973; Merril and Perry 1939; Mudiana 2016; Rosli et al. 2015; Soh and Parnell 2015; Tuiwawa et al. 2013; Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: Syzygium cumini has been widely used as medicine by several local communities. The Simalungun people of North Sumatra drink leaf decoction to treat diabetes mellitus (Simanjuntak 2018). The people of Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara, consume the fruits for the same purpose too (Rahayu and Andini 2019). The local people in Aceh, Sumatra, and Osing tribe of East Java use the bark decoction to treat diabetes mellitus as well (Rosdiyanti 2015). The Wolio sub-ethnic in Southeast Sulawesi uses a decoction of the leaves as a cough medicine, while the people of South Sulawesi use a decoction of the leaves and bark for diarrhea (Slamet and Andrias 2018; Mustofa and Rahmawati 2018). The Sanana community of North Maluku Province use a decoction of the stem bark of this plant to treat nausea (Soamole et al. 2018). Thailand: Water boiled with stem and leaves is used for bathing by the Tai Yai people of Northern Thailand. The treatment is believed to cure hemorrhoids (Khuankaew et al. 2014). Philippines: Indigenous people of SambalBolinao in Pangasinan pound the leaves along with those of Manihot esculenta and Solanum melongena to treat snake bite by an external application (Fajardo et al.

Fig. 1 Leaves of Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae). Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

1030

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae). Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 3 Immature fruits of Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae). Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

2017). The people of Laguna Province make tea from decoction of the leaves as a diabetes medicine and consume it once a day (Fiscal and Chavez 2016).

Phytochemistry Leaves contain flavonoids (Gafur et al. 2013), carbohydrates, saponins, essential oils, tannins, and phenols that act as antimicrobial (Shylaja et al. 2011). The phytochemical contents in fruits include tanin, flavonoid, and essential oils are functioned as antifungal agent (Chismirina et al. 2014). The other phytochemicals reported are petunidin-3-rhamnosa, pelargonidin 3,5-diglucoside, cyanidin 3-rhamnosylglucoside-5-glucoside, and pelargonidin 3-(p-coumarylglucoside)-5glucoside which act as antioxidants (Lestario 2003; Ferry et al. 2015). The seeds

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

1031

contain phenols, polyphenols, tannins, flavonoids, and terpenoids which possess antibacterial properties (Banerjee and Narendhirakannan 2011). Alkaloids, glycosides, triterpenoids, steroids, and saponins reported from seeds also have antioxidant properties (Kamal 2014; Kumar et al. 2009). The other chemical compounds reported are amino acids, flavonoids, phytosterols, and tannins which have cytotoxic properties (Kumar et al. 2009). Alkaloids, carbohydrates, essential oils, phenols, and flavonoids also reported have antimicrobial properties (Shylaja et al. 2011). The barks contain tannins that can be used as coloring agents (Bahri et al. 2017). Barks also contain triterpenoids, flavonoid, saponin, phenolic compounds, and tannins as antioxidants (Karisma and Hidajati 2016). Besides, carbohydrate, essential oils, tannins, phenols, and flavonoids contained in barks also act as antimicrobials (Shylaja et al. 2011).

Local Food Uses Indonesia: The fruits of Syzygium cumini are consumed by the Kaili Tara Tribe (Zulfiani et al. 2013) and the Taijo Tribe (Yuliarsih et al. 2013) in Central Sulawesi, the Balinese (Putri et al. 2014), and the saibatin sub-ethnic in Lampung (personal observation). Myanmar: The ripe fruits are consumed by the people of Southern Shan State (Shin et al. 2018).

Biocultural Importance Indonesia: Balinese people use this species as a ritual material (Putri et al. 2014). Malaysia: Rosli et al. (2015) recorded the use of the bark as a source of brown natural dye by Orang Ulu communities of Asap Koyan Belaga, Sarawak.

Economic Importance Indonesia: The wood of Syzygium cumini can be used as building material for making doors and as batten wood (Irsyad et al. 2013; Zulharman and Aryanti 2016; Sujarwo and Keim 2017). The wood is used as firewood by the Kaili Tara Tribe in Central Sulawesi (Zulfiani et al. 2013). Myanmar: The people of Southern Shan State use the wood for construction purposes (Shin et al. 2018).

References Ashton PS. Myrtaceae. In: Soepadmo E, Saw LG, Chung RCK, Kiew R, editors. Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak, vol. 7. Kuala Lumpur: Forest Research Institut Malaysia; 2011. Bahri S, Jalaluddin J, Rosnita R. Pembuatan zat warna alami dari kulit batang jamblang (Syzygium cumini) sebagai bahan dasar pewarna tekstil. J Tek Kim. 2017;6(1):10–9. (in Bahasa).

1032

A. Z. Wakhidah and W. A. Mustaqim

Banerjee J, Narendhirakannan RT. Phytochemical analyses, antibacterial, in vitro antioxidant, and cytotoxic ethanolic extract of Syzygium cumini (L.) seed extract. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2011;2 (7):1799–806. Chismirina S, Rezeki S, Rusiwann Z. Konsentrasi hambatan dan bunuh minimum ekstrak buah jamblang (Syzygium cumini) terhadap pertumbuhan Candida albicans. Cakradonya Dent J. 2014;6(1):655–60. (in Bahasa). Fajardo WT, Cancino LT, Dudang EB, De Vera IA, Pambid RM, Junio AD. Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants used by indigenous Sambal-Bolinao of Pangasinan, Philippines. J Nat Allied Sci. 2017;1(1):52–63. Ferry IGPA, Manurung M, Puspawati NM. Efektifitas antosianin kulit buah jamblang (Syzygium cumini) sebagai penurun low density lipoprotein darah tikus wistar yang mengalami hiperkolesterolemia. Indones E-J Applied Chem. 2015;3(12):9–22.. (in Bahasa) Fiscal RR, Chavez ACC. Ethnobotanical profiling of the commonly utilized plants for hypertension and diabetes in the Province of Laguna. In: E-proceeding of the 4th global sum on Edu. 2016; p. 1904. Gafur MA, Isa I, Bialangi N. Isolasi dan identifikasi senyawa flavonoid dari daun jamblang (Syzygium cumini). 2013; pp. 1–8. http://repository.ung.ac.id/get/simlit_res/1/458. (in Bahasa). Hafnidar M. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat oleh masyarakat Kemukiman Pulo Nasi sebagai Media Pembelajaran Materi Keanekaragaman Hayati Di SMAN 1 Pulo Aceh [undergraduate thesis]. Banda Aceh: Universitas Islam Negeri Ar-Raniry; 2019. (in Bahasa). Hartley TG, Perry LM. A provisional key and enumeration of species of Syzygium (Myrtaceae) from Papuasia. J Arnold Arbor. 1973;54(2):160–227. Herawati L, Yuniati E. Kajian etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat Etnik Lauje di Desa Tomini Kecamatan Tomini Parigi Mautong Sulawesi Tengah. Biocelebes. 2014;8(2):26–30. (in Bahasa). Irsyad MN, Jumari J, Murningsih M. Studi etnobotani masyarakat Desa Sukolilo Kawasan Pegunungan Kendeng Pati, Jawa Tengah. Bioma. 2013;15(1):27–34. (in Bahasa). Kamal A. Phytochemical screening of Syzygium cumini seeds. Indian J Plants Sci. 2014;3(4):1–4. Karisma AB, Hidajati N. Uji fitokimia dan uji antioksidan ekstrak methanol dan ekstrak etil asetat dari kulit batang juwet (Syzygium cumini). UNESA J Chem. 2016;5(3):119–22. (in Bahasa). Khuankaew S, Srithi K, Tiansawat P, Jampeetong A, Inta A, Wangpakapattanawong P. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Tai Yai in Northern Thailand. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;151:829–38. Kumar A, Ilavarasan R, Jayachandran T, Decaraman M, Aravindhan P. Phytochemicals investigation on a tropical plant, Syzygium cumini from Kattuppalayam, Erode District, Tamil Nadu, South India. Pak J Nutr. 2009;8(1):83–5. Lestario LN. The potential of java plum (Syzygium cumini) as source of food natural antioxidant. Indones Food Nut Progress. 2003;10(1):40–5. Merril ED, Perry LM. The myrtaceous genus Syzygium Gaertner in Borneo. Mem Am Acad Arts Sci, New Ser. 1939;18(3):135–202. Mudiana D. Syzygium diversity in Gunung Baung, East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2016;17 (2):733–40. Mustofa FI, Rahmawati N. Studi etnofarmakologi tumbuhan obat yang digunakan oleh penyehat tradisional untuk mengatasi diare di Sulawesi Selatan. J Tumb Obat Indones. 2018;11(2):17–32. (in Bahasa). Putri RI, Supriatna J, Walujo EB. Ethnobotanical study of plant resource in Serangan Island, Bali. Asian J Conserv Biol. 2014;3(2):135–48. Rahayu SM, Andini AS. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants in Sesaot Forest, Narmada, West Lombok, Indonesia. Biosantifika. 2019;11(2):234–42. Rasnovi S, Nursanty R. Potency study of N-Hexane extracts of black plum (Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels) intheinhibitation of growth Salmonella typhi and Candida sp. J Natural. 2015;15(1):9– 22. (in Bahasa). Rosdiyanti VR. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan yang berpotensi sebagai obat penyakit dalam oleh masyarakat osing di Kabupaten Banyuwangi. Undergraduated Thesis. Universitas Jember; 2015. (in Bahasa).

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

1033

Rosli N, Ismail Z, Lepun P. Plants used as natural dye by the Orang Ulu ethnics in Asap Koyan Belaga Sarawak, Malaysia. Int J Curr Res. 2015;7(8):19770–5. Shin T, Fujikawa K, Moe AZ, Uchiyama H. Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants with special emphasis on medical uses in southern Shan State, Myanmar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):48–61. Shylaja P, Gothanda KM, Sivashanmugam K. Phytochemical and antimicrobial properties of Syzygium cumini an ethanomedicinal plant of Javadhu hills. Res Pharm. 2011;1(1):22–32. Simanjuntak HA. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat diabetes mellitus di masyarakat etnis simalungun Kabupaten Simalungun, Prov. Sumatera Utara. Biolink. 2018;5(1):59–71. (in Bahasa). Slamet A, Andrias SH. Studi etnobotani dan identifikasi tumbuhan obat masyarakat sub etnis Wolio Kota Baubau Sulawesi Tenggara. Proc Bio Educ Conf. 2018;15(1):721–32. (in Bahasa). Soamole K, Pangemanan EFS, Nurmawan W. Studi etnobotani tumbuhan obat masyarakat di Desa Pastina Kecamatan Sanana Kabupaten Kepulauan Sula. COCOS. 2018;1(3):1–7. (in Bahasa). Soh WK, Parnell J. A revision of Syzygium Gaertn. (Myrtaceae) in Indochina (Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam). Adansonia. 2015;37(2):179–275. https://doi.org/10.5252/a2015n2a1. Sujarwo W, Keim AP. Ethnobotanical study of traditional building materials from the island of Bali, Indonesia. Econ Bot. 2017;71(3):224–40. Tuiwawa SH, Craven LA, Sam C, Crisp MD. The genus Syzygium (Myrtaceae) in Vanuatu. Blumea. 2013;58:53–67. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651913X672271. Yuliarsih Y, Yuniati E, Pitopang R. Studi etnobotani Suku Taijo di Desa Sienjo Kecamatan Toribulu Kab. Parigi Mountong Sulawesi Tengah. Biocelebes. 2013;7(2):49–56. (in Bahasa). Zulfiani Z, Yuniati E, Pitopang R. Kajian etnnobotani Suku Kaili Tara di Desa Binangga Kecamatan Parigi Tengah Kab. Parigi Mountong, Sulawesi Tengah. Biocelebes. 2013;7(1):67–74. (in Bahasa). Zulharman, Aryanti NA. Etnobotani tumbuhan penghasil bahan bangunan, kerajian, dan rumah adat masyarakat Suku Sambori Kab. Bima NTB Semnaspro. 2016:256–65. (in Bahasa).

Syzygium leucoxylon Korth. MYRTACEAE Krishnamoorthy Devanathan and Jurgenne H. Primavera

Synonyms Eugenia alcinae Merr.; E. brevistylis C.B. Robinson; E. leucoxylon (Korth.) Miq.; E. verecunda Duthie; Myrtus leucoxylon Korth. ex Miq.; Syzygium alcinae (Merr.) Merr. & Perry; S. leucoxylon Korth; S. verecundum (Duthie) Wall. ex Masam.

Local Names Northern Borneo: Obah. Philippines: canomay (Tinago, Mindanao), lagi-lagi (Dinagat, Surigao), malaruhat (Zamboanga), putian (Aklan), hambibinlod.

Botany and Ecology Description: Trees, up to 15 m high (Fig. 1). Barks light gray to whitish, hence the local name putian (meaning white) in Aklan. Branchlets terete. Leaves opposite, elliptic-ovate to oblong, 5–7.5
2.4–4.2 cm, narrowly cuneate, decurrent at base, entire at margins, obtusely acute at apex, acumen 5–15 mm long; coriaceous; nerves brochidodromous, 25–40 pairs; petiole 10–14 cm long. Inflorescence a paniculate cyme, terminal or axillary on upper branches (Fig. 2), 5–12 cm long; peduncle sessile or 2–2.5 cm long in upper axils; pedicels 2–5 mm long; bracteoles ovate,

K. Devanathan (*) Department of Botany, Centre for Floristic Research, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Chennai, TN, India J. H. Primavera Zoological Society of London, La Paz, Iloilo City, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_155

1035

1036

K. Devanathan and J. H. Primavera

Fig. 1 Habit of Syzygium leucoxylon (© Jurgenne Primavera)

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of S. leucoxylon. (© Jurgenne Primavera)

paired. Flowers salver form. Calyx campanulate, 3–4 mm long, obscurely fourlobed. Petals four; ovate, obovate, or oblong; 1–1.5 mm long; calyptrate. Disc thick, united to calyx. Stamens c. 20; filaments c. 0.8 mm long; anthers c. 0.3 mm long. Ovary two-celled; style equal or shortly exerted from flower, c. 1 mm long; small globose fruits with thin pulp but large seeds (Fig. 3), pinkish turning deep purple as they ripen (Robinson 1911; Primavera et al. 2016). Phenology: Syzygium leucoxylon flowering and fruiting from September to May. Flowering and fruiting March–May and July–August, respectively, in Oton, Iloilo, Philippines, and flowering in July–August in Ibajay, Aklan, Philippines (J.H. Primavera, personal observation).

Syzygium leucoxylon Korth.

1037

Fig. 3 Fruits of S. leucoxylon. (© Jurgenne Primavera)

Distribution: Syzygium leucoxylon is distributed in Borneo, Indonesia, Palawan, Peninsular Malaysia (Johor, Pahang, Penang, Perak, and Terengganu), Philippines (Culion, Dinagat, Leyte, Luzon, Mindanao, Panay, Sibuyan, and Tinago), and Singapore (Merrill and Perry 1939; Govaerts et al. 2008; Primavera and Sadaba 2012; Primavera et al. 2016). Syzygium leucoxylon also grows in peat swamp forest and lowland evergreen forests of Aklan, Panay Is., Philippines; Sarawak, Malaysia; and Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, up to 100 m elevation (Simbolon and Mirmanto 1999; Repin et al. 2012; Monda et al. 2015; Primavera et al. 2016). In more than 10 years of field work in coastal and lowland forests in central Philippines, the second author has observed Syzygium leucoxylon only once (Figs. 1, 2 and 3) – in a pristine forest stand near the back of a mangrove in Aklan, Panay Is., Philippines (Primavera et al. 2016). Propagation: The second author collected Syzygium leucoxylon wildlings in 2009, nursed, and then outplanted four of these to a lowland area (former ricefield) in 2010. Three survived (no pests were observed), and first flowers and fruits were noted in one tree in 2015 – or 6 years from germination and 7 years from outplanting (Primavera et al. 2016). Since then, seeds have been collected yearly and distributed to other native plant enthusiasts in the Philippines for propagation. These characteristics of early reproduction and high survival rate make Syzygium leucoxylon ideal for lowland reforestation (Primavera et al. 2016). Conservation Status: Syzygium leucoxylon has been placed under endangered category in Singapore (Giesen et al. 2018).

Local Medicinal Uses Malaysia: A little known species, obah (Syzygium leucoxylon Korth), is traditionally used as medicinal plant by local communities of East Malaysia for its antiflatulence, antiemetic, anti-diarrhea, expectorant, and cardiotonic properties. It is

1038

K. Devanathan and J. H. Primavera

also used to cure swollen body and as an antidote for snake bites. Members of the Dusun community of Malaysian Borneo use the fruits of S. leucoxylon to treat headache and stomachache (Shamsudin et al. 2018).

Phytochemistry Shamsudin et al. (2018) isolated two major phenolic compounds leucoxenols A and B from the leaves of S. leucoxylon. The researchers also tested a crude extract of Syzygium leucoxylon against three marine fungal stains Lagenidium thermophilum, Haliphthoros sabahensis, and Haliphthoros milfordensis pathogenic to mud crabs and having toxicity effect on mud crab Scylla tranquebarica larva (zoea stage). It does not show any mortality against mud crab larva. However, the crude extract inhibited the hyphae and zoospores of L. thermophilum. Of the two phenolic compounds isolated, leucoxenol A shows better inhibition zone. Our literature review shows that the phytochemical composition of Syzygium leucoxylon has not been much explored. Since the other species of the genus Syzygium are known to possess medicinal value, it is necessary to investigate further to find bioactive compounds present in the little known traditional medicinal plant species S. leucoxylon.

Local Food Uses Syzygium leucoxylon fruits are often eaten and collected as wild edibles.

Economic Importance The presence of two phenolic compounds and their bioactivity against fungal strains indicate that Syzygium leucoxylon bears potential for use in plant-based pharmaceutical industries. Its attractive features (compact size, fine glossy leaves, milky white bark) and easy propagation (see below) give Syzygium leucoxylon great potential for urban landscaping and reforestation (Primavera et al. 2016). The striking appearance of the foliage is partly due to the pinkish color of the young shoots turning yellowish green then dark green. On the other hand, it must be noted that the creamy bark can be observed only in pristine habitats. The bark of a tree outplanted by the second author beside a city avenue in the Philippines turned blackish from the fumes emitted by passing vehicles.

References Giesen W, Wijedasa LS, Page SE. Unique Southeast Asian peat swamp forest habitats have relatively few distinctive plant species. Mires Peat. 2018;22:1–13. https://doi.org/10.19189/ MaP.2017.OMB.287.

Syzygium leucoxylon Korth.

1039

Govaerts R, Sobral N, Ashton P, Barrie F, Holst BK, Landrum LL, Matsumoto K, Mazine FF, Lughadha EN, Proenc¸a C, Soares-Silva LH, Wilson PG, Lucas E. World checklist of Myrtaceae. Richmond: Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; 2008. http://wcsp.science.kew.org/ prepareChecklist.do;jsessionid¼7C63FC479F1CEA6765A72F86300EF79F.kppapp06-wcsp? checklist¼selected_families%40%. Accessed 19 Apr 2020. Merrill ED, Perry LM. The myrtaceous genus Syzygium Gaertner in Borneo. Mem Am Acad Arts Sci New Ser. 1939;18(3):135 202. Monda Y, Kiyono Y, Melling L, Damian C, Chaddy A. Allometric equations considering the influence of hollow trees: a case study for tropical peat swamp forest in Sarawak. Tropics. 2015;24(1):11–22. https://doi.org/10.3759/tropics.24.11. Primavera JH, Sadaba RB. Beach forest species and mangrove associates in the Philippines. Jakarta: SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines and UNESCO Office; 2012. 157 p. Primavera JH, Sadaba RB, Lebata MJHL, Altamirano JP. Mangroves and beach forest species in the Philippines. Laguna: Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College; 2016. Repin R, Majuakim L, Suleiman M, Nilus R, Mujih H, Gunsalam G. Checklist of trees in Crocker RNGE Park Permanent Research Plots, Sabah, Malaysia. J Trop Biol Conserv. 2012;9 (1):127–41. Robinson CB, Alabastra Philippinensia III. Philipp J Sci C Bot. 1911;6(5):319–58. Shamsudin KJ, Phan CS, Kulip J, Hatai K, Vairappan CS, Kamada T. Leucoxenols A and B, two new phenolics from Bornean medicinal plant Syzygium leucoxylon. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1080/10286020.2018.1440391. Simbolon H, Mirmanto E. Checklist of plant species in the peat swamp forests of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: Proceedings of the international symposium on tropical peat lands Bogor, Indonesia. Hokkaido University & Indonesian Institute of Sciences; 1999.

Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry MYRTACEAE Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Caryophyllus malaccensis; Eugenia domestica Baill.; Eugenia macrophylla Lam.; Eugenia malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry; Eugenia malaccensis L.; Eugenia malaccensis var. purpurea (Roxb.) Duthie; Eugenia malaccensis var. purpurea Duthie; Eugenia megacarpa Craib; Eugenia purpurea Roxb.; Jambosa domestica Blume; Jambosa domestica var. purpurea (Roxb.) Blume; Jambosa macrophylla (Lam.) DC.; Jambosa malaccensis (L.) DC; Jambosa malaccensis (L.) Nicolson et al.; Jambosa purpurascens DC.; Jambosa purpurea (Roxb.) Wight. & Arn.; Jambusa domestica DC.; Jambusa domestica Rumph.; Myrtus macrophylla (Lam.) Spreng.; Myrtus malaccensis (L.) Spreng

Local Names Cambodia: Chumpu, kraham. Indonesia: jambu bol, jambu merah – dharsana (Madurese) – jambu (Ambon and vicinities, Maluku Archipelago) – jambu pertokat (Sundanese) – jambu putih (Kapuas Hulu in West Kalimantan) – jambu thokal, jambu dersana (Jawa) – jampu (Bentong in South Sulawesi). Laos: kieng (Xaignabouli). Malaysia: jambu, jambu bol, jambu bubul, jambu kling – jambu bol (Malay Peninsula) – jambu lipa, jambu merah (Malay, Sarawak); kelupah (Kelabit, Sarawak). Myanmar: di-la, thabye-byu, thabyo-thabyay, zabu-thabyeahni. Philippines: gubal, makopa, makopang-kalabaw, mangkopa, pomerac, tamo, tersana rose, tersana, tual, yambu, yanba – bongogon (Surigao del Sur in Mindanao). Thailand: chomphu mamieow, chomphu saraek, chomphu daeng. Vietnam: cay dao, cay roi, diéu-dò, man hurong tau English: Malay apple, Malay rose W. A. Mustaqim (*) Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_82

1041

1042

W. A. Mustaqim

apple, long-fruited rose apple, mountain apple, pink satinash, pomerac, wax jambu, Ohateite apple (Amboupe et al. 2019; Anantachoke et al. 2016; Ashton 2011; Haryanti et al. 2015; Heyne 1917; Hong et al. 2018; Morton 1987; Orwa et al. 2009; POWO 2020; Ridley 1902; Rumphius 1741; Quattrocchi 2016; Soh and Parnell 2015; Subhadrabandhu 2001; Widodo 2011).

Botany and Ecology Description: A densely glabrous fast-growing tree, 4–25 m tall, dbh up to 50 cm. Crown dense and conical or cylindrical. Trunk without buttresses. Bark smooth outside, gray-brown to whitish yellowish-gray. Twigs pale brown, cylindrical or 4-angled, 6–8 mm across at the apex, at first with thickened internodes. Leaves opposite, petiole red, 6–15 mm long, 6 mm or more diam., lamina glossy above, oblong-obovate, oblanceolate, or elliptic-lanceolate, 10–45 cm long by 5.5–20 cm wide, subcoriaceous to chartaceous, base cuneate, abruptly narrowed to the petiole, margin entire and wavy, apex shortly acuminate, acute or obtuse, above sparsely pitted, with many black dots beneath, lateral veins about 8–15 pairs, prominent beneath, shallowly immersed above, venation distinct on both sides; intramarginal veins looped, up to 3, at 1–8 mm away from the margin. Flowers in terminal to mostly ramiflorous panicle inflorescence, up to 5 cm long, 2–15-flowered, rachis thick and short, without branch; buds up to 16 cm long by 12 mm wide, tapering toward the base; hypanthium funnel-shaped, 13–20 mm long, pseudostalk distinct, 5–7 mm long; sepals 4 (or very rarely 5 in cultivar), spreading, becoming reflexed at anthesis, ovate to semicircular, unequal, outer lobes 3–3.2 mm long by 5 mm wide, inner ones 5–7 mm long by 7 mm wide, margin transparent, rounded to subacute at the apex, persisting in fruit; petals deciduous, free, vary from pinkish to dark purple, 4, semicircular, 6–7 mm long by 7–8 mm wide, gland-dotted, glands many; stamens bright pink, numerous, up to 280, c. 4 cm long, anther cells ovate, parallel, ovary at the distal end of the flower bud, style simple, 1–2.5 cm long. Ovary 2-celled, each 10–15-ovuled, irregularly radiating. Fruit a fleshy and crisp berry, white and pinkstripped, crimson, rose red, sponge white, subglobose, ovoid, oblong, ellipsoid, or pyriform, 4–7.5 cm long by 3–5.5 cm wide. Seeds not developed or up to 2, light brown, 1.5–2 cm across, without intercotyledonary intrusion (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Distribution and Ecology: This species is believed to have its origin in the Malesian region. Due to cultivation, it now has a wide geographic range including mainland Asia and east to Western Pacific. In Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, this species is only found in cultivation. In Sabah and Sarawak, and the whole of Borneo, this species is usually planted as orchard plant in the village. The same conditions also apply to Thailand. This species was introduced to the Neotropics first in 1793 (to Jamaica), and later introduced elsewhere in the surrounding regions of the United States, and also Western Indies to Brazil. It can grow from lowland to 1200 m.a.s.l. The plants in Java produce flowers in May and June while the fruits reach ripening stages around August to September. In Thailand, this species produces flowers throughout the year, but the peak harvesting season is in November (Ashton 2011;

Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry

1043

Fig. 1 Foliage of Syzygium malaccense (Myrtaceae). West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Syzygium malaccense (Myrtaceae). Western Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1963; Kress et al. 2003; Merril and Perry 1939; Morton 1987; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; Orwa et al. 2009; POWO 2020; Soh and Parnell 2015; Subhadrabandhu 2001; Tuiwawa et al. 2013).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The bark is used as a rinse to alleviate oral thrush by people in Ambon and vicinities of Maluku Archipelago. This is done by rubbing the bark with water. It is believed to act as an astringent (Heyne 1917; Rumphius 1741). Philippines: The Maranaos community of Pualas, Lanao del Sur, use the leaves to cure diarrhea. This is done by drinking the decoction obtained by boiling seven pieces of leaves, mixed with seven leaves each of Mangifera indica and Psidium guajava, and seven slices

1044

W. A. Mustaqim

Fig. 3 Mature fruit of Syzygium malaccense (Myrtaceae). Belitung Island, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

of turmeric (Malawani et al. 2017). Leaf decoction is known to be used as a diuretic. It is said that drinking it four times a day can induce urination (Gruyal et al. 2014).

Local Food Uses The main product of this tree is the fruit (Orwa et al. 2009). It is eaten in many areas of Southeast Asia including Indonesia (Amboupe et al. 2019; Haryanti et al. 2015; Mudiana and Ariyanti 2011; Purwanto and Cosiaux 2010; Silalahi et al. 2019; Siregar 2006; Yuniwati and Prihartini 2018), Malaysia (Ashton 2011; Henderson 1949; Ridley 1902), the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011-onwards), Thailand (Subhadrabandhu 2001), and Indochina including Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam (Soh and Parnell 2015). Classical literature on the fruit of Peninsular Malaysia by Ridley (1902) recorded that the fruit is eaten raw or processed, such as stewed in cake or produced into syrup. In Sabah and Sarawak, it is either eaten raw or in a preserved form (Ashton 2011). This species is cultivated in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam for its fruits (Soh and Parnell 2015). The use of this species as a fruit tree is also known from various regions of Indonesia (Ashton 2011). In Indonesia, the young leaves are

Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry

1045

eaten fresh or cooked with rice. Flowers are consumed either as syrup or as salad (Morton 1987).

Phytochemistry Numerous efforts have been undertaken to study the phytochemical compounds and activities of this species. The results suggest that this species is rich in phytochemicals. Plants from different growing sites or different “cultivars” have been shown to have different phytochemical compounds (Ismail et al. 2010; Wong and Lai 1996). In an unusual way for a tree species, Fauziah et al. (2019) carried out a phytochemical study on the macerated wood. The results show the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, quinones, phenols, steroid, or triterpenoids, saponins, and tannins. Leaves contain polyphenols, flavonoids including catechin and quercetin, and also carotenoids (Batista et al. 2017). Oils isolated from the leaves contain 38 compounds as followed: α-thujene, (+)-α-pinene, camphene, (
)-β-pinene, myrcene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, p-cymene, limonene, (Z)-β-ocimene, (E)-β-ocimene, γ-terpinene, terpinolene, linalool, α-fenchol, isopulegol, borneol, terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol, isopulegyl acetate, iso(iso)pulegyl acetate, α-cubebene, citronellyl acetate, α-copaene, β-elemene, (
)-β-caryophyllene, aromadendrene, α-humulene, alloaromadendrene, γ-muurolene, β-selinene, α-selinene, α-muurolene, d-amorphene, d-cadinene, cadinα-1,4-diene, (
)-caryophyllene oxide, and α-cadinol. Monoterpenes comprised around 61.1%, of which the most dominant one is p-cymene amounting to 13.5% (Karioti et al. 2007). A study on its leaf oil by Ismail et al. (2010) yielded 180 compounds, including acetic acid, hexanoic acid, n-hexadecanoic acid, alpha-cadinol, phytol, azulene, methyl salicylate, 1-hexanol, 1-octen-3-ol, 2-octen-1-ol, 3-hexen-1-ol, 2-hexenal, 3-buten-2-one, and 3-buten-2one. Among these, hexanoic acid is the most prominent component and methyl salicylate the second. In addition, there were also minor quantities of alcohols, aldehydes, esters, fatty acids ketones, and sesquiterpenes. Leaf extracts also contain 10 phenolic compounds including caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, salicylic acid, vanillic acid, (+)-catechin, (
)-epicatechin, quercetin, and rutin (Savi et al. 2020). Other compounds isolated from the leaves are β-sitosterol, ursolic acid, and sitost-4-en-3-one (Ismail et al. 2010). Fruits contain a large amount of ascorbic acid besides carbohydrate, fiber, lipid, and reductive sugars. Three anthocyanins were detected from the fruit, namely, cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, cyanidin 3-glucoside, and peonidin 3-glucoside (Batista et al. 2017; Nunes et al. 2016; Reynertson et al. 2008). Some reports (Batista et al. 2017; Reynertson et al. 2008) have also recorded many other compounds including: (1) six flavonoid and procyanidins named (
)-epicatechin gallate, (+)-catechin, (
)-epicatechin, procyanidin A2, procyanidin B1, procyanidin B2; (2) four flavonoids named isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside, isoquercitrin, quercetin, kaempferol-3-Oglucoside, and rutin; and (3) four phenolic acids named t-cinnamic acid, p-coumaric acid, ellagic acid, and benzoic acid. Anthocyanins are known to be the major components of the edible part of its fruits. Seeds contain a large number of phenolic

1046

W. A. Mustaqim

compounds, carotenoids, and flavonoids (Batista et al. 2017). Essential oils from the fruit were analyzed and more than 200 compounds have been recorded including n-hexadecanoic acid, 9-octadecynoic acid, (Z,Z)-9–12-octadecadien-1-ol, (E)3,7,11- trimethyl-1,6,10-dodecatrien-3-ol, 1-octen-3-ol, tetradecanoic acid, phytol, 2-ethylhexyl p-methoxycinnamate, (E)-2-octen-1-ol, 2-phenylethyl acetate, and benzyl benzoate, in addition to the minor presence of alcohols, aldehydes, esters, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, ketones, and terpenes (Ismail et al. 2010). Besides, low content of myricetin has also been reported. The identified carotenoids of fruits are α-carotene and β-carotene (Lako et al. 2007). Wong and Lai (1996) studied the volatile oils and confirmed the presence of ethyl acetate, butanedione, pent-1-en-3-one, hexanal, 2-methylpropan-1-ol, pentan-3-ol, 3-methylbutylacetate, (Z)-hex-3-enal, pent-1-en-3-ol, limonene, (Z)-hex-2-enal, (E)hex-2-enal, pentan-1-ol, hexyl acetate, 3-hydroxybutan-2-one, (Z)-hex-3-en-l-yl acetate, (Z)-pent-2-en-l-ol, hexan-1-ol, (E)-hex-3-en-1-ol, (Z)- hex-3-en-l-ol, (E)hex-2-en-l-ol, oct-len-3-ol, linalol oxide (trans-furanoid), 2-ethylhexan-1-ol, linalol, (E)-oct-2-en-l-ol, acetophenone, nonan-1-ol, a-humulene, a-selinene, γ-cadinene, napthalene, linalol oxide (trans-pyranoid), 2-phenylethyl formate, 2-phenylethyl acetate, geraniol, hexanoic acid, and 2-phenylethanol. Wood, bark, leaves, fruit, and seeds of the plant show great antioxidant activities (Bairy et al. 2005; Batista et al. 2017; Fauziah et al. 2019; Nunes et al. 2016; Reynertson et al. 2008; Savitha et al. 2011). Ethanolic extract of the macerated wood shows antioxidant properties (Fauziah et al. 2019). The alcoholic extract and to a lesser extent the aqueous extract of the trunk-bark show capability to lower blood sugar and also act against hyperlipidemia (Bairy et al. 2005). The barks have antimicrobial (WHO 1998) and antibiotic activities (Morton 1987). Leaves were reported to have cytotoxic (Itam and Anna 2020), antibiotic (Morton 1987), antimicrobial (Savi et al. 2020; WHO 1998), antioxidant, and antihyperglycemic activities (Arumugam et al. 2014). Antioxidant activities of the leaves are possibly due to the presence of phenolic compounds (Itam and Anna 2020; Lako et al. 2007; Anantachoke et al. 2016); other researchers report myricitrin as the most important component (Arumugam et al. 2014). Savi et al. (2020) identified four bioactive phenolic compounds: gallic acid, catechin, rutin, and quercetin. Leaves also show ichthyotoxic properties against tilapia fish (Tilapia oreochromis) (Ismail et al. 2010). Fruits are a natural source of antioxidant, with unripe fruits displaying higher activity compared to the mature ones. However, even ripe ones are a good source of antioxidants (Augusta et al. 2013).

Biocultural Importance In Buton, Southeast Sulawesi of Indonesia, people use fruit shape as a motif in sarong weaving (Slamet 2017).

Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry

1047

Economic Importance Fruits are sold in supermarkets of Brunei Darussalam (Franco et al. 2020). In Indonesian Borneo, the fruits are a source of income for local communities. In this area, fruits were harvested from indigenous agroforest (Siregar 2006). A study assessed the economic potential of this species in Jombang Regency, East Java, and found it to be profitable. It was found that a single tree could yield 200 kg of fruit per year. Calculated at a rate of IDR 17,000 per kilogram, a farmer’s potential revenue per year is around IDR 3,400,000 for a single tree. This could be further boosted by 135% to IDR 8,000,000 via value addition to the fruits (juice, jelly, ice cream, syrup, or jam) (Yuniwati and Prihartini 2018). In Negeri Saleman, Seram, Maluku Archipelago, people use the timber for construction and wood as firewood (Purwanto and Cosiaux 2010). However, it has been noted that the quality of wood is not quite good (Heyne 1917).

References Amboupe DS, Hartana A, Purwanto Y. Ethnobotanical study of food plant in Bentong community from Barru regency, South Sulawesi-Indonesia. Med Konserv. 2019;24(3):278–86. (in Bahasa) Anantachoke N, Lomarat P, Praserttirachai W, Khammanit R, Mangmool S. Thai fruits exhibit antioxidant activity and induction of antioxidant enzymes in HEK-293 cells. Evid-Based Compl Alt Med. 2016;6083136:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/6083136. Arumugam B, Manaharan T, Heng CK, Kupussamy UR, Palanisamy UD. Antioxidant and antiglycemic potentials of a standardized extract of Syzygium malaccense. LWT Food Sci Tech. 2014;59(2, pt. 1):707–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.06.041. Ashton PS. Myrtaceae. In: Soepadmo E, Saw LG, Chung RCK, Kiew R, eds. Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak. 7th vol. Kuala Lumpur: Forest Research Institute Malaysia; 2011. Augusta IM, Nascimento KO, Couto MAPG, Borges SV. Antioxidant activity of pulp rose apple (Syzygium malaccensis) in unripe and ripe state. In: VII Congreso Ibérico de Agroingeneria y Ciencias Horticolas: Ref No. 244. Madrid: SEAgIng SECR; 2013. p. 1–5. Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink RC Jr. Flora of Java. 1st vol. 1963 Groningen: NVP Nordhoff. Bairy KL, Sharma A, Shalini A. Evaluation of the hypoglicemic, hypolipidemic, and hepatic glycogen raising effects of Syzygium malaccense upon streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. J Nat Remed. 2005;5(1):46–51. Batista AG, da Silva JK, Cazarin CBB, Biastoto ACT, Sawaya ACHF, Prado MA, Júnior MRM. Red-jambo (Syzygium malaccense): bioactive compounds in fruits and leaves. Food Sci Tech 2017;76:284–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2016.05.013. Fauziah N, Noviyanti, Musthapa I. The utilization of jambu Bol (Syzygium malaccense (L). Merr. & Perry) stem as a new source of antioxidants. J Ilm Farmako Bahari. 2019;10(1):33–41. Franco FM, Chaw LL, Bakar N, Abas SNH. Socialising over fruits and vegetables: the biocultural importance of an open-air market in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-0356-6. Gruyal GA, del Roasario R, Palmes ND. Ethnomedicinal plants used by residents in northern Surigao del Sur, Philippines. Nat Prod Chem Res. 2014;2:140. https://doi.org/10.4172/23296836.1000140. Haryanti ES, Diba F, Wahdina. Ethnobotany of useful plant society around the area model KPH Kapuas upstream (Case study Tamao Village, district Embaloh Hulu West Kalimantan). J Hut Lest. 2015;3(3):434–45.

1048

W. A. Mustaqim

Henderson MR. The genus Eugenia (Myrtaceae) in Malaya. Gard Bull Singapore. 1949;12:1):1–293. Heyne K. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indië. 3rd vol. Batavia: Ruygrok & Co; 1917. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.13465. Hong LT, Ramanatha Rao V, Chung RCK. Syzygium malaccense. In: Thomson L, Doran J, Clarke B, editors. Trees for life in Oceania: Conservation and utilisation of genetic diversity. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research; 2018. p. 217–9. Ismail IS, Ismail NA, Lajis N. Ichthyotoxic properties and essential oils of Syzygium malaccense (Myrtaceae). Pertanika J Sci Technol. 2010;18:1):1–6. Itam A, Anna L. Antioxidant activities, cytotoxic properties and total phenolic content of Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry leaves extracts: a west Sumatera Indonesian plant. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2020;33(1):175–81. Karioti A, Skaltsa H, Gbolade AA. Analysis of the leaf oil of Syzygium malaccense Merr. Et Perry from Nigeria. J Essent Oil Res. 2007;19:313–5. Kress WJ, DeFillips RA, Farr E, Kyi DYY. A checklist of the trees, shrubs, herbs, and climbers of Myanmar (revised from the original works by J.H. lace, R. Rodger, H.G. Hundley, and U Chit Ko Ko on the “list of trees, shrubs, herbs and principal climbers, etc. recorded from Burma”). Contrib US Natl Herb. 2003;45:1–590. Lako J, Trenerry VC, Wahlqvist M, Wattanapenpaiboon N, Sotheeswaran S, Premier R. Phytochemical flavonols, carotenoids and the antioxidant properties of a wide selection of Fijian fruit, vegetables and other readily available foods. Food Chem. 2007;101:1727–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.01.031. Malawani AD, Nuñeza OM, Uy MM, Senarath WTPSK. Ethnobotanical survey of the medicinal plants used by the Maranaos in Pualas, Lanao del Sur, Philippines. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci. 2017;6(6):45–53. Merril ED, Perry LM. The myrtaceous genus Syzygium Gaertner in Borneo. Mem Amer Acad Art Sci. 1939;18(3):135–202. Morton J. Malay apple. In: Fruits of warm climates. Miami: Julia F. Morton. 1987. https://hort. purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/malay_apple.html. Retrieved 8 May 2020. Mudiana D, Ariyanti EE. Jenis-jenis klampok di wilayah Malang selatan. Berk Penel Hayati Edisi Khusus. 2011;5A:41–7. (in Bahasa). Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: Spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Nunes PC, Aquino JS, Rockenbach II, Stamford TLM. Physico-chemical characterization, bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of Malay apple [Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry]. PLoS One. 2016;11(6):e0158134. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158134. Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Simons A. Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. 2009. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/af/treedb/. Retrieved May 6 2020. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines: Myrtaceae. 2011onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Myrtaceae.html. Retrieved 8 May 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 7 May 2020. Purwanto Y, Cosiaux A. Studi sistem pertanian tradisional masyarakat Negeri Saleman, Seram Utara, Kabupaten Maluku Tengah. 2010. https://www1.cifor.org/fileadmin/subsites/colupsia/ documents/Studi_Sistem_Pertanian_Tradisional_YP.pdf. Retrieved 8 May 2020. Quattrocchi U. CRC world dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2016. Reynertson KA, Yang H, Jiang B, Basile MJ, Kenelly EJ. Quantitative analysis of antiradical phenolic constituents from fourteen edible Myrtaceae fruits. Food Chem. 2008;109(4):883–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.01.021. Ridley HN. Fruits of the Malay peninsula, wild or cultivated. Agric Bull Straits Fed Malay States. 1902;1(10):371–81.

Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry

1049

Rumphius GE. Herbarium Amboinense: plurimas conplectens, arbores, frutices, herbas, plantas terrestres, & aquaticas, quae in Amboina et adjacentibus reperiuntur insulis. 1st vol. (Burman J, editor). Amsterdam: Franciscum Changuion, Joannem Catuffe, Hermannum Uytwerf; 1741. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.569. Savi A, Calegari MA, Calegari GC, Santos VAQ, Wermuth D, MAAd C, Oldoni TLC. Bioactive compounds from Syzygium malaccense leaves: optimization of the extraction process, biological and chemical characterization. Acta Scientarum Tech. 2020;42:e.46773. https://doi.org/ 10.4025/actascitechnol.v42i1.46773. Savitha RC, Padmavathy S, Sundhararajan A. Invitro antioxidant activities on leaf extracts of Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr and Perry. Anc Sci Life. 2011;30(4):110–3. Silalahi M, Purba EC, Mustaqim WA. Tumbuhan obat Sumatera Utara jilid II: dikotiledon. Jakarta: UKI Press; 2019. (in Bahasa). Siregar M. Species diversity of local fruit trees in Kalimantan: problems of conservation and its development. Biodiversitas. 2006;7(1):94–9. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d070123. Slamet A. Corak motif flora sarung tenun Buton sebagai pembelajaran berbasis lingkungan (Studi Etnobotani terhadap masyarakat Buton). In: Nurcahyanto G, Kartikasari S, editors. Kumpulan makalah Seminar Nasional Pendidikan Biologi dan Saintek ke-2: Isu-isu strategis sains, lingkungan, dan inovasi pembelajarannya. Surakarta: Universitas Muhammadiyah; 2017. p. 571–7. (in Bahasa). Soh WK, Parnell J. Syzygium Gaertn. (Myrtaceae) in Indochina (Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam). Adansonia, sér 3. 2015;37(2):179–275. https://doi.org/10.5252/a2015n2a1. Subhadrabandhu S. Under-utilized tropical fruits of Thailand. Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and The Pacific; 2001. Tuiwawa SH, Craven LA, Sam C, Crisp D. The genus Syzygium (Myrtaceae) in Vanuatu. Blumea. 2013;58:53–67. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651913X672271. WHO (¼World Health Organization). Medicinal plants in the South Pacific: information on 102 commonly used medicinal plants in the South Pacific. Manila: World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific; 1998. Widodo P. Syzygium of Sumatra: the free-petalled species. Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing; 2011. Wong KC, Lai FY. Volatile constituents from the fruits of four Syzygium species grown in Malaysia. Flav Frag J. 1996;11:61–6. Yuniwati ED, Prihartini I. Production potential and product diversification to increase farmer’s business capacity of gondang manis rose apple (S. malaccense) in Jombang regency East Java. Adv Soc Sci Edu Humanities Res. 2018;231:559–62.

Tasmannia piperita (Hook.f.) Miers WINTERACEAE Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

Synonyms Drimys angiensis Kaneh. & Hatus.; Drimys buxifolia Ridl.; Drimys piperita Hook.f.; Drimys reducta Diels; Drimys versteegii Diels; Tasmannia buxifolia (Ridl.) A.C. Sm. (POWO 2019)

Local Names Philippines: Ali (Bukidnon); amututin, inototan, pamototen (Igorot); bawang (Manobo); lupol (Bontok); sapal (Kankanay); malagus (Bagobo) humang an hawili inalahan (Ifugao) (Madulid 2001), hapal (Tinoc, Ifugao) (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011). Indonesia: Akway (Papuan Malay) (Cepeda et al. 2011). English: Common mint (De Jesus 2018).

Botany and Ecology Description: Tasmannia piperita (Hook.f.) Miers is a shrub (LaFrankie 2010) reaching 1 m high (Fig. 1) or tree up to 12 m tall, but usually a small tree up to 4 m tall (De Jesus 2018); trunk is slender to very slender branches (Vink 1970), M. S. Subilla Department of Forestry and Agroforestry, Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, Bontoc, Mountain Province, Philippines Z. G. Baoanan (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_201

1051

1052

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Fig. 1 Tasmannia piperita shrub with its slender trunk. (© M.S. Subilla)

but tall, large individuals can reach up to 25 cm diameter, aromatic when cut (De Jesus 2018). The average diameter at breast height (DBH) of T. piperita is much smaller (0.6 cm) in reforested areas compared to old growth forests with 4.0 cm as observed in Mt. Apo, Philippines (Anticamara et al. 2012). Leaves simple, alternately or spirally arranged. Lamina, 2–15 cm long by 1–4.5 cm wide, lanceolate to elliptic, base cuneate, apex acute to acuminate, young leaves usually reddish, including young stems and petioles (De Jesus 2018), spicy foliage that is glabrous, shiny and dark green above and whitish below (LaFrankie 2010); flowers in short fascicles, 1–3 flower, sometimes 5, usually unisexual (De Jesus 2018) to well-stalked solitary flowers (Fig. 2), axillary to a spiral cluster of leaves (LaFrankie 2010); sepals of the central flower are always parallel to the bract, both in single-flowered and in three-flowered florescence, although bracteoles are absent, the lateral flowers could be expected to have a similar influence on the orientation of the sepals of the terminal (central) flower; the flower primordium is dorsiventrally flattened and slanting adaxially (Vink 1970); calyx hood-like, rupturing as the flower opens, petals 5–12, white, spreading; stamens in male flowers up to 60 or more in several series; carpels in female flowers 3–12, short stalked; fruit of 3–12 follicles, each globular to blunt-ellipsoid, pale green, ripening red then purplish-black; seeds many per follicle, curved, dark brown to black (De Jesus 2018). Due to the wide distribution of this plant ranging from montane to subalpine rainforests, subpopulations have been formed, corresponding to several subspecies, differing on their ecology and wood anatomy (Carlquist 1989). Phenology: Observed to be flowering from October to November in Mt. Pulag, Benguet (Aguilar et al. 2000) and from late April to early June in Hungduan, Ifugao with seeds ripening from October to November (Taguiling and Villena 2017). In the Philippines, it is propagated by seeds only (De Jesus 2018). In the review paper from Feild et al. (2000), T. piperita in New Guniea are reported to reproduce primarily by stem sprouts while other subspecies reproduce by subterranean stolons.

Tasmannia piperita (Hook.f.) Miers

1053

Fig. 2 Leaf arrangement and inflorescence of T. piperita with solitary flowers. (© M.S. Subilla)

Distribution and Habitat: Distributed throughout Lesser Sunda Islands (Flores), Borneo (Sarawak, Sabah, Brunei, Kalimantan), Philippines, Sulawesi (Pelser et al. 2011; POWO 2019); East Coast of Australia to Tasmania (LaFrankie 2010); Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria), Flores, Moluccas, New Guinea. LUZON: Abra, Mountain Province (Mt. Data), Ifugao (Mt. Polis, Kiangan, and Banawe), Benguet (Mt. Pulog and Pauai), Bataan (upper Lamao River and Mt. Mariveles), Rizal (Balacbac, Angilog), Laguna, Camarines Sur (Mt. Isarog), MINDORO: Mindoro Oriental (Mt. Halcon), PALAWAN: (Mt. Mantalingahan), PANAY: Antique (Mt. Madia-as), NEGROS: Negros Occidental (Mt. Malbug), Negros Oriental (Cuernos Mtns), BILIRAN (Mt. Suiro), MINDANAO: Misamis Occidental (Mt. Malindang), Bukidnon (Mt. Kitanglad, Mt. Candoon and Malaybalay), Agusan del Norte (Mt. Hilong-hilong), Davao del Sur (Mt. Batangan; Mt. McKinley; Mt. Apo) (Pelser et al. 2011). Mostly in montane forests, 840–2700 m, on limestone and ultramafic soils (Pelser et al. 2011; De Jesus 2018). The species forms the dominant understory vegetation of the upper montane forest in Sulawesi, Indonesia (Brambach et al. 2017) but is also common in the mossy forest up to 2600 m elevation such as in Mt. Pulag National Park in Benguet (Aguilar et al. 2000). It thrives further in the different elevational gradients up to the summit scrub of Mt. Kinabalu National Park in Malaysia to as high as 3850 m altitude (Smith 1980; Hikosaka et al. 2002) to edges in subalpine rainforests and penetrates into frost-prone grasslands of high altitudes (>3000 m) in New Guinea (Vink 1970).

1054

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Conservation Status: Not assessed in the Philippines (De Jesus 2018) but considered as Critically Endangered species of Mt. Jaya, New Guinea (Utteridge and Edwards 2009).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The bark is used by some tribes in New Guinea (De Jesus 2018) and the Sougb community of Sururey village in Manokwari (Cepeda et al. 2011) for the same purpose. In addition, the Sougb people also use the essential oil from the bark to enhance the vitality of their body (Cepeda et al. 2011). Philippines: In Cordillera Region, the dried fruit and decoction of leaves are used to counter diarrhea and stomach disorders; leaves are also used to remedy cough and colds (De Jesus 2018). The Kalanguyas of Tinoc, Ifugao, consume the plant to relieve muscle pain and muscle cramps during menstruation (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011). The leaves are also used in India for treating malaria (Bahekar and Kale 2013).

Phytochemistry In a phytochemical survey involving 59 herbarium specimens of the Winteraceae and related families, T. piperita (Hook.f.) Miers was found to contain distinctive leaf flavonoid profile including quercetin, luteolin, apigenin, Luteolin 7,30 -dimethyl ether, Flavone C-glycoside, dihydroquercetin, and procyanidin (William and Harvey 1982). Flavonoids are generally known to be powerful antioxidant agents. Using the charcoal tracing method, the antispasmodic constituents of the leaves of this plant were identified as 15-Nonacosanol and bis(tridecyl) phthalate (Pladio and Villaseñor 2004). The essential oil extract from the bark consisted of 41 compounds of which 80.49% are terpene and its derivatives, and 4.88% are aliphatic compounds (Cepeda et al. 2011). The bark extracts are also found to have potential antibacterial properties (Cepeda et al. 2015, 2019; Zakariyah et al. 2018). Further characterization of bark essential oil reveals the presence of lynalool, β-pinene, α-pinene, nerolidol, and terpineol (Cepeda et al. 2018), with physical properties being light yellowish in color, solubility in 80% alcohol in 1:2 ratio, and a refractive index of 1.4942 (Zakariyah et al. 2018). The free radical scavenging properties of the plant extract is attributed to the presence of biological transition metals namely Mg, Cu, and Fe that bond with the complex organic components (Hutasoit et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses In Mountain Province, Philippines, fresh or dried young leaves are boiled in water and drunk as herbal tea, while the dried fruits are chewed or ground (Pladio and Villaseñor 2004). However, due to their bitter and pungent taste, these are only

Tasmannia piperita (Hook.f.) Miers

1055

consumed for medicinal purposes and simply swallowed whole. In Hungduan, Ifugao, the bitterness of the leaves is neutralized with the addition of leaves of Sarcandra glabra, another herbal tea popular in the locality for its medicinal value (Taguiling and Villena 2017). The combination of these two herbal tea was formulated to make the taste more acceptable while also maximizing health benefits derived from them.

Biocultural Importance T. piperita has been considered as an icon for forest restoration in the geothermal areas of the highest mountain in the Philippines, the majestic Mount Apo, through joint efforts of Energy Development Corporation, UP Diliman-Institute of Biology, and the indigenous Manobo and Bagobo communities in Mindanao Island (De Jesus 2018).

Economic Importance An organic or natural fungicide from leaves of T. piperita is being developed by the Central Mindanao University in the Philippines to prevent leaf spot disease of lettuce caused by Alternaria brassicae, and the late blight disease of tomato caused by Phytophthora infestans (Zaragoza 2019). The antibacterial properties of the bark, suggests that it could be used as preservative for meat products both at room temperature as well as cold storage (Cepeda et al. 2020).

References Aguilar NO, Cardenas LB, Cajano MAO. Spore- and seed-bearing plants of Mount Pulag, Benguet, Philippines. Philippines: museum of natural history. Laguna: University of the Philippines Los Baños, College; 2000. Anticamara JA, Pasion BO, Gonzales RS, Duya MRM, Ong PS. Understanding high altitude reforestation in Mt. Apo, Philippines. Eurasian J For Res. 2012;15(1):31–43. https://eprints. lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2115/49967. Accessed 20 July 2020. Bahekar S, Kale R. Herbal plants used for the treatment of malaria – a literature review. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2013;1(6):141–6. http://www.phytojournal.com/. Accessed 30 July 2020. Balangcod TD, Balangcod AD. Ethnomedical knowledge of plants and healthcare practices among the Kalanguya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao, Luzon, Philippines. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(2):227–38. Brambach F, Leuschner C, Tjoa A, Culmsee H. Diversity, endemism, and composition of tropical mountain forest communities in Sulawesi, Indonesia, in relation to elevation and soil properties. Perspect Plant Ecol Evol Syst. 2017;27:68–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ppees.2017.06.003. Carlquist S. Wood anatomy of Tasmannia; summary of wood anatomy of Winteraceae. Aliso. 1989;12(2):257–75.

1056

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Cepeda GN, Santoso BB, Lisangan MM, Silamba I. Chemical composition of essential oil from akway (Drimys piperita Hook.f.) barks. Bionatura. 2011;13(2):118–24. http://jurnal.unpad.ac. id/bionatura/article/view/7647. Accessed 08 Sept 2020. Cepeda GN, Lisangan MM, Silamba I. Antibacterial activities of akway (Drimys piperita Hook.f.) bark extracts on pathogenic bacteria. Agri. 2015;35(2):170–7. https://journal.ugm.ac.id/ agritech/article/viewFile/9403/6977. Accessed 08 Sept 2020. Cepeda GN, Lisangan MM, Roreng MK, Permatasari EI, Manalu DC, Tainlain W. Free radical scavenging activity and reducing power of akway (Drimys piperita Hook.f.) bark extracts. Jurnal Aplikasi Teknologi Pangan. 2018;7(4):168–73. https://doi.org/10.17728/jatp.3239. Cepeda GN, Lisangan MM, Silamba I. Antibacterial activity of essential oil of akway (Drimys piperita Hook.f.) barks on some levels of concentration, acidity (pH) and salt contents. Jurnal Aplikasi Teknologi Pangan. 2019;8(4):149–54. https://doi.org/10.17728/jatp.4692. Cepeda GN, Lisangan MM, Silamba I, Nilawati N, Syartika E. Antibacterial activity of ethyl acetate extracts of akway (Drimys piperita Hook.f.) barks on meatballs during storage. Jurnal Aplikasi Teknologi Pangan. 2020;9(2):50–6. https://doi.org/10.17728/jatp.6097. De Jesus AC. Tasmannia piperita: our icon for forest restoration. In: Fernando ES, Marciano MR, Galang AP, Angara GM, Berroya LG, Sarmiento IP, editors. Philippine native trees 303: up close and personal. Quezon City: Green Convergence; 2018. p. 426–7. Feild TS, Zwieniecki MA, Holbrook NM. Winteraceae evolution: an ecophysiological perspective. In: V. Hollowell, editor. Annals of the Missouri botanical garden. 2000; 87(1);323–334. https:// www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26843288#page/344/mode/1up. Accessed 20 July 2020. Hikosaka K, Nagamatsu D, Ishii HS, Hirose T. Photosynthesis–nitrogen relationships in species at different altitudes on mount Kinabalu, Malaysia. Ecol Res. 2002;17:305–13. Hutasoit H, Santjojo DJDH, Sumitro SB, Widjanarko SB. Investigation of paramagnetic character in the complex of akway bark (Drimys piperita Hook.f.) as a radical scavenger. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Biosciences and Medical Engineering (ICBME2019) AIP Conf. Proc. 2155, 020052–1–020052-. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5125556. LaFrankie JV Jr. Trees of tropical Asia: an illustrated guide to diversity. Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines: Black Tree Publications, Inc; 2010. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. 2. Makati/Manila: Bookmark Inc.; 2001. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Winteraceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Winteraceae.html. Accessed 17 May 2020. Pladio LP, Villaseñor I. Anti-spasmodic constituents from Drimys piperita Hook.f. leaves. Philipp J Sci. 2004;133(1):17–21. http://philjournalsci.dost.gov.ph/19-past-issue-vol-133-no-1-2004/ 277-anti-spasmodic-constituents-from-drimys-piperita-hook-f-leaves?fbclid¼IwAR0JpE7thrBFG9XSIjtqN3Lq-auSFT7dtx8oCsGmHU8x8xQsoQoxEWQuhs. Accessed 30 July 2020. POWO. Plants of the World Online. 2019. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/?q¼Tasmannia%20piperita. Accessed 20 July 2020. Smith JMB. The vegetation of the summit zone of mount Kinabalu. New Phytol. 1980;84(3):547–73. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2432129. Accessed 30 May 2020. Taguiling MLG, Villena C. Phytochemical, antimicrobial and sensory qualities of herbal tea made from Sarcandra glabra and Drymis piperita. In: 7th international conference on chemical, agricultural, biological and environmental sciences (CABES-2017); 2017. p. 57–66. https:// doi.org/10.15242/DiRPUB.C1217132. Utteridge TMA, Edwards PJ. The subalpine and alpine flora of mount Jaya (New Guinea): status and threats. Blumea. 2009;54:280–3. https://doi.org/10.3767/000651909X476292. Vink W. The Winteraceae of the old world. Blumea. 1970;18:225–354. https://www.repository. naturalis.nl/document/565886%20. Accessed 17 May 2020. William CA, Harvey WJ. Leaf flavonoid patterns in the Winteraceae. Phytochemistry. 1982;21(2):329–37.

Tasmannia piperita (Hook.f.) Miers

1057

Zakariyah M, Cepeda GN, Hutasoit H. The physical properties, phytochemicals content and antibacterial activity of essential oil of akway (Drimys piperita Hook.f.) stem barks. J Agritech. 2018;1(2):56–65. http://ojs.uho.ac.id/index.php/jstp/article/view/13102. Accessed 08 Sept 2020. Zaragoza EGC. Organic fungicide developed from Tasmannia piperita (Hook.f.) Miers. Taguig City, Manila, Philippines: Department of Science and Technology; 2019. http://www.pcaarrd. dost.gov.ph/home/portal/index.php/quick-information-dispatch/3548-organic-fungicide-devel oped-from-tasmannia-piperita-hook-f-miers. Accessed 30 July 2020.

Taxus wallichiana Zucc. TAXACEAE Muhamad Muhaimin, Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, and Wendy A. Mustaqim

Synonyms Cephalotaxus celebica Warb.; Cephalotaxus sumatrana Miq.; Podocarpus celebicus Hemsl.; Taxus celebica (Warb.) H.L. Li; Taxus chinensis var. yunnanensis (W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu) L.K. Fu; Taxus contorta var. mucronata Spjut; Taxus nucifera Wall.; Taxus obscura Spjut; Taxus orientalis Bertol.; Taxus phytonii Spjut; Taxus suffnesii Spjut; Taxus sumatrana (Miq.) de Laub.; Taxus sumatrana subsp. celebica (Warb.) Silba; Taxus sumatrana subsp. obscura (Spjut) Silba; Taxus sumatrana subsp. rehderiana Silba; Taxus wallichiana var. yunnanensis (W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu) C.T.Kuan; Taxus wallichiana subsp. yunnanensis (W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu) Silba; Taxus yunnanensis W.C. Cheng & L.K. Fu (POWO 2020).

M. Muhaimin (*) Cibodas Botanical Garden, Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Garden, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cianjur, West Java, Indonesia Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] A. S. D. Irsyam Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_226

1059

1060

M. Muhaimin et al.

Local Names English: Himalayan yew. Indonesia: cemara sumatra, tampinur batu (Karo in North Sumatra), kayu taksus (Kerinci in Jambi), kayu taji (Mount Dempo in southern Sumatra). Philippines: amugauen (Igorot). Vietnam: thông dỏ nam, thông dỏ lá dài, thông dỏ hymalaya (de Laubenfels 1984; Hidayat et al. 2014; Loc et al. 2017; Luu and Thomas 2004; Pitargue 2003; Stevani 2013).

Botany and Ecology Description: Trees, large, up to 45 m tall, usually dioecious. Trunk exceeding 1 m diam.; bark peeling off, inner bark purple-red when cut. Leaves spirally arranged, twisted into a single plane, on the juvenile plants different from the mature ones; juvenile leaves: 2–4 cm long by 2–2.5 mm wide, linear-lanceolate, often falcate, widest below the middle, apex narrowly acute or acuminate; older leaves: 1.5– 2.5 cm long by 1.5–2 mm, nearly linear, straight, apex abruptly narrowed, margin slightly recurved; the abaxial sides consist of rectangular-elongated epidermal cells, marginal cells close to the stomatal band papillose. Male and female cones from the axil of leaves. Male cones solitary, on a short stalk, globose, 4 mm across. Seedbearing cone compound with scales spirally arranged, keeled. Mature seeds flaskshaped, c. 6  5 mm, 4 mm thick, the wider margin with keel slightly developed. Distribution and Ecology: This species is distributed in Asia, ranging across Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China (South-Central), Taiwan, Myanmar, Southeast Vietnam, Philippines, and Indonesia (Sumatra and Sulawesi). It grows in subtropics and tropical mountain forests from 900 to 3700 m above sea level. In Sumatra, Indonesia, the species commonly grows to clump at steep slopes with high humidity, well drained soil with low pH, loamy sandy in soil texture, high C/N ratio, and C organic compound. In the Phillippines, it occurs on high ridges and mountain summits in mossy forests or sometimes in rocky grass and scrubland. In Vietnam, it is seen growing in submontane evergreen mixed forest forming dense thickets (de Laubenfels 1984; Farjon 2010; Hidayat et al. 2014; Kalima and Susilo 2019; Pitargue 2003; POWO 2020; Rachmat 2008; Spjut 2007) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The local community in Pauh Tinggi village, around Kerinci Seblat National Park, Jambi, Indonesia, use the bark to treat cancer (Stevani 2013).

Phytochemistry Many terpenoid compounds named taxoids have been isolated from T. wallichiana including taxol (paclitaxel), cephalomannine, 19-hydroxy-13-oxobaccatin III, 7-epi-10-deacetyltaxol, 7-epi-10-deacetylcephalomannine, baccatin III, 19-

Taxus wallichiana Zucc.

1061

Fig. 1 Trunk with sliced bark of Taxus wallichiana (Taxaceae). Mount Tujuh, Sumatra, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim and M. Muhaimin)

Fig. 2 Foliage of Taxus wallichiana (Taxaceae) showing the undersurface of the leaves. Mount Tujuh, Sumatra, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

hydroxybaccatin III, 10-deacetyl-13-oxobaccatin III (Kitagawa et al. 1995; Veeresham et al. 2003), deacetylbaccatin III, taxawallin J (Qayum et al. 2019), 5αO-(3΄-dimethylamino-3΄-phenylpropionyl) taxinine M, 7-O-acetyltaxine A, 2α-acetoxy-2΄β-deacetylaustrospicatine (Prasain et al. 2001), taxumairol Q, 13-O-

1062

M. Muhaimin et al.

Fig. 3 Close-up view of the leaves of Taxus wallichiana (Taxaceae). Mount Tujuh, Sumatra, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

acetyl wallifoliol, taxuspine F, wallifoliol, 9,13-diacetyltaxumairol W, 10,13dibenzoyltaxacustin, 7,13-diacetylwallifoliol, 7,13-dibenzoylwallifoliol, 7,9dibenzoyltaxumairol P, tasumatrol B (Shen et al. 2002), tasumatrol E, tasumatrol F, tasumatrol G (Shen et al. 2005), tasumatrol U, tasumatrol V, tasumatrol W, tasumatrol X, tasumatrol Y, tasumatrol Z (Shen et al. 2008), taxinine M, brevifoliol [2a, 3a] (Barboni et al. 1995), taxusabietane A (Khan et al. 2011), taxusabietane C, and taxamairin F (Khan et al. 2013). Three C-14 oxygenated taxanes, namely, hongdoushans A, hongdoushans B, and hongdoushans C, were also isolated from the wood (Banskota et al. 2002). Compounds identified from the leaf essential oil include santolinatriene, geraniol, globulol, eugenol, myrtenol, benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, hexanoic acid, geranyl tiglate, and methyl salicylate. Some ketones and alcohols also have been identified from the bark. Several lignans and cinnamolide compound are isolated from the root. Besides, ursolic acid, amygdalin, and β-sitosterol have also been identified from the seeds (Sinha 2020). Compounds with known toxicity have also been found in Taxus. Species such as English yew (T. baccata), Pacific or Western yew (T. brevifolia), American yew (T. canadensis), and Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata) are known to have poisons that can affect humans and animals. Toxic compounds in Taxus mainly belong to the taxine group (Sharma and Garg 2015). Although some taxines are found in T. wallichiana (Prasain et al. 2001; Sharma and Garg 2015), their adverse impacts on humans and animals have not been reported yet. Some toxic taxines found in European Yew such as taxine A, 2-deacetyltaxine A, isotaxine B, and 1-deoxytaxine B, have never been reported from T. wallichiana. Therefore, further research is recommended on the taxines of T. wallichiana (Sharma and Garg 2015).

Taxus wallichiana Zucc.

1063

Bioactivities Phytochemicals from T. wallichiana are known to have many anticancer activities. The most important compound responsible for anticancer activity of T. wallichiana is taxol. Taxol can treat breast, lung, ovarian, skin, head, and neck cancers (Pazdur et al. 1993). Two taxines named 5αO-(3΄-dimethylamino3΄-phenylpropionyl) taxinine M and 2α-acetoxy-2΄β-deacetylaustrospicatine were isolated from leaves. Both show cytotoxic activities against the lung cancer cell line A549 in vitro (Prasain et al. 2001). Wallifoliol shows cytotoxic activity against Hepa 59 T/VGH or human liver carcinoma, and KB or human oral epidermoid carcinoma tumor cells (Shen et al. 2002). Taxuspine F and 7,13-diacetylwallifoliol also exhibit moderate activities against Hepa cells (Shen et al. 2002). Tasumatrol B shows cytotoxic activity against the cancer drug target protein EGFR tyrosine kinase enzyme (Qayum et al. 2019). Tasumatrol E and F exhibited significant activity against human A-498, NCI-H226, A549, and PC-3 tumor cells (Shen et al. 2005). In 2016, several new taxane derivatives, i.e., N-debenzoyl-N-methyl-N-heptanoyl-taxol, Ndebenzoyl-N-methyl-N-octanoyl-taxol, N-debenzoyl-N-methyl-N-(4-methylhexanoyl)-taxol, and N-debenzoyl-N-methyl-N-[(4Z)-1-oxo-4-tenenoyl]-taxol, were isolated from the ethanol extract of the whole plant of Taxus wallichiana var. mairei (Wang et al. 2016). These compounds have antitumor activities against MCF-7, A549, and 3-AO cancer cell lines (Wang et al. 2016). Phytochemicals of this species also exhibit other pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, anticonvulsant, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antifungal, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory activities (Artanti et al. 2003; Bhat et al. 2018; Juyal et al. 2014; Sinha 2020). Compounds, such as taxusabietane A, taxusabietane C, tasumatrol B, deacetyl baccatin III, and taxamairin F, were reported to have antiinflammatory potentials (Khan et al. 2011; Khan et al. 2013; Qayum et al. 2012; Sinha 2020). Methanol leaf extract has analgesic, antipyretic, and anticonvulsant properties (Nisar et al. 2008a). Tasumatrol B isolated from bark is also reported to have analgesic activity (Qayum et al. 2012). Bark ethanol extract shows antioxidant properties, while leaf ethanol extracts show antidiabetic properties (Artanti et al. 2003). Methanol extracts of the leaf, bark, and heartwood displayed significant antimicrobial effects. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for the bacterial strains ranged from 0.23 to 200 mg/ml, and from 0.11 to 200 mg/ml for fungi (Nisar et al. 2008b). A histopathological study on rat’s liver indicates that the methanol extract of T. wallichiana can be used as a hepatoprotective agent (Bhat et al. 2018). The co-treatment of 1-hydroxy-2-deacetoxy-5-decinnamoyl-taxinine J (1–2 μg/ml) with concanavaline A (5 μg/ml) can lead to proliferation of human lymphocytes (Chattopadhyay et al. 2006).

1064

M. Muhaimin et al.

Economic Importance This species has good potential to be developed as an anticancer drug. However, the content of anticancer compounds plants is very little. For example, Taxol compounds are in the range of 0.0015–0.130% which further varies according to age and plant part (Georg et al. 1993; Kitagawa et al. 1995; Su et al. 2005). Various strategies have been proposed to increase the production of taxol and other anticancer compounds such as tissue and cell culture of Taxus (Majumder and Jha 2009; Veeresham et al. 2003; Zhou and Wu 2006), and culture of endophytic fungi producing taxol (Zhou and Wu 2006). T. wallichiana is a valuable source of timber. Timber is red in color and shows a fine structure, resistance to water, and good durability (Farjon 2010; Luu and Thomas 2004). In Vietnam, the timber has been used in construction (houses), furniture (Loc et al. 2017), and irrigation paddles (Luu and Thomas 2004). The timber can also be used to make chests and coffins, flooring, fence posts, door frames, cabinet works, woodturning, wood inlaying, mallets, bows, candle-stick, and knife handles (Farjon 2010; Pitargue 2003). However, harvesting it for timber offers challenges to its very survival as the species is a high elevation inhabitant with slow growth rate (Pitargue 2003). This plant also has ornamental value. It grows densely, shade tolerant, and can withstand regular clipping making it suitable for hedge or as bonsai (Pitargue 2003; Luu and Thomas 2004). It is planted as an ornamental in Baguio, Philippines (Farjon 2010).

References Artanti N, Hanafi M, Liswidowati KL, Minarti DA. Evaluasi aktivitas kanker antikanker, antioksidan, antidiabetes dan toksisitas ekstrak etanol Taxus sumatrana. In: IGN R, Hartoko A, Suzery M, Cahyono B, Rukmi I, editors. Prosiding Pengembangan dan Pemanfaatan Obat dari Bahan Tumbuhan. Semarang: Lembaga Penelitian Universitas Diponegoro & Dinas Kesehatan Provinsi Jawa Tengah; 2003. p. 287–94. (in Bahasa). Banskota AH, Usia T, Tezuka Y, Kouda K, Nguyen NT, Kadota S. Three new C-14 oxygenated taxanes from the wood of Taxus yunnanensis. J Nat Prod. 2002;65(11):1700–2. https://doi.org/ 10.1021/np020235j. Barboni L, Gariboldi P, Torregiani E, Appendino G, Varese M, Gabetta B, Bombardelli E. Minor taxoids from Taxus wallichiana. J Nat Prod. 1995;58(6):934–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/ np50120a019. Bhat MA, Ganie SA, Dar KB, Ali R, Hamid R. Invitro antioxidant potential and hepatoprotective activity of Taxus wallichiana. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2018;11(8):237–43. https://doi.org/10. 22159/ajpcr.2018.v11i8.22345. Chattopadhyay SK, Pal A, Maulik PR, Kaur T, Garg A, Khanuja SP. Taxoid from the needles of the Himalayan yew Taxus wallichiana with cytotoxic and immunomodulatory activities. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2006;16(9):2446–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmcl.2006.01.077. de Laubenfels DJ. Taxaceae. Fl Malesiana I. 1984;10(1):347–51. Farjon A. A handbook of the world’s conifers. 2 volumes. Leiden: Brill; 2010.

Taxus wallichiana Zucc.

1065

Georg GI, Gollapudi SR, Grunewald GL, Gunn CW, Himes RH, Rao BK, Liang XZ, Mirhom YW, Mitscher LA, Velde DGV, Ye QM. A reinvestigation of the taxol content of himalayan Taxus wallichiana Zucc. And a revision of the structure of brevifoliol. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 1993;3(6):1345–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-894X(00)80345-5. Hidayat A, Rachmat HH, Subiakto A. Taxus sumatrana: Mutiara terpendam dari Zamrud Sumatra. Bogor: FORDA Press; 2014. (in Bahasa) Juyal D, Thawani V, Thaledi S, Joshi M. Ethnomedical properties of Taxus wallichiana Zucc. (Himalayan yew). J Tradit Complement Med. 2014;4(3):159–61. https://doi.org/10.4103/22254110.136544. Kalima T, Susilo A. Habitat characteristic of Taxus sumatrana (Miquel) de Laub in the Kerinci Seblat National Park. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 2019;391:012068. https://doi.org/10. 1088/1755-1315/391/1/012068. Khan I, Nisar M, Shah MR, Shah H, Gilani SN, Gul F. Anti-inflammatory activities of Taxusabietane a isolated from Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Fitoterapia. 2011;82(7):1003–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2011.06.003. Khan I, Nisar M, Zarrelli A, Fabio GD, Gul F, Gilani SN. Molecular insights to explore abietane diterpenes as new LOX inhibitors. Med Chem Res. 2013;22(12):5809–13. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s00044-013-0559-7. Kitagawa I, Mahmud T, Kobayashi M, Roemanto SH. Taxol and its related taxoid from the needles of Taxus sumatrana. Chem Pham Bull. 1995;43(2):365–7. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.43.365. Loc PK, Long PK, Regalado J, Averyanov LV, Maslin B. Native conifers of Vietnam – a review. Pak J Bot. 2017;49(5):2037–68. Luu NDT, Thomas PI. Conifers of Vietnam: an illustrated field guide. Hanoi: World Publishing House; 2004. Majumder A, Jha S. Biotechnological approaches for the production of potential anticancer leads podophyllotoxin and paclitaxel: an overview. J Biol Sci. 2009;1(1):46–69. Nisar M, Khan I, Simjee SU, Gilani AH, Obaidullah PH. Anticonvulsant, analgesic and antipyretic activities of Taxus wallichiana Zucc. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008a;116(3):490–4. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jep.2007.12.021. Nisar M, Khan I, Ahmad B, Ali I, Ahmad W, Choudhary MI. Antifungal and antibacterial activities of Taxus wallichiana Zucc. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem. 2008b;23:256–60. https://doi.org/10. 1080/14756360701505336. Pazdur R, Kudelka AP, Kavanagh JJ, Cohen PR, Raber MN. The taxoids: paclitaxel (Taxol ®) and docetaxel (Taxotere ®). Cancer Treat Rev. 1993;19(4):351–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/03057372(93)90010-O. Pitargue FC. Taxus sumatrana (Miq.) de Laub. In: RHMJ L, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no 12(3): medicinal and poisonous plants 3. PROSEA Foundation: Bogor; 2003. POWO. Plants of the World Online. 2020. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 25 June 2020. Prasain JK, Stefanowicz P, Kiyota T, Habeichi F, Konishi Y. Taxines from theneedles of Taxus wallichiana. Phytochemistry. 2001;58(8):1167–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(01) 00305-3. Qayum M, Nisar M, Shah MR, Adhikari A, Kaleem WA, Khan I. Analgesic and antiinflammatory activities of toxoids from Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Phytother Res. 2012;26(4):552–6. https://doi. org/10.1002/ptr.3574. Qayum M, Nisar M, Rauf A, Khan I, Kaleem WA, Raza M, Karim N, Saleem MA, Bawazeer S, Uysal S, Zengin G, Jahan S, Ramadan MF. In-vitro and in-silico anticancer potential of taxoids from Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Biol Fut. 2019;70:295–300. https://doi.org/10.1556/ 019.70.2019.33. Rachmat HH. Variasi genetik dan teknik perbanyakan vegetatif cemara Sumatra (Taxus sumatrana) [thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2008. (in Bahasa)

1066

M. Muhaimin et al.

Sharma H, Garg M. A review of traditional use, phytoconstituents and biological activities of Himalayan yew, Taxus wallichiana. J Integr Med. 2015;13(2):80–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S2095-4964(15)60161-3. Shen YC, Wang SS, Pan YL, Lo KL, Chakraborty C, Chien CT, Kuo YH, Lin YC. New taxane diterpenoids from the leaves and twigs of Taxus sumatrana. J Nat Prod. 2002;65(12):1848–52. https://doi.org/10.1021/np0202273. Shen YC, Cheng KC, Lin YC, Cheng YB, Khalil AT, Guh JH, Chien CT, Teng CM, Chang YT. Three new taxane diterpenoids from Taxus sumatrana. J Nat Prod. 2005;68(1):90–3. https://doi.org/10.1021/np040132w. Shen YC, Wang SS, Chien CT, Kuo YH, Khalil AT, Tasumatrols U-Z. Taxane diterpene esters from Taxus Sumatrana. J Nat Prod. 2008;71(4):576–80. https://doi.org/10.1021/np078016r. Sinha D. Ethnobotanical and pharmacological importance of Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Plant Sci Today. 2020;7(1):122–34. https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.2020.7.1.636. Spjut RW. Taxonomy and nomenclature of Taxus (Taxaceae). J Bot Res Inst Texas. 2007;1(1):203–89. Stevani A. Etnobotani pangan dan obat masyarakat Desa Pauh Tinggi di sekitar Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat [undergraduate thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2013. (in Bahasa) Su JR, Zhang ZJ, Deng J. Study on the taxol content in Taxus yunnanensis of different age and different provenance. For Res. 2005;18(4):369. Veeresham C, Mamatha R, Babu CH, Srisilam K, Kokate CK. Production of Taxol and its analogues from cell cultures of Taxus wallichiana. Pharm Biol. 2003;41(6):426–30. https:// doi.org/10.1076/phbi.41.6.426.17822. Wang Y, Wang J, Wang H, Ye W. Novel taxane derivatives from Taxus wallichiana with high anticancer potency on tumor cells. Chem Biol Drug Des. 2016;88(4):556–61. https://doi.org/10. 1111/cbdd.12782. Zhou LG, Wu JY. Development and application of medicinal plant tissue cultures for production of drugs and herbal medicinals in China. Nat Prod Rep. 2006;23(5):789–810. https://doi.org/10. 1039/B610767B.

Tetrastigma loheri Gagnep. VITACEAE Marina Silalahi and Anisatu Z. Wakhidah

Synonyms Tetrastigma philippinense Merr. (POWO 2020)

Local Names Indonesia: Bulung sitelu telu (Karo community, North Sumatra). Philippines: bariuatuat (Ilocos Norte), chanon (mt), nala (D), ragini (B), loher’s ayu (Tag) (Tagalog), loher’sayo (Batangas), ayo (Mindoro) (Brown 1920; Jansen et al. 2016; Marina Silalahi, personal observation; Umali et al. 2018; Villanueva and Buot Jr 2015).

Botany and Ecology Description: A woody vine, climbing by simple tendrils; compound leaves with three leaflets, pointed at the tip. Leaves trifoliolate; petioles 2–3 cm long; leaflets ovately lanceolate, 12  4 cm, midrib ridged beneath with lateral obscure nerves, entire or obscurely toothed toward acute apex, rounded at base. Inflorescences scattered in upper leaf axils, subglabrous, up to 3 cm long, paniculately cymose; short stalk subtended by broad, brown bracts; secondary stalks short, spreading; flowers upon 3–5 mm long pedicels; calyx subtruncate, short; corollaovately oblong, 5 mm in length, reflexed; styles glabrous; stigmas subsessile, subcapitate. Berries M. Silalahi (*) Prodi Pendidikan Biologi, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia Biology Education Department, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, West Jakarta, Indonesia A. Z. Wakhidah Indonesia Ethnobiology Society, Biology Research Center – LIPI, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_142

1067

1068

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

subellipsoid, 1 cm long, whitish with black seed, fleshy, juicy, acidic, and edible (Jansen et al. 2016; Pancho and Gruezo 2006; Pelser et al. 2016; Wester 1922). Distribution and Habitat: This species is reported to grow from sea level up to 1400 m altitude in Luzon, Mindoro, Palawan, to Davao, Mindanao (Wester 1922), Borneo, Philippines (Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Palawan), Visayas (Negros, Panay, Samar), and South East Sulawesi (Wen et al. 2013). In addition, the species also occurs in Sumatra Island, more particular in North Sumatra and Riau (Baihaqi 2019; Masyithoh et al. 2020; Marina Silalahi, personal observation). The species grows in thickets and forests at low and medium altitudes (Jansen et al. 2016) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses Indonesia: The leaves is one of the constituents of massage oil (minyak urut) that is used by Karo community of Kaban Tua Village, North Sumatra. The leaves are pounded with the rhizome of species from Zingiberaceae and Araceae. The plant material are mixed with coconut milk and cooked until thickened. The massage oil is usually used to relieve rheumatic disorders. The Karo community in the same village also uses the leaves to make a health drink called tawar. They pound the leaves along with the rhizome of Zingiber officinale and brew it. The community usually consumes it to maintain overall health and fitness (Marina Silalahi, personal observation). Philippines: The plant is used to cure dysentery (Johnson 1998).

Fig. 1 Living plants of Tetrastigma loheri (Vitaceae). Simalungun, North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

Tetrastigma loheri Gagnep.

1069

Fig. 2 Leaves of Tetrastigma loheri (Vitaceae). Simalungun, North Sumatra, Indonesia. (© M. Silalahi)

Local Food Uses Philippines: The fruit is edible (Brown 1920). The fruits pulp are also edible (Martin et al. 1987). The sour leaves are used as flavoring (Brown 1920; Jansen et al. 2016). The leaves are edible, taste agreeably sour, and can be used to quench thirst. The leaves are also locally used in various culinary preparations (Morton and Collectanea 1968).

References Baihaqi A. Perbandingan Keanekaragaman Jenis Herpetofauna antara Areal Bekas Terbakar dan Tidak Terbakar di PT National Sago Prima, Riau [undergraduated thesis]. Bogor: IPB University; 2019. Brown WH. Wild food plants of the Philippines. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library; 1920. Jansen PCM, Jukema J, Oyen LPA, van Lingen TG. Tetrastigma loheri (PROSEA). 2016. Published on the internet: https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Tetrastigma_loheri_(PROSEA). Retrieved 8 Aug 2020. Johnson T. CRC ethnobotany desk reference. 1st ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1998.

1070

M. Silalahi and A. Z. Wakhidah

Martin FW, Campbell CW, Puberté RM. Perennial edible fruits of the tropics: an inventory, Agriculture handbook no. 642. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture; 1987. p. 252. Masyithoh G, Purnamasari I, Santosa Y. Comparison of undergrowth diversity between post burned and unburned land in PT National Sago Prima, Riau Province. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2020;504(1):1–6. Morton JF, Collectanea M. Tropical fruit tree and other exotic foliage as human food. Proc Fla State Hortic Soc. 1968;81:318–29. Pancho JV, Gruezo WSM. Vascular flora of Mount Makiling and vicinity (Luzon: Philippines), part 2. Laguna: National Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) Philippines, Department of Science and Technology, Bicutan, Taguig City and Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Los Banos; 2006. p. 626. Pelser PB, Nickrent DL, Barcelona JF. Untangling a vine and its parasite: host specificity of Philippine Rafflesia (Rafflesiaceae). Taxon. 2016;65(4):739–58. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens. 2020. Published on the internet: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 8 Aug 2020. Umali AGA, Malabrigo PL, Replan EL. Floral diversity and habitat assessment at Mt. Malarayat Brgy. Malitlit, Lipa City, Batangas. Environ Dev. 2018;8(1):3–14. Villanueva ELC, Buot IE Jr. Threatened plant species of Mindoro, Philippines. IAMURE Int J Ecol Conserv. 2015;14:168–90. Wen J, Lu LM, Boggan JK. Diversity and evolution of Vitaceae in the Philippines. Philipp J Sci. 2013;142:223–44. Wester PJ. Bulletin, volume 38 – Mindano and the Sulu Archipelago: their natural resource and opportunities for development. Manila: Bureau of Agriculture – Manila Bureau of Printing; 1922.

Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook.f. & Thomson MENISPERMACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Chasmanthera crispa (L.) Baill.; Cocculus bantamensis Blume; Cocculus crispus (L.) DC.; Cocculus rimosus Blume; Cocculus verrucosus (Roxb.) Wall.; Menispermum bantamense (Blume) Spreng.; Menispermum crispum L.; Menispermum rimosum (Blume) Spreng.; Menispermum tuberculatum Lam.; Menispermum verrucosum Roxb.; Tinospora gibbericaulis Hand.-Mazz.; Tinospora mastersii Diels; Tinospora rumphii Boerl.; Tinospora thorelii Gagnep.; Tinospora tuberculata (Lam.) Beumée ex K.Heyne; Tinospora verrucosa (Roxb.) W.Theob.

Local Names Brunei Darussalam: Ratnawali, akar nawali, nawali Malaysia: Patawali, akar patawali, seruntum, akar seruntum Indonesia: Brotawali, antawali, and andawali Philippines: Makabuhay (Tagalog), panyawan (Bisaya, Minanubu), manunggal (Ati Negrito) Thailand: Chung ching, bora phet, kuakhohoo (Don Daeng), wan kab hoi yai China: Da ye ruan jinteng, ye qing niu dan, fa leng teng Cambodia: Banndol pech India: Giloya Bangladesh: Guloncho-ban, golonchi Martinique Island: Lyann span zeb kayenn France: Liane-quinine M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_97

1071

1072

M. L. G. Dapar

Botany and Ecology Description: Woody climber up to ca. 15 m, entirely glabrous (Fig. 1). Leaves large, cordate, 6–12 cm long and 7–12 cm wide. Petioles glabrous, 5–15 cm long. Leaf blade slightly fleshy, both surfaces glabrous and very delicate when dried. Old stems fleshy with prominent blunt tubercles, younger stems slightly fleshy, thin epidermis, membranous, brownish, and glabrous. Herb contains 2 or 3 small and yellow or greenish-yellow fascicled flowers. Inflorescences not coetaneous with the leaves. Male inflorescences very slender, 5–10 cm or longer. Male flower 6 green and glabrous sepals in 2 whorls. Outer 3 ovate (1 mm), inner 3 obovate, 3–6 yellow color petals, 6 stamens equivalent in length to petals. Female inflorescences 2–6 cm long, usually 1 flower per node. Female flower is similar in male having sepals and petals. Fruit 7–8 mm in length. Phenology: Female flowers and fruits are as yet unknown from Malesia (Forman 1986). This species could be introduced in the Philippines (Merrill 1923). Distribution and Habitat: Tinospora crispa extensively thrives in tropical and subtropical regions of Southeast Asia and Africa, including Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, usually in primary rainforests or mixed deciduous forests (Pathak et al. 1995). Species native range is India to China (South Yunnan) and West and Central Malesia (POWO 2020). T. crispa is distributed in Bangladesh, Assam, Myanmar, Cambodia, Southwest China (Yunnan), Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, West Java, Christmas Island, Lesser Sunda Islands (Sumbawa), Philippines. Usually found in thickets near human settlements, commonly planted or cultivated for medicinal purposes in most islands and provinces (Fig. 2). T. crispa is reported occurring in the primary forest of Mindanao and dry forest with altitude 1000 m above sea level (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

Fig. 1 Habit of Tinospora crispa. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson

1073

Fig. 2 Cultivated Tinospora crispa. (© M.L.G. Dapar)

Local Medicinal Uses Tinospora crispa is a widely used plant in Southeast Asian folk medicines. It has been commonly used in traditional and conventional medicine to treat various health conditions in the Philippines (Quisumbing 1951), Brunei Darussalam (Chopra et al. 1956), Thailand (Kongsaktrakoon et al. 1984), Malaysia (Najib Nik a Rahman et al. 1999), Indonesia (Dweck and Cavin 2006), and Cambodia (Hout et al. 2006). Philippines: Quisumbing (1951) earlier reported the traditional medicinal use of T. crispa against malaria. Drinking the stem extract can rectify delayed menstruation and dysmenorrhea among women. Lately, Dapar et al. (2020a) reported the ethnopharmacological uses of T. crispa among Agusan Manobo in Mindanao, Philippines. Drinking the local alcohol tincture or decoction of stem treats several health conditions including malaria, diarrhea, stomach trouble, vomiting, ulcer, toothache, arthritis, rheumatism, dysmenorrhea, abdominal pain, backache, body ache, and fever. However, drinking this may serve as an abortifacient, which might not be suitable for pregnant women. Asides from internal medication, T. crispa can also serve as a treatment for external conditions. Drops of stem sap are used to cure scabies and sore eyes (Dapar et al. 2020a) as well as cuts and wounds (Dapar et al.

1074

M. L. G. Dapar

2020a, b). Another preparation by applying coconut oil-infusion or gasoline mixture of T. crispa cut stems can be used for relieving arthritis, rheumatism, abdominal pain, body ache, gas pain, and flatulence when applied externally on the affected body part. Unfavorably, this administration can still cause an abortive effect when used by pregnant women. Among the Ati Negrito in Guimaras Island, Philippines, T. crispa stems are used to treat both internal and external conditions (Ong and Kim 2014). Applying the ground stem as a poultice can be used for boils and swellings while using the extracts as drops can be applied for toothache. Brunei Darussalam: T. crispa is one of traditional medicinal plants used by the Kadayan Malays in Sengkurong mukim (several kampongs, villages) in the country (Mohiddin et al. 1992). Ingestion of the stems can help alleviate high blood pressure, diabetes, and abdominal pains (Chopra et al. 1956; Perry 1980). Thailand: The stem, leaves, and roots are used to aid fever, cholera, diabetes, rheumatism, and snakebites (Kongsaktrakoon et al. 1984). T. crispa is also used as a vermifuge, wash for sore eyes and syphilitic sores, and cure for wound itching and internal inflammation. This plant can be taken to reduce thirst and increase appetite. Malaysia: The Murut community of Sabah traditionally used T. crispa to cure diabetes, hypertension, lumbago, postpartum remedy, and muscle pain. In Malaysian Borneo, T. crispa is used as a traditional remedy against diabetes, hypertension, and backache (Dweck and Cavin 2006). Boiling the whole vine of T. crispa treats hypertension and malaria among the Kadazan-dusun community (Ahmad and Ismail 2003). This plant is also traditionally used in the treatment of diabetes, hypertension, stimulation of appetite, and protection from mosquito bites (Gimlette and Burkill 1930). Indonesia: Infusion of the stem is used in the treatment of fever (caused by smallpox and cholera), malaria, stomachache, and jaundice (Roosita et al. 2008). Cambodia: The stem is used to relieve fever and rheumatism (Hout et al. 2006). Other Asian countries like China conventionally utilize T. crispa to treat various health ailments (Yao communities) (Li et al. 2006). It was noted to be an effective remedy against fever, septicemia, bruises, fracture, scabies, and other tropical ulcerrelated disorders. In Martinique island, decocted leaves and stem are used to treat diabetes (Longuefosse and Nossin 1996). In Bangladesh, juice extracted from the stem can be used to treat jaundice and rheumatism (Rahmatullah et al. 2009), abdominal pain, skin disease, leprosy and paralysis (Kadir et al. 2014), and prevent intestinal disorders (Rahmatullah et al. 2011). T. crispa can also be used as an anti-parasitic agent in both humans and domestic animals (Noor et al. 1989). Traditional herbalists and healers typically cultivate T. crispa for medicinal purposes (Fig. 2). The Agusan Manobo in the Philippines uses T. crispa as tonic, but they are aware of its effective abortifacient properties (Dapar et al. 2020a). The local traditional medicine practitioners featured the prevalent use of T. crispa as a general tonic (Ahmad et al. 2016).

Phytochemistry Preliminary investigation of Tinospora crispa showed the presence of picroetin (Perry 1980). Later chemical studies revealed T. crispa was found to be rich in secondary metabolites and biological activities (Koay and Amir 2013). T. crispa is

Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson

1075

abundant in terpenoids, alkaloids, lignans, and nucleosides that can serve as a drug lead as therapeutic against hypertension, lumbago, postpartum remedy, tuberculosis, hemorrhoids, wound healing, itching, muscle pain, and others (Ahmad et al. 2016). More than 65 compounds have been isolated and identified, namely furanoditerpenes, lactones, steroids, flavonoids, lignans, and alkaloids. Only the clerodanetype furanoditerpenes among the isolated compounds are the natural compounds of T. crispa (Ahmad et al. 2016). Aqueous extracts of T. crispa showed multiple pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory (Kamarazaman et al. 2012), cytotoxic against cancer cell lines (Zulkhairi et al. 2008), antimalarial (Bertani et al. 2005), hypoglycaemic (Noor et al. 1989), and antifilarial (Zaridah et al. 2001). Methanol extracts of T. crispa also exhibit anti-inflammatory activity (Hipol et al. 2012), cytotoxic activity against leukemic and hepatoma cells (Sinchaikul et al. 2007), antioxidant activity (Zulkefli et al. 2013), and antimalarial activity (Najib Nik a Rahman et al. 1999; Niljan et al. 2014). Ethanolic extracts of the stem displayed pharmacological activities such as immunomodulatory effect (Abood et al. 2014), antinociceptive activity (Sulaiman et al. 2008), and hypoglycemic effect (Anulukanapakorn et al. 2012; Lam et al. 2012). The presence of diterpenoids borapetosides A and C isolated from the ethanolic extract of vines has shown promising antidiabetic activity (Lam et al. 2012). Another alcoholic extract of the stem using n-butanol showed pharmacological activity in the cardiovascular system (Praman et al. 2011). Although several studies have shown a multiple pharmacological properties of T. crispa, limited studies have revealed its potential toxic effect. Chavalittumrong et al. (1997) demonstrated the acute and chronic toxicity of T. crispa, depending on the dose and duration of treatment. Moreover, ethanol extract of T. crispa possess toxic compounds causing hepatotoxic effect (Kadir et al. 2011); human hepatotoxicity due to chronic overuse of T. crispa in treating malaria has been reported (Denis et al. 2007). Constant use of high doses of T. crispa is also reported to result in toxic hepatitis (Langrand et al. 2014). However, toxicological aspects of T. crispa still call for comprehensive investigation (Ahmad et al. 2016).

Economic Importance Tinospora crispa is commercialized into a capsule called Panyawan Plus in the Philippines. T. crispa as the main ingredient is mixed with Garcinia mangostana L., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and Allium sativum L., which are known to be an effective combination in treatment against rheumatism, arthritis, abdominal pains, scabies, skin ulcers, and diabetes.

References Abood WN, Fahmi I, Abdulla MA, Ismail S. Immunomodulatory effect of an isolated fraction from Tinospora crispa on intracellular expression of INF-gamma, IL-6 and IL-8. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014;14:205. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-14-205.

1076

M. L. G. Dapar

Ahmad FB, Ismail G. Medicinal plants used by Kadazandusun communities around crocker range. In: ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC). 2003. http:// kdca.org.my/wp-content/files/medicinal_crange.pdf. Accessed 20 May 2020. Ahmad W, Jantan I, Bukhari SNA. Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson: a review of its ethnobotanical, phytochemical, and pharmacological aspects. Front Pharmacol. 2016;7:59. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2016.00059. Anulukanapakorn K, Pancharoen O, Bansiddhi J. Hypoglycemic effect of Tinospora crispa (Linn.) Mier ex Hook F. & Thorns (Menispermaceae) in Rats. Bull Depart Med Sci. 2012;41:231–43. Bertani S, Bourdy G, Landau I, Robinson JC, Esterre P, Deharo E. Evaluation of French Guiana traditional antimalarial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;98:45–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2004.12.020. Chavalittumrong P, Attawish A, Chuthaputti A, Chuntapet P. Toxicological study of crude extract of Tinospora crispa Mier ex Hook F. & Thoms. Thai J Pharm Sci. 1997;21:199–210. Chopra RN, Chopra IC, Nayer SL. Glossary of Indian medicinal plants. New Delhi: CSIR; 1956. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020a;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Dapar MLG, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S, Alejandro GJD. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of cuts and wounds by the Agusan Manobo of Sibagat, Agusan del Sur, Philippines. Ethnobot Res App. 2020b;19:31. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.19.31.1-18. Denis G, Gerard Y, Sahpaz S, Laporte R, Viget N, Ajana F, et al. Malarial prophylaxis with medicinal plants: toxic hepatitis due to Tinospora crispa. Therapie. 2007;62:271–2. https:// doi.org/10.2515/therapie:2007036. Dweck AC, Cavin JP. Andawali (Tinospora crispa): a review. Pers Care Mag. 2006;7:33–9. Forman LL. Menispermaceae. Flora Malesiana Ser. 1986;1(10):157–253. Gimlette JD, Burkill IH. The medical book of malayan medicine. Singapore: Botanic Gardens; 1930. Hipol RLB, Cariaga MFNM, Hipol RM. Anti-inflammatory activities of the aqueous extract of the stem of Tinospora crispa (Family Menispermaceae). J Nat Stud. 2012;11:88–95. Hout S, Chea A, Bun SS, Elias R, Gasquet M, Timon-David P, et al. Screening of selected indigenous plants of Cambodia for antiplasmodial activity. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;107:12–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.01.028. Kadir FA, Othman F, Abdulla MA, Hussan F, Hassandarvish P. Effect of Tinospora crispa on thioacetamide-induced liver cirrhosis in rats. Indian J Pharmacol. 2011;43:64–8. https://doi.org/ 10.4103/0253-7613.75673. Kadir MF, Bin Sayeed MS, Setu NI, Mostafa A, Mia MM. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used by traditional health practitioners in Thanchi, Bandarban Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:495–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.05.043. Kamarazaman IS, Amorn Z, Ali RM. Inhibitory properties of Tinospora crispa extracts on TNF-α induced inflammation on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECS). Int J Trop Med. 2012;7:24–9. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijtmed.2012.24.29. Koay YC, Amir F. A review of the secondary metabolites and biological activities of Tinospora crispa (Menispermaceae). Trop J Pharm Res. 2013;12:641–9. https://doi.org/10.4314/tjpr.v12i4.30. Kongsaktrakoon B, Temsiririrkkul R, Suvitayavat W, Nakornchai S, Wongkrajang Y. The antipyretic effect of Tinospora crispa Mier ex Hook. f. & Thoms. Mahidol Univ J Pharm Sci. 1984;21:1–6. Lam SH, Ruan CT, Hsieh PH, Su MJ, Lee SS. Hypoglycemic diterpenoids from Tinospora crispa. J Nat Prod. 2012;75:153–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/np200692v. Langrand J, Regnault H, Cachet X, Bouzidi C, Villa AF, Serfaty L, et al. Toxic hepatitis induced by a herbal medicine: Tinospora crispa. Phytomedicine. 2014;21:1120–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.phymed.2014.04.031. Li S, Long C, Liu F, Lee S, Guo Q, Li R, et al. Herbs for medicinal baths among the traditional Yao communities of China. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:59–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jep.2006.04.014.

Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook. f. & Thomson

1077

Longuefosse JL, Nossin E. Medical ethnobotany survey in Martinique. J Ethnopharmacol. 1996;53:117–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(96)01425-0. Merrill ED. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, vol. I. Manila: Bureau of Printing; 1923. 463 pp. Mohiddin MYBH, Chin W, Holdsworth D. Traditional medicinal plants of Brunei Darussalam Part III* Sengkurong. Int J Pharmacogn. 1992;30(2):105–8. Najib Nik a Rahman N, Furuta T, Takane K, Ali Mohd M. Antimalarial activity of extracts of Malaysian medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999;64:249–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0378-8741(98)00135-4. Niljan J, Jaihan U, Srichairatanakool S, Uthaipibull C, Somsak V. Antimalarial activity of stem extract of Tinospora crispa against Plasmodium berghei infection in mice. J Health Res. 2014;28:199–204. Noor H, Hammonds P, Sutton R, Ashcroft SJ. The hypoglycaemic and insulinotropic activity of Tinospora crispa: studies with human and rat islets and HIT-T15 B cells. Diabetologia. 1989;32:354–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00277258. Ong HG, Kim YD. Quantitative ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants used by the Ati Negrito indigenous group in Guimaras Island, Philippines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;157:228–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.09.015. Pathak AK, Jain DC, Sharma RP. Chemistry and biological activities of the genera Tinospora. Pharm Biol. 1995;33:277–87. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209509065379. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Menispermaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Menispermaceae.html. Accessed 20 May 2020. Perry LN. Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press; 1980. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 20 May 2020. Praman S, Mulvany MJ, Allenbach Y, Marston A, Hostettmann K, Sirirugsa P, et al. Effects of an n-butanol extract from the stem of Tinospora crispa on blood pressure and heart rate in anesthetized rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133:675–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.10.052. Quisumbing E. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Manila: Bureau of Printing; 1951. Rahmatullah M, Noman A, Hossan MS, Rashid M, Rahman T, Chowdhury MH, et al. A survey of medicinal plants in two areas of Dinajpur district, Bangladesh including plants which can be used as functional foods. Am Eurasian J Sustain Agric. 2009;3:862–76. Rahmatullah M, Azam MNK, Rahman MM, Seraj S, Mahal MJ, Mou SM, et al. A survey of medicinal plants used by Garo and non- Garo traditional medicinal practitioners in two villages of Tangail district, Bangladesh. Am Eurasian J Sustain Agric. 2011;5:350–7. Roosita K, Kusharto CM, Sekiyama M, Fachrurozi Y, Ohtsuka R. Medicinal plants used by the villagers of a Sundanese community in West Java, Indonesia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;115:72–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.09.010. Sinchaikul S, Chen ST, Sookkheo B. Tumor cell selective antiproliferative effect of the extract from Tinospora crispa (borapet). Bull Health Sci Tech. 2007;7:75–84. Sulaiman M, Zakaria Z, Lihan R. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of Tinospora crispa in various animal models. Int J Top Med. 2008;3:66–9. Zaridah MZ, Idid SZ, Omar AW, Khozirah S. In vitro antifilarial effects of three plant species against adult worms of subperiodic Brugia malayi. J Ethnopharmacol. 2001;78:79–84. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00286-0. Zulkefli HN, Mohama J, Abidin NZ. Antioxidant activity of methanol extract of Tinospora crispa and Tabernaemontana corymbosa. Sains Malays. 2013;42:697–706. Zulkhairi A Jr, Abdah MA, Kamal NHM, Nursakinah I, Moklas MA, Hasnah B, et al. Biological properties of Tinospora crispa (akar patawali) and its antiproliferative activities on selected human cancer cell lines. Malays J Nutr. 2008;14:173–87.

Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray ASTERACEAE Teodora D. Balangcod and Ashlyn Kim D. Balangcod

Synonyms Mirasolia diversifolia Hemsley, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Bot.2:168.t.47.1881. (POWO 2020); Helianthus quiquelobus Sesse and Moc.; Tithonia diversifolia subs. Glabriiuscula S.F. Blake; Urbanisol tagetiflorus var. diversifoloius (Hemsl.) Kuntze (Wunderlin et al. 2020)

Local Names Tree marigold, Mexican tournesol, Mexican sunflower, Japanese sunflower, Nitobe chrysanthemum (English); Philippines: marapait, mirasol (Ibaloi).

Binomial: Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts xix. 5 (1883). (POWO 2020) T. D. Balangcod (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] A. K. D. Balangcod Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_243

1079

1080

T. D. Balangcod and A. K. D. Balangcod

Botany and Ecology Description: Tithonia diversifolia is a perennial shrub that grows up to 3 m tall (Fig. 1). The hollow, woody stems are cylindrical, branching, 4-angled, hollow, with alternate, palmately-veined leaves. The leaf blade is ovate to obovate, deeply 3 to 5-lobed, upper leaves are 6–23 cm long, 3–18 cm wide. The leaf base is cuneate to attenuate, the leaf margins crenate, the apex acuminate. The leaf texture is pubescent to tomentose on the underleaf, the pseudo-petiole grows up to 10 cm long. The cluster of flowers forms a solitary capitulum, which is usually terminal on side branches (Fig. 2). The flower heads or capitulum grows up to 21 cm long and 10 cm in diameter. The involucre is 4-seriate with a length of 14–20 mm. There are two types of inflorescences, the ray and disc florets (Fig. 3). The ray florets are yellow or

Fig. 1 Habit of Tithonia diversifolia. (© Teodora Balangcod)

Fig. 2 The inflorescence and leaves of Tithonia diversifolia. (© Kryssa Balangcod)

Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray

1081

Fig. 3 A close up of the capitulum (inflorescence) of Tithonia diversifolia, showing the ray and disc florets. (© Kryssa Balangcod)

orange-yellow, about 40–75 mm long while the disc florets are cylindrical, with a length of 7.5–10 mm. The fruits are oblong achenes, black, 5–6 mm long, pubescent. The achenes are topped with a ring of scales with two awns or setae. Distribution: Tithonia diversifolia grows in wastelands and disturbed areas. It is a native of South America; from Columbia, Guatemala, Hondura, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, and the United States. It was introduced into West Africa as an ornamental plant (Akobundo and Agyakwa 1987). In the Philippines and Kenya, the plant has escaped cultivation and has become an invasive weed. This plant is moderately resistant to drought and is considered an aggressive species. In Africa, this species is known to disturb native crops and plant communities. However, its aggressiveness and negative impacts as an invasive species remain underestimated (Obiakara and Fourcade 2018). Phenology: According to Orwa et al. (2009), this plant flowers all throughout the year in some countries. In the Philippines, the bright yellow flowers bloom from September to May.

Local Medicinal Uses In the Philippines, the leaf sap is used to treat fresh wounds to abate bleeding as well as termite control. It is also used to treat fungal infections in dogs and chicken. A decoction of the leaves is sometimes used in the treatment of malaria. An infusion of leaves is used in the treatment of constipation, stomach pains, indigestion, sore throat, and liver pains (Ecocrop 2019). Leaf extracts are used externally for the treatment of wounds and hematomas. The leaf extracts from T. diversifolia is used externally for the treatment of abscesses, snake bites, malaria or diabetes, muscular pain, wounds, gastric ulcers, and hematomas in various parts of the world (Standley and Steyermark 1949; Ajao and Moteetee 2017). In Africa, its infusion is used to treat constipation, indigestions,

1082

T. D. Balangcod and A. K. D. Balangcod

and sore throat. In Taiwan, it is used to treat diabetes while in Kenya, it is used for treating malaria, snake bite and ectoparasites in cattle (Omokhua et al. 2018).

Phytochemistry Tithonia diversifolia leaves are the major plant parts traditionally used as medicine. Most active constituents have also been reported from the leaves (Orwa et al. 2009). A bitter essential oil was extracted from the leaves (Standley and Steyemark 1949). Bhuyan et al. (2015) reported that the leaves contain sesquiterpene lactones, including tagitinin which has insecticidal and fungicidal properties. The author also reports that T. diversifolia exhibits antimicrobial activity against gram-positive and gramnegative bacteria. This suggests that the leaves can be used to treat gastrointestinal, urinary tract infection, and skin diseases. Additionally, Olayinka et al. (2015) reported that the ethanolic and aqueous extracts from the roots, stems, and leaves of T. diversifolia tested positive for alkaloids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, flavonoids, and phenols with the leaves having the highest content of the phytochemicals mentioned. The extracts from this plant have an anti-trypanosomal effect (Sut et al. 2018). The essential oil from this plant was found to be active against Staphylococcus aureus (Orsomando et al. 2017).

Economic Importance In the northern part of the Philippines, the stems are gathered and used as fuel especially when these are dried. It is sometimes grown as a companion plant, helping to improve the soil and increasing the yields of a range of crops. In some parts of the Philippines, it is usually used for live fencing, and the attractive flowers are used to decorate houses and churches and stages during festivities. The leaves and stem are often used as a mulching material for crops planted on beds and also serve as fertilizer when the leaves and stem rot. In some parts of the world, the farmers use leaves as green manure as it is a source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK). The plant is recommended as a fodder for goats (Wambui et al. 2006) and dairy cattle (Ribeiro et al. 2016; Mauricio et al. 2017).

References Ajao AA, Moteetee AN. Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl) A. Gray. (Asteraceae: Heliantheae), an invasive plant of significant ethnopharmacological importance: a review. S Afr J Bot. 2017;113:396–403. Akobundo IO, Agyakwa CW. A handbook of west African weeds. Ibadan: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture; 1987. 521 pages. Bhuyan PD, Tamuli P, Boruah P. In vitro efficacy of certain essential oils and plant extracts against three major pathogens of Jatropha curcas L. Am J Pl Sci. 2015;6:362–5. Ecocrop. Ecocrop database. Rome: FAO; 2019. http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/home.

Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray

1083

Mauricio RM, Calsavara LHF, Ribeiro RS, et al. Feed ruminants using Tithonia diversifolia as a forage. J Dairy Vet Anim Res. 2017;5(3):117–20. https://doi.org/10.15406/jdvar.2017.05. 00146. Obiakara MC, Fourcade Y. Climatic niche and potential distribution of Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray in Africa. PLoS One. 2018;13(9) https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.;pone. 0202421. Olayinka BU, Raiyemo DA, Etereje EO. Phytochemical and proximate composition of Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray. Ann Food Sci Tech. 2015;16(1):195–200. Omokhua AG, Abdella MA, Staden JV, McGaw LJ. Comprehensive study of the potential phytomedicinal use and toxicity of invasive Tithonia diversifolia species in South Africa. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2018;18:272. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-018-2336-0. Orsomando G, Agostinelli S, Bramucci M, Cappellacci L, et al. New caffeic acid derivative from Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray butanolic extract and its antioxidant activity. Food Chem Toxicol. 2017;109(2):1079–85. Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, et al. Agroforestry database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4. Nairobi: World Agroforestry Centre; 2009. https://worldagro forestry.org/output/agroforestree-database. Plants of the World Online (POWO). (2020). http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn: lsid:ipni.org:names:537851. Ribeiro RS, Terry SA, Sacramento JP, Silveira SR, et al. Tithonia diversifolia as a supplementary feed for dairy cows. PLoS One. 2016;109(2):1079–85. Standley PC, Steyermark JA. Flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana. Botany; 24. 6. Chicago Natural History Museum; 1949; 642. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.2411. Sut S, Dall’ Acqua S, Baldan V, Kamte SLN, Ranjbarian F, et al. Identifi cation of tagitin in C from Tithonia diversifolia as antitrypanosomal compound using bioactivity – guided fractionation. Fitoterapia. 2018;124:145–51. Wambui CC, Abdulrazak SA, Noordin Q. Performance of growing goats fed urea sprayed maize Stover and supplemented with graded levels of Tithonia diversifolia. Asian Aus J Animal Sci. 2006;19(7):992–6. Wunderlin RPB, Hansen FAR, Essig FB. Atlas of Florida plants. Tampa: Institute of Systematic Botany, University of South Florida; 2020. http://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/.

Uncaria gambir (W.Hunter) Roxb. RUBIACEAE Rina Ratnasih Irwanto, Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, and Reza Raihandhany Yus

Synonyms Cinchona kattukambar J.Koenig ex Retz.; Nauclea gambir Hunter; Ourouparia gambir (Hunter) Baill.; Uncaria gambir var. latifolia S.Moore; Uncaria yunnanensis K.C.Hsia; Uruparia gambir (Hunter) Kuntze (POWO 2019).

Local Names Malaysia: Gambir, gambier, kancu Indonesia: Gambee, gani, kacu, sontang, gambe, gambie, gambu, gimber, pengilom, sepelet (Sumatera); gambier, ghambir, santun (Java); gamelo, gambit, game, gambiri, gata, gaber (Kalimantan); tagambe, gembele, gamelo, gambit, gambe, gambiri, gata, gaber (Nusa Tenggara); kampir, kambir, ngamir, gamer, gabi, tagabere, gabere, gaber, gambe (Maluku)

R. R. Irwanto (*) School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] A. S. D. Irsyam Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] R. R. Yus Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_61

1085

1086

R. R. Irwanto et al.

Botany and Ecology Description: Liana – shrub, with square young stems and erect main stems which bear horizontal branches with recurved hooks (modified peduncles of inflorescences). Leaves simple, opposite, subcoriaceous, and entire; blade ovate to (broadly) elliptic, (6–)9–12( 15) cm x (3.5–)5–7( 8) cm, rounded to subcordate at the base, acute at the apex, hairless, with 5–6 pairs of lateral nerves that are raised below and with hairy domatia. Inflorescence in heads on the horizontal plagiotropic branches (Fig. 1). Flower is (3.5–)4–5 cm in diameter (across petals), with densely hairy receptacle and without interfloral bracteoles. Pedicel is up to 3 mm long, with hypanthium 1–2 mm in diameter and densely yellow-brown hairy. Sepal is 3– 4.5 mm long, with 5 trigonal lobes 1–2 mm long, finely pubescent and persistent. The petal is salver-shaped with tube 8–10( 12) mm long, with sparsely to densely pubescent exterior, and with 5 oblong lobes 2–3 mm long while the exterior is densely yellow-brown sericeous and quickly falls off from the heads. The 5 stamens are adnate to the petal. Ovary inferior, with exerted style 5–7 mm long, with obovoid to clavate stigma and measuring about 2 mm. Fruit head is (50–)60–80 mm in diameter while the fruitlets (capsules) are 14–18 mm long, which are sparsely pubescent and crowned by the sepal and many-seeded. Fruit stalks are up to 20 mm long. The silvery-grey seeds are very tiny (Ridsdale 1991). Distribution and Habitat: U. gambir is native to Southeast Asia particularly Indonesia and Malaysia (Andre et al. 2013). This species grows well in open forests as well as humid forest areas, or forest edges in the altitudinal range of 200–900 m above sea level (Sampurno et al. 2007). In the wild, U. gambir is most commonly found in secondary forests. It can be cultivated in areas with high rainfall throughout the year. This species cannot tolerate water logging. It has no special soil

Fig. 1 Habit of Uncaria gambir. (© Reza Raihandhany)

Uncaria gambir (W.Hunter) Roxb.

1087

requirements for planting, but it is usually cultivated in soils with a rich humus layer. U. gambir does not occur in dry regions or at higher altitudes (Ridsdale 1991). Reportedly, U. gambir is cultivated in West and North Sumatera (Anggraini et al. 2011; Adi 2011). In North Sumatra, U. gambir is reported to be cultivated in North Tapanuli Regency, Central Tapanuli Regency, Deli Serdang Regency, and Pakpak Bharat Regency (Rauf et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses The Minangkabau people of Guguak Sarai, West Sumatera, use the leaves of U. gambir to treat influenza, diarrhea, toothache, and hemorrhoids (Khairiah et al. 2017). It is also used as styptic to stop bleeding and cure swollen gums. It has been reported that the local people in Kalimantan use U. gambir to treat lumbago and sciatica (Ridsdale 1991). Leaves of U. gambir are used by Dayak and Tidung people in Tarakan, North Kalimantan, for treating cancer and open wounds (Haris and Toding, 2019). Kutai people in East Kalimantan utilize mashed fruits of U. gambir in postpartum care (Hadijah et al. 2016). Local people in Cikondang Village, West Java, use the leaf decoction for stomachache (Ramdhan et al. 2015). Resin of U. gambir is utilized by Acehnese people in Pidie District, Aceh Province, to treat wounds (Rubiah et al. 2017).

Phytochemistry U. gambir contains various compounds of pharmacological interest (Heitzman et al. 2005). Dried leaf extract of U. gambir is believed to possess antioxidant properties which are attributed to the presence of tannins and condensed tannins (Apea-Bah et al. 2009). Catechin, a polyphenol compound with antioxidant properties, is the major component of gambir extracts (Anggraini et al. 2011; Arbain et al. 1998). About 76% of gambir is reported to be comprised of catechin (Andasuryani et al. 2013). In addition, U. gambir also contains caffeic acid, quinic acid (Pero 2010), epicatechin (Wirth and Wagner 1997; Isnawati et al. 2012), and procyanidin dimers B-1 (Sekiya et al. 2002).

Local Food Uses In West Sumatera, leaf extract is used as a preservative in rendang to extend the shelf life (Melia et al. 2015).

1088

R. R. Irwanto et al.

Biocultural Importance Gambir is widely used for batik dyeing; batik is a traditional dyeing technique from Indonesia. Owing to its association with the cultural practice of betel chewing, gambir is widely used in festivals and rituals. The practice of betel chewing is popularly known as nyirih in Indonesia. In Indonesia, the Dayak people of Kalimantan use U. gambir in nyirih along with other ingredients (Haris and Toding 2019). In nyirih, the dried extract of leaves and twigs of U. gambir is chewed along with slice of Areca nut, lime paste, Nicotiana tabaccum, and leaves of Piper betle (Fata et al. 2018). Nyirih is also an efficient stimulant (Ridsdale 1991). In North Tarakan of Kalimantan, Dayak and Tidung people use U. gambir as an ingredient of offerings made during rituals (Toding and Haris 2019). Dayak Kerabat ancestors used a combination of U. gambir, A. catechu, P. betle, and lime for welcoming guests (Kuni et al. 2015). Malay people at Keraton Ismahayana Landak, West Kalimantan, use leaves of U. gambir in pinang-sirih mixture as a symbol of prosperity during Tumpang Negeri Ceremony (Hasanah et al. 2014). Sirih langkok comprising of U. gambir, A. catechu, and P. betle is also served by Malay Community in Mengkadai Sarolangun Village, Jambi Province, during various rituals (Hidayat et al. 2019). This ceremony aims to prevent the occurrence of disasters and ensure prosperity (Suryansyah 2011). Indigenous people in Serampas, Jambi, celebrate a thanksgiving ritual called syukuran bayi to welcome newborn babies. During this ritual, pinang-sirih (betel including U. gambir) is gifted to midwives involved in postpartum care (Hariadi and Ticktin 2012). Baduy community of Banten Province in Indonesia perform a ritual called ngahudangkeun pare (to wake up the rice). During this ritual, nyirih (U. gambir, P. betle, A. catechu, lime, and rhizome of Zingiber cassumunar) is chewed and spread in the rice barn in order to “wake up” the rice prior to storage (Iskandar and Iskandar 2017). Stem and leaves of U. gambir form important components of offerings made during Jamasan Pusaka Ceremonies at Royal Palace of Yogyakarta (Sari et al. 2019). Using Community of Banyuwangi Regency, East Java, use the resin of U. gambir as an offering during the traditional ceremony of kinangan (Rohmah et al. 2014). The resin is also used in Aceh during marriage proposals as a symbol of resoluteness (Rahimah et al. 2018). The Minangkabau, Nias, and Javanese people of Kanagarian Tiku, West Sumatera, use nyirih (U. gambir, P. betle, A. catechu, and N. tabacum) during weddings (Des et al. 2019). Minangkabau and Mandailing tribes of West Sumatera use the leaves of U. gambir during marriage and birth ceremonies (Des et al. 2018). Leaves of U. gambir is also used by Dampelas ethnic community of Central Sulawesi in rituals such as monguntun associated with weddings (Saputra et al. 2019).

Economic Importance U. gambir is one of plants with high economic value. It is exported from Indonesia to other countries (Rauf et al. 2015). Traditionally, U. gambir has been used in skin tanning and textile coloring (yellow colour) (Hayani 2003; Remington and Wood 1918; Zamarel and Risfaheri 1991).

Uncaria gambir (W.Hunter) Roxb.

1089

References Adi HE. Pengembangan agroindustri gambir di Kabupaten Lima Puluh Kota, Sumatera Barat. Bogor: Sekolah Pascasarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor; 2011. Andasuryani A, Purwanto YA, Budiastra IW, Syamsu K. Determination of catechin as main bioactive component of gambir (Uncaria gambir Roxb.) by FT-NIR spectroscopy. J Med Plants Res. 2013;7:3076–83. Andre N, Wang X, He Y, Pan G, kojo A, Liu Y. A review of the occurrence of non-alkaloid constituents in Uncaria species and their structure activity relationships. Am J Biomed. 2013;1:79–98. Anggraini T, Tai A, Yoshino T. Antioxidative activity and catechin content of four kinds of Uncaria Gambir Roxb. Extracts from West Sumatra, Indonesia. Af J Biochem Res. 2011;5(1):33–8. Apea-Bah FB, Hanafi M, Dewi RT, Fajriah S, Darmawan A, Artanti N, Lotulung P, Ngadymang P, Minarti B. Assessment of the DPPH and α-glucosidase inhibitory potential of gambier and qualitative identification of major bioactive compound. J Med Plants Res. 2009;3:736–57. Arbain D, Afrida X, Ibrahim S, Sargent MV, Skelton BW, White AH. The alkaloids of Uncaria cf. glabrata. Aust J Chem. 1998;51:961–4. Des M, Rizki R, Hidayanti H. Ethnobotany in traditional ceremony at Kanagarian Sontang Cubadak Padang Gelugur subdistrict, Pasaman district. IOP Conf SerMat Sci Eng. 2018; https://doi.org/ 10.1088/1757-899X/335/1/012018. Des M, Rizki R, Fitri M. Plants used in the traditional ceremony in Kanagarian Tiku. J Phys Conf Ser. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1317/1/012098. Fata IA, Yusuf YQ, Sari LN. Figuring the figures of speech in Acehnese traditional song lyrics. Humanities Diliman. 2018;15(1):30–56. Hadijah S, Hendra M, Hariani N. Etnomotani obat tradisional oleh masyarakat Kutai di Kec. Muara Bengkal Kab Kutai Timur Bioprospek. 2016;11(2):19–24. Hariadi B, Ticktin T. Uras: medicinal and ritual plants of Serampas, Jambi, Indonesia. Eth Res Apl. 2012;10:133–50. Haris NA, Toding A. Ethnobotany study of rubiaceae in Tarakan community and its potency as biology learning resources. Biopedagogia. 2019;1:75–80. Hasanah U, Linda R, Lovandi I. Pemanfaatan tumbuhan pada upacara adat tumpang negeri suku melayu di keraton ismahayana landak. J Protobiont. 2014;3(3):17–24. Hayani E. Analisis kadar catechin dari gambir dengan berbagai macam metode. Buletin Teknik Pertanian. 2003;8(1):31–3. Heitzman ME, Neto CC, Winiarz E, Vaisberg AJ, Hammond GB. Ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Uncaria (Rubiaceae). Phytochemistry. 2005;66:5–29. Hidayat R, Walujo EB, Wardhana W. Etnobotani pekarangan masyarakat Melayu di Dusun Mengkadai Sarolangun, Jambi. Pros Sem Nas Bio FMIPA Unhi. 2019:73–8. Iskandar J, Iskandar BS. Various plants of traditional rituals: ethnobotanical research among the Baduy community. Biosaintifika. 2017;9(1):114–25.. https://10.15294/biosaintifika.v9i1.8117. Isnawati A, Raini M, Sampurno OD, Mutiatikum D, Widowati L, Gitawati R. Characterization of 3 types gambir extract (Uncaria gambir Roxb) from Sumatera Barat. Bul Pen Kes. 2012;40:201–8. Khairiah A, Nisyawati N, Silalahi M. Biodiversity of medicinal plants by Minangkabau ethnic in Guguak Sarai, West Sumatera, Indonesia. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international symposium on current progress in mathematics and sciences. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4991213. Kuni BE, Hardiansyah G, Idham. Ethnobotany of Dayak Kerabat tribe in the Tapang Perodah Village Sub-District of Sekadau Hulu the district of Sekadau. J Hut Les. 2015;3(3):383–400. Melia S, Deni N, Indri J. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of gambir (Uncaria gambir Roxb.) extracts and their application in rendang. Pak J Nutr. 2015;14(12):938–41. Pero RW. Historical development of Uncaria preparations and their related bioactive components: in DNA damage repair, repair mechanisms and aging. New York: Nova Science Publishers; 2010. p. 223–36. POWO. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2019. http:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Retrieved 15 Jan 2020.

1090

R. R. Irwanto et al.

Rahimah, Hasanuddin, Djufri. Kajian etnobotani (upacara adat suku aceh di provinsi Aceh). J Biotik. 2018;6(1):53–8. Ramdhan B, Chikmawati T, Waluyo EB. Ethnomedical herb from Cikondang indigenous village, district Bandung West Java Indonesia. J Bio Env Sci. 2015;6(2):277–88. Rauf A, Rahmawaty ZS, Ameilia ZS. The condition of Uncaria gambir Roxb. As one of important medicinal plants in North Sumatra, Indonesia. Proc Chem. 2015;14:3–10. Remington, JP and Wood HC. Gambir, the dispensatory of the United States of America. 1918. P. 10–17. http://www.swsbm.com/Dispensatory/USD-1918-complete.pdf. Ridsdale CE. Uncaria gambir (Hunter) Roxb. In: RHMJ L, Wulijarni-Soetjipto N, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no. 3: dye and tannin-producing plants. Wageningen: Pudoc; 1991. p. 125–8. Rohmah SA, Asyiah IN, Hariani SA. Ethnobotany traditional ceremony by using community in district of Banyuwangi. Art Ilm Mah. 2014:1–4. Rubiah, Djufri, Muhibbuddin. Etnobotani tumbuhan obat luka pada masyarakat. J Edu Bio Trop. 2017;5(2):54–106. Sampurno KR, Niniek SA, Evie L, Sidik M, Suwidjio P, Wahjo D, Sri H, Purbandin PT, Ebet D, Isnaeni AK. Acuan sediaan herbal. Jakarta: BPOM RI; 2007. Saputra SD, Harso W, Ramadanil. Kajian etnobotani masyarakat suku dampelas di desa Talaga Kecamatan Dampelas Kabupaten Donggala, Sulawesi Tengah. Biocelebes. 2019;13(2):109–20. Sari LYS, Setiana FD, Setyawati R. Etnobotany ritual plants that used on jamasan ceremony in Yogyakarta palace. Bioma: J Bio Mak. 2019;4(2):99–106. Sekiya N, Shimada Y, Shibahara N, Takagi S, Yokoyama K, Kasahara Y, Sakakibara I, Terasawa K. Inhibitory effects of choto-san (diao-teng-san), and hooks and stems of uncaria sinensis on free radical-induced lysis of rat red blood cells. Phytomedicine. 2002;9:636–40. Suryansyah G. Laporan pelaksanaan kegiatan ziarah akbar dan tumpng negeri, Landak. 2011. Wirth C, Wagner H. Pharmacologically active procyanidines from the bark of Uncaria tomentosa. Phytomedicine. 1997;4:265–6. Zamarel, Rishfaheri. Pengolahan gambir dan permasalahannya. Edisi Khusus Tanaman Rempah dan Obat. 1991;7(2):12–6.

Uncaria lanosa Wall. RUBIACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Uruparia lanosa (Wall.) Kuntze

Local Names Papua New Guinea: Kingálau Philippines: Kawilan Malaysia: Akar ait, gegambir paya, gegambir hitam Vietnam: C[aa]u d[awf]ng West Sumatra: Akar kait

Botany and Ecology Description: Woody lianas. Young stems quadrangular, sparsely hirsute to glabrescent. Young branchlets angular to rounded, glabrous or pubescent, branches differentiated into monopodial orthotropic and plagiotropic systems, vegetative lateral branches of the plagiotropic system modified into hooks. Leaves opposite, simple; leaf blade drying papery, ovate, lanceolate, or lanceolate-oblong, ca. 7– 11  3.5–8 cm, adaxially shiny and glabrous except sparsely hirsute along veins, abaxially glabrescent except sparsely hirsute along veins, base rounded, truncate, or cordulate, apex acute to acuminate; secondary veins 6–9 pairs, usually with domatia in axils of secondary and often also tertiary veins; stipules persistent or caducous, ovate, ca. 6–10  8–10 mm, 2-lobed for 1/3–1/2, lobes narrowly triangular, acute to M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_222

1091

1092

M. L. G. Dapar

Fig. 1 Flowering vine of Uncaria lanosa. (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

acuminate. Petiole ca. 4–10 mm, sparsely hirsute to glabrescent; stipules interpetiolar, entire or bifid, inside with colleters at the base or over the whole surface. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary head on the plagiotropic shoot (Fig. 1), strigose to hirsute or glabrescent; peduncle ca. 2.5–4.5 cm; bracts ca. 10 mm. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, (sub)sessile or pedicellate on the receptacle, pedicels free or fused into groups, sometime accrescent, with or without interfloral bracteoles; receptacle sparsely to densely hairy; calyx densely strigillose; hypanthium portion fusiform, ca. 2 mm; limb deeply lobed; lobes linear, ca. 2 mm, obtuse; calyx tube short, often bottle-shaped, lobes variable in shape, glabrous to hairy, epicalyx present or absent; flowering heads solitary (or 2), 18–20 mm in diameter across calyces, 30–37 mm in diameter across corollas; corolla color reddish, salverform, externally sparsely sericeous to glabrescent (Fig. 2); corolla tube ca. 12 mm, hypocrateriform to infundibular, outside glabrous to hairy, lobes ca. 2.5 mm, ovateoblong to elliptical, valvate in bud, inside and outside glabrous or pubescent; stamens 5, inserted high in the corolla tube, exserted and spreading, filaments short, glabrous; ovary inferior, 2-locular, ovules numerous, style exserted, stigma globose to elongate-clavate, papillate. Fruit a dry capsule, 2-celled, pedicellate, fusiform, ca. 9–27  1–3 mm, strigose, exocarp thick, splitting loculicidally but long remaining intact below the calyx remnants, endocarp thick, horny, splitting septicidally and then slightly loculicidally from apex to base; fruiting heads 30– 40 mm in diameter; pedicels ca. 5–9 mm; seeds numerous. Seed small, ca. 2.5–

Uncaria lanosa Wall.

1093

Fig. 2 Infructescence of Uncaria lanosa. (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

3 mm, center reticulate, long-winged at both ends, lower wing deeply bifid, seedling with epigeal germination. It is often more challenging to identify Uncaria species (Turner 2018). However, an integrative molecular approach and chemotaxonomic markers (Olivar et al. 2018) may help resolve true species identity. Phenology: In Java, Uncaria lanosa flowers throughout the year (Subarnas 2001). Distribution and Habitat: This species grows natively from Indo-China to Northwest Pacific (POWO 2020). A variety var. ferrea (Blume) Ridsdale, and two formae forma philippinensis (Elmer) Ridsdale and forma setiloba (Benth) Ridsdale, have been recognized (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). U. lanosa var. ferrea is distributed in Java, Nicobar Islands, Andaman Islands, Myanmar, Thailand, Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, Borneo, New Guinea, and Philippines particularly in Palawan Island. U. lanosa f. philippinensis can be found in South Taiwan, Philippines, and North Sulawesi. U. lanosa f. setiloba is located in the Moluccas and Philippines. Uncaria lanosa thrives mostly on open places in the forests, and secondary vegetation along roads and forest edges.

Local Medicinal Uses The genus Uncaria is widely used in Asian folk medicine. The hooks of Uncaria species are utilized to cure various diseases and infections (Ahmed et al. 1978; Phillipson et al. 1978; Keplinger et al. 1999; Heitzman et al. 2005). The stem and hook of U. lanosa is traditionally used as a treatment for analgesia, hyperpyrexia, and spasmolysis in Malacca, Taiwan, and Philippines using the stem and hook (Zhang et al. 2015). Philippines: U. lanosa is a folkloric remedy for hyperpyrexia (Zhang et al. 2015). U. lanosa is one of the herbal remedies used among the Agusan Manobo. Drinking the stem sap once or twice a day may help alleviate stomach trouble; drinking local alcohol-tinctured stem may relieve diarrhea (Dapar et al. 2020). Ingestion may be done using ½ cup to 1 glass of liquids once or twice a day,

1094

M. L. G. Dapar

or as needed with no experienced adverse or reported side effects. Malaysia: The decoction of U. lanosa is medically applied as antiseptic for cleaning wounds and ulcer treatment; the infusion is used to treat inflammation of the intestine (Shaharuddin et al. 2016). Indonesia: U. lanosa is famous as a remedy for food poisoning (Arbain et al. 1998). Papua New Guinea: Locals use U. lanosa vine to release phlegm (Porer and Leach 2010).

Phytochemistry Pentacyclic oxindole alkaloids were earlier identified in Uncaria lanosa var. glabrata and Uncaria lanosa var. ferrea, such as isopteropodine and pteropodine (Kam et al. 1992). Shaharuddin et al. (2016) identified alkaloids and flavonoids in Uncaria lanosa var. ferrea. Olivar et al. (2018) examined the phytochemicals present and isolated oxindole alkaloids from the leaves of Uncaria lanosa for the first time. The leaves of Uncaria lanosa f. philippinensis were found to contain five oxindole alkaloids: isomitraphylline, mitraphylline, uncarine B or formosanine, uncarine F, corynoxine, and uncarine D or speciophylline. These isolated alkaloids could serve as chemotaxonomic markers to distinguish other Uncaria species (Olivar et al. 2018). A total of 18 Uncaria species were identified to contain isomitraphylline (Phillipson et al. 1978; Tantivatana et al. 1979; Wagner et al. 1985; Diyabalanage et al. 1997a, 1997b). There were 20 Uncaria species possessing mitraphylline (Herath et al. 1978; Phillipson et al. 1978; Tantivatana et al. 1979; Tantivatana et al. 1980; Wagner et al. 1985), and seven Uncaria species with uncarine B or formosanine (Herath et al. 1978; Phillipson et al. 1978; Tantivatana et al. 1980; Wu and Chan 1994). Uncarine F was reported to be present in 13 Uncaria species (Phillipson et al. 1978; Tanahashi et al. 1997), while corynoxine B was found in six Uncaria species (Phillipson et al. 1978; Lee et al. 2000). Sixteen Uncaria species yielded uncarine D (Phillipson et al. 1978; Arbain et al. 1993; Tanahashi et al. 1997).

Bioactivities Species of the genus Uncaria were reported to possess compounds which are antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antimutagenic, antioxidant, antiviral, cytotoxic, and more, containing alkaloids, terpenes, quinovic acid glycosides, flavonoids, and coumarins (Heitzman et al. 2005). Zhang et al. (2015) reviewed the medicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of the genus Uncaria. The comprehensive assessment showed that Uncaria species could have scientific premise for treating asthma, cancer, diabetes, hypertension, rheumatism, and neurodegenerative diseases. Several alkaloids were found in Uncaria species (Martins and Nunez 2015), which could explain its antihypertensive principles (Lee et al. 2000). In the last three decades, more compounds have been identified and isolated, such as terpenes, quinovic acid glycosides, flavonoids, and coumarins, in addition to alkaloids

Uncaria lanosa Wall.

1095

(Heitzman et al. 2005). These bioactive compounds are essential for immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and vascular-related conditions. Ethanol extract of U. lanosa stem and hook are known to have an anti-depressant effect (Hsu et al. 2012).

References Ahmed FR, Ng A, Fallis AG. 7α-Acetoxydihydronomilin: isolation, spectra, and crystal structure. Can J Chem. 1978;56:1020–5. https://doi.org/10.1139/v78-171. Arbain D, Putri M, Sargent M, Syarif M. The alkaloids of Uncaria glabrata. Aust J Chem. 1993;46:863–72. Arbain D, Afrida X, Ibrahim S, Sargent MV, Skelton BW, White AH. The alkaloids of Uncaria cf. glabrata. Aust J Chem. 1998;51:961–4. https://doi.org/10.1071/C98078. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. Diyabalanage T, Jayasinghe U, Simmonds P, Wannigama G. A quinovic acid glycoside from Uncaria elliptica. ACGC Chem Res Commun. 1997a;6:29–32. Diyabalanage T, Kumarihamy B, Wannigama G, Jayasinghe L, Merlini L, Scaglioni L. Alkaloids of Uncaria elliptica. Phytochemistry. 1997b;45:1731–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(97) 00204-5. Heitzman ME, Neto CC, Winiarz E, Vaisberg AJ, Hammond GB. Ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Uncaria (Rubiaceae). Phytochemistry. 2005;66:5–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.phytochem.2004.10.022. Herath W, Sultanbawa M, Wannigama G. Chemical investigation of Ceylonese plants. Part 33. Three new ursane carboxylic acids from Uncaria thwaitesii. Phytochemistry. 1978;17:1979–81. Hsu LC, Ko YJ, Cheng HY, Chang CW, Lin YC, Cheng YH, et al. Antidepressant-like activity of the ethanolic extract from Uncaria lanosa Wallich var. appendiculata Ridsd in the forced swimming test and in the tail suspension test in mice. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2012:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/497302. Kam TS, Lee KH, Goh SH. Alkaloid distribution in Malaysian Uncaria. Phytochemistry. 1992;31:2031–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(92)80356-J. Keplinger K, Laus G, Wurm M, Dierich MP, Teppner H. Uncaria tomentosa (Willd.) DC. Ethnomedicinal use and new pharmacological, toxicological and botanical results. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999;64:23–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-8741(98)00096-8. Lee JK, Kim J, Kim BY, Lee HS, Ahn JS, Chang YS. Inhibition of phospholipase cγ1 and cancer cell proliferation by triterpene esters from Uncaria rhynchophylla. J Nat Prod. 2000;63:753–6. https://doi.org/10.1021/np990478k. Martins D, Nunez CV. Secondary metabolites from Rubiaceae species. Molecules. 2015;20:13422– 95. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules200713422. Olivar JE, Sy KA, Villanueva CV, Alejandro GJD, Tan MA. Alkaloids as chemotaxonomic markers from the Philippine endemic Uncaria perrottetii and Uncaria lanosa f. philippinensis. J King Saud Univ Sci. 2018;30:283–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2017.12.008. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL (eds.). Rubiaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Rubiaceae.html. Accessed 1 July 2020. Phillipson JD, Hemingway SR, Ridsdale CE. Alkaloids of Uncaria. Part V. their occurrence and chemotaxonomy. Lloydia. 1978;41:503–70. Porer N, Leach J. Reite plants: an ethnobotanical study in Tok Pisin and English. In: Asia-Pacific environment monograph, vol. 4. Canberra: The Australian National University E Press; 2010. p. 192.

1096

M. L. G. Dapar

POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 1 July 2020. Shaharuddin NH, Ismail NH, Manshoor N, Salim F, Ahmad R. Chemical profiling and identification of alkaloids and flavonoids in Uncaria lanosa var. Ferrea via UHPLC-ORBITRAP MS. Malaysian J Anal Sci. 2016;20(2):318–23. https://doi.org/10.17576/mjas-2016-2002-13. Subarnas A. Uncaria Schreb. In: van Valkenburg JLCH, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of South-East Asia no 12(2): medicinal and poisonous plants 2. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 2001. Tanahashi T, Takenaka Y, Kobayashi C, Watsuji J, Nagakura N, Chen C. Oxindole alkaloids from Uncaria setiloba. Nat Med (Tokyo). 1997;51:556. Tantivatana P, Ponglux D, Jirawongse V, Silpvisavanont Y. Alkaloids from Uncaria quadrangularis. Planta Med. 1979;35:92–4. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0028-1097190. Tantivatana P, Ponglux D, Wongseripipatana S, Phillipson J. Alkaloids of Uncaria. Part 7. Alkaloids of U. attenuata (U. salaccensis) from N.E Thailand. Planta Med. 1980;40:299–301. https://doi. org/10.1055/s-2008-1074973. Turner IM. Notes on the genus Uncaria (Rubiaceae) in Singapore. Gard Bull Singapore. 2018;70 (1):9–12. https://doi.org/10.26492/gbs70(1).2018-02. Wagner H, Kreutzkamp B, Jurcic K. Alkaloids from Uncaria tomentosa and their phagocytosis enhancement effect. Planta Med. 1985;51:419–23. Wu T, Chan Y. Constituents of leaves of Uncaria hirsute Haviland. J Chin Chem Soc. 1994;41:209– 12. https://doi.org/10.1002/jccs.199400031. Zhang Q, Zhao JJ, Xu J, Feng F, Qu W. Medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Uncaria. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;173:48–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.06.011.

Vaccinium barandanum S. Vidal ERICACEAE Racquel C. Barcelo and Jonathan M. Barcelo

Local Names Lusong, dusong, loso, losong (Igorot); alimomosong (Bontok); ladew (Kankanay) (Madulid 2001).

Botany and Ecology Description: The genus Vaccinium consists of 450 species. V. barandanum is an evergreen shrub or small woody tree that reaches up to 7 feet high. It grows creeping or erect. The leaves are 10 cm long  3.5 cm wide, petiolate, and entire. Flower may be terminal or axillary, racemose, fasciculate, solitary. The flower may be campanulate or tubular in shape. Flowers are epigynous with fused petals. Ovary is at the base of the flower. Long style protrudes from bell-shaped corolla. Stamens possess anthers with “awns” (tube-like structure). Fruit is an edible globose and bright colored berry usually red, blue, or purple. It contains several seeds. The size ranges from 7 to 8 mm in diameter. The species depends upon mycorrhizal roots to absorb more nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus from the soils. Phenology: January to December (Pelser et al. 2011). Distribution and Habitat: Endemic to the Philippines. Found in damp shaded ravines and in mossy forest at 1300–2600 m elevation in Luzon: Abra, Ilocos Sur, Mountain Province, Benguet, Mt. Pulag, Nueva Vizcaya, Zambales, and Rizal

R. C. Barcelo (*) · J. M. Barcelo School of Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio, Philippines © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_54

1097

1098

R. C. Barcelo and J. M. Barcelo

Fig. 1 Vaccinium barandanum (Ericaceae). Ripe and unripe fruits. (© R. Barcelo)

(Pelser et al. 2011). Reported from the municipalities of Atok, Buguias, Kibungan, and La Trinidad in Benguet (Chua-Barcelo 2014) (Fig. 1).

Local Medicinal Uses and Phytochemistry Vaccinium spp. are used by the locals in the treatment of diabetes in Benguet. According to Ferrier et al. (2012), the ethanolic leaf extract is a potent inhibitor of advanced glycation end products which are responsible for diabetes, aging, atherosclerosis, kidney, vascular, and neurological diseases. Natural products or active constituents from plants such as triterpenoids and phenolics which are good antioxidants can also have anti-glycation activity and hence can be developed into antidiabetic drugs (Chinchansure et al. (2015). Secondary metabolites such as steroids, flavonoids, saponins, and tannins were detected in the methanolic fruit extract. Using DPPH assay, the fruit extract showed a good antioxidant activity compared to vitamin E, ascorbic acid, and trolox (Barcelo 2015). Meanwhile, Buya et al. (2016) reported that V. barandanum plant extract showed significant inhibition of the growth of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Local Food Uses The fruits are processed into jam, jellies, candies, and juice. The local people of Benguet harvest ripe berries and cook them with sugar to make jam, jellies, and candies. Juice can be squeezed from the ripe fruits and served as a refreshing drink once chilled. Birds consume the fruits as food (Chua-Barcelo 2014).

Vaccinium barandanum S. Vidal

1099

Biocultural Importance Wood of the tree is used for the construction of vessels such as water containers (Reid and Madulid 1972). In Bontoc, the edible berries of V. barandanum is called banway. The leaves are utilized to decorate hair and thus serve as ornament or décor. According to Jenks (1905), Bontoc Igorot men use green leaves inserted in the hat during marriage ceremonies. This suklang worn by young men appear better than the bridegroom. Unmarried women wear flowers or a stem with green leaves as hair décor.

References Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Buya J, Rodriguez LM, Alban S, Domingo A, Moga P, Perez NS, Tanda CL, Tangonan C. Vaccinium barandanum and Allium tuberosum inhibit biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance of bacteria. Undergraduate Thesis, Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Saint Louis University. 2016. http://itceprints.slu.edu.ph:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1799. Accessed 6 Jan 2020. Chinchansure A, Korwar A, Kulkarni M, Joshi S. Recent development of plant products with antiglycation activity: a review. RSC Adv. 2015;39(5):31113–38. Chua-Barcelo R. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. Ferrier J, Djeffal S, Morgan H, Vander Kloet S, Redzic S, Cuerrier A, Balick M, Arnason J. Antiglycation activity of Vaccinium spp. (Ericaceae) from the Sam Vander Kloet collection for the treatment of type II diabetes. Botany. 2012;90:401–6. Jenks A. The Bontoc Igorot. 1905. http://www.bohol.ph/books/bi/bi.htm#d0e8271. Accessed 4 Jan 2020. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Makati City: Bookmark Inc.; 2001. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL. Zingiberaceae. In: Co Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Ericaceae.html. Accessed 21 Sept 2019. Reid L, Madulid D. Some comments on Bontoc ethnobotany. Philipp J Linguis. 1972. https:// scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/32976/1/A12.1972.pdf. Accessed 4 Jan 2020.

Vaccinium myrtoides (Blume) Miq. ERICACEAE Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

Synonyms Agapetes myrtoides (Blume) G. Don; Epigynium myrtoides (Blume) Klotzsch, Thibaudia myrtoides Blume, Vaccinium villarii Vidal (POWO 2019); Thibaudia myrtoides Blume Bijdr., Vaccinium microphyllum auct. Non Reinw. ex Blume; Vaccinium varingiaefolium auct. Non (Blume) Miq.; Vaccinium villarii S. Vidal (Pelser et al. 2011).

Local Names Philippines: Agumba, ayyumani, sarngen (Kankanaey); alimani (Ilokano); alumani, ayumani, panlina, panlima, teñge (Bontok); dungal (Bagobo); gatmo, gutmo (Igorot) (Aguilar et al. 2000; Madulid 2001); ayosep, ayusip (Igorot) (Barcelo 2014; Barcelo et al. 2015); gatmo, ayohip, ayuhip, agohip, aguhip (Ifugao) (Balangcod and Balangcod 2009; Galvez 2015). Indonesia: Kulapapa, tente in talun (Villegas and Jansen 2016); kalupapa, tentein talon (Sulawesi) (Uji 2007). English: Philippine blueberry (Madulid 2001; Villegas and Jansen 2016).

M. S. Subilla Department of Forestry and Agroforestry, Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, Bontoc, Mountain Province, Philippines Z. G. Baoanan (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_202

1101

1102

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Botany and Ecology Description: Considered as characteristic species of subalpine shrub vegetation (Aguilar et al. 2000). Sleumer (1967) described it as shrub or small tree ranging from 0.3–2 m (Fig. 1). Branchlets are slender, erect, shortly patently pubescent. Leaves are more or less densely to subimbricately arranged, ovate to oblong-ovate or broad-elliptic, apex gradually attenuate or sub-acuminate, obtuse, base rounded or slightly cordate, with 1–2 minute, impressed, marginal glands in the lower third on each side, (sub)coriaceous, fugaciously puberulous when very young, glabrous at maturity, though remaining are more or less puberulous and ciliate at the very base, the petiole and the very apex, sparsely glandular-punctate beneath, 1.3–2(
2.5) by (0.6)0.7–1.3 (
1.8) cm, entire, edge marginate, midrib slightly sunken at least in the lower part above, prominent beneath, nerves 4–5(
6) pairs (the lowest pair from the base), spreading, anastomosing, raised beneath only, reticulation subdense and mostly well recognizable beneath. Petiole is 1–1.5 by c. 0.8 mm. Racemes from the upper axils, laxly (4–)6–8(
12)-flowered. Rachis is angular, finely puberulous or mostly glabrous, (1)1.5–4 cm. Pedicels nodding at anthesis, puberulous or mostly glabrous, 0.5–1 (
1.4) cm. Bract foliaceous, small but partly persistent, up to 0.8 cm. Calyx is tube cup shaped, base more or less truncate, glabrous, c. 1.5 mm long and wide, lobes triangular, more or less acute, not rarely in part (1 or 2) minutely gland-apiculate, ciliolate, c. 1 mm. Corolla shortly cyclindric-urceolate, red, pink or white to cream, glabrous at both sides, 4(
4.5) by c. 2.5 mm, lobes obtuse, recurved, c. 0.8 mm. Filaments linear, dilated below, curved, villous especially below, 1.5 mm; anther-cells broad-oblong, echinulate-papillose, 1–1.3 mm including the tubules, the latter as wide and almost half as long as the cells, obliquely cut at apex. Disk densely hairy. Style glabrous, c. 3 mm. Fruit globose, glabrous, finally bluish blackish, 4–5 mm (Figs. 2 and 3). Fig. 1 Vaccinium myrtoides in its natural habitat at Mount Kalawitan, Barangay Monamon Sur, Bauko Municipality, Mountain Province, Philippines. (© M.S. Subilla)

Vaccinium myrtoides (Blume) Miq.

1103

Fig. 2 Unripe fruit of V. myrtoides. (© M.S. Subilla)

Fig. 3 Ripe fruit of V. myrtoides. (© M.S. Subilla)

Phenology: Flowering from February to September in Mt. Pulag Natural Park, Benguet (Aguilar et al. 2000), to all year round (Sleumer 1967). Distribution and Habitat: Malesia, North Celebes (Minahasa), Moluccas (Peak of Tidore), Philippines (Sleumer 1967). They are basically found in mountainous areas of the Philippines [Luzon: Ilocos Sur (Cervantes trail), Mountain Province (Sagada; Mt. Data; Bauko), Ifugao (Mt Polis, Tinoc, Hungduan), Benguet (Loo; Mt. Pulag; Halsema Road; Pauai; Baguio); Laguna-Quezon (Mt San Cristobal; Mt. Banahaw),

1104

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Quezon, Albay (Mayon Volcano), Mindoro: Mindoro Oriental (Mt Halcon), Mindanao: Davao (Mt Apo)] (Buot 2009; Pelser et al. 2011; Barcelo 2014; Galvez 2015, 2016). Commonly found on steep rocky, open and bare slopes, under pine trees in mossy forest undergrowth, summit vegetation, open grassland, on sandy or volcanic soil, locally abundant in Benguet, at elevations from 1000 to 3200 m (Sleumer 1967).

Local Medicinal Uses In the Philippines, the Kalanguya tribe of Tinoc, Ifugao use the decoction of the plant stem as a traditional wash for fever (Galvez 2015). The Tuwalis in Maggok, Hungduan, Ifugao likewise recognize this plant as part of their pharmacopoeia (Galvez 2016). In Benguet, the fruit is considered good for poor eyesight, diabetes, antioxidant, flu, and as an anti-cancer medication (Barcelo 2014).

Phytochemistry Ethanolic leaf extracts of V. myrtoides tested for in vitro antioxidant activity using 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay reveals high radical scavenging or antioxidant activity, even higher than ascorbic acid that was used as positive control (Galvez 2015). These properties are attributed to the presence of phytosterols and phenolic compounds in the leaf extracts. Flavonoids and tannins are also present in leaf extracts indicating its potential as a supplement to reduce risk of major chronic diseases including cancer. These four chemical compounds are responsible for the antibacterial properties of the leaf extracts against gram negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa with a mean zone of inhibition of 12 mm (Galvez 2016). Barcelo et al. (2015) report that fresh fruits have higher polyphenol content than its fruit wine sold in markets of Benguet Province, Philippines, due to wine aging and wine making procedures. Natural V. myrtoides fruit extracts are also rich in alkaloids, steroids, flavonoids, tannins, and polyphenols with higher antioxidant activities than commercial Vitamins A, E, and ascorbic acid (Barcelo 2015).

Local Food Uses Fruits of V. myrtoides are commonly consumed by residents in Tinoc, Ifugao (Balangcod and Balangcod 2009), and may be eaten raw or as wine product in Benguet, Philippines (Barcelo et al. 2015). Although this plant was also documented from Mt. Mayon, Albay, Bicol Peninsula, Southern Luzon, Philippines, the local residents do not consume the fruits (Buot 2009). V. myrtoides is also reported as an edible fruit from the forests of Sulawesi, Indonesia (Uji 2007).

Vaccinium myrtoides (Blume) Miq.

1105

Biocultural Importance Barcelo (2014) estimated the cultural importance (CI) of 36 fruit species found in the municipalities of Benguet, Philippines. V. myrtoides emerged as the highest ranked among the 10 fruits that are used as offering to the deity (CI ¼ 0.073), and of the three fruits used as source of ink or dye (CI ¼ 0.049).

Economic Importance The fruit is ideal for making jelly and juice (Barcelo 2014), and wine (Barcelo et al. 2015). A patent application has been filed for its use as a component of Tecap Liquid, a natural product drink formula for balancing vaginal pH, reducing vaginal odor, and/or reducing body odor (Allen 2018).

References Aguilar NO, Cardenas LB, Cajano MAO. Spore- and seed-bearing plants of mount Pulag, Benguet, Philippines. Philippines: museum of natural history. Laguna: University of the Philippines Los Baños, College; 2000. Allen T. TECAP liquid. US 2018/0036362 A1. 2018. US patent application publication. https:// patents.google.com/patent/US20180036362A1/en. Accessed 8 July 2020. Balangcod TD, Balangcod AD. Underutilized plant resources in Tinoc, Ifugao, Cordillera Administrative Region, Luzon island, Philippines. Acta Hortic. 2009;806(2):647–54. https://doi.org/ 10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.806.80. Barcelo RT. Ethno-botanical survey of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(Suppl 1):S525–38. https://doi.org/ 10.12980/APJTB.4.201414B36. Barcelo R. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of edible wild fruits in Benguet, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. eJBio. 2015;11(3):80–9. Barcelo R, Basilio A, Calsiyao ID, Mabesa CB, Palconete RM, Tobias JA. Antioxidant property and total polyphenol and flavonoid content of selected fruits and fruit wines. PeJARD. 2015;5:57–64. http://pejard.slu.edu.ph/vol.5/2015.12.17.pdf. Buot IEJ. Ethnobotanical study of the plant biodiversity of Mt. Mayon, Bicol Peninsula, Albay, Philippines. J Nat Stud. 2009;8(1):1–10. http://journalofnaturestudies.org/index.php. Accessed 6 June 2020. Galvez MAC. Evaluation of DPPH free radical scavenging activity and phytochemical screening of selected folkloric medicinal plants in Tinoc, Ifugao, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. Int J Sci Res Publ. 2015;5(12):440–5. Galvez MAC. Antibacterial activity and phytochemical screening of selected folkloric medicinal plants of Maggok, Hungduan, Ifugao, Cordillera Administrative Region, Philippines. Int J Sci Res Publ. 2016;6(1):460–4. Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Makati/Manila: Bookmark Inc.; 2001. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL (editors.). Ericaceae. Co’s digital flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Ericaceae.html. Accessed 6 June 2020. POWO. Plants of the World Online. 2019. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org: names:859049-1. Accessed 4 June 2020.

1106

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Sleumer H. Ericaceae. In: Steenis CGGJ van and Steenis-Kruseman MJ van (editors). Flora Malesiana Djakarta: Noordhoff-Kolff. 1967; 6(ser. 1): 670–914. https://www. biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28495682. Accessed 9 July 2020. Uji T. Species diversity of indigenous fruits in Indonesia and its potential. Biodiversitas. 2007;8(2):157–67. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d080217. Villegas VN, Jansen PCM. Vaccinium (PROSEA). PlantUse English, 6 February 2016. https://uses. plantnet-project.org/e/index.php?title¼Vaccinium_(PROSEA)&oldid¼202440. Accessed 9 July 2020.

Viburnum luzonicum Rolfe VIBURNACEAE Raf. Melanie S. Subilla and Zenaida G. Baoanan

Synonyms Viburnum luzonicum f. formosanum (Hance) Rehder; Viburnum luzonicum var. formosanum (Hance) Rehder; Viburnum luzonicum var. matsudae (Hayata) Liao; Viburnum luzonicum var. morrisonense (Hayata) S.S. Ying; Viburnum luzonicum var. mushanense (Hayata) Kaneh. & Sasaki; Viburnum luzonicum var. mushanense (Hayata) Kaneh. & Sadaki ex Sadaki; Viburnum luzonicum f. oblongum Kaneh. & Sasaki; Viburnum luzonicum f. subglabrum (Hayata) Kaneh. & Sasaki (The Plant List 2013); Viburnum foochowense W.W.Sm.; Viburnum laxum Elmer; Viburnum mushanense Hayata; Viburnum smitii F.P. Metcalf (POWO 2019).

Local Names Philippines: V. luzonicum Rolfe: Atalba (Tag.) (Madulid 2001); atelba (Bon.) (Bodner and Gereau 1988); atíba (Bon.); atàlba, tilba (Ig.); bangas-bangas (Bag.), bagiroro (Bik.), putud (Gad.) (Kern et al. 1951); atalba, atolba (If.) (Taguiling 2013) V. luzonicum var. sinuatum: Taringongog (Neg.) (Kern and van Steenis 1951) V. luzonicum var. apoense: Angganasi, atadatud (Buk.), bangasbangas (Bag.) (Kern et al. 1951) M. S. Subilla Department of Forestry and Agroforestry, Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, Bontoc, Mountain Province, Philippines Z. G. Baoanan (*) Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_203

1107

1108

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Botany and Ecology Description: A deciduous shrub of about 8–20 feet, or a small tree. Bark is light brown with branchlets of current year yellow-brown, stellate-pubescent; branchlets of previous year dark purple-brownish, terete, sparsely stellate-pubescent, with dispersed, small, and rounded lenticels (Fig. 1). Winter buds ovoid-oblong, with 2 pairs of separate scales; scales yellow-brown stellate-pubescent. Leaves extremely variable but always opposite, not clustered at apices or branchlets; chartaceous to subcoriaceous, young ones pubescent by simple antrorse and stellate hairs, more or less glabrescent,3–8( 13) by 2–5 cm, ovate to lanceolate, apex acute to long acuminate, base broadly cuneate to rounded, often inequilateral, margins almost entire to sinuate-dentate in upper part; nervation prominent beneath, often hidden by indument; primary nerves 5–7 on each side, usually terminating in teeth, lower ones anastomosing. Stipules absent; petiole green, slender, usually 3–10 mm ( 15) mm, yellow brown stellate-pubescent; leaf blade yellowish green when young, ovate, elliptic-ovate, or ovate-lanceolate to oblong, sometimes subrhombic, 4–9  2–5 cm, papery to thickly papery, abaxially sparsely stellate-pubescent or forklike pubescent, adaxially with transparent grandular dots and forklike pubescent on midvein, midvein raised abaxially, lateral veins 5–9 jugate, pinnate, straight or slightly arched, rarely branched, ending in teeth, conspicuously raised abaxially, impressed Fig. 1 Viburnum luzonicum with immature fruits. This plant was photographed at Mount Kalawitan, Barangay Monamon Sur, Bauko Municipality, Mountain Province, Philippines. (© M.S. Subilla)

Viburnum luzonicum Rolfe

1109

adaxially, not lobed, based broadly cuneate to subrounded, with 0–2 circular glands on both sides of midvein near base, margin serrate, ciliate, apex acuminate to acute. Inflorescence is a compound ambel-like cyme, usually at apices of short lateral branchlets with a pair of leaves or terminal on branchlets, 3–5 cm in diameter; rays whorled; first node of inflorescence with 5 rays, dense, yellow-brown stellatepubescent, or mixed with forklike or simple hairs, without large sterile radiant flowers. Flowers appearing after leaves; rays of 3rd and 4th orders, not fragrant to slightly odorous, sessile or shortly pedicellate; 3–5 mm wide. Bracts and bracteoles small, lanceolate, pubescent and ciliate, 1–2 mm. Peduncle usually very short or nearly absent, very rarely to 1.5 cm; bracts and bracteoles deciduous, leaflike, green, lanceolate, hairy. Calyx yellowish green; tube ovoid-orbicular, ca. 1 mm, yellowbrown stellate-pubescent; lobes ovate-lanceolate, ca. 0.5 mm, ciliate, apex obtuse. Corolla creamy white or somewhat pink, rotate, 4–5 mm in diameter, outside stellate-pubescent; tube ca. 2 mm; lobes spreading, ovate, exceeding tube, apex rounded, margin entire. Stamens shorter or slightly longer than corolla, inserted at base of corolla; filaments adnate to base of corolla, ca. 2 mm; anthers yellowwhitish, broadly elliptic, ca. 0.8 mm; styles slightly exceeding calyx lobes; stigmas indistinctly 3-lobed. Fruit maturing red, ovoid, 5–6 mm, based rounded, apex rounded, glabrous; pyrenes very compressed, ovoid, 4–5  3–4 mm, with 3 shallow dorsal grooves and 2 shallow ventral grooves, base truncate, apex acute. Endocarp slightly undulate in cross-section, the 2 dorsal and 3 ventral grooves often obsolete (Kern et al. 1951; Qiner and Malécot 2011). Fruits are colored black when ripened and showy (Fig. 2) (Missouri Botanical Garden 2020). Phenology: Reportedly flowering and fruiting throughout the year (Kern et al. 1951), or flowering is from April to June while fruiting is from August to October (Qiner and Malécot 2011). Distribution and Habitat: Native to China South-Central, China Southeast, Taiwan, Vietnam, Philippines (Mountain Province, Benguet, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Pampanga, Bataan, and Camarines) (Pelser et al. 2011; POWO 2019), Formosa, Malaysia, Moluccas (Buru) (Kern et al. 1951). Found from sparse forests, scrub, roadsides at about 100–700 m. in Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, SE Jiangxi, Taiwan, Yunnan, S Zhejiang (Qiner and Malécot 2011) to thickets and forests at medium and higher altitudes of 800–2200 m (Kern 1951). Survives in full sunlight to partly shaded areas and can tolerate drought (Missouri Botanical Garden 2020). Ranked as the most dominant plant in the lower elevation and fifth at higher part of Monamon Sur, Central Cordillera Philippines; proliferates in areas that were previously disturbed through logging and clearing activities by fire, and transition zones between the mossy and pine forests (Banwa 2011). There are no serious insect or disease problems encountered (Missouri Botanical Garden 2020). Conservation Status: Least concern; although the population is stable, the population status of the species requires further assessment (Lai and Liu 2019). It is conserved ex situ, as it is propagated as a new and distinct Viburnum cultivar named BLV01 in a commercial nursery in Independence, Louisiana, USA (Lee 2019).

1110

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

Fig. 2 Flowers and fruits of Viburnum luzonicum. (© M.S. Subilla)

Phytochemistry Viburnum are generally important for their anticancer properties (Stepien et al. 2018). The methanol extracted dried leaves of V. luzonicum collected from Kaoshiung, Taiwan, were found to contain four new iridoids glucosides (1–4) and seven new iridoid aglycons (5–11) bearing (E)- or (Z)-p-coumaroyl groups. The structures of new compounds, named luzonoside A (1), luzonoside B (2), luzonoside C (3), luzonoside D (4), luzonoid A (5), luzonoid B (6), luzonoid C (7), luzonoid D (8), luzonoid E (9), luzonoid F (10), and luzonoid G (11) were elucidated by analysis of spectroscopic data and comparison with values for previously known analogues. Among the iridoids isolated, glucosides 1 and 2, and their aglycons 5–9, exhibited moderate inhibitory activity against HeLa S3 cancer cells, whereas 3 and 4 showed no cytotoxicity even at 100 μM (Fukuyama et al. 2004). Four new irridoid aldehydes bearing (E)- or (Z)-p-coumaroyl group, luzonial A (1), luzonial B (2), luzonidial A (3), and Luzonidial B (4) were further isolated, with compounds 1–3 exhibiting moderate inhibitory activities still against HeLa S3 cancer cells (Fukuyama et al. 2005).

Viburnum luzonicum Rolfe

1111

The red pigments used as dye from fruits of V. luzonicum remain stable below 60 °C, at pH < 4, in the presence of Mg ~ (2+), glucose and sodium benzoate. The pigments are however sensitive with altered coloration to high temperature, strong light and oxidation-reduction media composed of Fe ~ (3+), Cu ~ (2+), and Vitamin C (Binghua 2005).

Local Food Uses No part of this plant is known to be edible to humans.

Other Uses The Applai and Kankanaey tribes of Western Mountain Province, Philippines, use the wood or trunk of atelba as handle for farm tools (Subilla pers. obs.) (Fig. 3) hence they leave the plant in the wild for that purpose. The durable wood has been used as posts and braces in the making of Igorots’ traditional houses in the Cordillera, Philippines (Subilla pers. obs.). The residents of Tukukan in the central Bontoc region of Northern Mountain Province find many uses for this plant including firewood, fencing, and construction of pig pens, and the berries for red dye Fig. 3 Viburnum luzonicum trunk used as tool handle. (© M.S. Subilla)

1112

M. S. Subilla and Z. G. Baoanan

production (Bodner and Gereau 1988). The Kalanguyas of Tinoc, Ifugao, Philippines utilize the fruit sap of V. luzonicum as substitute for ink while V. luzonicum var. formosanum is specifically useful for making of tools and tool handles (Balangcod and Balangcod 2009). Since the plant thrives in logged and cleared areas, it serves as indicator species of disturbance in Central Cordillera (Banwa 2011).

Economic Importance The Viburnum cultivar (BLV01) is a product of a planned breeding program obtained from collected seeds of V. luzonicum since 2002 at a commercial nursery in Independence, Louisiana (Lee 2019). This new variety reaches a mature height shorter than the native plant, is less vigorous and more controlled in growth, produces more flowers per plant, and sets fruit more heavily. It is sold as outdoor garden or container plant. Lee (2019) filed a patent for this new cultivar on September 19, 2017, and was approved on April 9, 2019. The plant is commonly used as shrub borders, screens, foundations or hedges and open woodland gardens (Missouri Botanical Garden 2020).

References Balangcod TD, Balangcod AD. Underutilized plant resources in Tinoc, Ifugao, Cordillera Administrative Region, Luzon island, Philippines. Acta Hortic. 2009;806(2):647–54. https://doi.org/ 10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.806.80. Banwa P. Diversity and endemism in mossy/montane forests of central cordillera region, northern Philippines. Biodiversity. 2011;12(4):212–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2011.649561. Binghua C. Influencing factors of the stability of red pigment in {\sl Viburnum luzonicum} Rolfe fruits. J Trop Subtrop Bot. 2005;13(6):493–8. Bodner CC, Gereau RE. A contribution to Bontoc Ethnobotany. Econ Bot. 1988;42(3):307–69. Accessed 22 May 2020 https://www.jstor.org/stable/4255087. Fukuyama Y, Minoshima Y, Kishimoto Y, Chen IS, Takahashi H, Esumi T. Iridoid glucosides and p-coumaroyl iridoids from Viburnum luzonicum and their cytotoxicity. J Nat Prod. 2004;67(11):1833–8. https://doi.org/10.1021/np0401381. Fukuyama Y, Minoshima Y, Kishimoto Y, Chen IS, Takahashi H, Esumi T. Cytotoxic iridoid aldehydes from Taiwanese Viburnum luzonicum. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2005;53 (1):125–7. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.53.125. Kern JH. The genus Viburnum (Caprifoliaceae) in Malaysia. Reinwardtia. Herbarium Bogoriense, Kebun Raya Indonesia. 1951;1(2):107–70. https://e-journal.biologi.lipi.go.id/index.php/ reinwardtia/article/view/1055/929. Accessed 22 June 2020. Kern JH, Bogor, van Steenis CGGJ. Caprifoliaceae. Flora Malesiana series 1. 1951;4:175–94. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/124368#page/5/mode/1up. Accessed 24 June 2020. Lai Y, Liu H. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. Viburnum luzonicum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019:e. T147389348A147613470. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T147389348A147 613470.en.2019. Accessed 8 June 2020. Lee RE. US PP30,355 P2. 2019. United States Plant Patent; https://patentimages.storage. googleapis.com/75/f3/7d/224f5bba23a8bc/USPP30355.pdf. Accessed 24 June 2020.

Viburnum luzonicum Rolfe

1113

Madulid D. A dictionary of Philippine plant names, vol. II. Philippines: Bookmark Inc.; Makati, Manila; 2001. Missouri Botanical Garden. Viburnum luzonicum. Missouribotanicalgarden.org. Accessed 1 June 2020. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL (eds). Adoxaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Adoxaceae.html. Accessed 6 June 2020. POWO. Plants of the World Online. 2019. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet http://powo.science.kew.org/?q=Viburnum%20luzonicum. Accessed 26 May 2020. Qiner Y. Malécot V. 1. Viburnum Linnaeus, Sp. Pl, 1: 267.1753. Fl. China 2011; 19:570–611. http:// flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/PDF/PDF19/Viburnum.pdf. Accessed 3 June 2020. Stepien A, Aebisher D, Bartusik-Aebisher D. Anticancer properties of Viburnum. Eur J Clin Exp Med. 2018;16(1):47–52. https://doi.org/10.15584/ejcem.2018.1.8. Taguiling, NK. Macrofloral biodiversity conservation in Ifugao. Eur. Sci. J. 2013; 4: 469–82. http:// eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/2503. Accessed 25 July 2020. The Plant List. Version 1.1. Published on the Internet. 2013. http://www.theplantlist.org/. Accessed 10 June 2020.

Vitex negundo L. LAMIACEAE A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Synonyms Agnus-castus incisa (Lam.) Carrière, Agnus-castus negundo (L.) Carrière, Vitex arborea Desf., V. chinensis Mill., V. elmeri Moldenke, V. gracilis Salisb., V. incisa Lam., V. incisa var. heterophylla Franch., V. negundo var. incisa (Lam.) C.B.Clarke, V. laciniata Schauer, V. sinuata Medik., V. spicata Lour, V. paniculata Lamk, V. agnus-castus var. negundo (L.) Kuntze, V. agnus-castus var. negundoides Kuntze, V. negundo var. heterophylla (Franch.) Rehder

Local Names Philippines: Lagundi (Bikol, Ibanag, Tagalog, Tadyawan, Mindoro, Isabela and Cagayan), dabtan (Batad, Ifugao in Cordillera), dangla (Cagayan, Iloko, Sablan in Luzon), limo-limo (Ilocano and Barangay), kamalan (Tagalog in Barangay), lin˜ gei (Bontok in northern Luzon), sagarai (Bagobo in southern Mindanao), turagay (Bisaya in Central Visayas), huang jing zi; Indonesia: katumpa empah (Java) tuban (Ambon), lagundi, laut laki-laki (Malay, Moluccas); Malaysia: lenggundi, legundi, lagundi, lemuning, muning, demundi, lemuni, talaun-mohou (Sabah); Myanmar: kyaungban-gyi (Yangon), kiyuban-bin; Thailand: khon thi khamao (Central), ku-no-kaa-mo (Pattani), kuuning (Narathiwat); Cambodia: trasiet; Vietnam: hoàng kinh, ngutrao (de padua et al. 1999; Ahuja et al. 2015). A. Nithaniyal Stalin (*) Department of Botany, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Department of Botany, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India Department of Botany, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), East Tambaram, Tamil Nadu, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_98

1115

1116

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Botany and Ecology Description: Trees or shrubs, up to 5 m high; stems quadrangular, velvety; bark surface slightly rough, peeling off in papery flakes, pale reddish-brown; branchlets whitish to greyish tomentose. Leaves 3–5-foliolate, opposite-decussate; central leaflet oblong-elliptic to narrowly elliptic, 3.4–7  1.2–1.6 cm; side leaflets 2.3– 5  0.8–1.4 cm, acuminate at apex, cuneate at base, entire-dentate at margin, velutinous whitish below, aromatic when crushed; petiole 2.2–3.2 cm long, covered with minute curly hairs; petiolules 0–6 cm long. Inflorescence a panicle, terminal, to 25 cm long. Flowers in dense side clusters on peduncles, to 8 mm long, blue to lavender. Calyx campanulate, 5-lobed, 5-ribbed; lobes 0.5–1 cm long, velutinous, persistent. Corolla 5-lobed, white or purple to blue-violet, covered with appressed hairs; glands few, white; lip oblong, 1.8–3  1.9–2.1 mm, apex rounded and reflexed, entire at margin, two well-developed ridges at corolla mouth, blue; side lobes 1.2–1.5  1–2 mm, blue; tube 2–3.5 mm long, infundibular. Stamens 4, didynamous; filaments 1.5–4 mm long, attached halfway on the corolla tube, pale purple; anther c. 0.8 mm long, pale brown to violet. Ovary globose, 0.6– 0.8  0.5–0.7 mm; style 2.5–3 mm long; stigma lobes 0.1–0.5 mm long. Fruit a drupe, obovoid or subglobose, 2.5–4  1.8–2 mm, smooth, black when ripe (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Distribution: Vitex negundo is distributed in the regions of Africa, Western Asia, Eastern Asia, China, Indian subcontinent, and western Polynesia. Commonly occurs in Southeast Asian countries such as Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam (de Pauda et al. 1999). Etymology: Vitex means to weave or to twine; negundo is derived from Sanskrit and denotes protection of body from diseases. Ecology: Vitex negundo is highly variable; grows gregariously along watercourses, wastelands, thickets, and open forests in humid places up to 1700 m altitude. Flowering and fruiting throughout the year. Cultivated widely in Java, Sumatra, the Philippines, Malaysia and has a tendency to escape and naturalize (de Pauda et al. 1999; de Kok 2008). Conservation Status: Vitex negundo is designated under Least Concern (LC) category based on the assessment of Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) Global Tree Specialist Group (BGCI and IUCN-SSC GTSG 2019).

Local Medicinal Uses Philippines: Vitex negundo trees are highly valued in healing practices of many communities of Philippines. Leaf decoction prepared from lagundi (V. nedundo) is taken continuously to treat dengue and malaria by the Matigsalugs in Marilog district (Gascon 2011). Leaf decoction is taken as a remedy for cough, cold and fever by local communities of Tigbauan in Iloilo (Tantiado 2012), Subanen in Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur (Morilla et al. 2014) and Carcanmadcarlan in Surigao del Sur (Gruyal

Vitex negundo L.

1117

Fig. 1 Habit of Vitex negundo. (© Nithaniyal Stalin A)

et al. 2014), Palanan in Isabela, Luzon (Baleta et al. 2016), Maranao in Pualas, Lanao del Sur (Malawani et al. 2017), Matigsalug in Baganihan, Davao City (Guevara and Garcia 2018), and Ayta in Dinalupihan, Bataan (Tantengco et al. 2018). Similarly, leaf decoction is traditionally recommended to treat high fever, stomach ache, asthma, skin allergy, cough by Bayabas, Sablan, Benguet, Luzon (Balangcod and Balangcod 2015). The crushed leaves are diluted with water and consumed as medication for respiratory illnesses, profuse sweating, difficulty of urination, musculo-skeletal problem, headache, flu cough, and fever by the indigenous communities of Kankanaey and Bago in Barangay, La Union (Ducusin 2017) and Ilongot-Eǵongot in Maria Aurora, Aurora (Balberona et al. 2018). The Y’Apayaos people in Santa Praxedes, Cagayan, use the water boiled with lagundi leaves for medicinal bath to treat patients suffering from flu (Baddu and Ouano 2018). Traditional healers in North Cotabato, Mindanao, apply leaf extracts externally on the affected area as poultice and also consume internally as a malaria medication (Rubio and Naïve 2018). Leaves are boiled in water and taken three times a day for cancer by ethnic communities of Higaonon, Mamanwa, Manobo, Meranao in Mindanao (Pucot et al. 2019). Leaf decoction is also used to treat cough with phlegm, ulcer, rheumatism, postpartum care and recovery, headache, gas pain, and flatulence by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines (Dapar et al. 2020). A tea is prepared with lagundi leaves or roots boiled in water and consumed

1118

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Vitex negundo. (© Nithaniyal Stalin A)

thrice a day by the Mangyan (Tadyawan) people in Mindoro Island for stomach disorders (Rubite et al. 2012). Vietnam: Ngutrao (V. negundo) is used to treat coryza, photopsia, vertigo, ophthalmalgia, glaucoma, influenza, rheumatism, neuralgia, helminths, and fever by local communities in Hanoi, Phu Quoc Island, and Ninh Thuan, Vietnam (Nguyen et al. 2006; Kurian 2012). Thailand: Khon thi khamao (V. negundo) are used as expectorant and anthelmintic drug in Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai, Thailand (Kurian 2012).

Phytochemistry Phytochemicals have been reported from all the plant parts of Vitex negundo are alkaloids, balsams, flavonoids, lignans, glycosidic irridoids, polyphenolic compounds, phlobatannins, resins, saponins, tannins, terpenes, volatile oils, and steroids

Vitex negundo L.

1119

Fig. 3 Close view of buds and open flowers of Vitex negundo. (© Nithaniyal Stalin A)

(Ahuja et al. 2015; Boy et al. 2018). Phytoconstituents reported from the leaves are agnuside, artemetin, α-tocoquinone, β-caryophyllene, β-sitosterol, betulinic acid, casticin, caryophyllene oxide, chrysosplenol-d, γ-tocopherol, γ-terpinene, γ-oceten-3-ol, globulol, gluco-nonitol, isovitexin, oleanolic acid, negundoside, nishindine, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, penduleti, sabinene, salviaplebeiaside, ursolic acid, vitamin C, viridiflorol, vitexcarpin, vitexnegundin, vitetrifolin D, and vitegnoside (Singh et al. 1999; Chandramu et al. 2003; Khare 2004; Surveswaran et al. 2007; Sichaem et al. 2019). Seeds contains useful compounds such as β-sitosterol, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 5-oxyisophthalic acid, n-tritriacontane, n-hentriacontane, n-pentatriacontane n-nonacosane, vitedoin-A, vitedoin-B, and vitedoamine-A (Ono et al. 2004; Vishwanathan and Basavaraju 2010). Phytochemicals identified from the roots are vitexin, isovitexin, negundin-A, negundin-B, (+)-diasyringaresinol, (+)-lyoniresinol, vitrofolalE, vitrofolal-F acetyl oleanolic acid, sitosterol (Vishnoi et al. 1983; Srinivas et al. 2001; Malik et al. 2004). Essential oils isolated from the fresh leaves, flowers, and dried fruits are α-cedrene, α-selinene, β-selinene, δ-guaiene, caryophyllene epoxide, ethyl-hexadecenoate, germacren-4-ol, guaia-3,7-dienecaryophyllene epoxide, (E)nerolidol, germacrene D, hexadecanoic acid, p-cymene, and valencene (Khokra et al. 2008; Gill et al. 2018). Vitex negundo is shown to possess plenty of therapeutic properties such as analgesic, anthelmintic, antiamnesic, antiandrogenic, antibacterial, anticancer, anticonvulsant, antidiabetic, antieosinophilic, antifungal, antihistaminic, antiinflammatory, antimalarial, antioxidant, antiproliferative, antipyretic, antirheumatic,

1120

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

antiscabies, antitussive, antityphoid, antivenom, anxiolytic, astringent, bronchodilator, cardioprotective, carminative, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatoprotective, lactagogue, nervine, and stomachic (Dharmasiri et al. 2003; Nguyen-Pouplin et al. 2007; Singh et al. 2011; Ladda and Magdum 2012; Kadir et al. 2013; Abidin et al. 2015; Khan et al. 2015; Prasad et al. 2017; Stuart 2017). Zheng et al. (2012) isolated negundol, a labdane diterpenoid form the seeds that showed antifungal activity against Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Trichophyton rubrum. Studies also documented insecticidal activity of V. negundo against pulse beetle, potato-tuber moth, angoumois grain moth, spirea aphid, Melon or Cotton aphid, and green peach aphid (Das 1995; Paneru and Shivakoti 2001; En-shun et al. 2009).

Local Food Uses In the Philippines, lagundi syrup is prepared using the leaf extract obtained from boiled water, and mixed with honey for sweetness (de padua et al. 1999).

Biocultural Importance Lagundi plants are placed in diverse types of uses over history by indigenous communities in Luzon. In the local culture, it is used in magic, totems, water divination, basketry, wattles, food, and medicine; In agriculture, it is used as growth promoter, manure, pesticide, food protectant, planted for reclamation of wasteland, prevent erosion and in the preparation of grain and garlic storage; As an insecticide, leaves are placed between pages of books and folds of silk and woolen clothes to protect them from insects; As a fumigant, fresh leaves are burnt and used as natural repellent for mosquitoes. In Malaysia, V. negundo is grown as hedge, ornamental plant, and medicine (fondazioneslowfood.com; de kok 2008; Ahuja et al. 2015; Stuart 2017).

Economic Importance Lagundi syrup and capsules are produced by the Pala’wan community in Mt. Mantalingahan and sold in the local market as well as distributed to nearby village health centers (Lasmarias 2016). Total revenue for lagundi cough tablet and syrup attained over Php50 million during 1997 to 2010 (Palumbarit 2011). Therefore, commercial products of lagundi such as tablets, capsules, oil, teas, and syrup are promoted by the Philippine Department of Health (DOH) for cough and asthma and registered under the Bureau of Foods and Drugs (Abe and Ohtani 2013).

Vitex negundo L.

1121

References Abe R, Ohtani K. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants and traditional therapies on Batan Island, the Philippines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145:554–65. Abidin L, Ahmad A, Mir SR, Mujeeb M, Khan SA. Ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacological potential of Vitex negundo L. (five-leaved chaste tree): an updated review. J Coastal Life Med. 2015;3(10):826–33. https://doi.org/10.12980/jclm.3.2015j5-133. Ahuja SC, Ahuja S, Ahuja U. Nirgundi (Vitex negundo) – nature’s gift to mankind. Asian Agri-Hist. 2015;19(1):5–32. Baddu VD, Ouano NB. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by the Y’Apayaos of Sta. Praxedes in the Province of Cagayan, Philippines. Mindanao J Sci Technol. 2018;16:128–53. Balangcod TD, Balangcod KD. Ethnomedicinal plants in Bayabas, Sablan, Benguet Province, Luzon, Philippines. Electron J Biol. 2015;11(3):63–73. Balberona AN, Noveno JJ, Angeles MGB, Santos RI, Cachin EJDJ, Cruz KGJ. Ethnomedicinal plants utilized by the Ilongot-Eǵongot Community of Bayanihan, Maria Aurora, Aurora, Philippines. Int J Agric Technol. 2018;14(2):145–59. Baleta FN, Donato JG, Bolaños JM. Awareness, utilization and diversity of medicinal plants at Palanan, Isabela, Philippines. J Med Plants Stud. 2016;4(4):265–9. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. Vitex negundo. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN. UK.2019-2.RLTS.T145823627A145823629.en. Boy HIA, Rutilla AJH, Santos KA, Ty AMT, Yu AI, Mahboob T, Tangpoong J, Nissapatorn V. Recommended medicinal plants as source of natural products: a review. Digital Chinese Med. 2018;1:131–42. Chandramu C, Manohar RD, Krupadanam DG, Dashavantha RV. Isolation, characterization and biological activity of betulinic acid and ursolic acid from Vitex negundo L. Phytother Res. 2003;17(2):129–34. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00363. Das GP. Plants used in controlling the potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller). Crop Prot. 1995;14:631–6. de Kok R. The genus Vitex (Labiatae) in the Flora Malesiana region, excluding New Guinea. Kew Bull. 2008;63:17–40. de Padua LS, Bunyapraphatsara N, Lemmens RHMJ, editors. Plant resources of South East Asia 12(1) medicinal and poisonous plants. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers; 1999. 771 pp. Dharmasiri MG, Jayakody JRAC, Galhena G, Liyanage SSP, Ratnasooriya WD. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of mature fresh leaves of Vitex negundo. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;87:199–206. Ducusin MB. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants among the indigenous peoples of Santol, La Union, Philippines. Electron J Biol. 2017;13(4):360–82. En-shun J, Ming X, Yu-qing L, Yu-feng W. Toxicity of Vitex negundo extract to aphids and its co-toxicity with imidacloprid. Chin J Appl Ecol. 2009;20:686–90. Gascon MG. Traditional ecological knowledge system of the Matigsalug Tribe in Mitigating the effects of Dengue and Malaria outbreak. Asian J Health Ethno Med Section. 2011;1(1):160–71. https://doi.org/10.7828/ajoh.v1i1.161. Gill BS, Mehra R, Navgeet KS. Vitex negundo and its medicinal value. Mol Biol Rep. 2018;45:2925–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-018-4421-3. Gruyal GA, del Roasario R, Palmes ND. Ethnomedicinal plants used by residents in Northern Surigao del Sur, Philippines. Nat Prod Chem Res. 2014;2:4. https://doi.org/10.4172/23296836.1000140. Guevara CPB, Garcia MM. Ethnobotanical practices of Matigsalug Tribe on medicinal plants at Barangay Baganihan, Marilog District, Davao City. J Complement Altern Med Res. 2018;6 (3):1–14.

1122

A. Nithaniyal Stalin

Kadir FA, Kassim NM, Abdulla MA, Yehye WA. Hepatoprotective role of ethanolic extract of Vitex negundo in thioacetamide-induced liver fibrosis in male rats. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2013. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/739850. Khan M, Shah AJ, Gilani AH. Insight into the bronchodilator activity of Vitex negundo. Pharm Biol. 2015;53(3):340–4. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2014.919327. Khare C. Encyclopedia Indian medicinal plant-rational western therapy, Ayurvedic and other traditional usage, Botany. New York: Springer; 2004. Khokra S, Prakash O, Jain S, Aneja K, Dhingra Y. Essential oil composition and antibacterial studies of Vitex negundo Linn. extracts. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2008;70(4):522. Kurian JC. Ethno-medicinal plants of India, Thailand and Vietnam. J Biodiversity. 2012;3(1):61– 75. https://doi.org/10.1080/09766901.2012.1. Ladda PL, Magdum CS. Vitex negundo Linn.: ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology- a review. Int J Adv Pharm Biol Chem. 2012;1(1):111–20. Lasmarias NC. Philippines’ wealth creation programme from biodiversity resources: economic valuation component, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), United Nations Development Program; 2016. p. 23–5. Malawani AD, Nuñeza OM, Uy MM, Senarath WTPSK. Ethnobotanical survey of the medicinal plants used by the Maranaos in Pualas, Lanao del Sur, Philippines. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci. 2017;6(6):45–53. Malik A, Anis I, Khan SB, Ahmed E, Ahmed Z, Nawaz SA, Choudhary MI. Enzymes inhibiting lignans from Vitex negundo. Chem Pharm Bull. 2004;52(11):1269–72. Morilla LJG, Sumaya NHN, Rivero HI, Madamba MRSB. Medicinal plants of the Subanens in Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines. In: International conference on food, biological and medical sciences, Bangkok; 2014. p. 28–29. https://doi.org/10.15242/IICBE.C0114577. Nguyen MTT, Le Tran Q, Nakashima EMN, Awale S, Kadota S. Investigation on tradition medicine at Phu Quoc Island and Ninh Thuan Provience in Vietnam. J Tradit Med. 2006;23:69–82. Nguyen-Pouplin J, Tran H, Tran H, et al. Antimalarial and cytotoxic activities of ethnopharmacologically selected medicinal plants from South Vietnam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;109(3):417– 27. Research Article Ono M, Nishida Y, Masuoka C, Li J, Okawa M, Ikeda T, Nohara T. Lignan derivatives and a norditerpene from the seeds of Vitex negundo. J Nat Prod. 2004;67:2073–5. Palumbarit, E.. Commercialization of medicinal plant products: a success story? 2011. http://www. ipophil.gov.ph/index.php/ip-knowledge2/high-level-forum-oninnovation-opportunities-in-thephilippines. Paneru RB, Shivakoti GP. Use of botanicals for the management of pulse beetle (Callosobruchus maculatus F.) in lentil. Nepal Agric Res J. 2001;4(5):27–30. Prasad EM, Mopuri R, Islam MS, Kodidhela LD. Cardioprotective effect of Vitex negundo on isoproterenol-induced myocardial necrosis in wistar rats: a dual approach study. Biomed Pharmacother. 2017;85:601–10. Pucot JR, Manting MME, Demayo CG. Ethnobotanical plants used by selected indigenous peoples of Mindanao, the Philippines as Cancer Therapeutics. Pharmacophore. 2019;10(3):61–9. Rubio MM, Naïve MAK. Ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional healers in North Cotabato, Mindanao, Philippines. J Biodivers Environ Sci. 2018;13(6):74–82. Rubite RR, Sia IC, Leonard C, Ylagan L. Ethnopharmacologic documentation of selected Philippine Ethnolinguistic Groups: The Mangyan (Tadyawan) People of Mindoro Island; 2012. p. 26. Sichaem J, Nguyen HH, Nguyen VH, Mac DH, Mai DT, Nguyen HC, Tran TN, Pham NK, Nguyen HH, Niamnont N, Duong TH. A new labdane-type diterpenoid from the leaves of Vitex negundo L. Nat Prod Res. 2019:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2019.1672687. Singh V, Dayal R, Bartley JP. Volatile constituents of Vitex negundo leaves. Planta Med. 1999;65 (6):580–2. Singh P, Mishra G, Srivastava S, Srivastava S, Sangeeta JKK, Khosa RL. Phytopharmacological review of Vitex negundo(Sambhalu). Pharmacol Online. 2011;2:1355–85.

Vitex negundo L.

1123

Slow food foundation for biodiversity. Accessed form https://www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/ ark-of-taste-slow-food/lagundi. Srinivas KK, Rao SS, Rao MEB, Raju MBV. Chemical constituents of the roots of Vitex negundo. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2001;63:422–4. Stuart Jr GU. List of Philippine herbal medicinal plants. Philippine medicinal plants. 2017. StuartXchange-SX. Surveswaran S, Cai Y-Z, Corke H, Sun M. Systematic evaluation of natural phenolic antioxidants from 133 Indian medicinal plants. Food Chem. 2007;102(3):938–53. Tantengco OAG, Condes MLC, Estadilla HHT, Ragragio EM. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by Ayta Communities in Dinalupihan, Bataan, Philippines. Pharmacog J. 2018;10 (5):859–70. Tantiado RG. Survey on ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in Iloilo, Philippines. Int J Bio-Sci Bio-Technol. 2012;4(4):11–26. Vishnoi SP, Shoeb A, Kapil RS, Popli SP. A furanoeremophilane from Vitex negundo. Phytochemistry. 1983;22(2):597–8. Vishwanathan A, Basavaraju R. A review on Vitex negundo L.: a medicinally important plant. Eur J Biol Sci. 2010;3(1):30–42. Zheng CJ, Lan XP, Wang Y, Huang BK, Han T, Zhang QY, Qin LP. A new labdane diterpene from Vitex negundo. Pharm Biol. 2012;50(6):687–90. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2011.597410.

Vitex parviflora A.Juss. LAMIACEAE Mark Lloyd Granaderos Dapar

Synonyms Vitex geniculata Blanco; Vitex glaberrima Zipp. ex Span.; Vitex glandulosa H.J. Lam; Vitex leucoxylon Span. ex Miq.; Vitex littoralis Decne.; Vitex timoriensis Walp.

Local Names English: Mohave chaste tree, peacock chaste tree, small flower chaste tree Philippines: Alah, anla, burikan, hulah, topas (Bagobo); amaraum, hamoraon, hamuraon, molave (Bikol); amaraum, marauin, molave, murauin, salingkapa (Bisaya); amuauan (Gaddang); amugauan, taga (Ibanag); amug-awon (Ifugao); amulauon (Manobo); bulauen (Pangasinan); bulawên, mulawin (Ayta); edieu (Bontok); homolouen, marauin, molauin, mulaon, tugas (Panay Bisaya); hamoraon, tugas-abgauon (Samar-Leyte Bisaya); hamulai, hamulauon, kalipapa, molave-batu (Sulu); hamuyaon, molave-batu, tugas, tugas-lanhan (Cebu Bisaya); kalipapa, kalipapa-bato (Subanum); kalipapa-bato, kulipapa, kulimpapa, sasalit (Maguindanao); malabalinaunau (Sambali); maulauin-aso (Kuyonon); molauin (Chabacano); molauin, molave, mulawin (Tagalog); molave, sagad, sagat (Iloko); molave (Pampangan); sagat (Tinggian) Indonesian: Fuli kaa, kayu kula, gupasa Malaysia: Leban Thailand: Teen-nok

M. L. G. Dapar (*) The Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_214

1125

1126

M. L. G. Dapar

Botany and Ecology Description: Medium-sized to large tree, ca. 15–30 m tall, trunk girth ca. 1.5–3 m (Fig. 1). Bark grayish brown, slightly fissured to flaky; inner bark yellowish-brown, branchlets subterete to obtusely quadrangular, nodes annulate. Leaves palmately compound with 3 leaflets, rarely more; leaflets lanceolate-elliptic to elliptic; middle leaflet 6–20  2–6 cm across, lateral leaflets 5–16  2–5 cm across; petiolules 0.3– 0.6 cm long; base cuneate to acute, margin entire, apex acute to shallow acuminate, chartaceous, thick, dark green shining glabrous above, glaucous beneath; lateral veins 8–15 on either side of the midrib, parallel, ascending obscure, impressed above, prominent beneath, reticulate veinlets; petiole slender, stout, ca. 4–10 cm long. Inflorescence terminal panicles, dichotomously to trichotomously branched, ca. 10–25 cm long, peduncles, slender, obtusely quadrangular, minutely pubescent, ca. 3–6 cm long; bracts lanceolate. Flowers bisexual, numerous, faintly fragrant, pedicels 1–3 mm long. Calyx cupular 5 toothed, teeth acute, purplish stripes inside, pubescent outside. Corolla infundibular, 5 lobed, 2-lipped, dark blue to purple, upper lip 2-lobed, blue, lobes obovate, apex truncate, lower lip 3 lobed, midlobes obovate, blue, apex obtuse, lower lobe, dark purple with blue tinge near the base, apex acute,

Fig. 1 Habit of Vitex parviflora. (© R.E. Ramos)

Vitex parviflora A.Juss.

1127

Fig. 2 Vitex parviflora flowering and fruiting twig. (© P.B. Pelser & J.F. Barcelona)

more than twice larger than the other lobes. Corolla tube narrow, pubescent at throat, glabrous outside. Stamens 4, didynamous, exserted, filaments slender, filiform, purple, ca. 2–4 mm long, exserted, anthers obovoid or subglobose, purplish brown, 2-celled. Ovary bicarpellary, 4 lobed, obovoid, style slender, purple, about the same length as the stamens, stigma bilobed, subulate. Fruit drupaceous, globose, ca. 0.5–8 cm in diameter, green, glabrous, brownish when ripe, fruiting calyx cupular, pubescent, seeds obovoid or oblong, nonendospermous (Fig. 2). Phenology: Flowering all year round, particularly April to December (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). Distribution and Habitat: The species native range is Philippines to Lesser Sunda Islands (POWO 2020). It occurs in Andes Mountains with an altitude ca. 1480–1500 m and cultivated in Colombia (Bernal et al. 2015). V. parviflora is distributed throughout the Philippines in most islands and provinces and common in both secondary and primary forests. This species thrives on clay loam or volcanic soils, over limestone, or ultramafic at low elevation (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). Conservation Status: V. parviflora is listed as “least concern” in the recent IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (de Kok 2020). However, V. parviflora was categorized as “endangered species” based on the updated national list of threatened Philippine plants and their categories of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order (DENR-DAO) No. 2017-01 (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards).

1128

M. L. G. Dapar

Local Medicinal Uses The genus Vitex is medicinally and culturally significant in Southeast Asian ethnobotany. In Indonesia, some Vitex species are used in magic, rituals, and medicine (Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012). Brunei Darussalam: Vitex species are used as febrifuge and pain reliever (Mohiddin et al. 1992) and as treatment for jaundice (Ata et al. 2009; Goh et al. 2017), wounds and stomach troubles (Setyowati 2010), fever and hypertension (Meena et al. 2011), flatulence and postpartum care (Kamsani et al. 2020). Cambodia and Philippines: Vitex species are among useful plants in the locals in Sandan (Winrock International 2017), and tribal communities in the Philippines (Balangcod and Balangcod 2011; Dapar et al. 2020). Myanmar: Vitex species are medicinally used as astringent, sedative, and treatment for infections and diseases (DeFilipps and Krupnick 2018). Vitex parviflora is one of the trees used for medicinal purposes in the Philippines. Locals drink the wood decoction to relieve diarrhea (Quisumbing 1978). Infusion of the stem is traditionally used as a poison antidote (Ragasa et al. 2000). The decoction of the chopped twigs is used for headache and hypertension relief among lowland farmers (Langenberger et al. 2009). The roots are used by the locals in Cebu in treatment of relapse and leukemia (Miano et al. 2011). The bark, leaves, and stem of V. parviflora are used by the Ayta communities as a remedy for relapse after giving birth, and menstruation cramps in Bataan (Tantengco et al. 2018), and as an insect repellent (Obico and Ragragio 2014) in Pampanga.

Phytochemistry The genus Vitex has a wide array of ethnopharmacological studies with only 24 species that have been investigated for their phytoconstituents (Rani and Sharma 2013). Ragasa et al. (2000) tested the isolated retusin from Vitex parviflora leaves as antimicrobial. Results demonstrated moderate antimicrobial activity against the fungi Aspergillus niger and low activity against the bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, it does not other inhibit common fungi (Candida albicans and Trichophyton mentagrophytes) and bacteria (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis). The leaves of V. parviflora were further found to contain compounds such as phytol, lupeol, β-amyrin, sitosterol, stigmasterol, and triacylglycerols (Ragasa et al. 2003). Terpenes and sterol classes of compounds exhibited antimutagenicity in the micronucleus test. Leaf and stem methanolic extracts of V. parviflora exhibited antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli, while stem extract only exhibited activity against S. aureus. Both leaf and stem extracts demonstrated a direct doseresponse relationship in their anti-staphylococcal activities (Tantengco et al. 2016).

Vitex parviflora A.Juss.

1129

Biocultural Importance In the Philippines, the Ifugao communities have cultural landscape units called muyong (Camacho et al. 2015). While weeding unwanted vegetation, seedlings of indigenous trees, particularly culturally important species such as V. parviflora, are spared.

Economic Importance Obico and Ragragio (2014) recorded the use of V. parviflora as an insect repellent among the Ayta communities of Pampanga. V. parviflora is locally famous for its hardwood in the Philippines. The wood products of V. parviflora are economically useful as sawn or hewn building timbers, vehicle bodies, woodware, and in making boats (CABI 2020). It is also used as building material in bridges, interior or exterior carpentry, engineering structures, furniture and light constructions (also see: Langenberger et al. 2009). Given the increasing demand for trees, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources have begun regulating the exploitation of this tree for industrial use.

References Ata A, Mbong N, Iverson CD, Samarasekera R. Minor chemical constituents of Vitex pinnata. Nat Prod Commun. 2009;4:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X0900400102. Balangcod TD, Balangcod AKD. Ethnomedical knowledge of plants and healthcare practices among the Kalanguya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao, Luzon. Philippines. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10:227–38. Bernal R, Gradstein SR, Celis M, editors. Catálogo de plantas y líquenes de Colombia. Bogotá: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia; 2015. http://catalogoplan tasdecolombia.unal.edu.co. Accessed 6 June 2020. CABI. Vitex parviflora. In: Invasive species compendium. Wallingford: CAB International; 2020. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/56548. Accessed 6 June 2020. Camacho LD, Gevaña DT, Carandang AP, Camacho SC. Indigenous knowledge and practices for the sustainable management of Ifugao forests in Cordillera, Philippines. Int J Biodivers Sci Ecosyst Serv Manag. 2015; https://doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2015.1124453. Dapar MLG, Alejandro GJD, Meve U, Liede-Schumann S. Quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular confirmation of medicinal plants used by the Manobo tribe of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13002-020-00363-7. De Kok R. Vitex parviflora. In: The IUCN red list of threatened species. 2020. https://doi.org/ 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T33339A67741355.en. Accessed 6 June 2020. DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018;102:1–341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380. Goh MPY, Basri AM, Yasin H, Taha H, Ahmad N. Ethnobotanical review and pharmacological properties of selected medicinal plants in Brunei Darussalam: Litsea elliptica, Dillenia suffruticosa, Dillenia excelsa, Aidia racemosa, Vitex pinnata and Senna alata. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2017;7(2):173–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.11.026.

1130

M. L. G. Dapar

Hariyadi B, Ticktin T. Uras: Medicinal and ritual plants of Serampas, Jambi Indonesia. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2012;10:133–49. Kamsani K, Franco FM, Slik F. A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112788. Langenberger G, Prigge V, Martin K, Belonias B, Sauerborn J. Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry. Agrofor Syst. 2009;76:173–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-008-9189-3. Meena AK, Niranjan US, Rao MM, Padhi MM, Babu R. A review of the important chemical constituents and medicinal uses of Vitex genus. Asian J Tradit Med. 2011;6(2):54–60. Miano RS, Picardal JP, Alonso CAG, Reuyan D. Ethnobotanical inventory and assessment of medically important plant roots in Cebu Island, Philippines. Asian J Biodivers. 2011;2:81–102. https://doi.org/10.7828/ajob.v2i1.93. Mohiddin MYBH, Chin W, Holdsworth D. Traditional medicinal plants of Brunei Darussalam Part III* Sengkurong. Int J Pharmacogn. 1992;30(2):105–8. Obico JJA, Ragragio EM. A survey of plants used as repellents against hematophagous insects by the Ayta people of Porac, Pampanga Province, Philippines. Philipp Sci Lett. 2014;7:179–86. Pelser PB, Barcelona JF, Nickrent DL, editors. Lamiaceae. In: Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines. 2011 onwards. https://www.philippineplants.org/Families/Lamiaceae.html. Accessed 6 June 2020. POWO. Plants of the world online. Kew: Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens; 2020. https:// www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 6 June 2020. Quisumbing E. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Manila: Bureau of Printing; 1978. p. 891–2. Ragasa CY, Morales E, Rideout JA. A flavone from Vitex parviflora. Manila J Sci. 2000;3(2):6–9. Ragasa CY, Javier ESC, Tan IG. Antimutagenic terpenes and sterol from Vitex parviflora. Philipp J Sci. 2003;132(1):21–5. Rani A, Sharma A. The genus Vitex: A review. Pharm Rev. 2013;7(14):188–98. https://doi.org/ 10.4103/0973-7847.120522. Setyowati FM. Ethnopharmacology and usage of medicinal plant in Dayak Tunjung Tribe, East Kalimantan. Media Litbang Kesehatan. 2010;20(3):104–12. Tantengco OAG, Condes MLC, Estadilla HHT, Ragragio EM. Antibacterial activity of Vitex parviflora A.Juss. and Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. against human pathogens. Asian Pacific J Trop Dis. 2016;6(12):1004–6. Tantengco OAG, Condes MLC, Estadilla HHT, Ragragio EM. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by Ayta communities in Dinalupihan, Bataan, Philippines. Pharm J. 2018;10:859–70. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2018.5.145. Winrock International. A brief guide for visitors to Sandan Community ecotourism site Cambodia. In: Useful plants of Sandan. 2017. https://www.winrock.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/PlantGuide-Book-spreading.pdf. Accessed 6 June 2020.

Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott ARACEAE Arifin Surya Dwipa Irsyam, Wendy A. Mustaqim, and Rina Ratnasih Irwanto

Synonyms Arum sagittifolium L.; Arum xanthorrhizon Jacq.; Caladium belophyllum Willd.; Caladium sagittifolium (L.) Vent; Caladium xanthorrhizon (Jacq.) Willd.; Xanthosoma belophyllum (Willd.) Kunth.; Xanthosoma xanthorrhizon (Jacq.) Koch

Local Names Indonesia: Talas, keladi, talas belitung; kimpul (Sundanese); bentul, linyik (Javanese); keladi kelem, keladi (Bali); lail muti (Kupang); laku lali, lail muti (Timor Tengah Selatan). Malaysia: birah, keladi. English: elephant ear (Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez 2014; Burkill 1935; Handajani et al. 2018; Mundita 2013; Rahman et al. 2019; Sujarwo et al. 2020).

A. S. D. Irsyam (*) Herbarium Bandungense (FIPIA), School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Jatinangor, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: arifi[email protected] W. A. Mustaqim Botany Division, Generasi Biologi Indonesia (Genbinesia) Foundation, Gresik, East Java, Indonesia R. R. Irwanto School of Life Sciences and Technology (SITH), Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Bandung, West Java, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3_211

1131

1132

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

Botany and Ecology Description: Robust terrestrial rhizomatous herbs, up to 2 m tall. The stems stout, reaching 2 m long, most often stems not distinct, with short internodes, diameter 6– 15 cm, covered by fibers, brown. Leaves usually 4–7 per plant, with sheathing 80– 160 cm long petioles, subterete, glaucous, inner surfaces pale green, slightly glossy, sheaths more or less half of the total petiole length; the sheathed part 3–4.5 cm across, the base of free petiolar part 3 cm, while the apex of petiole 2 cm; blades sub hastate in juvenile plants, ovate-sagittate in mature plants, 55–97  30–80 cm, slightly coriaceous, has the widest point at the apex of posterior lobes, dark green, slightly glossy above, often glaucous below, posterior lobes rounded to pointed obtuse at the apex, base with V-shaped sinus, midrib immersed above, bluntly raised beneath, primary lateral veins 5–8, at an angle from 45° to 80° from the midrib, posterior rib usually naked on the leaves of the mature plants. Inflorescence solitary or up to 3 together from the leaf axils, peduncle (16–) 40–51 cm long, green, often glaucous, spathe 23–32 cm long, tube ovoid, 7–11  4–5.1 cm, dark green and sometimes glaucous outside, inner side medium green and matte; limb creamy white, navicular, 15–16  5–6.5 cm. Flowers arranged in a spadix, totally 17–27.5 cm long; at the base with bronze female portion, 3–3.5 cm long at the shortest sides, 4.5–5.6 cm long at the longest side, basally 2.5–3 cm across, narrowed to the apex with 1.5–1.8 cm diameter; sterile portion yellow or white, 2.5–5 cm long; staminate portion 14–23 cm long, 2.3 cm across at the base, slightly tapering from the middle upward. Distribution and Ecology: This is a species native to the West Indies, from Jamaica and Hispaniola, but it has now spread almost throughout the tropical regions of the world, mainly as a food crop. This plant has become naturalized or adventives in Malesia. The species grows on humid tropical rainforests. Moist shady areas and stream banks are the typical habitats of its naturalization. It grows from the lowlands to 1500 m.a.s.l. The species can grow on temperature from 13 °C to 29 °C and the annual rainfall from 1500 to 3000 mm (Boyce and Wong 2012; Croat et al. 2017; Gonçalves 2011; Manner 2011; Mustaqim 2019; Nisyawati and Mustaqim 2017; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez 2014) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Local Medicinal Uses According to the Balinese lontar usada, the juice from the rhizome is externally used for skincare (Sujarwo et al. 2020). The Malay people in Peninsular Malaysia use the large leaves as a blanket to treat fever. The leaf decoctions are also used externally in bathing treatment to cure fever (Burkill 1935; Lim 2015).

Local Food Uses In Indonesia, the corms can be processed into flour and noodles (Jatmiko and Estiasih 2014; Paramita and Ambarsari 2017). Xanthosoma sagittifolium was just recently introduced to Nusa Tenggara Timur and has been utilized as an alternative

Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott

Fig. 1 Living plant (© W.A. Mustaqim)

of

Fig. 2 Inflorescence of Xanthosoma sagittifolium (Araceae). Depok, West Java, Indonesia. (© W.A. Mustaqim)

Xanthosoma

1133

sagittifolium

(Araceae).

Sumatra,

Indonesia.

1134

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

carbohydrate source by the local communities in Kupang, Lembata, and Timor Tengah Selatan (Mundita 2013).

Phytochemistry The chemical compounds isolated from the leaves and petioles are tannins, flavonoids, quinone, saponins, triterpenoids, steroids, monoterpene, sesquiterpene, polyphenols, carotenoids, lycopene, and phenolic compounds (de Souza Araújo et al. 2019; Rahman et al. 2019). Moreover, the leaves and petioles nutritional properties such as fixed mineral residue, proteins, gross fiber, calcium, magnesium, lipids, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin C, nicotinic acid, and carbohydrates (Boakye et al. 2018; de Souza Araújo et al. 2019). Carbohydrates content in the petioles were reportedly higher than the leaves, with 34.99 g/100 g and 8.70 g/100 g respectively (de Souza Araújo et al. 2019). Fresh leaves contain 273.17 mg/100 g of calcium, whereas the concentration in the cooked leaves is 369.81 mg/100 g (de Oliveira et al. 2012). Thus, the leaves can be eaten as dietary supplement to prevent and treat osteoporosis (de Oliveira et al. 2012). However, the species contain calcium oxalate crystals that is considered as an anti-nutritional factor and harmful to humans if cooked and consumed without appropriate techniques (Boakye et al. 2018; de Souza Araújo et al. 2019).

Bioactivities The flavonoids isolated from petioles and leaves were found to have antioxidant properties (de Souza Araújo et al. 2019; Rahman et al. 2019). Methanol extract of tubers have antioxidant (Nishanthini and Mohan 2012), analgesic, and antiinflammatory (Noor et al. 2015) properties. The n-hexane fraction of leaves extract show cytotoxic activity at an LD50 value of 24.00 μg/ml in brine shrimp lethality (BSL) assay (Hossain et al. 2015). The hydroethanolic extract of leaves has chelating activity and induces the apoptosis of leukemia cells (Caxito et al. 2015). Leaf extract can decrease blood cholesterol levels and bind bile acids in rats (de Almeida Jackix et al. 2013). The tuber has potential to be employed in dietary management of diabetes mellitus type II patients, as it significantly decreases blood glucose level and increases glycogen level in diabetic rats (Handajani et al. 2018). Flavone isolated from the aqueous plant extract shows antifungal activity against Trichophyton rubrum (Schmourlo et al. 2007).

References Boakye AA, Wireko-Manu FD, Oduro I, Ellis WO, Gudjónsdóttir M, Chronakis IS. Utilizing cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) for food and nutrition security: a review. Food Sci Nutr. 2018;6(4):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.602.

Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott

1135

Boyce PC, Wong SY. The Araceae of Malesia I: introduction. Malay Nat J. 2012;64(1):33–67. Burkill IH. Dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Vol. II (Plumbago – Z). London: The Crown Agents for The Colonies; 1935. Caxito MLC, Correia RR, Gomes ACC, Justo G, Coelho MGP, Sakuragui CM, Kuster RM, Sabino KCC. In vitro antileukemic activity of Xanthosoma sagittifolium (Taioba) leaf extract. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2015;2015:384267. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/ 384267. Croat TB, Delannay X, Ortiz OO. A revision of Xanthosoma (Araceae). Part 2: Central America. Aroideana. 2017;40(2):504–81. de Almeida Jackix E, Monteiro EB, Raposo HF, Amaya-Farfán J. Cholesterol reducing and bileacid binding properties of taioba (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) leaf in rats fed a high-fat diet. Food Res Int. 2013;51(2):886–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2013.02.017. de Oliveira GL, de Holanda Cavalcanti Andrade L, de Oliveira AFM. Xanthosoma sagittifolium and Laportea aestuans: species used to prevent osteoporosis in Brazilian traditional medicine. Pharm Biol. 2012;50(7):930–2. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2011.637054. de Souza Araújo S, de Souza Araújo P, Giunco AJ, Silva SM, Argandoña EJS. Bromatology, food chemistry and antioxidant activity of Xanthosoma sagittifolium. Emir J Food Agric. 2019;31 (3):188–95. https://doi.org/10.9755/ejfa.2019.v31.i3.1924. Gonçalves EG. The commonly cultivated species of Xanthosoma Schott (Araceae), including four new species. Aroideana. 2011;34:3–23. Handajani NS, Harini M, Yuliningsih R, Afianatuzzahra S, Hasanah U, Widiyani T. Assay for hypoglycemic functional food of cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott.) tuber. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2018;333:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/333/1/012074. art. 012074 Hossain MS, Asaduzzaman M, Uddin MS, Noor MAA, Rahman MA, Munira MS, Asaduzzaman M. Investigation of the in vitro antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of Xanthosoma sagittifolium leaf. Indo Am J Pharm Res. 2015;5(10):3299–306. Jatmiko GP, Estiasih T. Noodles from cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium): a review. J Pangan Agroind. 2014;2(2):127–34. (in Bahasa) Lim TK. Edible medicinal and non medicinal plants: volume 9, modified stems, roots, and bulbs. Dordrecht: Springer; 2015. Manner HI. Farm and forestry production and marketing profile for Tannia (Xanthosoma spp). In: Elevitch CR, editor. Specialty crops for Pacific Island agroforestry. Hawaii: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR); 2011. p. 1–16. Mundita IW. Pemetaan pangan lokal di Pulau Sabu-Raijua, Rote-Ndao, Lembata, dan Daratan Timor Barat (Kabupaten Kupang dan TTS). Kupang: Perkumpulan Pikul Kupang & OXFAM; 2013. Mustaqim WA. Aroids in and around urbanized lowland ecosystem of Jakarta and Bogor, Western Java, Indonesia. Aroideana. 2019;42(2):23–36. Nishanthini A, Mohan VR. Antioxidant activites of Xanthosoma sagittifolium Schott using various in vitro assay models. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2012;2(3):S1701–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S2221-1691(12)60481-X. Nisyawati, Mustaqim WA. A guide to the urban plants of Universitas Indonesia: spermatophytes. Jakarta: UI Press; 2017. Noor MAA, Islam MZ, Hosain MS, Sarwar MS, Rahman MM, Rashid M, Islam MS, Asaduzzaman M. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of methanol extract of Xanthosoma sagittifolium. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2015;4(3):181–5. Paramita O, Ambarsari A. Perbaikan kualitas fisio-kimia tepung kimpul (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) dengan metode penepungan yang berbeda. Teknobuga. 2017;5(2):44–52. (in Bahasa) Rahman A, Lukmayani Y, Sadiyah ER. Isolasi dan identifikasi senyawa flavonoid dari kulit tangkai daun talas hitam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schot.) yang berpotensi sebagai antioksidan. Pros Farm. 2019;5(1):66–74. (in Bahasa) Rojas-Sandoval J, Acevedo-Rodríguez P. Xanthosoma sagittifolium (elephant ear). 2014. https:// www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/56989. Retrieved 7 June 2020.

1136

A. S. D. Irsyam et al.

Schmourlo G, de Morais-Filho ZB, de Oliveira DB, Costa SS, Mendonça-Filho RR, Alviano CS, Miranda ALP. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of edible plants and their potential use as nutraceuticals. Acta Hortic. 2007;756(756):355–68. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2007. 756.38. Sujarwo W, van der Hoeven B, Pendit IMR. Usada: traditional Balinese medicinal plants. Jakarta: LIPI Press; 2020. (in Bahasa)

Photographs and Fundings

Our authors express their sincere gratitude to the following personalities for contributing photographs that have formed a part of this book. Adhy W. Setiawan (Celebica), Benigno Resurreccion (National Power Corporation), Cerlin Ng (Singapore), Daniel L. Nickrent (Southern Illinois University), Dee D. Al Farishy (Department of Biology, Universitas Indonesia), Dhatchanamoorthy, N. (The University of Transdisciplinary Health Sciences and Technology, India), J. Stephen (Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden & Research Institute, India), John Rey C. Callado (National Museum of the Philippines), Julie F. Barcelona (University of Canterbury), Lisa Marie Paguntalan (Philippines Biodiversity Conservation Foundation Inc.), Louise Neo (Singapore Botanical Gardens), Lowell O. Reynes (Brunei Darussalam), Philip Cruz (Herbanext Laboratories, Inc.), Pieter B. Pelser (University of Canterbury), Prima W.K. Hutabarat (Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Gardens, Indonesian Institute of Sciences), Raul Espinoza Ramos (Cabanatuan City, Philippines), Reuben Lim (Singapore), Santhana Ganesan (Singapore Botanical Gardens), and William Granert (Soil and Water Conservation Foundation, Inc.). The following funding sources are also acknowledged for supporting the works of our authors. Mark Lloyd Dapar thanks the Department of Health - Philippine Institute of Traditional and Alternative Health Care (DOH-PITAHC), Department of Science and Technology - Accelerated Science and Technology Human Resource Development Program - National Science Consortium (DOST-ASTHRDP-NSC), and Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for the various funding support he received. Racquel C. Barcelo would like to thank the Commission on Higher Education Grant-in-Aid and Saint Louis University for the funding grants. Teodora Balangcod acknowledges the financial support received from The Department of Science and Technology-Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (DOST-PCHRD) and the Commission on Higher Education Discovery-Applied Research and Extension for Trans/Inter-disciplinary Opportunities (CHED DARE TO).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 F. M. Franco (ed.), Ethnobotany of the Mountain Regions of Southeast Asia, Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38389-3

1137

1138

Photographs and Fundings

Zenaida G. Baoanan's contribution to this book was made possible through the grant provided by the DARE TO Program of the Philippine Commission on Higher Education, in collaboration with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples.